Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

User talk:3 Löwi

2023-04-22T18:41:57Z

3 Löwi: Please run a proper IP check and please remove the (super fast and erroneously applied) block. Thank you.

== Welcome to Wikipedia ==

{{User:Exir Kamalabadi/Welcome}}

== Finnish level 4 ==

Since there are now 4 levels of many languages (plus native), you may wish to upgrade your fi-3 to fi-4 (which I just created), if you feel it is the right thing to do. I contacted you because you were the only other person in category fi-3. --[[User:Janke|Janke]] | [[User talk: Janke|Talk]] 23:42, 30 July 2005 (UTC)

== way to go ==

Tervist, lugesin läbi mõned Teie kommentaarid ja olin ausalt öeldes üllatunud nende sügavusest ja autori heast stiilist. Way to go :=))

== Hi! Can you please read up on [[Help:Renaming (moving) a page]] before attempting to move pages in the future? Cheers. -- [[User:Francs2000|Francs]][http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Francs2000&action=edit&section=new 2000] [[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|25px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] 22:50, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

*Naissaare nimetuses on ikkagi "Nõukogude" (mis on ka loogiline - olemata seejuures muidugi Nõuk. liiduvabariik) - webilehekülje tegija on nähtavasti kirjutanud mälu järgi "Sotsialistlik" ja eksinud. Revolutsioon rullus Eestist Venemaale mitte vastupidi: algas Tallinnas 5. nov., seejärel Piiteris 7. nov. PS. Petrichenko oli anarhosündikalist, st. bolševismivastane. Tervitades, --[[User:Tuulispask|Tuulispask]] 12:57, 24 November 2005 (UTC)

== Recent trivia ==

:Hi 3 Löwi, are you the [[Special:Contributions/85.87.106.68|85.87.106.68]] IP who has also undone my revert on [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic]]? -[[User:Vipz|Vipz]] ([[User talk:Vipz|talk]]) 12:08, 3 February 2023 (UTC)
::@[[User:Vipz|Vipz]] Interesting, I have also been been reverted by seemingly magically appearing IP's when reverting this editor before. [[User:TylerBurden|TylerBurden]] ([[User talk:TylerBurden|talk]]) 23:25, 23 February 2023 (UTC)
::Their edit summaries are almost identical:[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic&diff=prev&oldid=1137201535][https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic&diff=prev&oldid=1137209729]. Yet it continues. [[User:Mellk|Mellk]] ([[User talk:Mellk|talk]]) 21:41, 28 February 2023 (UTC)
:::@[[User:TylerBurden|TylerBurden]] and Vipz, you are not the only ones, see [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Svante_Pääbo&diff=prev&oldid=1114603422]. 3 Löwi, please address these issues. [[User:Shellwood|Shellwood]] ([[User talk:Shellwood|talk]]) 15:21, 2 March 2023 (UTC)

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The [[WP:ARBCOM|Arbitration Committee]] is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the [[Wikipedia:Arbitration|Wikipedia arbitration process]]. It has the authority to impose binding solutions to disputes between editors, primarily for serious conduct disputes the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the authority to impose [[WP:BAN|site bans]], [[WP:TBAN|topic bans]], editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The [[Wikipedia:Arbitration/Policy|arbitration policy]] describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail.

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==March 2023==
<div class="user-block uw-block" style="padding: 5px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #a9a9a9; background-color: #ffefd5; min-height: 40px">[[File:Stop x nuvola with clock.svg|40px|left|alt=Stop icon with clock]]<div style="margin-left:45px">You have been '''[[WP:Blocking policy|blocked]]''' from editing for a period of '''one month''' for [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry|abusing multiple accounts]]. Note that multiple accounts are [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry#Legitimate uses|allowed]], but '''not for ''[[Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry#Inappropriate uses of alternative accounts|illegitimate]]'' reasons''', and any contributions made while evading blocks or bans may be [[Wikipedia:Banning policy#Edits by and on behalf of banned editors|reverted]] or [[Wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion#G5|deleted]]. Once the block has expired, you are welcome to [[WP:Five pillars|make useful contributions]]. </div><div style="margin-left:45px">If you think there are good reasons for being unblocked, please read the [[WP:Guide to appealing blocks|guide to appealing blocks]], then add the following text below the block notice on your talk page: <code><nowiki>{{unblock|reason=Your reason here ~~~~}}</nowiki></code>.  [[User:Number 57|Number]] [[User talk:Number 57|5]][[Special:Contributions/Number 57|7]] 19:37, 10 March 2023 (UTC)</div></div>
{{unblock reviewed |1=Dear Sir or Madam, With all due respect, there is no Wikipedia prohibition on editing non-protected articles using an IP address. I have made frequent good-faith edits without signing in, and sometimes simply forgotten to do so, and as a result, several IP addresses are indeed being attributed to my edits, without any violations occurring on my part that I would be aware of. The accusations brought into the SPI are vague on what specific abuse(s) they address. The severest accusation against me — of ''destroying'' the [[2023 Estonian parliamentary election]] article - is absolutely false and unacceptable. All the relevant edits are on the record. Thank you for your time and consideration. [[User:3 Löwi|3 Löwi]] ([[User talk:3 Löwi#top|talk]]) 01:06, 12 March 2023 (UTC) |decline = From [[WP:LOUTSOCK]]: "''Editing under multiple IP addresses, or '''editing under both a named account and as an IP, when done deceptively or otherwise''' violates the principles of this policy, may be treated as the same level of disruption as editing under multiple accounts.''" (Emphasis mine). Editors who really do forget they're logged out and care about their reputation (as well as their privacy) usually go right to oversight to take care of that. Based on the SPI and your characterization of your actions above, there is no reason to unblock you at this time. — [[User:Daniel Case|Daniel Case]] ([[User talk:Daniel Case|talk]]) 07:38, 12 March 2023 (UTC)}}

== Introduction to contentious topics ==
{{ivmbox | image = Commons-emblem-notice.svg |imagesize=50px | bg = #E5F8FF | text = You have recently edited a page related to '''Eastern Europe or the Balkans''', a topic designated as '''[[WP:AC/CT|contentious]]'''. This standard message is designed as an introduction to contentious topics and does not imply that there are any issues with your editing.

A special set of rules applies to certain topic areas, which are referred to as ''contentious topics''. These are specially-designated topics that tend to attract more persistent disruptive editing than the rest of the project and have been designated as contentious topics by the Arbitration Committee. When editing a contentious topic, Wikipedia’s norms and policies are more strictly enforced, and Wikipedia administrators have special powers in order to reduce disruption to the project.

Within contentious topics, editors should edit carefully and constructively, refrain from disrupting the encyclopedia, and:
*adhere to the purposes of Wikipedia;
*comply with all applicable policies and guidelines;
*follow editorial and behavioural best practice;
*comply with any page restrictions in force within the area of conflict; and
*refrain from gaming the system.

Editors are advised to err on the side of caution if unsure whether making a particular edit is consistent with these expectations. If you have any questions about contentious topics ''procedures'' you may ask them at the [[WT:AC/C|arbitration clerks' noticeboard]] or you may learn more about this contentious topic [[Wikipedia:Requests for arbitration/Eastern Europe|here]]. You may also choose to note which contentious topics you know about by using the {{tl|Ctopics/aware}} template. }} [[User:Mellk|Mellk]] ([[User talk:Mellk|talk]]) 18:26, 17 April 2023 (UTC)

== April 2023 ==

Is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/D1Hondt this] an account you made? [[User:Mellk|Mellk]] ([[User talk:Mellk|talk]]) 13:40, 21 April 2023 (UTC)
:No.[[User:3 Löwi|3 Löwi]] ([[User talk:3 Löwi#top|talk]]) 18:18, 22 April 2023 (UTC)

== Blocked for sockpuppetry ==
<div class="user-block uw-block" style="padding: 5px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #a9a9a9; background-color: #ffefd5; min-height: 40px">[[File:Stop x nuvola.svg|40px|left|alt=Stop icon]]<div style="margin-left:45px">You have been '''[[WP:Blocking policy|blocked]]''' '''[[Wikipedia:Blocking_policy#Indefinite_blocks|indefinitely]]''' from editing for [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry|abusing multiple accounts]] per the evidence presented at [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/3 Löwi]]. Note that multiple accounts are [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry#Legitimate uses|allowed]], but '''not for ''[[Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry#Inappropriate uses of alternative accounts|illegitimate]]'' reasons''', and any contributions made while evading blocks or bans may be [[Wikipedia:Banning policy#Edits by and on behalf of banned editors|reverted]] or [[Wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion#G5|deleted]]. </div><div style="margin-left:45px">If you think there are good reasons for being unblocked, please read the [[WP:Guide to appealing blocks|guide to appealing blocks]], then add the following text below the block notice on your talk page: <code><nowiki>{{unblock|reason=Your reason here ~~~~}}</nowiki></code>.  [[User:Bbb23|Bbb23]] ([[User talk:Bbb23|talk]]) 14:47, 22 April 2023 (UTC)</div></div>

{{unblock|reason=Please unblock. I have not used multiple accounts and have no idea about who, where or why have been editing Wikipedia from under the account named D1Hondt. Please run a thorough IP check on the alleged "sockpuppet" account(s), please correct the error, and please unblock 3 Löwi. Thank you for your understanding. [[User:3 Löwi|3 Löwi]] ([[User talk:3 Löwi#top|talk]]) 18:41, 22 April 2023 (UTC)}}

User talk:3 Löwi

2023-04-22T18:18:46Z

3 Löwi: No

User talk:3 Löwi

2023-04-22T18:18:05Z

3 Löwi:

== Welcome to Wikipedia ==

{{User:Exir Kamalabadi/Welcome}}

== Finnish level 4 ==

Since there are now 4 levels of many languages (plus native), you may wish to upgrade your fi-3 to fi-4 (which I just created), if you feel it is the right thing to do. I contacted you because you were the only other person in category fi-3. --[[User:Janke|Janke]] | [[User talk: Janke|Talk]] 23:42, 30 July 2005 (UTC)

== way to go ==

Tervist, lugesin läbi mõned Teie kommentaarid ja olin ausalt öeldes üllatunud nende sügavusest ja autori heast stiilist. Way to go :=))

== Hi! Can you please read up on [[Help:Renaming (moving) a page]] before attempting to move pages in the future? Cheers. -- [[User:Francs2000|Francs]][http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Francs2000&action=edit&section=new 2000] [[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|25px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] 22:50, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

*Naissaare nimetuses on ikkagi "Nõukogude" (mis on ka loogiline - olemata seejuures muidugi Nõuk. liiduvabariik) - webilehekülje tegija on nähtavasti kirjutanud mälu järgi "Sotsialistlik" ja eksinud. Revolutsioon rullus Eestist Venemaale mitte vastupidi: algas Tallinnas 5. nov., seejärel Piiteris 7. nov. PS. Petrichenko oli anarhosündikalist, st. bolševismivastane. Tervitades, --[[User:Tuulispask|Tuulispask]] 12:57, 24 November 2005 (UTC)

== Recent trivia ==

:Hi 3 Löwi, are you the [[Special:Contributions/85.87.106.68|85.87.106.68]] IP who has also undone my revert on [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic]]? -[[User:Vipz|Vipz]] ([[User talk:Vipz|talk]]) 12:08, 3 February 2023 (UTC)
::@[[User:Vipz|Vipz]] Interesting, I have also been been reverted by seemingly magically appearing IP's when reverting this editor before. [[User:TylerBurden|TylerBurden]] ([[User talk:TylerBurden|talk]]) 23:25, 23 February 2023 (UTC)
::Their edit summaries are almost identical:[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic&diff=prev&oldid=1137201535][https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic&diff=prev&oldid=1137209729]. Yet it continues. [[User:Mellk|Mellk]] ([[User talk:Mellk|talk]]) 21:41, 28 February 2023 (UTC)
:::@[[User:TylerBurden|TylerBurden]] and Vipz, you are not the only ones, see [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Svante_Pääbo&diff=prev&oldid=1114603422]. 3 Löwi, please address these issues. [[User:Shellwood|Shellwood]] ([[User talk:Shellwood|talk]]) 15:21, 2 March 2023 (UTC)

== ArbCom 2022 Elections voter message ==

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Hello! Voting in the '''[[WP:ACE2022|2022 Arbitration Committee elections]]''' is now open until 23:59 (UTC) on {{#time:l, j F Y|{{Arbitration Committee candidate/data|2022|end}}-1 day}}. All '''[[Wikipedia:Arbitration Committee Elections December 2022#Election timeline|eligible users]]''' are allowed to vote. Users with alternate accounts may only vote once.

The [[WP:ARBCOM|Arbitration Committee]] is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the [[Wikipedia:Arbitration|Wikipedia arbitration process]]. It has the authority to impose binding solutions to disputes between editors, primarily for serious conduct disputes the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the authority to impose [[WP:BAN|site bans]], [[WP:TBAN|topic bans]], editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The [[Wikipedia:Arbitration/Policy|arbitration policy]] describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail.

If you wish to participate in the 2022 election, please review [[Wikipedia:Arbitration Committee Elections December 2022/Candidates|the candidates]] and submit your choices on the '''[[Special:SecurePoll/vote/{{Arbitration Committee candidate/data|2022|poll}}|voting page]]'''. If you no longer wish to receive these messages, you may add {{tlx|NoACEMM}} to your user talk page. [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 00:21, 29 November 2022 (UTC)

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==March 2023==
<div class="user-block uw-block" style="padding: 5px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #a9a9a9; background-color: #ffefd5; min-height: 40px">[[File:Stop x nuvola with clock.svg|40px|left|alt=Stop icon with clock]]<div style="margin-left:45px">You have been '''[[WP:Blocking policy|blocked]]''' from editing for a period of '''one month''' for [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry|abusing multiple accounts]]. Note that multiple accounts are [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry#Legitimate uses|allowed]], but '''not for ''[[Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry#Inappropriate uses of alternative accounts|illegitimate]]'' reasons''', and any contributions made while evading blocks or bans may be [[Wikipedia:Banning policy#Edits by and on behalf of banned editors|reverted]] or [[Wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion#G5|deleted]]. Once the block has expired, you are welcome to [[WP:Five pillars|make useful contributions]]. </div><div style="margin-left:45px">If you think there are good reasons for being unblocked, please read the [[WP:Guide to appealing blocks|guide to appealing blocks]], then add the following text below the block notice on your talk page: <code><nowiki>{{unblock|reason=Your reason here ~~~~}}</nowiki></code>.  [[User:Number 57|Number]] [[User talk:Number 57|5]][[Special:Contributions/Number 57|7]] 19:37, 10 March 2023 (UTC)</div></div>
{{unblock reviewed |1=Dear Sir or Madam, With all due respect, there is no Wikipedia prohibition on editing non-protected articles using an IP address. I have made frequent good-faith edits without signing in, and sometimes simply forgotten to do so, and as a result, several IP addresses are indeed being attributed to my edits, without any violations occurring on my part that I would be aware of. The accusations brought into the SPI are vague on what specific abuse(s) they address. The severest accusation against me — of ''destroying'' the [[2023 Estonian parliamentary election]] article - is absolutely false and unacceptable. All the relevant edits are on the record. Thank you for your time and consideration. [[User:3 Löwi|3 Löwi]] ([[User talk:3 Löwi#top|talk]]) 01:06, 12 March 2023 (UTC) |decline = From [[WP:LOUTSOCK]]: "''Editing under multiple IP addresses, or '''editing under both a named account and as an IP, when done deceptively or otherwise''' violates the principles of this policy, may be treated as the same level of disruption as editing under multiple accounts.''" (Emphasis mine). Editors who really do forget they're logged out and care about their reputation (as well as their privacy) usually go right to oversight to take care of that. Based on the SPI and your characterization of your actions above, there is no reason to unblock you at this time. — [[User:Daniel Case|Daniel Case]] ([[User talk:Daniel Case|talk]]) 07:38, 12 March 2023 (UTC)}}

== Introduction to contentious topics ==
{{ivmbox | image = Commons-emblem-notice.svg |imagesize=50px | bg = #E5F8FF | text = You have recently edited a page related to '''Eastern Europe or the Balkans''', a topic designated as '''[[WP:AC/CT|contentious]]'''. This standard message is designed as an introduction to contentious topics and does not imply that there are any issues with your editing.

A special set of rules applies to certain topic areas, which are referred to as ''contentious topics''. These are specially-designated topics that tend to attract more persistent disruptive editing than the rest of the project and have been designated as contentious topics by the Arbitration Committee. When editing a contentious topic, Wikipedia’s norms and policies are more strictly enforced, and Wikipedia administrators have special powers in order to reduce disruption to the project.

Within contentious topics, editors should edit carefully and constructively, refrain from disrupting the encyclopedia, and:
*adhere to the purposes of Wikipedia;
*comply with all applicable policies and guidelines;
*follow editorial and behavioural best practice;
*comply with any page restrictions in force within the area of conflict; and
*refrain from gaming the system.

Editors are advised to err on the side of caution if unsure whether making a particular edit is consistent with these expectations. If you have any questions about contentious topics ''procedures'' you may ask them at the [[WT:AC/C|arbitration clerks' noticeboard]] or you may learn more about this contentious topic [[Wikipedia:Requests for arbitration/Eastern Europe|here]]. You may also choose to note which contentious topics you know about by using the {{tl|Ctopics/aware}} template. }} [[User:Mellk|Mellk]] ([[User talk:Mellk|talk]]) 18:26, 17 April 2023 (UTC)

== April 2023 ==

Is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/D1Hondt this] an account you made? [[User:Mellk|Mellk]] ([[User talk:Mellk|talk]]) 13:40, 21 April 2023 (UTC)
No.[[User:3 Löwi|3 Löwi]] ([[User talk:3 Löwi#top|talk]]) 18:18, 22 April 2023 (UTC)

== Blocked for sockpuppetry ==
<div class="user-block uw-block" style="padding: 5px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #a9a9a9; background-color: #ffefd5; min-height: 40px">[[File:Stop x nuvola.svg|40px|left|alt=Stop icon]]<div style="margin-left:45px">You have been '''[[WP:Blocking policy|blocked]]''' '''[[Wikipedia:Blocking_policy#Indefinite_blocks|indefinitely]]''' from editing for [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry|abusing multiple accounts]] per the evidence presented at [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/3 Löwi]]. Note that multiple accounts are [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry#Legitimate uses|allowed]], but '''not for ''[[Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry#Inappropriate uses of alternative accounts|illegitimate]]'' reasons''', and any contributions made while evading blocks or bans may be [[Wikipedia:Banning policy#Edits by and on behalf of banned editors|reverted]] or [[Wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion#G5|deleted]]. </div><div style="margin-left:45px">If you think there are good reasons for being unblocked, please read the [[WP:Guide to appealing blocks|guide to appealing blocks]], then add the following text below the block notice on your talk page: <code><nowiki>{{unblock|reason=Your reason here ~~~~}}</nowiki></code>.  [[User:Bbb23|Bbb23]] ([[User talk:Bbb23|talk]]) 14:47, 22 April 2023 (UTC)</div></div>

United Baltic Duchy

2023-04-21T17:24:17Z

3 Löwi: governorates

{{Short description|Former country}}

{{History of Latvia}}
{{History of Estonia}}

[[File:Map United Baltic Duchy.png|thumb|Approximate area of the proposed United Baltic Duchy]]
[[File:United Baltic Duchy flag.svg|thumb|Suggested flag of the United Baltic Duchy|alt=A black Nordic cross on a white field]]
The '''United Baltic Duchy'''<ref>{{cite book |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=emBIdi4LPz8C&dq |title=The Baltic States: The Years of Independence |author=Georg von Rauch |year = 1974|isbn=0-903983-00-1 |quote=Later an alternative proposal was advanced for a United Baltic Duchy under [[Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg]]}}</ref> ({{lang-de|Vereinigtes Baltisches Herzogtum}}, {{lang-lv|Apvienotā Baltijas hercogiste}}, {{lang-et|Balti Hertsogiriik}}), or alternatively the '''Grand Duchy of Livonia''',<ref>{{cite book |title=Baltic Essays |last=Bilmanis |first=Alfreds |year=1945 |publisher=The Latvian Legation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E40NAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Grand+Duchy+of+Livonia%22 |quote=This ''{{lang|de|Landesrat}}'' on 12 April 1918, decided to beg the King of Prussia and Emperor of Germany {{lang|de|Kaiser}} to accept the throne of the Grand Duchy of Livonia}}</ref> was the name proposed during [[World War I]] by leaders of the local [[Baltic German]] [[Baltic German nobility|nobility]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Where Nation-States Come From: Institutional Change in the Age of Nationalism |last=Roeder |first=Philip |year=2007 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-13467-3 |page=119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAItI5C_JPUC&pg=PA119&dq=%22Grand+Duchy+of+Livonia%22}}</ref> for a new [[monarchy|monarchical]] state that never came into existence. The attempt to establish a new [[client state]] of the [[German Empire]] on the territory of what is now [[Latvia]] and [[Estonia]] was made in 1918, during the [[Ober Ost|German occupation]] of the [[Courland Governorate|Courland]], [[Governorate of Livonia|Livonian]] and [[Governorate of Estonia|Estonian]] governorates of the former [[Russian Empire]] which had ceased to exist after the [[Bolshevik coup]] in 1917. The unsuccessful proclamation of a pro-German duchy was first made in April 1918, after the [[Republic of Estonia]] had already formally [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|declared full independence]].

The proposed ideas for the new state included the creation of a [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1918)|Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] and of a Duchy of Estonia and Livonia, which would be in [[personal union]] with the [[Kingdom of Prussia]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Baltic States |journal=Papers of the Royal Institute of International Affairs |year=1938 |issue=13, part 1 |pages=22 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GXAmAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Duchy+of+Estonia+and+Livonia%22}}</ref> 

== Background ==
During [[World War I]], the [[German Army (German Empire)|German Imperial Army]] had occupied the Courland Governorate of the Russian Empire by the autumn of 1915. The front stabilised along the [[Riga]]–[[Daugavpils]]–[[Baranovichi]] Line.

After the [[February Revolution]] of 1917 in Russia, the [[Russian Provisional Government]] declared the establishment of the [[Autonomous Governorate of Estonia]] on {{OldStyleDate|12 April|1917|30 March}}, which amalgamated the former [[Governorate of Estonia]] and the northern portion of the [[Governorate of Livonia]]. After the [[October Revolution]] later that year, the elected [[Estonian Provincial Assembly]] declared itself the sovereign power in Estonia on 28 November 1917. On 24 February 1918, a day before the arrival of German troops, the [[Estonian Salvation Committee]] of the Provincial Assembly issued the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]]. The Western [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] recognised the [[Estonia|Republic of Estonia]] ''de facto'' in May 1918.<ref name="WO">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYJbYgNcalgC&dq |title=The Baltic States and Weimar Ostpolitik |author=John Hiden |date=2 May 2002 |isbn=9780521893251}}</ref>

The term 'Grand Duchy of [[Livonia]]' refers to the Livonia region, which made up most of the proposed United Baltic Duchy.

The [[Latvian Provisional National Council]] was constituted on the basis of the law of [[self-government]], which the Russian Provisional Government granted to Latvia on 5 July 1917.<ref>{{cite book |last=Latvian Legation in the United States of America |title=Latvia in 1939–1942: Background, Bolshevik and Nazi Occupation, Hopes for Future |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFJpAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Press Bureau of the Latvian Legation, 1942 |year=1942 |page=15 |access-date=2015-06-30 |quote=The ... Latvian National Council was constituted on the basis of the law of self-government granted to Latvia on July 5, 1917, by Prince Lvov, head of the Russia Provisional Government.}}</ref> The [[Latvian Provisional National Council]] first met on 16 November 1917 in [[Valka]]. On 30 November, the Council declared an autonomous Latvian province within ethnographic boundaries, and a formal independent Latvian republic was declared on 15 January 1918.<ref name="WO"/>

In early 1918, German troops started advancing from Courland, and by the end of February 1918, the [[Ober Ost|German military]] administered the territories of Estonia that had [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] and the Russian [[Governorate of Livonia]]. In the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] on 3 March 1918, [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] accepted the loss of the [[Courland Governorate]] and, in agreements concluded in [[Berlin]] on 27 August 1918, the loss of the Autonomous Governorate of Estonia and the Governorate of Livonia.<ref name="WO"/>

== Attempt at creation ==
[[File:Adolf Friedrich zu Mecklenburg (1910).png|thumb|[[Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg|Adolf Friedrich, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin]], 1910]]
As a parallel political movement under the German military administration, [[Baltic Germans]] began forming provincial councils between September 1917 and March 1918.

On 8 March 1918, the local Baltic German-dominated {{lang|de|[[Kurländischer Landesrat]]}} declared the restoration of [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1918)|Duchy of Courland]] ({{lang|de|Herzogtum Kurland}}), which was formally recognised by [[William II, German Emperor|Kaiser Wilhelm]] on 15 March 1918.

On 12 April 1918, a Provincial Assembly ({{lang|de|[[Baltische Landesrat|Vereinigter Landesrat]]}}), composed of 35 Baltic Germans, 13 Estonians, and 11 Latvians, passed a resolution calling upon the German Emperor to recognise the Baltic provinces as a monarchy and to make them a German protectorate.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WR8rAAAAIAAJ&dq |title=Griff nach der Weltmacht |author=Fritz Fischer |year=1967}}</ref>

The United Baltic Duchy was nominally recognised as a sovereign state by Wilhelm II only on 22 September 1918,{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}} half a year after [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] had formally relinquished all authority over former [[Russian Empire|Russian Imperial]] [[Baltic governorates]] to Germany in the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]. On 5 November 1918, a temporary Regency Council ({{lang|de|Regentschaftsrat}}) for the new state, led by Baron [[Adolf Pilar von Pilchau]], was formed on a joint basis from both local Land Councils.

The new state was to have its capital in Riga and was to be a confederation of seven [[canton (country subdivision)|canton]]s: {{lang|de|Kurland}} ([[Courland]]), Riga, {{lang|de|Lettgallen}} ([[Latgale]]), {{lang|de|Südlivland}} (South [[Livonia]]), {{lang|de|Nordlivland}} (North Livonia), {{lang|de|Ösel}} ([[Saaremaa]]) and {{lang|de|Estland}} (Estonia), the first four cantons correspondings to today's Latvia and the last three corresponding to today's Estonia.

The first head of state of the United Baltic Duchy was to be [[Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg]], not as a sovereign monarch, but as a subordinate to the German {{lang|de|Kaiser}}, similar to other [[fürst|princes]] or kings of the German Empire. However, Adolf Friedrich never assumed office. The appointed Regency Council, consisting of four Baltic Germans, three Estonians and three Latvians, functioned until 28 November 1918 without any international recognition except from Germany.

In October 1918, the [[Chancellor of Germany]], [[Prince Maximilian of Baden]], proposed to have the military administration in the Baltic replaced by civilian authority. The new policy was stated in a telegram from the [[German Foreign Office]] to the military administration of the Baltic: "The government of the Reich is unanimous in respect of the fundamental change in our policy towards the [[Baltic states|Baltic countries]], namely that in the first instance policy is to be made with the Baltic peoples".<ref name="WO"/>

== Independent Estonia and Latvia ==
On 18 November 1918, Latvia proclaimed its independence. [[August Winnig]], the last representative of the German government, signed an agreement with representatives of the [[Estonian Provisional Government]] on handing over power in Estonian territory on 19 November.<ref>[http://www.estonica.org/en/History/1914-1920_The_First_World_War_and_Estonian_independence/World_War_I/ World War I] Estonica. Encyclopaedia about Estonia</ref> In Latvia, the Germans formally handed over authority to the Latvian national government, headed by [[Kārlis Ulmanis]] on 7 December 1918.<ref name="WO"/>

The {{lang|de|[[Baltische Landeswehr]]}} was formed in 1919 largely by the leaders of the local Livonian and Curonian nobility, who had been the proponents of the United Baltic Duchy in 1918. Upon taking command of the {{lang|de|Baltische Landeswehr}}, Major [[Alfred Fletcher]], with the backing of the local nobility, began dismissing native Latvian elements and replacing them with Baltic Germans and {{lang|de|[[Imperial Germans|Reichsdeutsche]]}} troops. Concurrently, German officers assumed most of the command positions. In his book ''Vanguard of Nazism: The Free Corps Movement in Postwar Germany, 1918–1923'', the author [[Robert G. L. Waite]] notes: "By mid-February 1919, Latvians composed less than one-fifth of their own army". The [[United Kingdom]] backed down after it had recognised the gravity of the military situation, and the [[White Russian]] units and the {{lang|de|[[Freikorps in the Baltic|Freikorps]]}} moved on and captured [[Riga]] on 22 May 1919.

After the capture of Riga, the {{lang|de|Freikorps}} were accused of killing 300 Latvians in Mitau ([[Jelgava]]), 200 in Tuckum ([[Tukums]]), 125 in Dünamünde ([[Daugavgrīva]]) and over 3,000 in Riga. In June 1919, after taking part in the capture of Riga, General von der Goltz ordered his troops to advance not east against the [[Red Army]], as the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] had been expecting, but north against the Estonians. On 19 June 1919, the Iron Division and {{lang|de|Landeswehr}} units launched an attack to capture areas around Wenden ([[Cēsis]]), the {{lang|de|Baltische Landeswehr}} continued its advance towards the Estonian coast preparatory for a push on [[Petrograd]]. However, the {{lang|de|Baltische Landeswehr}} was defeated by the 3rd [[Maavägi|Estonian Division]], led by [[Ernst Põdder]], and North Latvian Brigade at the [[Battle of Cēsis (1919)|Battle of Cēsis]], 19–23 June 1919.

On the morning of 23 June 1919, the Germans began a general retreat toward Riga. The Allies again insisted for the Germans to withdraw their remaining troops from Latvia and intervened to impose a ceasefire between the Estonians and the {{lang|de|Freikorps}} when the Estonians were about to march into Riga. Meanwhile, an Allied mission composed of British troops, under General Sir [[Hubert Gough|Hubert de la Poer Gough]], had arrived in the Baltic to clear the Germans from the region and to organise native armies for the Baltic states.

== Aftermath ==
The defeat of Germany in World War I in November 1918, followed by the defeat in 1919 of the {{lang|de|Baltische Landeswehr}} and German {{lang|de|Freikorps}} units of General [[Rüdiger von der Goltz]] in Latvia by the 3rd [[Estonian Land Forces|Estonian Division]] and the North Latvian Brigade, rendered any ideas for the creation of the United Baltic Duchy irrelevant.

To ensure its return to Latvian control, the {{lang|de|Baltische Landeswehr}} was placed under British authority. After taking command of the {{lang|de|Baltische Landeswehr}} in mid-July 1919, [[Lieutenant colonel (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant Colonel]] [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|Harold Alexander]], the future Alexander of Tunis, gradually dismissed the Baltic German elements. The Baltic nations of Estonia and Latvia were established as republics.

== See also ==
* [[Aftermath of World War I]]
* ''{{lang|de|[[Baltische Landeswehr]]}}''
* [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1918)]]
* [[Estonian War of Independence]]
* [[Freikorps in the Baltic|''{{lang|de|Freikorps|nocat=y}}'' in the Baltic]]
* [[Latvian War of Independence]]
* [[Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)]]
* [[Kingdom of Finland (1918)]]
* [[Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)]]
* [[Ukrainian State]]
* [[Pavel Bermondt-Avalov]]
* ''{{lang|de|[[Ober Ost]]}}''

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Latvia.htm Latvia] on ''World Statesmen''
* [http://eh.lenin.ru/english/2eu/latvia/lat-hist3.htm Baltic flag] on ''Encyclopædia Heraldica''
* {{FOTW |id=bal_duke |title=Baltic Duchy (1918)}}

{{Baltic states}}

{{coord|56|56|56|N|24|06|23|E|region:LV|display=title}}


[[Category:History of the Baltic states]]
[[Category:Independence of Estonia]]
[[Category:History of Livonia]]
[[Category:1918 in Latvia]]
[[Category:Proposed countries]]
[[Category:Independence of Latvia]]
[[Category:Former client states]]
[[Category:1918 in politics]]

Tartu

2023-04-20T19:28:40Z

3 Löwi: minor edits upon the notable persons

{{Short description|Second most populous city in Estonia}}
{{Other uses|Tartu (disambiguation)|Dorpat (disambiguation)}}
{{Distinguish|Tartus}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Tartu
| official_name = {{Lang|et|Tartu}}
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 280
| image_style = border:1;
| perrow = 1/2/2/
|image1 = Tartu kesklinn.jpg
|image2 = Heart of Tartu.jpg
|image3 = Eesti Rahva Muuseumi peahoone 13.jpg
|image4 = Tartu Ülikooli peahoone 2012.jpg
|image5 = Tartu Raekoja platsi vaade.jpg
}}
| image_caption = From top: View of Tartu from the [[Emajõgi|Emajõgi River]], Tartu old town, [[Estonian National Museum]], [[University of Tartu]], [[Raekoja plats, Tartu|Town Hall Square]]
| nickname = Capital of Southern Estonia<ref name="visitsouthestonia">{{cite web|url=https://visitsouthestonia.com/en/destinations/tartu-city/|title=Tartu city|publisher=Visit South Estonia|access-date=February 24, 2022}}</ref><ref name="ecb">{{cite web|url=https://www.ecb.ee/destination/tartu/|title=Tartu – European Capital of Culture 2024|publisher=Estonian Convention Bureau (ECB)|access-date=February 24, 2022}}</ref>
| image_flag = 
| image_shield =
| motto = ''Heade mõtete linn'' ("City of good thoughts")
| mapsize = 230px
| map_caption = Location of Tartu in Estonia
| pushpin_map_caption = Location within Europe##Location within [[Baltic Sea]] region##Location within Estonia
| pushpin_relief = 1
| pushpin_map = Europe#Baltic Sea#Estonia
| coordinates = {{Coord|58|23|N|26|43|E|region:EE|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[Estonia]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[Counties of Estonia|County]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tartu County]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Municipalities of Estonia|Municipality]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Tartu (urban municipality)|Tartu]]
| established_title = First settled
| established_date = 5th century AD
| established_title1 = First mentioned
| established_date1 = ca. 1030
| established_title2 = City rights
| established_date2 = before 1262
| named_for =
| total_type =
| unit_pref =
| area_footnotes =
| area_magnitude =
| area_total_km2 = 38.80
| area_total_sq_mi = 15
| area_land_km2 = 37.9
| area_land_sq_mi = 14.6
| area_water_km2 = 1.3
| area_water_sq_mi = 0.5
| area_water_percent = 3.39
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 57.2
| elevation_ft = 188
| elevation_max_m = 79
| elevation_max_ft = 259
| population_total = 97,435
| population_rank = [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|2nd]]
| population_as_of = 2023
| population_footnotes = <ref name="RV0240">Population of Tartu city as a settlement unit, excluding population of other settlement units of the municipality of Tartu city. [https://andmed.stat.ee/en/stat/RV0240 Population by sex, age and place of residence after the 2017 administrative reform, 1 January]. Statistics Estonia.</ref>
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_density_sq_mi = auto
| demographics_type1 = [[Resident registration]] {{nobold|(2023)}}
| demographics1_footnotes = <ref>Total registered population of the municipality of Tartu City, excluding settlements of former Tähtvere Parish. {{cite web |url= http://www.tartu.ee/sites/default/files/uploads/Statistika/2017/Tartu_stat_aastaraamat_veeb.pdf|title= Statistiline ülevaade 2017|access-date=11 Dec 2018}}</ref>
| demographics1_title1 = Total
| demographics1_info1 = 97 712
| demographics_type2 = [[Ethnicity]]
| demographics2_footnotes =
| demographics2_title1 = [[Estonians]]
| demographics2_info1 = 80.3%
| demographics2_title2 = [[Russians]]
| demographics2_info2 = 13.4%
| demographics2_title3 = other
| demographics2_info3 = 5.3%
| timezone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
| utc_offset = +02:00
| timezone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
| utc_offset_DST = +03:00
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 50050 to 51111
| registration_plate = T
| website = [https://tartu.ee/en City of Tartu]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Tartu'''{{efn|{{IPA-et|ˈtɑrtˑu}}, [[South Estonian]]: ''Tarto'', historically in [[German language|German]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''Dorpat''}} is the second largest city in [[Estonia]] after [[Tallinn]]. Tartu has a population of 97,435 (as of 2023).<ref name="RV0240"/> It is {{convert|186|km|0|abbr=off}} southeast of Tallinn and 245 kilometres (152 miles) northeast of [[Riga]], [[Latvia]]. Tartu lies on the [[Emajõgi]] river, which connects the two largest lakes in Estonia, [[Lake Võrtsjärv]] and [[Lake Peipus]]. From the 13th century until the end of the 19th century, Tartu was known in most of the world by variants of its historical name '''Dorpat'''.

[[File:Aerial view of Toomemägi, toomkirik and Tartu downtown.webm|thumb|Aerial view of [[Toomemägi]], Tartu cathedral and Tartu downtown]]

Tartu, the largest urban centre of southern Estonia, is often considered the "intellectual capital city" of the country,<ref name="visitsouthestonia"/><ref name="ecb"/><ref>[http://www.estlandia.de/en/tourism-estonia/cities/tartu.html Tartu – the intellectual centre of Estonia] estlandia.de</ref><ref>Jonathan Bousfield ''The Rough Guide to Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania''. Rough Guides UK. [https://books.google.com/books?id=hXu0BgAAQBAJ&dq=tartu%20intellectual%20centre%20of%20estonia&pg=PA126 Page 126]</ref><ref>Sergey Chernov. [https://themoscowtimes.com/articles/tartu-estonias-intellectual-and-theater-capital-20396 Tartu: Estonia's Intellectual and Theater Capital] [[The Moscow Times]], Dec. 24 2012</ref> especially as it is home to the nation's oldest and most renowned university, the [[University of Tartu]] (founded in 1632).<ref>[https://visittartu.com/why-tartu Why Tartu?|Visit Tartu]</ref><ref>M. Mets & R. Raudsepp: Baltic Piling. CRC Press, 2013. {{ISBN|9780415643344}}.</ref> Tartu also houses the [[Supreme Court of Estonia]], the [[Ministry of Education and Research (Estonia)|Ministry of Education and Research]], the [[Estonian National Museum]], and the oldest Estonian-language theatre, [[Vanemuine]]. It is also the birthplace of the [[Estonian Song Festival]]s.

Tartu will be the [[European Capital of Culture]] in 2024.<ref name="ecb"/><ref>[https://www.kul.ee/en/ministry-news-and-contact/international-cooperation-and-european-union/european-capital-culture European Capital of Culture 2024] — Ministry of Culture</ref><ref>[https://www.visitestonia.com/en/why-estonia/tartu-european-capital-of-culture-2024 Tartu – European Capital of Culture 2024] – Visit Estonia</ref><ref>[https://tartu.ee/en/tartu-european-capital-of-culture-2024 Tartu – European Capital of Culture 2024] – Tartu.ee</ref>

=={{anchor|Names and etymology}}Names and etymology==
{{see also|Names of Tartu in different languages}}
Since Estonia became an independent country in 1918, the Estonian-language ''Tartu'' ({{IPA-et|ˈtɑrtˑu}}), alternative [[South Estonian]] spelling: ''Tarto'' has been the only name in official use but throughout its history there have also been various names for it in other languages. Most of them derive ultimately from the earliest attested form, the Estonian ''Tarbatu''. In German, [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Polish language|Polish]] the town has been known, and up until the 20th century was sometimes referred to, as {{Audio|De-Dorpat.ogg|'''Dorpat'''}}, a variant of ''Tarbatu''. In Russian the city has been known as {{lang|ru|Юрьев}} (''Yur′yev'', after [[Yury|Yuri]], the [[baptismal name]] of grand prince [[Yaroslav I the Wise]]) and as {{lang|ru|Дерпт}} (''Derpt'', from the [[Low German]] variant of ''Dorpat''). Similarly the city has been known as ''Tērbata'' in [[Latvian language|Latvian]], and [[Finnish language|Finnish]] speakers use the toponym ''Tartto''.
Tartu lies on the Emajõgi river whose name ''ema jõgi'' translates to modern Estonian as ‘mother river’.

==History==
{|class="wikitable" width=450em
|-
|{{Collapsible list
|title=Historical affiliations
|bullets=true
|[[Ugandi County]] pre-1030
|{{flagicon image|Yarthewise.png}} [[Kievan Rus']] 1030–1061
|[[Ugandi County]] 1061–1134
|{{flagicon image|Yarthewise.png}} [[Kievan Rus']] 1134
|[[Ugandi County]] 1134–1191/1192
|{{flagicon image|Yarthewise.png}} [[Kievan Rus']] 1191/1192
|[[Ugandi County]] 1191/1192–1220
|{{flagicon image|Zakon Kawalerów Mieczowych COA.svg}} [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]] 1220–1223
|[[Ugandi County]] 1223
|{{flagicon image|Nowogród.svg}} [[Novgorod Republic]] 1223–1224
|{{flagicon image|Tartu coat of arms.svg}} [[Bishopric of Dorpat]] 1224–1558
|{{flagicon image|Great banner of Ivan IV of Russia.jpg}} [[Tsardom of Russia]] 1558–1582
|{{flagicon image|Chorągiew królewska króla Zygmunta III Wazy.svg}} [[Duchy of Livonia]] ([[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland–Lithuania]]) 1582–1600
|{{flagicon image|Sweden-Flag-1562.svg}} [[Kingdom of Sweden]] 1600–1603
|{{flagicon image|Chorągiew królewska króla Zygmunta III Wazy.svg}} [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] 1603–1625
|{{flagicon image|Sweden-Flag-1562.svg}} [[Kingdom of Sweden]] 1625–1656
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Oryol (variant).svg}} [[Tsardom of Russia]] 1656–1661
|{{flagicon image|Sweden-Flag-1562.svg}} [[Kingdom of Sweden]] 1661–1704
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Tsardom of Russia]] (Muscovy) 1704–1721 
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Russia.svg}} [[Russian Empire]] 1721–1917
|{{flag|Russian Republic}} 1917
|{{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[Russian Soviet Republic]] 1917–1918
|{{flag|Republic of Estonia}} 1918
|{{flagicon|German Empire}} [[German occupation of Estonia during World War I|German occupation]] 1918 
|{{flag|Republic of Estonia}} 1918
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Commune of the Working People of Estonia.svg}} [[Commune of the Working People of Estonia]] 1918–1919
|{{flag|Republic of Estonia}} 1919–1940
|{{flagicon|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|1936}} [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|Soviet occupation]] 1940–1941 
|{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[German occupation of Estonia during World War II|German occupation]] 1941–1944 
|{{flagicon|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|1936}} [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|Soviet occupation]] 1944–1990 
|{{flag|Republic of Estonia}} ([[Occupation of the Baltic states|in transition]]) 1990–1991 
|{{flag|Republic of Estonia}} 1991–onwards
}}
|}

===Beginnings===
Archaeological evidence of the first permanent settlement on the site of modern Tartu dates to as early as the 5th century AD.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583793/Tartu |title=Tartu |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=26 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="Mäesalu">{{cite web|url=http://www.sirp.ee/archive/2001/12.10.01/Sots/sots1-6.html |title=Vene kroonikate Jurjev oli tõenäoliselt siiski Tartu|first=Ain|last=Mäesalu |publisher=[[Sirp]] |date=12 October 2001 |language=et|access-date=26 January 2013}}</ref> By the 7th century, local inhabitants had built a wooden fortification on the east side of [[Toomemägi|Toome Hill]] (''Toomemägi'').<ref name="Mäesalu"/> Over the next centuries the settlement grew, and around 9th–10th centuries became an inland trading center.<ref name="Mäesalu2005">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/3544313 |last1=Mäesalu |first1=Ain |last2=Vissak |first2=Rünno |editor-last=Pullerits |editor-first=Heivi |title=Tartu. Ajalugu ja kultuurilugu |publisher=Ilmamaa |date=2005 |pages=16–18 |chapter=Muinas- ja keskaeg |isbn=9789949131525 |language=et|access-date=13 January 2020}}</ref>

The first documented records of the area were made by later mediaeval chroniclers who described the events of the early 11th century [[Kievan Rus]]. [[Yaroslav I the Wise]], [[Grand Prince of Kiev]], invaded the region of Tartu in ca 1030, and after a victorious battle with the local tribe of [[Ungannians]] built his own fort there, and named it ''Yuryev''.<ref name="Mäesalu"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Tvauri|first1=Andres|title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia|date=2012|pages=33, 59, 60|url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG|access-date=27 December 2016}}</ref> Tartu may have remained under Kievan Rus' control until 1061, when, according to chronicles, the ''Yuryev'' fort was burned down by ''Sosols'' (probably [[Oeselians]], [[Sakala County|Sackalians]], or another Estonian tribe).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mäesalu|first1=Ain|title=Could Kedipiv in East-Slavonic Chronicles be Keava hill fort?|journal=Estonian Journal of Archaeology|date=2012|volume=1|issue=16supplser|page=199|url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/Archaeology/2012/sup_vol_1/arhe-keava-2012-195-200.pdf |doi=10.3176/arch.2012.supv1.11 |access-date=13 January 2020}}</ref> Soon afterwards the fort was rebuilt by locals. In the 12th century, local Ungannians on one side and troops from the neighbouring [[Novgorod Republic]] on the other side repeatedly raided each other. In those campaigns, the invaders were reportedly able to capture Tartu in 1133 or 1134, and in the winter of 1191–1192, however these temporary captures are not known to have brought any lasting territorial changes.<ref name="Mäesalu2005"/>

===Medieval bishopric===
[[File:Tartu 1553.jpg|thumb|left|The city of Tartu in 1533]]
{{multiple image
|direction = vertical
|footer = [[Tartu Cathedral]] ruins
|image1 = Tartu Toomkirik - panoramio (1).jpg
|image2 = Tartu Toomkiriku varemed 2012.jpg
}}
During the period of [[Northern Crusades]] in the beginning of the 13th century the fort of ''Tarbatu'' (or ''Tharbata'') was captured by the crusading [[Livonian Knights|Teutonic knights]] — also known as the [[Brothers of the Sword]]  — and recaptured by Estonians on several occasions. In 1224, after  the princes of [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] and [[Pskov Republic|Pskov]] had sent additional troops led by prince [[Vyachko]] of [[Koknese|Kukenois]] to aid the Estonian defenders of the fort, it was [[Siege of Tartu (1224)|besieged and conquered]] for one last time by the Teutonic crusaders.<ref>[[Anti Selart]], [[Ivar Leimus]], Linda Kaljundi, [[Heiki Valk]]. ''Ristiretked ja vallutussõjad 13. sajandi Liivimaal'', in "Eesti ajalugu II. Eesti keskaeg." Editor Anti Selart. Tartu 2012. Pp. 52—53</ref> Subsequently, known as Dorpat (Latin: ''Tarbatum''), Tartu became a commercial centre of considerable importance during the later [[Middle Ages]] and the capital of the semi-independent [[Bishopric of Dorpat]].

In 1262 the army of prince [[Dmitri of Pereslavl]] launched an assault on Dorpat, capturing and destroying the town. His troops did not manage to capture the bishop's fortress on Toome Hill. The event was recorded both in subsequent German and [[Old East Slavic]] chronicles, which also provided the first record of a settlement of German merchants and artisans which had arisen alongside the bishop's fortress.

In medieval times, after the Livonian Order was subsumed into the [[Teutonic Knights]] in 1236, the town became an important trading city. In the 1280s Dorpat joined the [[Hanseatic League]]. 

===Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish rule===
{{See also|Treaty of Dorpat}}
[[File:Album von Dorpat, TKM 0031H 05, crop.jpg|thumb|left|University of Tartu main building in 1860.]]
In 1558, tsar [[Ivan the Terrible]] invaded Tartu beginning the [[Livonian War]]. Forces under the command of Pyotr Shuiski encircled the town and began the heavy bombardment. In light of this and without any prospect of external help the town surrendered. The local bishop was imprisoned in Moscow, which effectively ended the period of local self-government. [[Ivan Mikhailovich Viskovatyi]], a leading diplomat and archivist of diplomatic records during Ivan the Terrible's reign, argued that Tartu's "founding" by Ancient Rus' justified Russia's contemporary territorial claims to the region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bobrick |first1=Benson |title=Fearful Majesty: The Life and Reign of Ivan the Terrible |publisher=Putnam |pages=169}}</ref> In the effect of the [[Truce of Jam Zapolski]] of 1582, the city along with southern regions of [[Livonian Confederation]] became part of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. In 1598 it became the capital of the [[Dorpat Voivodeship]] of the [[Duchy of Livonia (1561–1621)|Duchy of Livonia]]. A [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[grammar school]] "Gymnasium Dorpatense" was established in 1583. In addition, a translators' seminary was organized in Tartu and the city received its red and white flag from the Polish king [[Stephen Báthory]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}

The activities of both the grammar school and the seminary were stopped by the [[Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)|Polish–Swedish War]]. Already in late 1600 the forces of [[Charles IX of Sweden]] besieged the city defended by three [[Chorągiew (military unit)|banners]] of [[reiter]]s and the city's burghers. Despite repeated assaults, the Swedes could not enter the city. Finally in 1601 Capt. Hermann Wrangel switched sides, assaulted the [[castellan]] and opened the gates for the Swedish forces. The town was retaken by Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth on 13 April 1603 following a brief siege led by [[hetman]] [[Jan Karol Chodkiewicz]]; roughly 1000 Swedish soldiers surrendered and were escorted to [[Tallinn]].

In the effect of yet another [[Polish–Swedish War (1626–29)|Polish-Swedish War]], in 1625 Tartu was once again captured by Sweden, this time for good. In the effect of the 1629 [[Truce of Altmark]] the city became part of the [[Dominions of Sweden]], which led to the foundation of the [[University of Tartu]] in 1632 by king [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]].

===Imperial Russia===

[[File:Album von Dorpat, TKM 0031H 06, crop.jpg|left|thumb|The Stone Bridge and the Old Town in 1860]]
In 1704 the town was taken by the Russian army in the presence of tsar Peter the Great himself. As a result, around a quarter of the town and much of the fortifications were damaged. In 1708 the remainder of the fortifications and houses, including the remains of bishops castle, were blown up, all movable property was looted and all citizens deported to Russia. With the [[Treaty of Nystad]] in 1721, the city became part of the [[Russian Empire]] and was known as ''Derpt''. Fires in the 18th century destroyed much of the medieval architecture, the [[Great Fire of Tartu]] in 1775 removed most of the buildings in the centre. The city was rebuilt along [[Baroque architecture|Late Baroque]] and [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] lines including the [[Tartu Town Hall]] which was built between 1782 and 1789.<ref>[http://www.tartu.ee/?lang_id=2&menu_id=9&page_id=1417 The Town Hall of Tartu], tartu.ee, retrieved 27 December 2013</ref> In 1783 the city became the centre of Derpt [[uyezd]] within the [[Governorate of Livonia]].

During the second half of the 19th century, Tartu was the cultural centre for Estonians in the era of [[Romantic nationalism]]. The city hosted Estonia's first [[Estonian Song Festival|song festival]] in 1869. ''[[Vanemuine]]'', the first national theatre, was established in 1870. Tartu was also the setting for the foundation of the Society of Estonian Writers in 1872.
[[File:Tartu Raekoda 2012.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Tartu Town Hall]]]]
[[Tartu railway station]] was opened in 1876 when [[Tapa, Estonia|Tapa]]–Tartu route was built.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/tartu-railway-station|title=Tartu Railway Station|publisher=Visit Estonia|access-date=2023-04-05}}</ref> The station building was opened in 1877. In the [[history of tuberculosis]], in 1891 The Veterinary College at Dorpat produced seminal research using the [[Tuberculin test]] on 1,000 cattle.<ref>''Tuberculosis In European Countries'', The Times, 25 February 1895</ref>

In 1893, the city was officially retitled to the ancient Russian name ''Yuryev''. The university was subsequently [[Russification|russified]] from 1895 on with the introduction of compulsory Russian in teaching. Much of the university property was relocated to [[Voronezh]] in 1918 and during the German occupation, the University worked under the name Landesuniversität Dorpat. During the [[Estonian War of Independence]] the university of Tartu was re-opened as an Estonian language university on 1 December 1919.

===Independent Estonia (1918–1940)===

With Estonian independence after World War I, the city officially became known by the Estonian name ''Tartu''. At the end of the 1918–1920 [[Estonian War of Independence]] following World War I, a peace treaty between the [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] [[Soviet Russia|Russia]] and Estonia was signed on 2 February 1920 in Tartu ([[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]]). With the treaty, [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] renounced territorial claims to Estonia "for all time".

In 1920, the peace [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Finnish)|treaty between Soviet Russia and Finland]] was also signed in Tartu.

During the interwar period [[Tähtvere]] neighbourhood was built, former [[Raadi Manor]] buildings started to house [[Estonian National Museum]] (destroyed during [[Tartu Offensive]] in 1944) and art school [[Pallas Art School (1919–1940)|Pallas]] was opened.

===German and Soviet occupations (1940–1991)===

During World War II, the [[Stalin]]ist Soviet Union invaded and occupied Estonia and Tartu in June 1940. Large parts of the city as well as the historical ''Kivisild'' ("Stone bridge", built in 1776–1778) over the Emajõgi river were destroyed by the retreating Soviet Army, partly in 1941 and almost completely in 1944 by then retreating German Army. Already heavily damaged, Tartu was repeatedly bombed by the Soviet air forces on 27 January 1943, on 26 February 1944, on 7–8 March 1944, and on 25–26 March 1944. After the war ended, much of the city's historic centre was left in ruins. Even the less damaged buildings in entire city blocks were demolished by the Soviet occupation authorities and large swathes of previously residential areas were turned into parks and parking lots.

After the war, the Soviet authorities declared Tartu a "closed town for foreigners", as an airbase for bombers was constructed on [[Raadi Airfield]], in the northeast outskirts of the city. It was one of the largest military airbases in the former Eastern Bloc and housed strategic bombers carrying nuclear bombs. On one end of an older strip of the runway, the new building of [[Estonian National Museum]] was built.

[[Tartu Airport]] was opened in the south of the city in 1946. Besides the airport [[Estonian Aviation Academy]] was established in 1993. Privately owned [[Estonian Aviation Museum]], which is 5 km to the East from the airport (7 km by car), was opened to the public in 2002.
During the 1944–1991 Soviet occupation the population of Tartu almost doubled from 57,000 to above 100,000 — due to mass immigration from Russia and other areas of the former Soviet Union, in large part because of the military airbase.
[[File:AHHAA.jpg|thumb|AHHAA Science Centre]]

===Modern era===

Since Estonia regained its independence in 1991, the old town centre has been renovated. Notably, [[St. John's Church, Tartu|St. John's Church]], in ruins since World War II, has been restored. Many new commercial and business buildings have been erected (''Tartu Kaubamaja'', ''Tasku'', ''Emajõe kaubanduskeskus'', ''Lõunakeskus'', ''Kvartal'', etc.). The highest residential building and local landmark ''[[Tigutorn]]'' was opened in 2008.

The [[AHHAA]] science centre relocated to a new building in 2011 and the [[Estonian National Museum]]'s new main building opened in 2016.
{{clear}}

== Geography ==

=== Climate ===

Tartu lies within the temperate [[humid continental climate]] zone ([[Köppen climate classification|Dfb]]). The climate is rather mild considering the high latitude, largely due to the proximity of the Baltic Sea and warm airflows from the Atlantic. Nevertheless, continental influence can be felt on hot summer days and cold spells in winter, when the temperature can occasionally (but rarely) drop below {{convert|-30|°C|0|abbr=on}}. Generally, summers are warm and winters are cold.

The Tartu weather station is located in Tõravere village, which is about 20 kilometers from the city, so the actual temperature in the city may be slightly warmer than the official average temperatures.

{{Weather box
|location = Tartu (Tõravere) normals 1991–2020, extremes 1865–present
|metric first = yes
|single line = yes
|Jan record high C = 9.7
|Feb record high C = 10.9
|Mar record high C = 18.4
|Apr record high C = 27.5
|May record high C = 30.9
|Jun record high C = 34.0
|Jul record high C = 34.9
|Aug record high C = 35.2
|Sep record high C = 30.3
|Oct record high C = 21.5
|Nov record high C = 13.8
|Dec record high C = 13.0
|year record high C = 35.2
|Jan high C = -1.8
|Feb high C = -1.6
|Mar high C = 3.3
|Apr high C = 11.1
|May high C = 17.1
|Jun high C = 20.6
|Jul high C = 23.1
|Aug high C = 21.8
|Sep high C = 16.3
|Oct high C = 9.2
|Nov high C = 3.3
|Dec high C = 0.0
|year high C = 10.2
|Jan mean C = −4.1
|Feb mean C = −4.4
|Mar mean C = -0.5
|Apr mean C = 5.9
|May mean C = 11.5
|Jun mean C = 15.5
|Jul mean C = 18.0
|Aug mean C = 16.7
|Sep mean C = 11.8
|Oct mean C = 6.0
|Nov mean C = 1.2
|Dec mean C = -2.1
|year mean C = 6.3
|Jan low C = −6.5
|Feb low C = −7.3
|Mar low C = −4.0
|Apr low C = 1.2
|May low C = 5.8
|Jun low C = 10.3
|Jul low C = 12.9
|Aug low C = 12.0
|Sep low C = 8.0
|Oct low C = 3.3
|Nov low C = -0.8
|Dec low C = -4.2
|year low C = 2.6
|Jan record low C = -37.5
|Feb record low C = -36.0
|Mar record low C = -29.6
|Apr record low C = -19.8
|May record low C = -7.2
|Jun record low C = -2.2
|Jul record low C = 1.8
|Aug record low C = 1.5
|Sep record low C = -6.6
|Oct record low C = -13.8
|Nov record low C = -22.2
|Dec record low C = -38.6
|year record low C = -38.6
|precipitation colour= green
|Jan precipitation mm = 48
|Feb precipitation mm = 39
|Mar precipitation mm = 36
|Apr precipitation mm = 35
|May precipitation mm = 54
|Jun precipitation mm = 88
|Jul precipitation mm = 67
|Aug precipitation mm = 79
|Sep precipitation mm = 55
|Oct precipitation mm = 68
|Nov precipitation mm = 55
|Dec precipitation mm = 51
|year precipitation mm = 673
|unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 10
|Feb precipitation days = 8
|Mar precipitation days = 8
|Apr precipitation days = 8
|May precipitation days = 8
|Jun precipitation days = 10
|Jul precipitation days = 11
|Aug precipitation days = 11
|Sep precipitation days = 11
|Oct precipitation days = 11
|Nov precipitation days = 11
|Dec precipitation days = 11
|year precipitation days = 118
|Jan humidity = 88
|Feb humidity = 85
|Mar humidity = 76
|Apr humidity = 68
|May humidity = 65
|Jun humidity = 70
|Jul humidity = 74
|Aug humidity = 77
|Sep humidity = 82
|Oct humidity = 86
|Nov humidity = 89
|Dec humidity = 89
|year humidity = 79
|Jan sun = 33.7
|Feb sun = 65.1
|Mar sun = 140.3
|Apr sun = 190.9
|May sun = 266.0
|Jun sun = 258.0
|Jul sun = 268.7
|Aug sun = 227.6
|Sep sun = 152.1
|Oct sun = 79.3
|Nov sun = 30.0
|Dec sun = 24.3
|year sun = 1735.9
| Jan dew point C = -7
| Feb dew point C = -8
| Mar dew point C = -4
| Apr dew point C = 0
| May dew point C = 6
| Jun dew point C = 10
| Jul dew point C = 13
| Aug dew point C = 13
| Sep dew point C = 9
| Oct dew point C = 4
| Nov dew point C = 1
| Dec dew point C = -3
|source 1 = [[Estonian Weather Service]] (precipitation days 1971–2000)<ref name=temp>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/ohutemperatuur/?lang=en
| title = Climate normals-Temperature
| publisher = Estonian Weather Service
| access-date = 31 January 2021}}</ref><ref name=precip>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/sademed/?lang=en
| title = Climate normals-Precipitation
| publisher = Estonian Weather Service
| access-date = 31 January 2021}}</ref><ref name=humidity>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/ohuniiskus/?lang=en
| title = Climate normals-Humidity
| publisher = Estonian Weather Service
| access-date = 31 January 2021}}</ref><ref name=sun>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/paikesepaiste-kestus/?lang=en
| title = Climate normals-Sunshine
| publisher = Estonian Weather Service
| access-date = 31 January 2021}}</ref><ref name=extremes>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/rekordid/ohutemperatuur/
| title = Rekordid
| language= Estonian
| publisher = Estonian Weather Service
| access-date = 19 March 2021}}</ref><ref name=precipdays>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.emhi.ee/index.php?ide=6,299,303
| title = Kliimanormid-Sademed, õhuniiskus
| publisher = Estonian Weather Service
| language = et
| access-date = 31 January 2021
| url-status = dead
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120222112141/http://www.emhi.ee/index.php?ide=6,299,303
| archive-date = 22 February 2012
| df = dmy-all}}</ref>
|source 2 = Time and Date (dewpoints, 2005-2015)<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://www.timeanddate.com/weather/estonia/tartu/climate
|title = Climate & Weather Averages in Tartu
|publisher = Time and Date
|access-date = 25 July 2022}}</ref>
}}

==Economy==
[[File:Emajõe ärikeskus e plasku.JPG|thumb|[[Emajõe Business Centre]]]]
Mostly known as a university town, Tartu is also a site of heavy industry. The food industry has traditionally been important for the town's economy and some bigger companies in the field include [[A. Le Coq]], [[Tartu Mill]] and [[Salvest]]. [[Kroonpress]] is one of the leading printing press companies in the Baltics.

At the beginning of the 21st century, many [[Information and communication technologies|ICT]] enterprises and other high-tech companies have taken a foothold in Tartu. Notable examples include [[Playtech]] Estonia, [[Nortal]] (formerly Webmedia Group), [[ZeroTurnaround]], Tarkon, Reach-U and Raintree Estonia. [[Skype]] has an office in Tartu. The university is one of the largest employers, which explains the large proportion of highly skilled professionals – researchers, professors, doctors, and [[Tartu University Clinic]] has been considered the largest employer of Tartu.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Transport==
The city is served by [[Tartu Airport]]. The distance to Estonia's "summer holiday capital", [[Pärnu]] (in the western Estonia) is {{convert|176|km|0|abbr=off}} and the fastest route there by road is through [[Viljandi]] and [[Kilingi-Nõmme]]. Tartu is connected to Riga, Tallinn, and other Estonian towns by many bus and train routes.

==Population==
[[File:Tartu city population pyramid in 2022.svg|thumb|Tartu city population pyramid in 2022]]
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 86%"
! Year ||1881||1897||1922||1934||1959||1970||1979||1989||1995||2000<ref name="RV0282">[https://andmed.stat.ee/en/stat/RV0282 Population by sex, age group and administrative unit or type of settlement, 1 january (2000–2017)]. Statistics Estonia.</ref>||2005<ref name="RV0282"/>||2010<ref name="RV0282"/>||2015<ref name="RV0240"/>||2020<ref name="RV0240"/>||2021<ref name="population">{{cite web |title=Population By Ethnic Nationality, Sex, Age Group And Place Of Residence |url=https://andmed.stat.ee/en/stat/rahvaloendus__rel2021__rahvastiku-demograafilised-ja-etno-kultuurilised-naitajad__rahvus-emakeel/RL21429 |website=andmed.stat.ee |publisher=[[Statistics Estonia]] |access-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610110844/https://andmed.stat.ee/en/stat/rahvaloendus__rel2021__rahvastiku-demograafilised-ja-etno-kultuurilised-naitajad__rahvus-emakeel/RL21429 |archive-date=June 10, 2022 |language=en |date=31 December 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! Population
|29,974||42,308||50,342||58,876||74,263||90,459||104,381||113,320||104,874||106,200||104,490||100,930||93,805||92,972||95,190
|}

{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: right"
|-bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! rowspan="2" | Ethnic group
! colspan="2" | Census 2021<ref name=population/>
|-bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! Number
! %
|-
|[[Estonians]]
|76,227
|80.1%
|-
|[[Russians]]
|12,441
|13.1%
|-
|[[Ukrainians]]
|1,107
|1.2%
|-
|[[Finns]]
|900
|0.9%
|-
|[[Belarusians]]
|304
|0.3%
|-
|[[Germans]]
|306
|0.3%
|-
|[[Latvians]]
|268
|0.3%
|-
|[[Polish people|Poles]]
|133
|0.1%
|-
|[[Lithuanians]]
|109
|0.1%
|-
|Other/Unknown
|3,395
|3.6%
|-bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! align="left" | Total
!95,190
!100%
|}

Tartu's historic population is presented in the following table, based on data from official censuses since 1881<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.ee/26384|title=General data for 1881, 1897, 1922, 1934, 1959, 1970, 1979, 1989 censuses - Statistics Estonia|website=www.stat.ee|access-date=23 March 2009|archive-date=7 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707191244/http://www.stat.ee/26384|url-status=dead}}</ref> and Estonian Statistical Office.<ref name="Population by sex, age group and county, 1 January">
{{cite web
|title=Population by sex, age group and county, 1 January
|url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PO022&path=../I_Databas/Population/01Population_indicators_and_composition/04Population_figure_and_composition/&lang=1
|publisher=Statistics Estonia
|date=16 March 2012
|access-date=19 February 2014
}}</ref> Note that the data up to 2011 is not directly comparable to the most recent numbers, as the methodology of compiling population statistics has changed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/I_Databas/Population/01Population_indicators_and_composition/04Population_figure_and_composition/PO_021.htm|title=Definitions and Methodology|website=pub.stat.ee}}</ref>

== Religion ==
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in Tartu City (2021) [https://andmed.stat.ee/en/stat/rahvaloendus__rel2021__rahvastiku-demograafilised-ja-etno-kultuurilised-naitajad__usk/RL21452]
|label1 = Unaffiliated
|value1 = 77.1
|color1 = White
|label2 = Lutheran
|value2 = 10.2
|color2 = DodgerBlue
|label3 = Orthodox & Old Believers
|value3 = 8.4
|color3 = Pink
|label4 = Others Christians
|value4 = 2.1
|color4 = LightBlue
|label5 = Others Religions or Unknown
|value5 = 2.0
|color5 = Yellow
|label6 =
|value6 =
|color6 =
}}

==Neighbourhoods==

Tartu is officially divided into 17 neighbourhoods, which carry no administrative purposes. Their names and borders are defined.
{{Image label begin|image=Tartu linnaosad1.png|width=350|float=right}}
{{Image label|x=0.327|y=0.43|scale=400|text='''[[Kesklinn, Tartu|Kesklinn]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.56|y=0.5|scale=400|text='''[[Annelinn]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.384|y=0.57|scale=400|text='''[[Karlova, Tartu|Karlova]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.62|y=0.74|scale=400|text='''[[Ihaste]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.4|y=0.75|scale=400|text='''[[Ropka tööstusrajoon|Ropka tööstusrajoon]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.53|y=0.33|scale=400|text='''[[Jaamamõisa]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.38|y=0.19|scale=400|text='''[[Raadi-Kruusamäe|Raadi- Kruusamäe]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.41|y=0.337|scale=400|text='''[[Ülejõe, Tartu|Ülejõe]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.28|y=0.27|scale=400|text='''[[Supilinn]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.16|y=0.2|scale=400|text='''[[Tähtvere]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.34|y=0.67|scale=400|text='''[[Ropka]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.14|y=0.43|scale=400|text='''[[Veeriku]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.247|y=0.75|scale=400|text='''[[Variku, Tartu|Variku]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.17|y=0.64|scale=400|text='''[[Tammelinn]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.1|y=0.75|scale=400|text='''[[Ränilinn]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.14|y=0.53|scale=400|text='''[[Maarjamõisa|Maarja- Mõisa]]'''}}
{{Image label|x=0.27|y=0.46|scale=400|text='''[[Vaksali]]'''}}
{{Image label end}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" width="170" style="text-align: right"
|-
! align="left" | Neighborhood !! Area (ha)!! Residents 2001 !! Residents 2006 !! Residents 2012
|-
| align="left" | [[Annelinn]] || 541 || 30,000 || 28,200 || 27,480
|-
| align="left" | [[Ihaste]] || 424 || 1,000 || 1,800 || 2,322
|-
| align="left" | [[Jaamamõisa]] || 149 || 3,000 || 3,000 || 3,202
|-
| align="left" | [[Karlova, Tartu|Karlova]] || 230 || 9,500 || 9,000 || 9,073
|-
| align="left" | [[Kesklinn, Tartu|Kesklinn]] || 180 || 7,500 || 6,700 || 6,575
|-
| align="left" | [[Maarjamõisa]] || 113|| 800 || 500 || 377
|-
| align="left" | [[Raadi-Kruusamäe]] || 283 ||5,000 || 4,800 || 4,626
|-
| align="left" | [[Ropka]] || 146 ||5,500 || 5,300 || 5,120
|-
| align="left" | [[Ropka industrial district]] || 354 || 2,700 || 2,700 || 2,511
|-
| align="left" | [[Ränilinn]] || 122 || 2,500 || 1,800 || 1,732
|-
| align="left" | [[Supilinn]] || 48|| 2,100 || 1,800 || 1,790
|-
| align="left" | [[Tammelinn]] || 311 || 8,000 || 8,100 || 8,195
|-
| align="left" | [[Tähtvere]] || 250 || 4,500 || 3,500 || 3,023
|-
| align="left" | [[Vaksali]] || 75 || 2,900 || 3,100 || 3,206
|-
| align="left" | [[Variku, Tartu|Variku]] || 77 || 2,000 || 1,900 || 1,840
|-
| align="left" | [[Veeriku]] || 281 || 5,500 || 5,300 || 5,561
|-
| align="left" | [[Ülejõe, Tartu|Ülejõe]] || 302 || 8,200 || 7,700 || 7,876
|}
{{multiple image
|direction = vertical
|image1 = Oscar Wilde in Estonia? (3538497107).jpg
|caption1 = A memorial to [[Oscar Wilde]] and [[Eduard Vilde]]
|image2 = Suudlevad-tudengid.jpg
|caption2 = The fountain "[[Kissing Students]]" ({{lang-et|Suudlevad Tudengid}}) reminds visitors that the [[University of Tartu]] and its students have a profound effect on life in Tartu.
}}

==Education and culture==

The city is best known for being home to the [[University of Tartu]] (formerly known as the University of Dorpat; {{lang-de|Universität Dorpat}}), founded under King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]] in 1632.<ref name="visitsouthestonia"/> Mainly for this reason, Tartu is also – tongue-in-cheek – known as "[[Athens]] of the Emajõgi" or as "[[University of Heidelberg|Heidelberg]] of the North".

Tartu is also the seat of the [[Estonian University of Life Sciences]], the [[Baltic Defence College]], [[Estonian Aviation Academy]] (formerly known as Tartu Aviation College), and the [[Ministry of Education and Research (Estonia)|Estonian Ministry of Education and Research]]. Other notable institutions include the [[Supreme Court of Estonia]] (re-established in Tartu in autumn 1993), the [[Estonian Historical Archives]], [[Estonian National Museum]], [[Estonian Sports and Olympic Museum]] as well as the oldest and renowned theatre in the country, [[Vanemuine]], where they have a well-respected ballet company as well as theatre, opera and musical productions.

In music, there exists the [[Tartu school of composition]].

Most of the sculptures in Tartu are dedicated to historical figures. Among them the most famous are the [[Barclay de Tolly monument]] on the [[Barclay Square]] in downtown, the [[Kissing Students]] monument on the town hall square<ref name="visitsouthestonia"/> and [[Gustav II Adolf]]´s monument on the [[Kuningaplats]].

==Science==
Tartu has been an intellectual centre of both Estonia and the Baltic countries for several centuries. Scholars hailing from Tartu include the pioneer of embryology [[Karl Ernst von Baer]], a pioneer of animal behaviour studies [[Jakob von Uexküll]], and a cultural theorist and semiotician [[Juri Lotman]]. [[Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz]], a Baltic German physician, naturalist, and entomologist, was born in Tartu. He was one of the earliest scientific explorers of the Pacific region, making significant collections of flora and fauna in Alaska, California, and Hawaii. Nobel Chemistry Prize laureate [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] studied and worked in Tartu. The [[Tartu School]] is one of the leading scientific schools in [[semiotics]].

==Main sights==
{{multiple image
| align = left
| image1 = Tartu asv2022-04 img15 StJohn Church.jpg
| width1 = 225
| alt1 =
| caption1 = St. John's Church
| image2 = Tartu St Johns church interior.jpg
| width2 = 200
| alt2 =
| caption2 = Interior
| footer =
}}
The architecture and city planning of historical Tartu mainly go back to the pre-independence period, with Germans forming the upper and middle classes of society, and therefore contributing many architects, professors and local politicians.

Most notable are the old [[Lutheran]] [[St. John's Church, Tartu|St. John's Church]] ({{lang-et|Jaani Kirik}}, {{lang-de|link=no|Johanneskirche}}), the 18th-century [[Tartu Town Hall|town hall]], the university building, ruins of the 13th-century [[Tartu Cathedral|cathedral]], the botanical gardens, the main shopping street, many buildings around the town hall square and [[Barclay Square]].

The historical slum area called Supilinn (''Soup Town'') is located on the bank of river Emajõgi, near the town centre and is regarded as one of the few surviving "poor" neighbourhoods of 19th-century Europe. At the moment Supilinn is being rapidly renovated, undergoing a slow transformation from the historic slum into a prestigious high-class neighborhood. The active community embodied by the Supilinn Society is committed to preserving the heritage.

The Second World War destroyed large parts of the city centre and during the Soviet occupation, many new buildings were erected – notably the new Vanemuine Theater. The effects of the war are still witnessed by the relative abundance of parks and greenery in the historic centre. Typical Soviet-style neighbourhoods of blocks of high-rise flats were built between World War II and the restoration of Estonian independence in 1991, the largest such district being [[Annelinn]].

Presently, Tartu is also known for several modern buildings of the "steel, concrete and glass" variation, but has managed to retain a mix of old and new buildings in the centre of town. Notable examples include the Tigutorn Tower and the Emajõe Centre, both built during the current period of independence; Tartu's tallest and second tallest towers, respectively. Tartu's large student population means that it has a comparatively thriving nightlife, with many nightclubs, bars, and restaurants, including the world's highest-ceiling pub, in the historic [[Gunpowder Cellar of Tartu]].

Annually, in the summer, Tartu hosts the Hanseatic Days festival ({{lang-et|Hansapäevad}}) to celebrate its Hanseatic heritage. The festival includes events such as handicraft markets, historic workshops and jousting tournaments.

==Sports==

Tartu is the home for basketball club [[Tartu Ülikool/Rock]], which participates in the [[Korvpalli Meistriliiga]] and the [[Latvian-Estonian Basketball League]].

[[Association football|Football]] club [[JK Tammeka Tartu]], one of the [[Meistriliiga]] clubs, is located in Tartu. Their home stadium is the [[Tamme Stadium|Tamme Staadion]], which has a capacity of 1600. The city is also home to the [[Tartu JK Welco]] and [[FC Santos Tartu]] clubs, which play in the [[Esiliiga]], the second division.

Tartu has a professional volleyball club, [[Tartu Volleyball|Bigbank Tartu]], as well as the handball team, the Tartu Ülikool/Glassdrive, which plays in the second division of Estonian handball.

Tartu is also the hometown of [[Clement "Puppey" Ivanov]], captain of [[Team Secret]], a professional [[Dota 2]] team. He won the first [[The International (Dota 2)|International]], and was runner-up two years in a row with Natus Vincere.<ref>{{cite web|title=International Teams|url=http://www.dota2.com/international/teams/|publisher=[[Valve Corporation|Valve]]|access-date=20 Jul 2014}}</ref>

The [[2017 World Orienteering Championships]] were held in Tartu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.woc2017.ee|title=Nokian Tyres World Orienteering Championships 2017|website=www.woc2017.ee}}</ref>

The annual running event [[Tartu Sügisjooks]] takes place in Tartu.

==Notable people==
[[File:C. R. Jakobson, Paul Raud, EKM j 9638 M 3807.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Carl Robert Jakobson]]]]
[[File:Alar Karis 2019.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alar Karis]]]]
[[File:Siim-Sander Vene - Penya GC2019 by unniks-3.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Siim-Sander Vene]]]]
* [[Andrus Ansip]] (1956), politician, former Prime Minister of Estonia
* [[Paul Ariste]] (1905–1990), linguist
* [[Lauri Aus]] (1970–2003), professional road cyclist
* [[Karl Ernst von Baer]] (1792–1876), scientist and explorer
* [[George Browne (soldier)|George Browne]], (1698–1792), Irish-born governor of the city
* [[Karl Ernst Claus]] (1796–1864), chemist and botanist
* [[Jaan Einasto]] (1929), astrophysicist
* [[Elisabeth Erm]] (1993), fashion model
* [[Friedrich Robert Faehlmann]] (1798–1850), writer, medical doctor and philologist
* [[Markko Märtin]] (1975), rally driver
* [[George Hackenschmidt]] (1877–1968), strongman, professional wrestler, writer and philosopher
* [[Adolf von Harnack]] (1851–1930), Lutheran theologian and church historian
* [[Else Hueck-Dehio]], writer
* [[Carl Robert Jakobson]] (1841–1882), writer, politician and teacher
* [[Maarja Jakobson]] (1977), actress
* [[Martin Järveoja]] (1987), rally co-driver
* [[Rasmus Kaljujärv]] (1981), actor
* [[Alar Karis]] (1958), biologist and the 6th [[President of Estonia]]
* [[Kerr Kriisa]] (2001), basketball player
* [[Sally von Kügelgen]] (1860–1928), painter
* [[Leonid Kulik]] (1883–1942), Russian and Soviet mineralogist
* [[Oskar Luts]] (1887–1953), writer and playwright
* [[Emil Mattiesen]] (1875–1939), composer, pianist and philosopher
* [[Peeter Põld]] (1878–1930), pedagogic scientist, school director and politician
* [[Laura Põldvere]] (1988), singer
* [[Elsa Ratassepp]] (1893–1972), actress
* [[Eno Raud]] (1928–1996), children's author
* [[Zofia Romer]] (1885–1972), Polish painter
* [[Kristina Šmigun-Vähi]] (1977), cross-country skier
* [[Rein Taaramäe]] (1987), professional road cyclist
* [[Aino Talvi]] (1909–1992), actress
* [[Ants Veetõusme]] (born 1949), politician (former [[Mayor of Tartu]]) and financial figure
* [[Siim-Sander Vene]] (born 1990), basketball player

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:University of Tartu, Main Building, April 2012.JPG|[[Main building of Tartu University|University of Tartu main building]]
File:Tartu, botanická zahrada.jpeg|[[University of Tartu Botanical Gardens]]
File:Riigikohus.jpg|The [[Supreme Court of Estonia]]
File:Arch bridge in Tartu.jpg|[[Kaarsild]] (''Arch Bridge'') over the Emajõgi
File:Kuradisild sügisõhtul.JPG|[[Kuradisild]] (''Devil's Bridge'')
File:Telleri kabel.jpg|Teller chapel in Tartu, Estonia. Built in 1794
File:Tartu Kunstimuuseum.JPG|[[Tartu Art Museum]]
File:Laulupeomuuseum.JPG|Song Festival Museum
File:Tartu Town Hall Place towards Kaarsild 2015.jpg|[[Raekoja plats, Tartu|Tartu Town Hall Square]]
File:Tartu Peetri kirik 2012.jpg|[[St Peter's Church, Tartu|St Peter's Church]]
File:Tartu asv2022-04 img28 StPaul Church.jpg|[[St Paul's Church, Tartu|St Paul's Church]]
File:TrefnGymn-2012-06.png|[[Hugo Treffner Gymnasium]]
File:Tartu asv2022-04 img26 Vanemuine small building.jpg|"Little House" of the [[Vanemuine]] theatre
File:Tartu Kaubamaja 2011.JPG|[[Tartu Department Store]]
File:Tasku.jpg|[[Tasku Shopping Centre]]
File:Tartu railway station, 2014.JPG|[[Tartu railway station]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Immaculate Conception Church, Tartu]]
* [[Pigcam]], wild game feeding webcam, in a forest near Tartu
* [[University of Tartu]]
** [[Tartu University Library]]
* [[St Mary's Church, Tartu]]
* [[St Paul's Church, Tartu]]
* [[St Peter's Church, Tartu]]

==Sources==
*{{Cite magazine| first= Rivo| last= Bernotas| url= http://www.kirj.ee/public/Archaeology/2011/issue_1/arch-2011-15-1-56-72.pdf |title= Medieval Town Wall of Tartu in the Light of Recent Research | magazine= Estonian Journal of Archaeology |year= 2011 |number= 1| language= en}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

===References===
{{Reflist}}

===Further reading===
*{{Cite book|author=Villem Raam|title=Eesti arhitektuur 4. Tartumaa, Jõgevamaa, Valgamaa, Võrumaa, Põlvamaa. Valgus|publisher=[[Valgus (publisher)|Valgus]]|year=1999|isbn=9985-68-050-2|language=et}}
*{{Cite book|author=Malle Salupere|title=Tuhandeaastane Tartu – Nooruse ja heade mõtete linn|publisher=[[University of Tartu Press]]|year=2004|isbn=9985-56-908-3|language=et}}
*{{Cite book|author=Seppo Zetterberg|title=Viron historia|publisher=[[Finnish Literature Society]]|year=2007|isbn=978-951-746-520-5|language=fi}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
* [https://tartu.ee City of Tartu]
* [http://www.visittartu.com/?set_lang_id=2 Tourism website]
* [http://www.ut.ee/en University of Tartu]
* [http://meteo.physic.ut.ee/?lang=en Weather in Tartu]

{{Tartu landmarks}}
{{Tartumaa}}
{{Cities of Estonia}}
{{Hanseatic League}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Tartu| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Estonia]]
[[Category:Members of the Hanseatic League]]
[[Category:Kreis Dorpat]]
[[Category:Populated places in Tartu County]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 5th century]]
[[Category:1030 establishments]]

Henry W. Antheil Jr.

2023-04-18T17:08:32Z

3 Löwi:

{{Short description|American diplomat}}

[[Image:Henry W Antheil.jpg|thumb|Henry W. Antheil Jr.]]
'''Henry William Antheil Jr.''' (23 September 1912 – 14 June 1940) was an American [[diplomat]] killed in the [[List of airliner shootdown incidents|shootdown of the civilian airliner]] en route from [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]] to [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]] ([[Kaleva (airplane)|Aero Flight 1631]]) by Soviet military aircraft in the wake of the [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Soviet invasion and occupation of Estonia]] during World War II.

==Biography==
Antheil was born in [[Trenton, New Jersey]] and attended [[Trenton Central High School]] and [[Rutgers University]].<ref name=LastFlight>Johnson, Eric A.; and Hermann, Anna. [https://www.afsa.org/sites/default/files/flipping_book/0507/files/assets/seo/page48.html "The Last Flight From Tallinn"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801185620/https://www.afsa.org/sites/default/files/flipping_book/0507/files/assets/seo/page48.html |date=2019-08-01 }}, ''[[Foreign Service Journal]]'', May 2007. Accessed August 1, 2019. "Henry Antheil Jr. was born in 1912 in Trenton, N.J., one of four children to Henry William Antheil, owner of a shoe store, and his wife Wilhemine Huse, both Lutheran immigrants from Germany.... We do know that Henry enrolled at Rutgers University in the fall of 1931, after graduating from Trenton Central High School, where he studied German and served as vice president of the public speaking club."</ref>

Antheil, younger brother of noted composer [[George Antheil]], was a clerk at the U.S. legation in Helsinki. He was killed on 14 June 1940, while serving as a diplomatic courier, when the Finnish passenger plane [[Kaleva (airplane)|Kaleva]] (Aero O/Y Flight 1631) was shot down over the [[Gulf of Finland]] near the [[Keri Lighthouse]], at 14:05 local time, approximately ten minutes after taking off from the [[Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport|airport in Tallinn]], Estonia.<ref>[http://helsinki.usembassy.gov/antheil.html Henry W. Antheil Jr.'s] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120709134512/http://helsinki.usembassy.gov/antheil.html |date=2012-07-09 }} at usembassy.gov</ref>

Two Soviet bombers downed the passenger airplane, killing all nine on board, on the day the [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Soviet blockade of Estonia]] went into effect.<ref name=LastFlight/> According to an [[Associated Press]] wire story that ran the following day, Antheil was serving as a diplomatic courier when his plane exploded en route to Helsinki. The incident occurred during the [[Interim Peace]] between the Soviet Union and Finland, and at the outset of the [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|Soviet occupation]] of Estonia in mid-June 1940. Kaleva was the second civilian airlinerpassenger airliner ever to be attacked midair, and the [[List of airliner shootdown incidents|first airliner in history to be shot down in flight]], by hostile aircraft.

Antheil was carrying several diplomatic pouches from the U.S. legations in Tallinn and Riga. Some Estonian researchers have suggested that Antheil's diplomatic pouches included secret information detailing the Soviet Union's future plans for the Baltic region that the Estonian General Staff had turned over to an unidentified U.S. government official earlier that same day. Back in the United States, the news of the Soviet blockade and the loss of the Aero Flight 1631 were overshadowed by a much bigger story that broke on the other side of Europe on June 14: the [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|German occupation of Paris]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764083,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603004852/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764083,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 3, 2008 |title=TIME |publisher=TIME |date=1940-06-24 |accessdate=2014-08-18}}</ref>

Antheil was honored at the [[American Foreign Service Association]]'s Memorial Plaque Ceremony at the U.S. State Department's Diplomatic Lobby. The event, part of the annual Foreign Affairs Day celebration, honors those U.S. Embassy employees who have lost their lives while serving their country overseas in the line of duty. Members of Antheil's family were present.

== In arts and culture ==
Antheil's grandnephew G. Neal McTighe, past poet laureate of [[Carrboro, North Carolina]], dedicated a poem titled "Kaleva" to Antheil and his fiancée, Greta Lindberg, in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|year=2006 |url=http://www.westendpoetsweekend.com/pdf/WestEndPoetryNewsletterJanuaryFebruary2009.pdf |format=PDF |title=Kaleva |publisher=West End Poets Newsletter 15 |page=5 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426061214/http://www.westendpoetsweekend.com/pdf/WestEndPoetryNewsletterJanuaryFebruary2009.pdf |archivedate=2012-04-26 }}</ref>

Henry Antheil is a prominent character in the historical novel ''The Whores'' (in three volumes, 2015–2017) by [[Mart Sander]], and subsequently in the TV drama series of that name (2018).<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7165256/?ref_=ttfc_fc_tt] The Whores on IMDB</ref> The book follows the theory proposing that Henry Antheil (played in the series by Matt Fien) was tasked with transporting the last remaining gold from the Estonian gold depository (11 bars) to Finland, only days before the Soviet occupation began. There was 227 kilograms of diplomatic luggage on the plane.<ref>[http://ekspress.delfi.ee/kuum/67-aasta-tagune-ohumorv-lahendatud?id=69138693] Ekspress: 67 Years Old Aviation Crime Solved</ref> This theory was first presented by Carl-Fredrik Geust, the son of Captain Bo von Willebrand, the pilot of Aero Flight 1631.<ref>[http://kes-kus.ee/president-pats-diplomaatilised-dokumendid-ettekavatsetud-loll-juhuska-tana-igapaevane-asi-toomas-kummeli-uurimus-venelaste-allatulistatud-soome-reisilennukist-kaleva-65-aastat-tagasi-keri-saare/] Kes-Kus: A Study on Kaleva</ref> Another theory suggests that the orders came straight from [[Stalin]], who was convinced that Estonian president [[Konstantin Päts]] was trying to flee on the Aero Flight 1631 .<ref>[http://ekspress.delfi.ee/kuum/tana-10-aastat-tagasi-stalin-kaskis-patsi-tappa-tuntud-soome-ajaloolase-versioon?id=69035395] Ekspress: Stalin ordered Päts killed</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Antheil, Henry W. Jr.}}
[[Category:1912 births]]
[[Category:1940 deaths]]
[[Category:American diplomats]]
[[Category:United States Department of State officials]]
[[Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Finland]]
[[Category:Assassinated American diplomats]]
[[Category:American people of German Bohemian descent]]
[[Category:Mass murder victims]]
[[Category:Victims of aircraft shootdowns]]
[[Category:People from Trenton, New Jersey]]
[[Category:Rutgers University alumni]]
[[Category:Trenton Central High School alumni]]
[[Category:American civilians killed in World War II]]

Henry W. Antheil Jr.

2023-04-18T17:05:41Z

3 Löwi: copyedited some

{{Short description|American diplomat}}

[[Image:Henry W Antheil.jpg|thumb|Henry W. Antheil Jr.]]
'''Henry William Antheil Jr.''' (23 September 1912 – 14 June 1940) was an American [[diplomat]] killed in the [[List of airliner shootdown incidents|shootdown of the civilian airliner]] en route from [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]] to [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]] ([[Kaleva (airplane)|Aero Flight 1631]]) by Soviet military aircraft in the wake of the [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Soviet invasion and occupation of Estonia]] during World War II.

==Biography==
Antheil was born in [[Trenton, New Jersey]] and attended [[Trenton Central High School]] and [[Rutgers University]].<ref name=LastFlight>Johnson, Eric A.; and Hermann, Anna. [https://www.afsa.org/sites/default/files/flipping_book/0507/files/assets/seo/page48.html "The Last Flight From Tallinn"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801185620/https://www.afsa.org/sites/default/files/flipping_book/0507/files/assets/seo/page48.html |date=2019-08-01 }}, ''[[Foreign Service Journal]]'', May 2007. Accessed August 1, 2019. "Henry Antheil Jr. was born in 1912 in Trenton, N.J., one of four children to Henry William Antheil, owner of a shoe store, and his wife Wilhemine Huse, both Lutheran immigrants from Germany.... We do know that Henry enrolled at Rutgers University in the fall of 1931, after graduating from Trenton Central High School, where he studied German and served as vice president of the public speaking club."</ref>

Antheil, younger brother of noted composer [[George Antheil]], was a clerk at the U.S. legation in Helsinki. He was killed on 14 June 1940, while serving as a diplomatic courier, when the Finnish passenger plane [[Kaleva (airplane)|Kaleva]] (Aero O/Y Flight 1631) was shot down over the [[Gulf of Finland]] near the [[Keri Lighthouse]], at 14:05 local time, approximately ten minutes after taking off from the [[Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport|airport in Tallinn]], Estonia.<ref>[http://helsinki.usembassy.gov/antheil.html Henry W. Antheil Jr.'s] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120709134512/http://helsinki.usembassy.gov/antheil.html |date=2012-07-09 }} at usembassy.gov</ref>

Two Soviet bombers downed the passenger airplane, killing all nine on board, on the day the [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Soviet blockade of Estonia]] went into effect.<ref name=LastFlight/> According to an [[Associated Press]] wire story that ran the following day, Antheil was serving as a diplomatic courier when his plane exploded en route to Helsinki. The incident occurred during the [[Interim Peace]] between the Soviet Union and Finland, and at the outset of the [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|Soviet occupation]] of Estonia in mid-June 1940. Kaleva was the second civilian airlinerpassenger airliner ever to be attacked midair, and the [[List of airliner shootdown incidents|first airliner in history to be shot down in flight]], by hostile aircraft.

Antheil was carrying several diplomatic pouches from the U.S. legations in Tallinn and Riga. Some Estonian researchers have suggested that Antheil's diplomatic pouches included secret information detailing the Soviet Union's future plans for the Baltic region that the Estonian General Staff had turned over to an unidentified U.S. government official earlier that same day. Back in the United States, the news of the Soviet blockade and the loss of the Aero Flight 1631 were overshadowed by a much bigger story that broke on the other side of Europe on June 14: the [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|German occupation of Paris]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764083,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603004852/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764083,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 3, 2008 |title=TIME |publisher=TIME |date=1940-06-24 |accessdate=2014-08-18}}</ref>

Antheil was honored at the [[American Foreign Service Association]]'s Memorial Plaque Ceremony at the U.S. State Department's Diplomatic Lobby. The event, part of the annual Foreign Affairs Day celebration, honors those U.S. Embassy employees who have lost their lives while serving their country overseas in the line of duty. Members of Antheil's family were present.

== In arts and culture ==
Antheil's grandnephew G. Neal McTighe, past poet laureate of [[Carrboro, North Carolina]], dedicated a poem titled "Kaleva" to Antheil and his fiancée, Greta Lindberg, in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|year=2006 |url=http://www.westendpoetsweekend.com/pdf/WestEndPoetryNewsletterJanuaryFebruary2009.pdf |format=PDF |title=Kaleva |publisher=West End Poets Newsletter 15 |page=5 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426061214/http://www.westendpoetsweekend.com/pdf/WestEndPoetryNewsletterJanuaryFebruary2009.pdf |archivedate=2012-04-26 }}</ref>

Henry Antheil is a prominent character in the historical novel ''The Whores'' (in three volumes, 2015–2017) by [[Mart Sander]], and subsequently in the TV drama series of that name (2018).<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7165256/?ref_=ttfc_fc_tt] The Whores on IMDB</ref> The book follows the theory proposing that Henry Antheil (played in the series by Matt Fien) was tasked with transporting the last remaining gold from the Estonian gold depository (11 bars) to Finland, only days before the Soviet occupation begun. There was 227 kilograms of diplomatic luggage on the plane.<ref>[http://ekspress.delfi.ee/kuum/67-aasta-tagune-ohumorv-lahendatud?id=69138693] Ekspress: 67 Years Old Aviation Crime Solved</ref> This theory was first presented by Carl-Fredrik Geust, the son of Captain Bo von Willebrand, the pilot of Aero Flight 1631.<ref>[http://kes-kus.ee/president-pats-diplomaatilised-dokumendid-ettekavatsetud-loll-juhuska-tana-igapaevane-asi-toomas-kummeli-uurimus-venelaste-allatulistatud-soome-reisilennukist-kaleva-65-aastat-tagasi-keri-saare/] Kes-Kus: A Study on Kaleva</ref> Another theory suggests that the orders came straight from [[Stalin]], who was convinced that Estonian president [[Konstantin Päts]] was trying to flee on the Aero Flight 1631 .<ref>[http://ekspress.delfi.ee/kuum/tana-10-aastat-tagasi-stalin-kaskis-patsi-tappa-tuntud-soome-ajaloolase-versioon?id=69035395] Ekspress: Stalin ordered Päts killed</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Antheil, Henry W. Jr.}}
[[Category:1912 births]]
[[Category:1940 deaths]]
[[Category:American diplomats]]
[[Category:United States Department of State officials]]
[[Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Finland]]
[[Category:Assassinated American diplomats]]
[[Category:American people of German Bohemian descent]]
[[Category:Mass murder victims]]
[[Category:Victims of aircraft shootdowns]]
[[Category:People from Trenton, New Jersey]]
[[Category:Rutgers University alumni]]
[[Category:Trenton Central High School alumni]]
[[Category:American civilians killed in World War II]]

Baltic area runestones

2023-04-18T11:52:39Z

3 Löwi:

{{Baltic expeditions runestones}}
{{cleanup lang|date=May 2019|iso=non}}
The '''Baltic area runestones''' are [[Varangian runestones]] in memory of men who took part in peaceful or warlike expeditions across the [[Baltic Sea]], where [[Finland]], [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]] are presently located.

Beside the runestones treated in this article and in the main article [[Varangian runestones]], there are many other runestones that talk of eastward voyages such as the [[Greece runestones]], [[Italy runestones]], and inscriptions left by the [[Varangian Guard]]. Other runestones that deal with Varangian expeditions include the [[Ingvar runestones]] (erected in honor or memory of those who travelled to the [[Caspian Sea]] with [[Ingvar the Far-Travelled]]).<ref>''e.g.'', Jones 1968:267.</ref> In addition, there were also voyages to Western Europe mentioned on runestones that are treated in the articles [[Viking runestones]], [[England runestones]] and [[Hakon Jarl runestones]].

Below follows a presentation of the runestones based on the [[Rundata]] project. The transcriptions into [[Old Norse]] are mostly in the Swedish and Danish dialect to facilitate comparison with the inscriptions, while the English translation provided by [[Rundata]] gives the names in the de facto standard dialect (the Icelandic and Norwegian dialect):

==Uppland==

===U 180===
[[File:U 180, Össeby-Garn.JPG|thumb|right|150px|U 180.]]
This runestone is possibly in [[style Pr4]] and it is located at the church of Össeby-Garn. It was made by the [[runemaster]] [[Visäte]]. The stone commemorates a man who either died in [[Viborg, Denmark|Viborg]], [[Jutland]], or in [[Vyborg]], [[Karelia]]. Part of the inscription's text "he died in Véborg" is written on the design's cross, which may have indicated to those at home that Sigsteinn, while dying abroad, had received proper Christian burial treatment.<ref>Andrén 2003:414.</ref>

Latin transliteration:

: '''{{transl|non|+ sihatr * uk + þurbiorn + uk * þurkri(m) + uk * erinmontr '× litu × reisn + stein + aftiʀ + broþur + sin + sikstnin + hn to i uib(u)(r)kum}}'''

Old Norse transcription:

: {{lang|non|Sighvatr ok Þorbiorn ok Þorgrimʀ ok Ærinmundr letu ræisa stæin æftiʀ broður sinn Sigstæin. Hann do i Viborgum.}}

English translation:

: "Sighvatr and Þorbjǫrn and Þorgrímr and Erinmundr had the stone raised in memory of their brother Sigsteinn. He died in Véborg."
{{clear}}

===U 214===
[[File:U 214, Vallentuna.jpg|right|150px|thumb|U 214.]]
This runestone from c. 1100 is in the [[style RAK]]. It is in the wall of the porch of the church of Vallentuna. The U 215 contains the first part of the message. The stones were carved in memory of a man who drowned in Holmr's sea, but runologists are divided on the meaning of the expression. One interpretation proposed by Jansson is that it means the "Novgorodian sea" and refers to the [[Gulf of Finland]].<ref name="Pritsak369">Pritsak 1981:369</ref> The runestone provides the earliest Swedish attestation of an [[end rhyme]],<ref name="Jansson26"/> whereas the earliest [[Old Norse]] attestation is ''[[Hǫfuðlausn (Egill)|Höfuðlausn]]'' composed by [[Egill Skallagrímsson]].<ref name="Jansson26f">Jansson 1980:26-27</ref>

Latin transliteration:

: '''{{transl|non|... uk × inkiber × eftiʀ × buanta × sin ' han ' troknaþi ÷ a ' holms ' hafi ' skreþ ' knar ' hans ' i ' kaf þriʀ ' eniʀ ' kamo ' af}}'''

Old Norse transcription:

: {{lang|non|... ok Ingebærg æftiʀ boanda sinn. Hann drunknaði a Holms hafi, skræið knarr hans i kaf, þriʀ æiniʀ kvamu af.}}

English translation:

: "... and Ingibjǫrg in memory of her husbandman. He drowned in Holmr's sea - his cargo-ship drifted to the sea-bottom - only three came out (alive)."

Swedish translation:

: "{{lang|sv|... och Ingeberg efter bonde sin. Han drunknade på Holms hav, skred knarr hans i kvav, tre endast kommo av.}}"
{{clear}}

===U 346===
[[File:U 346, Frösunda.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The runestone U 346 in a 17th-century drawing.]]
This runestone has disappeared but it was located at the church of Frösunda. It was made by the [[runemaster]] [[Åsmund Kåresson]] in [[style Pr3-Pr4]], and it was raised in memory of a man who died in [[Vironia|Virland]]. It contains the same message as [[#U 356|U 356]].

Latin transliteration:

: '''{{transl|non|[rahnfriþr * lit rt stain þino ' aftiʀ biurno sun þaiʀa kitilmuntaʀ ' hon ' fil a urlati ' kuþ hialbi hons ant auk||kuþs muþiʀ ' osmunr mar'kaþi runaʀ ritar]}}'''

Old Norse transcription:

: {{lang|non|Ragnfriðr let retta stæin þenna æftiʀ Biorn, sun þæiʀa Kætilmundaʀ. Hann fell a Virlandi. Guð hialpi hans and ok Guðs moðiʀ. Asmundr markaði runaʀ rettaʀ.}}

English translation:

: "Ragnfríðr had this stone erected in memory of Bjǫrn, her son and Ketilmundr's. He fell in Virland. May God and God's mother help his spirit. Ásmundr marked the right runes."
{{clear}}

===U 356===
[[File:U 356, Ängby.jpg|thumb|150px|right|U 356.]]
This runestone in [[style Pr3]] is located in Ängby. It was made by the [[runemaster]] [[Åsmund Kåresson]]<ref name=Brit>"Angby Stone" in ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica|The New Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. Chicago: [[Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.]], 15th edn., 1992, Vol. 1, p. 399.</ref> for a lady in memory of her son who died in [[Vironia|Virland]]. It contains the same message as [[#U 346|U 346]].

Latin transliteration:

: '''{{transl|non|ra(h)nfriþr ' lit rasa stain þino ' aftiʀ biurn * sun þaiʀa * kitilmun(t)aʀ ' kuþ mialbi hons (a)nt auk| |kuþs (m)uþiʀ hon fil a uirlanti * in osmuntr markaþi}}'''

Old Norse transcription:

: {{lang|non|Ragnfriðr let ræisa stæin þenna æftiʀ Biorn, sun þæiʀa Kætilmundaʀ. Guð hialpi hans and ok Guðs moðiʀ. Hann fell a Virlandi. En Asmundr markaði.}}

English translation:

: "Ragnfríðr had this stone raised in memory of Bjǫrn, her son and Ketilmundr's. May God and God's mother help his spirit. He fell in Virland. And Ásmundr marked."
{{clear}}

===U 439===
[[File:Ingvarstenen U 439 (drawing by Johannes Bureus).jpg|right|thumb|150px|A drawing by [[Johan Bureus]], before the stone disappeared.]]This runestone in [[style Fp]] is one of the [[Ingvar Runestones]] and due to uncertainties as to the decipherment also one of the [[Serkland Runestones]]. It was located at [[Steninge Palace]], but it is lost. [[Johan Bureus]], one of the first prominent Swedish runologists, visited Steninge on May 8, 1595, and made a drawing of the runestone which stood by the jetty.<ref name="hembygd">[http://www.hembygdmarsta.se/runstenar_show.asp?sid=8 An article at the homepage of the local heritage society of Märsta.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928004600/http://www.hembygdmarsta.se/runstenar_show.asp?sid=8 |date=September 28, 2007 }}, retrieved January 14, 2007.</ref> Only 50 years later it had disappeared and in a letter written in 1645 it was explained that the stone had been used in the construction of a new stone jetty.<ref name="hembygd"/> The inscription contained an [[Old Norse poetry|Old Norse poem]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://skaldic.arts.usyd.edu.au/db.php?table=mss&id=15335 |title=U 439, at Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages. |access-date=2007-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901112836/http://skaldic.arts.usyd.edu.au/db.php?table=mss&id=15335 |archive-date=2007-09-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Latin transliteration:

: '''{{transl|non|[harlaif × auk × þurkarþr × litu × raisa × stain × þina at × sabi faþur sin × is||sturþi × austr × skibi × maþ ikuari a/a| |askalat-/skalat-]}}'''

Old Norse transcription:

: {{lang|non|Hærlæif ok Þorgærðr letu ræisa stæin þenna at Sæbiorn, faður sinn. Es styrði austr skipi með Ingvari a Æistaland(?)/Særkland[i](?).}}

English translation:

: "Herleif and Þorgerðr had this stone raised in memory of Sæbjǫrn, their father, who steered a ship east with Ingvarr to Estonia(?)/Serkland(?)."
{{clear}}

===U 533===
[[File:U 533, Roslags-Bro.jpg|150px|right|thumb|U 533.]]
This runestone is in the wall inside the porch of the [[Roslags-Bro Church|church of Roslags-Bro]]. It is in [[style Pr1]], and it was raised in memory of a man who died in [[Vironia|Virland]] (in [[Estonia]]). The style shows that it was made by the [[runemaster]] Torbjörn Skald.<ref name="Jansson26">Jansson 1980:26</ref>

Latin transliteration:

: '''<nowiki>*</nowiki> sigruþ * lit + raisa * stain * eftir + anunt * sun * sin * han uas ' tribin + a + uirlanti'''

Old Norse transcription:

: ''Sigruð let ræisa stæin æftiʀ Anund, sun sinn. Hann vas drepinn a Virlandi.''

English translation:

: "Sigþrúðr had the stone raised in memory of ǫnundr, her son. He was killed in Virland."
{{clear}}

===U 582===
{{main|Runestone U 582}}
[[File:U 582, Söderby-Karl.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The runestone U 582 in a 17th-century drawing.]]
This runestone has disappeared but it was located at the church of [[Söderby-Karl]]. It was possibly in [[style Pr1]] and it commemorated a son who died in what is called ''Finland''. At this time, ''Finland'' referred to the south-western part of what today is [[Finland]].<ref name="Jansson24">Jansson 1980:24</ref>

Latin transliteration:

: '''[biarn huk * ikulfriþ : raistu : stain : aftʀ : utrik : sun : sain * han * uaʀ : tribin : o * fin*lonti]'''

Old Norse transcription:

: ''Biorn ok Igulfrið ræistu stæin æftiʀ Otrygg, sun sinn. Hann vaʀ drepinn a Finnlandi.''

English translation:

: "Bjǫrn and Ígulfríðr raised the stone in memory of Ótryggr, their son. He was killed in Finland."
{{clear}}

===U 698===
[[File:U 698, Veckholm.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The runestone U 698 in a 17th-century drawing.]]
This runestone has disappeared but it was located at the church of Veckholm. It was in [[style Pr2-Pr3]]. The inscription was considered difficult to read, but it refers to a man who fell in [[Livonia]], and possibly in an expedition led by [[Freygeirr]].

Latin transliteration:

: P '''[sufar lit : aristn * þin * afir * askir sun : sin : han * ut fai : a liflai|n|þ|i| |i| |i|n|þ|i * frai...]'''
: Q '''[sufar lit : aristn * þin * afir * askir sun : sin : han * ut fai : a liflai|n|þ| i| |i|n|þ|i * frai...]'''

Old Norse transcription:

: P ''<sufar> let ræisa stæin æftiʀ Asgæiʀ, sun sinn. Hann uti fioll a Liflandi i liði Frøy[gæiʀs](?).''
: Q ''<sufar> let ræisa stæin æftiʀ Asgæiʀ, sun sinn. Hann ut fioll a Lifland i liði Frøy[gæiʀs](?).''

English translation:

: "<sufar> had the stone raised in memory of Ásgeirr, his son. He fell in Lífland, abroad in Freygeirr's(?) retinue."
{{clear}}

==Södermanland==

===Sö 39===
[[File:Runstenar Trosa bro Sö39 2004.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Sö 39.]]
This is a runic inscription on bedrock at Åda. It is in [[style Pr3]] and it commemorates a brother who drowned in [[Livonia]].

Latin transliteration:

: '''<nowiki>:</nowiki> hermoþr : lit : hagua : at : barkuiþ : bruþur : sin : h[an] trukn-þi : [a] lf:lanti :'''

Old Norse transcription:

: ''Hærmoðr let haggva at Bergvið/Barkvið, broður sinn. Hann drunkn[a]ði a Liflandi.''

English translation:

: "Hermóðr had (the rock) cut in memory of Bergviðr/Barkviðr, his brother. He drowned in Lífland."
{{clear}}

===Sö 198===
[[File:Sö 198, Mervalla.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Sö 198.]]
This runestone in [[style Fp]] is found in Mervalla on the island of [[Selaön]] in lake [[Mälaren]]. It is raised in memory of a man who regularly sailed a valuable [[knarr]] to [[Zemgale]], passing [[Cape Kolka]] (''Dómisnes''). North of the Cape there is a long underwater reef which probably was infamous among the sailors of the Viking Age, and this is probably why Sigríðr wanted posterity to know that her husband had often passed it.<ref name="Jansson30">Jansson 1980:30</ref> The expression ''dyrum knærri'' ("valued cargo-ship") is an instrumental dative and it also appears in a famous stanza by the Icelander [[Egill Skallagrímsson]].<ref name="Jansson30"/> Egill had written that his mother had promised him a fast ship so that he could sail with the Vikings and<ref name="Jansson30"/>
{|
|
:''standa upp í stafni''
:''stýra dýrum knerri''<ref name="Jansson30"/>
|
:Stand in the stern,
:Steer a dear vessel,
|
|}

Latin transliteration:

: '''siriþ * lit * resa * stan * [þin](a) [*] (a)(t) * suen * sin * [b]unta * h[n] * uft * siklt * til * simk(a)(l)(a) * t(u)ru[m] * knari * um * tumisnis'''

Old Norse transcription:

: ''Sigrið let ræisa stæin þenna at Svæin, sinn bonda. Hann oft siglt til Sæimgala, dyrum knærri, um Domisnæs.''

English translation:

: "Sigríðr had this stone raised in memory of Sveinn, her husbandman. He often sailed a valued cargo-ship to Seimgalir, around Dómisnes."
{{clear}}

==Gästrikland==
===Gs 13===
{{main|Gs 13}}
[[File:Gs 13, Gävle.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Gs 13.]]
This runestone in sandstone is found in the church of the holy trinity in [[Gävle]]. It is in [[style Pr2]] and it commemorates a brother name Egill who died in [[Tavastia (historical province)|Tavastia]]. [[Åsmund Kåresson]] was one of the [[runemaster]]s. Egill probably fell in a [[leidang]] expedition, led by [[Freygeirr]] who was a military leader.<ref name="Jansson24"/><ref name="Pritsak357">Pritsak 1981:357</ref>

Latin transliteration:

: '''× brusi lit rita s-... ... [(a)]b--ʀ (i)h(i)(l) brur sin : in h-n uarþ tauþr a tafstalonti × þo brusi furþi lank lans ' abtiʀ [br](u)r sin h(o)[n] fur (m)iʀ fraukiʀi kuþ hialbi hons| |salu| |uk| |kuþ(s) (m)(u)[þiʀ ' suain ' uk osmunrt ' þaiʀ markaþu] +'''

Old Norse transcription:

: ''Brusi let retta s[tæin þenna] æf[ti]ʀ Ægil, broður sinn. En h[a]nn varð dauðr a Tafæistalandi, þa Brusi førði læiðang(?) lands æftiʀ broður sinn. Hann for meðr Frøygæiʀi. Guð hialpi hans salu ok Guðs moðiʀ. Svæinn ok Asmundr þæiʀ markaðu.''

English translation by Sven B.F Jansson 1981:

: "Brúsi had this stone erected in memory of Egill, his brother. And he died in Tafeistaland, when Brúsi brought (= led?) the land's levy(?) (= army) in memory of , his brother. He travelled with [[Freygeirr]]. May God and God's mother help his soul. Sveinn and Ásmundr, they marked."

English translation by Henrik Williams 2005:

: "Brúsi had this stone erected in memory of Egill, his brother. And he died in Tafeistaland, when Brúsi bore long-spear (=battle standard) after his brother. He travelled with [[Freygeirr]]. May God and God's mother help his soul. Sveinn and Ásmundr, they marked."
{{clear}}

==Västergötland==

===Vg 181===
[[File:Vg 181, Frugården.JPG|right|thumb|Vg 181.]]
This runestone in [[style Pr1]] is found at Frugården. It was raised in memory of a man who died in [[Estonia]].

Latin transliteration:

: '''kufi : rsþi : stin : þesi : eftʀ : ulaf : sun : sin * trk * hrþa * kuþan * hn * uarþ * trbin * i * estlatum * hu(a)rþ(r) * iuk * s---'''

Old Norse transcription:

: ''Gufi ræisti stæin þennsi æftiʀ Olaf, sun sinn, dræng harða goðan. Hann varð drepinn i Æistlandum. Havarðr(?) hiogg s[tæin].''

English translation:

: "Gufi raised this stone in memory of Ólafr, his son, a very good valiant man. He was killed in Estonia. Hávarðr(?) cut the stone."
{{clear}}

==Gotland==

===G 135===
[[File:G 135, Sjonhem.JPG|100px|thumb|right|G 135.]]
This runestone, originally located in Sjonhems, tells of the same family as [[Varangian Runestones#G 134|G 134]] and G 136, and it was made in memory of a man who died in Vindau ([[Ventspils]], [[Latvia]]).<ref name="Pritsak345">Pritsak 1981:345</ref>

Latin transliteration:

: '''þina : eftir : a(i)--- : --- : --rþ : tauþr : a : ui(t)au : systriʀ : [tuaʀ] ...-ʀ : bryþr : þria : roþanþr : auk : roþkutr : roþar : auk : þorstain : þiʀ : iʀu : faþur:bryþr'''

Old Norse transcription:

: ''Þenna æftiʀ Æi... ... [va]rð dauðr a Vindau/Vindö. Systriʀ tvaʀ ... brøðr þria. Hroðvaldr(?) ok Hroðgautr, Hroðarr ok Þorstæinn, þæiʀ eʀu faðurbrøðr.''

English translation:

: "This (one) in memory of Ei-... (who) died at Vindey/Vindö. Two sisters ... three brothers. Hróðvaldr(?) and Hróðgautr, Hróðarr and Þorsteinn, they are the father's brothers."
{{clear}}

===G 319===
{{main|Runestone G 319}}
[[File:Bildstein-Rute kyrka 2.jpg|thumb|right|100px|G 319.]]
This is a late runic inscription on a grave which is dated to the early 13th century. It is located in [[Rute Church]] and it commemorates a man who died in Finland.

Latin transliteration:

: '''si[h]tris : aruar[r] : litu : giera : st[a]en : yfir : auþu-l- : broþur : sin : a : finlandi : do : aglia...'''

Old Norse transcription:

: ''Sigtryggs(?) arfaʀ letu gæra stæinn yfiʀ Auðv[a]l[d](?), broður sinn, a Finnlandi do <aglia...>.''

English translation:

: "Sigtryggr's(?) heirs had the stone made over Auðvaldr(?), their brother, who died in Finland ..."
{{clear}}

==References and sources==
;References
{{reflist|2}}
;Sources

* {{Cite book |last=Andrén |first=Anders |editor-last=Veit |editor-first=Ulrich |contribution=The Meaning of Animal Art: An Interpretation of Scandinavian Rune-Stones |title=Spuren und Botschaften: Interpretationen Materieller Kultur |publisher=Waxmann Verlag |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCqWEbinjC0C |isbn=3-8309-1229-3}}
* Jansson, Sven B. F. (1980). ''Runstenar''. STF, Stockholm. {{ISBN|91-7156-015-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Gwyn |author-link=Gwyn Jones (author) |title=A History of the Vikings |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |orig-year=1968 |location= London; New York|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofvikings00jone_0 |url-access=registration |isbn=0-19-280134-1}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110225031159/http://www.sofi.se/servlet/GetDoc?meta_id=1472 Peterson, Lena. ''Nordisk Runnamnslexikon''] Swedish Institute for Linguistics and Heritage (Institutet för språk och folkminnen).
* Pritsak, Omeljan. (1981). ''The Origin of Rus'''. Cambridge, Mass.: Distributed by Harvard University Press for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute. {{ISBN|0-674-64465-4}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110807043328/http://www.nordiska.uu.se/forskn/samnord.htm Project Samnordisk Runtextdatabas Svensk] - [[Rundata]]
* Williams, Henrik. (2005). ''Vittnat runstenen från Söderby (Gs 13) om Sveriges första ledungståg? Runfilologi och konsten att läsa som det står''. ISSN 0349-0416

==External links==
* [http://runicdictionary.nottingham.ac.uk/index.php An English Dictionary of Runic Inscriptions of the Younger Futhark], at the University of Nottingham

{{Runestones}}

[[Category:Runestones in Uppland]]
[[Category:Runestones in Östergötland]]
[[Category:Runestones in Södermanland]]
[[Category:Runestones in memory of Viking warriors]]
[[Category:Gotland]]

Estonia

2023-04-18T11:44:30Z

3 Löwi: edited the language

{{short description|Country in Northern Europe}}
{{redirect|Eesti|the language|Estonian language|other uses|Estonia (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Coord|59|N|26|E|type:country_scale:9000000_region:EE|display=title}}{{EngvarB|date=December 2019}}{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Estonia
| common_name = Estonia
| native_name = {{native name|et|Eesti Vabariik}}
| image_flag = Flag of Estonia.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Estonia.svg
| symbol_width = 88px
| national_anthem = ''[[Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm]]'' {{small|(English: "My fatherland, my happiness and joy")}} {{parabr}}{{center|[[File:US Navy band - National anthem of Estonia.ogg|alt=sound file of Estonian national anthem]]}}
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Estonia on the globe (Europe centered).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:EU-Estonia.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Europe|default=2}}
| map_caption = {{map caption|location_color=dark green |region=Europe |region_color=dark grey |subregion=the [[European Union]] |subregion_color=green |legend=EU-Estonia.svg}}
| capital = [[Tallinn]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|59|25|N|24|45|E|type:city}}
| largest_city = capital
| languages_type = Official language
| languages = [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
{{infobox|child=yes
| label1 = [[Ethnic groups]] {{nobold|(2022)}}
| data1 = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |69.4% [[Estonians]] |23.6% [[Russians]] |7.0% [[Demographics of Estonia|Others]]}}
}}
| demonym = Estonian
| religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |64.9% [[Irreligion in Estonia|No religion]] |34.0% [[Christianity]]|1.1% [[Religion in Estonia|Others]]}}
| religion_year = 2011<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.stat.ee/65352?parent_id=39113|title= PHC 2011: over a quarter of the population are affiliated with a particular religion|date= 29 April 2013|access-date= 9 January 2014|publisher= [[Statistics Estonia]]|archive-date= 24 November 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171124002736/https://www.stat.ee/65352?parent_id=39113|url-status= dead}}</ref>
| government_type = [[Unitary parliamentary republic]]
| leader_title1 = [[President of Estonia|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Alar Karis]]
| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Kaja Kallas]]
| legislature = [[Riigikogu]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Estonia|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note = from [[Soviet Russia|Russia]] and [[German Empire|Germany]]
| established_event1 = [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|Declaration of independence]]
| established_date1 = {{nowrap|23–24 February 1918}}
| established_event2 = Joined the [[League of Nations]]
| established_date2 = {{nowrap|22 September 1921}}
| established_event4 = [[Occupation of the Baltic states|German and Soviet occupations]]
| established_date4 = 1940–1991
| established_event5 = [[Restoration of Estonia|Independence restored]]
| established_date5 = 20 August 1991
| established_event6 = {{nowrap|[[2004 enlargement of the European Union|Joined]] the [[European Union]]}}
| established_date6 = 1 May 2004
| area_km2 = 45,339
| area_rank = 129thd
| area_sq_mi = 17,505
| percent_water = 4.6
| population_estimate = {{increase}} 1,357,739<ref>{{cite web |title=Population Figure |url=https://news.err.ee/1608854255/statistics-estonia-s-population-grew-by-2-percent-on-year-to-january-2023 |website=ERR Uudised |date=18 January 2023 |access-date=19 January 2023}}</ref>
| population_census = 1,331,824<ref>{{cite news |title=Population census: Estonia's population and the number of Estonians have grown |url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/uudised/rahvaloendus-eesti-rahvaarv-ja-eestlaste-arv-kasvanud |access-date=5 June 2022 |publisher=Statistics Estonia |date=June 1, 2022}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2023
| population_estimate_rank =
| population_census_year = 2021
| population_density_km2 = 30.6
| population_density_sq_mi = 75 
| population_density_rank = 148th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $61.757 billion<ref name="imf2">{{Cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report |access-date=2023-04-16 |website=IMF |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2023
| GDP_PPP_rank = 113th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $46,385 <ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 40th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $41.55 billion<ref name="imf2"/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2023
| GDP_nominal_rank = 102th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $31,207<ref name="imf2"/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 37th
| Gini = 30.6 
| Gini_year = 2021
| Gini_change = increase 
| Gini_ref = <ref name="eurogini">{{cite web |title= Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income |work= EU-SILC survey |publisher= [[Eurostat]] |url= https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi190/default/table?lang=en|access-date= 22 June 2022}}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.890 
| HDI_year = 2021
| HDI_change = increase 
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 31st
| currency = [[Euro]] ([[€]])
| currency_code = EUR
| drives_on = right
| time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
| utc_offset = +02:00
| utc_offset_DST = +03:00
| time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Estonia|+372]]
| cctld = [[.ee]]
}}
'''Estonia''',{{efn|{{lang-et|Eesti}} {{IPA-et|ˈeːsʲti||Et-Eesti.ogg}}}} formally the '''Republic of Estonia''',{{efn|{{lang-et|Eesti Vabariik|links=no}}}} is a country by the [[Baltic Sea]] in [[Northern Europe|Northern]] [[Europe]]. It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the [[Baltic Sea|sea]] across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by [[Lake Peipus]] and [[Russia]]. The territory of Estonia consists of the [[mainland]], the larger islands of [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]], and over 2,200 other islands and [[islet]]s on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea,<ref>Matthew Holehouse [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/estonia/11830643/Estonia-discovers-800-new-islands.html Estonia discovers it's actually larger after finding 800 new islands] ''The Telegraph'', 28 August 2015</ref> covering a total area of {{convert|45339|km2|sqmi}}. The [[capital city]] [[Tallinn]] and [[Tartu]] are the two [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|largest urban]] [[urban area|area]]s of the country. The [[Estonian language]] is the [[indigenous language|autochthonous]] and the [[official language]] of Estonia; it is the [[first language]] of the majority of its [[Estonians|population]], as well as the world's second most spoken [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] [[Uralic languages|language]].

The land of what is now modern Estonia has been inhabited by ''[[Early modern human|Homo sapiens]]'' since at least 9,000 BC. The [[Ancient Estonia#Early Middle Ages|medieval indigenous]] population of Estonia was one of the last [[pagan]] civilisations in Europe to adopt [[Christianity]] following the [[Papal]][[Non parum animus noster|-sanctioned]] [[Livonian Crusade|Livonian]] [[Northern Crusades|Crusade]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://legacarta.intracen.org/country/est/|title= Country Profile – LegaCarta|access-date= 26 November 2019}}</ref> After centuries of successive rule by the [[State of the Teutonic Order|Teutonic Order]], [[Duchy of Estonia (1219–1346)|Denmark]], [[Estonia under Swedish rule|Sweden]], and the [[Russian Empire]], a distinct [[Estonian national awakening|Estonian national identity]] began to emerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 24 February 1918 [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] from the then warring [[Russian Republic|Russian]] and [[German Empire]]s.  Democratic throughout most of the [[interwar period]], Estonia declared [[Neutral powers during World War II|neutrality]] at the outbreak of [[World War II]], but the country was [[Occupation of the Baltic states|repeatedly contested, invaded and occupied]], first by the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|1940]], then by [[Nazi Germany]] in 1941, and was ultimately [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)|reoccupied in 1944]] by, and annexed into, the USSR as an [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union|administrative subunit]] ([[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonian SSR]]). Throughout the 1944–1991 Soviet occupation,<ref>See, for instance, position expressed by European Parliament, which condemned "the fact that the occupation of these formerly independent and neutral States by the Soviet Union occurred in 1940 following the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact, and continues." {{cite journal | last=European Parliament | title=Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania | journal=Official Journal of the European Communities | volume=C 42/78 | date=January 13, 1983 | url=/media/wikipedia/en/8/80/Europarliament13011983.jpg}}</ref> Estonia's ''[[de jure]]'' [[State continuity of the Baltic states|state continuity]] was [[Baltic Legations (1940–1991)|preserved]] by [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–1991)|diplomatic representatives]] and the [[Estonian government-in-exile|government-in-exile]]. Following the bloodless Estonian "[[Singing Revolution]]" of 1988–1990, the nation's ''de facto'' independence from the Soviet Union was restored on [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|20 August 1991]].

Estonia is a [[developed country]], with an advanced [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income]] [[Economy of Estonia|economy]]. The [[sovereign state]] of Estonia is a democratic [[unitary parliamentary republic]], administratively subdivided into 15 ''maakond'' [[Counties of Estonia|(counties)]]. With a population of just over 1.3 million, it is one of the least populous members of the [[European Union]], the [[Eurozone]], the [[OECD]], the [[Schengen Area]], and [[NATO]].

==Name==
{{Main|Name of Estonia}}
The name ''Estonia'' ({{lang-et|Eesti}} {{IPA-et|ˈeːsʲti||Et-Eesti.ogg}}) has been connected to ''[[Aesti]]'', a people first mentioned by [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Roman]] historian [[Tacitus]] around 98 AD. Some modern historians believe he was referring to [[Balts]] (i.e. not the [[Finnic languages|Finnic-speaking]] ancestors of Estonians), while others have proposed that the name then applied to the whole eastern Baltic Sea region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mägi |first1=Marika |title=In ''Austrvegr'': The Role of the Eastern Baltic in Viking Age Communication across the Baltic Sea |date=2018 |pages=144–145 |publisher=[[BRILL]] |isbn=9789004363816}}</ref> [[Scandinavian sagas]] and [[Viking]] [[Viking runestones|runestones]]<ref>Harrison, D. & Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv. Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo. ISBN 91-27-35725-2</ref> referring to ''Eistland'' are the earliest known sources that definitely use the name in its modern geographic meaning.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tvauri |first1=Andres |title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia |date=2012 |editor1-last=Laneman |editor1-first=Margot |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |page=31 |publisher=[[Tartu University|Tartu University Press]] |isbn=9789949199365 |issn=1736-3810 |accessdate=21 January 2020}}</ref> From [[Old Norse]] the toponym spread to other Germanic vernaculars and reached literary Latin by the end of 12th century when historian [[Saxo Grammaticus]] in his work ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' referred to the area of what is now Estonia as ''Hestia'' or ''Estia'', and its people as ''Estonum''. The [[Livonian Chronicle of Henry]] (written ca. 1229) also used the name ''Estonia'' for the same area.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rätsep|first1=Huno|title=Kui kaua me oleme olnud eestlased? |journal=Oma Keel |year=2007|volume=14|url=http://www.emakeeleselts.ee/omakeel/2007_1/OK_2007-1_01.pdf |lang=et |access-date=21 January 2020 |page=11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tamm |first1=Marek |last2=Kaljundi |first2=Linda |last3=Jensen |first3=Carsten Selch |title=Crusading and Chronicle Writing on the Medieval Baltic Frontier: A Companion to the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia |date=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781317156796 |pages=94–96}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Estonia}}

===Prehistory and Viking Age===
{{Main|Ancient Estonia|Viking Age in Estonia}}
[[File:Kalmeväli .jpg|thumb|right|[[Bronze Age]] stone-cist graves in north Estonia]]
Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000–11,000 years ago, when the ice from the last [[Ice age|glacial era]] melted. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the [[Pulli settlement]], which was on the banks of [[Pärnu River|Pärnu]] river, near [[Sindi, Estonia|Sindi]], in southwest Estonia. According to [[radiocarbon dating]], it was settled around 11,000 years ago.<ref name="Laurisaar">{{cite news |url=http://epl.delfi.ee/news/kultuur/arheoloogid-lammutavad-ajalooopikute-arusaamu?id=50989575 |title=Arheoloogid lammutavad ajalooõpikute arusaamu |first=Riho |last=Laurisaar |publisher=[[Eesti Päevaleht]] |language=et |date=31 July 2004 |access-date=1 November 2016}}</ref>

The earliest human habitation during the [[Mesolithic]] period is connected to the [[Kunda culture]]. At that time the country was covered with forests, and people lived in semi-nomadic communities near bodies of water. Subsistence activities consisted of hunting, gathering and fishing.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=23 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> Around 4900 BC, ceramics appear of the [[neolithic]] period, known as [[Narva culture]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=24 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> Starting from around 3200 BC the [[Corded Ware culture]] appeared; this included new activities like primitive agriculture and animal husbandry.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=26 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref>

The [[Bronze Age]] started around 1800 BC, and saw the establishment of the first [[hillfort|hill fort]] settlements.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=4 |year=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref> A transition from hunter-fisher subsistence to single-farm-based settlement started around 1000 BC, and was complete by the beginning of the [[Iron Age]] around 500 BC.<ref name="Laurisaar"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=5 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref> The large amount of bronze objects indicate the existence of active communication with Scandinavian and Germanic tribes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=28 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref>

The [[Iron Age Europe|middle Iron Age]] produced threats appearing from different directions. Several Scandinavian sagas referred to major confrontations with Estonians, notably when in the early 7th century "Estonian Vikings" defeated and killed [[Ingvar]], the [[Yngling|King of]] [[Swedes (tribe)|Swedes]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|year=2005 |title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/68 68] |publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006 |url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/68}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Faure |first1=Gunter |last2=Mensing |first2=Teresa |title=The Estonians; The long road to independence |page=27 |year=2012|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=9781105530036}}</ref> Similar threats appeared to the east, where East Slavic principalities were expanding westward. In ca 1030 the troops of [[Kievan Rus]] led by [[Yaroslav the Wise]] defeated Estonians and established a fort in modern-day [[Tartu]]. This foothold may have lasted until ca 1061 when an Estonian tribe, the Sosols, destroyed it, followed by their raid on [[Pskov]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tvauri|first1=Andres|title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia|date=2012|pages=33, 34, 59, 60 |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |access-date=27 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mäesalu |first1=Ain|title=Could Kedipiv in East-Slavonic Chronicles be Keava hill fort?|journal=Estonian Journal of Archaeology|year=2012|volume=1 |issue=16supplser|page=199|doi=10.3176/arch.2012.supv1.11 |url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/Archaeology/2012/sup_vol_1/arhe-keava-2012-195-200.pdf|access-date=27 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres |title=A History of the Baltic States |page=9 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun |first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=12|year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> Around the 11th century, the Scandinavian Viking era around the Baltic Sea was succeeded by the Baltic Viking era, with seaborne raids by [[Curonians]] and by Estonians from the island of [[Saaremaa]], known as [[Oeselians]]. In 1187 Estonians (Oeselians), [[Curonians]] or/and [[Karelians]] sacked [[Sigtuna]], which was a major city of Sweden at the time.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres |title=A History of the Baltic States|pages=9–11 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref name=Tarvel>Enn Tarvel (2007). [http://haridus.opleht.ee/Arhiiv/7_82007/38-41.pdf ''Sigtuna hukkumine''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011191449/http://haridus.opleht.ee/Arhiiv/7_82007/38-41.pdf |date=11 October 2017 }} Haridus, 2007 (7–8), pp. 38–41</ref>

Estonia could be divided into two main cultural areas. The coastal areas of Northern and Western Estonia had close overseas contacts with [[Scandinavia]] and [[Finland]], while inland Southern Estonia had more contacts with [[Balts]] and [[Pskov Land|Pskov]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tvauri|first1=Andres|title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia|date=2012|pages=322–325 |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref> The landscape of Ancient Estonia featured numerous hillforts.<ref name="Magi2015">{{cite book|last=Mägi |first=Marika |editor-last1=Barrett |editor-first1=James H. |editor-last2=Gibbon |editor-first2=Sarah Jane |title=Maritime Societies of the Viking and Medieval World |publisher=Maney Publishing |date=2015 |pages=45–46 |chapter=Chapter 4. Bound for the Eastern Baltic: Trade and Centres AD 800–1200 |isbn=978-1-909662-79-7}}</ref> Prehistoric or medieval harbour sites have been found on the coast of Saaremaa.<ref name="Magi2015"/> Estonia also has a number of graves from the Viking Age, both individual and collective, with weapons and jewellery including types found commonly throughout Northern Europe and Scandinavia.<ref name="Magi2015"/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Martens |first=Irmelin |year=2004 |title= Indigenous and imported Viking Age weapons in Norway – a problem with European implications |journal= Journal of Nordic Archaeological Science |volume=14 |pages=132–135 |url= https://www.archaeology.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.138785.1371480692!/menu/standard/file/martens.pdf |access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref>

In the early centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the parish (Estonian: ''kihelkond'') and the county (Estonian: ''[[maakond]]''), which consisted of multiple parishes. A parish was led by [[elder (administrative title)|elders]] and centered on a hill fort; in some rare cases a parish had multiple forts. By the 13th century, Estonia consisted of eight major counties: [[Harjumaa (ancient county)|Harjumaa]], [[Järvamaa]], [[Läänemaa]], [[Revala]], [[Saare County|Saaremaa]], [[Sakala County|Sakala]], [[Ugandi]], and [[Virumaa]]; and six minor, single-parish counties: [[Alempois]], [[Jogentagana]], [[Mõhu]], [[Nurmekund]], [[Soopoolitse]], and [[Vaiga]]. Counties were independent entities and engaged only in a loose cooperation against foreign threats.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=4 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto | author-link1 = Anto Raukas|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=227|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>

Little is known of medieval Estonians' spiritual and religious practices before [[Christianization]]. The [[Chronicle of Henry of Livonia]] mentions ''[[Tharapita]]'' as the superior deity of the then inhabitants of Saaremaa (''Oeselians''). There is some [[historical evidence]] about [[sacred groves]], especially groves of [[oak]] trees, having served as places of "[[paganism|pagan]]" worship.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=7 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://epl.delfi.ee/news/kultuur/kes-oli-saarlaste-suurjumal-taarapita?id=51037692 |title=Arheoloogid lammutavad ajalooõpikute arusaamu |first=Riho |last=Laurisaar |publisher=[[Eesti Päevaleht]] |language=et |date=29 April 2006 |access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref>

===Crusades and the Catholic Era===
{{Main|Livonian Crusade|Terra Mariana|Danish Estonia}}
[[File:Medieval Livonia 1260.svg|thumb|left|Medieval Estonia and Livonia after the crusade]]
In 1199, Pope [[Innocent III]] declared a [[Livonian Crusade|crusade]] to "defend the Christians of [[Livonia]]".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Tyerman|first1=Christopher|author-link = Christopher Tyerman|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades|page=[https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690 690]|year=2006|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674023871|url=https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690}}</ref> Fighting reached Estonia in 1206, when Danish King [[Valdemar II]] unsuccessfully invaded Saaremaa. The German [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]], who had previously subjugated [[Livonians]], [[Latgalians]], and [[Selonians]], started campaigning against the Estonians in 1208, and over next few years both sides made numerous raids and counter-raids. A major leader of the Estonian resistance was [[Lembitu]], an elder of [[Sakala County]], but in 1217 the Estonians suffered a significant defeat in the [[Battle of St. Matthew's Day]], where Lembitu was killed. In 1219, Valdemar II landed at Lindanise, defeated the Estonians in the [[Battle of Lyndanisse]], and started conquering Northern Estonia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=14 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=278|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> The next year, Sweden invaded Western Estonia, but were [[Battle of Lihula|repelled]] by the Oeselians. In 1223, a major revolt ejected the Germans and Danes from the whole of Estonia, except [[Reval]], but the crusaders soon resumed their offensive, and in 1227, Saaremaa was the last ''maakond'' (county) to surrender.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=15 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=279|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>

After the crusade, the territory of present-day Southern Estonia and Latvia was named [[Terra Mariana]], but later it became known simply as [[Livonia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Plakans|first1=Andrejs|title=A Concise History of the Baltic States|page=54 |year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521833721}}</ref> Northern Estonia became the Danish [[Danish Estonia|Duchy of Estonia]], while the rest was divided between the Sword Brothers and [[prince-bishopric]]s of [[Bishopric of Dorpat|Dorpat]] and [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]]. In 1236, after suffering a [[Battle of Saule|major defeat]], the Sword Brothers merged into the [[Teutonic Order]] becoming the [[Livonian Order]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States|pages=9–10|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313331251}}</ref> In the next decades there were several uprisings against the Teutonic rulers in Saaremaa. In 1343, a major rebellion started, known as the [[St. George's Night Uprising]], encompassing the whole area of northern Estonia and Saaremaa. The Teutonic Order finished suppressing the rebellion in 1345, and the next year the Danish king sold his possessions in Estonia to the Order.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=20 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States|page=10|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313331251}}</ref> The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the upper-class German minority.<ref>{{cite book |last= Pekomäe|first= Vello|title= Estland genom tiderna|year= 1986|publisher= VÄLIS-EESTI & EMP|location= Stockholm |language= sv|isbn= 91-86116-47-9|page=319}}</ref> For the subsequent centuries [[Low German]] remained the language of the ruling elite in both Estonian cities and the countryside.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Jokipii|first1= Mauno|editor1-first= Mauno|editor1-last= Jokipii|title= Baltisk kultur och historia|year= 1992 |language= sv|isbn= 9789134512078|pages= 22–23}}</ref>
[[File:Kuressaare Castle.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Kuressaare Castle, square stone keep with one square corner tower and red tile roof|[[Kuressaare Castle]] in [[Saaremaa]] dates back to the 1380s]]
[[Reval]] ([[Tallinn]]), the capital of [[Danish Estonia]] founded on the site of Lindanise, adopted the [[Lübeck law]] and received full town rights in 1248.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=441|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref> The [[Hanseatic League]] controlled trade on the Baltic Sea, and overall the four largest towns in Estonia became members: Reval, [[Dorpat]] (Tartu), [[Pernau]] (Pärnu), and [[Fellin]] (Viljandi). Reval acted as a trade intermediary between [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] and western Hanseatic cities, while Dorpat filled the same role with [[Pskov Land|Pskov]]. Many artisans' and merchants [[guilds]] were formed during the period.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture, Volume 1|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/100 100]|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/100}}</ref> Protected by their stone walls and membership in the Hansa, prosperous cities like Reval and Dorpat repeatedly defied other rulers of [[medieval Livonia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frost|first1=Robert I.|title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558 – 1721|page=305|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317898573}}</ref> After the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the [[Battle of Grunwald]] in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the [[Battle of Swienta]] on 1 September 1435, the [[Livonian Confederation]] Agreement was signed on 4 December 1435.<ref name="VLM">{{cite book|title=Vana-Liivimaa maapäev|last=Raudkivi|first=Priit|year=2007|publisher=Argo|language=et|isbn=978-9949-415-84-7|pages=118–119}}</ref>

===Post-Reformation Era===
{{Main|Swedish Estonia|Governorate of Estonia|Governorate of Livonia}}
[[File:Academia Gustaviana.jpg|right|thumb|"Academia Dorpatensis" (now [[University of Tartu]]) was founded in 1632 by King Gustavus as the second university in the kingdom of Sweden. After the king's death it became known as "Academia Gustaviana".]]

The [[Reformation]] began in central Europe in 1517, and soon spread northward to Livonia despite some opposition by the Livonian Order.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Mol|first1=Johannes A.|last2=Militzer|first2=Klaus|last3=Nicholson|first3=Helen J.|title=The Military Orders and the Reformation: Choices, State Building, and the Weight of Tradition|pages=5–6|year=2006|publisher=Uitgeverij Verloren|isbn=9789065509130}}</ref> Towns were the first to embrace Protestantism in the 1520s, and by the 1530s the majority of the landowners and rural population had adopted [[Lutheranism]] as well.<ref name="Frucht121">{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture, Volume 1|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/121 121]|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/121}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=The History of the Baltic States|page=25|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313323553}}</ref> Church services were now conducted in vernacular language, which initially meant [[Low German]], but already from the 1530s onward the regular religious services were also held in the [[Estonian language]].<ref name="Frucht121"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=24 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

During the 16th century, the expansionist monarchies of [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]], Sweden, and [[Polish–Lithuanian union|Poland–Lithuania]] consolidated power, posing a growing threat to decentralised Livonia weakened by disputes between cities, nobility, bishops, and the Order.<ref name="Frucht121"/><ref name="Hoover Press">{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=25 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

In 1558, Tsar [[Ivan the Terrible]] of [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia (Muscovy)]] invaded Livonia, starting the [[Livonian War]]. The Livonian Order was decisively [[Battle of Ergeme|defeated]] in 1560, prompting Livonian factions to seek foreign protection. The majority of Livonia accepted Polish rule, while Reval and the nobles of Northern Estonia swore loyalty to the Swedish king, and the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek sold his lands to the Danish king. Russian forces gradually conquered the majority of Livonia, but in the late 1570s the Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish armies started their own offensives and the bloody war finally ended in 1583 with Russian defeat.<ref name="Hoover Press"/><ref>{{Cite book|author1-link=David R. Stone|last1=Stone|first1=David R.|title=A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya|pages=14–18 |year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780275985028}}</ref> As a result of the war, Northern Estonia became Swedish [[Duchy of Estonia (1561–1721)|Duchy of Estonia]], Southern Estonia became Polish [[Duchy of Livonia]], and Saaremaa remained under Danish control.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=28–29 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

In 1600, the [[Polish–Swedish War]] broke out, causing further devastation. The protracted war ended in 1629 with Sweden [[Swedish Livonia|gaining Livonia]], including the regions of Southern Estonia and Northern Latvia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=28 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> Danish Saaremaa was [[Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645)|transferred]] to Sweden in 1645.<ref>{{cite book |title=Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania |last1=Williams |first1=Nicola |first2=Debra |last2=Herrmann |first3=Cathryn |last3=Kemp |year=2003 |publisher=University of Michigan |isbn=1-74059-132-1 |page=190}}</ref> The wars had halved the population of Estonia from about 250–270,000 people in the mid 16th century to 115–120,000 in the 1630s.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frost|first1=Robert I.|title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558 – 1721|page=77|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317898573}}</ref>

While many peasants remained in the status of [[serfdom]] during the Swedish rule, legal reforms strengthened both serfs' and [[free tenant]] farmers' land usage and inheritance rights – hence this period got the reputation of "The Good Old Swedish Time" in people's historical memory.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=283|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> Swedish King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustaf II Adolf]] established [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasiums]] in Reval and Dorpat; the latter was upgraded to [[Tartu University]] in 1632. [[Printing presses]] were also established in both towns. In the 1680s the beginnings of Estonian elementary education appeared, largely due to efforts of [[Bengt Gottfried Forselius]], who also introduced orthographical reforms to written Estonian.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=32–33 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The population of Estonia grew rapidly for a 60–70-year period, until the [[Great Famine of Estonia (1695–1697)|Great Famine]] of 1695–97 in which some 70,000–75,000 people died – about 20% of the population.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=31 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

During the 1700–1721 [[Great Northern War]], the [[Tsardom of Russia]] (Muscovy) conquered the whole of Estonia by 1710.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=33 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The war again devastated the population of Estonia, with the 1712 population estimated at only 150,000–170,000.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=34 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> In 1721, Estonia was divided into two [[Baltic governorates|governorates]]: the [[governorate of Estonia]], which included Tallinn and the northern part of Estonia, and the southern [[governorate of Livonia]], which extended to the northern part of Latvia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bdcol.ee/fileadmin/docs/bdreview/bdr-2002-8-11.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319083729/http://www.bdcol.ee/fileadmin/docs/bdreview/bdr-2002-8-11.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Baltic States from 1914 to 1923 By LtCol Andrew Parrott|archive-date=19 March 2009}}</ref> Russian administration restored all the political and landholding rights of Baltic Germans.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=38 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The rights of local farmers reached their lowest point, as serfdom completely dominated agricultural relations during the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=41 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> Serfdom was formally abolished in 1816–1819, but this initially had very little practical effect; major improvements in farmers' rights started with reforms in the mid-19th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=47–49 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

===National Awakening===
{{Main|Estonian national awakening}}

[[File:Carl Robert Jakobson.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Carl Robert Jakobson]] played a key role in the [[Estonian national awakening]].]]
The [[Estonian national awakening]] began in the 1850s as several leading figures started promoting an Estonian national identity among the general populace. Widespread farm buyouts by Estonians and the resulting rapidly growing class of land-owning farmers provided the economic basis for the formation of this new "Estonian identity". In 1857 [[Johann Voldemar Jannsen]] started publishing the first Estonian language daily newspaper and began popularising the denomination of oneself as ''eestlane'' (Estonian).<ref name="EE286">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=286|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> Schoolmaster [[Carl Robert Jakobson]] and clergyman [[Jakob Hurt]] became leading figures in a national movement, encouraging Estonian farmers to take pride in their ethnic Estonian identity.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=90 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> The first nationwide movements formed, such as a campaign to establish the Estonian language Alexander School, the founding of the [[Society of Estonian Literati]] and the [[Estonian Students' Society]], and the first [[Estonian Song Festival|national song festival]], held in 1869 in Tartu.<ref name="Raun59">{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=59 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref name="EE287">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=287|year=2002 |publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=93 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> Linguistic reforms helped to develop the Estonian language.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=90–91 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> The national [[Epic poetry|epic]] ''[[Kalevipoeg]]'' was published in 1862, and 1870 saw the first performances of [[Theatre of Estonia|Estonian theatre]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=91 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref><ref name="CoE">{{Cite book| title=Cultural Policy in Estonia|page=23 |year=1997|publisher=Council of Europe|isbn=9789287131652}}</ref> In 1878 a major split happened in the national movement. The moderate wing led by Hurt focused on development of culture and Estonian education, while the radical wing led by Jakobson started demanding increased political and economical rights.<ref name="EE287"/>

At the end of the 19th century, [[Russification]] began, as the central government initiated various administrative and cultural measures to tie Baltic governorates more closely to the empire.<ref name="Raun59"/> The Russian language replaced German and Estonian in most secondary schools and universities, and many social and cultural activities in local languages were suppressed.<ref name="CoE"/> Still, some administrative changes aimed at reducing the power of Baltic German institutions did prove useful to Estonians.<ref name="Raun59"/> In the late 1890s, there was a new surge of nationalism with the rise of prominent figures like [[Jaan Tõnisson]] and [[Konstantin Päts]]. In the early 20th century, Estonians started taking over control of local governments in towns from Germans.<ref name="EE291">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=291|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>

During the [[1905 Russian Revolution|1905 Revolution]], the first legal Estonian political parties were founded. An Estonian national congress was convened and demanded the unification of Estonian areas into a single autonomous territory and an end to Russification. The unrest was accompanied by both peaceful [[political demonstration]]s and violent [[riot]]s with [[looting]] in the commercial district of Tallinn and in a number of wealthy landowners' manors in the Estonian countryside. The Tsarist government responded with a brutal crackdown; some 500 people were executed and hundreds more jailed or deported to Siberia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|page=10 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}}</ref><ref name="EE292">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=292|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>

===Independence===
{{Main|Estonian Declaration of Independence|Estonian War of Independence|History of Estonia#Interwar period (1920–1939)}}

[[File:Declaration of Estonian independence in Pärnu.jpg|thumb|right|alt=photograph of crowd around flag raising|The tricolour [[Flag of Estonia|flags of Estonia]] on display during the public announcement of the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence of Estonia]] in [[Pärnu]] on 23 February 1918. One of the very first images of the independent republic.]]

In 1917, after the [[February Revolution]], the governorate of Estonia [[Autonomous Governorate of Estonia|was expanded]] by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] to include Estonian-speaking areas of Livonia and was granted autonomy, enabling the formation of the [[Estonian Provincial Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Calvert |first1=Peter|title= The Process of Political Succession |page=67 |year=1987|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781349089789}}</ref> [[Bolsheviks]] [[Bolshevik coup|seized power]] in Estonia in November 1917, and disbanded the Provincial Assembly. However, the Provincial Assembly established the [[Estonian Salvation Committee|Salvation Committee]], and during the short interlude between Russian retreat and [[Operation Faustschlag|German arrival]], the committee [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|declared the independence of Estonia]] on 24 February 1918, and formed the [[Estonian Provisional Government]]. [[German occupation of Estonia during World War I|German occupation]] immediately followed, but after their defeat in World War I the Germans were forced to hand over power to the Provisional Government on 19 November 1918.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Calvert|first1=Peter|title= The Process of Political Succession |page=68 |year=1987|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781349089789}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1= Kasekamp|first1= Andres|title= The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=9 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn=9781403919557}}</ref>

On 28 November 1918 [[Soviet Russia]] invaded, starting the [[Estonian War of Independence]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/75 75]|year=1990|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn= 9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/75}}</ref> The [[Red Army]] came within 30 km of Tallinn, but in January 1919, the [[Estonian Army]], led by [[Johan Laidoner]], went on a counter-offensive, ejecting Bolshevik forces from Estonia within a few months. Renewed Soviet attacks failed, and in spring, the Estonian army, in co-operation with [[White movement|White Russian]] forces, advanced into Russia and [[Latvia]].<ref name="Pinder76">{{Cite book|last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/76 76]|year=1990|publisher= ABC-CLIO|isbn= 9781576078006|url= https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/76}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1= Andres|title=The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=10 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781403919557}}</ref> In June 1919, Estonia [[Battle of Cēsis (1919)|defeated]] the [[Baltische Landeswehr|German Landeswehr]] which had attempted to dominate Latvia, restoring power to the government of [[Kārlis Ulmanis]] there. After the collapse of the White Russian forces, the Red Army launched a [[Battle of Krivasoo|major offensive]] against [[Narva]] in late 1919, but failed to achieve a breakthrough. On 2 February 1920, the [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Tartu Peace Treaty]] was signed by Estonia and Soviet Russia, with the latter pledging to permanently give up all sovereign claims to Estonia.<ref name="Pinder76"/><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=11 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn=9781403919557}}</ref>

In April 1919, the [[Estonian Constituent Assembly]] was elected. The Constituent Assembly passed a sweeping [[Estonian Land Reform of 1919|land reform]] expropriating large estates, and adopted a new highly [[Liberalism|liberal]] [[Constitution of Estonia|constitution]] establishing Estonia as a [[Riigikogu|parliamentary]] democracy.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia |pages=80–81|year= 2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1= Raun |first1=Toivo U.|title= Estonia and the Estonians: Second edition, updated|page=128 |year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn= 9780817928537}}</ref> In 1924, the [[Soviet Union]] organised a communist [[1924 Estonian coup d'état attempt|coup attempt]], which quickly failed.<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Leonard|first1= Raymond W.|title= Secret Soldiers of the Revolution: Soviet Military Intelligence, 1918–1933|pages=34–36 |year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313309908}}</ref> Estonia's cultural-autonomy law for ethnic minorities, adopted in 1925, is widely recognised as one of the most liberal in the world at that time.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bell|first1=Imogen|title=Central and South-Eastern Europe 2003|page=244 |year=2002|publisher= Psychology Press|isbn=9781857431360}}</ref> The [[Great Depression]] put heavy pressure on Estonia's political system, and in 1933, the right-wing [[Vaps movement]] spearheaded a constitutional reform establishing a strong presidency.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page= 18 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Misiunas|first1= Romuald J. |last2=Taagepera|first2=Rein |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence, 1940–1980|page=11 |year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520046252}}</ref> On 12 March 1934 the acting head of state, [[Konstantin Päts]], declared a state of emergency, under the pretext that the Vaps movement had been planning a coup. Päts, together with general Johan Laidoner and [[Kaarel Eenpalu]], established an authoritarian régime during the "[[era of silence]]", when the parliament did not reconvene and the newly established [[Patriotic League (Estonia)|Patriotic League]] became the only legal political movement for the time being.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |pages=19–20 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}}</ref> A new constitution was adopted in a referendum, and elections [[1938 Estonian parliamentary election|were held]] in 1938. Both pro-government and opposition candidates were allowed to participate, but only as independents, as all political parties remained suspended under continued state of emergency.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|pages= 21 |year= 2013|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 9781136452130}}</ref> The Päts régime was relatively benign compared to other authoritarian régimes in [[Interwar period|interwar]] Europe, and the régime never used violence against political opponents.<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Smith|first1= David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|pages=22 |year=2013|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 9781136452130}}</ref>

Estonia joined the [[League of Nations]] in 1921.<ref name="Ginneken">{{Cite book|last1=van Ginneken|first1= Anique H. M. |title=Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations|page=82 |year=2006|publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810865136}}</ref> Attempts to establish a [[Warsaw Accord|larger alliance]] together with [[Finland]], [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]], and Latvia failed, with only a mutual-defence pact being signed with Latvia in 1923, and later was followed up with the [[Baltic Entente]] of 1934.<ref>{{Cite book |last1= von Rauch|first1=Georg |title=Die Geschichte der baltischen Staaten|pages=108–111 |year=1974|publisher= University of California Press|isbn=9780520026001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John |last2= Lane |first2= Thomas |title=The Baltic and the Outbreak of the Second World War|page=7 |year=2003 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521531207}}</ref> In the 1930s, Estonia also engaged in [[Finnish–Estonian defence cooperation|secret military co-operation]] with Finland.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Åselius|first1=Gunnar |title= The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Navy in the Baltic 1921–1941|page= 119 |year=2004 |publisher= Routledge |isbn=9781135769604}}</ref> Non-aggression pacts were signed [[Soviet–Estonian Non-Aggression Pact|with the Soviet Union]] in 1932, and [[German–Estonian Non-Aggression Pact|with Germany]] in 1939.<ref name="Ginneken"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1= Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3= Purs|first3= Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=154 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136483042}}</ref> In 1939, Estonia declared neutrality, but this proved futile in [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Gärtner |first1=Heinz |title=Engaged Neutrality: An Evolved Approach to the Cold War |page=125 |year=2017|publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9781498546195}}</ref>

===World War II===
{{Main|Estonia in World War II|Occupation of the Baltic states}}
[[File:Red Army entering into Estonia in 1939.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Red Army]] troops moving into military bases in Estonia in October 1939, after the Soviet Union had forced Estonia to sign the [[Soviet–Estonian Mutual Assistance Treaty|Bases Treaty]].]]
A week before the outbreak of [[World War II]], on 23 August 1939, [[Nazi Germany]] and the [[Stalin]]ist Soviet Union signed the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]]. In the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact|Nazi-Soviet pact]]'s [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact negotiations|secret protocol]] Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland were divided between USSR and Germany into "spheres of influence", with Estonia assigned to the Soviet "sphere".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=335|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}}</ref> On 24 September 1939, the Soviet Union presented an ultimatum, demanding that Estonia sign a treaty of "mutual assistance" which would allow the Soviet Union to establish military bases in the country. The Estonian government felt that it had no choice but to comply, and the [[Soviet–Estonian Mutual Assistance Treaty|treaty was signed]] on 28 September 1939.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John |last2=Salmon|first2=Patrick |title=The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century |page=110 |year=2014|publisher= Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-89057-7}}</ref> In May 1940, Red Army forces in bases were set in combat readiness and, on 14 June, the Soviet Union instituted a full naval and air blockade on Estonia. On the same day, the airliner [[Kaleva (airplane)|Kaleva]] was shot down by the [[Soviet Air Force]]. On 16 June, the USSR presented an ultimatum demanding completely free passage of the Red Army into Estonia and the establishment of a pro-Soviet government. Feeling that resistance was hopeless, the Estonian government complied and, on the next day, the whole country was occupied.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Raukas |first1=Anto |title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld |page=309 |year=2002 |publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus |language=et |isbn=9985701151}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first1=Eric A. |last1=Johnson |first2=Anna |last2=Hermann |date=May 2007 |title=The Last Flight from Tallinn |work=Foreign Service Journal |url=http://finland.usembassy.gov/root/pdfs/antheil_article.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117175841/http://finland.usembassy.gov/root/pdfs/antheil_article.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012 |publisher=American Foreign Service Association}}</ref> On 6 August 1940, Estonia was annexed by the Soviet Union as the [[Estonian SSR]].<ref name=malksoo>{{Cite book|first=Lauri |last=Mälksoo|year=2003|title=Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: The Case of the Incorporation of the Baltic States by the USSR|location= Leiden – Boston|publisher= Brill|isbn= 90-411-2177-3}}</ref>

[[File:TLA 1465 1 973 Varemetes Harju tänav, vasakul Kuld Lõvi varemed 1944.jpg|thumb|left|The capital Tallinn after [[Bombing of Tallinn in World War II|bombing by the Soviet Air Force]] during the war on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] in March 1944]]
The USSR established an oppressive terror regime in occupied Estonia. Most of the country's high-ranking civil and military officials, intelligentsia and industrialists were arrested, and usually executed soon afterwards. Soviet repressions culminated on 14 June 1941 with [[June deportation|mass deportation]] of around 11,000 people to [[Siberia]], among whom more than half perished in inhumane conditions.<ref name="Miljan110">{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=110|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gatrell|first1=Peter |last2=Baron|first2=Nick |title=Warlands: Population Resettlement and State Reconstruction in the Soviet-East European Borderlands, 1945–50 |page=233 |year=2009 |publisher= Springer|isbn=978-0-230-24693-5}}</ref> When [[Operation Barbarossa]] (accompanied by Estonian [[Guerilla warfare|guerrilla soldiers]] called "[[Forest Brothers]]"<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Peeter |last1=Kaasik |first2=Mika |last2=Raudvassar |year=2006|pages=496–517|chapter=Estonia from June to October, 1941: Forest brothers and Summer War|editor-first1=Toomas |editor-last1=Hiio |editor-first2=Meelis |editor-last2=Maripuu |editor-first3=Indrek |editor-last3=Paavle |title=Estonia 1940–1945: Reports of the [[Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]]|location=Tallinn}}</ref>) began against the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 in the form of the "[[Summer War]]" ({{lang-et|Suvesõda}}), around 34,000 young Estonian men were forcibly drafted into the [[Red Army]], fewer than 30% of whom survived the war. Soviet [[destruction battalions]] initiated a scorched earth policy. Political prisoners who could not be evacuated [[NKVD prisoner massacres|were executed]] by the [[NKVD]].<ref>The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence by Anatol Lieven p424 {{ISBN|0-300-06078-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3=Purs|first3=Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=34 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-48304-2}}</ref> Many Estonians went into the forest, starting an anti-Soviet guerrilla campaign. In July, German [[Wehrmacht]] reached south Estonia. The USSR [[Soviet evacuation of Tallinn|evacuated Tallinn]] in late August with massive losses, and capture of the Estonian islands was completed by German forces in October.<ref name="pinder80">{{Cite book|last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/80 80]|year=1990|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-800-6|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/80}}</ref>

Initially, many Estonians were hopeful that Germany would help to restore Estonia's independence, but this soon proved to be in vain. Only a puppet [[Estonian Self-Administration|collaborationist administration]] was established, and [[German occupation of Estonia during World War II|occupied Estonia]] was merged into [[Reichskommissariat Ostland]], with its economy being fully subjugated to German military needs.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=209|year=2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}}</ref> About a thousand [[Estonian Jews]] who had not managed to leave were almost all [[Holocaust in Estonia|quickly killed]] in 1941. Numerous forced labour camps were established where thousands of Estonians, foreign Jews, [[Romani people|Romani]], and [[German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet prisoners of war]] perished.<ref name="CommissionReport">{{cite web|title=Conclusions of the Commission|url=http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/conclusions.htm#crimger|publisher=[[Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629035526/http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/conclusions.htm#crimger|archive-date=29 June 2008|year=1998}}</ref> German occupation authorities started recruiting men into small [[Estonian Legion|volunteer units]] but, as these efforts provided meagre results and military situation worsened, a forced conscription was instituted in 1943, eventually leading to formation of the [[20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian)|Estonian Waffen-SS division]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith |first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|page=36 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-45213-0}}</ref> Thousands of Estonians who did not want to fight in the [[Wehrmacht|German military]] secretly escaped to Finland, where [[Finnish Infantry Regiment 200|many volunteered]] to fight together with Finns [[Continuation War|against Soviets]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=275|year=2004|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6571-6}}</ref>

[[File:Estlandssvenska flyktingar.jpg|thumb|right|alt=sailing ship filled with refugees|A ship with [[Estonian Swedes]] fleeing west from the Soviet invasion (1944)]]
The Red Army reached the Estonian borders again in early 1944, but its advance into Estonia was stopped in [[Battle of Narva (1944)|heavy fighting near Narva]] for six months by German forces, including numerous Estonian units.<ref name="Raun159">{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=159 |year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=978-0-8179-2853-7}}</ref> In March, the Soviet Air Force carried out heavy bombing raids [[Bombing of Tallinn in World War II|against Tallinn]] and other Estonian towns.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan |display-authors=etal |editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=18|year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers |isbn=9789985701959}}</ref> In July, the Soviets started [[Tallinn Offensive|a major offensive]] from the south, forcing the Germans to abandon mainland Estonia in September, with the Estonian islands being abandoned in November.<ref name="Raun159" /> As German forces were retreating from Tallinn, the last pre-war prime minister [[Jüri Uluots]] [[National Committee of the Republic of Estonia|appointed a government]] headed by [[Otto Tief]] in an unsuccessful attempt to restore Estonia's independence.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=138 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-36450-9}}</ref> Tens of thousands of people, including most of the [[Estonian Swedes]], fled westwards to avoid the new Soviet occupation.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan |display-authors=etal |editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=30|year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers|isbn=9789985701959}}</ref>

Overall, Estonia lost about 25% of its population through deaths, deportations and evacuations in World War II.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan|display-authors=etal|editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=37 |year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers|isbn=9789985701959}}</ref> Estonia also suffered some irrevocable territorial losses, as the Soviet Union transferred border areas comprising about 5% of Estonian pre-war territory from the Estonian SSR to the [[Russian SFSR]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald J. |last2=Taagepera|first2=Rein |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence, 1940–1980 |page=71|year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04625-2}}</ref>

===Second Soviet occupation===
{{Main|Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Occupation of the Baltic states|Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)}}
[[File:Eesti metsavennad.jpg|thumb|left|[[Estonian partisans]], the "Forest Brothers".]]
Thousands of Estonians opposing the second Soviet occupation joined a guerrilla movement known as the "[[Estonian partisans|Forest Brothers]]". The armed resistance was heaviest in the first few years after the war, but Soviet authorities gradually wore it down through attrition, and resistance effectively ceased to exist in the mid-1950s.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=174 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The Soviets initiated a [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|policy of collectivisation]], but as farmers remained opposed to it a campaign of terror was unleashed. In March 1949 about 20,000 Estonians [[Operation Priboi|were deported]] to Siberia. Collectivization was fully completed soon afterwards.<ref name="Miljan110"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Purs|first1=Aldis|title=Baltic Facades: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania since 1945|page=335|year=2013|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=9781861899323}}</ref>

The Russian-dominated occupation authorities under the Soviet Union began [[Russification]], with hundreds of thousands of ethnic [[Russians in Estonia|Russians]] and other "[[Soviet people]]" being induced to settle in occupied Estonia, in a process which eventually threatened to turn indigenous Estonians into a minority in their own native land.<ref name="Taagepera97">{{Cite book|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein|title=The Finno-Ugric Republics and the Russian State|page=128|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136678011}}</ref> In 1945 Estonians formed 97% of the population, but by 1989 their share of the population had fallen to 62%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Puur |first1=Allan |last2=Rahnu |first2=Leen |last3=Sakkeus |first3=Luule |last4=Klesment |first4=Martin |last5=Abuladze |first5=Liili |date=22 March 2018 |title=The formation of ethnically mixed partnerships in Estonia: A stalling trend from a two-sided perspective |url=https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol38/38/38-38.pdf |journal=[[Demographic Research (journal)|Demographic Research]] |volume=38 |issue=38 |page=1117 |doi=10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.38 |access-date= 7 January 2020|doi-access=free }}</ref> Occupying authorities carried out campaigns of ethnic cleansing, mass deportation of indigenous populations, and mass colonization by Russian settlers which led to Estonia losing 3% of its native population.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 |date=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 |page=96 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> By March 1949, 60,000 people were deported from Estonia and 50,000 from Latvia to [[Gulag|slave labor camps]] in Siberia, where death rates were 30%. The occupying regime established an Estonian Communist Party, where Russians were the majority in party membership.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 |date=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 |page=78 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> Economically, heavy industry was strongly prioritised, but this did not improve the well-being of the local population, and caused massive environmental damage through pollution.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=227|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref> Living standards under the Soviet occupation kept falling further behind nearby independent Finland.<ref name="Taagepera97"/> The country was heavily militarised, with closed military areas covering 2% of territory.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Spyra|first1=Wolfgang |last2=Katzsch |first2=Michael |title=Environmental Security and Public Safety: Problems and Needs in Conversion Policy and Research after 15 Years of Conversion in Central and Eastern Europe |page=14|year=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9781402056444}}</ref> Islands and most of the coastal areas were turned into a restricted border zone which required a special permit for entry.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Stöcker|first1=Lars Fredrik |title=Bridging the Baltic Sea: Networks of Resistance and Opposition during the Cold War Era |page=72|year=2017 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9781498551281}}</ref> That is why Estonia was quite closed until the second half of the 1960s, when gradually Estonians began to watch [[Finnish television]] in the northern parts of the country due to a good signal range, thus getting a better picture of the way of life behind the [[Iron Curtain]]. Watching Finnish television was unauthorized, but nevertheless it was watched with a special device made for this purpose.<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://viewjournal.eu/european-television-memories/window-to-the-west/ | title = Window to the West: Memories of watching Finnish television in Estonia during the Soviet period| first1 = Annika |last1= Lepp |first2= Mervi | last2= Pantti| format = PDF| journal = VIEW | date = 2013 | number = 3/2013 | pages = 80–81 | publisher = Journal of European Television History and Culture| access-date = October 11, 2021 | language = en }}</ref>

The United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the majority of other Western countries [[Stimson Doctrine|considered]] the annexation of Estonia by the Soviet Union illegal.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Feldbrugge|first1=F. J. Ferdinand Joseph Maria |last2=Van den Berg|first2=Gerard Pieter|last3=Simons |first3=William Bradford |title=Encyclopedia of Soviet Law |page=461|year=1985 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789024730759}}</ref> [[State continuity of the Baltic states|Legal continuity]] of the Estonian state was preserved through the [[Estonian government-in-exile|government-in-exile]] and the Estonian [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–91)|diplomatic representatives]] which Western governments continued to recognise.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3=Purs|first3=Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=xx |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136483042}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frankowski|first1=Stanisław |last2=Stephan III|first2=Paul B. |title=Legal Reform in Post-Communist Europe: The View from Within |page=73|year=1995 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=9780792332183}}</ref>

===Independence restored===
{{Main|Singing Revolution}}

[[File:Balti kett 22.jpg|thumb|left|In the [[Baltic Way]] on 23 August 1989, two million people formed a human chain across three countries in a mass demonstration against the Soviet occupation.]]
The introduction of [[perestroika]] by the central government of the Soviet Union in 1987 made open political activity possible again in Estonia, which triggered an independence restoration process later known as ''Laulev revolutsioon'' ("[[Singing Revolution|Singing revolution]]").<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Backes|first1=Uwe |last2=Moreau |first2=Patrick |title=Communist and Post-Communist Parties in Europe: Schriften Des Hannah-Arendt-Instituts Für Totalitarismusforschung 36 |page=9|year=2008 |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=9783525369128}}</ref> The environmental ''Fosforiidisõda'' ("[[Phosphorite War|Phosphorite war]]") campaign became the first major protest movement against the [[Government of the Soviet Union|central government]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vogt|first1=Henri |title=Between Utopia and Disillusionment: A Narrative of the Political Transformation in Eastern Europe |pages=20–22|year=2005 |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=9781571818959}}</ref> In 1988, new political movements appeared, such as the [[Popular Front of Estonia]], which came to represent the moderate wing in the independence movement, and the more radical [[Estonian National Independence Party]], which was the first non-communist party in the Soviet Union and demanded full restoration of independence.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Simons|first1=Greg |last2=Westerlund |first2=David |title=Religion, Politics and Nation-Building in Post-Communist Countries |page=151 |year=2015 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=9781472449719}}</ref> On 16 November 1988, after the first non-rigged multi-candidate elections in half a century, the parliament of Soviet-controlled Estonia issued the [[Estonian Sovereignty Declaration|Sovereignty Declaration]], asserting the primacy of Estonian laws over laws of the Soviet Union. Over the next two years, many other administrative parts (or [[Republics of the Soviet Union|"republics"]]) of the USSR followed the Estonian example, issuing similar declarations.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |pages=46–48|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Edward W. |title=Dissolution: Sovereignty and the Breakup of the Soviet Union |page=[https://archive.org/details/dissolutionsover00walk/page/63 63] |year=2003 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=9780742524538 |url=https://archive.org/details/dissolutionsover00walk/page/63}}</ref> On 23 August 1989, about 2 million Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians participated in a mass demonstration, forming the [[Baltic Way]] human chain across the three countries.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page=52|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}}</ref> In February 1990, elections were held to form the [[Congress of Estonia]], a novel parliament of Estonian citizens.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page=54|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}}</ref> In March 1991, a [[1991 Estonian independence referendum|referendum was held]] where 78.4% of voters supported full independence. During the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|coup attempt in Moscow]], Estonia [[Estonian restoration of Independence|declared restoration of independence]] on 20 August 1991.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gill|first1=Graeme |title=Democracy and Post-Communism: Political Change in the Post-Communist World |page=41|year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134485567}}</ref>

Soviet authorities recognised Estonian independence on 6 September 1991, and on 17 September Estonia was admitted into the [[United Nations]].<ref name="Dillon164">{{Cite book|last1=Dillon|first1=Patricia |last2=Wykoff |first2=Frank C. |title=Creating Capitalism: Transitions and Growth in Post-Soviet Europe|page=164|year=2002 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=9781843765561}}</ref> The last units of the [[Russian army]] left Estonia in 1994.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Nørgaard|first1=Ole |title=The Baltic States After Independence|page=188|year=1999|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=9781843765561}}</ref>

In 1992 radical economic reforms were launched for switching over to a market economy, including privatisation and currency reform.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Ó Beacháin|first1=Donnacha |last2=Sheridan |first2=Vera |last3=Stan |first3=Sabina |title=Life in Post-Communist Eastern Europe after EU Membership| page=170|year=2012|publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136299810}}</ref> Estonia has been a member of the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] since 13 November 1999.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/estonia_e.htm#:~:text=Estonia%20has%20been%20a%20member%20of%20WTO%20since,Communities%20for%20legal%20reasons%29%20in%20its%20own%20right. |title=Estonia and the WTO |publisher=World Trade Organization |access-date=20 September 2021 }}</ref>

Since regaining independence in 1991, Estonian foreign policy has been aligned with other [[Western world|Western democracies]], and in 2004 Estonia joined both the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|pages=18–19|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref> On 9 December 2010, Estonia became a member of [[OECD]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oecd.mfa.ee/estonia-and-oecd/|title=Estonia and OECD|website=Estonia in OECD}}</ref> On 1 January 2011, Estonia joined the [[eurozone]] and adopted the [[euro]], the single currency of EU.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-12098513|title=Estonia becomes 17th member of the euro zone|work=BBC News|date=31 December 2010}}</ref> Estonia was a member of the [[UN Security council|UN Security Council]] 2020–2021.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vm.ee/en/activities-objectives/estonia-united-nations/estonia-un-security-council|title=Estonia in the UN Security Council | Ministry of Foreign Affairs|website=vm.ee}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Estonia}}
[[File:Satellite image of Estonia in April 2004.jpg|thumb|right|Satellite image of Estonia]]
Estonia is situated in [[Northern Europe]], on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]], on the [[East European Plain]] between 57°30′ and 59°49′ N and 21°46′ and 28°13′ E.<ref name="Raukas_2018">{{cite journal|last=Raukas|first=Anto|authorlink=Anto Raukas|title=Briefly about Estonia |journal=Dynamiques Environnementales|year=2018|volume=42|issue=42 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/dynenviron/2230?lang=en|doi=10.4000/dynenviron.2230|issn=2534-4358|pages=284–291|s2cid=240432618 |access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="EEA">{{Cite web|url=https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/countries-regions/countries/estonia|title=Estonia|publisher=[[European Environment Agency]]|date=15 March 2021|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/|title=Methodology |publisher=[[United Nations Statistics Division]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the sea across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by [[Lake Peipsi]] and [[Russia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Saar|first1=Asmu|editor-last=Raukas|editor-first=Anto|editor-link1=Anto Raukas|chapter=Üldandmed|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=9|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> Estonian territory covers {{convert|45339|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, of which internal waters comprise 4.6%.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> When including the [[territorial sea]], the Estonian border encompasses {{convert|70177|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.delfi.ee/artikkel/41030503/ulemootmine-soome-on-veidi-pisem-eesti-ikka-sama-suur|title=Ülemõõtmine: Soome on veidi pisem, Eesti ikka sama suur |publisher=[[Delfi (web portal)|Delfi]]|date=25 February 2011|language=et|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>

Estonia has a {{convert|3794|km|mi|0}} long coastline, notable for its [[Cliffed coast|limestone cliffs]] at the northern coast and largest islands.<ref name="EEA"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eesti.ee/en/republic-of-estonia/republic-of-estonia/information-about-estonia|title=Information about Estonia|publisher=[[Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications|Estonian Information System Authority]]|date=9 November 2022|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> The total number of [[List of islands of Estonia|Estonian islands]], including those in internal waters, is 2,355, of which 2,222 are in the Baltic Sea. The largest islands are [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]]. There are over 1560 [[List of lakes of Estonia|natural lakes]], the largest being Lake Peipsi at the border of Russia, and [[Võrtsjärv]] in central Estonia. Additionally there are a large number of artificial water reservoirs. There are over [[List of rivers of Estonia|7000]] rivers, streams, and canals in Estonia. Most are small, with only 15 being over {{convert|50|km|mi|0}} long. [[Bogs]] and [[mire|mires]] cover 23.2% of the land. Generally the terrain is flat, average elevation above the sea level being about {{convert|50|m|ft|0}}. Only 10% of the country's terrain is greater than {{convert|100|m|ft|0}} in height, with [[Haanja Upland]] containing the highest peak, [[Suur Munamägi]], at {{convert|318|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/>

=== Climate ===
{{Main|2 = Climate of Estonia}}
Estonia is situated in the [[temperate|temperate climate zone]], and in the transition zone between [[maritime climate|maritime]] and [[Köppen climate classification#Group D: Continental/microthermal climates|continental climate]], characterized by warm summers and fairly mild winters. Primary local differences are caused by the Baltic Sea, which warms the coastal areas in winter, and cools them in the spring.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/><ref name="EEA"/> Average temperatures range from {{convert|17.8|°C|1|abbr=on}} in July, the warmest month, to {{convert|-3.8|°C|1|abbr=on}} in February, the coldest month, with the annual average being {{convert|6.4|°C|1|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/ohutemperatuur/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Temperature|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> The highest recorded temperature is {{convert|35.6|°C|1|abbr=on}} from 1992, and the lowest is {{convert|-43.5|°C|1|abbr=on}} from 1940.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/rekordid/ohutemperatuur/?lang=en|title=Weather records - Temperature|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> The annual average precipitation is {{convert|662|mm|1}},<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/sademed/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Precipitation|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> with the daily record being {{convert|148|mm|1}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/rekordid/sademed/?lang=en|title=Weather records - Precipitation|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> Snow cover varies significantly on different years.<ref name="EEA"/> Prevailing winds are westerly, southwesterly, and southerly, with average wind speed being 3–5 m/s inland and 5–7 m/s on coast.<ref name="EEA"/> The average monthly sunshine duration ranges from 290 hours in August, to 21 hours in December.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/paikesepaiste-kestus/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Sunshine|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref>

===Biodiversity===
{{Main|Fauna of Estonia|Protected areas of Estonia}}
[[File:Landsvale.jpg|thumb|right|The [[barn swallow]] (''H. r. rustica'') is the national bird of Estonia.]]
Due to varied climatic and soil conditions, and plethora of sea and internal waters, Estonia is one of the most biodiverse regions among the similar sized territories at the same [[latitude]].<ref name="EEA"/> Many species extinct in most other European countries can be still found in Estonia.<ref name="Taylor_1">{{Cite book|last1=Taylor|first1= Neil|title= Estonia|pages=4,6–7|year=2014|publisher= Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=9781841624877}}</ref>

Recorded species include 64 [[mammal]]s, 11 [[amphibian]]s, and 5 [[reptile]]s.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> Large mammals present in Estonia include the [[Eurasian wolf|grey wolf]], [[Eurasian lynx|lynx]], [[brown bear]], [[red fox]], [[European badger|badger]], [[wild boar]], [[moose]], [[roe deer]], [[Eurasian beaver|beaver]], [[Eurasian otter|otter]], [[grey seal]], and [[ringed seal]]. The critically endangered [[European mink]] has been successfully reintroduced to the island of Hiiumaa, and the rare [[Siberian flying squirrel]] is present in east Estonia.<ref name="Taylor_1"/> The [[red deer]], once extirpated, has also been successfully reintroduced.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://loodusveeb.ee/en/themes/species-and-their-distribution/how-much-has-mammal-fauna-estonia-changed|title=How much has the mammal fauna in Estonia changed?|publisher=Loodusveeb|first1=Uudo|last1=Timm|first2=Tiit|last2=Maran|date=March 2020|access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref> In the beginning of the 21st century, an isolated population of [[European jackal]]s was confirmed in Western Estonia, much further north than their earlier known range. The number of jackals has grown quickly in coastal areas of Estonia and can be found in [[Matsalu National Park]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://maaleht.delfi.ee/artikkel/65914222/peep-mannil-laanemaal-elab-veel-vahemalt-kaks-saakalit-toenaoliselt-rohkem|title=Peep Männil: Läänemaal elab veel vähemalt kaks šaakalit, tõenäoliselt rohkem|website=[[Maaleht]]|date=3 April 2013|access-date=18 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.postimees.ee/4229725/saakalite-jahihooaeg-pikenes-kahe-kuu-vorra|title=Šaakalite jahihooaeg pikenes kahe kuu võrra|website=[[Postimees]]|first=Andres|last=Einmann|date=1 September 2017|access-date=18 April 2023}}</ref> Introduced mammals include [[sika deer]], [[European fallow deer|fallow deer]], [[Common raccoon dog|raccoon dog]], [[muskrat]], and [[American mink]].<ref name="Raukas_2018"/>

Over 300 bird species have been found in Estonia, including the [[white-tailed eagle]], [[lesser spotted eagle]], [[golden eagle]], [[western capercaillie]], [[Black Stork|black]] and [[white stork]], numerous species of [[owls]], [[wader]]s, [[geese]] and many others.<ref name="Taylor_2">{{Cite book|last1=Taylor|first1= Neil|title= Estonia|pages=7–8|year=2014|publisher= Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=9781841624877}}</ref> The [[barn swallow]] is the [[national bird]] of Estonia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Spilling|first1=Michael|title=Estonia|page=11|year=2010|publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=9781841624877}}</ref>

[[File:Tarvasjõgi.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Tarvasjõgi]] flowing through [[Põhja-Kõrvemaa Nature Reserve]]]]
[[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], Estonia is shared between the Central European and Eastern European provinces of the [[Circumboreal Region]] within the [[Boreal Kingdom]]. According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], the territory of Estonia belongs to the [[ecoregion]] of [[Sarmatic mixed forests]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|display-authors=3|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> Estonia has a rich composition of floristic groups, with estimated 6000 (3461 identified) [[fungi]], 3000 (2500 identified) [[algae]] and [[cyanobacteria]], 850 (786 identified) [[lichens]], and 600 (507 identified) [[bryophytes]]. Forests cover approximately half of the country. 87 native and over 500 introduced tree and bush species have been identified, with most prevalent tree species being [[pine]] (41%), [[birch]] (28%), and [[spruce]] (23%).<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> Since 1969, the [[Centaurea cyanus|cornflower]] (''Centaurea cyanus'') has been the national flower of Estonia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalroadwarrior.com/estonia/national-flower.html|title=National Flower|website=Global Road Warrior|publisher=World Trade Press|date=2023|access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref>

[[Protected areas of Estonia|Protected areas]] cover 19.4% of Estonian land and 23% of its total area together with territorial sea. Overall there are 3,883 protected natural objects, including 6 national parks, 231 nature conservation areas, and 154 landscape reserves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://envir.ee/en/climate-and-environment-protection/nature-conservation|title=Nature conservation|publisher=[[Ministry of the Environment (Estonia)|Ministry of the Environment]]|date=13 July 2021|access-date=6 March 2023}}</ref>

==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of Estonia|List of political parties in Estonia|Elections in Estonia}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
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| caption_align = center
| image1 = Alar Karis - August 2021.jpg
| width1 = 114
| caption1 = [[Alar Karis]] [[President of Estonia|President]] since 2021
| image2 = RE Kaja Kallas.jpg
| width2 = 113
| caption2 = [[Kaja Kallas]] [[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]] since 2021
}}

Estonia is a unitary [[parliamentary republic]]. The unicameral parliament [[Riigikogu]] serves as the legislative and [[Government of Estonia|the government]] as the executive.<ref name="Toots">{{cite web |first=Anu |last=Toots |url=http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/baltikum/15260.pdf |title=2019 Parliamentary elections in Estonia |page=3 |publisher=[[Friedrich Ebert Foundation]] |date=March 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref>

Estonian parliament Riigikogu is elected by citizens over 18 years of age for a four-year term by [[proportional representation]], and has 101 members. Riigikogu's responsibilities include approval and preservation of the national government, passing legal acts, passing the state budget, and conducting parliamentary supervision. On proposal of [[President of Estonia|the president]] Riigikogu appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the chairman of the board of the Bank of Estonia, the Auditor General, the Legal Chancellor, and the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/en/introduction-and-history/riigikogu-tasks-organisation-work/what-is-riigikogu/ |title=What is Riigikogu? |publisher=[[Riigikogu]] |date=15 October 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/en/introduction-and-history/riigikogu-tasks-organisation-work/what-does-riigikogu/ |title=What does Riigikogu do? |publisher=[[Riigikogu]] |date=4 September 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref>

The [[Government of Estonia]] is formed by the [[Prime Minister of Estonia]] at recommendation of the President, and approved by the Riigikogu. The government, headed by the Prime Minister, represent the political leadership of the country and carry out domestic and foreign policy. Ministers head ministries and represent its interests in the government. Sometimes ministers with no associated ministry are appointed, known as ''ministers without portfolio''.<ref>{{cite web |first=Taavi |last=Annus |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/Government_and_executive_power/Government/ |title=Government |publisher=[[Estonica]] |date=27 September 2012 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref> Estonia has been ruled by coalition governments because no party has been able to obtain an absolute majority in the parliament.<ref name="Toots"/>

[[File:Riigikogu hoone, Kaupo Kalda foto, 2016.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Toompea Castle pink stucco three-story building with red hip roof|The seat of the Parliament of Estonia in [[Toompea Castle]]]]
The head of the state is [[President of Estonia|the President]] who has a primarily representative and ceremonial role. There are no [[referendum]]s on the election of the president, but the president is elected by the Riigikogu, or by a special electoral college.<ref>[https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-12053491 YLE: Viron presidentinvaali on ajautumassa kaaokseen jo toista kertaa peräkkäin – "Instituutio kyntää pohjamudissa", sanoo politiikan tutkija] (in Finnish)</ref> The President proclaims the laws passed in the Riigikogu, and has right to refuse proclamation and return law in question for a new debate and decision. If Riigikogu passes the law unamended, then the President has right to propose to the Supreme Court to declare the law unconstitutional. The President also represents the country in international relations.<ref name="Toots"/><ref>{{cite web |first=Taavi |last=Annus |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/President_of_the_Republic/Duties_of_the_President_of_the_Republic/ |title=Duties of the President of the Republic |publisher=[[Estonica]] |date=27 September 2012 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref>

The [[Constitution of Estonia]] also provides possibility for direct democracy through referendum, although since adoption of the constitution in 1992 the only referendum has been the [[2003 Estonian European Union membership referendum|referendum on European Union membership]] in 2003.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liivik |first1=Ero |year=2011 |title=Referendum in the Estonian Constitution |url=https://www.juridicainternational.eu/public/pdf/ji_2011_1_17.pdf |journal=Juridica International |volume=18 |page=21 |access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref>

Estonia has pursued the development of the [[e-government]], with 99 percent of the public services being available on the web 24 hours a day.<ref>{{cite news |first=Elizabeth |last=Schulze |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/02/08/how-estonia-became-a-digital-society.html |title=How a tiny country bordering Russia became one of the most tech-savvy societies in the world |publisher=[[CNBC]] |date=8 February 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref> In 2005 [[Electronic voting in Estonia|Estonia became]] the first country in the world to introduce nationwide binding Internet voting in local elections of 2005.<ref>{{cite conference |first=Priit |last=Vinkel |title=Information Security Technology for Applications |chapter=Internet Voting in Estonia |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |book-title=Laud P. (eds) Information Security Technology for Applications. NordSec 2011. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 7161 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |year=2012 |volume=7161 |pages=4–12 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-29615-4_2 |isbn=978-3-642-29614-7 }}</ref> In [[2023 Estonian parliamentary election|2023 parliamentary elections]] 51% of the total votes were cast over the internet, becoming the first time when more than half of votes were cast online.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.err.ee/1608904730/estonia-sets-new-e-voting-record-at-riigikogu-2023-elections |title=Estonia sets new e-voting record at Riigikogu 2023 elections |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=6 March 2023 |access-date=31 March 2023}}</ref>

In the most recent [[2023 Estonian parliamentary election|parliamentary elections of 2023]], six parties gained seats at Riigikogu. The head of the [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]], [[Kaja Kallas]], [[Kaja Kallas' third cabinet|formed the government]] together with [[Estonia 200]] and [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]], while [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia|Conservative People's Party]], [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]] and [[Isamaa]] became the opposition.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.err.ee/1608905309/reform-party-takes-landslide-win-in-2023-riigikogu-elections |title=Reform Party takes landslide win in 2023 Riigikogu elections |date=6 March 2023 |access-date=17 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.err.ee/1608950416/reformierakonna-eesti-200-ja-sotsiaaldemokraatide-valitsus-astus-ametisse |title=Reformierakonna, Eesti 200 ja Sotsiaaldemokraatide valitsus astus ametisse |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=17 April 2023 |access-date=17 April 2023 |lang=Estonian}}</ref>

===Law===
{{Main|Law of Estonia|Constitution of Estonia}}
[[File:Riigikohus.jpg|thumb|Building of the [[Supreme Court of Estonia]] in [[Tartu]]]]
The [[Constitution of Estonia]] is the fundamental law, establishing the constitutional order based on five principles: human dignity, democracy, rule of law, social state, and the Estonian identity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ernits |first1=Madis |last2=Ginter |first2=Carri |last3=Laos |first3=Saale |last4=Allikmets |first4=Marje |last5=Tupay |first5=Paloma Krõõt |last6=Värk |first6=René |last7=Laurand |first7=Andra |editor-last1=Albi |editor-first1=Anneli |editor-last2=Bardutzky |editor-first2=Samo |title=National Constitutions in European and Global Governance: Democracy, Rights, the Rule of Law |publisher=[[T.M.C. Asser Instituut|T.M.C. Asser Press]] |location=[[The Hague]] |date=2019 |page=889 |chapter=The Constitution of Estonia: The Unexpected Challenges of Unlimited Primacy of EU Law |isbn=978-94-6265-272-9 |doi=10.1007/978-94-6265-273-6|hdl = 10138/311890|display-authors=1}}</ref> Estonia has a [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] legal system based on the Germanic legal model.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Varul |first1=Paul |year=2000 |title=Legal Policy Decisions and Choices in the Creation of New Private Law in Estonia |url=https://www.juridicainternational.eu/public/pdf/ji_2000_1_104.pdf |journal=Juridica International |volume=5 |page=107 |access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref> The court system has a three-level structure. The first instance are county courts which handle all criminal and civil cases, and administrative courts which hear complaints about government and local officials, and other public disputes. The [[Appellate court|second instance]] are district courts which handle appeals about the first instance decisions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Madise |first1=Ülle |author-link1=Ülle Madise |date=27 September 2012 |title=Courts of first instance and courts of appeal |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/Judicial_system/Courts_of_first_instance_and_courts_of_appeal/ |publisher=Estonica |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref> The [[Supreme Court of Estonia|Supreme Court]] is the [[court of cassation]], and also conducts constitutional review, it has 19 members.<ref>{{cite web |title=Supreme Court of Estonia
|url=https://www.riigikohus.ee/en/supreme-court-estonia |publisher=[[Supreme Court of Estonia]] |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref> The judiciary is independent, judges are appointed for life, and can be removed from office only when convicted by court for a criminal deed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Heydemann |first1=Günther |last2=Vodička |first2=Karel |title=From Eastern Bloc to European Union: Comparative Processes of Transformation since 1990 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |date=2017 |page=12 |isbn=9781785333187}}</ref> The Estonian justice system has been rated among the most efficient in the European Union by the EU Justice Scoreboard.<ref>{{cite news |first=Aili |last=Vahtla |url=https://news.err.ee/837471/study-estonian-judicial-system-among-most-efficient-in-eu |title=Study: Estonian judicial system among most efficient in EU |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=6 June 2018 |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Estonia|Diplomatic missions of Estonia}}
[[File:President Barack Obama giving a speech at the Nordea Concert Hall on 2014-09-03 in Tallinn, Estonia.jpg|thumb|left|US President [[Barack Obama]] giving a speech in Tallinn (2014)]]
Estonia was a member of the [[League of Nations]] from 22 September 1921, and became a member of the United Nations on 17 September 1991.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whittaker Briggs |first=Herbert |title=The law of nations: cases, documents, and notes |url= https://archive.org/details/lawofnationscase0000brig |url-access=registration |year=1952 |publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts |page=[https://archive.org/details/lawofnationscase0000brig/page/106 106]}}</ref><ref name="DFAT">{{cite web |url= http://dfat.gov.au/geo/estonia/Pages/estonia-country-brief.aspx |title=Estonia country brief |publisher=[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> Since restoration of independence Estonia has pursued close relations with the [[Western world|Western countries]], and has been member of [[NATO]] since 29 March 2004, as well as the European Union since 1 May 2004.<ref name="DFAT"/> In 2007, Estonia joined the [[Schengen Area]], and in 2011 the [[Eurozone]].<ref name="DFAT"/> The [[Eu-Lisa|European Union Agency for large-scale IT systems]] is based in Tallinn, which started operations at the end of 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/agency/index_en.htm |title=EU Agency for large-scale IT systems |publisher=European Commission |date=20 July 2012 |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120910112010/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/agency/index_en.htm |archive-date=10 September 2012}}</ref> Estonia held the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]] in the second half of 2017.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://euobserver.com/eu-presidency/140368 |title=Estonian presidency leaves 'more confident' EU |work=[[EUobserver]] |date=21 December 2017 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref>

Since the early 1990s, Estonia has been involved in active trilateral [[Baltic states]] co-operation with Latvia and Lithuania, and Nordic-Baltic co-operation with the [[Nordic countries]]. Estonia is a member of the interparliamentary [[Baltic Assembly]], the intergovernmental [[Baltic Council of Ministers]] and the [[Council of the Baltic Sea States]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/4096 |title=Estonian Chairmanship of the Baltic Council of Ministers in 2011 |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131113111112/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F4096 |archive-date=13 November 2013}}</ref> Estonia has built close relationship with the Nordic countries, especially [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]], and is a member of [[NB8|Nordic-Baltic Eight ''(NB-8)'']] uniting Nordic and Baltic countries.<ref name="DFAT"/><ref name="NB8">{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/4097 |title=Nordic-Baltic Co-operation |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs |date=10 July 2012 |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120511184410/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F4097 |archive-date=11 May 2012}}</ref> Joint Nordic-Baltic projects include the education programme Nordplus<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nordplusonline.org/eng/nordplus/about_nordplus |title=Nordplus |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131113110917/http://www.nordplusonline.org/eng/nordplus/about_nordplus |archive-date=13 November 2013}}</ref> and mobility programmes for business and industry<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nb8businessmobility.org/ |title=NordicBaltic Mobility and Network Programme for Business and Industry |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Latvia |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131118051601/http://www.nb8businessmobility.org/ |archive-date=18 November 2013}}</ref> and for public administration.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.norden.ee/en/about-us/funding/mobility-programme-for-public-administration |title=NordicBaltic mobility programme for public administration |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Estonia |access-date=11 August 2012}}</ref> The [[Nordic Council of Ministers]] has an office in [[Tallinn]] with a subsidiaries in [[Tartu]] and [[Narva]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.norden.org/en/nordic-council-of-ministers/the-secretariat-to-the-nordic-council-of-ministers/nordic-council-of-ministers-information-offices-in-the-baltic-states-and-russia |title=Nordic Council of Ministers' Information Offices in the Baltic States and Russia|publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers |access-date=11 August 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121018134356/http://www.norden.org/en/nordic-council-of-ministers/the-secretariat-to-the-nordic-council-of-ministers/nordic-council-of-ministers-information-offices-in-the-baltic-states-and-russia |archive-date=18 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.norden.ee/en/about-us/about-us |title=Norden in Estonia |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Estonia |access-date=11 August 2012}}</ref> The Baltic states are members of [[Nordic Investment Bank]], European Union's [[Nordic Battle Group]], and in 2011 were invited to co-operate with [[Nordic Defence Cooperation]] in selected activities.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.nib.int/news_publications/cases_and_feature_stories/1517/estonia_latvia_and_lithuania_10-year_owners_at_nib |title=Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania 10-year owners at NIB |publisher=[[Nordic Investment Bank]] |date=December 2014 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/world-view-german-paper-outlines-vision-for-eu-defence-union-1.2638290 |last=Smyth |first=Patrick |title=World View: German paper outlines vision for EU defence union |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |date=7 May 2016 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dahl |first1=Ann Sofie |last2=Järvenpää |first2=Pauli |title=Northern Security and Global Politics: Nordic-Baltic strategic influence in a post-unipolar world |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-83657-9 |page=166 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NTZtAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |access-date=24 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nordefco.org/files/nordefco-annual-report-2015_webb.pdf|title=NORDEFCO annual report 2015 |publisher=Nordefco.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014085148/http://www.nordefco.org/files/nordefco-annual-report-2015_webb.pdf |archive-date=14 October 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The beginning of the attempt to redefine Estonia as "Nordic" was seen in December 1999, when then Estonian foreign minister (and [[President of Estonia]] from 2006 until 2016) [[Toomas Hendrik Ilves]] delivered a speech entitled "Estonia as a Nordic Country" to the [[Swedish Institute for International Affairs]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/3489|title=Estonia as a Nordic Country |last=Ilves |first=Toomas Hendrik |author-link=Toomas Hendrik Ilves |date=14 December 1999 |publisher=Estonian Foreign Ministry |access-date=19 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094242/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F3489 |archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref> with potential political calculation behind it being wish to distinguish Estonia from more slowly progressing southern neighbours, which could have postponed early participation in European Union enlargement for Estonia too.<ref name=Mouritzen>{{cite book |last1=Mouritzen |first1=Hans |last2=Wivel |first2=Anders |title=The Geopolitics of Euro-Atlantic Integration |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |page=143 |edition=1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1134457634}}</ref> [[Andres Kasekamp]] argued in 2005, that relevance of identity discussions in Baltic states decreased with their entrance into EU and NATO together, but predicted, that in the future, attractiveness of Nordic identity in Baltic states will grow and eventually, five Nordic states plus three Baltic states will become a single unit.<ref name="Mouritzen" />

Other Estonian international organisation memberships include [[OECD]], [[OSCE]], [[WTO]], [[IMF]], the [[Council of the Baltic Sea States]],<ref name="DFAT"/><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.oecd.org/about/membersandpartners/list-oecd-member-countries.htm |title=List of OECD Member countries – Ratification of the Convention on the OECD |publisher=[[OECD]] |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.osce.org/participating-states |title=Participating States |publisher=[[OSCE]] |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> and on 7 June 2019, was elected a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council for a two-year term that began on 1 January 2020.<ref name="ERR_20190607">{{cite news |title= Gallery: Estonia gains non-permanent UN Security Council seat |work= ERR News |publisher= [[Eesti Rahvusringhääling|ERR]] |date= 7 June 2019 | url= https://news.err.ee/950290/gallery-estonia-gains-non-permanent-un-security-council-seat |access-date= 7 June 2019}}</ref>

Since the [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet era]], the [[Estonia–Russia relations|relations with Russia]] remain generally cold, even though practical co-operation has taken place in between.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://news.err.ee/649606/ambassador-successes-tend-to-get-ignored-in-estonian-russian-relations |title=Ambassador: Successes tend to get ignored in Estonian-Russian relations |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=9 December 2017 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> Since 24 February 2022, the relations with Russia have further deteriorated when Russia [[Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022–present)|made its invasion]] on [[Ukraine]]. Estonia has very actively supported Ukraine during the war, providing highest support relative to its gross domestic product.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/06/03/estonia-russia-ukraine-war-kallas-baltics-nato/ |title=Estonia's Prime Minister: 'We Need to Help Ukraine Win' |publisher=[[Foeign Policy]] |date=3 June 2022 |access-date=27 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://estonianworld.com/security/blog-russia-ukraine-crisis-a-view-from-estonia/|title=Updates: Russia's invasion of Ukraine – reactions in Estonia|website=Estonian World|access-date=15 March 2023}}</ref>

===Military===
{{Main|Estonian Defence Forces|Estonian Defence League}}
[[File:Baltic Battalion Soldiers, Trident Juncture 15 (22200204329).jpg|thumb|left|Estonian soldiers during a NATO exercise in 2015]]
The [[Estonian Defence Forces]] consist of [[Estonian Land Forces|land forces]], [[Estonian Navy|navy]], and [[Estonian Air Force|air force]]. The current national [[military service]] is compulsory for healthy men between ages of 18 and 28, with conscripts serving 8 or 11-month tours of duty, depending on their education and position provided by the Defence Forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mil.ee/en/defence-forces/compulsory-military-service |title=Compulsory military service |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |date=11 March 2014|access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> The peacetime size of the Estonian Defence Forces is about 6,000 persons, with half of those being conscripts. The planned wartime size of the Defence Forces is 60,000 personnel, including 21,000 personnel in high readiness reserve.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mil.ee/en/defence-forcesp |title=Estonian Defence Forces |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> Since 2015 the Estonian defence budget has been over 2% of GDP, fulfilling its NATO defence spending obligation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kaitseministeerium.ee/et/eesmargid-tegevused/kaitse-eelarve |title=Kaitse-eelarve |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Defence|date=3 December 2019 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref>

The [[Estonian Defence League]] is a voluntary national defence organisation under management of Ministry of Defence. It is organised based on military principles, has its own military equipment, and provides various different military training for its members, including in guerilla tactics. The Defence League has 17,000 members, with additional 11,000 volunteers in its affiliated organisations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kaitseliit.ee/en/edl |title=Estonian Defence League |publisher=Estonian Defence League |access-date=23 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Daniel |last=McLaughlin |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/baltic-volunteers-guard-against-threat-of-russian-stealth-invasion-1.2714047 |title=Baltic volunteers guard against threat of Russian stealth invasion |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |date=8 July 2016 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref>

Estonia co-operates with [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]] in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives. As part of Baltic Air Surveillance Network (BALTNET) the three countries manage the Baltic airspace control center, Baltic Battalion (BALTBAT) has participated in the [[NATO Response Force]], and a joint military educational institution [[Baltic Defence College]] is located in [[Tartu]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Aili |last=Vahtla |url=https://news.err.ee/590917/defense-chiefs-decide-to-move-forward-with-baltic-battalion-project |title=Defense chiefs decide to move forward with Baltic battalion project |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=20 April 2017 |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref>

Estonia joined NATO in 2004. NATO [[Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence]] was established in Tallinn in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|first=Andrew |last=Whyte |url=https://news.err.ee/590917/defense-chiefs-decide-to-move-forward-with-baltic-battalion-project |title=Nine more nations join NATO cyberdefense center |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=5 May 2019 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> In response to [[Russian military intervention in Ukraine (2014–present)|Russian war in Ukraine]], since 2017 a [[NATO Enhanced Forward Presence]] battalion battle group has been based in [[Tapa Army Base]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Jonathan |last=Marcus |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40554104 |title=Nato sends 'alive and strong' message from Estonia |publisher=BBC|date=10 July 2017 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> Also part of NATO [[Baltic Air Policing]] deployment has been based in [[Ämari Air Base]] since 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/society/defense/czechs-and-belgians-take-over-in-latest-baltic-air-police-rotation.a330782/ |title=Czechs and Belgians take over in latest Baltic air police rotation |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting of Latvia|LSM]]|date=3 September 2019 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> In European Union Estonia participates in [[Nordic Battlegroup]] and [[Permanent Structured Cooperation]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Jan Joel |last=Andresson |url=https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/if-not-now-when-nordic-eu-battlegroup |title=If not now, when? The Nordic EU Battlegroup |publisher=[[European Union Institute for Security Studies]] |date=17 February 2015 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kaitseministeerium.ee/en/news/estonia-joins-european-intervention-initiative |title=Estonia joins European Intervention Initiative |publisher=[[Estonian Ministry of Defence]] |date=26 June 2018 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref>

Since 1995 Estonia has participated in numerous international security and peacekeeping missions, including: [[International Security Assistance Force|Afghanistan]], [[Multi-National Force – Iraq|Iraq]], [[United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon|Lebanon]], [[Kosovo Force|Kosovo]], and [[Operation Barkhane|Mali]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mil.ee/et/operatsioonid/operatsioonid-alates-1995 |title=Operatsioonid alates 1995 |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> The peak strength of Estonian deployment in Afghanistan was 289 soldiers in 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.postimees.ee/1171242/eesti-sodurite-10-aastat-afganistanis-9-surnut-90-haavatut |title=Eesti sõdurite 10 aastat Afganistanis: 9 surnut, 90 haavatut |work=Postimees|date=15 March 2013 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> 11 Estonian soldiers have been killed in missions of Afghanistan and Iraq.<ref>{{cite news|first=Maria-Ann |last=Rohemäe |url=https://www.err.ee/512040/valisoperatsioonidel-on-hukkunud-11-eesti-sodurit |title=Välisoperatsioonidel on hukkunud 11 Eesti sõdurit |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=27 April 2014 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref>

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Estonia|Counties of Estonia|Municipalities of Estonia|Boroughs of Estonia|Populated places in Estonia}}

[[File:Estonian administrative divisions 2017 with labels.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Administrative divisions of Estonia]]

Estonia is a unitary country with a single-tier local government system. Local affairs are managed autonomously by local governments. Since administrative reform in 2017, there are in total 79 local governments, including 15 towns and 64 rural municipalities. All municipalities have equal legal status and form part of a ''[[Counties of Estonia|maakond]]'' (county), which is an administrative subunit of the state.<ref>{{cite book |title=Public administration characteristics and performance in EU28 |last1=Pesti |first1=Cerlin |last2=Randma-Liiv |first2=Tiina |date=April 2018 |chapter=Estonia |chapter-url= https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/c017bdc1-960e-11e8-8bc1-01aa75ed71a1/language-en |editor-last=Thijs |editor-first=Nick |editor2-last=Hammerschmid |editor2-first=Gerhard |publisher=Publications Office of the European Union |location=[[Luxembourg]] |pages=252–255 |doi=10.2767/74735 |isbn=9789279904530}}</ref> Representative body of local authorities is municipal council, elected at general direct elections for a four-year term. The council appoints local government, headed by a mayor. For additional decentralization the local authorities may form municipal districts with limited authority, currently those have been formed in [[Tallinn]] and [[Hiiumaa]].<ref name="rahandusmin">{{cite web |url=https://www.rahandusministeerium.ee/en/local-governments-and-administrative-territorial-reform |title=Local Governments |date=1 November 2019 |publisher=[[Ministry of Finance (Estonia)|Estonian Ministry of Finance]] |access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref>

Separately from administrative units, there are also [[Populated places in Estonia|settlement units]]: village, small borough, borough, and town. Generally, villages have less than 300, small boroughs have between 300 and 1000, boroughs and towns have over 1000 inhabitants.<ref name="rahandusmin"/>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Estonia}}
[[File:Estonia Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.15|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Estonia exports, 2019]]

As a member of the European Union and [[OECD]], Estonia is considered a high-income economy by the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]]. The [[Purchasing power parity|GDP (PPP) per capita]] of the country was $46,385 in 2023 according to the [[International Monetary Fund]] ,ranked 40th.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report |access-date=2023-04-16 |website=IMF |language=en}}</ref>

Estonia ranks highly in international rankings for [[quality of life]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Estonia (Ranked 21st) |url=https://www.prosperity.com/globe/estonia |website=Legatum Prosperity Index 2020}}</ref> [[Education Index|education]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 December 2019 |title=Pisa rankings: Why Estonian pupils shine in global tests |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/education-50590581}}</ref> [[Press Freedom Index|press freedom]], [[E-government|digitalisation of public services]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 July 2020 |title=Estonia among top 3 in the UN e-Government Survey 2020 |url=https://e-estonia.com/estonia-top-3-in-un-e-government-survey-2020/ |website=e-Estonia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Harold |first=Theresa |date=October 30, 2017 |title=How A Former Soviet State Became One Of The World's Most Advanced Digital Nations |url=https://www.alphr.com/technology/1007520/how-a-former-soviet-state-became-one-of-the-worlds-most-advanced-digital-nations/ |access-date=November 29, 2021 |work=Alphr}}</ref> and the prevalence of technology companies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Number of start-ups per capita by country |url=https://2020.stateofeuropeantech.com/chart/746-3309 |website=2020.stateofeuropeantech.com}}</ref>

Because of its rapid growth, Estonia has often been described as a [[Baltic Tiger]] beside Lithuania and Latvia. Beginning 1 January 2011, Estonia adopted the euro and became the 17th [[eurozone]] member state.<ref name="euroreuters">{{cite news|last=Mardiste|first=David|title=Estonia joins crisis-hit euro club|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-estonia-euro-idUSTRE6BU0S720110101|access-date=2 January 2011|date=1 January 2011|work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref>

According to [[Eurostat]], Estonia had the lowest ratio of government debt to GDP among EU countries at 6.7% at the end of 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-21102011-AP/EN/2-21102011-AP-EN.PDF|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027125232/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-21102011-AP/EN/2-21102011-AP-EN.PDF|url-status=dead|title=Eurostat news release|archive-date=27 October 2011}}</ref>
A balanced budget, almost non-existent [[public debt]], flat-rate income tax, free trade regime, competitive commercial banking sector, innovative [[e-Services]] and even mobile-based services are all hallmarks of Estonia's market economy.

Estonia produces about 75% of its consumed electricity.<ref>[http://www.stat.ee/34170 "Electricity Balance, Yearly"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128220628/http://www.stat.ee/34170 |date=28 November 2017 }} 8 June 2010 (Estonian)</ref> In 2011, about 85% of it was generated with locally mined [[oil shale]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://valitsus.ee/UserFiles/valitsus/et/valitsus/arengukavad/keskkonnaministeerium/Põlevkivi%20kasutamise%20riikliku%20arengukava%20täitmise%20aruanne%202011.pdf |title="Põlevkivi kasutamise riikliku arengukava 2008–2015" 2011. a täitmise aruanne |publisher=Valitsus.ee |date=6 September 2012 |access-date=16 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508121023/https://valitsus.ee/UserFiles/valitsus/et/valitsus/arengukavad/keskkonnaministeerium/P%C3%B5levkivi%20kasutamise%20riikliku%20arengukava%20t%C3%A4itmise%20aruanne%202011.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Alternative energy sources such as wood, peat, and biomass make up approximately 9% of primary energy production. Renewable wind energy was about 6% of total consumption in 2009.<ref>[http://www.stat.ee/34167 "Energy Effectiveness, Yearly"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128212459/http://www.stat.ee/34167 |date=28 November 2017 }} 22 September 2010 (Estonian)</ref> Estonia imports [[petroleum]] products from western Europe and Russia. Estonia imports 100% of its [[Russia in the European energy sector|natural gas from Russia]].<ref>"[https://www.e3g.org/docs/E3G_Trends_EU_Gas_Demand_June2015_Final_110615.pdf Europe's Declining Gas Demand: Trends and Facts about European Gas Consumption – June 2015]". (PDF). p.9. [[E3G]]. Source: Eurostat, Eurogas, E3G.</ref> Oil shale energy, telecommunications, textiles, chemical products, banking, services, food and fishing, timber, shipbuilding, electronics, and transportation are key sectors of the economy.<ref>{{cite web|title=DISCOVER BUSINESS AND INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN ESTONIA!|url=http://www.estonianexport.ee/?page=b4&lang=eng|work=Estonian Export Directory|access-date=2 July 2013|archive-date=21 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121064237/http://www.estonianexport.ee/?page=b4&lang=eng|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[ice-free port]] of [[Port of Muuga|Muuga]], near Tallinn, is a modern facility featuring good transshipment capability, a high-capacity grain elevator, chill/frozen storage, and new oil tanker off-loading capabilities.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} The railroad serves as a conduit between the West, Russia, and other points.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}}
[[File:Tln1.jpg|thumb|left|alt=aerial view of high rises at sunset|The central business district of [[Tallinn]]]]
Because of the [[Financial crisis of 2007–2010|global economic recession that began in 2007]], the GDP of Estonia decreased by 1.4% in the 2nd quarter of 2008, over 3% in the 3rd quarter of 2008, and over 9% in the 4th quarter of 2008. The Estonian government made a supplementary negative budget, which was passed by [[Riigikogu]]. The revenue of the budget was decreased for 2008 by EEK 6.1 billion and the expenditure by EEK 3.2 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fin.ee/80290/ |title=Ministry of Finance |publisher=fin.ee |date=15 May 2008 |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102031135/http://www.fin.ee/80290/ |archive-date=2 November 2013 }}</ref> In 2010, the economic situation stabilised and started a growth based on strong exports. In the fourth quarter of 2010, Estonian industrial output increased by 23% compared to the year before. The country has been experiencing economic growth ever since.<ref name="Stat">{{cite web |url=http://www.stat.ee/pohinaitajad |title=Eesti Statistika – Enim nõutud statistika |publisher=Stat.ee |date=23 March 2010 |access-date=5 June 2011 |archive-date=14 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114194049/https://www.stat.ee/pohinaitajad |url-status=dead }}</ref>

According to Eurostat data, Estonian PPS GDP per capita stood at 67% of the EU average in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-25062009-BP/EN/2-25062009-BP-EN.PDF |title=GDP per capita in PPS |publisher=Eurostat |access-date=25 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090711153813/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-25062009-BP/EN/2-25062009-BP-EN.PDF |archive-date=11 July 2009 }}</ref> In 2017, the average monthly gross salary in Estonia was €1221.<ref name=StatisticsEstonia>{{cite web|first1=Allan |last1=Aron |first2=Evelin |last2=Puura |url=http://www.stat.ee/ |title=Avaleht – Eesti Statistika |publisher=Stat.ee |access-date=31 March 2016}}</ref>

However, there are vast disparities in GDP between different areas of Estonia; currently, over half of the country's GDP is created in Tallinn.<ref name="BBN">{{cite web|first=Kaja |last=Koovit |url=http://www.balticbusinessnews.com/?PublicationId=f47e445a-e234-432f-b7b0-137ca0bff47d |title=bbn.ee – Half of Estonian GDP is created in Tallinn |publisher=Balticbusinessnews.com |date=1 June 2011 |access-date=5 June 2011}}</ref> In 2008, the GDP per capita of Tallinn stood at 172% of the Estonian average,<ref name="Statistics">[http://www.stat.ee/dokumendid/30210 Half of the gross domestic product of Estonia is created in Tallinn]. Statistics Estonia. ''Stat.ee''. 29 September 2008. Retrieved 23 December 2011.</ref> which makes the per capita GDP of Tallinn as high as 115% of the European Union average, exceeding the average levels of other counties.

The unemployment rate in March 2016 was 6.4%, which is below the EU average,<ref name=StatisticsEstonia/> while real GDP growth in 2011 was 8.0%,<ref name="Statistics Estonia">{{cite web |url=http://www.stat.ee/29958 |title=Real GDP per capita, growth rate and totals |website=Stat.ee |publisher=Statistics Estonia |access-date=25 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114083834/http://www.stat.ee/29958 |archive-date=14 November 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> five times the euro-zone average. In 2012, Estonia remained the only euro member with a budget surplus, and with a national debt of only 6%, it is one of the least indebted countries in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estonia Uses the Euro, and the Economy is Booming|url=https://www.cnbc.com/id/47691090/|publisher=CNBC|access-date=13 June 2012|date=5 June 2012}}</ref>

===Economic indicators===

Estonia's economy continues to benefit from a transparent government and policies that sustain a high level of [[Index of Economic Freedom|economic freedom]], ranking 6th globally and 2nd in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking/ |title=Country Rankings: World & Global Economy Rankings on Economic Freedom |publisher=Heritage.org |date=13 January 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016 |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2016 – Transparency International |publisher=Transparency.org |date=25 January 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> The rule of [[Law of Estonia|law]] remains strongly buttressed and enforced by an independent and efficient judicial system. A simplified tax system with flat rates and low indirect taxation, openness to foreign investment, and a liberal trade regime have supported the resilient and well-functioning economy.<ref name="taxfoundation1">{{cite web|url=http://taxfoundation.org/article/2015-international-tax-competitiveness-index|title=2015 International Tax Competitiveness Index|date=28 September 2015 |publisher=Taxfoundation.org|access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> {{Asof|2018|May}}, the [[Ease of Doing Business Index]] by the [[World Bank Group]] places the country 16th in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/rankings |title=Rankings & Ease of Doing Business Score |website=Doing Business |publisher=The World Bank |access-date=25 January 2019}}</ref> The strong focus on the IT sector through its [[e-Estonia]] program has led to much faster, simpler and efficient public services where for example filing a tax return takes less than five minutes and 98% of banking transactions are conducted through the internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://neweuropeaneconomy.com/fdi/digital-economy-estonia/ |title=Digital Economy Estonia: From IT tiger to the World's Most Pre-eminent e-state |date=23 May 2016 |publisher=New European Economy |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=June 2015 |url=http://treasurytoday.com/2015/06/estonia-a-digital-economy-ttcyf |title=Estonia: a digital economy |publisher=Treasury Today |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> Estonia has the 13th lowest business bribery risk in the world, according to TRACE Matrix.<ref name="traceinternational.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.traceinternational.org/trace-matrix |title=Trace Matrix |publisher=Traceminternational.org |access-date=19 August 2021}}</ref>

Estonia is a [[developed country]] with an advanced, [[high-income economy]] that was among the fastest-growing in the EU since its entry in 2004.<ref>{{cite magazine |title= Estonian Economic Miracle: A Model For Developing Countries |magazine= Global Politician | url= http://www.globalpolitician.com/2614-baltic-eu-expansion-estonia | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110628230137/http://www.globalpolitician.com/2614-baltic-eu-expansion-estonia | archive-date= 28 June 2011 |access-date= 5 June 2011 |url-status= dead}}</ref> The country ranks very high in the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|Human Development Index]],<ref name="HDI">{{cite web |title= 2020 Human Development Report|publisher= United Nations Development Programme |year= 2019 |url= http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf |access-date= 15 December 2020}}</ref> and compares well in measures of [[Index of Economic Freedom|economic freedom]], [[Freedom in the World (report)|civil liberties]], education,<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.yahoo.com/news/asian-countries-dominate-science-teaching-criticised-survey-101202488.html |title= Asian countries dominate, science teaching criticised in survey |publisher= Yahoo}}</ref> and [[Press Freedom Index|press freedom]].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://rsf.org/en/ranking |title= Press Freedom Index 2016 |publisher= Reports Without Borders |access-date= 29 May 2016}}</ref> Estonian citizens receive [[universal health care]],<ref>[https://www.fraserinstitute.org/sites/default/files/comparing-performance-of-universal-health-care-countries-2016.pdf Comparing Performance of Universal Health Care Countries, 2016] Fraser Institute</ref> [[free education]],<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/estonia/Education-Policy-Outlook-Country-Profile-Estonia.pdf Estonia] OECD 2016.</ref> and the longest paid [[maternity leave]] in the OECD.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2016/10/daily-chart-10 |title= Which countries are most generous to new parents? |newspaper= The Economist |access-date= 28 October 2016}}.</ref> One of the world's most digitally-advanced societies,<ref>
{{cite magazine | url= https://www.wired.co.uk/article/digital-estonia |title=Welcome to E-stonia, the world's most digitally advanced society |magazine= [[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date= 20 October 2018}}
</ref>
in 2005 Estonia became the first state to hold elections over the [[Electronic voting in Estonia|Internet]], and in 2014, the first state to provide [[E-residency of Estonia|e-residency]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is e-Residency {{!}} How to Start an EU Company Online|url=https://www.e-resident.gov.ee/|access-date=2021-12-26|website=e-Residency|language=en-US}}</ref>

===Historic development===
[[File:GDP_per_capita_Baltics.svg|thumb|right|Real GDP per capita development of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania]]
In 1928, a stable currency, the ''[[Estonian kroon|kroon]]'', was established. It is issued by the [[Bank of Estonia]], the country's [[central bank]]. The word ''kroon'' ({{IPA-et|ˈkroːn|est}}, "crown") is related to that of the other [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] currencies (such as the [[Swedish krona]] and the [[Danish krone|Danish]] and [[Norwegian krone]]). The kroon succeeded the [[Estonian mark|mark]] in 1928 and was used until 1940. After Estonia regained its independence, the kroon was reintroduced in 1992.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

After [[History of Estonia#Regaining independence|restoring full independence]], in the 1990s, Estonia styled itself as the "gateway between East and West" and aggressively pursued economic reform and reintegration with the West.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} In 1994, applying the economic theories of [[Milton Friedman]], Estonia became one of the first countries to adopt a [[flat tax]], with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of personal income. This rate has since been reduced several times, e.g., to 24% in 2005, 23% in 2006, and to 21% in 2008.<ref>[http://www.fin.ee/personal-income-tax Personal Income Tax] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102031341/http://www.fin.ee/personal-income-tax |date=2 November 2013}}, Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Estonia</ref> The [[Government of Estonia]] finalised the design of [[Estonian euro coins]] in late 2004, and adopted the euro as the country's currency on 1 January 2011, later than planned due to continued high inflation.<ref name="euroreuters"/><ref name="euro-EFP">{{cite news|url=http://www.estonianfreepress.com/2009/03/estonia-gets-closer-to-the-euro/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710203542/http://www.estonianfreepress.com/2009/03/estonia-gets-closer-to-the-euro/ |archive-date=10 July 2011 |newspaper=Estonian Free Press |title=Estonia Gets Closer to the Euro |last=Angioni |first=Giovanni |date=31 March 2009 |access-date=22 November 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A [[Land Value Tax]] is levied which is used to fund local municipalities. It is a state-level tax, but 100% of the revenue is used to fund Local Councils. The rate is set by the Local Council within the limits of 0.1–2.5%. It is one of the most important sources of funding for municipalities.<ref name="Land Tax Reform">{{cite web|title=Land Taxation Reform in Estonia|url=http://aysps.gsu.edu/isp/files/ISP_CONFERENCES_PROPERTY_TAX_06_TIITS_PAPER.pdf|website=Aysps.gsu.edu|access-date=23 July 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806011749/http://aysps.gsu.edu/isp/files/ISP_CONFERENCES_PROPERTY_TAX_06_TIITS_PAPER.pdf|archive-date=6 August 2010}}</ref> The Land Value Tax is levied on the value of the land only with improvements and buildings not considered. Very few exemptions are considered on the land value tax and even public institutions are subject to the tax.<ref name="Land Tax Reform"/> The tax has contributed to a high rate (~90%)<ref name="Land Tax Reform"/> of owner-occupied residences within Estonia, compared to a rate of 67.4% in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|title=Homeownership rate graph|url=https://www.census.gov/housing/hvs/index.html|website=Housing Vacancies and Homeownership|publisher=US Census|access-date=2 June 2015}}</ref>

In 1999, Estonia experienced its worst year economically since it regained independence in 1991, largely because of the impact of the [[1998 Russian financial crisis]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Estonia joined the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] in November 1999. With assistance from the European Union, the [[World Bank]] and the [[Nordic Investment Bank]], Estonia completed most of its preparations for European Union membership by the end of 2002 and now has one of the strongest economies of the new member states of the European Union.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Estonia joined the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/estonia/estoniasaccessiontotheoecd.htm |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] |title=Estonia's accession to the OECD |date=9 December 2010 |access-date=22 July 2016}}</ref>

===Transport===
{{Main|Transport in Estonia}}

The [[Port of Tallinn]], taking into account both cargo and passenger traffic, is one of the largest port enterprises of the [[Baltic Sea]]. In 2018, the enterprise was listed in [[Tallinn Stock Exchange]]. It was the first time in nearly 20 years in Estonia when a state-owned company went public in Estonia. It was also the 2nd largest [[Initial public offering|IPO]] in Nasdaq Tallinn in the number of retail investors participating. The Republic of Estonia remains the largest shareholder and holds 67% of the company.<ref>[https://news.err.ee/839135/port-of-tallinn-surges-nearly-20-minutes-after-trading-begins "Port of Tallinn surges nearly 20% minutes after trading begins"] ERR, 13 June 2018.</ref>

Owned by [[Eesti Raudtee|AS Eesti Raudtee]], there are many significant [[Rail transport in Estonia|railroad connections in Estonia]], such as [[Tallinn–Narva railway]], which is {{convert|209.6|km|abbr=on}} long main connection to [[St. Petersburg]]. The most important [[highways in Estonia]], in other hand, includes [[Narva Highway]] ([[European route E20|E20]]), [[Tartu Highway]] ([[European route E263|E263]]) and [[Pärnu Highway]] ([[European route E67|E67]]).

The [[Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport]] in Tallinn is the largest airport in Estonia and serves as a [[Airline hub|hub]] for the national airline [[Nordica (airline)|Nordica]], as well as the secondary hub for [[AirBaltic]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Latvian airBaltic becomes number one airline in Estonia |url=http://estonianworld.com/business/airbaltic-becomes-number-one-airline-in-estonia/ |work=Estonian World |date=4 May 2016 |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> and [[LOT Polish Airlines]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Siiri |last=Liiva |url=http://majandus24.postimees.ee/3915711/nordica-lennukipark-taeieneb-ajutiselt-uehe-loti-lennukiga |title=Nordica lennukipark täieneb ajutiselt ühe LOTi lennukiga |newspaper=Postimees Majandus |publisher=Postimees |date=18 November 2016 |access-date=19 November 2016 |language=et}}</ref> Total passengers using the airport has increased on average by 14.2% annually since 1998. On 16 November 2012 Tallinn Airport has reached two million passenger landmark for the first time in its history.<ref>{{cite news |title=FOTOD: Vaata, kuidas saabus Tallinna lennujaama kahe miljones reisija |url=http://majandus.delfi.ee/news/uudised/fotod-vaata-kuidas-saabus-tallinna-lennujaama-kahe-miljones-reisija.d?id=65274122 |publisher=delfi.ee |language=et |date=16 November 2012 |access-date=17 November 2012}}</ref>

===Resources===
[[File:Estonian shale.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Oil shale in Estonia|oil shale industry]] in Estonia is one of the most developed in the world.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Estonia 2013 |series=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries |author=IEA |author-link=International Energy Agency |journal=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries / Ukraine |year=2013 |location=Paris |publisher=IEA |doi=10.1787/9789264190801-en |isbn=978-92-6419079-5 |issn=2307-0897 |page=20}}</ref> In 2012, oil shale supplied 70% of Estonia's [[total primary energy supply|total primary energy]] and accounted for 4% of Estonia's gross domestic product.<ref name=audit>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?AuditId=2314&FileId=13239
|title = Actions of the state in directing the use of oil shale. Does the state guarantee that oil shale reserves are used sustainably? Report of the National Audit Office to the Riigikogu
|publisher = [[National Audit Office of Estonia]]
|date = 19 November 2014
|pages = 7–14; 29
|access-date = 7 January 2015
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181213120049/https://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?AuditId=2314&FileId=13239
|archive-date = 13 December 2018
|url-status = live
}}
</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Estonia 2013 |series=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries |author=IEA |author-link=International Energy Agency |journal=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries / Ukraine |year=2013 |location=Paris |publisher=IEA |doi=10.1787/9789264190801-en |isbn=978-92-6419079-5 |issn=2307-0897 |page=7}}</ref>]]
Although Estonia is in general resource-poor, the land still offers a large variety of smaller resources. The country has large [[oil shale]] and [[limestone]] deposits, along with forests that cover 48% of the land.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=EN51&ti=FOREST+RESOURCES+BASED+ON+NATIONAL+FOREST+INVENTORY+%28NFI%29&path=../I_Databas/Environment/04Natural_resources_and_their_use/06Forest_resources/&lang=1 |title=Forest resources based on national forest inventory |publisher=Statistics Estonia |year=2012}}</ref> In addition to oil shale and limestone, Estonia also has large reserves of [[phosphorite]], [[uraninite|pitchblende]], and [[granite]] that currently are not mined, or not mined extensively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ut.ee/BGGM/maavara/dityoneema.html |title=Uranium production at Sillamäe |publisher=Ut.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-date=4 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104181758/http://www.ut.ee/BGGM/maavara/dityoneema.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Significant quantities of [[rare-earth]] oxides are found in tailings accumulated from 50 years of [[uranium ore]], [[shale]] and [[loparite]] mining at [[Sillamäe]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Turning a Problem into a Resource: Remediation and Waste Management at the Sillamäe Site, Estonia |last1=Rofer |first1=Cheryl K. |first2=Tõnis |last2=Kaasik |series=Volume 28 of NATO science series: Disarmament technologies |year=2000 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-7923-6187-9 |page=229}}</ref> Because of the rising prices of rare earths, extraction of these oxides has become economically viable. The country currently exports around 3000 tonnes per annum, representing around 2% of world production.<ref>{{cite news |title=Estonia's rare earth break China's market grip |first=Anneli |last=Reigas |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=1 December 2010 |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5itXbI57zv-lwfcaFdBdh7UZXuVuA?docId=CNG.a00f68010092a06189a0276c763e93a4.141 |access-date=1 December 2010}}</ref>

Since 2008, public debate has discussed whether Estonia should build a nuclear power plant to secure energy production after closure of old units in the [[Narva Power Plants]], if they are not reconstructed by 2016.<ref>[http://www.e24.ee/1810367/tulevikuraport-soome-eesti-tuumajaam-voiks-olla-eestis Tulevikuraport: Soome-Eesti tuumajaam võiks olla Eestis (Future Report: Finnish and Estonian joint nuclear power station could be located in Estonia)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212234919/http://www.e24.ee/1810367/tulevikuraport-soome-eesti-tuumajaam-voiks-olla-eestis |date=12 February 2019 }}, ''[[Postimees]]''. 25 June 2008 (in Estonian).</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baltictimes.com/news/articles/19949/|title=A nuclear power plant for Estonia?|website=The Baltic Times|access-date=23 June 2018}}</ref>

===Industry and environment===
{{See also|Oil shale in Estonia|Narva Power Plants|Wind power in Estonia}}
[[File:Hanila tuulepark 2.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Rõuste wind turbines next to wetland|Rõuste wind farm in [[Lääneranna Parish]]]]
Food, construction, and electronic industries are currently among the most important branches of Estonia's industry.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} In 2007, the construction industry employed more than 80,000 people, around 12% of the entire country's workforce.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.investinestonia.com/index.php?option=displaypage&Itemid=118&op=page&SubMenu= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021094336/http://www.investinestonia.com/index.php?option=displaypage&Itemid=118&op=page&SubMenu= |archive-date=21 October 2007 |title=Invest in Estonia: Overview of the Construction industry in Estonia |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Another important industrial sector is the machinery and chemical industry, which is mainly located in [[Ida-Viru county]] and around Tallinn.

The oil shale-based [[mining industry]], also concentrated in [[Virumaa|East Estonia]], produces around 90% of the entire country's electricity.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Although the number of pollutants emitted has been falling since the 1980s,<ref name=Auer>M. Auer (2004). Estonian Environmental Reforms: A Small Nation's Outsized Accomplishments. In: ''Restoring Cursed Earth: Appraising Environmental Policy Reforms in Eastern Europe and Russia.'' Rowman & Littlefield. pp 117–144.</ref> the air is still contaminated with [[sulphur dioxide]] from the mining industry the Soviet Union rapidly developed in the early 1950s. In some areas, coastal seawater is polluted, mainly around the [[Sillamäe]] industrial complex.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2005/geos/en.html |title=Environment – current issues in Estonia. CIA Factbook|publisher=Umsl.edu |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref>

Estonia is dependent on other countries for energy. In recent years, many local and foreign companies have been investing in renewable energy sources.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Wind power has been increasing steadily in Estonia and the total current amount of energy produced from wind is nearly 60 [[Megawatt|MW]]; another roughly 399 MW worth of projects are currently being developed and more than 2800 MW being proposed in the [[Lake Peipus]] area and coastal areas of [[Hiiumaa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tuuleenergia.ee/?path=0x139x173 |title=Estonian Wind Power Association |publisher=Tuuleenergia.ee |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://wwx.postimees.ee/211007/esileht/majandus/290763.php Peipsile võib kerkida mitusada tuulikut], ''Postimees''. 21 October 2007 (in Estonian) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130822013819/http://wwx.postimees.ee/211007/esileht/majandus/290763.php |date=22 August 2013}}</ref><ref>Henrik Ilves [http://arileht.delfi.ee/news/uudised/tuule-puudmine-on-saanud-eesti-kullapalavikuks.d?id=51133036 Tuule püüdmine on saanud Eesti kullapalavikuks], ''[[Eesti Päevaleht]]''. 13 June 2008 (in Estonian)</ref>

Currently{{When|date=February 2011}}, there are plans to renovate some older units of the Narva Power Plants, establish new power stations, and provide higher efficiency in oil shale-based energy production.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/estonia/env2001/content/soe/air_2-3.htm |title=State Environment in Estonia |publisher=Enrin.grida.no |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-date=14 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514153806/http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/estonia/env2001/content/soe/air_2-3.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Estonia [[Liberalization|liberalised]] 35% of its electricity market in April 2010; the electricity market as whole was to be liberalised by 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325013625/http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 |title=Developing Estonian energy policy hand in hand with EU energy packages|access-date=18 August 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Together with Lithuania, Poland, and Latvia, the country considered participating in constructing the [[Visaginas nuclear power plant]] in Lithuania to replace the [[Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant|Ignalina]] nuclear plant.<ref name="wnn-lt">{{cite news
|url = http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN_Visaginas_recognised_with_nuclear_site_name_3007082.html
|title = Visaginas recognised with nuclear site name
|publisher = World Nuclear News
|date=30 July 2008
|access-date=31 July 2008}}
</ref><ref name="le">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.lpc.lt/en/main/news/press?ID=469
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722151647/http://www.lpc.lt/en/main/news/press?ID=469
|archive-date=22 July 2011
|title=Nuclear Power Plant Project in Lithuania is Feasible. Press release
|date=25 October 2006
|publisher=[[Lietuvos Energija]]
|access-date=13 July 2007
|url-status=dead
}}
</ref> However, due to the slow pace of the project and problems with the nuclear sector (like the [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster|Fukushima disaster]] and bad example of [[Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant|Olkiluoto plant]]), [[Eesti Energia]] shifted its main focus to [[shale oil]] production, seen as far more profitable.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.err.ee/v/economy/876c4997-500b-4adc-aeab-eb2e8c0dbcb7|date=24 November 2014 |title= Liive: Eesti Energia ditched nuclear plant plans for shale oil |publisher=ERR |access-date=24 February 2015}}</ref>

The Estonian electricity network forms a part of the [[Nord Pool Spot]] network.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nord Pool|url=http://www.nordpoolspot.com/|access-date=23 July 2017|publisher=Nordpoolspot.com}}</ref>

Estonia has a strong information technology [[quaternary sector of the economy|sector]], partly owing to the [[Tiigrihüpe]] project undertaken in the mid-1990s, and has been mentioned as the most "wired" and advanced country in Europe in the terms of e-Government of Estonia.<ref>[https://www.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-09/ff_estonia Hackers Take Down the Most Wired Country in Europe], August 2007</ref> The 2014 [[E-residency of Estonia|e-residency program]] began offering those services to non-residents in Estonia.

[[Skype]] was written by Estonia-based developers [[Ahti Heinla]], [[Priit Kasesalu]] and [[Jaan Tallinn]], who had also originally developed [[Kazaa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207073839/https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 February 2012|date=6 September 2006|first=Andreas|last=Thomann|title=Skype – A Baltic Success Story|publisher=credit-suisse.com|access-date=24 February 2008}}</ref> Other notable [[Startup company|startups]] that originated from Estonia include [[Bolt (company)|Bolt]], [[GrabCAD]], [[Fortumo]] and [[TransferWise|Wise (formerly known as TransferWise)]]. It has been reported that Estonia has the highest startups per person ratio in the world.<ref>{{cite news|date=11 July 2013|title=Not only Skype|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2013/07/estonias-technology-cluster|access-date=24 February 2015}}</ref> As of January 2022, there are 1,291 startups from Estonia, seven of which are [[Unicorn (finance)|unicorns]], equalling nearly 1 startup per 1,000 Estonians.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Estonian Startup Database|url=https://startupestonia.ee/startup-database|access-date=2022-01-11|website=Startup Estonia|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-07|title=The Estonia-Singapore tech corridor: A conversation with Priit Turk, Estonian ambassador to Singapore|url=https://kr-asia.com/the-estonia-singapore-tech-corridor-a-conversation-with-priit-turk-estonian-ambassador-to-singapore|access-date=2022-01-11|website=KrASIA|language=en}}</ref>

===Trade===
{{Main|Tallinn Stock Exchange}}
[[File:Tree map exports 2010 Estonia.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|alt=graph of exports in 2010 showing $10,345,000,000 2.8 percent cars, 12 percent lubricating oil, 3.8 percent telephone|Graphical depiction of Estonia's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories]]
Estonia has had a [[market economy]] since the end of the 1990s and one of the highest per capita income levels in Eastern Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=GNI per capita in PPP dollars for Baltic states |url=https://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_&met_y=ny_gnp_pcap_pp_cd&idim=country:EST:LTU:LVA&dl=en |website=Google WorldBank|access-date=27 February 2015}}</ref> Proximity to the Scandinavian and Finnish markets, its location between the East and West, competitive cost structure and a highly skilled labour force have been the major Estonian comparative advantages in the beginning of the 2000s (decade). As the largest city, Tallinn has emerged as a [[financial centre]] and the [[Tallinn Stock Exchange]] joined recently with the [[OMX]] system. Several cryptocurrency trading platforms are officially recognised by the government, such as [[CoinMetro]].<ref>{{cite web|title=CoinMetro License|url=https://mtr.mkm.ee/taotluse_tulemus/483668?backurl=%40juriidiline_isik_show%3Fid%3D227953|access-date=8 August 2018|archive-date=15 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715210621/https://mtr.mkm.ee/taotluse_tulemus/483668?backurl=%40juriidiline_isik_show%3Fid%3D227953|url-status=dead}}</ref> The current government has pursued tight [[Finance|fiscal]] policies, resulting in balanced budgets and low [[public debt]].

In 2007, however, a large current account deficit and rising inflation put pressure on [[Estonian kroon|Estonia's currency]], which was pegged to the Euro, highlighting the need for growth in export-generating industries.
Estonia exports mainly machinery and equipment, wood and paper, textiles, food products, furniture, and metals and chemical products.<ref name="CIAworld">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/ |title=CIA World Factbook: Estonia |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=23 December 2010 }}</ref> Estonia also exports 1.562 billion kilowatt hours of electricity annually.<ref name="CIAworld"/> At the same time Estonia imports machinery and equipment, chemical products, textiles, food products and transportation equipment.<ref name="CIAworld"/> Estonia imports 200 million kilowatt hours of electricity annually.<ref name="CIAworld"/>

Between 2007 and 2013, Estonia received 53.3 billion [[Estonian kroon|kroons]] (3.4 billion euros) from various European Union Structural Funds as direct supports, creating the largest foreign investments into Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://struktuurifondid.ee/ |title=European Union Structural Funds in Estonia |publisher=Struktuurifondid.ee |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> Majority of the European Union financial aid will be invested into the following fields: energy economies, entrepreneurship, administrative capability, education, information society, environment protection, regional and local development, research and development activities, healthcare and welfare, transportation and labour market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://veebiarhiiv.digar.ee/a/20101114110851/http://www.fin.ee/?404 |first=Livia |last=Vosman |title=Europostitus on jõudnud 350 000 kodusse |website=Rahandusministeerium |date=13 November 2010 |language=et}}</ref> Main sources of [[foreign direct investment]]s to Estonia are Sweden and Finland ({{as of|2016|December|31}} 48.3%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vm.ee/en/estonian-economy-overview |title=Estonian Economy Overview | Ministry of Foreign Affairs |website=Vm.ee |date=16 June 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Estonia}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Residents of Estonia by ethnicity (2021)<ref name="rahvaloendus.ee">{{cite web|title=Rahvaarv rahvuse järgi, 1. jaanuar, aasta|url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/results/demographic-and-ethno-cultural-characteristics-of-the-population|publisher=Statistics Estonia|access-date=1 July 2022}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Estonians]]
|value1 =69.1
|color1 = blue
|label2 = [[Russians]]
|value2 =23.7
|color2 = cyan
|label3 = [[Ukrainians]]
|value3 = 2.1
|color3 = yellow
|label4 = [[Belarusians]]
|value4 = 0.9
|color4 = red
|label5 = other
|value5 = 4.2
|color5 = gray

}}

[[File:Eesti rahvaarv 1960-2019.png|thumb|upright=1.15|alt=The population of Estonia, from 1960 to 2019, with a peak in 1990.|Population of Estonia 1960–2019. The changes are largely attributed to Soviet immigration and emigration.<ref name="stat.ee_2">{{cite web|title=Rahvaarv, 1. jaanuar, aasta|url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Database/RAHVASTIK/databasetree.asp|publisher=Statistics Estonia|access-date=10 October 2019}}</ref>]]

Before World War II, ethnic [[Estonians]] made up 88% of the population, with national minorities constituting the remaining 12%.<ref name="ethnic minor">{{cite web|title=Ethnic minorities in Estonia: past and present |url=http://old.estinst.ee/factsheets/ethnic_minor/ |date=26 December 1998 |publisher=Einst.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807204855/http://old.estinst.ee/factsheets/ethnic_minor/}}</ref> The largest minority groups in 1934 were [[Russians]], [[Germans]], [[Swedish people|Swedes]], [[Latvians]], [[Jewish people|Jews]], [[Polish people|Poles]], and [[Finns]].

The share of [[Baltic Germans]] in Estonia had fallen from 5.3% (~46,700) in 1881 to 1.3% (16,346) by 1934,<ref name="ethnic minor"/><ref name="baltic germans">{{cite web |title=Baltic Germans in Estonia |url=http://www.einst.ee/factsheets/factsheets_uus_kuju/baltic_germans.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223082557/http://www.einst.ee/factsheets/factsheets_uus_kuju/baltic_germans.htm |archive-date=23 December 2007 |publisher=Estonian Institute}}</ref> mainly due to emigration to Germany in the light of general Russification at the end of the 19th century{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} and the independence of Estonia in the 20th century.

Between 1945 and 1989, the share of ethnic Estonians in the population resident within the currently defined boundaries of Estonia dropped to 61%, caused primarily by the Soviet occupation and programme promoting mass immigration of urban industrial workers from Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, as well as by wartime emigration and [[Joseph Stalin]]'s [[Soviet deportations from Estonia|mass deportations]] and executions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gulag.online/articles/soviet-repression-and-deportations-in-the-baltic-states?locale=en|title=Soviet repression and deportations in the Baltic states|website=Gulag.online|access-date=October 29, 2021}}</ref> By 1989, minorities constituted more than one-third of the population, as the number of non-Estonians had grown almost fivefold.

At the end of the 1980s, Estonians perceived their demographic change as a [[disaster|national catastrophe]]. This was a result of the [[human migration|migration]] policies essential to the [[Estonian SSR|Soviet Nationalisation Programme]] aiming to [[russify]] Estonia – administrative and military immigration of non-Estonians from the USSR coupled with the deportation of Estonians to the USSR.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} In the decade after the reconstitution of independence, large-scale emigration by ethnic Russians and the removal of the Russian military bases in 1994 caused{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} the proportion of ethnic Estonians in Estonia to increase from 61% to 69% in 2006.

Modern Estonia is a fairly ethnically homogeneous country, but this historical homogeneity is a feature of 13 of the country's 15 ''maakond'' (counties). The mostly Russian-speaking immigrant population is concentrated in urban areas which administratively belong to two counties. Thus 13 of Estonia's 15 counties are over 80% ethnic Estonian, the most homogeneous being [[Hiiumaa]], where Estonians account for 98.4% of the population. In the counties of [[Harju County|Harju]] (including the capital city Tallinn) and [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]], however, ethnic Estonians make up 60% and 20% of the population, respectively. The ethnic [[History of Russians in Estonia|Russian]] immigrant minority makes up about 24% of the country's total population now, but accounts for 35% of the population in Harju county and for a near 70% majority in Ida-Viru county.

The Estonian Cultural Autonomy law that was passed in 1925 was unique in Europe at that time.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David James|title=The Baltic States and Their Region: New Europe Or Old?|page=211|year=2005|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-1666-8}}</ref> Cultural autonomies could be granted to [[minorities]] numbering more than 3,000 people with longstanding ties to the Republic of Estonia. Before the [[Estonian SSR|Soviet occupation]], the Germans and Jewish minorities managed to elect a cultural council. The Law on Cultural Autonomy for National Minorities was reinstated in 1993. Historically, large parts of Estonia's northwestern coast and islands have been populated by the indigenous ethnic group of ''[[Estonian Swedes|rannarootslased]]'' ("Coastal Swedes").

In recent years the number of Swedish residents in Estonia has risen again, numbering in 2008 almost 500 people, owing to the property reforms at the beginning of the 1990s. In 2004, the [[Ingrian Finnish]] minority in Estonia elected a cultural council and was granted cultural autonomy. The Estonian Swedes minority similarly received cultural autonomy in 2007.<ref name="National Minorities Cultural Autonomy Act (2019 version)">{{Cite web|title=National Minorities Cultural Autonomy Act|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/504042019005/consolide|access-date=2022-04-07|website=www.riigiteataja.ee}}</ref>
During the Russo-Ukrainian war of 2022, tens of thousands of Ukrainian refugees have arrived in Estonia.

There is also a [[Romani people|Roma]] community in Estonia. Approximately Roma 1,000-1,500 live in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=8967&langId=en|title=Estonia - Promoting Social Inclusion of Roma - European Commission}}</ref>
===Society===
{{See also|Human rights in Estonia|Nordic identity in Estonia|Estonian alien's passport}}

[[File:Viljandi folkdanslag på Hedemora gammelgård 2014 01.jpg|thumb|Estonian folk dancers]]

Among [[post-communism|post-]][[Eastern Bloc|communist states]], Estonia is one of the most [[Westernization|Westernised]] countries and the Estonian society has undergone considerable changes since the country had restored full independence in 1991.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.baltictimes.com/report__estonia_is_most_westernized_of_former_soviet_union_members/|title=Report: Estonia is most westernised of former Soviet Union members|work=[[The Baltic Times]]|date=May 1, 2018|access-date=November 29, 2021}}</ref> Some of the more notable changes have taken effect in the level of stratification and distribution of family income. The [[Gini coefficient]] has held steadily higher than the European Union average (31 in 2009),<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html CIA World Factbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610232357/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |date=10 June 2010 }}. . Retrieved 7 November 2011</ref> although it has clearly dropped. The registered unemployment rate in January 2021 was 6.9%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stat.ee/et/avasta-statistikat/valdkonnad/tooelu/tooturg/tootuse-maar. |title=Töötuse määr |trans-title=Unemployment rate |publisher=Statistics Estonia |language=Estonian |access-date=20 September 2021}}</ref>

Estonia is a multinational country in which over a hundred languages are spoken, according to data from one previous census held in 2000. In 2000, 67.3% of the country's adult population spoke [[Estonian language|Estonian]] as their [[first language]] whereas over 30% of the population spoke other languages at [[native language|native]] level.<ref name="PopulationByNationality">{{cite web |url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC223&ti=POPULATION+BY+THE+PLACE+OF+RESIDENCE+AND+MOTHER+TONGUE&path=../I_Databas/Population_census/PHC2000/08Ethnic_nationality._Mother_tongue._Command_of_foreign_languages/&lang=1 |title=Population by the place of residence and mother tongue, statistical database: Population Census 2000|date=July 2010|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)|access-date=19 June 2009}}</ref> {{as of|2010|July|2}}, 84.1% of Estonian residents are Estonian citizens, 8.6% are citizens of other countries and 7.3% are "citizens with undetermined citizenship".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/society/citizenship.html|title=Citizenship|publisher=Estonia.eu|date=13 July 2010|access-date=18 August 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827195243/http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/society/citizenship.html|archive-date=27 August 2010}}</ref> Since 1992, roughly 140,000 people have acquired Estonian citizenship by passing [[naturalisation]] exams.<ref>[http://www.postimees.ee/67387/eesti-andis-mullu-kodakondsuse-2124-inimesele/ Eesti andis mullu kodakondsuse 2124 inimesele], ''Postimees''. 9 January 2009</ref> Estonia has also accepted [[European migrant crisis#Relocation and resettlement of asylum seekers|quota refugees]] under the migrant plan agreed upon by EU member states in 2015.<ref>{{cite news |title=Refugees frustrated and trapped in chilly Baltic states |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40479224 |work=BBC News |date=4 July 2017}}</ref>

Ethnic distribution in Estonia is very homogeneous at a county level; in most counties, over 90% of residents are ethnic Estonians. In contrast, in the capital city Tallinn and the urban areas of Ida-Viru county (which neighbours Russia) ethnic Estonians account for around 60% of the population and the remainder is mostly composed of Russian and Ukrainian immigrants, who mostly arrived in Estonia during the period of Soviet occupation (1944–1991), however now also includes over 30,000 (ca 3% of total population) war refugees from Ukraine who have settled in Estonia in 2022.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}
[[File:Saare küla Piirissaar.JPG|thumb|A [[Russians in Estonia|Russian]] [[Old Believers|Old Believer]] village with a church on [[Piirissaar]] island]]
The 2008 [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] report called "extremely credible" the description of the [[Estonian nationality law|citizenship policy of Estonia]] as "discriminatory".<ref>[http://www.osce.org/odihr/34040?download=true Naturalisation in Estonia Statement by the Legal Information Centre for Human Rights (Tallinn, Estonia)] (''[...]the Special Rapporteur considers extremely credible the views of the representatives of the Russian-speaking minorities who expressed that the citizenship policy is discriminatory[...]'')</ref> According to surveys, only 5% of the Russian community have considered returning to Russia in the near future. Estonian Russians have developed their own identity – more than half of the respondents recognized that Estonian Russians differ noticeably from the Russians in Russia. When compared with results from a 2000 survey, Russians had a more positive attitude toward the future.<ref name="Societal survey">[http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/195/yhiskond.pdf Eesti ühiskond Society] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902020818/http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/195/yhiskond.pdf |date=2 September 2011}}. (2006, PDF in Estonian/English). Retrieved 23 December 2011.</ref>

Estonia was the first former Soviet republic to legalize civil unions for same-sex couples, with a law approved in October 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/estonia-passes-law-recognizing-gay-partnerships-1412857097 |title=Estonia Passes Law Recognizing Gay Partnerships |first=Liis |last=Kangsepp |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=9 October 2014 |access-date=4 January 2014}}</ref> Political disagreements delayed adoption of the necessary implementing legislation, and same-sex couples were not able to sign [[Recognition of same-sex unions in Estonia|cohabitation agreements]] until January 1, 2016.

===Urbanization===
{{Main list|List of cities and towns in Estonia}}
Tallinn is the capital and the largest city of Estonia, and lies on the northern coast of Estonia, along the [[Gulf of Finland]]. There are 33 cities and several town-parish towns in the country. In total, there are 47 ''linn''a, with "linn" in English meaning both "cities" and "towns". More than 70% of the population lives in towns.
{{Largest cities
| country = Estonia
| stat_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://andmed.stat.ee/et/stat/rahvastik__rahvastikunaitajad-ja-koosseis__rahvaarv-ja-rahvastiku-koosseis/RV0240/sortedtable/tableViewSorted|title=RV0240: RAHVASTIK SOO, VANUSE JA 2017. AASTA HALDUSREFORMI JÄRGSE ELUKOHA JÄRGI, 1. JAANUAR|website=PX-Web}}</ref>
| list_by_pop = Demographics of Estonia
| div_name =
| div_link = Counties of Estonia{{!}}County

| city_1 = Tallinn | div_1 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_1 = 438,341
| city_2 = Tartu | div_2 = Tartu County{{!}}Tartu | pop_2 = 95,430
| city_3 = Narva | div_3 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_3 = 53,424
| city_4 = Pärnu | div_4 = Pärnu County{{!}}Pärnu | pop_4 = 40,228
| city_5 = Kohtla-Järve | div_5 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_5 = 32,577
| city_6 = Viljandi | div_6 = Viljandi County{{!}}Viljandi | pop_6 = 16,875
| city_7 = Maardu | div_7 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_7 = 15,284
| city_8 = Rakvere | div_8 = Lääne-Viru County{{!}}Lääne-Viru | pop_8 = 14,984
| city_9 = Haapsalu | div_9 = Lääne County{{!}}Lääne | pop_9 = 12,883
| city_10 = Kuressaare | div_10 = Saare County{{!}}Saare | pop_10 = 12,698
| city_11 = Sillamäe | div_11 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_11 = 12,230
| city_12 = Valga, Estonia{{!}}Valga | div_12 = Valga County{{!}}Valga | pop_12 = 11,792
| city_13 = Võru | div_13 = Võru County{{!}}Võru | pop_13 = 11,533
| city_14 = Paide | div_14 = Järva County{{!}}Järva | pop_14 = 10,285
| city_15 = Jõhvi | div_15 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_15 = 10,130
| city_16 = Keila | div_16 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_16 = 10,078
| city_17 = Saue | div_17 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_17 = 5,831
| city_18 = Elva, Estonia{{!}}Elva | div_18 = Tartu County{{!}}Tartu | pop_18 = 5,616
| city_19 = Tapa, Estonia{{!}}Tapa | div_19 = Lääne-Viru County{{!}}Lääne-Viru | pop_19 = 5,168
| city_20 = Põlva | div_20 = Põlva County{{!}}Põlva | pop_20 = 5,115
}}

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Estonia}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in Estonia (2011)<ref name=stat2011>{{cite web|url= http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC0454&lang=1|title= PC0454: AT LEAST 15-YEAR-OLD PERSONS BY RELIGION, SEX, AGE GROUP, ETHNIC NATIONALITY AND COUNTY, 31 DECEMBER 2011|date= 31 December 2011|access-date= 9 January 2014|publisher= [[Statistics Estonia]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.stat.ee/65352?parent_id=39113|title= PHC 2011: over a quarter of the population are affiliated with a particular religion|date= 29 April 2013 |access-date= 9 January 2014|publisher= [[Statistics Estonia]]}}</ref>
|label1 = Unaffiliated
|value1 = 64.87
|color1 = WhiteSmoke
|label2 = [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|value2 = 19.87
|color2 = Orchid
|label3 = [[Lutheran]]
|value3 = 12.02
|color3 = RoyalBlue
|label4 = Other [[Christianity|Christian]]
|value4 = 1.20
|color4 = DodgerBlue
|label5 = [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] and other neoprotestant denominations
|value5 = 0.93
|color5 = DeepSkyBlue
|label6 = Other religions
|value6 = 1.10
|color6 = Black
}}
Estonia has a diverse religious history, but in recent years it has become increasingly secular, with either a [[Plurality (voting)|plurality]] or a [[majority]] of the population declaring themselves [[Irreligion|nonreligious]] in recent censuses, followed by those who identify as religiously "undeclared". The largest minority groups are the various [[Christian denomination]]s, principally Lutheran and Orthodox Christians, with very small numbers of adherents in non-Christian faiths, namely [[Judaism]], [[Islam]] and [[Buddhism]]. Other polls suggest the country is broadly split between Christians and the non-religious / religiously undeclared.

In ancient Estonia, prior to Christianization and according to [[Livonian Chronicle of Henry]], [[Tharapita]] was the predominant deity for the [[Oeselians]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol26/sutrop.pdf|title=Taarapita – the Great God of the Oeselians. Article by Urmas Sutrop}}</ref>

Estonia was Christianised by the [[Catholic]] [[Teutonic Knights]] in the 13th century. The [[Protestant Reformation]] led to the establishment of the Lutheran church in 1686. Before the [[Second World War]], Estonia was approximately 80% [[Protestant]], overwhelmingly [[Lutheran]],<ref name="IvkovićHaberfeld2015">{{cite book|last1= Ivković|first1= Sanja Kutnjak|last2= Haberfeld|first2= M.R.|title= Measuring Police Integrity Across the World: Studies from Established Democracies and Countries in Transition|date= 10 June 2015|publisher= Springer |language= en |isbn= 9781493922796|page= 131|quote= Estonia is considered Protestant when classified by its historically predominant major religion (Norris and Inglehart 2011) and thus some authors (e.g., Davie 2003) claim Estonia belongs to Western (Lutheran) Europe, while others (e.g., Norris and Inglehart 2011) see Estonia as a Protestant ex-Communist society.}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web|title=Is Estonia really the least religious country in the world? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/sep/16/estonia-least-religious-country-world
|last= Ringvee
|first= Ringo
|date= 16 September 2011
|work= The Guardian
|access-date= 14 October 2014
|quote= For this situation there are several reasons, starting from the distant past (the close connection of the churches with the Swedish or German ruling classes) up to the Soviet-period atheist policy when the chain of religious traditions was broken in most families. In Estonia, religion has never played an important role on the political or ideological battlefield. The institutional religious life was dominated by foreigners until the early 20th century. The tendencies that prevailed in the late 1930s for closer relations between the state and Lutheran church [...] ended with the Soviet occupation in 1940.
}}
</ref><ref name=MarshallCavendish2010>{{cite book|title=World and Its Peoples: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland|year=2010|publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]]|isbn=9780761478966|page=1066|first1=Triin |last1=Edovald |first2=Michelle |last2=Felton |first3=John |last3=Haywood |first4=Rimvydas |last4=Juskaitis |author5=Michael Thomas Kerrigan |first6=Simon |last6=Lund-Lack |first7=Nicholas |last7=Middleton |first8=Josef |last8=Miskovsky |first9=Ihar |last9=Piatrowicz |first10=Lisa |last10=Pickering |first11=Dace |last11=Praulins |first12=John |last12=Swift |first13=Vytautas |last13=Uselis |first14=Ilivi |last14=Zajedova |quote=It is usually said that Estonia is a Protestant country; however, the overwhelming majority of Estonians, some 72 percent, are nonreligious. Estonia is the European Union (EU) country with the greatest percentage of people with no religious belief. This is in part, the result of Soviet actions and repression of religion. When the Soviet Union annexed Estonia in 1940, church property was confiscated, many theologians were deported to Siberia, most of the leadership of Evangelical Lutheran Church went into exile, and religious instruction was banned. Many churches were destroyed in the German occupation of Estonia, from 1941 through 1944, and in World War II (1939–1945), and religion was actively persecuted in Estonia under Soviet rule 1944 until 1989, when some measure of tolerance was introduced.}}</ref> followed by [[Calvinism]] and other Protestant branches. Many Estonians profess not to be particularly religious because religion through the 19th century was associated with German feudal rule.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.country-studies.com/estonia/religion.html |title=Estonia – Religion |publisher=Country Studies |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> There has historically been a small but noticeable minority of [[Old Believers|Russian Old-believers]] near the [[Lake Peipus]] area in [[Tartu County|Tartu county]].

Today, Estonia's constitution guarantees freedom of religion, separation of church and state, and individual rights to privacy of belief and religion.<ref>[[Constitution of Estonia#Chapter 2: Fundamental Rights, Liberties, and Duties]] Article 40.–42.</ref> According to the Dentsu Communication Institute Inc, Estonia is one of the [[Irreligion by country|least religious]] countries in the world, with 75.7% of the population claiming to be [[irreligion|irreligious]]. The [[Eurobarometer]] Poll 2005 found that only 16% of Estonians profess a belief in a god, the lowest belief of all countries studied.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf |title=Social Values|access-date=5 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524004644/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf |archive-date=24 May 2006 }}</ref> A 2009 [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] poll found similar results, with only 16% of Estonians describing religion as "important" in their daily lives, making Estonia the most irreligious of the nations surveyed.<ref name=gallup-religiosity-poor-nations>{{cite web|last1=Crabtree|first1=Steve|title=Religiosity Highest in World's Poorest Nations|date=31 August 2010 |url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/142727/religiosity-highest-world-poorest-nations.aspx|publisher=Gallup|access-date=27 May 2015}} (in which numbers have been rounded)</ref>
[[File:Ruhnu puukirik.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Ruhnu]] stave church, built in 1644, is the oldest surviving wooden building in Estonia]]
New polls about religiosity in the [[European Union]] in 2012 by [[Eurobarometer]] found that Christianity is the largest religion in Estonia accounting for 45% of [[Estonians]].<ref name=EUROBAROMETER>{{citation|title=Discrimination in the EU in 2012 |work=[[Eurobarometer|Special Eurobarometer]] |year=2012 |series=383 |page=233 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_393_en.pdf |access-date=14 August 2013 |publisher=[[European Commission]] |location=European Union |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202023700/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_393_en.pdf |archive-date=2 December 2012 }} The question asked was "Do you consider yourself to be...?" With a card showing: Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, Other Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu, Atheist, and Non-believer/Agnostic. Space was given for Other (SPONTANEOUS) and DK. Jewish, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu did not reach the 1% threshold.</ref> [[Eastern Orthodox]] are the largest Christian group in Estonia, accounting for 17% of Estonia citizens,<ref name="EUROBAROMETER"/> while [[Protestant]]s make up 6%, and Other Christian make up 22%. [[Agnostic|Non believer/Agnostic]] account 22%, [[Atheist]] accounts for 15%, and undeclared accounts for 15%.<ref name="EUROBAROMETER"/>

The most recent [[Pew Research Center]], found that in 2015, 51% of the population of Estonia declared itself Christian, 45% [[Irreligion|religiously unaffiliated]]—a category which includes [[atheists]], agnostics and those who describe their religion as "[[Nothing in Particular|nothing in particular]]", while 2% belonged to other faiths.<ref name="Religious Belief in Central and Eastern Europe">{{cite web |url=http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2017/05/10104119/CEUP-FULL-REPORT.pdf |title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe |date=10 May 2017 |access-date=12 May 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513130508/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2017/05/10104119/CEUP-FULL-REPORT.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2017 }}</ref> The Christians divided between 25% Eastern Orthodox, 20% Lutherans, 5% other Christians and 1% Catholic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-belief-and-national-belonging-in-central-and-eastern-europe/ |title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe | Pew Research Center |date=10 May 2017 |publisher=Pewforum.org |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> While the [[Irreligion|religiously unaffiliated]] divided between 9% as atheists, 1% as agnostics and 35% as [[Nothing in Particular]].<ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-affiliation/ Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe: 1. Religious affiliation]; [[Pew Research Center]], 10 May 2017</ref>

Traditionally, the largest religious denomination in the country was [[Lutheranism]], which was adhered to by 160,000 Estonians (or 13% of the population) according to the 2000 census, principally ethnic Estonians. According to the Lutheran World Federation, the historic Lutheran denomination has 180,000 registered members.<ref>{{cite web|title=Churches in Estonia|url=https://www.lutheranworld.org/country/estonia|publisher=lutheranworld.org|access-date=16 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305170631/https://www.lutheranworld.org/country/estonia|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Other organisations, such as the World Council of Churches, report that there are as many as 265,700 Estonian Lutherans.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church|url=http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/estonian-evangelical-lutheran-church|publisher=oikoumene.org|access-date=22 September 2015}}</ref> Additionally, there are between 8,000 and 9,000 members abroad.
However, the 2011 census indicated that [[Eastern Orthodox]]y had surpassed Lutheranism, accounting for 16.5% of the population (176,773 people).

Eastern Orthodoxy is practised chiefly by the Russian minority. The [[Estonian Orthodox Church of Moscow Patriarchate|Estonian Orthodox Church]], affiliated with the Russian Orthodox Church, is the primary Orthodox denomination. The [[Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church]], under the Greek-Orthodox [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], claims another 20,000 members.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}

Catholics are a small minority in Estonia. They are organised under the Latin [[Apostolic Administration of Estonia]] and two Greek Catholic parishes.

According to the census of 2000 (data in table to the right), there were about 1,000 adherents of the [[Taaraism|Taara faith]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maavald.ee/eng/uudised.html?rubriik=50&id=363&op=lugu |title=Maavald |publisher=Maavald.ee |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.estinst.ee/publications/estonianculture/II_MMIII/kaasik.html |title=Old Estonian Religions |first=Ahto |last=Kaasik |publisher=Einst.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811050822/http://www.estinst.ee/publications/estonianculture/II_MMIII/kaasik.html |archive-date=11 August 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/09/world/europe/09iht-estonia.4.18535971.html |title=Some Estonians return to pre-Christian animist traditions |newspaper=The New York Times |first=Ellen |last=Barry |date=9 November 2008 |access-date=2 May 2010}}</ref> or [[Maausk]] in Estonia (see [[Maavalla Koda]]). The Jewish community has an estimated population of about 1,900 (see [[History of the Jews in Estonia]]), and the Muslim community numbers just over 1,400. Around 68,000 people consider themselves [[atheists]].<ref name="pub.stat.ee">{{cite web |url= http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/I_Databas/Population_census/PHC2000/16Religious_affiliation/16Religious_affiliation.asp |title=Statistical database: Population Census 2000 – Religious affiliation |publisher=Statistics Estonia |date=22 October 2002 |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref>

===Languages===
{{main|Languages of Estonia}}

[[File:Finnic languages 2.png|thumb|left|Distribution of [[Finnic languages]] in [[Northern Europe]]]]

The official language, [[Estonian language|Estonian]] is a [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] language, and is conventionally classified as a member of the [[Uralic languages|Uralic language family]]. Estonian is closely related to Finnish and one of the few languages of Europe that is not of [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] origin. Unlike Estonian and Finnish, the languages of their nearest geographical neighbouring countries, [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], and Russian, are all Indo-European languages.

Although the Estonian and [[Germanic language]]s are of different origins, one can identify many similar words in Estonian and German. This is primarily because the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one-third of its vocabulary from [[Germanic languages]], mainly from Low Saxon ([[Middle Low German]]) during the period of [[History of Estonia#Estonian Crusade: The Middle Ages|German rule]], and [[High German]] (including [[standard German]]). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22–25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent.

[[South Estonian]] languages are spoken by 100,000 people and include the dialects of [[Võro language|Võro]] and [[Seto language|Seto]]. The languages are spoken in South-Eastern Estonia, are [[Genetic relationship (linguistics)|genealogically]] distinct from northern Estonian: but are traditionally and officially considered as [[dialect]]s and "regional forms of the Estonian language", not separate language(s).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Laakso|first1=Johanna|last2=Sarhimaa|first2=Anneli|last3=Spiliopoulou Åkermark|first3=Sia|last4=Toivanen|first4=Reeta|title=Towards Openly Multilingual Policies and Practices: Assessing Minority Language Maintenance Across Europe|date=3 March 2016|publisher=Multilingual Matters|location=Bristol; Buffalo|isbn=9781783094950|edition=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xQKkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT76|access-date=23 December 2016}}</ref>

Russian is the most spoken minority language in the country. There are towns in Estonia with large concentrations of Russian speakers and there are towns where Estonian speakers are in the minority (especially in the northeast, e.g. [[Narva]]). Russian is spoken as a secondary language by forty- to seventy-year-old ethnic Estonians, because Russian was the unofficial language of the [[Estonian SSR]] from 1944 to 1990 and was taught as a compulsory second language during the Soviet era. In the period between 1990 and 1995, the Russian language was granted an official special status according to Estonian language laws.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/30669 |title=Eesti NSV Keeleseadus|publisher=Riigi Teataja |date=7 January 1990 |access-date=20 August 2021}}</ref> In 1995 it lost its official status. In 1998, most first- and second-generation industrial immigrants from the former Soviet Union (mainly the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]]) did not speak Estonian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ies.ee/15102000.htm |title=Kirch, Aksel. "Russians in contemporary Estonia – different strategies of the integration in to the nation-state." |publisher=Ies.ee |date=10 February 1998 |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> However, by 2010, 64.1% of non-ethnic Estonians spoke Estonian.<ref>[http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/dialog/varval.asp?ma=ML133&ti=POPULATION+AGED+15%2D74+BY+ETHNIC+NATIONALITY+AND+KNOWLEDGE+OF+LANGUAGES&path=../I_databas/Social_life/09Labour_market/02Education/02Educational_level/&search=LANGUAGE&lang=1 Table ML133, Eesti Statistika]. Retrieved 30 April 2011</ref> The latter, mostly Russian-speaking ethnic minorities, reside predominantly in the capital city of Tallinn and the industrial urban areas in [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru county]].

From the 13th to the 20th century, there were Swedish-speaking communities in Estonia, particularly in the coastal areas and on the islands (e.g., [[Hiiumaa]], [[Vormsi]], [[Ruhnu]]; in Swedish, known as Dagö, Ormsö, Runö, respectively) along the Baltic sea, communities which today have almost disappeared.
From 1918 to 1940, when Estonia was independent, the small Swedish community was well treated. Municipalities with a Swedish majority, mainly found along the coast, used Swedish as the administrative language and Swedish-Estonian culture saw an upswing. However, most Swedish-speaking people fled to Sweden before the end of World War II, before the invasion of Estonia by the Soviet army in 1944. Only a handful of older speakers remain.
Apart from many other areas the influence of Swedish is distinct in the [[Noarootsi Parish]] of [[Lääne county]] where there are many villages with bilingual Estonian or Swedish names and street signs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eki.ee/knn/p2y.htm |title=Names of populated places changed with the reform of 1997 |publisher=Institute of the Estonian Language |date=29 September 1998 |access-date=12 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.noavv.ee/swe |title=Information about the bilingual Estonian/Swedish parish of Noarootsi |publisher=Noavv.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120904104245/http://www.noavv.ee/swe |archive-date=4 September 2012 }}</ref>

The most common foreign languages learned by Estonian students are English, Russian, German, and French. Other popular languages include Finnish, Spanish, and Swedish.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estonian Foreign Languages Strategy 2009 – 2015|url=http://contactpoints.ecml.at/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=8lWNTiRd1A4%3D&tabid=1319&language=en-GB|publisher=Ministry of Education and Research|access-date=22 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191208/http://contactpoints.ecml.at/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=8lWNTiRd1A4%3D&tabid=1319&language=en-GB|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Lotfitka Romani is spoken by the Roma minority in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eestiromad.ee/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Anette-Ross-Estonian-Lotfitka-Romani.pdf|title=ESTONIAN LOTFITKA ROMANI}}</ref>

===Education and science===
[[File:Tartu Ülikooli peahoone 2012.jpg|thumb|alt=gray stucco building three-story building with grey slate hip roof, central portico and pediment|The [[University of Tartu]] is one of the oldest universities in Northern Europe and the highest-ranked university in Estonia. According to the Top Universities website, the University of Tartu ranks 285th in the QS Global World Ranking.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/university-tartu|title=University of Tartu|website=www.topuniversities.com}}</ref>]]
{{Main|Education in Estonia}}
{{See also|List of universities in Estonia|Space science in Estonia|Tiigrihüpe}}

The history of formal education in Estonia dates back to the 13th and 14th centuries when the first [[monastic]] and [[cathedral schools]] were founded.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fl.ut.ee/368372 |title=Ajaloost: Koolihariduse algusest |publisher=University of Tartu |date=24 March 2010 |language=et |access-date=14 October 2013}}</ref> The first primer in the Estonian language was published in 1575. The oldest university is the [[University of Tartu]], established by the Swedish King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustav II Adolf]] in 1632. In 1919, university courses were first taught in the Estonian language.

Today's education in Estonia is divided into general, vocational, and hobby. The education system is based on four levels: pre-school, basic, secondary, and higher education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hm.ee/index.php |title=Haridus- ja Teadusministeerium |publisher=Hm.ee |access-date=23 December 2010}}</ref> A wide network of schools and supporting educational institutions have been established. The Estonian education system consists of state, municipal, public, and private institutions. There are currently 589 schools in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ekk.edu.ee/ehis/failid/koolide_kontaktid.xls |title=Koolide, huvikoolide, koolieelsete lasteasutuste kontaktandmed |access-date=17 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617071702/http://www.ekk.edu.ee/ehis/failid/koolide_kontaktid.xls |archive-date=17 June 2009}}. Estonian Education Infosystem, (in Estonian)</ref>

Estonia started connecting all its schools to the internet very early. [[Tiigrihüpe]] (Estonian for Tiger Leap) was a project undertaken by the state to heavily invest in the development and expansion of computer and network infrastructure in Estonia, with a particular emphasis on education.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3ct1x41|title=BBC World Service – Witness History, Estonia's internet 'Tiger Leap'|website=BBC}}</ref>

In the 2018 [[Programme for International Student Assessment|Program for International Student Assessment (PISA)]] report, Estonia's students rank 1st in Europe. In the world, Estonia's students rank 5th in reading, 8th in mathematics and 4th in sciences.<ref name="LoC">{{Cite web|url=https://www.educationestonia.org/pisa-2018-estonian-students-rank-1st-in-europe/|title=PISA 2018: Estonian students rank 1st in Europe|date=28 May 2020 |website=Education Estonia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/PISA%202018%20Insights%20and%20Interpretations%20FINAL%20PDF.pdf|title=PISA 2018: Insights and Interpretations}}</ref> Additionally, around 89% of Estonian adults aged 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, one of the highest rates in the industrialised world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/estonia/.|title=OECD Better Life Index|access-date=27 March 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Building of Estonian Students' Society.jpg|thumb|left|House of the [[Estonian Students' Society]], built in 1901–1902 in Tartu, and considered the first example of the Estonian [[architectural style|style]] of urban architecture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://register.muinas.ee/|title=National Registry of Cultural Monuments 7010 Eesti Üliõpilaste Seltsi hoone Tartus, J.Tõnissoni 1, 1901.a.|access-date=18 November 2022}}</ref>]]

Academic higher education in Estonia is divided into three levels: bachelor's, master's, and doctoral studies. In some specialties (basic medical studies, veterinary, pharmacy, dentistry, architect-engineer, and a classroom teacher programme) the bachelor's and master's levels are integrated into one unit.<ref name="EurydiceSummary">{{cite web|url=https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Estonia:Higher_Education|title=National summary sheets on education systems in Europe and ongoing reforms: Estonia|date=February 2009|publisher=[[Eurydice]]|access-date=19 September 2009|archive-date=16 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316213225/https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Estonia:Higher_Education|url-status=dead}}</ref> Estonian public universities have significantly more autonomy than applied higher education institutions. In addition to organising the academic life of the university, universities can create new curricula, establish admission terms and conditions, approve the budget, approve the development plan, elect the rector, and make restricted decisions in matters concerning assets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/en/national_reports/index.htm |title=Implementation of Bologna Declaration in Estonia |publisher=Bologna-berlin2003.de |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709041912/http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/en/national_reports/index.htm |archive-date= 9 July 2009 }}</ref> Estonia has a moderate number of public and private universities. The largest public universities are the [[University of Tartu]], [[Tallinn University of Technology]], [[Tallinn University]], [[Estonian University of Life Sciences]], [[Estonian Academy of Arts]]; the largest private university is [[Estonian Business School]].

[[File:ESTCube orbiidil 2.jpg|thumb|alt=ESTCube-1 micro satellite orbiting globe and beaming light to Estonia|[[ESTCube-1]] is the first Estonian satellite.]]
The [[Estonian Academy of Sciences]] is the [[national academy]] of science. The strongest public non-profit research institute that carries out fundamental and applied research is the [[National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics]] (NICPB; Estonian KBFI). The first computer centres were established in the late 1950s in Tartu and Tallinn. Estonian specialists contributed in the development of software engineering standards for ministries of the Soviet Union during the 1980s.<ref name=Kalja>{{cite book|editor-first=Detlef|editor-last=Kochan|title=Software for manufacturing: proceedings of the 7th International IFIP/IFAC Conference on Software for Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Dresden, German Democratic Republic, 14–17 June 1988 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5EiaAAAAIAAJ|year=1989|publisher=North-Holland|isbn=978-0-444-87342-2|author1=A. Kalja |author2=J. Pruuden |author3=B. Tamm |author4=E. Tyugu |chapter=Two Families of Knowledge Based CAD Environments|pages=125–134}}</ref><ref name=Jaakkola>
{{cite journal|author1=H. Jaakkola |author2=A. Kalja |title=Estonian Information Technology Policy in Government, Industry and Research|journal=Technology Management: Strategies and Applications|volume= 3|issue= 3|year= 1997|pages= 299–307}}</ref> {{As of|2015}}, Estonia spends around 1.5% of its GDP on [[Research and Development]], compared to an EU average of around 2.0%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Research and development expenditure (% of GDP)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?end=2015&locations=EE&name_desc=false&start=1998&view=chart|year=2015|publisher=World Bank|access-date=19 January 2019}}</ref> Estonia was ranked 18th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=www.wipo.int |language=en}}</ref>

Some of the best-known scientists related to Estonia include astronomers [[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]], [[Ernst Öpik]] and [[Jaan Einasto]], biologist [[Karl Ernst von Baer]], [[Jakob von Uexküll]], chemists [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] and [[Carl Schmidt (chemist)|Carl Schmidt]], economist [[Ragnar Nurkse]], mathematician [[Edgar Krahn]], medical researchers [[Ludvig Puusepp]] and [[Nikolay Pirogov]], physicist [[Thomas Johann Seebeck]], political scientist [[Rein Taagepera]], psychologist [[Endel Tulving]] and [[Risto Näätänen]], semiotician [[Juri Lotman]].

According to ''New Scientist'', Estonia will be the first nation to provide personal genetic information service sponsored by the state. They aim to minimise and prevent future ailments for those whose genes make them extra prone to conditions like adult-onset diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The government plans to provide lifestyle advice based on the DNA for 100,000 of its 1.3 million citizens.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2165318-estonia-to-give-genetic-testing-and-advice-to-100000-residents/|title=Estonia to give genetic testing and advice to 100,000 residents|work=New Scientist|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Estonia}}
{{See also|List of Estonians}}
[[File:Eesti Rahva Muuseumi peahoone 13.jpg|thumb|The [[Estonian National Museum]] in Tartu.]]
The [[culture of Estonia]] incorporates indigenous heritage, as represented by the Estonian language and the [[sauna]], with mainstream [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] and European cultural aspects. Because of its history and geography, Estonia's culture has been influenced by the traditions of the adjacent area's various Finnic, Baltic, Slavic and Germanic peoples as well as the cultural developments in the former dominant powers Germany, Sweden and Russia, for this reason it aspires more to be [[Nordic identity in Estonia|considered a Nordic state]].<ref>[https://vm.ee/et/node/42622 Estonia as a Nordic Country] – Välisministeerium</ref><ref>[https://icds.ee/en/nordic-ideals-of-estonia-and-finland-a-longing-for-a-strong-leader-sets-finland-and-estonia-apart-from-scandinavia/ Nordic ideals of Estonia and Finland: a longing for a strong leader sets Finland and Estonia apart from Scandinavia] – ICDS</ref>

Today, Estonian society encourages liberty and liberalism, with a popular commitment to the ideals of the limited government, discouraging centralised power and corruption. The [[Protestant work ethic]] remains a significant cultural staple, and free education is a highly prized institution. As the mainstream culture in the Nordic countries, Estonian culture can be seen to build upon the ascetic environmental realities and traditional livelihoods, a heritage of comparatively widespread [[egalitarianism]] out of practical reasons (see: [[Everyman's right]] and [[universal suffrage]]), and the ideals of closeness to nature and [[self-sufficiency]] (see: [[summer cottage]]).

The [[Estonian Academy of Arts]] (Estonian: ''Eesti Kunstiakadeemia'', EKA) is providing higher education in art, design, architecture, media, art history and conservation while the [[University of Tartu Viljandi Culture Academy]] has an approach to popularise native culture through such curricula as native construction, native blacksmithing, native textile design, traditional handicraft and traditional music, but also jazz and church music. In 2010, there were 245 museums in Estonia whose combined collections contain more than 10 million objects.<ref>[http://www.postimees.ee/616164/eesti-245-muuseumis-sailitatakse-10-miljonit-museaali/ Eesti 245 muuseumis säilitatakse 10 miljonit museaali]. ''Postimees'', 30 October 2011. (in Estonian)</ref>

===Music===
{{Main|Music of Estonia}}
{{See also|Estonian national awakening|Estonian Song Festival|Estonia in the Eurovision Song Contest}}
[[File:Tallinna laululava ansambel, 1960.a.*.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Estonian Song Festival]] is [[UNESCO]]'s [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity|Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]].]]

The earliest mention of Estonian singing dates back to [[Saxo Grammaticus]] ''Gesta Danorum'' (ca. 1179).<ref>{{cite book|author1=Sir George Grove|first2=Stanley|last2=Sadie|title=The New Grove dictionary of music and musicians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I4YAAAAIAAJ|date=June 1980|publisher=Macmillan Publishers|isbn=978-0-333-23111-1|page=358}}</ref> Saxo speaks of Estonian warriors who sang at night while waiting for a battle. The older [[Folk music|folk songs]] are also referred to as ''regilaulud'', songs in the traditional ''regivärss'' [[Metre (poetry)|poetic metre]] shared by all [[Baltic Finns]]. Runic singing was widespread among Estonians until the 18th century, when rhythmic folk songs began to replace them.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Jan |last2=Lehiste |first2=Ilse |title=The Temporal Structure of Estonian Runic Songs |date=2002 |publisher=DeGruyter Mouton |location=Berlin |isbn=9783110170320 |page=9 |doi=10.1515/9783110885996 |edition=Reprint 2015 |url=https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110885996 |access-date=9 May 2022}}</ref>

Traditional wind instruments derived from those used by [[shepherd]]s were once widespread, and are now becoming more commonly played once more. Other instruments, including the [[fiddle]], [[zither]], [[concertina]], and [[accordion]] are used to play [[polka]] or other dance music. The [[kannel (instrument)|kannel]] is a native instrument that is again becoming more popular in Estonia. A Native Music Preserving Centre was opened in 2008 in [[Viljandi]].<ref>Margus Haav [http://wwx.postimees.ee/270308/esileht/kultuur/319974.php Pärimusmuusika ait lööb uksed valla (Estonian Native Music Preserving Centre is opened)] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120912151814/http://wwx.postimees.ee/270308/esileht/kultuur/319974.php |date=12 September 2012}}. Postimees. 27 March 2008 (in Estonian)</ref>
[[File:Arvo Pärt.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Arvo Pärt bearded balding man facing left|[[Arvo Pärt]] was the world's most performed living composer from 2010 to 2018.]]

The tradition of [[Estonian Song Festival]]s (''Laulupidu'') started at the height of the [[Estonian national awakening]] in 1869. Today, it is one of the largest amateur [[choral]] events in the world. In 2004, about 100,000 people participated in the Song Festival. Since 1928, [[the Tallinn Song Festival Grounds]] (''Lauluväljak'') have hosted the event every five years in July. The last festival took place in July 2019. In addition, Youth Song Festivals are also held every four or five years, the latest taking place in 2017.<ref>[http://sa.laulupidu.ee/en/ The 12th Estonian youth song and dance celebration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706073054/http://sa.laulupidu.ee/en/ |date=6 July 2017}}. Estonian Song and Dance Celebration Foundation</ref>

Professional Estonian musicians and composers such as [[Aleksander Eduard Thomson]], [[Rudolf Tobias]], [[Miina Härma]], [[Mart Saar]], [[Artur Kapp]], [[Juhan Aavik]], [[Aleksander Kunileid]], [[Artur Lemba]] and [[Heino Eller]] emerged in the late 19th century. Currently, the most well-known Estonian composers are [[Arvo Pärt]], [[Eduard Tubin]], and [[Veljo Tormis]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Popular awareness in Estonian music |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Music/Popular_awareness_in_Estonian_music/ |website=Estonica.org |access-date=15 October 2022}}</ref> In 2014, Arvo Pärt was the world's most performed living composer for the fourth year in a row.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bachtrack.com/top-ten-statistics-classical-music-2014 |title=2014 Classical music statistics: Lis(z)tmania |publisher=Bachtrack.com |date=8 January 2015 |access-date=31 March 2016}}</ref>

In the 1950s, Estonian [[baritone]] [[Georg Ots]] rose to worldwide prominence as an opera singer.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mus-col.com/en/the-authors/22453/ |title=Ots, Georg |website=Museum Collection |date=2021 |access-date=17 November 2021}}</ref>

In popular music, Estonian artist [[Kerli Kõiv]] has become popular in Europe, also gaining in popularity in North America. She provided music for the 2010 [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] film ''[[Alice in Wonderland (2010 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'' and the television series ''[[Smallville]]'' in the United States of America.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

Estonia won the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] in 2001 with the song "[[Everybody (Eurovision song)|Everybody]]" performed by [[Tanel Padar]] and [[Dave Benton]]. In 2002, Estonia hosted the event. [[Maarja-Liis Ilus]] competed for Estonia in 1996 and 1997, while [[Eda-Ines Etti]], [[Koit Toome]] and [[Evelin Samuel]] partly owe their popularity to the song contest. [[Lenna Kuurmaa]] gained recognition in Europe performing with her band [[Vanilla Ninja]]. "[[Rändajad]]" by [[Urban Symphony]] was the first song in Estonian to chart in the UK, Belgium and Switzerland.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

===Literature===
{{Main|Literature of Estonia}}
{{See also|Estophile}}
[[File:Jaan Kross in 2004.jpg|thumb|[[Jaan Kross]] is the most translated Estonian writer.]]
[[Estonian literature]] refers to literature written in the [[Estonian language]] (ca. 1 million speakers).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/193608/Estonian-literature|title=Estonian literature|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=27 March 2015}}</ref> The domination of Estonia after the [[Northern Crusades]], from the 13th century to 1918 by Germany, Sweden, and Russia, resulted in few early literary works being written in the Estonian language. The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century. ''Originates Livoniae'' in the [[Chronicle of Henry of Livonia]] contains Estonian place names, words and sentence fragments. The ''[[Liber Census Daniae]]'' (1241) contains Estonian place and family names.<ref name="DWE">{{cite book|first=George|last=Kurman|title=The development of written Estonian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmxkAAAAMAAJ|year=1968|publisher=Indiana University|isbn=9780877500360 }}</ref> Many folk tales are told to this day and some have been written down and translated to make them accessible to an international readership.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tiidu the Piper|date=2014|publisher=Collegium Basilea|location=Basel|isbn=9781500941437}}</ref> ''[[ABD ehk Luggemise-Ramat Lastele]]'', an Estonian-language [[alphabet book]] by [[Otto Wilhelm Masing]], was published in 1795.<ref>[https://elk.ee/en/childrens-literature/ajalugu/ History] – [[Estonian Children's Literature Centre]]</ref><ref>[https://www.vabaeestisona.com/spotted-mother-tongue/ Spotted Mother Tongue] – ''[[Vaba Eesti Sõna]]''</ref>

The cultural stratum of Estonian was originally characterised by a largely lyrical form of folk poetry based on syllabic quantity. Apart from a few, albeit remarkable, exceptions, this archaic form has not been widely employed in later times. One of the most outstanding achievements in the field is the national epic ''[[Kalevipoeg]]''. At a professional level, the traditional folk song reached its new heyday during the last quarter of the 20th century, primarily thanks to the work of composer [[Veljo Tormis]].

[[Oskar Luts]] was the most prominent prose writer of early Estonian literature and is still widely read today, particularly his lyrical school novel ''Kevade'' (Spring).<ref>[http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Literature/Seeking_the_contours_of_a_%E2%80%98truly%E2%80%99_Estonian_literature/ Seeking the contours of a 'truly' Estonian literature] Estonica.org</ref> [[A. H. Tammsaare]]'s social epic and psychological realist [[pentalogy]], ''[[Truth and Justice]]'', captured the evolution of Estonian society from a poor farmer community to an independent nation.<ref>[http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Literature/Literature_and_an_independent_Estonia/ Literature and an independent Estonia ] Estonica.org</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/tammsaar.htm |title=Anton Tammsaare |website=Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi) |first=Petri |last=Liukkonen |publisher=[[Kuusankoski]] Public Library |location=Finland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071005054341/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/tammsaar.htm |archive-date= 5 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In modern times, [[Jaan Kross]] and [[Jaan Kaplinski]] are Estonia's best-known and most-translated writers.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?as_q=&btnG=Google+Search&&as_auth=Jaan+Kross Jaan Kross] at google.books</ref> Among the most popular writers of the late 20th and early 21st centuries are [[Tõnu Õnnepalu]] and [[Andrus Kivirähk]], who uses elements of Estonian folklore and mythology, deforming them into the absurd and [[grotesque]].<ref>[http://www.estlit.ee/?id=11665&author=10876&tpl=1063&c_tpl=1071 Andrus Kivirähk. The Old Barny (novel)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504012509/http://www.estlit.ee/?id=11665&author=10876&tpl=1063&c_tpl=1071 |date=4 May 2011}} Estonian Literature Centre</ref>

===Media===
{{See also|List of Estonian films|List of Estonian war films}}

The [[cinema of Estonia]] started in 1908 with the production of a newsreel about Swedish King [[Gustav V of Sweden|Gustav V]]'s visit to Tallinn.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.estinst.ee/publications/kultuur/cinema.html |title=Cinema of Estonia |publisher=Einst.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807061344/http://www.estinst.ee/publications/kultuur/cinema.html |archive-date=7 August 2011 }}</ref> The first public TV broadcast in Estonia was in July 1955. Regular, live radio broadcasts began in December 1926. Deregulation in the field of electronic media has brought radical changes compared to the beginning of the 1990s. The first licences for private TV broadcasters were issued in 1992. The first private radio station went on the air in 1990.

The most internationally known Estonian films include ''[[Those Old Love Letters]]'', ''[[The Heart of the Bear]]'', ''[[Names in Marble (film)|Names in Marble]]'', ''[[The Singing Revolution]]'', ''[[Autumn Ball]]'', ''[[1944 (film)|1944]]'', and ''[[The Fencer]]''. Internationally known Estonian film actors include [[Lembit Ulfsak]], [[Jaan Tätte]], and [[Elmo Nüganen]], who also known as a film director. 

Estonian media sector has a large number of weekly newspapers and magazines, and Estonians have a choice of 9 domestic TV channels and a host of radio stations. Estonia has been internationally recognised for its high rate of press freedom, having been ranked 3rd in the 2012 [[Press Freedom Index]] by [[Reporters Without Borders]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2011-2012,1043.html |title=Press Freedom Index 2011–2012 – Reporters Without Borders |access-date=27 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230901/http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2011-2012%2C1043.html |archive-date= 3 March 2016 }}</ref>

Estonia has two news agencies. The [[Baltic News Service]] (BNS), founded in 1990, is a private regional news agency covering Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The ETV24 is an agency owned by ''[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]]'' which is a publicly funded radio and television organisation created on 30 June 2007 to take over the functions of the formerly separate [[Eesti Raadio]] and [[Eesti Televisioon]] under the terms of the Estonian National Broadcasting Act.<ref>{{cite book|title=Europe on a Shoestring|last=Johnstone|first=Sarah|year=2007|publisher=Lonely Planet|page=325|isbn=978-1-74104-591-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_xvS1r8Ql0AC&pg=PA325}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Campaigning in Europe|last=Maier|first=Michaela|year=2006|publisher=LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-9322-4|page=398|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j9NjsybIcgoC&pg=PA398}}</ref>

===Architecture===
{{Main|Architecture of Estonia}}
[[File:Musée de plein air (Tallinn) (7644656256).jpg|thumb|right|A traditional farmhouse built in the [[Estonian vernacular architecture|Estonian vernacular style]]]]
The architectural history of Estonia mainly reflects its contemporary development in northern Europe. Worth mentioning is especially the architectural ensemble that makes out the medieval old town of Tallinn, which is on the UNESCO World Heritage List.<ref>{{cite web |title=Historic Centre (Old Town) of Tallinn |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/822/ |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref> In addition, the country has several unique, more or less preserved [[hill fort]]s dating from pre-Christian times,<ref>{{cite web |title=Pada hill forts |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/pada-hill-forts |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Varbola hill fort |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/varbola-hill-fort |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref> a large number of still intact medieval castles and churches,<ref>{{cite web |title=10 Historic Estonian Castles |url=https://www.heritagedaily.com/2017/11/10-estonian-castles/115487 |website=HeritageDaily.com |access-date=12 September 2022 |date=25 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Castles & manors |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/history-culture/castles-manors |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Churches |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/history-culture/churches |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> while the countryside is still shaped by the presence of a vast number of wooden manor houses from earlier centuries.

===Holidays===
{{main|Public holidays in Estonia}}
The Estonian [[National Day]] is the [[Independence Day (Estonia)|Independence Day]] celebrated on 24 February, the day the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] was issued. {{As of|2013}}, there are 12 public holidays (which come with a day off) and 12 national holidays celebrated annually.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pühade ja tähtpäevade seadus|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/13276841|publisher=Riigi Teataja|access-date=19 December 2010|language=et|quote=In effect since 26 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Estonian Holidays in 2010 |url=http://www.vm.ee/en/node/5753 |publisher=Estonian Foreign Ministry |access-date=19 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106162819/http://www.vm.ee/en/node/5753 |archive-date= 6 January 2011 }}</ref>
{{Holidays of Estonia}}

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Estonian cuisine}}
{{See also|Kama (food)|Kalev (confectioner)|Kohuke|Verivorst}}
Historically, the cuisine of Estonia has been dependent on seasons and the simple food from the local farms and the sea. Today, it also includes many "global" foods. The most typical foods in modern Estonia are black bread, pork, potatoes, and dairy products.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eestitoit.ee/pages.php/010201,8 |title=Estonian Food Inforserver |access-date=24 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217022649/http://www.eestitoit.ee/pages.php/010201%2C8 |archive-date=17 December 2007 }} (in Estonian)</ref> Traditionally in summer and spring, Estonians like to eat everything fresh – berries, herbs, vegetables, and everything else that comes straight from the garden. Hunting and fishing have also been very common, although currently hunting and fishing are enjoyed mostly as hobbies. Today, it is also very popular to grill outside in summer.

A cardamom-spiced bread roll with almond paste ''[[Semla|vastlakukkel]]'' is a traditional Estonian [[sweet roll]], especially popular from Christmas to Easter.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rosa |first1=Natalia |title=A first timer's guide to wholesome and delicious Estonian Food |url=https://www.trafalgar.com/real-word/first-timers-guide-estonian-food/ |website=Trafalgar.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |date=27 February 2020}}</ref>

Traditionally in winter, jams, preserves, and pickles are brought to the table. Gathering and preserving fruits, mushrooms, and vegetables for winter has always been popular, but today gathering and preserving is becoming less common because everything can be bought from stores. However, preparing food for winter is still very popular in the countryside.

===Sports===
{{Main|Sport in Estonia}}
[[File:Tartu_Maraton_2006-3.jpg|thumb|left|alt=large crowd of skiers participating in the marathon |[[Tartu Maraton|Tartu Ski Marathon]] in 2006]]
Estonia first competed as an independent nation at the [[1920 Summer Olympics]]. Estonian athletes took part in the 1952–1988 Olympic Games under the Soviet flag, as the country had been occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940. The [[1980 Summer Olympics]] [[Sailing|Sailing regatta]] was held in the capital city [[Tallinn]]. After regaining independence in 1991, Estonia has participated in all Olympics. Estonia has won most of its medals in [[Track and field|athletics]], [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], [[wrestling]], and [[cross-country skiing (sport)|cross-country skiing]]. Estonia has been one of the most successful nations at the Olympics in terms of medals won per capita.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tambur |first1=Silver |title=Estonia at the Olympics |url=https://estonianworld.com/life/estonia-at-the-olympics/ |website=EstonianWorld.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |date=23 July 2021}}</ref> Estonia's best results were being ranked 13th in the total medals' table at the [[1936 Summer Olympics medal table|1936 Summer Olympics]], and 12th at the [[2006 Winter Olympics medal table|2006 Winter Olympics]].

Estonia has many indoor and outdoor facilities dedicated to various sports branches.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sports and games |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/activities-adventure/sports-games |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Kiiking]], a relatively new sport, was invented in 1993 by Ado Kosk in Estonia. Kiiking involves a modified swing in which the rider of the swing tries to go around 360 degrees.


==See also==
{{Portal|Estonia|Europe}}
* [[Outline of Estonia]]
* [[Index of Estonia-related articles]]
{{Clear}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* [[Giuseppe D'Amato]] ''[http://www.europarussia.com/books/viaggio_nellhansa_baltica/travel-to-the-baltic-hansa Travel to the Baltic Hansa]''. The European Union and its enlargement to the East. Book in Italian. ''Viaggio nell'Hansa baltica''. L'Unione europea e l'allargamento ad Est. Greco&Greco editori, Milano, 2004. {{ISBN|88-7980-355-7}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John|first2=Patrick|last2=Salmon|title=The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century|year=1991|publisher=Longman|location=London|isbn=0-582-08246-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Kangilaski|first=Jaak|display-authors=etal |year=2005 |title=Valge raamat: eesti rahva kaotustest okupatsioonide läbi; 1940-1991 |language=et |publisher=Justiitsministeerium |isbn=9985-70-194-1 |url=http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-05-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503200228/http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Esthonia |volume= 9 |last1= Kropotkin |first1= Peter Alexeivitch |author1-link= Peter Kropotkin|last2= Bealby |first2= John Thomas |last3= Eliot |first3= Charles Norton Edgcumbe |author3-link= Charles Eliot (diplomat) |pages = 797–798 }}
*{{Cite book|last=Laar|first=Mart|author-link=Mart Laar|title=War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944–1956|year=1992|translator=Tiina Ets|publisher=Compass Press|location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-929590-08-2}}
*{{Cite book|last=Lieven|first=Anatol|author-link=Anatol Lieven|title=The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Path to Independence|year=1993|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|isbn=0-300-05552-8}}
*{{cite EB1922 |wstitle=Esthonia |last1= Meyendorff |first1= Alexander Feliksovich |last2= |first2= }}
*{{Cite book|last=Naylor|first=Aliide|title=[[The Shadow in the East: Vladimir Putin and the New Baltic Front]]|year=2020|publisher=I.B. Tauris|location=London|isbn=9781788312523}}
*{{Cite book|last=Raun|first=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians|year=1987|publisher=Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=0-8179-8511-5}}
*{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=David J.|title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=0-415-26728-5}}
*{{Cite book|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=Graham|title=The Baltic States: The National Self-determination of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania|year=1994|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|isbn=0-312-12060-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstates00grah}}
*{{Cite book|editor-last=Subrenat|editor-first=Jean-Jacques |editor-link=Jean-Jacques Subrenat|year=2004 |title=Estonia, identity and independence|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=90-420-0890-3|place=Amsterdam & New York}}
*{{Cite book|last=Taagepera|first=Rein|author-link=Rein Taagepera|title=Estonia: Return to Independence|year=1993|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder, Colo.|isbn=0-8133-1199-3}}
*{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Neil|title=Estonia|year=2004|edition=4th|publisher=Bradt|location=Chalfont St. Peter|isbn=1-84162-095-5}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Nicola|first2=Debra |last2=Herrmann |first3=Cathryn |last3=Kemp |title=Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania|year=2003|edition=3rd|publisher=Lonely Planet|location=London|isbn=1-74059-132-1}}

{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Estonia|s=Estonia OR Esthonia|cookbook=Cuisine of Estonia}}

===Government===
* [http://www.president.ee/en/index.html The President of Estonia]
* [http://www.riigikogu.ee/?lang=en The Parliament of Estonia]
* [http://www.valitsus.ee/en/ Estonian Government]
* [http://www.vm.ee/?q=en Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.stat.ee/?lang=en Statistical Office of Estonia]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/EN.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220152012/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/EN.html |date=20 February 2019 }}

===Travel===
* [http://www.estonia.eu/ Official gateway to Estonia]
* [http://www.eesti.ee/eng/ E-Estonia Portal]
* [http://www.visitestonia.com/ VisitEstonia Portal]
*{{Wikivoyage-inline}}

===Maps===
* [http://maps.google.co.uk/maps?q=estonia+map&ll=58.608334,25.004883&spn=13.048165,32.915039&gl=uk&t=p&z=5 google.com map of Estonia]
*{{osmrelation-inline|79510}}

===General information===
* [http://www.estonica.org/ Encyclopedia Estonica]
* [http://www.estinst.ee/ Estonian Institute]
*[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/ Estonia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17220810 BBC News – Estonia country profile]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081011192732/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/estonia.htm Estonia] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
*{{curlie|Regional/Europe/Estonia|Estonia}}
*{{Wikiatlas|Estonia}}
{{Estonia topics}}
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Amandus Adamson

2023-04-17T23:39:12Z

3 Löwi: Civil War link

{{short description|Estonian sculptor and painter}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
[[File:Amandus Adamson 1914.jpeg|thumb|Amandus Adamson in 1914.]]
[[File:Paldiski, maja, kus elas ja töötas Amandus Adamson.jpg|thumb|The house in Paldiski, where Amandus Adamson lived and worked.]]
'''Amandus Heinrich Adamson''' (12 November 1855 near [[Paldiski]], [[Estonia]], then [[Russian Empire]] — 26 June 1929 in Paldiski, Estonia) was an Estonian [[sculptor]] and painter.

==Life==
Adamson was born in 1855 into an Estonian-speaking seafaring family at Uuga-Rätsepa, near [[Paldiski]] by the [[Gulf of Finland]]. His father, of local partially [[Estonian Swedes|Swedish]]{{efn|In a 24 September 1925 congratulatory article ahead of his<ref>{{ill|Amandus Adamson|et}}</ref> 70th birthday, the Estonian newspaper ''[[Postimees]]'' wrote in a biographical paragraph that his father had originated “from an old Swedish family”.}}<ref>{{cite news|author1=Postimees Editorial|url=https://dea.digar.ee/?l=en|title=Kujur Amandus Adamsoni aupäewaks|access-date=8 March 2023|work=Postimees|date=24 September 1925|format=Feature story to celebrate subject’s 70th birthday|quote="(His) father was a ship captain, sprung from an old Swedish family, whereas mother was Estonian and only Estonian was spoken at the parents’ house." (''Isa oli laewakapten, wõrsunud wanast Rootsi sugust, kuna ema oli eestlane ja wanemate majas ainult Eesti keelt räägiti.'')|language=et|archive-date=8 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308201842/https://dea.digar.ee/?l=en|url-status=live}}</ref> descent and a merchant vessel captain by profession, sailed to the United States in 1860, participated in the [[American Civil War]], but never returned to Estonia and lost contact with his family after 1869.

Adamson excelled in wood carving as a child. He moved to [[St. Petersburg]] in 1875 to study at the [[Imperial Academy of Arts]] under [[Alexander von Bock|Alexander Bock]]. After graduation he continued to work as a sculptor and teacher in St. Petersburg, with an interruption from 1887 through 1891 to study in Paris and Italy, influenced by the French sculptors [[Jules Dalou]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]].

Adamson produced his best-known work in 1902: His [[Russalka Memorial]] in [[Tallinn]], dedicated to the 177 lost sailors of the [[Russian monitor Rusalka|Russian warship ''Rusalka'']], features a bronze angel on a slender column. Some of his other work is architectural, e.g., his four allegorical bronzes for the [[Eliseyev Emporium (Saint Petersburg)|Elisseeff department store]] in St. Petersburg (for architect [[Gavriil Baranovsky]]), and the French-style [[caryatids]] and finial figures for the [[Singer House]] (for architect [[Pavel Suzor]]) are major components of the "Russian [[Art Nouveau]]" visible along [[Nevsky Prospekt]].

He was named an academician of the Imperial Academy in 1907. In 1911 Adamson, as a result of a competition arranged by the Imperial Academy, received the commission for the monument to the Tricentennial of the [[House of Romanov]]. It was to be erected in Kostroma. Adamson invested all of his money into the project, which was never finished due to the 1917 Russian Revolution. In 1918, during the [[Estonian War of Independence]], Adamson returned to his home town of [[Paldiski]] in northwestern Estonia, where he would spend most of the rest of his life, except for the larger part of 1922, when he worked in Italy.

During the years of independent Estonia Adamson was commissioned to sculpt multiple monuments dedicated to the War of Independence, including one in [[Pärnu]] at the Alevi cemetery, where he himself was ultimately buried. In the 1940s and 1950s, almost all of these monuments were destroyed by the Soviet authorities; since Estonia regained independence in 1991, most of them have been restored.

In addition to war memorials Adamson also created the first monument to an Estonian – [[Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald]]. Adamson's last work was the monument dedicated to a beloved national poetess [[Lydia Koidula]] in Pärnu.

==Selected works==
The work of Adamson varies in style and material. He sculpted monuments in Estonia, [[Saint Petersburg]] and the [[Crimean Peninsula|Crimea]], as well as architectural sculpture, [[Allegory|allegorical]] figures, and portraits.

* ''Fisherman from the Island of [[Muhu]]'' (plaster, 1892)
* ''In Anxious Expectation'' (bronze, 1897)
* [[allegorical sculpture]]s of ''Commerce, Industry, Science'' and ''Arts'' on the façade of [[Eliseyev Emporium (Saint Petersburg)|Elisseeff Emporium]] in St.Petersburg (bronze, 1902)
* The [[Russalka Memorial]], [[Kadriorg]] (1902)
* allegorical sculpture for the [[Singer House]], St. Petersburg (1902–1904)
* ''Tšempion'' (English: ''Champion''), bronze sculpture of Estonian strongman [[Georg Lurich]] (1903)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.err.ee/591075/kuulus-lurichi-skulptuur-muudi-kunstioksjonil-57-200-euro-eest |title=err.ee |access-date=9 March 2020 |archive-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927112823/https://www.err.ee/591075/kuulus-lurichi-skulptuur-muudi-kunstioksjonil-57-200-euro-eest |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''Boats Lost at Sea'', [[Sevastopol]] (1904)
* Memorial to Estonian painter [[Johann Köler]], [[Suure-Jaani]] Cemetery (1912)
* Monument to the [[Estonian War of Independence]] (1928, destroyed 1945)
* Monument to the Estonian poetess [[Lydia Koidula]], [[Pärnu]] (1929)

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Eesti Vabadussõjas langenute Kuressaare mälestussammas.jpg|Copy of the original memorial to the fallen of [[Estonian War of Independence]], [[Kuressaare]]
Image:TheLastSigh.jpg|''The Ship's Last Sigh'', in [[Bisque (pottery)|bisque]], 1899
Image:AmandusAdamsonRussalka.jpg|[[Russalka Memorial|Memorial]] to the sailors of sunk Russian [[Rusalka (ship)|warship Russalka]], Tallinn, 1902
File:Дом Зингера 5.jpg|Finial figures and globe, [[Singer House]]. St. Petersburg, 1902–1904
File:Scuttled ships.jpg|Monument to the Scuttled Ships, Sevastopol, Crimea, 1905
File:Johann Köleri haud.JPG|Memorial to [[Johann Köler]], [[Suure-Jaani]] cemetery, 1912
File:Pärnu Vabadussõja mälestussammas.jpg|Memorial to the fallen of Estonian War of Independence, Pärnu, 1922
File:F R Kreutzwaldi monument Vorus.JPG|Monument to [[Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald]], [[Võru]], 1926
File:Lydia Koidula monument1.jpg|Monument to [[Lydia Koidula]], Pärnu, 1929
</gallery>

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
* Amandus Adamson, 1855–1929, by Tiina Nurk, Eesti NSV Kunst (1959)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170106103116/http://www.mg.edu.ee/comenius/index.php?show=9&lang=ENG&page=tallinn Amandus Adamson]
* [http://amandusadamson.ee/amandus-adamson]

==External links==
*[http://www.post.ee/?id=1595&product_id=816&c_tpl=1019 Estonian postage stamp]

{{commons category|Amandus Adamson}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adamson, Amandus}}
[[Category:1855 births]]
[[Category:1929 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Paldiski]]
[[Category:People from the Governorate of Estonia]]
[[Category:Sculptors from the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Architectural sculptors]]
[[Category:19th-century Estonian painters]]
[[Category:19th-century Estonian male artists]]
[[Category:20th-century Estonian sculptors]]
[[Category:20th-century Estonian male artists]]

Friedrich Martens

2023-04-17T23:37:20Z

3 Löwi: significant impression

{{Short description|Legal scholar, Imperial Russian diplomat (1845–1909)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2015}}

[[File:Friedrich Fromhold Martens 1878-huge.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Martens ({{Circa}} 1878)]]
'''Friedrich Fromhold Martens''', or '''Friedrich Fromhold von Martens''',{{efn|{{lang-ru|Фёдор Фёдорович Мартенс (Fyodor Fyodorovich Martens)}}, {{lang-fr|Frédéric Frommhold (de) Martens}}}}<ref>Friedrich Martens should not be confused with [[Georg Friedrich von Martens]] (1756–1821) who was incidentally also an international lawyer, born in [[Hamburg]]. He was professor of international law at the [[University of Göttingen]] (1783–89), a state councilor of [[Kingdom of Westphalia|Westphalia]] (1808–13), and the representative of the [[King of Hanover]] in the [[German Confederation|German Confederal]] diet of [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt upon Main]] (1816–21).</ref> ({{OldStyleDate|27 August|1845|15 August}} – {{OldStyleDate|19 June|1909|6 June}}) was a diplomat and jurist in service of the [[Russian Empire]] who made important contributions to the science of [[international law]]. He represented Russia at the [[Hague Peace Conference]]s (during which he drafted the [[Martens Clause]]) and helped to settle the first cases of international [[arbitration]], notably the dispute between France and the United Kingdom over [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]. As a scholar, he is probably best remembered today for having edited 15 volumes of Russian [[treaty|international treaties]] (1874–1909).

==Biography==
[[File:MartensDeathNotice1909.jpg|thumb|right|Friedrich Martens' death notice, published on June 8, 1909 "Professor Martens, Professor of International Law at the Saint Petersburg University, a permanent member of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs has died according to the telegram at the [[Valga, Estonia]] train station on June 7. The deceased was an Estonian by ethnicity."]]

Born to ethnic Estonian<ref>"Martens was of Estonian ethnic origin, an issue thoroughly researched recently in Estonia on the basis of complicated church and orphanage records." Richard B. Bilder & W. E. Butler, "''Professor Martens' Departure'' by Jaan Kross", book review, ''American Journal of International Law'' (1994), No. 4, page 864.</ref><ref>Death notice in [[Postimees]] daily, page 3 of June 8, 1909 ([[Julian calendar|OS]]) issue, image available in an online [http://dea.nlib.ee/index.php?lid=1&byea=1909&bmon=6].</ref><ref>[http://paber.ekspress.ee/viewdoc/52EBF112B54FA922C225738400574A6C Suur rahuehitaja]</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Our Martens|author=Vladimir Vasilʹevich Pustogarov, [[William Elliott Butler]]|year=2000|publisher=Kluwer Law International|isbn=90-411-9602-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IDegvP6w6LoC}}</ref><ref>Estonian Soviet Encyclopedia, 1973, (volume 5)</ref> parents at [[Pärnu]] in the [[Governorate of Livonia]] of [[Russian Empire]], Martens was later raised and educated as a German-speaker. He lost both parents at the age of nine and was sent to a [[Lutheran]] orphanage in [[St. Petersburg]], where he successfully completed the full course of studies at a German high school and in 1863 entered the law faculty of [[University of St Petersburg|St. Petersburg University]]. In 1868, he started his service at the Russian [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Imperial Russia)|ministry of foreign affairs]]. In 1871, he became a lecturer in [[international law]] in the university of St. Petersburg, and in 1872 professor of public law in the Imperial School of Law and the [[Tsarskoe Selo Lyceum|Imperial Alexander Lyceum]]. In 1874, he was selected special legal assistant to [[Alexander Gorchakov|Prince Gorchakov]], then imperial [[chancellor]].<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Martens, Frédéric Frommhold de|volume=17|page=786}}</ref>

His book on ''The Right of Private Property in War'' had appeared in 1869, and had been followed in 1873 by that upon ''The Office of Consul and Consular [[Jurisdiction]] in the East'', which had been translated into German and republished at [[Berlin]]. These were the first of a long series of studies which won for their author a worldwide reputation, and raised the character of the Russian school of international [[jurisprudence]] in all civilised countries.<ref name="EB1911"/>

First amongst them must be placed the great ''Recueil des traités et conventions conclus par la Russie avec les puissances etrangeres'' (13 volumes, 1874–1902). This collection, published in Russian and French in parallel columns, contains not only the texts of the treaties but valuable introductions dealing with the diplomatic conditions of which the treaties were the outcome. These introductions are based largely on unpublished documents from the Russian archives.<ref name="EB1911"/>

Martens' ''International Law of Civilised Nations'' is probably the best-known of his original works.<ref>{{cite book |last= Мартенс |first= Федер Федерович|title=Современное международное право цивилизованных народов |publisher=Тип. Министерства путей сообщения (А. Бенке) |place= СПб. |year= 1882 |url=http://books.e-heritage.ru/book/10080671 |access-date=25 October 2017 |via= ЕНИП - ЭЛЕКТРОННАЯ БИБЛИОТЕКА "НАУЧНОЕ НАСЛЕДИЕ РОССИИ" }}</ref> It was written in Russian, a German edition appearing in 1884–1885, and a French edition in 1883–1887.<ref>{{cite book |last=Martens |first=F. De|title=Traité de droit international traduit du russe par Alfred Lèo |place= Paris |publisher= Librairie A. Marescq. Aine |year= 1883 |url = https://archive.org/stream/traitdedroitint03martgoog#page/n9/mode/2up |access-date= 25 October 2017|via= Internet Archive}}; {{cite book |last=Martens |first=F. De|title=Traité de droit international traduit du russe par Alfred Lèo |place= Paris |publisher= Librairie A. Marescq. Aine |year= 1886 |volume= II |url = http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5665474b.r=Trait%C3%A9%20de%20droit%20international%20traduit%20du%20russe%20par%20Alfred%20L%C3%A8o?rk=64378;0 |access-date= 25 October 2017|via= Gallica}}; {{cite book |last=Martens |first=F. De|title=Traité de droit international traduit du russe par Alfred Lèo |place= Paris |publisher= Librairie A. Marescq. Aine |year= 1887 |volume= III |url = http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5663453j.r=Trait%C3%A9%20de%20droit%20international%20traduit%20du%20russe%20par%20Alfred%20L%C3%A8o?rk=42918;4 |access-date= 25 October 2017|via= Gallica}}</ref> It displays much judgment and acumen, though some of the [[doctrine]]s which it defends by no means command universal assent. More openly biased in character are such treatises as:
*''Russia and England in Central Asia'' (1879)
*''Russia's Conflict with China'' (1881)
*''The Egyptian Question'' (1882)
*''The African Conference of Berlin and the [[colonialism|Colonial Policy]] of Modern States'' (1887)
In the delicate questions raised in some of these works Martens stated his case with learning and ability, even when it was obvious that he was arguing as a special pleader. Martens was repeatedly chosen to act in [[international arbitration]]s. Among the controversies which he sat as judge or arbitrator were: the [[Pious Fund of the Californias|''Pious Fund Affair'']], between [[Mexico]] and the United States – the first case determined by the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] in [[The Hague]] – and the dispute between Great Britain and France over [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] in 1891.<ref name="EB1911"/> He was the presiding arbitrator in the arbitration of the boundary dispute between [[Venezuela]] and [[British Guiana]] which followed the [[Venezuela Crisis of 1895]].

He played an important part in the negotiations between his own country and Japan, which led to the [[peace of Portsmouth]] (August 1905) and prepared the way for the Russo-Japanese convention. He was employed in laying the foundations for the [[Hague Peace Conference]]s. He was one of the Russian [[plenipotentiary|plenipotentiaries]] at the first conference and president of the fourth committee – that on [[maritime law]] – at the second conference. His visits to the chief capitals of Europe in the early part of 1907 were an important preliminary in the preparation of the programme. He was judge of the Russian supreme [[prize court]] established to determine cases arising during the war with Japan.<ref name="EB1911"/>

He received honorary degrees from the universities of [[university of Oxford|Oxford]] ([[D.C.L.]] October 1902 in connection with the tercentenary of the [[Bodleian Library]]<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |title=University intelligence |date=8 October 1902 |page=4 |issue=36893}}</ref>), [[university of Cambridge|Cambridge]], [[university of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]] and [[Yale]] ([[LL.D.]] October 1901<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |title=United States|date=October 24, 1901 |page=3 |issue=36594}}</ref>); he was also one of the runner-up nominees for the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1902. In April 1907, he addressed a remarkable letter to ''[[The Times]]'' on the position of the second [[Duma]], in which he argued that the best remedy for the ills of Russia would be the dissolution of that assembly and the election of another on a narrower franchise. He died suddenly in June 1909.<ref name="EB1911"/>

==Ennoblement==
[[File:Stamp of Russia 2014 FF Martens.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Martens (circa 1900) on a 2014 Russian stamp]]
The date and circumstances of Martens' ennoblement are not clear. While it is undisputed that he called himself and was referred to as ''von'' or ''de'' Martens in publications since the early 1870s, this title might have been bestowed upon him either with one of the more distinguished Russian Orders, or with the title of a [[Privy Councillor]] (according to the [[Table of Ranks]]), or simply with his appointment as a full professor. He was never registered in the matriculae of the knightage of [[Livonia]] (''Livländische Ritterschaft'') or one of the other three [[Baltic knighthoods]] (that is of Estonia, [[Courland]] and [[Saaremaa|Ösel]]). His surname, Martens, is included in the Russian Heraldic Book No. 14, though it is uncertain if this entry relates to him or to another noble of the same name. His social advancement was the more remarkable, as it was exclusively based on his professional merits.

==Popular culture==
* Friedrich Martens is featured as the main character in the novel ''[[Professor Martens' Departure]]'' (''Professor Martensi ärasõit'', 1984) by Estonian author [[Jaan Kross]].

== Criticism ==
{{Cleanup|section|reason=undue weight given to just one critic|date=July 2021}}
In 1952, the German émigré scholar in the US, [[Arthur Nussbaum]], himself the author of a well-received history of the law of nations, published an article on Martens which has since created a significant impression.<ref>{{citation |last= Nussbaum |first=Arthur |contribution= Frederic de Martens - Representative Tsarist Writer on International Law |title=Nordisk Tidsskrift International Ret |year= 1952 |volume=22 |pages=51–66 |via=HeinOnline}}</ref>

Nussbaum set himself the task of analysing the 'writings and actions' of Martens. First, he turned his attention to Martens' celebrated two-volume textbook and pointed out several pro-Russian gaps and biases in its historical part:

"Flagrant lack of objectivity and conscientiousness. The Tsars and Tsarinas invariably appear as pure representatives of peace, conciliation, moderation and justice, whereas the moral qualities of their non-Russian opponents leave much to be desired."

Nussbaum pointed out that Martens gave an extensive meaning to the notion of "international administrative law," even including war in the field of international administration, and emphasized that the supreme principle of international administrative law was expediency. Nussbaum was very critical of the application of that concept:

"Expanding the range of international administrative law meant, therefore, expanding the dominance of expediency – which is the very opposite of law."

Further, Nussbaum turned his attention to the other (publicist) writings of Martens, mostly the ones published in ''Revue de droit international et de législation comparée''. Nussbaum noted that they were invariably signed by de Martens as professor of international law at the University of St. Petersburg and as member of the Institut de Droit International. Martens did not mention his high position in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The articles were thus only unrestrained briefs for various actions of the Russian government.

For example, Nussbaum concluded that the 1874 article by Martens on the Brussels conference, "It is purely apologetic and has nothing to do with law."

Then, Nussbaum turned to Martens's activities as arbitrator and found them "most conspicuous." In particular, Nussbaum referred to a memorandum of Venezuelan lawyer Severo Mellet Provost that had been made public posthumously. The memorandum made the claim that Martens had approached his fellow US arbitrators-judges with an ultimatum: either they agreed with a generally pro-British solution or Martens, as umpire, would join the British arbitrators in a solution that would be even more against Venezuela. Nussbaum held that Mr Provost's account seemed "entirely credible in all essential parts" and concluded:

"The spirit of arbitration will be perverted more seriously if the neutral arbitrator does not possess the external and internal independence from his government, which, according to the conception of most countries of Western civilization, is an essential attrribute of judicial office. That independence de Martens certainly did not have, and it is difficult to see how he could have acquired it within the framework of the Tsarist regime and tradition."

Finally, Nussbaum concluded:

"It appears that de Martens did not think of international law as something different from, and in a sense above, diplomacy.… de Martens considered in his professional duty as a scholar and writer on international law to defend and back up the policies of his government at any price.… Obviously his motivation was overwhelmingly, if not exclusively, political and patriotic. Legal argument served him as a refined art to tender his pleas for Russian claims more impressive or more palatable. He was not really a man of law...."

==See also==
*[[List of Russian legal historians]]
*[[Russian legal history]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===Biographies===
* Vladimir Pustogarov. (English version 2000) "''Our Martens: F.F. Martens, International Lawyer and Architect of Peace''". The original,"С пальмовой ветвью мира" was published in 1993.

===Articles===
*{{Cite journal |last=Fleck |first=Dieter |date=2003 |title=Friedrich von Martens: A Great International Lawyer from Pärnu |url=https://www.baltdefcol.org/files/files/BSDR/BDR_10.pdf |journal=Baltic Defense Review |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=19–26}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Pustogarov|first1=Vladimir V|date=June 30, 1996 |title=Fyodor Fyodorovich Martens (1845–1909) – A Humanist of Modern Times|journal=International Review of the Red Cross|volume=36|issue=132|pages=300–314|doi=10.1017/S0020860400089890|url=http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/57jn52.htm|access-date=June 1, 2012}}
*{{cite journal |date=October 1909 |title=Frederic de Martens |journal=American Journal of International Law |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=983–985 |publisher=American Society of International Law |doi=10.2307/2186432 |jstor=2186432 |s2cid=246010637}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Friedrich Fromhold Martens}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194944/http://www.martens.ee/index.php?id=10366 The Martens Society]
* [https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1907/06/10/106755088.pdf DE MARTENS HAS HOPE FOR RUSSIA] ''[[The New York Times]]'', June 10, 1907 Special [[Cablegram]]
* [https://archive.today/20151225212027/http://ejil.oxfordjournals.org/content/25/3/811.full Oxford Journals]
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Martens, Friedrich}}
[[Category:1845 births]]
[[Category:1909 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Pärnu]]
[[Category:People from Kreis Pernau]]
[[Category:Estonian legal scholars]]
[[Category:International law scholars]]
[[Category:Members of the Permanent Court of Arbitration]]
[[Category:Diplomats of the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Delegates to the Hague Peace Conferences]]
[[Category:19th-century historians from the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Russian legal scholars]]
[[Category:Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of Saint Stanislaus (Russian)]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Russia)]]
[[Category:Russian judges of international courts and tribunals]]
[[Category:Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy]]

Estonian Sovereignty Declaration

2023-04-17T23:31:33Z

3 Löwi: an unsubstantiated and unreferenced claim removed

{{about|the 1988 declaration|the 1918 declaration|Estonian Declaration of Independence|the 1991 declaration|Estonian Restoration of Independence}}
{{short description|1988 proclamation of Soviet Estonian sovereignty during the Singing Revolution}}
{{more citations needed|date=November 2017}}

The '''Estonian Sovereignty Declaration''' ({{lang-et|suveräänsusdeklaratsioon}}), fully: '''Declaration on the Sovereignty of the Estonian SSR''' ({{lang|et|Deklaratsioon Eesti NSV suveräänsusest}}), was issued on November 16, 1988<ref>{{cite book |title=Legal reform in post-communist Europe |last=Frankowski |first=Stanisław |author2=Paul B. Stephan |year=1995 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=0-7923-3218-0 |page=84 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LAiYFR0MPXgC&pg=PA84}}</ref> during the [[Singing Revolution]] in the [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonian SSR]]. The declaration asserted Estonia's [[sovereignty]] and the supremacy of the Estonian laws over the laws of the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="DS">{{cite book |title=Dissolution |last=Walker |first=Edward |year=2003 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=0-7425-2453-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dissolutionsover00walk/page/63 63] |url=https://archive.org/details/dissolutionsover00walk |url-access=registration }}</ref> Estonia's parliament also laid claim to the republic's natural resources: land, inland waters, forests, mineral deposits and to the means of industrial production, agriculture, construction, state banks, transportation, municipal services, etc. in the territory of Estonia's borders.<ref name="DS"/>

==Background==
[[Estonia]] gained independence in 1918, in the [[aftermath of World War I]]. During [[World War II]], on 16-17 June 1940, Estonia was [[Estonia in World War II#Soviet occupation|invaded and occupied]] by the Soviet Army, and its territory was subsequently annexed by the [[Stalin|Stalinist]] [[Soviet Union]] in August 1940.

The [[State continuity of the Baltic states#List of recognition and non-recognition of annexation|majority of Western nations refused to recognize]] the incorporation of Estonia ''[[de jure]]'' by the Soviet Union and only recognized the government of the Estonian SSR ''de facto'' or not at all.<ref name="RGIL">{{cite book |title=Recognition of Governments in International Law |last=Talmon |first=Stefan |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-826573-3 |pages=103 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=scc8EboiJX8C&pg=PA103}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Handbook of International Law |last=Aust |first=Anthony |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-82349-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofintern0000aust/page/26 26] |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofintern0000aust|url-access=registration }}</ref> Such countries recognized Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian diplomats and consuls who still functioned in the name of their former governments. These diplomats persisted in this anomalous situation until the ultimate restoration of Baltic independence.<ref>''Diplomats Without a Country: Baltic Diplomacy, International Law, and the Cold War'' by James T. McHugh, James S. Pacy, Page 2. {{ISBN|0-313-31878-6}}</ref>

In the 1980s new policies of [[Perestroika]] and [[Glasnost]] were introduced and [[political repression in the Soviet Union]] came to an end. As a result, during the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt]] a 20 August 1991 [[Estonian restoration of Independence|declaration proclaimed the reestablishment of the independent Estonian republic]] almost three years after the declaration was made, becoming the last of the Baltic republics to declare the reestablishment of independence (after Lithuania and Latvia in 1990).<ref>{{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia |last=Miljan |first=Toivo |year=2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=0-8108-4904-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKWRct15XfkC&pg=PA166 }}</ref> On September 6, 1991, the Soviet Union recognized the independence of Estonia and the country was admitted to the [[United Nations|UN]] on September 17.<ref>{{cite book |title=Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States 1999 |last=Europa Publications Limited |year=1999 |isbn=1-85743-058-1 |page=333 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qmN95fFocsMC&pg=PA333 }}</ref>

After more than three years of negotiations, on August 31, 1994, the armed forces of [[Russia]] withdrew from Estonia. The Russian Federation officially ended its military presence in Estonia after it relinquished control of the nuclear reactor facilities in [[Paldiski]] in September 1995. Estonia joined the [[European Union]] in May 2004, shortly after it became a member of [[NATO]], and later joined the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] in 2010.

==The Declaration==

{{quote|'''DECLARATION OF THE SUPREME SOVIET OF THE ESTONIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC'''

'''On the Sovereignty of the Estonian SSR'''

The people of Estonia have tilled their land and developed their culture on the shores of the Baltic Sea for more than 5000 years. In 1940, the [[Demographics of Estonia#Ethnic groups|ethnically homogenous]], sovereign Republic of Estonia [[Occupation of the Baltic states#Soviet occupation and annexation (1940–1941)|became a part of the Soviet Union]], while the preservation of sovereignty guarantees and national prospering were foreseen. The internal politics of the eras of [[Stalinism]] and [[Era of Stagnation|stagnation]] ignored those guarantees and positions. As a result, a demographic situation had evolved in Estonia that was unfavourable to [[Estonians]] as the indigenous ethnic group, [[Phosphorite War|the natural environment in many regions of the republic is catastrophic]], the destabilization of the economy is having a negative effect on the living standard of the entire population of the republic.

To overcome the difficult situation, the [[Supreme Soviet of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR]] sees but one specific way out – the further development of Estonia must take place under conditions of sovereignty. The sovereignty of the Estonian SSR means that, it wields the supreme power in its territory through the supreme institutions of power, governance and courts. The sovereignty of the Estonian SSR is whole and indivisible. According to this, the future status of the republic within the Soviet Union should be determined by a union treaty.

The Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR does not agree with those amendments and additions to the [[Constitution of the Soviet Union]] proposed by the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union]] that exclude the constitutional right of the Estonian SSR to [[self-determination]]. Relying on the international covenants [[International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights|on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] and [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights|on Civil and Political Rights]] of 16 September 1966, which have been ratified by the Soviet Union, and on other norms of international law, the supreme institution representing the power of the people of the Estonian SSR, the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR, declares the supremacy of its laws on the territory of the Estonian SSR.

Amendments and additions to the Constitution of the Soviet Union shall henceforth enter into force on the territory of the Estonian SSR when approved by the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR and when the Constitution of the Estonian SSR is amended.

The Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR appeals to those who have linked their fate with the territory of Estonia to consolidate for building a democratic and socialist society of Estonia. The legal and factual implementation of sovereignty also means that the people of Estonia will not in the future agree with any law that would discriminate against the representatives of any other ethnic group living in the Estonian SSR.

Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR [[Arnold Rüütel|A. RÜÜTEL]] 
Secretary of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR V. VAHT

Tallinn, 16 November 1988}}

==See also==
* [[On the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia]]
* [[Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania]]
* [[State continuity of the Baltic states]]
* [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{Estonia topics}}
{{Restoration of Baltic independence}}
[[Category:Dissolution of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:1988 in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Singing Revolution]]
[[Category:Sovereignty]]
[[Category:1988 in politics]]
[[Category:1988 in Estonia]]
[[Category:Politics of Estonia]]
[[Category:November 1988 events in Europe]]
[[Category:1988 documents]]

Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic

2023-04-17T23:17:43Z

3 Löwi: This entity was known as Soviet-occupied Estonia in the US and most of the English-speaking world already at the time (as well as more recently)

{{short description|Administrative subdivision of the Soviet Union (1940–1991)}}

{{Use British English|date=October 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name = <div style="line-height:1.0em;">{{ubl|{{native name|et|Eesti Nõukogude Sotsialistlik Vabariik|italics=off}}|{{native name|ru|Эстонская Советская Социалистическая Республика|italics=off}}}}</div>
| common_name = Estonian SSR
| conventional_long_name = Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic
| status = [[Occupation of the Baltic states#State continuity of the Baltic states|Internationally unrecognized territory occupied by the Soviet Union]] (1940–1941, 1944–1990/91)
| life_span = 1940–1941, 1944–1991
| image_flag = Flag of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (1953–1990).svg
| flag_type = [[Flag of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Flag]] (1953–1990)
| image_coat = Emblem of the Estonian SSR.svg
| symbol_type = [[Emblem of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Emblem]] (1940–1990)
| national_motto =
| image_map = Soviet Union - Estonian SSR.svg
| image_map_caption = Location of annexed Estonia (red) within the [[USSR]] (as of 1945-1991)
| national_anthem = "[[Anthem of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic]]" {{center|[[File:National Anthem of the Estonian SSR.ogg]]}}
| religion = [[Secular state]] (''[[de jure]]'') [[State atheism]] (''[[de facto]]'')
| government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] [[one-party state|one-party]] [[Soviet republic (system of government)|Soviet-style]] [[socialist state|socialist republic]] (1940–1989) [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary republic|parliamentary]] [[republic]] (1989–1991){{efn|See also: [[Government of the Soviet Union]]}}
| title_leader = [[Communist Party of Estonia|Head of local Communist Party]]
| leader1 = [[Karl Säre]]
| year_leader1 = 1940–1941
| leader2 = [[Nikolai Karotamm]]
| year_leader2 = 1944–1950
| leader3 = [[Johannes Käbin]]
| year_leader3 = 1950–1978
| leader4 = [[Karl Vaino]]
| year_leader4 = 1978–1988
| leader5 = [[Vaino Väljas]]
| year_leader5 = 1988–1990
| title_representative = [[List of chairmen of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Head of local Soviet legislature]]
| representative1 = [[Johannes Vares]]
| year_representative1 = 1940–1946 {{small|(first)}}
| representative2 = [[Arnold Rüütel]]
| year_representative2 = 1983–1990 {{small|(last)}}
| title_deputy = [[List of chairmen of the Council of Ministers of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Head of local Soviet government]]
| deputy1 = [[Johannes Lauristin]]
| year_deputy1 = 1940–1941 {{small|(first)}}
| deputy2 = [[Indrek Toome]]
| year_deputy2 = 1988–1990 {{small|(last)}}
| legislature = [[Supreme Soviet of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Supreme Soviet]]
| capital = [[Tallinn]]
| coordinates = {{coord|source:Wikidata|format=dms|display=it}}
| common_languages = [[Estonian language|Estonian]] [[Russian language|Russian]]
| era = [[World War II]]{{·}}[[Cold War]]
| event_pre = [[Estonia in World War II#Soviet occupation|Soviet invasion and occupation]]
| date_pre = 16 June 1940
| event_start = [[Soviet socialist republic|SSR]] declared
| date_start = 21 July
| year_start = 1940
| event1 = Annexed into the [[Soviet Union]]
| date_event1 = 6 August 1940
| event2 = [[German occupation of Estonia during World War II|German occupation]]
| date_event2 = 1941–1944
| event3 = [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1944)|Second Soviet occupation]]
| date_event3 = 1944–1991
| event4 = Beginning of the [[Singing Revolution]]
| date_event4 = 1988
| event5 = Soviet occupation declared illegal
| date_event5 = 8 May 1990
| event_end = [[Estonian Restoration of Independence|Restoration of the fully independent]] Republic of Estonia
| date_end = 20 August
| year_end = 1991
| event_post = Independent Republic of Estonia recognised by the USSR
| date_post = 6 September 1991
| stat_year1 = 1989
| stat_area1 = 45227
| stat_pop1 = 1,565,662
| currency = [[Soviet ruble]] (SUR)
| currency_code = SUR
| calling_code = 7 014
| today = [[Estonia]]
| p1 = Occupation of the Baltic states{{!}}Soviet occupation of Estonia
| flag_p1 = Flag of Estonia.svg
| s1 = Estonia{{!}}Restoration of independent Estonia
| flag_s1 = Flag of Estonia.svg
}}

{{History of Estonia}}

'''Soviet-occupied Estonia''', formally the '''Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic''', also known as the '''Estonian SSR''', or simply '''Soviet Estonia''', was an [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union|ethnically based]] [[administrative subdivision]] and a "[[Republics of the Soviet Union|union republic]]" of the former [[Soviet Union]] (USSR)<ref>{{cite book |title=Democratization and revolution in the USSR, 1985–1991 |last=Hough |first=Jerry F |year=1997 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=0-8157-3749-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/democratizationr00houg/page/214 214]|url=https://archive.org/details/democratizationr00houg |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Republic, definition 3 | url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/republic | work=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary | publisher=Merriam-Webster Online | year=2009 | access-date=2009-06-09}}</ref> covering the [[Occupation of the Baltic states|occupied and annexed]] territory of [[Estonia]] in 1940–1941 and 1944–1991. The Estonian SSR was nominally established to replace the until then [[Estonia|independent Republic of Estonia]] on 21 July 1940, a month after the 16–17 June 1940 [[Timeline of the occupation of the Baltic states|Soviet military invasion and occupation]] of the country during [[World War II]]. After the installation of a [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] [[communist government|government]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Transition from Illegal Regimes Under International Law |last= Ronen |first= Yaël |year=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-19777-9 |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4OEHtL5xoroC&pg=PA17}}</ref> which, backed by the occupying Soviet [[Red Army]], declared Estonia a Soviet constituency, the Estonian SSR was subsequently incorporated into the Soviet Union as the "16th union republic" on 6 August 1940.<ref>The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (Postcommunist States and Nations) David J. Smith from Front Matter {{ISBN|0-415-28580-1}}</ref><ref>Estonia: Identity and Independence: Jean-Jacques Subrenat, David Cousins, Alexander Harding, Richard C. Waterhouse on Page 246. {{ISBN|90-420-0890-3}}</ref> Estonia was [[Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany|occupied]] by [[Nazi Germany]] in 1941, and administered as a part of ''[[Reichskommissariat]] [[Reichskommissariat Ostland|Ostland]]'' until it was reconquered by the USSR in 1944.

The majority of the world's countries<ref>{{cite book |title=Illegal annexation and state continuity: the case of the incorporation of the Baltic states by the USSR |last=Mälksoo |first= Lauri |year=2003 |publisher=M. Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=978-90-411-2177-6 |page=76 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p5w6AQAAIAAJ |quote=incorporation into the Soviet Union in 1940 took place against the will of the population, and was never recognized de jure by most countries}}</ref> [[State continuity of the Baltic states|did not recognize the incorporation of Estonia into the Soviet Union]] ''[[de jure]]'' and only recognized its Soviet [[Administration (government)|administration]] ''[[de facto]]'' or not at all.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Baltic question during the Cold War |last=Hiden |first=John |author2=Vahur Made |author3=David J. Smith |year=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-37100-1 |pages=209 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jx4JQycHtnkC&pg=PA120}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Handbook of International Law |last=Aust |first=Anthony |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-82349-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofintern0000aust/page/26 26] |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofintern0000aust|url-access=registration}}</ref> A number of countries continued to recognize Estonian diplomats and consuls who still functioned in the name of their former government.<ref name="Without a Country Page 2">Diplomats Without a Country: Baltic Diplomacy, International Law, and the Cold War by James T. McHugh, James S. Pacy, Page 2. {{ISBN|0-313-31878-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://president.ee/en/official-duties/speeches/2625-president-of-the-republic-at-the-state-dinner-hosted-by-president-t-e-mary-mcaleese-and-dr-martin-mcaleese-14-april-2008-dublin-republic-of-ireland/index.html |title=President of the Republic at the State Dinner hosted by President T. E. Mary McAleese and Dr. Martin McAleese |publisher=President |quote=" ... we are thankful that Ireland never recognised the illegal annexation of Estonia by the Soviet Union after the Second World War. We will never forget John McEvoy, Estonia’s honorary consul in Dublin from 1938 to 1960." |date=14 April 2008 |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223062704/https://president.ee/en/official-duties/speeches/2625-president-of-the-republic-at-the-state-dinner-hosted-by-president-t-e-mary-mcaleese-and-dr-martin-mcaleese-14-april-2008-dublin-republic-of-ireland/index.html |archive-date=December 23, 2015 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all}}</ref> This policy of non-recognition gave rise to the principle of legal continuity, which held that ''de jure'', Estonia remained an independent state under occupation throughout the period 1940–1991.<ref name=smith>David James Smith, ''Estonia: independence and European integration'', Routledge, 2001, {{ISBN|0-415-26728-5}}, pXIX</ref>

On 16 November 1988, Estonia became the first of the then Soviet-controlled countries to [[Estonian Sovereignty Declaration|declare state sovereignty]] from the central government in Moscow. On 30 March 1990, the newly elected parliament declared that the [[Estonia|Republic of Estonia]] had been illegally occupied since 1940, and formally announced a transitional period for the restoration of the country's full independence. Subsequently, on 8 May 1990, the use of all Soviet symbols in Estonia was officially abolished and from the "Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic" two words, "Soviet" and "Socialist", were dropped, effectively returning to the name "Republic of Estonia". The parliament of Estonia declared the re-establishment of full independence on 20 August 1991. The Soviet Union formally recognized the independence of Estonia on 6 September 1991.

== History ==
=== Second World War ===
{{See also|Estonia in World War II|Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact}}
[[File:Hitler Stalin Pakt Geheimes Zusatzprotokoll.jpg|thumb|According to the 23 August 1939 [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]] Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania were divided into German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (German copy)]]
[[File:Flag of Estonian SSR 1940 1953.svg|thumb|Flag of the Estonian SSR (1940–1953)]]
[[File:Victims of Soviet NKVD in Tartu, Estonia, 1941 - 001.jpg|thumb|People massacred by the Soviet [[NKVD]] on 8 July 1941 in [[Tartu]], Estonia]]
The [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]] which was signed on 23 August 1939, a week before the outbreak of World War II, [[s:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact#Secret Additional Protocol|secretly]] assigned Estonia to the Soviet "[[sphere of influence]]". On 24 September 1939, warships of the Soviet Navy blocked the major ports of Estonia, a [[Neutral powers during World War II|neutral country]], and Soviet bombers began patrolling over and around its capital city [[Tallinn]].<ref name="TM091939">[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930153222/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,762664,00.html Moscow's Week] at ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine on Monday, 9 October 1939</ref> Moscow demanded that Estonia allow the USSR to establish Soviet military bases on its territory and station 25,000 troops in these bases "for the duration of the European war".<ref>''The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania'' by David J. Smith, Page 24, {{ISBN|0-415-28580-1}}</ref> The government of Estonia yielded to the ultimatum, signing the corresponding mutual assistance agreement on 28 September 1939.

=== Soviet occupation of Estonia ===
{{See also|Timeline of the occupation of the Baltic states}}

On 12 June 1940, the order for total military [[blockade]] of Estonia was given to the Soviet [[Baltic Fleet|Soviet Baltic fleet]].<ref>according to the director of the Russian State Archive of the Naval Department Pavel Petrov (C.Phil.), {{in lang|fi}} [http://www.mil.fi/laitokset/tiedotteet/1282.dsp Pavel Petrov] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090821221643/http://www.mil.fi/laitokset/tiedotteet/1282.dsp |date=August 21, 2009}} at Finnish Defence Forces home page</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rusin.fi/publications/warinpetsamo/indexEN.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050219052823/http://www.rusin.fi/publications/warinpetsamo/indexEN.html|url-status=dead|title=Tämä domain on varattu | www.rusin.fi|archive-date=19 February 2005|website=www.rusin.fi}}</ref> On 14 June, the Soviet military blockade of Estonia went into effect while the world's attention was focused on the fall of [[Paris]] to [[Nazi Germany]]. Two Soviet bombers [[List of airliner shootdown incidents|shot down]] a Finnish passenger [[airplane]] "[[Kaleva (airplane)|Kaleva]]" flying from [[Tallinn]] to [[Helsinki]] carrying three diplomatic pouches from the U.S. legations in [[Tallinn]], [[Riga]] and [[Helsinki]].<ref>[http://www.afsa.org/fsj/may07/lastflight.pdf The Last Flight from Tallinn] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325013623/http://www.afsa.org/fsj/may07/lastflight.pdf |date=March 25, 2009}} at American Foreign Service Association</ref> On 16 June, Soviet [[NKVD]] troops raided border posts in [[Estonia#Soviet Annexation|Estonia]] (along with [[History of Lithuania#First Soviet occupation|Lithuania]] and [[Latvia#Latvia in World War II|Latvia]]).<ref name="wettig20">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=20}}</ref><ref name="senn">Senn, Alfred Erich, ''Lithuania 1940: Revolution from Above'', Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 {{ISBN|978-90-420-2225-6}}</ref> Soviet leader [[Joseph Stalin]] claimed that the 1939 mutual assistance treaties had been violated, and gave six-hour ultimatums for new governments to be formed in each country, including lists of persons for cabinet posts provided by the Kremlin.<ref name="wettig20" /> The Estonian government decided, in accordance with the [[Kellogg–Briand Pact]], to not respond to the ultimatums by military means. Given the overwhelming Soviet force both on the borders and inside the country, the order was given not to resist in order to avoid bloodshed and open war.<ref>The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania by David J. Smith, p. 19 {{ISBN|0-415-28580-1}}</ref>

On 16–17 June 1940, the [[Red Army]] emerged from its military bases in Estonia and, aided by an additional 90,000 Soviet troops, took over the country, [[Occupation of the Baltic states|occupying]] the entire territory of the Republic of Estonia.<ref name="ReferenceA">The World Book Encyclopedia {{ISBN|0-7166-0103-6}}</ref><ref>''The History of the Baltic States'' by Kevin O'Connor {{ISBN|0-313-32355-0}}</ref> Most of the [[Estonian Defence Forces]] and the [[Estonian Defence League]] surrendered according to the orders, and were disarmed by the Red Army. Only the Estonian Independent Signal Battalion stationed at Raua Street in Tallinn began armed resistance. As the Soviet troops brought in additional reinforcements supported by six armoured fighting vehicles, the battle at Raua Street lasted for several hours until sundown. There was one dead, several wounded on the Estonian side and about 10 killed and more wounded on the Soviet side. Finally the military resistance was ended with negotiations and the Independent Signal Battalion surrendered and was disarmed.<ref>{{in lang|et}}[http://www.mil.ee/?id=297&sisu=uudis 51 years from the Raua Street Battle] at Estonian Defence Forces Home Page</ref>

By 18 June 1940, large-scale military operations for the occupation of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were complete.<ref name="misiunas20">{{Harvnb|Misiunas|Taagepera|1993|p=20}}</ref> In the following days, the Soviet troops organised and supported [[Stalin]]ist "demonstrations" in Tallinn and other larger cities.<ref>''Estonia: Identity and Independence'' by Jean-Jacques Subrenat, David Cousins, Alexander Harding, Richard C. Waterhouse {{ISBN|90-420-0890-3}}</ref>
Thereafter, state administrations were liquidated and replaced by Soviet cadres, followed by mass repression.<ref name="wettig20" />
''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine reported on 24 June, that "Half a million men and countless tanks" of the Soviet [[Red Army]] "moved to safeguard [Russia's] frontier against conquest-drunk Germany," one week before the [[Battle of France|Fall of France]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090822195158/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764069,00.html Germany Over All], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', June 24, 1940 {{Dead link|date=March 2020}}</ref>
On 21 June 1940, the [[Military occupations by the Soviet Union|Soviet military occupation]] of the Republic of Estonia was complete.<ref name="ReferenceB">Estonia: Identity and Independence by Jean-Jacques Subrenat, David Cousins, Alexander Harding, Richard C. Waterhouse {{ISBN|90-420-0890-3}}</ref> That day, the [[President of Estonia|President]] [[Konstantin Päts]] (deported to [[Ufa]], [[Russian SFSR]] on 30 July 1940 and arrested a few weeks later) was pressured into affirming the [[Andrei Zhdanov]]-appointed [[puppet government]] of [[Johannes Vares]], following the arrival of demonstrators accompanied by Red Army troops with armored vehicles to the [[Kadriorg Palace|residence of the Estonian president]]. The [[flag of Estonia]] was replaced with a [[Red flag (politics)|Red flag]] on Tallinn's [[Pikk Hermann]] tower.

On 14–15 July 1940, [[Rigged election|rigged]] extraordinary parliamentary elections were held by the occupation authorities, in which voters were presented with a single list of [[Stalinism|pro-Stalinist]] candidates. In order to maximise voter turnout to legitimise the new system, the voters' documents were stamped in voting facilities for future identification of voting, along with a threat running in the main Communist newspaper, ''[[Rahva Hääl]]'', that "It would be extremely unwise to shirk elections. ... Only people's enemies stay at home on election day."<ref name="misiunas27">{{Harvnb|Misiunas|Taagepera|1993|p=27}}</ref> Each ballot carried only the Soviet-assigned candidate's name, with the only way to register opposition being to strike out that name on the ballot.<ref name="misiunas27" /> According to official election results, the [[Communism|Communist]] "Union of the Estonian Working People" bloc won 92.8% of the votes with 84.1% of the population attending the elections.<ref>Estonian newspaper «Communist», issue of 18 July 1940.</ref> ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine reported that, following the elections, tribunals were set up to judge and punish "traitors to the people", which included opponents of [[Sovietization]] and those who did not vote for incorporation in the Soviet Union.<ref name="TM191940">[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930031407/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764407,00.html Justice in The Baltic] at ''Time'' magazine on Monday, 19 August 1940</ref> This election is considered illegal, since the amended electoral law—along with hundreds of other laws passed by the Vares government—had not been approved by the upper house of parliament, as required by the Estonian constitution.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marek|first=Krystyna|title=Identity and Continuity of States in Public International Law|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QaF7mnj9igkC&pg=PA386|year=1968|publisher=Librairie Droz|isbn=9782600040440|page=386}}</ref> The upper house had been dissolved soon after the Soviet occupation and was never reconvened.

Once the elections were concluded, authorities which had previously denied any intention of setting up a Soviet regime began openly speaking of Sovietisation and incorporation into the Soviet Union.<ref name="misiunas28">{{Harvnb|Misiunas|Taagepera|1993|p=20 & 28}}</ref> The newly "elected" "[[People's Parliament]]" met on 21 July 1940. Its sole piece of agenda was a petition to join the Soviet Union, which passed unanimously. The Estonian SSR was formally [[annexation|annexed]] into the Soviet Union on 9 August 1940, becoming nominally the 16th constituent part (or [[Republics of the Soviet Union|"union republic"]]) of the USSR. After another "union republic", the [[Karelo-Finnish SSR]] was demoted to an [[Karelian ASSR|"ASSR"]], or to an "autonomous union republic" in 1956, until 1991 the Soviet authorities referred to the Estonian SSR as the 15th (i.e., "the last on the list") constituent "republic".

On 23 July 1940, the new Stalinist regime [[nationalization|nationalised]] all land, banks and major industrial enterprises in Estonia. Farmers were allotted small plots of land during the land reforms. Most small businesses were nationalised soon afterwards. The Soviet central government launched the [[colonisation]] of the occupied country by promoting a large-scale population movement into Estonia, as immigrants from Russia and other parts of the former USSR settled in Estonia.<ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/TheWhiteBook.pdf ''The White Book: Losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes''], pp. 143–144.</ref> According to some Western scholars, relations between the Soviet Union and Estonian SSR were those of [[internal colonialism]].<ref>Mettam, Collin W. and Stephen Wyn Williams (2001). A colonial perspective on population migration in Soviet Estonia. ''[[Journal of Baltic Studies]]'' 27 (1), 133–150.</ref><ref>Mettam, Colin W. and Stephen Wyn Williams (1998). [https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.1354-5078.1998.00363.x Internal colonialism and cultural division of labour in the Soviet Republic of Estonia]. ''[[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]]'' 4 (3), 363–388.</ref>
* the earlier economic structures constructed mostly in 1920–1940 were purposefully destroyed;
* new production structures were constructed only to satisfy interests of the colonial power, assigning priorities according to an [[all-union]] production chain network;
* local environmental resources were extensively over utilised;
* the employment and migration policies were tailored towards assimilating the native population;
* former economic ties of Estonia were cut off and Estonian economy was isolated from non-Soviet markets.

All banks and accounts were essentially [[nationalization|nationalised]]; a lot of industrial machinery was disassembled and relocated to other Soviet territories.<ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf Valge raamat], page 129; [http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/TheWhiteBook.pdf ''The White Book: Losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes''], p. 145</ref> Before retreating in 1941, [[Red Army]], following the [[scorched earth]] policies, burnt most industrial constructions, destroying power plants, vehicles and cattle. Millions of dollars worth of goods{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} were allegedly moved from Estonia to Russia during the evacuation of 1941.

There was excess mortality among common people, too, that has been attributed to [[malnutrition]].<ref>Der stalinistische Umbau in Estland : von der Markt – zur Kommandowirtschaft – [[Olaf Mertelsmann]]</ref>

==== International reaction ====
Immediately following the June 1940 Estonian [[Occupation of the Baltic states|occupation]] by the Soviet Union<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071114175553/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764134,00.html Soviet occupation of Estonia] at Time Magazine on Monday, July 1, 1940</ref><ref>The History of the Baltic States by Kevin O'Connor {{ISBN|0-313-32355-0}}</ref><ref>Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: [http://www.vm.ee/est/kat_533/aken_prindi/7728.html Molotovi-Ribbentropi pakt ja selle tagajärjed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927211031/http://www.vm.ee/est/kat_533/aken_prindi/7728.html |date=September 27, 2007}}</ref> and incorporation as a result of a Soviet-supported Communist ''[[coup d'état]]'',<ref name="ReferenceB" /> the only foreign powers to recognize the Soviet annexation were Nazi Germany and Sweden.<ref name="misiunas126">{{Harvnb|Misiunas|Taagepera|1993|p=126}}</ref>

Shipping was nationalized. Ships were ordered to fly the [[hammer and sickle]] and head for a Soviet port. [[August Torma]], the envoy appointed by previous Estonian government, sought protection and reassurance for the 20 Estonian ships in British ports. He failed to obtain reassurance, so the majority went to the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tamman|first1=Tina|title=The last ambassador: August Torma, soldier, diplomat, spy.|date=2011|isbn=9789042033146|page=117}}</ref>

The Irish experience was different. There was a fight between Peter Kolts, who hoisted the hammer and sickle, and Captain Joseph Juriska who wanted to remove it. The [[Garda Síochána]] were called. The next day [[Justice Michael Lennon]] sentenced Kolts to a week in jail.<ref>Forde, Frank (2000) [1981]. The Long Watch. Dublin: New Island Books. ISBN 1-902602-42-0 p. 42</ref> Following this verdict and sentence the ships in Irish ports choose to remain. The soviets, unsuccessfully perused the issue of ownership through the Irish Courts. The Soviet Union made a 'most emphatic' protest.<ref>[[The Irish Times]] 9 August 1941</ref>

There were three Estonian ships in Irish ports, plus two from Latvia and one Lithuanian.
This had a significant effect on Ireland's ability to continue trading during the war.

The [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]] and several other countries considered the [[annexation]] of Estonia by the USSR illegal following the [[Stimson Doctrine]]—a stance that made the doctrine an established precedent of [[international law]].<ref>Vitas, Robert A. (1990). ''The United States and Lithuania. The Stimson Doctrine of Nonrecognition''. N.Y.: Praeger. {{ISBN|0-275-93412-8}}.</ref> Although the US, the UK, the other [[Allies of World War II]] recognized the occupation of the Baltic states by USSR at [[Yalta Conference]] in 1945 ''[[de facto]]'', they retained diplomatic relations with the [[Estonian Government in Exile|exiled representatives]] of the independent Republic of Estonia,<ref name="Mälksoo">Mälksoo, Lauri (2000). [https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15718100020296305 Professor Uluots, the Estonian Government in Exile and the Continuity of the Republic of Estonia in International Law]. ''Nordic Journal of International Law'' 69.3, 289–316.</ref> and never formally recognized the annexation of Estonia [[de jure]].<ref name="Mälksoo" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=European Parliament |title=Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania |journal=Official Journal of the European Communities |volume=C 42/78 |date=January 13, 1983 |url=/media/wikipedia/en/8/80/Europarliament13011983.jpg }} ''"whereas the Soviet annexias of the three Baltic States still has not been formally recognized by most European States and the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and the Vatican still adhere to the concept of the Baltic States"''.</ref>

The [[Government of Russia|Russian government]] and officials maintain that the Soviet annexation of Estonia was legitimate.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4517683.stm|title=Russia denies Baltic 'occupation'|date=May 5, 2005|via=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

{{See also|Occupation of the Baltic states}}

==== Soviet historiography ====
[[File:Tallinn - 17 July 1940 - 0-54578.jpg|thumb|Soviet-organised rally in Tallinn, July 1940]]
[[File:Estonian communist leaders in Tallinn 24.7.1940.JPG|thumb|[[Karl Säre]] with other Estonian Communist Party officials in Tallinn, July 1940]]
Pre-Perestroika Soviet sources reflecting Soviet historiography described the events in 1939 and 1940 as follows: in a former province of the [[Russian Empire]], the [[Governorate of Estonia|Province of Estonia]] ({{lang-ru|Эстляндская губерния}}), [[Soviet power]] was established in the end of October 1917. The [[Estonian Soviet Republic]] was proclaimed in [[Narva]] on 29 November 1918 but fell to counter-revolutionaries and the [[White movement|White Armies]] in 1919. In June 1940 Soviet power was restored in Estonia as workers overthrew the fascist dictatorship in the country.<ref name="Symb">{{Cite web|url=http://statesymbol.ru/sovietsymbol/20050419/39595176.html|title=Эстонская Советская Социалистическая Республика - Государственная символика|website=statesymbol.ru}}</ref><ref name="RB">Endel Vanatoa, Estonian SSR, a Reference Book, Perioodika Publisher, 1985, p. 11, [https://books.google.com/books?lr=&q=%22where+on+November+29%2C+1918%2C+the+Estonian+Working+People%27s%22 available at Google Print]</ref><ref name="GSE">{{GSEn|127240|Эстонская Советская Социалистическая Республика}}</ref>

According to Soviet sources, pressure from the working people of Estonia forced its government to accept the 1939 proposal for a mutual assistance treaty by the Soviet Union. On 28 September 1939 the Pact of Mutual Assistance was signed<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://oldgazette.ru/lib/propagit/20/03.html|title=Старые газеты : Библиотека : Пропагандист и агитатор РККА : №20, октябрь 1939г.|website=oldgazette.ru}}</ref> which allowed the USSR to station a limited number of [[Soviet Army]] units in Estonia. Economic difficulties, dissatisfaction with the Estonian government's policies "sabotaging fulfillment of the Pact and the Estonian government", and political orientation towards Nazi Germany lead to a revolutionary situation in June 1940. A note from the Soviet government to the Estonian Government suggested that they stuck strictly to the Pact of Mutual Assistance. To guarantee the fulfillment of the Pact, additional military units entered Estonia, welcomed by the Estonian workers who demanded the resignation of the Estonian government. On 21 June under the leadership of the [[Estonian Communist Party]] political demonstrations by workers were held in [[Tallinn]], [[Tartu]], [[Narva]] and other cities. On the same day the fascist government was overthrown, and the People's government led by [[Johannes Vares]] was formed. On 14–15 July 1940 elections for the Estonian Parliament, the State Assembly ([[Riigikogu]]) were held. The "Working People’s Union", created by an initiative of the Estonian Communist Party received with 84.1% turnout 92.8% of the votes.<ref>[http://deposit.ddb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?idn=970391757&dok_var=d1&dok_ext=pdf&filename=970391757.pdf POLITICS, MIGRATION AND MINORITIES IN ESTONIA, 1918–1998] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711183727/http://deposit.ddb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?idn=970391757&dok_var=d1&dok_ext=pdf&filename=970391757.pdf |date=July 11, 2007}}, pdf, p. 79</ref><ref name="GSE"/> On 21 July 1940 the State Assembly adopted the declaration of the restoration of Soviet power in Estonia and proclaimed the 'Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic'. On 22 July the declaration of Estonia's wish to join the USSR was ratified and the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union]] was petitioned accordingly. The request was approved by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on 6 August 1940. On 23 July the State Assembly proclaimed all land to be people's property while banks and heavy industry were nationalised. On 25 August the State Assembly adopted the Constitution of the Estonian SSR, renamed itself the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR and approved the [[Council of People's Commissars]] of the Estonian SSR.<ref name="GSE" />

=== Nazi occupation ===
{{See also|German occupation of Estonia during World War II}}
After Nazi Germany [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded]] the [[Soviet Union]] on 22 June 1941, the [[Wehrmacht]] reached [[Estonia]] in July 1941. The Germans were perceived by many Estonians as liberators from the USSR and [[Communism]] in general. Thousands of Estonian men fought directly alongside the German army throughout the war.<ref>Thomas, Nigel (2012). Germany's Eastern Front Allies (2): Baltic Forces. Osprey Publishing. p. 15.</ref> An anti-communist guerrilla group called the [[Forest Brothers]] also assisted the Wehrmacht.<ref>Buttar, Prit (2013). Between Giants, the Battle for the Baltics in World War II. Osprey Publishing. {{ISBN|9781780961637}}.</ref> Estonia was incorporated into the German province of [[Reichskommissariat Ostland|Ostland]].

=== Soviet recapture ===
{{Main|Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–91)}}
The Soviet Union retook Estonia in 1944, thereafter occupying it for nearly another half century.<ref name="frucht102">{{Harvnb|Frucht|2005|p=102}}</ref> This began when the Red Army re-occupied [[Ingria#Estonian Ingria|Estonian Ingria]], [[Narva]], and eastern [[Vaivara Parish]] in the [[Battle of Narva (1944)|Battle of Narva]], Southeast Estonia in the [[Tartu Offensive]] and the rest of the country in the [[Baltic Offensive]]. Faced with the country being re-occupied by the Soviet Army, 80,000 people fled from Estonia by sea to Finland and Sweden in 1944. 25,000 Estonians reached Sweden and a further 42,000 Germany. During the war about 8,000 Estonian Swedes and their family members had emigrated to Sweden. After the retreat of the Germans, about 30,000 partisans remained in hiding in the Estonian forests,{{Citation needed|date=October 2013}} [[Forest brothers#In Estonia|waging a guerrilla war]] until the early 1950s.

After re-occupation, the Soviet nationalization policy of 1940 was reimposed, as well as the collectivization of farms.<ref name="frucht102" /> Over 900,000 hectares were expropriated in the few years following reoccupation, while much of that land was given to new settlers from Russia or other locations in the Soviet Union.<ref name="frucht102" /> Rapid collectivization began in 1946, followed in 1947 by a crackdown against [[kulak]] farmers.<ref name="frucht102" /> The kulak repression started as oppressive taxation, but eventually led to mass deportations.<ref name="frucht102" /> Those who resisted collectivization were killed or deported.<ref name="frucht102" /> More than 95% of farms were collectivised by 1951.<ref name="frucht102" />

The 1949 mass deportation of about 21,000 people broke the back of the partisan movement. 6,600 partisans gave themselves up in November 1949. Later on, the failure of the Hungarian uprising broke the morale of 700 men still remaining under cover. According to Soviet data, up until 1953 20,351 partisans were defeated. Of these, 1,510 perished in the battles. During that period, 1,728 members of the Red Army, NKVD and the Estonian Police were killed by the "[[forest brothers]]". [[August Sabbe]], the last surviving "brother" in Estonia, committed suicide when the KGB tracked him down and attempted to arrest him in 1978. He drowned in a lake, when the KGB agent, disguised as a fisherman, was after him.<ref>Laar, Mart. War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944–1956. {{ISBN|0-929590-08-2}}</ref><ref>[http://www.estinst.ee/issues/80_EV90kataloogingl-1.pdf Republic of Estonia 90] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603193347/http://www.estinst.ee/issues/80_EV90kataloogingl-1.pdf |date=June 3, 2013}} Estonian Institute 2008</ref>

[[File:SovietPrisonDoorsTallinn.JPG|thumb|left|Soviet prison doors on display in the [[Museum of Occupations]], Tallinn, Estonia]]
During the first post-war decade of Soviet rule, Estonia was governed by Moscow via Russian-born ethnic Estonian functionaries. Born into the families of native Estonians in Russia, the latter had obtained their education in the Soviet Union during the [[Stalin era]]. Many of them had fought in the Red Army (in the Estonian Rifle Corps), few of them had mastered the Estonian language.<ref>''Biographical Research in Eastern Europe: Altered Lives and Broken Biographies''. Humphrey, Miller, Zdravomyslova {{ISBN|0-7546-1657-6}}</ref> For the latter reason they were known under a derogatory term "[[Yestonians]]", alluding to their Russian accent.

Although the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], the major allies of the USSR against [[Nazi Germany]] during the later stages of [[World War II]], both implicity acknowledged ([[de facto]]) the occupation of Estonia by USSR at the [[Yalta Conference]] in 1945, both governments, and most of the other western democracies did not recognize it [[de jure]] according to the [[Sumner Welles]]' declaration of July 23, 1940<ref>The Baltic States and their Region: New Europe or Old? by David J. Smith on Page 48 {{ISBN|90-420-1666-3}}</ref><ref>Post-Cold War Identity Politics: Northern and Baltic Experiences by Marko Lehti on Page 272: ''Soviet occupation in Baltic countries – a position supported by the fact that an overwhelming majority of states never recognized the 1940 incorporation de jure.'' {{ISBN|0-7146-8351-5}}</ref> Some of these countries recognized Estonian diplomats who still functioned in many countries in the name of their former governments. These consuls persisted in this anomalous situation until the ultimate restoration of Estonia's independence in 1991.<ref name="Without a Country Page 2" />

A special care was taken to change the ethnic structure of population,<ref name="om-econ">{{in lang|et}} Estonian Museum of Occupations: [http://www.okupatsioon.ee/1940/majandus.html Majandus: Teise maailmasõja ja Nõukogude okupatsiooni aastad (1940–1991)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611090529/http://www.okupatsioon.ee/1940/majandus.html |date=June 11, 2007}}</ref> especially in [[Ida-Viru]] County. For example, a policy of prioritising immigrants before returning war refugees in assigning dwelling quarters was adopted.<ref>"Narvskij rabochij" April 25, 1950, quoted in [http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf Valge raamat], page 132 and [http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/TheWhiteBook.pdf ''The White Book: Losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes''], pp. 149–150.</ref>

==== Destruction of graveyards and war memorials ====
Estonian graveyards and monuments from the period of 1918–1944 were dismantled. Among others, in the [[Tallinn Military Cemetery]] the majority of gravestones from 1918 to 1944 were destroyed by the Soviet authorities. This graveyard was then re-used by the [[Red Army]] after World War II.<ref>[http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1046181016323&a=KArticle&aid=1119525615664 Linda Soomre Memorial Plaque] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080118063339/http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket%2FXcelerate%2FShowPage&c=Page&cid=1046181016323&a=KArticle&aid=1119525615664 |date=January 18, 2008}} at britishembassy.gov.uk</ref>

Other cemeteries destroyed by the authorities during the Soviet era in Estonia include [[Baltic German]] cemeteries, [[Kopli cemetery]] (established in 1774), [[Mõigu cemetery]] and the oldest cemetery in Tallinn, the [[Kalamaja cemetery]] (from the 16th century). After the re-occupation of Estonia in 1944, the dismantling of monuments from the [[Republic of Estonia]], which had survived or had been restored during the German occupation, continued. On April 15, 1945, in [[Pärnu]], a monument by [[Amandus Adamson]], erected to 87 persons who had fallen in the [[Estonian War of Independence]], was demolished. The dismantling of war memorials continued for several years and occurred across all districts of the country. A comprehensive file concerning the monuments of the Estonian War of Independence, compiled by the Military Department of the EC(b)P Central Committee in April 1945, has been preserved in the Estonian State Archives. Monuments are listed by counties in this file and it specifies the amount of explosive and an evaluation concerning the transportation that were needed. An extract regarding [[Võrumaa]] reads: <blockquote>
"In order to carry out demolition works, 15 Party activists and 275 persons from the Destruction Battalion must be mobilised. 15 workers are needed for the execution of each demolition and 10 people are needed for protection.... In order to carry out demolition works, 225 kg of TNT, 150 metres of rope/fuse and 100 primers are needed, since there is no demolition material on the spot. 11 lorries, which are available but which lack petrol, are needed for carrying the ruins away."<ref>Report by the Chairman of the EC(b)P Võrumaa Committee, Tamm, No. 101/s to the EC(b)P CC 1st secretary Nikolai Karotamm. 6 April 1945. ERAF Archives depot 1, ref. 3, depository unit 501. L. 37.</ref>
</blockquote>

==Post-Stalin regime==

[[File:1967 CPA 3525.jpg|thumb|1967 Soviet stamp]]
[[File:Soviet-era Estonian room in a museum.jpg|thumb|left|A reconstruction of a typical Soviet-era living room, in a museum in central Tallinn.]]
After [[Joseph Stalin]]'s death, the Party membership vastly expanded its social base to include more ethnic Estonians. By the mid-1960s, the percentage of ethnic Estonian membership stabilised near 50%.
One positive aspect of the post-Stalin era in Estonia was the regranting of permission in the late 1950s for citizens to make contact with foreign countries. Ties were reactivated with Finland, and in 1965, a ferry service was opened between Tallinn and Helsinki.<ref name="signaali">[https://yle.fi/aihe/artikkeli/2018/02/14/signaali-yli-suomenlahden-viro-suomalaisissa-ohjelmissa Yle Elävä Arkisto: Signaali yli Suomenlahden] (in Finnish)</ref> President of Finland [[Urho Kekkonen]] had visited Tallinn in the previous year and the ferry line is widely credited to Kekkonen.<ref name="signaali"/>

Some Estonians began watching Finnish television as the [[FM- and TV-mast Helsinki-Espoo|Helsinki television tower]] broadcast from just {{convert|80|km|mi}} and the signal was strong enough in Tallinn and elsewhere on the north Estonian coast.<ref name="signaali"/><ref>{{cite journal | url = http://viewjournal.eu/european-television-memories/window-to-the-west/ | title = Window to the West: Memories of watching Finnish television in Estonia during the Soviet period| first1 = Annika |last1= Lepp |first2= Mervi | last2= Pantti| format = PDF| journal = VIEW | date = 2013 | number = 3/2013 | pages = 80–81 | publisher = Journal of European Television History and Culture| access-date = October 11, 2021 | language = en }}</ref><ref>[https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-5087154 Yle: Suomen tv:n näkymistä Virossa ei voitu eikä haluttu estää] (in Finnish)</ref> This electronic "window on the West" afforded Estonians more information on current affairs and more access to Western culture and thought than any other group in the Soviet Union. This somewhat more open media environment was important in preparing Estonians for their vanguard role in extending ''[[perestroika]]'' during the [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Gorbachev]] era.

In the late 1970s, Estonian society grew increasingly concerned about the threat of cultural Russification to the Estonian language and national identity. In 1980, Tallinn hosted the sailing events of the [[1980 Summer Olympics]]. By 1981, Russian was taught already in the second grade of Estonian-language primary schools and in some urban areas was also being introduced into Estonian pre-school teaching.

Soviet authorities began to lure in Finnish tourists and the much needed [[International trade|foreign exchange]] they could bring. The Soviet travel agency [[Inturist]] contracted Finnish construction company Repo to build ''[[Sokos Hotel Viru|Hotel Viru]]'' in downtown Tallinn.<ref name="signaali"/> Estonians saw very different construction equipment, methods and work morale. An improved ferry ''[[MS Georg Ots]]'' between Tallinn and Helsinki came into operation. Estonia gained Western currency, but on the other hand Western thoughts and customs began to infiltrate Soviet Estonia.

==''Perestroika''==
{{Main|Perestroika}}
[[File:P2rnu maantee 26 06 1983.jpg|thumb|A [[Tatra T4]] tram along the Pärnu maantee street in [[Tallinn]] on June 26, 1983]]

By the beginning of the Gorbachev era, concern over the cultural survival of the Estonian people had reached a critical point. The ECP remained stable in the early perestroika years but waned in the late 1980s. Other political movements, groupings and parties moved to fill the power vacuum. The first and most important was the [[Estonian Popular Front]], established in April 1988 with its own platform, leadership and broad constituency. The [[Estonian Greens|Greens]] and the dissident-led [[Estonian National Independence Party]] soon followed. By 1989 the political spectrum had widened, and new parties were formed and re-formed almost every week.

Estonia's "[[Supreme Soviet]]" transformed from a powerless [[Rubber stamp (politics)|rubber stamp]] institution into an authentic regional lawmaking body. This relatively conservative legislature passed an early declaration of sovereignty (November 16, 1988); a law on economic independence (May 1989) confirmed by the USSR Supreme Soviet that November; a language law making Estonian the [[official language]] (January 1989); and local and republic election laws stipulating residency requirements for voting and candidacy (August, November 1989).

Although the majority of Estonia's numerous Soviet-era immigrants did not support full independence, the mostly ethnic Russian immigrant community was divided in terms of opinions on the "sovereign republic". In March 1990, some 18% of [[Russian language|Russian]]-speakers supported the idea of a fully independent Estonia, up from 7% the previous autumn. By early 1990 only a small minority of ethnic Estonians were opposed to full independence.

=== Restoration of independence ===
{{Main|Estonian Sovereignty Declaration|Estonia}}
[[File:24.02. kell 8.33. 1989 Toompeal (02).jpg|thumb|The blue-black-white [[flag of Estonia]] was raised on [[Pikk Hermann]] on February 24, 1989.]]
On November 16, 1988, the first freely elected parliament during the Soviet era in Estonia had passed the [[Estonian Sovereignty Declaration]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Legal reform in post-communist Europe |last=Frankowski |first=Stanisław |author2=Paul B. Stephan |year=1995 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=0-7923-3218-0 |page=84 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LAiYFR0MPXgC&pg=PA84}}</ref> On May 8, 1990, the [[Riigikogu|Parliament]] reinstated the 1938 constitution, and the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic was renamed the Republic of Estonia.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://estonia.news-city.info/docs/sistemsf/dok_ierskz.htm |title=Закон ЭССР от 08.05.1990 «О СИМВОЛИКЕ ЭСТОНИИ» |accessdate=2021-08-14 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906230101/http://estonia.news-city.info/docs/sistemsf/dok_ierskz.htm |archivedate=2019-09-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On August 20, 1991, the Estonian Parliament adopted a resolution confirming its independence from the Soviet Union.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gorby.ru/userfiles/estonia_20(1).pdf|title=Постановление Верховного Совета Эстонской Республики от 20 августа 1991 г. "О государственной независимости Эстонии"}}</ref> First to recognise Estonia as an independent country was Iceland, on August 22, 1991. On September 6, 1991, the [[State Council of the Soviet Union|State Council of the USSR]] recognized the independence of Estonia,<ref>''The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union: 1917–1991'' (Sources in History) Richard Sakwa Page 248, {{ISBN|0-415-12290-2}}</ref> immediately followed by recognitions from other countries.

On February 23, 1989, the [[Flag of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|flag of the Estonian SSR]] was lowered on [[Pikk Hermann]], and replaced with the blue-black-white [[flag of Estonia]] on February 24, 1989. In 1992, [[Heinrich Mark]], the Prime Minister of the Republic of Estonia in Exile,<ref>[http://www.president.ee/en/estonia/heads.php?gid=81981 Heinrich Mark] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927204656/http://www.president.ee/en/estonia/heads.php?gid=81981 |date=September 27, 2007}} at president.ee</ref> presented his credentials to the newly elected President of Estonia [[Lennart Meri]]. The last Russian troops withdrew from Estonia in August 1994.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/vo-baltic.htm Baltic Military District] globalsecurity.org</ref> The Russian Federation officially ended its military presence in Estonia after it relinquished control of the nuclear reactor facilities in [[Paldiski]] in September 1995. Estonia joined the European Union and NATO in 2004.

== Geography ==

=== Territorial changes ===
[[File:Baltic states borders.jpg|thumb|Border changes of Estonia after World War II]]
In the aftermath of the [[Estonian War of Independence]], Estonia established control also over [[Ivangorod]], in January 1919, a move which was recognized by [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] in the 1920 [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]]. In January 1945, the [[Narva River]] was defined as the border between the Estonian SSR and [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], and as a result administration of Ivangorod was transferred from Narva to the [[Leningrad Oblast]] which having grown in population received the official status of town in 1954.

In 1945 the Petseri County was annexed and ceded to the Russian SFSR where it became one of the districts of [[Pskov Oblast]]. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Estonia raised the question of a return to the borders under the [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]]. Estonia dropped this claim in November 1995.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dt2TXexiKTgC&q=%22Petseri+County%22&pg=PT455|title=A Political and Economic Dictionary of Eastern Europe|first1=Alan Edwin|last1=Day|first2=Roger|last2=East|first3=Richard|last3=Thomas|date=17 June 2004|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780203403747|via=Google Books}}</ref> Estonia and Russia signed and ratified the Estonian-Russian Border Treaty, and it went into effect May 18, 2005: the preamble noted that the international border had partly changed, in accordance with Article 122 of the Estonian Constitution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.estemb.se/estonian_review/aid-427|title=Estonian Embassy in Sweden|website=www.estemb.se|access-date=12 September 2012|archive-date=30 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130183240/http://www.estemb.se/estonian_review/aid-427|url-status=dead}}</ref>

After the restoration of Estonian independence in 1991, there have been some disputes about the Estonian-Russian border in the Narva area, as the new [[constitution of Estonia]] (adopted in 1992) recognizes the 1920 [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]] border to be currently legal. The Russian Federation, however, considers Estonia to be a successor of the Estonian SSR and recognizes the 1945 border between two former national republics. Officially, Estonia has no territorial claims in the area,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/400839|title=Milleks meile idapiir ja ilma lepinguta?|last=Berg|first=Eiki|work=[[Eesti Päevaleht]]|language=et|access-date=2009-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009061426/http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/400839|archive-date=October 9, 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/476082|title=Enn Eesmaa: väide Petseri-soovist on ennekõike provokatiivne|work=[[Eesti Päevaleht]]|access-date=2009-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826212424/http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/476082|archive-date=August 26, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> which is also reflected in the new Estonian-Russian border treaty, according to which Ivangorod remains part of Russia. Although the treaty was signed in 2005 by the foreign ministers of Estonia and Russia, Russia took its signature back, after Estonian parliament added a reference to [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Tartu Peace Treaty]] in the preamble of the law ratifying the border treaty. A new treaty was signed by the foreign ministers in 2014.

== Politics ==

=== Government ===
{{Main|Communist Party of Estonia|Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic}}
{{See also|Estonian government-in-exile}}
[[File:Johannes Käbin 1978.jpg|thumb|190px|[[Johannes Käbin]], leader of the [[Communist Party of Estonia]] from 1950 to 1978]]

The legislative body of the Estonian SSR was the Supreme Soviet that represented the highest body of state power accordance with the Constitution.

The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet was the permanent body of the Supreme Council. It consisted of a [[List of Chairmen of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Chairman of the Presidium]], two vice-chairmen, Secretary and 9 members. Was elected to the Presidium of the 25th for the first time August 1940th The Presidium of the law and the decisions adopted. Between sessions of the Supreme Council met in some of its functions: changes to the legislation of the Estonian SSR, Soviet ministries and state committees and to the abolition of the SSR Council of Ministers and the persons appointment and removal of the Supreme Council for approval by relevant laws.

=== Military ===
{{Main|Baltic Military District}}
The Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic did not have armed forces of its own. Because of the strategic geographical location, Estonia was considered as a strategic zone for the [[Soviet Armed Forces]]. The territory was therefore heavily militarised and added to the Soviet [[Baltic Military District]] which included a strong presence of the [[Soviet Air Defence Forces|Soviet Air Defence]], [[Soviet Navy|Navy]] and also the [[Strategic Rocket Forces]]. The [[Baltic Military District]] included the following units:

*Ground units:
**[[32nd Rifle Division|144th Guards Motor Rifle Division]], (Tallinn)
**182nd Guard Motorised Rifle Regiment ([[Klooga, Estonia|Klooga]])
**188th Guard Motorised Rifle Regiment (Klooga)
**254th Guard Motorised Rifle Regiment (Tallinn)
**148th Independent Recon-Battalion (Klooga)
**295th Independent Engineer-Battalion (Klooga)
**228th Tank Regiment ([[Keila]])
**450th Artillery Regiment (Klooga)
*Air units:
**170th Naval Shturmovik Aviation Regiment [[Ämari Air Base|(Ämari)]]
**321st Naval Shturmovik Aviation Regiment (Ämari)
**366th Interceptor Aviation Regiment [[Pärnu Airport|(Pärnu)]]
**384th Interceptor Aircraft Regiment
**[[Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport|(Tallinn)]]
**425th Interceptor Aviation Regiment ([[Haapsalu Airfield|Haapsalu]])
**655th Interceptor Aviation Regiment (Pärnu)
**656th Interceptor Aviation Regiment [[Tapa Airfield|(Tapa)]]
**66th Soviet Attack Air Regiment [[Rutja Airfield|(Kunda)]]
**192nd Military Transport Aviation Regiment [[Raadi Airfield|(Tartu)]]
**196th Military Transport Aviation Regiment (Tartu)
**132nd Heavy Bomber Aviation Regiment (Tartu)
**[[Soviet Air Defence Forces|2nd Air-Defence Army]]
*Naval units:
**[[Baltic Fleet]] (Tallinn-[[Paldiski]])

Military training was provided by the [[Tallinn Higher Military-Political Construction School]].

== Economy ==

In the Soviet system, all local proceeds were initially appropriated into the federal budget at [[Moscow]], and some of them were then invested back in the local economies. The figures for those investments were made available to the public, thus promoting a positive impression of the Soviet Federal Centre's contributions to the periphery, the Baltic states included. Investment figures alone, however, do not represent actual income; rather, they resemble the spending side of the national [[budget]].<ref>[http://izvestia.ru/news/537100 Izvestija], "Опубликованы расчеты СССР с прибалтийскими республиками" 9 октября 2012, 14:56</ref> In Estonian SSR by 1947, the private sector had entirely disappeared, accompanied by a rapid industrialization that occurred soon after Soviet reoccupation.<ref name="estonia2005"/> Soviet planners expanded oil shale mining and processing in the late 1940s, taking over that industry in northeast section of Estonia.<ref name="estonia2005"/> In the 1970s, the Soviet economy experienced stagnation, exacerbated by the growth of a shadow economy.<ref name="estonia2005">{{cite book |last=Ellington |first=Lucien |title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture, Volume 1 |date=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-800-6 |page=102 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&pg=PA102|chapter=Estonia}}</ref>

National income per capita was higher in Estonia than elsewhere in the USSR (44% above the Soviet average in 1968),<ref>{{cite book|title= The Baltic States, years of dependence, 1940–1990|last= Misiunas|first= Romuald J.|author2= Rein Taagepera|year= 1993|publisher= University of California Press|isbn= 978-0-520-08228-1|pages= [https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/185 185]|url= https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/185}}</ref> however, the income levels exceeded those of the USSR in independent Estonia as well.<ref>[http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/articles/colin_clark.pdf Measurement Before and After Colin Clark] Australian Economic History Review; Angus Maddison. 2004, page 33</ref> Official Estonian sources maintain that Soviet rule had significantly slowed Estonia's economic growth, resulting in a wide ''wealth gap'' in comparison with its neighboring countries (e.g., [[Finland]], [[Sweden]]).<ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf Valge raamat], pages 125, 148</ref> For example, Estonian economy and standard of living were similar to that in Finland prior to World War II.<ref>[ ESTONIA AND FINLAND – A RETROSPECTIVE SOCIOECONOMIC COMPARISON. Edited by Olev Lugus and Pentti Vartia. ETLA (The Research Institute of the Finnish Economy), TAMI (Institute of Economics of Estonian Academy of Science), VATT (Government Institute of Economic Research, Finland)], Helsinki, 1993, pages 302-313</ref> Despite Soviet and Russian claims of improvements in standards, even three decades after World War II Estonia was rife with housing and food shortages and fell far behind Finland not only in levels of income, but in average life span.<ref name=EstRtoI>Taagepera, Rein.Estonia, Return to Independence. Westview Series on the Post-Soviet Republics. Westview Press in cooperation with the Harriman Institute. 1993.</ref><ref>[http://www.just.ee/orb.aw/class=file/action=preview/id=19158/valgeraamat.pdf Государственная комиссия по расследованию репрессивной политики оккупационных сил. Белая Книга о потерях причиненных народу Эстонии оккупациями 1940–1991.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610063924/http://www.just.ee/orb.aw/class=file/action=preview/id=19158/valgeraamat.pdf |date=June 10, 2007}}, page 47</ref> [[Eastern Bloc economies]] experienced an inefficiency of systems without competition or market-clearing prices that became costly and unsustainable and they lagged significantly behind their Western European counterparts in terms of [[per capita]] [[Gross Domestic Product]].<ref name="hardt">{{Harvnb|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=1 and 17}}</ref> Estonia's 1990 per capita GDP was $10,733 compared<ref name="maddison185">{{Harvnb|Maddison|2006|p=185}}</ref> to $26,100 for Finland.<ref name="hardt" /> Estonian sources estimate the economic damage directly attributable to the second Soviet occupation (from 1945 to 1991) to lie in the range of hundreds of billions of [[USD|dollars]].<ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf Valge raamat], page 20</ref> Similarly, the damage to Estonian [[ecology]] were estimated at around US$4 billion.

=== Resources ===
On May 21, 1947, the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]] of the [[All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks)]] authorised [[collectivization in the USSR|collectivization]] of Estonian agriculture. Initially it was implemented with great difficulties in the Baltic republics but it was facilitated by [[March deportation|mass deportations]] of dissident farmers, termed '[[kulak]]s'. As a result, by the end of April 1949, half of the remaining individual farmers in Estonia had joined [[kolkhozes]].<ref>{{cite journal
|title = Soviet Collectivization of Estonian Agriculture: The Deportation Phase
|last = Taagepera
|first = Rein
|author-link = Rein Taagepera
|journal = [[Soviet Studies]]
|issn = 0038-5859
|volume = 32
|issue = 3
|year = 1980
|pages = 379–97
|doi = 10.1080/09668138008411308
|jstor = 151169
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
|title = The Results of Collectivization of Estonian Agriculture
|last = Jaska
|first = E.
|journal = [[Land Economics]]
|publisher = [[University of Wisconsin Press]]
|issn = 0023-7639
|volume = 28
|issue = 3
|year = 1952
|pages = 212–17
|doi = 10.2307/3159513
|jstor = 3159513
}}</ref><ref>''Eesti nõukogude entsüklopeedia'' (Estonian Soviet Encyclopedia). Tallinn: Valgus, 1972. P. 221.</ref> 99.3% of farms had been collectivised by 1957.<ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/TheWhiteBook.pdf ''The White Book: Losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes''], P. 155.</ref>

=== Industry and environment ===
A number of large-volume capital investments were undertaken by the Soviet central power to exploit resources on Estonian territory of [[Oil shale]], [[lumber]] and, later, [[uranium ore]], as part of the postwar reconstruction program.<ref name="om-econ" /><ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf Valge raamat], page 130; [http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/TheWhiteBook.pdf ''The White Book: Losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes''], pp. 146–147.</ref> The first [[Five-year plans of the Soviet Union|Five Year Plan]], called the fourth Five Year Plan, prescribed a total of 3.5 billion roubles of investments for enterprises in Estonia.

One of the important goals in this reformation of Estonia's economy was providing economic support to [[Leningrad]]. To this end, 40% of the total capital investments of the fourth Five Year Plan to be spent in Estonia were intended for investments in oil shale mining infrastructure. Gas-rich oil shale was delivered to Leningrad via a specially built pipeline starting from 1948; gas from this very same source did not reach Tallinn until 1953. In 1961, 62.5% of the gas produced was still delivered to Leningrad.

By the end of 1954, 227,000 apartments in Leningrad were supplied with gas using the output of [[Kohtla-Järve]]; only about three percent of that, or 6,041 apartments, had been supplied in Tallinn.<ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf Valge raamat], page 132; [http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/TheWhiteBook.pdf ''The White Book: Losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes''], p. 149.</ref>

== Demographics ==

=== Soviet deportations and repressions ===
{{See also|Soviet deportations from Estonia}}

Mass deportations of ethnic Estonians during the Soviet era together with migration into Estonia from other parts of the Soviet Union resulted in the proportion of ethnic Estonians in the country decreasing from 88% in 1934 to 62% in 1989.<ref name="BNE">[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5377.htm Background Note: Estonia] AT U.S Department of State</ref> While the Baltic republics had the highest [[living standard]] in the Soviet Union and high rates of [[industrialisation]], the ethnic Estonians in Estonian SSR (similarly to Latvians in [[Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic|Latvian SSR]], but unlike Lithuanians in [[Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic|Lithuanian SSR]]) suffered a sharp decline of their proportion in the total population due to the large-scale immigration, mostly of [[Russians in Estonia|Russians]]. While in 1934 the Estonians comprised 88 percent of the total population of Estonia, by 1959 and 1970 their number had decreased to 75 and 68 percent, respectively (and to 61.5% by [[Soviet Census (1989)|1989]]).<ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/TheWhiteBook.pdf ''The White Book: Losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes''], P. 21.</ref>

This decline in percentage was especially severe among the urban and young populations. Within 11 years between 1959 and 1970 the proportion of Estonians in Tallinn declined by as much as 4%, from 60% to 56% of the total population.<ref>{{cite journal
|title = Population Processes and the Nationality Issue in the Soviet Baltic
|last = Parming
|first = Tonu
|journal = [[Soviet Studies]]
|issn = 0038-5859
|volume = 32
|issue = 3
|year = 1980
|pages = 398–414
|doi = 10.1080/09668138008411309
|jstor = 151170
}}</ref> Population growth throughout the existence of the Estonian SSR was mainly due to immigration from other regions of the Soviet Union.<ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/TheWhiteBook.pdf ''The White Book: Losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes''], P. 21, 147, 150.</ref> Although the percentage of Estonians in the total population of the Estonian SSR declined due to Soviet migration policies, the total number of ethnic Estonians increased over the Soviet period as a whole.<ref name="BDNE_Estonians">{{cite web|url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PO031&ti=BIRTHS,+DEATHS+AND+NATURAL+INCREASE.+ESTONIANS&path=../I_Databas/Population/01Population_indicators_and_composition/02Main_demographic_indicators/&lang=1|title=BIRTHS, DEATHS AND NATURAL INCREASE. ESTONIANS|website=pub.stat.ee}}</ref> This was due to a positive natural growth rate of some 1 or 2 thousand per year. As an example, in 1970, the number of live births of Estonians was 14,429 and the number of deaths was 12,356, giving natural increase of 2,073 ethnic Estonians.<ref name="BDNE_Estonians" />

In 1940–1941 and 1944–1951 during the [[Soviet deportations from Estonia]] tens of thousands of Estonian citizens were forcibly resettled to [[Siberia]].<ref>{{cite journal
|title = Population Changes in Estonia, 1935–1970
|last = Parming
|first = Tonu
|journal = [[Population Studies]]
|issn = 0032-4728
|volume = 26
|issue = 1
|year = 1972
|pages = 53–78
|doi = 10.2307/2172800
|jstor = 2172800
|pmid = 11630555
}}</ref> During the first year of occupation, 1940–1941, alone, an estimated 43,900 lives were irrecoverably lost, not counting refugees.<ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf Valge raamat], page 42</ref> The following [[occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany|three-year Nazi occupation]] brought with it a loss of 32,740 lives, again not counting refugees. Another 16,000 deaths were caused through Soviet repressions in the years following 1944.
During the first year of Soviet occupation (1940–1941) over 8,000 people, including most of the country's leading politicians and military officers, were arrested. About 2,200 of the arrested were executed in Estonia, while most others were moved to prison camps in Russia, from where very few were later able to return.

[[File:Johan Laidoner NKVD 1941.jpg|thumb|Soviet [[NKVD]] mug shot of Estonian general and statesman [[Johan Laidoner]] (after his 1940 arrest)]]
On July 19, 1940, the [[Commander-in-chief]] of the [[Estonian Army]] [[Johan Laidoner]] was captured by the [[NKVD]] and deported together with his wife to [[Penza]], [[RSFSR]]. Laidoner died in the Vladimir Prison Camp, Russia on March 13, 1953.<ref>[http://www.laidoner.ee/index.php/lang/eng/category/general-johan-laidoner General Johan Laidoner] at The Estonian War Museum</ref> The [[President of Estonia]], [[Konstantin Päts]] was arrested and deported to [[Ufa]] on July 30. He died in a [[psychiatric hospital]] in Kalinin (currently [[Tver]]) in Russia in 1956.

800 Estonian officers, about half of the total, were executed, arrested or starved to death in [[Gulag|prison camps]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}

A total of 59,732 people is estimated to have been [[Soviet deportations from Estonia|deported from Estonia]] during the period between July 1940 and June 1941.<ref>Dunsdorfs, Edgars. ''The Baltic Dilemma''. Speller & Sons, New York. 1975</ref> This included 8 former heads of state and 38 ministers from Estonia, 3 former heads of state and 15 ministers from Latvia, and the then president, 5 prime ministers and 24 other ministers from Lithuania.<ref>Küng, Andres. [http://www.rel.ee/eng/communism_crimes.htm ''Communism and Crimes against Humanity in the Baltic States''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010301223347/http://www.rel.ee/eng/communism_crimes.htm |date=March 1, 2001}}, 1999</ref>

The Soviet 1940 occupation of Estonia decimated the local economy, as Moscow began nationalizing private industries and [[collectivizing]] smallholding farms.<ref name="frucht102" /> Most of the larger businesses and half of Estonia's housing were nationalised.<ref name="frucht102" /> Savings were destroyed with an imposed artificially low exchange rate for the Estonian kroon to the Soviet rouble.<ref name="frucht102" />

==== Repressions against ethnic Russians ====
According to Sergei Isakov, almost all societies, newspapers, organizations of ethnic Russians in Estonia were closed and their activists persecuted.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} С. Г. Исаков, Очерки истории русской культуры в Эстонии, Изд. : Aleksandra, Таллинн 2005, С. 21</ref>
* [[Sergei Zarkevich]], an activist involved with Russian organizations in Estonia. The owner of the "Russian Book" store: arrest order issued by [[NKVD]] on June 23, 1940, executed on March 25, 1941.
* [[Oleg Vasilovsky]], a former General in the [[Russian Imperial Army]]. Arrest order issued by NKVD on July 1, 1940. Further fate unknown.
* [[Sergei Klensky]], one of the former leaders of the [[Russian Peasants Labor Party]]. Arrested on July 22. On November 19, 1940, sentenced to 8 years in a prison camp. Further fate unknown.
* [[Mikhail Aleksandrov (Estonian activist)|Mikhail Aleksandrov]]
* [[Arseni Zhitkov]].<ref>[http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/pdf/appendixes/312-318.pdf fate of individuals arrested] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609224843/http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/pdf/appendixes/312-318.pdf |date=June 9, 2007}} at EIHC</ref>

Other ethnic Russians in Estonia arrested and executed by different Soviet War Tribunals in 1940–1941:
Ivan Salnikov, Mihhail Arhipo, Vassili Belugin, Vladimir Strekoytov, Vasili Zhilin, Vladimir Utekhin, Sergei Samennikov, Ivan Meitsev, Ivan Yeremeyev, Konstantin Bushuyev, Yegor Andreyev, Nikolai Sausailov, Aleksandr Serpukhov, Konstantin Nosov, Aleksandr Nekrasov, Nikolai Vasilev-Muroman, Aleksei Sinelshikov, Pyotr Molonenkov, Grigory Varlamov, Stepan Pylnikov, Ivan Lishayev, Pavel Belousev, Nikolai Gusev, Leonid Sakharov, Aleksander Chuganov, Fyodor Dobrovidov, Lev Dobek, Andrei Leontev, Ivan Sokolov, Ivan Svetlov, Vladimir Semyonov, Valentin Semenov-Vasilev, Vasili Kamelkov, Georgi Lokhov, Aleksei Forlov, Ivan Ivanov, Vasili Karamsin, Aleksandr Krasilnikov, Aleksandr Zhukov, etc.<ref>[http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/pdf/appendixes/332-360.pdf Individuals executed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609224044/http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/pdf/appendixes/332-360.pdf |date=June 9, 2007}} at EIHC</ref>

=== Urbanization ===
Immediately after the war, major immigration projects were undertaken, labeled "brotherly aid under Stalinist nationality policies". For postwar reconstruction, hundreds of thousands of [[Russophone]]s were relocated into Estonia, mainly the cities. During the years 1945–1950, the total urban population count grew from 267,000 to 516,000; over 90% of the increase being fresh immigrants.<ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf Valge raamat], page 129; [http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/TheWhiteBook.pdf ''The White Book: Losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes''], p. 147</ref>

=== Society ===
In the year 1950, the major problems meriting medical research were declared to be [[tuberculosis]], [[Physical trauma|traumatism]], [[occupational diseases]] and [[dysentery]]. In comparison to the war years, birth rate had increased, mortality (including infant mortality) decreased, and the birth rate again exceeded the death rate.<ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf Valge raamat], page 48</ref> Despite the immense needs for research, the Faculty of Medicine at the [[Tartu State University]] (now [[University of Tartu]]) suffered from major purges, culminating after March 1950. Altogether, 56 staff of the university were purged; in the Faculty of Medicine, 12 [[professor]]s of 17 were removed from their positions. They were replaced with less skilled but politically reliable staff.

== Culture ==
[[File:Tallinna lauluväljak 1980.jpg|thumb|[[Estonian Song Festival]] in Tallinn in 1980]]

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sailing at the 1980 Summer Olympics}}
Tallinn was selected as host of the [[Sailing at the 1980 Summer Olympics|sailing events]] of the 1980 Olympics which led to controversy{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} since Western countries had not ''de jure'' recognized ESSR as part of USSR. During preparations to the [[1980 Summer Olympics|Olympics]], sports buildings were built in Tallinn, along with other general infrastructure and broadcasting facilities. This wave of investment included [[Tallinn TV Tower]], [[Pirita Yachting Centre]], [[Linnahall]], hotel "Olümpia" and the new Main Post Office building.

== Controversies ==
{{See also|Estonian government-in-exile}}
[[File:PlaqueMemorizingEstonianGovernment.jpg|thumb|150px|Plaque on [[Stenbock House]], the seat of the [[Government of Estonia]], commemorating government members killed by Soviet forces]]

While views diverge on history of Estonia, the core of the controversy lies in the varying interpretation of historical events and agreements during and after [[World War II]].

During the time of [[glasnost]] and the reassessment of Soviet history in the USSR, the USSR condemned the 1939 [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|secret protocol]] between Nazi Germany and itself that had led to the invasion and occupation of the three Baltic countries.<ref name="autogenerated1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20130904013940/http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=%221939+secret+protocol%22&btnG=Search The Forty-Third Session of the UN Sub-Commission] at Google Scholar</ref> The collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] led to the restoration of the Republic of Estonia's sovereignty.

According to the [[European Court of Human Rights]],<ref>[[European Court of Human Rights cases on Occupation of Baltic States]]</ref> [[Government of Estonia]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://newsfromrussia.com/cis/2005/05/03/59549.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120952/http://newsfromrussia.com/cis/2005/05/03/59549.html|url-status=dead|title=Estonia says Soviet occupation justifies it staying away from Moscow celebrations – Pravda.Ru|archive-date=29 September 2007}}</ref> [[European Union]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+MOTION+B6-2007-0215+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN|title=Motion for a resolution on the Situation in Estonia |publisher=[[European Union|EU]]}}</ref> [[United States]]<ref>[https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eur/rls/rm/86539.htm U.S.-Baltic Relations: Celebrating 85 Years of Friendship] at state.gov</ref> Estonia remained occupied by the Soviet Union until restoration of its independence in 1991 and the 48 years of Soviet occupation and annexation is not rendered legal by most international governments.

An article in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' claims that Russian reconsideration of the Soviet annexation of the [[Baltic states]] raised concerns among "some historians" that "Kremlin is—quite literally—trying to rewrite history in a way that risks breeding ultranationalism and whitewashing the darkest chapters of Russia's past."<ref>[https://www.wsj.com/public/article/SB118367568881058545.html A Do-Over for Russian History?]{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} ''Wall Street Journal''</ref>

The [[Government of Russia|Russian government]] maintains that the Soviet annexation of the Baltic states was legitimate<ref>{{cite news |title=Russia denies Baltic 'occupation' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4517683.stm |access-date=March 9, 2007 |work=BBC News |date=May 5, 2005}}</ref> and that the Soviet Union annexed those countries due to the Nazi threat at that time.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bush denounces Soviet domination |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4521663.stm |access-date=March 9, 2007 |work=BBC News |date=May 7, 2005}}</ref><ref>http://www.lfpr.lt/uploads/File/Current/Jurgeleviciute.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711183726/http://www.lfpr.lt/uploads/File/Current/Jurgeleviciute.pdf |date=July 11, 2007}}.</ref> It is commonly stated{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} that the Soviet troops had entered the Baltics in 1940 following the agreements and with the consent of the then governments of the Baltic republics. They state that the USSR was not in a [[war|state of war]] and was not waging any combat activities on the territory of the three Baltic states against them, and the word 'occupation' cannot be used.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newsfromrussia.com/main/2005/05/05/59601.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215005004/http://www.newsfromrussia.com/main/2005/05/05/59601.html|url-status=dead|title=Russia denies it illegally annexed the Baltic republics in 1940 – Pravda.Ru|archive-date=15 December 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newsfromrussia.com/main/2005/05/05/59605.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929110744/http://www.newsfromrussia.com/main/2005/05/05/59605.html|url-status=dead|title=Presidential aide: the term "occupation" inapplicable for Baltic States – Pravda.Ru|archive-date=29 September 2007}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Commune of the Working People of Estonia]]
* [[Demographics of Estonia]]
* [[History of Estonia]]
* [[List of Chairmen of the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic]]
* [[List of Chairmen of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic]]
* [[Museum of Occupations]], a project by the Kistler-Ritso Estonian Foundation
* [[Republics of the Soviet Union]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|30em}}

== References ==
* {{Cite book|last=Frucht|first=Richard|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-800-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Hardt|first1=John Pearce|last2=Kaufman|first2=Richard F.|title=East-Central European Economies in Transition|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|year=1995|isbn=1-56324-612-0}}
* {{Cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus |title=The world economy|publisher=OECD Publishing|year=2006|isbn=92-64-02261-9}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Misiunas|first1=Romuald J.|last2=Taagepera|first2=Rein|title=The Baltic States, years of dependence, 1940–1990|publisher=University of California Press|year=1993|isbn=0-520-08228-1|url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wettig|first=Gerhard|title=Stalin and the Cold War in Europe|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7425-5542-6}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal
|title = The Results of Collectivization of Estonian Agriculture
|last = Jaska
|first = E.
|journal = [[Land Economics]]
|issn = 0023-7639
|volume = 28
|issue = 3
|year = 1952
|pages = 212–17
|doi = 10.2307/3159513
|jstor = 3159513
}}
* Kareda, Endel (1949). ''Estonia in the Soviet Grip: Life and Conditions under Soviet Occupation 1947–1949''. London: Boreas.
* Kukk, Mare (1993). Political opposition in Soviet Estonia 1940–1987. ''[[Journal of Baltic Studies]]'' 24 (4), 369–384.
* Kulu, Hill (2003). [https://www.doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-9663.2003.00284.x Residence and migration in post-war Soviet Estonia: the case of Russian-born Estonians]. ''Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie'' 94 (5), 576–588.
* Kurman, George (1977). Literary censorship in general and in Soviet Estonia. ''[[Journal of Baltic Studies]]'' 8 (1), 3–15.
* Mander, Ülo, Palang, Hannes (1994). [https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00810135 Changes of landscape structure in Estonia during the Soviet period]. ''[[GeoJournal]]'' 33 (1), 45–54.
* Mettam, Collin W. and Stephen Wyn Williams (2001). A colonial perspective on population migration in Soviet Estonia. ''[[Journal of Baltic Studies]]'' 27 (1), 133–150.
* Mettam, Colin W. and Stephen Wyn Williams (1998). [https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.1354-5078.1998.00363.x Internal colonialism and cultural division of labour in the Soviet Republic of Estonia]. ''[[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]]'' 4 (3), 363–388.
* {{cite journal
|title = Population Changes in Estonia, 1935–1970
|last = Parming
|first = Tonu
|journal = [[Population Studies]]
|issn = 0032-4728
|volume = 26
|issue = 1
|year = 1972
|pages = 53–78
|doi = 10.2307/2172800
|jstor = 2172800
|pmid = 11630555
}}
* {{cite journal
|title = Population Processes and the Nationality Issue in the Soviet Baltic
|last = Parming
|first = Tonu
|journal = [[Soviet Studies]]
|issn = 0038-5859
|volume = 32
|issue = 3
|year = 1980
|pages = 398–414
|doi = 10.1080/09668138008411309
|jstor = 151170
}}
* Parming, Tõnu and Elmar Järvesoo (eds.). ''A Case Study of a Soviet Republic: The Estonian SSR''. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1978.
* Rebas, Hain (2005). Dependence and opposition. Problems in Soviet Estonian historiography in the late 1940s and early 1950s. ''[[Journal of Baltic Studies]]'' 36 (4), 423–448.
* {{cite journal
|title = Soviet Collectivization of Estonian Agriculture: The Deportation Phase
|last = Taagepera
|first = Rein
|author-link = Rein Taagepera
|journal = [[Soviet Studies]]
|issn = 0038-5859
|volume = 32
|issue = 3
|year = 1980
|pages = 379–97
|doi = 10.1080/09668138008411308
|jstor = 151169
}}
* [[Taagepera, Rein]]. ''Estonia: Return to Independence''. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993. {{ISBN|0-8133-1703-7}}.
* Tammaru, Tiit (2002). [https://www.doi.org/10.1111/0033-0124.00349 Universal and Specific Features of Urbanization in Estonia under Socialism: The Empirical Evidence of the Sources of Urban and Rural Population Growth]. ''[[The Professional Geographer]]'' 54 (4), 544–556.
* Virkkunen, Joni (1999). [https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1007099905702 The politics of identity: Ethnicity, minority and nationalism in Soviet Estonia]. ''[[GeoJournal]]'' 48 (2), 83–89.

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101211204819/http://estonia.globalmuseumoncommunism.org/ The Global Museum on Communism Estonia Exhibit]
* [http://www.historycommission.ee/ Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]
* 1/6/2017 5:19 PM, BNS/ERR, [http://news.err.ee/v/news/b2bdd201-cd4f-400d-b362-77bfc31231b3/ambassadors-to-german-paper-baltic-states-not-former-soviet-republics Ambassadors to German paper: Baltic states not former Soviet republics]

{{Republics of the Soviet Union}}
{{Soviet occupation}}
{{Eastern Bloc}}
{{Estonia topics}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic| ]]
[[Category:Former socialist republics]]
[[Category:Republics of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Communism in Estonia]]
[[Category:Soviet military occupations]]
[[Category:Eastern Bloc|*]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1940]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1941]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1944]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1991]]
[[Category:Occupation of the Baltic states]]
[[Category:1940 establishments in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:1991 disestablishments in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Former client states]]
[[Category:1940 establishments in Estonia]]

Estonia

2023-04-17T20:46:19Z

3 Löwi: runestones predate sagas as written records, and Gesta Danorum predates Heinrici Cronicon Lyvoniae

{{short description|Country in Northern Europe}}
{{redirect|Eesti|the language|Estonian language|other uses|Estonia (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Coord|59|N|26|E|type:country_scale:9000000_region:EE|display=title}}{{EngvarB|date=December 2019}}{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Estonia
| common_name = Estonia
| native_name = {{native name|et|Eesti Vabariik}}
| image_flag = Flag of Estonia.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Estonia.svg
| symbol_width = 88px
| national_anthem = ''[[Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm]]'' {{small|(English: "My fatherland, my happiness and joy")}} {{parabr}}{{center|[[File:US Navy band - National anthem of Estonia.ogg|alt=sound file of Estonian national anthem]]}}
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Estonia on the globe (Europe centered).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:EU-Estonia.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Europe|default=2}}
| map_caption = {{map caption|location_color=dark green |region=Europe |region_color=dark grey |subregion=the [[European Union]] |subregion_color=green |legend=EU-Estonia.svg}}
| capital = [[Tallinn]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|59|25|N|24|45|E|type:city}}
| largest_city = capital
| languages_type = Official language
| languages = [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
{{infobox|child=yes
| label1 = [[Ethnic groups]] {{nobold|(2022)}}
| data1 = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |69.4% [[Estonians]] |23.6% [[Russians]] |7.0% [[Demographics of Estonia|Others]]}}
}}
| demonym = Estonian
| religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |64.9% [[Irreligion in Estonia|No religion]] |34.0% [[Christianity]]|1.1% [[Religion in Estonia|Others]]}}
| religion_year = 2011<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.stat.ee/65352?parent_id=39113|title= PHC 2011: over a quarter of the population are affiliated with a particular religion|date= 29 April 2013|access-date= 9 January 2014|publisher= [[Statistics Estonia]]|archive-date= 24 November 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171124002736/https://www.stat.ee/65352?parent_id=39113|url-status= dead}}</ref>
| government_type = [[Unitary parliamentary republic]]
| leader_title1 = [[President of Estonia|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Alar Karis]]
| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Kaja Kallas]]
| legislature = [[Riigikogu]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Estonia|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note = from [[Soviet Russia|Russia]] and [[German Empire|Germany]]
| established_event1 = [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|Declaration of independence]]
| established_date1 = {{nowrap|23–24 February 1918}}
| established_event2 = Joined the [[League of Nations]]
| established_date2 = {{nowrap|22 September 1921}}
| established_event4 = [[Occupation of the Baltic states|German and Soviet occupations]]
| established_date4 = 1940–1991
| established_event5 = [[Restoration of Estonia|Independence restored]]
| established_date5 = 20 August 1991
| established_event6 = {{nowrap|[[2004 enlargement of the European Union|Joined]] the [[European Union]]}}
| established_date6 = 1 May 2004
| area_km2 = 45,339
| area_rank = 129thd
| area_sq_mi = 17,505
| percent_water = 4.6
| population_estimate = {{increase}} 1,357,739<ref>{{cite web |title=Population Figure |url=https://news.err.ee/1608854255/statistics-estonia-s-population-grew-by-2-percent-on-year-to-january-2023 |website=ERR Uudised |date=18 January 2023 |access-date=19 January 2023}}</ref>
| population_census = 1,331,824<ref>{{cite news |title=Population census: Estonia's population and the number of Estonians have grown |url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/uudised/rahvaloendus-eesti-rahvaarv-ja-eestlaste-arv-kasvanud |access-date=5 June 2022 |publisher=Statistics Estonia |date=June 1, 2022}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2023
| population_estimate_rank =
| population_census_year = 2021
| population_density_km2 = 30.6
| population_density_sq_mi = 75 
| population_density_rank = 148th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $61.757 billion<ref name="imf2">{{Cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report |access-date=2023-04-16 |website=IMF |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2023
| GDP_PPP_rank = 113th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $46,385 <ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 40th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $41.55 billion<ref name="imf2"/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2023
| GDP_nominal_rank = 102th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $31,207<ref name="imf2"/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 37th
| Gini = 30.6 
| Gini_year = 2021
| Gini_change = increase 
| Gini_ref = <ref name="eurogini">{{cite web |title= Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income |work= EU-SILC survey |publisher= [[Eurostat]] |url= https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi190/default/table?lang=en|access-date= 22 June 2022}}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.890 
| HDI_year = 2021
| HDI_change = increase 
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 31st
| currency = [[Euro]] ([[€]])
| currency_code = EUR
| drives_on = right
| time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
| utc_offset = +02:00
| utc_offset_DST = +03:00
| time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Estonia|+372]]
| cctld = [[.ee]]
}}
'''Estonia''',{{efn|{{lang-et|Eesti}} {{IPA-et|ˈeːsʲti||Et-Eesti.ogg}}}} formally the '''Republic of Estonia''',{{efn|{{lang-et|Eesti Vabariik|links=no}}}} is a country by the [[Baltic Sea]] in [[Northern Europe|Northern]] [[Europe]]. It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the [[Baltic Sea|sea]] across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by [[Lake Peipus]] and [[Russia]]. The territory of Estonia consists of the [[mainland]], the larger islands of [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]], and over 2,200 other islands and [[islet]]s on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea,<ref>Matthew Holehouse [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/estonia/11830643/Estonia-discovers-800-new-islands.html Estonia discovers it's actually larger after finding 800 new islands] ''The Telegraph'', 28 August 2015</ref> covering a total area of {{convert|45339|km2|sqmi}}. The [[capital city]] [[Tallinn]] and [[Tartu]] are the two [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|largest urban]] [[urban area|area]]s of the country. The [[Estonian language]] is the [[indigenous language|autochthonous]] and the [[official language]] of Estonia; it is the [[first language]] of the majority of its [[Estonians|population]], as well as the world's second most spoken [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] [[Uralic languages|language]].

The land of what is now modern Estonia has been inhabited by ''[[Early modern human|Homo sapiens]]'' since at least 9,000 BC. The [[Ancient Estonia#Early Middle Ages|medieval indigenous]] population of Estonia was one of the last [[pagan]] civilisations in Europe to adopt [[Christianity]] following the [[Papal]][[Non parum animus noster|-sanctioned]] [[Livonian Crusade|Livonian]] [[Northern Crusades|Crusade]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://legacarta.intracen.org/country/est/|title= Country Profile – LegaCarta|access-date= 26 November 2019}}</ref> After centuries of successive rule by the [[State of the Teutonic Order|Teutonic Order]], [[Duchy of Estonia (1219–1346)|Denmark]], [[Estonia under Swedish rule|Sweden]], and the [[Russian Empire]], a distinct [[Estonian national awakening|Estonian national identity]] began to emerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 24 February 1918 [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] from the then warring [[Russian Republic|Russian]] and [[German Empire]]s.  Democratic throughout most of the [[interwar period]], Estonia declared [[Neutral powers during World War II|neutrality]] at the outbreak of [[World War II]], but the country was [[Occupation of the Baltic states|repeatedly contested, invaded and occupied]], first by the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|1940]], then by [[Nazi Germany]] in 1941, and was ultimately [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)|reoccupied in 1944]] by, and annexed into, the USSR as an [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union|administrative subunit]] ([[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonian SSR]]). Throughout the 1944–1991 Soviet occupation,<ref>See, for instance, position expressed by European Parliament, which condemned "the fact that the occupation of these formerly independent and neutral States by the Soviet Union occurred in 1940 following the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact, and continues." {{cite journal | last=European Parliament | title=Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania | journal=Official Journal of the European Communities | volume=C 42/78 | date=January 13, 1983 | url=/media/wikipedia/en/8/80/Europarliament13011983.jpg}}</ref> Estonia's ''[[de jure]]'' [[State continuity of the Baltic states|state continuity]] was [[Baltic Legations (1940–1991)|preserved]] by [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–1991)|diplomatic representatives]] and the [[Estonian government-in-exile|government-in-exile]]. Following the bloodless Estonian "[[Singing Revolution]]" of 1988–1990, the nation's ''de facto'' independence from the Soviet Union was restored on [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|20 August 1991]].

Estonia is a [[developed country]], with an advanced [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income]] [[Economy of Estonia|economy]]. The [[sovereign state]] of Estonia is a democratic [[unitary parliamentary republic]], administratively subdivided into 15 ''maakond'' [[Counties of Estonia|(counties)]]. With a population of just over 1.3 million, it is one of the least populous members of the [[European Union]], the [[Eurozone]], the [[OECD]], the [[Schengen Area]], and [[NATO]].

==Name==
{{Main|Name of Estonia}}
The name ''Estonia'' ({{lang-et|Eesti}} {{IPA-et|ˈeːsʲti||Et-Eesti.ogg}}) has been connected to ''[[Aesti]]'', first mentioned by [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] historian [[Tacitus]] around 98 AD. Some historians believe he was directly referring to [[Balts]] (i.e. not [[Finnic languages|Finnic-speaking]] Estonians), while others have proposed that the name applied to the whole Eastern Baltic region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mägi |first1=Marika |title=In ''Austrvegr'': The Role of the Eastern Baltic in Viking Age Communication across the Baltic Sea |date=2018 |pages=144–145 |publisher=[[BRILL]] |isbn=9789004363816}}</ref> [[Scandinavian sagas]] and [[Viking]] [[Viking runestones|runestones]]<ref>Harrison, D. & Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv. Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo. ISBN 91-27-35725-2</ref> referring to ''Eistland'' were the earliest sources to use the name in its modern meaning.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tvauri |first1=Andres |title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia |date=2012 |editor1-last=Laneman |editor1-first=Margot |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |page=31 |publisher=[[Tartu University|Tartu University Press]] |isbn=9789949199365 |issn=1736-3810 |accessdate=21 January 2020}}</ref> From [[Old Norse]] the name spread to other Germanic vernaculars and reached literary Latin by the end of 12th century when historian [[Saxo Grammaticus]] in his work ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' referred to Estonia as ''Hestia'', ''Estia'' and its people as ''Estonum''. The [[Livonian Chronicle of Henry]] (written ca. 1229) also referred to the region as ''Estonia''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rätsep|first1=Huno|title=Kui kaua me oleme olnud eestlased? |journal=Oma Keel |year=2007|volume=14|url=http://www.emakeeleselts.ee/omakeel/2007_1/OK_2007-1_01.pdf |lang=et |access-date=21 January 2020 |page=11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tamm |first1=Marek |last2=Kaljundi |first2=Linda |last3=Jensen |first3=Carsten Selch |title=Crusading and Chronicle Writing on the Medieval Baltic Frontier: A Companion to the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia |date=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781317156796 |pages=94–96}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Estonia}}

===Prehistory and Viking Age===
{{Main|Ancient Estonia|Viking Age in Estonia}}
[[File:Kalmeväli .jpg|thumb|right|[[Bronze Age]] stone-cist graves in north Estonia]]
Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000–11,000 years ago, when the ice from the last [[Ice age|glacial era]] melted. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the [[Pulli settlement]], which was on the banks of [[Pärnu River|Pärnu]] river, near [[Sindi, Estonia|Sindi]], in southwest Estonia. According to [[radiocarbon dating]], it was settled around 11,000 years ago.<ref name="Laurisaar">{{cite news |url=http://epl.delfi.ee/news/kultuur/arheoloogid-lammutavad-ajalooopikute-arusaamu?id=50989575 |title=Arheoloogid lammutavad ajalooõpikute arusaamu |first=Riho |last=Laurisaar |publisher=[[Eesti Päevaleht]] |language=et |date=31 July 2004 |access-date=1 November 2016}}</ref>

The earliest human habitation during the [[Mesolithic]] period is connected to the [[Kunda culture]]. At that time the country was covered with forests, and people lived in semi-nomadic communities near bodies of water. Subsistence activities consisted of hunting, gathering and fishing.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=23 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> Around 4900 BC, ceramics appear of the [[neolithic]] period, known as [[Narva culture]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=24 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> Starting from around 3200 BC the [[Corded Ware culture]] appeared; this included new activities like primitive agriculture and animal husbandry.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=26 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref>

The [[Bronze Age]] started around 1800 BC, and saw the establishment of the first [[hillfort|hill fort]] settlements.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=4 |year=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref> A transition from hunter-fisher subsistence to single-farm-based settlement started around 1000 BC, and was complete by the beginning of the [[Iron Age]] around 500 BC.<ref name="Laurisaar"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=5 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref> The large amount of bronze objects indicate the existence of active communication with Scandinavian and Germanic tribes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=28 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref>

The [[Iron Age Europe|middle Iron Age]] produced threats appearing from different directions. Several Scandinavian sagas referred to major confrontations with Estonians, notably when in the early 7th century "Estonian Vikings" defeated and killed [[Ingvar]], the [[Yngling|King of]] [[Swedes (tribe)|Swedes]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|year=2005 |title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/68 68] |publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006 |url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/68}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Faure |first1=Gunter |last2=Mensing |first2=Teresa |title=The Estonians; The long road to independence |page=27 |year=2012|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=9781105530036}}</ref> Similar threats appeared to the east, where East Slavic principalities were expanding westward. In ca 1030 the troops of [[Kievan Rus]] led by [[Yaroslav the Wise]] defeated Estonians and established a fort in modern-day [[Tartu]]. This foothold may have lasted until ca 1061 when an Estonian tribe, the Sosols, destroyed it, followed by their raid on [[Pskov]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tvauri|first1=Andres|title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia|date=2012|pages=33, 34, 59, 60 |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |access-date=27 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mäesalu |first1=Ain|title=Could Kedipiv in East-Slavonic Chronicles be Keava hill fort?|journal=Estonian Journal of Archaeology|year=2012|volume=1 |issue=16supplser|page=199|doi=10.3176/arch.2012.supv1.11 |url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/Archaeology/2012/sup_vol_1/arhe-keava-2012-195-200.pdf|access-date=27 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres |title=A History of the Baltic States |page=9 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun |first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=12|year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> Around the 11th century, the Scandinavian Viking era around the Baltic Sea was succeeded by the Baltic Viking era, with seaborne raids by [[Curonians]] and by Estonians from the island of [[Saaremaa]], known as [[Oeselians]]. In 1187 Estonians (Oeselians), [[Curonians]] or/and [[Karelians]] sacked [[Sigtuna]], which was a major city of Sweden at the time.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres |title=A History of the Baltic States|pages=9–11 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref name=Tarvel>Enn Tarvel (2007). [http://haridus.opleht.ee/Arhiiv/7_82007/38-41.pdf ''Sigtuna hukkumine''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011191449/http://haridus.opleht.ee/Arhiiv/7_82007/38-41.pdf |date=11 October 2017 }} Haridus, 2007 (7–8), pp. 38–41</ref>

Estonia could be divided into two main cultural areas. The coastal areas of Northern and Western Estonia had close overseas contacts with [[Scandinavia]] and [[Finland]], while inland Southern Estonia had more contacts with [[Balts]] and [[Pskov Land|Pskov]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tvauri|first1=Andres|title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia|date=2012|pages=322–325 |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref> The landscape of Ancient Estonia featured numerous hillforts.<ref name="Magi2015">{{cite book|last=Mägi |first=Marika |editor-last1=Barrett |editor-first1=James H. |editor-last2=Gibbon |editor-first2=Sarah Jane |title=Maritime Societies of the Viking and Medieval World |publisher=Maney Publishing |date=2015 |pages=45–46 |chapter=Chapter 4. Bound for the Eastern Baltic: Trade and Centres AD 800–1200 |isbn=978-1-909662-79-7}}</ref> Prehistoric or medieval harbour sites have been found on the coast of Saaremaa.<ref name="Magi2015"/> Estonia also has a number of graves from the Viking Age, both individual and collective, with weapons and jewellery including types found commonly throughout Northern Europe and Scandinavia.<ref name="Magi2015"/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Martens |first=Irmelin |year=2004 |title= Indigenous and imported Viking Age weapons in Norway – a problem with European implications |journal= Journal of Nordic Archaeological Science |volume=14 |pages=132–135 |url= https://www.archaeology.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.138785.1371480692!/menu/standard/file/martens.pdf |access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref>

In the early centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the parish (Estonian: ''kihelkond'') and the county (Estonian: ''[[maakond]]''), which consisted of multiple parishes. A parish was led by [[elder (administrative title)|elders]] and centered on a hill fort; in some rare cases a parish had multiple forts. By the 13th century, Estonia consisted of eight major counties: [[Harjumaa (ancient county)|Harjumaa]], [[Järvamaa]], [[Läänemaa]], [[Revala]], [[Saare County|Saaremaa]], [[Sakala County|Sakala]], [[Ugandi]], and [[Virumaa]]; and six minor, single-parish counties: [[Alempois]], [[Jogentagana]], [[Mõhu]], [[Nurmekund]], [[Soopoolitse]], and [[Vaiga]]. Counties were independent entities and engaged only in a loose cooperation against foreign threats.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=4 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto | author-link1 = Anto Raukas|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=227|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>

Little is known of medieval Estonians' spiritual and religious practices before [[Christianization]]. The [[Chronicle of Henry of Livonia]] mentions ''[[Tharapita]]'' as the superior deity of the then inhabitants of Saaremaa (''Oeselians''). There is some [[historical evidence]] about [[sacred groves]], especially groves of [[oak]] trees, having served as places of "[[paganism|pagan]]" worship.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=7 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://epl.delfi.ee/news/kultuur/kes-oli-saarlaste-suurjumal-taarapita?id=51037692 |title=Arheoloogid lammutavad ajalooõpikute arusaamu |first=Riho |last=Laurisaar |publisher=[[Eesti Päevaleht]] |language=et |date=29 April 2006 |access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref>

===Crusades and the Catholic Era===
{{Main|Livonian Crusade|Terra Mariana|Danish Estonia}}
[[File:Medieval Livonia 1260.svg|thumb|left|Medieval Estonia and Livonia after the crusade]]
In 1199, Pope [[Innocent III]] declared a [[Livonian Crusade|crusade]] to "defend the Christians of [[Livonia]]".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Tyerman|first1=Christopher|author-link = Christopher Tyerman|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades|page=[https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690 690]|year=2006|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674023871|url=https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690}}</ref> Fighting reached Estonia in 1206, when Danish King [[Valdemar II]] unsuccessfully invaded Saaremaa. The German [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]], who had previously subjugated [[Livonians]], [[Latgalians]], and [[Selonians]], started campaigning against the Estonians in 1208, and over next few years both sides made numerous raids and counter-raids. A major leader of the Estonian resistance was [[Lembitu]], an elder of [[Sakala County]], but in 1217 the Estonians suffered a significant defeat in the [[Battle of St. Matthew's Day]], where Lembitu was killed. In 1219, Valdemar II landed at Lindanise, defeated the Estonians in the [[Battle of Lyndanisse]], and started conquering Northern Estonia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=14 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=278|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> The next year, Sweden invaded Western Estonia, but were [[Battle of Lihula|repelled]] by the Oeselians. In 1223, a major revolt ejected the Germans and Danes from the whole of Estonia, except [[Reval]], but the crusaders soon resumed their offensive, and in 1227, Saaremaa was the last ''maakond'' (county) to surrender.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=15 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=279|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>

After the crusade, the territory of present-day Southern Estonia and Latvia was named [[Terra Mariana]], but later it became known simply as [[Livonia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Plakans|first1=Andrejs|title=A Concise History of the Baltic States|page=54 |year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521833721}}</ref> Northern Estonia became the Danish [[Danish Estonia|Duchy of Estonia]], while the rest was divided between the Sword Brothers and [[prince-bishopric]]s of [[Bishopric of Dorpat|Dorpat]] and [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]]. In 1236, after suffering a [[Battle of Saule|major defeat]], the Sword Brothers merged into the [[Teutonic Order]] becoming the [[Livonian Order]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States|pages=9–10|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313331251}}</ref> In the next decades there were several uprisings against the Teutonic rulers in Saaremaa. In 1343, a major rebellion started, known as the [[St. George's Night Uprising]], encompassing the whole area of northern Estonia and Saaremaa. The Teutonic Order finished suppressing the rebellion in 1345, and the next year the Danish king sold his possessions in Estonia to the Order.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=20 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States|page=10|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313331251}}</ref> The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the upper-class German minority.<ref>{{cite book |last= Pekomäe|first= Vello|title= Estland genom tiderna|year= 1986|publisher= VÄLIS-EESTI & EMP|location= Stockholm |language= sv|isbn= 91-86116-47-9|page=319}}</ref> For the subsequent centuries [[Low German]] remained the language of the ruling elite in both Estonian cities and the countryside.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Jokipii|first1= Mauno|editor1-first= Mauno|editor1-last= Jokipii|title= Baltisk kultur och historia|year= 1992 |language= sv|isbn= 9789134512078|pages= 22–23}}</ref>
[[File:Kuressaare Castle.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Kuressaare Castle, square stone keep with one square corner tower and red tile roof|[[Kuressaare Castle]] in [[Saaremaa]] dates back to the 1380s]]
[[Reval]] ([[Tallinn]]), the capital of [[Danish Estonia]] founded on the site of Lindanise, adopted the [[Lübeck law]] and received full town rights in 1248.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=441|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref> The [[Hanseatic League]] controlled trade on the Baltic Sea, and overall the four largest towns in Estonia became members: Reval, [[Dorpat]] (Tartu), [[Pernau]] (Pärnu), and [[Fellin]] (Viljandi). Reval acted as a trade intermediary between [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] and western Hanseatic cities, while Dorpat filled the same role with [[Pskov Land|Pskov]]. Many artisans' and merchants [[guilds]] were formed during the period.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture, Volume 1|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/100 100]|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/100}}</ref> Protected by their stone walls and membership in the Hansa, prosperous cities like Reval and Dorpat repeatedly defied other rulers of [[medieval Livonia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frost|first1=Robert I.|title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558 – 1721|page=305|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317898573}}</ref> After the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the [[Battle of Grunwald]] in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the [[Battle of Swienta]] on 1 September 1435, the [[Livonian Confederation]] Agreement was signed on 4 December 1435.<ref name="VLM">{{cite book|title=Vana-Liivimaa maapäev|last=Raudkivi|first=Priit|year=2007|publisher=Argo|language=et|isbn=978-9949-415-84-7|pages=118–119}}</ref>

===Post-Reformation Era===
{{Main|Swedish Estonia|Governorate of Estonia|Governorate of Livonia}}
[[File:Academia Gustaviana.jpg|right|thumb|"Academia Dorpatensis" (now [[University of Tartu]]) was founded in 1632 by King Gustavus as the second university in the kingdom of Sweden. After the king's death it became known as "Academia Gustaviana".]]

The [[Reformation]] began in central Europe in 1517, and soon spread northward to Livonia despite some opposition by the Livonian Order.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Mol|first1=Johannes A.|last2=Militzer|first2=Klaus|last3=Nicholson|first3=Helen J.|title=The Military Orders and the Reformation: Choices, State Building, and the Weight of Tradition|pages=5–6|year=2006|publisher=Uitgeverij Verloren|isbn=9789065509130}}</ref> Towns were the first to embrace Protestantism in the 1520s, and by the 1530s the majority of the landowners and rural population had adopted [[Lutheranism]] as well.<ref name="Frucht121">{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture, Volume 1|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/121 121]|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/121}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=The History of the Baltic States|page=25|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313323553}}</ref> Church services were now conducted in vernacular language, which initially meant [[Low German]], but already from the 1530s onward the regular religious services were also held in the [[Estonian language]].<ref name="Frucht121"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=24 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

During the 16th century, the expansionist monarchies of [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]], Sweden, and [[Polish–Lithuanian union|Poland–Lithuania]] consolidated power, posing a growing threat to decentralised Livonia weakened by disputes between cities, nobility, bishops, and the Order.<ref name="Frucht121"/><ref name="Hoover Press">{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=25 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

In 1558, Tsar [[Ivan the Terrible]] of [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia (Muscovy)]] invaded Livonia, starting the [[Livonian War]]. The Livonian Order was decisively [[Battle of Ergeme|defeated]] in 1560, prompting Livonian factions to seek foreign protection. The majority of Livonia accepted Polish rule, while Reval and the nobles of Northern Estonia swore loyalty to the Swedish king, and the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek sold his lands to the Danish king. Russian forces gradually conquered the majority of Livonia, but in the late 1570s the Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish armies started their own offensives and the bloody war finally ended in 1583 with Russian defeat.<ref name="Hoover Press"/><ref>{{Cite book|author1-link=David R. Stone|last1=Stone|first1=David R.|title=A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya|pages=14–18 |year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780275985028}}</ref> As a result of the war, Northern Estonia became Swedish [[Duchy of Estonia (1561–1721)|Duchy of Estonia]], Southern Estonia became Polish [[Duchy of Livonia]], and Saaremaa remained under Danish control.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=28–29 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

In 1600, the [[Polish–Swedish War]] broke out, causing further devastation. The protracted war ended in 1629 with Sweden [[Swedish Livonia|gaining Livonia]], including the regions of Southern Estonia and Northern Latvia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=28 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> Danish Saaremaa was [[Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645)|transferred]] to Sweden in 1645.<ref>{{cite book |title=Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania |last1=Williams |first1=Nicola |first2=Debra |last2=Herrmann |first3=Cathryn |last3=Kemp |year=2003 |publisher=University of Michigan |isbn=1-74059-132-1 |page=190}}</ref> The wars had halved the population of Estonia from about 250–270,000 people in the mid 16th century to 115–120,000 in the 1630s.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frost|first1=Robert I.|title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558 – 1721|page=77|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317898573}}</ref>

While many peasants remained in the status of [[serfdom]] during the Swedish rule, legal reforms strengthened both serfs' and [[free tenant]] farmers' land usage and inheritance rights – hence this period got the reputation of "The Good Old Swedish Time" in people's historical memory.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=283|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> Swedish King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustaf II Adolf]] established [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasiums]] in Reval and Dorpat; the latter was upgraded to [[Tartu University]] in 1632. [[Printing presses]] were also established in both towns. In the 1680s the beginnings of Estonian elementary education appeared, largely due to efforts of [[Bengt Gottfried Forselius]], who also introduced orthographical reforms to written Estonian.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=32–33 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The population of Estonia grew rapidly for a 60–70-year period, until the [[Great Famine of Estonia (1695–1697)|Great Famine]] of 1695–97 in which some 70,000–75,000 people died – about 20% of the population.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=31 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

During the 1700–1721 [[Great Northern War]], the [[Tsardom of Russia]] (Muscovy) conquered the whole of Estonia by 1710.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=33 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The war again devastated the population of Estonia, with the 1712 population estimated at only 150,000–170,000.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=34 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> In 1721, Estonia was divided into two [[Baltic governorates|governorates]]: the [[governorate of Estonia]], which included Tallinn and the northern part of Estonia, and the southern [[governorate of Livonia]], which extended to the northern part of Latvia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bdcol.ee/fileadmin/docs/bdreview/bdr-2002-8-11.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319083729/http://www.bdcol.ee/fileadmin/docs/bdreview/bdr-2002-8-11.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Baltic States from 1914 to 1923 By LtCol Andrew Parrott|archive-date=19 March 2009}}</ref> Russian administration restored all the political and landholding rights of Baltic Germans.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=38 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The rights of local farmers reached their lowest point, as serfdom completely dominated agricultural relations during the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=41 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> Serfdom was formally abolished in 1816–1819, but this initially had very little practical effect; major improvements in farmers' rights started with reforms in the mid-19th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=47–49 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

===National Awakening===
{{Main|Estonian national awakening}}

[[File:Carl Robert Jakobson.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Carl Robert Jakobson]] played a key role in the [[Estonian national awakening]].]]
The [[Estonian national awakening]] began in the 1850s as several leading figures started promoting an Estonian national identity among the general populace. Widespread farm buyouts by Estonians and the resulting rapidly growing class of land-owning farmers provided the economic basis for the formation of this new "Estonian identity". In 1857 [[Johann Voldemar Jannsen]] started publishing the first Estonian language daily newspaper and began popularising the denomination of oneself as ''eestlane'' (Estonian).<ref name="EE286">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=286|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> Schoolmaster [[Carl Robert Jakobson]] and clergyman [[Jakob Hurt]] became leading figures in a national movement, encouraging Estonian farmers to take pride in their ethnic Estonian identity.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=90 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> The first nationwide movements formed, such as a campaign to establish the Estonian language Alexander School, the founding of the [[Society of Estonian Literati]] and the [[Estonian Students' Society]], and the first [[Estonian Song Festival|national song festival]], held in 1869 in Tartu.<ref name="Raun59">{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=59 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref name="EE287">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=287|year=2002 |publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=93 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> Linguistic reforms helped to develop the Estonian language.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=90–91 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> The national [[Epic poetry|epic]] ''[[Kalevipoeg]]'' was published in 1862, and 1870 saw the first performances of [[Theatre of Estonia|Estonian theatre]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=91 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref><ref name="CoE">{{Cite book| title=Cultural Policy in Estonia|page=23 |year=1997|publisher=Council of Europe|isbn=9789287131652}}</ref> In 1878 a major split happened in the national movement. The moderate wing led by Hurt focused on development of culture and Estonian education, while the radical wing led by Jakobson started demanding increased political and economical rights.<ref name="EE287"/>

At the end of the 19th century, [[Russification]] began, as the central government initiated various administrative and cultural measures to tie Baltic governorates more closely to the empire.<ref name="Raun59"/> The Russian language replaced German and Estonian in most secondary schools and universities, and many social and cultural activities in local languages were suppressed.<ref name="CoE"/> Still, some administrative changes aimed at reducing the power of Baltic German institutions did prove useful to Estonians.<ref name="Raun59"/> In the late 1890s, there was a new surge of nationalism with the rise of prominent figures like [[Jaan Tõnisson]] and [[Konstantin Päts]]. In the early 20th century, Estonians started taking over control of local governments in towns from Germans.<ref name="EE291">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=291|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>

During the [[1905 Russian Revolution|1905 Revolution]], the first legal Estonian political parties were founded. An Estonian national congress was convened and demanded the unification of Estonian areas into a single autonomous territory and an end to Russification. The unrest was accompanied by both peaceful [[political demonstration]]s and violent [[riot]]s with [[looting]] in the commercial district of Tallinn and in a number of wealthy landowners' manors in the Estonian countryside. The Tsarist government responded with a brutal crackdown; some 500 people were executed and hundreds more jailed or deported to Siberia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|page=10 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}}</ref><ref name="EE292">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=292|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>

===Independence===
{{Main|Estonian Declaration of Independence|Estonian War of Independence|History of Estonia#Interwar period (1920–1939)}}

[[File:Declaration of Estonian independence in Pärnu.jpg|thumb|right|alt=photograph of crowd around flag raising|The tricolour [[Flag of Estonia|flags of Estonia]] on display during the public announcement of the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence of Estonia]] in [[Pärnu]] on 23 February 1918. One of the very first images of the independent republic.]]

In 1917, after the [[February Revolution]], the governorate of Estonia [[Autonomous Governorate of Estonia|was expanded]] by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] to include Estonian-speaking areas of Livonia and was granted autonomy, enabling the formation of the [[Estonian Provincial Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Calvert |first1=Peter|title= The Process of Political Succession |page=67 |year=1987|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781349089789}}</ref> [[Bolsheviks]] [[Bolshevik coup|seized power]] in Estonia in November 1917, and disbanded the Provincial Assembly. However, the Provincial Assembly established the [[Estonian Salvation Committee|Salvation Committee]], and during the short interlude between Russian retreat and [[Operation Faustschlag|German arrival]], the committee [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|declared the independence of Estonia]] on 24 February 1918, and formed the [[Estonian Provisional Government]]. [[German occupation of Estonia during World War I|German occupation]] immediately followed, but after their defeat in World War I the Germans were forced to hand over power to the Provisional Government on 19 November 1918.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Calvert|first1=Peter|title= The Process of Political Succession |page=68 |year=1987|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781349089789}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1= Kasekamp|first1= Andres|title= The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=9 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn=9781403919557}}</ref>

On 28 November 1918 [[Soviet Russia]] invaded, starting the [[Estonian War of Independence]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/75 75]|year=1990|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn= 9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/75}}</ref> The [[Red Army]] came within 30 km of Tallinn, but in January 1919, the [[Estonian Army]], led by [[Johan Laidoner]], went on a counter-offensive, ejecting Bolshevik forces from Estonia within a few months. Renewed Soviet attacks failed, and in spring, the Estonian army, in co-operation with [[White movement|White Russian]] forces, advanced into Russia and [[Latvia]].<ref name="Pinder76">{{Cite book|last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/76 76]|year=1990|publisher= ABC-CLIO|isbn= 9781576078006|url= https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/76}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1= Andres|title=The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=10 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781403919557}}</ref> In June 1919, Estonia [[Battle of Cēsis (1919)|defeated]] the [[Baltische Landeswehr|German Landeswehr]] which had attempted to dominate Latvia, restoring power to the government of [[Kārlis Ulmanis]] there. After the collapse of the White Russian forces, the Red Army launched a [[Battle of Krivasoo|major offensive]] against [[Narva]] in late 1919, but failed to achieve a breakthrough. On 2 February 1920, the [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Tartu Peace Treaty]] was signed by Estonia and Soviet Russia, with the latter pledging to permanently give up all sovereign claims to Estonia.<ref name="Pinder76"/><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=11 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn=9781403919557}}</ref>

In April 1919, the [[Estonian Constituent Assembly]] was elected. The Constituent Assembly passed a sweeping [[Estonian Land Reform of 1919|land reform]] expropriating large estates, and adopted a new highly [[Liberalism|liberal]] [[Constitution of Estonia|constitution]] establishing Estonia as a [[Riigikogu|parliamentary]] democracy.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia |pages=80–81|year= 2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1= Raun |first1=Toivo U.|title= Estonia and the Estonians: Second edition, updated|page=128 |year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn= 9780817928537}}</ref> In 1924, the [[Soviet Union]] organised a communist [[1924 Estonian coup d'état attempt|coup attempt]], which quickly failed.<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Leonard|first1= Raymond W.|title= Secret Soldiers of the Revolution: Soviet Military Intelligence, 1918–1933|pages=34–36 |year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313309908}}</ref> Estonia's cultural-autonomy law for ethnic minorities, adopted in 1925, is widely recognised as one of the most liberal in the world at that time.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bell|first1=Imogen|title=Central and South-Eastern Europe 2003|page=244 |year=2002|publisher= Psychology Press|isbn=9781857431360}}</ref> The [[Great Depression]] put heavy pressure on Estonia's political system, and in 1933, the right-wing [[Vaps movement]] spearheaded a constitutional reform establishing a strong presidency.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page= 18 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Misiunas|first1= Romuald J. |last2=Taagepera|first2=Rein |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence, 1940–1980|page=11 |year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520046252}}</ref> On 12 March 1934 the acting head of state, [[Konstantin Päts]], declared a state of emergency, under the pretext that the Vaps movement had been planning a coup. Päts, together with general Johan Laidoner and [[Kaarel Eenpalu]], established an authoritarian régime during the "[[era of silence]]", when the parliament did not reconvene and the newly established [[Patriotic League (Estonia)|Patriotic League]] became the only legal political movement for the time being.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |pages=19–20 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}}</ref> A new constitution was adopted in a referendum, and elections [[1938 Estonian parliamentary election|were held]] in 1938. Both pro-government and opposition candidates were allowed to participate, but only as independents, as all political parties remained suspended under continued state of emergency.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|pages= 21 |year= 2013|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 9781136452130}}</ref> The Päts régime was relatively benign compared to other authoritarian régimes in [[Interwar period|interwar]] Europe, and the régime never used violence against political opponents.<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Smith|first1= David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|pages=22 |year=2013|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 9781136452130}}</ref>

Estonia joined the [[League of Nations]] in 1921.<ref name="Ginneken">{{Cite book|last1=van Ginneken|first1= Anique H. M. |title=Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations|page=82 |year=2006|publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810865136}}</ref> Attempts to establish a [[Warsaw Accord|larger alliance]] together with [[Finland]], [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]], and Latvia failed, with only a mutual-defence pact being signed with Latvia in 1923, and later was followed up with the [[Baltic Entente]] of 1934.<ref>{{Cite book |last1= von Rauch|first1=Georg |title=Die Geschichte der baltischen Staaten|pages=108–111 |year=1974|publisher= University of California Press|isbn=9780520026001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John |last2= Lane |first2= Thomas |title=The Baltic and the Outbreak of the Second World War|page=7 |year=2003 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521531207}}</ref> In the 1930s, Estonia also engaged in [[Finnish–Estonian defence cooperation|secret military co-operation]] with Finland.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Åselius|first1=Gunnar |title= The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Navy in the Baltic 1921–1941|page= 119 |year=2004 |publisher= Routledge |isbn=9781135769604}}</ref> Non-aggression pacts were signed [[Soviet–Estonian Non-Aggression Pact|with the Soviet Union]] in 1932, and [[German–Estonian Non-Aggression Pact|with Germany]] in 1939.<ref name="Ginneken"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1= Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3= Purs|first3= Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=154 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136483042}}</ref> In 1939, Estonia declared neutrality, but this proved futile in [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Gärtner |first1=Heinz |title=Engaged Neutrality: An Evolved Approach to the Cold War |page=125 |year=2017|publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9781498546195}}</ref>

===World War II===
{{Main|Estonia in World War II|Occupation of the Baltic states}}
[[File:Red Army entering into Estonia in 1939.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Red Army]] troops moving into military bases in Estonia in October 1939, after the Soviet Union had forced Estonia to sign the [[Soviet–Estonian Mutual Assistance Treaty|Bases Treaty]].]]
A week before the outbreak of [[World War II]], on 23 August 1939, [[Nazi Germany]] and the [[Stalin]]ist Soviet Union signed the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]]. In the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact|Nazi-Soviet pact]]'s [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact negotiations|secret protocol]] Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland were divided between USSR and Germany into "spheres of influence", with Estonia assigned to the Soviet "sphere".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=335|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}}</ref> On 24 September 1939, the Soviet Union presented an ultimatum, demanding that Estonia sign a treaty of "mutual assistance" which would allow the Soviet Union to establish military bases in the country. The Estonian government felt that it had no choice but to comply, and the [[Soviet–Estonian Mutual Assistance Treaty|treaty was signed]] on 28 September 1939.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John |last2=Salmon|first2=Patrick |title=The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century |page=110 |year=2014|publisher= Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-89057-7}}</ref> In May 1940, Red Army forces in bases were set in combat readiness and, on 14 June, the Soviet Union instituted a full naval and air blockade on Estonia. On the same day, the airliner [[Kaleva (airplane)|Kaleva]] was shot down by the [[Soviet Air Force]]. On 16 June, the USSR presented an ultimatum demanding completely free passage of the Red Army into Estonia and the establishment of a pro-Soviet government. Feeling that resistance was hopeless, the Estonian government complied and, on the next day, the whole country was occupied.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Raukas |first1=Anto |title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld |page=309 |year=2002 |publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus |language=et |isbn=9985701151}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first1=Eric A. |last1=Johnson |first2=Anna |last2=Hermann |date=May 2007 |title=The Last Flight from Tallinn |work=Foreign Service Journal |url=http://finland.usembassy.gov/root/pdfs/antheil_article.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117175841/http://finland.usembassy.gov/root/pdfs/antheil_article.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012 |publisher=American Foreign Service Association}}</ref> On 6 August 1940, Estonia was annexed by the Soviet Union as the [[Estonian SSR]].<ref name=malksoo>{{Cite book|first=Lauri |last=Mälksoo|year=2003|title=Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: The Case of the Incorporation of the Baltic States by the USSR|location= Leiden – Boston|publisher= Brill|isbn= 90-411-2177-3}}</ref>

[[File:TLA 1465 1 973 Varemetes Harju tänav, vasakul Kuld Lõvi varemed 1944.jpg|thumb|left|The capital Tallinn after [[Bombing of Tallinn in World War II|bombing by the Soviet Air Force]] during the war on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] in March 1944]]
The USSR established an oppressive terror regime in occupied Estonia. Most of the country's high-ranking civil and military officials, intelligentsia and industrialists were arrested, and usually executed soon afterwards. Soviet repressions culminated on 14 June 1941 with [[June deportation|mass deportation]] of around 11,000 people to [[Siberia]], among whom more than half perished in inhumane conditions.<ref name="Miljan110">{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=110|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gatrell|first1=Peter |last2=Baron|first2=Nick |title=Warlands: Population Resettlement and State Reconstruction in the Soviet-East European Borderlands, 1945–50 |page=233 |year=2009 |publisher= Springer|isbn=978-0-230-24693-5}}</ref> When [[Operation Barbarossa]] (accompanied by Estonian [[Guerilla warfare|guerrilla soldiers]] called "[[Forest Brothers]]"<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Peeter |last1=Kaasik |first2=Mika |last2=Raudvassar |year=2006|pages=496–517|chapter=Estonia from June to October, 1941: Forest brothers and Summer War|editor-first1=Toomas |editor-last1=Hiio |editor-first2=Meelis |editor-last2=Maripuu |editor-first3=Indrek |editor-last3=Paavle |title=Estonia 1940–1945: Reports of the [[Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]]|location=Tallinn}}</ref>) began against the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 in the form of the "[[Summer War]]" ({{lang-et|Suvesõda}}), around 34,000 young Estonian men were forcibly drafted into the [[Red Army]], fewer than 30% of whom survived the war. Soviet [[destruction battalions]] initiated a scorched earth policy. Political prisoners who could not be evacuated [[NKVD prisoner massacres|were executed]] by the [[NKVD]].<ref>The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence by Anatol Lieven p424 {{ISBN|0-300-06078-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3=Purs|first3=Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=34 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-48304-2}}</ref> Many Estonians went into the forest, starting an anti-Soviet guerrilla campaign. In July, German [[Wehrmacht]] reached south Estonia. The USSR [[Soviet evacuation of Tallinn|evacuated Tallinn]] in late August with massive losses, and capture of the Estonian islands was completed by German forces in October.<ref name="pinder80">{{Cite book|last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/80 80]|year=1990|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-800-6|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/80}}</ref>

Initially, many Estonians were hopeful that Germany would help to restore Estonia's independence, but this soon proved to be in vain. Only a puppet [[Estonian Self-Administration|collaborationist administration]] was established, and [[German occupation of Estonia during World War II|occupied Estonia]] was merged into [[Reichskommissariat Ostland]], with its economy being fully subjugated to German military needs.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=209|year=2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}}</ref> About a thousand [[Estonian Jews]] who had not managed to leave were almost all [[Holocaust in Estonia|quickly killed]] in 1941. Numerous forced labour camps were established where thousands of Estonians, foreign Jews, [[Romani people|Romani]], and [[German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet prisoners of war]] perished.<ref name="CommissionReport">{{cite web|title=Conclusions of the Commission|url=http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/conclusions.htm#crimger|publisher=[[Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629035526/http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/conclusions.htm#crimger|archive-date=29 June 2008|year=1998}}</ref> German occupation authorities started recruiting men into small [[Estonian Legion|volunteer units]] but, as these efforts provided meagre results and military situation worsened, a forced conscription was instituted in 1943, eventually leading to formation of the [[20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian)|Estonian Waffen-SS division]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith |first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|page=36 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-45213-0}}</ref> Thousands of Estonians who did not want to fight in the [[Wehrmacht|German military]] secretly escaped to Finland, where [[Finnish Infantry Regiment 200|many volunteered]] to fight together with Finns [[Continuation War|against Soviets]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=275|year=2004|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6571-6}}</ref>

[[File:Estlandssvenska flyktingar.jpg|thumb|right|alt=sailing ship filled with refugees|A ship with [[Estonian Swedes]] fleeing west from the Soviet invasion (1944)]]
The Red Army reached the Estonian borders again in early 1944, but its advance into Estonia was stopped in [[Battle of Narva (1944)|heavy fighting near Narva]] for six months by German forces, including numerous Estonian units.<ref name="Raun159">{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=159 |year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=978-0-8179-2853-7}}</ref> In March, the Soviet Air Force carried out heavy bombing raids [[Bombing of Tallinn in World War II|against Tallinn]] and other Estonian towns.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan |display-authors=etal |editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=18|year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers |isbn=9789985701959}}</ref> In July, the Soviets started [[Tallinn Offensive|a major offensive]] from the south, forcing the Germans to abandon mainland Estonia in September, with the Estonian islands being abandoned in November.<ref name="Raun159" /> As German forces were retreating from Tallinn, the last pre-war prime minister [[Jüri Uluots]] [[National Committee of the Republic of Estonia|appointed a government]] headed by [[Otto Tief]] in an unsuccessful attempt to restore Estonia's independence.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=138 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-36450-9}}</ref> Tens of thousands of people, including most of the [[Estonian Swedes]], fled westwards to avoid the new Soviet occupation.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan |display-authors=etal |editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=30|year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers|isbn=9789985701959}}</ref>

Overall, Estonia lost about 25% of its population through deaths, deportations and evacuations in World War II.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan|display-authors=etal|editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=37 |year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers|isbn=9789985701959}}</ref> Estonia also suffered some irrevocable territorial losses, as the Soviet Union transferred border areas comprising about 5% of Estonian pre-war territory from the Estonian SSR to the [[Russian SFSR]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald J. |last2=Taagepera|first2=Rein |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence, 1940–1980 |page=71|year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04625-2}}</ref>

===Second Soviet occupation===
{{Main|Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Occupation of the Baltic states|Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)}}
[[File:Eesti metsavennad.jpg|thumb|left|[[Estonian partisans]], the "Forest Brothers".]]
Thousands of Estonians opposing the second Soviet occupation joined a guerrilla movement known as the "[[Estonian partisans|Forest Brothers]]". The armed resistance was heaviest in the first few years after the war, but Soviet authorities gradually wore it down through attrition, and resistance effectively ceased to exist in the mid-1950s.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=174 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The Soviets initiated a [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|policy of collectivisation]], but as farmers remained opposed to it a campaign of terror was unleashed. In March 1949 about 20,000 Estonians [[Operation Priboi|were deported]] to Siberia. Collectivization was fully completed soon afterwards.<ref name="Miljan110"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Purs|first1=Aldis|title=Baltic Facades: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania since 1945|page=335|year=2013|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=9781861899323}}</ref>

The Russian-dominated occupation authorities under the Soviet Union began [[Russification]], with hundreds of thousands of ethnic [[Russians in Estonia|Russians]] and other "[[Soviet people]]" being induced to settle in occupied Estonia, in a process which eventually threatened to turn indigenous Estonians into a minority in their own native land.<ref name="Taagepera97">{{Cite book|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein|title=The Finno-Ugric Republics and the Russian State|page=128|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136678011}}</ref> In 1945 Estonians formed 97% of the population, but by 1989 their share of the population had fallen to 62%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Puur |first1=Allan |last2=Rahnu |first2=Leen |last3=Sakkeus |first3=Luule |last4=Klesment |first4=Martin |last5=Abuladze |first5=Liili |date=22 March 2018 |title=The formation of ethnically mixed partnerships in Estonia: A stalling trend from a two-sided perspective |url=https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol38/38/38-38.pdf |journal=[[Demographic Research (journal)|Demographic Research]] |volume=38 |issue=38 |page=1117 |doi=10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.38 |access-date= 7 January 2020|doi-access=free }}</ref> Occupying authorities carried out campaigns of ethnic cleansing, mass deportation of indigenous populations, and mass colonization by Russian settlers which led to Estonia losing 3% of its native population.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 |date=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 |page=96 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> By March 1949, 60,000 people were deported from Estonia and 50,000 from Latvia to [[Gulag|slave labor camps]] in Siberia, where death rates were 30%. The occupying regime established an Estonian Communist Party, where Russians were the majority in party membership.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 |date=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 |page=78 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> Economically, heavy industry was strongly prioritised, but this did not improve the well-being of the local population, and caused massive environmental damage through pollution.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=227|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref> Living standards under the Soviet occupation kept falling further behind nearby independent Finland.<ref name="Taagepera97"/> The country was heavily militarised, with closed military areas covering 2% of territory.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Spyra|first1=Wolfgang |last2=Katzsch |first2=Michael |title=Environmental Security and Public Safety: Problems and Needs in Conversion Policy and Research after 15 Years of Conversion in Central and Eastern Europe |page=14|year=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9781402056444}}</ref> Islands and most of the coastal areas were turned into a restricted border zone which required a special permit for entry.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Stöcker|first1=Lars Fredrik |title=Bridging the Baltic Sea: Networks of Resistance and Opposition during the Cold War Era |page=72|year=2017 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9781498551281}}</ref> That is why Estonia was quite closed until the second half of the 1960s, when gradually Estonians began to watch [[Finnish television]] in the northern parts of the country due to a good signal range, thus getting a better picture of the way of life behind the [[Iron Curtain]]. Watching Finnish television was unauthorized, but nevertheless it was watched with a special device made for this purpose.<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://viewjournal.eu/european-television-memories/window-to-the-west/ | title = Window to the West: Memories of watching Finnish television in Estonia during the Soviet period| first1 = Annika |last1= Lepp |first2= Mervi | last2= Pantti| format = PDF| journal = VIEW | date = 2013 | number = 3/2013 | pages = 80–81 | publisher = Journal of European Television History and Culture| access-date = October 11, 2021 | language = en }}</ref>

The United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the majority of other Western countries [[Stimson Doctrine|considered]] the annexation of Estonia by the Soviet Union illegal.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Feldbrugge|first1=F. J. Ferdinand Joseph Maria |last2=Van den Berg|first2=Gerard Pieter|last3=Simons |first3=William Bradford |title=Encyclopedia of Soviet Law |page=461|year=1985 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789024730759}}</ref> [[State continuity of the Baltic states|Legal continuity]] of the Estonian state was preserved through the [[Estonian government-in-exile|government-in-exile]] and the Estonian [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–91)|diplomatic representatives]] which Western governments continued to recognise.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3=Purs|first3=Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=xx |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136483042}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frankowski|first1=Stanisław |last2=Stephan III|first2=Paul B. |title=Legal Reform in Post-Communist Europe: The View from Within |page=73|year=1995 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=9780792332183}}</ref>

===Independence restored===
{{Main|Singing Revolution}}

[[File:Balti kett 22.jpg|thumb|left|In the [[Baltic Way]] on 23 August 1989, two million people formed a human chain across three countries in a mass demonstration against the Soviet occupation.]]
The introduction of [[perestroika]] by the central government of the Soviet Union in 1987 made open political activity possible again in Estonia, which triggered an independence restoration process later known as ''Laulev revolutsioon'' ("[[Singing Revolution|Singing revolution]]").<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Backes|first1=Uwe |last2=Moreau |first2=Patrick |title=Communist and Post-Communist Parties in Europe: Schriften Des Hannah-Arendt-Instituts Für Totalitarismusforschung 36 |page=9|year=2008 |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=9783525369128}}</ref> The environmental ''Fosforiidisõda'' ("[[Phosphorite War|Phosphorite war]]") campaign became the first major protest movement against the [[Government of the Soviet Union|central government]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vogt|first1=Henri |title=Between Utopia and Disillusionment: A Narrative of the Political Transformation in Eastern Europe |pages=20–22|year=2005 |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=9781571818959}}</ref> In 1988, new political movements appeared, such as the [[Popular Front of Estonia]], which came to represent the moderate wing in the independence movement, and the more radical [[Estonian National Independence Party]], which was the first non-communist party in the Soviet Union and demanded full restoration of independence.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Simons|first1=Greg |last2=Westerlund |first2=David |title=Religion, Politics and Nation-Building in Post-Communist Countries |page=151 |year=2015 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=9781472449719}}</ref> On 16 November 1988, after the first non-rigged multi-candidate elections in half a century, the parliament of Soviet-controlled Estonia issued the [[Estonian Sovereignty Declaration|Sovereignty Declaration]], asserting the primacy of Estonian laws over laws of the Soviet Union. Over the next two years, many other administrative parts (or [[Republics of the Soviet Union|"republics"]]) of the USSR followed the Estonian example, issuing similar declarations.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |pages=46–48|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Edward W. |title=Dissolution: Sovereignty and the Breakup of the Soviet Union |page=[https://archive.org/details/dissolutionsover00walk/page/63 63] |year=2003 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=9780742524538 |url=https://archive.org/details/dissolutionsover00walk/page/63}}</ref> On 23 August 1989, about 2 million Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians participated in a mass demonstration, forming the [[Baltic Way]] human chain across the three countries.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page=52|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}}</ref> In February 1990, elections were held to form the [[Congress of Estonia]], a novel parliament of Estonian citizens.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page=54|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}}</ref> In March 1991, a [[1991 Estonian independence referendum|referendum was held]] where 78.4% of voters supported full independence. During the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|coup attempt in Moscow]], Estonia [[Estonian restoration of Independence|declared restoration of independence]] on 20 August 1991.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gill|first1=Graeme |title=Democracy and Post-Communism: Political Change in the Post-Communist World |page=41|year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134485567}}</ref>

Soviet authorities recognised Estonian independence on 6 September 1991, and on 17 September Estonia was admitted into the [[United Nations]].<ref name="Dillon164">{{Cite book|last1=Dillon|first1=Patricia |last2=Wykoff |first2=Frank C. |title=Creating Capitalism: Transitions and Growth in Post-Soviet Europe|page=164|year=2002 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=9781843765561}}</ref> The last units of the [[Russian army]] left Estonia in 1994.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Nørgaard|first1=Ole |title=The Baltic States After Independence|page=188|year=1999|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=9781843765561}}</ref>

In 1992 radical economic reforms were launched for switching over to a market economy, including privatisation and currency reform.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Ó Beacháin|first1=Donnacha |last2=Sheridan |first2=Vera |last3=Stan |first3=Sabina |title=Life in Post-Communist Eastern Europe after EU Membership| page=170|year=2012|publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136299810}}</ref> Estonia has been a member of the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] since 13 November 1999.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/estonia_e.htm#:~:text=Estonia%20has%20been%20a%20member%20of%20WTO%20since,Communities%20for%20legal%20reasons%29%20in%20its%20own%20right. |title=Estonia and the WTO |publisher=World Trade Organization |access-date=20 September 2021 }}</ref>

Since regaining independence in 1991, Estonian foreign policy has been aligned with other [[Western world|Western democracies]], and in 2004 Estonia joined both the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|pages=18–19|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref> On 9 December 2010, Estonia became a member of [[OECD]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oecd.mfa.ee/estonia-and-oecd/|title=Estonia and OECD|website=Estonia in OECD}}</ref> On 1 January 2011, Estonia joined the [[eurozone]] and adopted the [[euro]], the single currency of EU.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-12098513|title=Estonia becomes 17th member of the euro zone|work=BBC News|date=31 December 2010}}</ref> Estonia was a member of the [[UN Security council|UN Security Council]] 2020–2021.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vm.ee/en/activities-objectives/estonia-united-nations/estonia-un-security-council|title=Estonia in the UN Security Council | Ministry of Foreign Affairs|website=vm.ee}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Estonia}}
[[File:Satellite image of Estonia in April 2004.jpg|thumb|right|Satellite image of Estonia]]
Estonia is situated in [[Northern Europe]], on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]], on the [[East European Plain]] between 57°30′ and 59°49′ N and 21°46′ and 28°13′ E.<ref name="Raukas_2018">{{cite journal|last=Raukas|first=Anto|authorlink=Anto Raukas|title=Briefly about Estonia |journal=Dynamiques Environnementales|year=2018|volume=42|issue=42 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/dynenviron/2230?lang=en|doi=10.4000/dynenviron.2230|issn=2534-4358|pages=284–291|s2cid=240432618 |access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="EEA">{{Cite web|url=https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/countries-regions/countries/estonia|title=Estonia|publisher=[[European Environment Agency]]|date=15 March 2021|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/|title=Methodology |publisher=[[United Nations Statistics Division]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the sea across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by [[Lake Peipsi]] and [[Russia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Saar|first1=Asmu|editor-last=Raukas|editor-first=Anto|editor-link1=Anto Raukas|chapter=Üldandmed|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=9|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> Estonian territory covers {{convert|45339|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, of which internal waters comprise 4.6%.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> When including the [[territorial sea]], the Estonian border encompasses {{convert|70177|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.delfi.ee/artikkel/41030503/ulemootmine-soome-on-veidi-pisem-eesti-ikka-sama-suur|title=Ülemõõtmine: Soome on veidi pisem, Eesti ikka sama suur |publisher=[[Delfi (web portal)|Delfi]]|date=25 February 2011|language=et|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>

Estonia has a {{convert|3794|km|mi|0}} long coastline, notable for its [[Cliffed coast|limestone cliffs]] at the northern coast and largest islands.<ref name="EEA"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eesti.ee/en/republic-of-estonia/republic-of-estonia/information-about-estonia|title=Information about Estonia|publisher=[[Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications|Estonian Information System Authority]]|date=9 November 2022|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> The total number of [[List of islands of Estonia|Estonian islands]], including those in internal waters, is 2,355, of which 2,222 are in the Baltic Sea. The largest islands are [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]]. There are over 1560 [[List of lakes of Estonia|natural lakes]], the largest being Lake Peipsi at the border of Russia, and [[Võrtsjärv]] in central Estonia. Additionally there are a large number of artificial water reservoirs. There are over [[List of rivers of Estonia|7000]] rivers, streams, and canals in Estonia. Most are small, with only 15 being over {{convert|50|km|mi|0}} long. [[Bogs]] and [[mire|mires]] cover 23.2% of the land. Generally the terrain is flat, average elevation above the sea level being about {{convert|50|m|ft|0}}. Only 10% of the country's terrain is greater than {{convert|100|m|ft|0}} in height, with [[Haanja Upland]] containing the highest peak, [[Suur Munamägi]], at {{convert|318|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/>

=== Climate ===
{{Main|2 = Climate of Estonia}}
Estonia is situated in the [[temperate|temperate climate zone]], and in the transition zone between [[maritime climate|maritime]] and [[Köppen climate classification#Group D: Continental/microthermal climates|continental climate]], characterized by warm summers and fairly mild winters. Primary local differences are caused by the Baltic Sea, which warms the coastal areas in winter, and cools them in the spring.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/><ref name="EEA"/> Average temperatures range from {{convert|17.8|°C|1|abbr=on}} in July, the warmest month, to {{convert|-3.8|°C|1|abbr=on}} in February, the coldest month, with the annual average being {{convert|6.4|°C|1|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/ohutemperatuur/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Temperature|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> The highest recorded temperature is {{convert|35.6|°C|1|abbr=on}} from 1992, and the lowest is {{convert|-43.5|°C|1|abbr=on}} from 1940.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/rekordid/ohutemperatuur/?lang=en|title=Weather records - Temperature|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> The annual average precipitation is {{convert|662|mm|1}},<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/sademed/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Precipitation|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> with the daily record being {{convert|148|mm|1}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/rekordid/sademed/?lang=en|title=Weather records - Precipitation|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> Snow cover varies significantly on different years.<ref name="EEA"/> Prevailing winds are westerly, southwesterly, and southerly, with average wind speed being 3–5 m/s inland and 5–7 m/s on coast.<ref name="EEA"/> The average monthly sunshine duration ranges from 290 hours in August, to 21 hours in December.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/paikesepaiste-kestus/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Sunshine|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref>

===Biodiversity===
{{Main|Fauna of Estonia|Protected areas of Estonia}}
[[File:Landsvale.jpg|thumb|right|The [[barn swallow]] (''H. r. rustica'') is the national bird of Estonia.]]
Due to varied climatic and soil conditions, and plethora of sea and internal waters, Estonia is one of the most biodiverse regions among the similar sized territories at the same [[latitude]].<ref name="EEA"/> Many species extinct in most other European countries can be still found in Estonia.<ref name="Taylor_1">{{Cite book|last1=Taylor|first1= Neil|title= Estonia|pages=4,6–7|year=2014|publisher= Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=9781841624877}}</ref>

Recorded species include 64 [[mammal]]s, 11 [[amphibian]]s, and 5 [[reptile]]s.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> Large mammals present in Estonia include the [[Eurasian wolf|grey wolf]], [[Eurasian lynx|lynx]], [[brown bear]], [[red fox]], [[European badger|badger]], [[wild boar]], [[moose]], [[roe deer]], [[Eurasian beaver|beaver]], [[Eurasian otter|otter]], [[grey seal]], and [[ringed seal]]. The critically endangered [[European mink]] has been successfully reintroduced to the island of Hiiumaa, and the rare [[Siberian flying squirrel]] is present in east Estonia.<ref name="Taylor_1"/> The [[red deer]] has also been successfully reintroduced.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://loodusveeb.ee/en/themes/species-and-their-distribution/how-much-has-mammal-fauna-estonia-changed|title=How much has the mammal fauna in Estonia changed?|publisher=Loodusveeb|first1=Uudo|last1=Timm|first2=Tiit|last2=Maran|date=March 2020|access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref> Introduced mammals are [[sika deer]], [[European fallow deer|fallow deer]], [[raccoon dog]], [[muskrat]], and [[American mink]].<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> Over 300 bird species have been found in Estonia, including the [[white-tailed eagle]], [[lesser spotted eagle]], [[golden eagle]], [[western capercaillie]], [[Black Stork|black]] and [[white stork]], numerous species of [[owls]], [[wader]]s, [[geese]] and many others.<ref name="Taylor_2">{{Cite book|last1=Taylor|first1= Neil|title= Estonia|pages=7–8|year=2014|publisher= Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=9781841624877}}</ref> The [[barn swallow]] is the [[national bird]] of Estonia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Spilling|first1=Michael|title=Estonia|page=11|year=2010|publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=9781841624877}}</ref>

[[File:Tarvasjõgi.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Tarvasjõgi]] flowing through [[Põhja-Kõrvemaa Nature Reserve]]]]
[[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], Estonia is shared between the Central European and Eastern European provinces of the [[Circumboreal Region]] within the [[Boreal Kingdom]]. According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], the territory of Estonia belongs to the [[ecoregion]] of [[Sarmatic mixed forests]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|display-authors=3|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> Estonia has a rich composition of floristic groups, with estimated 6000 (3461 identified) [[fungi]], 3000 (2500 identified) [[algae]] and [[cyanobacteria]], 850 (786 identified) [[lichens]], and 600 (507 identified) [[bryophytes]]. Forests cover approximately half of the country. 87 native and over 500 introduced tree and bush species have been identified, with most prevalent tree species being [[pine]] (41%), [[birch]] (28%), and [[spruce]] (23%).<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> Since 1969, the [[Centaurea cyanus|cornflower]] (''Centaurea cyanus'') has been the national flower of Estonia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalroadwarrior.com/estonia/national-flower.html|title=National Flower|website=Global Road Warrior|publisher=World Trade Press|date=2023|access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref>

[[Protected areas of Estonia|Protected areas]] cover 19.4% of Estonian land and 23% of its total area together with territorial sea. Overall there are 3,883 protected natural objects, including 6 national parks, 231 nature conservation areas, and 154 landscape reserves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://envir.ee/en/climate-and-environment-protection/nature-conservation|title=Nature conservation|publisher=[[Ministry of the Environment (Estonia)|Ministry of the Environment]]|date=13 July 2021|access-date=6 March 2023}}</ref>

==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of Estonia|List of political parties in Estonia|Elections in Estonia}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = horizontal
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Alar Karis - August 2021.jpg
| width1 = 114
| caption1 = [[Alar Karis]] [[President of Estonia|President]] since 2021
| image2 = RE Kaja Kallas.jpg
| width2 = 113
| caption2 = [[Kaja Kallas]] [[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]] since 2021
}}

Estonia is a unitary [[parliamentary republic]]. The unicameral parliament [[Riigikogu]] serves as the legislative and [[Government of Estonia|the government]] as the executive.<ref name="Toots">{{cite web |first=Anu |last=Toots |url=http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/baltikum/15260.pdf |title=2019 Parliamentary elections in Estonia |page=3 |publisher=[[Friedrich Ebert Foundation]] |date=March 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref>

Estonian parliament Riigikogu is elected by citizens over 18 years of age for a four-year term by [[proportional representation]], and has 101 members. Riigikogu's responsibilities include approval and preservation of the national government, passing legal acts, passing the state budget, and conducting parliamentary supervision. On proposal of [[President of Estonia|the president]] Riigikogu appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the chairman of the board of the Bank of Estonia, the Auditor General, the Legal Chancellor, and the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/en/introduction-and-history/riigikogu-tasks-organisation-work/what-is-riigikogu/ |title=What is Riigikogu? |publisher=[[Riigikogu]] |date=15 October 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/en/introduction-and-history/riigikogu-tasks-organisation-work/what-does-riigikogu/ |title=What does Riigikogu do? |publisher=[[Riigikogu]] |date=4 September 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref>

The [[Government of Estonia]] is formed by the [[Prime Minister of Estonia]] at recommendation of the President, and approved by the Riigikogu. The government, headed by the Prime Minister, represent the political leadership of the country and carry out domestic and foreign policy. Ministers head ministries and represent its interests in the government. Sometimes ministers with no associated ministry are appointed, known as ''ministers without portfolio''.<ref>{{cite web |first=Taavi |last=Annus |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/Government_and_executive_power/Government/ |title=Government |publisher=[[Estonica]] |date=27 September 2012 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref> Estonia has been ruled by coalition governments because no party has been able to obtain an absolute majority in the parliament.<ref name="Toots"/>

[[File:Riigikogu hoone, Kaupo Kalda foto, 2016.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Toompea Castle pink stucco three-story building with red hip roof|The seat of the Parliament of Estonia in [[Toompea Castle]]]]
The head of the state is [[President of Estonia|the President]] who has a primarily representative and ceremonial role. There are no [[referendum]]s on the election of the president, but the president is elected by the Riigikogu, or by a special electoral college.<ref>[https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-12053491 YLE: Viron presidentinvaali on ajautumassa kaaokseen jo toista kertaa peräkkäin – "Instituutio kyntää pohjamudissa", sanoo politiikan tutkija] (in Finnish)</ref> The President proclaims the laws passed in the Riigikogu, and has right to refuse proclamation and return law in question for a new debate and decision. If Riigikogu passes the law unamended, then the President has right to propose to the Supreme Court to declare the law unconstitutional. The President also represents the country in international relations.<ref name="Toots"/><ref>{{cite web |first=Taavi |last=Annus |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/President_of_the_Republic/Duties_of_the_President_of_the_Republic/ |title=Duties of the President of the Republic |publisher=[[Estonica]] |date=27 September 2012 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref>

The [[Constitution of Estonia]] also provides possibility for direct democracy through referendum, although since adoption of the constitution in 1992 the only referendum has been the [[2003 Estonian European Union membership referendum|referendum on European Union membership]] in 2003.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liivik |first1=Ero |year=2011 |title=Referendum in the Estonian Constitution |url=https://www.juridicainternational.eu/public/pdf/ji_2011_1_17.pdf |journal=Juridica International |volume=18 |page=21 |access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref>

Estonia has pursued the development of the [[e-government]], with 99 percent of the public services being available on the web 24 hours a day.<ref>{{cite news |first=Elizabeth |last=Schulze |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/02/08/how-estonia-became-a-digital-society.html |title=How a tiny country bordering Russia became one of the most tech-savvy societies in the world |publisher=[[CNBC]] |date=8 February 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref> In 2005 [[Electronic voting in Estonia|Estonia became]] the first country in the world to introduce nationwide binding Internet voting in local elections of 2005.<ref>{{cite conference |first=Priit |last=Vinkel |title=Information Security Technology for Applications |chapter=Internet Voting in Estonia |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |book-title=Laud P. (eds) Information Security Technology for Applications. NordSec 2011. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 7161 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |year=2012 |volume=7161 |pages=4–12 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-29615-4_2 |isbn=978-3-642-29614-7 }}</ref> In [[2023 Estonian parliamentary election|2023 parliamentary elections]] 51% of the total votes were cast over the internet, becoming the first time when more than half of votes were cast online.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.err.ee/1608904730/estonia-sets-new-e-voting-record-at-riigikogu-2023-elections |title=Estonia sets new e-voting record at Riigikogu 2023 elections |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=6 March 2023 |access-date=31 March 2023}}</ref>

In the most recent [[2023 Estonian parliamentary election|parliamentary elections of 2023]], six parties gained seats at Riigikogu. The head of the [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]], [[Kaja Kallas]], [[Kaja Kallas' third cabinet|formed the government]] together with [[Estonia 200]] and [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]], while [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia|Conservative People's Party]], [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]] and [[Isamaa]] became the opposition.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.err.ee/1608905309/reform-party-takes-landslide-win-in-2023-riigikogu-elections |title=Reform Party takes landslide win in 2023 Riigikogu elections |date=6 March 2023 |access-date=17 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.err.ee/1608950416/reformierakonna-eesti-200-ja-sotsiaaldemokraatide-valitsus-astus-ametisse |title=Reformierakonna, Eesti 200 ja Sotsiaaldemokraatide valitsus astus ametisse |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=17 April 2023 |access-date=17 April 2023 |lang=Estonian}}</ref>

===Law===
{{Main|Law of Estonia|Constitution of Estonia}}
[[File:Riigikohus.jpg|thumb|Building of the [[Supreme Court of Estonia]] in [[Tartu]]]]
The [[Constitution of Estonia]] is the fundamental law, establishing the constitutional order based on five principles: human dignity, democracy, rule of law, social state, and the Estonian identity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ernits |first1=Madis |last2=Ginter |first2=Carri |last3=Laos |first3=Saale |last4=Allikmets |first4=Marje |last5=Tupay |first5=Paloma Krõõt |last6=Värk |first6=René |last7=Laurand |first7=Andra |editor-last1=Albi |editor-first1=Anneli |editor-last2=Bardutzky |editor-first2=Samo |title=National Constitutions in European and Global Governance: Democracy, Rights, the Rule of Law |publisher=[[T.M.C. Asser Instituut|T.M.C. Asser Press]] |location=[[The Hague]] |date=2019 |page=889 |chapter=The Constitution of Estonia: The Unexpected Challenges of Unlimited Primacy of EU Law |isbn=978-94-6265-272-9 |doi=10.1007/978-94-6265-273-6|hdl = 10138/311890|display-authors=1}}</ref> Estonia has a [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] legal system based on the Germanic legal model.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Varul |first1=Paul |year=2000 |title=Legal Policy Decisions and Choices in the Creation of New Private Law in Estonia |url=https://www.juridicainternational.eu/public/pdf/ji_2000_1_104.pdf |journal=Juridica International |volume=5 |page=107 |access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref> The court system has a three-level structure. The first instance are county courts which handle all criminal and civil cases, and administrative courts which hear complaints about government and local officials, and other public disputes. The [[Appellate court|second instance]] are district courts which handle appeals about the first instance decisions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Madise |first1=Ülle |author-link1=Ülle Madise |date=27 September 2012 |title=Courts of first instance and courts of appeal |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/Judicial_system/Courts_of_first_instance_and_courts_of_appeal/ |publisher=Estonica |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref> The [[Supreme Court of Estonia|Supreme Court]] is the [[court of cassation]], and also conducts constitutional review, it has 19 members.<ref>{{cite web |title=Supreme Court of Estonia
|url=https://www.riigikohus.ee/en/supreme-court-estonia |publisher=[[Supreme Court of Estonia]] |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref> The judiciary is independent, judges are appointed for life, and can be removed from office only when convicted by court for a criminal deed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Heydemann |first1=Günther |last2=Vodička |first2=Karel |title=From Eastern Bloc to European Union: Comparative Processes of Transformation since 1990 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |date=2017 |page=12 |isbn=9781785333187}}</ref> The Estonian justice system has been rated among the most efficient in the European Union by the EU Justice Scoreboard.<ref>{{cite news |first=Aili |last=Vahtla |url=https://news.err.ee/837471/study-estonian-judicial-system-among-most-efficient-in-eu |title=Study: Estonian judicial system among most efficient in EU |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=6 June 2018 |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Estonia|Diplomatic missions of Estonia}}
[[File:President Barack Obama giving a speech at the Nordea Concert Hall on 2014-09-03 in Tallinn, Estonia.jpg|thumb|left|US President [[Barack Obama]] giving a speech in Tallinn (2014)]]
Estonia was a member of the [[League of Nations]] from 22 September 1921, and became a member of the United Nations on 17 September 1991.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whittaker Briggs |first=Herbert |title=The law of nations: cases, documents, and notes |url= https://archive.org/details/lawofnationscase0000brig |url-access=registration |year=1952 |publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts |page=[https://archive.org/details/lawofnationscase0000brig/page/106 106]}}</ref><ref name="DFAT">{{cite web |url= http://dfat.gov.au/geo/estonia/Pages/estonia-country-brief.aspx |title=Estonia country brief |publisher=[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> Since restoration of independence Estonia has pursued close relations with the [[Western world|Western countries]], and has been member of [[NATO]] since 29 March 2004, as well as the European Union since 1 May 2004.<ref name="DFAT"/> In 2007, Estonia joined the [[Schengen Area]], and in 2011 the [[Eurozone]].<ref name="DFAT"/> The [[Eu-Lisa|European Union Agency for large-scale IT systems]] is based in Tallinn, which started operations at the end of 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/agency/index_en.htm |title=EU Agency for large-scale IT systems |publisher=European Commission |date=20 July 2012 |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120910112010/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/agency/index_en.htm |archive-date=10 September 2012}}</ref> Estonia held the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]] in the second half of 2017.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://euobserver.com/eu-presidency/140368 |title=Estonian presidency leaves 'more confident' EU |work=[[EUobserver]] |date=21 December 2017 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref>

Since the early 1990s, Estonia has been involved in active trilateral [[Baltic states]] co-operation with Latvia and Lithuania, and Nordic-Baltic co-operation with the [[Nordic countries]]. Estonia is a member of the interparliamentary [[Baltic Assembly]], the intergovernmental [[Baltic Council of Ministers]] and the [[Council of the Baltic Sea States]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/4096 |title=Estonian Chairmanship of the Baltic Council of Ministers in 2011 |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131113111112/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F4096 |archive-date=13 November 2013}}</ref> Estonia has built close relationship with the Nordic countries, especially [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]], and is a member of [[NB8|Nordic-Baltic Eight ''(NB-8)'']] uniting Nordic and Baltic countries.<ref name="DFAT"/><ref name="NB8">{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/4097 |title=Nordic-Baltic Co-operation |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs |date=10 July 2012 |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120511184410/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F4097 |archive-date=11 May 2012}}</ref> Joint Nordic-Baltic projects include the education programme Nordplus<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nordplusonline.org/eng/nordplus/about_nordplus |title=Nordplus |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131113110917/http://www.nordplusonline.org/eng/nordplus/about_nordplus |archive-date=13 November 2013}}</ref> and mobility programmes for business and industry<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nb8businessmobility.org/ |title=NordicBaltic Mobility and Network Programme for Business and Industry |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Latvia |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131118051601/http://www.nb8businessmobility.org/ |archive-date=18 November 2013}}</ref> and for public administration.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.norden.ee/en/about-us/funding/mobility-programme-for-public-administration |title=NordicBaltic mobility programme for public administration |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Estonia |access-date=11 August 2012}}</ref> The [[Nordic Council of Ministers]] has an office in [[Tallinn]] with a subsidiaries in [[Tartu]] and [[Narva]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.norden.org/en/nordic-council-of-ministers/the-secretariat-to-the-nordic-council-of-ministers/nordic-council-of-ministers-information-offices-in-the-baltic-states-and-russia |title=Nordic Council of Ministers' Information Offices in the Baltic States and Russia|publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers |access-date=11 August 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121018134356/http://www.norden.org/en/nordic-council-of-ministers/the-secretariat-to-the-nordic-council-of-ministers/nordic-council-of-ministers-information-offices-in-the-baltic-states-and-russia |archive-date=18 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.norden.ee/en/about-us/about-us |title=Norden in Estonia |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Estonia |access-date=11 August 2012}}</ref> The Baltic states are members of [[Nordic Investment Bank]], European Union's [[Nordic Battle Group]], and in 2011 were invited to co-operate with [[Nordic Defence Cooperation]] in selected activities.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.nib.int/news_publications/cases_and_feature_stories/1517/estonia_latvia_and_lithuania_10-year_owners_at_nib |title=Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania 10-year owners at NIB |publisher=[[Nordic Investment Bank]] |date=December 2014 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/world-view-german-paper-outlines-vision-for-eu-defence-union-1.2638290 |last=Smyth |first=Patrick |title=World View: German paper outlines vision for EU defence union |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |date=7 May 2016 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dahl |first1=Ann Sofie |last2=Järvenpää |first2=Pauli |title=Northern Security and Global Politics: Nordic-Baltic strategic influence in a post-unipolar world |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-83657-9 |page=166 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NTZtAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |access-date=24 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nordefco.org/files/nordefco-annual-report-2015_webb.pdf|title=NORDEFCO annual report 2015 |publisher=Nordefco.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014085148/http://www.nordefco.org/files/nordefco-annual-report-2015_webb.pdf |archive-date=14 October 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The beginning of the attempt to redefine Estonia as "Nordic" was seen in December 1999, when then Estonian foreign minister (and [[President of Estonia]] from 2006 until 2016) [[Toomas Hendrik Ilves]] delivered a speech entitled "Estonia as a Nordic Country" to the [[Swedish Institute for International Affairs]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/3489|title=Estonia as a Nordic Country |last=Ilves |first=Toomas Hendrik |author-link=Toomas Hendrik Ilves |date=14 December 1999 |publisher=Estonian Foreign Ministry |access-date=19 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094242/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F3489 |archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref> with potential political calculation behind it being wish to distinguish Estonia from more slowly progressing southern neighbours, which could have postponed early participation in European Union enlargement for Estonia too.<ref name=Mouritzen>{{cite book |last1=Mouritzen |first1=Hans |last2=Wivel |first2=Anders |title=The Geopolitics of Euro-Atlantic Integration |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |page=143 |edition=1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1134457634}}</ref> [[Andres Kasekamp]] argued in 2005, that relevance of identity discussions in Baltic states decreased with their entrance into EU and NATO together, but predicted, that in the future, attractiveness of Nordic identity in Baltic states will grow and eventually, five Nordic states plus three Baltic states will become a single unit.<ref name="Mouritzen" />

Other Estonian international organisation memberships include [[OECD]], [[OSCE]], [[WTO]], [[IMF]], the [[Council of the Baltic Sea States]],<ref name="DFAT"/><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.oecd.org/about/membersandpartners/list-oecd-member-countries.htm |title=List of OECD Member countries – Ratification of the Convention on the OECD |publisher=[[OECD]] |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.osce.org/participating-states |title=Participating States |publisher=[[OSCE]] |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> and on 7 June 2019, was elected a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council for a two-year term that began on 1 January 2020.<ref name="ERR_20190607">{{cite news |title= Gallery: Estonia gains non-permanent UN Security Council seat |work= ERR News |publisher= [[Eesti Rahvusringhääling|ERR]] |date= 7 June 2019 | url= https://news.err.ee/950290/gallery-estonia-gains-non-permanent-un-security-council-seat |access-date= 7 June 2019}}</ref>

Since the [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet era]], the [[Estonia–Russia relations|relations with Russia]] remain generally cold, even though practical co-operation has taken place in between.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://news.err.ee/649606/ambassador-successes-tend-to-get-ignored-in-estonian-russian-relations |title=Ambassador: Successes tend to get ignored in Estonian-Russian relations |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=9 December 2017 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> Since 24 February 2022, the relations with Russia have further deteriorated when Russia [[Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022–present)|made its invasion]] on [[Ukraine]]. Estonia has very actively supported Ukraine during the war, providing highest support relative to its gross domestic product.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/06/03/estonia-russia-ukraine-war-kallas-baltics-nato/ |title=Estonia's Prime Minister: 'We Need to Help Ukraine Win' |publisher=[[Foeign Policy]] |date=3 June 2022 |access-date=27 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://estonianworld.com/security/blog-russia-ukraine-crisis-a-view-from-estonia/|title=Updates: Russia's invasion of Ukraine – reactions in Estonia|website=Estonian World|access-date=15 March 2023}}</ref>

===Military===
{{Main|Estonian Defence Forces|Estonian Defence League}}
[[File:Baltic Battalion Soldiers, Trident Juncture 15 (22200204329).jpg|thumb|left|Estonian soldiers during a NATO exercise in 2015]]
The [[Estonian Defence Forces]] consist of [[Estonian Land Forces|land forces]], [[Estonian Navy|navy]], and [[Estonian Air Force|air force]]. The current national [[military service]] is compulsory for healthy men between ages of 18 and 28, with conscripts serving 8 or 11-month tours of duty, depending on their education and position provided by the Defence Forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mil.ee/en/defence-forces/compulsory-military-service |title=Compulsory military service |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |date=11 March 2014|access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> The peacetime size of the Estonian Defence Forces is about 6,000 persons, with half of those being conscripts. The planned wartime size of the Defence Forces is 60,000 personnel, including 21,000 personnel in high readiness reserve.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mil.ee/en/defence-forcesp |title=Estonian Defence Forces |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> Since 2015 the Estonian defence budget has been over 2% of GDP, fulfilling its NATO defence spending obligation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kaitseministeerium.ee/et/eesmargid-tegevused/kaitse-eelarve |title=Kaitse-eelarve |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Defence|date=3 December 2019 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref>

The [[Estonian Defence League]] is a voluntary national defence organisation under management of Ministry of Defence. It is organised based on military principles, has its own military equipment, and provides various different military training for its members, including in guerilla tactics. The Defence League has 17,000 members, with additional 11,000 volunteers in its affiliated organisations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kaitseliit.ee/en/edl |title=Estonian Defence League |publisher=Estonian Defence League |access-date=23 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Daniel |last=McLaughlin |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/baltic-volunteers-guard-against-threat-of-russian-stealth-invasion-1.2714047 |title=Baltic volunteers guard against threat of Russian stealth invasion |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |date=8 July 2016 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref>

Estonia co-operates with [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]] in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives. As part of Baltic Air Surveillance Network (BALTNET) the three countries manage the Baltic airspace control center, Baltic Battalion (BALTBAT) has participated in the [[NATO Response Force]], and a joint military educational institution [[Baltic Defence College]] is located in [[Tartu]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Aili |last=Vahtla |url=https://news.err.ee/590917/defense-chiefs-decide-to-move-forward-with-baltic-battalion-project |title=Defense chiefs decide to move forward with Baltic battalion project |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=20 April 2017 |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref>

Estonia joined NATO in 2004. NATO [[Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence]] was established in Tallinn in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|first=Andrew |last=Whyte |url=https://news.err.ee/590917/defense-chiefs-decide-to-move-forward-with-baltic-battalion-project |title=Nine more nations join NATO cyberdefense center |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=5 May 2019 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> In response to [[Russian military intervention in Ukraine (2014–present)|Russian war in Ukraine]], since 2017 a [[NATO Enhanced Forward Presence]] battalion battle group has been based in [[Tapa Army Base]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Jonathan |last=Marcus |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40554104 |title=Nato sends 'alive and strong' message from Estonia |publisher=BBC|date=10 July 2017 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> Also part of NATO [[Baltic Air Policing]] deployment has been based in [[Ämari Air Base]] since 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/society/defense/czechs-and-belgians-take-over-in-latest-baltic-air-police-rotation.a330782/ |title=Czechs and Belgians take over in latest Baltic air police rotation |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting of Latvia|LSM]]|date=3 September 2019 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> In European Union Estonia participates in [[Nordic Battlegroup]] and [[Permanent Structured Cooperation]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Jan Joel |last=Andresson |url=https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/if-not-now-when-nordic-eu-battlegroup |title=If not now, when? The Nordic EU Battlegroup |publisher=[[European Union Institute for Security Studies]] |date=17 February 2015 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kaitseministeerium.ee/en/news/estonia-joins-european-intervention-initiative |title=Estonia joins European Intervention Initiative |publisher=[[Estonian Ministry of Defence]] |date=26 June 2018 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref>

Since 1995 Estonia has participated in numerous international security and peacekeeping missions, including: [[International Security Assistance Force|Afghanistan]], [[Multi-National Force – Iraq|Iraq]], [[United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon|Lebanon]], [[Kosovo Force|Kosovo]], and [[Operation Barkhane|Mali]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mil.ee/et/operatsioonid/operatsioonid-alates-1995 |title=Operatsioonid alates 1995 |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> The peak strength of Estonian deployment in Afghanistan was 289 soldiers in 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.postimees.ee/1171242/eesti-sodurite-10-aastat-afganistanis-9-surnut-90-haavatut |title=Eesti sõdurite 10 aastat Afganistanis: 9 surnut, 90 haavatut |work=Postimees|date=15 March 2013 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> 11 Estonian soldiers have been killed in missions of Afghanistan and Iraq.<ref>{{cite news|first=Maria-Ann |last=Rohemäe |url=https://www.err.ee/512040/valisoperatsioonidel-on-hukkunud-11-eesti-sodurit |title=Välisoperatsioonidel on hukkunud 11 Eesti sõdurit |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=27 April 2014 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref>

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Estonia|Counties of Estonia|Municipalities of Estonia|Boroughs of Estonia|Populated places in Estonia}}

[[File:Estonian administrative divisions 2017 with labels.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Administrative divisions of Estonia]]

Estonia is a unitary country with a single-tier local government system. Local affairs are managed autonomously by local governments. Since administrative reform in 2017, there are in total 79 local governments, including 15 towns and 64 rural municipalities. All municipalities have equal legal status and form part of a ''[[Counties of Estonia|maakond]]'' (county), which is an administrative subunit of the state.<ref>{{cite book |title=Public administration characteristics and performance in EU28 |last1=Pesti |first1=Cerlin |last2=Randma-Liiv |first2=Tiina |date=April 2018 |chapter=Estonia |chapter-url= https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/c017bdc1-960e-11e8-8bc1-01aa75ed71a1/language-en |editor-last=Thijs |editor-first=Nick |editor2-last=Hammerschmid |editor2-first=Gerhard |publisher=Publications Office of the European Union |location=[[Luxembourg]] |pages=252–255 |doi=10.2767/74735 |isbn=9789279904530}}</ref> Representative body of local authorities is municipal council, elected at general direct elections for a four-year term. The council appoints local government, headed by a mayor. For additional decentralization the local authorities may form municipal districts with limited authority, currently those have been formed in [[Tallinn]] and [[Hiiumaa]].<ref name="rahandusmin">{{cite web |url=https://www.rahandusministeerium.ee/en/local-governments-and-administrative-territorial-reform |title=Local Governments |date=1 November 2019 |publisher=[[Ministry of Finance (Estonia)|Estonian Ministry of Finance]] |access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref>

Separately from administrative units, there are also [[Populated places in Estonia|settlement units]]: village, small borough, borough, and town. Generally, villages have less than 300, small boroughs have between 300 and 1000, boroughs and towns have over 1000 inhabitants.<ref name="rahandusmin"/>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Estonia}}
[[File:Estonia Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.15|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Estonia exports, 2019]]

As a member of the European Union and [[OECD]], Estonia is considered a high-income economy by the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]]. The [[Purchasing power parity|GDP (PPP) per capita]] of the country was $46,385 in 2023 according to the [[International Monetary Fund]] ,ranked 40th.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report |access-date=2023-04-16 |website=IMF |language=en}}</ref>

Estonia ranks highly in international rankings for [[quality of life]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Estonia (Ranked 21st) |url=https://www.prosperity.com/globe/estonia |website=Legatum Prosperity Index 2020}}</ref> [[Education Index|education]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 December 2019 |title=Pisa rankings: Why Estonian pupils shine in global tests |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/education-50590581}}</ref> [[Press Freedom Index|press freedom]], [[E-government|digitalisation of public services]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 July 2020 |title=Estonia among top 3 in the UN e-Government Survey 2020 |url=https://e-estonia.com/estonia-top-3-in-un-e-government-survey-2020/ |website=e-Estonia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Harold |first=Theresa |date=October 30, 2017 |title=How A Former Soviet State Became One Of The World's Most Advanced Digital Nations |url=https://www.alphr.com/technology/1007520/how-a-former-soviet-state-became-one-of-the-worlds-most-advanced-digital-nations/ |access-date=November 29, 2021 |work=Alphr}}</ref> and the prevalence of technology companies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Number of start-ups per capita by country |url=https://2020.stateofeuropeantech.com/chart/746-3309 |website=2020.stateofeuropeantech.com}}</ref>

Because of its rapid growth, Estonia has often been described as a [[Baltic Tiger]] beside Lithuania and Latvia. Beginning 1 January 2011, Estonia adopted the euro and became the 17th [[eurozone]] member state.<ref name="euroreuters">{{cite news|last=Mardiste|first=David|title=Estonia joins crisis-hit euro club|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-estonia-euro-idUSTRE6BU0S720110101|access-date=2 January 2011|date=1 January 2011|work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref>

According to [[Eurostat]], Estonia had the lowest ratio of government debt to GDP among EU countries at 6.7% at the end of 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-21102011-AP/EN/2-21102011-AP-EN.PDF|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027125232/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-21102011-AP/EN/2-21102011-AP-EN.PDF|url-status=dead|title=Eurostat news release|archive-date=27 October 2011}}</ref>
A balanced budget, almost non-existent [[public debt]], flat-rate income tax, free trade regime, competitive commercial banking sector, innovative [[e-Services]] and even mobile-based services are all hallmarks of Estonia's market economy.

Estonia produces about 75% of its consumed electricity.<ref>[http://www.stat.ee/34170 "Electricity Balance, Yearly"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128220628/http://www.stat.ee/34170 |date=28 November 2017 }} 8 June 2010 (Estonian)</ref> In 2011, about 85% of it was generated with locally mined [[oil shale]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://valitsus.ee/UserFiles/valitsus/et/valitsus/arengukavad/keskkonnaministeerium/Põlevkivi%20kasutamise%20riikliku%20arengukava%20täitmise%20aruanne%202011.pdf |title="Põlevkivi kasutamise riikliku arengukava 2008–2015" 2011. a täitmise aruanne |publisher=Valitsus.ee |date=6 September 2012 |access-date=16 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508121023/https://valitsus.ee/UserFiles/valitsus/et/valitsus/arengukavad/keskkonnaministeerium/P%C3%B5levkivi%20kasutamise%20riikliku%20arengukava%20t%C3%A4itmise%20aruanne%202011.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Alternative energy sources such as wood, peat, and biomass make up approximately 9% of primary energy production. Renewable wind energy was about 6% of total consumption in 2009.<ref>[http://www.stat.ee/34167 "Energy Effectiveness, Yearly"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128212459/http://www.stat.ee/34167 |date=28 November 2017 }} 22 September 2010 (Estonian)</ref> Estonia imports [[petroleum]] products from western Europe and Russia. Estonia imports 100% of its [[Russia in the European energy sector|natural gas from Russia]].<ref>"[https://www.e3g.org/docs/E3G_Trends_EU_Gas_Demand_June2015_Final_110615.pdf Europe's Declining Gas Demand: Trends and Facts about European Gas Consumption – June 2015]". (PDF). p.9. [[E3G]]. Source: Eurostat, Eurogas, E3G.</ref> Oil shale energy, telecommunications, textiles, chemical products, banking, services, food and fishing, timber, shipbuilding, electronics, and transportation are key sectors of the economy.<ref>{{cite web|title=DISCOVER BUSINESS AND INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN ESTONIA!|url=http://www.estonianexport.ee/?page=b4&lang=eng|work=Estonian Export Directory|access-date=2 July 2013|archive-date=21 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121064237/http://www.estonianexport.ee/?page=b4&lang=eng|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[ice-free port]] of [[Port of Muuga|Muuga]], near Tallinn, is a modern facility featuring good transshipment capability, a high-capacity grain elevator, chill/frozen storage, and new oil tanker off-loading capabilities.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} The railroad serves as a conduit between the West, Russia, and other points.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}}
[[File:Tln1.jpg|thumb|left|alt=aerial view of high rises at sunset|The central business district of [[Tallinn]]]]
Because of the [[Financial crisis of 2007–2010|global economic recession that began in 2007]], the GDP of Estonia decreased by 1.4% in the 2nd quarter of 2008, over 3% in the 3rd quarter of 2008, and over 9% in the 4th quarter of 2008. The Estonian government made a supplementary negative budget, which was passed by [[Riigikogu]]. The revenue of the budget was decreased for 2008 by EEK 6.1 billion and the expenditure by EEK 3.2 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fin.ee/80290/ |title=Ministry of Finance |publisher=fin.ee |date=15 May 2008 |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102031135/http://www.fin.ee/80290/ |archive-date=2 November 2013 }}</ref> In 2010, the economic situation stabilised and started a growth based on strong exports. In the fourth quarter of 2010, Estonian industrial output increased by 23% compared to the year before. The country has been experiencing economic growth ever since.<ref name="Stat">{{cite web |url=http://www.stat.ee/pohinaitajad |title=Eesti Statistika – Enim nõutud statistika |publisher=Stat.ee |date=23 March 2010 |access-date=5 June 2011 |archive-date=14 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114194049/https://www.stat.ee/pohinaitajad |url-status=dead }}</ref>

According to Eurostat data, Estonian PPS GDP per capita stood at 67% of the EU average in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-25062009-BP/EN/2-25062009-BP-EN.PDF |title=GDP per capita in PPS |publisher=Eurostat |access-date=25 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090711153813/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-25062009-BP/EN/2-25062009-BP-EN.PDF |archive-date=11 July 2009 }}</ref> In 2017, the average monthly gross salary in Estonia was €1221.<ref name=StatisticsEstonia>{{cite web|first1=Allan |last1=Aron |first2=Evelin |last2=Puura |url=http://www.stat.ee/ |title=Avaleht – Eesti Statistika |publisher=Stat.ee |access-date=31 March 2016}}</ref>

However, there are vast disparities in GDP between different areas of Estonia; currently, over half of the country's GDP is created in Tallinn.<ref name="BBN">{{cite web|first=Kaja |last=Koovit |url=http://www.balticbusinessnews.com/?PublicationId=f47e445a-e234-432f-b7b0-137ca0bff47d |title=bbn.ee – Half of Estonian GDP is created in Tallinn |publisher=Balticbusinessnews.com |date=1 June 2011 |access-date=5 June 2011}}</ref> In 2008, the GDP per capita of Tallinn stood at 172% of the Estonian average,<ref name="Statistics">[http://www.stat.ee/dokumendid/30210 Half of the gross domestic product of Estonia is created in Tallinn]. Statistics Estonia. ''Stat.ee''. 29 September 2008. Retrieved 23 December 2011.</ref> which makes the per capita GDP of Tallinn as high as 115% of the European Union average, exceeding the average levels of other counties.

The unemployment rate in March 2016 was 6.4%, which is below the EU average,<ref name=StatisticsEstonia/> while real GDP growth in 2011 was 8.0%,<ref name="Statistics Estonia">{{cite web |url=http://www.stat.ee/29958 |title=Real GDP per capita, growth rate and totals |website=Stat.ee |publisher=Statistics Estonia |access-date=25 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114083834/http://www.stat.ee/29958 |archive-date=14 November 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> five times the euro-zone average. In 2012, Estonia remained the only euro member with a budget surplus, and with a national debt of only 6%, it is one of the least indebted countries in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estonia Uses the Euro, and the Economy is Booming|url=https://www.cnbc.com/id/47691090/|publisher=CNBC|access-date=13 June 2012|date=5 June 2012}}</ref>

===Economic indicators===

Estonia's economy continues to benefit from a transparent government and policies that sustain a high level of [[Index of Economic Freedom|economic freedom]], ranking 6th globally and 2nd in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking/ |title=Country Rankings: World & Global Economy Rankings on Economic Freedom |publisher=Heritage.org |date=13 January 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016 |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2016 – Transparency International |publisher=Transparency.org |date=25 January 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> The rule of [[Law of Estonia|law]] remains strongly buttressed and enforced by an independent and efficient judicial system. A simplified tax system with flat rates and low indirect taxation, openness to foreign investment, and a liberal trade regime have supported the resilient and well-functioning economy.<ref name="taxfoundation1">{{cite web|url=http://taxfoundation.org/article/2015-international-tax-competitiveness-index|title=2015 International Tax Competitiveness Index|date=28 September 2015 |publisher=Taxfoundation.org|access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> {{Asof|2018|May}}, the [[Ease of Doing Business Index]] by the [[World Bank Group]] places the country 16th in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/rankings |title=Rankings & Ease of Doing Business Score |website=Doing Business |publisher=The World Bank |access-date=25 January 2019}}</ref> The strong focus on the IT sector through its [[e-Estonia]] program has led to much faster, simpler and efficient public services where for example filing a tax return takes less than five minutes and 98% of banking transactions are conducted through the internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://neweuropeaneconomy.com/fdi/digital-economy-estonia/ |title=Digital Economy Estonia: From IT tiger to the World's Most Pre-eminent e-state |date=23 May 2016 |publisher=New European Economy |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=June 2015 |url=http://treasurytoday.com/2015/06/estonia-a-digital-economy-ttcyf |title=Estonia: a digital economy |publisher=Treasury Today |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> Estonia has the 13th lowest business bribery risk in the world, according to TRACE Matrix.<ref name="traceinternational.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.traceinternational.org/trace-matrix |title=Trace Matrix |publisher=Traceminternational.org |access-date=19 August 2021}}</ref>

Estonia is a [[developed country]] with an advanced, [[high-income economy]] that was among the fastest-growing in the EU since its entry in 2004.<ref>{{cite magazine |title= Estonian Economic Miracle: A Model For Developing Countries |magazine= Global Politician | url= http://www.globalpolitician.com/2614-baltic-eu-expansion-estonia | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110628230137/http://www.globalpolitician.com/2614-baltic-eu-expansion-estonia | archive-date= 28 June 2011 |access-date= 5 June 2011 |url-status= dead}}</ref> The country ranks very high in the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|Human Development Index]],<ref name="HDI">{{cite web |title= 2020 Human Development Report|publisher= United Nations Development Programme |year= 2019 |url= http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf |access-date= 15 December 2020}}</ref> and compares well in measures of [[Index of Economic Freedom|economic freedom]], [[Freedom in the World (report)|civil liberties]], education,<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.yahoo.com/news/asian-countries-dominate-science-teaching-criticised-survey-101202488.html |title= Asian countries dominate, science teaching criticised in survey |publisher= Yahoo}}</ref> and [[Press Freedom Index|press freedom]].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://rsf.org/en/ranking |title= Press Freedom Index 2016 |publisher= Reports Without Borders |access-date= 29 May 2016}}</ref> Estonian citizens receive [[universal health care]],<ref>[https://www.fraserinstitute.org/sites/default/files/comparing-performance-of-universal-health-care-countries-2016.pdf Comparing Performance of Universal Health Care Countries, 2016] Fraser Institute</ref> [[free education]],<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/estonia/Education-Policy-Outlook-Country-Profile-Estonia.pdf Estonia] OECD 2016.</ref> and the longest paid [[maternity leave]] in the OECD.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2016/10/daily-chart-10 |title= Which countries are most generous to new parents? |newspaper= The Economist |access-date= 28 October 2016}}.</ref> One of the world's most digitally-advanced societies,<ref>
{{cite magazine | url= https://www.wired.co.uk/article/digital-estonia |title=Welcome to E-stonia, the world's most digitally advanced society |magazine= [[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date= 20 October 2018}}
</ref>
in 2005 Estonia became the first state to hold elections over the [[Electronic voting in Estonia|Internet]], and in 2014, the first state to provide [[E-residency of Estonia|e-residency]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is e-Residency {{!}} How to Start an EU Company Online|url=https://www.e-resident.gov.ee/|access-date=2021-12-26|website=e-Residency|language=en-US}}</ref>

===Historic development===
[[File:GDP_per_capita_Baltics.svg|thumb|right|Real GDP per capita development of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania]]
In 1928, a stable currency, the ''[[Estonian kroon|kroon]]'', was established. It is issued by the [[Bank of Estonia]], the country's [[central bank]]. The word ''kroon'' ({{IPA-et|ˈkroːn|est}}, "crown") is related to that of the other [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] currencies (such as the [[Swedish krona]] and the [[Danish krone|Danish]] and [[Norwegian krone]]). The kroon succeeded the [[Estonian mark|mark]] in 1928 and was used until 1940. After Estonia regained its independence, the kroon was reintroduced in 1992.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

After [[History of Estonia#Regaining independence|restoring full independence]], in the 1990s, Estonia styled itself as the "gateway between East and West" and aggressively pursued economic reform and reintegration with the West.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} In 1994, applying the economic theories of [[Milton Friedman]], Estonia became one of the first countries to adopt a [[flat tax]], with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of personal income. This rate has since been reduced several times, e.g., to 24% in 2005, 23% in 2006, and to 21% in 2008.<ref>[http://www.fin.ee/personal-income-tax Personal Income Tax] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102031341/http://www.fin.ee/personal-income-tax |date=2 November 2013}}, Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Estonia</ref> The [[Government of Estonia]] finalised the design of [[Estonian euro coins]] in late 2004, and adopted the euro as the country's currency on 1 January 2011, later than planned due to continued high inflation.<ref name="euroreuters"/><ref name="euro-EFP">{{cite news|url=http://www.estonianfreepress.com/2009/03/estonia-gets-closer-to-the-euro/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710203542/http://www.estonianfreepress.com/2009/03/estonia-gets-closer-to-the-euro/ |archive-date=10 July 2011 |newspaper=Estonian Free Press |title=Estonia Gets Closer to the Euro |last=Angioni |first=Giovanni |date=31 March 2009 |access-date=22 November 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A [[Land Value Tax]] is levied which is used to fund local municipalities. It is a state-level tax, but 100% of the revenue is used to fund Local Councils. The rate is set by the Local Council within the limits of 0.1–2.5%. It is one of the most important sources of funding for municipalities.<ref name="Land Tax Reform">{{cite web|title=Land Taxation Reform in Estonia|url=http://aysps.gsu.edu/isp/files/ISP_CONFERENCES_PROPERTY_TAX_06_TIITS_PAPER.pdf|website=Aysps.gsu.edu|access-date=23 July 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806011749/http://aysps.gsu.edu/isp/files/ISP_CONFERENCES_PROPERTY_TAX_06_TIITS_PAPER.pdf|archive-date=6 August 2010}}</ref> The Land Value Tax is levied on the value of the land only with improvements and buildings not considered. Very few exemptions are considered on the land value tax and even public institutions are subject to the tax.<ref name="Land Tax Reform"/> The tax has contributed to a high rate (~90%)<ref name="Land Tax Reform"/> of owner-occupied residences within Estonia, compared to a rate of 67.4% in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|title=Homeownership rate graph|url=https://www.census.gov/housing/hvs/index.html|website=Housing Vacancies and Homeownership|publisher=US Census|access-date=2 June 2015}}</ref>

In 1999, Estonia experienced its worst year economically since it regained independence in 1991, largely because of the impact of the [[1998 Russian financial crisis]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Estonia joined the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] in November 1999. With assistance from the European Union, the [[World Bank]] and the [[Nordic Investment Bank]], Estonia completed most of its preparations for European Union membership by the end of 2002 and now has one of the strongest economies of the new member states of the European Union.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Estonia joined the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/estonia/estoniasaccessiontotheoecd.htm |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] |title=Estonia's accession to the OECD |date=9 December 2010 |access-date=22 July 2016}}</ref>

===Transport===
{{Main|Transport in Estonia}}

The [[Port of Tallinn]], taking into account both cargo and passenger traffic, is one of the largest port enterprises of the [[Baltic Sea]]. In 2018, the enterprise was listed in [[Tallinn Stock Exchange]]. It was the first time in nearly 20 years in Estonia when a state-owned company went public in Estonia. It was also the 2nd largest [[Initial public offering|IPO]] in Nasdaq Tallinn in the number of retail investors participating. The Republic of Estonia remains the largest shareholder and holds 67% of the company.<ref>[https://news.err.ee/839135/port-of-tallinn-surges-nearly-20-minutes-after-trading-begins "Port of Tallinn surges nearly 20% minutes after trading begins"] ERR, 13 June 2018.</ref>

Owned by [[Eesti Raudtee|AS Eesti Raudtee]], there are many significant [[Rail transport in Estonia|railroad connections in Estonia]], such as [[Tallinn–Narva railway]], which is {{convert|209.6|km|abbr=on}} long main connection to [[St. Petersburg]]. The most important [[highways in Estonia]], in other hand, includes [[Narva Highway]] ([[European route E20|E20]]), [[Tartu Highway]] ([[European route E263|E263]]) and [[Pärnu Highway]] ([[European route E67|E67]]).

The [[Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport]] in Tallinn is the largest airport in Estonia and serves as a [[Airline hub|hub]] for the national airline [[Nordica (airline)|Nordica]], as well as the secondary hub for [[AirBaltic]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Latvian airBaltic becomes number one airline in Estonia |url=http://estonianworld.com/business/airbaltic-becomes-number-one-airline-in-estonia/ |work=Estonian World |date=4 May 2016 |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> and [[LOT Polish Airlines]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Siiri |last=Liiva |url=http://majandus24.postimees.ee/3915711/nordica-lennukipark-taeieneb-ajutiselt-uehe-loti-lennukiga |title=Nordica lennukipark täieneb ajutiselt ühe LOTi lennukiga |newspaper=Postimees Majandus |publisher=Postimees |date=18 November 2016 |access-date=19 November 2016 |language=et}}</ref> Total passengers using the airport has increased on average by 14.2% annually since 1998. On 16 November 2012 Tallinn Airport has reached two million passenger landmark for the first time in its history.<ref>{{cite news |title=FOTOD: Vaata, kuidas saabus Tallinna lennujaama kahe miljones reisija |url=http://majandus.delfi.ee/news/uudised/fotod-vaata-kuidas-saabus-tallinna-lennujaama-kahe-miljones-reisija.d?id=65274122 |publisher=delfi.ee |language=et |date=16 November 2012 |access-date=17 November 2012}}</ref>

===Resources===
[[File:Estonian shale.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Oil shale in Estonia|oil shale industry]] in Estonia is one of the most developed in the world.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Estonia 2013 |series=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries |author=IEA |author-link=International Energy Agency |journal=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries / Ukraine |year=2013 |location=Paris |publisher=IEA |doi=10.1787/9789264190801-en |isbn=978-92-6419079-5 |issn=2307-0897 |page=20}}</ref> In 2012, oil shale supplied 70% of Estonia's [[total primary energy supply|total primary energy]] and accounted for 4% of Estonia's gross domestic product.<ref name=audit>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?AuditId=2314&FileId=13239
|title = Actions of the state in directing the use of oil shale. Does the state guarantee that oil shale reserves are used sustainably? Report of the National Audit Office to the Riigikogu
|publisher = [[National Audit Office of Estonia]]
|date = 19 November 2014
|pages = 7–14; 29
|access-date = 7 January 2015
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181213120049/https://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?AuditId=2314&FileId=13239
|archive-date = 13 December 2018
|url-status = live
}}
</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Estonia 2013 |series=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries |author=IEA |author-link=International Energy Agency |journal=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries / Ukraine |year=2013 |location=Paris |publisher=IEA |doi=10.1787/9789264190801-en |isbn=978-92-6419079-5 |issn=2307-0897 |page=7}}</ref>]]
Although Estonia is in general resource-poor, the land still offers a large variety of smaller resources. The country has large [[oil shale]] and [[limestone]] deposits, along with forests that cover 48% of the land.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=EN51&ti=FOREST+RESOURCES+BASED+ON+NATIONAL+FOREST+INVENTORY+%28NFI%29&path=../I_Databas/Environment/04Natural_resources_and_their_use/06Forest_resources/&lang=1 |title=Forest resources based on national forest inventory |publisher=Statistics Estonia |year=2012}}</ref> In addition to oil shale and limestone, Estonia also has large reserves of [[phosphorite]], [[uraninite|pitchblende]], and [[granite]] that currently are not mined, or not mined extensively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ut.ee/BGGM/maavara/dityoneema.html |title=Uranium production at Sillamäe |publisher=Ut.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-date=4 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104181758/http://www.ut.ee/BGGM/maavara/dityoneema.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Significant quantities of [[rare-earth]] oxides are found in tailings accumulated from 50 years of [[uranium ore]], [[shale]] and [[loparite]] mining at [[Sillamäe]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Turning a Problem into a Resource: Remediation and Waste Management at the Sillamäe Site, Estonia |last1=Rofer |first1=Cheryl K. |first2=Tõnis |last2=Kaasik |series=Volume 28 of NATO science series: Disarmament technologies |year=2000 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-7923-6187-9 |page=229}}</ref> Because of the rising prices of rare earths, extraction of these oxides has become economically viable. The country currently exports around 3000 tonnes per annum, representing around 2% of world production.<ref>{{cite news |title=Estonia's rare earth break China's market grip |first=Anneli |last=Reigas |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=1 December 2010 |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5itXbI57zv-lwfcaFdBdh7UZXuVuA?docId=CNG.a00f68010092a06189a0276c763e93a4.141 |access-date=1 December 2010}}</ref>

Since 2008, public debate has discussed whether Estonia should build a nuclear power plant to secure energy production after closure of old units in the [[Narva Power Plants]], if they are not reconstructed by 2016.<ref>[http://www.e24.ee/1810367/tulevikuraport-soome-eesti-tuumajaam-voiks-olla-eestis Tulevikuraport: Soome-Eesti tuumajaam võiks olla Eestis (Future Report: Finnish and Estonian joint nuclear power station could be located in Estonia)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212234919/http://www.e24.ee/1810367/tulevikuraport-soome-eesti-tuumajaam-voiks-olla-eestis |date=12 February 2019 }}, ''[[Postimees]]''. 25 June 2008 (in Estonian).</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baltictimes.com/news/articles/19949/|title=A nuclear power plant for Estonia?|website=The Baltic Times|access-date=23 June 2018}}</ref>

===Industry and environment===
{{See also|Oil shale in Estonia|Narva Power Plants|Wind power in Estonia}}
[[File:Hanila tuulepark 2.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Rõuste wind turbines next to wetland|Rõuste wind farm in [[Lääneranna Parish]]]]
Food, construction, and electronic industries are currently among the most important branches of Estonia's industry.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} In 2007, the construction industry employed more than 80,000 people, around 12% of the entire country's workforce.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.investinestonia.com/index.php?option=displaypage&Itemid=118&op=page&SubMenu= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021094336/http://www.investinestonia.com/index.php?option=displaypage&Itemid=118&op=page&SubMenu= |archive-date=21 October 2007 |title=Invest in Estonia: Overview of the Construction industry in Estonia |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Another important industrial sector is the machinery and chemical industry, which is mainly located in [[Ida-Viru county]] and around Tallinn.

The oil shale-based [[mining industry]], also concentrated in [[Virumaa|East Estonia]], produces around 90% of the entire country's electricity.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Although the number of pollutants emitted has been falling since the 1980s,<ref name=Auer>M. Auer (2004). Estonian Environmental Reforms: A Small Nation's Outsized Accomplishments. In: ''Restoring Cursed Earth: Appraising Environmental Policy Reforms in Eastern Europe and Russia.'' Rowman & Littlefield. pp 117–144.</ref> the air is still contaminated with [[sulphur dioxide]] from the mining industry the Soviet Union rapidly developed in the early 1950s. In some areas, coastal seawater is polluted, mainly around the [[Sillamäe]] industrial complex.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2005/geos/en.html |title=Environment – current issues in Estonia. CIA Factbook|publisher=Umsl.edu |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref>

Estonia is dependent on other countries for energy. In recent years, many local and foreign companies have been investing in renewable energy sources.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Wind power has been increasing steadily in Estonia and the total current amount of energy produced from wind is nearly 60 [[Megawatt|MW]]; another roughly 399 MW worth of projects are currently being developed and more than 2800 MW being proposed in the [[Lake Peipus]] area and coastal areas of [[Hiiumaa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tuuleenergia.ee/?path=0x139x173 |title=Estonian Wind Power Association |publisher=Tuuleenergia.ee |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://wwx.postimees.ee/211007/esileht/majandus/290763.php Peipsile võib kerkida mitusada tuulikut], ''Postimees''. 21 October 2007 (in Estonian) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130822013819/http://wwx.postimees.ee/211007/esileht/majandus/290763.php |date=22 August 2013}}</ref><ref>Henrik Ilves [http://arileht.delfi.ee/news/uudised/tuule-puudmine-on-saanud-eesti-kullapalavikuks.d?id=51133036 Tuule püüdmine on saanud Eesti kullapalavikuks], ''[[Eesti Päevaleht]]''. 13 June 2008 (in Estonian)</ref>

Currently{{When|date=February 2011}}, there are plans to renovate some older units of the Narva Power Plants, establish new power stations, and provide higher efficiency in oil shale-based energy production.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/estonia/env2001/content/soe/air_2-3.htm |title=State Environment in Estonia |publisher=Enrin.grida.no |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-date=14 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514153806/http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/estonia/env2001/content/soe/air_2-3.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Estonia [[Liberalization|liberalised]] 35% of its electricity market in April 2010; the electricity market as whole was to be liberalised by 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325013625/http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 |title=Developing Estonian energy policy hand in hand with EU energy packages|access-date=18 August 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Together with Lithuania, Poland, and Latvia, the country considered participating in constructing the [[Visaginas nuclear power plant]] in Lithuania to replace the [[Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant|Ignalina]] nuclear plant.<ref name="wnn-lt">{{cite news
|url = http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN_Visaginas_recognised_with_nuclear_site_name_3007082.html
|title = Visaginas recognised with nuclear site name
|publisher = World Nuclear News
|date=30 July 2008
|access-date=31 July 2008}}
</ref><ref name="le">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.lpc.lt/en/main/news/press?ID=469
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722151647/http://www.lpc.lt/en/main/news/press?ID=469
|archive-date=22 July 2011
|title=Nuclear Power Plant Project in Lithuania is Feasible. Press release
|date=25 October 2006
|publisher=[[Lietuvos Energija]]
|access-date=13 July 2007
|url-status=dead
}}
</ref> However, due to the slow pace of the project and problems with the nuclear sector (like the [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster|Fukushima disaster]] and bad example of [[Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant|Olkiluoto plant]]), [[Eesti Energia]] shifted its main focus to [[shale oil]] production, seen as far more profitable.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.err.ee/v/economy/876c4997-500b-4adc-aeab-eb2e8c0dbcb7|date=24 November 2014 |title= Liive: Eesti Energia ditched nuclear plant plans for shale oil |publisher=ERR |access-date=24 February 2015}}</ref>

The Estonian electricity network forms a part of the [[Nord Pool Spot]] network.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nord Pool|url=http://www.nordpoolspot.com/|access-date=23 July 2017|publisher=Nordpoolspot.com}}</ref>

Estonia has a strong information technology [[quaternary sector of the economy|sector]], partly owing to the [[Tiigrihüpe]] project undertaken in the mid-1990s, and has been mentioned as the most "wired" and advanced country in Europe in the terms of e-Government of Estonia.<ref>[https://www.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-09/ff_estonia Hackers Take Down the Most Wired Country in Europe], August 2007</ref> The 2014 [[E-residency of Estonia|e-residency program]] began offering those services to non-residents in Estonia.

[[Skype]] was written by Estonia-based developers [[Ahti Heinla]], [[Priit Kasesalu]] and [[Jaan Tallinn]], who had also originally developed [[Kazaa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207073839/https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 February 2012|date=6 September 2006|first=Andreas|last=Thomann|title=Skype – A Baltic Success Story|publisher=credit-suisse.com|access-date=24 February 2008}}</ref> Other notable [[Startup company|startups]] that originated from Estonia include [[Bolt (company)|Bolt]], [[GrabCAD]], [[Fortumo]] and [[TransferWise|Wise (formerly known as TransferWise)]]. It has been reported that Estonia has the highest startups per person ratio in the world.<ref>{{cite news|date=11 July 2013|title=Not only Skype|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2013/07/estonias-technology-cluster|access-date=24 February 2015}}</ref> As of January 2022, there are 1,291 startups from Estonia, seven of which are [[Unicorn (finance)|unicorns]], equalling nearly 1 startup per 1,000 Estonians.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Estonian Startup Database|url=https://startupestonia.ee/startup-database|access-date=2022-01-11|website=Startup Estonia|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-07|title=The Estonia-Singapore tech corridor: A conversation with Priit Turk, Estonian ambassador to Singapore|url=https://kr-asia.com/the-estonia-singapore-tech-corridor-a-conversation-with-priit-turk-estonian-ambassador-to-singapore|access-date=2022-01-11|website=KrASIA|language=en}}</ref>

===Trade===
{{Main|Tallinn Stock Exchange}}
[[File:Tree map exports 2010 Estonia.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|alt=graph of exports in 2010 showing $10,345,000,000 2.8 percent cars, 12 percent lubricating oil, 3.8 percent telephone|Graphical depiction of Estonia's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories]]
Estonia has had a [[market economy]] since the end of the 1990s and one of the highest per capita income levels in Eastern Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=GNI per capita in PPP dollars for Baltic states |url=https://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_&met_y=ny_gnp_pcap_pp_cd&idim=country:EST:LTU:LVA&dl=en |website=Google WorldBank|access-date=27 February 2015}}</ref> Proximity to the Scandinavian and Finnish markets, its location between the East and West, competitive cost structure and a highly skilled labour force have been the major Estonian comparative advantages in the beginning of the 2000s (decade). As the largest city, Tallinn has emerged as a [[financial centre]] and the [[Tallinn Stock Exchange]] joined recently with the [[OMX]] system. Several cryptocurrency trading platforms are officially recognised by the government, such as [[CoinMetro]].<ref>{{cite web|title=CoinMetro License|url=https://mtr.mkm.ee/taotluse_tulemus/483668?backurl=%40juriidiline_isik_show%3Fid%3D227953|access-date=8 August 2018|archive-date=15 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715210621/https://mtr.mkm.ee/taotluse_tulemus/483668?backurl=%40juriidiline_isik_show%3Fid%3D227953|url-status=dead}}</ref> The current government has pursued tight [[Finance|fiscal]] policies, resulting in balanced budgets and low [[public debt]].

In 2007, however, a large current account deficit and rising inflation put pressure on [[Estonian kroon|Estonia's currency]], which was pegged to the Euro, highlighting the need for growth in export-generating industries.
Estonia exports mainly machinery and equipment, wood and paper, textiles, food products, furniture, and metals and chemical products.<ref name="CIAworld">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/ |title=CIA World Factbook: Estonia |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=23 December 2010 }}</ref> Estonia also exports 1.562 billion kilowatt hours of electricity annually.<ref name="CIAworld"/> At the same time Estonia imports machinery and equipment, chemical products, textiles, food products and transportation equipment.<ref name="CIAworld"/> Estonia imports 200 million kilowatt hours of electricity annually.<ref name="CIAworld"/>

Between 2007 and 2013, Estonia received 53.3 billion [[Estonian kroon|kroons]] (3.4 billion euros) from various European Union Structural Funds as direct supports, creating the largest foreign investments into Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://struktuurifondid.ee/ |title=European Union Structural Funds in Estonia |publisher=Struktuurifondid.ee |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> Majority of the European Union financial aid will be invested into the following fields: energy economies, entrepreneurship, administrative capability, education, information society, environment protection, regional and local development, research and development activities, healthcare and welfare, transportation and labour market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://veebiarhiiv.digar.ee/a/20101114110851/http://www.fin.ee/?404 |first=Livia |last=Vosman |title=Europostitus on jõudnud 350 000 kodusse |website=Rahandusministeerium |date=13 November 2010 |language=et}}</ref> Main sources of [[foreign direct investment]]s to Estonia are Sweden and Finland ({{as of|2016|December|31}} 48.3%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vm.ee/en/estonian-economy-overview |title=Estonian Economy Overview | Ministry of Foreign Affairs |website=Vm.ee |date=16 June 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Estonia}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Residents of Estonia by ethnicity (2021)<ref name="rahvaloendus.ee">{{cite web|title=Rahvaarv rahvuse järgi, 1. jaanuar, aasta|url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/results/demographic-and-ethno-cultural-characteristics-of-the-population|publisher=Statistics Estonia|access-date=1 July 2022}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Estonians]]
|value1 =69.1
|color1 = blue
|label2 = [[Russians]]
|value2 =23.7
|color2 = cyan
|label3 = [[Ukrainians]]
|value3 = 2.1
|color3 = yellow
|label4 = [[Belarusians]]
|value4 = 0.9
|color4 = red
|label5 = other
|value5 = 4.2
|color5 = gray

}}

[[File:Eesti rahvaarv 1960-2019.png|thumb|upright=1.15|alt=The population of Estonia, from 1960 to 2019, with a peak in 1990.|Population of Estonia 1960–2019. The changes are largely attributed to Soviet immigration and emigration.<ref name="stat.ee_2">{{cite web|title=Rahvaarv, 1. jaanuar, aasta|url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Database/RAHVASTIK/databasetree.asp|publisher=Statistics Estonia|access-date=10 October 2019}}</ref>]]

Before World War II, ethnic [[Estonians]] made up 88% of the population, with national minorities constituting the remaining 12%.<ref name="ethnic minor">{{cite web|title=Ethnic minorities in Estonia: past and present |url=http://old.estinst.ee/factsheets/ethnic_minor/ |date=26 December 1998 |publisher=Einst.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807204855/http://old.estinst.ee/factsheets/ethnic_minor/}}</ref> The largest minority groups in 1934 were [[Russians]], [[Germans]], [[Swedish people|Swedes]], [[Latvians]], [[Jewish people|Jews]], [[Polish people|Poles]], and [[Finns]].

The share of [[Baltic Germans]] in Estonia had fallen from 5.3% (~46,700) in 1881 to 1.3% (16,346) by 1934,<ref name="ethnic minor"/><ref name="baltic germans">{{cite web |title=Baltic Germans in Estonia |url=http://www.einst.ee/factsheets/factsheets_uus_kuju/baltic_germans.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223082557/http://www.einst.ee/factsheets/factsheets_uus_kuju/baltic_germans.htm |archive-date=23 December 2007 |publisher=Estonian Institute}}</ref> mainly due to emigration to Germany in the light of general Russification at the end of the 19th century{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} and the independence of Estonia in the 20th century.

Between 1945 and 1989, the share of ethnic Estonians in the population resident within the currently defined boundaries of Estonia dropped to 61%, caused primarily by the Soviet occupation and programme promoting mass immigration of urban industrial workers from Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, as well as by wartime emigration and [[Joseph Stalin]]'s [[Soviet deportations from Estonia|mass deportations]] and executions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gulag.online/articles/soviet-repression-and-deportations-in-the-baltic-states?locale=en|title=Soviet repression and deportations in the Baltic states|website=Gulag.online|access-date=October 29, 2021}}</ref> By 1989, minorities constituted more than one-third of the population, as the number of non-Estonians had grown almost fivefold.

At the end of the 1980s, Estonians perceived their demographic change as a [[disaster|national catastrophe]]. This was a result of the [[human migration|migration]] policies essential to the [[Estonian SSR|Soviet Nationalisation Programme]] aiming to [[russify]] Estonia – administrative and military immigration of non-Estonians from the USSR coupled with the deportation of Estonians to the USSR.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} In the decade after the reconstitution of independence, large-scale emigration by ethnic Russians and the removal of the Russian military bases in 1994 caused{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} the proportion of ethnic Estonians in Estonia to increase from 61% to 69% in 2006.

Modern Estonia is a fairly ethnically homogeneous country, but this historical homogeneity is a feature of 13 of the country's 15 ''maakond'' (counties). The mostly Russian-speaking immigrant population is concentrated in urban areas which administratively belong to two counties. Thus 13 of Estonia's 15 counties are over 80% ethnic Estonian, the most homogeneous being [[Hiiumaa]], where Estonians account for 98.4% of the population. In the counties of [[Harju County|Harju]] (including the capital city Tallinn) and [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]], however, ethnic Estonians make up 60% and 20% of the population, respectively. The ethnic [[History of Russians in Estonia|Russian]] immigrant minority makes up about 24% of the country's total population now, but accounts for 35% of the population in Harju county and for a near 70% majority in Ida-Viru county.

The Estonian Cultural Autonomy law that was passed in 1925 was unique in Europe at that time.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David James|title=The Baltic States and Their Region: New Europe Or Old?|page=211|year=2005|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-1666-8}}</ref> Cultural autonomies could be granted to [[minorities]] numbering more than 3,000 people with longstanding ties to the Republic of Estonia. Before the [[Estonian SSR|Soviet occupation]], the Germans and Jewish minorities managed to elect a cultural council. The Law on Cultural Autonomy for National Minorities was reinstated in 1993. Historically, large parts of Estonia's northwestern coast and islands have been populated by the indigenous ethnic group of ''[[Estonian Swedes|rannarootslased]]'' ("Coastal Swedes").

In recent years the number of Swedish residents in Estonia has risen again, numbering in 2008 almost 500 people, owing to the property reforms at the beginning of the 1990s. In 2004, the [[Ingrian Finnish]] minority in Estonia elected a cultural council and was granted cultural autonomy. The Estonian Swedes minority similarly received cultural autonomy in 2007.<ref name="National Minorities Cultural Autonomy Act (2019 version)">{{Cite web|title=National Minorities Cultural Autonomy Act|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/504042019005/consolide|access-date=2022-04-07|website=www.riigiteataja.ee}}</ref>
During the Russo-Ukrainian war of 2022, tens of thousands of Ukrainian refugees have arrived in Estonia.

There is also a [[Romani people|Roma]] community in Estonia. Approximately Roma 1,000-1,500 live in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=8967&langId=en|title=Estonia - Promoting Social Inclusion of Roma - European Commission}}</ref>
===Society===
{{See also|Human rights in Estonia|Nordic identity in Estonia|Estonian alien's passport}}

[[File:Viljandi folkdanslag på Hedemora gammelgård 2014 01.jpg|thumb|Estonian folk dancers]]

Among [[post-communism|post-]][[Eastern Bloc|communist states]], Estonia is one of the most [[Westernization|Westernised]] countries and the Estonian society has undergone considerable changes since the country had restored full independence in 1991.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.baltictimes.com/report__estonia_is_most_westernized_of_former_soviet_union_members/|title=Report: Estonia is most westernised of former Soviet Union members|work=[[The Baltic Times]]|date=May 1, 2018|access-date=November 29, 2021}}</ref> Some of the more notable changes have taken effect in the level of stratification and distribution of family income. The [[Gini coefficient]] has held steadily higher than the European Union average (31 in 2009),<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html CIA World Factbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610232357/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |date=10 June 2010 }}. . Retrieved 7 November 2011</ref> although it has clearly dropped. The registered unemployment rate in January 2021 was 6.9%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stat.ee/et/avasta-statistikat/valdkonnad/tooelu/tooturg/tootuse-maar. |title=Töötuse määr |trans-title=Unemployment rate |publisher=Statistics Estonia |language=Estonian |access-date=20 September 2021}}</ref>

Estonia is a multinational country in which over a hundred languages are spoken, according to data from one previous census held in 2000. In 2000, 67.3% of the country's adult population spoke [[Estonian language|Estonian]] as their [[first language]] whereas over 30% of the population spoke other languages at [[native language|native]] level.<ref name="PopulationByNationality">{{cite web |url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC223&ti=POPULATION+BY+THE+PLACE+OF+RESIDENCE+AND+MOTHER+TONGUE&path=../I_Databas/Population_census/PHC2000/08Ethnic_nationality._Mother_tongue._Command_of_foreign_languages/&lang=1 |title=Population by the place of residence and mother tongue, statistical database: Population Census 2000|date=July 2010|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)|access-date=19 June 2009}}</ref> {{as of|2010|July|2}}, 84.1% of Estonian residents are Estonian citizens, 8.6% are citizens of other countries and 7.3% are "citizens with undetermined citizenship".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/society/citizenship.html|title=Citizenship|publisher=Estonia.eu|date=13 July 2010|access-date=18 August 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827195243/http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/society/citizenship.html|archive-date=27 August 2010}}</ref> Since 1992, roughly 140,000 people have acquired Estonian citizenship by passing [[naturalisation]] exams.<ref>[http://www.postimees.ee/67387/eesti-andis-mullu-kodakondsuse-2124-inimesele/ Eesti andis mullu kodakondsuse 2124 inimesele], ''Postimees''. 9 January 2009</ref> Estonia has also accepted [[European migrant crisis#Relocation and resettlement of asylum seekers|quota refugees]] under the migrant plan agreed upon by EU member states in 2015.<ref>{{cite news |title=Refugees frustrated and trapped in chilly Baltic states |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40479224 |work=BBC News |date=4 July 2017}}</ref>

Ethnic distribution in Estonia is very homogeneous at a county level; in most counties, over 90% of residents are ethnic Estonians. In contrast, in the capital city Tallinn and the urban areas of Ida-Viru county (which neighbours Russia) ethnic Estonians account for around 60% of the population and the remainder is mostly composed of Russian and Ukrainian immigrants, who mostly arrived in Estonia during the period of Soviet occupation (1944–1991), however now also includes over 30,000 (ca 3% of total population) war refugees from Ukraine who have settled in Estonia in 2022.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}
[[File:Saare küla Piirissaar.JPG|thumb|A [[Russians in Estonia|Russian]] [[Old Believers|Old Believer]] village with a church on [[Piirissaar]] island]]
The 2008 [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] report called "extremely credible" the description of the [[Estonian nationality law|citizenship policy of Estonia]] as "discriminatory".<ref>[http://www.osce.org/odihr/34040?download=true Naturalisation in Estonia Statement by the Legal Information Centre for Human Rights (Tallinn, Estonia)] (''[...]the Special Rapporteur considers extremely credible the views of the representatives of the Russian-speaking minorities who expressed that the citizenship policy is discriminatory[...]'')</ref> According to surveys, only 5% of the Russian community have considered returning to Russia in the near future. Estonian Russians have developed their own identity – more than half of the respondents recognized that Estonian Russians differ noticeably from the Russians in Russia. When compared with results from a 2000 survey, Russians had a more positive attitude toward the future.<ref name="Societal survey">[http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/195/yhiskond.pdf Eesti ühiskond Society] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902020818/http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/195/yhiskond.pdf |date=2 September 2011}}. (2006, PDF in Estonian/English). Retrieved 23 December 2011.</ref>

Estonia was the first former Soviet republic to legalize civil unions for same-sex couples, with a law approved in October 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/estonia-passes-law-recognizing-gay-partnerships-1412857097 |title=Estonia Passes Law Recognizing Gay Partnerships |first=Liis |last=Kangsepp |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=9 October 2014 |access-date=4 January 2014}}</ref> Political disagreements delayed adoption of the necessary implementing legislation, and same-sex couples were not able to sign [[Recognition of same-sex unions in Estonia|cohabitation agreements]] until January 1, 2016.

===Urbanization===
{{Main list|List of cities and towns in Estonia}}
Tallinn is the capital and the largest city of Estonia, and lies on the northern coast of Estonia, along the [[Gulf of Finland]]. There are 33 cities and several town-parish towns in the country. In total, there are 47 ''linn''a, with "linn" in English meaning both "cities" and "towns". More than 70% of the population lives in towns.
{{Largest cities
| country = Estonia
| stat_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://andmed.stat.ee/et/stat/rahvastik__rahvastikunaitajad-ja-koosseis__rahvaarv-ja-rahvastiku-koosseis/RV0240/sortedtable/tableViewSorted|title=RV0240: RAHVASTIK SOO, VANUSE JA 2017. AASTA HALDUSREFORMI JÄRGSE ELUKOHA JÄRGI, 1. JAANUAR|website=PX-Web}}</ref>
| list_by_pop = Demographics of Estonia
| div_name =
| div_link = Counties of Estonia{{!}}County

| city_1 = Tallinn | div_1 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_1 = 438,341
| city_2 = Tartu | div_2 = Tartu County{{!}}Tartu | pop_2 = 95,430
| city_3 = Narva | div_3 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_3 = 53,424
| city_4 = Pärnu | div_4 = Pärnu County{{!}}Pärnu | pop_4 = 40,228
| city_5 = Kohtla-Järve | div_5 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_5 = 32,577
| city_6 = Viljandi | div_6 = Viljandi County{{!}}Viljandi | pop_6 = 16,875
| city_7 = Maardu | div_7 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_7 = 15,284
| city_8 = Rakvere | div_8 = Lääne-Viru County{{!}}Lääne-Viru | pop_8 = 14,984
| city_9 = Haapsalu | div_9 = Lääne County{{!}}Lääne | pop_9 = 12,883
| city_10 = Kuressaare | div_10 = Saare County{{!}}Saare | pop_10 = 12,698
| city_11 = Sillamäe | div_11 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_11 = 12,230
| city_12 = Valga, Estonia{{!}}Valga | div_12 = Valga County{{!}}Valga | pop_12 = 11,792
| city_13 = Võru | div_13 = Võru County{{!}}Võru | pop_13 = 11,533
| city_14 = Paide | div_14 = Järva County{{!}}Järva | pop_14 = 10,285
| city_15 = Jõhvi | div_15 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_15 = 10,130
| city_16 = Keila | div_16 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_16 = 10,078
| city_17 = Saue | div_17 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_17 = 5,831
| city_18 = Elva, Estonia{{!}}Elva | div_18 = Tartu County{{!}}Tartu | pop_18 = 5,616
| city_19 = Tapa, Estonia{{!}}Tapa | div_19 = Lääne-Viru County{{!}}Lääne-Viru | pop_19 = 5,168
| city_20 = Põlva | div_20 = Põlva County{{!}}Põlva | pop_20 = 5,115
}}

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Estonia}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in Estonia (2011)<ref name=stat2011>{{cite web|url= http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC0454&lang=1|title= PC0454: AT LEAST 15-YEAR-OLD PERSONS BY RELIGION, SEX, AGE GROUP, ETHNIC NATIONALITY AND COUNTY, 31 DECEMBER 2011|date= 31 December 2011|access-date= 9 January 2014|publisher= [[Statistics Estonia]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.stat.ee/65352?parent_id=39113|title= PHC 2011: over a quarter of the population are affiliated with a particular religion|date= 29 April 2013 |access-date= 9 January 2014|publisher= [[Statistics Estonia]]}}</ref>
|label1 = Unaffiliated
|value1 = 64.87
|color1 = WhiteSmoke
|label2 = [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|value2 = 19.87
|color2 = Orchid
|label3 = [[Lutheran]]
|value3 = 12.02
|color3 = RoyalBlue
|label4 = Other [[Christianity|Christian]]
|value4 = 1.20
|color4 = DodgerBlue
|label5 = [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] and other neoprotestant denominations
|value5 = 0.93
|color5 = DeepSkyBlue
|label6 = Other religions
|value6 = 1.10
|color6 = Black
}}
Estonia has a diverse religious history, but in recent years it has become increasingly secular, with either a [[Plurality (voting)|plurality]] or a [[majority]] of the population declaring themselves [[Irreligion|nonreligious]] in recent censuses, followed by those who identify as religiously "undeclared". The largest minority groups are the various [[Christian denomination]]s, principally Lutheran and Orthodox Christians, with very small numbers of adherents in non-Christian faiths, namely [[Judaism]], [[Islam]] and [[Buddhism]]. Other polls suggest the country is broadly split between Christians and the non-religious / religiously undeclared.

In ancient Estonia, prior to Christianization and according to [[Livonian Chronicle of Henry]], [[Tharapita]] was the predominant deity for the [[Oeselians]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol26/sutrop.pdf|title=Taarapita – the Great God of the Oeselians. Article by Urmas Sutrop}}</ref>

Estonia was Christianised by the [[Catholic]] [[Teutonic Knights]] in the 13th century. The [[Protestant Reformation]] led to the establishment of the Lutheran church in 1686. Before the [[Second World War]], Estonia was approximately 80% [[Protestant]], overwhelmingly [[Lutheran]],<ref name="IvkovićHaberfeld2015">{{cite book|last1= Ivković|first1= Sanja Kutnjak|last2= Haberfeld|first2= M.R.|title= Measuring Police Integrity Across the World: Studies from Established Democracies and Countries in Transition|date= 10 June 2015|publisher= Springer |language= en |isbn= 9781493922796|page= 131|quote= Estonia is considered Protestant when classified by its historically predominant major religion (Norris and Inglehart 2011) and thus some authors (e.g., Davie 2003) claim Estonia belongs to Western (Lutheran) Europe, while others (e.g., Norris and Inglehart 2011) see Estonia as a Protestant ex-Communist society.}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web|title=Is Estonia really the least religious country in the world? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/sep/16/estonia-least-religious-country-world
|last= Ringvee
|first= Ringo
|date= 16 September 2011
|work= The Guardian
|access-date= 14 October 2014
|quote= For this situation there are several reasons, starting from the distant past (the close connection of the churches with the Swedish or German ruling classes) up to the Soviet-period atheist policy when the chain of religious traditions was broken in most families. In Estonia, religion has never played an important role on the political or ideological battlefield. The institutional religious life was dominated by foreigners until the early 20th century. The tendencies that prevailed in the late 1930s for closer relations between the state and Lutheran church [...] ended with the Soviet occupation in 1940.
}}
</ref><ref name=MarshallCavendish2010>{{cite book|title=World and Its Peoples: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland|year=2010|publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]]|isbn=9780761478966|page=1066|first1=Triin |last1=Edovald |first2=Michelle |last2=Felton |first3=John |last3=Haywood |first4=Rimvydas |last4=Juskaitis |author5=Michael Thomas Kerrigan |first6=Simon |last6=Lund-Lack |first7=Nicholas |last7=Middleton |first8=Josef |last8=Miskovsky |first9=Ihar |last9=Piatrowicz |first10=Lisa |last10=Pickering |first11=Dace |last11=Praulins |first12=John |last12=Swift |first13=Vytautas |last13=Uselis |first14=Ilivi |last14=Zajedova |quote=It is usually said that Estonia is a Protestant country; however, the overwhelming majority of Estonians, some 72 percent, are nonreligious. Estonia is the European Union (EU) country with the greatest percentage of people with no religious belief. This is in part, the result of Soviet actions and repression of religion. When the Soviet Union annexed Estonia in 1940, church property was confiscated, many theologians were deported to Siberia, most of the leadership of Evangelical Lutheran Church went into exile, and religious instruction was banned. Many churches were destroyed in the German occupation of Estonia, from 1941 through 1944, and in World War II (1939–1945), and religion was actively persecuted in Estonia under Soviet rule 1944 until 1989, when some measure of tolerance was introduced.}}</ref> followed by [[Calvinism]] and other Protestant branches. Many Estonians profess not to be particularly religious because religion through the 19th century was associated with German feudal rule.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.country-studies.com/estonia/religion.html |title=Estonia – Religion |publisher=Country Studies |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> There has historically been a small but noticeable minority of [[Old Believers|Russian Old-believers]] near the [[Lake Peipus]] area in [[Tartu County|Tartu county]].

Today, Estonia's constitution guarantees freedom of religion, separation of church and state, and individual rights to privacy of belief and religion.<ref>[[Constitution of Estonia#Chapter 2: Fundamental Rights, Liberties, and Duties]] Article 40.–42.</ref> According to the Dentsu Communication Institute Inc, Estonia is one of the [[Irreligion by country|least religious]] countries in the world, with 75.7% of the population claiming to be [[irreligion|irreligious]]. The [[Eurobarometer]] Poll 2005 found that only 16% of Estonians profess a belief in a god, the lowest belief of all countries studied.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf |title=Social Values|access-date=5 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524004644/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf |archive-date=24 May 2006 }}</ref> A 2009 [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] poll found similar results, with only 16% of Estonians describing religion as "important" in their daily lives, making Estonia the most irreligious of the nations surveyed.<ref name=gallup-religiosity-poor-nations>{{cite web|last1=Crabtree|first1=Steve|title=Religiosity Highest in World's Poorest Nations|date=31 August 2010 |url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/142727/religiosity-highest-world-poorest-nations.aspx|publisher=Gallup|access-date=27 May 2015}} (in which numbers have been rounded)</ref>
[[File:Ruhnu puukirik.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Ruhnu]] stave church, built in 1644, is the oldest surviving wooden building in Estonia]]
New polls about religiosity in the [[European Union]] in 2012 by [[Eurobarometer]] found that Christianity is the largest religion in Estonia accounting for 45% of [[Estonians]].<ref name=EUROBAROMETER>{{citation|title=Discrimination in the EU in 2012 |work=[[Eurobarometer|Special Eurobarometer]] |year=2012 |series=383 |page=233 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_393_en.pdf |access-date=14 August 2013 |publisher=[[European Commission]] |location=European Union |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202023700/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_393_en.pdf |archive-date=2 December 2012 }} The question asked was "Do you consider yourself to be...?" With a card showing: Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, Other Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu, Atheist, and Non-believer/Agnostic. Space was given for Other (SPONTANEOUS) and DK. Jewish, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu did not reach the 1% threshold.</ref> [[Eastern Orthodox]] are the largest Christian group in Estonia, accounting for 17% of Estonia citizens,<ref name="EUROBAROMETER"/> while [[Protestant]]s make up 6%, and Other Christian make up 22%. [[Agnostic|Non believer/Agnostic]] account 22%, [[Atheist]] accounts for 15%, and undeclared accounts for 15%.<ref name="EUROBAROMETER"/>

The most recent [[Pew Research Center]], found that in 2015, 51% of the population of Estonia declared itself Christian, 45% [[Irreligion|religiously unaffiliated]]—a category which includes [[atheists]], agnostics and those who describe their religion as "[[Nothing in Particular|nothing in particular]]", while 2% belonged to other faiths.<ref name="Religious Belief in Central and Eastern Europe">{{cite web |url=http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2017/05/10104119/CEUP-FULL-REPORT.pdf |title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe |date=10 May 2017 |access-date=12 May 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513130508/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2017/05/10104119/CEUP-FULL-REPORT.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2017 }}</ref> The Christians divided between 25% Eastern Orthodox, 20% Lutherans, 5% other Christians and 1% Catholic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-belief-and-national-belonging-in-central-and-eastern-europe/ |title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe | Pew Research Center |date=10 May 2017 |publisher=Pewforum.org |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> While the [[Irreligion|religiously unaffiliated]] divided between 9% as atheists, 1% as agnostics and 35% as [[Nothing in Particular]].<ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-affiliation/ Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe: 1. Religious affiliation]; [[Pew Research Center]], 10 May 2017</ref>

Traditionally, the largest religious denomination in the country was [[Lutheranism]], which was adhered to by 160,000 Estonians (or 13% of the population) according to the 2000 census, principally ethnic Estonians. According to the Lutheran World Federation, the historic Lutheran denomination has 180,000 registered members.<ref>{{cite web|title=Churches in Estonia|url=https://www.lutheranworld.org/country/estonia|publisher=lutheranworld.org|access-date=16 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305170631/https://www.lutheranworld.org/country/estonia|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Other organisations, such as the World Council of Churches, report that there are as many as 265,700 Estonian Lutherans.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church|url=http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/estonian-evangelical-lutheran-church|publisher=oikoumene.org|access-date=22 September 2015}}</ref> Additionally, there are between 8,000 and 9,000 members abroad.
However, the 2011 census indicated that [[Eastern Orthodox]]y had surpassed Lutheranism, accounting for 16.5% of the population (176,773 people).

Eastern Orthodoxy is practised chiefly by the Russian minority. The [[Estonian Orthodox Church of Moscow Patriarchate|Estonian Orthodox Church]], affiliated with the Russian Orthodox Church, is the primary Orthodox denomination. The [[Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church]], under the Greek-Orthodox [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], claims another 20,000 members.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}

Catholics are a small minority in Estonia. They are organised under the Latin [[Apostolic Administration of Estonia]] and two Greek Catholic parishes.

According to the census of 2000 (data in table to the right), there were about 1,000 adherents of the [[Taaraism|Taara faith]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maavald.ee/eng/uudised.html?rubriik=50&id=363&op=lugu |title=Maavald |publisher=Maavald.ee |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.estinst.ee/publications/estonianculture/II_MMIII/kaasik.html |title=Old Estonian Religions |first=Ahto |last=Kaasik |publisher=Einst.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811050822/http://www.estinst.ee/publications/estonianculture/II_MMIII/kaasik.html |archive-date=11 August 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/09/world/europe/09iht-estonia.4.18535971.html |title=Some Estonians return to pre-Christian animist traditions |newspaper=The New York Times |first=Ellen |last=Barry |date=9 November 2008 |access-date=2 May 2010}}</ref> or [[Maausk]] in Estonia (see [[Maavalla Koda]]). The Jewish community has an estimated population of about 1,900 (see [[History of the Jews in Estonia]]), and the Muslim community numbers just over 1,400. Around 68,000 people consider themselves [[atheists]].<ref name="pub.stat.ee">{{cite web |url= http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/I_Databas/Population_census/PHC2000/16Religious_affiliation/16Religious_affiliation.asp |title=Statistical database: Population Census 2000 – Religious affiliation |publisher=Statistics Estonia |date=22 October 2002 |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref>

===Languages===
{{main|Languages of Estonia}}

[[File:Finnic languages 2.png|thumb|left|Distribution of [[Finnic languages]] in [[Northern Europe]]]]

The official language, [[Estonian language|Estonian]] is a [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] language, and is conventionally classified as a member of the [[Uralic languages|Uralic language family]]. Estonian is closely related to Finnish and one of the few languages of Europe that is not of [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] origin. Unlike Estonian and Finnish, the languages of their nearest geographical neighbouring countries, [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], and Russian, are all Indo-European languages.

Although the Estonian and [[Germanic language]]s are of different origins, one can identify many similar words in Estonian and German. This is primarily because the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one-third of its vocabulary from [[Germanic languages]], mainly from Low Saxon ([[Middle Low German]]) during the period of [[History of Estonia#Estonian Crusade: The Middle Ages|German rule]], and [[High German]] (including [[standard German]]). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22–25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent.

[[South Estonian]] languages are spoken by 100,000 people and include the dialects of [[Võro language|Võro]] and [[Seto language|Seto]]. The languages are spoken in South-Eastern Estonia, are [[Genetic relationship (linguistics)|genealogically]] distinct from northern Estonian: but are traditionally and officially considered as [[dialect]]s and "regional forms of the Estonian language", not separate language(s).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Laakso|first1=Johanna|last2=Sarhimaa|first2=Anneli|last3=Spiliopoulou Åkermark|first3=Sia|last4=Toivanen|first4=Reeta|title=Towards Openly Multilingual Policies and Practices: Assessing Minority Language Maintenance Across Europe|date=3 March 2016|publisher=Multilingual Matters|location=Bristol; Buffalo|isbn=9781783094950|edition=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xQKkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT76|access-date=23 December 2016}}</ref>

Russian is the most spoken minority language in the country. There are towns in Estonia with large concentrations of Russian speakers and there are towns where Estonian speakers are in the minority (especially in the northeast, e.g. [[Narva]]). Russian is spoken as a secondary language by forty- to seventy-year-old ethnic Estonians, because Russian was the unofficial language of the [[Estonian SSR]] from 1944 to 1990 and was taught as a compulsory second language during the Soviet era. In the period between 1990 and 1995, the Russian language was granted an official special status according to Estonian language laws.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/30669 |title=Eesti NSV Keeleseadus|publisher=Riigi Teataja |date=7 January 1990 |access-date=20 August 2021}}</ref> In 1995 it lost its official status. In 1998, most first- and second-generation industrial immigrants from the former Soviet Union (mainly the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]]) did not speak Estonian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ies.ee/15102000.htm |title=Kirch, Aksel. "Russians in contemporary Estonia – different strategies of the integration in to the nation-state." |publisher=Ies.ee |date=10 February 1998 |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> However, by 2010, 64.1% of non-ethnic Estonians spoke Estonian.<ref>[http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/dialog/varval.asp?ma=ML133&ti=POPULATION+AGED+15%2D74+BY+ETHNIC+NATIONALITY+AND+KNOWLEDGE+OF+LANGUAGES&path=../I_databas/Social_life/09Labour_market/02Education/02Educational_level/&search=LANGUAGE&lang=1 Table ML133, Eesti Statistika]. Retrieved 30 April 2011</ref> The latter, mostly Russian-speaking ethnic minorities, reside predominantly in the capital city of Tallinn and the industrial urban areas in [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru county]].

From the 13th to the 20th century, there were Swedish-speaking communities in Estonia, particularly in the coastal areas and on the islands (e.g., [[Hiiumaa]], [[Vormsi]], [[Ruhnu]]; in Swedish, known as Dagö, Ormsö, Runö, respectively) along the Baltic sea, communities which today have almost disappeared.
From 1918 to 1940, when Estonia was independent, the small Swedish community was well treated. Municipalities with a Swedish majority, mainly found along the coast, used Swedish as the administrative language and Swedish-Estonian culture saw an upswing. However, most Swedish-speaking people fled to Sweden before the end of World War II, before the invasion of Estonia by the Soviet army in 1944. Only a handful of older speakers remain.
Apart from many other areas the influence of Swedish is distinct in the [[Noarootsi Parish]] of [[Lääne county]] where there are many villages with bilingual Estonian or Swedish names and street signs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eki.ee/knn/p2y.htm |title=Names of populated places changed with the reform of 1997 |publisher=Institute of the Estonian Language |date=29 September 1998 |access-date=12 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.noavv.ee/swe |title=Information about the bilingual Estonian/Swedish parish of Noarootsi |publisher=Noavv.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120904104245/http://www.noavv.ee/swe |archive-date=4 September 2012 }}</ref>

The most common foreign languages learned by Estonian students are English, Russian, German, and French. Other popular languages include Finnish, Spanish, and Swedish.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estonian Foreign Languages Strategy 2009 – 2015|url=http://contactpoints.ecml.at/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=8lWNTiRd1A4%3D&tabid=1319&language=en-GB|publisher=Ministry of Education and Research|access-date=22 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191208/http://contactpoints.ecml.at/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=8lWNTiRd1A4%3D&tabid=1319&language=en-GB|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Lotfitka Romani is spoken by the Roma minority in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eestiromad.ee/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Anette-Ross-Estonian-Lotfitka-Romani.pdf|title=ESTONIAN LOTFITKA ROMANI}}</ref>

===Education and science===
[[File:Tartu Ülikooli peahoone 2012.jpg|thumb|alt=gray stucco building three-story building with grey slate hip roof, central portico and pediment|The [[University of Tartu]] is one of the oldest universities in Northern Europe and the highest-ranked university in Estonia. According to the Top Universities website, the University of Tartu ranks 285th in the QS Global World Ranking.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/university-tartu|title=University of Tartu|website=www.topuniversities.com}}</ref>]]
{{Main|Education in Estonia}}
{{See also|List of universities in Estonia|Space science in Estonia|Tiigrihüpe}}

The history of formal education in Estonia dates back to the 13th and 14th centuries when the first [[monastic]] and [[cathedral schools]] were founded.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fl.ut.ee/368372 |title=Ajaloost: Koolihariduse algusest |publisher=University of Tartu |date=24 March 2010 |language=et |access-date=14 October 2013}}</ref> The first primer in the Estonian language was published in 1575. The oldest university is the [[University of Tartu]], established by the Swedish King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustav II Adolf]] in 1632. In 1919, university courses were first taught in the Estonian language.

Today's education in Estonia is divided into general, vocational, and hobby. The education system is based on four levels: pre-school, basic, secondary, and higher education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hm.ee/index.php |title=Haridus- ja Teadusministeerium |publisher=Hm.ee |access-date=23 December 2010}}</ref> A wide network of schools and supporting educational institutions have been established. The Estonian education system consists of state, municipal, public, and private institutions. There are currently 589 schools in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ekk.edu.ee/ehis/failid/koolide_kontaktid.xls |title=Koolide, huvikoolide, koolieelsete lasteasutuste kontaktandmed |access-date=17 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617071702/http://www.ekk.edu.ee/ehis/failid/koolide_kontaktid.xls |archive-date=17 June 2009}}. Estonian Education Infosystem, (in Estonian)</ref>

Estonia started connecting all its schools to the internet very early. [[Tiigrihüpe]] (Estonian for Tiger Leap) was a project undertaken by the state to heavily invest in the development and expansion of computer and network infrastructure in Estonia, with a particular emphasis on education.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3ct1x41|title=BBC World Service – Witness History, Estonia's internet 'Tiger Leap'|website=BBC}}</ref>

In the 2018 [[Programme for International Student Assessment|Program for International Student Assessment (PISA)]] report, Estonia's students rank 1st in Europe. In the world, Estonia's students rank 5th in reading, 8th in mathematics and 4th in sciences.<ref name="LoC">{{Cite web|url=https://www.educationestonia.org/pisa-2018-estonian-students-rank-1st-in-europe/|title=PISA 2018: Estonian students rank 1st in Europe|date=28 May 2020 |website=Education Estonia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/PISA%202018%20Insights%20and%20Interpretations%20FINAL%20PDF.pdf|title=PISA 2018: Insights and Interpretations}}</ref> Additionally, around 89% of Estonian adults aged 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, one of the highest rates in the industrialised world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/estonia/.|title=OECD Better Life Index|access-date=27 March 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Building of Estonian Students' Society.jpg|thumb|left|House of the [[Estonian Students' Society]], built in 1901–1902 in Tartu, and considered the first example of the Estonian [[architectural style|style]] of urban architecture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://register.muinas.ee/|title=National Registry of Cultural Monuments 7010 Eesti Üliõpilaste Seltsi hoone Tartus, J.Tõnissoni 1, 1901.a.|access-date=18 November 2022}}</ref>]]

Academic higher education in Estonia is divided into three levels: bachelor's, master's, and doctoral studies. In some specialties (basic medical studies, veterinary, pharmacy, dentistry, architect-engineer, and a classroom teacher programme) the bachelor's and master's levels are integrated into one unit.<ref name="EurydiceSummary">{{cite web|url=https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Estonia:Higher_Education|title=National summary sheets on education systems in Europe and ongoing reforms: Estonia|date=February 2009|publisher=[[Eurydice]]|access-date=19 September 2009|archive-date=16 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316213225/https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Estonia:Higher_Education|url-status=dead}}</ref> Estonian public universities have significantly more autonomy than applied higher education institutions. In addition to organising the academic life of the university, universities can create new curricula, establish admission terms and conditions, approve the budget, approve the development plan, elect the rector, and make restricted decisions in matters concerning assets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/en/national_reports/index.htm |title=Implementation of Bologna Declaration in Estonia |publisher=Bologna-berlin2003.de |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709041912/http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/en/national_reports/index.htm |archive-date= 9 July 2009 }}</ref> Estonia has a moderate number of public and private universities. The largest public universities are the [[University of Tartu]], [[Tallinn University of Technology]], [[Tallinn University]], [[Estonian University of Life Sciences]], [[Estonian Academy of Arts]]; the largest private university is [[Estonian Business School]].

[[File:ESTCube orbiidil 2.jpg|thumb|alt=ESTCube-1 micro satellite orbiting globe and beaming light to Estonia|[[ESTCube-1]] is the first Estonian satellite.]]
The [[Estonian Academy of Sciences]] is the [[national academy]] of science. The strongest public non-profit research institute that carries out fundamental and applied research is the [[National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics]] (NICPB; Estonian KBFI). The first computer centres were established in the late 1950s in Tartu and Tallinn. Estonian specialists contributed in the development of software engineering standards for ministries of the Soviet Union during the 1980s.<ref name=Kalja>{{cite book|editor-first=Detlef|editor-last=Kochan|title=Software for manufacturing: proceedings of the 7th International IFIP/IFAC Conference on Software for Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Dresden, German Democratic Republic, 14–17 June 1988 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5EiaAAAAIAAJ|year=1989|publisher=North-Holland|isbn=978-0-444-87342-2|author1=A. Kalja |author2=J. Pruuden |author3=B. Tamm |author4=E. Tyugu |chapter=Two Families of Knowledge Based CAD Environments|pages=125–134}}</ref><ref name=Jaakkola>
{{cite journal|author1=H. Jaakkola |author2=A. Kalja |title=Estonian Information Technology Policy in Government, Industry and Research|journal=Technology Management: Strategies and Applications|volume= 3|issue= 3|year= 1997|pages= 299–307}}</ref> {{As of|2015}}, Estonia spends around 1.5% of its GDP on [[Research and Development]], compared to an EU average of around 2.0%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Research and development expenditure (% of GDP)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?end=2015&locations=EE&name_desc=false&start=1998&view=chart|year=2015|publisher=World Bank|access-date=19 January 2019}}</ref> Estonia was ranked 18th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=www.wipo.int |language=en}}</ref>

Some of the best-known scientists related to Estonia include astronomers [[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]], [[Ernst Öpik]] and [[Jaan Einasto]], biologist [[Karl Ernst von Baer]], [[Jakob von Uexküll]], chemists [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] and [[Carl Schmidt (chemist)|Carl Schmidt]], economist [[Ragnar Nurkse]], mathematician [[Edgar Krahn]], medical researchers [[Ludvig Puusepp]] and [[Nikolay Pirogov]], physicist [[Thomas Johann Seebeck]], political scientist [[Rein Taagepera]], psychologist [[Endel Tulving]] and [[Risto Näätänen]], semiotician [[Juri Lotman]].

According to ''New Scientist'', Estonia will be the first nation to provide personal genetic information service sponsored by the state. They aim to minimise and prevent future ailments for those whose genes make them extra prone to conditions like adult-onset diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The government plans to provide lifestyle advice based on the DNA for 100,000 of its 1.3 million citizens.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2165318-estonia-to-give-genetic-testing-and-advice-to-100000-residents/|title=Estonia to give genetic testing and advice to 100,000 residents|work=New Scientist|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Estonia}}
{{See also|List of Estonians}}
[[File:Eesti Rahva Muuseumi peahoone 13.jpg|thumb|The [[Estonian National Museum]] in Tartu.]]
The [[culture of Estonia]] incorporates indigenous heritage, as represented by the Estonian language and the [[sauna]], with mainstream [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] and European cultural aspects. Because of its history and geography, Estonia's culture has been influenced by the traditions of the adjacent area's various Finnic, Baltic, Slavic and Germanic peoples as well as the cultural developments in the former dominant powers Germany, Sweden and Russia, for this reason it aspires more to be [[Nordic identity in Estonia|considered a Nordic state]].<ref>[https://vm.ee/et/node/42622 Estonia as a Nordic Country] – Välisministeerium</ref><ref>[https://icds.ee/en/nordic-ideals-of-estonia-and-finland-a-longing-for-a-strong-leader-sets-finland-and-estonia-apart-from-scandinavia/ Nordic ideals of Estonia and Finland: a longing for a strong leader sets Finland and Estonia apart from Scandinavia] – ICDS</ref>

Today, Estonian society encourages liberty and liberalism, with a popular commitment to the ideals of the limited government, discouraging centralised power and corruption. The [[Protestant work ethic]] remains a significant cultural staple, and free education is a highly prized institution. As the mainstream culture in the Nordic countries, Estonian culture can be seen to build upon the ascetic environmental realities and traditional livelihoods, a heritage of comparatively widespread [[egalitarianism]] out of practical reasons (see: [[Everyman's right]] and [[universal suffrage]]), and the ideals of closeness to nature and [[self-sufficiency]] (see: [[summer cottage]]).

The [[Estonian Academy of Arts]] (Estonian: ''Eesti Kunstiakadeemia'', EKA) is providing higher education in art, design, architecture, media, art history and conservation while the [[University of Tartu Viljandi Culture Academy]] has an approach to popularise native culture through such curricula as native construction, native blacksmithing, native textile design, traditional handicraft and traditional music, but also jazz and church music. In 2010, there were 245 museums in Estonia whose combined collections contain more than 10 million objects.<ref>[http://www.postimees.ee/616164/eesti-245-muuseumis-sailitatakse-10-miljonit-museaali/ Eesti 245 muuseumis säilitatakse 10 miljonit museaali]. ''Postimees'', 30 October 2011. (in Estonian)</ref>

===Music===
{{Main|Music of Estonia}}
{{See also|Estonian national awakening|Estonian Song Festival|Estonia in the Eurovision Song Contest}}
[[File:Tallinna laululava ansambel, 1960.a.*.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Estonian Song Festival]] is [[UNESCO]]'s [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity|Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]].]]

The earliest mention of Estonian singing dates back to [[Saxo Grammaticus]] ''Gesta Danorum'' (ca. 1179).<ref>{{cite book|author1=Sir George Grove|first2=Stanley|last2=Sadie|title=The New Grove dictionary of music and musicians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I4YAAAAIAAJ|date=June 1980|publisher=Macmillan Publishers|isbn=978-0-333-23111-1|page=358}}</ref> Saxo speaks of Estonian warriors who sang at night while waiting for a battle. The older [[Folk music|folk songs]] are also referred to as ''regilaulud'', songs in the traditional ''regivärss'' [[Metre (poetry)|poetic metre]] shared by all [[Baltic Finns]]. Runic singing was widespread among Estonians until the 18th century, when rhythmic folk songs began to replace them.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Jan |last2=Lehiste |first2=Ilse |title=The Temporal Structure of Estonian Runic Songs |date=2002 |publisher=DeGruyter Mouton |location=Berlin |isbn=9783110170320 |page=9 |doi=10.1515/9783110885996 |edition=Reprint 2015 |url=https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110885996 |access-date=9 May 2022}}</ref>

Traditional wind instruments derived from those used by [[shepherd]]s were once widespread, and are now becoming more commonly played once more. Other instruments, including the [[fiddle]], [[zither]], [[concertina]], and [[accordion]] are used to play [[polka]] or other dance music. The [[kannel (instrument)|kannel]] is a native instrument that is again becoming more popular in Estonia. A Native Music Preserving Centre was opened in 2008 in [[Viljandi]].<ref>Margus Haav [http://wwx.postimees.ee/270308/esileht/kultuur/319974.php Pärimusmuusika ait lööb uksed valla (Estonian Native Music Preserving Centre is opened)] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120912151814/http://wwx.postimees.ee/270308/esileht/kultuur/319974.php |date=12 September 2012}}. Postimees. 27 March 2008 (in Estonian)</ref>
[[File:Arvo Pärt.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Arvo Pärt bearded balding man facing left|[[Arvo Pärt]] was the world's most performed living composer from 2010 to 2018.]]

The tradition of [[Estonian Song Festival]]s (''Laulupidu'') started at the height of the [[Estonian national awakening]] in 1869. Today, it is one of the largest amateur [[choral]] events in the world. In 2004, about 100,000 people participated in the Song Festival. Since 1928, [[the Tallinn Song Festival Grounds]] (''Lauluväljak'') have hosted the event every five years in July. The last festival took place in July 2019. In addition, Youth Song Festivals are also held every four or five years, the latest taking place in 2017.<ref>[http://sa.laulupidu.ee/en/ The 12th Estonian youth song and dance celebration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706073054/http://sa.laulupidu.ee/en/ |date=6 July 2017}}. Estonian Song and Dance Celebration Foundation</ref>

Professional Estonian musicians and composers such as [[Aleksander Eduard Thomson]], [[Rudolf Tobias]], [[Miina Härma]], [[Mart Saar]], [[Artur Kapp]], [[Juhan Aavik]], [[Aleksander Kunileid]], [[Artur Lemba]] and [[Heino Eller]] emerged in the late 19th century. Currently, the most well-known Estonian composers are [[Arvo Pärt]], [[Eduard Tubin]], and [[Veljo Tormis]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Popular awareness in Estonian music |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Music/Popular_awareness_in_Estonian_music/ |website=Estonica.org |access-date=15 October 2022}}</ref> In 2014, Arvo Pärt was the world's most performed living composer for the fourth year in a row.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bachtrack.com/top-ten-statistics-classical-music-2014 |title=2014 Classical music statistics: Lis(z)tmania |publisher=Bachtrack.com |date=8 January 2015 |access-date=31 March 2016}}</ref>

In the 1950s, Estonian [[baritone]] [[Georg Ots]] rose to worldwide prominence as an opera singer.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mus-col.com/en/the-authors/22453/ |title=Ots, Georg |website=Museum Collection |date=2021 |access-date=17 November 2021}}</ref>

In popular music, Estonian artist [[Kerli Kõiv]] has become popular in Europe, also gaining in popularity in North America. She provided music for the 2010 [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] film ''[[Alice in Wonderland (2010 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'' and the television series ''[[Smallville]]'' in the United States of America.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

Estonia won the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] in 2001 with the song "[[Everybody (Eurovision song)|Everybody]]" performed by [[Tanel Padar]] and [[Dave Benton]]. In 2002, Estonia hosted the event. [[Maarja-Liis Ilus]] competed for Estonia in 1996 and 1997, while [[Eda-Ines Etti]], [[Koit Toome]] and [[Evelin Samuel]] partly owe their popularity to the song contest. [[Lenna Kuurmaa]] gained recognition in Europe performing with her band [[Vanilla Ninja]]. "[[Rändajad]]" by [[Urban Symphony]] was the first song in Estonian to chart in the UK, Belgium and Switzerland.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

===Literature===
{{Main|Literature of Estonia}}
{{See also|Estophile}}
[[File:Jaan Kross in 2004.jpg|thumb|[[Jaan Kross]] is the most translated Estonian writer.]]
[[Estonian literature]] refers to literature written in the [[Estonian language]] (ca. 1 million speakers).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/193608/Estonian-literature|title=Estonian literature|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=27 March 2015}}</ref> The domination of Estonia after the [[Northern Crusades]], from the 13th century to 1918 by Germany, Sweden, and Russia, resulted in few early literary works being written in the Estonian language. The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century. ''Originates Livoniae'' in the [[Chronicle of Henry of Livonia]] contains Estonian place names, words and sentence fragments. The ''[[Liber Census Daniae]]'' (1241) contains Estonian place and family names.<ref name="DWE">{{cite book|first=George|last=Kurman|title=The development of written Estonian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmxkAAAAMAAJ|year=1968|publisher=Indiana University|isbn=9780877500360 }}</ref> Many folk tales are told to this day and some have been written down and translated to make them accessible to an international readership.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tiidu the Piper|date=2014|publisher=Collegium Basilea|location=Basel|isbn=9781500941437}}</ref> ''[[ABD ehk Luggemise-Ramat Lastele]]'', an Estonian-language [[alphabet book]] by [[Otto Wilhelm Masing]], was published in 1795.<ref>[https://elk.ee/en/childrens-literature/ajalugu/ History] – [[Estonian Children's Literature Centre]]</ref><ref>[https://www.vabaeestisona.com/spotted-mother-tongue/ Spotted Mother Tongue] – ''[[Vaba Eesti Sõna]]''</ref>

The cultural stratum of Estonian was originally characterised by a largely lyrical form of folk poetry based on syllabic quantity. Apart from a few, albeit remarkable, exceptions, this archaic form has not been widely employed in later times. One of the most outstanding achievements in the field is the national epic ''[[Kalevipoeg]]''. At a professional level, the traditional folk song reached its new heyday during the last quarter of the 20th century, primarily thanks to the work of composer [[Veljo Tormis]].

[[Oskar Luts]] was the most prominent prose writer of early Estonian literature and is still widely read today, particularly his lyrical school novel ''Kevade'' (Spring).<ref>[http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Literature/Seeking_the_contours_of_a_%E2%80%98truly%E2%80%99_Estonian_literature/ Seeking the contours of a 'truly' Estonian literature] Estonica.org</ref> [[A. H. Tammsaare]]'s social epic and psychological realist [[pentalogy]], ''[[Truth and Justice]]'', captured the evolution of Estonian society from a poor farmer community to an independent nation.<ref>[http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Literature/Literature_and_an_independent_Estonia/ Literature and an independent Estonia ] Estonica.org</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/tammsaar.htm |title=Anton Tammsaare |website=Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi) |first=Petri |last=Liukkonen |publisher=[[Kuusankoski]] Public Library |location=Finland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071005054341/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/tammsaar.htm |archive-date= 5 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In modern times, [[Jaan Kross]] and [[Jaan Kaplinski]] are Estonia's best-known and most-translated writers.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?as_q=&btnG=Google+Search&&as_auth=Jaan+Kross Jaan Kross] at google.books</ref> Among the most popular writers of the late 20th and early 21st centuries are [[Tõnu Õnnepalu]] and [[Andrus Kivirähk]], who uses elements of Estonian folklore and mythology, deforming them into the absurd and [[grotesque]].<ref>[http://www.estlit.ee/?id=11665&author=10876&tpl=1063&c_tpl=1071 Andrus Kivirähk. The Old Barny (novel)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504012509/http://www.estlit.ee/?id=11665&author=10876&tpl=1063&c_tpl=1071 |date=4 May 2011}} Estonian Literature Centre</ref>

===Media===
{{See also|List of Estonian films|List of Estonian war films}}

The [[cinema of Estonia]] started in 1908 with the production of a newsreel about Swedish King [[Gustav V of Sweden|Gustav V]]'s visit to Tallinn.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.estinst.ee/publications/kultuur/cinema.html |title=Cinema of Estonia |publisher=Einst.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807061344/http://www.estinst.ee/publications/kultuur/cinema.html |archive-date=7 August 2011 }}</ref> The first public TV broadcast in Estonia was in July 1955. Regular, live radio broadcasts began in December 1926. Deregulation in the field of electronic media has brought radical changes compared to the beginning of the 1990s. The first licences for private TV broadcasters were issued in 1992. The first private radio station went on the air in 1990.

The most internationally known Estonian films include ''[[Those Old Love Letters]]'', ''[[The Heart of the Bear]]'', ''[[Names in Marble (film)|Names in Marble]]'', ''[[The Singing Revolution]]'', ''[[Autumn Ball]]'', ''[[1944 (film)|1944]]'', and ''[[The Fencer]]''. Internationally known Estonian film actors include [[Lembit Ulfsak]], [[Jaan Tätte]], and [[Elmo Nüganen]], who also known as a film director. 

Estonian media sector has a large number of weekly newspapers and magazines, and Estonians have a choice of 9 domestic TV channels and a host of radio stations. Estonia has been internationally recognised for its high rate of press freedom, having been ranked 3rd in the 2012 [[Press Freedom Index]] by [[Reporters Without Borders]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2011-2012,1043.html |title=Press Freedom Index 2011–2012 – Reporters Without Borders |access-date=27 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230901/http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2011-2012%2C1043.html |archive-date= 3 March 2016 }}</ref>

Estonia has two news agencies. The [[Baltic News Service]] (BNS), founded in 1990, is a private regional news agency covering Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The ETV24 is an agency owned by ''[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]]'' which is a publicly funded radio and television organisation created on 30 June 2007 to take over the functions of the formerly separate [[Eesti Raadio]] and [[Eesti Televisioon]] under the terms of the Estonian National Broadcasting Act.<ref>{{cite book|title=Europe on a Shoestring|last=Johnstone|first=Sarah|year=2007|publisher=Lonely Planet|page=325|isbn=978-1-74104-591-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_xvS1r8Ql0AC&pg=PA325}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Campaigning in Europe|last=Maier|first=Michaela|year=2006|publisher=LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-9322-4|page=398|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j9NjsybIcgoC&pg=PA398}}</ref>

===Architecture===
{{Main|Architecture of Estonia}}
[[File:Musée de plein air (Tallinn) (7644656256).jpg|thumb|right|A traditional farmhouse built in the [[Estonian vernacular architecture|Estonian vernacular style]]]]
The architectural history of Estonia mainly reflects its contemporary development in northern Europe. Worth mentioning is especially the architectural ensemble that makes out the medieval old town of Tallinn, which is on the UNESCO World Heritage List.<ref>{{cite web |title=Historic Centre (Old Town) of Tallinn |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/822/ |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref> In addition, the country has several unique, more or less preserved [[hill fort]]s dating from pre-Christian times,<ref>{{cite web |title=Pada hill forts |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/pada-hill-forts |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Varbola hill fort |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/varbola-hill-fort |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref> a large number of still intact medieval castles and churches,<ref>{{cite web |title=10 Historic Estonian Castles |url=https://www.heritagedaily.com/2017/11/10-estonian-castles/115487 |website=HeritageDaily.com |access-date=12 September 2022 |date=25 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Castles & manors |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/history-culture/castles-manors |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Churches |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/history-culture/churches |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> while the countryside is still shaped by the presence of a vast number of wooden manor houses from earlier centuries.

===Holidays===
{{main|Public holidays in Estonia}}
The Estonian [[National Day]] is the [[Independence Day (Estonia)|Independence Day]] celebrated on 24 February, the day the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] was issued. {{As of|2013}}, there are 12 public holidays (which come with a day off) and 12 national holidays celebrated annually.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pühade ja tähtpäevade seadus|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/13276841|publisher=Riigi Teataja|access-date=19 December 2010|language=et|quote=In effect since 26 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Estonian Holidays in 2010 |url=http://www.vm.ee/en/node/5753 |publisher=Estonian Foreign Ministry |access-date=19 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106162819/http://www.vm.ee/en/node/5753 |archive-date= 6 January 2011 }}</ref>
{{Holidays of Estonia}}

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Estonian cuisine}}
{{See also|Kama (food)|Kalev (confectioner)|Kohuke|Verivorst}}
Historically, the cuisine of Estonia has been dependent on seasons and the simple food from the local farms and the sea. Today, it also includes many "global" foods. The most typical foods in modern Estonia are black bread, pork, potatoes, and dairy products.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eestitoit.ee/pages.php/010201,8 |title=Estonian Food Inforserver |access-date=24 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217022649/http://www.eestitoit.ee/pages.php/010201%2C8 |archive-date=17 December 2007 }} (in Estonian)</ref> Traditionally in summer and spring, Estonians like to eat everything fresh – berries, herbs, vegetables, and everything else that comes straight from the garden. Hunting and fishing have also been very common, although currently hunting and fishing are enjoyed mostly as hobbies. Today, it is also very popular to grill outside in summer.

A cardamom-spiced bread roll with almond paste ''[[Semla|vastlakukkel]]'' is a traditional Estonian [[sweet roll]], especially popular from Christmas to Easter.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rosa |first1=Natalia |title=A first timer's guide to wholesome and delicious Estonian Food |url=https://www.trafalgar.com/real-word/first-timers-guide-estonian-food/ |website=Trafalgar.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |date=27 February 2020}}</ref>

Traditionally in winter, jams, preserves, and pickles are brought to the table. Gathering and preserving fruits, mushrooms, and vegetables for winter has always been popular, but today gathering and preserving is becoming less common because everything can be bought from stores. However, preparing food for winter is still very popular in the countryside.

===Sports===
{{Main|Sport in Estonia}}
[[File:Tartu_Maraton_2006-3.jpg|thumb|left|alt=large crowd of skiers participating in the marathon |[[Tartu Maraton|Tartu Ski Marathon]] in 2006]]
Estonia first competed as an independent nation at the [[1920 Summer Olympics]]. Estonian athletes took part in the 1952–1988 Olympic Games under the Soviet flag, as the country had been occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940. The [[1980 Summer Olympics]] [[Sailing|Sailing regatta]] was held in the capital city [[Tallinn]]. After regaining independence in 1991, Estonia has participated in all Olympics. Estonia has won most of its medals in [[Track and field|athletics]], [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], [[wrestling]], and [[cross-country skiing (sport)|cross-country skiing]]. Estonia has been one of the most successful nations at the Olympics in terms of medals won per capita.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tambur |first1=Silver |title=Estonia at the Olympics |url=https://estonianworld.com/life/estonia-at-the-olympics/ |website=EstonianWorld.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |date=23 July 2021}}</ref> Estonia's best results were being ranked 13th in the total medals' table at the [[1936 Summer Olympics medal table|1936 Summer Olympics]], and 12th at the [[2006 Winter Olympics medal table|2006 Winter Olympics]].

Estonia has many indoor and outdoor facilities dedicated to various sports branches.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sports and games |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/activities-adventure/sports-games |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Kiiking]], a relatively new sport, was invented in 1993 by Ado Kosk in Estonia. Kiiking involves a modified swing in which the rider of the swing tries to go around 360 degrees.


==See also==
{{Portal|Estonia|Europe}}
* [[Outline of Estonia]]
* [[Index of Estonia-related articles]]
{{Clear}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* [[Giuseppe D'Amato]] ''[http://www.europarussia.com/books/viaggio_nellhansa_baltica/travel-to-the-baltic-hansa Travel to the Baltic Hansa]''. The European Union and its enlargement to the East. Book in Italian. ''Viaggio nell'Hansa baltica''. L'Unione europea e l'allargamento ad Est. Greco&Greco editori, Milano, 2004. {{ISBN|88-7980-355-7}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John|first2=Patrick|last2=Salmon|title=The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century|year=1991|publisher=Longman|location=London|isbn=0-582-08246-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Kangilaski|first=Jaak|display-authors=etal |year=2005 |title=Valge raamat: eesti rahva kaotustest okupatsioonide läbi; 1940-1991 |language=et |publisher=Justiitsministeerium |isbn=9985-70-194-1 |url=http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-05-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503200228/http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Esthonia |volume= 9 |last1= Kropotkin |first1= Peter Alexeivitch |author1-link= Peter Kropotkin|last2= Bealby |first2= John Thomas |last3= Eliot |first3= Charles Norton Edgcumbe |author3-link= Charles Eliot (diplomat) |pages = 797–798 }}
*{{Cite book|last=Laar|first=Mart|author-link=Mart Laar|title=War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944–1956|year=1992|translator=Tiina Ets|publisher=Compass Press|location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-929590-08-2}}
*{{Cite book|last=Lieven|first=Anatol|author-link=Anatol Lieven|title=The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Path to Independence|year=1993|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|isbn=0-300-05552-8}}
*{{cite EB1922 |wstitle=Esthonia |last1= Meyendorff |first1= Alexander Feliksovich |last2= |first2= }}
*{{Cite book|last=Naylor|first=Aliide|title=[[The Shadow in the East: Vladimir Putin and the New Baltic Front]]|year=2020|publisher=I.B. Tauris|location=London|isbn=9781788312523}}
*{{Cite book|last=Raun|first=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians|year=1987|publisher=Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=0-8179-8511-5}}
*{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=David J.|title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=0-415-26728-5}}
*{{Cite book|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=Graham|title=The Baltic States: The National Self-determination of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania|year=1994|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|isbn=0-312-12060-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstates00grah}}
*{{Cite book|editor-last=Subrenat|editor-first=Jean-Jacques |editor-link=Jean-Jacques Subrenat|year=2004 |title=Estonia, identity and independence|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=90-420-0890-3|place=Amsterdam & New York}}
*{{Cite book|last=Taagepera|first=Rein|author-link=Rein Taagepera|title=Estonia: Return to Independence|year=1993|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder, Colo.|isbn=0-8133-1199-3}}
*{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Neil|title=Estonia|year=2004|edition=4th|publisher=Bradt|location=Chalfont St. Peter|isbn=1-84162-095-5}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Nicola|first2=Debra |last2=Herrmann |first3=Cathryn |last3=Kemp |title=Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania|year=2003|edition=3rd|publisher=Lonely Planet|location=London|isbn=1-74059-132-1}}

{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Estonia|s=Estonia OR Esthonia|cookbook=Cuisine of Estonia}}

===Government===
* [http://www.president.ee/en/index.html The President of Estonia]
* [http://www.riigikogu.ee/?lang=en The Parliament of Estonia]
* [http://www.valitsus.ee/en/ Estonian Government]
* [http://www.vm.ee/?q=en Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.stat.ee/?lang=en Statistical Office of Estonia]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/EN.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220152012/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/EN.html |date=20 February 2019 }}

===Travel===
* [http://www.estonia.eu/ Official gateway to Estonia]
* [http://www.eesti.ee/eng/ E-Estonia Portal]
* [http://www.visitestonia.com/ VisitEstonia Portal]
*{{Wikivoyage-inline}}

===Maps===
* [http://maps.google.co.uk/maps?q=estonia+map&ll=58.608334,25.004883&spn=13.048165,32.915039&gl=uk&t=p&z=5 google.com map of Estonia]
*{{osmrelation-inline|79510}}

===General information===
* [http://www.estonica.org/ Encyclopedia Estonica]
* [http://www.estinst.ee/ Estonian Institute]
*[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/ Estonia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17220810 BBC News – Estonia country profile]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081011192732/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/estonia.htm Estonia] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
*{{curlie|Regional/Europe/Estonia|Estonia}}
*{{Wikiatlas|Estonia}}
{{Estonia topics}}
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Lachlan Murdoch

2023-04-17T09:58:46Z

3 Löwi: Crikey link and clearer sentence

{{Short description|British-Australian businessman}}
{{for|the actor|Lachlan Murdoch (actor)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use Australian English|date=February 2015}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Lachlan Murdoch
| image = Lachlan Murdoch in May 2013.jpg
| caption = Murdoch in 2013
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1971|9|8}}
| birth_name = Lachlan Keith Murdoch
| birth_place = [[Wimbledon, London|Wimbledon]], [[London]], England
| nationality = {{Plainlist|
*Australia<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book |author=Jukes, Peter |title=The Fall of the House of Murdoch: Fourteen Days That Ended a Media Dynasty |date=8 August 2012 |location=London |publisher=Unbound |publication-date=2012 |isbn=978-1-908717-43-6}}</ref>
*United Kingdom
*United States
}}
| occupation = Executive chairman, [[Nova Entertainment]] Executive chairman and CEO, [[Fox Corporation]] Co-chairman, [[News Corp]]
| education = [[Princeton University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Sarah Murdoch|Sarah O'Hare]]|1999}}
| children = 3
| parents = {{plainlist|
* [[Rupert Murdoch]]
* [[Anna Murdoch Mann|Anna Maria Torv]]}}
| relatives = [[Murdoch family|Murdoch]]
}}
'''Lachlan Keith Murdoch''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɒ|k|l|ə|n}};<ref>{{citation|last=Wells|first=John C.|year=2008|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|pages=449 and 526|isbn=9781405881180}} According to this source, the first name is also pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|æ|k|l|ə|n}} in the UK.</ref> born 8 September 1971) is a [[British-Australian]] businessman and [[mass media]] heir.<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Scocca|first=Tom |title=Why Lachlan Flew the Coop: It Was Rupe|website=[[The New York Observer]] |date=8 August 2005 |access-date=23 April 2017 |url-status=live|url=https://observer.com/2005/08/why-lachlan-flew-the-coop-it-was-rupe/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825224143/http://observer.com/2005/08/why-lachlan-flew-the-coop-it-was-rupe/ |archive-date=25 August 2016 }}</ref> He is the executive chairman of [[Nova Entertainment]], co-chairman of [[News Corp]], executive chairman and CEO of [[Fox Corporation]],<ref name=wapo>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/lachlan-murdoch-takes-control-of-fox-corp-but-how-will-he-deal-with-president-trump/2019/03/20/abbb43d6-40ee-11e9-a0d3-1210e58a94cf_story.html|title=Lachlan Murdoch takes control of Fox Corp. But how will he deal with President Trump? - The Washington Post|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=2019-03-20|last=Ellison|first=Sarah}}</ref> and the founder of Australian investment company Illyria Pty Ltd.

==Early life and education==
Lachlan Murdoch was born on 8 September 1971 at Wimbledon Hospital in [[Wimbledon, London]], England.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rohm|first=Wendy Goldman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KB4WpkldZeIC&dq=james+murdoch+born+london+hospital&pg=PA67|title=The Murdoch Mission: The Digital Transformation of a Media Empire|date=2002-03-12|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-20539-5|language=en}}</ref> He is the eldest son of Australian-born American [[media proprietor|media mogul]] [[Rupert Murdoch]], and his former wife, Scottish journalist and author [[Anna Murdoch Mann|Anna Maria dePeyster]] (née Torv; formerly Murdoch). He was raised in New York City where his father owned the ''[[New York Post]]''. He received his primary and secondary education at the Aspen Country Day School in [[Aspen, Colorado]], [[Trinity School (New York City)|Trinity School]] in New York City, and at [[Phillips Academy]] in [[Andover, Massachusetts]]. In 1994, he graduated with a bachelor's degree in philosophy from [[Princeton University]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/22/business/media/murdoch-family-21st-century-fox.html|title=In House of Murdoch, Sons Set About an Elaborate Overhaul|first1=Brooks|last1=Barnes|first2=Sydney|last2=Ember|newspaper=The New York Times|date=22 April 2017}}</ref> While at Princeton, he studied philosophy with [[Béatrice Longuenesse]] and Alan Hajek.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://theintercept.com/2019/03/30/lachlan-murdoch-fox-news/|title=How Lachlan Murdoch Went from Studying Philosophy at Princeton to Exploiting White Nationalism at Fox News|work=The Intercept|last=Maass|first=Peter}}</ref>

==Career==

===News Corp executive===
In 1989, Rupert Murdoch brought Lachlan Murdoch, then 18 years old, to Australia while on business, to have Lachlan trained for three months at the [[The Daily Mirror (Australia)|''Daily Mirror'']]. At the age of 22, Murdoch was appointed general manager of Queensland Newspapers, the publisher of [[Brisbane]]'s ''[[Courier-Mail]]''.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} One year later, he became publisher of Australia's first national paper, ''[[The Australian]]''. In 1995 he was appointed deputy CEO of [[News Limited]], executive director of [[News Corporation]] in 1996, deputy chief operating officer in 2000; he was made senior executive vice president from 1999 to 2000, and has been chairman of [[STAR TV (Asia)|STAR]] since 1995.

Encouraged to invest in [[One.Tel]] by his friend Australian businessman [[James Packer]], the son of television network owner [[Kerry Packer]], Murdoch was extensively criticized for encouraging News Corporation's multi-hundred million-dollar investment in the start-up telecommunications company.<ref>{{cite news|author=Luckhurst, Tim|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/so-where-does-rupert-murdoch-go-from-here-500802.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722215804/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/so-where-does-rupert-murdoch-go-from-here-500802.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 July 2011|title=So where does Rupert Murdoch go from here?|newspaper=[[The Independent|The Independent on Sunday]]|date=31 July 2005|access-date=10 April 2010}}</ref> In April 2014, Murdoch and Packer agreed to an {{AUD}}40 million settlement over the failure of One.Tel. The settlement was approved by the [[Supreme Court of New South Wales]] on 17 April 2014, with {{AUD}}14.93 million to be paid by the Packer family's [[Consolidated Press Holdings]], {{AUD}}11.77 million to be paid by Packer's [[Crown Resorts]] and {{AUD}}13.3 million to be paid by News Corp.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/business/court-approves-40m-onetel-settlement-20140417-36u8c.html |title=Court approves $40m One.Tel settlement |last1=Butler |first1=Ben |date=17 April 2014 |newspaper=[[The Age]]|access-date=17 April 2014}}</ref>

Murdoch led an initial $10.75 million investment, of which only $2.25 million was in cash, in [[REA Group]], and subsequently championed the retention of the investment over the objections of those who wished to sell it. The company later emerged as Australia's market leader in online real estate advertising, and in 2014 was assessed as worth more than $3.6 billion to News Corp.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bignewsnetwork.com/index.php/sid/220002499/scat/5c99d63b36637bd7/ht/How-Lachlan-Murdoch-turned-10-million-into-more-than-3-billion |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140213021215/http://www.bignewsnetwork.com/index.php/sid/220002499/scat/5c99d63b36637bd7/ht/How-Lachlan-Murdoch-turned-10-million-into-more-than-3-billion |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 February 2014 |title=How Lachlan Murdoch turned $10 million into more than $3 billion |newspaper=Big News Network |date=5 February 2014 |access-date=13 February 2014 }}</ref> With a personal interest in Australian [[rugby league]], on 30 March 1995 Murdoch was at the first [[Super League]] meeting in the Atanaskovic Hartnell offices in Sydney. He and former [[Brisbane Broncos]] chief [[John Ribot]] signed up leading [[Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs]] players on documents which were not legally effective. Murdoch was the Broncos' number one ticket holder.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.souths.com.au/fanzone/viewnewsarticle.asp?ArticleID=1229|title=Lachlan's legacy: $560m lost on Super League|work=[[The Australian Financial Review]]|publisher=South Sydney Rabbitohs|author=Chenoweth, Neil|date=5 August 2005|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060314045353/http://www.souths.com.au/fanzone/viewnewsarticle.asp?ArticleID=1229|archive-date=14 March 2006}}</ref><ref name="broncsfans">Bronco Magazine 2002</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby-league/league-news/brisbane-broncos-cross-the-line-in-political-divide-20140813-103kua.html|title=Brisbane Broncos cross the line in political divide|work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|date=13 August 2014|access-date=14 February 2015|author=Masters, Roy|author-link=Roy Masters (rugby league)}}</ref> For the year 2001, Murdoch earned a salary of {{AUD}}2.59 million.<ref>{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050526215313/http://www.crikey.com.au/articles/2001/10/07-newscorpagm.html|title=Rappers, Fulon Gong and lots of questions|newspaper=[[Crikey]]|date=7 October 2001|archive-date=26 May 2005|access-date=14 February 2015|author=Mayne, Stephen|author-link=Stephen Mayne|url=http://www.crikey.com.au/articles/2001/10/07-newscorpagm.html}}</ref> In June 2005, Murdoch received the Press & Outdoor Advertising "media person of the year" award in [[Cannes]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.smh.com.au/newsblog/archives/001299.html|title=Lachlan Murdoch heckled in Cannes|newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|date=23 June 2005|access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref> Murdoch is one of the founding patrons (along with [[Anthony Pratt (Visy Board)|Anthony Pratt]], [[Peter Lowy]] and [[Lisa Fox]]) of an organisation called "Advance", formerly known as the Young Australian Professionals in America.<ref>{{cite speech |title=2005 Advance Benefit Dinner|author=Allen, Ken|date=18 November 2005|location=Cipriani, [[Wall Street]], New York City|url=http://www.australianyc.org/consulate/news/speeches/2005|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824032914/http://www.australianyc.org/consulate/news/speeches/2005%20Advance%20Benefit%20Dinner.pdf|format=PDF|archive-date=24 August 2006|publisher=Australian Consul General New York}}</ref>

In July 2005, the 33-year-old Murdoch abruptly resigned as an executive at the News Corp. The unexplained departure apparently dashed News Corp. Chief executive Rupert Murdoch's hopes that his son would one day take over as CEO of the global media empire, which then included the [[Twentieth Century Fox]] movie studio, now a subsidiary of Disney Studios; and includes the [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox television network]], several satellite broadcasters, and newspapers in Britain, Australia, and the United States. [[Roger Ailes]], the chairman of Fox News Channel, was named chairman of News Corp's group of television stations to succeed Murdoch junior. Media speculated that his brother, [[James Murdoch]], then chief executive of UK satellite TV company [[BSkyB]], may succeed Rupert Murdoch.<ref name="guardian2005">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2005/jul/29/newscorporation.citynews|title=Lachlan Murdoch resigns from News Corp|work=[[The Guardian]]|location=Australia|date=29 July 2005|access-date=14 February 2015|author=Tryhorn, Chris}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://newyorkmetro.com/nymetro/news/media/features/14302/ |title=The Boy Who Wouldn't Be King |newspaper=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] |date=19 September 2005 |access-date=14 February 2015 |author=Fishman, Steve |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719163101/http://newyorkmetro.com/nymetro/news/media/features/14302/ |archive-date=19 July 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/business/why-lachlan-murdoch-quit/2005/09/14/1126377322482.html|title=Why Lachlan Murdoch quit|newspaper=[[The Age]]|date=14 September 2005|access-date=14 February 2015|author=Porter, Jeni}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://media.guardian.co.uk/mediaguardian/story/0,7558,1540260,00.html|title=End of the line|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|location=Australia|date=1 August 2005|access-date=14 February 2015|author1=Gibson, Owen|author2=Milmo, Dan}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/money/media/2005-07-29-news-corp_x.htm|title=Murdoch's oldest son leaves empire|newspaper=[[USA Today]]|date=29 July 2005|access-date=14 February 2015|author1=Lieberman, David|author2=Petrecca, Laura}}</ref> During his time as an executive at News Corp, Murdoch was the deputy chief operating officer of News Corporation, now 21st Century Fox. He had oversight of [[HarperCollins]] and the company's lines of business in Australia, including REA. He also served on the board of [[Foxtel]] and as chairman of Fox Television stations and was the publisher of the ''[[New York Post]]''.<ref name=newscorpboard>{{cite web|url=http://newscorp.com/leader/lachlan-murdoch/|title=Lachlan Murdoch|work=Our leadership|publisher=[[News Corp]]|date=2015|access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref> He was appointed to the News Corp board in 1996.<ref name="guardian2005"/>

===Private investment activities===
On leaving News Corp with a two{{endash}}year non{{endash}}compete agreement,<ref name="smh-2011"/> Murdoch founded an Australian private investment company, Illyria Pty Ltd.,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=31336685|title=Company Overview of Illyria Pty, Ltd.|work=Bloomberg Business|publisher=[[Bloomberg Business|Bloomberg]]|date=2005|access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref> and developed an eclectic mix of investments, with stakes in the Indian Premier League (IPL) cricket team [[Rajasthan Royals]], online DVD rental company [[Quickflix]], toy marketer Funtastic and digital media company [[Destra Corporation|Destra]].<ref name="smh-2011">{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/business/building-another-murdoch-empire-20111118-1nmqv.html#ixzz3RoHFqZJT|title=Building another Murdoch empire|newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|date=19 November 2011|access-date=14 February 2015|author=Steffens, Miriam}}</ref> On 21 January 2008, Murdoch and James Packer announced that their companies, Illyria and [[Consolidated Press Holdings]] would seek to privatise the [[Australian Securities Exchange|publicly-listed]] [[Consolidated Media Holdings]]. It was expected that the proposed {{AUD}}3.3 billion deal would deliver Murdoch and Packer with private stakes in [[Foxtel]], [[Fox Sports]], [[Universal Media Firm, LLC]] and [[PBL Media]], with the latter owning the [[Nine Network]] and [[Australian Consolidated Press|ACP Magazines]].<ref name="smh-2011"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.scopical.com.au/articles/News/2202/Murdoch-junior-to-seize-control-of-old-Packer-empire|title=Murdoch junior to seize control of old Packer empire|work=Scopical.com.au|date=21 January 2008|access-date=17 March 2008}} {{dead link|date=February 2015}}</ref> Packer eventually decided to sell down his stake in media companies in a series of transactions between 2006 and 2008,<ref name=pamelawilliams>{{cite book|first=Pamela|last=Williams|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|title=Killing Fairfax: Packer, Murdoch & The Ultimate Revenge|pages=140, 150, 159–160, 213, 222|date=22 July 2013|url=http://www.harpercollins.com.au/books/Killing-Fairfax-Packer-Murdoch-Ultimate-Revenge-Pamela-Williams/?isbn=9780732297664|access-date=21 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023061046/http://www.harpercollins.com.au/books/Killing-Fairfax-Packer-Murdoch-Ultimate-Revenge-Pamela-Williams/?isbn=9780732297664|archive-date=23 October 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite interview |last=James|first=Packer|subject-link=James Packer|interviewer=Helia Ebrahimi|title=James Packer on building a new Sydney casino|url=http://video.cnbc.com/gallery/?video=3000199729|publisher=[[CNBC]]|date=13 September 2013|access-date=23 October 2013}}</ref> and the deal with Murdoch collapsed.

In November 2009, Murdoch acquired 50% of [[Nova Entertainment]] via Illyria and he became chairman. In September 2012 Illyria acquired the balance of shares it did not own.<ref name="smh-2011"/><ref>{{Cite news|title=Lachlan Murdoch acquires other half of DMG Radio |work=MediaSpy |date=2 September 2012 |access-date=3 September 2012 |url=http://www.mediaspy.org/2012/09/02/lachlan-murdoch-acquires-other-half-of-dmg-radio/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123024955/http://www.mediaspy.org/2012/09/02/lachlan-murdoch-acquires-other-half-of-dmg-radio/ |archive-date=23 November 2012 }}</ref>

In 2010, Packer purchased an 18% stake in [[Network Ten]], quickly offloading half to Murdoch. Both Packer and Murdoch joined the Ten board.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/11/09/3061086.htm|title=Packer, Murdoch accept seats on Ten board|work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]|location=Australia|date=9 November 2010|access-date=9 November 2010}}</ref> In February 2011, Murdoch was appointed acting CEO of [[Ten Network Holdings]] after the company's board terminated the contract of CEO Grant Blackley.<ref>{{cite news|author=Janda, Michael|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2011/02/23/3146785.htm?section=justin|title=Lachlan Murdoch appointed acting Ten CEO|work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]|location=Australia|date=23 February 2011}}</ref> The following month Packer unexpectedly resigned from the board.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/business/ten-network-to-reveal-new-board/story-e6frede3-1226014647727 |title=James Packer quits Ten board |work=[[The Advertiser (Adelaide)|The Advertiser]] |via=adelaidenow.com|location=Adelaide |date=3 March 2011|access-date=13 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305035213/http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/business/ten-network-to-reveal-new-board/story-e6frede3-1226014647727|archive-date=2011-03-05|url-status=dead|last=Le May|first=Rebecca}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Antonia |last=Magee |work=[[Herald Sun]]|date=2 March 2011 |title=James Packer, Lachlan Murdoch fall out over new Ten Network chief James Warburton |url=http://www.news.com.au/business/packer-resigns-from-ten-board/story-e6frfm1i-1226014676071 |access-date=21 August 2012}}</ref> In February 2012, the Ten board appointed Murdoch non-executive chairman of Ten Network Holdings.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.tencorporate.com.au/lib/pdf/2012/mf547.pdf|title=Ten Appoints New Chairman|publisher=Ten Network Holdings|date=10 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317090559/http://www.tencorporate.com.au/lib/pdf/2012/mf547.pdf| archive-date=17 March 2012 |url-status=dead| access-date=25 July 2015}}</ref> Although Ten was already in some financial difficulties before Murdoch became CEO, by late 2012, on paper Illyria had lost {{AUD}}110 million of the original {{AUD}}150 million invested since 2010. The share price had fallen by about 80% and network profits had dropped by over half. In an attempt to control costs, Ten had reduced employment numbers by 160 people, and the problems were mainly attributed to falling advertising revenues and restructuring at the network. Ten purchased, at three times its original cost,<ref>{{cite news|author=Barry, Paul|author-link=Paul Barry|title=Thanks to Lachlan, Ten ripe for the picking|url=http://www.crikey.com.au/2012/11/15/paul-barry-thanks-to-lachlan-ten-ripe-for-the-picking/|work=Crikey|date=15 November 2012|access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> the Australian rights for [[MasterChef Australia|''MasterChef'']] from the Australian subsidiary of the [[Shine Group]], itself a subsidiary of the News Corp{{endash}}owned 21st Century Fox. On 14 June 2017, Ten went into voluntary administration after Murdoch and fellow shareholder [[Bruce Gordon (businessman)|Bruce Gordon]] declined to extend the company's credit facility.<ref name="SMHadmin">{{cite news |last=Danckert |first=Sarah |date=14 June 2017 |title=Network Ten heads into voluntary administration |url=http://www.smh.com.au/business/media-and-marketing/network-ten-heads-into-voluntary-administration-20170614-gwqo47.html |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |location=Sydney |access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="BIAadmin">{{cite news |last=Pash |first=Chris |date=14 June 2017 |title=The Ten network is in administration |url=https://www.businessinsider.com.au/the-ten-network-is-in-administration-2017-6 |work=Business Insider Australia |location=Sydney |access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref> Two bids were received for Ten; one from Murdoch and Gordon and one from [[CBS Corporation]] - Ten's largest creditor. The CBS bid was preferred by both the administrators and creditors.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kruger|first1=Colin|title=CBS won because Network Ten employees didn't want Lachlan Murdoch to come back|url=http://www.smh.com.au/business/media-and-marketing/cbs-won-because-network-ten-employees-didnt-want-lachlan-murdoch-to-come-back-20170919-gykjmk.html|access-date=4 November 2017|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|date=20 September 2017}}</ref> CBS's successful bid meant Murdoch lost his entire investment in the network.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Patrick|first1=Aaron|title=Ten-CBS hearing descends into near farce as court clears takeover bid|url=http://www.afr.com/business/legal/tencbs-hearing-descends-into-near-farce-as-court-clears-takeover-bid-20171110-gzips7|access-date=14 November 2017|work=Australian Financial Review|date=10 November 2017}}</ref>

===Return to the family fold===
In March 2014, Murdoch was appointed as non-executive co-chairman of News Corp. and 21st Century Fox Inc. in a move that was seen as succession planning for the media empire.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-03-26/news-corp-names-lachlan-murdoch-non-executive-chairman|title=Murdoch Promotes Son Lachlan in Succession Plan for Empire|work=Bloomberg Business|publisher=[[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]]|date=27 March 2014|access-date=14 February 2015|author=Thomson, Amy}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304418404579462722950228780|title=Sons of Rupert Murdoch Get Expanded Roles|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=26 March 2014|access-date=14 February 2015|author1=Peers, Martin|author2=Evans, Peter}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.afr.com/p/national/inside_the_murdoch_dynasty_mz4UeFrTPKOnoGgxucGQkK|title=Inside the Murdoch dynasty|work=[[The Australian Financial Review]]|date=29 March 2014|access-date=14 February 2015|author=Chenoweth, Neil}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/mediatechnologyandtelecoms/media/10723606/Rupert-Murdochs-eldest-son-Lachlan-takes-co-chairman-role-in-succession-plan.html|title=Rupert Murdoch's eldest son Lachlan takes co-chairman role in succession plan|work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|location=United Kingdom|date=26 March 2014|access-date=14 February 2015|author=Williams, Christopher}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://theconversation.com/lachlan-murdoch-and-news-the-first-born-son-is-ahead-for-now-24884|title=Lachlan Murdoch and News: the first-born son is ahead … for now|work=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]|date=28 March 2014|access-date=14 February 2015|author=McNair, Brian}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.smartcompany.com.au/growth/41292-lachlan-murdoch-lured-back-to-news-corp-but-which-office-does-he-get.html#|title=Lachlan Murdoch lured back to News Corp, but which office does he get?|work=SmartCompany|date=28 March 2014|access-date=14 February 2015|author=Mayne, Stephen|author-link=Stephen Mayne}}</ref> Murdoch stood aside as chairman and a Director of Ten Network Holdings.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://images.tenplay.com.au/~/media/Corporate%20Site%20Media/Files/Press%20Releases/2014/Changes%20to%20TENs%20Board%20of%20Directors.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215160748/http://images.tenplay.com.au/~/media/Corporate%20Site%20Media/Files/Press%20Releases/2014/Changes%20to%20TENs%20Board%20of%20Directors.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 February 2015 |title=Changes to Ten's Board of Directors |publisher=Ten Network Holdings |date=26 March 2014 |access-date=23 October 2014 }}</ref> In June 2015 he was named as Executive Chairman of 21st Century Fox.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.mediaweek.com.au/lachlan-murdoch-named-executive-co-chairman-21st-century-fox/|title=Lachlan Murdoch named executive co-chairman 21st Century Fox|date=16 June 2015|publisher=Mediaweek}}</ref>

After Fox was acquired by Disney in March 2019, Murdoch was named as the chairman and CEO of the [[Fox Corporation]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://variety.com/2019/tv/news/fox-corp-lachlan-murdoch-town-hall-1203169197/|title=New Fox CEO Lachlan Murdoch Announces All Employees to Receive Stock in Company|first1=Joe Otterson,Daniel|last1=Holloway|first2=Joe|last2=Otterson|first3=Daniel|last3=Holloway|date=21 March 2019}}</ref>

== Pending lawsuits ==

=== Dominion lawsuit ===
{{main|Dominion v. Fox News Network}}
Lachlan Murdoch and his father Rupert are currently defendants in a $1.6 billion lawsuit filed by voting machine maker Dominion on March 26, 2021, for knowingly and maliciously spreading a false narrative accusing Dominion of election fraud. Dominion claims in the aftermath of Donald Trump's loss of the 2020 election, Fox News began to lose viewership and was negatively impacted as President Trump criticized Fox News and bolstered competitors that would spread his narrative of fraud. Dominion continued that, under the direction of Lachlan Murdoch, Fox News connected Dominion with unsubstantiated fraud and intentionally provided a platform for guests that Fox News' hosts knew were making false and defamatory statements, while Fox News' hosts endorsed, repeated and amplified known defamatory and false statements.

Fox News Corporation requested that the case be dismissed and on December 16, 2021 the court rejected the request of Fox News with the opinion that "Dominion adequately pleaded actual malice by Fox News." June 6, 2022 Fox News Corp asked Judge Eric M. Davis to drop the lawsuit. In his opinion Judge Davis denied the request with the opinion that Dominion had shown enough evidence of actual malice on behalf of Rupert and Lachlan Murdoch of Fox Corporation to allow the case to continue.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-22 |title=Fox Corp. Must Face $1.6 Billion Defamation Lawsuit That Dominion Claims Goes to the Top of the Murdoch Empire, Judge Rules |url=https://lawandcrime.com/2020-election/fox-must-face-1-6-billion-defamation-lawsuit-that-dominion-claims-goes-to-the-top-of-the-murdoch-empire-judge-rules/ |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=Law & Crime |language=en}}</ref>

=== Smartmatic lawsuit ===
In a lawsuit similar to Dominion's, voting machine maker Smartmatic filed a lawsuit implicating both Lachlan Murdoch and his father Rupert for 2.7 billion dollars on February 4, 2021. Smartmatic claims "Fox News engaged in conspiracy to spread disinformation about Smartmatic. They lied, and did so knowingly and intentionally." In March 2022, Justice David Cohen allowed the removal of several hosts as co-defendants but rejected Fox's motion for dismissal of the suit allowing it to go to the discovery phase. In a second attempt from Fox News to dismiss the lawsuit, Justice David Cohen again rejected Fox's request and gave the opinion that Smartmatic had showed a "substantial basis" for their claim that Fox News "showed a reckless disregard for the truth."<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 16, 2022 |title=SmartMatic: Lawsuit Updates & Fact Checks |url=https://www.smartmatic.com/us/lawsuit-updates-fact-checks/ }}</ref> Both Lachlan and Rupert Murdoch's emails are being sought in discovery to show the extent to which they knew their statements were false.

=== Crikey controversy ===
Lachlan Murdoch sent a series of legal threats to [[Crikey]], an Australian electronic magazine, after political editor Bernard Keane tied the Murdochs to [[January 6 United States Capitol attack|Donald Trump's January 6 attempted coup]] in a 29 June 2022 article.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian site Crikey fights back after Lachlan Murdoch threatens to sue : NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/2022/08/22/1118705940/fox-news-lachlan-murdoch-australia-crikey-capitol-insurrection-jan-6 |access-date=2023-04-12 |website=npr.org |language=en-US}}</ref> Keane gave the opinion “If Trump ends up in the dock for a variety of crimes committed as president, as he should be, not all his co-conspirators will be there with him. Nixon was famously the “unindicted co-conspirator” in Watergate. The Murdochs and their slew of poisonous Fox News commentators are the unindicted co-conspirators of this continuing crisis.” Crikey originally removed the article to avoid legal persecution but later republished it with Editor Peter Fray accusing Murdoch of "using the law to silence public debate," and "seeking to intimidate us."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lachlan Murdoch Goes to War With Website Blaming Him for Jan. 6 |url=https://news.yahoo.com/lachlan-murdoch-goes-war-website-234114621.html |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=news.yahoo.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Murdoch married British-born Australian model/actress [[Sarah O'Hare]] in 1999. The couple have two sons, Kalan Alexander, born on 9 November 2004, and Aidan Patrick, born on 6 May 2006;<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.heraldsun.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5478,19059417%255E1702,00.html|title=Murdochs welcome their second son|work=[[Herald Sun]]|date=7 May 2006|access-date=11 March 2008}}</ref> and one daughter, Aerin Elisabeth, named for his sister and grandmother, born on 12 April 2010.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/lifestyle/people/new-baby-for-murdochs-20100412-s4cj.html|title=New baby for Murdochs|work=[[The Age]]|date=13 April 2010|access-date=23 December 2013|author=Bibby, Paul}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1"/>

The Murdochs owned "Berthong", a house in {{NSWcity|Elizabeth Bay}}, Sydney, until it was sold to [[Russell Crowe]] in 2003.<ref>{{cite news|author=Sams, Christine|url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/05/31/1054177765250.html|title=On the move with Russell and Danielle|work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald|The Sun-Herald]]|date=1 June 2003|access-date=11 March 2008}}</ref> In November 2009, Murdoch purchased "Le Manoir", a {{convert|4097|m2|adj=on}} mansion in [[Bellevue Hill, New South Wales|Bellevue Hill]] for $23 million; and purchased an adjoining {{convert|1049|m2|adj=on}} property two years later.<ref>{{cite news|author=Chancellor, Jonathan|url=http://news.domain.com.au/domain/real-estate-news/murdochs-buy-next-door-to-expand-fiefdom-20110225-1b8rt.html|title=Murdochs buy next door to expand fiefdom|work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|date=26 February 2011|access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author1=Thistleton, Rebecca|author2=Hutchinson, Samantha|url=http://www.afr.com/p/national/murdochs_begin_overhaul_of_bellevue_yv0HU4b8hCpwPnfu7wqCYP|title=Murdochs begin $11.6m overhaul of Bellevue Hill mansion|work=[[The Australian Financial Review]]|date=23 September 2013|access-date=11 March 2008}}</ref> In 2017, Murdoch and his wife paid {{USD}}29 million for a large equestrian property in [[Aspen, Colorado|Aspen]], Colorado, that contains a {{convert|13500|sqft|m2|order=flip|adj=on}} six-bedroom home.<ref>{{cite news |author=Clarke, Katherine |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/lachlan-murdoch-pays-29-million-for-an-aspen-colo-home-1506007004 |title=Lachlan Murdoch Pays $29 Million for an Aspen, Colo., Home |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=21 September 2017 |access-date=18 December 2020 }}</ref> In 2019, they purchased the [[Chartwell Mansion|Chartwell Estate]] in Los Angeles for an estimated {{USD}}150 million.<ref>{{Cite web|author1=Frank, Frank |author2=DiLella, Chris |date=2019-12-12|title=Take a look inside of Lachlan Murdoch's new $150 million LA mansion|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/12/12/tour-the-inside-of-lachlan-murdochs-new-150-million-la-mansion.html|access-date=2020-06-25|website=CNBC|language=en}}</ref><ref name=Geier>{{cite news|url=https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/lachlan-murdoch-buys-beverly-hillbillies-133903307.html |title=Lachlan Murdoch Buys 'Beverly Hillbillies' Mansion in Bel-Air for Record $150 Million |work=[[TheWrap]] |author=Geier, Thom|date=December 12, 2019}}</ref>

===Net worth ===
{{columns-start}}
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan=2 | Year
! colspan=2 width=40% | ''[[The Australian Financial Review|Financial Review]]'' [[Financial Review Rich List|Rich List]]
! colspan=2 width=40% | ''[[Forbes Asia|Forbes]]'' [[List of Australians by net worth|Australia's 50 Richest]]
|-
! Rank
! [[Net worth]] ([[AUD|A$]])
! Rank
! {{nowrap|[[Net worth]] ([[USD|US$]])}}
|-
| 2018<ref name="afr2018">{{cite web|url=http://www.afr.com/brand/afr-magazine/rich-list-overview-20180413-h0yqo5|title=2018 AFR Rich List: Who are Australia's richest people?|work=[[The Australian Financial Review]]|date=25 May 2018|editor=Stensholt, John|access-date=26 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="Forbes2017">{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesasia/2017/11/01/australias-richest-2017-mining-for-dollars/#4d3806661d24|title=Australia's Richest 2017: Country's Wealthiest Continue Mining For Dollars |access-date=28 September 2019 |work=Forbes Asia|date=1 November 2017 }}</ref>
| align="center" | ''n/a''
| align="right" | ''unlisted''
| align="center" | ''n/a''
| align="right" | ''unlisted''
|-
| 2019<ref name="afr2019">{{cite web|url=https://www.afr.com/rich-list/australia-s-10-wealthiest-people-revealed-20190529-p51sj0|title=Australia's 200 richest people revealed|work=[[The Australian Financial Review]] |publisher=Nine Publishing|date=30 May 2019|last=Bailey|first=Michael|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref><ref name="Forbes2019">{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/australia-billionaires/list/#tab:overall|title=2019 Australia's 50 Richest|access-date=28 September 2019|work=Forbes Asia|date=January 2019 }}</ref>
| align="center" | {{nowrap|{{nts|18}} {{increase}}}}
| align="right" | $3.62 billion {{increase}}
| align="center" | ''n/a''
| align="right" | ''unlisted''
|-
| 2020<ref name="afr2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.afr.com/rich-list/the-10-richest-australians-revealed-20201028-p569c7|url-access=subscription|title=The full list: Australia's wealthiest 200 revealed|work=[[The Australian Financial Review]]|publisher=Nine Publishing|date=30 October 2020|author1=Bailey, Michael|author2=Sprague, Julie-anne|access-date=31 October 2020}}</ref>
| align="center" | {{nowrap|{{nts|22}} {{decrease}}}}
| align="right" | $3.76 billion {{gain}}
| align="center" |
| align="right" |
|-
| 2021<ref name="afr2021">{{cite news |author1=Bailey, Michael |author2=Sprague, Julie-anne |url=https://www.afr.com/rich-list/australia-s-10-richest-people-revealed-20210526-p57vfr |title=The 200 richest people in Australia revealed |work=[[Australian Financial Review]] |date=27 May 2021 |access-date=28 May 2021}}</ref>
| align="center" | {{nowrap|{{nts|22}} {{steady}}}}
| align="right" | $4.43 billion {{up}}
| align="center" |
| align="right" |
|}

{{column}}
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"|Legend
|-
! Icon
! Description
|-
|{{steady}}
|Has not changed from the previous year
|-
|{{profit}}
|Has increased from the previous year
|-
|{{loss}}
|Has decreased from the previous year
|}
{{columns-end}}

===Ancestry===
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1=1. Lachlan Murdoch
|2=2. [[Rupert Murdoch]]
|3=3. [[Anna Murdoch Mann|Anna Torv]]
|4=4. [[Keith Murdoch]]
|5=5. [[Elisabeth Murdoch (philanthropist)|Elisabeth Greene]]
|6=6. Jacob Tõrv
|7=7. Sylvia Braida
|8=8. [[Patrick John Murdoch]]
|9=9. Annie Brown
|10=10. Rupert Greene
|11=11. Marie Grace de Lancey Forth
|12=12. Jaan Tõrv
|13=13. Anna Tõnisson
|16=16. James Murdoch
|17=17. Helen Garden
|18=18. George Brown
|19=19. Mary
|20=20. William Henry Greene
|21=21. Fanny Covett
|22=22. Robert Forth
|23=23. Anne Thomson Ware
|24=24. Taniel Tõrv
|25=25. Ann Köösel
|26=26. Jakob Tõnisson
|27=27. Anna Jürgens
}}

==See also==
{{stack|{{portal|Australia|Biography|Business and economics}} }}
* [[Murdoch family]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
''This article contains content from the defunct wiki, [[Lists of encyclopedias#Website only|HierarchyPedia]], used here under the [https://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GNU Free Documentation License]''

==Further reading==
* [http://www.worldwidewendy.org Wendy Goldman Rohm] ''Murdoch Mission'' (2002). Interviews with various Murdoch family members
* Neil Chenoweth ''Virtual Murdoch'' (2001). Mainly about Rupert Murdoch
* [[Paul Barry]], ''Rich Kids'', Bantam Books, 2002, {{ISBN|1-86325-338-6}}
* Kirkpatrick, David, "Murdoch Gets a Jewel. Who'll Get His Crown?" ''[[New York Times]]'', 28 December 2003.
* Milliken, Robert, "Lachlan Murdoch; Heir to the Sun and Sky", ''The Independent'' (London), 7 May 1995.
* Pappu, Sridhar, "Lachlan Murdoch, Spiky Punk Heir Right for ''Post''?" ''[[New York Observer]]'', 24 November 2003.
* Salamon, Julie, "Television: An American Story; A Family That Tried to Be Both Rich and Good", ''[[New York Times]]'', 1 October 2000.
* Manning, Paddy, "The Successor: The High Stakes Life of Lachlan Murdoch" Black Inc [Schwartz Books Pty Ltd] 2022

==External links==
*{{C-SPAN|81007}}
*{{Charlie Rose view|2059}}
* {{cite speech |title=2002 Andrew Olle Media Lecture|author=Murdoch, Lachlan|date=12 May 2008|location=Westin Hotel, Sydney|url=http://www.abc.net.au/local/stories/2002/10/22/592878.htm |format=transcript|publisher=Australia: [[ABC Local Radio]] }}
*{{NYTtopic|people/m/lachlan_murdoch}}
*{{cite journal|author=Strupp, Joe|url=http://www.editorandpublisher.com/Article/Murdoch-the-Next-Generation|title=Murdoch, the Next Generation|journal=[[Editor & Publisher]]|date=16 December 2002}}
*{{cite journal|author=Totaro, Paula|url=http://www.themonthly.com.au/issue/2012/march/1330562641/paola-totaro/reluctant-son|title=The reluctant son|journal=[[The Monthly]]|date=March 2012}}
*{{cite web|url=http://investor.newscorp.com/secfiling.cfm?filingID=1181431-09-55595|title=Statement of Changes of Beneficial Ownership|work=[[Securities and Exchange Commission|U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission]]|publisher=News Corp|date=8 December 2009|access-date=22 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714174033/http://investor.newscorp.com/secfiling.cfm?filingID=1181431-09-55595|archive-date=14 July 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}

{{News Corporation}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Murdoch, Lachlan}}
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Murdoch family|Lachlan]]
[[Category:News Corporation people]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from London]]
[[Category:People from Manhattan]]
[[Category:Phillips Academy alumni]]
[[Category:Princeton University alumni]]
[[Category:Indian Premier League franchise owners]]
[[Category:British media executives]]
[[Category:British people of Australian descent]]
[[Category:British emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:British people of Estonian descent]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Sydney]]
[[Category:People from Brentwood, Los Angeles]]
[[Category:Australian billionaires]]
[[Category:American billionaires]]
[[Category:British billionaires]]
[[Category:Australian expatriates in the United States]]

Amandus Adamson

2023-04-16T20:37:44Z

3 Löwi: copyedited captions a bit

{{short description|Estonian sculptor and painter}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
[[File:Amandus Adamson 1914.jpeg|thumb|Amandus Adamson in 1914.]]
[[File:Paldiski, maja, kus elas ja töötas Amandus Adamson.jpg|thumb|The house in Paldiski, where Amandus Adamson lived and worked.]]
'''Amandus Heinrich Adamson''' (12 November 1855 near [[Paldiski]], [[Estonia]], then [[Russian Empire]] — 26 June 1929 in Paldiski, Estonia) was an Estonian [[sculptor]] and painter.

==Life==
Adamson was born in 1855 into an Estonian-speaking seafaring family at Uuga-Rätsepa, near [[Paldiski]] by the [[Gulf of Finland]]. His father, of local partially [[Estonian Swedes|Swedish]]{{efn|In a 24 September 1925 congratulatory article ahead of his<ref>{{ill|Amandus Adamson|et}}</ref> 70th birthday, the Estonian newspaper ''[[Postimees]]'' wrote in a biographical paragraph that his father had originated “from an old Swedish family”.}}<ref>{{cite news|author1=Postimees Editorial|url=https://dea.digar.ee/?l=en|title=Kujur Amandus Adamsoni aupäewaks|access-date=8 March 2023|work=Postimees|date=24 September 1925|format=Feature story to celebrate subject’s 70th birthday|quote="(His) father was a ship captain, sprung from an old Swedish family, whereas mother was Estonian and only Estonian was spoken at the parents’ house." (''Isa oli laewakapten, wõrsunud wanast Rootsi sugust, kuna ema oli eestlane ja wanemate majas ainult Eesti keelt räägiti.'')|language=et}}</ref> descent and a merchant vessel captain by profession, sailed to the United States in 1860, participated in the American Civil War, but never returned to Estonia and lost contact with his family after 1869.

Adamson excelled in wood carving as a child. He moved to [[St. Petersburg]] in 1875 to study at the [[Imperial Academy of Arts]] under [[Alexander von Bock|Alexander Bock]]. After graduation he continued to work as a sculptor and teacher in St. Petersburg, with an interruption from 1887 through 1891 to study in Paris and Italy, influenced by the French sculptors [[Jules Dalou]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]].

Adamson produced his best-known work in 1902: His [[Russalka Memorial]] in [[Tallinn]], dedicated to the 177 lost sailors of the [[Russian monitor Rusalka|Russian warship ''Rusalka'']], features a bronze angel on a slender column. Some of his other work is architectural, e.g., his four allegorical bronzes for the [[Eliseyev Emporium (Saint Petersburg)|Elisseeff department store]] in St. Petersburg (for architect [[Gavriil Baranovsky]]), and the French-style [[caryatids]] and finial figures for the [[Singer House]] (for architect [[Pavel Suzor]]) are major components of the "Russian [[Art Nouveau]]" visible along [[Nevsky Prospekt]].

He was named an academician of the Imperial Academy in 1907. In 1911 Adamson, as a result of a competition arranged by the Imperial Academy, received the commission for the monument to the Tricentennial of the [[House of Romanov]]. It was to be erected in Kostroma. Adamson invested all of his money into the project, which was never finished due to the 1917 Russian Revolution. In 1918, during the [[Estonian War of Independence]], Adamson returned to his home town of [[Paldiski]] in northwestern Estonia, where he would spend most of the rest of his life, except for the larger part of 1922, when he worked in Italy.

During the years of independent Estonia Adamson was commissioned to sculpt multiple monuments dedicated to the War of Independence, including one in [[Pärnu]] at the Alevi cemetery, where he himself was ultimately buried. In the 1940s and 1950s, almost all of these monuments were destroyed by the Soviet authorities; since Estonia regained independence in 1991, most of them have been restored.

In addition to war memorials Adamson also created the first monument to an Estonian – [[Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald]]. Adamson's last work was the monument dedicated to a beloved national poetess [[Lydia Koidula]] in Pärnu.

==Selected works==
The work of Adamson varies in style and material. He sculpted monuments in Estonia, [[Saint Petersburg]] and the [[Crimean Peninsula|Crimea]], as well as architectural sculpture, [[Allegory|allegorical]] figures, and portraits.

* ''Fisherman from the Island of [[Muhu]]'' (plaster, 1892)
* ''In Anxious Expectation'' (bronze, 1897)
* [[allegorical sculpture]]s of ''Commerce, Industry, Science'' and ''Arts'' on the façade of [[Eliseyev Emporium (Saint Petersburg)|Elisseeff Emporium]] in St.Petersburg (bronze, 1902)
* The [[Russalka Memorial]], [[Kadriorg]] (1902)
* allegorical sculpture for the [[Singer House]], St. Petersburg (1902–1904)
* ''Tšempion'' (English: ''Champion''), bronze sculpture of Estonian strongman [[Georg Lurich]] (1903)<ref>[https://www.err.ee/591075/kuulus-lurichi-skulptuur-muudi-kunstioksjonil-57-200-euro-eest err.ee]</ref>
* ''Boats Lost at Sea'', [[Sevastopol]] (1904)
* Memorial to Estonian painter [[Johann Köler]], [[Suure-Jaani]] Cemetery (1912)
* Monument to the [[Estonian War of Independence]] (1928, destroyed 1945)
* Monument to the Estonian poetess [[Lydia Koidula]], [[Pärnu]] (1929)

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Eesti Vabadussõjas langenute Kuressaare mälestussammas.jpg|Copy of the original memorial to the fallen of [[Estonian War of Independence]], [[Kuressaare]]
Image:TheLastSigh.jpg|''The Ship's Last Sigh'', in [[Bisque (pottery)|bisque]], 1899
Image:AmandusAdamsonRussalka.jpg|[[Russalka Memorial|Memorial]] to the sailors of sunk Russian [[Rusalka (ship)|warship Russalka]], Tallinn, 1902
File:Дом Зингера 5.jpg|Finial figures and globe, [[Singer House]]. St. Petersburg, 1902–1904
File:Scuttled ships.jpg|Monument to the Scuttled Ships, Sevastopol, Crimea, 1905
File:Johann Köleri haud.JPG|Memorial to [[Johann Köler]], [[Suure-Jaani]] cemetery, 1912
File:Pärnu Vabadussõja mälestussammas.jpg|Memorial to the fallen of Estonian War of Independence, Pärnu, 1922
File:F R Kreutzwaldi monument Vorus.JPG|Monument to [[Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald]], [[Võru]], 1926
File:Lydia Koidula monument1.jpg|Monument to [[Lydia Koidula]], Pärnu, 1929
</gallery>

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
* Amandus Adamson, 1855–1929, by Tiina Nurk, Eesti NSV Kunst (1959)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170106103116/http://www.mg.edu.ee/comenius/index.php?show=9&lang=ENG&page=tallinn Amandus Adamson]
* [http://amandusadamson.ee/amandus-adamson]

==External links==
*[http://www.post.ee/?id=1595&product_id=816&c_tpl=1019 Estonian postage stamp]

{{commons category|Amandus Adamson}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adamson, Amandus}}
[[Category:1855 births]]
[[Category:1929 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Paldiski]]
[[Category:People from the Governorate of Estonia]]
[[Category:Sculptors from the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Architectural sculptors]]
[[Category:19th-century Estonian painters]]
[[Category:19th-century Estonian male artists]]
[[Category:20th-century Estonian sculptors]]
[[Category:20th-century Estonian male artists]]

Flag of Denmark

2023-04-16T20:24:07Z

3 Löwi: Lyndanise = (modern-day) Tallinn, Fellin = Viljandi

{{short description|National flag}}
{{Infobox flag
| Name = Denmark
| Article =
| Image = Flag of Denmark fixed.svg
| Alt =
| Noborder = 
| Morenicks =
| Use = 100100
| Symbol = {{FIAV|100100}} {{FIAV|normal}} {{FIAV|Mirror}} {{FIAV|Vertical normal}}
| Proportion = 28:34 (14:17) to 28:37
| Adoption = {{Start date and age|1625}} (national flag)<ref name="world-record">{{cite web | url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/oldest-continuously-used-national-flag/ | title=Oldest continuously used national flag | work=Guinness World Records | access-date=28 November 2016}}</ref> {{Start date and age|1748}} (merchant ensign) {{Start date and age|1842}} (military flag) {{Start date and age|1854}} (private use on land) medieval predecessors (13th/14th c.)
| Design = A white Nordic cross with a red background
| Relinquished =
| Name2 = Kingdom Gate of Denmark
| Nickname2 = ''Rigets flag'' — Flag of the Kingdom [of Denmark]; also known as ''Splitflaget''
| Image2 = Flag of Denmark (state).svg
| Alt2 =
| Noborder2 = yes
| Morenicks2 =
| Use2 = 011010
| Symbol2 = {{FIAV|011010}} {{FIAV|normal}} {{FIAV|Mirror}}
| Proportion2 = 56:107
| Adoption2 =
| Design2 =
}}

The [[national flag]] of [[Denmark]] ({{lang-da|Dannebrog}}, {{IPA-da|ˈtænəˌpʁoˀ|pron}})<ref>The word ''Dannebrog'' is recorded since the 19th century, and in the opinion of A.D. Jørgensen ("Om Danebroges Oprindelse", ''Historiske Afhandlinger'' 2, 1899) the word may be of medieval coinage. Old Danish ''brog'' continues Old Norse ''[[:wikt:brók|brók]]'' "piece of cloth; breeches, trousers"; the word is not now current in Danish outside of composition, the ''[http://ordnet.dk/ods/ordbog?query=brog Ordbog over det danske Sprog ]'' (1920 edition) listed it as "dated or poetic" (''foræld. og poet.'') for "trousers".</ref> is red with a white [[Nordic cross flag|Nordic cross]], which means that the cross extends to the edges of the [[flag]] and the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side.

A banner with a white-on-red cross is attested as having been used by the [[kings of Denmark]] since the 14th century.<ref name=bjerg>"Dannebrog" by Hans Christian Bjerg, p.12, {{ISBN|87-7739-906-4}}.</ref> An origin legend with considerable impact on Danish national historiography connects the introduction of the flag to the [[Battle of Lyndanisse|Battle of Lindanise]] of 1219.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_GfdBAASUQC&pg=PA27 |author=Andrew Evans|title=Iceland|year=2008|publisher=Bradt|isbn=9781841622156|quote=Legend states that a red cloth with the white cross simply fell from the sky in the middle of the 13th-century Battle of Valdemar, after which the Danes were victorious. As a badge of divine right, Denmark flew its cross in the other Scandinavian countries it ruled and as each nation gained independence, they incorporated the Christian symbol.|access-date=2007-12-31}}
Inge Adriansen, ''Nationale symboler'', Museum Tusculanum Press, 2003, p. 129: "Fra begyndelsen af 1400-tallet kan Dannebrog med sikkerhed dokumenteres som rigsflag, det vil sige statsmagtens og kongens flag" (English: "Dannebrog can with certainty be documented as flag of the [[Reich|realm]], that is the flag of the authority of state and of the king, from the beginning of the 1400s")</ref>
The elongated [[Nordic cross]], which represents Christianity, reflects its use as a maritime flag in the 18th century.<ref>The medieval flags displaying crosses can be traced to the [[crusade]]s and were later used as representing saints (as in the [[St George's Flag]]), the cross representing [[Christianity]]
{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Khag6tbsIn4C&pg=PA88 |author=Jeroen Temperman|title=State Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law|year=2010|publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]|isbn=978-9004181489|quote=Many predominantly Christian states show a cross, symbolizing Christianity, on their national flag. Scandinavian crosses or Nordic crosses on the flags of the Nordic countries–Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden–also represent Christianity.|access-date=2007-12-31}}. The elongated cross design was subsequently adopted by other [[Nordic countries]]: [[Flag of Sweden|Sweden]], [[Flag of Norway|Norway]], [[Flag of Finland|Finland]], [[Flag of Iceland|Iceland]], and the [[Flag of the Faroe Islands|Faroe Islands]], as well as the [[United Kingdom|British]] archipelagos of [[Flag of Shetland|Shetland]] and [[Flag of Orkney|Orkney]].</ref> The flag became popular as a [[national flag]] in the early 16th century. Its private use was outlawed in 1834 but again permitted by a regulation of 1854. The flag holds the [[world record]] of being the oldest continuously used national flag.<ref name="world-record">{{cite web | url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/oldest-continuously-used-national-flag/ | title=Oldest continuously used national flag | work=Guinness World Records | access-date=28 November 2016}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:CyclingTeamPursuitBeijing2008.jpg|thumb|left|The Danish flag at the medal ceremony for the [[Cycling at the 2008 Summer Olympics – Men's team pursuit|men's team pursuit]] at the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] in Beijing]]

In 1748, a regulation defined the correct lengths of the two last fields in the flag as {{frac|6|4}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=59171 |title=Forordning om Coffardi-Skibes og Commis-Farernes samt de octrojerede Compagniers Skibes Flag og Giøs, samt Vimpeler og Fløie af 11. juli 1748 |date=7 November 1748 |access-date= 21 August 2016 |language=da}}</ref>
In May 1893 a new regulation to all chiefs of police stated that the police should not intervene, if the two last fields in the flag were longer than {{frac|6|4}} as long as these did not exceed {{frac|7|4}}, and provided that this was the only rule violated.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}
This regulation is still in effect today and thus the legal proportions of the National flag today are 3:1:3 in width and anywhere between 3:1:4.5 and 3:1:5.25 in length.

No official definition of "Dannebrog rød" exists. The private company ''Dansk Standard'', regulation number 359 (2005), defines the red colour of the flag as [[Pantone]] 186c.

== History ==
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2019}}

=== 1219 origin legend ===
[[File:Danmarks flag 1219 Lorentzen.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Dannebrog falling from the sky during the [[Battle of Lyndanisse|Battle of Lindanise]] ([[Tallinn]]), 15 June 1219. Painted by [[Christian August Lorentzen]] in 1809. Original located at [[Statens Museum for Kunst]], Denmark.]]

A tradition recorded in the 16th century traces the origin of the flag to the campaigns of [[Valdemar II of Denmark]] (r. 1202–1241). The oldest of them is in [[Christiern Pedersen]]'s "''Danske Krønike''", which is a sequel to [[Saxo Grammaticus|Saxo]]'s [[Gesta Danorum]], written 1520–23. Here, the flag falls from the sky during one of Valdemar's military campaigns overseas. Pedersen also states that the very same flag was taken into exile by [[Eric of Pomerania]] in 1440.

The second source is the writing of the Franciscan friar [[Petrus Olai]] (Peder Olsen) of [[Roskilde]] (died c. 1570). This record describes a battle in 1208 near [[Viljandi|Fellin]] (Viljandi) during the [[Livonian Crusade|Estonia campaign]] of King Valdemar II. The Danes were all but defeated when a lamb-skin banner depicting a white cross fell from the sky and miraculously led to a Danish victory. In a third account, also by Petrus Olai,{{dubious|date=July 2016}} in ''Danmarks Tolv Herligheder'' ("Twelve Splendours of Denmark"), in splendour number nine, the same story is re-told almost verbatim, with a paragraph inserted correcting the year to 1219.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} Now, the flag is falling from the sky in the [[Battle of Lyndanisse|Battle of Lindanise]], also known as the Battle of Valdemar (Danish: ''Volmerslaget''), near [[Lindanise]] (Tallinn) in [[Estonia]], of 15 June 1219.

It is this third account that has been the most influential, and some historians{{Who|date=April 2010}} have treated it as the primary account taken from a (lost) source dating to the first half of the 15th century.

In Olai's account, the battle was going badly, and defeat seemed imminent. However the Danish Bishop [[Anders Sunesen]], on top of a hill overlooking the battle, prayed to God with his arms raised, and the Danes moved closer to victory the more he prayed. When he raised his arms the Danes surged forward but when his arms grew tired and he let them fall, the Estonians turned the Danes back. Attendants rushed forward to raise his arms once again and the Danes again surged forward. But for a second time he grew so tired that he dropped his arms and the Danes again lost the advantage and were moving closer to defeat. He needed two soldiers to keep his hands up. When the Danes were about to lose, 'Dannebrog' miraculously fell from the sky and the King took it, showed it to the troops, their hearts were filled with courage, and the Danes won the battle.

The possible historical nucleus behind this origin legend was extensively discussed by Danish historians in the 19th to 20th centuries. One such example is [[Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen]], who argued that [[Theoderich, Bishop of Estonia|Bishop Theoderich]] was the original instigator of the 1218 inquiry from Bishop [[Albert of Buxhoeveden]] to King [[Valdemar II of Denmark|Valdemar II]] which led to the Danish participation in the Baltic crusades. Jørgensen speculates that Bishop Theoderich might have carried the Knight Hospitaller's banner in the 1219 battle and that "the enemy thought this was the King's symbol and mistakenly stormed Bishop Theoderich tent. He claims that the origin of the legend of the falling flag comes from this confusion in the battle."<ref name="Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen 1875"/>

The Danish church-historian L. P. Fabricius (1934)<ref>L. P. Fabricius ''Sagnet om Dannebrog og de ældste Forbindelser med Estland'' (1934)</ref> ascribes the origin to the 1208 Battle of Fellin, not the [[Battle of Lyndanisse|Battle of Lindanise]] in 1219, based on the earliest source available about the story. Fabricius speculated that it might have been Archbishop [[Andreas Sunesøn]]'s personal ecclesiastical banner or perhaps even the flag of Archbishop [[Absalon]], under whose initiative and supervision several smaller crusades had already been conducted in Estonia. The banner would then already be known in Estonia. Fabricius repeats Jørgensen's idea about the flag being planted in front of Bishop Theodorik's tent, which the enemy mistakenly attacked believing it to be the tent of the King.

A different theory is briefly discussed by Fabricius and elaborated more by Helge Bruhn (1949). Bruhn interprets the story in the context of the widespread tradition of the miraculous appearance of crosses in the sky in Christian legend, specifically comparing such an event attributed to a battle of 10 September 1217 near [[Alcácer do Sal|Alcazar]], where it is said that a golden cross on white appeared in the sky, to bring victory to the Christians.<ref name="Bruhn1949">{{cite book|author=Helge Bruhn|title=Dannebrog: og danske faner gennem tiderne|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIXUAAAAMAAJ|year=1949|publisher=Jespersen og Pio|pages=17–}}</ref>

In Swedish national historiography of the 18th century, there is a tale paralleling the Danish legend, in which
a golden cross appears in the blue sky during a Swedish battle in Finland in 1157.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}

=== Middle Ages ===
[[File:Gelre Folio 55v.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Gelre Armorial]] (fol. 55v), the entry for the king of Denmark showing the white-on-red cross banner]]

The white-on-red cross emblem originates in the age of the [[Crusade]]s. In the 12th century, it was also used as [[Reichssturmfahne|war flag]] by the [[Holy Roman Empire]].

In the ''[[Gelre Armorial]]'', dated {{circa}} 1340–1370, such a banner is shown alongside the [[coat of arms of Denmark|coat of arms]] of the [[king of Denmark]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.flaggenlexikon.de/fdaen.htm |title=National Flagge des Königreich Dänemark|access-date=2005-02-14 |author=Volker Preuß|language=de}}</ref> This is the earliest known undisputed colour rendering of the Dannebrog. At about the same time, [[Valdemar IV of Denmark]] displays a cross in his coat of arms on his ''Danælog'' seal (''Rettertingsseglet'', dated 1356). The image from the Armorial Gelre is nearly identical to an image found in a 15th-century coat of arms book now located in the [[National Archives of Sweden]] (''Riksarkivet''). The seal of [[Eric of Pomerania]] (1398) as king of the [[Kalmar union]] displays the arms of Denmark's chief dexter, three lions. In this version, the lions are holding a Dannebrog banner.

<gallery class="center">
File:War flag of the Holy Roman Empire (1200-1350).svg|Reichssturmfahne of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]
File:Royal Banner of Denmark (14th Century).svg|[[File:FIAV historical.svg|23px]]The royal banner of the Kings of Denmark based on the royal coat of arms
File:Erikafpommernsdanskeunionssegl.jpg|Seal of [[Eric of Pomerania]] as king of the [[Kalmar union]], 1398. A small Dannebrog banner is depicted as held by the three Danish lions in the top-left corner.
</gallery>

The reason why the kings of Denmark in the 14th century begin displaying the cross banner in their coats of arms is unknown. [[Caspar Paludan-Müller]] (1873) suggested that it may reflect a banner sent by the pope to support the Danish king during the [[Livonian Crusade]].<ref>
Caspar Paludan-Müller ''Sagnet om den himmelfaldne Danebrogsfane'' (1873)</ref> [[Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen]] (1875) identifies the banner as [[Flag of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta|that of the Knights Hospitaller]], which order had a presence in Denmark from the later 12th century.<ref name="Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen 1875">Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen, ''Danebroges Oprindelse'' (1875)</ref>

Several coins, seals, and images exist, both foreign and domestic, from the 13th to 15th centuries and even earlier, showing heraldic designs similar to Dannebrog, alongside the [[Coat of Arms of Denmark|royal coat of arms]] (three blue lions on a golden shield.)

[[File:Saxo Chr P front version 002.png|thumb|upright|The Danish flag from the front page of [[Christiern Pedersen]]'s version of [[Saxo Grammaticus|Saxo]]'s [[Gesta Danorum]], 1514 (see [[:File:Saxo Chr P front version 001.jpg|here]] for a larger version)]]

There is a record suggesting that the Danish army had a "chief banner" (''hoffuitbanner'') in the early 16th century. Such a banner is mentioned in 1570 by [[Niels Hemmingsøn]] in the context of a 1520 battle between Danes and Swedes near Uppsala as nearly captured by the Swedes but saved by the heroic actions of the banner-carrier [[Mogens Gyldenstierne]] and [[Peder Skram]]. The legend attributing the [[#Origin_legend|miraculous origin]] of the flag to the campaigns of [[Valdemar II of Denmark]] (r. 1202–1241) was recorded by [[Christiern Pedersen]] and [[Petrus Olai]] in the 1520s.

[[Hans Svaning]]'s ''History of King Hans'' from 1558 to 1559 and [[Johan Rantzau]]'s ''History about the Last [[Dithmarschen]] War'', from 1569, record the further fate of the Danish ''hoffuitbanner'': According to this tradition, the original flag from the Battle of Lindanise was used in the small campaign of 1500 when [[Hans of Denmark|King Hans]] tried to conquer [[Dithmarschen]] (in western [[Holstein]] in the north [[Germany]]). The flag was lost in a devastating defeat at the [[Battle of Hemmingstedt]] on 17 February 1500. In 1559, King [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederik II]] recaptured it during his own [[Dithmarschen]] campaign.

In 1576, the son of ''Johan Rantzau'', [[Henrik Rantzau]], also writes about the war and the fate of the flag, noting that the flag was in a poor condition when returned. He records that the flag after its return to Denmark was placed in the cathedral in [[City of Schleswig|Slesvig]]. Slesvig historian [[Ulrik Petersen]] (1656–1735) confirms the presence of such a banner in the cathedral in the early 17th century and records that it had crumbled away by about 1660.

Contemporary records describing the battle of Hemmingstedt make no reference to the loss of the original Dannebrog, although the capitulation state that all Danish banners lost in 1500 was to be returned. In a letter dated 22 February 1500 to [[Oluf Stigsøn]], King John describes the battle but does not mention the loss of an important flag. In fact, the entire letter gives the impression that the lost battle was of limited importance. In 1598, [[Neocorus]] wrote that the banner captured in 1500 was brought to the church in [[Wöhrden]] and hung there for the next 59 years until it was returned to the Danes as part of the peace settlement in 1559.

===Modern period ===
[[File:Tropper 1849.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Danish soldiers return to Copenhagen after the [[Battle of Fredericia]] (1849), a Danish victory against German insurgents in [[Duchy of Holstein|Holstein]] and [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]] in the [[First Schleswig War]] (1894 painting by [[Otto Bache]])]]
[[File:Danish West Indies, from Flags of All Nations, Series 2 (N10) for Allen & Ginter Cigarettes Brands MET DP841370.jpg|thumb|[[Cigarette card]] of 1890, depicting the [[royal standard]] of the [[Danish West Indies]]]]

Used as a maritime flag since the 16th century, the Dannebrog was introduced as a regimental flag in the Danish army in 1785, and for the militia (landeværn) in 1801. From 1842, it was used as the flag of the entire army.<ref name=Achen108>Sven Tito Achen, '' Heraldikkens femten glæder'' (1978), p. 108f.</ref>

During the first half of the 19th century, in parallel to the development of [[Romantic nationalism]] in other European countries, the military flag increasingly came to be seen as representing the nation itself. Poems of this period invoking the ''Dannebrog'' were written by B.S. Ingemann, N.F.S. Grundtvig, Oehlenschläger, Chr. Winther and H.C. Andersen.<ref name=Achen108/> By the 1830s, the military flag had become popular as an unofficial national flag, and its use by private citizens was outlawed in a circular enacted on 7 January 1834.

In the national enthusiasm sparked by the [[First Schleswig War]] during 1848–1850, the flag was still very widely displayed, and the prohibition of private use was repealed in a regulation of 7 July 1854, for the first time allowing Danish citizens to display the Dannebrog (but not the swallow-tailed ''Splitflag'' variant).<ref>''[https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=58409 Cirkulærer om ophævelse af forbuddet mod flagning i kanceli cirkulære af 7. januar 1834]'' (retsinformation.dk)</ref> Special permission to use the ''Splitflag'' was given to individual institutions and private companies, especially after 1870.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} In 1886, the war ministry introduced a regulation indicating that the flag should be flown from military buildings on thirteen specified days, including royal birthdays, the date of the signing of the Constitution of 5 June 1849 and on days of remembrance for military battles. In 1913, the naval ministry issued its own list of flag days. On 10 April 1915, the hoisting of any ''other'' flag on Danish soil was prohibited.<ref>''International Law Studies'', Naval War College (U.S.), 1918, [https://books.google.com/books?id=trmPvyYVRhgC&pg=PA83 p. 83].</ref> From 1939 until 2012, the yearbook ''Hvem-Hvad-Hvor'' included a list of flag days. As of 2019 flag days can be viewed at the [https://www.justitsministeriet.dk/temaer/flagning/flagdage/ "Ministry of Justice (Justitsministeriet)"] as well as [http://www.danmarks-samfundet.dk "The Denmark Society (Danmarks-Samfundet)"].

== Variants ==

=== Maritime flag and corresponding Kingdom flag ===
[[File:DannebrogUpDSR.ogv|thumb|left|The Rigets flag/Splitflag raised at the opening of the DSR rowing club]]

{{flag image|Image = Flag of Denmark (state).svg|NoBorder = yes|NoCentering = yes|Caption = {{FIAV|011010}}{{FIAV|normal}}''Rigets flag'' – the Danish state flag Also known as the ''Splitflag''. Proportions: 56:107<ref name="encyklopædien">[[Store Danske Encyklopædi]] – entry "Danmark -nationalflag"</ref>|Width=210}}

{{flag image|Image = Naval Ensign of Denmark.svg|NoBorder = yes|NoCentering = yes|Caption = {{FIAV|000001}}{{FIAV|normal}} The ''Orlogsflag'' – the Danish naval flag. Proportions: 7:17<ref name="encyklopædien" />|Width=210}}

The size and shape of the [[civil ensign]] ("''Koffardiflaget''") for merchant ships is given in the regulation of 11 June 1748, which says: ''A red flag with a white cross with no split end. The white cross must be {{frac|7}} of the flag's height. The two first fields must be square in form and the two outer fields must be {{frac|6|4}} lengths of those''. The proportions are thus: 3:1:3 vertically and 3:1:4.5 horizontally. This definition are the absolute proportions for the Danish national flag to this day, for both the civil version of the flag ("''Stutflaget''"), as well as the merchant flag ("''Handelsflaget''"). The civil flag and the merchant flag are identical in colour and design.

A regulation passed in 1758 required Danish ships sailing in the [[Mediterranean]] to carry the [[royal cypher]] in the center of the flag in order to distinguish them from Maltese ships, due to the similarity of the [[flag of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta]].

According to the regulation of 11 June 1748 the colour was simply red, which is common known today as "Dannebrog rød" ("''Dannebrog red''"). The only available red fabric dye in 1748 was made of [[Rubia|madder root]], which can be processed to produce a brilliant red dye (used historically for British soldiers' jackets). A regulation of 4 May 1927 once again states that Danish merchant ships have to fly flags according to the regulation of 1748.

The first regulation regarding the ''Splitflag'' dates from 27 March 1630, in which King [[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]] orders that Norwegian ''Defensionskibe'' (armed merchants ships) may only use the ''Splitflag'' if they are in Danish war service. In 1685 an order, distributed to a number of cities in [[Duchy of Schleswig|Slesvig]], states that all ships must carry the Danish flag, and in 1690 all merchant ships are forbidden to use the ''Splitflag'', with the exception of ships sailing in the [[East Indies]], [[West Indies]] and along the coast of [[Africa]]. In 1741 it is confirmed that the regulation of 1690 is still very much in effect; that merchant ships may not use the ''Splitflag''. At the same time the [[Danish East India Company]] is allowed to fly the ''Splitflag'' when past the [[equator]].

Some confusion must have existed regarding the ''Splitflag''. In 1696 the Admiralty presented the King with a proposal for a standard regulating both size and shape of the ''Splitflag''. In the same year a royal resolution defines the proportions of the ''Splitflag'', which in this resolution is called ''Kongeflaget'' (the King's flag), as follows: ''The cross must be {{frac|7}} of the flags height. The two first fields must be square in form with the sides three times the cross width. The two outer fields are rectangular and {{Frac|1|1|2}} the length of the square fields. The tails are the length of the flag''.

These numbers are the basic for the ''Splitflag'', or ''Orlogsflag'', today, though the numbers have been slightly altered. The term ''Orlogsflag'' dates from 1806 and denotes use in the Danish Navy.

From about 1750 to the early 19th century, a number of ships and companies which the government has interests in, received approval to use the ''Splitflag''.

In the royal resolution of 25 October 1939 for the Danish Navy, it is stated that the ''Orlogsflag'' is a ''Splitflag'' with a deep red ("''dybrød''") or madder red ("''kraprød''") colour. Like the National flag, no nuance is given, but in modern days this is given as 195U. Furthermore, the size and shape is corrected in this resolution to be: "The cross must be {{frac|7}} of the flag's height. The two first fields must be square in form with the height of {{Frac|3|7}} of the flag's height. The two outer fields are rectangular and {{frac|5|4}} the length of the square fields. The tails are {{frac|6|4}} the length of the rectangular fields". Thus, if compared to the standard of 1696, both the rectangular fields and the tails have decreased in size.

The ''Splitflag'' and ''Orlogsflag'' have similar shapes but different sizes and shades of red. Legally, they are two different flags. The ''Splitflag'' is a Danish flag ending in a swallow-tail, it is ''Dannebrog red'', and is used on land. The ''Orlogsflag'' is an elongated ''Splitflag'' with a deeper red colour and is only used on sea.

The ''Orlogsflag'' with no markings, may only be used by the [[Royal Danish Navy]]. There are though a few exceptions to this. A few institutions have been allowed to fly the clean ''Orlogsflag''. The same flag with markings has been approved for a few dozen companies and institutions over the years.

Furthermore, the ''Orlogsflag'' is only described as such if it has no additional markings. Any swallow-tail flag, no matter the colour, is called a ''Splitflag'' provided it bears additional markings.

=== Royal standards ===

;Monarch
The current version of the [[royal standard]] was introduced on 16 November 1972 when the [[Margrethe II of Denmark|Queen]] adopted a new version of her personal coat of arms. The royal standard is the flag of Denmark with a swallow-tail and charged with the [[Coat of arms of Denmark|monarch's coat of arms]] set in a white square. The centre square is 32 parts in a flag with the ratio 56:107.

{{Flag image|Image = Royal Standard of Denmark.svg|Width = 300|Pos = center|Caption ={{FIAV|normal}} {{FIAV|Mirror}} Royal standard of Denmark|NoBorder = yes|NoCentering = yes}}

;Other members of the royal family
<gallery class="center">
File:Standard of the Crown Prince of Denmark.svg|{{FIAV|normal}} {{FIAV|Mirror}} Standard of [[Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark|Frederik]] the Crown Prince of Denmark
File:Standard of the Regent of Denmark.svg|{{FIAV|normal}} {{FIAV|Mirror}} Standard of the Regent of Denmark
File:Standard of the Royal House of Denmark.svg|{{FIAV|normal}} {{FIAV|Mirror}} Standard of the royal house- used by other members of the [[Danish Royal Family|Royal Family]]
File:Standard of Frederik the Crown Prince of Denmark at Amalienborg.jpg| Standard of Frederik the Crown Prince of Denmark flying at [[Amalienborg]]
</gallery>

== Other flags in the Kingdom of Denmark ==
[[Greenland]] and the [[Faroe Islands]] are autonomous territories<ref name=territory>* {{Cite web|url=http://www.gfbv.it/3dossier/eu-min/autonomy.html|title=The working autonomies in Europe|publisher=[[Society for Threatened Peoples]]|quote=Denmark has established very specific territorial autonomies with its two island territories|last=Benedikter|first=Thomas|date=2006-06-19|access-date=2019-08-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309063149/http://www.gfbv.it/3dossier/eu-min/autonomy.html|archive-date=2008-03-09|url-status=dead}}
*{{Cite web|url=http://www.world-autonomies.info/tas/Greenland/Pages/default.aspx|title=Greenland|last=Ackrén|first=Maria|publisher=Autonomy Arrangements in the World|date=November 2017|quote=Faroese and Greenlandic are seen as official regional languages in the self-governing territories belonging to Denmark.|access-date=2019-08-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830110832/http://www.world-autonomies.info/tas/Greenland/Pages/default.aspx|archive-date=2019-08-30|url-status=dead}}
*{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/countries/greenland_en|title=Greenland|date=2013-06-03|website=International Cooperation and Development|publisher=[[European Commission]]|language=en|access-date=2019-08-27|quote=Greenland [...] is an autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.norden.org/en/fakta-om-norden-1/the-nordic-countries-the-faroe-islands-greenland-and-aaland/facts-about-the-faroe-islands|title=Facts about the Faroe Islands|publisher=Nordic cooperation|access-date=1 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423094907/http://www.norden.org/en/fakta-om-norden-1/the-nordic-countries-the-faroe-islands-greenland-and-aaland/facts-about-the-faroe-islands|archive-date=23 April 2018|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all|quote=The Faroe Islands [...] is one of three autonomous territories in the Nordic Region}}</ref> within the Kingdom of Denmark. They have their own official flags.

<gallery class="center" align="center" widths="150">
File:Flag of the Faroe Islands.svg|8:11 {{FIAV|110110}}{{FIAV|normal}} [[Flag of the Faroe Islands]]
File:Flag of Greenland.svg|2:3 {{FIAV|110110}}{{FIAV|normal}} [[Flag of Greenland]]
</gallery>

Some areas in Denmark have unofficial flags. While they have no legal recognition or regulation, they can be used freely.

The regional flags of Bornholm and Ærø are occasionally used by locals of those islands and in tourist-related businesses.

The proposal for a flag of Jutland has hardly found any actual use, maybe in part due to its peculiar design.<ref>[http://www.harteg.dk/bornholmsflag/?Artikler:Bornholms_omr%E5deflag_afvist] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814094115/http://www.harteg.dk/bornholmsflag/?Artikler:Bornholms_omr%E5deflag_afvist|date=2014-08-14}} harteg.dk Bornholms områdeflag afvist</ref>

The flag of Vendsyssel (Vendelbrog) is seen infrequently, but many locals recognise it. According to an article in the newspaper [[Nordjyske]], the flag had been used in the former insignia of Flight [[Eskadrille 723]] of [[Ålborg Air Base|Aalborg Air Base]], in the 1980s.

{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
! width="110"|Flag!!width="100"|Date introduced!!width="250"|Use!!width="250"|Description
|-
| [[File:Flag of Ærø.svg|100px|border]] || 1633 || Unofficial flag of [[Ærø]] || [[Tricolour (flag)|Tricolour]] in yellow, green and red. Very similar to the [[Flag of Lithuania]]
|-
| [[File:Flag of Denmark Bornholm.svg|100px|border]] || 1970s || Unofficial [[flag of Bornholm]] || [[Nordic Cross Flag]] in red and green. Also known in a version with a white fimbriation of the green cross in a style similar to design of the [[Flag of Norway|Norwegian flag]]
|-
| [[File:Flag of Jutland.svg|100px]] || 1975 || Proposed flag of [[Jutland]] || [[Nordic Cross Flag]] in blue, green and red. Designed by [[Per Kramer]] in 1975<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.klauber-flag.dk/flag.asp?cmd%3Ddetails%26flag%3D1796 |title=Flag, Danneborg, dannebrogsflag, dannebrogsvimpler og dannebrogsstander |access-date=April 1, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530234340/http://www.klauber-flag.dk/flag.asp?cmd=details&flag=1796 |archive-date=May 30, 2013 }} klauber-flag.dk</ref> Rarely seen in use.
|-
| [[File:Unofficial flag of Vendsyssel.svg|100px|border]] || 1976 || Unofficial [[flag of Vendsyssel]] || [[Nordic Cross Flag]] in blue, orange and green<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.klauber-flag.dk/flag.asp?cmd%3Ddetails%26flag%3D3884 |title=Flag, Danneborg, dannebrogsflag, dannebrogsvimpler og dannebrogsstander |access-date=April 1, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530205252/http://www.klauber-flag.dk/flag.asp?cmd=details&flag=3884 |archive-date=May 30, 2013 }} klauber-flag.dk – Vendelbrog</ref> Designed by Mogens Bohøj.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://nordjyske.dk/nyheder/det-faldt-ikke-nedfra-himlen----/d7dd1a00-9f34-4eef-ab98-c88111bbf75e/4/1513| title = nordjyske.dk Det faldt ikke nedfra himlen ...}}</ref>
|}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Denmark|Faroe Islands}}

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Flag of Greenland]]
*[[Flag of the Faroe Islands]]
*[[List of Danish flags]]
*[[Nordic Cross flag]]
*[[Raven banner]]
*[[Flag and coat of arms of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta|Flag of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta]]
*[[Flag of Savoy]]
*[[Danish Protest Pig]], a breed of pig bred to look like the Danish flag.
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

===General references===
{{more footnotes|date=June 2011}}
* [http://www.danmarks-samfundet.dk Danmarks-Samfundet] – several rules and customs about the use of Dannebrog
* ''Dannebrog'', Helga Bruhn, Forlaget Jespersen og Pios, Copenhagen 1949
* ''Danebrog – Danmarks Palladium'', E. D. Lund, Forlaget H. Hagerups, Copenhagen 1919
* ''Dannebrog – Vort Flag'', Lieutenant Colonel Thaulow, Forlaget Codan, Copenhagen 1943
* ''DS 359:2005 'Flagdug''', Dansk Standard, 2005

== External links ==
{{Commons category|National flag of Denmark}}
* {{FOTW|id=dk|title=Denmark}}
* [http://www.tourism.tallinn.ee/fpage/explore/attractions/old_town/newwin-place/print/id-174827 Danish flag legendary birthplace in Estonia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120823051043/http://www.tourism.tallinn.ee/fpage/explore/attractions/old_town/newwin-place/print/id-174827 |date=2012-08-23 }}
{{Clear}}
{{Denmark topics}}
{{Danish flags}}
{{Flag of Europe}}
{{nationalflags}}

[[Category:National symbols of Denmark]]
[[Category:National flags|Denmark]]
[[Category:Flags of Denmark| ]]
[[Category:Nordic Cross flags|Denmark]]
[[Category:Red and white flags|Denmark]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

Donetsk Oblast

2023-04-16T20:15:45Z

3 Löwi:

{{Short description|Oblast (region) of Ukraine}}
{{About|the Ukrainian oblast|the disputed Russian entity|Donetsk People's Republic}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=June 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Donetsk Oblast
| native_name = Донецька область
| native_name_lang = uk
| official_name = Donetska oblast<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Syvak|first1=Nina|last2=Ponomarenko|first2=Valerii|last3=Khodzinska|first3=Olha|last4=Lakeichuk|first4=Iryna|date=2011|editor-last=Veklych|editor-first=Lesia|others=scientific consultant Iryna Rudenko; reviewed by Nataliia Kizilowa; translated by Olha Khodzinska|title=Toponymic Guidelines for Map and Other Editors for International Use|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/Toponymic%20guidelines%20PDF/Ukraine/Verstka.pdf|page=20|access-date=2020-10-06|website=[[United Nations Statistics Division]]|publisher=DerzhHeoKadastr and Kartographia|location=Kyiv|isbn=978-966-475-839-7}}</ref>
| nickname = {{lang|uk|Донеччина}} ({{transliteration|uk|Donechchyna}})
| settlement_type = [[Oblasts of Ukraine|Oblast]]
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_flag = Flag_of_Donetsk_Oblast.svg
| flag_alt = Flag of Donetsk Oblast
| image_shield = Coat of Arms of Donetsk Oblast 1999.svg
| shield_alt = Coat of arms of Donetsk Oblast
| image_map = Donetsk in Ukraine (claims hatched).svg
| mapsize = 275px
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|48.14|37.74|type:adm1st_region:UA|display=inline,title}}
| coor_pinpoint =
| coordinates_footnotes =
| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name = [[Ukraine]]
| parts_type = [[List of cities in Ukraine by population|Largest cities]]
| parts_style = para
| p1 =
| established_title = Established
| established_date = 3 June 1938
| seat_type = [[Administrative centre|Administrative center]]
| seat = [[Donetsk]] (''de jure'') [[Kramatorsk]] (''de facto'')
| leader_party =
| leader_title = [[Governor of Donetsk Oblast|Governor]]
| leader_name = [[Pavlo Kyrylenko]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.president.gov.ua/en/news/yakisna-infrastruktura-ta-svoyechasna-viplata-zarplat-i-pens-56213|title=High-quality infrastructure and timely payment of salaries and pensions: President set tasks for newly appointed Donetsk RSA Head Pavlo Kyrylenko|work=[[Office of the President of Ukraine|president.gov.ua]]|date=5 July 2019|access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref>
| leader_title1 = [[Donetsk Oblast Council|Oblast council]]
| leader_name1 = 150 seats
| leader_title2 = Chairperson
| leader_name2 =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 26517
| area_land_km2 =
| area_water_km2 =
| area_water_percent =
| area_rank = [[List of Ukrainian oblasts and territories by area|Ranked 11th]]
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_footnotes = <ref name="ua2022estimate">{{cite web |url= https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2022/04/22/7341277/|title=Donetsk Region: Almost three quarters of the population left - regional head |last=Kalatur |first=Anastasia |date=April 22, 2022 |website=Pravda |publisher=Ukrainia Pravda |access-date=February 20, 2023 |quote=Almost three quarters of the population have left the Ukrainian-controlled territory of Donetsk Region - currently there are about 430 thousand people left. - Head of the Donetsk Regional State Administration, Pavlo Kyrylenko, during the joint 24/7 national news broadcast, quoted by Ukraine’s Centre for Strategic Communications and Information Security.}}</ref>
| population_total = {{decrease}} 4059372
| population_rank = [[List of Ukrainian oblasts and territories by population|Ranked 1st]]
| population_as_of = 1 January 2022
| population_blank1_title = Annual growth
| population_blank1 =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = Demographics
| demographics1_footnotes = 
| demographics1_title1 = {{nowrap|[[Official language|Official language(s)]]}}
| demographics1_info1 = [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| demographics1_title2 = [[List of Ukrainian oblasts and territories by salary|Average salary]]
| demographics1_info2 = [[Ukrainian hryvnia|UAH]] 1161 (2006)
| demographics1_title3 = Salary growth
| demographics1_info3 =
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Raions of Ukraine|Raion]]s
| blank_info_sec1 = 18
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[List of cities in Ukraine by subdivision#Donetsk Oblast|Cities]] (total)
| blank1_info_sec1 = 52
| blank2_name_sec1 = • [[City of regional significance (Ukraine)|Regional cities]]
| blank2_info_sec1 = 28
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[List of urban-type settlements in Ukraine by subdivision#Donetsk Oblast|{{nowrap|Urban-type settlements}}]]
| blank3_info_sec1 = 131
| blank4_name_sec1 = Villages
| blank4_info_sec1 = 1124
| timezone1 = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
| utc_offset1 = +2
| timezone1_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
| utc_offset1_DST = +3
| postal_code_type = [[Ukrainian postal codes|Postal code]]
| postal_code = 83000–87999
| area_code_type = [[Area code#Ukraine|Area code]]
| area_code = [[Area code#Ukraine|+380-62]]
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:UA|UA-14]]
| registration_plate_type = [[Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine|Vehicle registration]]
| registration_plate = АН
| blank_name_sec2 = [[FIPS 10-4]]
| blank_info_sec2 = [[List of FIPS region codes (S-U)#UP: Ukraine|UP05]]
| website = [http://dn.gov.ua/ dn.gov.ua]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Donetsk Oblast''' ({{lang-uk|Донецька область|Donetska oblast|link=no}}, {{IPA-uk|doˈnɛtsʲkɐ ˈɔblɐsʲtʲ|IPA}}), also referred to as '''Donechchyna''' ({{lang-ukr|Донеччина|label=none}}), is an [[Oblasts of Ukraine|oblast]] in eastern [[Ukraine]]. It is Ukraine's most populous province, with around 4.1 million residents. Its [[capital city|administrative centre]] is [[Donetsk]], though due to the ongoing [[Russo-Ukrainian War]], the regional administration was moved to [[Kramatorsk]].<ref>[http://mw.ua/UKRAINE/kikhtenko-to-move-donetsk-administration-to-kramatorsk-and-to-leave-power-structures-in-mariupol-119_.html Kikhtenko to move Donetsk administration to Kramatorsk and to leave power structures in Mariupol] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019083422/http://mw.ua/UKRAINE/kikhtenko-to-move-donetsk-administration-to-kramatorsk-and-to-leave-power-structures-in-mariupol-119_.html |date=19 October 2017 }} ''Mirror Weekly, mw.ua''</ref> Historically, the region has been an important part of the [[Donbas]] region. From its creation in 1938 until November 1961, it bore the name ''Stalino Oblast'' as Donetsk was then named "Stalino" (for [[Joseph Stalin]]). As part of the [[de-Stalinization]] process, it was renamed after the [[Siversky Donets]] river, the main artery of [[Eastern Ukraine]]. Its population is estimated as {{Ua-pop-est2021|4,100,280}}

The oblast is known for its [[urban sprawl]] of [[Donetsk]]–[[Makiivka]] and [[Horlivka]]–[[Yenakiieve]] and it is often associated with the coal mining industry.

In 2014, parts of the oblast, including Donetsk, came under the control of Russian-backed separatists who declared the [[Donetsk People's Republic]], leading to a [[War in Donbas (2014–2022)|war against government forces]]; the ''de facto'' administrative center was subsequently moved to [[Mariupol]] and then [[Kramatorsk]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Kikhtenko to move Donetsk administration to Kramatorsk and to leave power structures in Mariupol|url=http://mw.ua/UKRAINE/kikhtenko-to-move-donetsk-administration-to-kramatorsk-and-to-leave-power-structures-in-mariupol-119_.html|website=[[Dzerkalo Tyzhnia]]|access-date=3 November 2014|language=ru|archive-date=19 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019083422/http://mw.ua/UKRAINE/kikhtenko-to-move-donetsk-administration-to-kramatorsk-and-to-leave-power-structures-in-mariupol-119_.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> During the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], the oblast again became the site of [[Battle of Donbas (2022)|heavy fighting]], and Russia later declared [[Annexation of Southern and Eastern Ukraine|the annexation]] of the entirety of the oblast as well as three other regions, though the annexation remains internationally unrecognized and only about half of the oblast is under Russian military occupation.

==History==
Before the establishment of the Donetsk Oblast, three districts ([[Okruhas of the Ukrainian SSR|okruhas]]) existed on its territory from 1923 to 1930. The [[Donets Governorate]] was terminated in 1925. As part of [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet Ukraine]], the Donetsk Oblast was established on 2 July 1932 out of the [[Kharkiv Oblast]], the [[Dnipropetrovsk Oblast]] and a number of raions that were under the direct administration of [[Kharkiv]] (then-capital of the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]]). Artemivsk (today [[Bakhmut]]) served as the oblast's administrative center for two weeks until 16 July 1932, when the city of Stalino (today [[Donetsk]]) took on the role. Until 1938, the Donetsian Oblast included the territories of the modern Donetsk Oblast and the [[Luhansk Oblast]]. In June 1938 it was split into the Stalino Oblast (modern Donetsk Oblast) and the Voroshylovhrad Oblast (modern Luhansk Oblast).

During the [[Reichskommissariat Ukraine|Nazi German occupation]] from fall 1941 to fall 1943, Donetsk Oblast was known as Yuzivka Oblast (after the original name of Donetsk).

As part of [[de-Stalinization]] in the [[Soviet Union]], in 1961 Stalino and Stalino Oblast were renamed Donetsk and Donetsk Oblast.

During the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], 83.9% of voters in Donetsk Oblast approved Ukraine's declaration of independence in the [[1991 Ukrainian independence referendum|1991 referendum]].<ref name=UKrW812991>{{cite news |url= http://www.ukrweekly.com/old/archive/1991/499101.shtml |title= Independence – over 90% vote yes in referendum; Kravchuk elected president of Ukraine] |work= [[The Ukrainian Weekly]] |date= 8 December 1991 |access-date= 4 January 2017 |archive-date= 19 October 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171019083729/http://www.ukrweekly.com/old/archive/1991/499101.shtml |url-status= dead }}</ref>

In the mid-1990s, the region became known for its heightened criminal activity, including the killings of high-profile business people such as [[Akhat Bragin]] and [[Yevhen Shcherban]]. Donetsk Oblast was also a base for Ukraine's main pro-Russian political faction, [[Party of Regions]], which became part of the Ukrainian government in 2002 and paved a way into Ukrainian politics for the powerful "Donetsk political clan".

In late 2004, the Party of Regions was involved in the creation of a political project, the [[South-East Ukrainian Autonomous Republic]], which was intended to include Donetsk Oblast. Having close ties with the Russian government, the Party of Regions, along with local communists and other pro-Russian activists, instigated the [[2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine|pro-Russian unrest]] which escalated into the [[War in Donbas (2014–2022)|war in Donbas]]. In May 2014, the Ukrainian government lost control over its border with Russia in the Donetsk Oblast. Currently, the eastern part of the oblast is [[Russian occupation of Donetsk Oblast|occupied by Russia]].

On 30 September 2022 Russia [[Annexation of Southern and Eastern Ukraine|annexed]] the Donetsk (DPR), [[Luhansk Oblast|Luhansk]] ([[Luhansk People's Republic]]), [[Zaporizhzhia Oblast|Zaporizhzhia]], and [[Kherson Oblast|Kherson]] Oblasts. The [[United Nations]] [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]] subsequently passed a [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/4|resolution]] calling on countries not to recognise what it described as an "attempted illegal annexation," demanded that Russia "immediately, completely and unconditionally withdraw"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ukraine: UN General Assembly demands Russia reverse course on 'attempted illegal annexation' |date=12 October 2022 |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/10/1129492}}</ref> and most nations of the world have not recognized the annexations. As of the end of 2022, the oblast is divided roughly equally between the opposing sides.

==Geography==

Donetsk Oblast is located in southeastern Ukraine. The area of the oblast (26,517 km2) comprises about 4.4% of the total area of the country. The oblast borders the [[Dnipropetrovsk Oblast|Dnipropetrovsk]] and [[Zaporizhzhia Oblast]]s to the southwest, the [[Kharkiv Oblast]] to the north, the [[Luhansk Oblast]] to the northeast, the [[Rostov Oblast]] in Russia to the east, and the [[Sea of Azov]] to the south.

Its extent from north to south is 270 km, from east to west – 190 km. The extreme points of the oblast's borders are: [[Bilosarayska Kosa]] ([[Spit (landform)|spit]]) in the south, Shevchenko of [[Velykonovosilkivskyi Raion]] in the west, Verkhnyi Kut of [[Shakhtarskyi Raion]] in the east, and Lozove of [[Lyman Raion, Donetsk Oblast|Lyman Raion]] in the north.

The state historic-architectural site near the city of [[Sviatohirsk]] with the [[Sviatohirsk Lavra]] was nominated for the [[Seven Wonders of Ukraine]].

[[File:Donetsk oblast detail map.png|thumb|200px|Detailed map of Donetsk Oblast]]

==Administrative divisions==
{{main|Administrative divisions of Donetsk Oblast}}

The province is primarily divided into 18 ''[[raions]]'' (districts) and 28 municipalities of equal status (22 ''miskradas''{{which lang?|date=March 2020}} and 6 ''mistos'' – cities of regional significance), including the provincial administrative center [[Donetsk]]. These are listed below with their areas and populations.<ref name="ReferenceA">State Statistics Committee of Ukraine, Kiev.</ref>

{| class="sortable wikitable"
! Name || Local Name || Area (km2) || Population Census 2001 || Population Estimate<ref name="ReferenceA"/> 1 Jan 2012 || {{tooltip|Admin.ctr|Administration center}}
|-
| [[Avdiivka]] || Авдіївка (місто) ||align="right"| 29 ||align="right"| 37,237 ||align="right"| 35,257 || —
|-
| [[Bakhmut]] || Бахмут (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 74 ||align="right"| 113,785 ||align="right"| 104,631 || Bakhmut
|-
| [[Debaltseve]] || Дебальцеве (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 38 ||align="right"| 53,412 ||align="right"| 46,302 || Debaltseve
|-
| [[Dobropillia]] || Добропілля (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 119 ||align="right"| 72,817 ||align="right"| 63,938 || Dobropillia
|-
| [[Dokuchaievsk]] || Докучаївськ (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 47 ||align="right"| 25,024 ||align="right"| 24,506 || Dokuchaevsk
|-
| [[Donetsk]] || Донецьк (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 571 ||align="right"| 1,024,678 ||align="right"| 971,096 || Donetsk
|-
| [[Druzhkivka]] || Дружківка (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 23 ||align="right"| 75,006 ||align="right"| 70,126 || Druzhkivka
|-
| [[Horlivka]] || Горлівка (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 422 ||align="right"| 312,284 ||align="right"| 279,500 || Horlivka
|-
| [[Khartsyzk]] || Харцизьк (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 207 ||align="right"| 113,685 ||align="right"| 105,104 || Khartsyzk
|-
| [[Kirovske, Donetsk Oblast|Kirovske]] (''Krestivka'')|| Кіровське (місто) ||align="right"| 7 ||align="right"| 31,041 ||align="right"| 28,470 || —
|-
| [[Kostiantynivka]] || Костянтинівка (місто) ||align="right"| 66 ||align="right"| 94,886 ||align="right"| 78,114 || —
|-
| [[Kramatorsk]] || Краматорськ (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 356 ||align="right"| 215,729 ||align="right"| 199,020 || Kramatorsk
|-
| [[Lyman, Ukraine|Lyman]] || Лиман (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 192 ||align="right"| 28,996 ||align="right"| 23,740 || Lyman
|-
| [[Makiivka]] || Макіївка (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 426 ||align="right"| 431,023 ||align="right"| 394,604 || Makiivka
|-
| [[Mariupol]] || Маріуполь (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 244 ||align="right"| 510,835 ||align="right"| 486,320 || Mariupol
|-
| [[Myrnohrad]] || Мирноград (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 20 ||align="right"| 56,702 ||align="right"| 50,995 || Myrnohrad
|-
| [[Novohrodivka]] || Новогродівка (місто) ||align="right"| 6 ||align="right"| 17,559 ||align="right"| 15,560 || —
|-
| [[Pokrovsk, Ukraine|Pokrovsk]] || Покровськ (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 39 ||align="right"| 82,830 ||align="right"| 77,891 || Pokrovsk
|-
| [[Selydove]] || Селидове (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 108 ||align="right"| 62,819 ||align="right"| 54,626 || Selydove
|-
| [[Shakhtarsk]] || Шахтарськ (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 51 ||align="right"| 72,711 ||align="right"| 61,234 || Shakhtarsk
|-
| [[Sloviansk]] || Слов'янськ (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 74 ||align="right"| 142,873 ||align="right"| 138,450 || Sloviansk
|-
| [[Snizhne]] || Сніжне (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 189 ||align="right"| 83,046 ||align="right"| 71,277 || Snizhne
|-
| [[Toretsk]] || Торецьк (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 62 ||align="right"| 86,281 ||align="right"| 74,435 || Toretsk
|-
| [[Torez]] || Торез (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 105 ||align="right"| 96,026 ||align="right"| 81,761 || Torez
|-
| [[Vuhledar]] || Вугледар (місто) ||align="right"| 5 ||align="right"| 17,518 ||align="right"| 15,477 || —
|-
| [[Yasynuvata]] || Яcинувата (місто) ||align="right"| 19 ||align="right"| 36,903 ||align="right"| 35,843 || —
|-
| [[Yenakiieve]] || Єнакієве (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 425 ||align="right"| 162,778 ||align="right"| 132,110 || Yenakiieve
|-
| [[Zhdanivka]] || Жданівка (Міськрада) ||align="right"| 2 ||align="right"| 14,375 ||align="right"| 13,377 || Zhdanivka
|-
| [[Amvrosiivka Raion|Amvrosiivsky]] (raion) || Амвросіївський (район) ||align="right"| 1,455 ||align="right"| 54,939 ||align="right"| 46,081 || Amvrosiivsk
|-
| [[Bakhmut Raion|Bakhmutsky]] (raion) || Бахмутський (район) ||align="right"| 1,687 ||align="right"| 54,065 ||align="right"| 45,367 || Bakhmut
|-
| [[Dobropillia Raion|Dobropilsky]] (raion) || Добропільський (район) ||align="right"| 949 ||align="right"| 20,659 ||align="right"| 16,980 || Dobropillia
|-
| [[Kostiantynivka Raion|Kostyantynivsky]] (raion) || Костянтинівський (район) ||align="right"| 1,172 ||align="right"| 21,132 ||align="right"| 19,256 || Kostiantynivka
|-
| [[Lyman Raion, Donetsk Oblast|Lymansky]] (raion) || Лиманський (район) ||align="right"| 1,018 ||align="right"| 24,974 ||align="right"| 22,136 || Lyman
|-
| [[Marinka Raion|Marynsky]] (raion) || Мар'їнський (район) ||align="right"| 1,350 ||align="right"| 90,045 ||align="right"| 84,571 || Marïnka
|-
| [[Novoazovsk Raion|Novoazovsky]] (raion) || Новоазовський (район) ||align="right"| 1,000 ||align="right"| 38,902 ||align="right"| 36,066 || Novoazovsk
|-
| [[Oleksandrivka Raion, Donetsk Oblast|Oleksandrivsky]] (raion) || Олександрівський (район) ||align="right"| 1,010 ||align="right"| 23,036 ||align="right"| 19,804 || Oleksandrivka
|-
| [[Pershotravnevyi Raion|Pershotravnevy]] (raion) || Першотравневий (район) ||align="right"| 792 ||align="right"| 29,312 ||align="right"| 27,325 || Manhush
|-
| [[Shakhtarsk Raion|Shakhtarsky]] (raion) || Шахтарський (район) ||align="right"| 1,194 ||align="right"| 24,262 ||align="right"| 19,974 || Shakhtarsk
|-
| [[Pokrovsk Raion|Pokrovsk]] (raion) || Покровський (район) ||align="right"| 1,316 ||align="right"| 37,567 ||align="right"| 32,439 || Pokrovsk
|-
| [[Sloviansk Raion|Slovyansky]] (raion) || Слов'янський (район) ||align="right"| 1,274 ||align="right"| 39,188 ||align="right"| 34,334 || Sloviansk
|-
| [[Starobesheve Raion|Starobeshivsky]] (raion) || Старобешівський (район) ||align="right"| 1,255 ||align="right"| 55,952 ||align="right"| 51,068 || Starobesheve
|-
| [[Telmanove Raion|Telmanivsky]] (raion) || Тельманівський (район) ||align="right"| 1,340 ||align="right"| 35,365 ||align="right"| 29,965 || Telmanove
|-
| [[Velyka Novosilka Raion|Velikonovosilkivsky]] (raion) || Великоновосілівський (район) ||align="right"| 1,901 ||align="right"| 49,323 ||align="right"| 41,943 || Velyka Novosilka
|-
| [[Volnovakha Raion|Volnovasky]] (raion) || Волноваський (район) ||align="right"| 1,848 ||align="right"| 92,489 ||align="right"| 84,579 || Volnovakha
|-
| [[Volodarske Raion|Volodarsky]] (raion) || Володарський (район) ||align="right"| 1,221 ||align="right"| 31,168 ||align="right"| 29,472 || Volodarske
|-
| [[Yasynuvata Raion|Yasynuvatsky]] (raion) || Ясинуватський (район) ||align="right"| 809 ||align="right"| 30,326 ||align="right"| 16,980 || Yasynuvata
|-
| '''''Total Oblast''''' || Донецька (Область) ||align="right"| 26,517 ||align="right"| 4,825,563 ||align="right"| 4,403,178 || Donetsk
|}

The province's secondary division consists of various municipalities that are governed by their councils. Those municipalities may consist of one or more populated places. All are administratively subordinate to the raion in which they are located.

The following data incorporates the number of each type of second-level administrative divisions of Donetsk Oblast:
* total of Settlements – 1,283, including:
** Villages – 1,124;
** Cities/Towns – 159, including:
*** [[Urban-type settlement]] – [[List of urban-type settlements in Ukraine by subdivision#Donetsk Oblast|131]];
*** Cities of raion subordinance – 24;
* [[selsoviet|Selsovet]]s – ''N/A''.

The local administration of the oblast' is controlled by the Donetsk Oblast Rada. The governor of the oblast' is the Head of Donetsk Oblast administration, appointed by the [[President of Ukraine]].

===Cities===
{{Largest cities
| country = Donetsk Oblast
| list_by_pop =
| div_name =
| div_link = Raions of Ukraine{{!}}Raion

| city_1 = Donetsk{{!}}Donetsk
| div_1 = Donetsk Municipality{{!}}Donetsk*
| pop_1 = 975,959
| img_1 = Donezk Zentrum Oper.JPG

| city_2 = Mariupol{{!}}Mariupol
| div_2 = Mariupol Municipality{{!}}Mariupol*
| pop_2 = 461,810
| img_2 = Mariupol 2007 (30).jpg

| city_3 = Makiivka{{!}}Makiivka
| div_3 = Makiivka Municipality{{!}}Makiivka*
| pop_3 = 353,918
| img_3 = Panoramio - V&A Dudush - 3 июня 2010.jpg

| city_4 = Horlivka{{!}}Horlivka
| div_4 = Horlivka Municipality{{!}}Horlivka*
| pop_4 = 256,714
| img_4 = Дом культуры пр. Ленина 1 г. Горловка.jpg

| city_5 = Kramatorsk{{!}}Kramatorsk
| div_5 = Kramatorsk Municipaity{{!}}Kramatorsk*
| pop_5 = 164,283

| city_6 = Sloviansk{{!}}Sloviansk
| div_6 = Sloviansk Municipality{{!}}Sloviansk*
| pop_6 = 117,445

| city_7 = Yenakiieve{{!}}Yenakiieve
| div_7 = Yenakiieve Municipality{{!}}Yenakiieve*
| pop_7 = 82,629

| city_8 = Bakhmut{{!}}Bakhmut
| div_8 = Bakhmut Municipality{{!}}Bakhmut*
| pop_8 = 77,620

| city_9 = Kostiantynivka{{!}}Kostiantynivka
| div_9 = Kostiantynivka Municipality{{!}}Kostiantynivka*
| pop_9 = 77,066

| city_10 = Pokrovsk, Ukraine{{!}}Pokrovsk
| div_10 = Pokrovsk Municipality{{!}}Pokrovsk*
| pop_10 = 64,895

}}{{refbegin}}* regional municipalities{{refend}}

==Demographics==
[[File:2013. Донецк 550.jpg|thumb|250px|Young family in Donetsk]]
In 2013, the population of Donetsk Oblast was 4.43 million, which constituted 10% of the overall Ukrainian population, making it the most populous and most densely populated region of the country, except for the [[City with special status|cities with special status]] ([[Kyiv]] and [[Sevastopol]]). Its large population is due to the presence of several big industrial cities and numerous villages agglomerated around them.

During the [[2004 Ukrainian presidential election|2004 presidential election]], political supporters of [[Viktor Yanukovych]] threatened to demand [[Autonomous administrative division|autonomy]] for Donetsk and neighboring oblasts if the election of their candidate was not recognised. However, no official moves were ever made.

At the [[Ukrainian Census (2001)|2001 Ukrainian National Census]], the ethnic groups within the Donetsk Oblast were: [[Ukrainians]] – 2,744,100 (56.9%), [[Russians]] – 1,844,400 (38.2%), [[Pontic Greeks]] – 77,500 (1.6%), [[Belarusians]] – 44,500 (0.9%), others (2.3%).<ref name="ukrcensus">[http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/results/general/nationality/donetsk/ Ukrcensus.gov.ua — Donetsk region] URL accessed on 13 January 2007</ref>

At the 2001 census, the languages spoken within the oblast were: Russian (spoken by 98.6% of Russians living there, 58.7% of Ukrainians, 58.7% of Greeks, and 85.5% of Belarusians) and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] (spoken by 41.2% of Ukrainians, 1.3% of Russians, 3.2% of Greeks, and 3.9% of Belarusians).<ref>{{cite web |title=About [the] number and composition [of the] population of DONETS'K REGION by data [of the] All-Ukrainian census of the population 2001 |url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/language/Donetsk/ |website=[[Ukrainian Census (2001)|Ukrainian Census]] |publisher=[[State Statistics Service of Ukraine]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518002854/http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/language/Donetsk/ |access-date=22 December 2022|archive-date=18 May 2013 }}</ref>

The oblast also contains 21% of the country's [[Muslims]].<ref name="ukrcensus"/> {{citation needed|reason=This figure is seemingly no longer available at the cited source, if it ever was. Further relevant comments may or may not be added in the Talk page.|date=October 2022}}

[[File:Donbass economic.jpg|thumb|200px|Map of the economic activity in the [[Donbas]], including the Donetsk Oblast.]]

{| width="45%" class="wikitable center" style="text-align: right;"
! Year !! Fertility !! Birth || Year !! Fertility !! Birth || Year !! Fertility !! Birth
|-
|1990 || 1,6 || 58 050 || 2000 || 0,9 || 30 042 || 2010 || 1,2 || 41 258
|-
|1991 || 1,5 || 54 466 || 2001 || 0,9 || 29 931 || 2011 || 1,3 || 41 720
|-
|1992 || 1,4 || 50 258 || 2002 || 0,9 || 31 216 || 2012 || 1,3 || 42 839
|-
|1993 || 1,3 || 46 344 || 2003 || 0,9 || 33 433
|-
|1994 || 1,2 || 43 195 || 2004 || 1,0 || 35 526
|-
|1995 || 1,1 || 38 808 || 2005 || 1,0 || 35 883
|-
|1996 || 1,1 || 36 349 || 2006 || 1,1 || 39 327
|-
|1997 || 1,0 || 34 347 || 2007 || 1,2 || 40 560
|-
|1998 || 1,0 || 33 518 || 2008 || 1,3 || 44 394
|-
|1999 || 0,9 || 30 503 || 2009 || 1,3 || 43 373
|}

===Age structure===
: ''0–14 years:'' 12.6% {{increase}} (male 283,584/female 266,977)
: ''15–64 years:'' 70.4% {{decrease}} (male 1,453,273/female 1,619,241)
: ''65 years and over:'' 17.0% {{steady}} (male 243,048/female 496,434) (2013 official)

===Median age===
: ''total:'' 41.9 years {{increase}}
: ''male:'' 38.0 years {{increase}}
: ''female:'' 45.8 years {{increase}} (2013 official)

==Economy==

===Industry===

The Donetsk Oblast accounts for more than one half of the coal, finished steel, coke, cast iron and steel production in Ukraine. Ferrous metallurgy, fuel industry and power industry are in demand in the structure of industry production. There are about 882 industry enterprises that are on independent balance, and 2,095 small industry enterprises in the oblast.<ref name="CMU">[http://www.kmu.gov.ua/control/en/publish/article?art_id=124489&cat_id=32596 Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine — Donetsk Region] URL accessed on 13 January 2007</ref>
{{Further|Bogdanovskoye coalfield}}

The oblast has a developed transport infrastructure which includes the Donetsk railway (covers 40% of national transportation), the Mariupol Port, the [[Donetsk International Airport]], passenger airports in [[Mariupol]] and [[Kramatorsk]], and dense road systems. In the Donetsk Oblast two [[special economic zone]]s have been created, ''Donetsk'' and ''Azov'', which have a privileged tax regime.<ref name="CMU"/>

===Agriculture===

In 1999, the gross grain yield in the oblast was about 999.1 thousand tons, sugar beets – 27.1 thousand tons, sunflower seeds – 309.4 thousand tons, and potatoes – 380.2 thousand tons.<ref name="CMU"/> Also, 134.2 thousand tons of meat, 494.3 thousand tons of milk and 646.4 million eggs have been produced. At the beginning of 1999 there were 2108 farms within the oblast.<ref name="CMU"/>

==Geology==
[[File:Ніжний ранковий світло.jpg|thumb|National park "Sviati Hory."]]
The Donetsk Oblast's climate is mostly continental, which is characterised by hot summers and relatively cold winters with changeable snow surfaces. East and southeast strong winds, high temperatures and heavy rain showers are typical in the summer. The average annual rainfall is 524 mm.

The basic minerals found here are: coal (reserves – 25 billion tons), [[Halite|rock salt]], lime carbonate, [[potassium]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]], [[asbestos]], and [[graphite]]. The area is also rich in fertile black earth.

Important resources for recreation within the area are: the mild climate, the [[Sea of Azov]] coast, curative mud, sources of minerals, and radon and table water. Due to these numerous recreation resources, many resort hotels and camps are located here. There are about 26 health centres and pensions, 52 rest homes and boarding houses, and rest camps for children in the oblast.<ref name="CMU"/>

The curative{{clarify|reason=''curative'' is ambiguous in this context; are these locations supposed to be good for health issues? Citation to that effect?|date=June 2015}} areas in the oblast include the Slovyansk salt lakes and mineral water sources. The oblast also contains many park zones, some of which are of great national value. They include the Khomutivsky steppe and the Azov sea coast. Overall, the Donetsk Oblast contains about 70 protected park and nature attractions including branches of the Ukrainian steppe park, six state reserves, ten memorials of nature, landscapes, and six park tracts.<ref name="CMU"/>

==Polls==
During the [[1991 Ukrainian independence referendum|1991 referendum]], 83.90% of votes in Donetsk Oblast were in favour of the [[Declaration of Independence of Ukraine]], fourth lowest in the country after Crimea, Sevastopol and Luhansk Oblast. A survey conducted in December 2014 by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology found 18.5% of the oblast's population supported their region joining Russia, 53.8% did not support the idea, 22.5% were undecided, and 5.2% did not respond; insurgent-controlled areas (which hold over 50% of the population)<ref>{{cite news|title=Self-proclaimed Luhansk People's Republic governs most residents|url=http://tass.ru/en/world/751315|access-date=29 March 2018|agency=TASS|date=25 September 2014}}</ref> were not polled.<ref name=DT150103>{{cite news |url= http://dt.ua/UKRAINE/lishe-3-ukrayinciv-hochut-priyednannya-yih-oblasti-do-rosiyi-160641_.html |script-title=uk:Лише 3% українців хочуть приєднання їх області до Росії |language= uk |trans-title= Only 3% of Ukrainians want their region to become part of Russia |work= [[Dzerkalo Tyzhnia]] |date= 3 January 2015 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Ukraine}}
* [[Administrative divisions of Ukraine]]
* [[List of cities in Donetsk Oblast]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Donetsk Oblast}}
* [http://www.kmu.gov.ua/control/en/publish/article?art_id=124489&cat_id=32596 Information Card of the Region] – Official site of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090709062122/http://www.citylife.donetsk.ua/ www.citylife.donetsk.ua] – Official Donetsk city guide – English
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060524112529/http://www.donoda.gov.ua/m1/uk/ donoda.gov.ua] – Official site of Donetsk Oblast Administration {{in lang|en|uk|ru}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090220151418/http://www.catalogue.biz.ua/eng/guides/guide_index/1/6/ catalogue.biz.ua] – Post codes directory of Donetsk Oblast {{in lang|en|uk|ru}}
* {{commons category-inline|Donetsk Oblast}}

{{Donetsk Oblast}}
{{Administrative divisions of Ukraine}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Donetsk Oblast| ]]
[[Category:Oblasts of Ukraine]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1938]]
[[Category:1938 establishments in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Donbas]]
[[Category:De-Stalinization]]
[[Category:Ukrainian territories claimed by Russia]]

Estonian War of Independence

2023-04-16T19:28:31Z

3 Löwi:

{{short description|War between Estonia and Soviet Russia in 1918–1920}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Estonian War of Independence
| partof = [[Russian Civil War]]
| date = 28 November 1918 – 2 February 1920 ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=28|year1=1918|month2=02|day2=02|year2=1920}})
| place = [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], Northwestern [[Russia]]
| image = File:Estonian War of Independence, map.JPG
| image_size = 250px
| caption =
| territory = Independence of Estonia [[Vidzeme]] gained by the Republic of Latvia
| result = Estonian victory, Soviet defeat
| combatant1 = '''{{flag|Estonia}}'''
*[[Finland|Finnish]], [[Denmark|Danish]], and [[Sweden|Swedish]] volunteers
{{flag|Latvia}} {{flagcountry|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} {{Flagdeco|Russia}} [[White Movement|Russian White Movement]]
| combatant2 = '''{{flag|Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|1918|name=RSFSR}}'''
*[[Latvian Riflemen|Red Latvian Riflemen]]
| combatant3 = {{flagicon image|Baltic German.svg}} [[Baltische Landeswehr]] [[File:Flag of the Iron Division Freikorps.svg|border|22px]] [[Freikorps in the Baltic|Freikorps]]
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Estonia}} [[Johan Laidoner]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Jukums Vācietis]]
| commander3 = {{flagicon|German Empire}} [[Rüdiger von der Goltz]]
| strength1 = 7 January 1919: 4,450<ref name=maideIV>{{cite book |author=Jaan Maide |year=1933 |chapter=IV |title=Ülevaade Eesti Vabadussõjast (1918–1920)|chapter-url=http://www.ksk.edu.ee/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/4.Pealetungioperatsioonid_1919.pdf |publisher=Kaitseliidu kirjastus |location=Tartu|author-link=Jaan Maide}}</ref>–16,500<ref>Kaevats, Ülo: Eesti Entsüklopeedia. Valgus, 1990 http://entsyklopeedia.ee/artikkel/vabaduss%C3%B5da1 </ref>
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = no
| title = Including
| {{flagicon|Estonia}} 14,500 Estonian [[Estonian Defence League|national guard]] + [[Estonian army]] (in process of formation)
| {{flagdeco|UKGBI|naval}} 6th Light Cruiser Squadron of the [[Royal Navy]]<ref name=maideIV/>
| {{flagicon|Finland}} 2,000 [[Heimosodat|Finnish volunteers]] + respective number of Finnish officers,<ref name=maideII>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.ksk.edu.ee/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/2.Sojaplaanid.pdf |title=Ülevaade Eesti Vabadussõjast (1918–1920) |author=Jaan Maide |year=1933 |chapter=II |publisher=Kaitseliidu kirjastus |location=Tartu|author-link=Jaan Maide}}</ref>
| [[Baltic Germans|Baltic German]] forces{{efn|Although many Baltic Germans fought against the Republic of Estonia as part of the ''[[Baltische Landeswehr]]'', one regiment originally formed by ethnic German students fought as part of the Estonian Army until 1920, when it was disbanded.{{sfnp|Thomas|Boltowsky|2019|p=20}} }} }} May 1919: 86,000
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = no
| title = Including
| {{flagicon|Estonia}} [[Estonian army]] (74,500)<ref>Kaevats, Ülo: Eesti Entsüklopeedia. Valgus, 1990 http://entsyklopeedia.ee/artikkel/vabaduss%C3%B5da1 </ref>
| {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Northern Corps (Russia)|Northern Corps]] (2,750)
| {{flagicon|Latvia}} North [[Latvia]]n Brigade (1,500)
| Baltic Battalion (900)
| {{flagicon image|Inkerin lippu.svg}} [[Ingria]]n Battalion
| [[Swedes|Swedish]]/[[Danes|Danish]] volunteer companies<ref name=ents>{{cite book |chapter=Iseseisvuse aeg 1918–40 |title=Eesti. Üld. |publisher=Eesti entsüklopeedia |volume=11 |year=2002 |pages=296–311}}</ref>
| {{flagdeco|UKGBI|naval}} 1st Light Cruiser Squadron
}}
| strength2 = 7 January 1919: 5,750–7,250<ref name=maideIV/> 26 assault guns 3 armoured cars 1 armoured train 141 machine guns<ref name=maideIV/> May 1919: 80,000<ref name=ents/>
| strength3 = June 1919: 20,000<ref name=ents/>
| casualties1 = 3,588 killed<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://vas.muuseum.ee/vs_langenud.html |title=Vabadussoja Ajaloo Selts}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mil.ee/et/arhiiv/5556/kaitsev%C3%A4gi-m%C3%A4lestab-vabaduss%C3%B5jas-langenuid |title=Kaitsevägi mälestab Vabadussõjas langenuid - Kaitsevägi}}</ref> 15,000 injured<ref name=ents/>
| casualties2 = unknown 10,000 captured<ref name=encyclopaedia/>
| casualties3 = 400 killed 1,500 wounded<ref name=encyclopaedia2>Kaevats, Ülo: ''Eesti Entsüklopeedia 5'', page 396. Valgus, 1990, {{ISBN|5-89900-009-0}}</ref>
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Estonian War of Independence}}
}}
The '''Estonian War of Independence'''{{efn|{{lang-et|Vabadussõda}} (literally "Freedom War")}}, also known as the '''Estonian Liberation War''', was a defensive campaign of the [[Estonian Army]] and its allies, most notably the [[United Kingdom]], against the [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] [[Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919|westward offensive of 1918–1919]] and the 1919 aggression of the ''[[Baltische Landeswehr]]''. The campaign was the struggle of the newly established democratic nation of [[Estonia]] for independence in the aftermath of [[World War I]]. It resulted in a victory for Estonia and was concluded in the 1920 [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]].

==Preface==
During the 1917 [[Russian Revolution]], following the [[Bolshevik coup]] in November 1917, the newly elected provincial legislature ([[diet (assembly)|State diet]] or ''[[Estonian Provincial Assembly|Maapäev]]'') of the [[Autonomous Governorate of Estonia]] proclaimed itself the highest sovereign authority in Estonia, instead of the [[Bolsheviks]]. As a result, the Bolsheviks soon dissolved the ''Maapäev'' and temporarily forced the democratically elected Estonian leadership underground in the capital [[Tallinn]]. A few months later, in February 1918, using the interval between the Red Army's retreat and the arrival of the [[Imperial German]] Army, the [[Salvation Committee]] formed by ''[[Maapäev]]'' issued the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] in Tallinn on 24 February 1918<ref>[http://www.president.ee/en/estonia Estonian Declaration of Independence 24 February 1918] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522173844/http://www.president.ee/en/estonia |date=22 May 2009 }}</ref> and formed the [[Estonian Provisional Government]]. This first period of independence was extremely short-lived, as the [[Occupation of Estonia by the German Empire|German troops entered Tallinn]] the following day. The German authorities recognized neither the provisional government nor its claim for Estonia's independence.

After the [[German Revolution]] with the capitulation of [[Imperial Germany]] at the end of [[World War I]], 11–14 November 1918, the representatives of Germany formally handed over political power to the Estonian Provisional Government. On 16 November the provisional government called for voluntary mobilization and began to organize the Estonian Army, with [[Konstantin Päts]] as Minister of War, [[Major General]] [[Andres Larka]] as the [[chief of staff]], and [[Major General]] [[Aleksander Tõnisson]] as commander of the Estonian Army, initially consisting of one division.

==Course of the war==
{{Main|Timeline of the Estonian War of Independence}}
===Soviet westward offensive===
{{more citations needed section|date=January 2017}}
[[File:EstRcrtPstr1918.jpg|150px|left|thumb|"Brothers, Hurry to Join the Nation's Army!" Estonian Army Recruiting poster in 1918]]
In late November 1918, the [[Bolshevist]] [[Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919|Soviet Russian forces moved]] against Estonia. On 28 November 1918, the Soviet [[6th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|6th Red Rifle Division]] [[Battle of Narva (1918)|attacked]] the border town of [[Narva]], marking the beginning of the Estonian War of Independence.

The Soviet 6th Red Rifle Division attacked with 7,000 infantry, 22 [[field gun]]s, 111 [[machine gun]]s, an [[armored train]], two armored vehicles, two airplanes, and the [[Bogatyr class cruiser]] ''Oleg'' supported by two destroyers. The city was defended by men of the [[Estonian Defence League]] (Home Guard) (consisting partly of secondary school students) and [[Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 405]] of the [[German Army (German Empire)|German Army]]. The Reds captured Narva on 29 November and the Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 405 withdrew westwards.

The Soviet 2nd Novgorod Division opened a second front south of [[Lake Peipus]], with 7,000 infantry, 12 field guns, 50 machine guns, two armored trains, and three armored vehicles.

Estonian military forces at the time consisted of 2,000 men with light weapons and about 14,500 poorly armed men in the Estonian Defence League. The end of November 1918 saw the formation of the Baltic Battalion, primarily a mounted machine-gun company plus infantry. Estonia's [[Baltic German]] minority provided a sizable troop of volunteer militia for the Battalion, which was one of the first fighting units of the Estonian Army, and maintained staunch loyalty to the authority of the Republic. This contrasts with the ''[[Baltische Landeswehr]]'' in [[Latvia]].<ref name=maideII />

The 49th Red [[Latvian Riflemen|Latvian Rifle]] Regiment took the [[Valga, Estonia|Valga]] railway junction on 18 December and the city of Tartu on Christmas Eve. Also on Christmas Eve, the 6th Red Rifle Division captured the [[Tapa, Estonia|Tapa]] railway junction, advancing to within 34 kilometers of the nation's capital [[Tallinn]]. Estonian Bolsheviks declared the [[Estonian Workers' Commune]] in Narva.

By the end of the year, the [[7th Army (RSFSR)|7th Red Army]] controlled Estonia along the front line 34 kilometers east of Tallinn, west from Tartu and south of [[Ainaži]].<ref name=maideII/>

[[File:Johan Laidoner.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Kindral Laidoner|General Laidoner]] during the War of Independence]]
[[Colonel]] [[Johan Laidoner]] was appointed [[Commander in chief]] of the Estonian armed forces. He recruited 600 officers and 11,000 volunteers by 23 December 1918.

[[File:Soomusrong nr 1 ohvitserid.jpg|thumb|right|Officers of Estonian armoured train nr 1 in December 1918]]
He reorganized the forces by setting up the [[2nd Division (Estonia)|2nd Division]] in Southern Estonia under the command of Colonel [[Viktor Puskar]], along with commando units, such as the [[Tartumaa Partisan Battalion]] and the Kalevi Malev Battalion.

The national government obtained foreign assistance. On 5 December, Finland delivered 5,000 rifles and 20 field guns along with ammunition.

A British [[Royal Navy]] squadron commanded by [[Rear Admiral]] Sir [[Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair]] arrived at Tallinn on 31 December and delivered 6,500 rifles, 200 machine guns, and two field guns. The squadron captured two Russian destroyers, ''Spartak'' and ''Avtroil'', and turned them over to Estonia, which renamed them ''Vambola'' and ''Lennuk''.

On 2 January, Finnish volunteer units with 2,000 men arrived in Estonia.<ref name="maideII" /> Three armored trains were built in Tallinn under the command of [[sea captain]] [[Johan Pitka]] and [[Captain (land)|Captain]] [[Karl Parts]].

===Liberation of Estonian territory===
{{See also|Battle of Laagna|Battle of Utria|Battle of Paju}}
[[File:Tallinn24Feb1918.jpg|thumb|left|The first celebration of Estonian Independence Day in [[Tallinn]] on 24 February 1919]]
By the beginning of 1919, the Estonian Army had increased its ranks to a total of 13,000 men, with 5,700 on the front-facing 8,000 Soviets.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 10. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> The strengthened Estonian Army stopped the 7th Red Army's advance in its tracks between 2 and 5 January 1919 and went on the counter-offensive on 7 January.

Tapa was liberated two days later in a campaign highlighted by the implementation of the highly successful "soomusrongid" (armoured trains). This turn of events was swiftly followed by the liberation of the sizable town of Rakvere on 12 January.

In liberating Narva, a 1,000-strong Finnish-Estonian force [[Battle of Utria|landed at Utria]] to the rear of the Soviet 6th Rifle Division on 17 January. In so doing, retreat eastward for the Soviet forces was precluded. The following day Narva was liberated.

Consequent to this the northeastern front stabilized along the Narva river. Within 11 days, the [[1st Division (Estonia)|1st Division]] had advanced 200 km.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 98. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

In the southern sphere-of-conflict, Tartu was liberated through the rapid deployment of armored trains and the Tartumaa Partisan Battalion. The 2nd Division continued to advance southwards facing increasing Soviet resistance. In the [[Battle of Paju]], the Tartumaa Partisan Battalion and the Finnish volunteers drove the [[Latvian Riflemen#Red Latvian Riflemen|Latvian Riflemen]] out of Valga on 31 January.

[[File:Soomusrong nr 2 Valgas 1919.jpg|thumb|right|Estonian armoured train in [[Valga, Estonia|Valga]] in February 1919]]
The [[7th Army (RSFSR)|7th Red Army]] was routed outside the boundaries of contemporary Estonia and the battle-front continued outwards into the ancient, historical Estonian settlement area.<ref name=kork>''Estonian War of Independence 1918–1920''. Jyri Kork (Ed.). Esto, Baltimore, 1988 (Reprint from ''Estonian War of Independence 1918-1920''. Historical Committee for the War of Independence, Tallinn, 1938)</ref> The second half of February saw the Estonian southward advance capture [[Salacgrīva]] and [[Alūksne]]. This advance was soon stopped by a Soviet buildup ostensibly for a new expansionist offensive into Estonia. On the first [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|Independence Day]] of 24 February 1919, the pro-independence Estonian forces on the front consisted of 19,000 men, 70 field guns, and 230 machine guns. Estonia had become the first country to repel the [[Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919|Soviet westward offensive]].<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 115. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

In the second half of February, the Red armies started the new Soviet offensive to capture Estonia. To this end, the Soviets established what was referred to as the new [[Estonian Red Riflemen|'Estonian' Red Army]]. This sizable force consisted upwards of 80,000 conscripts.

In positions along the Narva River the Estonian 1st Division and their allied [[White Movement|White Russian]] Northern Corps repelled the 7th Red Army's attacks.<ref name=kork/> The Red Army heavily bombarded Narva, leaving about 2,000 people homeless yet ultimately failed to capture the city. The majority of Soviet forces were concentrated at and along the southern front. The so-called 'Estonian' Red Army captured [[Alūksne]], [[Setomaa]], [[Vastseliina]], and Räpina parishes by 15 March.

Having received reinforcements, the Estonian 2nd Division counterattacked and regained [[Petseri]] by 29 March. Subsequently, the 'Estonian' Red Army was pushed behind the Optjok River.

On 27 March, the Estonian [[3rd Division (Estonia)|3rd Division]] was deployed along the western flank of the southern front under the command of Major-General [[Ernst Põdder]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaitseväe ajalugu |url=http://www.mil.ee/?menu=kaitsevagi&sisu=kvaja1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208204009/http://mil.ee/?menu=kaitsevagi&sisu=kvaja1 |archive-date=8 February 2009 |url-status=dead |access-date=2009-09-29 }}</ref> At Võru, the situation became critical on 22 April when the Red Army approached to within 1.5 km of the town. Heavy fighting continued at the southeastern front up to the first half of May.

On 25 April, the Latvian Riflemen captured [[Rūjiena]], but were soon pushed back by the 3rd Division to [[Salacgrīva]]-[[Seda, Latvia|Seda]]-[[Gauja River|Gauja]] line.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', pages 126-127. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

===Estonian elections and formation of foreign units===
[[File:Estonian soldiers at Constituent Assembly election.jpg|thumb|right|Estonian soldiers participating in [[1919 Estonian Constituent Assembly election|Constituent Assembly election]] in April 1919]]
On 5–7 April 1919 the [[Estonian Constituent Assembly]] was elected. The elections were won by the Left and Centre parties.<ref>Miljan, Toivo: ''Historical dictionary of Estonia '', page 140. Scarecrow Press, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8108-4904-6}}</ref> The 120 members of the Constituent Assembly met at the opening session on 23 April and elected Social Democrat [[August Rei]] as chairman. The provisional government retired, and a new government headed by [[Otto Strandman]] was formed. On 4 June the assembly adopted a temporary Constitution of Estonia.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 131. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> On 10 October the [[Land Reform]] Act was passed, which confiscated and redistributed the large [[Baltic German]] estates that covered more than half of the territory of Estonia.<ref>O'Connor, Kevin: ''The history of the Baltic States'', page 88. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0-313-32355-3}}</ref>

Estonia actively helped to organize White Russian, Latvian and [[Ingrian people|Ingrian]] forces on the territory of the Republic. The White Russian [[Northern Corps (Russia)|Northern Corps]] had been organizing in Estonia since December 1918. On 18 February, an agreement was signed between Estonia and Latvia, which allowed formation of Latvian forces under Estonian command but using them only on the southern front. The North Latvian Brigade under the command of [[Jorģis Zemitāns]] was formed from the citizens of Latvia who had fled to Estonia.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', pages 137-138. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> In March 1919, an agreement was signed with the Ingrian National People's Committee for the formation of an Ingrian battalion. By May 1919, there were 6,000 Russians, 4,000 Latvians and 700 Ingrians in their respective national units.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 11. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

===Offensives into Russia and Latvia===
[[File:Vabadussõda Erküla, 1919.jpg|thumb|left|Estonian soldiers near Ārciems in Latvia in May 1919]]
Although the Estonian Army had attained control over its country, the opposing Red armies were still active. The Estonian High Command decided to push their defense lines across the border into Russia in support of the White Russian Northern Corps. On 13 May, the Northern Corps went on the offensive at Narva, catching the Soviets by surprise and destroying their 6th Division.<ref name="Traksmaa, August page 141">Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 141. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> The offensive was supported along the [[Gulf of Finland]]'s coast by the British and Estonian navy and marines. With the front approaching, the garrison of the [[Krasnaya Gorka fort]] mutinied. But the 7th Red Army received reinforcements and counterattacked, pushing the White Russians back, until the front was stabilised with the support from the Estonian 1st Division on the [[Luga River|Luga]] and Saba rivers.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 142. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

The offensive of the Estonian Petseri Battle Group began on 24 May. The 600 troops of 1st Estonian Rifle Regiment of the Red Army together with Leonhard Ritt, commander of the [[:et:1. Eesti Kütidiviis|1st Estonian Rifle Division]] switched sides on the same day.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 145. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref><ref>Raun, Toivo U.: ''Estonia and Estonians'', page 108. Hoover Press, 2001, {{ISBN|9780817928520}}</ref> An offensive destroyed the Estonian Red Army, captured [[Pskov]] on 25 May and cleared the territory between Estonia and the [[Velikaya River]] of Soviet forces.<ref name=kork/> A few days later White Russian forces arrived in Pskov, but as they were unable to defend the town on their own, some Estonian forces remained in Pskov, while the rest were pulled back to the state border. The Northern Corps mobilised members of the local population in the [[Pskov Oblast|Pskov region]]. On 19 June 1919, the Estonian Commander-in-Chief General [[Johan Laidoner]] rescinded his command over the White Russians, and they were renamed the [[Northwestern Army (Russia)|Northwestern Army]]. Shortly afterwards, General [[Nikolai N. Yudenich]] took command of the troops.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', pages 141. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

[[File:Estonian army parade in Pskov.png|thumb|right|Estonian army parade in [[Pskov]] on 28 May 1919]]
Simultaneously with the Pskov offensive Estonian 2nd and 3rd divisions also started southward offensive into Northern-Latvia. By the end of May they had captured [[Alūksne]] and [[Valmiera]]. Due to simultaneous German-Latvian offensives in Western-Latvia, the situation was becoming very difficult for the Soviets. On 31 May, an Estonian cavalry regiment led by [[:et:Gustav Jonson|Gustav Jonson]] reached [[Gulbene]], capturing large amount of rolling stock, including 2 armoured trains.<ref name="Traksmaa, August page 147">Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 147. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> a rapid offensive of the 2nd Division, spearheaded by its cavalry regiment, continued and on 6 June it crossed [[Daugava river]] and captured [[Jēkabpils]],<ref name=mangulis>Mangulis, Visvaldis: [http://www.historia.lv/publikacijas/gramat/mangulis/06.nod.htm#re048 ''Latvia in the Wars of the 20th Century''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120411074429/http://www.historia.lv/publikacijas/gramat/mangulis/06.nod.htm |date=2012-04-11 }}, page 50. Cognition Books, 1983, {{ISBN|9780912881003}}</ref> but the 3rd Division could not support the advance of the 2nd division anymore as it was now facing a new enemy: the ''[[Baltische Landeswehr]]''.<ref name="Traksmaa, August page 147"/>

===War against the Landeswehr===
{{main|Baltische Landeswehr|Freikorps in the Baltic|West Russian Volunteer Army}}
[[File:Patarei nr 1 1919.jpg|thumb|left|Estonian artillery in war against the Landeswehr]]
The war against the [[Baltische Landeswehr]] broke out on the southern front in Latvia on 5 June 1919. The Latvian democrats led by [[Kārlis Ulmanis]] had declared independence as in Estonia but were soon pushed back to [[Liepāja]] by Soviet forces, where the [[German Army (German Empire)|German]] VI Reserve Corps finally stopped their advance. This German force, led by general [[Rüdiger von der Goltz]], consisted of the [[Baltische Landeswehr]] formed from [[Baltic Germans]], the Guards Reserve Division of former Imperial German Army soldiers who had stayed in Latvia, and the Freikorps [[Freikorps in the Baltic|Iron Division]] of volunteers motivated by prospects of acquiring properties in the Baltics.<ref name=enc>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&q=%22VI.+Reserve-Corps%22&pg=PA493 |title=The Encyclopedia of World War I: A political, social, and military history |editor=Spencer C. Tucker |chapter=Goltz, Rüdiger von der, Count (1865-1946) |pages=492–493 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=[[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]], [[California]] |year=2005|isbn=9781851094202 }}</ref> This was possible because the terms of their armistice with the Western Allies obliged the Germans to maintain their armies in the East to counter the Bolshevist threat. The VI Reserve Corps also included the 1st Independent Latvian Battalion led by [[Oskars Kalpaks]], which consisted of ethnic Latvians loyal to the Provisional Government of Latvia.<ref name=maideIV/>

The Germans disrupted the organization of Latvian national forces, and on 16 April 1919 the Provisional Government was toppled and replaced with the pro-German puppet Provisional Government of Latvia led by [[Andrievs Niedra]].<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 149. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref><ref>Liulevicius, Vejas G.: ''War land on the Eastern Front: culture, national identity and German occupation in World War I'', page 231. Cambridge University Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0-521-66157-9}}</ref> Ulmanis took refuge aboard the steamship "Saratow" under [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] protection. The VI Reserve Corps pushed the Soviets back, capturing Riga on 23 May, continued to advance northwards, and demanded that the Estonian Army ended its occupation of parts of northern [[Latvia]]. The real intent of the VI Reserve Corps was to annex Estonia into a German-dominated puppet state.

[[File:Shot down Landeswehr plane.jpg|thumb|right|Landeswehr plane shot down by Estonian forces]]
On 3 June, Estonian General Laidoner issued an ultimatum demanding that German forces must pull back southwards, leaving the [[broad gauge]] railway between Ieriķi and [[Gulbene]] under Estonian control. When Estonian armoured trains moved out on 5 June to check compliance with this demand, the Baltische Landeswehr attacked them, unsuccessfully.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 150. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> The following day, the Baltische Landeswehr captured [[Cēsis]]. On 8 June, an Estonian counterattack was repelled. The first clashes demonstrated that the VI Reserve Corps was stronger and better equipped than the Soviets. On 10 June, with Entente mediation, a ceasefire was made. Despite the Entente demand for the German force to pull behind the line demanded by the Estonians, von der Goltz refused and demanded Estonian withdrawal from Latvia, threatening to continue fighting. On 19 June, fighting resumed with an assault of the Iron Division on positions of the Estonian 3rd Division near [[Limbaži]] and [[Straupe]], starting the [[Battle of Cēsis (1919)|Battle of Cēsis]]. At that time, the 3rd Estonian Division, including the 2nd Latvian Cēsis regiment under Colonel [[Krišjānis Berķis]], had 5990 infantry and 125 cavalry. Intensive German attacks on Estonian positions continued up to 22 June, without achieving a breakthrough. On 23 June, the Estonian 3rd Division counterattacked, recapturing Cēsis. The anniversary of the Battle of Cēsis (''Võnnu lahing'' in Estonian) is celebrated in Estonia as the [[Victory Day#June 23 in Estonia|Victory Day]].

The Estonian 3rd Division continued their advance towards Riga. On 3 July, when the Estonian forces were at the outskirts of Riga, a ceasefire was made on the demand of the Entente and the Ulmanis government was restored in Riga. The German forces were ordered to leave Latvia, the Baltische Landeswehr was put under the command of the Latvian Provisional Government and sent to fight against the Red Army. However, to circumvent Entente's orders, the troops of the disbanded VI Reserve Corps, instead of leaving, were incorporated into the [[West Russian Volunteer Army]], officially hired by the German puppet Government of Latvia and led by [[Pavel Bermondt-Avalov]].<ref name=kork/> In October, fighting restarted when the West Russian Volunteer Army attacked Riga. Following the Latvian request to help, Estonia sent two armoured trains to aid repelling the German attack. The Estonian army also remained to support the defence of Latvia against Soviets by defending the front north of [[Lake Lubāns]].<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 162. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

===Final battles and peace negotiations===
{{See also|Battle of Krivasoo}}
[[File:EstArmyHighCommnd1920.jpg|thumb|left|Estonian Army High Command in 1920
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = no
| title = Names
| ''From upper left:''
| Major General [[Ernst Põdder]]
| Dr. [[Artur Lossmann|Arthur Lossmann]]
| Major General [[Aleksander Tõnisson]]
| Colonel [[Karl Parts]]
| Colonel [[Viktor Puskar]]
| Colonel Jaan Rink
| ''From bottom left:''
| Major General [[Andres Larka]]
| Major General [[Jaan Soots]]
| Commander-in-chief Lieutenant General [[Johan Laidoner]]
| Admiral [[Johan Pitka]]
| Colonel [[Rudolf Reimann]]
}}]]
Soviet Russia had been attempting to conclude a peace since the spring of 1919. On 25 April 1919, Hungarian Communists offered to mediate a settlement between the Bolsheviks and the Estonians, but [[Walter Cowan|Admiral Cowan]] threatened withdrawal of support to the Estonians unless they rejected the Hungarian offer.<ref name="Rushton">{{cite web |last=Rushton |first=James A. |title=OPERATIONALIZING DISSUASION (Thesis) |publisher=NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL, [[Monterey]], [[California]] |date=June 2006 |url=http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/theses/rushton06.pdf |access-date=2008-07-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916024057/http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/theses/rushton06.pdf |archive-date=2008-09-16 }}</ref> The Russians then publicly broached the subject of peace talks in a radio broadcast on 27 and 28 April. On 5 June the Estonian Commune was abolished. A subsequent broadcast by the Russians on 21 July led to the British journalist [[Arthur Ransome]] sounding out the Commissar for Foreign Relations [[Georgy Chicherin]] on the subject of peace talks. As a result, the Soviet government made a formal offer for negotiations on 31 August 1919. The Estonians accepted on 4 September, and delegations started talks on 16 September. Estonia then proposed to stop the negotiations until Latvia, Lithuania and Finland have agreed to participate in joint negotiations.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 174. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

In the autumn, the Northwestern Army launched operation White Sword, a major effort to capture [[Petrograd]]. With the arms provided by Britain and France, and the operational support by the Estonian Army, [[Estonian Navy]], and Royal Navy, the Northwestern Army began the offensive on 28 September 1919.<ref>Операция "Белый меч" /28 сентября – 23 октября 1919 года/ Белая гвардия website</ref> Estonia supported the Northwestern Army due to the demands of the Entente.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 180. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> The Estonian forces made joint naval and land attacks against the [[Krasnaya Gorka fort]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.baltdefcol.org/files/files/BalticMilitaryHistory/Newsletter_2014-10.pdf |title=Krasnaja Gorka Operation 13 October – 9 November 1919 (Baltic Military History Newsletter) |date=October 2014 |website=baltdefcol.org |publisher=[[Baltic Defence College]] |access-date=24 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128113808/http://www.baltdefcol.org/files/files/BalticMilitaryHistory/Newsletter_2014-10.pdf |archive-date=28 January 2015 }}</ref> while the Estonian 2nd Division attempted to destroy bridges over the [[Velikaya River]] and the Estonian 3rd Division attacked towards [[Pytalovo]]. The Northwestern Army approached to 16 kilometres (10 miles) from Petrograd, but the Red Army repulsed the White Russian troops back to the [[Narva River]].<ref name=kork/> Distrustful of the White Russians, the Estonian High Command disarmed and interned the remains of the Northwestern Army that retreated behind the state border.<ref name="Fletcher">Fletcher, William A. ''The British navy in the Baltic, 1918–1920: Its contribution to the independence of the Baltic nations'', Journal of Baltic Studies, 1976, pp134 - 144</ref>

[[File:Patarei nr 2 1919.jpg|thumb|right|Estonian field battery near Narva in late 1919]]
The 7th and 15th Soviet Armies advancing behind collapsing White Russian forces [[Battle of Krivasoo (1919)|continued to attack]] the fortified positions at the state border near Narva. The first clashes took place on [[Luga River]] on 16 November, starting the conclusive battles with 120,000 Soviets facing 40,000 Estonians.<ref name=encyclopaedia>Kaevats, Ülo: ''Eesti Entsüklopeedia 10'', page 123. Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus, 1998, {{ISBN|5-89900-054-6}}</ref> After repeated attacks, the 7th Red Army managed to achieve some limited success. At the end of November, the situation on the front calmed, as the Soviets needed to replenish their forces. In order to pressure Estonia in the peace talks, intensive Soviet attacks restarted on 7 December.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 200. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> On 16 December, the situation became critical as forward units of the 15th Red Army crossed the Narva River. The next day, an Estonian counterattack pushed the Soviets back. The Estonian high command actively reinforced the 1st Division at Narva during the battles, sending in the headquarters of the 3rd Division. General Tõnisson became commander of the [[Virumaa|Viru]] Front. After suffering 35,000 casualties in heavy battles, the Red Army was completely exhausted by the end of December.<ref name=encyclopaedia/>

On 19 November, the new government of [[Jaan Tõnisson]] decided to restart talks with Soviet Russia, even without the participation of other Baltic countries.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', pages 223–224. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> Negotiations began on 5 December, with the main point of dispute being territorial issues. Talks continued through December, with both sides pressing their territorial demands, while heavy fighting continued at Narva. The peace treaty was finally concluded on 31 December 1919, and the ceasefire came into effect on 3 January 1920.<ref name=rauch>Georg von Rauch, ''The Baltic States: The Years of Independence 1917–1940'', Hurst & Co, 1974, p70</ref>

==Foreign assistance==
{{main|British Campaign in the Baltic 1918–1919|Heimosodat}}
[[File:Inglise laevastik Koporje lahes.jpg|thumb|left|British squadron in [[Koporye Bay]] in October 1919]]
Foreign assistance, mostly from the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Finland]], played a very important role during the early stages of war.

British naval and air forces arrived in December 1918, after lobbying in London by Estonian politicians. At this time, the new Estonian government was weak and desperate, and the Estonian Prime Minister even asked that his state be declared a [[British protectorate]], but Britain would not meet this plea.<ref>Kinvig, p. 138</ref> However, the British squadron delivered 6500 rifles, 200 machine guns, 2 field guns, also two Soviet destroyers were captured near Tallinn and turned over to Estonia. A [[Royal Navy]] squadron continued to provide artillery support on the coast and also protected the Estonian flank against the Russian [[Baltic Fleet]]. The United Kingdom remained Estonia's main supplier of arms and equipment during the war.

While the British navy provided considerable support, the historian William Fletcher concludes that ''"the British naval force would have had little effect on the outcome of Baltic affairs had not the Estonians and Latvians provided a vibrant and disciplined land and sea force"''.<ref name="Fletcher"/> The British contributed 88 ships to the Baltic campaign, of which 16 were sunk.<ref name="kinvig">Kinvig, p. 289</ref> 128 British servicemen died in the campaign, 9 were captured and at least 27 were wounded.<ref name="kinvig" />

[[File:FinnVlntrsTllnnDc1918.jpg|thumb|Finnish volunteers arrive in Tallinn, Estonia in December 1918]]
Concerned with having Bolshevik rule in the South, Finland delivered funds and weapons.{{sfn|Tepora|Roselius|2014|p=138}} Finland provided 5000 rifles and 20 field guns by 12 December. Finland also sent 3500 volunteers. [[Pohjan Pojat]] led by [[Hans Kalm]] fought at the Southern Front, including at the [[Battle of Paju]], while I Suomalainen Vapaajoukko led by Martin Ekström fought at the Viru Front, including at the [[Battle of Utria]]. Finnish volunteers returned to Finland on March–April 1919, having lost 150 men.

[[Danish-Baltic Auxiliary Corps]] with approximately 200 men was formed under the command of Captain [[Richard Gustav Borgelin]] in April 1919. The company took part in battles against Bolsheviks in Latvia and near Pskov and 19 men were killed by the time their contract ended in September. R. G. Borgelin was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and given [[Maidla, Juuru Parish|Maidla manor]] in gratitude for his services.

The Swedish volunteer unit under the command of [[Carl Mothander]] was formed in Sweden in early 1919. In March 1919, 178 volunteers took part in scout missions in Virumaa. In April, the company was sent to the Southern front and took part of the battles near Pechory. In May, the company was disbanded with some volunteers joining other units and the rest returning to Sweden.

==Tartu Peace Treaty==
{{Main|Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)}}
[[File:Eesti delegatsiooni liikmed Tartu rahu sõlmimisel. Vasakult - Jaan Poska, kindral Jaan Soots, kolonel Victor Mutt. Fotograaf Armin Lomp (1883-1936).jpg|thumb|Part of the Estonian delegation at the negotiations of the Treaty of Tartu (left to right): [[Jaan Poska]], [[Jaan Soots]] and [[Victor Mutt]].]]
On 2 February 1920, the Peace [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]] was signed by the Republic of Estonia and [[RSFSR]]. At this point, the Bolshevist regime had not been recognized by any Western power. The terms of the treaty stated that Russia renounced in perpetuity all rights to the territory of Estonia. The agreed frontier corresponded roughly with the position of the front line at the cessation of hostilities. In particular, Estonia retained a strategic strip to the east of the Narva river (''Narvataguse'') and Setumaa in the southeast, areas which were lost in early 1945 – shortly after Soviet troops had taken control of Estonia, when Moscow transferred the land East of the Narva River and most of [[Petseri County]] to the [[RSFSR]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Estonia|World War I|War|History}}
{{Main|List of wars of independence}}
* [[Timeline of the Estonian War of Independence]]
* [[History of Estonia]]
* [[Latvian War of Independence]]
* [[Lithuanian Wars of Independence]]
* [[Ukrainian War of Independence]]
* [[Finnish Civil War]]
* [[Cross of Liberty (Estonia)|Cross of Liberty]]
* [[War of Independence Victory Column]]
* [[Commemorative Medal for the Estonian War of Independence]]
* [[Vaps Movement]]
* ''[[Names in Marble]]''
* ''[[The Young Eagles]]''

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
* Kinvig, Clifford, ''Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia 1918–1920'', London 2006, {{ISBN|1-85285-477-4}}.
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Tepora |editor-first1=Tuomas |editor-last2=Roselius |editor-first2=Aapo |date=2014 |title=The Finnish Civil War 1918: History, Memory, Legacy |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004280717 }}
* {{cite book| last1 = Thomas| first1 = Nigel| last2 = Boltowsky| first2 = Toomas| title = Armies of the Baltic Independence Wars 1918–20| publisher = Osprey Publishing| date = 2019| location = Oxford| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=HnmGDwAAQBAJ| isbn = 9781472830777}}

==External links==
* Estonica: [http://www.estonica.org/en/History/1914-1920_The_First_World_War_and_Estonian_independence/Estonian_War_of_Independence/ Estonian War of Independence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512040625/http://www.estonica.org/en/History/1914-1920_The_First_World_War_and_Estonian_independence/Estonian_War_of_Independence/ |date=12 May 2017 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.bdcol.ee/files/docs/bdreview/bdr-2002-8-11.pdf |title=''The Baltic States from 1914 to 1923: The First World War and the Wars of Independence''}} {{small|(1.24 [[Mebibyte|MiB]])}} - in ''Baltic Defence Review'' No.8 Volume 2/2002

{{World War I}}
{{Estonia topics}}
{{Russian Revolution 1917}}
{{Russian Conflicts}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Estonian War of Independence| ]]
[[Category:Wars involving Estonia]]
[[Category:Wars involving Russia]]
[[Category:Estonia–Russia relations]]

Livonian War

2023-04-16T19:23:31Z

3 Löwi: Better English in the lede / also please note the historical German spelling is "Narwa" (resp. Reval, Dorpat); modern Estonian/English spelling is "Narva" (resp. Tallinn, Tartu)

{{Short description|16th century war in the Baltic Sea region}}
{{good article}}
{{Use British English|date = April 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Livonian War
| image = [[File:Siege of Narva 1558.jpg|300px|alt=A battle is shown raging outside a fortress, with some attackers attempting to use ladders to climb the large wall.]]
| caption = ''Siege of Narwa by the Russians in 1558'', by [[Boris Chorikov]], 1836.
| date = 22 January 1558 – 10 August 1583 ({{age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=01|day1=22|year1=1558|month2=08|day2=10|year2=1583}})
| place = [[Northern Europe]]: [[Swedish Estonia|Estonia]], [[duchy of Livonia|Livonia]], [[Ingria]], [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]]
| result = [[Denmark–Norway|Dano–Norwegian]], [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish–Lithuanian]] and [[History of Sweden (1523–1611)|Swedish]] victory
| territory = Cession of:
* Estonia to Sweden
* Livonia, [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia|Courland and Semigallia]] to Poland–Lithuania
* [[Saaremaa]] (Ösel) to Denmark–Norway
| combatant1 = [[File:Baltic coat of arms.svg|18px]] [[Livonian Confederation]] {{flag|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} (before 1569 the [[Polish–Lithuanian union]]) {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Denmark–Norway]] 
{{flagicon|Sweden|1562}} [[History of Sweden (1523–1611)|Kingdom of Sweden]] [[File:Прапор В.З..png|20px]] [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] 
{{flagicon image|Transsylvanian Banner.svg}} [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Principality of Transylvania]] (after 1577){{sfn|Liptai|1984|p={{page needed|date=June 2021}}}}
| combatant2 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of Oryol ship (variant).svg}} [[Tsardom of Russia]] [[Qasim Khanate]] [[File:Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Livonia.svg|18px]] [[Kingdom of Livonia]]
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[Sigismund II Augustus]] {{flagicon|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[Stephen Báthory]] [[File:Baltic coat of arms.svg|20px|link=]] [[Gotthard Kettler]] {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederick II]] {{flagicon|Sweden|1562}} [[Eric XIV of Sweden|Eric XIV]] {{flagicon|Sweden|1562}} [[John III of Sweden|John III]]
| commander2 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of Oryol ship (variant).svg}} [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan IV]] [[Shahghali]] [[Simeon Bekbulatovich|Sain-Bulat]] [[File:Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Livonia.svg|18px]] [[Magnus, Duke of Holstein|Magnus of Livonia]]
}}
{{Campaignbox Livonian War}}
{{Polish-Russian Wars}}
{{Polish-Swedish Wars}}
{{Russo–Swedish War Series}}

The '''Livonian War''' (1558–1583) was the invasion of [[Terra Mariana|Old Livonia]] by the [[Tsardom of Russia]] (Muscovy), and the prolonged series of military conflicts that followed, in which [[Tsar]] [[Ivan the Terrible]] unsuccessfully fought for control of the region (present-day [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]]). The Tsardom of Russia faced a varying coalition of the [[Denmark–Norway|Dano-Norwegian Realm]], the [[Kingdom of Sweden (1523–1611)|Kingdom of Sweden]], and the [[Polish–Lithuanian union|Union]] (later [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Commonwealth]]) of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]].

In 1558–1578, Russia gained control over the greater part of the region with early military successes at [[Tartu|Dorpat]] (Tartu) and [[Narva|Narwa]] (Narva). The dissolution of the [[Livonian Confederation]] brought Poland–Lithuania into the conflict, and Sweden and Denmark intervened between 1559 and 1561. [[Swedish Estonia]] was established despite continuing attacks from Russia, and [[Frederick II of Denmark]] bought the old [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek]], which he placed under the control of his brother [[Magnus of Holstein]]. Magnus attempted to expand his Livonian holdings to establish the Russian [[vassal state]], the [[Kingdom of Livonia]], which nominally existed until his defection in 1576.

In 1576, [[Stephen Báthory]] became King of Poland as well as Grand Duke of Lithuania and turned the tide of the war with his successes between 1578 and 1581, including the joint Swedish–Polish–Lithuanian offensive at the [[Battle of Wenden (1578)|Battle of Wenden]]. That was followed by an extended [[Livonian campaign of Stefan Batory|campaign through Russia]], culminating in the long and difficult [[Siege of Pskov]]. Under the 1582 [[Truce of Jam Zapolski]], which ended the war between Russia and Poland–Lithuania, Russia lost all of its former holdings in Livonia and Polotsk to Poland–Lithuania. The following year, Sweden and Russia signed the [[Truce of Plussa]], with Sweden gaining most of [[Ingria]] and northern Livonia while retaining the Duchy of Estonia.

==Prelude==

===Pre-war Livonia===
[[File:Livonia in 1534 (English).png|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Old Livonia]], before the Livonian War:
{{legend|White|Livonian Order}}{{legend|purple|Bishopric of Courland}}{{legend|green|Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek}}
{{legend|#3388FF|Bishopric of Dorpat}}{{legend|teal|City of Riga}}{{legend|olive|Archbishopric of Riga}}]]

By the mid-16th century, economically prosperous [[Old Livonia]]<ref name=rabe306>{{harvnb|Rabe|1989|p=306}}</ref> had become a region organised into the decentralised and religiously divided [[Livonian Confederation]].<ref name=dybas193>{{harvnb|Dybaś|2009|p=193}}</ref> Its territories consisted of the [[Livonian Order|Livonian branch]] of the [[Teutonic Order]], the [[prince-bishopric]]s [[Bishopric of Dorpat|of Dorpat]] (Tartu), [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]], as well as [[Bishopric of Courland|Courland]], the [[Archbishopric of Riga]] and the city of [[Riga]].<ref name=rabe306/><ref name=buelow73/> Together with Riga, the cities of [[Dorpat|Dorpat (Tartu)]] and [[Reval]] (Tallinn), along with the knightly estates, enjoyed privileges enabling them to act almost independently.<ref name=buelow73>{{harvnb|Bülow|2003|p=73}}</ref> The only common institutions of the Livonian estates were the regularly held common assemblies known as ''[[Landtag]]s''.<ref name=rabe306/> As well as a divided political administration, there were also persistent rivalries between the Archbishop of Riga and the ''Landmeister'' of the Order for hegemony.<ref group=nb>The Order was led by a ''[[Hochmeister]]'', an office that since 1525 had been executed by the ''Deutschmeister'' responsible for the bailiwicks in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; the Order's organisation in Livonia was led by a circle of ''Gebietigers'' headed by a ''Landmeister'' elected from amongst the membership</ref><ref name=rabe306/><ref name=buelow73/> A schism had existed within the Order since the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] had spread to Livonia in the 1520s, although the transformation of the country into a [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] region was a gradual process, resisted by part of the Order that to a varying degree remained sympathetic to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|pp=46, 51–53}}</ref> As war approached, Livonia had a weak administration subject to internal rivalries, lacked any powerful defences or outside support, and was surrounded by monarchies pursuing expansionist policies. [[Robert I. Frost]] notes of the volatile region: "Racked with internal bickering and threatened by the political machinations of its neighbours, Livonia was in no state to resist an attack."<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=2}}</ref>

The Order's ''Landmeister'' and the ''Gebietigers'', as well as the owners of Livonian estates, were all lesser nobles who guarded their privileges and influence by preventing the creation of a higher, more powerful noble class.<ref name=kreem50>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|p=50}}</ref> Only the archbishopric of Riga successfully overcame resistance of the lesser nobles.<ref name=kreem51>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|p=51}}</ref> [[Wilhelm von Brandenburg]] was appointed as Archbishop of Riga and [[Christoph von Mecklenburg]] as his [[Coadjutor archbishop|Coadjutor]], with the help of his brother [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Albert (Albrecht) of Brandenburg–Ansbach]], the former Prussian ''Hochmeister'' who had [[Secularization|secularised]] the southern [[Teutonic Order state]] and in 1525 established himself as [[Duchy of Prussia|duke in Prussia]].<ref name=koerber26>{{harvnb|Körber|1998|p=26}}</ref> Wilhelm and Christoph were to pursue Albert's interests in Livonia, among which was the establishment of a hereditary Livonian duchy styled after the Prussian model.<ref name=koerber26/> At the same time the Order agitated for its re-establishment ("''Rekuperation''") in Prussia,<ref>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|p=46}}</ref> opposed secularization, and creation of a hereditary duchy.<ref name=kreem51/>

===Aspirations of Livonia's neighbours===

By the time the Livonian War broke out, the [[Hanseatic League]] had already lost its monopoly on the profitable and prosperous [[Baltic Sea]] trade.<ref name=Frost3>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=3}}</ref> While still involved and with increasing sales, it now shared the market with European mercenary fleets, most notably from the [[Low Countries|Dutch]] [[Seventeen Provinces]] and France.<ref name=Frost3/> The Hanseatic vessels were no match for contemporary warships,<ref name=Frost5>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=5}}</ref> and since the league was unable to maintain a large navy because of a declining share of trade,<ref name=Frost6>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=6}}</ref> its Livonian members [[Riga]], [[Reval]] (Tallinn), and trading partner [[Narva|Narwa]] (Narva) were left without suitable protection.<ref name=Frost4>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=4}}</ref> The [[Kingdom of Denmark|Danish]] navy, the most powerful in the Baltic Sea, controlled the [[Öresund|entrance to the Baltic Sea]],<ref name=Frost5/> collected [[Sound Dues|requisite tolls]],<ref name=Frost6/> and held the strategically important Baltic Sea islands of [[Bornholm]] and [[Gotland]].<ref name=Frost5/>

A long bar of Danish territories in the south and lack of sufficient year-round ice-free ports severely limited [[Kingdom of Sweden|Sweden]]'s access to Baltic trade.<ref name=Frost7>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=7}}</ref> Nevertheless, the country prospered due to exports of timber, iron, and most notably copper, coupled with the advantages of a growing navy<ref name=Frost7/> and proximity to the Livonian ports across the narrow [[Gulf of Finland]].<ref name=Bain84>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|p=84}}</ref> Before the Livonian War, Sweden had sought expansion into Livonia, but the intervention of the Russian tsar temporarily stalled these efforts through the [[Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)|Russo-Swedish War of 1554–1557]], which culminated in the 1557 [[Treaty of Novgorod (1557)|Treaty of Novgorod]].<ref name=Frost7/>

Through its absorption of the principalities of [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] (1478) and [[Pskov Republic|Pskov]] (1510),<ref name=Frost10>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=10}}</ref> the [[Tsardom of Russia]] had become Livonia's eastern neighbour and grown stronger after annexing the [[khanate]]s of [[Khanate of Kazan|Kazan]] (1552) and [[Astrakhan Khanate|Astrakhan]] (1556). The conflict between Russia and the Western powers was exacerbated by Russia's isolation from sea trade. The new [[Ivangorod]] port built by Tsar Ivan on the eastern shore of the [[Narva River]] in 1550 was considered unsatisfactory on account of its shallow waters.<ref name=Madariaga124>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=124}}</ref> Thereafter the tsar demanded that the Livonian Confederation pay about 6,000 [[mark (money)|marks]] to keep the [[Bishopric of Dorpat]], based on the claim that every adult male had paid Pskov one mark when it had been an independent state.<ref name=Madariaga124/> The Livonians eventually promised to pay this sum to [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan]] by 1557, but were sent from Moscow when they failed to do so, ending negotiations.<ref name=Madariaga124/> Ivan continued to point out that the existence of the Order required passive Russian support, and was quick to threaten use of military force if necessary.<ref name=Madariaga124/> He aimed to establish a corridor between the Baltic and the new territories on the [[Caspian Sea]], because if Russia were to engage in open conflict with major western powers, it would need imports of more sophisticated weaponry.<ref name=Madariaga124/>

The Polish King and Lithuanian Grand Duke [[Sigismund II Augustus]] was wary of Russian expansionist aspirations. Expansion of Russia into Livonia would have meant not only a stronger political rival but also loss of lucrative trade routes.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|pp=203–204}}</ref> Therefore, Sigismund supported his cousin [[Wilhelm von Brandenburg]], archbishop of Riga, in his conflicts with [[Wilhelm von Fürstenberg]], the Livonian Order's ''landmeister''.<ref name=Hartmannxiii>{{harvnb|Hartmann|2005|p=XIII}}</ref> Sigismund hoped that Livonia, just like the [[Duchy of Prussia]] under [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Duke Albert]], would become a vassal state of Poland–Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|p=204}}</ref> With weak support in Livonia,<ref name=Hartmannxiii/> von Brandenburg had to largely rely on external allies. Among his few Livonian supporters was ''landmarschall'' [[Jasper von Munster]], with whom he planned an April 1556 attack on his opponents that would involve military aid from both Sigismund and Albert.<ref name=Hartmannxiv>{{harvnb|Hartmann|2005|p=XIV}}</ref> However, Sigismund hesitated over participation in the action, fearing that it would leave the [[Kiev Voivodeship]] exposed to a pending Russian attack.<ref name=Hartmannxiv/> When von Fürstenberg learned of the plan, he led a force into the archbishopric of Riga and in June 1556 captured the main strongholds of [[Kokenhusen]] and [[Rauna Castle|Ronneburg]].<ref name=Hartmannxiv/> Jasper von Munster fled to Lithuania, but von Brandenburg and Christoph von Mecklenburg were captured and detained at [[Adsel]] and [[Turaida Castle|Treiden]]. This resulted in a diplomatic mission to petition for their release being dispatched by the [[Duchy of Pomerania|Pomeranian dukes]], the Danish King,<ref name=Hartmannxiv/> Emperor [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], and the estates of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref name=Hartmannxv>{{harvnb|Hartmann|2005|p=XV}}</ref> A cross-party meeting in [[Lübeck]] to resolve the conflict was scheduled for 1 April 1557, but was cancelled due to quarrels between Sigismund and the Danish envoys.<ref name=Hartmannxv/> Sigismund used the killing of his envoy Lancki by the ''landmeister's'' son as an excuse to invade the southern portion of Livonia with an army of around 80,000. He forced the competing parties in Livonia to reconcile at his camp in [[Pozvol]] in September 1557.<ref name=Bain84/> There they signed the [[Treaty of Pozvol]], which created a mutual defensive and offensive alliance, with its primary target Russia, and provoked the Livonian War.<ref name=Bain84/>

==1558–1562: Dissolution of the Livonian Order==

===Russian invasion of Livonia===
[[File:Livonian war map (1558-1560)-es.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Three Russian campaigns are visible in 1558, 1559 and 1560, all from east to west. One Polish–Lithuanian campaign in 1561 is shown advancing up the central part of Livonia. Refer to the text for details.|Map of campaigns in Livonia, 1558–1560]]

Ivan IV regarded the [[Livonian Confederation]]'s approach to the [[Polish–Lithuanian union]] for protection under the [[Treaty of Pozvol]] as ''[[casus belli]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=127}}</ref> In 1554 Livonia and Russia had signed a fifteen-year truce in which Livonia agreed not to enter into an alliance with Poland–Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|p=205}}</ref> On 22 January 1558, Ivan reacted with the invasion of Livonia. Many Livonian fortresses surrendered without resistance while Russian troops took Dorpat (Tartu) in May, Narwa (Narva) in July<ref group=nb>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=128}} says Narva in May and Dorpat in July.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=24}}</ref> and laid siege to Reval (Tallinn).<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=128}}</ref> Reinforced by 1,200 [[Landsknecht]]s, 100 gunners, and ammunition from Germany, Livonian forces successfully retook [[Rakvere|Wesenberg]] (Rakvere) along with a number of other fortresses. Although the Germans raided Russian territory, Dorpat (Tartu), Narwa (Narva), and many lesser fortresses remained in Russian hands.<ref name=Frost25/> The initial Russian advance was led by the [[Qasim Khanate|Khan of Qasim]] [[Shahghali]], with two other Tatar princes at the head of a force that included Russian [[boyar]]s, Tatar, and [[Landed Army|Pomestnoe]] cavalry, as well as [[Cossack]]s,<ref name=Stevens85>{{harvnb|Stevens|2007|p=85}}</ref> who at that time were mostly armed foot soldiers.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=50}}</ref> Ivan gained further ground in campaigns during the years 1559 and 1560.<ref name=Frost25/> In January 1559, Russian forces again invaded Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=129}}</ref> A six-month truce covering May to November was signed between Russia and Livonia while Russia fought in the [[Russo-Crimean Wars]].<ref name="madariaga30">{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=130}}</ref>

Prompted by the Russian invasion, Livonia first unsuccessfully sought help from Emperor [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], then turned to Poland–Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|p=207}}</ref> ''Landmeister'' von Fürstenburg fled to Poland–Lithuania to be replaced by [[Gotthard Kettler]]. In June 1559, the estates of Livonia came under Polish–Lithuanian protection through the first [[Treaty of Vilnius (1559)|Treaty of Vilnius]]. The Polish ''[[general sejm|sejm]]'' refused to agree to the treaty, believing it to be a matter affecting only the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]].<ref name=Bain84/> In January 1560, Sigismund sent ambassador Martin Volodkov to the court of Ivan in Moscow in an attempt to stop the Russian cavalry rampaging through rural Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|p=117}}</ref>

[[File:Russian atrocities in Livonia ib XVI century.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|alt=Printed woodcarving showing archers using hanged naked women as target practice. Beneath them lie the bodies of children, cut open.|Russian atrocities in Livonia. Printed in ''Zeyttung'' published in [[Nuremberg]] in 1561.]]

Russian successes followed similar patterns featuring a multitude of small campaigns, with sieges where musketmen played a key role in destroying wooden defences with effective artillery support.<ref name=Stevens85/> The Tsar's forces took important fortresses like [[Fellin]] (Viljandi), yet lacked the means to gain the major cities of [[Riga]], Reval (Tallinn), or [[Pernau]] (Pärnu).<ref name=Frost25/> The Livonian knights suffered a disastrous defeat by the Russians at the [[Battle of Ērģeme]] in August 1560. Some historians believe the Russian nobility were split over the timing of the invasion of Livonia.<ref name="madariaga30"/>

[[Eric XIV]], the new King of Sweden, turned down Kettler's requests for assistance, along with a similar request from Poland. Kettler turned to Sigismund for help.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|2006|p=118}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=dPQwweeMSvMC&pg=PA118 online])</ref> The weakened [[Livonian Order]] was dissolved by the [[Treaty of Vilnius (1561)|second Treaty of Vilnius]] in 1561. Its lands were secularised as the [[Duchy of Livonia]] and [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] and assigned to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Kettler became the first Duke of Courland, in doing so converting to Lutheranism.<ref name=Bain84/> Included in the treaty was the ''[[Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti]]'' by which Sigismund guaranteed the Livonian estates privileges including religious freedom with respect to the [[Augsburg Confession]], the ''[[Indygenat]]'', and continuation of the traditional German administration.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen36/> The terms regarding religious freedom forbade any regulation of the Protestant order by religious or secular authorities.<ref name=Kahle17>{{harvnb|Kahle|1984|p=17}}</ref>

Some members of the Lithuanian nobility opposed the growing Polish–Lithuanian union and offered the Lithuanian crown to Ivan IV.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=25–26}}</ref> The Tsar publicly advertised this option, either because he took the offer seriously, or because he needed time to strengthen his Livonian troops.<ref name=Frost26/> Throughout 1561, a Russo-Lithuanian truce (with a scheduled expiration date of 1562) was respected by both sides.<ref name=Frost26/>

===Danish and Swedish interventions===

In return for a loan and a guarantee of Danish protection, Bishop Johann von Münchhausen signed a treaty on 26 September 1559 giving [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederick II of Denmark-Norway]] the right to nominate the bishop of [[bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]], an act which amounted to the sale of these territories for 30,000 [[thaler]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Pauker|1854|p=289}}</ref> Frederick II nominated his brother, [[Magnus of Holstein|Duke Magnus of Holstein]] as bishop, who then took possession in April 1560. Lest Danish efforts create more insecurity for Sweden, Denmark-Norway made another attempt to mediate a peace in the region.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|2006|p=56}}</ref> Magnus at once pursued his own interests, purchasing the [[Bishopric of Courland]] without Frederick's consent and trying to expand into [[Harju County|Harrien]]–[[Virumaa|Wierland]] (Harju and Virumaa). This brought him into direct conflict with Eric.<ref name=Frost25/>

In 1561, Swedish forces arrived and the [[Baltic Noble Corporations|noble corporations]] of Harrien–Wierland and [[Järva County|Jerwen]] (Järva) yielded to [[Kingdom of Sweden (1523–1611)|Sweden]] to form the [[Swedish Estonia|Duchy of Estonia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Eriksson|2007|pp=45–46}}</ref> Reval (Tallinn), similarly, accepted Swedish rule.<ref name=Frost25>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=25}}</ref> Denmark dominated the Baltic, and Sweden wished to challenge this by gaining territory on the Eastern side of the Baltic.<ref name="elliott14">{{harvnb|Elliott|2000|p=14}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=zfGrxQBcuXgC&pg=PA14 online])</ref> Doing so would help Sweden control the West's trade with Russia. This helped to precipitate the [[Northern Seven Years' War]]<ref name="elliott14"/> since in 1561, Frederick II had already protested against Swedish presence in Reval (Tallinn), claiming historical rights relating to [[Danish Estonia]].<ref name=Frost26>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=26}}</ref> When Eric XIV's forces seized Pernau (Pärnu) in June 1562, his diplomats tried to arrange Swedish protection for Riga, which brought him into conflict with Sigismund.<ref name=Frost26/>

Sigismund maintained close relations with Eric XIV's brother, [[John III of Sweden|John, Duke of Finland]] (later John III), and in October 1562 John married Sigismund's sister, [[Catherine Jagellon|Catherine]], thereby preventing her marrying Ivan IV.<ref name=Oakley27>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=27}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=wPXEp45wAeQC&pg=PA27 online])</ref> While Eric XIV had approved the marriage, he was upset when John lent Sigismund 120,000 [[Swedish riksdaler|dalers]] and received seven Livonian castles as security.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=209}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA209 online])</ref> This incident led to John's capture and imprisonment in August 1563 on Eric XIV's behalf, whereupon Sigismund allied with Denmark and [[Lübeck]] against Eric XIV in October the same year.<ref name=Frost26/>

==1562–1570==

The intervention of Denmark-Norway, Sweden, and Poland-Lithuania into Livonia began a period of struggle for control of the Baltic, known contemporaneously as the ''[[dominium maris baltici]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=24}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=wPXEp45wAeQC&pg=PA24 online])</ref> While the initial war years were characterised by intensive fighting, a period of low-intensity warfare began in 1562 and lasted until 1570 when fighting once more intensified.<ref name=Frost77>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=77}}</ref> Denmark, Sweden, and to some extent Poland–Lithuania were occupied with the [[Nordic Seven Years' War]] (1563–1570) taking place in the Western Baltic,<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=30ff}}</ref> but Livonia remained strategically important.<ref name=Frost25/> In 1562, Denmark and Russia concluded the [[Treaty of Mozhaysk]], respecting each other's claims in Livonia and maintaining amicable relations.<ref>{{harvnb|Hübner|1998|pp=317–318}}</ref> In 1564, Sweden and Russia concluded a seven-years truce.<ref>{{harvnb|Hübner|1998|p=318}}</ref> Both Ivan IV and Eric XIV showed signs of [[mental disorder]],<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=26–27}}</ref> with Ivan IV turning against part of the Tsardom's nobility and people with the ''[[oprichina]]'' that began in 1565, leaving Russia in a state of political chaos and civil war.<ref name=Frost26/>

===Russian war with Lithuania===
[[File:Cannibalism 1571.PNG|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Cannibalism]] in Lithuania during the Russian invasion in 1571, German plate]]

When the Russo-Lithuanian truce expired in 1562, Ivan IV rejected Sigismund's offer of an extension.<ref name=Frost26/> The Tsar had used the period of the truce to build up his forces in Livonia, and he invaded Lithuania.<ref name=Frost26/> His army raided [[Vitebsk]] and, after a series of border clashes, took [[Polotsk]] in 1563.<ref name=Frost26/> Lithuanian victories came at the [[Battle of Ula]] in 1564<ref name=Frost26/> and at [[Chashniki|Czasniki]] (Chashniki) in 1567, a period of intermittent conflict between the two sides. Ivan continued to gain ground among the towns and villages of central Livonia but was held at the coast by Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|p=123}}</ref> The defeats of Ula and Czasniki, along with the defection of [[Andrey Kurbsky]], led Ivan IV to move his capital to the [[Alexandrov Kremlin]] while the perceived opposition against him was repressed by his ''oprichniki''.<ref name=Frost26/>

A "grand" party of diplomats left Lithuania for Moscow in May 1566.<ref name=Madariaga195>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=195}}</ref> Lithuania was prepared to split Livonia with Russia, with a view to a joint offensive to drive Sweden from the area. However, this was seen as a sign of weakness by Russian diplomats, who instead suggested that Russia take the whole of Livonia, including Riga, through the ceding of [[Courland]] in southern Livonia and Polotsk on the Lithuanian–Russian border.<ref name=Madariaga196>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=196}}</ref> The transfer of Riga, and the surrounding entrance to the [[Western Dvina|River Dvina]], troubled the Lithuanians, since much of their trade depended on safe passage through it and they had already built fortifications to protect it.<ref name=Madariaga196/> Ivan expanded his demands in July, calling for Ösel in addition to Dorpat and Narwa. No agreement was forthcoming and a ten-day break was taken in negotiations, during which time various Russian meetings were held (including the ''[[zemsky sobor]]'', the ''Assembly of the Land'') to discuss the issues at stake.<ref name=Madariaga196/> Within the Assembly, the church's representative stressed the need to "keep" Riga (though it had not yet been conquered),<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=202}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=xdFVn1v3FMUC&pg=PA202 online])</ref> while the Boyars were less keen on an overall peace with Lithuania, noting the danger posed by a joint Polish-Lithuanian state. Talks were then halted and hostilities resumed upon the return of the ambassadors to Lithuania.<ref name=Madariaga196/>

In 1569, the [[Union of Lublin|Treaty of Lublin]] unified Poland and Lithuania into the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. The [[Duchy of Livonia]], tied to Lithuania in [[real union]] since the [[Union of Grodno (1566)|Union of Grodno]] in 1566, came under Polish–Lithuanian [[joint sovereignty]].<ref name=Dybas109>{{harvnb|Dybaś|2006|p=109}}</ref> In June 1570 a three-year truce was signed with Russia.<ref name=Madariaga262>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=262}}</ref> Sigismund II, the Commonwealth's first King, died in 1572 leaving the Polish throne with no clear successor for the first time since 1382 and thus began the first [[Free election (Polish throne)|free election]] in Polish history. Some Lithuanian nobles, in an effort to retain Lithuanian autonomy, proposed a Russian candidate. Ivan, however, demanded the return of [[Kiev]], an Orthodox coronation, and a hereditary monarchy in parallel to Russia's, with his son, [[Feodor I of Russia|Feodor]], as King.<ref>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=119}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&pg=PA119 online])</ref> The electorate rejected these demands and instead chose [[Henry III of France|Henry of Valois]] (''Henryk Walezy''), brother of King [[Charles IX of France]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|pp=90–91}}</ref>

===Russian war with Sweden===
In 1564, Sweden and Russia agreed the [[Treaty of Dorpat]], whereby Russia recognised Sweden's right to Reval (Tallinn) and other castles, and Sweden accepted Russia's patrimony over the rest of Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=192}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=xdFVn1v3FMUC&pg=PA192 online])</ref> A seven-year truce was signed between Russia and Sweden in 1565.<ref name=Madariaga195/> [[Eric XIV of Sweden]] was overthrown in 1568 after he killed several nobles in the [[Sture Murders]] (''Sturemorden'') of 1567, and was replaced by his half-brother [[John III of Sweden|John III]].<ref name=Frost27>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=27}}</ref> Both Russia and Sweden had other problems and were keen to avoid an expensive escalation of the war in Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=255}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA255 online])</ref> Ivan IV had requested the delivery of John's wife, the Polish-Lithuanian princess [[Catherine Jagellonica]], to Russia, since he had competed with John to marry into the Lithuanian-Polish royal family. In July 1569 John sent a party to Russia, led by [[Paul Juusten]], [[Bishop of Åbo]],<ref name=Madariaga261>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=261}}</ref> which arrived in [[Novgorod]] in September, following the arrival in Moscow of the ambassadors sent to Sweden in 1567 by Ivan to retrieve Catherine. Ivan refused to meet with the party himself, forcing them to negotiate instead with the Governor of Novgorod.<ref name=Madariaga261/> The Tsar requested that Swedish envoys should greet the governor as 'the brother of their king', but Juusten refused to do so. The Governor then ordered an attack on the Swedish party, that their clothes and money be taken, and that they be deprived of food and drink and be paraded naked through the streets.<ref name=Madariaga261/> Although the Swedes were also to be moved to Moscow, fortunately for them this occurred at the same time Ivan and his ''oprichniki'' were on their way to an [[Massacre of Novgorod|assault on Novgorod]].<ref name=Madariaga262/>

On his return to Moscow in May 1570, Ivan refused to meet the Swedish party, and with the signing of a three-year truce in June 1570 with the Commonwealth he no longer feared war with Poland–Lithuania.<ref name=Madariaga262/> Russia considered the delivery of Catherine to be a precondition of any deal, and the Swedes agreed to meet in Novgorod to discuss the matter.<ref name=Madariaga262/> According to Juusten, at the meeting the Russians demanded the Swedes to abandon their claim to Reval (Tallinn), provide two or three hundred cavalry when required, pay 10,000 thaler in direct compensation, surrender Finnish silver mines near the border with Russia, and allow the Tsar to style himself "Lord of Sweden". The Swedish party left following an ultimatum from Ivan that Sweden should cede its territory in Livonia or there would be war.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=271}}</ref> Juusten was left behind while John rejected Ivan's demands, and war broke out anew.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=272}}</ref>

===Impact of the Northern Seven Years' War===
Quarrels between Denmark-Norway and Sweden led to the [[Northern Seven Years' War]] in 1563, which ended in 1570 with the [[Treaty of Stettin (1570)|Treaty of Stettin]].<ref name=Frost2937>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=29–37}}</ref> Primarily fought in western and southern [[Scandinavia]], the war involved important naval battles fought in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]].<ref name=Frost2937/> When Danish-held [[Varberg Fortress|Varberg]] surrendered to Swedish forces in 1565, 150 Danish mercenaries escaped the subsequent massacre of the garrison by defecting to Sweden.<ref name=Frost76>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=76}}</ref> Among them was [[Pontus de la Gardie]],<ref name=Frost76/> who thereafter became an important Swedish commander in the Livonian War.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=44, 51}}</ref> Livonia was also affected by the naval campaign of Danish admiral [[Peder Munk]], who bombarded Swedish Reval (Tallinn) from sea in July 1569.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=36}}</ref>

The Treaty of Stettin made Denmark the supreme and dominating power in [[Northern Europe]], yet failed to restore the [[Kalmar Union]]. Unfavourable conditions for Sweden led to a series of conflicts that only ended with the [[Great Northern War]] in 1720.<ref name=Nordstrom36>{{harvnb|Nordstrom|2000|p=36}}</ref> Sweden agreed to turn over her possessions in Livonia in return for a payment by [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]]. Maximilian failed to pay the promised compensation, however, and thereby lost his influence on Baltic affairs.<ref name=Nordstrom36/> The terms of the treaty regarding Livonia were ignored, and thus the Livonian War continued.<ref>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=90}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=CPJWfVPgFawC&pg=PA90 online])</ref> From Ivan's point of view, the treaty enabled the powers involved to form an alliance against him, now that they were no longer fighting each other.<ref name=Madariaga264>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=264}}</ref>

==1570–1577: Russian dominance and the Kingdom of Livonia==
{{multiple image|direction=vertical|width=300|image1=LIVONIAE NOVA DESCRIPTIO 1573-1578.jpg|caption1=Map of Livonia in 1573.|image2=Livonian war map (1570-1577).svg|caption2=Map showing areas of Russian and Polish–Lithuanian forces, 1570–1577.
{{legend|#f7d3aa|occupied by Russian forces in 1570}}
{{legend|#e1d2c0|occupied by Russian forces 1572–1577}}
{{legend|#ffc864|occupied by Lithuanian forces}}}}

During the early 1570s, King John III of Sweden faced a Russian offensive on his positions in Estonia.<ref name=Peterson91>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=91}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=CPJWfVPgFawC&pg=PA91 online])</ref> Reval (Tallinn) withstood a Russian siege in 1570 and 1571,<ref>{{harvnb|Black|1996|p=59}}</ref> but several smaller towns were taken by Russian forces. On 23 January a Swedish army of 700 infantry and 600 cavalry under command of [[Clas Åkesson Tott]] (the Elder) clashed with a Russian and Tartar army of 16,000 men under the command of Khan [[Sain-Bulat]] at the [[Battle of Lode]] by the village of [[Koluvere, Lääne County|Koluvere]]. The Russian advance concluded with the sacking of [[Paide|Weissenstein]] (Paide) in 1573, where, after its capture, the occupying forces roasted some of the leaders of the Swedish garrison alive, including the commander. This triggered a retaliatory campaign by John centred on Wesenberg,<ref name=Peterson91/> to which the army departed in November 1573<ref>{{harvnb|Fischer|Kirkpatrick|1907|p=63}}</ref> with Klas Åkesson Tott in overall command and [[Pontus de la Gardie]] as field commander.<ref name=Peterson91/> There were also Russian raids into Finland, including one as far as [[Helsingfors]] (Helsinki) in 1572. A two-year truce on this front was signed in 1575.<ref name=Roberts258>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=258}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA258 online])</ref>

John's counter-offensive stalled at the [[siege of Wesenberg]] in 1574, when German and Scottish units of the Swedish army turned against each other.<ref name=Peterson92>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|pp=92–93}}</ref> This failure has also been blamed on the difficulties of fighting in the bitter winter conditions, particularly for the infantry.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=51}}</ref> The war in Livonia was a great financial burden for Sweden, and by the end of 1573, Sweden's German mercenaries were owed 200,000 ''[[Swedish riksdaler|daler]]''.<ref name=Roberts258/> John gave them the castles of [[Hapsal]], [[Lihula|Leal]], and [[Lode Parish|Lode]] as security, but when he failed to pay they were sold to Denmark.<ref name=Roberts258/>

Meanwhile, efforts by [[Magnus of Holstein|Magnus]] to besiege Swedish-controlled Reval (Tallinn) were faltering, with support from neither Ivan nor Magnus' brother, [[Frederick II of Denmark]] forthcoming.<ref name=Madariaga264/> Ivan's attention was focused elsewhere, while Frederick's reluctance perhaps stemmed from a new spirit of Swedish–Danish unity that made him unwilling to invade Livonia on behalf of Magnus, whose state was a vassal of Russia. The siege was abandoned in March 1571,<ref name=Madariaga264/> whereupon Swedish action in the Baltic escalated, with the passive backing of Sigismund, John's brother-in-law.<ref name=Madariaga264/>

At the same time [[Crimean Tatars]] devastated Russian territories and burned and looted Moscow during the [[Russo-Crimean Wars]].<ref name=Peterson91/> Drought and epidemics had fatally affected the Russian economy while ''[[oprichnina]]'' had thoroughly disrupted the government. Following the defeat of Crimean and [[Nogai Horde|Nogai]] forces in 1572, ''[[oprichnina]]'' was wound down and with it the way Russian armies were formed also changed.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|pp=277–278}}</ref> Ivan IV had introduced a new strategy whereby he relied on tens of thousands of native troops, Cossacks and Tatars instead of a few thousand skilled troops and mercenaries, as was the practice of his adversaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=93}}</ref>

Ivan's campaign reached its height in 1576 when another 30,000 Russian soldiers crossed into Livonia in 1577<ref name=Frost27/> and devastated Danish areas in retaliation for the Danish acquisition of Hapsal, Leal, and Lode. Danish influence in Livonia ceased, as Frederick accepted deals with Sweden and Poland to end nominal Danish involvement.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|pp=258–259}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA258 online])</ref> Swedish forces were besieged in Reval (Tallinn) and central Livonia raided as far as [[Daugavpils|Dünaburg]] (Daugavpils), formally under Polish–Lithuanian control since the 1561 [[Treaty of Vilnius (1561)|Treaty of Vilnius]].<ref name=Peterson92/> The conquered territories submitted to Ivan or his vassal, Magnus,<ref name=Peterson92/> declared monarch of the [[Kingdom of Livonia]] in 1570.<ref name="Frost27"/> Magnus defected from Ivan IV during the same year,<ref name=Oakley37>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=37}}</ref> having started to appropriate castles without consulting the Tsar. When [[Koknese|Kokenhusen]] (Koknese) submitted to Magnus to avoid fighting Ivan IV's army, the Tsar sacked the town and executed its German commanders.<ref name=Frost27/> The campaign [[Battles of Wenden (1577–1578)|then focussed on Wenden]] ([[Cēsis]], Võnnu), "the heart of Livonia", which as the former capital of the Livonian Order was not only of strategic importance, but also symbolic of Livonia itself.<ref name=Peterson92/>

==1577–1583: Defeat of Russia==

===Swedish and Polish–Lithuanian alliance and counter-offensives===
{{multiple image|direction=vertical|width=300|image1=Polacak, 1579.jpg|alt1=Coloured illustration. The city, central is being attacked by a group of knights and cannon from the east, and large numbers of foot soldiers from the north. Some citizens appear to be surrendering to the foot soldiers.|caption1=The Siege of Polotsk, 1579, in a contemporary illustration.|alt2=See text and the article [[Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory|The campaigns of Stefan Batory]] for further information.|image2=Campaigns of Stefan Batory.svg|caption2=[[Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory|The campaigns of Stefan Batory]], the bold line marks the border by 1600.}}

In 1576, the [[Principality of Transylvania (1571–1711)|Transylvanian prince]] [[Stephen Báthory of Poland|Stefan Batory]] became King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania after [[Royal elections in Poland|a contested election to the joint Polish–Lithuanian throne]] with the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Maximilian II]].<ref name=Stone122>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=122}}</ref> Both Batory's fiancée [[Anna Jagiellon]] and Maximilian II had been proclaimed elected to the same throne in December 1575, three days apart;<ref name=Stone122/> Maximilan's death in October 1576 prevented the conflict from escalating.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=310}}</ref> Batory, ambitious to expel Ivan IV from Livonia, was constrained by the opposition of [[Danzig]] (Gdansk), which resisted Batory's accession with Danish support.<ref name=Stone123>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=123}}</ref> The ensuing [[Siege of Danzig (1577)|Danzig War]] of 1577 ended when Batory conceded further autonomous rights to the city in return for a payment of 200,000 [[Polish zloty#Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|zlotys]].<ref name=Stone123/> For a further 200,000 zloty payment, he appointed [[House of Hohenzollern|Hohenzollern]] [[George Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|George Frederick]] as administrator of [[Duchy of Prussia|Prussia]] and secured the latter's military support in the planned campaign against Russia.<ref name=Stone123/>

Batory received only few soldiers from his Polish vassals and was forced to recruit mercenaries, primarily Poles, [[Hungarians]], [[Bohemia]]ns, [[Germans]], and [[Wallachia]]ns. A separate Szekler brigade fought in Livonia.{{sfn|Liptai|1984|p={{page needed|date=June 2021}}}}

Swedish King John III and Stefan Batory allied against Ivan IV in December 1577, despite problems caused by the death of Sigismund which meant that the issue of the substantial inheritance due to John's wife, Catherine, had not been resolved.<ref name=Roberts260>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=260}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA260 online])</ref> Poland also claimed the whole of Livonia, without accepting Swedish rule of any part of it.<ref name=Roberts260/> The 120,000 ''daler'' lent in 1562 had still not been repaid, despite Sigismund's best intentions to settle it.<ref name=Roberts260/>

By November, Lithuanian forces moving northward had captured Dünaburg<ref name=Frost28>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=28}}</ref> while a Polish–Swedish force took the town and castle of Wenden in early 1578.<ref name=Peterson94>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=94}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=CPJWfVPgFawC&pg=PA94 online])</ref> Russian forces failed to retake the town in February,<ref name=Frost28/> an attack followed by a Swedish offensive, targeting [[Pärnu|Pernau]] (Pärnu), Dorpat, and [[Novgorod]] among others. In September, Ivan responded by sending in an army of 18,000 men, who recaptured [[Põltsamaa|Oberpahlen]] (Põltsamaa) from Sweden and then marched on Wenden.<ref name=Frost28/><ref name=Peterson94/> Upon their arrival at Wenden, the Russian army laid siege to the town, but was met by a relief force of around 6,000 German, Polish, and Swedish soldiers.<ref name=Peterson94/> In the ensuing [[Battles of Wenden (1577–1578)|Battle of Wenden]], Russian casualties were severe with armaments and horses captured, leaving Ivan IV with his first serious defeat in Livonia.<ref name=Peterson94/>

Batory accelerated the formation of the [[hussars]], a new well-organised cavalry troop that replaced the feudal levy.<ref name=stone126>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|pp=126–127}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&pg=PA126 online])</ref> Similarly, he improved an already effective artillery system and recruited [[cossacks]].<ref name=stone126/> Batory gathered 56,000 troops, 30,000 of them from Lithuania,<ref name=stone126/> for his first assault on Russia at Polotsk, as part of a [[Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory|wider campaign]]. With Ivan's reserves in Pskov and Novgorod to guard against a possible Swedish invasion, the city fell on 30 August 1579.<ref name=stone126/> Batory then appointed a close ally and powerful member of his court, [[Jan Zamoyski]], to lead a force of 48,000, including 25,000 men from Lithuania, against the fortress of [[Velikie Luki]] which he went on to capture on 5 September 1580.<ref name=stone126/> Without further significant resistance, garrisons such as Sokol, Velizh, and Usvzat fell quickly.<ref>{{harvnb|Solovyov|1791|p=174}}</ref> In 1581, the force [[Siege of Pskov|besieged Pskov]], a well-fortified and heavily defended fortress. However, financial support from the Polish parliament was dropping, and Batory failed to lure Russian forces in Livonia out into open field before the onset of winter.<ref name=stone126/> Not realising that the Polish–Lithuanian advance was on the wane, Ivan signed the [[Truce of Jam Zapolski]].<ref name=stone126/>

The failure of the Swedish siege of Narwa in 1579 led to [[Pontus de la Gardie]]'s appointment as commander-in-chief.<ref name=Roberts263>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=263}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA263 online])</ref> The towns of [[Kexholm]] and [[Padise Parish|Padise]] were taken by Swedish forces in 1580,<ref name=Roberts263/> then in 1581, concurrent with the fall of [[Rakvere|Wesenberg]], a [[mercenary]] army hired by Sweden recaptured the strategic city of Narwa.<ref name=Roberts263/> A target of John III's campaigns, since it could be attacked by both land and sea, the campaign made use of Sweden's considerable fleet<ref name=Oakley34>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=34}}</ref> but later arguments over formal control in the long term hampered any alliance with Poland.<ref name=Oakley34/> Following la Gardie's taking of the city, and in retaliation for previous Russian massacres,<ref>{{harvnb|Solovyov|1791|p=881}}</ref> 7,000 Russians were killed according to [[Balthasar Russow|Russow]]'s contemporary chronicle.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=80}}, referring to Russow, B. (1578): ''Chronica der Provintz Lyfflandt'', p. 147</ref> The fall of Narwa was followed by those of [[Ivangorod]], [[Kingisepp|Jama]], and [[Koporye]],<ref name=Roberts264/> leaving Sweden content with its gains in Livonia.<ref name=Roberts264/>

===Truces of Jam Zapolski and Plussa===
[[File:Map of Poland and Lithuania in 1600.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Division of Livonia by 1600:{{Legend|#ffaeae|Poland–Lithuania}}{{Legend|#ffaef6|Vassal duchies of Poland–Lithuania}}{{Legend|#b0ffbd|Russia}}{{Legend|#c3ccff|Kingdom of Sweden}}{{Legend|#ff7e5c|Denmark-Norway}}]]
Subsequent negotiations led by [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[papal legate]] [[Antonio Possevino]] resulted in the 1582 [[Truce of Jam Zapolski]] between Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.<ref name=Roberts264>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=264}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264 online])</ref> This was a humiliation for the Tsar, in part because he requested the truce.<ref name=Roberts264/> Under the agreement Russia would surrender all areas in Livonia it still held and the city of Dorpat (Tartu) to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Polotsk would remain under Commonwealth control. Any captured Swedish territory—specifically Narwa—could be retained by the Russians and Velike Luki would be returned from Batory's control to Russia.<ref name=Roberts264/> Possevino made a half-hearted attempt to get John III's wishes taken into consideration, but this was vetoed by the Tsar, probably in collusion with Batory.<ref name=Roberts264/> The armistice, which fell short of a full peace arrangement, was to last ten years and was renewed twice, in 1591 and 1601.<ref>{{harvnb|Wernham|1968|p=393}}</ref> Batory failed in his attempts to pressure Sweden into relinquishing its gains in Livonia, particularly Narwa.<ref name=Roberts264/>

Following a decision by John, the war with Russia ended when the Tsar concluded the [[Truce of Plussa]] (''Plyussa, Pljussa, Plusa'') with Sweden on 10 August 1583.<ref name=Roberts264/><ref name=Frost44>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=44}}</ref> Russia relinquished most of Ingria, leaving Narwa and Ivangorod as well under Swedish control.<ref name=Frost44/> Originally scheduled to last three years, the Russo-Swedish truce was later extended until 1590.<ref name=Frost44/> During the negotiations, Sweden made vast demands for Russian territory, including Novgorod. Whilst these conditions were probably only for the purposes of negotiation, they may have reflected Swedish aspirations of territory in the region.<ref name=Roberts264/>

==Aftermath==

The post-war [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] south of the [[Düna]] (Daugava) river experienced a period of political stability based on the 1561 Treaty of Vilnius, later modified by the 1617 ''Formula regiminis'' and ''Statuta Curlandiæ'', which granted indigenous nobles additional rights at the duke's expense.<ref name=Dybas110>{{harvnb|Dybaś|2006|p=110}}</ref> North of the Düna, Batory reduced the privileges Sigismund had granted the [[Duchy of Livonia]], regarding the regained territories as the spoils of war.<ref name=Dybas109/> Riga's privileges had already been reduced by the [[Treaty of Drohiczyn]] in 1581.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen37>{{harvnb|Tuchtenhagen|2005|p=37}}</ref> [[Polish language|Polish]] gradually replaced [[German language|German]] as the administrative language and the establishment of [[voivodeships]] reduced the [[Baltic German]] administration.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen36>{{harvnb|Tuchtenhagen|2005|p=36}}</ref> The local clergy and the Jesuits in Livonia embraced the [[counter-reformation]]<ref name="Kahle17"/> in a process assisted by Batory, who gave the [[Roman Catholic Church]] revenues and estates confiscated from Protestants as well as initiating a largely unsuccessful recruitment campaign for Catholic colonists.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen38>{{harvnb|Tuchtenhagen|2005|p=38}}</ref> Despite these measures, the Livonian population did not convert ''en masse'', while the Livonian estates in Poland–Lithuania were alienated.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen38/>

[[File:Swedish Empire in the Baltic (1560-1721).png|thumb|Map showing Sweden in the Baltic, 1560 to 1721. Dates are those of occupation, and those in brackets dates of loss.]]
In 1590, the Russo-Swedish truce of Plussa expired and fighting resumed<ref name=Frost44/> while the ensuing [[Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)|Russo-Swedish War of 1590–5]] ended with the [[Treaty of Teusina]] (Tyavzino, Tyavzin), under which Sweden had to cede [[Ingria]] and [[Kexholm]] to Russia.<ref name=Frost45>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=45}}</ref> The Swedish–Polish alliance began to crumble when the Polish King and Grand Duke of Lithuania [[Sigismund III Vasa|Sigismund III]], who as son of [[John III of Sweden]] (died 1592) and Catherine Jagellonica, was the successor to the Swedish throne, met with resistance from a faction led by his uncle, [[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles of Södermanland]] (later Charles IX), who claimed regency in Sweden for himself.<ref name=Frost45/> Sweden descended into a civil war in 1597, followed by the 1598–1599 [[war against Sigismund]], which ended with the deposition of Sigismund by the Swedish ''[[Riksdag of the Estates|riksdag]]''.<ref name=Frost45/>

Local nobles turned to Charles for protection in 1600 when the conflict spread to Livonia, where Sigismund had tried to incorporate [[Swedish Estonia]] into the Duchy of Livonia.<ref name=Steinke120>{{harvnb|Steinke|2009|p=120}}</ref> Charles then expelled the Polish forces from Estonia<ref name=Steinke120/> and [[Polish–Swedish War (1600–1611)|invaded the Livonian duchy]], starting a series of [[Polish–Swedish War (1600–1629)|Polish–Swedish wars]].<ref name=Frost46>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=46}}</ref> At the same time, Russia was embroiled in civil war over the vacant Russian throne ("[[Time of Troubles]]") when none of the many claimants had prevailed. This conflict became intertwined with the Livonian campaigns when Swedish and Polish–Lithuanian forces intervened on opposite sides, the latter starting the [[Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)|Polish–Muscovite War]].<ref name=Frost46/> Charles IX's forces were expelled from Livonia<ref name=Frost47>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=47}}</ref> after major setbacks at the battles of [[Battle of Kokenhausen|Kokenhausen(1601)]] and [[Battle of Kircholm|Kircholm]] (1605).<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=62, 64ff}}</ref><ref name=Frost47/> During the later [[Ingrian War]], Charles' successor [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] retook Ingria and Kexholm which were formally ceded to Sweden under the 1617 [[Treaty of Stolbovo]]<ref name=Frost47/> along with the bulk of the Duchy of Livonia. In 1617, when Sweden had recovered from the [[Kalmar War]] with Denmark, several Livonian towns were captured, but only [[Pernau]] (Pärnu) remained under Swedish control after a [[Polish–Swedish War (1617–1618)|Polish–Lithuanian counter-offensive]].<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=102}}</ref> [[Polish–Swedish War (1621–1625)|A second campaign]] then started with the capture of Riga in 1621 and expelled Polish–Lithuanian forces from most of Livonia, where the [[Dominions of Sweden|dominion]] of [[Swedish Livonia]] was created.<ref name=Steinke120/> Swedish forces then advanced through [[Royal Prussia]] and Poland–Lithuania accepted Swedish gains in Livonia in the 1629 [[Treaty of Altmark]].<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=103}}</ref>

The [[Øsel|Danish province of Øsel]] was ceded to Sweden under the 1645 [[Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645)|Treaty of Brömsebro]], which ended the [[Torstenson War]], one theatre of the [[Thirty Years' War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=103–104}}</ref> It was retained after the [[Peace of Oliva]] and the [[Treaty of Copenhagen (1660)|Treaty of Copenhagen]], both in 1660.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=183}}</ref> The situation remained unchanged until 1710 when [[Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia|Estonia and Livonia capitulated to Russia]] during the [[Great Northern War]], an action formalised in the [[Treaty of Nystad]] (1721).<ref name=Kahle18>{{harvnb|Kahle|1984|p=18}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Livonians]]
* [[Russo-Turkish wars]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group="nb"}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
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* {{efron}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Seealso|Bibliography of the history of Poland|Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)|Bibliography of Ukrainian history}}
* {{citation |last=Karamzin |first=Nikolai Mikhailovich |author-link=Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin |title=Istoriya gosudarstva Rossiyskogo |language=ru |volume=VIII |chapter=III |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w851ixSKr9AC |publisher=Olma Media Group |location=Moscow |orig-year=1826 |year=2003 |isbn=978-5-224-04058-2}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
* Oscar Halecki, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090504232233/http://victorian.fortunecity.com/wooton/34/halecki/11.htm The Struggle for the Dominium Maris Baltici]
* William Urban, [http://www.lituanus.org/1983_3/83_3_02.htm The Origin of the Livonian War, 1558] (Lituanus, Volume 29, No.3 – Fall 1983)
* Andres Adamson, [http://www.tlulib.ee/files/arts/96/andre267b2fbf346f36611be2ffd9aedf3d07.pdf The Role of Duke Magnus of Holstein in the Baltic Sea Region during the Livonian War] (2006, dissertation)

{{Campaigns and treaties of the Livonian War}}
{{Lithuanian wars and conflicts}}
{{Polish wars and conflicts}}
{{Russian Conflicts}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Livonian War| ]]
[[Category:Northern Wars]]
[[Category:16th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Battles of the Livonian War| ]]
[[Category:Polish–Russian wars]]
[[Category:1558 in Lithuania]]
[[Category:1558 in Poland]]
[[Category:1558 in Russia]]
[[Category:1558 in Sweden]]
[[Category:1558 in Belarus]]
[[Category:1583 in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
[[Category:1583 in Russia]]
[[Category:1583 in Sweden]]
[[Category:Wars involving Sweden]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]

Estonia

2023-04-16T19:04:42Z

3 Löwi: geography section is for the geographic details

{{short description|Country in Northern Europe}}
{{redirect|Eesti|the language|Estonian language|other uses|Estonia (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Coord|59|N|26|E|type:country_scale:9000000_region:EE|display=title}}{{EngvarB|date=December 2019}}{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Estonia
| common_name = Estonia
| native_name = {{native name|et|Eesti Vabariik}}
| image_flag = Flag of Estonia.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Estonia.svg
| symbol_width = 88px
| national_anthem = ''[[Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm]]'' {{small|(English: "My fatherland, my happiness and joy")}} {{parabr}}{{center|[[File:US Navy band - National anthem of Estonia.ogg|alt=sound file of Estonian national anthem]]}}
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Estonia on the globe (Europe centered).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:EU-Estonia.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Europe|default=2}}
| map_caption = {{map caption|location_color=dark green |region=Europe |region_color=dark grey |subregion=the [[European Union]] |subregion_color=green |legend=EU-Estonia.svg}}
| capital = [[Tallinn]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|59|25|N|24|45|E|type:city}}
| largest_city = capital
| languages_type = Official language
| languages = [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
{{infobox|child=yes
| label1 = [[Ethnic groups]] {{nobold|(2022)}}
| data1 = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |69.4% [[Estonians]] |23.6% [[Russians]] |7.0% [[Demographics of Estonia|Others]]}}
}}
| demonym = Estonian
| religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |64.9% [[Irreligion in Estonia|No religion]] |34.0% [[Christianity]]|1.1% [[Religion in Estonia|Others]]}}
| religion_year = 2011<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.stat.ee/65352?parent_id=39113|title= PHC 2011: over a quarter of the population are affiliated with a particular religion|date= 29 April 2013|access-date= 9 January 2014|publisher= [[Statistics Estonia]]|archive-date= 24 November 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171124002736/https://www.stat.ee/65352?parent_id=39113|url-status= dead}}</ref>
| government_type = [[Unitary parliamentary republic]]
| leader_title1 = [[President of Estonia|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Alar Karis]]
| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Kaja Kallas]]
| legislature = [[Riigikogu]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Estonia|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note = from [[Soviet Russia|Russia]] and [[German Empire|Germany]]
| established_event1 = [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|Declaration of independence]]
| established_date1 = {{nowrap|23–24 February 1918}}
| established_event2 = Joined the [[League of Nations]]
| established_date2 = {{nowrap|22 September 1921}}
| established_event4 = [[Occupation of the Baltic states|German and Soviet occupations]]
| established_date4 = 1940–1991
| established_event5 = [[Restoration of Estonia|Independence restored]]
| established_date5 = 20 August 1991
| established_event6 = {{nowrap|[[2004 enlargement of the European Union|Joined]] the [[European Union]]}}
| established_date6 = 1 May 2004
| area_km2 = 45,339
| area_rank = 129thd
| area_sq_mi = 17,505
| percent_water = 4.6
| population_estimate = {{increase}} 1,357,739<ref>{{cite web |title=Population Figure |url=https://news.err.ee/1608854255/statistics-estonia-s-population-grew-by-2-percent-on-year-to-january-2023 |website=ERR Uudised |date=18 January 2023 |access-date=19 January 2023}}</ref>
| population_census = 1,331,824<ref>{{cite news |title=Population census: Estonia's population and the number of Estonians have grown |url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/uudised/rahvaloendus-eesti-rahvaarv-ja-eestlaste-arv-kasvanud |access-date=5 June 2022 |publisher=Statistics Estonia |date=June 1, 2022}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2023
| population_estimate_rank =
| population_census_year = 2021
| population_density_km2 = 30.6
| population_density_sq_mi = 75 
| population_density_rank = 148th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $61.757 billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=939,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2024&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022 – Estonia|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= November 30, 2022}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2023
| GDP_PPP_rank = 113th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $46,385 <ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 40th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $41.55 billion<ref name="imf2"/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2023
| GDP_nominal_rank = 102th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $31,207<ref name="imf2"/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 37th
| Gini = 30.6 
| Gini_year = 2021
| Gini_change = increase 
| Gini_ref = <ref name="eurogini">{{cite web |title= Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income |work= EU-SILC survey |publisher= [[Eurostat]] |url= https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi190/default/table?lang=en|access-date= 22 June 2022}}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.890 
| HDI_year = 2021
| HDI_change = increase 
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 31st
| currency = [[Euro]] ([[€]])
| currency_code = EUR
| drives_on = right
| time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
| utc_offset = +02:00
| utc_offset_DST = +03:00
| time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Estonia|+372]]
| cctld = [[.ee]]
}}
'''Estonia''',{{efn|{{lang-et|Eesti}} {{IPA-et|ˈeːsʲti||Et-Eesti.ogg}}}} formally the '''Republic of Estonia''',{{efn|{{lang-et|Eesti Vabariik|links=no}}}} is a country by the [[Baltic Sea]] in [[Northern Europe|Northern]] [[Europe]]. It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the [[Baltic Sea|sea]] across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by [[Lake Peipus]] and [[Russia]]. The territory of Estonia consists of the [[mainland]], the larger islands of [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]], and over 2,200 other islands and [[islet]]s on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea,<ref>Matthew Holehouse [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/estonia/11830643/Estonia-discovers-800-new-islands.html Estonia discovers it's actually larger after finding 800 new islands] ''The Telegraph'', 28 August 2015</ref> covering a total area of {{convert|45339|km2|sqmi}}. The [[capital city]] [[Tallinn]] and [[Tartu]] are the two [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|largest urban]] [[urban area|area]]s of the country. The [[Estonian language]] is the [[indigenous language|autochthonous]] and the [[official language]] of Estonia; it is the [[first language]] of the majority of its [[Estonians|population]], as well as the world's second most spoken [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] [[Uralic languages|language]].

The land of what is now modern Estonia has been inhabited by ''[[Early modern human|Homo sapiens]]'' since at least 9,000 BC. The [[Ancient Estonia#Early Middle Ages|medieval indigenous]] population of Estonia was one of the last [[pagan]] civilisations in Europe to adopt [[Christianity]] following the [[Papal]][[Non parum animus noster|-sanctioned]] [[Livonian Crusade|Livonian]] [[Northern Crusades|Crusade]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://legacarta.intracen.org/country/est/|title= Country Profile – LegaCarta|access-date= 26 November 2019}}</ref> After centuries of successive rule by the [[State of the Teutonic Order|Teutonic Order]], [[Duchy of Estonia (1219–1346)|Denmark]], [[Estonia under Swedish rule|Sweden]], and the [[Russian Empire]], a distinct [[Estonian national awakening|Estonian national identity]] began to emerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 24 February 1918 [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] from the then warring [[Russian Republic|Russian]] and [[German Empire]]s.  Democratic throughout most of the [[interwar period]], Estonia declared [[Neutral powers during World War II|neutrality]] at the outbreak of [[World War II]], but the country was [[Occupation of the Baltic states|repeatedly contested, invaded and occupied]], first by the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|1940]], then by [[Nazi Germany]] in 1941, and was ultimately [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)|reoccupied in 1944]] by, and annexed into, the USSR as an [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union|administrative subunit]] ([[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonian SSR]]). Throughout the 1944–1991 Soviet occupation,<ref>See, for instance, position expressed by European Parliament, which condemned "the fact that the occupation of these formerly independent and neutral States by the Soviet Union occurred in 1940 following the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact, and continues." {{cite journal | last=European Parliament | title=Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania | journal=Official Journal of the European Communities | volume=C 42/78 | date=January 13, 1983 | url=/media/wikipedia/en/8/80/Europarliament13011983.jpg}}</ref> Estonia's ''[[de jure]]'' [[State continuity of the Baltic states|state continuity]] was [[Baltic Legations (1940–1991)|preserved]] by [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–1991)|diplomatic representatives]] and the [[Estonian government-in-exile|government-in-exile]]. Following the bloodless Estonian "[[Singing Revolution]]" of 1988–1990, the nation's ''de facto'' independence from the Soviet Union was restored on [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|20 August 1991]].

Estonia is a [[developed country]], with an advanced [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income]] [[Economy of Estonia|economy]]. The [[sovereign state]] of Estonia is a democratic [[unitary parliamentary republic]], administratively subdivided into 15 ''maakond'' [[Counties of Estonia|(counties)]]. With a population of just over 1.3 million, it is one of the least populous members of the [[European Union]], the [[Eurozone]], the [[OECD]], the [[Schengen Area]], and [[NATO]].

==Name==
{{Main|Name of Estonia}}
The name ''Estonia'' ({{lang-et|Eesti}} {{IPA-et|ˈeːsʲti||Et-Eesti.ogg}}) has been connected to ''[[Aesti]]'', first mentioned by [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] historian [[Tacitus]] around 98 AD. Some historians believe he was directly referring to [[Balts]] (i.e. not [[Finnic languages|Finnic-speaking]] Estonians), while others have proposed that the name applied to the whole Eastern Baltic region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mägi |first1=Marika |title=In ''Austrvegr'': The Role of the Eastern Baltic in Viking Age Communication across the Baltic Sea |date=2018 |pages=144–145 |publisher=[[BRILL]] |isbn=9789004363816}}</ref> The [[Scandinavian sagas]] referring to ''Eistland'' were the earliest sources to use the name in its modern meaning.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tvauri |first1=Andres |title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia |date=2012 |editor1-last=Laneman |editor1-first=Margot |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |page=31 |publisher=[[Tartu University|Tartu University Press]] |isbn=9789949199365 |issn=1736-3810 |accessdate=21 January 2020}}</ref> From Scandinavian the name spread to German and later, reached Latin, with [[Henry of Latvia]] naming the region ''Estonia''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rätsep|first1=Huno|title=Kui kaua me oleme olnud eestlased? |journal=Oma Keel |year=2007|volume=14|url=http://www.emakeeleselts.ee/omakeel/2007_1/OK_2007-1_01.pdf |lang=et |access-date=21 January 2020 |page=11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tamm |first1=Marek |last2=Kaljundi |first2=Linda |last3=Jensen |first3=Carsten Selch |title=Crusading and Chronicle Writing on the Medieval Baltic Frontier: A Companion to the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia |date=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781317156796 |pages=94–96}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Estonia}}

===Prehistory and Viking Age===
{{Main|Ancient Estonia|Viking Age in Estonia}}
[[File:Kalmeväli .jpg|thumb|right|[[Bronze Age]] stone-cist graves in north Estonia]]
Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000–11,000 years ago, when the ice from the last [[Ice age|glacial era]] melted. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the [[Pulli settlement]], which was on the banks of [[Pärnu River|Pärnu]] river, near [[Sindi, Estonia|Sindi]], in southwest Estonia. According to [[radiocarbon dating]], it was settled around 11,000 years ago.<ref name="Laurisaar">{{cite news |url=http://epl.delfi.ee/news/kultuur/arheoloogid-lammutavad-ajalooopikute-arusaamu?id=50989575 |title=Arheoloogid lammutavad ajalooõpikute arusaamu |first=Riho |last=Laurisaar |publisher=[[Eesti Päevaleht]] |language=et |date=31 July 2004 |access-date=1 November 2016}}</ref>

The earliest human habitation during the [[Mesolithic]] period is connected to the [[Kunda culture]]. At that time the country was covered with forests, and people lived in semi-nomadic communities near bodies of water. Subsistence activities consisted of hunting, gathering and fishing.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=23 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> Around 4900 BC, ceramics appear of the [[neolithic]] period, known as [[Narva culture]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=24 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> Starting from around 3200 BC the [[Corded Ware culture]] appeared; this included new activities like primitive agriculture and animal husbandry.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=26 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref>

The [[Bronze Age]] started around 1800 BC, and saw the establishment of the first [[hillfort|hill fort]] settlements.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=4 |year=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref> A transition from hunter-fisher subsistence to single-farm-based settlement started around 1000 BC, and was complete by the beginning of the [[Iron Age]] around 500 BC.<ref name="Laurisaar"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=5 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref> The large amount of bronze objects indicate the existence of active communication with Scandinavian and Germanic tribes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=28 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref>

The [[Iron Age Europe|middle Iron Age]] produced threats appearing from different directions. Several Scandinavian sagas referred to major confrontations with Estonians, notably when in the early 7th century "Estonian Vikings" defeated and killed [[Ingvar]], the [[Yngling|King of]] [[Swedes (tribe)|Swedes]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|year=2005 |title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/68 68] |publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006 |url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/68}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Faure |first1=Gunter |last2=Mensing |first2=Teresa |title=The Estonians; The long road to independence |page=27 |year=2012|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=9781105530036}}</ref> Similar threats appeared to the east, where East Slavic principalities were expanding westward. In ca 1030 the troops of [[Kievan Rus]] led by [[Yaroslav the Wise]] defeated Estonians and established a fort in modern-day [[Tartu]]. This foothold may have lasted until ca 1061 when an Estonian tribe, the Sosols, destroyed it, followed by their raid on [[Pskov]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tvauri|first1=Andres|title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia|date=2012|pages=33, 34, 59, 60 |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |access-date=27 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mäesalu |first1=Ain|title=Could Kedipiv in East-Slavonic Chronicles be Keava hill fort?|journal=Estonian Journal of Archaeology|year=2012|volume=1 |issue=16supplser|page=199|doi=10.3176/arch.2012.supv1.11 |url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/Archaeology/2012/sup_vol_1/arhe-keava-2012-195-200.pdf|access-date=27 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres |title=A History of the Baltic States |page=9 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun |first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=12|year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> Around the 11th century, the Scandinavian Viking era around the Baltic Sea was succeeded by the Baltic Viking era, with seaborne raids by [[Curonians]] and by Estonians from the island of [[Saaremaa]], known as [[Oeselians]]. In 1187 Estonians (Oeselians), [[Curonians]] or/and [[Karelians]] sacked [[Sigtuna]], which was a major city of Sweden at the time.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres |title=A History of the Baltic States|pages=9–11 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref name=Tarvel>Enn Tarvel (2007). [http://haridus.opleht.ee/Arhiiv/7_82007/38-41.pdf ''Sigtuna hukkumine''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011191449/http://haridus.opleht.ee/Arhiiv/7_82007/38-41.pdf |date=11 October 2017 }} Haridus, 2007 (7–8), pp. 38–41</ref>

Estonia could be divided into two main cultural areas. The coastal areas of Northern and Western Estonia had close overseas contacts with [[Scandinavia]] and [[Finland]], while inland Southern Estonia had more contacts with [[Balts]] and [[Pskov Land|Pskov]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tvauri|first1=Andres|title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia|date=2012|pages=322–325 |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref> The landscape of Ancient Estonia featured numerous hillforts.<ref name="Magi2015">{{cite book|last=Mägi |first=Marika |editor-last1=Barrett |editor-first1=James H. |editor-last2=Gibbon |editor-first2=Sarah Jane |title=Maritime Societies of the Viking and Medieval World |publisher=Maney Publishing |date=2015 |pages=45–46 |chapter=Chapter 4. Bound for the Eastern Baltic: Trade and Centres AD 800–1200 |isbn=978-1-909662-79-7}}</ref> Prehistoric or medieval harbour sites have been found on the coast of Saaremaa.<ref name="Magi2015"/> Estonia also has a number of graves from the Viking Age, both individual and collective, with weapons and jewellery including types found commonly throughout Northern Europe and Scandinavia.<ref name="Magi2015"/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Martens |first=Irmelin |year=2004 |title= Indigenous and imported Viking Age weapons in Norway – a problem with European implications |journal= Journal of Nordic Archaeological Science |volume=14 |pages=132–135 |url= https://www.archaeology.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.138785.1371480692!/menu/standard/file/martens.pdf |access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref>

In the early centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the parish (Estonian: ''kihelkond'') and the county (Estonian: ''[[maakond]]''), which consisted of multiple parishes. A parish was led by [[elder (administrative title)|elders]] and centered on a hill fort; in some rare cases a parish had multiple forts. By the 13th century, Estonia consisted of eight major counties: [[Harjumaa (ancient county)|Harjumaa]], [[Järvamaa]], [[Läänemaa]], [[Revala]], [[Saare County|Saaremaa]], [[Sakala County|Sakala]], [[Ugandi]], and [[Virumaa]]; and six minor, single-parish counties: [[Alempois]], [[Jogentagana]], [[Mõhu]], [[Nurmekund]], [[Soopoolitse]], and [[Vaiga]]. Counties were independent entities and engaged only in a loose cooperation against foreign threats.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=4 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto | author-link1 = Anto Raukas|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=227|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>

Little is known of medieval Estonians' spiritual and religious practices before [[Christianization]]. The [[Chronicle of Henry of Livonia]] mentions ''[[Tharapita]]'' as the superior deity of the then inhabitants of Saaremaa (''Oeselians''). There is some [[historical evidence]] about [[sacred groves]], especially groves of [[oak]] trees, having served as places of "[[paganism|pagan]]" worship.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=7 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://epl.delfi.ee/news/kultuur/kes-oli-saarlaste-suurjumal-taarapita?id=51037692 |title=Arheoloogid lammutavad ajalooõpikute arusaamu |first=Riho |last=Laurisaar |publisher=[[Eesti Päevaleht]] |language=et |date=29 April 2006 |access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref>

===Crusades and the Catholic Era===
{{Main|Livonian Crusade|Terra Mariana|Danish Estonia}}
[[File:Medieval Livonia 1260.svg|thumb|left|Medieval Estonia and Livonia after the crusade]]
In 1199, Pope [[Innocent III]] declared a [[Livonian Crusade|crusade]] to "defend the Christians of [[Livonia]]".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Tyerman|first1=Christopher|author-link = Christopher Tyerman|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades|page=[https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690 690]|year=2006|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674023871|url=https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690}}</ref> Fighting reached Estonia in 1206, when Danish King [[Valdemar II]] unsuccessfully invaded Saaremaa. The German [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]], who had previously subjugated [[Livonians]], [[Latgalians]], and [[Selonians]], started campaigning against the Estonians in 1208, and over next few years both sides made numerous raids and counter-raids. A major leader of the Estonian resistance was [[Lembitu]], an elder of [[Sakala County]], but in 1217 the Estonians suffered a significant defeat in the [[Battle of St. Matthew's Day]], where Lembitu was killed. In 1219, Valdemar II landed at Lindanise, defeated the Estonians in the [[Battle of Lyndanisse]], and started conquering Northern Estonia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=14 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=278|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> The next year, Sweden invaded Western Estonia, but were [[Battle of Lihula|repelled]] by the Oeselians. In 1223, a major revolt ejected the Germans and Danes from the whole of Estonia, except [[Reval]], but the crusaders soon resumed their offensive, and in 1227, Saaremaa was the last ''maakond'' (county) to surrender.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=15 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=279|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>

After the crusade, the territory of present-day Southern Estonia and Latvia was named [[Terra Mariana]], but later it became known simply as [[Livonia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Plakans|first1=Andrejs|title=A Concise History of the Baltic States|page=54 |year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521833721}}</ref> Northern Estonia became the Danish [[Danish Estonia|Duchy of Estonia]], while the rest was divided between the Sword Brothers and [[prince-bishopric]]s of [[Bishopric of Dorpat|Dorpat]] and [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]]. In 1236, after suffering a [[Battle of Saule|major defeat]], the Sword Brothers merged into the [[Teutonic Order]] becoming the [[Livonian Order]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States|pages=9–10|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313331251}}</ref> In the next decades there were several uprisings against the Teutonic rulers in Saaremaa. In 1343, a major rebellion started, known as the [[St. George's Night Uprising]], encompassing the whole area of northern Estonia and Saaremaa. The Teutonic Order finished suppressing the rebellion in 1345, and the next year the Danish king sold his possessions in Estonia to the Order.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=20 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States|page=10|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313331251}}</ref> The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the upper-class German minority.<ref>{{cite book |last= Pekomäe|first= Vello|title= Estland genom tiderna|year= 1986|publisher= VÄLIS-EESTI & EMP|location= Stockholm |language= sv|isbn= 91-86116-47-9|page=319}}</ref> For the subsequent centuries [[Low German]] remained the language of the ruling elite in both Estonian cities and the countryside.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Jokipii|first1= Mauno|editor1-first= Mauno|editor1-last= Jokipii|title= Baltisk kultur och historia|year= 1992 |language= sv|isbn= 9789134512078|pages= 22–23}}</ref>
[[File:Kuressaare Castle.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Kuressaare Castle, square stone keep with one square corner tower and red tile roof|[[Kuressaare Castle]] in [[Saaremaa]] dates back to the 1380s]]
[[Reval]] ([[Tallinn]]), the capital of [[Danish Estonia]] founded on the site of Lindanise, adopted the [[Lübeck law]] and received full town rights in 1248.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=441|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref> The [[Hanseatic League]] controlled trade on the Baltic Sea, and overall the four largest towns in Estonia became members: Reval, [[Dorpat]] (Tartu), [[Pernau]] (Pärnu), and [[Fellin]] (Viljandi). Reval acted as a trade intermediary between [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] and western Hanseatic cities, while Dorpat filled the same role with [[Pskov Land|Pskov]]. Many artisans' and merchants [[guilds]] were formed during the period.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture, Volume 1|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/100 100]|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/100}}</ref> Protected by their stone walls and membership in the Hansa, prosperous cities like Reval and Dorpat repeatedly defied other rulers of [[medieval Livonia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frost|first1=Robert I.|title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558 – 1721|page=305|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317898573}}</ref> After the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the [[Battle of Grunwald]] in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the [[Battle of Swienta]] on 1 September 1435, the [[Livonian Confederation]] Agreement was signed on 4 December 1435.<ref name="VLM">{{cite book|title=Vana-Liivimaa maapäev|last=Raudkivi|first=Priit|year=2007|publisher=Argo|language=et|isbn=978-9949-415-84-7|pages=118–119}}</ref>

===Post-Reformation Era===
{{Main|Swedish Estonia|Governorate of Estonia|Governorate of Livonia}}
[[File:Academia Gustaviana.jpg|right|thumb|"Academia Dorpatensis" (now [[University of Tartu]]) was founded in 1632 by King Gustavus as the second university in the kingdom of Sweden. After the king's death it became known as "Academia Gustaviana".]]

The [[Reformation]] began in central Europe in 1517, and soon spread northward to Livonia despite some opposition by the Livonian Order.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Mol|first1=Johannes A.|last2=Militzer|first2=Klaus|last3=Nicholson|first3=Helen J.|title=The Military Orders and the Reformation: Choices, State Building, and the Weight of Tradition|pages=5–6|year=2006|publisher=Uitgeverij Verloren|isbn=9789065509130}}</ref> Towns were the first to embrace Protestantism in the 1520s, and by the 1530s the majority of the landowners and rural population had adopted [[Lutheranism]] as well.<ref name="Frucht121">{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture, Volume 1|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/121 121]|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/121}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=The History of the Baltic States|page=25|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313323553}}</ref> Church services were now conducted in vernacular language, which initially meant [[Low German]], but already from the 1530s onward the regular religious services were also held in the [[Estonian language]].<ref name="Frucht121"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=24 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

During the 16th century, the expansionist monarchies of [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]], Sweden, and [[Polish–Lithuanian union|Poland–Lithuania]] consolidated power, posing a growing threat to decentralised Livonia weakened by disputes between cities, nobility, bishops, and the Order.<ref name="Frucht121"/><ref name="Hoover Press">{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=25 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

In 1558, Tsar [[Ivan the Terrible]] of [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia (Muscovy)]] invaded Livonia, starting the [[Livonian War]]. The Livonian Order was decisively [[Battle of Ergeme|defeated]] in 1560, prompting Livonian factions to seek foreign protection. The majority of Livonia accepted Polish rule, while Reval and the nobles of Northern Estonia swore loyalty to the Swedish king, and the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek sold his lands to the Danish king. Russian forces gradually conquered the majority of Livonia, but in the late 1570s the Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish armies started their own offensives and the bloody war finally ended in 1583 with Russian defeat.<ref name="Hoover Press"/><ref>{{Cite book|author1-link=David R. Stone|last1=Stone|first1=David R.|title=A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya|pages=14–18 |year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780275985028}}</ref> As a result of the war, Northern Estonia became Swedish [[Duchy of Estonia (1561–1721)|Duchy of Estonia]], Southern Estonia became Polish [[Duchy of Livonia]], and Saaremaa remained under Danish control.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=28–29 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

In 1600, the [[Polish–Swedish War]] broke out, causing further devastation. The protracted war ended in 1629 with Sweden [[Swedish Livonia|gaining Livonia]], including the regions of Southern Estonia and Northern Latvia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=28 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> Danish Saaremaa was [[Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645)|transferred]] to Sweden in 1645.<ref>{{cite book |title=Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania |last1=Williams |first1=Nicola |first2=Debra |last2=Herrmann |first3=Cathryn |last3=Kemp |year=2003 |publisher=University of Michigan |isbn=1-74059-132-1 |page=190}}</ref> The wars had halved the population of Estonia from about 250–270,000 people in the mid 16th century to 115–120,000 in the 1630s.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frost|first1=Robert I.|title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558 – 1721|page=77|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317898573}}</ref>

While many peasants remained in the status of [[serfdom]] during the Swedish rule, legal reforms strengthened both serfs' and [[free tenant]] farmers' land usage and inheritance rights – hence this period got the reputation of "The Good Old Swedish Time" in people's historical memory.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=283|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> Swedish King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustaf II Adolf]] established [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasiums]] in Reval and Dorpat; the latter was upgraded to [[Tartu University]] in 1632. [[Printing presses]] were also established in both towns. In the 1680s the beginnings of Estonian elementary education appeared, largely due to efforts of [[Bengt Gottfried Forselius]], who also introduced orthographical reforms to written Estonian.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=32–33 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The population of Estonia grew rapidly for a 60–70-year period, until the [[Great Famine of Estonia (1695–1697)|Great Famine]] of 1695–97 in which some 70,000–75,000 people died – about 20% of the population.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=31 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

During the 1700–1721 [[Great Northern War]], the [[Tsardom of Russia]] (Muscovy) conquered the whole of Estonia by 1710.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=33 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The war again devastated the population of Estonia, with the 1712 population estimated at only 150,000–170,000.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=34 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> In 1721, Estonia was divided into two [[Baltic governorates|governorates]]: the [[governorate of Estonia]], which included Tallinn and the northern part of Estonia, and the southern [[governorate of Livonia]], which extended to the northern part of Latvia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bdcol.ee/fileadmin/docs/bdreview/bdr-2002-8-11.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319083729/http://www.bdcol.ee/fileadmin/docs/bdreview/bdr-2002-8-11.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Baltic States from 1914 to 1923 By LtCol Andrew Parrott|archive-date=19 March 2009}}</ref> Russian administration restored all the political and landholding rights of Baltic Germans.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=38 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The rights of local farmers reached their lowest point, as serfdom completely dominated agricultural relations during the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=41 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> Serfdom was formally abolished in 1816–1819, but this initially had very little practical effect; major improvements in farmers' rights started with reforms in the mid-19th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=47–49 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref>

===National Awakening===
{{Main|Estonian national awakening}}

[[File:Carl Robert Jakobson.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Carl Robert Jakobson]] played a key role in the [[Estonian national awakening]].]]
The [[Estonian national awakening]] began in the 1850s as several leading figures started promoting an Estonian national identity among the general populace. Widespread farm buyouts by Estonians and the resulting rapidly growing class of land-owning farmers provided the economic basis for the formation of this new "Estonian identity". In 1857 [[Johann Voldemar Jannsen]] started publishing the first Estonian language daily newspaper and began popularising the denomination of oneself as ''eestlane'' (Estonian).<ref name="EE286">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=286|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> Schoolmaster [[Carl Robert Jakobson]] and clergyman [[Jakob Hurt]] became leading figures in a national movement, encouraging Estonian farmers to take pride in their ethnic Estonian identity.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=90 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> The first nationwide movements formed, such as a campaign to establish the Estonian language Alexander School, the founding of the [[Society of Estonian Literati]] and the [[Estonian Students' Society]], and the first [[Estonian Song Festival|national song festival]], held in 1869 in Tartu.<ref name="Raun59">{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=59 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref name="EE287">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=287|year=2002 |publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=93 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> Linguistic reforms helped to develop the Estonian language.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=90–91 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> The national [[Epic poetry|epic]] ''[[Kalevipoeg]]'' was published in 1862, and 1870 saw the first performances of [[Theatre of Estonia|Estonian theatre]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=91 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref><ref name="CoE">{{Cite book| title=Cultural Policy in Estonia|page=23 |year=1997|publisher=Council of Europe|isbn=9789287131652}}</ref> In 1878 a major split happened in the national movement. The moderate wing led by Hurt focused on development of culture and Estonian education, while the radical wing led by Jakobson started demanding increased political and economical rights.<ref name="EE287"/>

At the end of the 19th century, [[Russification]] began, as the central government initiated various administrative and cultural measures to tie Baltic governorates more closely to the empire.<ref name="Raun59"/> The Russian language replaced German and Estonian in most secondary schools and universities, and many social and cultural activities in local languages were suppressed.<ref name="CoE"/> Still, some administrative changes aimed at reducing the power of Baltic German institutions did prove useful to Estonians.<ref name="Raun59"/> In the late 1890s, there was a new surge of nationalism with the rise of prominent figures like [[Jaan Tõnisson]] and [[Konstantin Päts]]. In the early 20th century, Estonians started taking over control of local governments in towns from Germans.<ref name="EE291">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=291|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>

During the [[1905 Russian Revolution|1905 Revolution]], the first legal Estonian political parties were founded. An Estonian national congress was convened and demanded the unification of Estonian areas into a single autonomous territory and an end to Russification. The unrest was accompanied by both peaceful [[political demonstration]]s and violent [[riot]]s with [[looting]] in the commercial district of Tallinn and in a number of wealthy landowners' manors in the Estonian countryside. The Tsarist government responded with a brutal crackdown; some 500 people were executed and hundreds more jailed or deported to Siberia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|page=10 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}}</ref><ref name="EE292">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=292|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>

===Independence===
{{Main|Estonian Declaration of Independence|Estonian War of Independence|History of Estonia#Interwar period (1920–1939)}}

[[File:Declaration of Estonian independence in Pärnu.jpg|thumb|right|alt=photograph of crowd around flag raising|The tricolour [[Flag of Estonia|flags of Estonia]] on display during the public announcement of the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence of Estonia]] in [[Pärnu]] on 23 February 1918. One of the very first images of the independent republic.]]

In 1917, after the [[February Revolution]], the governorate of Estonia [[Autonomous Governorate of Estonia|was expanded]] by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] to include Estonian-speaking areas of Livonia and was granted autonomy, enabling the formation of the [[Estonian Provincial Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Calvert |first1=Peter|title= The Process of Political Succession |page=67 |year=1987|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781349089789}}</ref> [[Bolsheviks]] [[Bolshevik coup|seized power]] in Estonia in November 1917, and disbanded the Provincial Assembly. However, the Provincial Assembly established the [[Estonian Salvation Committee|Salvation Committee]], and during the short interlude between Russian retreat and [[Operation Faustschlag|German arrival]], the committee [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|declared the independence of Estonia]] on 24 February 1918, and formed the [[Estonian Provisional Government]]. [[German occupation of Estonia during World War I|German occupation]] immediately followed, but after their defeat in World War I the Germans were forced to hand over power to the Provisional Government on 19 November 1918.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Calvert|first1=Peter|title= The Process of Political Succession |page=68 |year=1987|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781349089789}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1= Kasekamp|first1= Andres|title= The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=9 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn=9781403919557}}</ref>

On 28 November 1918 [[Soviet Russia]] invaded, starting the [[Estonian War of Independence]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/75 75]|year=1990|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn= 9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/75}}</ref> The [[Red Army]] came within 30 km of Tallinn, but in January 1919, the [[Estonian Army]], led by [[Johan Laidoner]], went on a counter-offensive, ejecting Bolshevik forces from Estonia within a few months. Renewed Soviet attacks failed, and in spring, the Estonian army, in co-operation with [[White movement|White Russian]] forces, advanced into Russia and [[Latvia]].<ref name="Pinder76">{{Cite book|last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/76 76]|year=1990|publisher= ABC-CLIO|isbn= 9781576078006|url= https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/76}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1= Andres|title=The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=10 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781403919557}}</ref> In June 1919, Estonia [[Battle of Cēsis (1919)|defeated]] the [[Baltische Landeswehr|German Landeswehr]] which had attempted to dominate Latvia, restoring power to the government of [[Kārlis Ulmanis]] there. After the collapse of the White Russian forces, the Red Army launched a [[Battle of Krivasoo|major offensive]] against [[Narva]] in late 1919, but failed to achieve a breakthrough. On 2 February 1920, the [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Tartu Peace Treaty]] was signed by Estonia and Soviet Russia, with the latter pledging to permanently give up all sovereign claims to Estonia.<ref name="Pinder76"/><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=11 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn=9781403919557}}</ref>

In April 1919, the [[Estonian Constituent Assembly]] was elected. The Constituent Assembly passed a sweeping [[Estonian Land Reform of 1919|land reform]] expropriating large estates, and adopted a new highly [[Liberalism|liberal]] [[Constitution of Estonia|constitution]] establishing Estonia as a [[Riigikogu|parliamentary]] democracy.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia |pages=80–81|year= 2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1= Raun |first1=Toivo U.|title= Estonia and the Estonians: Second edition, updated|page=128 |year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn= 9780817928537}}</ref> In 1924, the [[Soviet Union]] organised a communist [[1924 Estonian coup d'état attempt|coup attempt]], which quickly failed.<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Leonard|first1= Raymond W.|title= Secret Soldiers of the Revolution: Soviet Military Intelligence, 1918–1933|pages=34–36 |year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313309908}}</ref> Estonia's cultural-autonomy law for ethnic minorities, adopted in 1925, is widely recognised as one of the most liberal in the world at that time.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bell|first1=Imogen|title=Central and South-Eastern Europe 2003|page=244 |year=2002|publisher= Psychology Press|isbn=9781857431360}}</ref> The [[Great Depression]] put heavy pressure on Estonia's political system, and in 1933, the right-wing [[Vaps movement]] spearheaded a constitutional reform establishing a strong presidency.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page= 18 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Misiunas|first1= Romuald J. |last2=Taagepera|first2=Rein |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence, 1940–1980|page=11 |year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520046252}}</ref> On 12 March 1934 the acting head of state, [[Konstantin Päts]], declared a state of emergency, under the pretext that the Vaps movement had been planning a coup. Päts, together with general Johan Laidoner and [[Kaarel Eenpalu]], established an authoritarian régime during the "[[era of silence]]", when the parliament did not reconvene and the newly established [[Patriotic League (Estonia)|Patriotic League]] became the only legal political movement for the time being.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |pages=19–20 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}}</ref> A new constitution was adopted in a referendum, and elections [[1938 Estonian parliamentary election|were held]] in 1938. Both pro-government and opposition candidates were allowed to participate, but only as independents, as all political parties remained suspended under continued state of emergency.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|pages= 21 |year= 2013|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 9781136452130}}</ref> The Päts régime was relatively benign compared to other authoritarian régimes in [[Interwar period|interwar]] Europe, and the régime never used violence against political opponents.<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Smith|first1= David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|pages=22 |year=2013|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 9781136452130}}</ref>

Estonia joined the [[League of Nations]] in 1921.<ref name="Ginneken">{{Cite book|last1=van Ginneken|first1= Anique H. M. |title=Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations|page=82 |year=2006|publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810865136}}</ref> Attempts to establish a [[Warsaw Accord|larger alliance]] together with [[Finland]], [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]], and Latvia failed, with only a mutual-defence pact being signed with Latvia in 1923, and later was followed up with the [[Baltic Entente]] of 1934.<ref>{{Cite book |last1= von Rauch|first1=Georg |title=Die Geschichte der baltischen Staaten|pages=108–111 |year=1974|publisher= University of California Press|isbn=9780520026001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John |last2= Lane |first2= Thomas |title=The Baltic and the Outbreak of the Second World War|page=7 |year=2003 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521531207}}</ref> In the 1930s, Estonia also engaged in [[Finnish–Estonian defence cooperation|secret military co-operation]] with Finland.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Åselius|first1=Gunnar |title= The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Navy in the Baltic 1921–1941|page= 119 |year=2004 |publisher= Routledge |isbn=9781135769604}}</ref> Non-aggression pacts were signed [[Soviet–Estonian Non-Aggression Pact|with the Soviet Union]] in 1932, and [[German–Estonian Non-Aggression Pact|with Germany]] in 1939.<ref name="Ginneken"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1= Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3= Purs|first3= Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=154 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136483042}}</ref> In 1939, Estonia declared neutrality, but this proved futile in [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Gärtner |first1=Heinz |title=Engaged Neutrality: An Evolved Approach to the Cold War |page=125 |year=2017|publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9781498546195}}</ref>

===World War II===
{{Main|Estonia in World War II|Occupation of the Baltic states}}
[[File:Red Army entering into Estonia in 1939.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Red Army]] troops moving into military bases in Estonia in October 1939, after the Soviet Union had forced Estonia to sign the [[Soviet–Estonian Mutual Assistance Treaty|Bases Treaty]].]]
A week before the outbreak of [[World War II]], on 23 August 1939, [[Nazi Germany]] and the [[Stalin]]ist Soviet Union signed the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]]. In the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact|Nazi-Soviet pact]]'s [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact negotiations|secret protocol]] Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland were divided between USSR and Germany into "spheres of influence", with Estonia assigned to the Soviet "sphere".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=335|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}}</ref> On 24 September 1939, the Soviet Union presented an ultimatum, demanding that Estonia sign a treaty of "mutual assistance" which would allow the Soviet Union to establish military bases in the country. The Estonian government felt that it had no choice but to comply, and the [[Soviet–Estonian Mutual Assistance Treaty|treaty was signed]] on 28 September 1939.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John |last2=Salmon|first2=Patrick |title=The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century |page=110 |year=2014|publisher= Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-89057-7}}</ref> In May 1940, Red Army forces in bases were set in combat readiness and, on 14 June, the Soviet Union instituted a full naval and air blockade on Estonia. On the same day, the airliner [[Kaleva (airplane)|Kaleva]] was shot down by the [[Soviet Air Force]]. On 16 June, the USSR presented an ultimatum demanding completely free passage of the Red Army into Estonia and the establishment of a pro-Soviet government. Feeling that resistance was hopeless, the Estonian government complied and, on the next day, the whole country was occupied.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Raukas |first1=Anto |title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld |page=309 |year=2002 |publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus |language=et |isbn=9985701151}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first1=Eric A. |last1=Johnson |first2=Anna |last2=Hermann |date=May 2007 |title=The Last Flight from Tallinn |work=Foreign Service Journal |url=http://finland.usembassy.gov/root/pdfs/antheil_article.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117175841/http://finland.usembassy.gov/root/pdfs/antheil_article.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012 |publisher=American Foreign Service Association}}</ref> On 6 August 1940, Estonia was annexed by the Soviet Union as the [[Estonian SSR]].<ref name=malksoo>{{Cite book|first=Lauri |last=Mälksoo|year=2003|title=Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: The Case of the Incorporation of the Baltic States by the USSR|location= Leiden – Boston|publisher= Brill|isbn= 90-411-2177-3}}</ref>

[[File:TLA 1465 1 973 Varemetes Harju tänav, vasakul Kuld Lõvi varemed 1944.jpg|thumb|left|The capital Tallinn after [[Bombing of Tallinn in World War II|bombing by the Soviet Air Force]] during the war on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] in March 1944]]
The USSR established an oppressive terror regime in occupied Estonia. Most of the country's high-ranking civil and military officials, intelligentsia and industrialists were arrested, and usually executed soon afterwards. Soviet repressions culminated on 14 June 1941 with [[June deportation|mass deportation]] of around 11,000 people to [[Siberia]], among whom more than half perished in inhumane conditions.<ref name="Miljan110">{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=110|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gatrell|first1=Peter |last2=Baron|first2=Nick |title=Warlands: Population Resettlement and State Reconstruction in the Soviet-East European Borderlands, 1945–50 |page=233 |year=2009 |publisher= Springer|isbn=978-0-230-24693-5}}</ref> When [[Operation Barbarossa]] (accompanied by Estonian [[Guerilla warfare|guerrilla soldiers]] called "[[Forest Brothers]]"<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Peeter |last1=Kaasik |first2=Mika |last2=Raudvassar |year=2006|pages=496–517|chapter=Estonia from June to October, 1941: Forest brothers and Summer War|editor-first1=Toomas |editor-last1=Hiio |editor-first2=Meelis |editor-last2=Maripuu |editor-first3=Indrek |editor-last3=Paavle |title=Estonia 1940–1945: Reports of the [[Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]]|location=Tallinn}}</ref>) began against the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 in the form of the "[[Summer War]]" ({{lang-et|Suvesõda}}), around 34,000 young Estonian men were forcibly drafted into the [[Red Army]], fewer than 30% of whom survived the war. Soviet [[destruction battalions]] initiated a scorched earth policy. Political prisoners who could not be evacuated [[NKVD prisoner massacres|were executed]] by the [[NKVD]].<ref>The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence by Anatol Lieven p424 {{ISBN|0-300-06078-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3=Purs|first3=Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=34 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-48304-2}}</ref> Many Estonians went into the forest, starting an anti-Soviet guerrilla campaign. In July, German [[Wehrmacht]] reached south Estonia. The USSR [[Soviet evacuation of Tallinn|evacuated Tallinn]] in late August with massive losses, and capture of the Estonian islands was completed by German forces in October.<ref name="pinder80">{{Cite book|last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/80 80]|year=1990|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-800-6|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/80}}</ref>

Initially, many Estonians were hopeful that Germany would help to restore Estonia's independence, but this soon proved to be in vain. Only a puppet [[Estonian Self-Administration|collaborationist administration]] was established, and [[German occupation of Estonia during World War II|occupied Estonia]] was merged into [[Reichskommissariat Ostland]], with its economy being fully subjugated to German military needs.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=209|year=2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}}</ref> About a thousand [[Estonian Jews]] who had not managed to leave were almost all [[Holocaust in Estonia|quickly killed]] in 1941. Numerous forced labour camps were established where thousands of Estonians, foreign Jews, [[Romani people|Romani]], and [[German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet prisoners of war]] perished.<ref name="CommissionReport">{{cite web|title=Conclusions of the Commission|url=http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/conclusions.htm#crimger|publisher=[[Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629035526/http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/conclusions.htm#crimger|archive-date=29 June 2008|year=1998}}</ref> German occupation authorities started recruiting men into small [[Estonian Legion|volunteer units]] but, as these efforts provided meagre results and military situation worsened, a forced conscription was instituted in 1943, eventually leading to formation of the [[20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian)|Estonian Waffen-SS division]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith |first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|page=36 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-45213-0}}</ref> Thousands of Estonians who did not want to fight in the [[Wehrmacht|German military]] secretly escaped to Finland, where [[Finnish Infantry Regiment 200|many volunteered]] to fight together with Finns [[Continuation War|against Soviets]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=275|year=2004|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6571-6}}</ref>

[[File:Estlandssvenska flyktingar.jpg|thumb|right|alt=sailing ship filled with refugees|A ship with [[Estonian Swedes]] fleeing west from the Soviet invasion (1944)]]
The Red Army reached the Estonian borders again in early 1944, but its advance into Estonia was stopped in [[Battle of Narva (1944)|heavy fighting near Narva]] for six months by German forces, including numerous Estonian units.<ref name="Raun159">{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=159 |year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=978-0-8179-2853-7}}</ref> In March, the Soviet Air Force carried out heavy bombing raids [[Bombing of Tallinn in World War II|against Tallinn]] and other Estonian towns.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan |display-authors=etal |editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=18|year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers |isbn=9789985701959}}</ref> In July, the Soviets started [[Tallinn Offensive|a major offensive]] from the south, forcing the Germans to abandon mainland Estonia in September, with the Estonian islands being abandoned in November.<ref name="Raun159" /> As German forces were retreating from Tallinn, the last pre-war prime minister [[Jüri Uluots]] [[National Committee of the Republic of Estonia|appointed a government]] headed by [[Otto Tief]] in an unsuccessful attempt to restore Estonia's independence.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=138 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-36450-9}}</ref> Tens of thousands of people, including most of the [[Estonian Swedes]], fled westwards to avoid the new Soviet occupation.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan |display-authors=etal |editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=30|year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers|isbn=9789985701959}}</ref>

Overall, Estonia lost about 25% of its population through deaths, deportations and evacuations in World War II.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan|display-authors=etal|editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=37 |year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers|isbn=9789985701959}}</ref> Estonia also suffered some irrevocable territorial losses, as the Soviet Union transferred border areas comprising about 5% of Estonian pre-war territory from the Estonian SSR to the [[Russian SFSR]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald J. |last2=Taagepera|first2=Rein |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence, 1940–1980 |page=71|year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04625-2}}</ref>

===Second Soviet occupation===
{{Main|Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Occupation of the Baltic states|Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)}}
[[File:Eesti metsavennad.jpg|thumb|left|[[Estonian partisans]], the "Forest Brothers".]]
Thousands of Estonians opposing the second Soviet occupation joined a guerrilla movement known as the "[[Estonian partisans|Forest Brothers]]". The armed resistance was heaviest in the first few years after the war, but Soviet authorities gradually wore it down through attrition, and resistance effectively ceased to exist in the mid-1950s.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=174 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The Soviets initiated a [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|policy of collectivisation]], but as farmers remained opposed to it a campaign of terror was unleashed. In March 1949 about 20,000 Estonians [[Operation Priboi|were deported]] to Siberia. Collectivization was fully completed soon afterwards.<ref name="Miljan110"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Purs|first1=Aldis|title=Baltic Facades: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania since 1945|page=335|year=2013|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=9781861899323}}</ref>

The Russian-dominated occupation authorities under the Soviet Union began [[Russification]], with hundreds of thousands of ethnic [[Russians in Estonia|Russians]] and other "[[Soviet people]]" being induced to settle in occupied Estonia, in a process which eventually threatened to turn indigenous Estonians into a minority in their own native land.<ref name="Taagepera97">{{Cite book|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein|title=The Finno-Ugric Republics and the Russian State|page=128|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136678011}}</ref> In 1945 Estonians formed 97% of the population, but by 1989 their share of the population had fallen to 62%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Puur |first1=Allan |last2=Rahnu |first2=Leen |last3=Sakkeus |first3=Luule |last4=Klesment |first4=Martin |last5=Abuladze |first5=Liili |date=22 March 2018 |title=The formation of ethnically mixed partnerships in Estonia: A stalling trend from a two-sided perspective |url=https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol38/38/38-38.pdf |journal=[[Demographic Research (journal)|Demographic Research]] |volume=38 |issue=38 |page=1117 |doi=10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.38 |access-date= 7 January 2020|doi-access=free }}</ref> Occupying authorities carried out campaigns of ethnic cleansing, mass deportation of indigenous populations, and mass colonization by Russian settlers which led to Estonia losing 3% of its native population.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 |date=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 |page=96 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> By March 1949, 60,000 people were deported from Estonia and 50,000 from Latvia to [[Gulag|slave labor camps]] in Siberia, where death rates were 30%. The occupying regime established an Estonian Communist Party, where Russians were the majority in party membership.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 |date=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 |page=78 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> Economically, heavy industry was strongly prioritised, but this did not improve the well-being of the local population, and caused massive environmental damage through pollution.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=227|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref> Living standards under the Soviet occupation kept falling further behind nearby independent Finland.<ref name="Taagepera97"/> The country was heavily militarised, with closed military areas covering 2% of territory.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Spyra|first1=Wolfgang |last2=Katzsch |first2=Michael |title=Environmental Security and Public Safety: Problems and Needs in Conversion Policy and Research after 15 Years of Conversion in Central and Eastern Europe |page=14|year=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9781402056444}}</ref> Islands and most of the coastal areas were turned into a restricted border zone which required a special permit for entry.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Stöcker|first1=Lars Fredrik |title=Bridging the Baltic Sea: Networks of Resistance and Opposition during the Cold War Era |page=72|year=2017 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9781498551281}}</ref> That is why Estonia was quite closed until the second half of the 1960s, when gradually Estonians began to watch [[Finnish television]] in the northern parts of the country due to a good signal range, thus getting a better picture of the way of life behind the [[Iron Curtain]]. Watching Finnish television was unauthorized, but nevertheless it was watched with a special device made for this purpose.<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://viewjournal.eu/european-television-memories/window-to-the-west/ | title = Window to the West: Memories of watching Finnish television in Estonia during the Soviet period| first1 = Annika |last1= Lepp |first2= Mervi | last2= Pantti| format = PDF| journal = VIEW | date = 2013 | number = 3/2013 | pages = 80–81 | publisher = Journal of European Television History and Culture| access-date = October 11, 2021 | language = en }}</ref>

The United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the majority of other Western countries [[Stimson Doctrine|considered]] the annexation of Estonia by the Soviet Union illegal.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Feldbrugge|first1=F. J. Ferdinand Joseph Maria |last2=Van den Berg|first2=Gerard Pieter|last3=Simons |first3=William Bradford |title=Encyclopedia of Soviet Law |page=461|year=1985 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789024730759}}</ref> [[State continuity of the Baltic states|Legal continuity]] of the Estonian state was preserved through the [[Estonian government-in-exile|government-in-exile]] and the Estonian [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–91)|diplomatic representatives]] which Western governments continued to recognise.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3=Purs|first3=Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=xx |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136483042}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frankowski|first1=Stanisław |last2=Stephan III|first2=Paul B. |title=Legal Reform in Post-Communist Europe: The View from Within |page=73|year=1995 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=9780792332183}}</ref>

===Independence restored===
{{Main|Singing Revolution}}

[[File:Balti kett 22.jpg|thumb|left|In the [[Baltic Way]] on 23 August 1989, two million people formed a human chain across three countries in a mass demonstration against the Soviet occupation.]]
The introduction of [[perestroika]] by the central government of the Soviet Union in 1987 made open political activity possible again in Estonia, which triggered an independence restoration process later known as ''Laulev revolutsioon'' ("[[Singing Revolution|Singing revolution]]").<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Backes|first1=Uwe |last2=Moreau |first2=Patrick |title=Communist and Post-Communist Parties in Europe: Schriften Des Hannah-Arendt-Instituts Für Totalitarismusforschung 36 |page=9|year=2008 |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=9783525369128}}</ref> The environmental ''Fosforiidisõda'' ("[[Phosphorite War|Phosphorite war]]") campaign became the first major protest movement against the [[Government of the Soviet Union|central government]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vogt|first1=Henri |title=Between Utopia and Disillusionment: A Narrative of the Political Transformation in Eastern Europe |pages=20–22|year=2005 |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=9781571818959}}</ref> In 1988, new political movements appeared, such as the [[Popular Front of Estonia]], which came to represent the moderate wing in the independence movement, and the more radical [[Estonian National Independence Party]], which was the first non-communist party in the Soviet Union and demanded full restoration of independence.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Simons|first1=Greg |last2=Westerlund |first2=David |title=Religion, Politics and Nation-Building in Post-Communist Countries |page=151 |year=2015 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=9781472449719}}</ref> On 16 November 1988, after the first non-rigged multi-candidate elections in half a century, the parliament of Soviet-controlled Estonia issued the [[Estonian Sovereignty Declaration|Sovereignty Declaration]], asserting the primacy of Estonian laws over laws of the Soviet Union. Over the next two years, many other administrative parts (or [[Republics of the Soviet Union|"republics"]]) of the USSR followed the Estonian example, issuing similar declarations.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |pages=46–48|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Edward W. |title=Dissolution: Sovereignty and the Breakup of the Soviet Union |page=[https://archive.org/details/dissolutionsover00walk/page/63 63] |year=2003 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=9780742524538 |url=https://archive.org/details/dissolutionsover00walk/page/63}}</ref> On 23 August 1989, about 2 million Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians participated in a mass demonstration, forming the [[Baltic Way]] human chain across the three countries.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page=52|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}}</ref> In February 1990, elections were held to form the [[Congress of Estonia]], a novel parliament of Estonian citizens.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page=54|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}}</ref> In March 1991, a [[1991 Estonian independence referendum|referendum was held]] where 78.4% of voters supported full independence. During the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|coup attempt in Moscow]], Estonia [[Estonian restoration of Independence|declared restoration of independence]] on 20 August 1991.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gill|first1=Graeme |title=Democracy and Post-Communism: Political Change in the Post-Communist World |page=41|year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134485567}}</ref>

Soviet authorities recognised Estonian independence on 6 September 1991, and on 17 September Estonia was admitted into the [[United Nations]].<ref name="Dillon164">{{Cite book|last1=Dillon|first1=Patricia |last2=Wykoff |first2=Frank C. |title=Creating Capitalism: Transitions and Growth in Post-Soviet Europe|page=164|year=2002 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=9781843765561}}</ref> The last units of the [[Russian army]] left Estonia in 1994.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Nørgaard|first1=Ole |title=The Baltic States After Independence|page=188|year=1999|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=9781843765561}}</ref>

In 1992 radical economic reforms were launched for switching over to a market economy, including privatisation and currency reform.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Ó Beacháin|first1=Donnacha |last2=Sheridan |first2=Vera |last3=Stan |first3=Sabina |title=Life in Post-Communist Eastern Europe after EU Membership| page=170|year=2012|publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136299810}}</ref> Estonia has been a member of the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] since 13 November 1999.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/estonia_e.htm#:~:text=Estonia%20has%20been%20a%20member%20of%20WTO%20since,Communities%20for%20legal%20reasons%29%20in%20its%20own%20right. |title=Estonia and the WTO |publisher=World Trade Organization |access-date=20 September 2021 }}</ref>

Since regaining independence in 1991, Estonian foreign policy has been aligned with other [[Western world|Western democracies]], and in 2004 Estonia joined both the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|pages=18–19|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref> On 9 December 2010, Estonia became a member of [[OECD]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oecd.mfa.ee/estonia-and-oecd/|title=Estonia and OECD|website=Estonia in OECD}}</ref> On 1 January 2011, Estonia joined the [[eurozone]] and adopted the [[euro]], the single currency of EU.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-12098513|title=Estonia becomes 17th member of the euro zone|work=BBC News|date=31 December 2010}}</ref> Estonia was a member of the [[UN Security council|UN Security Council]] 2020–2021.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vm.ee/en/activities-objectives/estonia-united-nations/estonia-un-security-council|title=Estonia in the UN Security Council | Ministry of Foreign Affairs|website=vm.ee}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Estonia}}
[[File:Satellite image of Estonia in April 2004.jpg|thumb|right|Satellite image of Estonia]]
Estonia is situated in [[Northern Europe]], on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]], on the [[East European Plain]] between 57°30′ and 59°49′ N and 21°46′ and 28°13′ E.<ref name="Raukas_2018">{{cite journal|last=Raukas|first=Anto|authorlink=Anto Raukas|title=Briefly about Estonia |journal=Dynamiques Environnementales|year=2018|volume=42|issue=42 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/dynenviron/2230?lang=en|doi=10.4000/dynenviron.2230|issn=2534-4358|pages=284–291|s2cid=240432618 |access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="EEA">{{Cite web|url=https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/countries-regions/countries/estonia|title=Estonia|publisher=[[European Environment Agency]]|date=15 March 2021|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/|title=Methodology |publisher=[[United Nations Statistics Division]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the sea across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by [[Lake Peipsi]] and [[Russia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Saar|first1=Asmu|editor-last=Raukas|editor-first=Anto|editor-link1=Anto Raukas|chapter=Üldandmed|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=9|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> Estonian territory covers {{convert|45339|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, of which internal waters comprise 4.6%.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> The land area, without the Estonian parts of [[Lake Peipus]] and other inland water bodies, is {{convert|42390|km2|sqmi}}<ref>Worldometer https://www.worldometers.info/geography/largest-countries-in-the-world/] ''Worldometer''.</ref> When including the [[territorial sea]], the Estonian border encompasses {{convert|70177|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.delfi.ee/artikkel/41030503/ulemootmine-soome-on-veidi-pisem-eesti-ikka-sama-suur|title=Ülemõõtmine: Soome on veidi pisem, Eesti ikka sama suur |publisher=[[Delfi (web portal)|Delfi]]|date=25 February 2011|language=et|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>

Estonia has a {{convert|3794|km|mi|0}} long coastline, notable for its [[Cliffed coast|limestone cliffs]] at the northern coast and largest islands.<ref name="EEA"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eesti.ee/en/republic-of-estonia/republic-of-estonia/information-about-estonia|title=Information about Estonia|publisher=[[Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications|Estonian Information System Authority]]|date=9 November 2022|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> The total number of [[List of islands of Estonia|Estonian islands]], including those in internal waters, is 2,355, of which 2,222 are in the Baltic Sea. The largest islands are [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]]. There are over 1560 [[List of lakes of Estonia|natural lakes]], the largest being Lake Peipsi at the border of Russia, and [[Võrtsjärv]] in central Estonia. Additionally there are a large number of artificial water reservoirs. There are over [[List of rivers of Estonia|7000]] rivers, streams, and canals in Estonia. Most are small, with only 15 being over {{convert|50|km|mi|0}} long. [[Bogs]] and [[mire|mires]] cover 23.2% of the land. Generally the terrain is flat, average elevation above the sea level being about {{convert|50|m|ft|0}}. Only 10% of the country's terrain is greater than {{convert|100|m|ft|0}} in height, with [[Haanja Upland]] containing the highest peak, [[Suur Munamägi]], at {{convert|318|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/>

=== Climate ===
{{Main|2 = Climate of Estonia}}
Estonia is situated in the [[temperate|temperate climate zone]], and in the transition zone between [[maritime climate|maritime]] and [[Köppen climate classification#Group D: Continental/microthermal climates|continental climate]], characterized by warm summers and fairly mild winters. Primary local differences are caused by the Baltic Sea, which warms the coastal areas in winter, and cools them in the spring.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/><ref name="EEA"/> Average temperatures range from {{convert|17.8|°C|1|abbr=on}} in July, the warmest month, to {{convert|-3.8|°C|1|abbr=on}} in February, the coldest month, with the annual average being {{convert|6.4|°C|1|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/ohutemperatuur/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Temperature|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> The highest recorded temperature is {{convert|35.6|°C|1|abbr=on}} from 1992, and the lowest is {{convert|-43.5|°C|1|abbr=on}} from 1940.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/rekordid/ohutemperatuur/?lang=en|title=Weather records - Temperature|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> The annual average precipitation is {{convert|662|mm|1}},<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/sademed/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Precipitation|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> with the daily record being {{convert|148|mm|1}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/rekordid/sademed/?lang=en|title=Weather records - Precipitation|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> Snow cover varies significantly on different years.<ref name="EEA"/> Prevailing winds are westerly, southwesterly, and southerly, with average wind speed being 3–5 m/s inland and 5–7 m/s on coast.<ref name="EEA"/> The average monthly sunshine duration ranges from 290 hours in August, to 21 hours in December.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/paikesepaiste-kestus/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Sunshine|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref>

===Biodiversity===
{{Main|Fauna of Estonia|Protected areas of Estonia}}
[[File:Landsvale.jpg|thumb|right|The [[barn swallow]] (''H. r. rustica'') is the national bird of Estonia.]]
Due to varied climatic and soil conditions, and plethora of sea and internal waters, Estonia is one of the most biodiverse regions among the similar sized territories at the same [[latitude]].<ref name="EEA"/> Many species extinct in most other European countries can be still found in Estonia.<ref name="Taylor_1">{{Cite book|last1=Taylor|first1= Neil|title= Estonia|pages=4,6–7|year=2014|publisher= Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=9781841624877}}</ref>

Recorded species include 64 [[mammal]]s, 11 [[amphibian]]s, and 5 [[reptile]]s.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> Large mammals present in Estonia include the [[Eurasian wolf|grey wolf]], [[Eurasian lynx|lynx]], [[brown bear]], [[red fox]], [[European badger|badger]], [[wild boar]], [[moose]], [[roe deer]], [[Eurasian beaver|beaver]], [[Eurasian otter|otter]], [[grey seal]], and [[ringed seal]]. The critically endangered [[European mink]] has been successfully reintroduced to the island of Hiiumaa, and the rare [[Siberian flying squirrel]] is present in east Estonia.<ref name="Taylor_1"/> The [[red deer]] has also been successfully reintroduced.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://loodusveeb.ee/en/themes/species-and-their-distribution/how-much-has-mammal-fauna-estonia-changed|title=How much has the mammal fauna in Estonia changed?|publisher=Loodusveeb|first1=Uudo|last1=Timm|first2=Tiit|last2=Maran|date=March 2020|access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref> Introduced mammals are [[sika deer]], [[European fallow deer|fallow deer]], [[raccoon dog]], [[muskrat]], and [[American mink]].<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> Over 300 bird species have been found in Estonia, including the [[white-tailed eagle]], [[lesser spotted eagle]], [[golden eagle]], [[western capercaillie]], [[Black Stork|black]] and [[white stork]], numerous species of [[owls]], [[wader]]s, [[geese]] and many others.<ref name="Taylor_2">{{Cite book|last1=Taylor|first1= Neil|title= Estonia|pages=7–8|year=2014|publisher= Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=9781841624877}}</ref> The [[barn swallow]] is the [[national bird]] of Estonia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Spilling|first1=Michael|title=Estonia|page=11|year=2010|publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=9781841624877}}</ref>

[[File:Tarvasjõgi.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Tarvasjõgi]] flowing through [[Põhja-Kõrvemaa Nature Reserve]]]]
[[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], Estonia is shared between the Central European and Eastern European provinces of the [[Circumboreal Region]] within the [[Boreal Kingdom]]. According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], the territory of Estonia belongs to the [[ecoregion]] of [[Sarmatic mixed forests]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|display-authors=3|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> Estonia has a rich composition of floristic groups, with estimated 6000 (3461 identified) [[fungi]], 3000 (2500 identified) [[algae]] and [[cyanobacteria]], 850 (786 identified) [[lichens]], and 600 (507 identified) [[bryophytes]]. Forests cover approximately half of the country. 87 native and over 500 introduced tree and bush species have been identified, with most prevalent tree species being [[pine]] (41%), [[birch]] (28%), and [[spruce]] (23%).<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> Since 1969, the [[Centaurea cyanus|cornflower]] (''Centaurea cyanus'') has been the national flower of Estonia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalroadwarrior.com/estonia/national-flower.html|title=National Flower|website=Global Road Warrior|publisher=World Trade Press|date=2023|access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref>

[[Protected areas of Estonia|Protected areas]] cover 19.4% of Estonian land and 23% of its total area together with territorial sea. Overall there are 3,883 protected natural objects, including 6 national parks, 231 nature conservation areas, and 154 landscape reserves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://envir.ee/en/climate-and-environment-protection/nature-conservation|title=Nature conservation|publisher=[[Ministry of the Environment (Estonia)|Ministry of the Environment]]|date=13 July 2021|access-date=6 March 2023}}</ref>

==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of Estonia|List of political parties in Estonia|Elections in Estonia}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = horizontal
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Alar Karis - August 2021.jpg
| width1 = 114
| caption1 = [[Alar Karis]] [[President of Estonia|President]] since 2021
| image2 = RE Kaja Kallas.jpg
| width2 = 113
| caption2 = [[Kaja Kallas]] [[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]] since 2021
}}

Estonia is a unitary [[parliamentary republic]]. The unicameral parliament [[Riigikogu]] serves as the legislative and [[Government of Estonia|the government]] as the executive.<ref name="Toots">{{cite web |first=Anu |last=Toots |url=http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/baltikum/15260.pdf |title=2019 Parliamentary elections in Estonia |page=3 |publisher=[[Friedrich Ebert Foundation]] |date=March 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref>

Estonian parliament Riigikogu is elected by citizens over 18 years of age for a four-year term by [[proportional representation]], and has 101 members. Riigikogu's responsibilities include approval and preservation of the national government, passing legal acts, passing the state budget, and conducting parliamentary supervision. On proposal of [[President of Estonia|the president]] Riigikogu appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the chairman of the board of the Bank of Estonia, the Auditor General, the Legal Chancellor, and the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/en/introduction-and-history/riigikogu-tasks-organisation-work/what-is-riigikogu/ |title=What is Riigikogu? |publisher=[[Riigikogu]] |date=15 October 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/en/introduction-and-history/riigikogu-tasks-organisation-work/what-does-riigikogu/ |title=What does Riigikogu do? |publisher=[[Riigikogu]] |date=4 September 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref>

The [[Government of Estonia]] is formed by the [[Prime Minister of Estonia]] at recommendation of the President, and approved by the Riigikogu. The government, headed by the Prime Minister, represent the political leadership of the country and carry out domestic and foreign policy. Ministers head ministries and represent its interests in the government. Sometimes ministers with no associated ministry are appointed, known as ''ministers without portfolio''.<ref>{{cite web |first=Taavi |last=Annus |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/Government_and_executive_power/Government/ |title=Government |publisher=[[Estonica]] |date=27 September 2012 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref> Estonia has been ruled by coalition governments because no party has been able to obtain an absolute majority in the parliament.<ref name="Toots"/>

[[File:Riigikogu hoone, Kaupo Kalda foto, 2016.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Toompea Castle pink stucco three-story building with red hip roof|The seat of the Parliament of Estonia in [[Toompea Castle]]]]
The head of the state is [[President of Estonia|the President]] who has a primarily representative and ceremonial role. There are no [[referendum]]s on the election of the president, but the president is elected by the Riigikogu, or by a special electoral college.<ref>[https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-12053491 YLE: Viron presidentinvaali on ajautumassa kaaokseen jo toista kertaa peräkkäin – "Instituutio kyntää pohjamudissa", sanoo politiikan tutkija] (in Finnish)</ref> The President proclaims the laws passed in the Riigikogu, and has right to refuse proclamation and return law in question for a new debate and decision. If Riigikogu passes the law unamended, then the President has right to propose to the Supreme Court to declare the law unconstitutional. The President also represents the country in international relations.<ref name="Toots"/><ref>{{cite web |first=Taavi |last=Annus |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/President_of_the_Republic/Duties_of_the_President_of_the_Republic/ |title=Duties of the President of the Republic |publisher=[[Estonica]] |date=27 September 2012 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref>

The [[Constitution of Estonia]] also provides possibility for direct democracy through referendum, although since adoption of the constitution in 1992 the only referendum has been the [[2003 Estonian European Union membership referendum|referendum on European Union membership]] in 2003.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liivik |first1=Ero |year=2011 |title=Referendum in the Estonian Constitution |url=https://www.juridicainternational.eu/public/pdf/ji_2011_1_17.pdf |journal=Juridica International |volume=18 |page=21 |access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref>

Estonia has pursued the development of the [[e-government]], with 99 percent of the public services being available on the web 24 hours a day.<ref>{{cite news |first=Elizabeth |last=Schulze |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/02/08/how-estonia-became-a-digital-society.html |title=How a tiny country bordering Russia became one of the most tech-savvy societies in the world |publisher=[[CNBC]] |date=8 February 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref> In 2005 [[Electronic voting in Estonia|Estonia became]] the first country in the world to introduce nationwide binding Internet voting in local elections of 2005.<ref>{{cite conference |first=Priit |last=Vinkel |title=Information Security Technology for Applications |chapter=Internet Voting in Estonia |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |book-title=Laud P. (eds) Information Security Technology for Applications. NordSec 2011. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 7161 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |year=2012 |volume=7161 |pages=4–12 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-29615-4_2 |isbn=978-3-642-29614-7 }}</ref> In [[2023 Estonian parliamentary election|2023 parliamentary elections]] 51% of the total votes were cast over the internet, becoming the first time when more than half of votes were cast online.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.err.ee/1608904730/estonia-sets-new-e-voting-record-at-riigikogu-2023-elections |title=Estonia sets new e-voting record at Riigikogu 2023 elections |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=6 March 2023 |access-date=31 March 2023}}</ref>

In the [[2019 Estonian parliamentary election|parliamentary elections of 2019]], five parties gained seats at Riigikogu. The head of the [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]], [[Jüri Ratas]], [[Jüri Ratas' second cabinet|formed the government]] together with [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia|Conservative People's Party]] and [[Isamaa]], while [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]] and [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]] became the opposition.<ref>{{cite news |first=Aili |last=Vahtla |url=https://news.err.ee/933037/party-ratings-despite-opposition-status-reform-remains-most-popular-party |title=Party ratings: Despite opposition status, Reform remains most popular party |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=24 April 2019 |access-date=13 January 2020}}</ref> In January 2021 Ratas resigned as prime minister in the wake of a corruption scandal,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://estonianworld.com/security/a-political-crisis-in-estonia-prime-minister-juri-ratas-resigns/|title=Estonia's prime minister Jüri Ratas resigns, Kaja Kallas asked to form the government|first=Silver|last=Tambur|date=13 January 2021}}</ref> and [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]] leader [[Kaja Kallas]] became Estonia's first [[List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government|female prime minister]]. The [[Kaja Kallas' first cabinet|new government]] was a two-party coalition between the country's two biggest political parties Reform Party and Centre Party.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/estonia-to-get-first-female-prime-minister/a-56330397|title=Estonia to get first female prime minister | DW | 24.01.2021|website=DW.COM}}</ref> In July 2022, Prime Minister Kaja Kallas formed a new three-party coalition by her liberal Reform Party, the Social Democrats, and the conservative Isamaa party. Her previous government had lost its parliamentary majority after the centre-left Centre Party left the coalition.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Welle (www.dw.com) |first1=Deutsche |title=Estonia: New cabinet sworn into office {{!}} DW {{!}} 18.07.2022 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/estonia-new-cabinet-sworn-into-office/a-62514862 |work=DW.COM}}</ref>

In March 2023, the Reform party, led by Prime Minister Kaja Kallas, won the parliamentary [[2023 Estonian parliamentary election|election]], taking 31,4% of the vote. Far-right Conservative People's Party came second with 16,1 % and the third was the Centre Party with 15% of the vote.<ref>{{cite news |title=Estonia's centre-right Reform Party comes first in general election |url=https://www.euronews.com/2023/03/06/estonias-centre-right-reform-party-comes-first-in-parliamentary-elections |work=euronews |date=6 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref> In April 2023, Kallas formed her third government, which included, in addition to Reform Party, also the liberal [[Estonia 200]] and the Social Democratic (SDE) parties.<ref>{{cite news |title=Estonia: Kaja Kallas’s third government |url=https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/analyses/2023-04-13/estonia-kaja-kallass-third-government |work=OSW Centre for Eastern Studies |date=13 April 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

===Law===
{{Main|Law of Estonia|Constitution of Estonia}}
[[File:Riigikohus.jpg|thumb|Building of the [[Supreme Court of Estonia]] in [[Tartu]]]]
The [[Constitution of Estonia]] is the fundamental law, establishing the constitutional order based on five principles: human dignity, democracy, rule of law, social state, and the Estonian identity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ernits |first1=Madis |last2=Ginter |first2=Carri |last3=Laos |first3=Saale |last4=Allikmets |first4=Marje |last5=Tupay |first5=Paloma Krõõt |last6=Värk |first6=René |last7=Laurand |first7=Andra |editor-last1=Albi |editor-first1=Anneli |editor-last2=Bardutzky |editor-first2=Samo |title=National Constitutions in European and Global Governance: Democracy, Rights, the Rule of Law |publisher=[[T.M.C. Asser Instituut|T.M.C. Asser Press]] |location=[[The Hague]] |date=2019 |page=889 |chapter=The Constitution of Estonia: The Unexpected Challenges of Unlimited Primacy of EU Law |isbn=978-94-6265-272-9 |doi=10.1007/978-94-6265-273-6|hdl = 10138/311890|display-authors=1}}</ref> Estonia has a [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] legal system based on the Germanic legal model.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Varul |first1=Paul |year=2000 |title=Legal Policy Decisions and Choices in the Creation of New Private Law in Estonia |url=https://www.juridicainternational.eu/public/pdf/ji_2000_1_104.pdf |journal=Juridica International |volume=5 |page=107 |access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref> The court system has a three-level structure. The first instance are county courts which handle all criminal and civil cases, and administrative courts which hear complaints about government and local officials, and other public disputes. The [[Appellate court|second instance]] are district courts which handle appeals about the first instance decisions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Madise |first1=Ülle |author-link1=Ülle Madise |date=27 September 2012 |title=Courts of first instance and courts of appeal |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/Judicial_system/Courts_of_first_instance_and_courts_of_appeal/ |publisher=Estonica |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref> The [[Supreme Court of Estonia|Supreme Court]] is the [[court of cassation]], and also conducts constitutional review, it has 19 members.<ref>{{cite web |title=Supreme Court of Estonia
|url=https://www.riigikohus.ee/en/supreme-court-estonia |publisher=[[Supreme Court of Estonia]] |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref> The judiciary is independent, judges are appointed for life, and can be removed from office only when convicted by court for a criminal deed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Heydemann |first1=Günther |last2=Vodička |first2=Karel |title=From Eastern Bloc to European Union: Comparative Processes of Transformation since 1990 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |date=2017 |page=12 |isbn=9781785333187}}</ref> The Estonian justice system has been rated among the most efficient in the European Union by the EU Justice Scoreboard.<ref>{{cite news |first=Aili |last=Vahtla |url=https://news.err.ee/837471/study-estonian-judicial-system-among-most-efficient-in-eu |title=Study: Estonian judicial system among most efficient in EU |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=6 June 2018 |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Estonia|Diplomatic missions of Estonia}}
[[File:President Barack Obama giving a speech at the Nordea Concert Hall on 2014-09-03 in Tallinn, Estonia.jpg|thumb|left|US President [[Barack Obama]] giving a speech in Tallinn (2014)]]
Estonia was a member of the [[League of Nations]] from 22 September 1921, and became a member of the United Nations on 17 September 1991.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whittaker Briggs |first=Herbert |title=The law of nations: cases, documents, and notes |url= https://archive.org/details/lawofnationscase0000brig |url-access=registration |year=1952 |publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts |page=[https://archive.org/details/lawofnationscase0000brig/page/106 106]}}</ref><ref name="DFAT">{{cite web |url= http://dfat.gov.au/geo/estonia/Pages/estonia-country-brief.aspx |title=Estonia country brief |publisher=[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> Since restoration of independence Estonia has pursued close relations with the [[Western world|Western countries]], and has been member of [[NATO]] since 29 March 2004, as well as the European Union since 1 May 2004.<ref name="DFAT"/> In 2007, Estonia joined the [[Schengen Area]], and in 2011 the [[Eurozone]].<ref name="DFAT"/> The [[Eu-Lisa|European Union Agency for large-scale IT systems]] is based in Tallinn, which started operations at the end of 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/agency/index_en.htm |title=EU Agency for large-scale IT systems |publisher=European Commission |date=20 July 2012 |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120910112010/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/agency/index_en.htm |archive-date=10 September 2012}}</ref> Estonia held the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]] in the second half of 2017.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://euobserver.com/eu-presidency/140368 |title=Estonian presidency leaves 'more confident' EU |work=[[EUobserver]] |date=21 December 2017 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref>

Since the early 1990s, Estonia has been involved in active trilateral [[Baltic states]] co-operation with Latvia and Lithuania, and Nordic-Baltic co-operation with the [[Nordic countries]]. Estonia is a member of the interparliamentary [[Baltic Assembly]], the intergovernmental [[Baltic Council of Ministers]] and the [[Council of the Baltic Sea States]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/4096 |title=Estonian Chairmanship of the Baltic Council of Ministers in 2011 |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131113111112/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F4096 |archive-date=13 November 2013}}</ref> Estonia has built close relationship with the Nordic countries, especially [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]], and is a member of [[NB8|Nordic-Baltic Eight ''(NB-8)'']] uniting Nordic and Baltic countries.<ref name="DFAT"/><ref name="NB8">{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/4097 |title=Nordic-Baltic Co-operation |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs |date=10 July 2012 |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120511184410/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F4097 |archive-date=11 May 2012}}</ref> Joint Nordic-Baltic projects include the education programme Nordplus<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nordplusonline.org/eng/nordplus/about_nordplus |title=Nordplus |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131113110917/http://www.nordplusonline.org/eng/nordplus/about_nordplus |archive-date=13 November 2013}}</ref> and mobility programmes for business and industry<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nb8businessmobility.org/ |title=NordicBaltic Mobility and Network Programme for Business and Industry |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Latvia |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131118051601/http://www.nb8businessmobility.org/ |archive-date=18 November 2013}}</ref> and for public administration.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.norden.ee/en/about-us/funding/mobility-programme-for-public-administration |title=NordicBaltic mobility programme for public administration |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Estonia |access-date=11 August 2012}}</ref> The [[Nordic Council of Ministers]] has an office in [[Tallinn]] with a subsidiaries in [[Tartu]] and [[Narva]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.norden.org/en/nordic-council-of-ministers/the-secretariat-to-the-nordic-council-of-ministers/nordic-council-of-ministers-information-offices-in-the-baltic-states-and-russia |title=Nordic Council of Ministers' Information Offices in the Baltic States and Russia|publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers |access-date=11 August 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121018134356/http://www.norden.org/en/nordic-council-of-ministers/the-secretariat-to-the-nordic-council-of-ministers/nordic-council-of-ministers-information-offices-in-the-baltic-states-and-russia |archive-date=18 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.norden.ee/en/about-us/about-us |title=Norden in Estonia |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Estonia |access-date=11 August 2012}}</ref> The Baltic states are members of [[Nordic Investment Bank]], European Union's [[Nordic Battle Group]], and in 2011 were invited to co-operate with [[Nordic Defence Cooperation]] in selected activities.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.nib.int/news_publications/cases_and_feature_stories/1517/estonia_latvia_and_lithuania_10-year_owners_at_nib |title=Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania 10-year owners at NIB |publisher=[[Nordic Investment Bank]] |date=December 2014 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/world-view-german-paper-outlines-vision-for-eu-defence-union-1.2638290 |last=Smyth |first=Patrick |title=World View: German paper outlines vision for EU defence union |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |date=7 May 2016 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dahl |first1=Ann Sofie |last2=Järvenpää |first2=Pauli |title=Northern Security and Global Politics: Nordic-Baltic strategic influence in a post-unipolar world |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-83657-9 |page=166 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NTZtAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |access-date=24 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nordefco.org/files/nordefco-annual-report-2015_webb.pdf|title=NORDEFCO annual report 2015 |publisher=Nordefco.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014085148/http://www.nordefco.org/files/nordefco-annual-report-2015_webb.pdf |archive-date=14 October 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The beginning of the attempt to redefine Estonia as "Nordic" was seen in December 1999, when then Estonian foreign minister (and [[President of Estonia]] from 2006 until 2016) [[Toomas Hendrik Ilves]] delivered a speech entitled "Estonia as a Nordic Country" to the [[Swedish Institute for International Affairs]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/3489|title=Estonia as a Nordic Country |last=Ilves |first=Toomas Hendrik |author-link=Toomas Hendrik Ilves |date=14 December 1999 |publisher=Estonian Foreign Ministry |access-date=19 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094242/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F3489 |archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref> with potential political calculation behind it being wish to distinguish Estonia from more slowly progressing southern neighbours, which could have postponed early participation in European Union enlargement for Estonia too.<ref name=Mouritzen>{{cite book |last1=Mouritzen |first1=Hans |last2=Wivel |first2=Anders |title=The Geopolitics of Euro-Atlantic Integration |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |page=143 |edition=1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1134457634}}</ref> [[Andres Kasekamp]] argued in 2005, that relevance of identity discussions in Baltic states decreased with their entrance into EU and NATO together, but predicted, that in the future, attractiveness of Nordic identity in Baltic states will grow and eventually, five Nordic states plus three Baltic states will become a single unit.<ref name="Mouritzen" />

Other Estonian international organisation memberships include [[OECD]], [[OSCE]], [[WTO]], [[IMF]], the [[Council of the Baltic Sea States]],<ref name="DFAT"/><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.oecd.org/about/membersandpartners/list-oecd-member-countries.htm |title=List of OECD Member countries – Ratification of the Convention on the OECD |publisher=[[OECD]] |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.osce.org/participating-states |title=Participating States |publisher=[[OSCE]] |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> and on 7 June 2019, was elected a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council for a two-year term that began on 1 January 2020.<ref name="ERR_20190607">{{cite news |title= Gallery: Estonia gains non-permanent UN Security Council seat |work= ERR News |publisher= [[Eesti Rahvusringhääling|ERR]] |date= 7 June 2019 | url= https://news.err.ee/950290/gallery-estonia-gains-non-permanent-un-security-council-seat |access-date= 7 June 2019}}</ref>

Since the [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet era]], the [[Estonia–Russia relations|relations with Russia]] remain generally cold, even though practical co-operation has taken place in between.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://news.err.ee/649606/ambassador-successes-tend-to-get-ignored-in-estonian-russian-relations |title=Ambassador: Successes tend to get ignored in Estonian-Russian relations |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=9 December 2017 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> Since 24 February 2022, the relations with Russia have further deteriorated when Russia [[Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022–present)|made its invasion]] on [[Ukraine]]. Estonia has very actively supported Ukraine during the war, providing highest support relative to its gross domestic product.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/06/03/estonia-russia-ukraine-war-kallas-baltics-nato/ |title=Estonia's Prime Minister: 'We Need to Help Ukraine Win' |publisher=[[Foeign Policy]] |date=3 June 2022 |access-date=27 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://estonianworld.com/security/blog-russia-ukraine-crisis-a-view-from-estonia/|title=Updates: Russia's invasion of Ukraine – reactions in Estonia|website=Estonian World|access-date=15 March 2023}}</ref>

===Military===
{{Main|Estonian Defence Forces|Estonian Defence League}}
[[File:Baltic Battalion Soldiers, Trident Juncture 15 (22200204329).jpg|thumb|left|Estonian soldiers during a NATO exercise in 2015]]
The [[Estonian Defence Forces]] consist of [[Estonian Land Forces|land forces]], [[Estonian Navy|navy]], and [[Estonian Air Force|air force]]. The current national [[military service]] is compulsory for healthy men between ages of 18 and 28, with conscripts serving 8 or 11-month tours of duty, depending on their education and position provided by the Defence Forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mil.ee/en/defence-forces/compulsory-military-service |title=Compulsory military service |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |date=11 March 2014|access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> The peacetime size of the Estonian Defence Forces is about 6,000 persons, with half of those being conscripts. The planned wartime size of the Defence Forces is 60,000 personnel, including 21,000 personnel in high readiness reserve.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mil.ee/en/defence-forcesp |title=Estonian Defence Forces |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> Since 2015 the Estonian defence budget has been over 2% of GDP, fulfilling its NATO defence spending obligation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kaitseministeerium.ee/et/eesmargid-tegevused/kaitse-eelarve |title=Kaitse-eelarve |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Defence|date=3 December 2019 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref>

The [[Estonian Defence League]] is a voluntary national defence organisation under management of Ministry of Defence. It is organised based on military principles, has its own military equipment, and provides various different military training for its members, including in guerilla tactics. The Defence League has 17,000 members, with additional 11,000 volunteers in its affiliated organisations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kaitseliit.ee/en/edl |title=Estonian Defence League |publisher=Estonian Defence League |access-date=23 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Daniel |last=McLaughlin |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/baltic-volunteers-guard-against-threat-of-russian-stealth-invasion-1.2714047 |title=Baltic volunteers guard against threat of Russian stealth invasion |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |date=8 July 2016 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref>

Estonia co-operates with [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]] in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives. As part of Baltic Air Surveillance Network (BALTNET) the three countries manage the Baltic airspace control center, Baltic Battalion (BALTBAT) has participated in the [[NATO Response Force]], and a joint military educational institution [[Baltic Defence College]] is located in [[Tartu]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Aili |last=Vahtla |url=https://news.err.ee/590917/defense-chiefs-decide-to-move-forward-with-baltic-battalion-project |title=Defense chiefs decide to move forward with Baltic battalion project |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=20 April 2017 |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref>

Estonia joined NATO in 2004. NATO [[Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence]] was established in Tallinn in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|first=Andrew |last=Whyte |url=https://news.err.ee/590917/defense-chiefs-decide-to-move-forward-with-baltic-battalion-project |title=Nine more nations join NATO cyberdefense center |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=5 May 2019 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> In response to [[Russian military intervention in Ukraine (2014–present)|Russian war in Ukraine]], since 2017 a [[NATO Enhanced Forward Presence]] battalion battle group has been based in [[Tapa Army Base]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Jonathan |last=Marcus |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40554104 |title=Nato sends 'alive and strong' message from Estonia |publisher=BBC|date=10 July 2017 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> Also part of NATO [[Baltic Air Policing]] deployment has been based in [[Ämari Air Base]] since 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/society/defense/czechs-and-belgians-take-over-in-latest-baltic-air-police-rotation.a330782/ |title=Czechs and Belgians take over in latest Baltic air police rotation |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting of Latvia|LSM]]|date=3 September 2019 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> In European Union Estonia participates in [[Nordic Battlegroup]] and [[Permanent Structured Cooperation]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Jan Joel |last=Andresson |url=https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/if-not-now-when-nordic-eu-battlegroup |title=If not now, when? The Nordic EU Battlegroup |publisher=[[European Union Institute for Security Studies]] |date=17 February 2015 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kaitseministeerium.ee/en/news/estonia-joins-european-intervention-initiative |title=Estonia joins European Intervention Initiative |publisher=[[Estonian Ministry of Defence]] |date=26 June 2018 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref>

Since 1995 Estonia has participated in numerous international security and peacekeeping missions, including: [[International Security Assistance Force|Afghanistan]], [[Multi-National Force – Iraq|Iraq]], [[United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon|Lebanon]], [[Kosovo Force|Kosovo]], and [[Operation Barkhane|Mali]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mil.ee/et/operatsioonid/operatsioonid-alates-1995 |title=Operatsioonid alates 1995 |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> The peak strength of Estonian deployment in Afghanistan was 289 soldiers in 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.postimees.ee/1171242/eesti-sodurite-10-aastat-afganistanis-9-surnut-90-haavatut |title=Eesti sõdurite 10 aastat Afganistanis: 9 surnut, 90 haavatut |work=Postimees|date=15 March 2013 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> 11 Estonian soldiers have been killed in missions of Afghanistan and Iraq.<ref>{{cite news|first=Maria-Ann |last=Rohemäe |url=https://www.err.ee/512040/valisoperatsioonidel-on-hukkunud-11-eesti-sodurit |title=Välisoperatsioonidel on hukkunud 11 Eesti sõdurit |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=27 April 2014 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref>

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Estonia|Counties of Estonia|Municipalities of Estonia|Boroughs of Estonia|Populated places in Estonia}}

[[File:Estonian administrative divisions 2017 with labels.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Administrative divisions of Estonia]]

Estonia is a unitary country with a single-tier local government system. Local affairs are managed autonomously by local governments. Since administrative reform in 2017, there are in total 79 local governments, including 15 towns and 64 rural municipalities. All municipalities have equal legal status and form part of a ''[[Counties of Estonia|maakond]]'' (county), which is an administrative subunit of the state.<ref>{{cite book |title=Public administration characteristics and performance in EU28 |last1=Pesti |first1=Cerlin |last2=Randma-Liiv |first2=Tiina |date=April 2018 |chapter=Estonia |chapter-url= https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/c017bdc1-960e-11e8-8bc1-01aa75ed71a1/language-en |editor-last=Thijs |editor-first=Nick |editor2-last=Hammerschmid |editor2-first=Gerhard |publisher=Publications Office of the European Union |location=[[Luxembourg]] |pages=252–255 |doi=10.2767/74735 |isbn=9789279904530}}</ref> Representative body of local authorities is municipal council, elected at general direct elections for a four-year term. The council appoints local government, headed by a mayor. For additional decentralization the local authorities may form municipal districts with limited authority, currently those have been formed in [[Tallinn]] and [[Hiiumaa]].<ref name="rahandusmin">{{cite web |url=https://www.rahandusministeerium.ee/en/local-governments-and-administrative-territorial-reform |title=Local Governments |date=1 November 2019 |publisher=[[Ministry of Finance (Estonia)|Estonian Ministry of Finance]] |access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref>

Separately from administrative units, there are also [[Populated places in Estonia|settlement units]]: village, small borough, borough, and town. Generally, villages have less than 300, small boroughs have between 300 and 1000, boroughs and towns have over 1000 inhabitants.<ref name="rahandusmin"/>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Estonia}}
[[File:Estonia Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.15|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Estonia exports, 2019]]

As a member of the European Union and [[OECD]], Estonia is considered a high-income economy by the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]]. The [[Purchasing power parity|GDP (PPP) per capita]] of the country was $46,385 in 2023 according to the [[International Monetary Fund]] ,ranked 40th.<ref name="imf2" /> Estonia ranks highly in international rankings for [[quality of life]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Estonia (Ranked 21st) |url=https://www.prosperity.com/globe/estonia |website=Legatum Prosperity Index 2020}}</ref> [[Education Index|education]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 December 2019 |title=Pisa rankings: Why Estonian pupils shine in global tests |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/education-50590581}}</ref> [[Press Freedom Index|press freedom]], [[E-government|digitalisation of public services]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 July 2020 |title=Estonia among top 3 in the UN e-Government Survey 2020 |url=https://e-estonia.com/estonia-top-3-in-un-e-government-survey-2020/ |website=e-Estonia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Harold |first=Theresa |date=October 30, 2017 |title=How A Former Soviet State Became One Of The World's Most Advanced Digital Nations |url=https://www.alphr.com/technology/1007520/how-a-former-soviet-state-became-one-of-the-worlds-most-advanced-digital-nations/ |access-date=November 29, 2021 |work=Alphr}}</ref> and the prevalence of technology companies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Number of start-ups per capita by country |url=https://2020.stateofeuropeantech.com/chart/746-3309 |website=2020.stateofeuropeantech.com}}</ref>

Because of its rapid growth, Estonia has often been described as a [[Baltic Tiger]] beside Lithuania and Latvia. Beginning 1 January 2011, Estonia adopted the euro and became the 17th [[eurozone]] member state.<ref name="euroreuters">{{cite news|last=Mardiste|first=David|title=Estonia joins crisis-hit euro club|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-estonia-euro-idUSTRE6BU0S720110101|access-date=2 January 2011|date=1 January 2011|work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref>

According to [[Eurostat]], Estonia had the lowest ratio of government debt to GDP among EU countries at 6.7% at the end of 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-21102011-AP/EN/2-21102011-AP-EN.PDF|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027125232/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-21102011-AP/EN/2-21102011-AP-EN.PDF|url-status=dead|title=Eurostat news release|archive-date=27 October 2011}}</ref>
A balanced budget, almost non-existent [[public debt]], flat-rate income tax, free trade regime, competitive commercial banking sector, innovative [[e-Services]] and even mobile-based services are all hallmarks of Estonia's market economy.

Estonia produces about 75% of its consumed electricity.<ref>[http://www.stat.ee/34170 "Electricity Balance, Yearly"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128220628/http://www.stat.ee/34170 |date=28 November 2017 }} 8 June 2010 (Estonian)</ref> In 2011, about 85% of it was generated with locally mined [[oil shale]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://valitsus.ee/UserFiles/valitsus/et/valitsus/arengukavad/keskkonnaministeerium/Põlevkivi%20kasutamise%20riikliku%20arengukava%20täitmise%20aruanne%202011.pdf |title="Põlevkivi kasutamise riikliku arengukava 2008–2015" 2011. a täitmise aruanne |publisher=Valitsus.ee |date=6 September 2012 |access-date=16 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508121023/https://valitsus.ee/UserFiles/valitsus/et/valitsus/arengukavad/keskkonnaministeerium/P%C3%B5levkivi%20kasutamise%20riikliku%20arengukava%20t%C3%A4itmise%20aruanne%202011.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Alternative energy sources such as wood, peat, and biomass make up approximately 9% of primary energy production. Renewable wind energy was about 6% of total consumption in 2009.<ref>[http://www.stat.ee/34167 "Energy Effectiveness, Yearly"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128212459/http://www.stat.ee/34167 |date=28 November 2017 }} 22 September 2010 (Estonian)</ref> Estonia imports [[petroleum]] products from western Europe and Russia. Estonia imports 100% of its [[Russia in the European energy sector|natural gas from Russia]].<ref>"[https://www.e3g.org/docs/E3G_Trends_EU_Gas_Demand_June2015_Final_110615.pdf Europe's Declining Gas Demand: Trends and Facts about European Gas Consumption – June 2015]". (PDF). p.9. [[E3G]]. Source: Eurostat, Eurogas, E3G.</ref> Oil shale energy, telecommunications, textiles, chemical products, banking, services, food and fishing, timber, shipbuilding, electronics, and transportation are key sectors of the economy.<ref>{{cite web|title=DISCOVER BUSINESS AND INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN ESTONIA!|url=http://www.estonianexport.ee/?page=b4&lang=eng|work=Estonian Export Directory|access-date=2 July 2013|archive-date=21 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121064237/http://www.estonianexport.ee/?page=b4&lang=eng|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[ice-free port]] of [[Port of Muuga|Muuga]], near Tallinn, is a modern facility featuring good transshipment capability, a high-capacity grain elevator, chill/frozen storage, and new oil tanker off-loading capabilities.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} The railroad serves as a conduit between the West, Russia, and other points.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}}
[[File:Tln1.jpg|thumb|left|alt=aerial view of high rises at sunset|The central business district of [[Tallinn]]]]
Because of the [[Financial crisis of 2007–2010|global economic recession that began in 2007]], the GDP of Estonia decreased by 1.4% in the 2nd quarter of 2008, over 3% in the 3rd quarter of 2008, and over 9% in the 4th quarter of 2008. The Estonian government made a supplementary negative budget, which was passed by [[Riigikogu]]. The revenue of the budget was decreased for 2008 by EEK 6.1 billion and the expenditure by EEK 3.2 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fin.ee/80290/ |title=Ministry of Finance |publisher=fin.ee |date=15 May 2008 |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102031135/http://www.fin.ee/80290/ |archive-date=2 November 2013 }}</ref> In 2010, the economic situation stabilised and started a growth based on strong exports. In the fourth quarter of 2010, Estonian industrial output increased by 23% compared to the year before. The country has been experiencing economic growth ever since.<ref name="Stat">{{cite web |url=http://www.stat.ee/pohinaitajad |title=Eesti Statistika – Enim nõutud statistika |publisher=Stat.ee |date=23 March 2010 |access-date=5 June 2011 |archive-date=14 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114194049/https://www.stat.ee/pohinaitajad |url-status=dead }}</ref>

According to Eurostat data, Estonian PPS GDP per capita stood at 67% of the EU average in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-25062009-BP/EN/2-25062009-BP-EN.PDF |title=GDP per capita in PPS |publisher=Eurostat |access-date=25 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090711153813/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-25062009-BP/EN/2-25062009-BP-EN.PDF |archive-date=11 July 2009 }}</ref> In 2017, the average monthly gross salary in Estonia was €1221.<ref name=StatisticsEstonia>{{cite web|first1=Allan |last1=Aron |first2=Evelin |last2=Puura |url=http://www.stat.ee/ |title=Avaleht – Eesti Statistika |publisher=Stat.ee |access-date=31 March 2016}}</ref>

However, there are vast disparities in GDP between different areas of Estonia; currently, over half of the country's GDP is created in Tallinn.<ref name="BBN">{{cite web|first=Kaja |last=Koovit |url=http://www.balticbusinessnews.com/?PublicationId=f47e445a-e234-432f-b7b0-137ca0bff47d |title=bbn.ee – Half of Estonian GDP is created in Tallinn |publisher=Balticbusinessnews.com |date=1 June 2011 |access-date=5 June 2011}}</ref> In 2008, the GDP per capita of Tallinn stood at 172% of the Estonian average,<ref name="Statistics">[http://www.stat.ee/dokumendid/30210 Half of the gross domestic product of Estonia is created in Tallinn]. Statistics Estonia. ''Stat.ee''. 29 September 2008. Retrieved 23 December 2011.</ref> which makes the per capita GDP of Tallinn as high as 115% of the European Union average, exceeding the average levels of other counties.

The unemployment rate in March 2016 was 6.4%, which is below the EU average,<ref name=StatisticsEstonia/> while real GDP growth in 2011 was 8.0%,<ref name="Statistics Estonia">{{cite web |url=http://www.stat.ee/29958 |title=Real GDP per capita, growth rate and totals |website=Stat.ee |publisher=Statistics Estonia |access-date=25 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114083834/http://www.stat.ee/29958 |archive-date=14 November 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> five times the euro-zone average. In 2012, Estonia remained the only euro member with a budget surplus, and with a national debt of only 6%, it is one of the least indebted countries in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estonia Uses the Euro, and the Economy is Booming|url=https://www.cnbc.com/id/47691090/|publisher=CNBC|access-date=13 June 2012|date=5 June 2012}}</ref>

===Economic indicators===

Estonia's economy continues to benefit from a transparent government and policies that sustain a high level of [[Index of Economic Freedom|economic freedom]], ranking 6th globally and 2nd in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking/ |title=Country Rankings: World & Global Economy Rankings on Economic Freedom |publisher=Heritage.org |date=13 January 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016 |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2016 – Transparency International |publisher=Transparency.org |date=25 January 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> The rule of [[Law of Estonia|law]] remains strongly buttressed and enforced by an independent and efficient judicial system. A simplified tax system with flat rates and low indirect taxation, openness to foreign investment, and a liberal trade regime have supported the resilient and well-functioning economy.<ref name="taxfoundation1">{{cite web|url=http://taxfoundation.org/article/2015-international-tax-competitiveness-index|title=2015 International Tax Competitiveness Index|date=28 September 2015 |publisher=Taxfoundation.org|access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> {{Asof|2018|May}}, the [[Ease of Doing Business Index]] by the [[World Bank Group]] places the country 16th in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/rankings |title=Rankings & Ease of Doing Business Score |website=Doing Business |publisher=The World Bank |access-date=25 January 2019}}</ref> The strong focus on the IT sector through its [[e-Estonia]] program has led to much faster, simpler and efficient public services where for example filing a tax return takes less than five minutes and 98% of banking transactions are conducted through the internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://neweuropeaneconomy.com/fdi/digital-economy-estonia/ |title=Digital Economy Estonia: From IT tiger to the World's Most Pre-eminent e-state |date=23 May 2016 |publisher=New European Economy |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=June 2015 |url=http://treasurytoday.com/2015/06/estonia-a-digital-economy-ttcyf |title=Estonia: a digital economy |publisher=Treasury Today |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> Estonia has the 13th lowest business bribery risk in the world, according to TRACE Matrix.<ref name="traceinternational.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.traceinternational.org/trace-matrix |title=Trace Matrix |publisher=Traceminternational.org |access-date=19 August 2021}}</ref>

Estonia is a [[developed country]] with an advanced, [[high-income economy]] that was among the fastest-growing in the EU since its entry in 2004.<ref>{{cite magazine |title= Estonian Economic Miracle: A Model For Developing Countries |magazine= Global Politician | url= http://www.globalpolitician.com/2614-baltic-eu-expansion-estonia | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110628230137/http://www.globalpolitician.com/2614-baltic-eu-expansion-estonia | archive-date= 28 June 2011 |access-date= 5 June 2011 |url-status= dead}}</ref> The country ranks very high in the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|Human Development Index]],<ref name="HDI">{{cite web |title= 2020 Human Development Report|publisher= United Nations Development Programme |year= 2019 |url= http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf |access-date= 15 December 2020}}</ref> and compares well in measures of [[Index of Economic Freedom|economic freedom]], [[Freedom in the World (report)|civil liberties]], education,<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.yahoo.com/news/asian-countries-dominate-science-teaching-criticised-survey-101202488.html |title= Asian countries dominate, science teaching criticised in survey |publisher= Yahoo}}</ref> and [[Press Freedom Index|press freedom]].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://rsf.org/en/ranking |title= Press Freedom Index 2016 |publisher= Reports Without Borders |access-date= 29 May 2016}}</ref> Estonian citizens receive [[universal health care]],<ref>[https://www.fraserinstitute.org/sites/default/files/comparing-performance-of-universal-health-care-countries-2016.pdf Comparing Performance of Universal Health Care Countries, 2016] Fraser Institute</ref> [[free education]],<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/estonia/Education-Policy-Outlook-Country-Profile-Estonia.pdf Estonia] OECD 2016.</ref> and the longest paid [[maternity leave]] in the OECD.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2016/10/daily-chart-10 |title= Which countries are most generous to new parents? |newspaper= The Economist |access-date= 28 October 2016}}.</ref> One of the world's most digitally-advanced societies,<ref>
{{cite magazine | url= https://www.wired.co.uk/article/digital-estonia |title=Welcome to E-stonia, the world's most digitally advanced society |magazine= [[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date= 20 October 2018}}
</ref>
in 2005 Estonia became the first state to hold elections over the [[Electronic voting in Estonia|Internet]], and in 2014, the first state to provide [[E-residency of Estonia|e-residency]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is e-Residency {{!}} How to Start an EU Company Online|url=https://www.e-resident.gov.ee/|access-date=2021-12-26|website=e-Residency|language=en-US}}</ref>

===Historic development===
[[File:GDP_per_capita_Baltics.svg|thumb|right|Real GDP per capita development of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania]]
In 1928, a stable currency, the ''[[Estonian kroon|kroon]]'', was established. It is issued by the [[Bank of Estonia]], the country's [[central bank]]. The word ''kroon'' ({{IPA-et|ˈkroːn|est}}, "crown") is related to that of the other [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] currencies (such as the [[Swedish krona]] and the [[Danish krone|Danish]] and [[Norwegian krone]]). The kroon succeeded the [[Estonian mark|mark]] in 1928 and was used until 1940. After Estonia regained its independence, the kroon was reintroduced in 1992.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

After [[History of Estonia#Regaining independence|restoring full independence]], in the 1990s, Estonia styled itself as the "gateway between East and West" and aggressively pursued economic reform and reintegration with the West.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} In 1994, applying the economic theories of [[Milton Friedman]], Estonia became one of the first countries to adopt a [[flat tax]], with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of personal income. This rate has since been reduced several times, e.g., to 24% in 2005, 23% in 2006, and to 21% in 2008.<ref>[http://www.fin.ee/personal-income-tax Personal Income Tax] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102031341/http://www.fin.ee/personal-income-tax |date=2 November 2013}}, Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Estonia</ref> The [[Government of Estonia]] finalised the design of [[Estonian euro coins]] in late 2004, and adopted the euro as the country's currency on 1 January 2011, later than planned due to continued high inflation.<ref name="euroreuters"/><ref name="euro-EFP">{{cite news|url=http://www.estonianfreepress.com/2009/03/estonia-gets-closer-to-the-euro/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710203542/http://www.estonianfreepress.com/2009/03/estonia-gets-closer-to-the-euro/ |archive-date=10 July 2011 |newspaper=Estonian Free Press |title=Estonia Gets Closer to the Euro |last=Angioni |first=Giovanni |date=31 March 2009 |access-date=22 November 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A [[Land Value Tax]] is levied which is used to fund local municipalities. It is a state-level tax, but 100% of the revenue is used to fund Local Councils. The rate is set by the Local Council within the limits of 0.1–2.5%. It is one of the most important sources of funding for municipalities.<ref name="Land Tax Reform">{{cite web|title=Land Taxation Reform in Estonia|url=http://aysps.gsu.edu/isp/files/ISP_CONFERENCES_PROPERTY_TAX_06_TIITS_PAPER.pdf|website=Aysps.gsu.edu|access-date=23 July 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806011749/http://aysps.gsu.edu/isp/files/ISP_CONFERENCES_PROPERTY_TAX_06_TIITS_PAPER.pdf|archive-date=6 August 2010}}</ref> The Land Value Tax is levied on the value of the land only with improvements and buildings not considered. Very few exemptions are considered on the land value tax and even public institutions are subject to the tax.<ref name="Land Tax Reform"/> The tax has contributed to a high rate (~90%)<ref name="Land Tax Reform"/> of owner-occupied residences within Estonia, compared to a rate of 67.4% in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|title=Homeownership rate graph|url=https://www.census.gov/housing/hvs/index.html|website=Housing Vacancies and Homeownership|publisher=US Census|access-date=2 June 2015}}</ref>

In 1999, Estonia experienced its worst year economically since it regained independence in 1991, largely because of the impact of the [[1998 Russian financial crisis]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Estonia joined the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] in November 1999. With assistance from the European Union, the [[World Bank]] and the [[Nordic Investment Bank]], Estonia completed most of its preparations for European Union membership by the end of 2002 and now has one of the strongest economies of the new member states of the European Union.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Estonia joined the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/estonia/estoniasaccessiontotheoecd.htm |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] |title=Estonia's accession to the OECD |date=9 December 2010 |access-date=22 July 2016}}</ref>

===Transport===
{{Main|Transport in Estonia}}

The [[Port of Tallinn]], taking into account both cargo and passenger traffic, is one of the largest port enterprises of the [[Baltic Sea]]. In 2018, the enterprise was listed in [[Tallinn Stock Exchange]]. It was the first time in nearly 20 years in Estonia when a state-owned company went public in Estonia. It was also the 2nd largest [[Initial public offering|IPO]] in Nasdaq Tallinn in the number of retail investors participating. The Republic of Estonia remains the largest shareholder and holds 67% of the company.<ref>[https://news.err.ee/839135/port-of-tallinn-surges-nearly-20-minutes-after-trading-begins "Port of Tallinn surges nearly 20% minutes after trading begins"] ERR, 13 June 2018.</ref>

Owned by [[Eesti Raudtee|AS Eesti Raudtee]], there are many significant [[Rail transport in Estonia|railroad connections in Estonia]], such as [[Tallinn–Narva railway]], which is {{convert|209.6|km|abbr=on}} long main connection to [[St. Petersburg]]. The most important [[highways in Estonia]], in other hand, includes [[Narva Highway]] ([[European route E20|E20]]), [[Tartu Highway]] ([[European route E263|E263]]) and [[Pärnu Highway]] ([[European route E67|E67]]).

The [[Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport]] in Tallinn is the largest airport in Estonia and serves as a [[Airline hub|hub]] for the national airline [[Nordica (airline)|Nordica]], as well as the secondary hub for [[AirBaltic]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Latvian airBaltic becomes number one airline in Estonia |url=http://estonianworld.com/business/airbaltic-becomes-number-one-airline-in-estonia/ |work=Estonian World |date=4 May 2016 |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> and [[LOT Polish Airlines]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Siiri |last=Liiva |url=http://majandus24.postimees.ee/3915711/nordica-lennukipark-taeieneb-ajutiselt-uehe-loti-lennukiga |title=Nordica lennukipark täieneb ajutiselt ühe LOTi lennukiga |newspaper=Postimees Majandus |publisher=Postimees |date=18 November 2016 |access-date=19 November 2016 |language=et}}</ref> Total passengers using the airport has increased on average by 14.2% annually since 1998. On 16 November 2012 Tallinn Airport has reached two million passenger landmark for the first time in its history.<ref>{{cite news |title=FOTOD: Vaata, kuidas saabus Tallinna lennujaama kahe miljones reisija |url=http://majandus.delfi.ee/news/uudised/fotod-vaata-kuidas-saabus-tallinna-lennujaama-kahe-miljones-reisija.d?id=65274122 |publisher=delfi.ee |language=et |date=16 November 2012 |access-date=17 November 2012}}</ref>

===Resources===
[[File:Estonian shale.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Oil shale in Estonia|oil shale industry]] in Estonia is one of the most developed in the world.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Estonia 2013 |series=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries |author=IEA |author-link=International Energy Agency |journal=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries / Ukraine |year=2013 |location=Paris |publisher=IEA |doi=10.1787/9789264190801-en |isbn=978-92-6419079-5 |issn=2307-0897 |page=20}}</ref> In 2012, oil shale supplied 70% of Estonia's [[total primary energy supply|total primary energy]] and accounted for 4% of Estonia's gross domestic product.<ref name=audit>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?AuditId=2314&FileId=13239
|title = Actions of the state in directing the use of oil shale. Does the state guarantee that oil shale reserves are used sustainably? Report of the National Audit Office to the Riigikogu
|publisher = [[National Audit Office of Estonia]]
|date = 19 November 2014
|pages = 7–14; 29
|access-date = 7 January 2015
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181213120049/https://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?AuditId=2314&FileId=13239
|archive-date = 13 December 2018
|url-status = live
}}
</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Estonia 2013 |series=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries |author=IEA |author-link=International Energy Agency |journal=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries / Ukraine |year=2013 |location=Paris |publisher=IEA |doi=10.1787/9789264190801-en |isbn=978-92-6419079-5 |issn=2307-0897 |page=7}}</ref>]]
Although Estonia is in general resource-poor, the land still offers a large variety of smaller resources. The country has large [[oil shale]] and [[limestone]] deposits, along with forests that cover 48% of the land.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=EN51&ti=FOREST+RESOURCES+BASED+ON+NATIONAL+FOREST+INVENTORY+%28NFI%29&path=../I_Databas/Environment/04Natural_resources_and_their_use/06Forest_resources/&lang=1 |title=Forest resources based on national forest inventory |publisher=Statistics Estonia |year=2012}}</ref> In addition to oil shale and limestone, Estonia also has large reserves of [[phosphorite]], [[uraninite|pitchblende]], and [[granite]] that currently are not mined, or not mined extensively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ut.ee/BGGM/maavara/dityoneema.html |title=Uranium production at Sillamäe |publisher=Ut.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-date=4 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104181758/http://www.ut.ee/BGGM/maavara/dityoneema.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Significant quantities of [[rare-earth]] oxides are found in tailings accumulated from 50 years of [[uranium ore]], [[shale]] and [[loparite]] mining at [[Sillamäe]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Turning a Problem into a Resource: Remediation and Waste Management at the Sillamäe Site, Estonia |last1=Rofer |first1=Cheryl K. |first2=Tõnis |last2=Kaasik |series=Volume 28 of NATO science series: Disarmament technologies |year=2000 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-7923-6187-9 |page=229}}</ref> Because of the rising prices of rare earths, extraction of these oxides has become economically viable. The country currently exports around 3000 tonnes per annum, representing around 2% of world production.<ref>{{cite news |title=Estonia's rare earth break China's market grip |first=Anneli |last=Reigas |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=1 December 2010 |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5itXbI57zv-lwfcaFdBdh7UZXuVuA?docId=CNG.a00f68010092a06189a0276c763e93a4.141 |access-date=1 December 2010}}</ref>

Since 2008, public debate has discussed whether Estonia should build a nuclear power plant to secure energy production after closure of old units in the [[Narva Power Plants]], if they are not reconstructed by 2016.<ref>[http://www.e24.ee/1810367/tulevikuraport-soome-eesti-tuumajaam-voiks-olla-eestis Tulevikuraport: Soome-Eesti tuumajaam võiks olla Eestis (Future Report: Finnish and Estonian joint nuclear power station could be located in Estonia)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212234919/http://www.e24.ee/1810367/tulevikuraport-soome-eesti-tuumajaam-voiks-olla-eestis |date=12 February 2019 }}, ''[[Postimees]]''. 25 June 2008 (in Estonian).</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baltictimes.com/news/articles/19949/|title=A nuclear power plant for Estonia?|website=The Baltic Times|access-date=23 June 2018}}</ref>

===Industry and environment===
{{See also|Oil shale in Estonia|Narva Power Plants|Wind power in Estonia}}
[[File:Hanila tuulepark 2.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Rõuste wind turbines next to wetland|Rõuste wind farm in [[Lääneranna Parish]]]]
Food, construction, and electronic industries are currently among the most important branches of Estonia's industry.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} In 2007, the construction industry employed more than 80,000 people, around 12% of the entire country's workforce.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.investinestonia.com/index.php?option=displaypage&Itemid=118&op=page&SubMenu= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021094336/http://www.investinestonia.com/index.php?option=displaypage&Itemid=118&op=page&SubMenu= |archive-date=21 October 2007 |title=Invest in Estonia: Overview of the Construction industry in Estonia |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Another important industrial sector is the machinery and chemical industry, which is mainly located in [[Ida-Viru county]] and around Tallinn.

The oil shale-based [[mining industry]], also concentrated in [[Virumaa|East Estonia]], produces around 90% of the entire country's electricity.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Although the number of pollutants emitted has been falling since the 1980s,<ref name=Auer>M. Auer (2004). Estonian Environmental Reforms: A Small Nation's Outsized Accomplishments. In: ''Restoring Cursed Earth: Appraising Environmental Policy Reforms in Eastern Europe and Russia.'' Rowman & Littlefield. pp 117–144.</ref> the air is still contaminated with [[sulphur dioxide]] from the mining industry the Soviet Union rapidly developed in the early 1950s. In some areas, coastal seawater is polluted, mainly around the [[Sillamäe]] industrial complex.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2005/geos/en.html |title=Environment – current issues in Estonia. CIA Factbook|publisher=Umsl.edu |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref>

Estonia is dependent on other countries for energy. In recent years, many local and foreign companies have been investing in renewable energy sources.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Wind power has been increasing steadily in Estonia and the total current amount of energy produced from wind is nearly 60 [[Megawatt|MW]]; another roughly 399 MW worth of projects are currently being developed and more than 2800 MW being proposed in the [[Lake Peipus]] area and coastal areas of [[Hiiumaa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tuuleenergia.ee/?path=0x139x173 |title=Estonian Wind Power Association |publisher=Tuuleenergia.ee |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://wwx.postimees.ee/211007/esileht/majandus/290763.php Peipsile võib kerkida mitusada tuulikut], ''Postimees''. 21 October 2007 (in Estonian) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130822013819/http://wwx.postimees.ee/211007/esileht/majandus/290763.php |date=22 August 2013}}</ref><ref>Henrik Ilves [http://arileht.delfi.ee/news/uudised/tuule-puudmine-on-saanud-eesti-kullapalavikuks.d?id=51133036 Tuule püüdmine on saanud Eesti kullapalavikuks], ''[[Eesti Päevaleht]]''. 13 June 2008 (in Estonian)</ref>

Currently{{When|date=February 2011}}, there are plans to renovate some older units of the Narva Power Plants, establish new power stations, and provide higher efficiency in oil shale-based energy production.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/estonia/env2001/content/soe/air_2-3.htm |title=State Environment in Estonia |publisher=Enrin.grida.no |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-date=14 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514153806/http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/estonia/env2001/content/soe/air_2-3.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Estonia [[Liberalization|liberalised]] 35% of its electricity market in April 2010; the electricity market as whole was to be liberalised by 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325013625/http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 |title=Developing Estonian energy policy hand in hand with EU energy packages|access-date=18 August 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Together with Lithuania, Poland, and Latvia, the country considered participating in constructing the [[Visaginas nuclear power plant]] in Lithuania to replace the [[Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant|Ignalina]] nuclear plant.<ref name="wnn-lt">{{cite news
|url = http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN_Visaginas_recognised_with_nuclear_site_name_3007082.html
|title = Visaginas recognised with nuclear site name
|publisher = World Nuclear News
|date=30 July 2008
|access-date=31 July 2008}}
</ref><ref name="le">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.lpc.lt/en/main/news/press?ID=469
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722151647/http://www.lpc.lt/en/main/news/press?ID=469
|archive-date=22 July 2011
|title=Nuclear Power Plant Project in Lithuania is Feasible. Press release
|date=25 October 2006
|publisher=[[Lietuvos Energija]]
|access-date=13 July 2007
|url-status=dead
}}
</ref> However, due to the slow pace of the project and problems with the nuclear sector (like the [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster|Fukushima disaster]] and bad example of [[Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant|Olkiluoto plant]]), [[Eesti Energia]] shifted its main focus to [[shale oil]] production, seen as far more profitable.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.err.ee/v/economy/876c4997-500b-4adc-aeab-eb2e8c0dbcb7|date=24 November 2014 |title= Liive: Eesti Energia ditched nuclear plant plans for shale oil |publisher=ERR |access-date=24 February 2015}}</ref>

The Estonian electricity network forms a part of the [[Nord Pool Spot]] network.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nord Pool|url=http://www.nordpoolspot.com/|access-date=23 July 2017|publisher=Nordpoolspot.com}}</ref>

Estonia has a strong information technology [[quaternary sector of the economy|sector]], partly owing to the [[Tiigrihüpe]] project undertaken in the mid-1990s, and has been mentioned as the most "wired" and advanced country in Europe in the terms of e-Government of Estonia.<ref>[https://www.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-09/ff_estonia Hackers Take Down the Most Wired Country in Europe], August 2007</ref> The 2014 [[E-residency of Estonia|e-residency program]] began offering those services to non-residents in Estonia.

[[Skype]] was written by Estonia-based developers [[Ahti Heinla]], [[Priit Kasesalu]] and [[Jaan Tallinn]], who had also originally developed [[Kazaa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207073839/https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 February 2012|date=6 September 2006|first=Andreas|last=Thomann|title=Skype – A Baltic Success Story|publisher=credit-suisse.com|access-date=24 February 2008}}</ref> Other notable [[Startup company|startups]] that originated from Estonia include [[Bolt (company)|Bolt]], [[GrabCAD]], [[Fortumo]] and [[TransferWise|Wise (formerly known as TransferWise)]]. It has been reported that Estonia has the highest startups per person ratio in the world.<ref>{{cite news|date=11 July 2013|title=Not only Skype|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2013/07/estonias-technology-cluster|access-date=24 February 2015}}</ref> As of January 2022, there are 1,291 startups from Estonia, seven of which are [[Unicorn (finance)|unicorns]], equalling nearly 1 startup per 1,000 Estonians.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Estonian Startup Database|url=https://startupestonia.ee/startup-database|access-date=2022-01-11|website=Startup Estonia|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-07|title=The Estonia-Singapore tech corridor: A conversation with Priit Turk, Estonian ambassador to Singapore|url=https://kr-asia.com/the-estonia-singapore-tech-corridor-a-conversation-with-priit-turk-estonian-ambassador-to-singapore|access-date=2022-01-11|website=KrASIA|language=en}}</ref>

===Trade===
{{Main|Tallinn Stock Exchange}}
[[File:Tree map exports 2010 Estonia.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|alt=graph of exports in 2010 showing $10,345,000,000 2.8 percent cars, 12 percent lubricating oil, 3.8 percent telephone|Graphical depiction of Estonia's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories]]
Estonia has had a [[market economy]] since the end of the 1990s and one of the highest per capita income levels in Eastern Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=GNI per capita in PPP dollars for Baltic states |url=https://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_&met_y=ny_gnp_pcap_pp_cd&idim=country:EST:LTU:LVA&dl=en |website=Google WorldBank|access-date=27 February 2015}}</ref> Proximity to the Scandinavian and Finnish markets, its location between the East and West, competitive cost structure and a highly skilled labour force have been the major Estonian comparative advantages in the beginning of the 2000s (decade). As the largest city, Tallinn has emerged as a [[financial centre]] and the [[Tallinn Stock Exchange]] joined recently with the [[OMX]] system. Several cryptocurrency trading platforms are officially recognised by the government, such as [[CoinMetro]].<ref>{{cite web|title=CoinMetro License|url=https://mtr.mkm.ee/taotluse_tulemus/483668?backurl=%40juriidiline_isik_show%3Fid%3D227953|access-date=8 August 2018|archive-date=15 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715210621/https://mtr.mkm.ee/taotluse_tulemus/483668?backurl=%40juriidiline_isik_show%3Fid%3D227953|url-status=dead}}</ref> The current government has pursued tight [[Finance|fiscal]] policies, resulting in balanced budgets and low [[public debt]].

In 2007, however, a large current account deficit and rising inflation put pressure on [[Estonian kroon|Estonia's currency]], which was pegged to the Euro, highlighting the need for growth in export-generating industries.
Estonia exports mainly machinery and equipment, wood and paper, textiles, food products, furniture, and metals and chemical products.<ref name="CIAworld">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/ |title=CIA World Factbook: Estonia |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=23 December 2010 }}</ref> Estonia also exports 1.562 billion kilowatt hours of electricity annually.<ref name="CIAworld"/> At the same time Estonia imports machinery and equipment, chemical products, textiles, food products and transportation equipment.<ref name="CIAworld"/> Estonia imports 200 million kilowatt hours of electricity annually.<ref name="CIAworld"/>

Between 2007 and 2013, Estonia received 53.3 billion [[Estonian kroon|kroons]] (3.4 billion euros) from various European Union Structural Funds as direct supports, creating the largest foreign investments into Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://struktuurifondid.ee/ |title=European Union Structural Funds in Estonia |publisher=Struktuurifondid.ee |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> Majority of the European Union financial aid will be invested into the following fields: energy economies, entrepreneurship, administrative capability, education, information society, environment protection, regional and local development, research and development activities, healthcare and welfare, transportation and labour market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://veebiarhiiv.digar.ee/a/20101114110851/http://www.fin.ee/?404 |first=Livia |last=Vosman |title=Europostitus on jõudnud 350 000 kodusse |website=Rahandusministeerium |date=13 November 2010 |language=et}}</ref> Main sources of [[foreign direct investment]]s to Estonia are Sweden and Finland ({{as of|2016|December|31}} 48.3%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vm.ee/en/estonian-economy-overview |title=Estonian Economy Overview | Ministry of Foreign Affairs |website=Vm.ee |date=16 June 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Estonia}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Residents of Estonia by ethnicity (2021)<ref name="rahvaloendus.ee">{{cite web|title=Rahvaarv rahvuse järgi, 1. jaanuar, aasta|url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/results/demographic-and-ethno-cultural-characteristics-of-the-population|publisher=Statistics Estonia|access-date=1 July 2022}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Estonians]]
|value1 =69.1
|color1 = blue
|label2 = [[Russians]]
|value2 =23.7
|color2 = cyan
|label3 = [[Ukrainians]]
|value3 = 2.1
|color3 = yellow
|label4 = [[Belarusians]]
|value4 = 0.9
|color4 = red
|label5 = other
|value5 = 4.2
|color5 = gray

}}

[[File:Eesti rahvaarv 1960-2019.png|thumb|upright=1.15|alt=The population of Estonia, from 1960 to 2019, with a peak in 1990.|Population of Estonia 1960–2019. The changes are largely attributed to Soviet immigration and emigration.<ref name="stat.ee_2">{{cite web|title=Rahvaarv, 1. jaanuar, aasta|url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Database/RAHVASTIK/databasetree.asp|publisher=Statistics Estonia|access-date=10 October 2019}}</ref>]]

Before World War II, ethnic [[Estonians]] made up 88% of the population, with national minorities constituting the remaining 12%.<ref name="ethnic minor">{{cite web|title=Ethnic minorities in Estonia: past and present |url=http://old.estinst.ee/factsheets/ethnic_minor/ |date=26 December 1998 |publisher=Einst.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807204855/http://old.estinst.ee/factsheets/ethnic_minor/}}</ref> The largest minority groups in 1934 were [[Russians]], [[Germans]], [[Swedish people|Swedes]], [[Latvians]], [[Jewish people|Jews]], [[Polish people|Poles]], and [[Finns]].

The share of [[Baltic Germans]] in Estonia had fallen from 5.3% (~46,700) in 1881 to 1.3% (16,346) by 1934,<ref name="ethnic minor"/><ref name="baltic germans">{{cite web |title=Baltic Germans in Estonia |url=http://www.einst.ee/factsheets/factsheets_uus_kuju/baltic_germans.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223082557/http://www.einst.ee/factsheets/factsheets_uus_kuju/baltic_germans.htm |archive-date=23 December 2007 |publisher=Estonian Institute}}</ref> mainly due to emigration to Germany in the light of general Russification at the end of the 19th century{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} and the independence of Estonia in the 20th century.

Between 1945 and 1989, the share of ethnic Estonians in the population resident within the currently defined boundaries of Estonia dropped to 61%, caused primarily by the Soviet occupation and programme promoting mass immigration of urban industrial workers from Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, as well as by wartime emigration and [[Joseph Stalin]]'s [[Soviet deportations from Estonia|mass deportations]] and executions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gulag.online/articles/soviet-repression-and-deportations-in-the-baltic-states?locale=en|title=Soviet repression and deportations in the Baltic states|website=Gulag.online|access-date=October 29, 2021}}</ref> By 1989, minorities constituted more than one-third of the population, as the number of non-Estonians had grown almost fivefold.

At the end of the 1980s, Estonians perceived their demographic change as a [[disaster|national catastrophe]]. This was a result of the [[human migration|migration]] policies essential to the [[Estonian SSR|Soviet Nationalisation Programme]] aiming to [[russify]] Estonia – administrative and military immigration of non-Estonians from the USSR coupled with the deportation of Estonians to the USSR.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} In the decade after the reconstitution of independence, large-scale emigration by ethnic Russians and the removal of the Russian military bases in 1994 caused{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} the proportion of ethnic Estonians in Estonia to increase from 61% to 69% in 2006.

Modern Estonia is a fairly ethnically homogeneous country, but this historical homogeneity is a feature of 13 of the country's 15 ''maakond'' (counties). The mostly Russian-speaking immigrant population is concentrated in urban areas which administratively belong to two counties. Thus 13 of Estonia's 15 counties are over 80% ethnic Estonian, the most homogeneous being [[Hiiumaa]], where Estonians account for 98.4% of the population. In the counties of [[Harju County|Harju]] (including the capital city Tallinn) and [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]], however, ethnic Estonians make up 60% and 20% of the population, respectively. The ethnic [[History of Russians in Estonia|Russian]] immigrant minority makes up about 24% of the country's total population now, but accounts for 35% of the population in Harju county and for a near 70% majority in Ida-Viru county.

The Estonian Cultural Autonomy law that was passed in 1925 was unique in Europe at that time.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David James|title=The Baltic States and Their Region: New Europe Or Old?|page=211|year=2005|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-1666-8}}</ref> Cultural autonomies could be granted to [[minorities]] numbering more than 3,000 people with longstanding ties to the Republic of Estonia. Before the [[Estonian SSR|Soviet occupation]], the Germans and Jewish minorities managed to elect a cultural council. The Law on Cultural Autonomy for National Minorities was reinstated in 1993. Historically, large parts of Estonia's northwestern coast and islands have been populated by the indigenous ethnic group of ''[[Estonian Swedes|rannarootslased]]'' ("Coastal Swedes").

In recent years the number of Swedish residents in Estonia has risen again, numbering in 2008 almost 500 people, owing to the property reforms at the beginning of the 1990s. In 2004, the [[Ingrian Finnish]] minority in Estonia elected a cultural council and was granted cultural autonomy. The Estonian Swedes minority similarly received cultural autonomy in 2007.<ref name="National Minorities Cultural Autonomy Act (2019 version)">{{Cite web|title=National Minorities Cultural Autonomy Act|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/504042019005/consolide|access-date=2022-04-07|website=www.riigiteataja.ee}}</ref>
During the Russo-Ukrainian war of 2022, tens of thousands of Ukrainian refugees have arrived in Estonia.

There is also a [[Romani people|Roma]] community in Estonia. Approximately Roma 1,000-1,500 live in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=8967&langId=en|title=Estonia - Promoting Social Inclusion of Roma - European Commission}}</ref>
===Society===
{{See also|Human rights in Estonia|Nordic identity in Estonia|Estonian alien's passport}}

[[File:Viljandi folkdanslag på Hedemora gammelgård 2014 01.jpg|thumb|Estonian folk dancers]]

Among [[post-communism|post-]][[Eastern Bloc|communist states]], Estonia is one of the most [[Westernization|Westernised]] countries and the Estonian society has undergone considerable changes since the country had restored full independence in 1991.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.baltictimes.com/report__estonia_is_most_westernized_of_former_soviet_union_members/|title=Report: Estonia is most westernised of former Soviet Union members|work=[[The Baltic Times]]|date=May 1, 2018|access-date=November 29, 2021}}</ref> Some of the more notable changes have taken effect in the level of stratification and distribution of family income. The [[Gini coefficient]] has held steadily higher than the European Union average (31 in 2009),<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html CIA World Factbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610232357/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |date=10 June 2010 }}. . Retrieved 7 November 2011</ref> although it has clearly dropped. The registered unemployment rate in January 2021 was 6.9%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stat.ee/et/avasta-statistikat/valdkonnad/tooelu/tooturg/tootuse-maar. |title=Töötuse määr |trans-title=Unemployment rate |publisher=Statistics Estonia |language=Estonian |access-date=20 September 2021}}</ref>

Estonia is a multinational country in which over a hundred languages are spoken, according to data from one previous census held in 2000. In 2000, 67.3% of the country's adult population spoke [[Estonian language|Estonian]] as their [[first language]] whereas over 30% of the population spoke other languages at [[native language|native]] level.<ref name="PopulationByNationality">{{cite web |url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC223&ti=POPULATION+BY+THE+PLACE+OF+RESIDENCE+AND+MOTHER+TONGUE&path=../I_Databas/Population_census/PHC2000/08Ethnic_nationality._Mother_tongue._Command_of_foreign_languages/&lang=1 |title=Population by the place of residence and mother tongue, statistical database: Population Census 2000|date=July 2010|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)|access-date=19 June 2009}}</ref> {{as of|2010|July|2}}, 84.1% of Estonian residents are Estonian citizens, 8.6% are citizens of other countries and 7.3% are "citizens with undetermined citizenship".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/society/citizenship.html|title=Citizenship|publisher=Estonia.eu|date=13 July 2010|access-date=18 August 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827195243/http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/society/citizenship.html|archive-date=27 August 2010}}</ref> Since 1992, roughly 140,000 people have acquired Estonian citizenship by passing [[naturalisation]] exams.<ref>[http://www.postimees.ee/67387/eesti-andis-mullu-kodakondsuse-2124-inimesele/ Eesti andis mullu kodakondsuse 2124 inimesele], ''Postimees''. 9 January 2009</ref> Estonia has also accepted [[European migrant crisis#Relocation and resettlement of asylum seekers|quota refugees]] under the migrant plan agreed upon by EU member states in 2015.<ref>{{cite news |title=Refugees frustrated and trapped in chilly Baltic states |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40479224 |work=BBC News |date=4 July 2017}}</ref>

Ethnic distribution in Estonia is very homogeneous at a county level; in most counties, over 90% of residents are ethnic Estonians. In contrast, in the capital city Tallinn and the urban areas of Ida-Viru county (which neighbours Russia) ethnic Estonians account for around 60% of the population and the remainder is mostly composed of Russian and Ukrainian immigrants, who mostly arrived in Estonia during the period of Soviet occupation (1944–1991), however now also includes over 30,000 (ca 3% of total population) war refugees from Ukraine who have settled in Estonia in 2022.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}
[[File:Saare küla Piirissaar.JPG|thumb|A [[Russians in Estonia|Russian]] [[Old Believers|Old Believer]] village with a church on [[Piirissaar]] island]]
The 2008 [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] report called "extremely credible" the description of the [[Estonian nationality law|citizenship policy of Estonia]] as "discriminatory".<ref>[http://www.osce.org/odihr/34040?download=true Naturalisation in Estonia Statement by the Legal Information Centre for Human Rights (Tallinn, Estonia)] (''[...]the Special Rapporteur considers extremely credible the views of the representatives of the Russian-speaking minorities who expressed that the citizenship policy is discriminatory[...]'')</ref> According to surveys, only 5% of the Russian community have considered returning to Russia in the near future. Estonian Russians have developed their own identity – more than half of the respondents recognized that Estonian Russians differ noticeably from the Russians in Russia. When compared with results from a 2000 survey, Russians had a more positive attitude toward the future.<ref name="Societal survey">[http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/195/yhiskond.pdf Eesti ühiskond Society] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902020818/http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/195/yhiskond.pdf |date=2 September 2011}}. (2006, PDF in Estonian/English). Retrieved 23 December 2011.</ref>

Estonia was the first former Soviet republic to legalize civil unions for same-sex couples, with a law approved in October 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/estonia-passes-law-recognizing-gay-partnerships-1412857097 |title=Estonia Passes Law Recognizing Gay Partnerships |first=Liis |last=Kangsepp |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=9 October 2014 |access-date=4 January 2014}}</ref> Political disagreements delayed adoption of the necessary implementing legislation, and same-sex couples were not able to sign [[Recognition of same-sex unions in Estonia|cohabitation agreements]] until January 1, 2016.

===Urbanization===
{{Main list|List of cities and towns in Estonia}}
Tallinn is the capital and the largest city of Estonia, and lies on the northern coast of Estonia, along the [[Gulf of Finland]]. There are 33 cities and several town-parish towns in the country. In total, there are 47 ''linn''a, with "linn" in English meaning both "cities" and "towns". More than 70% of the population lives in towns.
{{Largest cities
| country = Estonia
| stat_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://andmed.stat.ee/et/stat/rahvastik__rahvastikunaitajad-ja-koosseis__rahvaarv-ja-rahvastiku-koosseis/RV0240/sortedtable/tableViewSorted|title=RV0240: RAHVASTIK SOO, VANUSE JA 2017. AASTA HALDUSREFORMI JÄRGSE ELUKOHA JÄRGI, 1. JAANUAR|website=PX-Web}}</ref>
| list_by_pop = Demographics of Estonia
| div_name =
| div_link = Counties of Estonia{{!}}County

| city_1 = Tallinn | div_1 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_1 = 438,341
| city_2 = Tartu | div_2 = Tartu County{{!}}Tartu | pop_2 = 95,430
| city_3 = Narva | div_3 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_3 = 53,424
| city_4 = Pärnu | div_4 = Pärnu County{{!}}Pärnu | pop_4 = 40,228
| city_5 = Kohtla-Järve | div_5 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_5 = 32,577
| city_6 = Viljandi | div_6 = Viljandi County{{!}}Viljandi | pop_6 = 16,875
| city_7 = Maardu | div_7 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_7 = 15,284
| city_8 = Rakvere | div_8 = Lääne-Viru County{{!}}Lääne-Viru | pop_8 = 14,984
| city_9 = Haapsalu | div_9 = Lääne County{{!}}Lääne | pop_9 = 12,883
| city_10 = Kuressaare | div_10 = Saare County{{!}}Saare | pop_10 = 12,698
| city_11 = Sillamäe | div_11 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_11 = 12,230
| city_12 = Valga, Estonia{{!}}Valga | div_12 = Valga County{{!}}Valga | pop_12 = 11,792
| city_13 = Võru | div_13 = Võru County{{!}}Võru | pop_13 = 11,533
| city_14 = Paide | div_14 = Järva County{{!}}Järva | pop_14 = 10,285
| city_15 = Jõhvi | div_15 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_15 = 10,130
| city_16 = Keila | div_16 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_16 = 10,078
| city_17 = Saue | div_17 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_17 = 5,831
| city_18 = Elva, Estonia{{!}}Elva | div_18 = Tartu County{{!}}Tartu | pop_18 = 5,616
| city_19 = Tapa, Estonia{{!}}Tapa | div_19 = Lääne-Viru County{{!}}Lääne-Viru | pop_19 = 5,168
| city_20 = Põlva | div_20 = Põlva County{{!}}Põlva | pop_20 = 5,115
}}

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Estonia}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in Estonia (2011)<ref name=stat2011>{{cite web|url= http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC0454&lang=1|title= PC0454: AT LEAST 15-YEAR-OLD PERSONS BY RELIGION, SEX, AGE GROUP, ETHNIC NATIONALITY AND COUNTY, 31 DECEMBER 2011|date= 31 December 2011|access-date= 9 January 2014|publisher= [[Statistics Estonia]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.stat.ee/65352?parent_id=39113|title= PHC 2011: over a quarter of the population are affiliated with a particular religion|date= 29 April 2013 |access-date= 9 January 2014|publisher= [[Statistics Estonia]]}}</ref>
|label1 = Unaffiliated
|value1 = 64.87
|color1 = WhiteSmoke
|label2 = [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|value2 = 19.87
|color2 = Orchid
|label3 = [[Lutheran]]
|value3 = 12.02
|color3 = RoyalBlue
|label4 = Other [[Christianity|Christian]]
|value4 = 1.20
|color4 = DodgerBlue
|label5 = [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] and other neoprotestant denominations
|value5 = 0.93
|color5 = DeepSkyBlue
|label6 = Other religions
|value6 = 1.10
|color6 = Black
}}
Estonia has a diverse religious history, but in recent years it has become increasingly secular, with either a [[Plurality (voting)|plurality]] or a [[majority]] of the population declaring themselves [[Irreligion|nonreligious]] in recent censuses, followed by those who identify as religiously "undeclared". The largest minority groups are the various [[Christian denomination]]s, principally Lutheran and Orthodox Christians, with very small numbers of adherents in non-Christian faiths, namely [[Judaism]], [[Islam]] and [[Buddhism]]. Other polls suggest the country is broadly split between Christians and the non-religious / religiously undeclared.

In ancient Estonia, prior to Christianization and according to [[Livonian Chronicle of Henry]], [[Tharapita]] was the predominant deity for the [[Oeselians]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol26/sutrop.pdf|title=Taarapita – the Great God of the Oeselians. Article by Urmas Sutrop}}</ref>

Estonia was Christianised by the [[Catholic]] [[Teutonic Knights]] in the 13th century. The [[Protestant Reformation]] led to the establishment of the Lutheran church in 1686. Before the [[Second World War]], Estonia was approximately 80% [[Protestant]], overwhelmingly [[Lutheran]],<ref name="IvkovićHaberfeld2015">{{cite book|last1= Ivković|first1= Sanja Kutnjak|last2= Haberfeld|first2= M.R.|title= Measuring Police Integrity Across the World: Studies from Established Democracies and Countries in Transition|date= 10 June 2015|publisher= Springer |language= en |isbn= 9781493922796|page= 131|quote= Estonia is considered Protestant when classified by its historically predominant major religion (Norris and Inglehart 2011) and thus some authors (e.g., Davie 2003) claim Estonia belongs to Western (Lutheran) Europe, while others (e.g., Norris and Inglehart 2011) see Estonia as a Protestant ex-Communist society.}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web|title=Is Estonia really the least religious country in the world? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/sep/16/estonia-least-religious-country-world
|last= Ringvee
|first= Ringo
|date= 16 September 2011
|work= The Guardian
|access-date= 14 October 2014
|quote= For this situation there are several reasons, starting from the distant past (the close connection of the churches with the Swedish or German ruling classes) up to the Soviet-period atheist policy when the chain of religious traditions was broken in most families. In Estonia, religion has never played an important role on the political or ideological battlefield. The institutional religious life was dominated by foreigners until the early 20th century. The tendencies that prevailed in the late 1930s for closer relations between the state and Lutheran church [...] ended with the Soviet occupation in 1940.
}}
</ref><ref name=MarshallCavendish2010>{{cite book|title=World and Its Peoples: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland|year=2010|publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]]|isbn=9780761478966|page=1066|first1=Triin |last1=Edovald |first2=Michelle |last2=Felton |first3=John |last3=Haywood |first4=Rimvydas |last4=Juskaitis |author5=Michael Thomas Kerrigan |first6=Simon |last6=Lund-Lack |first7=Nicholas |last7=Middleton |first8=Josef |last8=Miskovsky |first9=Ihar |last9=Piatrowicz |first10=Lisa |last10=Pickering |first11=Dace |last11=Praulins |first12=John |last12=Swift |first13=Vytautas |last13=Uselis |first14=Ilivi |last14=Zajedova |quote=It is usually said that Estonia is a Protestant country; however, the overwhelming majority of Estonians, some 72 percent, are nonreligious. Estonia is the European Union (EU) country with the greatest percentage of people with no religious belief. This is in part, the result of Soviet actions and repression of religion. When the Soviet Union annexed Estonia in 1940, church property was confiscated, many theologians were deported to Siberia, most of the leadership of Evangelical Lutheran Church went into exile, and religious instruction was banned. Many churches were destroyed in the German occupation of Estonia, from 1941 through 1944, and in World War II (1939–1945), and religion was actively persecuted in Estonia under Soviet rule 1944 until 1989, when some measure of tolerance was introduced.}}</ref> followed by [[Calvinism]] and other Protestant branches. Many Estonians profess not to be particularly religious because religion through the 19th century was associated with German feudal rule.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.country-studies.com/estonia/religion.html |title=Estonia – Religion |publisher=Country Studies |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> There has historically been a small but noticeable minority of [[Old Believers|Russian Old-believers]] near the [[Lake Peipus]] area in [[Tartu County|Tartu county]].

Today, Estonia's constitution guarantees freedom of religion, separation of church and state, and individual rights to privacy of belief and religion.<ref>[[Constitution of Estonia#Chapter 2: Fundamental Rights, Liberties, and Duties]] Article 40.–42.</ref> According to the Dentsu Communication Institute Inc, Estonia is one of the [[Irreligion by country|least religious]] countries in the world, with 75.7% of the population claiming to be [[irreligion|irreligious]]. The [[Eurobarometer]] Poll 2005 found that only 16% of Estonians profess a belief in a god, the lowest belief of all countries studied.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf |title=Social Values|access-date=5 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524004644/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf |archive-date=24 May 2006 }}</ref> A 2009 [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] poll found similar results, with only 16% of Estonians describing religion as "important" in their daily lives, making Estonia the most irreligious of the nations surveyed.<ref name=gallup-religiosity-poor-nations>{{cite web|last1=Crabtree|first1=Steve|title=Religiosity Highest in World's Poorest Nations|date=31 August 2010 |url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/142727/religiosity-highest-world-poorest-nations.aspx|publisher=Gallup|access-date=27 May 2015}} (in which numbers have been rounded)</ref>
[[File:Ruhnu puukirik.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Ruhnu]] stave church, built in 1644, is the oldest surviving wooden building in Estonia]]
New polls about religiosity in the [[European Union]] in 2012 by [[Eurobarometer]] found that Christianity is the largest religion in Estonia accounting for 45% of [[Estonians]].<ref name=EUROBAROMETER>{{citation|title=Discrimination in the EU in 2012 |work=[[Eurobarometer|Special Eurobarometer]] |year=2012 |series=383 |page=233 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_393_en.pdf |access-date=14 August 2013 |publisher=[[European Commission]] |location=European Union |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202023700/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_393_en.pdf |archive-date=2 December 2012 }} The question asked was "Do you consider yourself to be...?" With a card showing: Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, Other Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu, Atheist, and Non-believer/Agnostic. Space was given for Other (SPONTANEOUS) and DK. Jewish, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu did not reach the 1% threshold.</ref> [[Eastern Orthodox]] are the largest Christian group in Estonia, accounting for 17% of Estonia citizens,<ref name="EUROBAROMETER"/> while [[Protestant]]s make up 6%, and Other Christian make up 22%. [[Agnostic|Non believer/Agnostic]] account 22%, [[Atheist]] accounts for 15%, and undeclared accounts for 15%.<ref name="EUROBAROMETER"/>

The most recent [[Pew Research Center]], found that in 2015, 51% of the population of Estonia declared itself Christian, 45% [[Irreligion|religiously unaffiliated]]—a category which includes [[atheists]], agnostics and those who describe their religion as "[[Nothing in Particular|nothing in particular]]", while 2% belonged to other faiths.<ref name="Religious Belief in Central and Eastern Europe">{{cite web |url=http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2017/05/10104119/CEUP-FULL-REPORT.pdf |title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe |date=10 May 2017 |access-date=12 May 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513130508/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2017/05/10104119/CEUP-FULL-REPORT.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2017 }}</ref> The Christians divided between 25% Eastern Orthodox, 20% Lutherans, 5% other Christians and 1% Catholic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-belief-and-national-belonging-in-central-and-eastern-europe/ |title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe | Pew Research Center |date=10 May 2017 |publisher=Pewforum.org |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> While the [[Irreligion|religiously unaffiliated]] divided between 9% as atheists, 1% as agnostics and 35% as [[Nothing in Particular]].<ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-affiliation/ Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe: 1. Religious affiliation]; [[Pew Research Center]], 10 May 2017</ref>

Traditionally, the largest religious denomination in the country was [[Lutheranism]], which was adhered to by 160,000 Estonians (or 13% of the population) according to the 2000 census, principally ethnic Estonians. According to the Lutheran World Federation, the historic Lutheran denomination has 180,000 registered members.<ref>{{cite web|title=Churches in Estonia|url=https://www.lutheranworld.org/country/estonia|publisher=lutheranworld.org|access-date=16 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305170631/https://www.lutheranworld.org/country/estonia|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Other organisations, such as the World Council of Churches, report that there are as many as 265,700 Estonian Lutherans.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church|url=http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/estonian-evangelical-lutheran-church|publisher=oikoumene.org|access-date=22 September 2015}}</ref> Additionally, there are between 8,000 and 9,000 members abroad.
However, the 2011 census indicated that [[Eastern Orthodox]]y had surpassed Lutheranism, accounting for 16.5% of the population (176,773 people).

Eastern Orthodoxy is practised chiefly by the Russian minority. The [[Estonian Orthodox Church of Moscow Patriarchate|Estonian Orthodox Church]], affiliated with the Russian Orthodox Church, is the primary Orthodox denomination. The [[Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church]], under the Greek-Orthodox [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], claims another 20,000 members.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}

Catholics are a small minority in Estonia. They are organised under the Latin [[Apostolic Administration of Estonia]] and two Greek Catholic parishes.

According to the census of 2000 (data in table to the right), there were about 1,000 adherents of the [[Taaraism|Taara faith]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maavald.ee/eng/uudised.html?rubriik=50&id=363&op=lugu |title=Maavald |publisher=Maavald.ee |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.estinst.ee/publications/estonianculture/II_MMIII/kaasik.html |title=Old Estonian Religions |first=Ahto |last=Kaasik |publisher=Einst.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811050822/http://www.estinst.ee/publications/estonianculture/II_MMIII/kaasik.html |archive-date=11 August 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/09/world/europe/09iht-estonia.4.18535971.html |title=Some Estonians return to pre-Christian animist traditions |newspaper=The New York Times |first=Ellen |last=Barry |date=9 November 2008 |access-date=2 May 2010}}</ref> or [[Maausk]] in Estonia (see [[Maavalla Koda]]). The Jewish community has an estimated population of about 1,900 (see [[History of the Jews in Estonia]]), and the Muslim community numbers just over 1,400. Around 68,000 people consider themselves [[atheists]].<ref name="pub.stat.ee">{{cite web |url= http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/I_Databas/Population_census/PHC2000/16Religious_affiliation/16Religious_affiliation.asp |title=Statistical database: Population Census 2000 – Religious affiliation |publisher=Statistics Estonia |date=22 October 2002 |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref>

===Languages===
{{main|Languages of Estonia}}

[[File:Finnic languages 2.png|thumb|left|Distribution of [[Finnic languages]] in [[Northern Europe]]]]

The official language, [[Estonian language|Estonian]] is a [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] language, and is conventionally classified as a member of the [[Uralic languages|Uralic language family]]. Estonian is closely related to Finnish and one of the few languages of Europe that is not of [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] origin. Unlike Estonian and Finnish, the languages of their nearest geographical neighbouring countries, [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], and Russian, are all Indo-European languages.

Although the Estonian and [[Germanic language]]s are of different origins, one can identify many similar words in Estonian and German. This is primarily because the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one-third of its vocabulary from [[Germanic languages]], mainly from Low Saxon ([[Middle Low German]]) during the period of [[History of Estonia#Estonian Crusade: The Middle Ages|German rule]], and [[High German]] (including [[standard German]]). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22–25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent.

[[South Estonian]] languages are spoken by 100,000 people and include the dialects of [[Võro language|Võro]] and [[Seto language|Seto]]. The languages are spoken in South-Eastern Estonia, are [[Genetic relationship (linguistics)|genealogically]] distinct from northern Estonian: but are traditionally and officially considered as [[dialect]]s and "regional forms of the Estonian language", not separate language(s).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Laakso|first1=Johanna|last2=Sarhimaa|first2=Anneli|last3=Spiliopoulou Åkermark|first3=Sia|last4=Toivanen|first4=Reeta|title=Towards Openly Multilingual Policies and Practices: Assessing Minority Language Maintenance Across Europe|date=3 March 2016|publisher=Multilingual Matters|location=Bristol; Buffalo|isbn=9781783094950|edition=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xQKkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT76|access-date=23 December 2016}}</ref>

Russian is the most spoken minority language in the country. There are towns in Estonia with large concentrations of Russian speakers and there are towns where Estonian speakers are in the minority (especially in the northeast, e.g. [[Narva]]). Russian is spoken as a secondary language by forty- to seventy-year-old ethnic Estonians, because Russian was the unofficial language of the [[Estonian SSR]] from 1944 to 1990 and was taught as a compulsory second language during the Soviet era. In the period between 1990 and 1995, the Russian language was granted an official special status according to Estonian language laws.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/30669 |title=Eesti NSV Keeleseadus|publisher=Riigi Teataja |date=7 January 1990 |access-date=20 August 2021}}</ref> In 1995 it lost its official status. In 1998, most first- and second-generation industrial immigrants from the former Soviet Union (mainly the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]]) did not speak Estonian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ies.ee/15102000.htm |title=Kirch, Aksel. "Russians in contemporary Estonia – different strategies of the integration in to the nation-state." |publisher=Ies.ee |date=10 February 1998 |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> However, by 2010, 64.1% of non-ethnic Estonians spoke Estonian.<ref>[http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/dialog/varval.asp?ma=ML133&ti=POPULATION+AGED+15%2D74+BY+ETHNIC+NATIONALITY+AND+KNOWLEDGE+OF+LANGUAGES&path=../I_databas/Social_life/09Labour_market/02Education/02Educational_level/&search=LANGUAGE&lang=1 Table ML133, Eesti Statistika]. Retrieved 30 April 2011</ref> The latter, mostly Russian-speaking ethnic minorities, reside predominantly in the capital city of Tallinn and the industrial urban areas in [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru county]].

From the 13th to the 20th century, there were Swedish-speaking communities in Estonia, particularly in the coastal areas and on the islands (e.g., [[Hiiumaa]], [[Vormsi]], [[Ruhnu]]; in Swedish, known as Dagö, Ormsö, Runö, respectively) along the Baltic sea, communities which today have almost disappeared.
From 1918 to 1940, when Estonia was independent, the small Swedish community was well treated. Municipalities with a Swedish majority, mainly found along the coast, used Swedish as the administrative language and Swedish-Estonian culture saw an upswing. However, most Swedish-speaking people fled to Sweden before the end of World War II, before the invasion of Estonia by the Soviet army in 1944. Only a handful of older speakers remain.
Apart from many other areas the influence of Swedish is distinct in the [[Noarootsi Parish]] of [[Lääne county]] where there are many villages with bilingual Estonian or Swedish names and street signs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eki.ee/knn/p2y.htm |title=Names of populated places changed with the reform of 1997 |publisher=Institute of the Estonian Language |date=29 September 1998 |access-date=12 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.noavv.ee/swe |title=Information about the bilingual Estonian/Swedish parish of Noarootsi |publisher=Noavv.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120904104245/http://www.noavv.ee/swe |archive-date=4 September 2012 }}</ref>

The most common foreign languages learned by Estonian students are English, Russian, German, and French. Other popular languages include Finnish, Spanish, and Swedish.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estonian Foreign Languages Strategy 2009 – 2015|url=http://contactpoints.ecml.at/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=8lWNTiRd1A4%3D&tabid=1319&language=en-GB|publisher=Ministry of Education and Research|access-date=22 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191208/http://contactpoints.ecml.at/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=8lWNTiRd1A4%3D&tabid=1319&language=en-GB|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Lotfitka Romani is spoken by the Roma minority in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eestiromad.ee/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Anette-Ross-Estonian-Lotfitka-Romani.pdf|title=ESTONIAN LOTFITKA ROMANI}}</ref>

===Education and science===
[[File:Tartu Ülikooli peahoone 2012.jpg|thumb|alt=gray stucco building three-story building with grey slate hip roof, central portico and pediment|The [[University of Tartu]] is one of the oldest universities in Northern Europe and the highest-ranked university in Estonia. According to the Top Universities website, the University of Tartu ranks 285th in the QS Global World Ranking.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/university-tartu|title=University of Tartu|website=www.topuniversities.com}}</ref>]]
{{Main|Education in Estonia}}
{{See also|List of universities in Estonia|Space science in Estonia|Tiigrihüpe}}

The history of formal education in Estonia dates back to the 13th and 14th centuries when the first [[monastic]] and [[cathedral schools]] were founded.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fl.ut.ee/368372 |title=Ajaloost: Koolihariduse algusest |publisher=University of Tartu |date=24 March 2010 |language=et |access-date=14 October 2013}}</ref> The first primer in the Estonian language was published in 1575. The oldest university is the [[University of Tartu]], established by the Swedish King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustav II Adolf]] in 1632. In 1919, university courses were first taught in the Estonian language.

Today's education in Estonia is divided into general, vocational, and hobby. The education system is based on four levels: pre-school, basic, secondary, and higher education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hm.ee/index.php |title=Haridus- ja Teadusministeerium |publisher=Hm.ee |access-date=23 December 2010}}</ref> A wide network of schools and supporting educational institutions have been established. The Estonian education system consists of state, municipal, public, and private institutions. There are currently 589 schools in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ekk.edu.ee/ehis/failid/koolide_kontaktid.xls |title=Koolide, huvikoolide, koolieelsete lasteasutuste kontaktandmed |access-date=17 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617071702/http://www.ekk.edu.ee/ehis/failid/koolide_kontaktid.xls |archive-date=17 June 2009}}. Estonian Education Infosystem, (in Estonian)</ref>

Estonia started connecting all its schools to the internet very early. [[Tiigrihüpe]] (Estonian for Tiger Leap) was a project undertaken by the state to heavily invest in the development and expansion of computer and network infrastructure in Estonia, with a particular emphasis on education.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3ct1x41|title=BBC World Service – Witness History, Estonia's internet 'Tiger Leap'|website=BBC}}</ref>

In the 2018 [[Programme for International Student Assessment|Program for International Student Assessment (PISA)]] report, Estonia's students rank 1st in Europe. In the world, Estonia's students rank 5th in reading, 8th in mathematics and 4th in sciences.<ref name="LoC">{{Cite web|url=https://www.educationestonia.org/pisa-2018-estonian-students-rank-1st-in-europe/|title=PISA 2018: Estonian students rank 1st in Europe|date=28 May 2020 |website=Education Estonia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/PISA%202018%20Insights%20and%20Interpretations%20FINAL%20PDF.pdf|title=PISA 2018: Insights and Interpretations}}</ref> Additionally, around 89% of Estonian adults aged 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, one of the highest rates in the industrialised world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/estonia/.|title=OECD Better Life Index|access-date=27 March 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Building of Estonian Students' Society.jpg|thumb|left|House of the [[Estonian Students' Society]], built in 1901–1902 in Tartu, and considered the first example of the Estonian [[architectural style|style]] of urban architecture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://register.muinas.ee/|title=National Registry of Cultural Monuments 7010 Eesti Üliõpilaste Seltsi hoone Tartus, J.Tõnissoni 1, 1901.a.|access-date=18 November 2022}}</ref>]]

Academic higher education in Estonia is divided into three levels: bachelor's, master's, and doctoral studies. In some specialties (basic medical studies, veterinary, pharmacy, dentistry, architect-engineer, and a classroom teacher programme) the bachelor's and master's levels are integrated into one unit.<ref name="EurydiceSummary">{{cite web|url=https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Estonia:Higher_Education|title=National summary sheets on education systems in Europe and ongoing reforms: Estonia|date=February 2009|publisher=[[Eurydice]]|access-date=19 September 2009|archive-date=16 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316213225/https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Estonia:Higher_Education|url-status=dead}}</ref> Estonian public universities have significantly more autonomy than applied higher education institutions. In addition to organising the academic life of the university, universities can create new curricula, establish admission terms and conditions, approve the budget, approve the development plan, elect the rector, and make restricted decisions in matters concerning assets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/en/national_reports/index.htm |title=Implementation of Bologna Declaration in Estonia |publisher=Bologna-berlin2003.de |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709041912/http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/en/national_reports/index.htm |archive-date= 9 July 2009 }}</ref> Estonia has a moderate number of public and private universities. The largest public universities are the [[University of Tartu]], [[Tallinn University of Technology]], [[Tallinn University]], [[Estonian University of Life Sciences]], [[Estonian Academy of Arts]]; the largest private university is [[Estonian Business School]].

[[File:ESTCube orbiidil 2.jpg|thumb|alt=ESTCube-1 micro satellite orbiting globe and beaming light to Estonia|[[ESTCube-1]] is the first Estonian satellite.]]
The [[Estonian Academy of Sciences]] is the [[national academy]] of science. The strongest public non-profit research institute that carries out fundamental and applied research is the [[National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics]] (NICPB; Estonian KBFI). The first computer centres were established in the late 1950s in Tartu and Tallinn. Estonian specialists contributed in the development of software engineering standards for ministries of the Soviet Union during the 1980s.<ref name=Kalja>{{cite book|editor-first=Detlef|editor-last=Kochan|title=Software for manufacturing: proceedings of the 7th International IFIP/IFAC Conference on Software for Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Dresden, German Democratic Republic, 14–17 June 1988 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5EiaAAAAIAAJ|year=1989|publisher=North-Holland|isbn=978-0-444-87342-2|author1=A. Kalja |author2=J. Pruuden |author3=B. Tamm |author4=E. Tyugu |chapter=Two Families of Knowledge Based CAD Environments|pages=125–134}}</ref><ref name=Jaakkola>
{{cite journal|author1=H. Jaakkola |author2=A. Kalja |title=Estonian Information Technology Policy in Government, Industry and Research|journal=Technology Management: Strategies and Applications|volume= 3|issue= 3|year= 1997|pages= 299–307}}</ref> {{As of|2015}}, Estonia spends around 1.5% of its GDP on [[Research and Development]], compared to an EU average of around 2.0%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Research and development expenditure (% of GDP)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?end=2015&locations=EE&name_desc=false&start=1998&view=chart|year=2015|publisher=World Bank|access-date=19 January 2019}}</ref> Estonia was ranked 18th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=www.wipo.int |language=en}}</ref>

Some of the best-known scientists related to Estonia include astronomers [[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]], [[Ernst Öpik]] and [[Jaan Einasto]], biologist [[Karl Ernst von Baer]], [[Jakob von Uexküll]], chemists [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] and [[Carl Schmidt (chemist)|Carl Schmidt]], economist [[Ragnar Nurkse]], mathematician [[Edgar Krahn]], medical researchers [[Ludvig Puusepp]] and [[Nikolay Pirogov]], physicist [[Thomas Johann Seebeck]], political scientist [[Rein Taagepera]], psychologist [[Endel Tulving]] and [[Risto Näätänen]], semiotician [[Juri Lotman]].

According to ''New Scientist'', Estonia will be the first nation to provide personal genetic information service sponsored by the state. They aim to minimise and prevent future ailments for those whose genes make them extra prone to conditions like adult-onset diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The government plans to provide lifestyle advice based on the DNA for 100,000 of its 1.3 million citizens.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2165318-estonia-to-give-genetic-testing-and-advice-to-100000-residents/|title=Estonia to give genetic testing and advice to 100,000 residents|work=New Scientist|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Estonia}}
{{See also|List of Estonians}}
[[File:Eesti Rahva Muuseumi peahoone 13.jpg|thumb|The [[Estonian National Museum]] in Tartu.]]
The [[culture of Estonia]] incorporates indigenous heritage, as represented by the Estonian language and the [[sauna]], with mainstream [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] and European cultural aspects. Because of its history and geography, Estonia's culture has been influenced by the traditions of the adjacent area's various Finnic, Baltic, Slavic and Germanic peoples as well as the cultural developments in the former dominant powers Germany, Sweden and Russia, for this reason it aspires more to be [[Nordic identity in Estonia|considered a Nordic state]].<ref>[https://vm.ee/et/node/42622 Estonia as a Nordic Country] – Välisministeerium</ref><ref>[https://icds.ee/en/nordic-ideals-of-estonia-and-finland-a-longing-for-a-strong-leader-sets-finland-and-estonia-apart-from-scandinavia/ Nordic ideals of Estonia and Finland: a longing for a strong leader sets Finland and Estonia apart from Scandinavia] – ICDS</ref>

Today, Estonian society encourages liberty and liberalism, with a popular commitment to the ideals of the limited government, discouraging centralised power and corruption. The [[Protestant work ethic]] remains a significant cultural staple, and free education is a highly prized institution. As the mainstream culture in the Nordic countries, Estonian culture can be seen to build upon the ascetic environmental realities and traditional livelihoods, a heritage of comparatively widespread [[egalitarianism]] out of practical reasons (see: [[Everyman's right]] and [[universal suffrage]]), and the ideals of closeness to nature and [[self-sufficiency]] (see: [[summer cottage]]).

The [[Estonian Academy of Arts]] (Estonian: ''Eesti Kunstiakadeemia'', EKA) is providing higher education in art, design, architecture, media, art history and conservation while the [[University of Tartu Viljandi Culture Academy]] has an approach to popularise native culture through such curricula as native construction, native blacksmithing, native textile design, traditional handicraft and traditional music, but also jazz and church music. In 2010, there were 245 museums in Estonia whose combined collections contain more than 10 million objects.<ref>[http://www.postimees.ee/616164/eesti-245-muuseumis-sailitatakse-10-miljonit-museaali/ Eesti 245 muuseumis säilitatakse 10 miljonit museaali]. ''Postimees'', 30 October 2011. (in Estonian)</ref>

===Music===
{{Main|Music of Estonia}}
{{See also|Estonian national awakening|Estonian Song Festival|Estonia in the Eurovision Song Contest}}
[[File:Tallinna laululava ansambel, 1960.a.*.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Estonian Song Festival]] is [[UNESCO]]'s [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity|Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]].]]

The earliest mention of Estonian singing dates back to [[Saxo Grammaticus]] ''Gesta Danorum'' (ca. 1179).<ref>{{cite book|author1=Sir George Grove|first2=Stanley|last2=Sadie|title=The New Grove dictionary of music and musicians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I4YAAAAIAAJ|date=June 1980|publisher=Macmillan Publishers|isbn=978-0-333-23111-1|page=358}}</ref> Saxo speaks of Estonian warriors who sang at night while waiting for a battle. The older [[Folk music|folk songs]] are also referred to as ''regilaulud'', songs in the traditional ''regivärss'' [[Metre (poetry)|poetic metre]] shared by all [[Baltic Finns]]. Runic singing was widespread among Estonians until the 18th century, when rhythmic folk songs began to replace them.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Jan |last2=Lehiste |first2=Ilse |title=The Temporal Structure of Estonian Runic Songs |date=2002 |publisher=DeGruyter Mouton |location=Berlin |isbn=9783110170320 |page=9 |doi=10.1515/9783110885996 |edition=Reprint 2015 |url=https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110885996 |access-date=9 May 2022}}</ref>

Traditional wind instruments derived from those used by [[shepherd]]s were once widespread, and are now becoming more commonly played once more. Other instruments, including the [[fiddle]], [[zither]], [[concertina]], and [[accordion]] are used to play [[polka]] or other dance music. The [[kannel (instrument)|kannel]] is a native instrument that is again becoming more popular in Estonia. A Native Music Preserving Centre was opened in 2008 in [[Viljandi]].<ref>Margus Haav [http://wwx.postimees.ee/270308/esileht/kultuur/319974.php Pärimusmuusika ait lööb uksed valla (Estonian Native Music Preserving Centre is opened)] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120912151814/http://wwx.postimees.ee/270308/esileht/kultuur/319974.php |date=12 September 2012}}. Postimees. 27 March 2008 (in Estonian)</ref>
[[File:Arvo Pärt.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Arvo Pärt bearded balding man facing left|[[Arvo Pärt]] was the world's most performed living composer from 2010 to 2018.]]

The tradition of [[Estonian Song Festival]]s (''Laulupidu'') started at the height of the [[Estonian national awakening]] in 1869. Today, it is one of the largest amateur [[choral]] events in the world. In 2004, about 100,000 people participated in the Song Festival. Since 1928, [[the Tallinn Song Festival Grounds]] (''Lauluväljak'') have hosted the event every five years in July. The last festival took place in July 2019. In addition, Youth Song Festivals are also held every four or five years, the latest taking place in 2017.<ref>[http://sa.laulupidu.ee/en/ The 12th Estonian youth song and dance celebration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706073054/http://sa.laulupidu.ee/en/ |date=6 July 2017}}. Estonian Song and Dance Celebration Foundation</ref>

Professional Estonian musicians and composers such as [[Aleksander Eduard Thomson]], [[Rudolf Tobias]], [[Miina Härma]], [[Mart Saar]], [[Artur Kapp]], [[Juhan Aavik]], [[Aleksander Kunileid]], [[Artur Lemba]] and [[Heino Eller]] emerged in the late 19th century. Currently, the most well-known Estonian composers are [[Arvo Pärt]], [[Eduard Tubin]], and [[Veljo Tormis]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Popular awareness in Estonian music |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Music/Popular_awareness_in_Estonian_music/ |website=Estonica.org |access-date=15 October 2022}}</ref> In 2014, Arvo Pärt was the world's most performed living composer for the fourth year in a row.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bachtrack.com/top-ten-statistics-classical-music-2014 |title=2014 Classical music statistics: Lis(z)tmania |publisher=Bachtrack.com |date=8 January 2015 |access-date=31 March 2016}}</ref>

In the 1950s, Estonian [[baritone]] [[Georg Ots]] rose to worldwide prominence as an opera singer.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mus-col.com/en/the-authors/22453/ |title=Ots, Georg |website=Museum Collection |date=2021 |access-date=17 November 2021}}</ref>

In popular music, Estonian artist [[Kerli Kõiv]] has become popular in Europe, also gaining in popularity in North America. She provided music for the 2010 [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] film ''[[Alice in Wonderland (2010 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'' and the television series ''[[Smallville]]'' in the United States of America.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

Estonia won the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] in 2001 with the song "[[Everybody (Eurovision song)|Everybody]]" performed by [[Tanel Padar]] and [[Dave Benton]]. In 2002, Estonia hosted the event. [[Maarja-Liis Ilus]] competed for Estonia in 1996 and 1997, while [[Eda-Ines Etti]], [[Koit Toome]] and [[Evelin Samuel]] partly owe their popularity to the song contest. [[Lenna Kuurmaa]] gained recognition in Europe performing with her band [[Vanilla Ninja]]. "[[Rändajad]]" by [[Urban Symphony]] was the first song in Estonian to chart in the UK, Belgium and Switzerland.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

===Literature===
{{Main|Literature of Estonia}}
{{See also|Estophile}}
[[File:Jaan Kross in 2004.jpg|thumb|[[Jaan Kross]] is the most translated Estonian writer.]]
[[Estonian literature]] refers to literature written in the [[Estonian language]] (ca. 1 million speakers).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/193608/Estonian-literature|title=Estonian literature|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=27 March 2015}}</ref> The domination of Estonia after the [[Northern Crusades]], from the 13th century to 1918 by Germany, Sweden, and Russia, resulted in few early literary works being written in the Estonian language. The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century. ''Originates Livoniae'' in the [[Chronicle of Henry of Livonia]] contains Estonian place names, words and sentence fragments. The ''[[Liber Census Daniae]]'' (1241) contains Estonian place and family names.<ref name="DWE">{{cite book|first=George|last=Kurman|title=The development of written Estonian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmxkAAAAMAAJ|year=1968|publisher=Indiana University|isbn=9780877500360 }}</ref> Many folk tales are told to this day and some have been written down and translated to make them accessible to an international readership.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tiidu the Piper|date=2014|publisher=Collegium Basilea|location=Basel|isbn=9781500941437}}</ref> ''[[ABD ehk Luggemise-Ramat Lastele]]'', an Estonian-language [[alphabet book]] by [[Otto Wilhelm Masing]], was published in 1795.<ref>[https://elk.ee/en/childrens-literature/ajalugu/ History] – [[Estonian Children's Literature Centre]]</ref><ref>[https://www.vabaeestisona.com/spotted-mother-tongue/ Spotted Mother Tongue] – ''[[Vaba Eesti Sõna]]''</ref>

The cultural stratum of Estonian was originally characterised by a largely lyrical form of folk poetry based on syllabic quantity. Apart from a few, albeit remarkable, exceptions, this archaic form has not been widely employed in later times. One of the most outstanding achievements in the field is the national epic ''[[Kalevipoeg]]''. At a professional level, the traditional folk song reached its new heyday during the last quarter of the 20th century, primarily thanks to the work of composer [[Veljo Tormis]].

[[Oskar Luts]] was the most prominent prose writer of early Estonian literature and is still widely read today, particularly his lyrical school novel ''Kevade'' (Spring).<ref>[http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Literature/Seeking_the_contours_of_a_%E2%80%98truly%E2%80%99_Estonian_literature/ Seeking the contours of a 'truly' Estonian literature] Estonica.org</ref> [[A. H. Tammsaare]]'s social epic and psychological realist [[pentalogy]], ''[[Truth and Justice]]'', captured the evolution of Estonian society from a poor farmer community to an independent nation.<ref>[http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Literature/Literature_and_an_independent_Estonia/ Literature and an independent Estonia ] Estonica.org</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/tammsaar.htm |title=Anton Tammsaare |website=Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi) |first=Petri |last=Liukkonen |publisher=[[Kuusankoski]] Public Library |location=Finland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071005054341/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/tammsaar.htm |archive-date= 5 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In modern times, [[Jaan Kross]] and [[Jaan Kaplinski]] are Estonia's best-known and most-translated writers.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?as_q=&btnG=Google+Search&&as_auth=Jaan+Kross Jaan Kross] at google.books</ref> Among the most popular writers of the late 20th and early 21st centuries are [[Tõnu Õnnepalu]] and [[Andrus Kivirähk]], who uses elements of Estonian folklore and mythology, deforming them into the absurd and [[grotesque]].<ref>[http://www.estlit.ee/?id=11665&author=10876&tpl=1063&c_tpl=1071 Andrus Kivirähk. The Old Barny (novel)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504012509/http://www.estlit.ee/?id=11665&author=10876&tpl=1063&c_tpl=1071 |date=4 May 2011}} Estonian Literature Centre</ref>

===Media===
{{See also|List of Estonian films|List of Estonian war films}}

The [[cinema of Estonia]] started in 1908 with the production of a newsreel about Swedish King [[Gustav V of Sweden|Gustav V]]'s visit to Tallinn.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.estinst.ee/publications/kultuur/cinema.html |title=Cinema of Estonia |publisher=Einst.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807061344/http://www.estinst.ee/publications/kultuur/cinema.html |archive-date=7 August 2011 }}</ref> The first public TV broadcast in Estonia was in July 1955. Regular, live radio broadcasts began in December 1926. Deregulation in the field of electronic media has brought radical changes compared to the beginning of the 1990s. The first licences for private TV broadcasters were issued in 1992. The first private radio station went on the air in 1990.

The most internationally known Estonian films include ''[[Those Old Love Letters]]'', ''[[The Heart of the Bear]]'', ''[[Names in Marble (film)|Names in Marble]]'', ''[[The Singing Revolution]]'', ''[[Autumn Ball]]'', ''[[1944 (film)|1944]]'', and ''[[The Fencer]]''. Internationally known Estonian film actors include [[Lembit Ulfsak]], [[Jaan Tätte]], and [[Elmo Nüganen]], who also known as a film director. 

Estonian media sector has a large number of weekly newspapers and magazines, and Estonians have a choice of 9 domestic TV channels and a host of radio stations. Estonia has been internationally recognised for its high rate of press freedom, having been ranked 3rd in the 2012 [[Press Freedom Index]] by [[Reporters Without Borders]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2011-2012,1043.html |title=Press Freedom Index 2011–2012 – Reporters Without Borders |access-date=27 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230901/http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2011-2012%2C1043.html |archive-date= 3 March 2016 }}</ref>

Estonia has two news agencies. The [[Baltic News Service]] (BNS), founded in 1990, is a private regional news agency covering Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The ETV24 is an agency owned by ''[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]]'' which is a publicly funded radio and television organisation created on 30 June 2007 to take over the functions of the formerly separate [[Eesti Raadio]] and [[Eesti Televisioon]] under the terms of the Estonian National Broadcasting Act.<ref>{{cite book|title=Europe on a Shoestring|last=Johnstone|first=Sarah|year=2007|publisher=Lonely Planet|page=325|isbn=978-1-74104-591-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_xvS1r8Ql0AC&pg=PA325}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Campaigning in Europe|last=Maier|first=Michaela|year=2006|publisher=LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-9322-4|page=398|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j9NjsybIcgoC&pg=PA398}}</ref>

===Architecture===
{{Main|Architecture of Estonia}}
[[File:Musée de plein air (Tallinn) (7644656256).jpg|thumb|right|A traditional farmhouse built in the [[Estonian vernacular architecture|Estonian vernacular style]]]]
The architectural history of Estonia mainly reflects its contemporary development in northern Europe. Worth mentioning is especially the architectural ensemble that makes out the medieval old town of Tallinn, which is on the UNESCO World Heritage List.<ref>{{cite web |title=Historic Centre (Old Town) of Tallinn |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/822/ |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref> In addition, the country has several unique, more or less preserved [[hill fort]]s dating from pre-Christian times,<ref>{{cite web |title=Pada hill forts |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/pada-hill-forts |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Varbola hill fort |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/varbola-hill-fort |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref> a large number of still intact medieval castles and churches,<ref>{{cite web |title=10 Historic Estonian Castles |url=https://www.heritagedaily.com/2017/11/10-estonian-castles/115487 |website=HeritageDaily.com |access-date=12 September 2022 |date=25 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Castles & manors |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/history-culture/castles-manors |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Churches |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/history-culture/churches |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> while the countryside is still shaped by the presence of a vast number of wooden manor houses from earlier centuries.

===Holidays===
{{main|Public holidays in Estonia}}
The Estonian [[National Day]] is the [[Independence Day (Estonia)|Independence Day]] celebrated on 24 February, the day the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] was issued. {{As of|2013}}, there are 12 public holidays (which come with a day off) and 12 national holidays celebrated annually.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pühade ja tähtpäevade seadus|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/13276841|publisher=Riigi Teataja|access-date=19 December 2010|language=et|quote=In effect since 26 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Estonian Holidays in 2010 |url=http://www.vm.ee/en/node/5753 |publisher=Estonian Foreign Ministry |access-date=19 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106162819/http://www.vm.ee/en/node/5753 |archive-date= 6 January 2011 }}</ref>
{{Holidays of Estonia}}

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Estonian cuisine}}
{{See also|Kama (food)|Kalev (confectioner)|Kohuke|Verivorst}}
Historically, the cuisine of Estonia has been dependent on seasons and the simple food from the local farms and the sea. Today, it also includes many "global" foods. The most typical foods in modern Estonia are black bread, pork, potatoes, and dairy products.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eestitoit.ee/pages.php/010201,8 |title=Estonian Food Inforserver |access-date=24 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217022649/http://www.eestitoit.ee/pages.php/010201%2C8 |archive-date=17 December 2007 }} (in Estonian)</ref> Traditionally in summer and spring, Estonians like to eat everything fresh – berries, herbs, vegetables, and everything else that comes straight from the garden. Hunting and fishing have also been very common, although currently hunting and fishing are enjoyed mostly as hobbies. Today, it is also very popular to grill outside in summer.

A cardamom-spiced bread roll with almond paste ''[[Semla|vastlakukkel]]'' is a traditional Estonian [[sweet roll]], especially popular from Christmas to Easter.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rosa |first1=Natalia |title=A first timer's guide to wholesome and delicious Estonian Food |url=https://www.trafalgar.com/real-word/first-timers-guide-estonian-food/ |website=Trafalgar.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |date=27 February 2020}}</ref>

Traditionally in winter, jams, preserves, and pickles are brought to the table. Gathering and preserving fruits, mushrooms, and vegetables for winter has always been popular, but today gathering and preserving is becoming less common because everything can be bought from stores. However, preparing food for winter is still very popular in the countryside.

===Sports===
{{Main|Sport in Estonia}}
[[File:Tartu_Maraton_2006-3.jpg|thumb|left|alt=large crowd of skiers participating in the marathon |[[Tartu Maraton|Tartu Ski Marathon]] in 2006]]
Estonia first competed as an independent nation at the [[1920 Summer Olympics]]. Estonian athletes took part in the 1952–1988 Olympic Games under the Soviet flag, as the country had been occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940. The [[1980 Summer Olympics]] [[Sailing|Sailing regatta]] was held in the capital city [[Tallinn]]. After regaining independence in 1991, Estonia has participated in all Olympics. Estonia has won most of its medals in [[Track and field|athletics]], [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], [[wrestling]], and [[cross-country skiing (sport)|cross-country skiing]]. Estonia has been one of the most successful nations at the Olympics in terms of medals won per capita.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tambur |first1=Silver |title=Estonia at the Olympics |url=https://estonianworld.com/life/estonia-at-the-olympics/ |website=EstonianWorld.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |date=23 July 2021}}</ref> Estonia's best results were being ranked 13th in the total medals' table at the [[1936 Summer Olympics medal table|1936 Summer Olympics]], and 12th at the [[2006 Winter Olympics medal table|2006 Winter Olympics]].

Estonia has many indoor and outdoor facilities dedicated to various sports branches.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sports and games |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/activities-adventure/sports-games |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Kiiking]], a relatively new sport, was invented in 1993 by Ado Kosk in Estonia. Kiiking involves a modified swing in which the rider of the swing tries to go around 360 degrees.


==See also==
{{Portal|Estonia|Europe}}
* [[Outline of Estonia]]
* [[Index of Estonia-related articles]]
{{Clear}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* [[Giuseppe D'Amato]] ''[http://www.europarussia.com/books/viaggio_nellhansa_baltica/travel-to-the-baltic-hansa Travel to the Baltic Hansa]''. The European Union and its enlargement to the East. Book in Italian. ''Viaggio nell'Hansa baltica''. L'Unione europea e l'allargamento ad Est. Greco&Greco editori, Milano, 2004. {{ISBN|88-7980-355-7}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John|first2=Patrick|last2=Salmon|title=The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century|year=1991|publisher=Longman|location=London|isbn=0-582-08246-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Kangilaski|first=Jaak|display-authors=etal |year=2005 |title=Valge raamat: eesti rahva kaotustest okupatsioonide läbi; 1940-1991 |language=et |publisher=Justiitsministeerium |isbn=9985-70-194-1 |url=http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-05-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503200228/http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Esthonia |volume= 9 |last1= Kropotkin |first1= Peter Alexeivitch |author1-link= Peter Kropotkin|last2= Bealby |first2= John Thomas |last3= Eliot |first3= Charles Norton Edgcumbe |author3-link= Charles Eliot (diplomat) |pages = 797–798 }}
*{{Cite book|last=Laar|first=Mart|author-link=Mart Laar|title=War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944–1956|year=1992|translator=Tiina Ets|publisher=Compass Press|location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-929590-08-2}}
*{{Cite book|last=Lieven|first=Anatol|author-link=Anatol Lieven|title=The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Path to Independence|year=1993|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|isbn=0-300-05552-8}}
*{{cite EB1922 |wstitle=Esthonia |last1= Meyendorff |first1= Alexander Feliksovich |last2= |first2= }}
*{{Cite book|last=Naylor|first=Aliide|title=[[The Shadow in the East: Vladimir Putin and the New Baltic Front]]|year=2020|publisher=I.B. Tauris|location=London|isbn=9781788312523}}
*{{Cite book|last=Raun|first=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians|year=1987|publisher=Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=0-8179-8511-5}}
*{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=David J.|title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=0-415-26728-5}}
*{{Cite book|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=Graham|title=The Baltic States: The National Self-determination of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania|year=1994|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|isbn=0-312-12060-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstates00grah}}
*{{Cite book|editor-last=Subrenat|editor-first=Jean-Jacques |editor-link=Jean-Jacques Subrenat|year=2004 |title=Estonia, identity and independence|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=90-420-0890-3|place=Amsterdam & New York}}
*{{Cite book|last=Taagepera|first=Rein|author-link=Rein Taagepera|title=Estonia: Return to Independence|year=1993|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder, Colo.|isbn=0-8133-1199-3}}
*{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Neil|title=Estonia|year=2004|edition=4th|publisher=Bradt|location=Chalfont St. Peter|isbn=1-84162-095-5}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Nicola|first2=Debra |last2=Herrmann |first3=Cathryn |last3=Kemp |title=Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania|year=2003|edition=3rd|publisher=Lonely Planet|location=London|isbn=1-74059-132-1}}

{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Estonia|s=Estonia OR Esthonia|cookbook=Cuisine of Estonia}}

===Government===
* [http://www.president.ee/en/index.html The President of Estonia]
* [http://www.riigikogu.ee/?lang=en The Parliament of Estonia]
* [http://www.valitsus.ee/en/ Estonian Government]
* [http://www.vm.ee/?q=en Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.stat.ee/?lang=en Statistical Office of Estonia]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/EN.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220152012/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/EN.html |date=20 February 2019 }}

===Travel===
* [http://www.estonia.eu/ Official gateway to Estonia]
* [http://www.eesti.ee/eng/ E-Estonia Portal]
* [http://www.visitestonia.com/ VisitEstonia Portal]
*{{Wikivoyage-inline}}

===Maps===
* [http://maps.google.co.uk/maps?q=estonia+map&ll=58.608334,25.004883&spn=13.048165,32.915039&gl=uk&t=p&z=5 google.com map of Estonia]
*{{osmrelation-inline|79510}}

===General information===
* [http://www.estonica.org/ Encyclopedia Estonica]
* [http://www.estinst.ee/ Estonian Institute]
*[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/ Estonia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17220810 BBC News – Estonia country profile]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081011192732/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/estonia.htm Estonia] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
*{{curlie|Regional/Europe/Estonia|Estonia}}
*{{Wikiatlas|Estonia}}
{{Estonia topics}}
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Russians in Estonia

2023-04-15T18:40:00Z

3 Löwi: typo

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{short description|Ethnic Russians living in Estonia}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = '''Russians in Estonia'''
| pop = 315,000 (est.) 
(23.6% of total population)
| popplace = [[Harju County]], [[Ida-Viru County]]
| languages = [[Russian Language|Russian]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
| religions = [[Russian Orthodox Church]]
| related_groups =
| image =
}}
[[File:Share of Estonians.png|thumb|300px|Distribution of Estonians and non-Estonians in Estonia according to data from the 2011 Estonian census. Russians and other Russophone people form the bulk of the non-Estonian population.]]
[[File:Tanja, ESC2014 Meet & Greet 06 (crop).jpg|thumb|right|[[Tatjana Mihhailova-Saar]], a Russian-born singer and actress, was raised and now lives in Estonia, and also represented the country in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2014]]. ]]

In [[Estonia]], the population of ethnic [[Russians]] is estimated at 315,000, most of whom live in the capital city [[Tallinn]] and other urban areas of [[Harju County|Harju]] and [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru counties]]. While a small settlement of [[Old Believers|Russian Old Believers]] on the coast of [[Lake Peipus]] has an over 300-year long history, the large majority of the ethnic Russian population in the country originates from the [[immigration]] from [[Russia]] and other parts of the former [[USSR]] during the 1944–1991 [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Soviet occupation]] of [[Estonia]].

== Early contacts ==
The Estonian name for Russians ''vene'', ''venelane'' derives from an old Germanic loan ''veneð'' referring to the [[Wends]], speakers of a [[Slavic language]] who lived on the southern coast of the [[Baltic Sea]].{{r|Campbell2004}}{{r|Bojtar1999}}

The troops of prince [[Yaroslav the Wise]] of [[Kievan Rus']] defeated Estonian ''[[Chud]]s'' in ca. 1030 and established a fort of ''Yuryev'' (in modern-day [[Tartu]]),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tvauri|first1=Andres|title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia|date=2012|pages=33, 59, 60|url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG|access-date=27 December 2016}}</ref> which may have survived there until ca. 1061, when the fort's defenders were defeated and driven out by the tribe of ''Sosols''.{{r|Miljan}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mäesalu|first1=Ain|title=Could Kedipiv in East-Slavonic Chronicles be Keava hill fort?|journal=Estonian Journal of Archaeology|date=2012|volume=1|issue=16supplser|page=199|doi=10.3176/arch.2012.supv1.11|url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/Archaeology/2012/sup_vol_1/arhe-keava-2012-195-200.pdf|access-date=27 December 2016}}</ref>


Due to close trade links with the [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] and [[Pskov Republic|Pskov]] republics, small communities of Orthodox merchants and craftsmen from these neighboring states sometimes remained in the Estonian towns of medieval ''[[Terra Mariana]]'' for extended periods of time. Between 1558 and 1582, [[Ivan IV of Russia]] ([[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]]) captured large parts of mainland Estonia, but eventually his troops were driven out by [[Swedish Empire|Swedish]] and [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Lithuanian-Polish]] armies.

== 17th century to independent Estonia ==
[[File:Saare küla Piirissaar.JPG|thumb|A Russian Old Believer village with a church on [[Piirissaar]]]]
The beginning of continuous Russian settlement in what is now Estonia dates back to the late 17th century when several thousand [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] [[Old Believers]], escaping religious persecution in Russia, settled in areas then a part of the [[Swedish empire]] near the western coast of [[Lake Peipus]].{{r|Frucht2005}}

In the 18th century, after the [[Russian Empire|Imperial Russian]] conquest of the northern Baltic region, including Estonia, from Sweden in the [[Great Northern War]] (1700–1721),{{r|Smith2005}} a second period of immigration from Russia followed. Although under the new rule, power in the region remained primarily in the hands of the local [[Baltic German]] nobility, but a limited number of administrative jobs was gradually taken over by Russians, who settled in Reval (Tallinn) and other major towns.

A relatively larger number of ethnic Russian workers settled in Tallinn and Narva during the period of rapid industrial development at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. After [[World War I]], the share of ethnic Russians in the population within the boundaries of newly independent Estonia was 7.3%.{{r|Miksike}} About half of these were indigenous ethnic Russians living in the [[Pechory|Petseri]] [[Petseri County|(Pechory) district]] and east of [[Narva (river)|Narva river]] ("[[Ingria#Estonian Ingria|Estonian Ingria]]"), in the two areas which had been added to Estonian territory according to the 1920 Peace [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]], but were transferred to the [[Russian SFSR]] in 1944.

In the aftermath of [[World War I]] Estonia became an independent state where ethnic Russians established Cultural Self-Governments according to the 1925 Estonian Law on Cultural Autonomy.{{r|Suksi1998}} The state was tolerant of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and became a home to many Russian émigrés after the [[Russian Revolution]] in 1917.{{r|NYT081206}}

== World War II and the Soviet occupation ==
[[File:Baltic states borders.jpg|thumb|Prior to World War II, the majority of ethnic Russian population in Estonia lived in border areas that were annexed by the [[Russian SFSR]] in 1945.]]
After the [[Occupation and annexation of the Baltic states by the Soviet Union (1940)|Occupation and annexation of the Baltic states by the Soviet Union]] in 1940,{{r|Malksoo}}{{r|Chern2004}} repression of both ethnic Estonians and ethnic Russians followed. According to Sergei Isakov, almost all societies, newspapers, organizations of ethnic Russians in Estonia were closed in 1940 and their activists persecuted.{{r|Isakov2005-21}} The country remained [[Estonian SSR|annexed]] to the Soviet Union until 1991, except for the period of [[Nazi Germany|Nazi German]] occupation between 1941 and 1944. During the era of Soviet occupation, the Soviet government maintained a program of replacing the indigenous Estonians with immigrants from the Soviet Union. In the course of violent [[population transfer in the Soviet Union|population transfers]], thousands of [[Soviet deportations from Estonia|Estonian citizens were deported]] to the interior parts of Russia (mostly [[Siberia]]), and huge numbers of Russian-speaking Soviet citizens were encouraged to settle in Estonia. In the [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]] and [[Harju County|Harju Counties]], cities such as [[Paldiski]], [[Sillamäe]], and [[Narva]] were ethnically cleansed and the indigenous Estonian population was totally replaced by Russian colonists. As a result of Soviet occupation, the Russian population in Estonia grew from about 23,000 people in 1945 to 475,000 in 1991, and other Russian-speaking population to 551,000, constituting 35% of the total population at its peak.{{r|Chinn1996}}

In 1939 ethnic Russians had comprised 8% of the population; however, following the annexation of about {{convert|2000|km²|0|abbr=on}} of land by the [[Russian SFSR]] in January 1945, including [[Ivangorod]] (then the eastern suburb of Narva) and the Petseri County, Estonia lost most of its inter-war ethnic Russian population. Of the estimated 20,000 Russians remaining in Estonia, the majority belonged to the historical community of [[Old Believers]].{{r|Smith2001}}

Most of the present-day Russians in Estonia are recent migrants and their descendants who settled in during the [[Soviet occupation of Estonia|Soviet occupation]] between 1945 and 1991.  After the Soviet Union occupied and annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in 1940. The [[Stalin|Stalinist]] authorities carried out repressions against many prominent ethnic Russians activists and [[White emigres]] in Estonia.{{r|Isakov2005-394}} Many Russians were arrested and executed by different Soviet war tribunals in 1940–1941.{{r|EICICAH}} After [[Operation Barbarossa|Germany attacked the Soviet Union]] in 1941, the Baltic States quickly fell under German control. Many Russians, especially Communist party members who had arrived in the area with the initial occupation and annexation, retreated; those who fell into the German hands were treated harshly, many were executed.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}

After the war, Narva's inhabitants were for the most part not permitted to return and were replaced by refugees and workers administratively mobilized mostly among Russians, as well as other parts of the Soviet Union.{{r|Batt2002}} By 1989, ethnic Russians made up 30.3% of the population in Estonia.{{r|EstEu}}

During the [[Singing Revolution]], the [[Intermovement]], International Movement of the Workers of the ESSR, organised the local Russian resistance to the independence movement and purported to represent the ethnic Russians and other Russophones in Estonia.{{r|Bunce2005}}

==In Estonia with regained independence (1991–present)==
Today most Russians live in Tallinn and the major northeastern cities of Narva, Kohtla-Järve, [[Jõhvi]], and [[Sillamäe]]. The rural areas are populated almost entirely by ethnic Estonians, except for the coast of [[Lake Peipus]], which has a long history of [[Old Believers]] communities. In 2011, [[University of Tartu]] sociology professor [[Marju Lauristin]] found that 21% were successfully integrated, 28% showed partial integration, and 51% were unintegrated or little integrated.{{r|WAJ1407}}

There are efforts by the Estonian government to improve its tie with the Russian community with former Prime Minister [[Jüri Ratas]] learning Russian to better communicate with them.<ref name="Reuters">{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-baltics-russia/wary-of-divided-loyalties-a-baltic-state-reaches-out-to-its-russians-idUSKBN1630W2|title=Wary of divided loyalties, a Baltic state reaches out to its Russians|newspaper=Reuters|date=24 February 2017|last1=Mardiste|first1=Alistair Scrutton}}</ref> Former President [[Kersti Kaljulaid]] is also considered to be a defender of the interests of the Russian-speaking minority, having previously moved to [[Narva]] in order to "better understand the people and their problems".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://warsawinstitute.org/controversial-visit-president-estonia-meets-putin-kremlin/|title = A Controversial Visit: President of Estonia Meets with Putin at the Kremlin|date = 23 April 2019}}</ref> The younger generation is better integrated with the rest of the country such as joining the military via conscription and improving their Estonian language skills.<ref name="Reuters"/>

===Citizenship===
The restored republic recognised citizenship only for the pre-occupation citizens or descendants from such (including the long-term Russian settlers from earlier influxes, such as Lake Peipus coast and the 10,000 residents of the Petseri County){{r|BT080521}}, rather than to grant Estonian nationality to all Estonian-resident Soviet citizens. The Citizenship Act provides the following requirements for naturalisation of those people who had arrived in the country after 1940,{{r|Luwdik1996}} the majority of whom were ethnic Russians: knowledge of the Estonian language, Constitution and a pledge of loyalty to Estonia.{{r|LO-CAE}} The government offers free preparation courses for the examination on the Constitution and the Citizenship Act, and reimburses up to 380 euros for language studies.{{r|20083010EE}}

Under the law, residents without citizenship may not elect the [[Riigikogu]] (the national parliament) nor the [[European Parliament]], but are eligible to vote in the municipal elections.{{r|FIWR}} As of 2 July 2010, 84.1% of Estonian residents are Estonian citizens, 8.6% are citizens of other countries (mainly [[Russia]]) and 7.3% are "persons with undetermined citizenship".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/society/citizenship.html|title=Citizenship|publisher=Estonia.eu|date=13 July 2010|access-date=18 August 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827195243/http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/society/citizenship.html|archive-date=27 August 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Between 1992 and 2007 about 147,000 people acquired Estonian or Russian citizenship, or left the country, bringing the proportion of stateless residents from 32% down to about 8 percent.{{r|FIWR}} According to [[Amnesty International]]'s 2015 report, approximately 6.8% of Estonia's population are not citizens of the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/document/?indexNumber=pol10%2f0001%2f2015&language=en|title=Amnesty International Report 2014/15: The State of the World's Human Rights|date=25 February 2015|website=amnesty.org|language=en|access-date=2019-09-30}}</ref>

In late 2014 an amendment to the law was proposed that would give Estonian citizenship to children of non-citizen parents who have resided in Estonia for at least five years.{{r|Uudised141112}}

===Language requirements===
The perceived difficulty of the language tests became a point of international contention, as the government of the [[Russian Federation]] and a number of human rights organizations{{specify|date=September 2018}} objected on the grounds that they made it hard for many Russians who had not learned the language to gain the citizenship in the short term.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} As a result, the tests were altered somewhat, due to which the number of [[statelessness|stateless]] persons steadily decreased. According to Estonian officials, in 1992, 32% of residents lacked any form of citizenship. In May 2009, the Population register reported that 7.6% of residents have [[undefined citizenship]] and 8.4% have foreign citizenship, mostly Russian.{{r|VM-citiz}} As the Russian Federation was recognized as the [[successor state]] to the Soviet Union, all former USSR citizens qualified for natural-born citizenship of Russia, available upon mere request, as provided by the law "On the RSFSR Citizenship" in force up to the end of 2000.{{r|EAH-Gradir}}

===Politics===
Historically, the [[Estonian Centre Party]] has been the most popular party among Russian-speaking citizens. In 2012, it was supported by up to 75% of ethnic non-Estonians.<ref>[http://www.postimees.ee/982022/keskerakond-on-mitte-eestlaste-seas-jatkuvalt-populaarseim-partei/ Keskerakond on mitte-eestlaste seas jätkuvalt populaarseim partei], Postimees, 23 September 2012</ref>

In 2021, pundits noticed that since 2019 [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia]] support grew in the Russian community (notably in [[Ida-Viru County]]) This might be attributed to party's [[social conservative]] stance on social policy matters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.err.ee/1608087400/party-ratings-change-in-coalition-followed-by-reform-ekre-rise-in-support|title = Party ratings: Change in coalition followed by Reform, EKRE rise in support|date = 27 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.err.ee/1608089029/err-news-broadcast-greening-of-ida-viru-county-costing-center-support|title = ERR News broadcast: Greening of Ida-Viru County costing Center support|date = 28 January 2021}}</ref>

===By county===

{|class="wikitable"
!County
!Russians
!Percent
|-
|[[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]]
|97,227
|73%
|-
|[[Harju County|Harju]]
|178,165
|28%
|-
|[[Tartu County|Tartu]]
|16,491
|10.4%
|-
|[[Valga County|Valga]]
|3,516
|12.7%
|-
|[[Lääne-Viru County|Lääne-Viru]]
|5,385
|9.1%
|-
|[[Pärnu County|Pärnu]]
|5,751
|6.7%
|-
|[[Lääne County|Lääne]]
|1,611
|7.9%
|-
|[[Jõgeva County|Jõgeva]]
|1,906
|6.8%
|-
|[[Rapla County|Rapla]]
|1,095
|3.2%
|-
|[[Põlva County|Põlva]]
|795
|3.3%
|-
|[[Võru County|Võru]]
|1,218
|3.5%
|-
|[[Viljandi County|Viljandi]]
|1,110
|2.4%
|-
|[[Järva County|Järva]]
|706
|2.3%
|-
|[[Saare County|Saare]]
|211
|0.6%
|-
|[[Hiiu County|Hiiu]]
|55
|0.6%
|-
|Total
|315,242
|23.6%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://andmed.stat.ee/en/stat/rahvastik__rahvastikunaitajad-ja-koosseis__rahvaarv-ja-rahvastiku-koosseis/RV0222U|title=Population by sex, ethnic nationality and County, 1 January|date=1 January 2021|work=stat.ee|publisher=[[Statistics Estonia]]|access-date=28 March 2014}}</ref>
|}

==Notable Russians from Estonia==
*[[Wilhelm Küchelbecker]] (1797–1846), Russian patriotic poet and [[Decembrist]] (1825) revolutionary; raised in Estonia.
*[[Leonid Kulik]] (1883–1942), Russian [[mineralogist]], led the (1927) first Soviet expedition to investigate the [[Tunguska event]]; born in Tartu.
*[[Igor Severyanin]] (Igor Lotaryov, 1887–1941), poet; lived, married, and died in Estonia.
*[[Nikolai Vekšin]] (1887–1951), [[Sailing (sport)|sailor]], [[helmsman]] of the bronze medal winning Estonian [[Sailing at the 1928 Summer Olympics – 6 Metre|6 Metre boat]] at [[1928 Summer Olympics|1928 Amsterdam Olympic Games]].
*[[Boris Nartsissov]] (1906–1982), Russian émigré poet; raised and educated in Estonia.
*[[Nikolai Stepulov]] (1913–1968), won silver medal in boxing, lightweight class at [[1936 Summer Olympics|1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin]].
*[[Alexy II of Moscow]] (Aleksei Rüdiger, 1929–2008), former [[Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus'|Patriarch]] of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]; born and raised in Estonia.
*[[Svetlana Tširkova-Lozovaja]] (b. 1945), former [[fencing|fencer]], representing USSR, won Olympic gold in [[Foil (fencing)|team foil]] twice (1968, 1972); lives in Estonia since early age.
*[[Mikhail Veller]] (b. 1948), Russian writer; works in Tallinn.
*[[Marina Kaljurand]] (née Rajevskaja, b. 1962), Estonian politician, [[Member of the European Parliament]], former foreign minister.
*[[Anna Levandi]] (née Kondrashova, b. 1965), former [[figure skater]], representing USSR, won silver at [[1984 World Figure Skating Championships|1984 World Championships]]; lives in Tallinn.
*[[Valery Karpin]] (b. 1969), Russian football manager and former player, since 2021 manager of the Russia national team; born in [[Narva]].
*[[Anton Vaino]] (b. 1972), chief of staff of the executive office of the [[President of Russia]]; born in Tallinn.
*[[Kristina Kallas]] (b. 1976), Estonian politician, leader of the ''[[Estonia 200]]'' political party since its foundation in 2018.
*[[Tatjana Mihhailova-Saar]] (b. 1983), represented Estonia in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2014]]; lives in Estonia since early age.
*[[Jevgeni Ossinovski]] (b. 1986), Estonian politician and former leader of the [[Estonian Social Democratic Party]].
*[[Leo Komarov]] (Leonid Komarov, b. 1987), [[ice hockey]] player, [[Finland men's national ice hockey team|representing]] [[Finland]], [[2011 IIHF World Championship|2011 World Champion]] and [[Ice hockey at the 2022 Winter Olympics – Men's tournament|2022 Winter Olympics]] gold medallist; born in Narva.
*[[Valentina Golubenko]] (b. 1990), [[chess]] [[Grandmaster (chess)|Grandmaster]], representing [[Croatia]], [[World Youth Chess Championship|world champion]] in girls' U18 category in 2008; lives in Estonia since early age.
*[[Elina Nechayeva]] (b. 1991), [[soprano]], represented Estonia in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2018]].

==See also==
* [[Demographics of Estonia]]
* [[Estonia–Russia relations]]
* [[Ethnic Russians in post-Soviet states]]
* [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union]]
* [[Russification]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=Luwdik1996>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qw8o0_c0m74C&pg=PA87 |title= Constitution-making in the region of former Soviet dominance |first=Rett R. |last=Ludwikowski |year=1996 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-1802-6 |page=87 }}</ref>

<ref name=BT080521>{{cite news |url=http://www.baltictimes.com/news/articles/20492/ |title=Estonian passport holders at risk |newspaper=The Baltic Times |date= 21 May 2008 |access-date=27 December 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name=FIWR>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-tI2NuQLLuYC&pg=PA248 |title= Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties |first1=Arch |last1=Puddington |first2=Aili |last2= Piano |first3=Camille |last3= Eiss |first4=Tyler |last4= Roylance |work=Freedom House |year=2007 |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-5897-7 |page=248 |chapter=Estonia }}</ref>

<ref name=Uudised141112>{{cite web |url=http://uudised.err.ee/v/eesti/357d9e24-8fcd-4978-9e15-4ce7fe13df17 |title=Riigikogu asub arutama kodakondsuse andmise lihtsustamist |language=et |date=12 November 2014 }}</ref>

<ref name=20083010EE>{{cite web |url= http://www.valitsus.ee/brf/index.php?id=294696&tpl=1007 |title= Government to develop activities to decrease the number of non-citizens |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090901000221/http://www.valitsus.ee/brf/index.php?id=294696&tpl=1007 |archive-date= 1 September 2009 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>

<ref name=EstEu>{{cite web |url= http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/country/population-by-nationality.html |title= Population by Nationality |publisher= Estonia.eu }}</ref>

<ref name=LO-CAE>{{cite web |url= http://www.legislationline.org/legislation.php?tid=11&lid=2296&less=false |title= Citizenship Act of Estonia |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070927182603/http://www.legislationline.org/legislation.php?tid=11&lid=2296&less=false |archive-date= 27 September 2007 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>



<ref name=VM-citiz>{{cite web |url= http://www.vm.ee/estonia/kat_399/4518.html/ |title= Estonia: Citizenship |publisher= vm.ee |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070711100255/http://www.vm.ee/estonia/kat_399/4518.html |archive-date= 11 July 2007 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>

<ref name=EAH-Gradir>{{cite web |url= http://www.eurasianhome.org/doc/Abstract_final.pdf |title= The Policy of Immigration and Naturalization in Russia: Present State and Prospects |first= Sergei |last= Gradirovsky |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080227031737/http://www.eurasianhome.org/doc/Abstract_final.pdf |archive-date= 27 February 2008 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>

<ref name=Suksi1998>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8dVBBSWPTOwC&pg=PA253 |title=Autonomy |first=Markku |last=Suksi |year=198 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn= 9041105638|page=253 }}</ref>

<ref name=Malksoo>{{cite book |title=Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: The Case of the Incorporation of the Baltic States by the USSR |first= Lauri |last= Mälksoo |year=2003 |location= Leiden – Boston |publisher= Brill |isbn= 90-411-2177-3}}</ref>

<ref name=Chern2004>{{cite web |url= http://www.ln.mid.ru/ns-pobeda.nsf/b33502cdd8144475c3256eda0037e5fc/a9693d8763f70b92c3256f00001e65f2?OpenDocument |title= Об "оккупации" Прибалтики и нарушении прав русскоязычного населения |language= ru |publisher= Международная жизнь» |first= S. V. |last= Chernichenko |date= August 2004 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090827031023/http://www.ln.mid.ru/ns-pobeda.nsf/b33502cdd8144475c3256eda0037e5fc/a9693d8763f70b92c3256f00001e65f2?OpenDocument |archive-date= 27 August 2009 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>

<ref name=Isakov2005-21>{{cite book |title= Очерки истории русской культуры в Эстонии, Изд. : Aleksandra |language= ru |first= S. G. |last= Isakov |location= Tallinn |year= 2005 |page= 21 }}</ref>

<ref name=Isakov2005-394>{{cite book |title= Очерки истории русской культуры в Эстонии |language= ru |first= S. G. |last= Isakov |location= Tallinn |year= 2005 |pages= 394–395 }}</ref>

<ref name=EICICAH>{{cite web |url= http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/pdf/appendixes/312-318.pdf |title= Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070609224843/http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/pdf/appendixes/312-318.pdf |archive-date= 9 June 2007 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>

<ref name=Chinn1996>{{cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/russiansasnewmin00chin |url-access= registration |title=Russians as the new minority |first1=Jeff |last1=Chinn |first2=Robert John |last2= Kaiser |year=1996 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=0-8133-2248-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/russiansasnewmin00chin/page/97 97] }}</ref>

<ref name=Smith2001>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lx-UmTnLJv0C&pg=PA38 |title=Estonia: independence and European integration |first=David |last=Smith |year=2001 |publisher= Routledge |isbn= 978-0-415-26728-1 |page=38 }}</ref>

<ref name=Bunce2005>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FFGNRfzndl8C |title=Sustainable peace: power and democracy after civil wars |first1=Valerie |last1= Bunce |first2= Steven |last2= Watts |editor=Philip G. Roeder, Donald Rothchild |publisher=[[Cornell University]] Press |chapter=Managing Diversity and Sustaining Democracy: Ethnofederal versus Unitary States in the Postcommunist World |year=2005 |page=151 |isbn=0801489741 }}</ref>

<ref name=Batt2002>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nXDgOeVXkt0C&pg=PA91 |title=Region, state, and identity in Central and Eastern Europe |first1=Judy |last1=Batt |first2= Kataryna |last2= Wolczuk |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7146-5243-6 |page=91 }}</ref>

<ref name=Campbell2004>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EjXrrOJhex8C&pg=PA418 |title=Historical Linguistics |first=Lyle |last=Campbell |year=2004 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=0-262-53267-0 |page=418 }}</ref>

<ref name=Bojtar1999>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5aoId7nA4bsC&pg=PA88 |title=Foreword to the Past |first=Endre |last=Bojtár |year=1999 |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=9789639116429 |page=88 }}</ref>

<ref name=NYT081206>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/06/world/europe/06aleksy.html |title=Patriarch Aleksy II |first=Sophia |last=Kishkovsky |work=The New York Times |date= 6 December 2008 |access-date=14 December 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name=Miljan>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=XKWRct15XfkC&q=tartu+yaroslav+1061&pg=PA420 |title= Historical Dictionary of Estonia |first= Toivo |last= Miljan |isbn= 9780810865716 |date= 2004-01-13 }}</ref>





<ref name=Frucht2005>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&pg=PA65 |title=Eastern Europe |first=Richard |last=Frucht |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=1-57607-800-0 |page=65 }}</ref>

<ref name=Smith2005>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSNML8BlGkUC&pg=PA234 |title=The Baltic States and Their Region |first= David James |last=Smith |year=2005 |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=978-90-420-1666-8 }}</ref>

<ref name=Miksike>{{cite web |url= http://www.miksike.ee/docs/lisakogud/tolerants/vahemused/vahemused_tekst.htm |title= EESTI - ERINEVATE RAHVUSTE ESINDAJATE KODU |language= et |publisher= miksike.ee }}</ref>

<ref name=WAJ1407>{{cite web |url= http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/russians-estonia-twenty-years-after |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140707173916/http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/russians-estonia-twenty-years-after |url-status= usurped |archive-date= 7 July 2014 |title=The Russians of Estonia: Twenty Years After |first= Katja |last= Koort |work= [[World Affairs]] |date= July 2014 }}</ref>

}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web |url= http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CERD/Shared%20Documents/EST/INT_CERD_NGO_EST_17812_E.pdf |title= Alternative Report for the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination of United Nations }}
* {{cite web |url= http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jmmd/021/0058/jmmd0210058.pdf |title= The Russian Diaspora in Latvia and Estonia: Predicting Language Outcomes }}
* {{cite web |url= https://www.amnesty.org/en/region/europe-and-central-asia/baltic-states/estonia |title= Report on Estonia |publisher= [[Amnesty International]] |year= 2007 }}
* {{cite web |url= https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur51/002/2006/en/ |title= Linguistic minorities in Estonia: Discrimination must end |publisher= [[Amnesty International]] |date= 7 December 2006 |df= dmy-all }}
* {{cite news |url= http://edwardlucas.blogspot.com/2006/12/estonia-and-amnesty.html |title= An excess of conscience – Estonia is right and Amnesty is wrong |newspaper= [[The Economist]] |first= Edward |last= Lucas |author-link= Edward Lucas (journalist) |date= 14 December 2006 }}
* {{Cite journal|jstor= 424806 |title= Ethnic conflict and accommodation in post-communist Estonia |first= Raivo |last= Vetik |year= 1993 |journal= [[Journal of Peace Research]] |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages= 271–280 |doi= 10.1177/0022343393030003003 |s2cid= 111359099 }}
* {{Cite journal|jstor= 153989 |title= The Legal Status of Russians in Estonian Privatisation Legislation 1989–1995 |first= Erik André |last=Andersen |year= 1997 |journal= Europe-Asia Studies |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages= 303–316 |doi= 10.1080/09668139708412441 }}
* {{Cite journal|jstor= 153031 |title= Ethnicity and Independence: The Case of Estonia in Comparative Perspective |first= Andrus |last= Park |journal= Europe-Asia Studies |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages= 69–87 |year= 1994 |doi= 10.1080/09668139408412150 }}
* {{cite book |first1= Peeter |last1= Vares |first2= Olga |last2= Zhurayi |year= 1998 |title= Estonia and Russia, Estonians and Russians: A Dialogue. 2nd ed. |location= Tallinn |publisher= Olof Palme International Center }}
* {{cite book |first1= Marju |last1= Lauristin |first2= Mati |last2= Heidmets |title= The Challenge of the Russian Minority: Emerging Multicultural Democracy in Estonia |location= Tartu |publisher= Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus |year= 2002 }}

{{Estonia topics|state=autocollapse}}
{{Russian diaspora}}
{{Ethnic groups in Estonia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Russians In Estonia}}
[[Category:Russians in Estonia| ]]
[[Category:Estonia–Russia relations]]
[[Category:Russian diaspora by country|Estonia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Estonia]]
[[Category:Social history of Estonia]]

Paul Lill

2023-04-15T08:23:25Z

3 Löwi: minor touches

{{Short description|Estonian military personnel and politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox military person
|birth_name=Paul-Adolf Lill
|birth_date={{Birth date|1882|01|25|df=y}}
|death_date={{Death date and age|1942|03|13|1882|01|25|df=y}}
|birth_place=[[Roobe]], [[Governorate of Livonia]], Russian Empire
|death_place= [[Sverdlovsk Oblast]], [[Russian SFSR]], Soviet Union
|image=File:Paul Lill 2.jpg
|caption=Lill {{c.|1930s}}
|nickname=
|allegiance= {{ubl|[[Russian Empire]]|[[Estonia]]}}
|serviceyears= {{ubl|Russia: 1900–1917|Estonia: 1918–1939}}
|rank= [[Lieutenant general]]
|commands=
|branch={{ubl|[[Imperial Russian Army]]|[[Estonian Army]]}}
|unit=
|battles={{ubl|[[Russo-Japanese War]]|[[World War I]]|[[Estonian War of Independence]]}}
|awards={{See below|{{slink||Honors}}}}
|laterwork=
}}
'''Paul-Adolf Lill''' (25 January 1882 – 13 March 1942) was an [[Estonia|Estonian]] military officer and [[Minister of Defence (Estonia)|Minister of War]]. He served in the [[Imperial Russian Army]], participating in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] and [[World War I]]. Lill joined the [[Estonian Land Forces|Estonian Army]] during the 1918–1920 [[Estonian War of Independence]], and held important staff positions. After the war he continued military service, holding posts of [[Headquarters of the Estonian Defence Forces|Chief of Staff of the Estonian Defence Forces]], Undersecretary of the Minister of War, and from 1933 to 1939 Minister of War,{{efn|The post was named Minister of War until 1929, Minister of Defence from 1929 to 1937, and from 1937 again Minister of War}} reaching the rank of [[lieutenant general]]. With the onset of [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Soviet occupation]], he was arrested by [[NKVD]] in 1941, and died in imprisonment the following year.

== Biography ==
Paul Lill was born on 25 January 1882 to a family of a miller in Veski farm in [[Roobe]] Parish (now part of [[Tõrva Parish]]), Estonia, then part of the [[Governorate of Livonia]] of the [[Russian Empire]]. He studied 1891–1892 in [[Jõgeveste]] and 1892–1894 in Helme parish schools, and 1894–1899 in [[Valga, Estonia|Valga]] town school.<ref name="Pihlak271">[[#Pihlak|Pihlak 2007]], p. 271</ref>

In 1900, Lill voluntarily joined the [[Imperial Russian Army]], and studied from 1901 to 1904 in [[Vilnius Military School]] where he met [[Johan Laidoner]], the future [[Commander of the Estonian Defence Forces|Commander‑in‑Chief of the Estonian Armed Forces]].<ref name="Pihlak271"/><ref name="Rosenthal">[[#Rosenthal|Rosenthal 2011]], p. 310</ref> In 1905 Lill participated in [[Russo-Japanese War]] as a [[Podporuchik|junior officer]] in the 6th Rifle Regiment. In 1907 he was promoted to the rank of [[lieutenant]].<ref name="Pihlak272">[[#Pihlak|Pihlak 2007]], p. 272</ref> From 1908 to 1911 Lill studied in [[General Staff Academy (Imperial Russia)|Imperial Nicholas Military Academy]] in [[Saint Petersburg]]. After graduation he was promoted to [[staff captain]] and served in the staff of [[Odesa Military District]].<ref name="Pihlak271"/> Having reached rank of [[captain]] in 1914, Lill participated in the [[First World War]] as a commander of 11th company of 95th Infantry Regiment, and was awarded the [[Order of Saint Anna]] and [[Order of Saint Stanislaus (House of Romanov)|Order of Saint Stanislaus]]. In October 1914 he was [[Second Russian invasion of East Prussia (1914)|captured in East-Prussia]] by the [[Imperial German Army]], and was held as a prisoner of war until his release in December 1918.<ref name="Pihlak272"/><ref name="Erilaid">{{Cite web|last=Erilaid|first=Tõnis|url=https://ajalugu.ohtuleht.ee/1031009/pasteldes-ja-mulgi-vammusega-sonni-mats-oli-talupoja-tougu-mees-kellest-sai-moisaharra|title=Pasteldes ja Mulgi vammusega: Sõnni Mats oli talupoja tõugu mees, kellest sai mõisahärra|publisher=[[Õhtuleht]]|date=9 April 2021|lang=Estonian|access-date=9 March 2023|archive-date=11 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311192936/https://ajalugu.ohtuleht.ee/1031009/pasteldes-ja-mulgi-vammusega-sonni-mats-oli-talupoja-tougu-mees-kellest-sai-moisaharra|url-status=live}}</ref>

After release, Lill joined the [[Estonian Land Forces|Estonian Army]] engaged in the [[Estonian War of Independence]], and became Chief of Operations Section of [[Headquarters of the Estonian Defence Forces|Operations Staff]] on 18 December 1918. In February 1919 he became temporary, and in May a permanent, Chief of Administrative Agency. In April Lill was promoted to rank of [[lieutenant-colonel]], and in October to rank of [[colonel]], becoming also a member of the War Council and commander of the Reserve Forces. For his service during the War of Independence, Paul Lill was awarded Estonia's [[Cross of Liberty (Estonia)|Cross of Liberty]] and [[Latvia]]'s [[Order of Lāčplēsis]], as well as a farm and 300,000 [[Estonian mark|marks]].<ref name="Pihlak272"/>

After the war Lill continued military service, becoming initially acting, and from October 1920 permanent Chief of Staff of the Defence Forces. In December 1921 he was promoted to rank of [[major general]] and became a member of the War Council. In January 1925 Lill became Undersecretary of the Minister of War, position which he held for the next 9 years.<ref name="Pihlak272"/> In 1933 he became Minister of Defence (from 1937 titled again Minister of War). In January 1938 Lill became member of the National Defense Council, and in February was promoted to rank of [[lieutenant general]], becoming the third Estonian officer to reach the rank. During his service as a Minister of War, Lill also had to repeatedly temporarily fulfill duties of [[Ministry of the Interior (Estonia)|Minister of Interior]] and Minister of Roads.<ref name="Pihlak273">[[#Pihlak|Pihlak 2007]], p. 273</ref> On 12 October 1939 Paul Lill resigned as Minister of War, citing unacceptable conditions of the [[Soviet–Estonian Mutual Assistance Treaty|Bases Treaty]] with [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="Erilaid"/><ref name="Tigane">{{Cite web|last=Tigane|first=Ivi|url=https://valgamaa.kaitseliit.ee/et/kindralleitnant-paul-adolf-lill-141|title=Kindralleitnant Paul-Adolf Lill 141|publisher=[[Estonian Defence League]]|date=26 January 2023|lang=Estonian|access-date=9 March 2023|archive-date=11 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311192937/https://valgamaa.kaitseliit.ee/et/kindralleitnant-paul-adolf-lill-141|url-status=live}}</ref>

Lill was the chairman of [[SK Tallinna Sport]] club, and member of [[Korporatsioon Sakala]], State Decorations Council, War of Independence Memorial Council, Cross of Liberty Brothers Society, and [[Mulgimaa|Mulgi]] Society.<ref name="Pihlak271"/><ref name="Pihlak273"/>

In October 1940 [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Soviet occupation authorities]] revoked Lill's retirement pension, and in December evicted him from his apartment at so-called "generals house" at [[Kesklinn, Tallinn|Gonsiori street]]. Afterwards he completed an accountancy course and tried to find a job. On 14 June 1941 he was arrested by [[NKVD]] and [[June deportation|deported to Russia]] together with his sister Olga. Paul Lill died in a prison camp in [[Sverdlovsk Oblast]] on 13 May 1942, his place of burial is unknown.<ref name="Pihlak273"/><ref name="Tigane"/>

==Honors==
For his service in the Estonian War of Independence, Lill received [[Cross of Liberty (Estonia)|Cross of Liberty]] 1st grade 2nd class and the Latvian [[Order of Lāčplēsis]] 2nd class. Service in the World War I was rewarded with Russian [[Order of Saint Anna]] 3rd class and the [[Order of Saint Stanislaus (House of Romanov)|Order of Saint Stanislaus]] 3rd class. In peacetime he received [[Order of the Cross of the Eagle]] 1st class and [[Order of the Estonian Red Cross]] 2nd class.<ref name="Pihlak272"/> Lill's foreign awards included Grand Cross of [[Order of the White Rose of Finland]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://valgamaa.kaitseliit.ee/et/roobel-malestati-kindralleitnant-lille-sunniaastapaeva|title=Roobel mälestati kindralleitnant Lille sünniaastapäeva|publisher=[[Estonian Defence League]]|date=26 January 2015|lang=Estonian|access-date=9 March 2023|archive-date=11 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311192936/https://valgamaa.kaitseliit.ee/et/roobel-malestati-kindralleitnant-lille-sunniaastapaeva|url-status=live}}</ref> [[French Third Republic|French]] Officer of [[Legion of Honour]],<ref name="Lõhmus170">[[#Lõhmus|Lõhmus 2015]], p. 170</ref> [[Second Polish Republic|Polish]] [[Cross of Valour (Poland)|Cross of Valour]],<ref name="Lõhmus175">[[#Lõhmus|Lõhmus 2015]], p. 175</ref> and [[First Czechoslovak Republic|Czechoslovak]] and [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|Hungarian]] orders. In 1991 a memorial plaque was unveiled on the wall of his birth home.<ref name="Pihlak273"/>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Lõhmus|first1=Leho|title=I maailmasõja teenetemärgid eesti mehe rinnas|journal=Estonian Yearbook of Military History|year=2015|volume=5|publisher=[[Tallinn University|Tallinn University Press]]|url=http://publications.tlu.ee/index.php/eymh/article/view/498/381|issn=2228-0669|language=Estonian|accessdate=8 March 2023|ref=Lõhmus|archive-date=29 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629092737/http://publications.tlu.ee/index.php/eymh/article/view/498/381|url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Pihlak|first1=Jaak|title=Helme kihelkond ja Vabaduse Risti vennad|journal=Viljandi Muuseumi Aastaraamat|year=2007|volume=11|issue=1|publisher=Museum of Viljandi|url=http://muuseum.viljandimaa.ee/aastaraamat/2007/pihlak.pdf|issn=1406-7498|language=Estonian|accessdate=8 March 2023|ref=Pihlak|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080340/http://muuseum.viljandimaa.ee/aastaraamat/2007/pihlak.pdf|url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Rosenthal|first1=Reigo|title=Johan Laidoneri teenistusest Vene armees aastail 1901–1918|journal=Estonian Yearbook of Military History|year=2011|volume=1|publisher=[[Tallinn University|Tallinn University Press]]|url=http://publications.tlu.ee/index.php/eymh/article/view/454/338|issn=2228-0669|language=Estonian|accessdate=8 March 2023|ref=Rosenthal|archive-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318033730/http://publications.tlu.ee/index.php/eymh/article/view/454/338|url-status=live}}
{{Refend}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box | before=[[August Kerem]] | title=[[Minister of Defence (Estonia)|Minister of War]] | years=1933 - 1939| after=[[Nikolai Reek]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lill, Paul}}
[[Category:1882 births]]
[[Category:1942 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Tõrva Parish]]
[[Category:People from Kreis Fellin]]
[[Category:Defence Ministers of Estonia]]
[[Category:Estonian lieutenant generals]]
[[Category:Imperial Russian Army officers]]
[[Category:Russian military personnel of the Russo-Japanese War]]
[[Category:Russian military personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:Estonian military personnel of the Estonian War of Independence]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Cross of Liberty (Estonia)]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Military Order of the Cross of the Eagle, Class I]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 3rd class]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of Saint Stanislaus (Russian), 3rd class]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of Lāčplēsis, 2nd class]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Cross of Valour (Poland)]]
[[Category:Officiers of the Légion d'honneur]]
[[Category:Estonian people who died in prison custody]]
[[Category:Estonian people who died in Soviet detention]]

Talk:Kaja Kallas

2023-04-14T22:26:59Z

3 Löwi: Estonia for short, Soviet-occupied Estonia for long

{{Talk header}}
{{ITN talk|27 January|2021|oldid=1003130211}}
{{WikiProject banner shell|blp=yes|activepol=yes|living=yes|1=
{{WikiProject Biography |class=B |living=yes |activepol=yes |politician-work-group=yes |listas=Kallas, Kaja}}
{{WikiProject Estonia |class=B |importance=High}}
{{WikiProject European Union|class=B|importance=Low}}
{{WikiProject Law |class=B |importance=Low}}
{{WikiProject Politics |class=B |importance=Low}}
{{WikiProject Russia |class=B |importance=Low}}
{{WikiProject Women's History |class=B |importance=Low}}
{{WikiProject Women |class=B}}
}}

==Place of birth==

There seem to be several unregistered users on a crusade to change her place of birth to "Estonian SSR", which would go against the general style on Wikipedia for people born in Estonia during that period as Estonia was illegally occupied and the Soviet rule her was legally null and void. Should we perhaps limit editing this page only for registered users? [[User:H2ppyme|H2ppyme]] ([[User talk:H2ppyme|talk]]) 08:53, 30 January 2021 (UTC)
:I filed a request for page protection which led to the [[User talk:124.49.87.174|124.49.87.174]] IP being blocked for 72 hours. If the vandalism begins again I will file another request. [[User:Jjj1238|{ [ ( jjj]] [[User talk:Jjj1238|1238 ) ] }]] 14:04, 30 January 2021 (UTC)
:There actually have been some RfCs on this topic and consensus is that like the rest of the wiki the place should be listed as it was at the time of their birth which is the Estonian SSR. There are some such as H2ppyme that unfortunately keep changing all the Baltic BLPs to Estonia etc despite the result of the Rfcs. -[[User:Djsasso|DJSasso]] ([[User talk:Djsasso|talk]]) 12:36, 3 February 2021 (UTC)
::I am sorry, but it is a hard fact of international law that the Soviet rule in Estonia was legally null and void, which is why all people born in Estonia during the Soviet occupation should just have "Estonia" in their infobox. Do not push your pro-Kremlin POV on Wikipedia! [[Special:Contributions/213.184.49.21|213.184.49.21]] ([[User talk:213.184.49.21|talk]]) 09:08, 8 February 2021 (UTC)
:::That doesn't change the fact of what it was called at the time. -[[User:Djsasso|DJSasso]] ([[User talk:Djsasso|talk]]) 11:55, 9 February 2021 (UTC)
::{{ping|Djsasso}} there's only ''one'' way to stop any editors from ''re-writing'' history. Boards, like AN, ANI etc. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] ([[User talk:GoodDay|talk]]) 00:29, 9 February 2021 (UTC)
::Out of curiosity, I went to [[Riigikogu]] and several sub-articles listed there, and clicked on every person I could find, and it turned out that out of all Estonians with infoboxes who were born after 1939, every single one listed Estonia as their place of birth, and not the Estonian SSR. There were zero mentions of Estonian SSR as a place of birth. Even going back through several years of edits, the only thing I found was an edit from last month that changed it to Estonian SSR on only one article that was quickly reverted. It would appear that it is not current practice on Wikipedia to use Estonian SSR as a place of birth. [[User:NorthernFalcon|NorthernFalcon]] ([[User talk:NorthernFalcon|talk]]) 03:32, 9 February 2021 (UTC)
:::Yes, as mentioned there was a group of editors who went through and changed it on most biographies a few years back which kicked off some RfCs which sided on using the Estonian SSR. But any time anyone has tried to implement the results of the RfC the same group of editors generally revert the changes despite the result of the RfC, usually with comments like the IP editors above. -[[User:Djsasso|DJSasso]] ([[User talk:Djsasso|talk]]) 11:55, 9 February 2021 (UTC)
:Well, she born in the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic, which was part of the USSR, why does the same Putin or Zelensky indicate that they were born in the USSR (in the RSFSR and the USSR, respectively), but this is not here, independent Estonia of which at that time did not even exist, well, in the Soviet period, she was part of the Soviet nomenklatura, his father Siim Kallas, graduated with honors from Tartu State University with a degree in finance and credit, and noted his success in 1972 by joining the ranks of the CPSU.
:His Soviet career was quite successful: director of the republican branch of the Sberbank of the USSR, deputy chief editor of the newspaper Rahva Hyael (an organ of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Estonia and the Council of Ministers of the Estonian SSR), chairman of the Central Union of Trade Unions of Estonia, people's deputy of the USSR. Well, in the USSR there were no separate wagons for livestock, there were common wagons for both livestock and people [[User:Цйфыву|Цйфыву]] ([[User talk:Цйфыву|talk]]) 22:31, 1 January 2023 (UTC)

Just to double check, I've noticed that the prime ministers and presidents pages of other Baltic states ([[Egils Levits]] and [[Gitanas Nausėda]] who are the presidents of Latvia and Lithuania respectively) use the term "Soviet-occupied Latvia" and "Soviet-occupied Lithuania", could and should this be done with figures from Estonia? [[User:SpyroeBM|SpyroeBM]] ([[User talk:SpyroeBM|talk]]) 00:46, 4 October 2022 (UTC)

== home page photo ==
This photo is being used on the home page today - but it's not in the article
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RE_Kaja_Kallas.jpg
[[User:Tondelleo Schwarzkopf|Tondelleo Schwarzkopf]] ([[User talk:Tondelleo Schwarzkopf|talk]]) 15:31, 30 January 2021 (UTC)
:Looks like the photo was changed on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kaja_Kallas&oldid=1003316899 27th]. »[[User:Nmajdan|NMajdan]]·[[User talk:Nmajdan|talk]] 21:24, 4 February 2021 (UTC)

== Leader of the Communist Party since 2018?? ==

Leader of the Communist Party since 2018?? Is that a troll — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/91.158.32.47|91.158.32.47]] ([[User talk:91.158.32.47#top|talk]]) 21:30, 31 January 2021 (UTC) 

== Is she still a member of the Riigikogu? ==

If you go on the website of the [[Riigikogu]], Kallas is no longer listed as a member of parliament.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/en/parliament-of-estonia/composition/members-riigikogu/|title=Members of Parliament|publisher=[[Riigikogu]]|accessdate=2 February 2021}}</ref> She was certainly listed prior to becoming PM, so does anyone with advanced knowledge of Estonian politics know whether the PM has to leave their seat when being appointed to the office of PM? [[User:Jjj1238|{ [ ( jjj]] [[User talk:Jjj1238|1238 ) ] }]] 14:34, 2 February 2021 (UTC)
:I don't claim to have advanced knowledge, but I read on ERR News that Estonian ministers are required to vacate their seats in the Riigikogu and are replaced by an alternate.[https://news.err.ee/1608084958/nine-mps-to-be-replaced-with-change-of-government] [https://news.err.ee/1608073885/ekre-isamaa-leaving-office-spells-change-of-at-least-five-riigikogu-seats][[User:Tammbeck|'''''Tammbeck''''']] [[User talk:Tammbeck|'''''talk''''']] 15:05, 2 February 2021 (UTC)
::So then since the seat has to be vacated isn't it misleading to still say she is an incumbent member of parliament in her infobox? Since she is just being replaced by an alternate it is not the same thing as resigning entirely I suppose, and she'd return to parliament if she steps down as PM. I'm not sure what the protocol is on this when it comes to incumbency in the legislature. [[User:Jjj1238|{ [ ( jjj]] [[User talk:Jjj1238|1238 ) ] }]] 16:05, 2 February 2021 (UTC)

{{reftalk}}

== Semi-Protected Edit Request ==

{{SPER|answered=yes}}
Can someone remove the last two sentences in the personal life section? The first one is unsourced and the other is sourced to Google Translate which doesn't make sense as Google Translate is just a translation tool. [[Special:Contributions/45.251.33.222|45.251.33.222]] ([[User talk:45.251.33.222|talk]]) 13:06, 5 February 2021 (UTC)
:I went ahead and repaired the second citation as requested. [[User:NorthernFalcon|NorthernFalcon]] ([[User talk:NorthernFalcon|talk]]) 17:12, 5 February 2021 (UTC)

The personal life section says that Taavi Veskimägi was a partner after Kaja Kallas was divorced from her first husband in 2006 after they married in 2002. The Wikipedia page of Taavi Veskimagi states that they were married in 2002 and were divorced in 2014. This is a contradiction of facts. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Rmorrisons|Rmorrisons]] ([[User talk:Rmorrisons#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rmorrisons|contribs]]) 06:21, 7 March 2023 (UTC) 

== Typo ==

In the Personal life section, [[Taavi Veskimägi]]'s name is misspelled. [[Special:Contributions/90.190.68.51|90.190.68.51]] ([[User talk:90.190.68.51|talk]]) 09:50, 6 February 2021 (UTC)
:Thanks, I've fixed it. [[User:Tammbeck|'''''Tammbeck''''']][[User talk:Tammbeck|'''''talk''''']] 09:56, 6 February 2021 (UTC)

== Kaja Kallas ==

Kaja Kallas on inimkasutaja ja poliitiline sekkuja [[Special:Contributions/2001:1530:1017:B299:A113:D78F:2C08:9E02|2001:1530:1017:B299:A113:D78F:2C08:9E02]] ([[User talk:2001:1530:1017:B299:A113:D78F:2C08:9E02|talk]]) 18:45, 24 May 2022 (UTC)

== What is the meaning of Kaja name? ==

Ural altaic laguages Kaja or Kaya or Kai words mean "stone" . [[Special:Contributions/178.246.108.225|178.246.108.225]] ([[User talk:178.246.108.225|talk]]) 19:19, 3 February 2023 (UTC)

==RfC regarding historical Baltic state births==
{{User:ClueBot III/DoNotArchiveUntil|1681254072}}

At least as far as I've noticed, when including a place of birth in an article's infobox, it's the general practice on Wikipedia to use historical place names. Sometimes the modern-day country is included, as with [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] or [[Mila Kunis]]. With [[Kaja Kallas]] being featured on the main page, it came to my attention that many articles for people born in what's now [[Estonia]] (and possibly other states) do not adhere to this practice. It appears that, due to Estonia having been on the receiving end of [[Russian imperialism]] for the last few hundred years and the idea of [[state continuity of the Baltic states]], opinions on whether to list Estonia or [[Estonian SSR]] as someone's place of birth often reflect the politics of the editors involved.

Personally, I think the de facto recognition of the Soviet administration by most paired with other factors like the [[monopoly on the legal use of force]] make linking to the SSR articles the sensible thing to do. Additionally, I believe the articles on the Baltic SSRs do a sufficiently good job of addressing questions about their legitimacy. In any case, I think it would be helpful to solicit comments and see if we can maybe get some kind of consensus here. [[User:Rockhead126|Rockhead126]] ([[User talk:Rockhead126|talk]]) 23:00, 7 March 2023 (UTC)

*My understanding is that the Baltic countries have a rather unique view on the Soviet era; they view their country as illegally occupied from 1940-1991, and you can even see evidence of that in the [[Estonia]] article. In light of that, they would not list themselves as born in the Estonian SSR; they would list themselves as born in Soviet-occupied Estonia, much in the same way that I believe Wikipedia would list Ukrainians born in Mariupol in the past six months to have been born in Ukraine, not Russia. I also believe in deferring to how a country or people refer to themselves, rather than forcing them to conform to our standards. Therefore, I would leave it as it is. However, I would also suggest that this is not the appropriate talk page for this discussion; it should be at [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Estonia]]. [[User:NorthernFalcon|NorthernFalcon]] ([[User talk:NorthernFalcon|talk]]) 23:57, 7 March 2023 (UTC)
:As can be seen in [[Wikipedia talk:Manual of Style/Baltic states-related articles]], the consensus on this has been established as there being no consensus to list Baltic births as being Soviet-born, so the Baltic states form an exception where births in Baltic Soviet republics have historically not been recorded as such on Wikipedia. [[User:Jjj1238|{ [ ( jjj]] [[User talk:Jjj1238|1238 ) ] }]] 00:14, 8 March 2023 (UTC)
::Manual of Style is always in a "draft" state - RFC's have more weight along the lines of Guidelines and those overwhelmingly wanted to reflect what history books show - the SSR's existed, and that is a fact - national pride has no place here, only scholarship. Otherwise, Wiki will continue to be seen as a conglomeration of rednecks by professional historians in these areas. [[User:HammerFilmFan|HammerFilmFan]] ([[User talk:HammerFilmFan|talk]]) 18:28, 8 March 2023 (UTC)
*For the German occupation, we have [[Jean-Claude Killy]] as born in "France" and [[Bernard Tapie]] as born in "occupied France." Can we say Estonia (as SSR)? [[User:Senorangel|Senorangel]] ([[User talk:Senorangel|talk]]) 00:21, 8 March 2023 (UTC)

:'''Estonia''' - per NorthernFalcon [[User:BogLogs|BogLogs]] ([[User talk:BogLogs|talk]]) 10:19, 8 March 2023 (UTC)
:'''Estonia'''. The docs for [[:template:infobox person]] say {{tq|the name of the birthplace at the time of birth}}. Well, Estonia’s had the name ''Estonia'' since before it was occupied by the USSR, and ''Estonia'' is also the most common and most recognizable synonym for the Estonian SSR. Those docs are often interpreted to mean “use the Russian name,” with various bogus rationales given, favouring Russian and Soviet colonial bias, for no actual valid reason. Time to start using common sense and following both the letter and spirit of the guidelines (and cf. the [[WP:CRITERIA]]). Time to stop [[WP:RGW]] by clinging to something from some Cold-War-era Russian history book and start respecting Wikipedia’s guidelines and readers.
:Estonia was and is Estonia. So why is it so frickin’ hard to just call it that?  —''[[user:Mzajac|Michael]] [[user_talk:Mzajac|Z]].'' 23:26, 8 March 2023 (UTC)
:'''Estonia SSR''', I don't see a source or even conjecture that the Soviet occupation is seen as illegal, and I think it's consensus around the world that they were valid and accepted parts of the USSR.--[[User:Ortizesp|Ortizesp]] ([[User talk:Ortizesp|talk]]) 20:33, 10 March 2023 (UTC)
::{{tqq|I don't see a source or even conjecture that the Soviet occupation is seen as illegal}} Wow. [[User:Levivich|Levivich]] ([[User talk:Levivich|talk]]) 20:35, 10 March 2023 (UTC)
::[[State continuity of the Baltic states|There is an entire Wikipedia article about this]] [[User:Jjj1238|{ [ ( jjj]] [[User talk:Jjj1238|1238 ) ] }]] 17:32, 11 March 2023 (UTC)
:'''Estonia'''. Listing an Estonian as being born in the Estonia SSR is like listing a Palestinian as being born in Israel or listing an Israeli as being born in Palestine. [[User:Levivich|Levivich]] ([[User talk:Levivich|talk]]) 20:37, 10 March 2023 (UTC)
::If a Palestinian were born in occupied territory, I would expect WP to record that. If a Jewish person were born in the pre-1948 Palestinian mandate territory, the same, regardless of whether either recognised the regime under which they were born. Ditto someone born in [[East Germany]], or anywhere in former European empires. Recording the political reality under which someone was born ''(and grew up?)'' is not imposing any national identity on them, it's simply recording historical facts. Facts which may or may not impact on who they later become. [[User:Pincrete|Pincrete]] ([[User talk:Pincrete|talk]]) 07:42, 11 March 2023 (UTC)
:'''Estonian SSR'''. We list [[George Washington]] as having been born in the [[Virginia Colony]], [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]] as having been born in the [[Grand Duchy of Finland]], [[Mahatma Gandhi]] as having been born in the [[Porbandar State]], and [[Konstantin Päts]] as having been born in the [[Livonia Governorate]]. I don't see why Kallas' page would be any different with regard to the ''de facto'' ruling entity at the time of her birth. [[User:CJ-Moki|CJ-Moki]] ([[User talk:CJ-Moki|talk]]) 06:39, 11 March 2023 (UTC)
::Each of those people you listed were born before their countries existed. Washington born 1732 before US independence in 1776; Mannerheim 1867, Finland 1917; Gandhi 1869, India 1947; Pats 1874, Estonia 1918. But Kallas was born in 1977, after Estonian independence in 1918. [[User:Levivich|Levivich]] ([[User talk:Levivich|talk]]) 06:52, 11 March 2023 (UTC)
::You are misinterpreting the situation. Estonia was founded in 1918, you are citing examples of people born before their nations were founded. The Estonian SSR is the Soviet occupation of the independent Republic of Estonia, not the same situation. A comparison would be the "[[Donetsk]], [[Donetsk People's Republic]], [[Russia]]" rather than "[[Donetsk]], [[Ukraine]]," not saying George Washington was born in a British colony. [[User:Jjj1238|{ [ ( jjj]] [[User talk:Jjj1238|1238 ) ] }]] 17:28, 11 March 2023 (UTC)
:::If the occupation of Donetsk continues, and someone is born and grows up there, I would expect their article to record that they were born in whatever common name "occupied Donetsk" acquires, which would not be plain Russia, nor plain Ukraine. I don't see how it helps to ignore the political reality of the 'occupation'. Article text can 'flesh out' these issues. [[User:Pincrete|Pincrete]] ([[User talk:Pincrete|talk]]) 10:04, 12 March 2023 (UTC)
:'''Estonian SSR'''. I was going to cite many of the same people as CJ-Moki. The political regime in which someone was born is part of their basic biog information, even if they and their compatriots saw their own identity as being a more 'national' ''(or otherwise different)'' one. Even if the Soviet occupation were illegal, or never recognised by the locals, ''(Estonians)'', it is nonetheless the political regime in which, and under whose laws, the person was born. If the period of occupation were brief, there might be a case for making an exception, but that isn't so here. We aren't in any way recognising legitimacy by recording political/historical facts. I could add that the poet [[Seamus Heaney]], was born in [[Northern Ireland]], a political unit which neither he, nor many of his community, has ever recognised as ever having been legitimate. [[User:Pincrete|Pincrete]] ([[User talk:Pincrete|talk]]) 07:16, 11 March 2023 (UTC)
:'''USSR''' with the interlink to the [[Soviet Union|Soviet Union]], this is my option A. I have not found any WP guidelines for states in infoboxes, but judging by what appears in the “featured articles” category, in case of biographies they almost always indicate the city and the state as it was at the time. Then, option B is “USSR” with the interlink to “[[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonian SSR]]”; I like it less, because after all Estonian SSR does not equal the USSR, though on the other hand, it is more informative. My option C is “Estonia” with the interlink to Estonian SSR. It is somewhat confusing, as "Estonia" does not equal "Estonian SSR", yet one might say that it points to a specific phase in the history of Estonia, the phase relevant for the period when Mrs Kallas was born. As option D I would refrain from other info than “Tallinn”. It is a somewhat evasive option, so that we do not have to tackle the issue up front, and this is why I see it as the fourth preferred one. As option E I would go for “Estonia” with no interlink, also an evasive option but worse, since we introduce a term but we do not explain it, and it might get confused with the Republic of Estonia. Then my option F would be “Estonian SSR” with the interlink to "Estonian SSR". Though factually correct, it refers to the administrative unit within the USSR. I do not think we need administrative details in infoboxes, and quoting “Estonian SSR” might deliver a false impression that it was sort of a state. The least preferred option G is to go for “Estonia” with the interlink to “[[Estonia]]” (“...formally the Republic of Estonia”); this would be a blatant error, as Kaja Kallas was certainly not born in Republic of Estonia. --[[User:Hh1718|Hh1718]] ([[User talk:Hh1718|talk]]) 14:47, 11 March 2023 (UTC)
::Option E is my preferred choice as linking countries violates [[WP:OVERLINK]], so we should refrain from linking it anyways. I also take issue with your rationale in Option G, as the [[State continuity of the Baltic states|majority of the international community did not recognize the Estonian SSR, and instead recognized the continuity of the independent Baltic nations throughout Soviet occupation]]. [[User:Jjj1238|{ [ ( jjj]] [[User talk:Jjj1238|1238 ) ] }]] 17:31, 11 March 2023 (UTC)
:'''Estonia''' – since this is becoming a thing now, adding my comments. As other people have mentioned, the history of the Baltics and the Soviet Union is not the same as for other Soviet republics. They were illegally annexed and taken over, and this annexation was [[State continuity of the Baltic states|not recognized by most of the western world]] – we would not list a 2022 birth in [[Donetsk]] as a birth in Russia, or a 2014 birth in [[Simferopol]] as a birth in Russia, births in the Baltic states between the 1940s and 1990s were births in independent Baltic nations occupied by the Soviet Union. It has been longstanding practice on English Wikipedia to not enforce Soviet birth places on Baltic-born individuals during the Soviet era because of how contentious this is. This is not a matter of "Estonians don't acknowledge the Estonian SSR," it is a matter of what actually happened and what the Soviet Baltic republics were – occupied independent countries. Hyperlinking (ie, Birth Place: [[Tallinn]], [[Estonian SSR|Estonia]]) would be an acceptable middle ground, but listing births as "[[Tallinn]], [[Estonian SSR]], [[USSR]]" is misleading and not how we would be handling modern-day instances of the same thing. [[User:Jjj1238|{ [ ( jjj]] [[User talk:Jjj1238|1238 ) ] }]] 17:21, 11 March 2023 (UTC)
::Much of the {{tq|western world}} did not recognize the Soviet government when it was formed, so can we not say someone was born in Soviet Russia or the USSR during those first few years? [[User:Mellk|Mellk]] ([[User talk:Mellk|talk]]) 18:55, 11 March 2023 (UTC)
*'''Estonia''': it's within editorial discretion to pick one or the other. In this case, the subject was 14 when Estonia regained independence and none of her career took place during the USSR era. --[[User:K.e.coffman|K.e.coffman]] ([[User talk:K.e.coffman|talk]]) 18:15, 11 March 2023 (UTC)
:'''Comment:''' We list [[Helena Majdaniec]] and [[Vitaliy Khmelnytskyi]] as having been born in ''[[Reichskommissariat Ukraine]]''. If we list these people as having been born under a bygone occupation regime, shouldn't we do the same with Kallas? [[User:CJ-Moki|CJ-Moki]] ([[User talk:CJ-Moki|talk]]) 23:16, 11 March 2023 (UTC)
*'''Tallinn''' The questions are whether the annexation of the Republic of Estonia by the USSR was legal; if not, where did Tallinn fall under during that time? I do not see a clear answer to BOTH questions. Some changes from that time, such as border and demographics, are accepted. Other changes are not. In general, we should try to describe controversies. The infobox is not the best place to settle them. [[User:Senorangel|Senorangel]] ([[User talk:Senorangel|talk]]) 00:14, 12 March 2023 (UTC)
*'''Estonia''' Users well explained it beforehand, illegal annexation with limited recognition and person played no role in the SSR. [[User:Pelmeen10|Pelmeen10]] ([[User talk:Pelmeen10|talk]]) 07:55, 13 March 2023 (UTC)
*'''Estonia''' - It is an official stance of Estonia that the country was illegally occupied from 1940-1991, and legal continuity was maintained throughout this period. Majority of western countries shared this view, by never providing de jure recognition of annexation. I am sure all kind of different examples for handling such issues can be found on wikipedia, like the earlier comment mentioning two French persons born in 1943 being treated differently, but as far as Estonian people go, the current approach has been applied pretty consistently since those infoboxes started appearing 15+ years ago, and there isn't really any need or policy requiring to change it. Furthermore, we are dealing with a BLP here, and if you take a passport of an Estonian born 1940-1991 like Kallas, then the place of birth will marked as Estonia, not Estonian SSR or whatnot. Finally, the RfC is also malformed because initiators personal opinion has been added to the original question.--[[User:Staberinde|Staberinde]] ([[User talk:Staberinde|talk]]) 22:23, 13 March 2023 (UTC)
*'''Estonia''' - For all the reasons mentioned previously, i.e. Estonia became a sovereign state in 1918 and continued to exist to this present day, long been the accepted style for over 15 years in Baltic state related BLPs, the subject has no connection with the communist regime, etc. Editors often cite [[:template:infobox person]], quoting {{tq|the name of the birthplace at the time of birth}} but the example given in the docs applies to a city not a country, and they ignore the part that's actually related to country: {{tq|For modern subjects, the country should generally be a sovereign state}}, which Estonia remained under international law according to reliable sources. Additionally, per [[WP:COMMONNAME]], during the period of occupation from 1940 to 1991, majority of English language sources refer to the country as “Estonia”, not “Estonian SSR”, see [https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=Estonia%2CEstonian+SSR&year_start=1920&year_end=2019&corpus=en-2019&smoothing=3]. We don’t say [[Julie Bishop]] was born in the [[Commonwealth of Australia]], we just say Australia without overlinking, so no different when we say [[Kaja Kallas]] was born in Estonia. Regardless of whether it was run by republicans or communists, it was and still is Estonia. --[[User:Nug|Nug]] ([[User talk:Nug|talk]]) 09:32, 14 March 2023 (UTC)
::[[Oscar Wilde]] was born in [[Ireland]], but Ireland had a different meaning then, ''(one of the four countries making up the UK)'' than it does now ''(an independent Republic - or an island with two political elements)''. The COMMONNAME usage graph is an agument for 'piping' [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonia]] - not for ignoring the political reality under which Kallas was born. [[User:Pincrete|Pincrete]] ([[User talk:Pincrete|talk]]) 10:20, 18 March 2023 (UTC)
:::Your argument does not follow. If you look at the article [[Oscar Wilde]], the infobox states that he was born in Ireland, without linking or piping the country. This article [[Kaja Kallas]] does the same per [[:template:infobox person]], which also states {{tq|Countries should generally not be linked}}. Ignoring this is tantamount to [[WP:CHERRYPICK]]ing parts of [[:template:infobox person]] to make some [[WP:POINT]]. --[[User:Nug|Nug]] ([[User talk:Nug|talk]]) 04:23, 19 March 2023 (UTC)
::::Wilde links to the island, rather than the country. What I'm saying that linking to something which had a different meaning at the time of someone's birth is not very informative. Wilde was born on an island which was part of the British state at the time of his birth, but that island is now two 'countries'. If one needs to understand the political realities of the time to simply understand the place of birth, that isn't very informative IMO. It has nothing to do with making a point - most of us as interested in learning the regime into which a person was born as simply the name of the place of birth. The legality of a regime's annexation seems to me to be fairly trivial compared to the de facto control of the place. [[User:Pincrete|Pincrete]] ([[User talk:Pincrete|talk]]) 17:58, 25 March 2023 (UTC)
*'''Estonia''', simple, clear and short. More accurate, second best longer alternative would be '''Soviet-occupied Estonia'''. (''"(Estonian) [[Estonian SSR|SSR]]"'' is an ambivalent and less known abbreviation which stands for a confusing [[Orwellian]] set of three words - each of which has a markedly different meaning in standard English and in common Russian usage.) [[User:3 Löwi|3 Löwi]] ([[User talk:3 Löwi|talk]]) 22:26, 14 April 2023 (UTC)

Kaja Kallas

2023-04-14T21:52:45Z

3 Löwi: smoother wording

{{Short description|Prime Minister of Estonia since 2021}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Kaja Kallas
| image = Kaja Kallas (crop).jpg
| caption = Kallas' official portrait, 2021
| office = 19th [[Prime Minister of Estonia]]
| president = {{Plainlist|
* [[Kersti Kaljulaid]]
* [[Alar Karis]]
}}
| term_start = 26 January 2021
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Jüri Ratas]]
| successor =
| office1 = Leader of the [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]]
| term_start1 = 14 April 2018
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = [[Hanno Pevkur]]
| successor1 =
| office2 = Member of the [[Riigikogu]]
| term_start2 = 3 March 2019
| term_end2 = 26 January 2021
| constituency2 = [[Harju County|Harju]]–[[Rapla County|Rapla]]
| office3 =
| term_start3 = 6 March 2011
| term_end3 = 1 July 2014
| constituency3 = Harju–Rapla
| office4 = [[Member of the European Parliament]] for [[Estonia (European Parliament constituency)|Estonia]]
| term_start4 = 1 July 2014
| term_end4 = 5 September 2018
| successor4 = [[Igor Gräzin]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1977|6|18|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Tallinn]], Estonia
| party = [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]]
| spouse = {{Plainlist|
* {{Marriage|Roomet Leiger|2002|2006|reason=div}}
* {{Marriage|Arvo Hallik|2018}}
}}
| children = 1
| father = [[Siim Kallas]]
| mother = Kristi Kallas
| education = {{Plainlist|
* [[University of Tartu]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])
* [[Estonian Business School]] ([[Master of Business Administration|MBA]])
}}
| website = {{URL|kajakallas.ee}}
}}

'''Kaja Kallas''' ({{IPA-et|ˈkɑjɑ ˈkɑlːɑs|lang}}; born 18 June 1977) is an [[Estonia|Estonian]] politician who has been [[prime minister of Estonia]] since 2021, and is the first woman to serve in the role. The leader of the [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]] since 2018, she was a member of the [[Riigikogu]] in 2019–2021, and 2011–2014. Kallas was a member of the [[European Parliament]] in 2014–2018, representing the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]]. Before her election to Parliament, she was an attorney specialising in European [[competition law]].

== Early life and education ==
Kaja Kallas was born in [[Tallinn]] on 18 June 1977.<ref name="auto"/> She is the daughter of [[Siim Kallas]], who was the 14th [[prime minister of Estonia]] and later a [[European Commissioner]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fortune.com/2019/03/04/estonia-election-results-kaja-kallas/|title=Digital Savvy Estonia Is Set to Get Its First Female Prime Minister|work=Fortune|access-date=7 March 2019|archive-date=8 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308080827/http://fortune.com/2019/03/04/estonia-election-results-kaja-kallas/ |url-status=live|last=Dobush|first=Grace|date=4 March 2019}}</ref> During [[World War II]], after the [[Soviet Union]] had invaded and [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|occupied Estonia]] in 1940, as part of the wave of executions and [[Soviet deportations from Estonia|deportations from Estonia]] that followed, her mother Kristi, six months old at the time, was deported by the [[Stalinist]] regime to [[Siberia]] with her mother and grandmother in a cattle car and lived there until she was ten years old.<ref name="7118974KajaKallas"/> Kallas's great-grandfather was [[Eduard Alver]] (1886–1939), one of the politicians leading the establishment of the independent [[History of Estonia (1920–39)|Republic of Estonia]] in 1918, and also first head of the [[Estonian Police]] in 1918–1919.<ref name="7118974KajaKallas">[https://www.eurointegration.com.ua/articles/2021/01/26/7118974/ Even further from Russia: what is known about the new head of the Estonian government], [[Ukrayinska Pravda|Europeeska Pravda]], 26 January 2021</ref> Apart from Estonian, Kallas patrilineally also has distant [[Latvians|Latvian]] and [[Baltic Germans|Baltic German]] ancestry, as discovered by investigative journalists researching her father's ancestry shortly after his premiership.<ref>[https://online.le.ee/2019/10/20/siim-kallas-eliidi-raputamine-on-oige-eesmark/ Lääne Elu. ''Siim Kallas: eliidi raputamine on õige eesmärk.''] (in Estonian). Retrieved 2 February 2021.</ref><ref>[https://ekspress.delfi.ee/artikkel/69063295/siim-kallas-minu-vanaema-oli-latlane-vaga-huvitav? Eesti Ekspress. ''Siim Kallas: "'Minu vanaema oli lätlane? Väga huvitav!"'.''] (in Estonian). Retrieved 3 February 2021.</ref>

Kallas graduated from the [[University of Tartu]] in 1999 with a bachelor's degree in law. She lived in France and Finland briefly while training in [[European law]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tambur |first1=Silver |title=Estonian candidates for the European Parliament: Kaja Kallas (Reform Party) |url=https://estonianworld.com/opinion/estonian-candidates-european-parliament-kaja-kallas/ |website=Estonian World |access-date=6 April 2021 |date=21 May 2014}}</ref> From 2007, she attended the [[Estonian Business School]], earning an [[Master of Business Administration|Executive Master of Business Administration]] (EMBA) in economics in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/kaja-kallas-b8b52380|title=Kaja Kallas|access-date=4 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.robert-schuman.eu/en/doc/oee/oee-1791-en.pdf|title=Victory for the centre-right opposition (ER) in the general elections in Estonia|last=Deloy|first=Corinne|date=3 March 2019|publisher=The Foundation Robert Schuman |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307020854/https://www.robert-schuman.eu/en/doc/oee/oee-1791-en.pdf|archive-date=7 March 2019|url-status=live|access-date=7 March 2019}}</ref>

== Professional career ==
Kallas became a member of the [[:et:Eesti Advokatuur|Estonian Bar Association]] in 1999, and an attorney-at-law in 2002. She became a partner in law firm [[Luiga Mody Hääl Borenius]] and Tark & Co, and worked as an executive coach in the [[Estonian Business School]]. She is also a member of the [[European Antitrust Alliance]]. In 2011, she was placed on inactive status as a member of the Estonian Bar Association.<ref name=Biography>{{cite web |title=Biography|url=http://kajakallas.ee/in-english/biography/|publisher=Kaja Kallase|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/2016.06.16-123242/http://kajakallas.ee/in-english/biography/|archive-date=16 June 2016}}</ref> In November 2018, Kallas published her memoir ''MEP: 4 aastat Euroopa Parlamendis'' (''MEP: Four Years in the European Parliament''), in which she described her life and work in [[Brussels]] from 2014 to 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/42956792-mep-4-aastat-euroopa-parlamendis|title=MEP. 4 aastat Euroopa Parlamendis|publisher=Goodreads|access-date=8 March 2019 |language=et|archive-date=3 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103094304/https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/42956792-mep-4-aastat-euroopa-parlamendis|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Political career ==
=== Member of the Estonian Parliament (2011–2014) ===
In 2010, Kallas decided to join the [[Estonian Reform Party]]. She ran for the [[Parliament of Estonia]] in 2011 for the [[Harju County]] and [[Rapla County]] constituency, receiving 7,157 votes. She was a member of the 12th Parliament of Estonia and chaired the Economic Affairs Committee from 2011 to 2014.<ref name=Biography/>

=== Member of the European Parliament (2014–2018) ===
In the [[2014 European Parliament election in Estonia]], Kallas received 21,498 votes.<ref name=Biography/> In the [[European Parliament]], Kallas served on the [[Committee on Industry, Research and Energy]] and was a substitute for the [[Committee on the Internal Market and Consumer Protection]]. She was a vice-chair of the Delegation to the EU–Ukraine Parliamentary Cooperation Committee as well as a member of the Delegation to the [[Euronest Parliamentary Assembly]] and Delegation for relations with the United States.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/124697/KAJA_KALLAS/history/8|title=8th parliamentary term, European Parliament|publisher=European Parliament|access-date=4 March 2019|archive-date=6 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044314/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/124697/KAJA_KALLAS/history/8|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition to her committee assignments, Kallas was a [[European Parliament|member of the European Parliament]] (MEP) Intergroup on the Digital Agenda,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.digitalagendaintergroup.eu/members/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108204513/https://digitalagendaintergroup.eu/members/|title=Members – DAI|archive-date=8 January 2016|website=digitalagendaintergroup.eu}}</ref> and was also a vice-chair of the Youth Intergroup.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youthforum.org/latest-news/european-parliaments-renewed-youth-intergroup-meets-for-first-time-in-new-legislature/|title=European Youth Forum |website=youthforum.org|access-date=18 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504200506/http://www.youthforum.org/latest-news/european-parliaments-renewed-youth-intergroup-meets-for-first-time-in-new-legislature/|archive-date=4 May 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

During her period in Parliament, Kallas worked on the [[Digital Single Market]] strategy, energy, and consumer policies, and relations with Ukraine. In particular, she defended the rights of [[small and medium-sized enterprises]], maintaining that borders in the digital world hinder the emergence of innovative companies. She is a proponent of innovation and frequently emphasises that regulations cannot and must not hinder the technological revolution.<ref name="auto" />

Kallas served as [[rapporteur]] for six reports: opinion on the [[ePrivacy Regulation]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-%2f%2fEP%2f%2fNONSGML%2bCOMPARL%2bPE-602.722%2b02%2bDOC%2bPDF%2bV0%2f%2fEN|title=Opinion on the proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning the respect for private life and the protection of personal data in electronic communications and repealing Directive 2002/58/EC (Regulation on Privacy and Electronic Communications)|last=Kallas|first=Kaja|date=4 October 2017 |publisher=Committee on Industry, Research and Energy|others=For the Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs|access-date=6 March 2019|archive-date=23 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181023120021/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-%2f%2fEP%2f%2fNONSGML%2bCOMPARL%2bPE-602.722%2b02%2bDOC%2bPDF%2bV0%2f%2fEN|url-status=live}}</ref> civil law rules on [[robotics]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/ficheprocedure.do?reference=2015/2103(INL)&l=en|title=Procedure File: 2015/2103 (INL); Legislative Observatory; European Parliament|publisher=European Parliament|access-date=4 March 2019|archive-date=6 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043822/https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/ficheprocedure.do?reference=2015%2F2103%28INL%29&l=en|url-status=live}}</ref> on the Annual report on EU Competition Policy,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/ficheprocedure.do?reference=COM(2014)0249&l=en|title=Procedure File: 2014/2158 (INI); Legislative Observatory; European Parliament|publisher=European Parliament|access-date=4 March 2019|archive-date=6 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044438/https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/ficheprocedure.do?reference=COM(2014)0249&l=en|url-status=live}}</ref> and on Delivering a New Deal for Energy Consumers,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-%252f%252fEP%252f%252fNONSGML%252bCOMPARL%252bPE-572.937%252b04%252bDOC%252bPDF%252bV0%252f%252fEN|title=Opinion of the Committee on the Internal Market and Consumer Protection for the Committee on Industry, Research and Energyon Delivering a New Deal for Energy Consumers|publisher=European Parliament|date=12 April 2016|archive-date=16 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616073958/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-%2f%2fEP%2f%2fNONSGML%2bCOMPARL%2bPE-572.937%2b04%2bDOC%2bPDF%2bV0%2f%2fEN|url-status=dead}}</ref> legislation on Custom infringements and sanctions,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/ficheprocedure.do?reference=2013/0432(COD)&l=en|title=Procedure File: 2013/0432 (COD); Legislative Observatory; European Parliament|publisher=European Parliament|access-date=4 March 2019|archive-date=6 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044446/https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/ficheprocedure.do?reference=2013%2F0432%28COD%29&l=en|url-status=live}}</ref> and the own-initiative report on the Digital Single Market.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/ficheprocedure.do?reference=COM(2015)0192&l=en|title=Procedure File: 2015/2147 (INI); Legislative Observatory; European Parliament|publisher=European Parliament|access-date=4 March 2019|archive-date=6 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044643/https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/ficheprocedure.do?reference=COM(2015)0192&l=en|url-status=live}}</ref> During her time in Parliament, she was also nominated as a European Young Leader (EYL40).<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2017 |title=European Young Leaders (EYL40) programme – Call for Nominations for the Class of 2018 |url=https://www.em-a.eu/en/home/newsdetail-ema-members-report/european-young-leaders-eyl40-programme-call-for-nominations-for-the-class-of-2018-2083.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205175522/https://www.em-a.eu/en/home/newsdetail-ema-members-report/european-young-leaders-eyl40-programme-call-for-nominations-for-the-class-of-2018-2083.html |archive-date=5 February 2021 |access-date=15 July 2022 |publisher=Erasmus Mundus Association}}</ref> At the end of her term, she was cited by ''[[Politico]]'' as one of the 40 most influential MEPs, and one of the most powerful women in Brussels, who was highlighted for her understanding of technological issues.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hankewitz |first1=Sten |title=Politico lists Estonia's Kaja Kallas as one of the most influential MEPs |url=https://estonianworld.com/people/politico-lists-estonias-kaja-kallas-as-one-of-the-most-influential-meps/ |website=Estonian World |access-date=6 April 2021 |date=14 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hankewitz |first1=Sten |title=Estonian MEP Kaja Kallas named as one of the most powerful women in Brussels |url=https://estonianworld.com/people/estonian-mep-kaja-kallas-named-one-powerful-women-brussels/ |website=Estonian World |access-date=6 April 2021 |date=10 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/europa/kallas-estland-ministerpraesidentin-101.html|title=Estland bekommt erstmals eine Regierungschefin |website=Tagesschau|language=de|date=25 January 2021|access-date=6 March 2023}}</ref>

=== Return to national politics (2017–2020) ===
On 13 December 2017, the Reform Party leader [[Hanno Pevkur]] announced that he would no longer run for the party leadership in January 2018, and suggested that Kallas should run instead.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.err.ee/648472/pevkur-not-to-run-for-reform-lead-again-kallas-not-announcing-yet|title=Pevkur not to run for Reform lead again, Kallas not announcing yet|publisher=ERR|date=13 December 2017 |access-date=22 December 2017|archive-date=23 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223043329/https://news.err.ee/648472/pevkur-not-to-run-for-reform-lead-again-kallas-not-announcing-yet |url-status=live}}</ref> After considering the offer, Kallas announced on 15 December 2017 that she would accept the invitation to run in the leadership election.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.err.ee/649011/kaja-kallas-to-run-for-reform-party-chair|title=Kaja Kallas to run for Reform Party chair|publisher=ERR|date=15 December 2017|access-date=22 December 2017|archive-date=23 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223043725/https://news.err.ee/649011/kaja-kallas-to-run-for-reform-party-chair|url-status=live}}</ref> Kallas won the leadership election held on 14 April 2018 and became the first female leader of a major political party in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Estonia's struggling Reform Party picks first female leader |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/europe/estonia-s-struggling-reform-party-picks-first-female-leader-20180415-p4z9pk.html |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=6 April 2021 |date=15 April 2018}}</ref>

In the [[2019 Estonian parliamentary election]] on 3 March, the Reform Party led by Kallas received about 29% of the vote, with the ruling [[Estonian Centre Party]] taking 23%.<ref>{{cite news|date=5 March 2019|title=Estonia general election: Opposition party beats Centre rivals|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-47430993|url-status=live|publisher=BBC News|access-date=4 March 2019 |archive-date=4 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304013952/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-47430993}}</ref> The Centre Party managed to form [[Jüri Ratas' second cabinet]] with the conservative [[Isamaa]] party and the far-right [[EKRE]], leaving the Reform Party out of power.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Virki |first1=Tarmo |title=Three Estonian parties, including far-right EKRE, agree on coalition plan |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-estonia-politics-government/three-estonian-parties-including-far-right-ekre-agree-on-coalition-plan-idUKKCN1RI0FX |work=Reuters |access-date=6 April 2021 |date=6 April 2019}}</ref> On 14 November 2020, Kallas was re-elected as leader of the Reform Party at a Reform Party Assembly.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaja Kallas re-elected leader of Reform Party in Estonia |url=https://www.aldeparty.eu/kaja_kallas_re_elected_leader_of_reform_party_in_estonia |website=Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe |access-date=6 April 2021 |date=16 November 2020}}</ref>

=== Prime Minister of Estonia (2021–present) ===
[[File:Prime Minister Sanna Marin meets the Estonian Prime Minister Kaja Kallas in Helsinki 4.10.2021 (51550103499).jpg|thumb|Kallas met with Finnish prime minister [[Sanna Marin]] in Helsinki, 2021.]]
On 25 January 2021, after the resignation of [[Jüri Ratas]] as prime minister following a scandal, [[Kaja Kallas' first cabinet|Kallas' first cabinet]], a Reform-led [[coalition government]] with the Centre Party, was formed.<ref>{{cite news|date=24 January 2021|title=Kaja Kallas to become Estonia's first female prime minister|publisher=Euronews|url=https://www.euronews.com/2021/01/24/estonia-politics-kaja-kallas-to-become-baltic-nation-s-first-female-prime-minister |access-date=25 January 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211019214855/https://www.euronews.com/2021/01/24/estonia-politics-kaja-kallas-to-become-baltic-nation-s-first-female-prime-minister |archive-date=19 October 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> In doing so, she became the first female prime minister in Estonia's history.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hankewitz|first1=Sten |title=Estonia becomes the only country in the world led by women|url=https://estonianworld.com/life/estonia-becomes-the-only-country-in-the-world-led-by-women/ |publisher=Estonian World|access-date=26 January 2021|date=26 January 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220319224946/https://estonianworld.com/life/estonia-becomes-the-only-country-in-the-world-led-by-women/ |archive-date=19 March 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

During the latter half of 2021, the [[2021–2023 global energy crisis]] disrupted the Estonian economy; businesses were forced to temporarily shut down, while the public requested government aid to pay for the high electricity and heating prices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vaino |first1=Robert |title=Entrepreneurs waiting for quick aid, long-term decisions in energy crisis |url=https://news.err.ee/1608435113/entrepreneurs-waiting-for-quick-aid-long-term-decisions-in-energy-crisis |website=ERR.ee |access-date=1 February 2022 |date=14 December 2021}}</ref> Kallas initially resisted calls for government aid, suggesting that the government should search for long-term solutions rather than handing out government benefits, and that a [[free market]] should not require consistent government intervention to keep people afloat.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kallaste |first1=Kristjan |title=Kallas: Energy market should operate without us needing to help people |url=https://news.err.ee/1608457301/kallas-energy-market-should-operate-without-us-needing-to-help-people |newspaper=Err |access-date=1 February 2022 |date=6 January 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220201193927/https://news.err.ee/1608457301/kallas-energy-market-should-operate-without-us-needing-to-help-people |archive-date=1 February 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[energy crisis]] nearly caused the collapse of the coalition government.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Vaino |first1=Roberta |title=Feature: What does the future hold for Estonia's coalition? |url=https://news.err.ee/1608475997/feature-what-does-the-future-hold-for-estonia-s-coalition |newspaper=Err |access-date=1 February 2022 |date=24 January 2022}}</ref> Kallas observed in a speech that the high cost of natural gas coupled with the Russia-Ukraine crisis was driving the increase in energy prices, and that the [[Sustainable energy|green energy]] measures Estonia adopted limited what the government could do to handle the crisis.<ref name="energyspeech">{{cite web |title=Prime Minister Kaja Kallas made a political statement before the Riigikogu in connection with the situation on the electricity market |url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/en/sitting-reviews/prime-minister-kaja-kallas-made-a-political-statement-before-the-riigikogu-in-connection-with-the-situation-on-the-electricity-market/ |website=Riigikogu |access-date=1 February 2022 |date=18 January 2022}}</ref> In January 2022, Kallas announced a 245 million euro plan to reduce the cost of energy from September 2021 to March 2022.<ref name="energyspeech"/> The energy crisis impacted her popularity in Estonia.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wright |first1=Helen |title=Support falling for Kaja Kallas as prime minister |url=https://news.err.ee/1608478520/support-falling-for-kaja-kallas-as-prime-minister |newspaper=Err |access-date=1 February 2022 |date=26 January 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Secretary Blinken Meets With Estonian Prime Minister Kallas (51930410266).jpg|thumb|Kallas met with U.S. secretary of state [[Antony Blinken]] in [[Tallinn]], 2022.]]
During the [[2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis]], Kallas said that the [[Nord Stream 2]] natural gas pipeline was "a geopolitical project not an economic one" and urged that the pipeline be terminated. She also stated that Europe's dependence on Russian natural gas was a significant political problem. In January 2022, Kallas committed Estonia to donating [[howitzer]]s to Ukraine to assist in its defence against a possible Russian invasion, pending German approval as the howitzers were originally purchased from Germany.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wintour |first1=Patrick |title='Putin only understands strength': Estonian PM on Ukraine tensions |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/28/germany-must-end-reliance-on-russian-gas-estonian-pm-on-tensions-in-ukraine |website=The Guardian |access-date=1 February 2022 |date=28 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Transcript: World Stage: Crisis in Ukraine with Estonia Prime Minister Kaja Kallas |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/washington-post-live/2022/02/01/transcript-world-stage-crisis-ukraine-with-estonia-prime-minister-kaja-kallas/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=1 February 2022 |date=1 February 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220202173437/https://www.washingtonpost.com/washington-post-live/2022/02/01/transcript-world-stage-crisis-ukraine-with-estonia-prime-minister-kaja-kallas/ |archive-date=2 February 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> When Germany delayed in giving an answer, Estonia sent American-made [[FGM-148 Javelin|Javelin anti-tank missiles]] instead in the first weeks of February 2022.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Whyte |first1=Andrew |title=First batch of Estonia-donated Javelin missiles arrive in Ukraine |url=https://news.err.ee/1608505415/first-batch-of-estonia-donated-javelin-missiles-arrive-in-ukraine |newspaper=Err |access-date=22 February 2022 |date=18 February 2022}}</ref> Following Russia's recognition of the [[Donetsk People's Republic|Donetsk]] and [[Luhansk People's Republic|Luhansk]] people's republics, Kallas demanded that the [[European Union]] introduce sanctions on Russia.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wright |first1=Helen |title=Kallas: Recognition of Ukraine's breakaway republics a 'serious escalation' |url=https://news.err.ee/1608507656/kallas-recognition-of-ukraine-s-breakaway-republics-a-serious-escalation |newspaper=Err |access-date=22 February 2022 |date=22 February 2022}}</ref> Kallas was praised domestically for her leadership during the Russia-Ukraine crisis.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Whyte |first1=Andrew |title=Samost ja Aaspõllu: Kallas has steered successful course in crisis so far |url=https://news.err.ee/1608507089/samost-ja-aaspollu-kallas-has-steered-successful-course-in-crisis-so-far |newspaper=Err |access-date=22 February 2022 |date=22 February 2022}}</ref> Subsequently, her approval rating soared, making her Estonia's most popular politician.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mäekivi |first1=Mirjam |last2=Turovski |first2=Marcus |title=PM survey: Kallas still most popular, Ratas gaining |url=https://news.err.ee/1608813628/pm-survey-kallas-still-most-popular-ratas-gaining |newspaper=Err |access-date=29 December 2022 |date=8 December 2022}}</ref>

After the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]] started on 24 February, Estonia along with other allies triggered [[North Atlantic Treaty#Article 4|Article 4 of NATO]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wright |first1=Helen |title=Estonia, allies to trigger NATO Article 4 |url=https://news.err.ee/1608510812/estonia-allies-to-trigger-nato-article-4 |newspaper=Err |access-date=24 February 2022 |date=23 February 2022}}</ref> Kallas pledged to support Ukraine with political and [[materiel]] support.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wright |first1=Helen |title=Estonian prime minister: Everything we were afraid of has come true |url=https://news.err.ee/1608511031/estonian-prime-minister-everything-we-were-afraid-of-has-come-true |newspaper=Err |access-date=24 February 2022 |date=24 February 2022}}</ref> By April 2022, 0.8% of Estonia's GDP per capita in military equipment had been handed over to Ukraine. Kallas has been praised both in Estonia and internationally as a leading pro-Ukrainian voice in the war, with the ''[[New Statesman]]'' calling her "Europe's New Iron Lady".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cliffe |first=Jeremy |date=11 May 2022 |title=Europe's new Iron Lady: Estonian prime minister Kaja Kallas |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/international-content/2022/05/europes-new-iron-lady-estonian-prime-minister-kaja-kallas |access-date=11 May 2022 |website=New Statesman |language=en-GB}}</ref> She also strongly supported the [[admission of Ukraine to the European Union]], saying that there was "a moral duty" to do so.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mc Mahon |first=Meabh |date=9 March 2022 |title=The EU has a 'moral duty' to make Ukraine a member state: Estonia PM |url=https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/03/09/the-eu-has-a-moral-duty-to-make-ukraine-a-member-state-estonia-pm |access-date=12 May 2022 |website=Euronews |language=en}}</ref>

After her resignation on 14 July 2022, [[Kaja Kallas' second cabinet|Kallas' second cabinet]] was sworn in on 18 July.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/estonian-prime-minister-handed-resignation-form-government/ |title=Estonian prime minister resigns, prepares to form new government |date=14 July 2022 |first=Wilhelmine |last=Preussen |work=[[Politico]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://dw.com/en/estonia-new-cabinet-sworn-into-office/a-62514862 |title=Estonia: New cabinet sworn into office |date=18 July 2022 |agency=[[Reuters]] |publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]}}</ref> The new government was a three-party coalition by the Reform Party, [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]], and Isamaa. Her previous government had lost its parliamentary majority after the Centre Party left the coalition.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Welle (www.dw.com) |first1=Deutsche |title=Estonia: New cabinet sworn into office {{!}} DW {{!}} 18 July 2022 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/estonia-new-cabinet-sworn-into-office/a-62514862 |publisher=Deutsche Welle}}</ref> As prime minister, Kallas attracted international attention as a leader in efforts to support Ukraine during the Russian invasion, delivering more military equipment to Ukraine as a proportion of GDP per capita than any other country in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Crisp |first=James |date=8 October 2022 |title=Europe's new 'Iron Lady' Kaja Kallas says the West mustn't negotiate with Putin |language=en-GB |work=The Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2022/10/08/europes-new-iron-lady-kaja-kallas-says-west-mustnt-negotiate/ |access-date=9 October 2022 |issn=0307-1235}}</ref> In September 2022, in the context of a plan by three other bordering nations to restrict Russian tourists, she said: "Travel to the European Union is a privilege, not a human right." She added that it was "unacceptable that citizens of the aggressor state are able to freely travel in the EU, whilst at the same time people in Ukraine are being tortured and murdered."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Olsen |first=Jan M. |date=8 September 2022 |title=4 nations bordering Russia to restrict Russian tourists |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-travel-poland-estonia-denmark-f7669a025f62e88a8a665117d1733a0f |access-date=6 March 2023 |website=AP News}}</ref> In February 2023, Kallas was mentioned as a possible candidate to replace [[NATO]] Secretary-General [[Jens Stoltenberg]] following his expected retirement that same year.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vohra |first=Anchal |date=13 February 2023 |title=The Race Is on to Be NATO'S Next Chief |work=Foreign Policy |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/02/13/the-race-is-on-to-be-natos-next-chief/ |access-date=15 February 2023 }}</ref>

== Personal life ==
In 2002, Kallas married [[:et:Roomet Leiger|Roomet Leiger]] and they divorced in 2006. She lived together with former Estonian politician and businessman [[Taavi Veskimägi]] who served as the country's [[Minister of Finance (Estonia)|Minister of Finance]]. They have one son, and separated in 2014. In 2018, she married Arvo Hallik, a banker and investor. He has two children from a previous relationship.<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 January 2018|title=Kaua hoitud saladus: Kaja Kallas on kihlatud investeerimispankuriga|url=https://www.elu24.ee/4370227/kaua-hoitud-saladus-kaja-kallas-on-kihlatud-investeerimispankuriga|access-date=29 March 2021|website=Elu24|language=et}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=EESTI EKSPRESSI SUUR LUGU {{!}} Kaja Kallast ootab ees jaht peaministri kohale, võlgades Reformierakonna päästmine ja abiellumine|url=https://ekspress.delfi.ee/a/80726877|access-date=29 March 2021|website=Eesti Ekspress}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Kaja Kallas|url=https://valitsus.ee/en/prime-minister-ministers/prime-minister-kaja-kallas|access-date=27 January 2021|website=valitsus.ee}}</ref>

Apart from her native [[Estonian language|Estonian]], Kallas is fluent in English, Russian and French.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kõne üritusel "La Journée de la Femme Digitale"|url=https://kajakallas.ee/blogi/kone-uritusel-la-journee-de-la-femme-digitale/|access-date=1 December 2022|website=Kaja Kallas|date=16 March 2016 }}</ref>

==Awards and honours==
*[[European Prize for Political Culture]] by Hans [[Ringier]] Foundation (2022)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.err.ee/1608679102/estonian-pm-kaja-kallas-awarded-european-prize-for-political-culture|title=Estonian PM Kaja Kallas awarded European Prize for Political Culture|date=9 August 2022|newspaper=ERR|access-date=12 October 2022}}</ref>
*[[File:ROU_Order_of_the_Star_of_Romania_1999_GCross_BAR.svg|60px]] Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Star of Romania]] (2021)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ro/ro/media/decrete-de-decorare-semnate-de-presedintele-romaniei-domnul-klaus-iohannis1623861271|title=Decrete de decorare semnate de Președintele României, domnul Klaus Iohannis|newspaper=presidency.ro|lang=ro|date=16 June 2021|access-date=12 October 2022}}</ref>

== Other activities ==
Since 2020, Kallas is a member of the Board of Trustees of the [[Friends of Europe]].<ref>[https://www.friendsofeurope.org/insights/trustees/ Friends of Europe appoints 29 new members to its Board of Trustees] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927191810/https://www.friendsofeurope.org/insights/trustees/|date=27 September 2020}} [[Friends of Europe]], a press release of 25 June 2020</ref> Additionally, she is a member of the [[European Council on Foreign Relations]],<ref>{{cite web|title=The ECFR Council|url=https://ecfr.eu/council/|website=ecfr.eu|date=14 October 2020|access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref> an advisory board member of the [[Women Economic Forum]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Advisory Board Members|date=7 May 2018 |url=https://www.wef.org.in/advisory-board-members/|publisher=Women Economic Forum|access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref> and a patron of the Model European Union Tallinn.<ref>{{cite web|title=Model European Union Tallinn|url=https://www.facebook.com/meutallinn/photos/meu-tallinn-is-proud-to-announce-that-we-have-a-patron-mep-kaja-kallas-heres-to-/1469125193156567/|via=Facebook|access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref>{{Primary source inline}} She is also a mentor of the [[European Liberal Youth]], a member of the European Young Leaders, a MEP ambassor of [[Erasmus for Young Entrepreneurs]], a member of the MEP Library Lovers Group, a political member of the European Internet Forum, a member of the extended board of the European Forum for Renewable Energy Sources, a member of the [[Global Young Leaders]], a member of the Women Political Leaders, and a MEP ambassador of the European Entrepreneurship Education Network.<ref>{{cite web|title=Organisatsioonid|url=https://kajakallas.ee/elulugu/organisatsioonid/|publisher=Kaja Kallas|access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Sisterlinks|c=Category:Kaja Kallas|d=yes|q=yes|n=no|s=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|species=no}}
* {{Official website}}

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Livonian War

2023-04-14T21:01:21Z

3 Löwi: date

{{Short description|16th century war in the Baltic Sea region}}
{{good article}}
{{Use British English|date = January 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Livonian War
| image = [[File:Siege of Narva 1558.jpg|300px|alt=A battle is shown raging outside a fortress, with some attackers attempting to use ladders to climb the large wall.]]
| caption = ''Siege of Narva by the Russians in 1558'', by [[Boris Chorikov]], 1836.
| date = 22 January 1558 – 10 August 1583 ({{age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=01|day1=22|year1=1558|month2=08|day2=10|year2=1583}})
| place = [[Northern Europe]]: [[Swedish Estonia|Estonia]], [[duchy of Livonia|Livonia]], [[Ingria]], [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]]
| result = [[Denmark–Norway|Dano–Norwegian]], [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish–Lithuanian]] and [[History of Sweden (1523–1611)|Swedish]] victory
| territory = Cession of:
* Estonia to Sweden
* Livonia, [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia|Courland and Semigallia]] to Poland–Lithuania
* [[Saaremaa|Ösel]] to Denmark–Norway
| combatant1 = [[File:Baltic coat of arms.svg|18px]] [[Livonian Confederation]] {{flag|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} (before 1569 the [[Polish–Lithuanian union]]) {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Denmark–Norway]] 
{{flagicon|Sweden|1562}} [[History of Sweden (1523–1611)|Kingdom of Sweden]] [[File:Прапор В.З..png|20px]] [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] 
{{flagicon image|Transsylvanian Banner.svg}} [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Principality of Transylvania]] (after 1577){{sfn|Liptai|1984|p={{page needed|date=June 2021}}}}
| combatant2 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of Oryol ship (variant).svg}} [[Tsardom of Russia]] [[Qasim Khanate]] [[File:Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Livonia.svg|18px]] [[Kingdom of Livonia]]
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[Sigismund II Augustus]] {{flagicon|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[Stephen Báthory]] [[File:Baltic coat of arms.svg|20px|link=]] [[Gotthard Kettler]] {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederick II]] {{flagicon|Sweden|1562}} [[Eric XIV of Sweden|Eric XIV]] {{flagicon|Sweden|1562}} [[John III of Sweden|John III]]
| commander2 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of Oryol ship (variant).svg}} [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan IV]] [[Shahghali]] [[Simeon Bekbulatovich|Sain-Bulat]] [[File:Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Livonia.svg|18px]] [[Magnus, Duke of Holstein|Magnus of Livonia]]
}}
{{Campaignbox Livonian War}}
{{Polish-Russian Wars}}
{{Polish-Swedish Wars}}
{{Russo–Swedish War Series}}

The '''Livonian War''' (1558–1583) was the [[Tsardom of Russia|Russian]] invasion of [[Terra Mariana|Old Livonia]], and the prolonged series of military conflicts that followed, in which [[Tsar]] [[Ivan the Terrible]] of Russia unsuccessfully fought for control of the region (present-day [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]]). The Tsardom of Russia (Muscovy) faced a varying coalition of the [[Denmark–Norway|Dano-Norwegian Realm]], the [[Kingdom of Sweden (1523–1611)|Kingdom of Sweden]], and the [[Polish–Lithuanian union|Union]] (later [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Commonwealth]]) of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]].

From 1558 to 1578, Russia controlled the greater part of the region with early military successes at [[Tartu|Dorpat]] (Tartu) and [[Narva|Narwa]] (Narva). The dissolution of the [[Livonian Confederation]] brought Poland–Lithuania into the conflict, and Sweden and Denmark intervened between 1559 and 1561. [[Swedish Estonia]] was established despite continuing attacks from Russia, and [[Frederick II of Denmark]] bought the old [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek]], which he placed under the control of his brother [[Magnus of Holstein]]. Magnus attempted to expand his Livonian holdings to establish the Russian [[vassal state]], the [[Kingdom of Livonia]], which nominally existed until his defection in 1576.

In 1576, [[Stephen Báthory]] became King of Poland as well as Grand Duke of Lithuania and turned the tide of the war with his successes between 1578 and 1581, including the joint Swedish–Polish–Lithuanian offensive at the [[Battle of Wenden (1578)|Battle of Wenden]]. That was followed by an extended [[Livonian campaign of Stefan Batory|campaign through Russia]], culminating in the long and difficult [[Siege of Pskov]]. Under the 1582 [[Truce of Jam Zapolski]], which ended the war between Russia and Poland–Lithuania, Russia lost all of its former holdings in Livonia and Polotsk to Poland–Lithuania. The following year, Sweden and Russia signed the [[Truce of Plussa]], with Sweden gaining most of [[Ingria]] and northern Livonia while retaining the Duchy of Estonia.

==Prelude==

===Pre-war Livonia===
[[File:Livonia in 1534 (English).png|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Old Livonia]], before the Livonian War:
{{legend|White|Livonian Order}}{{legend|purple|Bishopric of Courland}}{{legend|green|Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek}}
{{legend|#3388FF|Bishopric of Dorpat}}{{legend|teal|City of Riga}}{{legend|olive|Archbishopric of Riga}}]]

By the mid-16th century, economically prosperous [[Old Livonia]]<ref name=rabe306>{{harvnb|Rabe|1989|p=306}}</ref> had become a region organised into the decentralised and religiously divided [[Livonian Confederation]].<ref name=dybas193>{{harvnb|Dybaś|2009|p=193}}</ref> Its territories consisted of the [[Livonian Order|Livonian branch]] of the [[Teutonic Order]], the [[prince-bishopric]]s [[Bishopric of Dorpat|of Dorpat]] (Tartu), [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]], as well as [[Bishopric of Courland|Courland]], the [[Archbishopric of Riga]] and the city of [[Riga]].<ref name=rabe306/><ref name=buelow73/> Together with Riga, the cities of [[Dorpat|Dorpat (Tartu)]] and [[Reval]] (Tallinn), along with the knightly estates, enjoyed privileges enabling them to act almost independently.<ref name=buelow73>{{harvnb|Bülow|2003|p=73}}</ref> The only common institutions of the Livonian estates were the regularly held common assemblies known as ''[[Landtag]]s''.<ref name=rabe306/> As well as a divided political administration, there were also persistent rivalries between the Archbishop of Riga and the ''Landmeister'' of the Order for hegemony.<ref group=nb>The Order was led by a ''[[Hochmeister]]'', an office that since 1525 had been executed by the ''Deutschmeister'' responsible for the bailiwicks in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; the Order's organisation in Livonia was led by a circle of ''Gebietigers'' headed by a ''Landmeister'' elected from amongst the membership</ref><ref name=rabe306/><ref name=buelow73/> A schism had existed within the Order since the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] had spread to Livonia in the 1520s, although the transformation of the country into a [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] region was a gradual process, resisted by part of the Order that to a varying degree remained sympathetic to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|pp=46, 51–53}}</ref> As war approached, Livonia had a weak administration subject to internal rivalries, lacked any powerful defences or outside support, and was surrounded by monarchies pursuing expansionist policies. [[Robert I. Frost]] notes of the volatile region: "Racked with internal bickering and threatened by the political machinations of its neighbours, Livonia was in no state to resist an attack."<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=2}}</ref>

The Order's ''Landmeister'' and the ''Gebietigers'', as well as the owners of Livonian estates, were all lesser nobles who guarded their privileges and influence by preventing the creation of a higher, more powerful noble class.<ref name=kreem50>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|p=50}}</ref> Only the archbishopric of Riga successfully overcame resistance of the lesser nobles.<ref name=kreem51>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|p=51}}</ref> [[Wilhelm von Brandenburg]] was appointed as Archbishop of Riga and [[Christoph von Mecklenburg]] as his [[Coadjutor archbishop|Coadjutor]], with the help of his brother [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Albert (Albrecht) of Brandenburg–Ansbach]], the former Prussian ''Hochmeister'' who had [[Secularization|secularised]] the southern [[Teutonic Order state]] and in 1525 established himself as [[Duchy of Prussia|duke in Prussia]].<ref name=koerber26>{{harvnb|Körber|1998|p=26}}</ref> Wilhelm and Christoph were to pursue Albert's interests in Livonia, among which was the establishment of a hereditary Livonian duchy styled after the Prussian model.<ref name=koerber26/> At the same time the Order agitated for its re-establishment ("''Rekuperation''") in Prussia,<ref>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|p=46}}</ref> opposed secularization, and creation of a hereditary duchy.<ref name=kreem51/>

===Aspirations of Livonia's neighbours===

By the time the Livonian War broke out, the [[Hanseatic League]] had already lost its monopoly on the profitable and prosperous [[Baltic Sea]] trade.<ref name=Frost3>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=3}}</ref> While still involved and with increasing sales, it now shared the market with European mercenary fleets, most notably from the [[Low Countries|Dutch]] [[Seventeen Provinces]] and France.<ref name=Frost3/> The Hanseatic vessels were no match for contemporary warships,<ref name=Frost5>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=5}}</ref> and since the league was unable to maintain a large navy because of a declining share of trade,<ref name=Frost6>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=6}}</ref> its Livonian members [[Riga]], [[Reval]] (Tallinn), and trading partner [[Narva]] were left without suitable protection.<ref name=Frost4>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=4}}</ref> The [[Kingdom of Denmark|Danish]] navy, the most powerful in the Baltic Sea, controlled the [[Öresund|entrance to the Baltic Sea]],<ref name=Frost5/> collected [[Sound Dues|requisite tolls]],<ref name=Frost6/> and held the strategically important Baltic Sea islands of [[Bornholm]] and [[Gotland]].<ref name=Frost5/>

A long bar of Danish territories in the south and lack of sufficient year-round ice-free ports severely limited [[Kingdom of Sweden|Sweden]]'s access to Baltic trade.<ref name=Frost7>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=7}}</ref> Nevertheless, the country prospered due to exports of timber, iron, and most notably copper, coupled with the advantages of a growing navy<ref name=Frost7/> and proximity to the Livonian ports across the narrow [[Gulf of Finland]].<ref name=Bain84>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|p=84}}</ref> Before the Livonian War, Sweden had sought expansion into Livonia, but the intervention of the Russian tsar temporarily stalled these efforts through the [[Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)|Russo-Swedish War of 1554–1557]], which culminated in the 1557 [[Treaty of Novgorod (1557)|Treaty of Novgorod]].<ref name=Frost7/>

Through its absorption of the principalities of [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] (1478) and [[Pskov Republic|Pskov]] (1510),<ref name=Frost10>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=10}}</ref> the [[Tsardom of Russia]] had become Livonia's eastern neighbour and grown stronger after annexing the [[khanate]]s of [[Khanate of Kazan|Kazan]] (1552) and [[Astrakhan Khanate|Astrakhan]] (1556). The conflict between Russia and the Western powers was exacerbated by Russia's isolation from sea trade. The new [[Ivangorod]] port built by Tsar Ivan on the eastern shore of the [[Narva River]] in 1550 was considered unsatisfactory on account of its shallow waters.<ref name=Madariaga124>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=124}}</ref> Thereafter the tsar demanded that the Livonian Confederation pay about 6,000 [[mark (money)|marks]] to keep the [[Bishopric of Dorpat]], based on the claim that every adult male had paid Pskov one mark when it had been an independent state.<ref name=Madariaga124/> The Livonians eventually promised to pay this sum to [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan]] by 1557, but were sent from Moscow when they failed to do so, ending negotiations.<ref name=Madariaga124/> Ivan continued to point out that the existence of the Order required passive Russian support, and was quick to threaten use of military force if necessary.<ref name=Madariaga124/> He aimed to establish a corridor between the Baltic and the new territories on the [[Caspian Sea]], because if Russia were to engage in open conflict with major western powers, it would need imports of more sophisticated weaponry.<ref name=Madariaga124/>

The Polish King and Lithuanian Grand Duke [[Sigismund II Augustus]] was wary of Russian expansionist aspirations. Expansion of Russia into Livonia would have meant not only a stronger political rival but also loss of lucrative trade routes.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|pp=203–204}}</ref> Therefore, Sigismund supported his cousin [[Wilhelm von Brandenburg]], archbishop of Riga, in his conflicts with [[Wilhelm von Fürstenberg]], the Livonian Order's ''landmeister''.<ref name=Hartmannxiii>{{harvnb|Hartmann|2005|p=XIII}}</ref> Sigismund hoped that Livonia, just like the [[Duchy of Prussia]] under [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Duke Albert]], would become a vassal state of Poland–Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|p=204}}</ref> With weak support in Livonia,<ref name=Hartmannxiii/> von Brandenburg had to largely rely on external allies. Among his few Livonian supporters was ''landmarschall'' [[Jasper von Munster]], with whom he planned an April 1556 attack on his opponents that would involve military aid from both Sigismund and Albert.<ref name=Hartmannxiv>{{harvnb|Hartmann|2005|p=XIV}}</ref> However, Sigismund hesitated over participation in the action, fearing that it would leave the [[Kiev Voivodeship]] exposed to a pending Russian attack.<ref name=Hartmannxiv/> When von Fürstenberg learned of the plan, he led a force into the archbishopric of Riga and in June 1556 captured the main strongholds of [[Kokenhusen]] and [[Rauna Castle|Ronneburg]].<ref name=Hartmannxiv/> Jasper von Munster fled to Lithuania, but von Brandenburg and Christoph von Mecklenburg were captured and detained at [[Adsel]] and [[Turaida Castle|Treiden]]. This resulted in a diplomatic mission to petition for their release being dispatched by the [[Duchy of Pomerania|Pomeranian dukes]], the Danish King,<ref name=Hartmannxiv/> Emperor [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], and the estates of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref name=Hartmannxv>{{harvnb|Hartmann|2005|p=XV}}</ref> A cross-party meeting in [[Lübeck]] to resolve the conflict was scheduled for 1 April 1557, but was cancelled due to quarrels between Sigismund and the Danish envoys.<ref name=Hartmannxv/> Sigismund used the killing of his envoy Lancki by the ''landmeister's'' son as an excuse to invade the southern portion of Livonia with an army of around 80,000. He forced the competing parties in Livonia to reconcile at his camp in [[Pozvol]] in September 1557.<ref name=Bain84/> There they signed the [[Treaty of Pozvol]], which created a mutual defensive and offensive alliance, with its primary target Russia, and provoked the Livonian War.<ref name=Bain84/>

==1558–1562: Dissolution of the Livonian Order==

===Russian invasion of Livonia===
[[File:Livonian war map (1558-1560)-es.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Three Russian campaigns are visible in 1558, 1559 and 1560, all from east to west. One Polish–Lithuanian campaign in 1561 is shown advancing up the central part of Livonia. Refer to the text for details.|Map of campaigns in Livonia, 1558–1560]]

Ivan IV regarded the [[Livonian Confederation]]'s approach to the [[Polish–Lithuanian union]] for protection under the [[Treaty of Pozvol]] as ''[[casus belli]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=127}}</ref> In 1554 Livonia and Russia had signed a fifteen-year truce in which Livonia agreed not to enter into an alliance with Poland–Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|p=205}}</ref> On 22 January 1558, Ivan reacted with the invasion of Livonia. Many Livonian fortresses surrendered without resistance while Russian troops took Dorpat (Tartu) in May, Narwa (Narva) in July<ref group=nb>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=128}} says Narva in May and Dorpat in July.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=24}}</ref> and laid siege to Reval (Tallinn).<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=128}}</ref> Reinforced by 1,200 [[Landsknecht]]s, 100 gunners, and ammunition from Germany, Livonian forces successfully retook [[Rakvere|Wesenberg]] (Rakvere) along with a number of other fortresses. Although the Germans raided Russian territory, Dorpat (Tartu), Narva, and many lesser fortresses remained in Russian hands.<ref name=Frost25/> The initial Russian advance was led by the [[Qasim Khanate|Khan of Qasim]] [[Shahghali]], with two other Tatar princes at the head of a force that included Russian [[boyar]]s, Tatar, and [[Landed Army|Pomestnoe]] cavalry, as well as [[Cossack]]s,<ref name=Stevens85>{{harvnb|Stevens|2007|p=85}}</ref> who at that time were mostly armed foot soldiers.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=50}}</ref> Ivan gained further ground in campaigns during the years 1559 and 1560.<ref name=Frost25/> In January 1559, Russian forces again invaded Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=129}}</ref> A six-month truce covering May to November was signed between Russia and Livonia while Russia fought in the [[Russo-Crimean Wars]].<ref name="madariaga30">{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=130}}</ref>

Prompted by the Russian invasion, Livonia first unsuccessfully sought help from Emperor [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], then turned to Poland–Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|p=207}}</ref> ''Landmeister'' von Fürstenburg fled to Poland–Lithuania to be replaced by [[Gotthard Kettler]]. In June 1559, the estates of Livonia came under Polish–Lithuanian protection through the first [[Treaty of Vilnius (1559)|Treaty of Vilnius]]. The Polish ''[[general sejm|sejm]]'' refused to agree to the treaty, believing it to be a matter affecting only the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]].<ref name=Bain84/> In January 1560, Sigismund sent ambassador Martin Volodkov to the court of Ivan in Moscow in an attempt to stop the Russian cavalry rampaging through rural Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|p=117}}</ref>

[[File:Russian atrocities in Livonia ib XVI century.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|alt=Printed woodcarving showing archers using hanged naked women as target practice. Beneath them lie the bodies of children, cut open.|Russian atrocities in Livonia. Printed in ''Zeyttung'' published in [[Nuremberg]] in 1561.]]

Russian successes followed similar patterns featuring a multitude of small campaigns, with sieges where musketmen played a key role in destroying wooden defences with effective artillery support.<ref name=Stevens85/> The Tsar's forces took important fortresses like [[Fellin]] (Viljandi), yet lacked the means to gain the major cities of [[Riga]], Reval (Tallinn), or [[Pernau]] (Pärnu).<ref name=Frost25/> The Livonian knights suffered a disastrous defeat by the Russians at the [[Battle of Ērģeme]] in August 1560. Some historians believe the Russian nobility were split over the timing of the invasion of Livonia.<ref name="madariaga30"/>

[[Eric XIV]], the new King of Sweden, turned down Kettler's requests for assistance, along with a similar request from Poland. Kettler turned to Sigismund for help.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|2006|p=118}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=dPQwweeMSvMC&pg=PA118 online])</ref> The weakened [[Livonian Order]] was dissolved by the [[Treaty of Vilnius (1561)|second Treaty of Vilnius]] in 1561. Its lands were secularised as the [[Duchy of Livonia]] and [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] and assigned to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Kettler became the first Duke of Courland, in doing so converting to Lutheranism.<ref name=Bain84/> Included in the treaty was the ''[[Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti]]'' by which Sigismund guaranteed the Livonian estates privileges including religious freedom with respect to the [[Augsburg Confession]], the ''[[Indygenat]]'', and continuation of the traditional German administration.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen36/> The terms regarding religious freedom forbade any regulation of the Protestant order by religious or secular authorities.<ref name=Kahle17>{{harvnb|Kahle|1984|p=17}}</ref>

Some members of the Lithuanian nobility opposed the growing Polish–Lithuanian union and offered the Lithuanian crown to Ivan IV.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=25–26}}</ref> The Tsar publicly advertised this option, either because he took the offer seriously, or because he needed time to strengthen his Livonian troops.<ref name=Frost26/> Throughout 1561, a Russo-Lithuanian truce (with a scheduled expiration date of 1562) was respected by both sides.<ref name=Frost26/>

===Danish and Swedish interventions===

In return for a loan and a guarantee of Danish protection, Bishop Johann von Münchhausen signed a treaty on 26 September 1559 giving [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederick II of Denmark-Norway]] the right to nominate the bishop of [[bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]], an act which amounted to the sale of these territories for 30,000 [[thaler]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Pauker|1854|p=289}}</ref> Frederick II nominated his brother, [[Magnus of Holstein|Duke Magnus of Holstein]] as bishop, who then took possession in April 1560. Lest Danish efforts create more insecurity for Sweden, Denmark-Norway made another attempt to mediate a peace in the region.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|2006|p=56}}</ref> Magnus at once pursued his own interests, purchasing the [[Bishopric of Courland]] without Frederick's consent and trying to expand into [[Harju County|Harrien]]–[[Virumaa|Wierland]] (Harju and Virumaa). This brought him into direct conflict with Eric.<ref name=Frost25/>

In 1561, Swedish forces arrived and the [[Baltic Noble Corporations|noble corporations]] of Harrien–Wierland and [[Järva County|Jerwen]] (Järva) yielded to [[Kingdom of Sweden (1523–1611)|Sweden]] to form the [[Swedish Estonia|Duchy of Estonia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Eriksson|2007|pp=45–46}}</ref> Reval (Tallinn), similarly, accepted Swedish rule.<ref name=Frost25>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=25}}</ref> Denmark dominated the Baltic, and Sweden wished to challenge this by gaining territory on the Eastern side of the Baltic.<ref name="elliott14">{{harvnb|Elliott|2000|p=14}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=zfGrxQBcuXgC&pg=PA14 online])</ref> Doing so would help Sweden control the West's trade with Russia. This helped to precipitate the [[Northern Seven Years' War]]<ref name="elliott14"/> since in 1561, Frederick II had already protested against Swedish presence in Reval (Tallinn), claiming historical rights relating to [[Danish Estonia]].<ref name=Frost26>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=26}}</ref> When Eric XIV's forces seized Pernau (Pärnu) in June 1562, his diplomats tried to arrange Swedish protection for Riga, which brought him into conflict with Sigismund.<ref name=Frost26/>

Sigismund maintained close relations with Eric XIV's brother, [[John III of Sweden|John, Duke of Finland]] (later John III), and in October 1562 John married Sigismund's sister, [[Catherine Jagellon|Catherine]], thereby preventing her marrying Ivan IV.<ref name=Oakley27>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=27}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=wPXEp45wAeQC&pg=PA27 online])</ref> While Eric XIV had approved the marriage, he was upset when John lent Sigismund 120,000 [[Swedish riksdaler|dalers]] and received seven Livonian castles as security.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=209}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA209 online])</ref> This incident led to John's capture and imprisonment in August 1563 on Eric XIV's behalf, whereupon Sigismund allied with Denmark and [[Lübeck]] against Eric XIV in October the same year.<ref name=Frost26/>

==1562–1570==

The intervention of Denmark-Norway, Sweden, and Poland-Lithuania into Livonia began a period of struggle for control of the Baltic, known contemporaneously as the ''[[dominium maris baltici]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=24}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=wPXEp45wAeQC&pg=PA24 online])</ref> While the initial war years were characterised by intensive fighting, a period of low-intensity warfare began in 1562 and lasted until 1570 when fighting once more intensified.<ref name=Frost77>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=77}}</ref> Denmark, Sweden, and to some extent Poland–Lithuania were occupied with the [[Nordic Seven Years' War]] (1563–1570) taking place in the Western Baltic,<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=30ff}}</ref> but Livonia remained strategically important.<ref name=Frost25/> In 1562, Denmark and Russia concluded the [[Treaty of Mozhaysk]], respecting each other's claims in Livonia and maintaining amicable relations.<ref>{{harvnb|Hübner|1998|pp=317–318}}</ref> In 1564, Sweden and Russia concluded a seven-years truce.<ref>{{harvnb|Hübner|1998|p=318}}</ref> Both Ivan IV and Eric XIV showed signs of [[mental disorder]],<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=26–27}}</ref> with Ivan IV turning against part of the Tsardom's nobility and people with the ''[[oprichina]]'' that began in 1565, leaving Russia in a state of political chaos and civil war.<ref name=Frost26/>

===Russian war with Lithuania===
[[File:Cannibalism 1571.PNG|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Cannibalism]] in Lithuania during the Russian invasion in 1571, German plate]]

When the Russo-Lithuanian truce expired in 1562, Ivan IV rejected Sigismund's offer of an extension.<ref name=Frost26/> The Tsar had used the period of the truce to build up his forces in Livonia, and he invaded Lithuania.<ref name=Frost26/> His army raided [[Vitebsk]] and, after a series of border clashes, took [[Polotsk]] in 1563.<ref name=Frost26/> Lithuanian victories came at the [[Battle of Ula]] in 1564<ref name=Frost26/> and at [[Chashniki|Czasniki]] (Chashniki) in 1567, a period of intermittent conflict between the two sides. Ivan continued to gain ground among the towns and villages of central Livonia but was held at the coast by Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|p=123}}</ref> The defeats of Ula and Czasniki, along with the defection of [[Andrey Kurbsky]], led Ivan IV to move his capital to the [[Alexandrov Kremlin]] while the perceived opposition against him was repressed by his ''oprichniki''.<ref name=Frost26/>

A "grand" party of diplomats left Lithuania for Moscow in May 1566.<ref name=Madariaga195>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=195}}</ref> Lithuania was prepared to split Livonia with Russia, with a view to a joint offensive to drive Sweden from the area. However, this was seen as a sign of weakness by Russian diplomats, who instead suggested that Russia take the whole of Livonia, including Riga, through the ceding of [[Courland]] in southern Livonia and Polotsk on the Lithuanian–Russian border.<ref name=Madariaga196>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=196}}</ref> The transfer of Riga, and the surrounding entrance to the [[Western Dvina|River Dvina]], troubled the Lithuanians, since much of their trade depended on safe passage through it and they had already built fortifications to protect it.<ref name=Madariaga196/> Ivan expanded his demands in July, calling for Ösel in addition to Dorpat (Tartu) and Narva. No agreement was forthcoming and a ten-day break was taken in negotiations, during which time various Russian meetings were held (including the ''[[zemsky sobor]]'', the ''Assembly of the Land'') to discuss the issues at stake.<ref name=Madariaga196/> Within the Assembly, the church's representative stressed the need to "keep" Riga (though it had not yet been conquered),<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=202}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=xdFVn1v3FMUC&pg=PA202 online])</ref> while the Boyars were less keen on an overall peace with Lithuania, noting the danger posed by a joint Polish-Lithuanian state. Talks were then halted and hostilities resumed upon the return of the ambassadors to Lithuania.<ref name=Madariaga196/>

In 1569, the [[Union of Lublin|Treaty of Lublin]] unified Poland and Lithuania into the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. The [[Duchy of Livonia]], tied to Lithuania in [[real union]] since the [[Union of Grodno (1566)|Union of Grodno]] in 1566, came under Polish–Lithuanian [[joint sovereignty]].<ref name=Dybas109>{{harvnb|Dybaś|2006|p=109}}</ref> In June 1570 a three-year truce was signed with Russia.<ref name=Madariaga262>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=262}}</ref> Sigismund II, the Commonwealth's first King, died in 1572 leaving the Polish throne with no clear successor for the first time since 1382 and thus began the first [[Free election (Polish throne)|free election]] in Polish history. Some Lithuanian nobles, in an effort to retain Lithuanian autonomy, proposed a Russian candidate. Ivan, however, demanded the return of [[Kiev]], an Orthodox coronation, and a hereditary monarchy in parallel to Russia's, with his son, [[Feodor I of Russia|Feodor]], as King.<ref>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=119}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&pg=PA119 online])</ref> The electorate rejected these demands and instead chose [[Henry III of France|Henry of Valois]] (''Henryk Walezy''), brother of King [[Charles IX of France]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|pp=90–91}}</ref>

===Russian war with Sweden===
In 1564, Sweden and Russia agreed the [[Treaty of Dorpat]], whereby Russia recognised Sweden's right to Reval (Tallinn) and other castles, and Sweden accepted Russia's patrimony over the rest of Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=192}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=xdFVn1v3FMUC&pg=PA192 online])</ref> A seven-year truce was signed between Russia and Sweden in 1565.<ref name=Madariaga195/> [[Eric XIV of Sweden]] was overthrown in 1568 after he killed several nobles in the [[Sture Murders]] (''Sturemorden'') of 1567, and was replaced by his half-brother [[John III of Sweden|John III]].<ref name=Frost27>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=27}}</ref> Both Russia and Sweden had other problems and were keen to avoid an expensive escalation of the war in Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=255}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA255 online])</ref> Ivan IV had requested the delivery of John's wife, the Polish-Lithuanian princess [[Catherine Jagellonica]], to Russia, since he had competed with John to marry into the Lithuanian-Polish royal family. In July 1569 John sent a party to Russia, led by [[Paul Juusten]], [[Bishop of Åbo]],<ref name=Madariaga261>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=261}}</ref> which arrived in [[Novgorod]] in September, following the arrival in Moscow of the ambassadors sent to Sweden in 1567 by Ivan to retrieve Catherine. Ivan refused to meet with the party himself, forcing them to negotiate instead with the Governor of Novgorod.<ref name=Madariaga261/> The Tsar requested that Swedish envoys should greet the governor as 'the brother of their king', but Juusten refused to do so. The Governor then ordered an attack on the Swedish party, that their clothes and money be taken, and that they be deprived of food and drink and be paraded naked through the streets.<ref name=Madariaga261/> Although the Swedes were also to be moved to Moscow, fortunately for them this occurred at the same time Ivan and his ''oprichniki'' were on their way to an [[Massacre of Novgorod|assault on Novgorod]].<ref name=Madariaga262/>

On his return to Moscow in May 1570, Ivan refused to meet the Swedish party, and with the signing of a three-year truce in June 1570 with the Commonwealth he no longer feared war with Poland–Lithuania.<ref name=Madariaga262/> Russia considered the delivery of Catherine to be a precondition of any deal, and the Swedes agreed to meet in Novgorod to discuss the matter.<ref name=Madariaga262/> According to Juusten, at the meeting the Russians demanded the Swedes to abandon their claim to Reval (Tallinn), provide two or three hundred cavalry when required, pay 10,000 thaler in direct compensation, surrender Finnish silver mines near the border with Russia, and allow the Tsar to style himself "Lord of Sweden". The Swedish party left following an ultimatum from Ivan that Sweden should cede its territory in Livonia or there would be war.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=271}}</ref> Juusten was left behind while John rejected Ivan's demands, and war broke out anew.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=272}}</ref>

===Impact of the Northern Seven Years' War===
Quarrels between Denmark-Norway and Sweden led to the [[Northern Seven Years' War]] in 1563, which ended in 1570 with the [[Treaty of Stettin (1570)|Treaty of Stettin]].<ref name=Frost2937>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=29–37}}</ref> Primarily fought in western and southern [[Scandinavia]], the war involved important naval battles fought in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]].<ref name=Frost2937/> When Danish-held [[Varberg Fortress|Varberg]] surrendered to Swedish forces in 1565, 150 Danish mercenaries escaped the subsequent massacre of the garrison by defecting to Sweden.<ref name=Frost76>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=76}}</ref> Among them was [[Pontus de la Gardie]],<ref name=Frost76/> who thereafter became an important Swedish commander in the Livonian War.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=44, 51}}</ref> Livonia was also affected by the naval campaign of Danish admiral [[Peder Munk]], who bombarded Swedish Reval (Tallinn) from sea in July 1569.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=36}}</ref>

The Treaty of Stettin made Denmark the supreme and dominating power in [[Northern Europe]], yet failed to restore the [[Kalmar Union]]. Unfavourable conditions for Sweden led to a series of conflicts that only ended with the [[Great Northern War]] in 1720.<ref name=Nordstrom36>{{harvnb|Nordstrom|2000|p=36}}</ref> Sweden agreed to turn over her possessions in Livonia in return for a payment by [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]]. Maximilian failed to pay the promised compensation, however, and thereby lost his influence on Baltic affairs.<ref name=Nordstrom36/> The terms of the treaty regarding Livonia were ignored, and thus the Livonian War continued.<ref>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=90}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=CPJWfVPgFawC&pg=PA90 online])</ref> From Ivan's point of view, the treaty enabled the powers involved to form an alliance against him, now that they were no longer fighting each other.<ref name=Madariaga264>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=264}}</ref>

==1570–1577: Russian dominance and the Kingdom of Livonia==
{{multiple image|direction=vertical|width=300|image1=LIVONIAE NOVA DESCRIPTIO 1573-1578.jpg|caption1=Map of Livonia in 1573.|image2=Livonian war map (1570-1577).svg|caption2=Map showing areas of Russian and Polish–Lithuanian forces, 1570–1577.
{{legend|#f7d3aa|occupied by Russian forces in 1570}}
{{legend|#e1d2c0|occupied by Russian forces 1572–1577}}
{{legend|#ffc864|occupied by Lithuanian forces}}}}

During the early 1570s, King John III of Sweden faced a Russian offensive on his positions in Estonia.<ref name=Peterson91>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=91}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=CPJWfVPgFawC&pg=PA91 online])</ref> Reval (Tallinn) withstood a Russian siege in 1570 and 1571,<ref>{{harvnb|Black|1996|p=59}}</ref> but several smaller towns were taken by Russian forces. On 23 January a Swedish army of 700 infantry and 600 cavalry under command of [[Clas Åkesson Tott]] (the Elder) clashed with a Russian and Tartar army of 16,000 men under the command of Khan [[Sain-Bulat]] at the [[Battle of Lode]] by the village of [[Koluvere, Lääne County|Koluvere]]. The Russian advance concluded with the sacking of [[Paide|Weissenstein]] (Paide) in 1573, where, after its capture, the occupying forces roasted some of the leaders of the Swedish garrison alive, including the commander. This triggered a retaliatory campaign by John centred on Wesenberg,<ref name=Peterson91/> to which the army departed in November 1573<ref>{{harvnb|Fischer|Kirkpatrick|1907|p=63}}</ref> with Klas Åkesson Tott in overall command and [[Pontus de la Gardie]] as field commander.<ref name=Peterson91/> There were also Russian raids into Finland, including one as far as [[Helsingfors]] (Helsinki) in 1572. A two-year truce on this front was signed in 1575.<ref name=Roberts258>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=258}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA258 online])</ref>

John's counter-offensive stalled at the [[siege of Wesenberg]] in 1574, when German and Scottish units of the Swedish army turned against each other.<ref name=Peterson92>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|pp=92–93}}</ref> This failure has also been blamed on the difficulties of fighting in the bitter winter conditions, particularly for the infantry.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=51}}</ref> The war in Livonia was a great financial burden for Sweden, and by the end of 1573, Sweden's German mercenaries were owed 200,000 ''[[Swedish riksdaler|daler]]''.<ref name=Roberts258/> John gave them the castles of [[Hapsal]], [[Lihula|Leal]], and [[Lode Parish|Lode]] as security, but when he failed to pay they were sold to Denmark.<ref name=Roberts258/>

Meanwhile, efforts by [[Magnus of Holstein|Magnus]] to besiege Swedish-controlled Reval (Tallinn) were faltering, with support from neither Ivan nor Magnus' brother, [[Frederick II of Denmark]] forthcoming.<ref name=Madariaga264/> Ivan's attention was focused elsewhere, while Frederick's reluctance perhaps stemmed from a new spirit of Swedish–Danish unity that made him unwilling to invade Livonia on behalf of Magnus, whose state was a vassal of Russia. The siege was abandoned in March 1571,<ref name=Madariaga264/> whereupon Swedish action in the Baltic escalated, with the passive backing of Sigismund, John's brother-in-law.<ref name=Madariaga264/>

At the same time [[Crimean Tatars]] devastated Russian territories and burned and looted Moscow during the [[Russo-Crimean Wars]].<ref name=Peterson91/> Drought and epidemics had fatally affected the Russian economy while ''[[oprichnina]]'' had thoroughly disrupted the government. Following the defeat of Crimean and [[Nogai Horde|Nogai]] forces in 1572, ''[[oprichnina]]'' was wound down and with it the way Russian armies were formed also changed.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|pp=277–278}}</ref> Ivan IV had introduced a new strategy whereby he relied on tens of thousands of native troops, Cossacks and Tatars instead of a few thousand skilled troops and mercenaries, as was the practice of his adversaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=93}}</ref>

Ivan's campaign reached its height in 1576 when another 30,000 Russian soldiers crossed into Livonia in 1577<ref name=Frost27/> and devastated Danish areas in retaliation for the Danish acquisition of Hapsal, Leal, and Lode. Danish influence in Livonia ceased, as Frederick accepted deals with Sweden and Poland to end nominal Danish involvement.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|pp=258–259}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA258 online])</ref> Swedish forces were besieged in Reval (Tallinn) and central Livonia raided as far as [[Daugavpils|Dünaburg]] (Daugavpils), formally under Polish–Lithuanian control since the 1561 [[Treaty of Vilnius (1561)|Treaty of Vilnius]].<ref name=Peterson92/> The conquered territories submitted to Ivan or his vassal, Magnus,<ref name=Peterson92/> declared monarch of the [[Kingdom of Livonia]] in 1570.<ref name="Frost27"/> Magnus defected from Ivan IV during the same year,<ref name=Oakley37>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=37}}</ref> having started to appropriate castles without consulting the Tsar. When [[Koknese|Kokenhusen]] (Koknese) submitted to Magnus to avoid fighting Ivan IV's army, the Tsar sacked the town and executed its German commanders.<ref name=Frost27/> The campaign [[Battles of Wenden (1577–1578)|then focussed on Wenden]] ([[Cēsis]], Võnnu), "the heart of Livonia", which as the former capital of the Livonian Order was not only of strategic importance, but also symbolic of Livonia itself.<ref name=Peterson92/>

==1577–1583: Defeat of Russia==

===Swedish and Polish–Lithuanian alliance and counter-offensives===
{{multiple image|direction=vertical|width=300|image1=Polacak, 1579.jpg|alt1=Coloured illustration. The city, central is being attacked by a group of knights and cannon from the east, and large numbers of foot soldiers from the north. Some citizens appear to be surrendering to the foot soldiers.|caption1=The Siege of Polotsk, 1579, in a contemporary illustration.|alt2=See text and the article [[Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory|The campaigns of Stefan Batory]] for further information.|image2=Campaigns of Stefan Batory.svg|caption2=[[Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory|The campaigns of Stefan Batory]], the bold line marks the border by 1600.}}

In 1576, the [[Principality of Transylvania (1571–1711)|Transylvanian prince]] [[Stephen Báthory of Poland|Stefan Batory]] became King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania after [[Royal elections in Poland|a contested election to the joint Polish–Lithuanian throne]] with the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Maximilian II]].<ref name=Stone122>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=122}}</ref> Both Batory's fiancée [[Anna Jagiellon]] and Maximilian II had been proclaimed elected to the same throne in December 1575, three days apart;<ref name=Stone122/> Maximilan's death in October 1576 prevented the conflict from escalating.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=310}}</ref> Batory, ambitious to expel Ivan IV from Livonia, was constrained by the opposition of [[Danzig]] (Gdansk), which resisted Batory's accession with Danish support.<ref name=Stone123>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=123}}</ref> The ensuing [[Siege of Danzig (1577)|Danzig War]] of 1577 ended when Batory conceded further autonomous rights to the city in return for a payment of 200,000 [[Polish zloty#Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|zlotys]].<ref name=Stone123/> For a further 200,000 zloty payment, he appointed [[House of Hohenzollern|Hohenzollern]] [[George Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|George Frederick]] as administrator of [[Duchy of Prussia|Prussia]] and secured the latter's military support in the planned campaign against Russia.<ref name=Stone123/>

Batory received only few soldiers from his Polish vassals and was forced to recruit mercenaries, primarily Poles, [[Hungarians]], [[Bohemia]]ns, [[Germans]], and [[Wallachia]]ns. A separate Szekler brigade fought in Livonia.{{sfn|Liptai|1984|p={{page needed|date=June 2021}}}}

Swedish King John III and Stefan Batory allied against Ivan IV in December 1577, despite problems caused by the death of Sigismund which meant that the issue of the substantial inheritance due to John's wife, Catherine, had not been resolved.<ref name=Roberts260>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=260}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA260 online])</ref> Poland also claimed the whole of Livonia, without accepting Swedish rule of any part of it.<ref name=Roberts260/> The 120,000 ''daler'' lent in 1562 had still not been repaid, despite Sigismund's best intentions to settle it.<ref name=Roberts260/>

By November, Lithuanian forces moving northward had captured Dünaburg<ref name=Frost28>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=28}}</ref> while a Polish–Swedish force took the town and castle of Wenden in early 1578.<ref name=Peterson94>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=94}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=CPJWfVPgFawC&pg=PA94 online])</ref> Russian forces failed to retake the town in February,<ref name=Frost28/> an attack followed by a Swedish offensive, targeting [[Pärnu|Pernau]] (Pärnu), Dorpat, and [[Novgorod]] among others. In September, Ivan responded by sending in an army of 18,000 men, who recaptured [[Põltsamaa|Oberpahlen]] (Põltsamaa) from Sweden and then marched on Wenden.<ref name=Frost28/><ref name=Peterson94/> Upon their arrival at Wenden, the Russian army laid siege to the town, but was met by a relief force of around 6,000 German, Polish, and Swedish soldiers.<ref name=Peterson94/> In the ensuing [[Battles of Wenden (1577–1578)|Battle of Wenden]], Russian casualties were severe with armaments and horses captured, leaving Ivan IV with his first serious defeat in Livonia.<ref name=Peterson94/>

Batory accelerated the formation of the [[hussars]], a new well-organised cavalry troop that replaced the feudal levy.<ref name=stone126>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|pp=126–127}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&pg=PA126 online])</ref> Similarly, he improved an already effective artillery system and recruited [[cossacks]].<ref name=stone126/> Batory gathered 56,000 troops, 30,000 of them from Lithuania,<ref name=stone126/> for his first assault on Russia at Polotsk, as part of a [[Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory|wider campaign]]. With Ivan's reserves in Pskov and Novgorod to guard against a possible Swedish invasion, the city fell on 30 August 1579.<ref name=stone126/> Batory then appointed a close ally and powerful member of his court, [[Jan Zamoyski]], to lead a force of 48,000, including 25,000 men from Lithuania, against the fortress of [[Velikie Luki]] which he went on to capture on 5 September 1580.<ref name=stone126/> Without further significant resistance, garrisons such as Sokol, Velizh, and Usvzat fell quickly.<ref>{{harvnb|Solovyov|1791|p=174}}</ref> In 1581, the force [[Siege of Pskov|besieged Pskov]], a well-fortified and heavily defended fortress. However, financial support from the Polish parliament was dropping, and Batory failed to lure Russian forces in Livonia out into open field before the onset of winter.<ref name=stone126/> Not realising that the Polish–Lithuanian advance was on the wane, Ivan signed the [[Truce of Jam Zapolski]].<ref name=stone126/>

The failure of the Swedish siege of Narva in 1579 led to [[Pontus de la Gardie]]'s appointment as commander-in-chief.<ref name=Roberts263>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=263}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA263 online])</ref> The towns of [[Kexholm]] and [[Padise Parish|Padise]] were taken by Swedish forces in 1580,<ref name=Roberts263/> then in 1581, concurrent with the fall of [[Rakvere|Wesenberg]], a [[mercenary]] army hired by Sweden recaptured the strategic city of Narva.<ref name=Roberts263/> A target of John III's campaigns, since it could be attacked by both land and sea, the campaign made use of Sweden's considerable fleet<ref name=Oakley34>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=34}}</ref> but later arguments over formal control in the long term hampered any alliance with Poland.<ref name=Oakley34/> Following la Gardie's taking of the city, and in retaliation for previous Russian massacres,<ref>{{harvnb|Solovyov|1791|p=881}}</ref> 7,000 Russians were killed according to [[Balthasar Russow|Russow]]'s contemporary chronicle.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=80}}, referring to Russow, B. (1578): ''Chronica der Provintz Lyfflandt'', p. 147</ref> The fall of Narva was followed by those of [[Ivangorod]], [[Kingisepp|Jama]], and [[Koporye]],<ref name=Roberts264/> leaving Sweden content with its gains in Livonia.<ref name=Roberts264/>

===Truces of Jam Zapolski and Plussa===
[[File:Map of Poland and Lithuania in 1600.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Division of Livonia by 1600:{{Legend|#ffaeae|Poland–Lithuania}}{{Legend|#ffaef6|Vassal duchies of Poland–Lithuania}}{{Legend|#b0ffbd|Russia}}{{Legend|#c3ccff|Kingdom of Sweden}}{{Legend|#ff7e5c|Denmark-Norway}}]]
Subsequent negotiations led by [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[papal legate]] [[Antonio Possevino]] resulted in the 1582 [[Truce of Jam Zapolski]] between Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.<ref name=Roberts264>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=264}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264 online])</ref> This was a humiliation for the Tsar, in part because he requested the truce.<ref name=Roberts264/> Under the agreement Russia would surrender all areas in Livonia it still held and the city of Dorpat (Tartu) to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Polotsk would remain under Commonwealth control. Any captured Swedish territory—specifically Narva—could be retained by the Russians and Velike Luki would be returned from Batory's control to Russia.<ref name=Roberts264/> Possevino made a half-hearted attempt to get John III's wishes taken into consideration, but this was vetoed by the Tsar, probably in collusion with Batory.<ref name=Roberts264/> The armistice, which fell short of a full peace arrangement, was to last ten years and was renewed twice, in 1591 and 1601.<ref>{{harvnb|Wernham|1968|p=393}}</ref> Batory failed in his attempts to pressure Sweden into relinquishing its gains in Livonia, particularly Narva.<ref name=Roberts264/>

Following a decision by John, the war with Russia ended when the Tsar concluded the [[Truce of Plussa]] (''Plyussa, Pljussa, Plusa'') with Sweden on 10 August 1583.<ref name=Roberts264/><ref name=Frost44>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=44}}</ref> Russia relinquished most of Ingria, leaving Narva and Ivangorod as well under Swedish control.<ref name=Frost44/> Originally scheduled to last three years, the Russo-Swedish truce was later extended until 1590.<ref name=Frost44/> During the negotiations, Sweden made vast demands for Russian territory, including Novgorod. Whilst these conditions were probably only for the purposes of negotiation, they may have reflected Swedish aspirations of territory in the region.<ref name=Roberts264/>

==Aftermath==

The post-war [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] south of the [[Düna]] (Daugava) river experienced a period of political stability based on the 1561 Treaty of Vilnius, later modified by the 1617 ''Formula regiminis'' and ''Statuta Curlandiæ'', which granted indigenous nobles additional rights at the duke's expense.<ref name=Dybas110>{{harvnb|Dybaś|2006|p=110}}</ref> North of the Düna, Batory reduced the privileges Sigismund had granted the [[Duchy of Livonia]], regarding the regained territories as the spoils of war.<ref name=Dybas109/> Riga's privileges had already been reduced by the [[Treaty of Drohiczyn]] in 1581.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen37>{{harvnb|Tuchtenhagen|2005|p=37}}</ref> [[Polish language|Polish]] gradually replaced [[German language|German]] as the administrative language and the establishment of [[voivodeships]] reduced the [[Baltic German]] administration.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen36>{{harvnb|Tuchtenhagen|2005|p=36}}</ref> The local clergy and the Jesuits in Livonia embraced the [[counter-reformation]]<ref name="Kahle17"/> in a process assisted by Batory, who gave the [[Roman Catholic Church]] revenues and estates confiscated from Protestants as well as initiating a largely unsuccessful recruitment campaign for Catholic colonists.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen38>{{harvnb|Tuchtenhagen|2005|p=38}}</ref> Despite these measures, the Livonian population did not convert ''en masse'', while the Livonian estates in Poland–Lithuania were alienated.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen38/>

[[File:Swedish Empire in the Baltic (1560-1721).png|thumb|Map showing Sweden in the Baltic, 1560 to 1721. Dates are those of occupation, and those in brackets dates of loss.]]
In 1590, the Russo-Swedish truce of Plussa expired and fighting resumed<ref name=Frost44/> while the ensuing [[Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)|Russo-Swedish War of 1590–5]] ended with the [[Treaty of Teusina]] (Tyavzino, Tyavzin), under which Sweden had to cede [[Ingria]] and [[Kexholm]] to Russia.<ref name=Frost45>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=45}}</ref> The Swedish–Polish alliance began to crumble when the Polish King and Grand Duke of Lithuania [[Sigismund III Vasa|Sigismund III]], who as son of [[John III of Sweden]] (died 1592) and Catherine Jagellonica, was the successor to the Swedish throne, met with resistance from a faction led by his uncle, [[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles of Södermanland]] (later Charles IX), who claimed regency in Sweden for himself.<ref name=Frost45/> Sweden descended into a civil war in 1597, followed by the 1598–1599 [[war against Sigismund]], which ended with the deposition of Sigismund by the Swedish ''[[Riksdag of the Estates|riksdag]]''.<ref name=Frost45/>

Local nobles turned to Charles for protection in 1600 when the conflict spread to Livonia, where Sigismund had tried to incorporate [[Swedish Estonia]] into the Duchy of Livonia.<ref name=Steinke120>{{harvnb|Steinke|2009|p=120}}</ref> Charles then expelled the Polish forces from Estonia<ref name=Steinke120/> and [[Polish–Swedish War (1600–1611)|invaded the Livonian duchy]], starting a series of [[Polish–Swedish War (1600–1629)|Polish–Swedish wars]].<ref name=Frost46>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=46}}</ref> At the same time, Russia was embroiled in civil war over the vacant Russian throne ("[[Time of Troubles]]") when none of the many claimants had prevailed. This conflict became intertwined with the Livonian campaigns when Swedish and Polish–Lithuanian forces intervened on opposite sides, the latter starting the [[Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)|Polish–Muscovite War]].<ref name=Frost46/> Charles IX's forces were expelled from Livonia<ref name=Frost47>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=47}}</ref> after major setbacks at the battles of [[Battle of Kokenhausen|Kokenhausen(1601)]] and [[Battle of Kircholm|Kircholm]] (1605).<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=62, 64ff}}</ref><ref name=Frost47/> During the later [[Ingrian War]], Charles' successor [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] retook Ingria and Kexholm which were formally ceded to Sweden under the 1617 [[Treaty of Stolbovo]]<ref name=Frost47/> along with the bulk of the Duchy of Livonia. In 1617, when Sweden had recovered from the [[Kalmar War]] with Denmark, several Livonian towns were captured, but only [[Pernau]] (Pärnu) remained under Swedish control after a [[Polish–Swedish War (1617–1618)|Polish–Lithuanian counter-offensive]].<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=102}}</ref> [[Polish–Swedish War (1621–1625)|A second campaign]] then started with the capture of Riga in 1621 and expelled Polish–Lithuanian forces from most of Livonia, where the [[Dominions of Sweden|dominion]] of [[Swedish Livonia]] was created.<ref name=Steinke120/> Swedish forces then advanced through [[Royal Prussia]] and Poland–Lithuania accepted Swedish gains in Livonia in the 1629 [[Treaty of Altmark]].<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=103}}</ref>

The [[Øsel|Danish province of Øsel]] was ceded to Sweden under the 1645 [[Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645)|Treaty of Brömsebro]], which ended the [[Torstenson War]], one theatre of the [[Thirty Years' War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=103–104}}</ref> It was retained after the [[Peace of Oliva]] and the [[Treaty of Copenhagen (1660)|Treaty of Copenhagen]], both in 1660.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=183}}</ref> The situation remained unchanged until 1710 when [[Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia|Estonia and Livonia capitulated to Russia]] during the [[Great Northern War]], an action formalised in the [[Treaty of Nystad]] (1721).<ref name=Kahle18>{{harvnb|Kahle|1984|p=18}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Livonians]]
* [[Russo-Turkish wars]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group="nb"}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
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* {{citation |last=Tuchtenhagen |first=Ralph |title=Geschichte der baltischen Länder |publisher=C.H.Beck |location=Munich |year=2005 |series=Beck'sche Reihe |volume=2355 |isbn=3-406-50855-3 |language=de}}
* {{citation |last=Wernham |first=Richard Bruce |title=The new Cambridge modern history: The Counter-Reformation and price revolution, 1559–1610 |publisher=Cambridge University Press Archive |location=Cambridge |year=1968 |isbn=0-521-04543-6}}
* {{efron}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Seealso|Bibliography of the history of Poland|Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)|Bibliography of Ukrainian history}}
* {{citation |last=Karamzin |first=Nikolai Mikhailovich |author-link=Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin |title=Istoriya gosudarstva Rossiyskogo |language=ru |volume=VIII |chapter=III |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w851ixSKr9AC |publisher=Olma Media Group |location=Moscow |orig-year=1826 |year=2003 |isbn=978-5-224-04058-2}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
* Oscar Halecki, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090504232233/http://victorian.fortunecity.com/wooton/34/halecki/11.htm The Struggle for the Dominium Maris Baltici]
* William Urban, [http://www.lituanus.org/1983_3/83_3_02.htm The Origin of the Livonian War, 1558] (Lituanus, Volume 29, No.3 – Fall 1983)
* Andres Adamson, [http://www.tlulib.ee/files/arts/96/andre267b2fbf346f36611be2ffd9aedf3d07.pdf The Role of Duke Magnus of Holstein in the Baltic Sea Region during the Livonian War] (2006, dissertation)

{{Campaigns and treaties of the Livonian War}}
{{Lithuanian wars and conflicts}}
{{Polish wars and conflicts}}
{{Russian Conflicts}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Livonian War| ]]
[[Category:Northern Wars]]
[[Category:16th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Battles of the Livonian War| ]]
[[Category:Polish–Russian wars]]
[[Category:1558 in Lithuania]]
[[Category:1558 in Poland]]
[[Category:1558 in Russia]]
[[Category:1558 in Sweden]]
[[Category:1558 in Belarus]]
[[Category:1583 in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
[[Category:1583 in Russia]]
[[Category:1583 in Sweden]]
[[Category:Wars involving Sweden]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]

Livonian War

2023-04-14T20:56:38Z

3 Löwi: copyedit

{{Short description|16th century war in the Baltic Sea region}}
{{good article}}
{{Use British English|date = January 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Livonian War
| image = [[File:Siege of Narva 1558.jpg|300px|alt=A battle is shown raging outside a fortress, with some attackers attempting to use ladders to climb the large wall.]]
| caption = ''Siege of Narva by the Russians in 1558'', by [[Boris Chorikov]], 1836.
| date = 22 January 1558 – 10 August 1583 ({{age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=01|day1=22|year1=1558|month2=08|day2=10|year2=1583}})
| place = [[Northern Europe]]: [[Swedish Estonia|Estonia]], [[duchy of Livonia|Livonia]], [[Ingria]], [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]]
| result = [[Denmark–Norway|Dano–Norwegian]], [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish–Lithuanian]] and [[History of Sweden (1523–1611)|Swedish]] victory
| territory = Cession of:
* Estonia to Sweden
* Livonia, [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia|Courland and Semigallia]] to Poland–Lithuania
* [[Saaremaa|Ösel]] to Denmark–Norway
| combatant1 = [[File:Baltic coat of arms.svg|18px]] [[Livonian Confederation]] {{flag|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} (before 1569 the [[Polish–Lithuanian union]]) {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Denmark–Norway]] 
{{flagicon|Sweden|1562}} [[History of Sweden (1523–1611)|Kingdom of Sweden]] [[File:Прапор В.З..png|20px]] [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] 
{{flagicon image|Transsylvanian Banner.svg}} [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Principality of Transylvania]] (after 1577){{sfn|Liptai|1984|p={{page needed|date=June 2021}}}}
| combatant2 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of Oryol ship (variant).svg}} [[Tsardom of Russia]] [[Qasim Khanate]] [[File:Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Livonia.svg|18px]] [[Kingdom of Livonia]]
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[Sigismund II Augustus]] {{flagicon|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[Stephen Báthory]] [[File:Baltic coat of arms.svg|20px|link=]] [[Gotthard Kettler]] {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederick II]] {{flagicon|Sweden|1562}} [[Eric XIV of Sweden|Eric XIV]] {{flagicon|Sweden|1562}} [[John III of Sweden|John III]]
| commander2 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of Oryol ship (variant).svg}} [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan IV]] [[Shahghali]] [[Simeon Bekbulatovich|Sain-Bulat]] [[File:Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Livonia.svg|18px]] [[Magnus, Duke of Holstein|Magnus of Livonia]]
}}
{{Campaignbox Livonian War}}
{{Polish-Russian Wars}}
{{Polish-Swedish Wars}}
{{Russo–Swedish War Series}}

The '''Livonian War''' (1558–1583) was the [[Tsardom of Russia|Russian]] invasion of [[Terra Mariana|Old Livonia]], and the prolonged series of military conflicts that followed, in which [[Tsar]] [[Ivan the Terrible]] of Russia unsuccessfully fought for control of the region (present-day [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]]). The Tsardom of Russia (Muscovy) faced a varying coalition of the [[Denmark–Norway|Dano-Norwegian Realm]], the [[Kingdom of Sweden (1523–1611)|Kingdom of Sweden]], and the [[Polish–Lithuanian union|Union]] (later [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Commonwealth]]) of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]].

From 1558 to 1578, Russia controlled the greater part of the region with early military successes at [[Tartu|Dorpat]] (Tartu) and [[Narva|Narwa]] (Narva). The dissolution of the [[Livonian Confederation]] brought Poland–Lithuania into the conflict, and Sweden and Denmark intervened between 1559 and 1561. [[Swedish Estonia]] was established despite continuing attacks from Russia, and [[Frederick II of Denmark]] bought the old [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek]], which he placed under the control of his brother [[Magnus of Holstein]]. Magnus attempted to expand his Livonian holdings to establish the Russian [[vassal state]], the [[Kingdom of Livonia]], which nominally existed until his defection in 1576.

In 1576, [[Stephen Báthory]] became King of Poland as well as Grand Duke of Lithuania and turned the tide of the war with his successes between 1578 and 1581, including the joint Swedish–Polish–Lithuanian offensive at the [[Battle of Wenden (1578)|Battle of Wenden]]. That was followed by an extended [[Livonian campaign of Stefan Batory|campaign through Russia]], culminating in the long and difficult [[Siege of Pskov]]. Under the 1582 [[Truce of Jam Zapolski]], which ended the war between Russia and Poland–Lithuania, Russia lost all of its former holdings in Livonia and Polotsk to Poland–Lithuania. The following year, Sweden and Russia signed the [[Truce of Plussa]], with Sweden gaining most of [[Ingria]] and northern Livonia while retaining the Duchy of Estonia.

==Prelude==

===Pre-war Livonia===
[[File:Livonia in 1534 (English).png|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Old Livonia]], before the Livonian War:
{{legend|White|Livonian Order}}{{legend|purple|Bishopric of Courland}}{{legend|green|Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek}}
{{legend|#3388FF|Bishopric of Dorpat}}{{legend|teal|City of Riga}}{{legend|olive|Archbishopric of Riga}}]]

By the mid-16th century, economically prosperous [[Old Livonia]]<ref name=rabe306>{{harvnb|Rabe|1989|p=306}}</ref> had become a region organised into the decentralised and religiously divided [[Livonian Confederation]].<ref name=dybas193>{{harvnb|Dybaś|2009|p=193}}</ref> Its territories consisted of the [[Livonian Order|Livonian branch]] of the [[Teutonic Order]], the [[prince-bishopric]]s [[Bishopric of Dorpat|of Dorpat]] (Tartu), [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]], as well as [[Bishopric of Courland|Courland]], the [[Archbishopric of Riga]] and the city of [[Riga]].<ref name=rabe306/><ref name=buelow73/> Together with Riga, the cities of [[Dorpat|Dorpat (Tartu)]] and [[Reval]] (Tallinn), along with the knightly estates, enjoyed privileges enabling them to act almost independently.<ref name=buelow73>{{harvnb|Bülow|2003|p=73}}</ref> The only common institutions of the Livonian estates were the regularly held common assemblies known as ''[[Landtag]]s''.<ref name=rabe306/> As well as a divided political administration, there were also persistent rivalries between the Archbishop of Riga and the ''Landmeister'' of the Order for hegemony.<ref group=nb>The Order was led by a ''[[Hochmeister]]'', an office that since 1525 had been executed by the ''Deutschmeister'' responsible for the bailiwicks in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; the Order's organisation in Livonia was led by a circle of ''Gebietigers'' headed by a ''Landmeister'' elected from amongst the membership</ref><ref name=rabe306/><ref name=buelow73/> A schism had existed within the Order since the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] had spread to Livonia in the 1520s, although the transformation of the country into a [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] region was a gradual process, resisted by part of the Order that to a varying degree remained sympathetic to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|pp=46, 51–53}}</ref> As war approached, Livonia had a weak administration subject to internal rivalries, lacked any powerful defences or outside support, and was surrounded by monarchies pursuing expansionist policies. [[Robert I. Frost]] notes of the volatile region: "Racked with internal bickering and threatened by the political machinations of its neighbours, Livonia was in no state to resist an attack."<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=2}}</ref>

The Order's ''Landmeister'' and the ''Gebietigers'', as well as the owners of Livonian estates, were all lesser nobles who guarded their privileges and influence by preventing the creation of a higher, more powerful noble class.<ref name=kreem50>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|p=50}}</ref> Only the archbishopric of Riga successfully overcame resistance of the lesser nobles.<ref name=kreem51>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|p=51}}</ref> [[Wilhelm von Brandenburg]] was appointed as Archbishop of Riga and [[Christoph von Mecklenburg]] as his [[Coadjutor archbishop|Coadjutor]], with the help of his brother [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Albert (Albrecht) of Brandenburg–Ansbach]], the former Prussian ''Hochmeister'' who had [[Secularization|secularised]] the southern [[Teutonic Order state]] and in 1525 established himself as [[Duchy of Prussia|duke in Prussia]].<ref name=koerber26>{{harvnb|Körber|1998|p=26}}</ref> Wilhelm and Christoph were to pursue Albert's interests in Livonia, among which was the establishment of a hereditary Livonian duchy styled after the Prussian model.<ref name=koerber26/> At the same time the Order agitated for its re-establishment ("''Rekuperation''") in Prussia,<ref>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|p=46}}</ref> opposed secularization, and creation of a hereditary duchy.<ref name=kreem51/>

===Aspirations of Livonia's neighbours===

By the time the Livonian War broke out, the [[Hanseatic League]] had already lost its monopoly on the profitable and prosperous [[Baltic Sea]] trade.<ref name=Frost3>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=3}}</ref> While still involved and with increasing sales, it now shared the market with European mercenary fleets, most notably from the [[Low Countries|Dutch]] [[Seventeen Provinces]] and France.<ref name=Frost3/> The Hanseatic vessels were no match for contemporary warships,<ref name=Frost5>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=5}}</ref> and since the league was unable to maintain a large navy because of a declining share of trade,<ref name=Frost6>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=6}}</ref> its Livonian members [[Riga]], [[Reval]] (Tallinn), and trading partner [[Narva]] were left without suitable protection.<ref name=Frost4>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=4}}</ref> The [[Kingdom of Denmark|Danish]] navy, the most powerful in the Baltic Sea, controlled the [[Öresund|entrance to the Baltic Sea]],<ref name=Frost5/> collected [[Sound Dues|requisite tolls]],<ref name=Frost6/> and held the strategically important Baltic Sea islands of [[Bornholm]] and [[Gotland]].<ref name=Frost5/>

A long bar of Danish territories in the south and lack of sufficient year-round ice-free ports severely limited [[Kingdom of Sweden|Sweden]]'s access to Baltic trade.<ref name=Frost7>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=7}}</ref> Nevertheless, the country prospered due to exports of timber, iron, and most notably copper, coupled with the advantages of a growing navy<ref name=Frost7/> and proximity to the Livonian ports across the narrow [[Gulf of Finland]].<ref name=Bain84>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|p=84}}</ref> Before the Livonian War, Sweden had sought expansion into Livonia, but the intervention of the Russian tsar temporarily stalled these efforts through the [[Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)|Russo-Swedish War of 1554–1557]], which culminated in the 1557 [[Treaty of Novgorod (1557)|Treaty of Novgorod]].<ref name=Frost7/>

Through its absorption of the principalities of [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] (1478) and [[Pskov Republic|Pskov]] (1510),<ref name=Frost10>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=10}}</ref> the [[Tsardom of Russia]] had become Livonia's eastern neighbour and grown stronger after annexing the [[khanate]]s of [[Khanate of Kazan|Kazan]] (1552) and [[Astrakhan Khanate|Astrakhan]] (1556). The conflict between Russia and the Western powers was exacerbated by Russia's isolation from sea trade. The new [[Ivangorod]] port built by Tsar Ivan on the eastern shore of the [[Narva River]] in 1550 was considered unsatisfactory on account of its shallow waters.<ref name=Madariaga124>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=124}}</ref> Thereafter the tsar demanded that the Livonian Confederation pay about 6,000 [[mark (money)|marks]] to keep the [[Bishopric of Dorpat]], based on the claim that every adult male had paid Pskov one mark when it had been an independent state.<ref name=Madariaga124/> The Livonians eventually promised to pay this sum to [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan]] by 1557, but were sent from Moscow when they failed to do so, ending negotiations.<ref name=Madariaga124/> Ivan continued to point out that the existence of the Order required passive Russian support, and was quick to threaten use of military force if necessary.<ref name=Madariaga124/> He aimed to establish a corridor between the Baltic and the new territories on the [[Caspian Sea]], because if Russia were to engage in open conflict with major western powers, it would need imports of more sophisticated weaponry.<ref name=Madariaga124/>

The Polish King and Lithuanian Grand Duke [[Sigismund II Augustus]] was wary of Russian expansionist aspirations. Expansion of Russia into Livonia would have meant not only a stronger political rival but also loss of lucrative trade routes.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|pp=203–204}}</ref> Therefore, Sigismund supported his cousin [[Wilhelm von Brandenburg]], archbishop of Riga, in his conflicts with [[Wilhelm von Fürstenberg]], the Livonian Order's ''landmeister''.<ref name=Hartmannxiii>{{harvnb|Hartmann|2005|p=XIII}}</ref> Sigismund hoped that Livonia, just like the [[Duchy of Prussia]] under [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Duke Albert]], would become a vassal state of Poland–Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|p=204}}</ref> With weak support in Livonia,<ref name=Hartmannxiii/> von Brandenburg had to largely rely on external allies. Among his few Livonian supporters was ''landmarschall'' [[Jasper von Munster]], with whom he planned an April 1556 attack on his opponents that would involve military aid from both Sigismund and Albert.<ref name=Hartmannxiv>{{harvnb|Hartmann|2005|p=XIV}}</ref> However, Sigismund hesitated over participation in the action, fearing that it would leave the [[Kiev Voivodeship]] exposed to a pending Russian attack.<ref name=Hartmannxiv/> When von Fürstenberg learned of the plan, he led a force into the archbishopric of Riga and in June 1556 captured the main strongholds of [[Kokenhusen]] and [[Rauna Castle|Ronneburg]].<ref name=Hartmannxiv/> Jasper von Munster fled to Lithuania, but von Brandenburg and Christoph von Mecklenburg were captured and detained at [[Adsel]] and [[Turaida Castle|Treiden]]. This resulted in a diplomatic mission to petition for their release being dispatched by the [[Duchy of Pomerania|Pomeranian dukes]], the Danish King,<ref name=Hartmannxiv/> Emperor [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], and the estates of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref name=Hartmannxv>{{harvnb|Hartmann|2005|p=XV}}</ref> A cross-party meeting in [[Lübeck]] to resolve the conflict was scheduled for 1 April 1557, but was cancelled due to quarrels between Sigismund and the Danish envoys.<ref name=Hartmannxv/> Sigismund used the killing of his envoy Lancki by the ''landmeister's'' son as an excuse to invade the southern portion of Livonia with an army of around 80,000. He forced the competing parties in Livonia to reconcile at his camp in [[Pozvol]] in September 1557.<ref name=Bain84/> There they signed the [[Treaty of Pozvol]], which created a mutual defensive and offensive alliance, with its primary target Russia, and provoked the Livonian War.<ref name=Bain84/>

==1558–1562: Dissolution of the Livonian Order==

===Russian invasion of Livonia===
[[File:Livonian war map (1558-1560)-es.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Three Russian campaigns are visible in 1558, 1559 and 1560, all from east to west. One Polish–Lithuanian campaign in 1561 is shown advancing up the central part of Livonia. Refer to the text for details.|Map of campaigns in Livonia, 1558–1560]]

Ivan IV regarded the [[Livonian Confederation]]'s approach to the [[Polish–Lithuanian union]] for protection under the [[Treaty of Pozvol]] as ''[[casus belli]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=127}}</ref> In 1554 Livonia and Russia had signed a fifteen-year truce in which Livonia agreed not to enter into an alliance with Poland–Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|p=205}}</ref> On 22 January 1558, Ivan reacted with the invasion of Livonia. Many Livonian fortresses surrendered without resistance while Russian troops took Dorpat (Tartu) in May, Narwa (Narva) in July<ref group=nb>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=128}} says Narva in May and Dorpat in July.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=24}}</ref> and laid siege to Reval (Tallinn).<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=128}}</ref> Reinforced by 1,200 [[Landsknecht]]s, 100 gunners, and ammunition from Germany, Livonian forces successfully retook [[Rakvere|Wesenberg]] (Rakvere) along with a number of other fortresses. Although the Germans raided Russian territory, Dorpat (Tartu), Narva, and many lesser fortresses remained in Russian hands.<ref name=Frost25/> The initial Russian advance was led by the [[Qasim Khanate|Khan of Qasim]] [[Shahghali]], with two other Tatar princes at the head of a force that included Russian [[boyar]]s, Tatar, and [[Landed Army|Pomestnoe]] cavalry, as well as [[Cossack]]s,<ref name=Stevens85>{{harvnb|Stevens|2007|p=85}}</ref> who at that time were mostly armed foot soldiers.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=50}}</ref> Ivan gained further ground in campaigns during the years 1559 and 1560.<ref name=Frost25/> In January 1559, Russian forces again invaded Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=129}}</ref> A six-month truce covering May to November was signed between Russia and Livonia while Russia fought in the [[Russo-Crimean Wars]].<ref name="madariaga30">{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=130}}</ref>

Prompted by the Russian invasion, Livonia first unsuccessfully sought help from Emperor [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], then turned to Poland–Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|p=207}}</ref> ''Landmeister'' von Fürstenburg fled to Poland–Lithuania to be replaced by [[Gotthard Kettler]]. In June 1559, the estates of Livonia came under Polish–Lithuanian protection through the first [[Treaty of Vilnius (1559)|Treaty of Vilnius]]. The Polish ''[[general sejm|sejm]]'' refused to agree to the treaty, believing it to be a matter affecting only the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]].<ref name=Bain84/> In January 1560, Sigismund sent ambassador Martin Volodkov to the court of Ivan in Moscow in an attempt to stop the Russian cavalry rampaging through rural Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|p=117}}</ref>

[[File:Russian atrocities in Livonia ib XVI century.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|alt=Printed woodcarving showing archers using hanged naked women as target practice. Beneath them lie the bodies of children, cut open.|Russian atrocities in Livonia. Printed in ''Zeyttung'' published in [[Nuremberg]] in 1561.]]

Russian successes followed similar patterns featuring a multitude of small campaigns, with sieges where musketmen played a key role in destroying wooden defences with effective artillery support.<ref name=Stevens85/> The Tsar's forces took important fortresses like [[Fellin]] (Viljandi), yet lacked the means to gain the major cities of [[Riga]], Reval (Tallinn), or [[Pernau]] (Pärnu).<ref name=Frost25/> The Livonian knights suffered a disastrous defeat by the Russians at the [[Battle of Ērģeme]] in August 1560. Some historians believe the Russian nobility were split over the timing of the invasion of Livonia.<ref name="madariaga30"/>

[[Eric XIV]], the new King of Sweden, turned down Kettler's requests for assistance, along with a similar request from Poland. Kettler turned to Sigismund for help.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|2006|p=118}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=dPQwweeMSvMC&pg=PA118 online])</ref> The weakened [[Livonian Order]] was dissolved by the [[Treaty of Vilnius (1561)|second Treaty of Vilnius]] in 1561. Its lands were secularised as the [[Duchy of Livonia]] and [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] and assigned to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Kettler became the first Duke of Courland, in doing so converting to Lutheranism.<ref name=Bain84/> Included in the treaty was the ''[[Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti]]'' by which Sigismund guaranteed the Livonian estates privileges including religious freedom with respect to the [[Augsburg Confession]], the ''[[Indygenat]]'', and continuation of the traditional German administration.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen36/> The terms regarding religious freedom forbade any regulation of the Protestant order by religious or secular authorities.<ref name=Kahle17>{{harvnb|Kahle|1984|p=17}}</ref>

Some members of the Lithuanian nobility opposed the growing Polish–Lithuanian union and offered the Lithuanian crown to Ivan IV.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=25–26}}</ref> The Tsar publicly advertised this option, either because he took the offer seriously, or because he needed time to strengthen his Livonian troops.<ref name=Frost26/> Throughout 1561, a Russo-Lithuanian truce (with a scheduled expiration date of 1562) was respected by both sides.<ref name=Frost26/>

===Danish and Swedish interventions===

In return for a loan and a guarantee of Danish protection, Bishop Johann von Münchhausen signed a treaty on 26 September 1559 giving [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederick II of Denmark-Norway]] the right to nominate the bishop of [[bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]], an act which amounted to the sale of these territories for 30,000 [[thaler]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Pauker|1854|p=289}}</ref> Frederick II nominated his brother, [[Magnus of Holstein|Duke Magnus of Holstein]] as bishop, who then took possession in April 1560. Lest Danish efforts create more insecurity for Sweden, Denmark-Norway made another attempt to mediate a peace in the region.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|2006|p=56}}</ref> Magnus at once pursued his own interests, purchasing the [[Bishopric of Courland]] without Frederick's consent and trying to expand into [[Harju County|Harrien]]–[[Virumaa|Wierland]] (Harju and Virumaa). This brought him into direct conflict with Eric.<ref name=Frost25/>

In 1561, Swedish forces arrived and the [[Baltic Noble Corporations|noble corporations]] of Harrien–Wierland and [[Järva County|Jerwen]] (Järva) yielded to [[Kingdom of Sweden (1523–1611)|Sweden]] to form the [[Swedish Estonia|Duchy of Estonia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Eriksson|2007|pp=45–46}}</ref> Reval (Tallinn), similarly, accepted Swedish rule.<ref name=Frost25>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=25}}</ref> Denmark dominated the Baltic, and Sweden wished to challenge this by gaining territory on the Eastern side of the Baltic.<ref name="elliott14">{{harvnb|Elliott|2000|p=14}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=zfGrxQBcuXgC&pg=PA14 online])</ref> Doing so would help Sweden control the West's trade with Russia. This helped to precipitate the [[Northern Seven Years' War]]<ref name="elliott14"/> since in 1561, Frederick II had already protested against Swedish presence in Reval (Tallinn), claiming historical rights relating to [[Danish Estonia]].<ref name=Frost26>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=26}}</ref> When Eric XIV's forces seized Pernau (Pärnu) in June 1562, his diplomats tried to arrange Swedish protection for Riga, which brought him into conflict with Sigismund.<ref name=Frost26/>

Sigismund maintained close relations with Eric XIV's brother, [[John III of Sweden|John, Duke of Finland]] (later John III), and in October 1562 John married Sigismund's sister, [[Catherine Jagellon|Catherine]], thereby preventing her marrying Ivan IV.<ref name=Oakley27>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=27}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=wPXEp45wAeQC&pg=PA27 online])</ref> While Eric XIV had approved the marriage, he was upset when John lent Sigismund 120,000 [[Swedish riksdaler|dalers]] and received seven Livonian castles as security.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=209}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA209 online])</ref> This incident led to John's capture and imprisonment in August 1563 on Eric XIV's behalf, whereupon Sigismund allied with Denmark and [[Lübeck]] against Eric XIV in October the same year.<ref name=Frost26/>

==1562–1570==

The intervention of Denmark-Norway, Sweden, and Poland-Lithuania into Livonia began a period of struggle for control of the Baltic, known contemporaneously as the ''[[dominium maris baltici]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=24}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=wPXEp45wAeQC&pg=PA24 online])</ref> While the initial war years were characterised by intensive fighting, a period of low-intensity warfare began in 1562 and lasted until 1570 when fighting once more intensified.<ref name=Frost77>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=77}}</ref> Denmark, Sweden, and to some extent Poland–Lithuania were occupied with the [[Nordic Seven Years' War]] (1563–1570) taking place in the Western Baltic,<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=30ff}}</ref> but Livonia remained strategically important.<ref name=Frost25/> In 1562, Denmark and Russia concluded the [[Treaty of Mozhaysk]], respecting each other's claims in Livonia and maintaining amicable relations.<ref>{{harvnb|Hübner|1998|pp=317–318}}</ref> In 1564, Sweden and Russia concluded a seven-years truce.<ref>{{harvnb|Hübner|1998|p=318}}</ref> Both Ivan IV and Eric XIV showed signs of [[mental disorder]],<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=26–27}}</ref> with Ivan IV turning against part of the Tsardom's nobility and people with the ''[[oprichina]]'' that began in 1565, leaving Russia in a state of political chaos and civil war.<ref name=Frost26/>

===Russian war with Lithuania===
[[File:Cannibalism 1571.PNG|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Cannibalism]] in Lithuania during the Russian invasion in 1571, German plate]]

When the Russo-Lithuanian truce expired in 1562, Ivan IV rejected Sigismund's offer of an extension.<ref name=Frost26/> The Tsar had used the period of the truce to build up his forces in Livonia, and he invaded Lithuania.<ref name=Frost26/> His army raided [[Vitebsk]] and, after a series of border clashes, took [[Polotsk]] in 1563.<ref name=Frost26/> Lithuanian victories came at the [[Battle of Ula]] in 1564<ref name=Frost26/> and at [[Chashniki|Czasniki]] (Chashniki) in 1567, a period of intermittent conflict between the two sides. Ivan continued to gain ground among the towns and villages of central Livonia but was held at the coast by Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|p=123}}</ref> The defeats of Ula and Czasniki, along with the defection of [[Andrey Kurbsky]], led Ivan IV to move his capital to the [[Alexandrov Kremlin]] while the perceived opposition against him was repressed by his ''oprichniki''.<ref name=Frost26/>

A "grand" party of diplomats left Lithuania for Moscow in May 1566.<ref name=Madariaga195>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=195}}</ref> Lithuania was prepared to split Livonia with Russia, with a view to a joint offensive to drive Sweden from the area. However, this was seen as a sign of weakness by Russian diplomats, who instead suggested that Russia take the whole of Livonia, including Riga, through the ceding of [[Courland]] in southern Livonia and Polotsk on the Lithuanian–Russian border.<ref name=Madariaga196>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=196}}</ref> The transfer of Riga, and the surrounding entrance to the [[Western Dvina|River Dvina]], troubled the Lithuanians, since much of their trade depended on safe passage through it and they had already built fortifications to protect it.<ref name=Madariaga196/> Ivan expanded his demands in July, calling for Ösel in addition to Dorpat (Tartu) and Narva. No agreement was forthcoming and a ten-day break was taken in negotiations, during which time various Russian meetings were held (including the ''[[zemsky sobor]]'', the ''Assembly of the Land'') to discuss the issues at stake.<ref name=Madariaga196/> Within the Assembly, the church's representative stressed the need to "keep" Riga (though it had not yet been conquered),<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=202}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=xdFVn1v3FMUC&pg=PA202 online])</ref> while the Boyars were less keen on an overall peace with Lithuania, noting the danger posed by a joint Polish-Lithuanian state. Talks were then halted and hostilities resumed upon the return of the ambassadors to Lithuania.<ref name=Madariaga196/>

In 1569, the [[Union of Lublin|Treaty of Lublin]] unified Poland and Lithuania into the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. The [[Duchy of Livonia]], tied to Lithuania in [[real union]] since the [[Union of Grodno (1566)|Union of Grodno]] in 1566, came under Polish–Lithuanian [[joint sovereignty]].<ref name=Dybas109>{{harvnb|Dybaś|2006|p=109}}</ref> In June 1570 a three-year truce was signed with Russia.<ref name=Madariaga262>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=262}}</ref> Sigismund II, the Commonwealth's first King, died in 1572 leaving the Polish throne with no clear successor for the first time since 1382 and thus began the first [[Free election (Polish throne)|free election]] in Polish history. Some Lithuanian nobles, in an effort to retain Lithuanian autonomy, proposed a Russian candidate. Ivan, however, demanded the return of [[Kiev]], an Orthodox coronation, and a hereditary monarchy in parallel to Russia's, with his son, [[Feodor I of Russia|Feodor]], as King.<ref>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=119}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&pg=PA119 online])</ref> The electorate rejected these demands and instead chose [[Henry III of France|Henry of Valois]] (''Henryk Walezy''), brother of King [[Charles IX of France]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|pp=90–91}}</ref>

===Russian war with Sweden===
In 1564, Sweden and Russia agreed the [[Treaty of Dorpat]], whereby Russia recognised Sweden's right to Reval (Tallinn) and other castles, and Sweden accepted Russia's patrimony over the rest of Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=192}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=xdFVn1v3FMUC&pg=PA192 online])</ref> A seven-year truce was signed between Russia and Sweden in 1565.<ref name=Madariaga195/> [[Eric XIV of Sweden]] was overthrown in 1568 after he killed several nobles in the [[Sture Murders]] (''Sturemorden'') of 1567, and was replaced by his half-brother [[John III of Sweden|John III]].<ref name=Frost27>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=27}}</ref> Both Russia and Sweden had other problems and were keen to avoid an expensive escalation of the war in Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=255}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA255 online])</ref> Ivan IV had requested the delivery of John's wife, the Polish-Lithuanian princess [[Catherine Jagellonica]], to Russia, since he had competed with John to marry into the Lithuanian-Polish royal family. In July 1569 John sent a party to Russia, led by [[Paul Juusten]], [[Bishop of Åbo]],<ref name=Madariaga261>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=261}}</ref> which arrived in [[Novgorod]] in September, following the arrival in Moscow of the ambassadors sent to Sweden in 1567 by Ivan to retrieve Catherine. Ivan refused to meet with the party himself, forcing them to negotiate instead with the Governor of Novgorod.<ref name=Madariaga261/> The Tsar requested that Swedish envoys should greet the governor as 'the brother of their king', but Juusten refused to do so. The Governor then ordered an attack on the Swedish party, that their clothes and money be taken, and that they be deprived of food and drink and be paraded naked through the streets.<ref name=Madariaga261/> Although the Swedes were also to be moved to Moscow, fortunately for them this occurred at the same time Ivan and his ''oprichniki'' were on their way to an [[Massacre of Novgorod|assault on Novgorod]].<ref name=Madariaga262/>

On his return to Moscow in May 1570, Ivan refused to meet the Swedish party, and with the signing of a three-year truce in June 1570 with the Commonwealth he no longer feared war with Poland–Lithuania.<ref name=Madariaga262/> Russia considered the delivery of Catherine to be a precondition of any deal, and the Swedes agreed to meet in Novgorod to discuss the matter.<ref name=Madariaga262/> According to Juusten, at the meeting the Russians demanded the Swedes to abandon their claim to Reval (Tallinn), provide two or three hundred cavalry when required, pay 10,000 thaler in direct compensation, surrender Finnish silver mines near the border with Russia, and allow the Tsar to style himself "Lord of Sweden". The Swedish party left following an ultimatum from Ivan that Sweden should cede its territory in Livonia or there would be war.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=271}}</ref> Juusten was left behind while John rejected Ivan's demands, and war broke out anew.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=272}}</ref>

===Impact of the Northern Seven Years' War===
Quarrels between Denmark-Norway and Sweden led to the [[Northern Seven Years' War]] in 1563, which ended in 1570 with the [[Treaty of Stettin (1570)|Treaty of Stettin]].<ref name=Frost2937>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=29–37}}</ref> Primarily fought in western and southern [[Scandinavia]], the war involved important naval battles fought in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]].<ref name=Frost2937/> When Danish-held [[Varberg Fortress|Varberg]] surrendered to Swedish forces in 1565, 150 Danish mercenaries escaped the subsequent massacre of the garrison by defecting to Sweden.<ref name=Frost76>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=76}}</ref> Among them was [[Pontus de la Gardie]],<ref name=Frost76/> who thereafter became an important Swedish commander in the Livonian War.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=44, 51}}</ref> Livonia was also affected by the naval campaign of Danish admiral [[Peder Munk]], who bombarded Swedish Reval (Tallinn) from sea in July 1569.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=36}}</ref>

The Treaty of Stettin made Denmark the supreme and dominating power in [[Northern Europe]], yet failed to restore the [[Kalmar Union]]. Unfavourable conditions for Sweden led to a series of conflicts that only ended with the [[Great Northern War]] in 1720.<ref name=Nordstrom36>{{harvnb|Nordstrom|2000|p=36}}</ref> Sweden agreed to turn over her possessions in Livonia in return for a payment by [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]]. Maximilian failed to pay the promised compensation, however, and thereby lost his influence on Baltic affairs.<ref name=Nordstrom36/> The terms of the treaty regarding Livonia were ignored, and thus the Livonian War continued.<ref>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=90}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=CPJWfVPgFawC&pg=PA90 online])</ref> From Ivan's point of view, the treaty enabled the powers involved to form an alliance against him, now that they were no longer fighting each other.<ref name=Madariaga264>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=264}}</ref>

==1570–1577: Russian dominance and the Kingdom of Livonia==
{{multiple image|direction=vertical|width=300|image1=LIVONIAE NOVA DESCRIPTIO 1573-1578.jpg|caption1=Map of Livonia in 1573.|image2=Livonian war map (1570-1577).svg|caption2=Map showing areas of Russian and Polish–Lithuanian forces, 1570–1577.
{{legend|#f7d3aa|occupied by Russian forces in 1570}}
{{legend|#e1d2c0|occupied by Russian forces 1572–1577}}
{{legend|#ffc864|occupied by Lithuanian forces}}}}

During the early 1570s, King John III of Sweden faced a Russian offensive on his positions in Estonia.<ref name=Peterson91>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=91}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=CPJWfVPgFawC&pg=PA91 online])</ref> Reval (Tallinn) withstood a Russian siege in 1570 and 1571,<ref>{{harvnb|Black|1996|p=59}}</ref> but several smaller towns were taken by Russian forces. On 23 January a Swedish army of 700 infantry and 600 cavalry under command of [[Clas Åkesson Tott]] (the Elder) clashed with a Russian and Tartar army of 16,000 men under the command of Khan [[Sain-Bulat]] at the [[Battle of Lode]] by the village of [[Koluvere, Lääne County|Koluvere]]. The Russian advance concluded with the sacking of [[Paide|Weissenstein]] (Paide) in 1573, where, after its capture, the occupying forces roasted some of the leaders of the Swedish garrison alive, including the commander. This triggered a retaliatory campaign by John centred on Wesenberg,<ref name=Peterson91/> to which the army departed in November 1573<ref>{{harvnb|Fischer|Kirkpatrick|1907|p=63}}</ref> with Klas Åkesson Tott in overall command and [[Pontus de la Gardie]] as field commander.<ref name=Peterson91/> There were also Russian raids into Finland, including one as far as [[Helsingfors]] (Helsinki) in 1572. A two-year truce on this front was signed in 1575.<ref name=Roberts258>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=258}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA258 online])</ref>

John's counter-offensive stalled at the [[siege of Wesenberg]] in 1574, when German and Scottish units of the Swedish army turned against each other.<ref name=Peterson92>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|pp=92–93}}</ref> This failure has also been blamed on the difficulties of fighting in the bitter winter conditions, particularly for the infantry.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=51}}</ref> The war in Livonia was a great financial burden for Sweden, and by the end of 1573, Sweden's German mercenaries were owed 200,000 ''[[Swedish riksdaler|daler]]''.<ref name=Roberts258/> John gave them the castles of [[Hapsal]], [[Lihula|Leal]], and [[Lode Parish|Lode]] as security, but when he failed to pay they were sold to Denmark.<ref name=Roberts258/>

Meanwhile, efforts by [[Magnus of Holstein|Magnus]] to besiege Swedish-controlled Reval (Tallinn) were faltering, with support from neither Ivan nor Magnus' brother, [[Frederick II of Denmark]] forthcoming.<ref name=Madariaga264/> Ivan's attention was focused elsewhere, while Frederick's reluctance perhaps stemmed from a new spirit of Swedish–Danish unity that made him unwilling to invade Livonia on behalf of Magnus, whose state was a vassal of Russia. The siege was abandoned in March 1571,<ref name=Madariaga264/> whereupon Swedish action in the Baltic escalated, with the passive backing of Sigismund, John's brother-in-law.<ref name=Madariaga264/>

At the same time [[Crimean Tatars]] devastated Russian territories and burned and looted Moscow during the [[Russo-Crimean Wars]].<ref name=Peterson91/> Drought and epidemics had fatally affected the Russian economy while ''[[oprichnina]]'' had thoroughly disrupted the government. Following the defeat of Crimean and [[Nogai Horde|Nogai]] forces in 1572, ''[[oprichnina]]'' was wound down and with it the way Russian armies were formed also changed.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|pp=277–278}}</ref> Ivan IV had introduced a new strategy whereby he relied on tens of thousands of native troops, Cossacks and Tatars instead of a few thousand skilled troops and mercenaries, as was the practice of his adversaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=93}}</ref>

Ivan's campaign reached its height in 1576 when another 30,000 Russian soldiers crossed into Livonia in 1577<ref name=Frost27/> and devastated Danish areas in retaliation for the Danish acquisition of Hapsal, Leal, and Lode. Danish influence in Livonia ceased, as Frederick accepted deals with Sweden and Poland to end nominal Danish involvement.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|pp=258–259}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA258 online])</ref> Swedish forces were besieged in Reval (Tallinn) and central Livonia raided as far as [[Daugavpils|Dünaburg]] (Daugavpils), formally under Polish–Lithuanian control since the 1561 [[Treaty of Vilnius (1561)|Treaty of Vilnius]].<ref name=Peterson92/> The conquered territories submitted to Ivan or his vassal, Magnus,<ref name=Peterson92/> declared monarch of the [[Kingdom of Livonia]] in 1570.<ref name="Frost27"/> Magnus defected from Ivan IV during the same year,<ref name=Oakley37>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=37}}</ref> having started to appropriate castles without consulting the Tsar. When [[Koknese|Kokenhusen]] (Koknese) submitted to Magnus to avoid fighting Ivan IV's army, the Tsar sacked the town and executed its German commanders.<ref name=Frost27/> The campaign [[Battles of Wenden (1577–1578)|then focussed on Wenden]] ([[Cēsis]], Võnnu), "the heart of Livonia", which as the former capital of the Livonian Order was not only of strategic importance, but also symbolic of Livonia itself.<ref name=Peterson92/>

==1577–1583: Defeat of Russia==

===Swedish and Polish–Lithuanian alliance and counter-offensives===
{{multiple image|direction=vertical|width=300|image1=Polacak, 1579.jpg|alt1=Coloured illustration. The city, central is being attacked by a group of knights and cannon from the east, and large numbers of foot soldiers from the north. Some citizens appear to be surrendering to the foot soldiers.|caption1=The Siege of Polotsk, 1579, in a contemporary illustration.|alt2=See text and the article [[Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory|The campaigns of Stefan Batory]] for further information.|image2=Campaigns of Stefan Batory.svg|caption2=[[Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory|The campaigns of Stefan Batory]], the bold line marks the border by 1600.}}

In 1576, the [[Principality of Transylvania (1571–1711)|Transylvanian prince]] [[Stephen Báthory of Poland|Stefan Batory]] became King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania after [[Royal elections in Poland|a contested election to the joint Polish–Lithuanian throne]] with the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Maximilian II]].<ref name=Stone122>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=122}}</ref> Both Batory's fiancée [[Anna Jagiellon]] and Maximilian II had been proclaimed elected to the same throne in December 1575, three days apart;<ref name=Stone122/> Maximilan's death in October 1576 prevented the conflict from escalating.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=310}}</ref> Batory, ambitious to expel Ivan IV from Livonia, was constrained by the opposition of [[Danzig]] (Gdansk), which resisted Batory's accession with Danish support.<ref name=Stone123>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=123}}</ref> The ensuing [[Siege of Danzig (1577)|Danzig War]] of 1577 ended when Batory conceded further autonomous rights to the city in return for a payment of 200,000 [[Polish zloty#Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|zlotys]].<ref name=Stone123/> For a further 200,000 zloty payment, he appointed [[House of Hohenzollern|Hohenzollern]] [[George Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|George Frederick]] as administrator of [[Duchy of Prussia|Prussia]] and secured the latter's military support in the planned campaign against Russia.<ref name=Stone123/>

Batory received only few soldiers from his Polish vassals and was forced to recruit mercenaries, primarily Poles, [[Hungarians]], [[Bohemia]]ns, [[Germans]], and [[Wallachia]]ns. A separate Szekler brigade fought in Livonia.{{sfn|Liptai|1984|p={{page needed|date=June 2021}}}}

Swedish King John III and Stefan Batory allied against Ivan IV in December 1577, despite problems caused by the death of Sigismund which meant that the issue of the substantial inheritance due to John's wife, Catherine, had not been resolved.<ref name=Roberts260>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=260}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA260 online])</ref> Poland also claimed the whole of Livonia, without accepting Swedish rule of any part of it.<ref name=Roberts260/> The 120,000 ''daler'' lent in 1562 had still not been repaid, despite Sigismund's best intentions to settle it.<ref name=Roberts260/>

By November, Lithuanian forces moving northward had captured Dünaburg<ref name=Frost28>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=28}}</ref> while a Polish–Swedish force took the town and castle of Wenden in early 1578.<ref name=Peterson94>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=94}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=CPJWfVPgFawC&pg=PA94 online])</ref> Russian forces failed to retake the town in February,<ref name=Frost28/> an attack followed by a Swedish offensive, targeting [[Pärnu|Pernau]] (Pärnu), Dorpat, and [[Novgorod]] among others. In September, Ivan responded by sending in an army of 18,000 men, who recaptured [[Põltsamaa|Oberpahlen]] (Põltsamaa) from Sweden and then marched on Wenden.<ref name=Frost28/><ref name=Peterson94/> Upon their arrival at Wenden, the Russian army laid siege to the town, but was met by a relief force of around 6,000 German, Polish, and Swedish soldiers.<ref name=Peterson94/> In the ensuing [[Battles of Wenden (1577–1578)|Battle of Wenden]], Russian casualties were severe with armaments and horses captured, leaving Ivan IV with his first serious defeat in Livonia.<ref name=Peterson94/>

Batory accelerated the formation of the [[hussars]], a new well-organised cavalry troop that replaced the feudal levy.<ref name=stone126>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|pp=126–127}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&pg=PA126 online])</ref> Similarly, he improved an already effective artillery system and recruited [[cossacks]].<ref name=stone126/> Batory gathered 56,000 troops, 30,000 of them from Lithuania,<ref name=stone126/> for his first assault on Russia at Polotsk, as part of a [[Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory|wider campaign]]. With Ivan's reserves in Pskov and Novgorod to guard against a possible Swedish invasion, the city fell on 30 August 1579.<ref name=stone126/> Batory then appointed a close ally and powerful member of his court, [[Jan Zamoyski]], to lead a force of 48,000, including 25,000 men from Lithuania, against the fortress of [[Velikie Luki]] which he went on to capture on 5 September 1580.<ref name=stone126/> Without further significant resistance, garrisons such as Sokol, Velizh, and Usvzat fell quickly.<ref>{{harvnb|Solovyov|1791|p=174}}</ref> In 1581, the force [[Siege of Pskov|besieged Pskov]], a well-fortified and heavily defended fortress. However, financial support from the Polish parliament was dropping, and Batory failed to lure Russian forces in Livonia out into open field before the onset of winter.<ref name=stone126/> Not realising that the Polish–Lithuanian advance was on the wane, Ivan signed the [[Truce of Jam Zapolski]].<ref name=stone126/>

The failure of the Swedish siege of Narva in 1579 led to [[Pontus de la Gardie]]'s appointment as commander-in-chief.<ref name=Roberts263>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=263}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA263 online])</ref> The towns of [[Kexholm]] and [[Padise Parish|Padise]] were taken by Swedish forces in 1580,<ref name=Roberts263/> then in 1581, concurrent with the fall of [[Rakvere|Wesenberg]], a [[mercenary]] army hired by Sweden recaptured the strategic city of Narva.<ref name=Roberts263/> A target of John III's campaigns, since it could be attacked by both land and sea, the campaign made use of Sweden's considerable fleet<ref name=Oakley34>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=34}}</ref> but later arguments over formal control in the long term hampered any alliance with Poland.<ref name=Oakley34/> Following la Gardie's taking of the city, and in retaliation for previous Russian massacres,<ref>{{harvnb|Solovyov|1791|p=881}}</ref> 7,000 Russians were killed according to [[Balthasar Russow|Russow]]'s contemporary chronicle.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=80}}, referring to Russow, B. (1578): ''Chronica der Provintz Lyfflandt'', p. 147</ref> The fall of Narva was followed by those of [[Ivangorod]], [[Kingisepp|Jama]], and [[Koporye]],<ref name=Roberts264/> leaving Sweden content with its gains in Livonia.<ref name=Roberts264/>

===Truces of Jam Zapolski and Plussa===
[[File:Map of Poland and Lithuania in 1600.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Division of Livonia by 1600:{{Legend|#ffaeae|Poland–Lithuania}}{{Legend|#ffaef6|Vassal duchies of Poland–Lithuania}}{{Legend|#b0ffbd|Russia}}{{Legend|#c3ccff|Kingdom of Sweden}}{{Legend|#ff7e5c|Denmark-Norway}}]]
Subsequent negotiations led by [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[papal legate]] [[Antonio Possevino]] resulted in the 1582 [[Truce of Jam Zapolski]] between Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.<ref name=Roberts264>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=264}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264 online])</ref> This was a humiliation for the Tsar, in part because he requested the truce.<ref name=Roberts264/> Under the agreement Russia would surrender all areas in Livonia it still held and the city of Dorpat (Tartu) to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Polotsk would remain under Commonwealth control. Any captured Swedish territory—specifically Narva—could be retained by the Russians and Velike Luki would be returned from Batory's control to Russia.<ref name=Roberts264/> Possevino made a half-hearted attempt to get John III's wishes taken into consideration, but this was vetoed by the Tsar, probably in collusion with Batory.<ref name=Roberts264/> The armistice, which fell short of a full peace arrangement, was to last ten years and was renewed twice, in 1591 and 1601.<ref>{{harvnb|Wernham|1968|p=393}}</ref> Batory failed in his attempts to pressure Sweden into relinquishing its gains in Livonia, particularly Narva.<ref name=Roberts264/>

Following a decision by John, the war with Russia ended when the Tsar concluded the [[Truce of Plussa]] (''Plyussa, Pljussa, Plusa'') with Sweden on 10 August 1583.<ref name=Roberts264/><ref name=Frost44>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=44}}</ref> Russia relinquished most of Ingria, leaving Narva and Ivangorod as well under Swedish control.<ref name=Frost44/> Originally scheduled to last three years, the Russo-Swedish truce was later extended until 1590.<ref name=Frost44/> During the negotiations, Sweden made vast demands for Russian territory, including Novgorod. Whilst these conditions were probably only for the purposes of negotiation, they may have reflected Swedish aspirations of territory in the region.<ref name=Roberts264/>

==Aftermath==

The post-war [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] south of the [[Düna]] (Daugava) river experienced a period of political stability based on the 1561 Treaty of Vilnius, later modified by the 1617 ''Formula regiminis'' and ''Statuta Curlandiæ'', which granted indigenous nobles additional rights at the duke's expense.<ref name=Dybas110>{{harvnb|Dybaś|2006|p=110}}</ref> North of the Düna, Batory reduced the privileges Sigismund had granted the [[Duchy of Livonia]], regarding the regained territories as the spoils of war.<ref name=Dybas109/> Riga's privileges had already been reduced by the [[Treaty of Drohiczyn]] in 1581.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen37>{{harvnb|Tuchtenhagen|2005|p=37}}</ref> [[Polish language|Polish]] gradually replaced [[German language|German]] as the administrative language and the establishment of [[voivodeships]] reduced the [[Baltic German]] administration.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen36>{{harvnb|Tuchtenhagen|2005|p=36}}</ref> The local clergy and the Jesuits in Livonia embraced the [[counter-reformation]]<ref name="Kahle17"/> in a process assisted by Batory, who gave the [[Roman Catholic Church]] revenues and estates confiscated from Protestants as well as initiating a largely unsuccessful recruitment campaign for Catholic colonists.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen38>{{harvnb|Tuchtenhagen|2005|p=38}}</ref> Despite these measures, the Livonian population did not convert ''en masse'', while the Livonian estates in Poland–Lithuania were alienated.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen38/>

[[File:Swedish Empire in the Baltic (1560-1721).png|thumb|Map showing Sweden in the Baltic, 1560 to 1721. Dates are those of occupation, and those in brackets dates of loss.]]
In 1590, the Russo-Swedish truce of Plussa expired and fighting resumed<ref name=Frost44/> while the ensuing [[Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)|Russo-Swedish War of 1590–5]] ended with the [[Treaty of Teusina]] (Tyavzino, Tyavzin), under which Sweden had to cede [[Ingria]] and [[Kexholm]] to Russia.<ref name=Frost45>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=45}}</ref> The Swedish–Polish alliance began to crumble when the Polish King and Grand Duke of Lithuania [[Sigismund III Vasa|Sigismund III]], who as son of [[John III of Sweden]] (died 1592) and Catherine Jagellonica, was the successor to the Swedish throne, met with resistance from a faction led by his uncle, [[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles of Södermanland]] (later Charles IX), who claimed regency in Sweden for himself.<ref name=Frost45/> Sweden descended into a civil war in 1597, followed by the 1598–1599 [[war against Sigismund]], which ended with the deposition of Sigismund by the Swedish ''[[Riksdag of the Estates|riksdag]]''.<ref name=Frost45/>

Local nobles turned to Charles for protection in 1600 when the conflict spread to Livonia, where Sigismund had tried to incorporate [[Swedish Estonia]] into the Duchy of Livonia.<ref name=Steinke120>{{harvnb|Steinke|2009|p=120}}</ref> Charles then expelled the Polish forces from Estonia<ref name=Steinke120/> and [[Polish–Swedish War (1600–1611)|invaded the Livonian duchy]], starting a series of [[Polish–Swedish War (1600–1629)|Polish–Swedish wars]].<ref name=Frost46>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=46}}</ref> At the same time, Russia was embroiled in civil war over the vacant Russian throne ("[[Time of Troubles]]") when none of the many claimants had prevailed. This conflict became intertwined with the Livonian campaigns when Swedish and Polish–Lithuanian forces intervened on opposite sides, the latter starting the [[Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)|Polish–Muscovite War]].<ref name=Frost46/> Charles IX's forces were expelled from Livonia<ref name=Frost47>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=47}}</ref> after major setbacks at the battles of [[Battle of Kokenhausen|Kokenhausen(1601)]] and [[Battle of Kircholm|Kircholm]] (1605).<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=62, 64ff}}</ref><ref name=Frost47/> During the later [[Ingrian War]], Charles' successor [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] retook Ingria and Kexholm which were formally ceded to Sweden under the 1617 [[Treaty of Stolbovo]]<ref name=Frost47/> along with the bulk of the Duchy of Livonia. In 1617, when Sweden had recovered from the [[Kalmar War]] with Denmark, several Livonian towns were captured, but only [[Pernau]] (Pärnu) remained under Swedish control after a [[Polish–Swedish War (1617–1618)|Polish–Lithuanian counter-offensive]].<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=102}}</ref> [[Polish–Swedish War (1621–1625)|A second campaign]] then started with the capture of Riga in 1621 and expelled Polish–Lithuanian forces from most of Livonia, where the [[Dominions of Sweden|dominion]] of [[Swedish Livonia]] was created.<ref name=Steinke120/> Swedish forces then advanced through [[Royal Prussia]] and Poland–Lithuania accepted Swedish gains in Livonia in the 1629 [[Treaty of Altmark]].<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=103}}</ref>

The [[Øsel|Danish province of Øsel]] was ceded to Sweden under the 1645 [[Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645)|Treaty of Brömsebro]], which ended the [[Torstenson War]], one theatre of the [[Thirty Years' War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=103–104}}</ref> It was retained after the [[Peace of Oliva]] and the [[Treaty of Copenhagen (1660)|Treaty of Copenhagen]], both in 1660.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=183}}</ref> The situation remained unchanged until 1710 when [[Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia|Estonia and Livonia capitulated to Russia]] during the [[Great Northern War]], an action formalised in the [[Treaty of Nystad]] (1721).<ref name=Kahle18>{{harvnb|Kahle|1984|p=18}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Livonians]]
* [[Russo-Turkish wars]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group="nb"}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
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* {{efron}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Seealso|Bibliography of the history of Poland|Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)|Bibliography of Ukrainian history}}
* {{citation |last=Karamzin |first=Nikolai Mikhailovich |author-link=Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin |title=Istoriya gosudarstva Rossiyskogo |language=ru |volume=VIII |chapter=III |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w851ixSKr9AC |publisher=Olma Media Group |location=Moscow |orig-year=1826 |year=2003 |isbn=978-5-224-04058-2}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
* Oscar Halecki, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090504232233/http://victorian.fortunecity.com/wooton/34/halecki/11.htm The Struggle for the Dominium Maris Baltici]
* William Urban, [http://www.lituanus.org/1983_3/83_3_02.htm The Origin of the Livonian War, 1558] (Lituanus, Volume 29, No.3 – Fall 1983)
* Andres Adamson, [http://www.tlulib.ee/files/arts/96/andre267b2fbf346f36611be2ffd9aedf3d07.pdf The Role of Duke Magnus of Holstein in the Baltic Sea Region during the Livonian War] (2006, dissertation)

{{Campaigns and treaties of the Livonian War}}
{{Lithuanian wars and conflicts}}
{{Polish wars and conflicts}}
{{Russian Conflicts}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Livonian War| ]]
[[Category:Northern Wars]]
[[Category:16th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Battles of the Livonian War| ]]
[[Category:Polish–Russian wars]]
[[Category:1558 in Lithuania]]
[[Category:1558 in Poland]]
[[Category:1558 in Russia]]
[[Category:1558 in Sweden]]
[[Category:1558 in Belarus]]
[[Category:1583 in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
[[Category:1583 in Russia]]
[[Category:1583 in Sweden]]
[[Category:Wars involving Sweden]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]

Estonian War of Independence

2023-04-14T13:16:46Z

3 Löwi: Soviet Union was founded in 1922, did not exist in 1918-1920, and hence was not involved in the War

{{short description|War between Estonia and Soviet Russia in 1918–1920}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Estonian War of Independence
| partof = [[Russian Civil War]]
| date = 28 November 1918 – 2 February 1920 ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=28|year1=1918|month2=02|day2=02|year2=1920}})
| place = [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], Northwestern [[Russia]]
| image = File:Estonian War of Independence, map.JPG
| image_size = 250px
| caption =
| territory = Independence of Estonia [[Vidzeme]] gained by the Republic of Latvia
| result = Estonian victory
| combatant1 = '''{{flag|Estonia}}'''
*[[Finland|Finnish]], [[Denmark|Danish]], and [[Sweden|Swedish]] volunteers
{{flag|Latvia}} {{flagcountry|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} {{Flagdeco|Russia}} [[White Movement|Russian White Movement]]
| combatant2 = '''{{flag|Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|1918|name=RSFSR}}'''
*[[Latvian Riflemen|Red Latvian Riflemen]]
| combatant3 = {{flagicon image|Baltic German.svg}} [[Baltische Landeswehr]] [[File:Flag of the Iron Division Freikorps.svg|border|22px]] [[Freikorps in the Baltic|Freikorps]]
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Estonia}} [[Johan Laidoner]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1918}} [[Jukums Vācietis]]
| commander3 = {{flagicon|German Empire}} [[Rüdiger von der Goltz]]
| strength1 = 7 January 1919: 4,450<ref name=maideIV>{{cite book |author=Jaan Maide |year=1933 |chapter=IV |title=Ülevaade Eesti Vabadussõjast (1918–1920)|chapter-url=http://www.ksk.edu.ee/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/4.Pealetungioperatsioonid_1919.pdf |publisher=Kaitseliidu kirjastus |location=Tartu|author-link=Jaan Maide}}</ref>–16,500<ref>Kaevats, Ülo: Eesti Entsüklopeedia. Valgus, 1990 http://entsyklopeedia.ee/artikkel/vabaduss%C3%B5da1 </ref>
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = no
| title = Including
| {{flagicon|Estonia}} 14,500 Estonian [[Estonian Defence League|national guard]] + [[Estonian army]] (in process of formation)
| {{flagdeco|UKGBI|naval}} 6th Light Cruiser Squadron of the [[Royal Navy]]<ref name=maideIV/>
| {{flagicon|Finland}} 2,000 [[Heimosodat|Finnish volunteers]] + respective number of Finnish officers,<ref name=maideII>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.ksk.edu.ee/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/2.Sojaplaanid.pdf |title=Ülevaade Eesti Vabadussõjast (1918–1920) |author=Jaan Maide |year=1933 |chapter=II |publisher=Kaitseliidu kirjastus |location=Tartu|author-link=Jaan Maide}}</ref>
| [[Baltic Germans|Baltic German]] forces{{efn|Although many Baltic Germans fought against the Republic of Estonia as part of the ''[[Baltische Landeswehr]]'', one regiment originally formed by ethnic German students fought as part of the Estonian Army until 1920, when it was disbanded.{{sfnp|Thomas|Boltowsky|2019|p=20}} }} }} May 1919: 86,000
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = no
| title = Including
| {{flagicon|Estonia}} [[Estonian army]] (74,500)<ref>Kaevats, Ülo: Eesti Entsüklopeedia. Valgus, 1990 http://entsyklopeedia.ee/artikkel/vabaduss%C3%B5da1 </ref>
| {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Northern Corps (Russia)|Northern Corps]] (2,750)
| {{flagicon|Latvia}} North [[Latvia]]n Brigade (1,500)
| Baltic Battalion (900)
| {{flagicon image|Inkerin lippu.svg}} [[Ingria]]n Battalion
| [[Swedes|Swedish]]/[[Danes|Danish]] volunteer companies<ref name=ents>{{cite book |chapter=Iseseisvuse aeg 1918–40 |title=Eesti. Üld. |publisher=Eesti entsüklopeedia |volume=11 |year=2002 |pages=296–311}}</ref>
| {{flagdeco|UKGBI|naval}} 1st Light Cruiser Squadron
}}
| strength2 = 7 January 1919: 5,750–7,250<ref name=maideIV/> 26 assault guns 3 armoured cars 1 armoured train 141 machine guns<ref name=maideIV/> May 1919: 80,000<ref name=ents/>
| strength3 = June 1919: 20,000<ref name=ents/>
| casualties1 = 3,588 killed<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://vas.muuseum.ee/vs_langenud.html |title=Vabadussoja Ajaloo Selts}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mil.ee/et/arhiiv/5556/kaitsev%C3%A4gi-m%C3%A4lestab-vabaduss%C3%B5jas-langenuid |title=Kaitsevägi mälestab Vabadussõjas langenuid - Kaitsevägi}}</ref> 15,000 injured<ref name=ents/>
| casualties2 = unknown 10,000 captured<ref name=encyclopaedia/>
| casualties3 = 400 killed 1,500 wounded<ref name=encyclopaedia2>Kaevats, Ülo: ''Eesti Entsüklopeedia 5'', page 396. Valgus, 1990, {{ISBN|5-89900-009-0}}</ref>
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Estonian War of Independence}}
}}
The '''Estonian War of Independence'''{{efn|{{lang-et|Vabadussõda}} (literally "Freedom War")}}, also known as the '''Estonian Liberation War''', was a defensive campaign of the [[Estonian Army]] and its allies, most notably the [[United Kingdom]], against the [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] [[Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919|westward offensive of 1918–1919]] and the 1919 aggression of the ''[[Baltische Landeswehr]]''. The campaign was the struggle of the newly established democratic nation of [[Estonia]] for independence in the aftermath of [[World War I]]. It resulted in a victory for Estonia and was concluded in the 1920 [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]].

==Preface==
During the 1917 [[Russian Revolution]], following the [[Bolshevik coup]] in November 1917, the newly elected provincial legislature ([[diet (assembly)|State diet]] or ''[[Estonian Provincial Assembly|Maapäev]]'') of the [[Autonomous Governorate of Estonia]] proclaimed itself the highest sovereign authority in Estonia, instead of the [[Bolsheviks]]. As a result, the Bolsheviks soon dissolved the ''Maapäev'' and temporarily forced the democratically elected Estonian leadership underground in the capital [[Tallinn]]. A few months later, in February 1918, using the interval between the Red Army's retreat and the arrival of the [[Imperial German]] Army, the [[Salvation Committee]] formed by ''[[Maapäev]]'' issued the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] in Tallinn on 24 February 1918<ref>[http://www.president.ee/en/estonia Estonian Declaration of Independence 24 February 1918] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522173844/http://www.president.ee/en/estonia |date=22 May 2009 }}</ref> and formed the [[Estonian Provisional Government]]. This first period of independence was extremely short-lived, as the [[Occupation of Estonia by the German Empire|German troops entered Tallinn]] the following day. The German authorities recognized neither the provisional government nor its claim for Estonia's independence.

After the [[German Revolution]] with the capitulation of [[Imperial Germany]] at the end of [[World War I]], 11–14 November 1918, the representatives of Germany formally handed over political power to the Estonian Provisional Government. On 16 November the provisional government called for voluntary mobilization and began to organize the Estonian Army, with [[Konstantin Päts]] as Minister of War, [[Major General]] [[Andres Larka]] as the [[chief of staff]], and [[Major General]] [[Aleksander Tõnisson]] as commander of the Estonian Army, initially consisting of one division.

==Course of the war==
{{Main|Timeline of the Estonian War of Independence}}
===Soviet westward offensive===
{{more citations needed section|date=January 2017}}
[[File:EstRcrtPstr1918.jpg|150px|left|thumb|"Brothers, Hurry to Join the Nation's Army!" Estonian Army Recruiting poster in 1918]]
In late November 1918, the [[Bolshevist]] [[Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919|Soviet Russian forces moved]] against Estonia. On 28 November 1918, the Soviet [[6th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|6th Red Rifle Division]] [[Battle of Narva (1918)|attacked]] the border town of [[Narva]], marking the beginning of the Estonian War of Independence.

The Soviet 6th Red Rifle Division attacked with 7,000 infantry, 22 [[field gun]]s, 111 [[machine gun]]s, an [[armored train]], two armored vehicles, two airplanes, and the [[Bogatyr class cruiser]] ''Oleg'' supported by two destroyers. The city was defended by men of the [[Estonian Defence League]] (Home Guard) (consisting partly of secondary school students) and [[Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 405]] of the [[German Army (German Empire)|German Army]]. The Reds captured Narva on 29 November and the Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 405 withdrew westwards.

The Soviet 2nd Novgorod Division opened a second front south of [[Lake Peipus]], with 7,000 infantry, 12 field guns, 50 machine guns, two armored trains, and three armored vehicles.

Estonian military forces at the time consisted of 2,000 men with light weapons and about 14,500 poorly armed men in the Estonian Defence League. The end of November 1918 saw the formation of the Baltic Battalion, primarily a mounted machine-gun company plus infantry. Estonia's [[Baltic German]] minority provided a sizable troop of volunteer militia for the Battalion, which was one of the first fighting units of the Estonian Army, and maintained staunch loyalty to the authority of the Republic. This contrasts with the ''[[Baltische Landeswehr]]'' in [[Latvia]].<ref name=maideII />

The 49th Red [[Latvian Riflemen|Latvian Rifle]] Regiment took the [[Valga, Estonia|Valga]] railway junction on 18 December and the city of Tartu on Christmas Eve. Also on Christmas Eve, the 6th Red Rifle Division captured the [[Tapa, Estonia|Tapa]] railway junction, advancing to within 34 kilometers of the nation's capital [[Tallinn]]. Estonian Bolsheviks declared the [[Estonian Workers' Commune]] in Narva.

By the end of the year, the [[7th Army (RSFSR)|7th Red Army]] controlled Estonia along the front line 34 kilometers east of Tallinn, west from Tartu and south of [[Ainaži]].<ref name=maideII/>

[[File:Johan Laidoner.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Kindral Laidoner|General Laidoner]] during the War of Independence]]
[[Colonel]] [[Johan Laidoner]] was appointed [[Commander in chief]] of the Estonian armed forces. He recruited 600 officers and 11,000 volunteers by 23 December 1918.

[[File:Soomusrong nr 1 ohvitserid.jpg|thumb|right|Officers of Estonian armoured train nr 1 in December 1918]]
He reorganized the forces by setting up the [[2nd Division (Estonia)|2nd Division]] in Southern Estonia under the command of Colonel [[Viktor Puskar]], along with commando units, such as the [[Tartumaa Partisan Battalion]] and the Kalevi Malev Battalion.

The national government obtained foreign assistance. On 5 December, Finland delivered 5,000 rifles and 20 field guns along with ammunition.

A British [[Royal Navy]] squadron commanded by [[Rear Admiral]] Sir [[Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair]] arrived at Tallinn on 31 December and delivered 6,500 rifles, 200 machine guns, and two field guns. The squadron captured two Russian destroyers, ''Spartak'' and ''Avtroil'', and turned them over to Estonia, which renamed them ''Vambola'' and ''Lennuk''.

On 2 January, Finnish volunteer units with 2,000 men arrived in Estonia.<ref name="maideII" /> Three armored trains were built in Tallinn under the command of [[sea captain]] [[Johan Pitka]] and [[Captain (land)|Captain]] [[Karl Parts]].

===Liberation of Estonian territory===
{{See also|Battle of Laagna|Battle of Utria|Battle of Paju}}
[[File:Tallinn24Feb1918.jpg|thumb|left|The first celebration of Estonian Independence Day in [[Tallinn]] on 24 February 1919]]
By the beginning of 1919, the Estonian Army had increased its ranks to a total of 13,000 men, with 5,700 on the front-facing 8,000 Soviets.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 10. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> The strengthened Estonian Army stopped the 7th Red Army's advance in its tracks between 2 and 5 January 1919 and went on the counter-offensive on 7 January.

Tapa was liberated two days later in a campaign highlighted by the implementation of the highly successful "soomusrongid" (armoured trains). This turn of events was swiftly followed by the liberation of the sizable town of Rakvere on 12 January.

In liberating Narva, a 1,000-strong Finnish-Estonian force [[Battle of Utria|landed at Utria]] to the rear of the Soviet 6th Rifle Division on 17 January. In so doing, retreat eastward for the Soviet forces was precluded. The following day Narva was liberated.

Consequent to this the northeastern front stabilized along the Narva river. Within 11 days, the [[1st Division (Estonia)|1st Division]] had advanced 200 km.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 98. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

In the southern sphere-of-conflict, Tartu was liberated through the rapid deployment of armored trains and the Tartumaa Partisan Battalion. The 2nd Division continued to advance southwards facing increasing Soviet resistance. In the [[Battle of Paju]], the Tartumaa Partisan Battalion and the Finnish volunteers drove the [[Latvian Riflemen#Red Latvian Riflemen|Latvian Riflemen]] out of Valga on 31 January.

[[File:Soomusrong nr 2 Valgas 1919.jpg|thumb|right|Estonian armoured train in [[Valga, Estonia|Valga]] in February 1919]]
The [[7th Army (RSFSR)|7th Red Army]] was routed outside the boundaries of contemporary Estonia and the battle-front continued outwards into the ancient, historical Estonian settlement area.<ref name=kork>''Estonian War of Independence 1918–1920''. Jyri Kork (Ed.). Esto, Baltimore, 1988 (Reprint from ''Estonian War of Independence 1918-1920''. Historical Committee for the War of Independence, Tallinn, 1938)</ref> The second half of February saw the Estonian southward advance capture [[Salacgrīva]] and [[Alūksne]]. This advance was soon stopped by a Soviet buildup ostensibly for a new expansionist offensive into Estonia. On the first [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|Independence Day]] of 24 February 1919, the pro-independence Estonian forces on the front consisted of 19,000 men, 70 field guns, and 230 machine guns. Estonia had become the first country to repel the [[Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919|Soviet westward offensive]].<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 115. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

In the second half of February, the Red armies started the new Soviet offensive to capture Estonia. To this end, the Soviets established what was referred to as the new [[Estonian Red Riflemen|'Estonian' Red Army]]. This sizable force consisted upwards of 80,000 conscripts.

In positions along the Narva River the Estonian 1st Division and their allied [[White Movement|White Russian]] Northern Corps repelled the 7th Red Army's attacks.<ref name=kork/> The Red Army heavily bombarded Narva, leaving about 2,000 people homeless yet ultimately failed to capture the city. The majority of Soviet forces were concentrated at and along the southern front. The so-called 'Estonian' Red Army captured [[Alūksne]], [[Setomaa]], [[Vastseliina]], and Räpina parishes by 15 March.

Having received reinforcements, the Estonian 2nd Division counterattacked and regained [[Petseri]] by 29 March. Subsequently, the 'Estonian' Red Army was pushed behind the Optjok River.

On 27 March, the Estonian [[3rd Division (Estonia)|3rd Division]] was deployed along the western flank of the southern front under the command of Major-General [[Ernst Põdder]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaitseväe ajalugu |url=http://www.mil.ee/?menu=kaitsevagi&sisu=kvaja1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208204009/http://mil.ee/?menu=kaitsevagi&sisu=kvaja1 |archive-date=8 February 2009 |url-status=dead |access-date=2009-09-29 }}</ref> At Võru, the situation became critical on 22 April when the Red Army approached to within 1.5 km of the town. Heavy fighting continued at the southeastern front up to the first half of May.

On 25 April, the Latvian Riflemen captured [[Rūjiena]], but were soon pushed back by the 3rd Division to [[Salacgrīva]]-[[Seda, Latvia|Seda]]-[[Gauja River|Gauja]] line.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', pages 126-127. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

===Estonian elections and formation of foreign units===
[[File:Estonian soldiers at Constituent Assembly election.jpg|thumb|right|Estonian soldiers participating in [[1919 Estonian Constituent Assembly election|Constituent Assembly election]] in April 1919]]
On 5–7 April 1919 the [[Estonian Constituent Assembly]] was elected. The elections were won by the Left and Centre parties.<ref>Miljan, Toivo: ''Historical dictionary of Estonia '', page 140. Scarecrow Press, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8108-4904-6}}</ref> The 120 members of the Constituent Assembly met at the opening session on 23 April and elected Social Democrat [[August Rei]] as chairman. The provisional government retired, and a new government headed by [[Otto Strandman]] was formed. On 4 June the assembly adopted a temporary Constitution of Estonia.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 131. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> On 10 October the [[Land Reform]] Act was passed, which confiscated and redistributed the large [[Baltic German]] estates that covered more than half of the territory of Estonia.<ref>O'Connor, Kevin: ''The history of the Baltic States'', page 88. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0-313-32355-3}}</ref>

Estonia actively helped to organize White Russian, Latvian and [[Ingrian people|Ingrian]] forces on the territory of the Republic. The White Russian [[Northern Corps (Russia)|Northern Corps]] had been organizing in Estonia since December 1918. On 18 February, an agreement was signed between Estonia and Latvia, which allowed formation of Latvian forces under Estonian command but using them only on the southern front. The North Latvian Brigade under the command of [[Jorģis Zemitāns]] was formed from the citizens of Latvia who had fled to Estonia.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', pages 137-138. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> In March 1919, an agreement was signed with the Ingrian National People's Committee for the formation of an Ingrian battalion. By May 1919, there were 6,000 Russians, 4,000 Latvians and 700 Ingrians in their respective national units.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 11. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

===Offensives into Russia and Latvia===
[[File:Vabadussõda Erküla, 1919.jpg|thumb|left|Estonian soldiers near Ārciems in Latvia in May 1919]]
Although the Estonian Army had attained control over its country, the opposing Red armies were still active. The Estonian High Command decided to push their defense lines across the border into Russia in support of the White Russian Northern Corps. On 13 May, the Northern Corps went on the offensive at Narva, catching the Soviets by surprise and destroying their 6th Division.<ref name="Traksmaa, August page 141">Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 141. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> The offensive was supported along the [[Gulf of Finland]]'s coast by the British and Estonian navy and marines. With the front approaching, the garrison of the [[Krasnaya Gorka fort]] mutinied. But the 7th Red Army received reinforcements and counterattacked, pushing the White Russians back, until the front was stabilised with the support from the Estonian 1st Division on the [[Luga River|Luga]] and Saba rivers.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 142. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

The offensive of the Estonian Petseri Battle Group began on 24 May. The 600 troops of 1st Estonian Rifle Regiment of the Red Army together with Leonhard Ritt, commander of the [[:et:1. Eesti Kütidiviis|1st Estonian Rifle Division]] switched sides on the same day.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 145. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref><ref>Raun, Toivo U.: ''Estonia and Estonians'', page 108. Hoover Press, 2001, {{ISBN|9780817928520}}</ref> An offensive destroyed the Estonian Red Army, captured [[Pskov]] on 25 May and cleared the territory between Estonia and the [[Velikaya River]] of Soviet forces.<ref name=kork/> A few days later White Russian forces arrived in Pskov, but as they were unable to defend the town on their own, some Estonian forces remained in Pskov, while the rest were pulled back to the state border. The Northern Corps mobilised members of the local population in the [[Pskov Oblast|Pskov region]]. On 19 June 1919, the Estonian Commander-in-Chief General [[Johan Laidoner]] rescinded his command over the White Russians, and they were renamed the [[Northwestern Army (Russia)|Northwestern Army]]. Shortly afterwards, General [[Nikolai N. Yudenich]] took command of the troops.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', pages 141. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

[[File:Estonian army parade in Pskov.png|thumb|right|Estonian army parade in [[Pskov]] on 28 May 1919]]
Simultaneously with the Pskov offensive Estonian 2nd and 3rd divisions also started southward offensive into Northern-Latvia. By the end of May they had captured [[Alūksne]] and [[Valmiera]]. Due to simultaneous German-Latvian offensives in Western-Latvia, the situation was becoming very difficult for the Soviets. On 31 May, an Estonian cavalry regiment led by [[:et:Gustav Jonson|Gustav Jonson]] reached [[Gulbene]], capturing large amount of rolling stock, including 2 armoured trains.<ref name="Traksmaa, August page 147">Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 147. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> a rapid offensive of the 2nd Division, spearheaded by its cavalry regiment, continued and on 6 June it crossed [[Daugava river]] and captured [[Jēkabpils]],<ref name=mangulis>Mangulis, Visvaldis: [http://www.historia.lv/publikacijas/gramat/mangulis/06.nod.htm#re048 ''Latvia in the Wars of the 20th Century''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120411074429/http://www.historia.lv/publikacijas/gramat/mangulis/06.nod.htm |date=2012-04-11 }}, page 50. Cognition Books, 1983, {{ISBN|9780912881003}}</ref> but the 3rd Division could not support the advance of the 2nd division anymore as it was now facing a new enemy: the ''[[Baltische Landeswehr]]''.<ref name="Traksmaa, August page 147"/>

===War against the Landeswehr===
{{main|Baltische Landeswehr|Freikorps in the Baltic|West Russian Volunteer Army}}
[[File:Patarei nr 1 1919.jpg|thumb|left|Estonian artillery in war against the Landeswehr]]
The war against the [[Baltische Landeswehr]] broke out on the southern front in Latvia on 5 June 1919. The Latvian democrats led by [[Kārlis Ulmanis]] had declared independence as in Estonia but were soon pushed back to [[Liepāja]] by Soviet forces, where the [[German Army (German Empire)|German]] VI Reserve Corps finally stopped their advance. This German force, led by general [[Rüdiger von der Goltz]], consisted of the [[Baltische Landeswehr]] formed from [[Baltic Germans]], the Guards Reserve Division of former Imperial German Army soldiers who had stayed in Latvia, and the Freikorps [[Freikorps in the Baltic|Iron Division]] of volunteers motivated by prospects of acquiring properties in the Baltics.<ref name=enc>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&q=%22VI.+Reserve-Corps%22&pg=PA493 |title=The Encyclopedia of World War I: A political, social, and military history |editor=Spencer C. Tucker |chapter=Goltz, Rüdiger von der, Count (1865-1946) |pages=492–493 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=[[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]], [[California]] |year=2005|isbn=9781851094202 }}</ref> This was possible because the terms of their armistice with the Western Allies obliged the Germans to maintain their armies in the East to counter the Bolshevist threat. The VI Reserve Corps also included the 1st Independent Latvian Battalion led by [[Oskars Kalpaks]], which consisted of ethnic Latvians loyal to the Provisional Government of Latvia.<ref name=maideIV/>

The Germans disrupted the organization of Latvian national forces, and on 16 April 1919 the Provisional Government was toppled and replaced with the pro-German puppet Provisional Government of Latvia led by [[Andrievs Niedra]].<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 149. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref><ref>Liulevicius, Vejas G.: ''War land on the Eastern Front: culture, national identity and German occupation in World War I'', page 231. Cambridge University Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0-521-66157-9}}</ref> Ulmanis took refuge aboard the steamship "Saratow" under [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] protection. The VI Reserve Corps pushed the Soviets back, capturing Riga on 23 May, continued to advance northwards, and demanded that the Estonian Army ended its occupation of parts of northern [[Latvia]]. The real intent of the VI Reserve Corps was to annex Estonia into a German-dominated puppet state.

[[File:Shot down Landeswehr plane.jpg|thumb|right|Landeswehr plane shot down by Estonian forces]]
On 3 June, Estonian General Laidoner issued an ultimatum demanding that German forces must pull back southwards, leaving the [[broad gauge]] railway between Ieriķi and [[Gulbene]] under Estonian control. When Estonian armoured trains moved out on 5 June to check compliance with this demand, the Baltische Landeswehr attacked them, unsuccessfully.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 150. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> The following day, the Baltische Landeswehr captured [[Cēsis]]. On 8 June, an Estonian counterattack was repelled. The first clashes demonstrated that the VI Reserve Corps was stronger and better equipped than the Soviets. On 10 June, with Entente mediation, a ceasefire was made. Despite the Entente demand for the German force to pull behind the line demanded by the Estonians, von der Goltz refused and demanded Estonian withdrawal from Latvia, threatening to continue fighting. On 19 June, fighting resumed with an assault of the Iron Division on positions of the Estonian 3rd Division near [[Limbaži]] and [[Straupe]], starting the [[Battle of Cēsis (1919)|Battle of Cēsis]]. At that time, the 3rd Estonian Division, including the 2nd Latvian Cēsis regiment under Colonel [[Krišjānis Berķis]], had 5990 infantry and 125 cavalry. Intensive German attacks on Estonian positions continued up to 22 June, without achieving a breakthrough. On 23 June, the Estonian 3rd Division counterattacked, recapturing Cēsis. The anniversary of the Battle of Cēsis (''Võnnu lahing'' in Estonian) is celebrated in Estonia as the [[Victory Day#June 23 in Estonia|Victory Day]].

The Estonian 3rd Division continued their advance towards Riga. On 3 July, when the Estonian forces were at the outskirts of Riga, a ceasefire was made on the demand of the Entente and the Ulmanis government was restored in Riga. The German forces were ordered to leave Latvia, the Baltische Landeswehr was put under the command of the Latvian Provisional Government and sent to fight against the Red Army. However, to circumvent Entente's orders, the troops of the disbanded VI Reserve Corps, instead of leaving, were incorporated into the [[West Russian Volunteer Army]], officially hired by the German puppet Government of Latvia and led by [[Pavel Bermondt-Avalov]].<ref name=kork/> In October, fighting restarted when the West Russian Volunteer Army attacked Riga. Following the Latvian request to help, Estonia sent two armoured trains to aid repelling the German attack. The Estonian army also remained to support the defence of Latvia against Soviets by defending the front north of [[Lake Lubāns]].<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 162. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

===Final battles and peace negotiations===
{{See also|Battle of Krivasoo}}
[[File:EstArmyHighCommnd1920.jpg|thumb|left|Estonian Army High Command in 1920
{{Collapsible list
| bullets = no
| title = Names
| ''From upper left:''
| Major General [[Ernst Põdder]]
| Dr. [[Artur Lossmann|Arthur Lossmann]]
| Major General [[Aleksander Tõnisson]]
| Colonel [[Karl Parts]]
| Colonel [[Viktor Puskar]]
| Colonel Jaan Rink
| ''From bottom left:''
| Major General [[Andres Larka]]
| Major General [[Jaan Soots]]
| Commander-in-chief Lieutenant General [[Johan Laidoner]]
| Admiral [[Johan Pitka]]
| Colonel [[Rudolf Reimann]]
}}]]
Soviet Russia had been attempting to conclude a peace since the spring of 1919. On 25 April 1919, Hungarian Communists offered to mediate a settlement between the Bolsheviks and the Estonians, but [[Walter Cowan|Admiral Cowan]] threatened withdrawal of support to the Estonians unless they rejected the Hungarian offer.<ref name="Rushton">{{cite web |last=Rushton |first=James A. |title=OPERATIONALIZING DISSUASION (Thesis) |publisher=NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL, [[Monterey]], [[California]] |date=June 2006 |url=http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/theses/rushton06.pdf |access-date=2008-07-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916024057/http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/theses/rushton06.pdf |archive-date=2008-09-16 }}</ref> The Russians then publicly broached the subject of peace talks in a radio broadcast on 27 and 28 April. On 5 June the Estonian Commune was abolished. A subsequent broadcast by the Russians on 21 July led to the British journalist [[Arthur Ransome]] sounding out the Commissar for Foreign Relations [[Georgy Chicherin]] on the subject of peace talks. As a result, the Soviet government made a formal offer for negotiations on 31 August 1919. The Estonians accepted on 4 September, and delegations started talks on 16 September. Estonia then proposed to stop the negotiations until Latvia, Lithuania and Finland have agreed to participate in joint negotiations.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 174. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref>

In the autumn, the Northwestern Army launched operation White Sword, a major effort to capture [[Petrograd]]. With the arms provided by Britain and France, and the operational support by the Estonian Army, [[Estonian Navy]], and Royal Navy, the Northwestern Army began the offensive on 28 September 1919.<ref>Операция "Белый меч" /28 сентября – 23 октября 1919 года/ Белая гвардия website</ref> Estonia supported the Northwestern Army due to the demands of the Entente.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 180. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> The Estonian forces made joint naval and land attacks against the [[Krasnaya Gorka fort]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.baltdefcol.org/files/files/BalticMilitaryHistory/Newsletter_2014-10.pdf |title=Krasnaja Gorka Operation 13 October – 9 November 1919 (Baltic Military History Newsletter) |date=October 2014 |website=baltdefcol.org |publisher=[[Baltic Defence College]] |access-date=24 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128113808/http://www.baltdefcol.org/files/files/BalticMilitaryHistory/Newsletter_2014-10.pdf |archive-date=28 January 2015 }}</ref> while the Estonian 2nd Division attempted to destroy bridges over the [[Velikaya River]] and the Estonian 3rd Division attacked towards [[Pytalovo]]. The Northwestern Army approached to 16 kilometres (10 miles) from Petrograd, but the Red Army repulsed the White Russian troops back to the [[Narva River]].<ref name=kork/> Distrustful of the White Russians, the Estonian High Command disarmed and interned the remains of the Northwestern Army that retreated behind the state border.<ref name="Fletcher">Fletcher, William A. ''The British navy in the Baltic, 1918–1920: Its contribution to the independence of the Baltic nations'', Journal of Baltic Studies, 1976, pp134 - 144</ref>

[[File:Patarei nr 2 1919.jpg|thumb|right|Estonian field battery near Narva in late 1919]]
The 7th and 15th Soviet Armies advancing behind collapsing White Russian forces [[Battle of Krivasoo (1919)|continued to attack]] the fortified positions at the state border near Narva. The first clashes took place on [[Luga River]] on 16 November, starting the conclusive battles with 120,000 Soviets facing 40,000 Estonians.<ref name=encyclopaedia>Kaevats, Ülo: ''Eesti Entsüklopeedia 10'', page 123. Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus, 1998, {{ISBN|5-89900-054-6}}</ref> After repeated attacks, the 7th Red Army managed to achieve some limited success. At the end of November, the situation on the front calmed, as the Soviets needed to replenish their forces. In order to pressure Estonia in the peace talks, intensive Soviet attacks restarted on 7 December.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', page 200. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> On 16 December, the situation became critical as forward units of the 15th Red Army crossed the Narva River. The next day, an Estonian counterattack pushed the Soviets back. The Estonian high command actively reinforced the 1st Division at Narva during the battles, sending in the headquarters of the 3rd Division. General Tõnisson became commander of the [[Virumaa|Viru]] Front. After suffering 35,000 casualties in heavy battles, the Red Army was completely exhausted by the end of December.<ref name=encyclopaedia/>

On 19 November, the new government of [[Jaan Tõnisson]] decided to restart talks with Soviet Russia, even without the participation of other Baltic countries.<ref>Traksmaa, August: ''Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu'', pages 223–224. Olion, 1992, {{ISBN|5-450-01325-6}}</ref> Negotiations began on 5 December, with the main point of dispute being territorial issues. Talks continued through December, with both sides pressing their territorial demands, while heavy fighting continued at Narva. The peace treaty was finally concluded on 31 December 1919, and the ceasefire came into effect on 3 January 1920.<ref name=rauch>Georg von Rauch, ''The Baltic States: The Years of Independence 1917–1940'', Hurst & Co, 1974, p70</ref>

==Foreign assistance==
{{main|British Campaign in the Baltic 1918–1919|Heimosodat}}
[[File:Inglise laevastik Koporje lahes.jpg|thumb|left|British squadron in [[Koporye Bay]] in October 1919]]
Foreign assistance, mostly from the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Finland]], played a very important role during the early stages of war.

British naval and air forces arrived in December 1918, after lobbying in London by Estonian politicians. At this time, the new Estonian government was weak and desperate, and the Estonian Prime Minister even asked that his state be declared a [[British protectorate]], but Britain would not meet this plea.<ref>Kinvig, p. 138</ref> However, the British squadron delivered 6500 rifles, 200 machine guns, 2 field guns, also two Soviet destroyers were captured near Tallinn and turned over to Estonia. A [[Royal Navy]] squadron continued to provide artillery support on the coast and also protected the Estonian flank against the Russian [[Baltic Fleet]]. The United Kingdom remained Estonia's main supplier of arms and equipment during the war.

While the British navy provided considerable support, the historian William Fletcher concludes that ''"the British naval force would have had little effect on the outcome of Baltic affairs had not the Estonians and Latvians provided a vibrant and disciplined land and sea force"''.<ref name="Fletcher"/> The British contributed 88 ships to the Baltic campaign, of which 16 were sunk.<ref name="kinvig">Kinvig, p. 289</ref> 128 British servicemen died in the campaign, 9 were captured and at least 27 were wounded.<ref name="kinvig" />

[[File:FinnVlntrsTllnnDc1918.jpg|thumb|Finnish volunteers arrive in Tallinn, Estonia in December 1918]]
Concerned with having Bolshevik rule in the South, Finland delivered funds and weapons.{{sfn|Tepora|Roselius|2014|p=138}} Finland provided 5000 rifles and 20 field guns by 12 December. Finland also sent 3500 volunteers. [[Pohjan Pojat]] led by [[Hans Kalm]] fought at the Southern Front, including at the [[Battle of Paju]], while I Suomalainen Vapaajoukko led by Martin Ekström fought at the Viru Front, including at the [[Battle of Utria]]. Finnish volunteers returned to Finland on March–April 1919, having lost 150 men.

[[Danish-Baltic Auxiliary Corps]] with approximately 200 men was formed under the command of Captain [[Richard Gustav Borgelin]] in April 1919. The company took part in battles against Bolsheviks in Latvia and near Pskov and 19 men were killed by the time their contract ended in September. R. G. Borgelin was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and given [[Maidla, Juuru Parish|Maidla manor]] in gratitude for his services.

The Swedish volunteer unit under the command of [[Carl Mothander]] was formed in Sweden in early 1919. In March 1919, 178 volunteers took part in scout missions in Virumaa. In April, the company was sent to the Southern front and took part of the battles near Pechory. In May, the company was disbanded with some volunteers joining other units and the rest returning to Sweden.

==Tartu Peace Treaty==
{{Main|Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)}}
[[File:Eesti delegatsiooni liikmed Tartu rahu sõlmimisel. Vasakult - Jaan Poska, kindral Jaan Soots, kolonel Victor Mutt. Fotograaf Armin Lomp (1883-1936).jpg|thumb|Part of the Estonian delegation at the negotiations of the Treaty of Tartu (left to right): [[Jaan Poska]], [[Jaan Soots]] and [[Victor Mutt]].]]
On 2 February 1920, the Peace [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]] was signed by the Republic of Estonia and [[RSFSR]]. At this point, the Bolshevist regime had not been recognized by any Western power. The terms of the treaty stated that Russia renounced in perpetuity all rights to the territory of Estonia. The agreed frontier corresponded roughly with the position of the front line at the cessation of hostilities. In particular, Estonia retained a strategic strip to the east of the Narva river (''Narvataguse'') and Setumaa in the southeast, areas which were lost in early 1945 – shortly after Soviet troops had taken control of Estonia, when Moscow transferred the land East of the Narva River and most of [[Petseri County]] to the [[RSFSR]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Estonia|World War I|War|History}}
{{Main|List of wars of independence}}
* [[Timeline of the Estonian War of Independence]]
* [[History of Estonia]]
* [[Latvian War of Independence]]
* [[Lithuanian Wars of Independence]]
* [[Ukrainian War of Independence]]
* [[Finnish Civil War]]
* [[Cross of Liberty (Estonia)|Cross of Liberty]]
* [[War of Independence Victory Column]]
* [[Commemorative Medal for the Estonian War of Independence]]
* [[Vaps Movement]]
* ''[[Names in Marble]]''
* ''[[The Young Eagles]]''

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
* Kinvig, Clifford, ''Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia 1918–1920'', London 2006, {{ISBN|1-85285-477-4}}.
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Tepora |editor-first1=Tuomas |editor-last2=Roselius |editor-first2=Aapo |date=2014 |title=The Finnish Civil War 1918: History, Memory, Legacy |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004280717 }}
* {{cite book| last1 = Thomas| first1 = Nigel| last2 = Boltowsky| first2 = Toomas| title = Armies of the Baltic Independence Wars 1918–20| publisher = Osprey Publishing| date = 2019| location = Oxford| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=HnmGDwAAQBAJ| isbn = 9781472830777}}

==External links==
* Estonica: [http://www.estonica.org/en/History/1914-1920_The_First_World_War_and_Estonian_independence/Estonian_War_of_Independence/ Estonian War of Independence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512040625/http://www.estonica.org/en/History/1914-1920_The_First_World_War_and_Estonian_independence/Estonian_War_of_Independence/ |date=12 May 2017 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.bdcol.ee/files/docs/bdreview/bdr-2002-8-11.pdf |title=''The Baltic States from 1914 to 1923: The First World War and the Wars of Independence''}} {{small|(1.24 [[Mebibyte|MiB]])}} - in ''Baltic Defence Review'' No.8 Volume 2/2002

{{World War I}}
{{Estonia topics}}
{{Russian Revolution 1917}}
{{Russian Conflicts}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Estonian War of Independence| ]]
[[Category:Wars involving Estonia]]
[[Category:Wars involving Russia]]
[[Category:Estonia–Russia relations]]

Amandus Adamson

2023-04-12T09:13:40Z

3 Löwi: Köler

{{short description|Estonian sculptor and painter}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
[[File:Amandus Adamson 1914.jpeg|thumb|Amandus Adamson in 1914.]]
[[File:Paldiski, maja, kus elas ja töötas Amandus Adamson.jpg|thumb|The house in Paldiski, where Amandus Adamson lived and worked.]]
'''Amandus Heinrich Adamson''' (12 November 1855 near [[Paldiski]], [[Estonia]], then [[Russian Empire]] — 26 June 1929 in Paldiski, Estonia) was an Estonian [[sculptor]] and painter.

==Life==
Adamson was born in 1855 into an Estonian-speaking seafaring family at Uuga-Rätsepa, near [[Paldiski]] by the [[Gulf of Finland]]. His father, of local partially [[Estonian Swedes|Swedish]]{{efn|In a 24 September 1925 congratulatory article ahead of his<ref>{{ill|Amandus Adamson|et}}</ref> 70th birthday, the Estonian newspaper ''[[Postimees]]'' wrote in a biographical paragraph that his father had originated “from an old Swedish family”.}}<ref>{{cite news|author1=Postimees Editorial|url=https://dea.digar.ee/?l=en|title=Kujur Amandus Adamsoni aupäewaks|access-date=8 March 2023|work=Postimees|date=24 September 1925|format=Feature story to celebrate subject’s 70th birthday|quote="(His) father was a ship captain, sprung from an old Swedish family, whereas mother was Estonian and only Estonian was spoken at the parents’ house." (''Isa oli laewakapten, wõrsunud wanast Rootsi sugust, kuna ema oli eestlane ja wanemate majas ainult Eesti keelt räägiti.'')|language=et}}</ref> descent and a merchant vessel captain by profession, sailed to the United States in 1860, participated in the American Civil War, but never returned to Estonia and lost contact with his family after 1869.

Adamson excelled in wood carving as a child. He moved to [[St. Petersburg]] in 1875 to study at the [[Imperial Academy of Arts]] under [[Alexander von Bock|Alexander Bock]]. After graduation he continued to work as a sculptor and teacher in St. Petersburg, with an interruption from 1887 through 1891 to study in Paris and Italy, influenced by the French sculptors [[Jules Dalou]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]].

Adamson produced his best-known work in 1902: His [[Russalka Memorial]] in [[Tallinn]], dedicated to the 177 lost sailors of the [[Russian monitor Rusalka|Russian warship ''Rusalka'']], features a bronze angel on a slender column. Some of his other work is architectural, e.g., his four allegorical bronzes for the [[Eliseyev Emporium (Saint Petersburg)|Elisseeff department store]] in St. Petersburg (for architect [[Gavriil Baranovsky]]), and the French-style [[caryatids]] and finial figures for the [[Singer House]] (for architect [[Pavel Suzor]]) are major components of the "Russian [[Art Nouveau]]" visible along [[Nevsky Prospekt]].

He was named an academician of the Imperial Academy in 1907. In 1911 Adamson, as a result of a competition arranged by the Imperial Academy, received the commission for the monument to the Tricentennial of the [[House of Romanov]]. It was to be erected in Kostroma. Adamson invested all of his money into the project, which was never finished due to the 1917 Russian Revolution. In 1918, during the [[Estonian War of Independence]], Adamson returned to his home town of [[Paldiski]] in northwestern Estonia, where he would spend most of the rest of his life, except for the larger part of 1922, when he worked in Italy.

During the years of independent Estonia Adamson was commissioned to sculpt multiple monuments dedicated to the War of Independence, including one in Pärnu at the Alevi cemetery, where he himself was ultimately buried. In the 1940s and 1950s, almost all of these monuments were destroyed by the Soviet authorities; since Estonia regained independence in 1991, most of them have been restored.

In addition to war memorials Adamson also created the first monument to an Estonian – [[Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald]]. Adamson's last work was the monument dedicated to a beloved national poetess [[Lydia Koidula]] in Pärnu.

==Selected works==
The work of Adamson varies in style and material. He sculpted monuments in Estonia, [[Saint Petersburg]] and the [[Crimean Peninsula|Crimea]], as well as architectural sculpture, [[Allegory|allegorical]] figures, and portraits.

* ''Fisherman from the Island of [[Muhu]]'' (plaster, 1892)
* ''In Anxious Expectation'' (bronze, 1897)
* [[allegorical sculpture]]s of ''Commerce, Industry, Science'' and ''Arts'' on the façade of [[Eliseyev Emporium (Saint Petersburg)|Elisseeff Emporium]] in St.Petersburg (bronze, 1902)
* The [[Russalka Memorial]], [[Kadriorg]] (1902)
* allegorical sculpture for the [[Singer House]], St. Petersburg (1902–1904)
* ''Tšempion'' (English: ''Champion''), bronze sculpture of Estonian strongman [[Georg Lurich]] (1903)<ref>[https://www.err.ee/591075/kuulus-lurichi-skulptuur-muudi-kunstioksjonil-57-200-euro-eest err.ee]</ref>
* ''Boats Lost at Sea'', [[Sevastopol]] (1904)
* Memorial to Estonian painter [[Johann Köler]], [[Suure-Jaani]] Cemetery (1912)
* Monument to the [[Estonian War of Independence|Estonian War of Liberation]] (1928, destroyed 1945)
* Monument to the Estonian poetess [[Lydia Koidula]], [[Pärnu]] (1929)

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Eesti Vabadussõjas langenute Kuressaare mälestussammas.jpg|Copy of the original Monument to the [[Estonian War of Independence]], [[Kuressaare]]
Image:TheLastSigh.jpg|''The Ship's Last Sigh'', in [[Bisque (pottery)|bisque]], 1899
Image:AmandusAdamsonRussalka.jpg|Sailors of the [[Rusalka (ship)|Ironclad warship Russalka]]
File:Дом Зингера 5.jpg|Finial figures and globe, [[Singer House]]. St. Petersburg, 1902–1904
File:Scuttled ships.jpg|Monument to the Scuttled Ships, Sevastopol, Crimea, 1905
File:Johann Köleri haud.JPG|Memorial to Estonian painter [[Johann Köler]], [[Suure-Jaani]] cemetery, 1912
File:Pärnu Vabadussõja mälestussammas.jpg|Monument to the Estonian War of Independence, [[Pärnu]], 1922
File:F R Kreutzwaldi monument Vorus.JPG|Monument to [[Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald]], [[Võru]], 1926
File:Lydia Koidula monument1.jpg|Monument to [[Lydia Koidula]], Pärnu, 1929
</gallery>

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
* Amandus Adamson, 1855–1929, by Tiina Nurk, Eesti NSV Kunst (1959)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170106103116/http://www.mg.edu.ee/comenius/index.php?show=9&lang=ENG&page=tallinn Amandus Adamson]
* [http://amandusadamson.ee/amandus-adamson]

==External links==
*[http://www.post.ee/?id=1595&product_id=816&c_tpl=1019 Estonian postage stamp]

{{commons category|Amandus Adamson}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adamson, Amandus}}
[[Category:1855 births]]
[[Category:1929 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Paldiski]]
[[Category:People from the Governorate of Estonia]]
[[Category:Sculptors from the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Architectural sculptors]]
[[Category:19th-century Estonian painters]]
[[Category:19th-century Estonian male artists]]
[[Category:20th-century Estonian sculptors]]
[[Category:20th-century Estonian male artists]]

Rüdiger von der Goltz

2023-04-12T09:07:15Z

3 Löwi: more accurate timing of the ("June 1919", not just 1919) defeat against Estonia

{{Short description|German military personnel}}

{{more footnotes needed|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix = '''[[Graf]]'''
| name = Rüdiger von der Goltz
| image = Face detail, from- General count von der Goltz, the Commander of the expeditionary force into Finland. May 1918 - NARA - 17391746 (cropped).jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| nickname =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1865|12|08|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Züllichau]], [[Province of Brandenburg]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]], [[German Confederation]] (present-day Sulechow, [[Lubusz Voivodeship]], [[Poland]])
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1946|11|04|1865|12|08|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Bernbeuren]], [[Upper Bavaria]], [[Bavaria]], [[Allied-occupied Germany#American Zone of Occupation|Allied-occupied Germany]]
| placeofburial =
| allegiance = {{flag|German Empire}}
| branch = [[German Army (German Empire)|Imperial German Army]]
| serviceyears = 1885–1918
| rank = [[Major General]]
| unit =
| commands = [[Baltic Sea Division]] [[Baltische Landeswehr]]
| battles = [[First World War]] [[Finnish Civil War]] [[Latvian War of Independence]] [[Estonian War of Independence]]
| awards = [[Iron Cross]] 1st Class Iron Cross 2nd Class [[Pour le Mérite]] Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Cross of Liberty]] with crossed swords and precious stones
| relations =
| laterwork =
}}

'''Gustav Adolf Joachim Rüdiger Graf<ref>{{German title Graf}}</ref> von der Goltz''' (8 December 1865 – 4 November 1946) was a German army general during the [[World War I|First World War]].<ref>{{German title Graf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=World War I |last=Tucker |first=Spencer |author2=Priscilla Mary Roberts|year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-420-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1cMtKQP3P8C&dq=9s_TSJbpA4PqjgG0xPHmAw&pg=RA1-PA493 }}</ref> He commanded the [[Baltic Sea Division]], which successfully intervened in the [[Finnish Civil War]] in the spring of 1918. Goltz stayed with his troops in Finland until December 1918 representing German interests, and in practice ruled the country as a military dictator during this period. After the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]], Goltz commanded the army of the [[Baltic German|local German]]-established government of [[Latvia]], which in 1919 was instrumental in the defeat of the Russian [[Bolsheviks]] and their local allies in Latvia. The troops commanded by Goltz suffered a [[Battle of Cesis (1919)|defeat against Estonia]] in June 1919 and were eventually unsuccessful in retaining German control over Latvia and Estonia after World War I.

== Early life ==
Born into the [[Von der Goltz|Goltz]] noble family in [[Züllichau]], [[Brandenburg]], he was the son of Count Gustav Albrecht von der Goltz (1831-1909) and his wife, Cäcilie von Perbandt (1839-1871).<ref>https://www.genealogics.org/getperson.php?personID=I00411330&tree=LEO</ref>

== Career ==
A Major-General commanding the [[1st Foot Guards (German Empire)|1st Foot Guard Regiment]] in France, he was transferred to Finland in March 1918 to help the nationalist government in the [[Finnish Civil War|civil war]] against the Finnish "Reds" and [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russian]] troops. He commanded the German expedition unit ("[[Baltic Sea Division]]") which landed at [[Hanko, Finland|Hanko]], Finland, between 3 April and 5 April 1918, and then marched on the socialist-controlled capital [[Helsinki]], which surrendered after the [[Battle of Helsinki]] on 13 April 1918. The German military intervention aided the nationalist government of Finland to gain control over most of the country by May 1918. Goltz stayed with his troops in Finland after the Civil War until December 1918 and was a major political influence in the country, described by the [[Quartermaster General]] of the [[White Army of Finland|White Army]] [[Hannes Ignatius]] as being the "true regent of Finland".<ref>Edvard Hjelt, 1919: Vaiherikkailta vuosilta – Muistelmat II: Sotavuodet ja oleskelu Saksassa.</ref> In the summer of 1918, Goltz wanted to replace the [[White Army of Finland|Finnish White force]]s with a new Finnish conscript army, where all leadership positions were to be staffed by German officers and conscripts were to be trained according to German army standards. Finnish generals Ignatius, von Gerich and Theslöf resigned from the Finnish military staff in protest.<ref>[https://www.is.fi/kotimaa/art-2000005063380.html Ilta-Sanomat: Kenraali von der Goltz oli hetken Suomen rautakansleri 1918.]</ref> The Germans wanted to use Finnish forces against the [[North Russia Intervention|Allied units intervening in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk]].

After the 11 November 1918, [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|armistice]], von der Goltz and his division left Helsinki on 16 December 1918. The [[Military Inter-Allied Commission of Control|Inter-Allied Commission of Control]] insisted that the German troops remain in [[Latvia]] and [[Estonia]] to prevent the area from being re-occupied by the [[Red Army]]. As many of the demoralised German soldiers were being withdrawn from Latvia, a [[Freikorps]] unit called the [[Freikorps in the Baltic|Iron Division]] (''Eiserne Division'') was formed and deployed in [[Riga]] and used to delay the Red advance. New volunteers arriving from Germany and remnants of the German 8th Army were subsequently added to the Iron Division, which was assigned under the command of Goltz. Also, [[Baltic Germans]] and some [[Latvians]] formed the ''[[Baltische Landeswehr]]'', led by Major [[Alfred Fletcher]].
[[File:Von der goltz suomessa.jpg|thumb|Goltz in Finland (1918)]]
In late February 1919, only the seaport of [[Liepāja|Libau]] (Liepāja) remained in the hands of the German and Latvian forces. In March 1919, General von der Goltz was able to win a series of victories over the Red Army,<ref name="LSM">{{cite news |title=A Different War in Latvia |url=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/culture/history/a-different-war-in-latvia.a281191/ |access-date=8 June 2018 |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting of Latvia]] |date=7 June 2018}}</ref> first occupying [[Ventspils|Windau]] (Ventspils), the major port of [[Courland]], and then advancing south and east to retake Riga.

After the Bolsheviks had been driven out from most of Latvia, the Allies ordered the German government to withdraw its troops from the Baltic region. However, the Germans succeeded in negotiating a postponement, arguing that this would have given the Bolsheviks a free hand. General von der Goltz then attempted to seize control of Latvia with the assistance of the local German population. The Latvian nationalist government was deposed while the Freikorps, Latvian and [[White movement|White Russian]] units moved on to capture Riga on May 23, 1919. The Latvian nationalists sought assistance from the [[Estonia]]n army which had been occupying northern Latvia since earlier that year.

In June 1919, General von der Goltz ordered his troops not to advance east against the Red Army, as the Allies had been expecting, but north, against the Estonians. On June 19, the Iron Division and ''Landeswehr'' units launched an attack to capture areas around [[Cēsis|Wenden]] (Cēsis), but in the battles over the following few days, they were defeated by the 3rd Estonian Division (led by [[Ernst Põdder]]). On the morning of June 23, the Germans began a general retreat toward Riga. The Allies again insisted that the Germans withdraw their remaining troops from Latvia and intervened to impose a ceasefire between the Estonians and the Freikorps when the Latvians were about to march into Riga. The British insisted that General von der Goltz leave Latvia, and he turned his troops over to the [[West Russian Volunteer Army]].

Count von der Goltz later claimed in his memoirs that his major strategic goal in 1919 had been to launch a campaign in cooperation with the White Russian forces to overturn the Bolshevik regime by marching on [[St. Petersburg]] and to install a pro-German anti-Bolshevist government in Russia.

As President of the United Patriotic Organizations he participated in the [[Harzburg Front]] in the early 1930s.

From 1924 to 1930, he headed a German association for the military education of the German youth named ''Arbeitsgemeinschaft der vaterländischen Jugend''. On 17 July 1931 he handed over the command of the Economic Policy Association [[Frankfurt am Main]] to the Reich President [[Paul von Hindenburg]].

He died on the Kinsegg estate, in the village of [[Bernbeuren]], Germany, in 1946.

== Personal life ==
On 3 March 1893 in [[Potsdam]], he was married to Hannah Caroline Helene Marie von Hase (1873–1941), daughter of Karl Alfred von Hase (1842-1914) and his wife, Countess Klara von [[Kalckreuth]] (1851-1903), paternal granddaughter of [[Karl Hase|Karl August von Hase]]. His three sons:
* Count Gustav Adolf Carl Joachim ''Rüdiger'' von der Goltz (1894-1976), a [[lawyer]]; married Astrid Marie Hjort (1896-1948), daughter of Prof. Dr. Johan Hjort (1869-1948) and his wife, Wanda Marie von der [[Marwitz]] (1869-1952) and had issue
* Count ''Hans'' von der Goltz (1895-1914); unmarried
* Count ''Georg-Conrad'' Gustav Dankwart Carl Gottfried von der Goltz (b. 1902); married sister of his sister-in-law, Wanda Adelheid Hjort (b. 1902) and had issue<ref>https://www.genealogics.org/getperson.php?personID=I00411325&tree=LEO</ref>

==Bibliography==
# Goltz, Rüdiger von der: ''[https://archive.org/details/meinesendunginfi00golt Meine Sendung im Finland und im Baltikum]'', (Leipzig, 1920)
# Bermond-Awaloff, Pavel: ''Im Kampf gegen den Bolschevismus. Erinnerungen von Pavel Bermond-Awaloff'' (Berlin, 1925)
# Bischoff, Josef: ''Die letzte Front. Geschichte der Eiserne Division im Baltikum 1919'' (Berlin, 1935)
# ''Darstellungen aus den Nachkriegskämpfen deutscher Truppen und Freikorps'', vol. 2: "Der Feldzug im Baltikum bis zur zweiten Einnahme von Riga. Januar bis Mai 1919", Berlin 1937; vol. 3: "Die Kämpfe im Baltikum nach der zweiten Einnahme von Riga. Juni bis Dezember 1919" (Berlin, 1938)
# ''Die baltische Landeswehr im Befreiungskampf gegen den Bolschevismus. Ein Gedenkbuch, herausgegeben vom baltischen Landeswehrein'' (Riga, 1929)
# Kiewisz, Leon: ''Sprawy łotewskie w bałtyckiej polityce Niemiec 1914-1919'' (Posen, 1970)
# [[Piotr Łossowski|Łossowski Piotr]], ''Między wojną a pokojem. Niemieckie zamysły wojenne na wschodzie w obliczu traktatu wersalskiego. Marzec-kwiecień 1919'' (Warsaw, 1976)
# Paluszyński, Tomasz: ''Walka o niepodległość Łotwy 1914-1921'' (Warsaw, 1999)
# Paluszyński, Tomasz: ''Walka o niepodległość Estonii 1914-1920'' (Posen, 2007)
# ''Von den baltische Provinzen zu den baltischen Staaten. Beiträge zur Entstehungsgeschichte der Republiken Estland und Lettland'', vol. I (1917–1918), vol. II (1919–1920) (Marburg 1971, 1977)

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Rüdiger von der Goltz}}
*{{Cite EB1922|wstitle=Goltz, Karl, Count von der |short=x}} The name and pre-1918 data for this article seem to be garbled.
* {{PM20|FID=pe/006312}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Goltz, Rudiger Von Der}}
[[Category:1865 births]]
[[Category:1946 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Sulechów]]
[[Category:People of the Estonian War of Independence]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 1st class]]
[[Category:German Army generals of World War I]]
[[Category:People of the Russian Civil War]]
[[Category:People of the Finnish Civil War (White side)]]
[[Category:Counts of Germany]]
[[Category:People from the Province of Brandenburg]]
[[Category:Major generals of Prussia]]
[[Category:German monarchists]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Cross of Liberty]]
[[Category:20th-century Freikorps personnel]]
[[Category:German expatriates in Finland]]

Uralic languages

2023-04-12T08:58:20Z

3 Löwi: "predominantly in Europe and Asia" is misleading wording, when it is over 99% Europe and less than 1% Asia

{{Short description|Language family of Europe and north Asia}}
{{Distinguish|text=the [[Urali language]]}}
{{Infobox language family
| name = Uralic
| altname = Finno-Ugric
| region = [[Central Europe]], [[Northern Europe]], [[Eastern Europe]], and [[Northern Asia]]
| familycolor = Uralic
| family = One of the world's primary [[Language family|language families]]
| protoname = [[Proto-Uralic language|Proto-Uralic]]
| child1 = [[Finnic languages|Finnic]]
| child2 = ''[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]''
| child3 = ''[[Khanty language|Khanty]]''
| child4 = ''[[Mansi language|Mansi]]''
| child5 = ''[[Mari language|Mari]]''
| child6 = [[Mordvinic languages|Mordvinic]]
| child7 = [[Permic languages|Permic]]
| child8 = [[Sámi languages|Sámi]]
| child9 = [[Samoyedic languages|Samoyedic]]
| iso5 = urj
| glotto = ural1272
| glottorefname = Uralic
| map =
| mapcaption = Geographic distribution of the Uralic languages.
| ancestor =
| glottoname =
| notes =
}}
[[File:Uralic languages ( ALL LANGUAGES ).png|alt=|thumb|271x271px|Uralic languages (Meänkieli, Kven and Ludic can be regarded as either languages or dialects)]]
The '''Uralic languages''' ({{IPAc-en|j|ʊəˈr|æ|l|ᵻ|k}}; sometimes called '''Uralian languages''' {{IPAc-en|j|ʊəˈr|ei|l|i|ə|n}}) form a [[language family]] of 38<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/uralic|title=Uralic|last1=Simons|first1=Gary F.|last2=Fenning|first2=Charles F.|work=Ethnologue|publisher=SIL International|access-date=14 February 2018}}</ref> [[language]]s spoken natively by approximately 25{{nbsp}}million people, predominantly in [[Europe]] (over 99% of the family's speakers) and [[northern Asia]] (less than 1%). The Uralic languages with the most native speakers are [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] (which alone accounts for nearly 60% of speakers), [[Finnish language|Finnish]], and [[Estonian language|Estonian]]. Other significant languages with fewer speakers are [[Erzya language|Erzya]], [[Moksha language|Moksha]], [[Mari language|Mari]], [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]], [[Sami language|Sami]], [[Komi language|Komi]], and [[Veps language|Vepsian]], all of which are spoken in northern regions of [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Russian Federation]].

The name "Uralic" derives from the family's purported "original homeland" (''[[Urheimat]]'') [[Proto-Uralic homeland hypotheses|hypothesized]] to have been somewhere in the vicinity of the [[Ural Mountains]].

[[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] is sometimes used as a synonym for Uralic, though Finno-Ugric is widely understood to exclude the [[Samoyedic languages]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Mood in the Languages of Europe |last=Tommola |first=Hannu |year=2010 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |isbn=978-90-272-0587-2 |page=155 |chapter=Finnish among the Finno-Ugrian languages |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o3L8oKcbZtoC&pg=PA511 }}</ref> Scholars who do not accept the traditional notion that Samoyedic split first from the rest of the Uralic family may treat the terms as synonymous.{{sfn|Aikio|2022|pp=1–4}}

==History==
{{further|Proto-Uralic}}

===Homeland===
{{main|Proto-Uralic homeland}}
Proposed homelands of the [[Proto-Uralic language]] include:

* The vicinity of the [[Volga River]], west of the Urals, close to the Urheimat of the [[Indo-European languages]], or to the east and southeast of the Urals. Historian [[Gyula László]] places its origin in the forest zone between the [[Oka River]] and central [[Poland]]. E. N. Setälä and M. Zsirai place it between the [[Volga River|Volga]] and [[Kama River]]s. According to E. Itkonen, the ancestral area extended to the [[Baltic Sea]]. Jaakko Häkkinen identifies Proto-Uralic with Eneolithic Garino-Bor (Turbin) culture 3,000–2,500 YBP located in the Lower Kama Basin.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://anthropogenesis.kinshipstudies.org/blog/2012/10/01/on-the-homeland-of-the-uralic-language-family/|title=On the Homeland of the Uralic Language Family|last=Dziebel|first=German|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-21}}</ref>
* P. Hajdu has suggested a homeland in western and northwestern [[Siberia]].<ref>''The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia'', p. 231.</ref>
* [[Juha Janhunen]] suggests a homeland in between the [[Ob river|Ob]] and [[Yenisei]] drainage areas in [[Central Siberia]].<ref name=Janhunen2009/>
*In 2022, a group of scholars, including Janhunen, noted that early Uralic-speakers can be associated with hunter-gatherers in [[Western Siberia]]. The spread of Uralic languages may be linked, in part, due to the [[Seima-Turbino phenomenon]], but no conclusive evidence exists so far.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://researchportal.helsinki.fi/en/publications/drastic-demographic-events-triggered-the-uralic-spread|title=Drastic demographic events triggered the Uralic spread|journal=Diachronica|year=2022|last1=Grünthal|first1=Riho|volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=490–524 |doi=10.1075/dia.20038.gru|hdl=10138/347633 |s2cid=248059749|hdl-access=free}}</ref> According to Bjørn Rasmus G., the Proto-Uralic speakers may be associated with the [[Okunev culture]], and may have shown affinity to the earlier [[Botai culture|Botai]] and [[Tarim mummies]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bjørn |first=Rasmus G. |date=2022 |title=Indo-European loanwords and exchange in Bronze Age Central and East Asia: Six new perspectives on prehistoric exchange in the Eastern Steppe Zone |journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences |language=en |volume=4 |pages=e23 |doi=10.1017/ehs.2022.16 |s2cid=248358873 |issn=2513-843X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Early attestations===
The first plausible mention of a people speaking a Uralic language is in [[Tacitus]]'s ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' (c. 98 AD),<ref>{{Cite book | editor-last = Anderson | editor-first = J.G.C. | title = Germania | publisher = Clarendon Press | location = Oxford | year = 1938 }}</ref> mentioning the ''[[Fenni]]'' (usually interpreted as referring to the [[Sami people|Sami]]) and two other possibly Uralic tribes living in the farthest reaches of Scandinavia. There are many possible earlier mentions, including the [[Iyrcae]] (perhaps related to Yugra) described by [[Herodotus]] living in what is now European Russia, and the [[Budini]], described by Herodotus as notably red-haired (a characteristic feature of the [[Udmurt people|Udmurts]]) and living in northeast Ukraine and/or adjacent parts of Russia. In the late 15th century, European scholars noted the resemblance of the names ''Hungaria'' and ''[[Yugra|Yugria]]'', the names of settlements east of the Ural. They assumed a connection but did not seek linguistic evidence.<ref name="Sebeok-2002">{{cite book |last=Sebeok |first=Thomas A. |title=Portrait Of Linguists |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wxjDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 |date=15 August 2002 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4411-5874-1 |page=58 |oclc=956101732}}</ref>

===Uralic studies===
[[File:Herberstein-Moscovia-NE.png|thumb|The Uralic/Siberian origin of Hungarians was long hypothesized by European scholars. Here, [[Sigismund von Herberstein]]'s 1549 map of [[Moscovia]] shows in the top right "[[Yugra]] from where the [[Hungarians]] originated" (''Iuhra inde Ungaroru[m] origo''), east of the [[Ob River]]. The Ural Mountains in the middle of the maps are labeled ''Montes dicti Cingulus Terræ'' ("The mountains called the Girdle of the Earth")]]

The affinity of [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]] was first proposed in the late 17th century. Three candidates can be credited for the discovery: the [[Germany|German]] scholar [[Martin Vogel]], the [[Sweden|Swedish]] scholar [[Georg Stiernhielm]] and the Swedish courtier [[Bengt Skytte]]. Vogel's unpublished study of the relationship, commissioned by [[Cosimo III]] of Tuscany, was clearly the most modern of these: he established several [[grammatical]] and [[Lexical analysis|lexical]] parallels between Finnish and Hungarian as well as [[Sami languages|Sami]]. Stiernhielm commented on the similarities of Sami, Estonian and Finnish, and also on a few similar words between Finnish and Hungarian.{{sfn|Korhonen|1986|p=29}}{{sfn|Wickman|1988|pp=793–794}} These authors were the first to outline what was to become the classification of the Finno-Ugric, and later Uralic family. This proposal received some of its initial impetus from the fact that these languages, unlike most of the other languages spoken in Europe, are not part of what is now known as the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family. In 1717, the Swedish professor [[Olaus Rudbeckius, Jr.|Olof Rudbeck]] proposed about 100 etymologies connecting Finnish and Hungarian, of which about 40 are still considered valid.<ref name=":0" /> Several early reports comparing Finnish or Hungarian with Mordvin, Mari or Khanty were additionally collected by [[Leibniz]] and edited by his assistant [[Johann Georg von Eckhart]].{{sfn|Korhonen|1986|pp=29–30}}

In 1730, [[Philip Johan von Strahlenberg]] published his book {{Lang|de|Das Nord- und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia}} (''The Northern and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia''), surveying the geography, peoples and languages of Russia. All the main groups of the Uralic languages were already identified here.{{sfn|Wickman|1988|pp=795–796}} Nonetheless, these relationships were not widely accepted. Hungarian intellectuals especially were not interested in the theory and preferred to assume connections with [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes, an attitude characterized by [[Merritt Ruhlen]] as due to "the wild unfettered [[Romanticism]] of the epoch".<ref>{{cite book|title=A Guide to the World's Languages|last=Ruhlen|first=Merritt|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1987|location=Stanford|pages=64–71|language=en|oclc=923421379}}</ref> Still, in spite of this hostile climate, the Hungarian [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[János Sajnovics]] travelled with [[Maximilian Hell]] to survey the alleged relationship between Hungarian and Sami. Sajnovics published his results in 1770, arguing for a relationship based on several grammatical features.{{sfn|Wickman|1988|pp=796–798}} In 1799, the Hungarian [[Samuel Gyarmathi|Sámuel Gyarmathi]] published the most complete work on Finno-Ugric to that date.{{sfn|Wickman|1988|p=798}}[[File:Uralic languages in the Russian Empire (1897).svg|upright=1.36|thumb|right|Uralic languages in the Russian Empire (Russian Census of 1897; the census was not held in Finland because it was an autonomous area)]]

Up to the beginning of the 19th century, knowledge on the Uralic languages spoken in Russia had remained restricted to scanty observations by travelers. Already the Finnish historian [[Henrik Gabriel Porthan]] had stressed that further progress would require dedicated field missions.{{sfn|Korhonen|1986|p=32}} One of the first of these was undertaken by [[Anders Johan Sjögren]], who brought the [[Vepsians]] to general knowledge and elucidated in detail the relatedness of Finnish and [[Komi language|Komi]].{{sfn|Korhonen|1986|pp=44–46}} Still more extensive were the field research expeditions made in the 1840s by [[Matthias Castrén]] (1813–1852) and [[Antal Reguly]] (1819–1858), who focused especially on the Samoyedic and the [[Ob-Ugric languages]], respectively. Reguly's materials were worked on by the Hungarian linguist Pál Hunfalvy (1810–1891) and German [[Josef Budenz]] (1836–1892), who both supported the Uralic affinity of Hungarian.{{sfn|Wickman|1988|pp=801–803}} Budenz was the first scholar to bring this result to popular consciousness in Hungary, and to attempt a reconstruction of the Proto-Finno-Ugric grammar and lexicon.{{sfn|Wickman|1988|pp=803–804}} Another late-19th-century Hungarian contribution is that of Ignácz Halász (1855–1901), who published extensive comparative material of Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic in the 1890s,<ref>{{cite journal|first=Ignácz|last=Halász|title=Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése|year=1893|journal=Nyelvtudományi Közlemények|volume=23:1|pages=14–34|url=http://www.nytud.hu/nyk/reg/023.pdf|language=hu}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Ignácz|last=Halász|title=Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése II|year=1893|journal=Nyelvtudományi Közlemények|volume=23:3|pages=260–278|url=http://www.nytud.hu/nyk/reg/023.pdf|language=hu}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Ignácz|last=Halász|title=Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése III|year=1893|journal=Nyelvtudományi Közlemények|volume=23:4|pages=436–447|url=http://www.nytud.hu/nyk/reg/023.pdf|language=hu}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Ignácz|last=Halász|title=Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése IV|year=1894|journal=Nyelvtudományi Közlemények|volume=24:4|pages=443–469|url=http://www.nytud.hu/nyk/reg/024.pdf|language=hu}}</ref> and whose work is at the base of today's wide acceptance of the inclusion of Samoyedic as a part of Uralic.<ref name="Szabo69">{{cite journal|last=Szabó|first=László|year=1969|title=Die Erforschung der Verhältnisses Finnougrisch–Samojedisch|journal=Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher|language=de|volume=41|pages=317–322}}</ref> Meanwhile, in the autonomous [[Grand Duchy of Finland]], a chair for Finnish language and linguistics at the [[University of Helsinki]] was created in 1850, first held by Castrén.{{sfn|Wickman|1988|pp=799–800}}

In 1883, the [[Finno-Ugrian Society]] was founded in Helsinki on the proposal of [[Otto Donner]], which would lead to Helsinki overtaking St. Petersburg as the chief northern center of research of the Uralic languages.{{sfn|Korhonen|1986|p=49}} During the late 19th and early 20th century (until the separation of Finland from Russia following the [[Russian Revolution]]), the Society hired many scholars to survey the still less known Uralic languages. Major researchers of this period included Heikki Paasonen (studying especially the [[Mordvinic languages]]), Yrjö Wichmann (studying [[Permic languages|Permic]]), Artturi Kannisto ([[Mansi language|Mansi]]), Kustaa Fredrik Karjalainen ([[Khanty language|Khanty]]), Toivo Lehtisalo ([[Nenets languages|Nenets]]), and [[Kai Donner]] ([[Kamassian language|Kamass]]).{{sfn|Wickman|1988|pp=810–811}} The vast amounts of data collected on these expeditions would provide edition work for later generations of Finnish Uralicists for more than a century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sgr.fi/lexica/lexicaxxxv.html|title=Lexica Societatis Fenno-Ugricae XXXV|work=Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura|language=hu}}</ref>

==Classification==
{| align="right"
|-
| {{bar box
|title=Relative numbers of speakers of Uralic languages<ref>Russian figures from the 2010 census. Others from EU 2012 figures or others of comparable date.</ref>
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=280px
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]|#008751|60}}
{{bar percent|[[Finnish language|Finnish]]|#003580|26}}
{{bar percent|[[Estonian language|Estonian]]|#4891D9|5.5}}
{{bar percent|[[Mari language|Mari]]|Purple|2.3}}
{{bar percent|[[Udmurt language|Udmurt]]|Black|2.2}}
{{bar percent|[[Mordvin language|Mordvin]]|Red|2.0}}
{{bar percent|[[Komi language|Komi]]|#008000|1.5}}
{{bar percent|[[Karelian language|Karelian]]|DeepPink|0.27}}
{{bar percent|[[Nenets language|Nenets]]|Silver|0.15}}
{{bar percent|[[Northern Saami language|Northern Saami]]|grey|0.12}}
{{bar percent|[[Khanty language|Khanty]]|Orange|0.07}}
{{bar percent|other|Orange|0.07}}
}}
|}

The Uralic family comprises nine undisputed groups with no consensus classification between them. (Some of the proposals are listed in the next section.) An agnostic approach treats them as separate branches.<ref name=Salminen2007/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/fu.html|title=Uralic (Finno-Ugrian) languages|last=Salminen|first=Tapani|date=2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110193655/http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/fu.html |archive-date=10 January 2019}}</ref>

Obsolete or native names are displayed in italics.
* '''[[Finnic languages|Finnic]]''' (Fennic, Baltic Finnic, Balto-Finnic, Balto-Fennic)
* '''[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]''' (Magyar)
* '''[[Khanty language|Khanty]]''' (''Ostyak, Handi, Hantõ'')
* '''[[Mansi language|Mansi]]''' (''Vogul'')
* '''[[Mari language|Mari]]''' (''Cheremis'')
* '''[[Mordvinic languages|Mordvinic]]''' (Mordvin, Mordvinian)
* '''[[Permic languages|Permic]]''' (Permian)
* '''[[Sami languages|Sami]]''' (Saami, Samic, Saamic, ''Lappic, Lappish'')
* '''[[Samoyedic languages|Samoyedic]]''' (Samoyed)

There is also historical evidence of a number of extinct languages of uncertain affiliation:
* [[Merya language|Merya]]
* [[Muromian language|Muromian]]
* [[Meshcherian language|Meshcherian]] (until 16th century?)

Traces of Finno-Ugric substrata, especially in toponymy, in the northern part of European Russia have been proposed as evidence for even more extinct Uralic languages.<ref>{{cite book |last=Helimski |first=Eugene |author-link=Eugene Helimski |title=The Slavicization of the Russian North (Slavica Helsingiensia 27) |editor-last=Nuorluoto |editor-first=Juhani |chapter=The «Northwestern» group of Finno-Ugric languages and its heritage in the place names and substratum vocabulary of the Russian North |year=2006 |publisher=Department of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures |location=Helsinki |isbn=978-952-10-2852-6 |pages=109–127 |chapter-url=http://www.helsinki.fi/venaja/nwrussia/eng/Conference/pdf/Helimski.pdf }}</ref>

[[File:UralicTree.svg|frameless|upright=4.1]]

===Traditional classification===
All Uralic languages are thought to have descended, through independent processes of [[language change]], from [[Proto-Uralic language|Proto-Uralic]]. The internal structure of the Uralic family has been debated since the family was first proposed.<ref name="Marcantonio-p55-68">{{cite book|title=The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics|last=Marcantonio|first=Angela|publisher=Blackwell|year=2002|isbn=978-0-631-23170-7|series=Publications of the Philological Society|volume=35|location=Oxford|pages=55–68|oclc=803186861}}</ref> Doubts about the validity of most or all of the proposed higher-order branchings (grouping the nine undisputed families) are becoming more common.<ref name=Marcantonio-p55-68/><ref name="SalmTax">{{cite web|url=http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/kuzn.html|title=Problems in the taxonomy of the Uralic languages in the light of modern comparative studies|last=Salminen|first=Tapani|date=2002}}</ref>{{sfn|Aikio|2022|pp=1–4}}

A traditional classification of the Uralic languages has existed since the late 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=Die gegenseitige Verwandtschaft der Finnisch-ugrischen sprachen|last=Donner|first=Otto|year=1879|location=Helsinki|language=de|oclc=1014980747|author-link=Otto Donner}}</ref> It has enjoyed frequent adaptation in whole or in part in encyclopedias, handbooks, and overviews of the Uralic family. Otto Donner's model from 1879 is as follows:

* [[Ugric languages|Ugric]] (Ugrian)
** [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
** [[Ob-Ugric languages|Ob-Ugric]] (Ob-Ugrian)
*** [[Khanty language|Khanty]]
*** [[Mansi language|Mansi]]
* [[Finno-Permic languages|Finno-Permic]] (Permian-Finnic)
** [[Permic languages|Permic]]
** [[Finno-Volgaic languages|Finno-Volgaic]] (Finno-Cheremisic, Finno-Mari)
*** Volga-Finnic
**** [[Mari language|Mari]]
**** [[Mordvinic languages|Mordvinic]]
*** [[Finno-Lappic languages|Finno-Lappic]] (Finno-Saamic, Finno-Samic)
**** [[Sami languages|Sami]]
**** [[Finnic languages|Finnic]]

At Donner's time, the [[Samoyedic languages]] were still poorly known, and he was not able to address their position. As they became better known in the early 20th century, they were found to be quite divergent, and they were assumed to have separated already early on. The terminology adopted for this was "Uralic" for the entire family, "[[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]]" for the non-Samoyedic languages (though "Finno-Ugric" has, to this day, remained in use also as a synonym for the whole family). [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] and Samoyedic are listed in [[ISO 639-5]] as primary branches of Uralic.

The following table lists nodes of the traditional family tree that are recognized in some overview sources.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Author(s) !!Finno- Ugric !! Ugric !! Ob-Ugric !! Finno- Permic !! Finno- Volgaic !! Volga- Finnic!! Finno- Samic
|-
! 1910 || Szinnyei<ref>{{cite book|title=Finnisch-ugrische Sprachwissenschaft|last=Szinnyei|first=Josef|publisher=G. J. Göschen'sche Verlagshandlung|year=1910|location=Leipzig|pages=9–21|language=de}}</ref>
| {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{N&}} || {{Y&}}
|-
! 1921 || T. I. Itkonen<ref>{{cite book|title=Suomensukuiset kansat|last=Itkonen|first=T. I.|publisher=Tietosanakirjaosakeyhtiö|year=1921|location=Helsinki|pages=7–12|language=fi}}</ref>
| {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{N&}}
|-
! 1926 || Setälä<ref>{{cite book|title=Suomen suku|last=Setälä|first=E. N.|publisher=Otava|year=1926|location=Helsinki|language=fi|chapter=Kielisukulaisuus ja rotu}}</ref>
| {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{N&}}
|-
! 1962 || Hajdú<ref>{{cite book|title=Finnugor népek és nyelvek|last=Hájdu|first=Péter|year=1962|location=Budapest|language=hu}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Peter|last=Hajdu|title=Finno-Ugric Languages and Peoples|others=Translated by G. F. Cushing|year=1975|publisher=André Deutch Ltd.|location=London}}. English translation of Hajdú (1962).</ref>
| {{Y&}} || {{N&}}{{Ref label|hajdu|a|}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{N&}}{{Ref label|hajdu|a|}} || {{N&}}
|-
! 1965 || Collinder<ref name=":0">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WubvXTkjoLUC&pg=PA7|title=An Introduction to the Uralic languages|last=Collinder|first=Björn|publisher=University of California Press|year=1965|location=Berkeley|pages=8–27, 34|author-link=Björn Collinder}}</ref>
| {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{N&}} || {{N&}} || {{N&}}
|-
! 1966 || E. Itkonen<ref>{{cite book|title=Suomalais-ugrilaisen kielen- ja historiantutkimuksen alalta|last=Itkonen|first=Erkki|publisher=Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura|year=1966|series=Tietolipas|volume=20|pages=5–8|language=fi}}</ref>
| {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}}
|-
! 1968 || Austerlitz<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Robert|last=Austerlitz|author-link=Robert Austerlitz|chapter=L'ouralien|editor-first=André|editor-last=Martinet|editor-link=André Martinet|encyclopedia=Le langage|year=1968}}</ref>
| {{N&}}{{Ref label|austerlitz|b}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{N&}}{{Ref label|austerlitz|b}} || {{N&}} || {{Y&}} || {{N&}}
|-
! 1977 || Voegelin & Voegelin<ref>{{cite book|first1=C. F.|first2=F. M.|last1=Voegelin|last2=Voegelin|title=Classification and Index of the World's Languages|url=https://archive.org/details/classificationin0000voeg|url-access=registration|year=1977|publisher=Elsevier|location=New York/Oxford/Amsterdam|pages=[https://archive.org/details/classificationin0000voeg/page/341 341]–343|isbn=9780444001559}}</ref>
| {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}}
|-
! 2002 || Kulonen<ref>{{cite book|first=Ulla-Maija|last=Kulonen|chapter=Kielitiede ja suomen väestön juuret|editor-first=Riho|editor-last=Grünthal|title=Ennen, muinoin. Miten menneisyyttämme tutkitaan|year=2002|series=Tietolipas|volume=180|publisher=[[Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura]]|isbn=978-951-746-332-4|pages=104–108}}</ref>
| {{N&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{N&}} || {{N&}} || {{Y&}}
|-
! 2002 ||Michalove<ref name=Michalove/>
| {{N&}} || {{N&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || || {{N&}} ||
|-
! 2007 || Häkkinen<ref>Häkkinen, Jaakko 2007: Kantauralin murteutuminen vokaalivastaavuuksien valossa. Pro gradu -työ, Helsingin yliopiston Suomalais-ugrilainen laitos. http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi-fe20071746</ref>
| {{N&}} || {{N&}}{{Ref label|hakkinen|c}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{N&}} || {{N&}} || {{N&}}{{Ref label|hakkinen|c}}
|-
! 2007 || Lehtinen<ref>{{cite book|last=Lehtinen|first=Tapani|year=2007|title=Kielen vuosituhannet |series=Tietolipas|volume=215|publisher=[[Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura]]|isbn=978-951-746-896-1}}</ref>
| {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{N&}} || {{Y&}}
|-
! 2007 || Salminen<ref name=Salminen2007>{{cite book|last=Salminen|first=Tapani|year=2007|chapter=Europe and North Asia |editor=Christopher Moseley |title=Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00mose|url-access=limited|location=London |publisher=Routlegde |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00mose/page/n229 211]–280|isbn=9780700711970}}</ref>
| {{N&}} || {{N&}} || {{N&}} || {{N&}} || {{N&}} || {{N&}} || {{N&}}
|-
! 2009 || Janhunen<ref name=Janhunen2009>{{cite book|last=Janhunen|first=Juha|chapter=Proto-Uralic—what, where and when? |year=2009 |editor= Jussi Ylikoski |title=The Quasquicentennial of the Finno-Ugrian Society |series=Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia 258 |location=Helsinki |publisher=Société Finno-Ougrienne |isbn=978-952-5667-11-0|issn=0355-0230|chapter-url=http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust258/sust258_janhunen.pdf}}</ref>
| {{Y&}} || {{N&}}{{Ref label|janhunen|d}} || {{N&}} || {{Y&}} || {{Y&}} || {{N&}} || {{N&}}?
|}
{{Note label|hajdu|a. Hajdú describes the Ugric and Volgaic groups as areal units.}}

{{Note label|austerlitz|b. Austerlitz accepts narrower-than-traditional Finno-Ugric and Finno-Permic groups that exclude Samic}}

{{Note label|hakkinen|c. Häkkinen groups Hungarian, Ob-Ugric and Samoyed into a Ugro-Samoyed branch, and groups Balto-Finnic, Sami and Mordvin into a Finno-Mordvin branch}}

{{Note label|janhunen|d. Janhunen accepts a reduced Ugric branch, called 'Mansic', that includes Hungarian and Mansi}}

Little explicit evidence has however been presented in favour of Donner's model since his original proposal, and numerous alternate schemes have been proposed. Especially in Finland, there has been a growing tendency to reject the Finno-Ugric intermediate protolanguage.<ref name="SalmTax" /><ref>Häkkinen, Kaisa 1984: Wäre es schon an der Zeit, den Stammbaum zu fällen? – Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher, Neue Folge 4.</ref> A recent competing proposal instead unites Ugric and Samoyedic in an "East Uralic" group for which shared innovations can be noted.<ref name="EastUralic">Häkkinen, Jaakko 2009: [http://www.sgr.fi/susa/92/hakkinen.pdf ''Kantauralin ajoitus ja paikannus: perustelut puntarissa'']. – ''Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja 92''.</ref>

The Finno-Permic grouping still holds some support, though the arrangement of its subgroups is a matter of some dispute. Mordvinic is commonly seen as particularly closely related to or part of Finno-Samic.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Mordvalaiskielten rakenne ja kehitys
|last=Bartens
|first=Raija
|year=1999
|publisher=Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura
|location=Helsinki
|page=13
|language=fi
|isbn=978-952-5150-22-3}}</ref> The term ''[[Volga Finns|Volgaic]]'' (or ''Volga-Finnic'') was used to denote a branch previously believed to include Mari, Mordvinic and a number of the extinct languages, but it is now obsolete<ref name="SalmTax"/> and considered a geographic classification rather than a linguistic one.

Within Ugric, uniting Mansi with Hungarian rather than Khanty has been a competing hypothesis to Ob-Ugric.

===Lexical isoglosses===
[[Lexicostatistics]] has been used in defense of the traditional family tree. A recent re-evaluation of the evidence<ref name=Michalove>Michalove, Peter A. (2002) The Classification of the Uralic Languages: Lexical Evidence from Finno-Ugric. In: Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen, vol. 57</ref> however fails to find support for Finno-Ugric and Ugric, suggesting four lexically distinct branches (Finno-Permic, Hungarian, Ob-Ugric and Samoyedic).

One alternate proposal for a family tree, with emphasis on the development of numerals, is as follows:<ref name=Janhunen2009/>
* Uralic ({{lang|urj|*kektä}} "2", {{lang|urj|*wixti}} "5" / "10")
** Samoyedic (*op "1", *ketä "2", *näkur "3", *tettə "4", *səmpəleŋkə "5", *məktut "6", *sejtwə "7", *wiət "10")
** Finno-Ugric ({{lang|fiu|*üki/*ükti}} "1", {{lang|fiu|*kormi}} "3", {{lang|fiu|*ńeljä}} "4", {{lang|fiu|*wiiti}} "5", {{lang|fiu|*kuuti}} "6", {{lang|fiu|*luki}} "10")
*** Mansic
**** Mansi
**** Hungarian (''hét'' "7"; replacement ''egy'' "1")
*** Finno-Khantic (reshaping *kolmi "3" on the analogy of "4")
**** Khanty
**** Finno-Permic (reshaping *kektä > *kakta)
***** Permic
***** Finno-Volgaic (*śećem "7")
****** Mari
****** Finno-Saamic (*kakteksa, *ükteksa "8, 9")
******* Saamic
******* Finno-Mordvinic (replacement *kümmen "10" (*luki- "to count", "to read out"))
******** Mordvinic
******** Finnic

===Phonological isoglosses===
Another proposed tree, more divergent from the standard, focusing on consonant isoglosses (which does not consider the position of the Samoyedic languages) is presented by Viitso (1997),<ref name=Viitso1997>Viitso, Tiit-Rein. Keelesugulus ja soome-ugri keelepuu. Akadeemia 9/5 (1997)</ref> and refined in Viitso (2000):<ref name=Viitso2000>Viitso, Tiit-Rein. Finnic Affinity. Congressus Nonus Internationalis Fenno-Ugristarum I:
Orationes plenariae & Orationes publicae. (2000)</ref>
* Finno-Ugric
** Saamic–Fennic ([[consonant gradation]])
*** Saamic
*** Fennic
** Eastern Finno-Ugric
***Mordva
***(node)
**** Mari
**** Permian–Ugric (*δ > *l)
***** Permian
***** Ugric (*s *š *ś > *ɬ *ɬ *s)
****** Hungarian
****** Khanty
****** Mansi
The grouping of the four bottom-level branches remains to some degree open to interpretation, with competing models of Finno-Saamic vs. Eastern Finno-Ugric (Mari, Mordvinic, Permic-Ugric; *k > ɣ between vowels, degemination of stops) and Finno-Volgaic (Finno-Saamic, Mari, Mordvinic; *δʲ > *ð between vowels) vs. Permic-Ugric. Viitso finds no evidence for a Finno-Permic grouping.

Extending this approach to cover the Samoyedic languages suggests affinity with Ugric, resulting in the aforementioned East Uralic grouping, as it also shares the same sibilant developments. A further non-trivial Ugric-Samoyedic isogloss is the reduction *k, *x, *w > ɣ when before *i, and after a vowel (cf. *k > ɣ above), or adjacent to *t, *s, *š, or *ś.<ref name = EastUralic/>

Finno-Ugric consonant developments after Viitso (2000); Samoyedic changes after Sammallahti (1988)<ref>{{cite book|title=The Uralic Languages: Description, History and Foreign Influences|url=https://archive.org/details/uraliclanguagesd00sino|url-access=limited|last=Sammallahti|first=Pekka|publisher=E.J. Brill|year=1988|isbn=978-90-04-07741-6|editor-last=Sinor|editor-first=Denis|location=Leiden|pages=[https://archive.org/details/uraliclanguagesd00sino/page/n493 478]–554|language=en|chapter=Historical phonology of the Uralic Languages|oclc=466103653}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2"| !! Saamic !! Finnic !! Mordvinic !! Mari !! Permic !! Hungarian !! Mansi !! Khanty !! Samoyedic
|-
! colspan="2"| Medial lenition of {{IPA|*k}}
| no || no || yes || yes || yes || yes || yes || yes || yes
|-
! colspan="2"| Medial lenition of {{IPA|*p, *t}}
| no || no || yes || yes || yes || yes || no || no || no
|-
! colspan="2"| Degemination
| no || no || yes || yes || yes || yes || yes || yes || yes
|-
! colspan="2"| Consonant gradation
| yes || yes || no || no || no || no || no || no || yes
|-
! rowspan="6" | Development of
! *δ
|rowspan="2"| *ð ||rowspan="2"| *t ||rowspan="2"| *t || ∅ || *l || {{IPA|/l/}} || *l || *l || *r
|-
! *δʲ
| {{IPA|/ð/}} || *lʲ || {{IPA|/ɟ/}} {{angle bracket|gy}}, {{IPA|/j/}} || *lʲ || *j || *j
|-
! *s
|rowspan="2"| *s || *s || *s ||rowspan="4"| {{IPA|/ʃ/}} || *s ||rowspan="2"| ∅ ||rowspan="2"| *t ||rowspan="2"| *ɬ ||rowspan="2"| *t
|-
! *š
| *h || *š || *š
|-
! *ś
| rowspan="2"| *ć || rowspan="2"| *s || rowspan="2"| *ś || *ś || {{IPA|/s/}} {{angle bracket|sz}} || *ʃ || *s || rowspan="2"| *s
|-
! *ć
| *ć || {{IPA|/tʃ/}} {{angle bracket|cs}} || *ć || *ć
|}

*Note: Proto-Khanty *ɬ in many of the dialects yields *t; Häkkinen assumes this also happened in Mansi and Samoyedic.

The inverse relationship between consonant gradation and medial lenition of stops (the pattern also continuing within the three families where gradation ''is'' found) is noted by [[Eugene Helimski|Helimski]] (1995): an original allophonic gradation system between voiceless and voiced stops would have been easily disrupted by a spreading of voicing to previously unvoiced stops as well.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Helimski |first=Eugene |author-link=Eugene Helimski |url=http://helimski.com/2.140.PDF |title=Proto-Uralic gradation: Continuation and traces |access-date=2012-02-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002150529/http://helimski.com/2.140.PDF |archive-date=2011-10-02 |journal=Congressus Octavus Internationalis Fenno-Ugristarum |place=Jyväskylä |year=1995 }}</ref>

===Honkola, et al. (2013)===
A [[computational phylogenetic]] study by Honkola, et al. (2013)<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/jeb.12107| pmid=23675756|title = Cultural and climatic changes shape the evolutionary history of the Uralic languages| journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology| volume=26| issue=6| pages=1244–1253|year = 2013|last1 = Honkola|first1 = T.| last2=Vesakoski| first2=O.| last3=Korhonen| first3=K.| last4=Lehtinen| first4=J.| last5=Syrjänen| first5=K.| last6=Wahlberg| first6=N.| doi-access=free}}</ref> classifies the Uralic languages as follows. [[Molecular clock|Estimated divergence dates]] from Honkola, et al. (2013) are also given.

;Uralic (5300 [[YBP]])
*[[Samoyedic languages|Samoyedic]]
*[[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] (3900 [[YBP]])
**[[Ugric languages|Ugric]] (3300 YBP)
***[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
***[[Ob-Ugric languages|Ob-Ugric]] (1900 YBP)
****[[Khanty language|Khanty]]
****[[Mansi language|Mansi]]
**[[Finno-Permic languages|Finno-Permic]] (3700 YBP)
***[[Permic languages|Permian]]
****[[Udmurt language|Udmurt]]
****[[Komi language|Komi]]
***[[Finno-Volgaic languages|Finno-Volgaic]]
****[[Mari language|Mari]] (3200 YBP)
****(core branch)
*****[[Erzya language|Erzya]] (2900 YBP) ([[Mordvinic languages|Mordvinic]])
*****[[Finno-Lappic languages|Finno-Saami]]
******[[Sami languages|Sami]] (800 YBP)
******[[Finnic languages|Finnic]] (1200 YBP)

==Typology==
Structural characteristics generally said to be typical of Uralic languages include:

===Grammar===
* extensive use of independent [[suffix]]es ([[agglutination]])
* a large set of [[grammatical case]]s marked with agglutinative suffixes (13–14 cases on average; mainly later developments: Proto-Uralic is reconstructed with 6 cases), e.g.:
** Erzya: 12 cases
** Estonian: 14 cases (15 cases with instructive)
** Finnish: 15 cases
** Hungarian: 18 cases (together 34 grammatical cases and case-like suffixes)
** Inari Sami: 9 cases
** Komi: in certain dialects as many as 27 cases
** Moksha: 13 cases
** Nenets: 7 cases
** North Sami: 6 cases
** Udmurt: 16 cases
** Veps: 24 cases
* unique Uralic case system, from which all modern Uralic languages derive their case systems.
** nominative singular has no case suffix.
** accusative and genitive suffixes are [[nasal consonant]]s (''-n'', ''-m'', etc.)
** three-way distinction in the local case system, with each set of local cases being divided into forms corresponding roughly to "from", "to", and "in/at"; especially evident, e.g. in Hungarian, Finnish and Estonian, which have several sets of local cases, such as the "inner", "outer" and "on top" systems in Hungarian, while in Finnish the "on top" forms have merged to the "outer" forms.
** the Uralic locative suffix exists in all Uralic languages in various cases, e.g. Hungarian [[superessive case|superessive]], Finnish [[essive case|essive]] (''-na''), North Sami [[essive case|essive]], Erzyan [[inessive case|inessive]], and Nenets [[locative case|locative]].
** the Uralic [[lative case|lative]] suffix exists in various cases in many Uralic languages, e.g. Hungarian [[illative case|illative]], Finnish [[lative case|lative]] (''-s'' as in ''ulos'' 'out' and ''rannemmas'' 'more towards the shore'), Erzyan [[illative case|illative]], Komi [[approximative case|approximative]], and Northern Sami [[locative case|locative]].
* a lack of [[grammatical gender]], including one pronoun for both ''he'' and ''she''; for example, ''hän'' in Finnish, ''tämä'' in Votic, ''tämā'' or ''ta'' (short form for tämā) in Livonian,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://virtuallivonia.info/?page_id=134|title=Livonian pronouns|date=8 February 2020|website=Virtual Livonia}}</ref> ''tema'' or ''ta'' (short form for tema) in Estonian, ''sijə'' in Komi, ''ő'' in Hungarian.
* [[negative verb]], which exists in almost all Uralic languages (notably absent in Hungarian)
* use of postpositions as opposed to prepositions (prepositions are uncommon).
* [[possessive suffix]]es
** the [[Genitive case|genitive]] is also used to express possession in some languages, e.g. [[Estonian language|Estonian]] ''mu koer'', [[Spoken Finnish|colloquial Finnish]] ''mun koira'', [[Northern Sami language|Northern Sami]] ''mu beana'' 'my dog' (literally 'dog of me'). Separate [[possessive adjective]]s and [[possessive pronoun]]s, such as ''my'' and ''your'', are rare.
* [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]], in the Samoyedic, Ob-Ugric and Samic languages and reconstructed for Proto-Uralic
* [[plural]] markers -j (i) and -t (-d, -q) have a common origin (e.g. in Finnish, Estonian, Võro, Erzya, Samic languages, Samoyedic languages). Hungarian, however, has -i- before the possessive suffixes and -k elsewhere. The plural marker -k is also used in the Samic languages, but there is a regular merging of final -k and -t in Samic, so it can come from either ending.
* Possessions are expressed by a possessor in the adessive or dative case, the verb "be" (the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]], instead of the verb "have") and the possessed with or without a possessive suffix. The grammatical subject of the sentence is thus the possessed. In Finnish, for example, the possessor is in the [[adessive case]]: "Minulla on kala", literally "At me is fish", i.e. "I have a fish", whereas in Hungarian, the possessor is in the [[dative case]], but appears overtly only if it is contrastive, while the possessed has a possessive ending indicating the number and person of the possessor: "(Nekem) van egy halam", literally "(To me [dative]) is a fish-my" ("(For me) there is a fish of mine"), i.e. "(As for me,) I have a fish".
* expressions that include a [[Numeral (linguistics)|numeral]] are singular if they refer to things which form a single group, e.g. "négy csomó" in Hungarian, "njeallje čuolmma" in Northern Sami, "neli sõlme" in Estonian, and "neljä solmua" in Finnish, each of which means "four knots", but the literal approximation is "four knot". (This approximation is accurate only for Hungarian among these examples, as in Northern Sami the noun is in the singular [[accusative]]/[[genitive]] case and in Finnish and Estonian the singular noun is in the [[partitive]] case, such that the number points to a part of a larger mass, like "four of knot(s)".)

===Phonology===
* [[Vowel harmony]]: this is present in many but by no means all Uralic languages. It exists in Hungarian and various [[Baltic-Finnic]] languages, and is present to some degree elsewhere, such as in Mordvinic, Mari, Eastern Khanty, and Samoyedic. It is lacking in Sami, Permic and standard Estonian, while it does exist in [[Võro language|Võro]] and elsewhere in [[South Estonian language|South Estonian]], as well as in [[Kihnu|Kihnu Island]] subdialect of North Estonian.<ref>Austerlitz, Robert (1990). "Uralic Languages" (pp. 567–576) in Comrie, Bernard, editor. ''The World's Major Languages''. Oxford University Press, Oxford (p. 573).</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Estonian Language|url=http://www.utlib.ee/liber2012/tekstid/eestikeel.pdf|publisher=Estonian Institute|access-date=2013-04-16|page=14}}</ref><ref>Türk, Helen (2010). "[http://www.murre.ut.ee/arhiiv/naita_pilt.php?materjal=kasikiri&materjal_id=D1619&sari=D Kihnu murraku vokaalidest]". University of Tartu.</ref> (Although [[Two dots (diacritic)|double dot diacritics]] are used in writing Uralic languages, the languages do not exhibit [[Germanic umlaut]], a different type of vowel [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilation]].)
* Large vowel inventories. For example, some [[Selkup language|Selkup]] varieties have over twenty different [[monophthong]]s, and [[Estonian language|Estonian]] has over twenty different [[diphthong]]s.
* [[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalization]] of consonants; in this context, palatalization means a secondary articulation, where the middle of the tongue is tense. For example, pairs like {{IPA|[ɲ]}} – [n], or [c] – [t] are contrasted in Hungarian, as in ''hattyú'' {{IPA|[hɒcːuː]}} "swan". Some Sami languages, for example [[Skolt Sami language|Skolt Sami]], distinguish three degrees: plain {{angle bracket|l}} [l], palatalized {{angle bracket|'l}} {{IPA|[lʲ]}}, and palatal {{angle bracket|lj}} {{IPA|[ʎ]}}, where {{angle bracket|'l}} has a primary alveolar articulation, while {{angle bracket|lj}} has a primary palatal articulation. Original Uralic palatalization is phonemic, independent of the following vowel and traceable to the millennia-old [[Proto-Uralic]]. It is different from Slavic palatalization, which is of more recent origin. The [[Finnic languages]] have lost palatalization, but several of them have reacquired it, so Finnic palatalization (where extant) was originally dependent on the following vowel and does not correlate to palatalization elsewhere in Uralic.
* Lack of phonologically contrastive [[tone (linguistics)|tone]].
* In many Uralic languages, the stress is always on the first syllable, though Nganasan shows (essentially) penultimate stress, and a number of languages of the central region (Erzya, Mari, Udmurt and Komi-Permyak) synchronically exhibit a lexical accent. The Erzya language can vary its stress in words to give specific nuances to sentential meaning.

===Lexicography===
Basic vocabulary of about 200 words, including body parts (e.g. eye, heart, head, foot, mouth), family members (e.g. father, mother-in-law), animals (e.g. viper, partridge, fish), nature objects (e.g. tree, stone, nest, water), basic verbs (e.g. live, fall, run, make, see, suck, go, die, swim, know), basic pronouns (e.g. who, what, we, you, I), numerals (e.g. two, five); derivatives increase the number of common words.

====Selected cognates====





The following is a very brief selection of cognates in basic vocabulary across the Uralic family, which may serve to give an idea of the sound changes involved. This is not a list of translations: cognates have a common origin, but their meaning may be shifted and loanwords may have replaced them.

{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse" cellpadding="3"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[English language|English]]
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | [[Proto-Uralic]]
! colspan="3" style="background-color: #EFEFFF"| [[Finnic languages|Finnic]]
! colspan="3" style="background-color: #EFEFFF"| [[Sámi languages|Sámi]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF"| [[Mordvinic languages|Mordvin]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Mari language|Mari]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color: #EFEFFF"| [[Permic languages|Permic]]
! rowspan="2" style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
! colspan="1" style="background-color: #EFEFFF"| [[Mansi language|Mansi]]
! colspan="2" style="background-color: #EFEFFF"| [[Khanty language|Khanty]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF"| [[Samoyedic languages|Samoyed]]
|-
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Finnish language|Finnish]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Võro language|Võro]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Southern Sami language|South]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Northern Sami|North]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Kildin Sámi language|Kildin]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Erzya language|Erzya]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Meadow Mari language|Meadow]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Komi language|Komi]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]]
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Northern
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Kazym
! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | Vakh

! style="background-color: #EFEFFF" | [[Tundra Nenets language|Tundra Nenets]]
|-
| 'fire'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/tule|*tule]]'''
| tuli (tule-) || tuli (tule-) || tuli (tulõ-)
| dålle {{IPA|[tolːə]}} || dolla || tōll
| tol
| tul
| tɨl- || tɨl
| – 
| –
| –
| –
| tuu
|-
| 'water'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/wete|*wete]]'''
| vesi (vete-) || vesi (vee-) || vesi (vii-)
| – || – || –
| ved´
| wüt
| va || vu
| víz
| wit
| –
| –
| jiʔ
|-
| 'ice'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/jäŋe|*jäŋe]]'''
| jää || jää || ijä
| jïenge {{IPA|[jɨeŋə]}} || jiekŋa || īŋŋ
| ej
| i
| ji || jə
| jég
| jaaŋk
| jeŋk
| jeŋk
| –
|-
| 'fish'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/kala|*kala]]'''
| kala || kala || kala
| guelie {{IPA|[kʉelie]}} || guolli || kūll’
| kal
| kol
| – || –
| hal
| xuul
| xŭɬ
| kul
| xalʲa
|-
| 'nest'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/pesä|*pesä]]'''
| pesä || pesa || pesä
| biesie {{IPA|[piesie]}} || beassi || piess’
| pize
| pəžaš
| poz
| puz 
| fészek
| pitʲi
| –
| pĕl
| pʲidʲa
|-
| 'hand, arm'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/käte|*käte]]'''
| käsi (käte-) || käsi (käe-) || käsi (käe-)
| gïete {{IPA|[kɨedə]}} || giehta || kīdt
| ked´
| kit
| ki || ki
| kéz
| kaat
| –
| köt
| –
|-
| 'eye'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/śilmä|*śilmä]]'''
| silmä || silm (silma-) || silm (silmä-)
| tjelmie {{IPA|[t͡ʃɛlmie]}} || čalbmi || čall’m
| śeĺme
| šinča
| śin (śinm-) || śin (śinm-)
| szem
| sam
| sem
| sem
| sæwə
|-
| 'fathom'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/süle|*süle]]'''
| syli (syle-) || süli (süle-) || –
| sïlle {{IPA|[sʲɨllə]}} || salla || sē̮ll
| seĺ
| šülö
| sɨl || sul
| öl(el) 
| tal
| ɬăɬ
| lö̆l
| tʲíbʲa
|-
| 'vein / sinew'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/sëne|*sëne]]'''
| suoni (suone-) || soon (soone-) || suuń (soonõ-)
| soene {{IPA|[suonə]}} || suotna || sūnn
| san
| šün
| sən || sən
| ín
| taan
| ɬɔn
| lan
| teʔ
|-
| 'bone'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/luwe|*luwe]]'''
| luu || luu || luu
| – || – || –
| lovaža
| lu
| lɨ || lɨ
| – 
| luw
| ɬŭw
| lŏγ
| le
|-
| 'blood'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/were|*were]]'''
| veri || veri || veri
| vïrre {{IPA|[vʲɨrrə]}} || varra || vē̮rr
| veŕ
| wür
| vur || vir
| vér
| wiɣr
| wŭr
| wər
| –
|-
| 'liver'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/mëksa|*mëksa]]'''
| maksa || maks (maksa-) || mass (massa-)
| mueksie {{IPA|[mʉeksie]}} || – || –
| makso
| mokš
| mus || mus (musk-)
| máj
| maat
| mŏxəɬ
| muγəl
| mudə
|-
| 'urine' / 'to urinate'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/kuńśe|*kuńśe]]'''
| kusi (kuse-) || kusi (kuse-) || kusi (kusõ-)
| gadtjedh (gadtje-) {{IPA|[kɑdd͡ʒə]}}- || gožžat (gožža-) || kōnnče
| –
| kəž
| kudź || kɨź
| húgy
| xuńś-
| xŏs-
| kŏs-
| –
|-
| 'to go'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/mene-|*mene-]]'''
| mennä (men-) || minema || minemä
| mïnnedh {{IPA|[mʲɨnnə]}}- || mannat || mē̮nne
| –
| mija-
| mun-
| mɨn-
| menni
| men-
| măn-
| mĕn-
| mʲin-
|-
| 'to live'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/elä-|*elä-]]'''
| elää (elä-)
| elama (ela-)
| elämä (elä-)
| jieledh {{IPA|[jielə]}}-
| eallit
| jēll’e
| –
| ila-
| ol- || ul-
| él-
| –
| –
| –
| jilʲe-
|-
| 'to die'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/kale-|*kale-]]'''
| kuolla (kuol-) || koolma || kuulma (kool-)
| – || – || –
| kulo-
| kola-
| kul- || kul-
| hal-
| xool-
| xăɬ-
| kăla-
| xa-
|-
| 'to wash'
! style="background-color: #E0E0FF" | '''[[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Uralic/mośke-|*mośke-]]'''
| – 
| – 
| mõskma
| – || – || –
| muśke-
| muška-
| mɨśkɨ- || mɨśk-
| mos-
| –
| –
| –
| masø-
|}

Orthographical notes: The hacek denotes postalveolar articulation ({{angbr|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}, {{angbr|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, {{angbr|č}} {{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}}) (In Northern Sami, ({{angbr|ž}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}), while the acute denotes a secondary palatal articulation ({{angbr|ś}} {{IPA|[sʲ ~ ɕ]}}, {{angbr|ć}} {{IPA|[tsʲ ~ tɕ]}}, {{angbr|l}} {{IPA|[lʲ]}}) or, in Hungarian, vowel length. The Finnish letter {{angbr|y}} and the letter {{angbr|ü}} in other languages represent the high rounded vowel {{IPA|[y]}}; the letters {{angbr|ä}} and {{angbr|ö}} are the front vowels {{IPA|[æ]}} and {{IPA|[ø]}}.


As is apparent from the list, Finnish is the most conservative of the Uralic languages presented here, with nearly half the words on the list above identical to their Proto-Uralic reconstructions and most of the remainder only having minor changes, such as the conflation of *ś into /s/, or widespread changes such as the loss of *x and alteration of *ï. Finnish has even preserved old Indo-European borrowings relatively unchanged as well. (An example is ''porsas'' ("pig"), loaned from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''*porḱos'' or pre-[[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] ''*porśos'', unchanged since loaning save for loss of [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalization]], *ś > s.)

====Mutual intelligibility====
The Estonian philologist [[Mall Hellam]] proposed cognate sentences that she asserted to be mutually intelligible among the three most widely spoken Uralic languages: Finnish, Estonian, and Hungarian:<ref name="Economist">{{citation |title = The Finno-Ugrics: The dying fish swims in water |newspaper = [[The Economist]] |pages = 73–74 |date = December 24, 2005 – January 6, 2006 |url = http://www.economist.com/node/5323735 |access-date=2013-01-19}}</ref>

*{{lang-et|Elav kala ujub vee all}}.
*{{lang-fi|Elävä kala ui veden alla}}.
*{{lang-hu|(Egy) élő hal úszik a víz alatt}}.
*{{lang-en|A living fish swims underwater}}.

However, linguist [[Geoffrey Pullum]] reports that neither Finns nor Hungarians could understand the other language's version of the sentence.<ref>{{citation|last=Pullum|first=Geoffrey K.|author-link=Geoffrey Pullum|url=http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002729.html|title=The Udmurtian code: saving Finno-Ugric in Russia|date=2005-12-26|access-date=2009-12-21|work=[[Language Log]]}}</ref>

===Comparison===
No Uralic language has exactly the idealized typological profile of the family. Typological features with varying presence among the modern Uralic language groups include:<ref>{{cite journal|first=Péter|last=Hájdu|year=1975|title=Arealógia és urálisztika|journal=Nyelvtudományi Közlemények|volume=77|pages=147–152|issn=0029-6791|url=http://www.nytud.hu/nyk/reg/077.pdf|language=hu}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Feature
! Samoyedic !! Ob-Ugric !! Hungarian !! Permic !! Mari !! Mordvin !! Finnic !! Samic
|-align="center"
! Palatalization
| + || + || + || + || − || + || − || +
|-align="center"
! Consonant length
| − || − || + || − || − || − || + || +
|-align="center"
! Consonant gradation
| −1 || − || − || − || − || − || + || +
|-align="center"
! Vowel harmony
| −2 || −2 || + || − || + || + || +3|| −
|-align="center"
! Grammatical vowel alternation ([[ablaut]] or [[umlaut (linguistics)|umlaut]])
| + || + || − || − || − || − || −4 || +
|-align="center"
! Dual number
| + || + || − || − || − || − || − || +
|-align="center"
! Distinction between inner and outer local cases
| − || − || + || + || + || + || + || −
|-align="center"
! Determinative inflection (verbal marking of [[definiteness]])
| + || + || + || − || − || + || − || −
|-align="center"
! [[Passive voice]]
| − || + || + || − || − || + || + || +
|-align="center"
! Negative verb
| + || − || − || + || + || ± || + || +
|-align="center"
! [[Subject–verb–object|SVO]] word order
| − || − || − || ±5 || − || + || + || +
|}
Notes:
# Clearly present only in [[Nganasan language|Nganasan]].
# Vowel harmony is present in the Uralic languages of Siberia only in some marginal archaic varieties: [[Nganasan language|Nganasan]], [[Southern Mansi]] and [[Eastern Khanty]].
#Only recently lost in modern Estonian
# A number of umlaut processes are found in [[Livonian language|Livonian]].
# In [[Komi language|Komi]], but not in [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]].

==Proposed relations with other language families==
Many relationships between Uralic and other language families have been suggested, but none of these is generally accepted by linguists at the present time: All of the following hypotheses are minority views at the present time in Uralic studies.

===Uralic-Yukaghir===
{{Main|Uralic–Yukaghir languages}}
The [[Uralic–Yukaghir languages|Uralic–Yukaghir]] hypothesis identifies Uralic and [[Yukaghir languages|Yukaghir]] as independent members of a single language
family. It is currently widely accepted that the similarities between Uralic and Yukaghir languages are due to ancient contacts.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rédei, Károly |year=1999 |title=Zu den uralisch-jukagirischen Sprachkontakten |journal=Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen |volume=55 |pages=1–58}}</ref> Regardless, the hypothesis is accepted by a few linguists and viewed as attractive by a somewhat larger number.

===Eskimo-Uralic===
{{Main|Eskimo–Uralic languages}}
The [[Eskimo–Uralic languages|Eskimo–Uralic]] hypothesis associates Uralic with the [[Eskimo–Aleut languages]]. This is an old thesis whose antecedents go back to the 18th century. An important restatement of it was made by [[Knut Bergsland|Bergsland]] (1959).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bergsland |first=Knut |date=1959 |title=The Eskimo-Uralic hypothesis |journal=Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne |volume=61 |pages=1–29 }}</ref>

===Uralo-Siberian===
{{Main|Uralo-Siberian languages}}
[[Uralo-Siberian languages|Uralo-Siberian]] is an expanded form of the Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis. It associates Uralic with Yukaghir, [[Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages|Chukotko-Kamchatkan]], and Eskimo–Aleut. It was propounded by [[Michael Fortescue]] in 1998.<ref>{{cite book |title= Language Relations Across Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence |last= Fortescue |first= Michael D|publisher=Cassell |year= 1998|isbn= 978-0-304-70330-2 |series= Open linguistics series |location= London |oclc=237319639 }}</ref> [[Michael Fortescue]] (2017) presented new evidence in favor for a connection between Uralic and other Paleo-Siberian languages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Correlating Palaeo-Siberian languages and populations: Recent advances in the Uralo-Siberian hypothesis |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320126371 |format=PDF |website=ResearchGate |language=en |access-date=2019-03-22 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Ural-Altaic===
{{Main|Ural–Altaic languages}}
Theories proposing a close relationship with the [[Altaic languages]] were formerly popular, based on similarities in vocabulary as well as in grammatical and phonological features, in particular the similarities in the Uralic and Altaic pronouns and the presence of [[agglutination]] in both sets of languages, as well as [[vowel harmony]] in some. For example, the word for "language" is similar in [[Estonian language|Estonian]] (''keel'') and [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] (''хэл'' (''hel'')). These theories are now generally rejected<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Georg |first1=Stefan |last2=Michalove |first2=Peter A. |last3=Ramer |first3=Alexis Manaster |last4=Sidwell |first4=Paul J. |date=March 1999 |title=Telling general linguists about Altaic |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231787164 |journal=Journal of Linguistics |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=65–98 |issn=1469-7742 |doi=10.1017/S0022226798007312 |s2cid=144613877 }}</ref> and most such similarities are attributed to [[language contact]] or coincidence.

===Indo-Uralic===
{{Main|Indo-Uralic languages}}
The [[Indo-Uralic languages|Indo-Uralic]] (or "Indo-Euralic") hypothesis suggests that Uralic and [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] are related at a fairly close level or, in its stronger form, that they are more closely related than either is to any other language family.

===Uralo-Dravidian===
The hypothesis that the [[Dravidian languages]] display similarities with the Uralic language group, suggesting a prolonged period of contact in the past,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Tyler, Stephen |year=1968 |title=Dravidian and Uralian: The lexical evidence |journal=Language |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=798–812|doi=10.2307/411899 |jstor=411899 }}</ref> is popular amongst Dravidian linguists and has been supported by a number of scholars, including [[Robert Caldwell]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Webb |first1=Edward |year=1860 |title=Evidences of the Scythian Affinities of the Dravidian Languages, Condensed and Arranged from Rev. R. Caldwell's Comparative Dravidian Grammar |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=7 |pages=271–298 |doi=10.2307/592159 |jstor=592159}}</ref> [[Thomas Burrow]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Burrow |first1= T. |year=1944 |title=Dravidian Studies IV: The body in Dravidian and Uralian |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=328–356 |doi=10.1017/s0041977x00072517|s2cid= 246637174 }}</ref> [[Kamil Zvelebil]],<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |author=Zvelebil, Kamil |year=2006 |contribution=Dravidian Languages |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |edition=DVD}}</ref> and Mikhail Andronov.<ref>{{cite conference |author=Andronov, Mikhail S. |year=1971 |title=Comparative studies on the nature of Dravidian-Uralian parallels: A peep into the prehistory of language families |conference=Proceedings of the Second International Conference of Tamil Studies |location=Madras |pages=267–277}}</ref> This hypothesis has, however, been rejected by some specialists in Uralic languages,<ref>{{cite book |author=Zvelebil, Kamil |year=1970 |title=Comparative Dravidian Phonology |publisher=Mouton |location=The Hauge |page=22 |quote=bibliography of articles supporting and opposing the hypothesis}}</ref> and has in recent times also been criticised by other Dravidian linguists, such as [[Bhadriraju Krishnamurti]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju |year=2003 |title=The Dravidian Languages |url=https://archive.org/details/dravidianlanguag00kris |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=0-521-77111-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dravidianlanguag00kris/page/n72 43]}}</ref>

===Nostratic===
{{Main|Nostratic languages}}
[[Nostratic languages|Nostratic]] associates Uralic, Indo-European, Altaic, Dravidian, Afroasiatic, and various other language families of Asia. The Nostratic hypothesis was first propounded by [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] in 1903<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pedersen |first=Holger |date=1903 |title=Türkische Lautgesetze |trans-title=Turkish Phonetic Laws |journal=Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft |language=de |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=535–561 |issn=0341-0137 |oclc=5919317968 }}</ref> and subsequently revived by [[Vladislav Illich-Svitych]] and [[Aharon Dolgopolsky]] in the 1960s.

===Eurasiatic===
{{Main|Eurasiatic languages}}
[[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]] resembles Nostratic in including Uralic, Indo-European, and Altaic, but differs from it in excluding the South Caucasian languages, Dravidian, and Afroasiatic and including Chukotko-Kamchatkan, [[Nivkh language|Nivkh]], [[Ainu languages|Ainu]], and Eskimo–Aleut. It was propounded by [[Joseph Greenberg]] in 2000–2002.<ref>{{cite book |title=Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family |volume=1: Grammar |last=Greenberg |first=Joseph Harold |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8047-3812-5 |location=Stanford, CA |language=en |oclc=491123067 }}
</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family |volume=2: Lexicon |last=Greenberg |first=Joseph H. |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8047-4624-3 |location=Stanford, CA |language=en |oclc=895918332 }}</ref> Similar ideas had earlier been expressed by Heinrich Koppelmann in 1933 and by [[Björn Collinder]] in 1965.<ref>{{cite book |title=Die Eurasische Sprachfamilie: Indogermanisch, Koreanisch und Verwandtes |last=Koppelmann |first=Heinrich L. |publisher=Carl Winter |year=1933 |location=Heidelberg |language=de }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WubvXTkjoLUC&pg=PA30|title=An Introduction to the Uralic Languages |last=Collinder |first=Björn |publisher=University of California Press |year=1965 |pages=30–34 |language=en }}</ref>

===Uralic skepticism===
The linguist Angela Marcantonio has argued against the validity of several subgroups of the Uralic family, as well against the family itself, claiming that many of the languages are no more closely related to each other than they are to various other Eurasian languages (e.g. Yukaghir or Turkic), and that in particular Hungarian is a language isolate.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics|last=Marcantonio|first=Angela|publisher=Blackwell|year=2002|isbn=978-0-631-23170-7|series=Publications of the Philological Society|volume=35|location=Oxford|oclc=803186861}}</ref>

Marcantonio's proposal has been strongly dismissed by most reviewers as unfounded and methodologically flawed.<ref name="Aikio re FMS">{{cite journal |last=Aikio |first=Ante |year=2003 |title=Angela Marcantonio, The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics |journal=Word |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=401–412 |department=Book review |doi=10.1080/00437956.2003.11432539 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Bakro-Nagy re FMS">{{cite journal |last=Bakro-Nagy |first=Marianne |title=The Uralic Language Family. Facts, Myths and Statistics |year=2005 |journal=Lingua |volume=115 |issue=7 |pages=1053–1062 |department=Book review |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256805981|doi=10.1016/j.lingua.2004.01.008 }}</ref><ref name="Georg re FMS">{{cite journal|first=Stefan|last=Georg|title=Marcantonio, Angela: The Uralic Language Family. Facts, Myths and Statistics|department=Book review|year=2004|journal=Finnisch-Ugrische Mitteilungen|volume=26/27|pages=155–168}}</ref><ref name="Kallio re FMS">{{cite journal|first=Petri|last=Kallio|title=The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics. Angela Marcantonio.|department=Book review|year=2004|journal=Anthropological Linguistics|volume=46|pages=486–490}}</ref><ref name="Kulonen re FMS">{{cite journal|first=Ulla-Maija|last=Kulonen|title=Myyttejä uralistiikasta. Angela Marcantonio. The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics|department=Book review|year=2004|journal=Virittäjä|issue=2/2004|pages=314–320}}</ref><ref name="Laakso re FMS">{{cite journal |last=Laakso |first=Johanna |year=2004 |title=Sprachwissenschaftliche Spiegelfechterei (Angela Marcantonio: The Uralic language family. Facts, myths and statistics) |journal=Finnisch-ugrische Forschungen |volume=58 |pages=296–307 |department=Book review |language=de |url=https://www.academia.edu/549885}}</ref> Problems identified by reviewers include:
* Misrepresentation of the amount of comparative evidence behind the Uralic family, by arbitrarily ignoring data and mis-counting the number of examples known of various regular sound correspondences<ref name="Aikio re FMS"/><ref name="Georg re FMS"/><ref name="Kallio re FMS"/><ref name="Kulonen re FMS"/><ref name="Laakso re FMS"/>
* After arguing against the proposal of a Ugric subgroup within Uralic, claiming that this would constitute evidence that Hungarian and the Ob-Ugric languages have no relationship at all<ref name="Aikio re FMS"/><ref name="Bakro-Nagy re FMS"/><ref name="Georg re FMS"/><ref name="Laakso re FMS"/>
* Excessive focus on criticizing the work of early pioneer studies on the Uralic family, while ignoring newer, more detailed work published in the 20th century<ref name="Bakro-Nagy re FMS"/><ref name="Kallio re FMS"/><ref name="Kulonen re FMS"/><ref name="Laakso re FMS"/>
* Criticizing the evidence for the Uralic family as unsystematic and statistically insignificant, yet freely proposing alternate relationships based on even scarcer and even less systematic evidence.<ref name="Aikio re FMS"/><ref name="Georg re FMS"/><ref name="Kallio re FMS"/><ref name="Kulonen re FMS"/><ref name="Laakso re FMS"/>
A more ambiguous review comes from linguist [[Edward Vajda]], who does not, however, specialize in Uralic languages. Although he also rejects all of the book's new proposals (including the author's dismissal of Uralic as a language family), he agrees that Marcantonio has raised a number of worthwhile questions that both Uralicists and non-Uralicists should aim to answer seriously.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=http://www.safarmer.com/Indo-Eurasian/Vajda.review.pdf |title=The Uralic language family: Facts, myths, and statistics |series=a review by Dr. Edward Vajda |first=Edward |last=Vajda}}</ref>

===Other comparisons===
Various unorthodox comparisons have been advanced. These are considered at best spurious fringe-theories by specialists:

*Finno-Basque<ref name=Trask>{{cite book |author-link=Larry Trask |author=Trask, R.L. |title=The History of Basque |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |isbn=0-415-13116-2}}</ref>
* [[Alternative theories of Hungarian language origins#Etruscan-Hungarian language relation|Hungarian-Etruscan]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Alinei, Mario |year=2003 |title=Etrusco: Una forma arcaica di ungherese |location=Bologna, IT |publisher=Il Mulino}}</ref>
* [[Sino-Uralic languages]]
* [[Cal-Ugrian theory]]
*Dené-Finnish ([[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], [[Na-Dene languages|Na-Dené]] and Uralic)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Uralic-languages|title = Uralic languages | Britannica}}</ref>
*[[Minoan language|Minoan]]-Uralic<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Revesz |first=Peter |date=2017-01-01 |title=Establishing the West-Ugric language family with Minoan, Hattic and Hungarian by a decipherment of Linear A |url=https://www.academia.edu/38843730 |journal=WSEAS Transactions on Information Science and Applications}}</ref>
* [[Alternative theories of Hungarian language origins]]

== Comparison ==
Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] (in English): ''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''

Comparison of the text in prominent Uralic languages:<ref>[http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/SearchByLang.aspx UN Human Rights] {{dead link|date=March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://omniglot.com/udhr/uralic.htm | title=Article 1 of the UDHR in Uralic languages }}</ref>

'''[[Finnish language|Finnish]]:'''

Kaikki ihmiset syntyvät vapaina ja tasavertaisina arvoltaan ja oikeuksiltaan. Heille on annettu järki ja omatunto, ja heidän on toimittava toisiaan kohtaan veljeyden hengessä.

'''[[Livvi-Karelian language|Livvi-Karelian]]:'''

Kai rahvas roittahes vällinny da taza-arvozinnu omas arvos da oigevuksis. Jogahizele heis on annettu mieli da omatundo da heil vältämättäh pidäy olla keskenäh, kui vellil.

'''[[Veps language|Veps]]:'''

Kaik mehed sünduba joudajin i kohtaižin, ühtejiččin ičeze arvokahudes i oiktusiš. Heile om anttud mel’ i huiktusentund i heile tariž kožuda toine toiženke kut vel’l’kundad.

'''[[Estonian language|Estonian]]:'''

Kõik inimesed sünnivad vabadena ja võrdsetena oma väärikuselt ja õigustelt. Neile on antud mõistus ja südametunnistus ja nende suhtumist üksteisesse peab kandma vendluse vaim.

'''[[Livonian language|Livonian]]:'''

Amād rovzt attõ sindõnd brīd ja īdlizt eņtš vǟrtitõks ja õigiztõks. Näntõn um andtõd mūoštõks ja sidāmtundimi, ja näntõn um īdtuoisõ tuoimõmõst veļkub vaimsõ.

'''[[Northern Sámi|Northern Sami]]:'''

Buot olbmot leat riegádan friddjan ja olmmošárvvu ja olmmošvuoigatvuođaid dáfus. Sii leat jierbmalaš olbmot geain lea oamedovdu ja sii gálggaše leat dego vieljačagat.

'''[[Komi language|Komi]]:'''

Bydös otirys čužöny vol’nöjеzön da ötkoddеzön dostoinstvoyn da pravoèzyn. Nylö sеtöm myvkyd da sovеst’ ovny ötamödnysköt kydz vonnèzlö.

'''[[Nenets languages|Nenets]]:'''

Et xibjari nenėc’ sojamarianta xurkari pravada tnjava, ṇoboj nenėcja nidu nic’ tokalba, ṇybtamba ilevatu tara.

'''[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]:'''

Minden emberi lény szabadon születik és egyenlő méltósága és joga van. Az emberek, ésszel és lelkiismerettel bírván, egymással szemben testvéri szellemben kell hogy viseltessenek.

==See also==
{{Portal|Estonia|Finland|Hungary|Languages}}
*[[List of Uralic languages]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Abondolo, Daniel M. (editor). 1998. ''The Uralic Languages''. London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-08198-X}}.
* {{cite book |last=Aikio |first=Ante |author-link=Ante Aikio |date=24 March 2022 |editor-last=Bakró-Nagy |editor-first=Marianne |editor2-last=Laakso |editor2-first=Johanna |editor3-last=Skribnik |editor3-first=Elena |title=The Oxford Guide to the Uralic Languages |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |chapter=Chapter 1: Proto-Uralic |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/40193033 |isbn=9780198767664}}
* Collinder, Björn. 1955. ''Fenno-Ugric Vocabulary: An Etymological Dictionary of the Uralic Languages.'' (Collective work.) Stockholm: Almqvist & Viksell. (Second, revised edition: Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag, 1977.)
* Collinder, Björn. 1957. ''Survey of the Uralic Languages.'' Stockholm.
* Collinder, Björn. 1960. ''Comparative Grammar of the Uralic Languages.'' Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell
* Comrie, Bernhard. 1988. "General Features of the Uralic Languages." In ''The Uralic Languages'', edited by Denis Sinor, pp. 451–477. Leiden: Brill.
* Décsy, Gyula. 1990. ''The Uralic Protolanguage: A Comprehensive Reconstruction.'' Bloomington, Indiana.
* Hajdu, Péter. 1963. ''Finnugor népek és nyelvek.'' Budapest: Gondolat kiadó.
* [[Eugene Helimski|Helimski, Eugene]]. ''Comparative Linguistics, Uralic Studies. Lectures and Articles.'' Moscow. 2000. ({{lang-ru|link=no|Хелимский Е.А. Компаративистика, уралистика. Лекции и статьи. М., 2000.}})
* [[Johanna Laakso|Laakso, Johanna]]. 1992. ''Uralilaiset kansat'' ('Uralic Peoples'). Porvoo – Helsinki – Juva. {{ISBN|951-0-16485-2}}.
*{{cite book |last=Korhonen |first=Mikko |year=1986 |title=Finno-Ugrian Language Studies in Finland 1828–1918 |location=Helsinki |publisher=Societas Scientiarum Fennica |isbn=951-653-135-0 }}.
* [[Vladimir Napolskikh|Napolskikh, Vladimir]]. The First Stages of Origin of People of Uralic Language Family: Material of Mythological Reconstruction. Moscow, 1991. ({{lang-ru|link=no|Напольских В. В. Древнейшие этапы происхождения народов уральской языковой семьи: данные мифологической реконструкции. М., 1991.}})
* Rédei, Károly (editor). 1986–88. ''Uralisches etymologisches Wörterbuch'' ('Uralic Etymological Dictionary'). Budapest.
*{{cite book |editor-last=Sinor|editor-first=Denis|last=Wickman|first=Bo|title=The Uralic Languages: Description, History, and Foreign Influences|url=https://archive.org/details/uraliclanguagesd00sino|url-access=limited|chapter=The History of Uralic Linguistics|location=Leiden|year=1988|pages=[https://archive.org/details/uraliclanguagesd00sino/page/n805 792]–818|oclc=16580570|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-07741-6}}

===External classification===
* Sauvageot, Aurélien. 1930. ''Recherches sur le vocabulaire des langues ouralo-altaïques'' ('Research on the Vocabulary of the Uralo-Altaic Languages'). Paris.

===Linguistic issues===
* Künnap, A. 2000. ''Contact-induced Perspectives in Uralic Linguistics.'' LINCOM Studies in Asian Linguistics 39. München: LINCOM Europa. {{ISBN|3-89586-964-3}}.
* Wickman, Bo. 1955. ''The Form of the Object in the Uralic Languages.'' Uppsala: Lundequistska bokhandeln.

==Further reading==
* Bakró-Nagy, Marianne. "The Uralic Languages". In: ''Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire'', tome 90, fasc. 3, 2012. Langues et littératures modernes. Moderne taal en letterkunde. pp. 1001–1027. DOI: [https://doi.org/10.3406/rbph.2012.8272 The Uralic Languages]; www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_2012_num_90_3_8272
* {{ill|Kallio, Petri|nn|Petri Kallio}} (2015). "[https://www.academia.edu/20252178/The_Language_Contact_Situation_in_Prehistoric_Northeastern_Europe The Language Contact Situation in Prehistoric Northeastern Europe"]. ''The Linguistic Roots of Europe: Origin and Development of European Languages''. Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European 6. Copenhagen: [[Museum Tusculanum Press]], 2015. pp. 77-102.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Uralic languages}}
* [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_VPNPSPV&CFID=72928126&CFTOKEN=1edc457-a1c37f7b-638d-4c28-b9b4-6ca56946f851 "The Finno-Ugrics"] ''The Economist'', December 20, 2005
* Kulonen, Ulla-Maija: [https://web.archive.org/web/20091218022542/http://finland.fi/Public/default.aspx?contentid=160054&nodeid=41807&culture=en-US Origin of Finnish and related languages.] ''thisisFINLAND'', Finland Promotion Board. Cited 30.10.2009.
*{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/download/early-indo-iranic-loans-in-uralic-sounds/Early_Indo_Iranic_loans_in_Uralic_Sounds.pdf|title=Early Indo-Iranic loans in Uralic: Sounds and strata|work=Martin Joachim Kümmel, Seminar for Indo-European Studies}}
*Syrjänen, Kaj, Lehtinen, Jyri, Vesakoski, Outi, de Heer, Mervi, Suutari, Toni, Dunn, Michael, … Leino, Unni-Päivä. (2018). lexibank/uralex: UraLex basic vocabulary dataset (Version v1.0) [Data set]. Zenodo. {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.1459402}}

==="Rebel" Uralists===
* [http://www.kirj.ee/public/va_lu/l37-2-1.pdf "The 'Ugric-Turkic battle': a critical review"] by Angela Marcantonio, Pirjo Nummenaho, and Michela Salvagni
* [http://homepage.univie.ac.at/Johanna.Laakso/am_rev.html "Linguistic shadow-boxing"] by [[Johanna Laakso]] – a book review of Angela Marcantonio's ''The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics''

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

{{Uralic languages}}
{{Language families}}
{{Eurasian languages}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Uralic Languages}}
[[Category:Uralic languages| ]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Language families]]
[[Category:Languages of Russia]]
[[Category:Languages of Finland]]
[[Category:Languages of Hungary]]
[[Category:Languages of Estonia]]

Kaleva (airplane)

2023-04-12T08:36:20Z

3 Löwi: Matveyev

{{short description|Passenger airliner shot down by Soviet bombers in 1940}}
{{italic title}}
{{EngvarA|date=May 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox aircraft occurrence
|name = ''Aero Flight 1631''
|image = OH-ALL Kaleva 1930s.jpg
|caption = ''Kaleva'' at [[Helsinki-Malmi Airport|Malmi Airport]] in the late 1930s.
|Date = 14 June 1940
|Type = Airliner shootdown
|Site = near [[Keri Lighthouse]], [[Gulf of Finland]]
|Coordinates = {{coord|59|47|1|N|25|01|6|E}}
|Fatalities = 9
|Injuries =
|Survivors = 0
|aircraft_name = ''Kaleva''
|Aircraft Type = [[Junkers Ju 52]]-3/mge
|Origin = [[Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport|Ülemiste Airport]]
|Destination = [[Helsinki-Malmi Airport]]
|Operator = [[Finnair|Aero O/Y]]
|Tail Number = OH-ALL
|Passengers = 7
|Crew = 2
}}

'''''Kaleva''''' was a civilian [[Junkers Ju 52]] passenger and transport airplane belonging to the Finnish carrier [[Finnair|Aero O/Y]]. On 14 June 1940, as Flight 1631 from [[Tallinn]] in [[Estonia in World War II|Estonia]] to [[Helsinki]] in Finland, the aircraft was shot down over the [[Gulf of Finland]] by two Soviet [[Ilyushin DB-3]] bombers, killing all nine on board.<ref>[http://www.virtualpilots.fi/feature/artikkelit/tapauskaleva/ Virtualpilots - Tapauskaleva.] Retrieved on 30-1-2007.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Niku |first=Risto |date=2007 |title=Kalevan kuolemanlento |language=Finnish |location=Jyväskylä |publisher=Edita |page= 11 |isbn= 978-951-37-4965-1 |author-link= }}</ref> The incident occurred during the [[Interim Peace]] between the Soviet Union and Finland, and at the outset of the [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|Soviet occupation]] of Estonia. Kaleva was the second civilian [[airliner|passenger airplane]] ever to be attacked midair, and the [[List of airliner shootdown incidents|first airliner in history to be shot down in flight]], by hostile aircraft.

==Incident==
A few minutes after taking off from Tallinn, Aero Flight 1631 was joined at close range by two Soviet [[DB-3T]] torpedo bombers. The bombers opened fire with their machine guns and badly damaged ''Kaleva'', making it crash into the water a few kilometers northeast of [[Keri Lighthouse]]. All nine passengers and crew members on board were killed.

[[Estonian people|Estonian]] fishermen had witnessed the attack and crash of the plane. Shortly after the crash the [[Shchuka class submarine|Soviet submarine ''Shch-301'']] (Щ-301) surfaced and inspected the fishing boats. After confiscating items taken from the wreck by the fishermen, the Soviets picked up diplomatic mail from the wreck and the sea. The future top-scoring [[Finns|Finnish]] pilot [[Ilmari Juutilainen]] was sent to inspect the crash site. After the Soviets spotted the Finnish airplane, the submarine hid its flag.

At the time of the incident [[Finland]] was not at war with the Soviet Union. The attack was probably part of the Soviet preparations for the full-scale [[occupation of Baltic Republics|occupation of Estonia]], which took place two days after the ''Kaleva'' incident, on 16 June 1940. The occupation was preceded for several days by a Soviet air and naval blockade, which included preventing diplomatic mail from being sent abroad from Estonia. The passengers on the last flight of ''Kaleva'' included two [[German people|German]] businessmen, two [[French people|French]] embassy couriers, one [[Swedish people|Swede]], an American courier, and an Estonian woman. The French couriers had over {{convert|120|kg}} of diplomatic mail in the plane. The American courier was reportedly transporting the U.S. military codes to safety from Estonia.<ref>[http://pelastamalmi.org/en/news/kaleva.html FoMa - The wreck of Kaleva possibly found.] Retrieved 30-1-2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.afsa.org/fsj/may07/lastflight.pdf The Last Flight from Tallinn] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325013623/http://www.afsa.org/fsj/may07/lastflight.pdf |date=2009-03-25 }} at American Foreign Service Association</ref>

The [[government of Finland]] did not send any complaints or questions to the Soviets out of fear of hostile Soviet response, and the true reason for the crash was hidden from the public. This was due to the heavy pressure put upon Finland during the [[Interim Peace]] by the Soviets. After the outbreak of the [[Continuation War]], the incident was described in detail by the government.

===G. Goldberg's report===
[[Image:Kalevakuva 1.jpg|thumb|''Kaleva'' and its crew sometime prior to the attack.]]
The commander of ''Shch-301'' G. Goldberg's report on the incident held in the Russian State Naval Archives starts with the notice of a Finnish airplane on its way from Tallinn to Helsinki on 14 June 1940 at 15.05 PM. According to the report, the airplane was chased by two Soviet [[Tupolev SB]] high-speed bombers. At 15.06 PM, the Finnish airplane caught fire and fell into the sea, {{convert|5.8|mi|km}} from the submarine. At 15.09 PM the submarine set course to the crash site and made it to the location by 15.47 PM. The submarine was met by three Estonian fishing boats near the detritus of the airplane. The Estonian fishermen were searched by lieutenants Aladzhanov, Krainov and Shevtshenko. All valuables found from the fishermen and in the sea were brought on board the submarine: the items included about {{convert|100|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} of diplomatic post, valuables and foreign currencies.
At 15.58 a Finnish fighter plane was noticed on course towards the submarine. The airplane made three circles above the site and then flew towards Helsinki. The exact coordinates of the crash site were determined to be at {{coord|59|47|1|N|25|01|6|E}}.<ref>Pavel Petrov, p. 168</ref>

===A. Matveyev's report===
Captain A. Matveyev's report states that on board the ''Shch-301'' noticed an airplane crash on 14 June 1940 at 15.06 on {{convert|5.8|mi|km}} distance from the submarine. At the crash site three Estonian fishing boats and the remains of the airplane were found. At 15.58 PM a Finnish fighter plane made three circles above the crash site. By 16.10 PM all items found from the sea and from the hands of the fishermen were brought on board the submarine. The items included about {{convert|100|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} of diplomatic mail, and valuables and currencies including: 1) Two golden medals, 2) [[Finnish mark]] 2,000, 3) 10,000 [[Romanian leu]], 4) 13,500 [[French franc]], 5) 100 [[Yugoslav dinar]], 6) [[Italian lira]] 90, 7) [[United States dollar]] 75, 8) 521 [[Soviet rouble]]s, 9) 10 [[Estonian kroon]]s. All items were put on board of patrol boat ''Sneg'' and sent to [[Kronstadt]].<ref>Pavel Petrov, p. 167</ref>

== Victims ==
{| class="wikitable sortable floatright" style="font-size:85%; text-align:right; margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em;"
|+ '''People on board by nationality'''
|-
! style="text-align:left;" | Nationality
! style="text-align:left;" | Passengers
! style="text-align:left;" | Crew
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagcountry|Finland}}
|
| 2
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagcountry|France|1794}}
| 2
|
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
| 2
|
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagcountry|Estonia}}
| 1
|
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
| 1
|
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagcountry|United States|1912}}
| 1
|
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:left;" | '''Total'''
| '''7'''
| '''2'''
|}
The plane was piloted by Captain Bo von Willebrand, and Tauno Launis was the wireless operator. The American victim was [[Henry W. Antheil Jr.]], younger brother of noted composer [[George Antheil]]. Antheil worked as a clerk at the U.S. Legation in Helsinki. In 2007, he was honored for his service in a ceremony at the U.S. Department of State. His name was inscribed on the U.S. Department of State's Wall of Honor.<ref>[http://estonia.usembassy.gov/root/pdfs/history-articles/henry-w.-antheil.pdf Henry W. Antheil] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527100504/http://estonia.usembassy.gov/root/pdfs/history-articles/henry-w.-antheil.pdf |date=2010-05-27 }} Retrieved 18 March 2009.</ref> The French victim was mathematician [[Frédéric Marty]], who worked for the French embassy in Tallinn.<ref>http://fly.historicwings.com/2013/06/the-kaleva-shootdown/</ref>

* Bo Hermansson von Willebrand (captain)
* Tauno Launis (co-pilot)
* [[Henry W. Antheil Jr.]] (American diplomat)
* [[Frédéric Marty]] (French diplomatic courier)
* Paul Longuet (French diplomatic courier)
* Rudolf Cöllen (Germany)
* Friedrich-Wilhelm Offermann (Germany)
* Max Hettinger (Sweden)
* Gunvor Maria Luts (Finnish-born Estonian citizen)

==In popular culture==
The shootdown of ''Kaleva'' is a central event in the novel trilogy ''[[Litsid]]'' (''The Whores'', 2015-2018) by the Estonian author [[Mart Sander]] and in the TV series of the same name (2018).<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7165256/?ref_=ttfc_fc_tt] Litsid: The Whores on IMDB</ref> The book follows the theory proposing that Henry Antheil (played in the series by Matt Fien) was tasked with transporting the last remaining gold from the Estonian gold depository (11 bars) to Finland, only days before the Soviet occupation began. There were 227 kilograms of diplomatic luggage on the plane.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ekspress.delfi.ee/kuum/67-aasta-tagune-ohumorv-lahendatud?id=69138693 |title=67 aasta tagune õhumõrv lahendatud |last=Vahter |first=Tarmo |date=October 11, 2007 |language=Estonian |publisher=Eesti Ekspress |access-date=31 May 2018 |quote=}}</ref> Another theory suggests that the orders came straight from [[Stalin]], who was convinced that Estonian president [[Konstantin Päts]] was trying to flee the country on it.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ekspress.delfi.ee/kuum/tana-10-aastat-tagasi-stalin-kaskis-patsi-tappa-tuntud-soome-ajaloolase-versioon?id=69035395 |title=Stalin käskis Pätsi tappa! Tuntud Soome ajaloolase versioon |last=Vahter |first=Tarmo |date=25 June 2015 |language=Estonian |publisher=Eesti Ekspress |access-date=31 May 2018 |quote=}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of airliner shootdown incidents]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*{{cite book |title=Punalipuline Balti Laevastik ja Eesti 1939–1941 |last=Petrov |first=Pavel |year=2008 |publisher=Tänapäev |location= |language=Estonian |isbn=978-9985-62-631-3 |page= |pages= |url=http://www.tnp.ee/raamat?id=717}}
* Gummerus, ''Vuosisatamme kronikka'', p. 543. 1987. {{ISBN|951-20-2893-X}}

{{Aviation accidents and incidents in 1940}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kaleva (Airplane)}}
[[Category:Mass murder in 1940]]
[[Category:Airliner shootdown incidents]]
[[Category:Accidents and incidents involving the Junkers Ju 52]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in 1940]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in Estonia]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in Finland]]
[[Category:Finland–Soviet Union relations]]
[[Category:Finnair accidents and incidents]]
[[Category:Military history of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Soviet war crimes]]
[[Category:1940 in Estonia]]
[[Category:1940 in Finland]]
[[Category:20th-century aircraft shootdown incidents]]
[[Category:Individual aircraft]]

User talk:3 Löwi

2023-03-12T01:06:50Z

3 Löwi: Respectful unblock request

2023 Estonian parliamentary election

2023-03-10T17:23:40Z

3 Löwi: reordered some sentences (moved the discussion about previous cabinets in 2019-2023 out of the introduction) made the lede more into a summary

{{Short description|Parliamentary election}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox election
| country = Estonia
| type = parliamentary
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = 2019 Estonian parliamentary election
| previous_year = 2019
| outgoing_members = List of members of the Riigikogu
| next_election = Next Estonian parliamentary election
| next_year = ''Next''
| elected_members = Members of the 15th Riigikogu
| seats_for_election = All 101 seats in the [[Riigikogu]]
| majority_seats = 51
| election_date = 5 March 2023
| opinion_polls = Opinion polling for the 2023 Estonian parliamentary election
| turnout = 63.53% ({{decrease}} 0.14% [[percentage point|pp]])
| image_size = 130x130px

| image1 = Kaja Kallas (crop) (cropped).jpg
| leader1 = [[Kaja Kallas]]
| party1 = Estonian Reform Party
| last_election1 = 28.93%, 34 seats
| seats1 = '''37'''
| seat_change1 = {{increase}} 3
| popular_vote1 = '''190,659'''
| percentage1 = '''31.24%'''
| swing1 = {{increase}} 2.31 pp

| image2 = RK Martin Helme (cropped).jpg
| leader2 = [[Martin Helme]]
| party2 = Conservative People's Party of Estonia
| last_election2 = 17.76%, 19 seats
| seats2 = 17
| seat_change2 = {{decrease}} 2
| popular_vote2 = 97,959
| percentage2 = 16.05%
| swing2 = {{decrease}} 1.71 pp

| image3 = Jüri Ratas 2022.jpg
| leader3 = [[Jüri Ratas]]
| party3 = Estonian Centre Party
| color3 = {{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}
| last_election3 = 23.10%, 26 seats
| seats3 = 16
| seat_change3 = {{decrease}} 10
| popular_vote3 = 93,243
| percentage3 = 15.28%
| swing3 = {{decrease}} 7.28 pp

| image4 = Lauri Hussar at the Opinion Festival 2022 in Paide, Estonia (cropped).jpg
| leader4 = [[Lauri Hussar]]
| party4 = Estonia 200
| colour4 = {{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}
| last_election4 = 4.36%, 0 seats
| seats4 = 14
| seat_change4 = {{increase}} 14
| popular_vote4 = 81,347
| percentage4 = 13.33%
| swing4 = {{increase}} 8.97 pp

| image5 = Lauri Läänemets at the Opinion Festival 2022 in Paide, Estonia (cropped).jpg
| leader5 = [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| party5 = Social Democratic Party (Estonia)
| last_election5 = 9.83%, 10 seats
| seats5 = 9
| seat_change5 = {{decrease}} 1
| popular_vote5 = 56,578
| percentage5 = 9.27%
| swing5 = {{decrease}} 0.56 pp

| image6 = AAA 2054 (31896801808) (cropped 1).jpg
| leader6 = [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| party6 = Isamaa
| last_election6 = 11.44%, 12 seats
| seats6 = 8
| seat_change6 = {{decrease}} 4
| popular_vote6 = 50,114
| percentage6 = 8.21%
| swing6 = {{decrease}} 3.23 pp

| map_image = 2023 Estonian parliamentary election by electoral districts.svg
| map_caption = Distribution of seats and the largest party by electoral districts

| title = [[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]]
| posttitle = Prime Minister after election
| before_election = [[Kaja Kallas]]
| before_party = Estonian Reform Party
| after_election =
| after_party =
}}

Parliamentary elections were held in [[Estonia]] on 5 March 2023 to elect all 101 members of the unicameral ''[[Riigikogu]]''. Based on the unconfirmed results, the officially published election data indicate the victory of the Reform Party, which won 37 seats in total, while the [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia]] (EKRE) placed second with 17 seats. The [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]] won 16 seats, a loss of 10, while [[Estonia 200]] won 14 seats, gaining representation in Riigikogu.

These were the first national elections where more than half of the votes were cast [[Electronic voting in Estonia|electronically]] over the Internet. Following the election, on 9 March 2023, EKRE submitted an appeal to the [[Supreme Court of Estonia]], requesting that the electronic voting results should be annulled and claiming that "anomalies and technical errors in the e-voting process had been observed".

== Background ==
In January 2023, the National Electoral Committee announced that nine political parties and ten individual candidates had registered to take part in the 2023 parliamentary election. Voting at foreign embassies took place from 18 to 23 February, while voters could vote during the pre-election period from 27 February to 4 March.

During the campaign period, issues discussed most extensively regarded Estonian economy, and the country's national defence and security due to the current [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russian]] [[war of aggression]] in Ukraine. Individuals from contesting political parties also participated in organised debates on TV, radio, and social media throughout January and February 2023.

The [[Estonian Centre Party]], led by [[Jüri Ratas]], formed a government after the [[2019 Estonian parliamentary election]], with Ratas serving as prime minister. His government was brought down in January 2021 after a corruption investigation; [[Kaja Kallas]] of the [[Estonian Reform Party]] formed a [[coalition government]] with the Centre Party afterward, although it collapsed in June 2022. Kallas then formed a government with [[Isamaa]] and the [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]] and remained in the position of prime minister.

The previous parliamentary election, which was held in March 2019, saw the loss of the [[absolute majority]] held by [[Jüri Ratas' first cabinet|Jüri Ratas's first cabinet]] in [[Riigikogu]], the unicameral parliament of Estonia. The Ratas's ruling coalition parties - Centre Party, [[Isamaa]], and [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]] (SDE) - all suffered a setback in favour of the Reform Party, led by Kallas, and the EKRE.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 April 2019 |title=Kaja Kallas: Coalition ready for Riigikogu vote on 15 April |url=https://news.err.ee/927272/kaja-kallas-coalition-ready-for-riigikogu-vote-on-15-april |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201063626/https://news.err.ee/927272/kaja-kallas-coalition-ready-for-riigikogu-vote-on-15-april |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2019, Ratas received the mandate and successfully formed a coalition government with Isamaa and EKRE.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2019 |title=Estonie: Le Premier ministre sortant scelle un accord de coalition tripartite |url=https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/international/070419/estonie-le-premier-ministre-sortant-scelle-un-accord-de-coalition-tripartite |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Mediapart |language=fr |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201063623/https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/international/070419/estonie-le-premier-ministre-sortant-scelle-un-accord-de-coalition-tripartite |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Jüri Ratas' second cabinet|Jüri Ratas's second cabinet]] was sworn in on 29 April 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 July 2021 |title=Estonia likely to see euroskeptic party brought to power |url=https://apnews.com/article/europe-estonia-legislature-54d52f04e95944d8bf93f1bbb69ad2ed |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Associated Press |language=en |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207145259/https://apnews.com/article/europe-estonia-legislature-54d52f04e95944d8bf93f1bbb69ad2ed |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 April 2019 |title=Nationalist Party Enters Estonia's Government |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/nationalist-party-enters-estonia-s-government/4897062.html |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Voice of America |language=en |archive-date=1 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501011712/https://www.voanews.com/a/nationalist-party-enters-estonia-s-government/4897062.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In January 2021, the Centre Party-led government collapsed after a corruption investigation in which the Centre Party was accused of requesting financial support of up to €1 million within a year in return of the €39 million loan to [[Hillar Teder]]'s real estate development in [[Tallinn]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tambur |first=Silver |date=13 January 2021 |title=Estonia's prime minister Jüri Ratas resigns, Kaja Kallas asked to form the government |url=https://estonianworld.com/security/a-political-crisis-in-estonia-prime-minister-juri-ratas-resigns/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Estonian World |language=en-GB |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126072044/https://estonianworld.com/security/a-political-crisis-in-estonia-prime-minister-juri-ratas-resigns/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In response, Ratas resigned as [[prime minister of Estonia]], while Kallas was invited to form a government.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Belga |first=Par |date=14 January 2021 |title=Estonie: l'europhile convaincue Kaja Kallas désignée au poste du Premier ministre |url=https://www.rtbf.be/article/estonie-l-europhile-convaincue-kaja-kallas-designee-au-poste-du-premier-ministre-10673384 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Radio-télévision belge de la Communauté française |language=fr |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207160811/https://www.rtbf.be/article/estonie-l-europhile-convaincue-kaja-kallas-designee-au-poste-du-premier-ministre-10673384 |url-status=live }}</ref> She struck a deal with the Centre Party, with Kallas now serving as prime minister.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Kallas' coalition votes total second-highest since independence restoration |url=https://news.err.ee/1608086218/kallas-coalition-votes-total-second-highest-since-independence-restoration |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201063626/https://news.err.ee/1608086218/kallas-coalition-votes-total-second-highest-since-independence-restoration |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2022 however, the coalition government between the Centre and Reform Party collapsed due to the Centre Party's opposition to a law regarding education.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Belga |first=Par |last2=Louvigny |first2=Adeline |date=3 June 2022 |title=Estonie: la coalition gouvernementale s'effondre |url=https://www.rtbf.be/article/estonie-la-coalition-gouvernementale-s-effondre-11006114 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Radio-télévision belge de la Communauté française |language=fr |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201070629/https://www.rtbf.be/article/estonie-la-coalition-gouvernementale-s-effondre-11006114 |url-status=live }}</ref> This occurred during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]; the Centre Party was seen as close to [[Russians in Estonia]].<ref name=":0" /> In response, Kallas opened negotiations with Isamaa and SDE, successfully forming [[Kaja Kallas' second cabinet|Kaja Kallas's second cabinet]] on 15 July 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2022 |title=Riigikogu grants Kallas mandate to form new government |url=https://news.err.ee/1608658447/riigikogu-grants-kallas-mandate-to-form-new-government |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=15 July 2022 |title=Estonian parliament confirms PM Kallas to lead new government |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/estonian-parliament-confirms-pm-kallas-lead-new-government-2022-07-15/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207145259/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/estonian-parliament-confirms-pm-kallas-lead-new-government-2022-07-15/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Electoral system ==
{{see also|Politics of Estonia}}
The Riigikogu is made up of 101 seats and its representatives are elected by [[proportional representation]] in twelve multi-member constituencies.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 January 2015 |title=Riigikogu Election Act |url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/501092014005/consolide/current |accessdate=1 April 2015 |publisher=Riigi Teataja |archive-date=12 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200912184449/https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/501092014005/consolide/current |url-status=live }}</ref> First, seats are to be filled in 12 constituencies of 5 to 16 seats depending on their population, and the remaining seats, known as "compensation seats", are allocated using the [[d'Hondt method]] to all parties that exceeded the 5% [[electoral threshold]], to bring the results in terms of seats as close as possible to those of the vote of the population.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Estonia: Riigikogu (The Estonian Parliament) |url=http://archive.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/2105.htm |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Inter-Parliamentary Union Parline |archive-date=8 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208181137/http://archive.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/2105.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Valimised |url=https://www.eesti.ee/et/kodakondsus-ja-dokumendid/kodakondsus/valimised |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti.ee |language=et |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207150124/https://www.eesti.ee/et/kodakondsus-ja-dokumendid/kodakondsus/valimised |url-status=live }}</ref> Voters have to cast a vote for either an independent candidate or one of the candidates on the list for which they are voting.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> If an individual candidate or a candidate on a list receives more votes than the amount of the simple quotient in his constituency, they are declared elected even if they individually, or the list for which they are candidate for, fail to cross the national 5% electoral threshold.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

In November 2022, [[Alar Karis]], the [[president of Estonia]], signed the election decree, setting the date for 5 March 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 November 2022 |title=President signs election decree, warns against two-party battle |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |url=https://news.err.ee/1608803485/president-signs-election-decree-warns-against-two-party-battle |access-date=7 February 2023 |archive-date=9 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209091359/https://news.err.ee/1608803485/president-signs-election-decree-warns-against-two-party-battle |url-status=live }}</ref> Estonian citizens who are at least 18 years old, are registered in the voting list, have not been declared incapacitated or convicted of a crime by a court, or are serving a prison sentence have the right to vote.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=23 January 2023 |title=Valimiste korralduses tehtud muudatused peaks hääletamise mugavamaks tegema |url=https://www.err.ee/1608858128/valimiste-korralduses-tehtud-muudatused-peaks-haaletamise-mugavamaks-tegema |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=31 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131185124/https://www.err.ee/1608858128/valimiste-korralduses-tehtud-muudatused-peaks-haaletamise-mugavamaks-tegema |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hääleõigus |url=https://www.valimised.ee/et/valimiste-meelespea/haaleoigus |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et |archive-date=31 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131185123/https://www.valimised.ee/et/valimiste-meelespea/haaleoigus |url-status=live }}</ref> In foreign embassies abroad, voting took place from 18 to 23 February 2023, while to vote by mail in foreign countries, the voter had to submit a written request to the foreign mission by 3 February 2023.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> Advance voting in Estonia took place from 27 February to 4 March, meaning that a voter could vote outside the electoral district of their residence and electronically.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> Unlike in previous elections, on 5 March voters were able to vote in any precinct within the constituency, while voters who had voted electronically during the advance voting were able to vote on a paper ballot, although their electronic vote would be cancelled.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> Citizens who were not able to go to the polling stations or to vote electronically could order a ballot box at home and vote between 3 and 5 March 2023.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Riigikogu valimised 2023 |url=https://www.valimised.ee/et/riigikogu-valimised-2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015160544/https://www.valimised.ee/et/riigikogu-valimised-2023 |archive-date=15 October 2022 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et}}</ref> Around eighty foreign observers monitored the election.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=1 March 2023 |title=Around 80 foreign observers monitoring Riigikogu elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608900455/around-80-foreign-observers-monitoring-riigikogu-elections |access-date=4 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302063610/https://news.err.ee/1608900455/around-80-foreign-observers-monitoring-riigikogu-elections |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Seats by electoral district ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! {{No.}}
! Electoral district
! Seats
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 1|1]]
| [[Haabersti]], [[Põhja-Tallinn]] and [[Kristiine]] districts in [[Tallinn]]
| 10
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 2|2]]
| [[Kesklinn, Tallinn|Kesklinn]], [[Lasnamäe]] and [[Pirita]] districts in [[Tallinn]]
| 13
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 3|3]]
| [[Mustamäe]] and [[Nõmme]] districts in [[Tallinn]]
| 8
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 4|4]]
| [[Harju County|Harju]] (excluding [[Tallinn]]) and [[Rapla County|Rapla]] counties
| 16
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 5|5]]
| [[Hiiu County|Hiiu]], [[Lääne County|Lääne]] and [[Saare County|Saare]] counties
| 6
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 6|6]]
| [[Lääne-Viru County|Lääne-Viru]] county
| 5
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 7|7]]
| [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]] county
| 6
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 8|8]]
| [[Järva County|Järva]] and [[Viljandi County|Viljandi]] counties
| 7
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 9|9]]
| [[Jõgeva County|Jõgeva]] and [[Tartu County|Tartu]] counties (excluding [[Tartu]])
| 7
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 10|10]]
| City of [[Tartu]]
| 8
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 11|11]]
| [[Võru County|Võru]], [[Valga County|Valga]] and [[Põlva County|Põlva]] counties
| 8
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 12|12]]
| [[Pärnu County|Pärnu]] county
| 7
|-
| colspan="3"| Source: Eesti Rahvusringhääling<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 November 2022 |title=Harju- ja Raplamaa saab Ida-Viru arvelt valimistel ühe mandaadi juurde |url=https://www.err.ee/1608786028/harju-ja-raplamaa-saab-ida-viru-arvelt-valimistel-uhe-mandaadi-juurde |access-date=8 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215233826/https://www.err.ee/1608786028/harju-ja-raplamaa-saab-ida-viru-arvelt-valimistel-uhe-mandaadi-juurde |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

=== Pre-election composition ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"
| colspan="7" style="text-align:center" | {{Parliament diagram
| width = 250
| background = #f8f9fa
| n1 = 9 | p1 = Social Democratic Party (Estonia)
| n2 = 23 | p2 = Estonian Centre Party (2023)
| n3 = 34 | p3 = Estonian Reform Party
| n4 = 11 | p4 = Isamaa
| n5 = 1 | p5 = Parempoolsed
| n6 = 19 | p6 = Conservative People's Party of Estonia
| n7 = 4 | p7 = Independent
}}
|-
! colspan="2"| Party
! Seats
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"|
| align="left"| [[Estonian Reform Party]]
| 34
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}"|
| align="left"| [[Estonian Centre Party]]
| 23
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}"|
| align="left"| [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia]]
| 19
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Isamaa}}"|
| align="left"| [[Isamaa]]
| 11
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Estonia)}}"|
| align="left"| [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]]
| 9
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Parempoolsed}}"|
| align="left"| [[Parempoolsed]]
| 1
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Independent politician}}"|
| align="left"| [[Independent politician|Independents]]
| 4
|-
| style="text-align:left" colspan="3"| Source: Riigikogu<ref>{{cite web |title=Riigikogu liikmed: Faktsioonid |url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/riigikogu/koosseis/riigikogu-liikmed/ |publisher=Riigikogu |access-date=7 February 2023 |language=et |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101145345/http://www.riigikogu.ee/riigikogu/koosseis/riigikogu-liikmed/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

== Contesting parties ==
{{see also|List of political parties in Estonia}}
The Estonian National Electoral Committee announced that nine political parties and ten individual candidates registered to take part in the 2023 parliamentary election. Their registration numbers and order were determined by a draw lot.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 January 2023 |title=Riigikogu valimistele soovis registreeruda 9 erakonda ja 11 üksikkandidaati |url=https://www.valimised.ee/et/riigikogu-valimistele-soovis-registreeruda-9-erakonda-ja-11-uksikkandidaati |access-date=5 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205025042/https://www.valimised.ee/et/riigikogu-valimistele-soovis-registreeruda-9-erakonda-ja-11-uksikkandidaati |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 January 2023 |title=Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon registreeris Riigikogu valimisteks 968 kandidaati |url=https://www.valimised.ee/et/vabariigi-valimiskomisjon-registreeris-riigikogu-valimisteks-968-kandidaati |access-date=5 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205025040/https://www.valimised.ee/et/vabariigi-valimiskomisjon-registreeris-riigikogu-valimisteks-968-kandidaati |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kandidaadid |url=https://rk2023.valimised.ee/et/candidates/electoral_district/general |access-date=5 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205025040/https://rk2023.valimised.ee/et/candidates/electoral_district/general |url-status=live }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
! rowspan="2"| {{No.}}
! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| Name
! rowspan="2"| Ideology
! rowspan="2"| Political position
! rowspan="2"| Leader
! rowspan="2"| Total candidates
! colspan="2"| 2019 result
|-
! Votes (%)
! Seats
|-
! {{center|1}}
| style="background:{{party color|Parempoolsed}}"|
| [[Parempoolsed]]
| [[Fiscal conservatism]]
| [[Centre-right]]
| [[Lavly Perling]]
| 125
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| ''did not exist''
|-
! {{center|2}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Greens}}"|
| [[Estonian Greens|Greens]]
| [[Green politics]]
| [[Centre-left]]
| [[Johanna Maria Tõugu]]
| 58
| style="text-align:center"| 1.8%
| {{Composition bar|0|101|{{party color|Estonian Greens}}}}
|-
! {{center|3}}
| style="background:{{party color|Isamaa}}"|
| [[Isamaa]]
| [[National conservatism]]
| [[Centre-right]] to [[right-wing]]
| [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 11.4%
| {{Composition bar|12|101|{{party color|Isamaa}}}}
|-
! {{center|4}}
| style="background:{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Estonia)}}"|
| [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]]
| [[Social democracy]]
| [[Centre-left]]
| [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 9.8%
| {{Composition bar|10|101|{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Estonia)}}}}
|-
! {{center|5}}
| style="background:{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}"|
| [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia|Conservative People's Party]]
| [[Right-wing populism]]
| [[Right-wing]] to [[far-right]]
| [[Martin Helme]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 17.8%
| {{Composition bar|19|101|{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}}}
|-
! {{center|6}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}"|
| [[Estonia 200]]
| [[Liberalism]]
| [[Centrism|Centre]]
| [[Lauri Hussar]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 4.4%
| {{Composition bar|0|101|{{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}}}
|-
! {{center|7}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"|
| [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]]
| [[Classical liberalism]]
| [[Centre-right]]
| [[Kaja Kallas]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 28.9%
| {{Composition bar|34|101|{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}}}
|-
! {{center|8}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}"|
| [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]]
| [[Social liberalism]]
| [[Centre-left]]
| [[Jüri Ratas]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 23.1%
| {{Composition bar|26|101|{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}}}
|-
! {{center|9}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian United Left Party}}"|
| [[Estonian United Left Party|United Left Party]]–[[Together (Estonian political movement)|Together]]{{efn|According to ''[[Eesti Ekspress]]'', the Tartu County Court did not register the pro-Russia political group [[Together (Estonian political movement)|Together]] as a political party on 30 November 2022, as the total number of its members was below the required minimum of 500. The group's leaders, described as [[Putinists]], decided to participate in the 2023 elections on the list of the [[Estonian United Left Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eesti putinistide erakonda ei registeeritud ja riigikogu valimistel nad osaleda ei tohi |url=https://ekspress.delfi.ee/a/120109138 |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Ekspress |language=et |date=5 March 2023 |archive-date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214193131/https://ekspress.delfi.ee/a/120109138 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| [[Russian nationalism]]{{efn|In the online Russian-language edition of ''[[Postimees]]'', publicist Valery Saïkovski wrote that "the United Left Party is only relevant for Russian nationalist purposes".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Saïkovski |first1=Valery |title=Non-systemic left opposition: why there are almost only Russians and there is no result |url=https://rus.postimees.ee/7123041/vnesistemnaya-levaya-oppoziciya-pochemu-tam-pochti-odni-russkie-i-net-rezultata |website=Postimees |date=2 December 2020 |access-date=24 June 2022 |archive-date=25 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625043523/https://rus.postimees.ee/7123041/vnesistemnaya-levaya-oppoziciya-pochemu-tam-pochti-odni-russkie-i-net-rezultata |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| [[Left-wing]]
| [[Igor Rosenfeld]]
| 25
| style="text-align:center"| 0.1%
| {{Composition bar|0|101|{{party color|Estonian United Left Party}}}}
|-
! {{center|—}}
| style="background:{{party color|Independent politician}}"|
| [[Independent politician|Individual candidates]]
| colspan="3"| —
| 10
| style="text-align:center"| 0.3%
| {{Composition bar|0|101|{{party color|Independent politician}}}}
|}

== Campaign ==
=== Issues ===

The ''[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]]'' and [[NPR]] commented that the issues that were discussed during the campaign period were the cost of living crisis, especially regarding rising prices and inflation, as well as issues regarding security and national defence due to the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 November 2022 |title=FAQ: A brief overview of Estonia's 2023 elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608795952/faq-a-brief-overview-of-estonia-s-2023-elections |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119163938/https://news.err.ee/1608795952/faq-a-brief-overview-of-estonia-s-2023-elections |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Schmitz |first=Rob |date=4 March 2023 |title=Ukraine is dominating the election in Estonia, a key NATO ally. Here's what to watch |work=National Public Radio |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/03/04/1160926037/ukraine-war-estonia-election-nato-russia |access-date=5 March 2023 |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135221/https://www.npr.org/2023/03/04/1160926037/ukraine-war-estonia-election-nato-russia |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Eesti Rahvusringhääling'' also asserted that the programmes of the contesting parties were largely influenced by the current war in Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=15 January 2023 |title=Analüütikud: valimiste põhiteemaks saab julgeolek või inimeste toimetulek |url=https://www.err.ee/1608851294/analuutikud-valimiste-pohiteemaks-saab-julgeolek-voi-inimeste-toimetulek |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119142059/https://www.err.ee/1608851294/analuutikud-valimiste-pohiteemaks-saab-julgeolek-voi-inimeste-toimetulek |url-status=live }}</ref> Ellu Saar, a sociology professor, and Triin Lauri, an associate professor at the [[Tallinn University]], said that in the programmes of EKRE and Isamaa stated their support to protect the [[Estonian language]] in higher education, while [[Estonia 200]] and SDE mention united schools where native Estonian-speaking and Russian-speaking students would study together.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Saar |first=Ellu |last2=Lauri |first2=Triin |date=28 February 2023 |title=Analysis: Parties' election programs ignore problems of inequality |url=https://news.err.ee/1608899732/analysis-parties-election-programs-ignore-problems-of-inequality |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228202734/https://news.err.ee/api/statistics/articleStatistics |url-status=live }}</ref>

Saar and Lauri commented that the Centre Party had a vague opinion regarding the issue of education.<ref name=":5" /> The [[Estonian Greens]] and SDE also mentioned school culture, quality of management, reducing path dependence as issues they would tackle.<ref name=":5" /> The Reform Party also stated its support for introducing national defence classes in schools, while Isamaa said that there should be more investments in national defence.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=31 January 2023 |title=Several parties call for mandatory school defense education |url=https://news.err.ee/1608870026/several-parties-call-for-mandatory-school-defense-education |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202054946/https://news.err.ee/1608870026/several-parties-call-for-mandatory-school-defense-education |url-status=live }}</ref> The Centre Party called for higher salaries for those who work to contribute to the national defence, SDE suggested to implement a new tax regarding defence spending, while EKRE said that militarised border guards should be brought back.<ref name=":6" /> Anne Raiste of ''Eesti Rahvusringhääling'' said that the contesting parties all share similar positions regarding foreign policy and that they pledged to implement forms of [[direct democracy]] or a more efficient [[representative democracy]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=31 January 2023 |title=Political parties' election manifestos share similar foreign policy goals |url=https://news.err.ee/1608868757/political-parties-election-manifestos-share-similar-foreign-policy-goals |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155420/https://news.err.ee/1608868757/political-parties-election-manifestos-share-similar-foreign-policy-goals |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=17 February 2023 |title=Political parties pledge more direct democracy, a more efficient Riigikogu |url=https://news.err.ee/1608889109/political-parties-pledge-more-direct-democracy-a-more-efficient-riigikogu |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155427/https://news.err.ee/1608889109/political-parties-pledge-more-direct-democracy-a-more-efficient-riigikogu |url-status=live }}</ref> In regards to the [[2022–2023 Ukrainian refugee crisis]], only EKRE has expressed concerns about accepting more Ukrainian [[refugee]]s.<ref name=":9">{{Cite news |last=Sytas |first=Andrius |date=5 March 2023 |title=Estonia's Kallas in first place in parliamentary election |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/estonia-goes-polls-test-pro-kyiv-government-2023-03-05/ |url-status=live |access-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135256/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/estonia-goes-polls-test-pro-kyiv-government-2023-03-05/ |archive-date=5 March 2023 }}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=5 March 2023 |title=Economy, Ukraine war top campaign issues in Estonia general election |url=https://www.euronews.com/2023/03/05/estonia-election-soaring-inflation-and-weapon-deliveries-to-ukraine-top-voter-concerns |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Euronews |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135242/https://www.euronews.com/2023/03/05/estonia-election-soaring-inflation-and-weapon-deliveries-to-ukraine-top-voter-concerns |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name=":11">{{Cite web |date=5 March 2023 |title=Estonia Is Voting Sunday |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/estonia-is-voting-sunday-/6990379.html |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=VOA |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135234/https://www.voanews.com/a/estonia-is-voting-sunday-/6990379.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Euronews]]'' said that EKRE's support in opinion polls fell down due to alleged links with Russia.<ref name=":10" />

Regarding the economy, Raiste said that the contesting parties had pledged to raise pensions to €1,000 or more.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=2 February 2023 |title=Parties pledge €1,000 pensions, more senior centers and flexible pensions |url=https://news.err.ee/1608872807/parties-pledge-1-000-pensions-more-senior-centers-and-flexible-pensions |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155419/https://news.err.ee/1608872807/parties-pledge-1-000-pensions-more-senior-centers-and-flexible-pensions |url-status=live }}</ref> The Centre Party stated its support for the introduction of [[progressive taxation]], while SDE and the Greens had adopted similar positions.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Pott |first=Toomas |date=14 February 2023 |title=Political parties try to woo voters with tax cut promises |url=https://news.err.ee/1608885440/political-parties-try-to-woo-voters-with-tax-cut-promises |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155418/https://news.err.ee/1608885440/political-parties-try-to-woo-voters-with-tax-cut-promises |url-status=live }}</ref> On the other hand, Reform stated that it would [[balance the budget]], while EKRE called for reduction of taxes.<ref name=":7" /> Estonia 200 said that labour taxes should be lowered while Parempoolsed promised to not introduce any new taxes.<ref name=":7" /> Scholars Liili Abuladze and Luule Sakkeus stated that EKRE and Isamaa put their family policy focuses on families with many children and that the needs of those most vulnerable are hardly addressed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Abuladze |first=Liili |last2=Sakkeus |first2=Luule |date=26 February 2023 |title=Analüüs: Erakondade perekonnapoliitika lubadused |url=https://www.err.ee/1608897593/analuus-erakondade-perekonnapoliitika-lubadused |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228041009/https://www.err.ee/1608897593/analuus-erakondade-perekonnapoliitika-lubadused |url-status=live }}</ref> EKRE stated its opposition to transition to [[sustainable energy]] to lower energy bills, while the Reform Party pledged to adopt sustainable energy.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11" /> EKRE also criticised Kallas's Reform Party due to the growing inflation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tanner |first=Jari |date=4 March 2023 |title=Ukraine ally Kallas fights for reelection in Estonia vote |url=https://apnews.com/article/estonia-parliamentary-election-ukraine-russia-war-kallas-757d969e3b76312962292898c6c59bcc |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Associated Press |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135240/https://apnews.com/article/estonia-parliamentary-election-ukraine-russia-war-kallas-757d969e3b76312962292898c6c59bcc |url-status=live }}</ref> The Centre Party campaigned on infrastructure investments and affordable housing.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |date=5 March 2023 |title=Estonian PM's party beats far right by wide margin to win general election |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230305-estonian-prime-minister-s-center-right-party-wins-general-election |access-date=6 March 2023 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Debates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:85%; line-height:15px; text-align:center;"
! colspan="12"| 2023 Estonian parliamentary election debates
|-
! rowspan="3"| Date
! rowspan="3"| Organisers
! colspan="9"| {{small|  }} {{Colors|black|#D0FFD0| P }} {{small|Present  }} {{Colors|black|#FFD0D0| N }} {{small|Non-invitee }}
|-
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia|EKRE]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Estonia 200|E200]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|SDE]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Isamaa]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Estonian Greens|EER]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Parempoolsed]]
! rowspan="2"| Refs
|-
! style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Estonia)}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Isamaa}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Estonian Greens}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Parempoolsed}}"|
|-
| {{nowrap|1 March}}
| [[Eesti Televisioon]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kaja Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Martin Helme]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jüri Ratas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Hussar]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lavly Perling]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Kell 21.40 ETV valimisdebattide suur finaal: peaministrikandidaatide debatt |url=https://www.err.ee/1608900950/kell-21-40-etv-valimisdebattide-suur-finaal-peaministrikandidaatide-debatt |access-date=4 March 2023 |date=1 March 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=2 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302081607/https://www.err.ee/1608900950/kell-21-40-etv-valimisdebattide-suur-finaal-peaministrikandidaatide-debatt |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|27 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Urmas Klaas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Valge]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaan Toots]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristina Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Krista Aru]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tõnis Lukas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Johanna Maria Tõugu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Elmo Somelar]]
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Teedema |first1=Kristjan |title=Tartu esinumbrid debateerisid olulistel teemadel |url=https://tartu.postimees.ee/7721004/jarelvaadatav-tartu-esinumbrid-debateerisid-olulistel-teemadel |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=27 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227220901/https://tartu.postimees.ee/7721004/jarelvaadatav-tartu-esinumbrid-debateerisid-olulistel-teemadel |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|23 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jürgen Ligi]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Madison]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Aab]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ando Kiviberg]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Priit Põllumäe]]
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Loide |first1=Triin |last2=Saarm |first2=Marko |last3=Riig |first3=Elmo |title=Üks valimisdebatt, seitse esinumbrit, palju küsimusi ja veidi tüli |url=https://jarvateataja.postimees.ee/7718725/uks-valimisdebatt-seitse-esinumbrit-palju-kusimusi-ja-veidi-tuli |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Postimees |date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227125056/https://jarvateataja.postimees.ee/7718725/uks-valimisdebatt-seitse-esinumbrit-palju-kusimusi-ja-veidi-tuli |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|23 Feb}}
| [[Lääne Elu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kalle Laanet]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helle-Moonika Helme]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Janek Mäggi]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kalev Stoicescu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Madis Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Mikk Lõhmus]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marko Kaasik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristjan Vanaselja]]
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Raigla |first1=Malle-Liisa |title=Valimisdebatt sotsiaalmajas: me ei taha enam sellist riigikogu |url=https://online.le.ee/2023/02/23/valimisdebatt-sotsiaalmajas-me-ei-taha-enam-sellist-riigikogu/ |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=23 February 2023 |work=Lääne Elu |language=et |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227203311/https://online.le.ee/2023/02/23/valimisdebatt-sotsiaalmajas-me-ei-taha-enam-sellist-riigikogu/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|22 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jüri Ratas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Hussar]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Müller |first1=Arp |last2=Ojakivi |first2=Mirko |title=Jüri Ratas, Lauri Hussar lock swords in heated Vikerradio head-to-head show |url=https://news.err.ee/1608894836/juri-ratas-lauri-hussar-lock-swords-in-heated-vikerradio-head-to-head-show |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227203900/https://news.err.ee/1608894836/juri-ratas-lauri-hussar-lock-swords-in-heated-vikerradio-head-to-head-show |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|22 Feb}}
| [[Eesti Televisioon]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristen Michal]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Rain Epler]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Taavi Aas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marek Reinaas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Riina Sikkut]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Priit Sibul]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Siim Kiisler]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Kell 21.40 "Valimisstuudios" erakondade majandusdebatt |url=https://www.err.ee/1608894179/kell-21-40-valimisstuudios-erakondade-majandusdebatt |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=22 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223231252/https://www.err.ee/1608894179/kell-21-40-valimisstuudios-erakondade-majandusdebatt |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|21 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lavly Perling]]
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ojakivi |first1=Mirko |title=SDE, Parempoolsed and Isamaa leaders debate key issues ahead of elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608893036/sde-parempoolsed-and-isamaa-leaders-debate-key-issues-ahead-of-elections |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=21 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=22 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222080501/https://news.err.ee/1608893036/sde-parempoolsed-and-isamaa-leaders-debate-key-issues-ahead-of-elections |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|20 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Yoko Alender]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Rain Epler]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ismail Mirzojev]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Gea Kangilaski]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lemmit Kaplinski]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Priit Humal]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kaia Solnik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Indrek Adler]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Oecologicumis toimuval valimisdebatil vaetakse keskkonnateemasid |url=https://tartu.postimees.ee/7716469/oecologicumis-toimuval-valimisdebatil-vaetakse-keskkonnateemasid |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=20 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=21 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221142848/https://tartu.postimees.ee/7716469/oecologicumis-toimuval-valimisdebatil-vaetakse-keskkonnateemasid |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|16 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jürgen Ligi]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kalle Grünthal]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kersti Sarapuu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kaspar Taimsoo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Eimar Veldre]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ründo Mülts]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Oliver Rohesalu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Priit Põllumäe]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Otse: Riigikogu kandidaatide valimisdebatt |url=https://jarvateataja.postimees.ee/7713801/otse-riigikogu-kandidaatide-valimisdebatt |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=16 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216125445/https://jarvateataja.postimees.ee/7713801/otse-riigikogu-kandidaatide-valimisdebatt |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|16 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Signe Risalo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kert Kingo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tanel Kiik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Irja Lutsar]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helmen Kütt]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lea Danilson-Järg]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marelle Erlenheim]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Third 'Valimisstuudio' election debate focuses on healthcare |url=https://news.err.ee/1608887429/third-valimisstuudio-election-debate-focuses-on-healthcare |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=16 February 2023 |archive-date=17 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217072044/https://news.err.ee/1608887429/third-valimisstuudio-election-debate-focuses-on-healthcare |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|16 Feb}}
| [[Eesti Televisioon]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marko Kaasik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristjan Vanaselja]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Valimisdebatt: Parempoolsed ja Rohelised jäid tuumajaama teemal eriarvamusele |url=https://www.err.ee/1608888647/valimisdebatt-parempoolsed-ja-rohelised-jaid-tuumajaama-teemal-eriarvamusele |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=16 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228202705/https://www.err.ee/api/statistics/articleStatistics |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|15 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Signe Riisalo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kert Kingo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Monika Haukanõmm]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Diana Ingerainen]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Heljo Pikhof]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Merike Värik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Susanna Saar]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Toomas Kasemaa]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Valimisdebatt keskendub puuetega inimeste toimetulekule |url=https://www.postimees.ee/7712677/otse-valimisdebatt-keskendub-puuetega-inimeste-toimetulekule |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=15 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215080749/https://www.postimees.ee/7712677/otse-valimisdebatt-keskendub-puuetega-inimeste-toimetulekule |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|13 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Andres Sutt]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Raul Siem]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Andrei Korobeinik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristina Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Riina Sikkut]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristjan Järvan]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marti Soosaar]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lavly Perling]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Tehnoloogiaettevõtjad: Eesti kasutab tehnoloogiasektori võimekusest tühise osa |url=https://www.postimees.ee/7708474/valimisdebatt-tehnoloogiaettevotjad-eesti-kasutab-tehnoloogiasektori-voimekusest-tuhise-osa |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=13 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=13 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213105502/https://www.postimees.ee/7708474/valimisdebatt-tehnoloogiaettevotjad-eesti-kasutab-tehnoloogiasektori-voimekusest-tuhise-osa |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|9 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Liina Kersna]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Valge]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Aab]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristina Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Piret Hartman]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tauno Õunapuu]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Second 'Valimisstuudio' election debate on education, science and culture |url=https://news.err.ee/1608879242/second-valimisstuudio-election-debate-on-education-science-and-culture |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=9 February 2023 |language=et |archive-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212205247/https://news.err.ee/1608879242/second-valimisstuudio-election-debate-on-education-science-and-culture |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|7 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Annely Akkermann]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Siim Pohlak]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Laats]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Joakim Helenius]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Paeveer]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Aivar Kokk]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Alar Voitka]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title="Vikerraadio" valimisdebatis vaieldi laenukoormuse ja uute maksude üle |url=https://www.err.ee/1608877121/vikerraadio-valimisdebatis-vaieldi-laenukoormuse-ja-uute-maksude-ule |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=7 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=24 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230224232916/https://www.err.ee/1608877121/vikerraadio-valimisdebatis-vaieldi-laenukoormuse-ja-uute-maksude-ule |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|2 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Liina Kersna]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Loone Ots]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tõnis Mölder]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristina Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jevgeni Ossinovski]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tõnis Lukas]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Andres Kaarmann]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Valimisstuudio. Riigikogu valimised. Haridus ja teadus |url=https://vikerraadio.err.ee/1608857249/valimisstuudio-riigikogu-valimised-haridus-ja-teadus |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=2 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223084800/https://vikerraadio.err.ee/1608857249/valimisstuudio-riigikogu-valimised-haridus-ja-teadus |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|2 Feb}}
| {{abbr|AmCham|American Chamber of Commerce in Estonia}} {{abbr|FICE|Foreign Investors Council of Estonia}}
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Andres Sutt]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Martin Helme]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tanel Kiik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Joakim Helenius]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Riina Sikkut]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Urmas Reinsalu]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Whyte |first1=Andrew |title=AmCham/FICE pre-election political party debate |url=https://news.err.ee/1608871619/watch-again-amcham-fice-pre-election-political-party-debate |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=2 February 2023 |archive-date=8 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208095913/https://news.err.ee/1608871619/watch-again-amcham-fice-pre-election-political-party-debate |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|1 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Hanno Pevkur]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Madison]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Neeme Väli]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Margus Tsahkna]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Raimond Kaljulaid]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Urmas Reinsalu]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ilmar Raag]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Security first topic of 'Valimisstuudio' series of election debates |url=https://news.err.ee/1608871661/security-first-topic-of-valimisstuudio-series-of-election-debates |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=2 February 2023 |language=et |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204034326/https://news.err.ee/1608871661/security-first-topic-of-valimisstuudio-series-of-election-debates |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|31 Jan}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Meelis Kiili]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Valge]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Mihhail Kõlvart]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Aleksei Jašin]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Piret Hartman]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Hendrik Agur]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ivo Loide]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Vikerraadio elections debate: Learning language key to integration |url=https://news.err.ee/1608870431/vikerraadio-elections-debate-learning-language-key-to-integration |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=1 February 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155418/https://news.err.ee/1608870431/vikerraadio-elections-debate-learning-language-key-to-integration |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

== Opinion polls ==
{{main|Opinion polling for the 2023 Estonian parliamentary election}}
[[File:Opinion polls Estonia 2019-2023.svg|center|thumb|1000x1000px|[[Local regression]] chart of poll results from 3 March 2019 to 5 March 2023]]

== Preliminary results ==
Voting at Estonian embassies abroad took place between 18 and 23 February 2023.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Parliamentary elections 2023 |url=https://www.valimised.ee/en/parliamentary-elections-2023/parliamentary-elections-2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Valimised |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227121607/https://www.valimised.ee/en/parliamentary-elections-2023/parliamentary-elections-2023 |url-status=live }}</ref> The National Electoral Committee had announced that 47.3% of voters cast their ballot during the pre-election period, which began on 27 February and ended before 5 March, a majority of whom voted online.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 February 2023 |title=13 percent of Estonia's electorate have already voted |url=https://news.err.ee/1608899960/13-percent-of-estonia-s-electorate-have-already-voted |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228202706/https://platform.twitter.com/embed/Tweet.html?dnt=false&embedId=twitter-widget-1&features=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%3D&frame=false&hideCard=false&hideThread=false&id=1629405767576047616&lang=en&origin=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.err.ee%2F1608897260%2Faround-1-300-russian-belarusian-citizens-firearms-permits-to-be-revoked&sessionId=0dd4b0d6c9e45d6b45d1b07e23b6a48bd9a2cf8c&siteScreenName=errnews&theme=light&widgetsVersion=aaf4084522e3a%3A1674595607486&width=550px |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 March 2023 |title=Estonia sets new e-voting record at Riigikogu 2023 elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608904730/estonia-sets-new-e-voting-record-at-riigikogu-2023-elections |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135218/https://news.err.ee/1608904730/estonia-sets-new-e-voting-record-at-riigikogu-2023-elections |url-status=live }}</ref> Voting stations on 5 March 2023 were opened from 9:00 am to 8:00 pm.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Election activities and deadlines – Election of the Riigikogu 2023 |url=https://www.valimised.ee/en/parliament-2023/election-activities-and-deadlines-election-riigikogu-2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Valimised |archive-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129230510/https://www.valimised.ee/en/parliament-2023/election-activities-and-deadlines-election-riigikogu-2023 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=3 March 2023 |title=Expert: Poll variations can be cause for celebration for Reform and EKRE |url=https://news.err.ee/1608903230/expert-poll-variations-can-be-cause-for-celebration-for-reform-and-ekre |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135314/https://news.err.ee/1608903230/expert-poll-variations-can-be-cause-for-celebration-for-reform-and-ekre |url-status=live }}</ref> There were 966,129 citizens that had the right to vote in the election.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Key participation figures |url=https://www.valimised.ee/en |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Valimised |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227141223/https://www.valimised.ee/en |url-status=live }}</ref>

The turnout progressed towards 63% by 7:00 pm according to ''Eesti Rahvusringhääling'', with the highest turnout being in the Rapla County and the lowest in the Ida-Viru County.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 March 2023 |title=Voter turnout 63 percent by 7 p.m. Sunday |url=https://news.err.ee/1608905111/voter-turnout-63-percent-by-7-p-m-sunday |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305174213/https://news.err.ee/1608905111/voter-turnout-63-percent-by-7-p-m-sunday |url-status=live }}</ref> With 312,181 electronic votes, these were the first elections where more than half of votes were cast online.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 March 2023 |title=Online votes make up two-thirds of Reform, less than third of EKRE votes |url=https://news.err.ee/1608906014/online-votes-make-up-two-thirds-of-reform-less-than-third-of-ekre-votes |access-date=6 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |url-status=live |archive-date=6 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306142324/https://news.err.ee/1608906014/online-votes-make-up-two-thirds-of-reform-less-than-third-of-ekre-votes }}</ref> Later that day, ''Eesti Rahvusringhääling'', [[Reuters]], and the [[Associated Press]] reported that the Reform Party won the most votes and seats in the Riigikogu, with EKRE placing second and the Centre Party placing third.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite web |date=5 March 2023 |title=Reform takes comfortable lead after e-votes counted |url=https://news.err.ee/1608905309/reform-takes-comfortable-lead-after-e-votes-counted |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305233510/https://news.err.ee/api/statistics/articleStatistics |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tanner |first=Jari |date=5 March 2023 |title=PM Kaja Kallas' Reform Party set to win in Estonia vote |url=https://apnews.com/article/estonia-election-kallas-helme-b3dc215a53a822d7b82e5bf6020e4a52 |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Associated Press |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305233456/https://apnews.com/article/estonia-election-kallas-helme-b3dc215a53a822d7b82e5bf6020e4a52 |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, ''Eesti Rahvusringhääling'' reported that Estonia 200 would enter Riigikogu for the first time since its formation.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=6 March 2023 |title=Top six takeaways from Estonia's 2023 Riigikogu elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608905345/top-six-takeaways-from-estonia-s-2023-riigikogu-elections |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305233529/https://news.err.ee/api/statistics/articleStatistics |url-status=live }}</ref>

<section begin=2023electiontable />{{Election results
| image = {{Parliament diagram
| background = #F8F9FA
| n1 = 9 | p1 = Social Democratic Party (Estonia)
| n2 = 16 | p2 = Estonian Centre Party (2023)
| n3 = 14 | p3 = Estonia 200 (2021)
| n4 = 37 | p4 = Estonian Reform Party
| n5 = 8 | p5 = Isamaa
| n6 = 17 | p6 = Conservative People's Party of Estonia
}}

| party1 = [[Estonian Reform Party]]
| votes1 = 190659
| sw1 = +2.31
| seats1 = 37
| sc1 = +3

| party2 = [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia]]
| votes2 = 97959
| sw2 = −1.71
| seats2 = 17
| sc2 = −2

| party3 = [[Estonian Centre Party]]
| colour3 = {{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}
| votes3 = 93243
| sw3 = −7.28
| seats3 = 16
| sc3 = −10

| party4 = [[Estonia 200]]
| colour4 = {{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}
| votes4 = 81347
| sw4 = +8.97
| seats4 = 14
| sc4 = +14

| party5 = [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]]
| votes5 = 56578
| sw5 = −0.56
| seats5 = 9
| sc5 = −1

| party6 = [[Isamaa]]
| votes6 = 50114
| sw6 = −3.23
| seats6 = 8
| sc6 = −4

| party7 = [[Estonian United Left Party]]–[[Together (Estonian political movement)|Together]]
| votes7 = 14607
| sw7 = +2.30
| seats7 = 0
| sc7 = 0

| party8 = [[Parempoolsed]]
| votes8 = 14035
| sw8 = New
| seats8 = 0
| sc8 = New

| party9 = [[Estonian Greens]]
| votes9 = 5889
| sw9 = −0.86
| seats9 = 0
| sc9 = 0

| party10 = [[Independent politician|Independents]]
| votes10 = 5887
| sw10 = +0.68
| seats10 = 0
| sc10 = 0

| invalid = 3494
| electorate = 966129
| total_sc = 0
| source = National Electoral Committee<ref name="results">{{cite web |title=Eesti Vabariik kokku |url=https://rk2023.valimised.ee/et/election-result/index.html |website=Valimised |access-date=5 March 2023 |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305205448/https://rk2023.valimised.ee/et/election-result/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}<section end=2023electiontable />

=== Results by constituency ===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right; font-size:95%; line-height:20px"
! rowspan="3" |Constituency
! colspan="2" class="unsortable" width="30px"| [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform]]
! colspan="2" class="unsortable" width="30px"| [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre]]
! colspan="2" class="unsortable" width="30px"| [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia|EKRE]]
! colspan="2" class="unsortable" width="30px"| [[Isamaa]]
! colspan="2" class="unsortable" width="30px"| [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|SDE]]
! colspan="2" class="unsortable" width="30px"| [[Estonia 200|E200]]
! colspan="2" class="unsortable" width="30px"| [[Estonian Greens|EER]]
! colspan="2" class="unsortable" width="30px"| [[Parempoolsed]]
! colspan="2" class="unsortable" width="30px"| {{nowrap|[[Estonian United Left Party|EÜVP]]–[[Together (Estonian political movement)|Koos]]}}
! colspan="2" class="unsortable" width="30px"| [[Independent politician|Independents]]
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"|
! colspan="2" style="background:{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}"|
! colspan="2" style="background:{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}"|
! colspan="2" style="background:{{party color|Isamaa}}"|
! colspan="2" style="background:{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Estonia)}}"|
! colspan="2" style="background:{{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}"|
! colspan="2" style="background:{{party color|Estonian Greens}}"|
! colspan="2" style="background:{{party color|Parempoolsed}}"|
! colspan="2" style="background:{{party color|Estonian United Left Party}}"|
! colspan="2" style="background:{{party color|Independent politician}}"|
|-
! data-sort-type="number"| %
! data-sort-type="number"| S
! data-sort-type="number"| %
! data-sort-type="number"| S
! data-sort-type="number"| %
! data-sort-type="number"| S
! data-sort-type="number"| %
! data-sort-type="number"| S
! data-sort-type="number"| %
! data-sort-type="number"| S
! data-sort-type="number"| %
! data-sort-type="number"| S
! data-sort-type="number"| %
! data-sort-type="number"| S
! data-sort-type="number"| %
! data-sort-type="number"| S
! data-sort-type="number"| %
! data-sort-type="number"| S
! data-sort-type="number"| %
! data-sort-type="number"| S
|-
| align="left"| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 1|No. 1]]
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"| 31.4
| '''4'''
| 20.9
| '''4'''
| 9.7
| '''1'''
| 5.6
| '''1'''
| 10.0
| '''1'''
| 15.7
| '''2'''
| 1.1
| '''0'''
| 2.3
| '''0'''
| 3.3
| '''0'''
| 0.1
| '''0'''
|-
| align="left"| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 2|No. 2]]
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"| 29.4
| '''4'''
| 29.0
| '''5'''
| 9.1
| '''1'''
| 5.4
| '''1'''
| 8.6
| '''1'''
| 10.9
| '''2'''
| 1.0
| '''0'''
| 1.6
| '''0'''
| 4.9
| '''0'''
| 0.1
| '''0'''
|-
| align="left"| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 3|No. 3]]
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"| 34.7
| '''3'''
| 18.9
| '''1'''
| 11.7
| '''1'''
| 6.5
| '''0'''
| 8.9
| '''1'''
| 14.2
| '''1'''
| 1.1
| '''0'''
| 2.1
| '''0'''
| 1.9
| '''0'''
| 0.0
| '''0'''
|-
| align="left"| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 4|No. 4]]
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"| 40.0
| '''7'''
| 10.2
| '''1'''
| 14.6
| '''3'''
| 8.3
| '''1'''
| 7.1
| '''1'''
| 13.7
| '''2'''
| 0.7
| '''0'''
| 3.4
| '''0'''
| 1.3
| '''0'''
| 0.8
| '''0'''
|-
| align="left"| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 5|No. 5]]
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"| 27.6
| '''1'''
| 11.2
| '''1'''
| 19.4
| '''1'''
| 7.8
| '''0'''
| 13.9
| '''1'''
| 17.1
| '''1'''
| 0.9
| '''0'''
| 2.1
| '''0'''
| 0.0
| '''0'''
| 0.0
| '''0'''
|-
| align="left"| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 6|No. 6]]
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"| 31.1
| '''1'''
| 13.4
| '''0'''
| 20.5
| '''2'''
| 13.7
| '''0'''
| 7.5
| '''0'''
| 8.7
| '''1'''
| 0.5
| '''0'''
| 3.0
| '''0'''
| 1.5
| '''0'''
| 0.2
| '''0'''
|-
| align="left"| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 7|No. 7]]
| 14.1
| '''1'''
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}; color:white"| 25.8
| '''1'''
| 8.4
| '''1'''
| 4.0
| '''0'''
| 7.6
| '''0'''
| 8.3
| '''0'''
| 0.5
| '''0'''
| 1.0
| '''0'''
| 14.9
| '''0'''
| 15.5
| '''0'''
|-
| align="left"| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 8|No. 8]]
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"| 27.8
| '''2'''
| 10.2
| '''1'''
| 23.3
| '''1'''
| 11.9
| '''1'''
| 12.9
| '''2'''
| 10.7
| '''0'''
| 0.8
| '''0'''
| 2.1
| '''0'''
| 0.0
| '''0'''
| 0.3
| '''0'''
|-
| align="left"| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 9|No. 9]]
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"| 30.4
| '''3'''
| 9.2
| '''0'''
| 19.7
| '''1'''
| 12.0
| '''1'''
| 9.0
| '''0'''
| 14.6
| '''1'''
| 1.0
| '''0'''
| 2.6
| '''0'''
| 1.5
| '''0'''
| 0.0
| '''0'''
|-
| align="left"| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 10|No. 10]]
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"| 35.9
| '''4'''
| 7.3
| '''0'''
| 14.5
| '''1'''
| 8.6
| '''1'''
| 9.9
| '''1'''
| 18.4
| '''1'''
| 1.7
| '''0'''
| 2.0
| '''0'''
| 1.6
| '''0'''
| 0.0
| '''0'''
|-
| align="left"| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 11|No. 11]]
| 24.0
| '''5'''
| 13.4
| '''1'''
| style="background:{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}; color:white"| 26.5
| '''2'''
| 8.5
| '''1'''
| 12.3
| '''1'''
| 11.5
| '''1'''
| 1.3
| '''0'''
| 2.3
| '''0'''
| 0.0
| '''0'''
| 0.2
| '''0'''
|-
| align="left"| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 12|No. 12]]
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"| 29.5
| '''2'''
| 11.4
| '''1'''
| 26.0
| '''2'''
| 10.0
| '''1'''
| 6.7
| '''0'''
| 12.8
| '''2'''
| 0.8
| '''0'''
| 2.2
| '''0'''
| 0.7
| '''0'''
| 0.0
| '''0'''
|- style="background:#CDCDCD"
| align="left"| '''Total'''
| 31.24
| '''37'''
| 15.28
| '''16'''
| 16.05
| '''17'''
| 9.27
| '''9'''
| 8.21
| '''8'''
| 13.33
| '''14'''
| 0.96
| '''0'''
| 2.30
| '''0'''
| 2.39
| '''0'''
| 0.96
| '''0'''
|-
! colspan="22"|
|-
! colspan="22" style="text-align:left; font-weight:normal; background:#F9F9F9"| Source: National Electoral Committee,<ref name="results"/> Eesti Rahvusringhääling<ref>{{cite news |title=Valimised 2023 |url=https://www.err.ee/k/rk-valimised-2023 |access-date=6 March 2023 |language=et |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |archive-date=6 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306001007/https://www.err.ee/k/rk-valimised-2023 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

== Aftermath ==
[[Tanel Kiik]], the vice-chair of the Centre Party, had said that "the Centre Party would be satisfied if it were to get 20 seats" in Riigikogu, while [[Sven Mikser]], the former chairman of the SDE, said that "nine mandates is probably the best the party can do in Estonia today".<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=5 March 2023 |title=Live blog: 2023 Riigikogu elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608905171/live-blog-2023-riigikogu-elections |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305174320/https://news.err.ee/1608905171/live-blog-2023-riigikogu-elections |url-status=live }}</ref> Ratas later described the results as "mediocre".<ref name=":12" /> After the publication of e-vote results, Kallas gave a speech and thanked her voters while [[Martin Helme]], the leader of EKRE, stated that "he does not trust the e-vote results" and demanded a recount.<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=5 March 2023 |title=Riigikogu valimistel on hääle andnud rekordarv inimesi |url=https://www.postimees.ee/7725235/valimisblogi-riigikogu-valimistel-on-haale-andnud-rekordarv-inimesi |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305233505/https://www.postimees.ee/7725235/valimisblogi-riigikogu-valimistel-voidutses-reformierakond |url-status=live }}</ref> Kallas was congratulated by [[Sanna Marin]], the prime minister of Finland, and [[Krišjānis Kariņš]], the prime minister of Latvia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marin |first=Sanna |date=6 March 2023 |title=Warm congratulations to PM @kajakallas on your success in the Estonian parliamentary elections. Looking forward to continuing our close cooperation in EU affairs, NATO and security policy and our support to Ukraine. |url=https://twitter.com/MarinSanna/status/1632642358603833346 |access-date=6 March 2023 |website=Twitter |archive-date=6 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306123605/https://twitter.com/MarinSanna/status/1632642358603833346 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 March 2023 |title=Kariņš congratulates Kallas on Estonian election success |url=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/politics/politics/karins-congratulates-kallas-on-estonian-election-success.a499432/ |access-date=6 March 2023 |website=LSM |language=en |archive-date=6 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306123605/https://eng.lsm.lv/article/politics/politics/karins-congratulates-kallas-on-estonian-election-success.a499432/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Karis is set to give the Reform Party the mandate to form a government, after which negotiations between the parties will be held.<ref name=":14" /> ''Eesti Rahvusringhääling'' reported that while experts predicted that the Reform–Estonia 200–SDE coalition would be formed after the election, Kallas only ruled out a coalition with EKRE.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Duxbury |first=Charlie |date=5 March 2023 |title=Estonia's incumbent leader Kaja Kallas on course for election win |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/estonia-election-incumbent-prime-minister-kaja-kallas-ekre-reform-party-on-course-for-win/ |access-date=6 March 2023 |website=Politico |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305235637/https://www.politico.eu/article/estonia-election-incumbent-prime-minister-kaja-kallas-ekre-reform-party-on-course-for-win/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A day after the election, Kallas said "that it is clear that voters expect to see Estonia 200 in the government", while she also said that there are four possible coalitions for the Reform Party to form.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kannel |first=Astrid |last2=Kuusk |first2=Priit |date=6 March 2023 |title=Kallas: Eesti 200 on selgelt valijate ootus |url=https://www.err.ee/1608906440/kallas-eesti-200-on-selgelt-valijate-ootus |access-date=6 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=6 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306220951/https://www.err.ee/1608906440/kallas-eesti-200-on-selgelt-valijate-ootus |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 March 2023 |title=Reform Party weighing four coalition options |url=https://news.err.ee/1608905966/reform-party-weighing-four-coalition-options |access-date=6 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=6 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306142323/https://news.err.ee/1608905966/reform-party-weighing-four-coalition-options |url-status=live }}</ref> Kallas invited Estonia 200 and SDE for government talks on 7 March 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2023 |title=Kaja Kallas: Reform inviting Eesti 200, Social Democrats to coalition talks |url=https://news.err.ee/1608906884/kaja-kallas-reform-inviting-eesti-200-social-democrats-to-coalition-talks |access-date=7 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307190158/https://news.err.ee/1608906884/kaja-kallas-reform-inviting-eesti-200-social-democrats-to-coalition-talks |url-status=live }}</ref> On 9 March 2023, EKRE made an appeal to the [[Supreme Court of Estonia]], requesting the results to be annulled and claiming that "several anomalies and technical errors in the e-voting process had been observed".<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 March 2023 |title=EKRE appeals e-vote result at Supreme Court |url=https://news.err.ee/1608909179/ekre-appeals-e-vote-result-at-supreme-court |access-date=9 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en}}</ref> Lawyer Paul Keres of EKRE also claimed that the e-voting process is unconstitutional.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kiisler |first=Indrek |date=9 March 2023 |title=Keres: e-hääli ei saa arvestada, kuna need on kokku loetud põhiseaduse vastaselt |url=https://www.err.ee/1608909278/keres-e-haali-ei-saa-arvestada-kuna-need-on-kokku-loetud-pohiseaduse-vastaselt |access-date=9 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.valimised.ee/en Official website] of the National Electoral Committee

{{Estonian elections}}
[[Category:Parliamentary elections in Estonia]]
[[Category:2023 elections in Europe|Estonia]]
[[Category:2023 in Estonia|Parliamentary]]

Amandus Adamson

2023-03-08T20:18:36Z

3 Löwi: Adding inline references. As already noted on 5 November, his father's (at least partial) Swedish ancestry is reported and referenced in the Estonian-language Wiki article on A.A. ( {{interlanguage link|Amandus Adamson|et}} )

{{short description|Estonian sculptor and painter}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
[[File:Amandus Adamson 1914.jpeg|thumb|Amandus Adamson in 1914.]]
[[File:Paldiski, maja, kus elas ja töötas Amandus Adamson.jpg|thumb|The house in Paldiski, where Amandus Adamson lived and worked.]]
'''Amandus Heinrich Adamson''' (12 November 1855 near [[Paldiski]], [[Estonia]], then [[Russian Empire]] — 26 June 1929 in Paldiski, Estonia) was an Estonian [[sculptor]] and painter.

==Life==
Adamson was born in 1855 into an Estonian-speaking seafaring family at Uuga-Rätsepa, near [[Paldiski]] by the [[Gulf of Finland]]. His father, of local partially [[Estonian Swedes|Swedish]]{{efn|In a 24 September 1925 congratulatory article ahead of his<ref>{{ill|Amandus Adamson|et}}</ref> 70th birthday, the Estonian newspaper ''[[Postimees]]'' wrote in a biographical paragraph that his father had originated “from an old Swedish family”.}}<ref>{{cite news|author1=Postimees Editorial|url=https://dea.digar.ee/?l=en|title=Kujur Amandus Adamsoni aupäewaks|access-date=March 8, 2023|work=Postimees|date=September 24, 1925|format=Feature story to celebrate subject’s 70th birthday|quote="(His) father was a ship captain, sprung from an old Swedish family, whereas mother was Estonian and only Estonian was spoken at the parents’ house." (''Isa oli laewakapten, wõrsunud wanast Rootsi sugust, kuna ema oli eestlane ja wanemate majas ainult Eesti keelt räägiti.'')|language=et}}</ref> descent and a merchant vessel captain by profession, sailed to the United States in 1860, participated in the American Civil War, but never returned to Estonia and lost contact with his family after 1869.

Adamson excelled in wood carving as a child. He moved to [[St. Petersburg]] in 1875 to study at the [[Imperial Academy of Arts]] under [[Alexander von Bock|Alexander Bock]]. After graduation he continued to work as a sculptor and teacher in St. Petersburg, with an interruption from 1887 through 1891 to study in Paris and Italy, influenced by the French sculptors [[Jules Dalou]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]].

Adamson produced his best-known work in 1902: His [[Russalka Memorial]] in [[Tallinn]], dedicated to the 177 lost sailors of the [[Russian monitor Rusalka|Russian warship ''Rusalka'']], features a bronze angel on a slender column. Some of his other work is architectural, e.g., his four allegorical bronzes for the [[Eliseyev Emporium (Saint Petersburg)|Elisseeff department store]] in St. Petersburg (for architect [[Gavriil Baranovsky]]), and the French-style [[caryatids]] and finial figures for the [[Singer House]] (for architect [[Pavel Suzor]]) are major components of the "Russian [[Art Nouveau]]" visible along [[Nevsky Prospekt]].

He was named an academician of the Imperial Academy in 1907. In 1911 Adamson, as a result of a competition arranged by the Imperial Academy, received the commission for the monument to the Tricentennial of the [[House of Romanov]]. It was to be erected in Kostroma. Adamson invested all of his money into the project, which was never finished due to the 1917 Russian Revolution. In 1918, during the [[Estonian War of Independence]], Adamson returned to his home town of [[Paldiski]] in northwestern Estonia, where he would spend most of the rest of his life, except for the larger part of 1922, when he worked in Italy.

During the years of independent Estonia Adamson was commissioned to sculpt multiple monuments dedicated to the War of Independence, including one in Pärnu at the Alevi cemetery, where he himself was ultimately buried. In the 1940s and 1950s, almost all of these monuments were destroyed by the Soviet authorities; since Estonia regained independence in 1991, most of them have been restored.

In addition to war memorials Adamson also created the first monument to an Estonian – [[Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald]]. Adamson's last work was the monument dedicated to a beloved national poetess [[Lydia Koidula]] in Pärnu.

==Selected works==
The work of Adamson varies in style and material. He sculpted monuments in Estonia, [[Saint Petersburg]] and the [[Crimean Peninsula|Crimea]], as well as architectural sculpture, [[Allegory|allegorical]] figures, and portraits.

* ''Fisherman from the Island of [[Muhu]]'' (plaster, 1892)
* ''In Anxious Expectation'' (bronze, 1897)
* [[allegorical sculpture]]s of ''Commerce, Industry, Science'' and ''Arts'' on the façade of [[Eliseyev Emporium (Saint Petersburg)|Elisseeff Emporium]] in St.Petersburg (bronze, 1902)
* The [[Russalka Memorial]], [[Kadriorg]] (1902)
* allegorical sculpture for the [[Singer House]], St. Petersburg (1902–1904)
* ''Tšempion'' (English: ''Champion''), bronze sculpture of Estonian strongman [[Georg Lurich]] (1903)<ref>[https://www.err.ee/591075/kuulus-lurichi-skulptuur-muudi-kunstioksjonil-57-200-euro-eest err.ee]</ref>
* ''Boats Lost at Sea'', [[Sevastopol]] (1904)
* Memorial to Estonian painter [[Johann Köler]], [[Suure-Jaani]] Cemetery (1912)
* Monument to the [[Estonian War of Independence|Estonian War of Liberation]] (1928, destroyed 1945)
* Monument to the Estonian poetess [[Lydia Koidula]], [[Pärnu]] (1929)

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Eesti Vabadussõjas langenute Kuressaare mälestussammas.jpg|Copy of the original Monument to the [[Estonian War of Independence]], [[Kuressaare]]
Image:TheLastSigh.jpg|''The Ship's Last Sigh'', in [[Bisque (pottery)|bisque]], 1899
Image:AmandusAdamsonRussalka.jpg|Sailors of the [[Rusalka (ship)|Ironclad warship Russalka]]
File:Дом Зингера 5.jpg|finial figures and globe, [[Singer House]]. St. Petersburg, 1902–1904
File:Scuttled ships.jpg|Monument to the Scuttled Ships, Sevastopol, Crimea, 1905
File:Johann Köleri haud.JPG|Memorial to Estonian painter [[Johann Koler]], [[Suure-Jaani]] Cemetery, 1912
File:Pärnu Vabadussõja mälestussammas.jpg|Monument to the Estonian War of Independence, [[Pärnu]], 1922
File:F R Kreutzwaldi monument Vorus.JPG|Monument to [[Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald]], [[Võru]], 1926
File:Lydia Koidula monument1.jpg|Monument to [[Lydia Koidula]], Pärnu, 1929
</gallery>

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
* Amandus Adamson, 1855–1929, by Tiina Nurk, Eesti NSV Kunst (1959)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170106103116/http://www.mg.edu.ee/comenius/index.php?show=9&lang=ENG&page=tallinn Amandus Adamson]
* [http://amandusadamson.ee/amandus-adamson]

==External links==
*[http://www.post.ee/?id=1595&product_id=816&c_tpl=1019 Estonian postage stamp]

{{commons category|Amandus Adamson}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adamson, Amandus}}
[[Category:1855 births]]
[[Category:1929 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Paldiski]]
[[Category:People from the Governorate of Estonia]]
[[Category:Sculptors from the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Architectural sculptors]]
[[Category:19th-century Estonian painters]]
[[Category:19th-century Estonian male artists]]
[[Category:20th-century Estonian sculptors]]
[[Category:20th-century Estonian male artists]]

Narva

2023-03-05T18:07:42Z

3 Löwi: then (small edit)

{{Short description|City in Estonia}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Narva
| settlement_type = City
| native_name =
| image_skyline = Narva asv2022-04 img09 Castle.jpg
| image_caption = [[Hermann Castle|Narva Castle]]
| image_flag = Flag_of_et-Narva.svg
| image_shield = Narva_vapp.svg
| pushpin_label = Narva
| pushpin_label_position = left
| mapsize = 230px
| map_caption = Location of Narva in Estonia
| pushpin_map_caption = Location within Europe##Location within [[Baltic Sea]] region##Location within Estonia|pushpin_relief = 1
| pushpin_map = Europe#Baltic Sea#Estonia
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[File:Flag of Estonia.svg|border|23px]] [[Estonia]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[Counties of Estonia|County]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[File:Ida-Virumaa lipp.svg|border|23px]] [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]]
| leader_title = [[List of mayors of Narva|Mayor]]
| leader_name = [[Katri Raik]]
| established_title = First mentioned
| established_date = 1172
| established_title1 = [[City rights]]
| established_date1 = 1345
| area_total_km2 = 84.54
| area_total_sq_mi = 32.63
| population_as_of = 2020
| population_footnotes = <ref>[http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PO0240&lang=1 Population by sex, age and place of residence after the 2017 administrative reform, 1 January]. Statistics Estonia.</ref>
| population_total = 54,409
| population_rank = [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|3rd]]
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_density_sq_mi =
| demographics_type1 = [[Ethnicity]] {{nobold|(2011)}}<ref name="PC0429">[http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC0429&lang=1 Census 2011: population by ethnic nationality, sex, age group and place of residence]. Statistics Estonia.</ref>
| demographics1_footnotes =
| demographics1_title1 = [[Russians]]
| demographics1_info1 = 87.7%
| demographics1_title2 = [[Estonians]]
| demographics1_info2 = 5.2%
| demographics1_title3 = other
| demographics1_info3 = 7.1%
| population_demonym = 
| timezone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
| utc_offset = +2
| timezone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
| utc_offset_DST = +3
| coordinates = {{Coord|59|22|33|N|28|11|46|E|type:city_region:EE-44|display=it}}
| elevation_m = 25
| area_code = (+372) 035
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 20001 to 21020
| website = [http://www.narva.ee/eng/ www.narva.ee]
| footnotes =
| iso_code = EE-511
}}
'''Narva'''{{efn|{{IPA-et|ˈnɑrʋɑ}}, {{lang-de|Narwa}}, {{lang-ru|Нарва}} {{IPA-ru|ˈnarvə|}}}} is a municipality and city in [[Estonia]]. It is located in [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru county]], at the [[Extreme points of Estonia|eastern extreme point of Estonia]] and European Union, on the west bank of the [[Narva (river)|Narva river]] which forms the [[Estonia–Russia border|Estonia–Russia international border]]. With 54,409 inhabitants (as of 2020) Narva is Estonia's third largest city after capital [[Tallinn]] and [[Tartu]].

In 1944, Narva was nearly completely destroyed during the battles of [[World War II]].<ref name=kattago/> During the period of [[Soviet occupation of Estonia|Soviet occupation]] (1944–1991), the city's original native inhabitants were not permitted to return after the war, and immigrant workers from [[Soviet Russia]] and other parts of then [[Soviet Union|USSR]] were brought in to populate the city.<ref name=duncan>{{cite book|last=Duncan |first=W. Raymond |title=Ethnic Nationalism And Regional Conflict: The Former Soviet Union And Yugoslavia |year=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780429715938 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NXekDwAAQBAJ&dq=narva+%22ethnic+cleansing%22+war&pg=PT169 }}</ref><ref name=kattago/> The city whose population had been, as of 1934 census, 65% ethnic Estonian, became overwhelmingly non-Estonian in the second half of the 20th century.<ref name=duncan/> According to more recent data, 46.7% of the city's inhabitants are [[Estonian citizenship|citizens]] of Estonia, 36.3% are citizens of the [[Russian Federation]], while 15.3% of the population has [[Estonian nationality law#Undefined citizenship|undefined citizenship]].<ref name=narva2013>{{Cite web|url=http://www.narva.ee/files/7095.pdf |title=Üldinfo - Narva Linnavalitsus |trans-title=Narva in figures |date=2013 |website=www.narva.ee}}</ref>

==History==
===Early settlement===
People settled in the area from the 5th to 4th millennium BC, as witnessed by the archeological traces of the [[Narva culture]], named after the Narva river.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.narvamuuseum.ee/?next=kujunemine&lang=eng&menu=menu_ajalugu |title=History of Narva: Formation of city |access-date=19 March 2009 |publisher=Narva Museum}}</ref> The fortified settlement at Narva Joaoru is the oldest known in Estonia, dated to around 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kriiska |first=Aivar |author2=Lavento, Mika |year=2006 |title=Narva Joaoru asulakohalt leitud keraamika kõrbekihi AMS-dateeringud |journal=Narva Muuseumi Toimetised |language=et, en, ru |issue=6 |url=https://www.etis.ee/ShowFile.aspx?FileVID=15962 |access-date=2 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720131250/https://www.etis.ee/ShowFile.aspx?FileVID=15962 |archive-date=20 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The earliest written reference of Narva is in the [[First Novgorod Chronicle]], which in the year 1172 describes a district in [[Novgorod]] called ''Nerevsky'' or ''Narovsky konets'' (yard). According to historians, this name derives from the name of Narva or Narva river and indicates that a frequently used trade route went through Narva, although there is no evidence of the existence of a trading settlement at the time.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raik |first=Katri |year=2005 |title=Miks pidada linna, eriti Narva sünnipäeva? |journal=Narva Muuseumi Toimetised |language=et |issue=5 }}</ref>

===Middle Ages===
Narva's favourable location at the intersection of both trade routes and the Narva river was behind the founding of [[Narva castle]] and the subsequent development of the castle's surrounding urban settlement. The castle was founded during the [[Danish Estonia|Danish rule of northern Estonia]] in the second half of the 13th century; the earliest written record of the castle is from 1277.<ref name=kivimae>{{Cite book |last=Kivimäe |first=Jüri |chapter=Medieval Narva: Featuring a Small Town between East and West |year=2004 |editor-last=Brüggemann |editor-first=Karsten |title=Narva and the Baltic Sea Region |location=Narva |publisher=Narva College of the University of Tartu |isbn=9985-4-0417-3}}</ref> ''Narvia'' village is mentioned in the [[Danish Census Book]] already in 1241. A town developed around the stronghold and in 1345 obtained [[Lübeck City Rights]] from Danish king [[Valdemar IV of Denmark|Valdemar IV]].<ref name=museum>{{cite web |url=http://www.narvamuuseum.ee/?lang=eng&next=linnus&menu=menu_ajalugu |title=History of Narva: Narva fortifications and Narva Castle |access-date=19 March 2009 |publisher=Narva Museum}}</ref> The castle and surrounding town of Narva (''Narwa'', in German) became a possession of the [[Livonian Order]] in 1346, after the Danish king sold its lands in Northern Estonia. In 1492 [[Ivangorod fortress]] across the Narva river was established by [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]] of [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Moscow]].

Trade, particularly [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] long-distance trade remained Narva's ''raison d'être'' throughout the Middle Ages.<ref name=kivimae/> However, due to opposition from [[Tallinn]], Narva itself never became part of the Hanseatic League and also remained a small town – its population in 1530 is estimated at 600–750 people.<ref name=kivimae/>

===Swedish and Russian rule===
[[File:Mälestusmärk " Rootsi lõvi" Narvas.jpg|thumb|left|[[The Swedish Lion in Narva|Swedish Lion Monument]] in Narva]]
Captured by the Russians during the [[Livonian War]] in 1558, for a short period Narva became an important port and trading city for [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]] as a transshipment centre of goods from [[Pskov]] and [[Novgorod]]. Russian rule ended in 1581 when the Swedes under the command of [[Pontus De la Gardie]] conquered the city and it became part of [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]]. During the [[Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)]], when [[Arvid Stålarm the Younger|Arvid Stålarm]] was governor, Russian forces attempted to regain the city without success ([[Treaty of Teusina]], May 1595).

During the [[Estonia under Swedish rule|Swedish rule]], the Old Town of Narva was built. Following a big fire in 1659 that almost completely destroyed the town, only stone buildings were allowed to be built in the central part of the town. Incomes from flourishing trade allowed rebuilding of the town center in two decades.<ref name=museum/> Until World War II, the [[baroque architecture|baroque]] Old Town underwent practically no changes, and thus became renowned all over Europe.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} Towards the end of [[Swedish Estonia|Swedish rule]], the defence structures of Narva were greatly improved. Beginning in 1680s, an outstanding system of [[bastion]]s, planned by the renowned Swedish military engineer [[Erik Dahlbergh]], was built around the town. The new defences were among the most powerful in Northern Europe.<ref name="museum"/>

[[File:ZauerveydNA Petr1UsmirDA19.jpg|thumb|''[[Peter I of Russia]] pacifies his marauding troops after taking Narva in 1704'' by [[Nikolay Sauerweid]], 1859]]
During the [[Great Northern War]] of 1700–1721, Narva became the setting for [[Battle of Narva (1700)|the first great battle]] between the forces of King [[Charles XII of Sweden]] and Tsar [[Peter I of Russia]] (November 1700). Although outnumbered four to one, the Swedish forces routed their 40,000-strong opponent. [[Russian Empire|Russia]] subsequently [[Battle of Narva (1704)|conquered]] the city in 1704.

[[File:Old Narva.jpg|thumb|left|View of Narva in the 1750s]]
After the war, the bastions were renovated. Narva remained on the list of Russian fortifications until 1863, though there was no real military need for it.<ref name="museum"/> During Russian rule Narva formed part of the [[Saint Petersburg Governorate]].

In the middle of the 19th century, Narva started to develop into a major industrial town. [[Ludwig Knoop]] established the [[Krenholm Manufacturing Company]] in 1857. The factory could use the cheap energy of the powerful Narva waterfalls, and at the end of the century became, with about 10,000 workers, one of the largest [[cotton mill]]s in Europe and the world.<ref name="timeline">{{cite web |url= http://www.narvamuuseum.ee/?lang=eng&next=kronoloogia&menu=menu_ajalugu |title=History of Narva: Timeline |access-date=25 March 2009 |publisher=Narva Museum}}</ref> In 1872, Krenholm Manufacturing became the site of the first [[strike action|strike]] in Estonia.<ref name="raun"/> At the end of the 19th century, Narva was the leading industrial town in Estonia – 41% of industrial workers in Estonia worked in Narva, compared to 33% in [[Tallinn]].<ref name="raun">{{cite book |last=Raun |first=Toivo U. |title=Estonia and the Estonians |year=2001 |publisher=Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University |location=Stanford, United States |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YQ1NRJlUrwkC |isbn=0-8179-2852-9}}</ref> The first railway in Estonia, completed in 1870, connected Narva to [[Saint Petersburg]] and to Tallinn.

[[File:Narva. Resurrection of Christ Cathedral.jpg|thumb|The [[Resurrection of Christ Cathedral, Narva]] (constructed 1890–1896)]]
In August 1890, Narva was the site of a key meeting between German Kaiser [[Wilhelm II]] and Russian Tsar [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]].

===Post-World War I period===
The status of Narva was resolved in a July 1917 referendum, when the district population, at that time roughly equally divided between ethnic Russians and Estonians, voted to attach itself to the newly autonomous and soon to be independent republic of Estonia.<ref name=batt>{{cite book|title=Region, state and identity in Central and Eastern Europe|editor-last=Batt |editor-first=Judy |editor-last2=Wolczuk |editor-first2=Kataryna |location=London, [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] |publisher=Frank Cass Publishers |year=2002|pages=222|isbn=0-7146-5243-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sw72GPjF0DYC&q=narva%20referendum&pg=PA98 |access-date=12 November 2009}}</ref> Narva became part of an independent Estonia in 1918, at the end of [[World War I]]. The town saw fighting during the [[Estonian War of Independence]]. The war started when Russian [[Bolshevik]] troops attacked Narva on 28 November 1918, capturing the city on the next day. The Russian [[Red Army]] retained control of the city until 19 January 1919.<ref>{{cite book|script-title=ru:Нарва: культурно-исторический справочник |trans-title=Narva: kulturno-istoricheskiy spravochnik] |language=ru|year=2001|publisher=Narva Museum|location=Narva}}</ref>

[[File:Narva linna plaan, 1929.jpg|thumb|left|A 1929 plan of Narva (including Ivangorod, part of Narva at the time)]]
Heavy battles occurred both in and around Narva during World War II. The city was damaged in the German invasion of 1941 and by smaller air raids throughout the war, but remained relatively intact until February 1944.<ref name=kattago>{{cite journal |last=Kattago |first=Siobhan |year=2008 |title=Commemorating Liberation and Occupation: War Memorials Along the Road to Narva |journal=[[Journal of Baltic Studies]] |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=431–449 |doi=10.1080/01629770802461225|s2cid=145001694 }}</ref> However, as the focus of the [[Battle of Narva (1944)|Battle of Narva]], the city was destroyed by Soviet bombardment and fires and explosions set by retreating German troops.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.narva.ee/en/for_tourists/welcome_to_narva_city,_estonia!/narva_history/page:1016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413045732/http://www.narva.ee/en/for_tourists/welcome_to_narva_city,_estonia!/narva_history/page:1016 |archive-date=April 13, 2009|title=Old town: Expansion and Tragedy |date=13 April 2009|website=www.narva.ee }}</ref> The most devastating action was the bombing raids of 6 and 7 March 1944 by the [[Soviet Air Force]], which destroyed the [[Baroque]] old town.<ref name=museum/><ref name=kattago/>

===Soviet occupation 1944–1991===
By the end of July 1944, 98% of Narva had been destroyed.<ref name=kattago/> After the war, most of the buildings could have been restored as the walls of the houses still existed, but in early 1950s, the Soviet authorities decided to demolish the ruins to make room for apartment buildings.<ref name=kattago/><ref name='faure'>{{cite book|last1=Faure|first1=Gunter|last2=Mensing|first2=Teresa|title=The Estonians; The long road to independence|year=2012|publisher=Lulu|isbn=9781105530036|page=23}}</ref> Only three buildings remain of the old town, including the [[Baroque]]-style [[Narva Town Hall|Town Hall]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.narvamuuseum.ee/?next=vanalinn&lang=eng&menu=menu_ajalugu |title=History of Narva: The Old Town of Narva |access-date=19 March 2009 |publisher=Narva Museum}}</ref> The civilian casualties of the bombing were low as the [[Wehrmacht|German forces]] had evacuated the city in January 1944.

Narva was effectively [[Ethnic cleansing|ethnically cleansed]], as the original native inhabitants were not allowed to return after the war, and immigrant Russian-speaking workers from other parts of the USSR were brought in to populate the city.<ref name=duncan>{{cite book|last=Duncan |first=W. Raymond |title=Ethnic Nationalism And Regional Conflict: The Former Soviet Union And Yugoslavia |year=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780429715938 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NXekDwAAQBAJ&dq=narva+%22ethnic+cleansing%22+war&pg=PT169 }}</ref><ref name=kattago/> The city which population had been 65% Estonian according to the last census in 1934, became overwhelmingly non-Estonian.<ref name=duncan/> The main reason behind this was a plan to build a secret [[uranium]] processing plant in the city, which would turn Narva into a [[closed town]].<ref name='faure'/> In 1947 nearby [[Sillamäe]] was selected as the location of the factory instead of Narva, but the existence of such a plan was decisive for the development of Narva in the [[Aftermath of World War II#Soviet Union|postwar years]], and thus also shaped its later evolution.<ref name=vseviov>{{cite book|last=Vseviov |first=David |title=Nõukogudeaegne Narva. Elanikkonna kujunemine 1944–1970 |language=et, ru |year=2001 |location=Tartu |publisher=Okupatsioonide Repressiivpoliitika Uurimise Riiklik Komisjon }}</ref> The planned uranium factory and other large-scale industrial developments, like the restoring of Kreenholm Manufacture, were the driving force behind the influx of internal migrants from other parts of the Soviet Union, mainly Russia.<ref name=vseviov/>

In January 1945, [[Ivangorod]], the suburb on the eastern bank of the river was separated from Estonia (and from Narva) by the Soviet authorities, and the settlement around [[Ivangorod fortress]] was made administratively part of the neighboring [[Leningrad Oblast]] of the [[Russian SFSR]]. Ivangorod became officially a town by itself in 1954.
{{clear|left}}

[[File:Narva old town 2009.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Narva Town Hall|Town Hall]], surrounded by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-era apartment blocks, is one of the few buildings which were restored after World War II.]]

===Restoration of Estonian independence===
After Estonia [[History of Estonia#Regaining independence|regained its independence]] in 1991, the city's leaders, holdovers from the Soviet era, wanted autonomy, and contended that the notion of a breakaway "Transnarovan Soviet republic" in [[Ida-Viru County|northeastern Estonia]] was becoming increasingly popular, but this was contradicted by polls showing 87% of the region's population opposed secession from Estonia.<ref name=batt/>

In 1993, dissatisfaction with newly enacted [[Estonian nationality law|citizenship]] and election laws (non-citizens were not allowed to hold office) culminated in the Narva referendum of 16–17 July 1993, which proposed autonomy for both Narva and [[Sillamäe]], a nearby town.<ref name="batt"/> Although 97% voted in favor of the referendum, turnout in Narva was a mere 55%, and there were credible charges of vote rigging.<ref name="batt"/>

[[File:Kindlused Narva jõe kaldal.jpg|thumb|280px|View of Narva in 2014. [[Ivangorod fortress]], in Russia, lies across the river on the right.]]

After 1991, disputes regarding the Estonian-Russian border in the Narva sector remained, as the new [[constitution of Estonia]] (adopted in 1992) recognizes the 1920 [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]] border to be currently legal.

The Russian Federation, however, considers Estonia to be a successor of the [[Estonian SSR]] and recognizes the 1945 border between the two former national republics. Officially, Estonia has no territorial claims in the area, and which was also reflected in the new Estonian-Russian border treaty signed in Moscow on 18 May 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/93#treaties|title=Estonia and Russia: Treaties|publisher=Estonian Foreign Ministry|quote=Estonia sticks to its former position that it has no territorial claims with respect to Russia, and Narva presently sits peacefully within Estonia's borders. As such, Estonia sees no obstacles for the entry into force of the current treaty.|access-date=12 November 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102004351/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F93#treaties|archive-date=2 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/400839|title=Milleks meile idapiir ja ilma lepinguta?|last=Berg|first=Eiki|work=[[Eesti Päevaleht]]|language=et|access-date=27 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009061426/http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/400839|archive-date=9 October 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/476082|title=Enn Eesmaa: väide Petseri-soovist on ennekõike provokatiivne|work=[[Eesti Päevaleht]]|language=et|access-date=27 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826212424/http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/476082|archive-date=26 August 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> Russia failed to ratify it because, together with the ratification the Estonian parliament, approved a communiqué, which mentioned the Soviet Occupation.

On 18 February 2014 a new border treaty was signed by both countries.<ref>{{cite news |date=February 14, 2014 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-estonia-idUSBREA1H0QN20140218|title=After 20 years, Russia and Estonia sign border treaty |publisher=Reuters}}</ref> However the treaty was not ratified by the parliaments of either Russia or Estonia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/short_news/russia-may-finally-ratify-2014-border-agreement-with-estonia/|title=Russia may finally ratify 2014 border agreement with Estonia|first=Pekka|last=Vanttinen|date=15 November 2021|website=www.euractiv.com}}</ref>

Overall, by 2014, Russian residents were happy with their status as both Estonian and [[European Union]] citizens and lived peacefully alongside their compatriots.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://m.epl.delfi.ee/arvamus/article.php?id=68259151|title=Katri Raik: Eesti, Venemaa... Ei, ikka Eesti|work=Delfi}}</ref>

Before the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], residents mixed relatively freely with the residents across the river in [[Ivangorod]].<ref name="onet">{{citation|url=https://www.onet.pl/turystyka/onetpodroze/narwa-najbardziej-rosyjskie-miasto-unii-europejskiej-w-estonii/7xlm226,07640b54|title=Najbardziej "rosyjskie" miasto Unii Europejskiej|author1= [[Deutsche Welle]] |author2 = BBC|language=pl|publisher=[[onet.pl]]|date=19 June 2022}}</ref>
[[File:A monument - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The "Narva tank" (a former Soviet war monument, removed in 2022)]]
Those on the Estonian side mainly crossed to buy cheaper petrol, [[Groat (grain)|groats]], cleaning products, pasta and sugar.<ref name="onet"/> Those crossing from the Russian side wanted to make use of the availability of non-sanctioned goods, entertainment facilities and overall better infrastructure.<ref name="onet"/>

The invasion and subsequent conflict seriously reduced cooperation between the two neighbours, especially as visas became difficult to obtain and the residents of Narva increased the take up in [[Estonian nationality law|Estonian citizenship]].<ref name="onet"/> Narva took many Ukrainian refugees fleeing the war<ref name="onet"/> and previously popular Russian TV stations among older Russophone residents were banned by the Estonian government.<ref name="onet"/>

On June 10, 2022, the Estonian foreign ministry summoned the Russian ambassador to protest about remarks by President Vladimir Putin praising [[Peter the Great]] for having captured Narva in the early 18th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs summons Russian ambassador {{!}} Ministry of Foreign Affairs |url=https://vm.ee/en/news/ministry-foreign-affairs-summons-russian-ambassador-3 |access-date=2022-06-11 |website=vm.ee |language=en}}</ref>

In August 2022, a Soviet T-34 tank memorial was removed from a stretch of road between the city centre and [[Narva-Jõesuu]], to mixed responses. It was moved to the [[Estonian War Museum]] in [[Viimsi]] near Tallinn.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://medium.com/@nayloraliide/dispatch-from-narva-ebcf7b5f5a8 | title=Dispatch from Narva | date=26 August 2022 }}</ref> In response to the tank's removal, the following month Russian authorities erected a similar T-34 tank monument in [[Ivangorod]] near the border crossing point with Narva.<ref>[https://rus.err.ee/1608712276/v-ivangorode-torzhestvenno-otkryli-pamjatnik-tank-t-34 ERR Novosti. ''В Ивангороде торжественно открыли памятник-танк "Т-34" (Monument-tank "T-34" solemnly opened in Ivangorod)''] (in Russian) Retrieved 13 September 2022.</ref>

==Demographics==
On 1 January 2013 Narva's population was 59,888, down from 60,454 inhabitants a year earlier.<ref>[http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PO0241&lang=1 Population by sex, age and administrative unit or type of settlement, 1 January]. Statistics Estonia.</ref> The population was 83,000 in 1992.<ref name=nf07>{{cite web |url=http://web.narva.ee/files/Narva_arvudes_2008.pdf |title=Narva in figures 2008 |access-date=12 November 2009 |publisher=Narva City Government}}</ref> 95.7% of the population of Narva are native Russian speakers,<ref>[http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC0432&lang=1 Census 2011: population by mother tongue, sex and place of residence]. Statistics Estonia.</ref> and 87.7% are ethnic [[Estonian Russians|Russians]].<ref name="PC0429" /> Most non-Estonians are ethnically Russian, Belarusian, or Ukrainian immigrants or the children of immigrants, though 69% of Narva residents in the early 1990s had been born in Narva or had lived there for more than 30 years.<ref name=batt/> Ethnic [[Estonians]] account for 5.2% of total population.<ref name="PC0429" /> Much of the city was destroyed during World War II and for several years during the following reconstruction the Soviet authorities largely prohibited return of Narva's pre-war residents (among whom ethnic Estonians had been the majority, forming 64.8% of the town's population of 23,512 according to the 1934 census),<ref>{{cite book |title=Rahvastiku koostis ja korteriolud. 1.III 1934 rahvaloenduse andmed. Vihk II |year=1935 |publisher=Riigi Statistika Keskbüroo |location=Tallinn |language=et, fr |hdl=10062/4439}}</ref> thus radically altering the city's ethnic composition.<ref name=raun/> Nevertheless, ethnic Russians had already formed a significant minority: 29.7% of the city's population were Russian in the census of 1934.

46.7% of the city's inhabitants are Estonian citizens, 36.3% are citizens of the [[Russian Federation]], while 15.3% of the population has [[Estonian nationality law#Undefined citizenship|undefined citizenship]].<ref name=narva2013>{{Cite web|url=http://www.narva.ee/files/7095.pdf |title=Üldinfo - Narva Linnavalitsus |trans-title=Narva in figures |date=2013 |website=www.narva.ee}}</ref> Since the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]] there has been increased the take up in [[Estonian nationality law|Estonian citizenship]] in the city.<ref name="onet"/>

A concern in Narva is the spread of HIV, which infected 1.2% of Estonia's population in 2012.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://world.time.com/2013/01/21/why-europes-healthiest-economy-has-its-worst-drug-problem/|title=Why Europe's Healthiest Economy Has Its Worst Drug Problem|first=Mark|last=Lewis|date=21 January 2013|publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] }}</ref> Between 2001 and 2008, more than 1,600 cases of HIV were registered in Narva, making it one of the worst areas in Estonia, alongside [[Tallinn]] and the rest of [[Ida-Viru County]].<ref>HIV statistics for Estonia: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070622223743/http://www.raplamv.ee/tervis/download.php?ID=13&type=Project 2001–2006], [http://www.tervisekaitse.ee/documents/nakkushaigused/statistika/hivstatistika_2007.pdf 2007]{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, [http://www.tervisekaitse.ee/documents/nakkushaigused/statistika/2008/hivstatistika2008.pdf 2008]{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The HIV infection rate in Estonia declined in 2014, with 59 new cases in Narva.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.err.ee/114731/hiv-infection-rate-slows-in-estonia|title=HIV infection rate slows in Estonia|date=5 January 2015|website=ERR.ee }}</ref>

{{wide image|Narva_panorama_to_west_2008_crop.jpg|800px|Panorama of the western part of the city}}
== Religion ==
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in Narva (2021) [https://andmed.stat.ee/en/stat/rahvaloendus__rel2021__rahvastiku-demograafilised-ja-etno-kultuurilised-naitajad__usk/RL21452]
|label1 = Orthodox & Old Believers
|value1 = 56.7
|color1 = Pink
|label2 = Catholic
|value2 = 1.1
|color2 = Purple
|label3 = Others Christians
|value3 = 1.7
|color3 = LightBlue
|label4 = Others Religions
|value4 = 1.0
|color4 = Yellow
|label5 = Unaffiliated
|value5 = 39.1
|color5 = White
|label6 =
|value6 =
|color6 =
}}

==Geography==
Narva is situated in the eastern extreme point of Estonia, {{convert|200|km|0|abbr=on}} to the east from the Estonian capital Tallinn and {{convert|130|km|0|abbr=on}} southwest from Saint Petersburg. The capital of Ida-Viru County, [[Jõhvi]], lies {{convert|50|km|0|abbr=on}} to the west. The eastern border of the city along the Narva river (which drains [[Lake Peipus]]) coincides with the Estonian-Russian border. The Estonian part of the [[Narva Reservoir]] lies mostly within the territory of Narva, to the southwest of city center. The mouth of the Narva river to the [[Gulf of Finland]] is about {{convert|13|km|0|abbr=on}} downstream from the city.

The municipality of Narva covers {{convert|84.54|km2|2|abbr=on}}, of which the city proper occupies {{convert|62|km2|0|abbr=on}} (excluding the reservoir), while two separate districts surrounded by [[Vaivara Parish]], Kudruküla and Olgina, cover {{convert|5.6|km2|2|abbr=on}} and {{convert|0.58|km2|2|abbr=on}}, respectively.<ref>[http://www.narvaplan.ee/index.php?lang=et&menu=5&page=3 Narva LV Arhitektuuri- ja Linnaplaneerimise Amet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828135519/http://www.narvaplan.ee/index.php?lang=et&menu=5&page=3 |date=28 August 2008 }} (in Estonian)</ref> Kudruküla is the largest of Narva's [[dacha]] regions, located {{convert|6|km|0|abbr=on}} to northwest from the main city, near [[Narva-Jõesuu]].

===Climate===
Narva has a warm-summer [[humid continental climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]] ''Dfb'') with mild to warm, rainy summers with cool nights and cold, cloudy and snowy winters. Narva is one of the coldest settlements in Estonia, being located at the very northeast of the country and bordering Russia.
{{Weather box
|location = Narva, 1971–2000 normals, extremes 1928–present
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan record high C = 8.9
|Feb record high C = 10.6
|Mar record high C = 16.0
|Apr record high C = 25.7
|May record high C = 31.7
|Jun record high C = 34.6
|Jul record high C = 34.5
|Aug record high C = 35.4
|Sep record high C = 29.9
|Oct record high C = 21.0
|Nov record high C = 12.5
|Dec record high C = 10.4
|year record high C = 35.4
|Jan high C = −3.2
|Feb high C = −3.1
|Mar high C = 1.6
|Apr high C = 8.7
|May high C = 15.7
|Jun high C = 19.9
|Jul high C = 21.7
|Aug high C = 20.2
|Sep high C = 14.4
|Oct high C = 8.3
|Nov high C = 2.0
|Dec high C = −1.4
|year high C = 8.7
|Jan mean C = -5.8
|Feb mean C = -6.2
|Mar mean C = -2.0
|Apr mean C = 4.0
|May mean C = 10.1
|Jun mean C = 14.8
|Jul mean C = 16.9
|Aug mean C = 15.4
|Sep mean C = 10.3
|Oct mean C = 5.4
|Nov mean C = -0.1
|Dec mean C = -3.8
|year mean C = 4.9
|Jan low C = −8.9
|Feb low C = −9.7
|Mar low C = −5.4
|Apr low C = -0.1
|May low C = 4.4
|Jun low C = 9.3
|Jul low C = 11.7
|Aug low C = 10.7
|Sep low C = 6.3
|Oct low C = 2.5
|Nov low C = −2.5
|Dec low C = −6.7
|year low C = 0.9
|Jan record low C = −39.4
|Feb record low C = −37.4
|Mar record low C = −32.7
|Apr record low C = −25.1
|May record low C = −6.3
|Jun record low C = -0.9
|Jul record low C = 2.3
|Aug record low C = -0.5
|Sep record low C = −5.4
|Oct record low C = −12.4
|Nov record low C = −22.9
|Dec record low C = −42.6
|year record low C = −42.6
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 36
|Feb precipitation mm = 28
|Mar precipitation mm = 33
|Apr precipitation mm = 32
|May precipitation mm = 43
|Jun precipitation mm = 62
|Jul precipitation mm = 75
|Aug precipitation mm = 89
|Sep precipitation mm = 76
|Oct precipitation mm = 72
|Nov precipitation mm = 54
|Dec precipitation mm = 47
|year precipitation mm = 646
|unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 11
|Feb precipitation days = 8
|Mar precipitation days = 9
|Apr precipitation days = 8
|May precipitation days = 7
|Jun precipitation days = 9
|Jul precipitation days = 10
|Aug precipitation days = 11
|Sep precipitation days = 12
|Oct precipitation days = 13
|Nov precipitation days = 14
|Dec precipitation days = 12
|year precipitation days = 124
|Jan humidity = 86
|Feb humidity = 84
|Mar humidity = 79
|Apr humidity = 72
|May humidity = 67
|Jun humidity = 73
|Jul humidity = 76
|Aug humidity = 79
|Sep humidity = 83
|Oct humidity = 84
|Nov humidity = 87
|Dec humidity = 87
|year humidity = 80
|Jan sun = 29.6
|Feb sun = 60.3
|Mar sun = 123.9
|Apr sun = 178.4
|May sun = 274.5
|Jun sun = 284.0
|Jul sun = 286.7
|Aug sun = 231.0
|Sep sun = 133.2
|Oct sun = 76.0
|Nov sun = 26.8
|Dec sun = 16.5
|year sun = 1718.7
|source 1 = Estonian Weather Service<ref name=temp>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.emhi.ee/index.php?ide=6,299,302
|title = Kliimanormid-Õhutemperatuur
|publisher = Estonian Weather Service
|language = et
|access-date = 24 September 2016
|url-status = bot: unknown
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120222111033/http://www.emhi.ee/index.php?ide=6,299,302
|archive-date = 22 February 2012
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref><ref name=precip>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.emhi.ee/index.php?ide=6,299,303
|title = Kliimanormid-Sademed, õhuniiskus
|publisher = Estonian Weather Service
|language = et
|access-date = 24 September 2016
|url-status = bot: unknown
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120222112141/http://www.emhi.ee/index.php?ide=6,299,303
|archive-date = 22 February 2012
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref><ref name=sun>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.emhi.ee/index.php?ide=6,299,307
|title = Kliimanormid-Päikesepaiste kestus
|publisher = Estonian Weather Service
|language = et
|access-date = 24 September 2016
|url-status = bot: unknown
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120222111655/http://www.emhi.ee/index.php?ide=6,299,307
|archive-date = 22 February 2012
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref><ref name=extremes>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/rekordid/ohutemperatuur/
| title = Rekordid
| language= Estonian
| publisher = Estonian Weather Service
| access-date = 19 March 2021}}</ref>
}}

===Neighbourhoods===
{{Main|Narva neighbourhoods}}

[[File:Narva linnaosad.png|thumb|Neighbourhoods of Narva]]
Narva is officially divided into 15 neighbourhoods: [[Elektrijaama]], [[Joaoru]], [[Kalevi, Narva|Kalevi]], [[Kerese]], [[Kreenholmi]], [[Kudruküla, Narva|Kudruküla]], [[Kulgu]], [[Olgina, Narva|Olgina]], [[Paemurru]], [[Pähklimäe]], [[Siivertsi]], [[Soldina, Narva|Soldina]], [[Sutthoffi]], [[Vanalinn, Narva|Vanalinn]] and [[Veekulgu]].

== Landmarks ==
[[File:Narva jõgi 1999.jpg|260px|thumb|The reconstructed fortress of Narva (to the left) overlooking the Russian fortress of Ivangorod (to the right).]]
{{See also|Hermann Castle}}
Narva's [[skyline]] is dominated by the 15th-century castle, with the {{convert|51|m|ft|sp=us|adj=mid|-tall}} [[Pikk Hermann, Narva|Pikk Hermann]] tower as its most prominent landmark. The sprawling complex of the [[Kreenholm Manufacture]], located in the proximity of scenic waterfalls, is one of the largest textile mills of 19th-century Northern Europe. Other notable buildings include Swedish mansions of the 17th century, a Baroque town hall (1668–71), and remains of [[Erik Dahlberg]]'s fortifications.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

Across the Narva river lies the Russian Ivangorod fortress, established during the rule of Grand Prince [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III of Muscovy]] in 1492 and also referred to in some contemporary sources as the "Counter-Narva".  From the 17th century until 1945, both the fortress and the adjacent suburb of Ivangorod ({{lang-et|Jaanilinn}}) were an administrative part of Narva.

[[Narva Kreenholmi Stadium]] is home to [[Meistriliiga]] football team, [[FC Narva Trans]].

==Transportation==
The [[Narva railway station]] is located on an international railway line between Estonia and Russia ([[Tallinn–Narva railway]]). A daily international passenger train used to link (as of 2019) the two countries: the overnight train between Moscow via St. Petersburg to Tallinn, which stops at Narva.
Four daily domestic trains run between Narva and Tallinn - modern trains were introduced in 2016 and now take less than 3 hours between the two cities.
Adjacent to the central rail station is a central bus station, which has multiple domestic and international connections (including to Russia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belarus etc.). There is a general aviation [[grass airfield]] near Narva (ICAO: EENA).

==Sport==
The two main professional sports in the city are [[ice hockey]] and [[association football|football]].

[[Narva PSK]] play at the [[Narva Ice Hall]], which also was the host arena of the [[2005 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships#Division I|2005 World Junior Ice Hockey Division I Championship Group B]].

[[JK Narva Trans]] play at the [[Narva Kreenholm Stadium]]. They are founding members of the [[Meistriliiga]], and are one of two clubs which have never been relegated from the Estonian top division. They have won 2 [[Estonian Cup]]s and 2 [[Estonian Supercup]]s.

==Notable residents==

*[[Evert Horn]] (1585–1615), governor of Narva (1613)
*[[Ludwig Busbetzky]] (1687-1699), composer and organist at the German Church in Narva
*[[Aleksander Promet]] (1879–1938), artist
*[[Raimund Kull]] (1882–1942), conductor and composer
*[[Adolf Szyszko-Bohusz]] (1883–1948), architect
*[[Albert Üksip]] (1886–1966), botanist
*[[Emmanuel Steinschneider]] (1886–1970), professor.
*[[Nikolai Stepulov]] (1913–1968), Olympic boxer
*[[Kersti Merilaas]] (1913–1986), poet, playwright
*[[Paul Keres]] (1916–1975), chess grandmaster
*[[Paul Felix Schmidt]] (1916–1984), chess player
*[[Ortvin Sarapu]] (1924–1999), chess player
*[[Valeri Karpin]] (born 1969), Russian football player
*[[Maksim Gruznov]] (1974), football player
*[[Reinar Hallik]] (1984), basketball player
*[[Leo Komarov]] (1987), ice hockey player
*[[Alika Milova]] (2002), singer

==In popular culture==

In the first-person shooter video game ''[[Squad (video game)|Squad]]'', the map Narva is loosely based on the real city, containing [[Narva Castle]], [[Ivangorod Fortress]] and a southern industrial area.

==Twin towns – sister cities==
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in Estonia}}
Narva is [[Sister city|twinned]] with:<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Города - побратимы и партнеры|url=http://www.narva.ee/ru/gorosaninu/narva_cegodna/inoctrannoe_i_druseckie_cvasi/page:536/subpage:2|website=narva.ee|publisher=Narva linn|language=ru|access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*{{flagicon|MDA}} [[Bălți]], Moldova
*{{flagicon|BLR}} [[Barysaw]], Belarus
*{{flagicon|USA}} [[Bel Air, Harford County, Maryland|Bel Air]], United States

*{{flagicon|POL}} [[Elbląg]], Poland
*{{flagicon|BUL}} [[Gorna Oryahovitsa Municipality|Gorna Oryahovitsa]], Bulgaria
*{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Ivangorod]], Russia
*{{flagicon|FIN}} [[Kanta-Häme]], Finland
*{{flagicon|SWE}} [[Karlskoga Municipality|Karlskoga]], Sweden
*{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Kingiseppsky District]], Russia
*{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Kirovsky District, Saint Petersburg|Kirovsky (Saint Petersburg)]], Russia
*{{flagicon|GEO}} [[Kobuleti]], Georgia
*{{flagicon|FIN}} [[Lahti]], Finland
*{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Petrozavodsk]], Russia

{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
* [http://www.narva.ee/en/ Narva – Official site]
* [https://visitnarva.ee Visit Narva official city guide]

{{Cities of Estonia}}
{{Ida-Virumaa}}
{{Narva landmarks}}
{{Placename toponym Narva}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Narva| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Estonia]]
[[Category:Yamburgsky Uyezd]]
[[Category:Estonia–Russia border crossings]]
[[Category:Populated places in Ida-Viru County]]
[[Category:Russian communities]]
[[Category:Port cities and towns in Estonia]]
[[Category:Extreme points of Estonia]]

Narva

2023-03-05T18:05:24Z

3 Löwi: former (correct link)

{{Short description|City in Estonia}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Narva
| settlement_type = City
| native_name =
| image_skyline = Narva asv2022-04 img09 Castle.jpg
| image_caption = [[Hermann Castle|Narva Castle]]
| image_flag = Flag_of_et-Narva.svg
| image_shield = Narva_vapp.svg
| pushpin_label = Narva
| pushpin_label_position = left
| mapsize = 230px
| map_caption = Location of Narva in Estonia
| pushpin_map_caption = Location within Europe##Location within [[Baltic Sea]] region##Location within Estonia|pushpin_relief = 1
| pushpin_map = Europe#Baltic Sea#Estonia
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[File:Flag of Estonia.svg|border|23px]] [[Estonia]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[Counties of Estonia|County]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[File:Ida-Virumaa lipp.svg|border|23px]] [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]]
| leader_title = [[List of mayors of Narva|Mayor]]
| leader_name = [[Katri Raik]]
| established_title = First mentioned
| established_date = 1172
| established_title1 = [[City rights]]
| established_date1 = 1345
| area_total_km2 = 84.54
| area_total_sq_mi = 32.63
| population_as_of = 2020
| population_footnotes = <ref>[http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PO0240&lang=1 Population by sex, age and place of residence after the 2017 administrative reform, 1 January]. Statistics Estonia.</ref>
| population_total = 54,409
| population_rank = [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|3rd]]
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_density_sq_mi =
| demographics_type1 = [[Ethnicity]] {{nobold|(2011)}}<ref name="PC0429">[http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC0429&lang=1 Census 2011: population by ethnic nationality, sex, age group and place of residence]. Statistics Estonia.</ref>
| demographics1_footnotes =
| demographics1_title1 = [[Russians]]
| demographics1_info1 = 87.7%
| demographics1_title2 = [[Estonians]]
| demographics1_info2 = 5.2%
| demographics1_title3 = other
| demographics1_info3 = 7.1%
| population_demonym = 
| timezone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
| utc_offset = +2
| timezone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
| utc_offset_DST = +3
| coordinates = {{Coord|59|22|33|N|28|11|46|E|type:city_region:EE-44|display=it}}
| elevation_m = 25
| area_code = (+372) 035
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 20001 to 21020
| website = [http://www.narva.ee/eng/ www.narva.ee]
| footnotes =
| iso_code = EE-511
}}
'''Narva'''{{efn|{{IPA-et|ˈnɑrʋɑ}}, {{lang-de|Narwa}}, {{lang-ru|Нарва}} {{IPA-ru|ˈnarvə|}}}} is a municipality and city in [[Estonia]]. It is located in [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru county]], at the [[Extreme points of Estonia|eastern extreme point of Estonia]] and European Union, on the west bank of the [[Narva (river)|Narva river]] which forms the [[Estonia–Russia border|Estonia–Russia international border]]. With 54,409 inhabitants (as of 2020) Narva is Estonia's third largest city after capital [[Tallinn]] and [[Tartu]].

In 1944, Narva was nearly completely destroyed during the battles of [[World War II]].<ref name=kattago/> During the period of [[Soviet occupation of Estonia|Soviet occupation]] (1944–1991), the city's original native inhabitants were not permitted to return after the war, and immigrant workers from [[Russia]] and other parts of the former [[Soviet Union]] were brought in to populate the city.<ref name=duncan>{{cite book|last=Duncan |first=W. Raymond |title=Ethnic Nationalism And Regional Conflict: The Former Soviet Union And Yugoslavia |year=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780429715938 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NXekDwAAQBAJ&dq=narva+%22ethnic+cleansing%22+war&pg=PT169 }}</ref><ref name=kattago/> The city whose population had been, as of 1934 census, 65% ethnic Estonian, became overwhelmingly non-Estonian in the second half of the 20th century.<ref name=duncan/> According to more recent data, 46.7% of the city's inhabitants are [[Estonian citizenship|citizens]] of Estonia, 36.3% are citizens of the [[Russian Federation]], while 15.3% of the population has [[Estonian nationality law#Undefined citizenship|undefined citizenship]].<ref name=narva2013>{{Cite web|url=http://www.narva.ee/files/7095.pdf |title=Üldinfo - Narva Linnavalitsus |trans-title=Narva in figures |date=2013 |website=www.narva.ee}}</ref>

==History==
===Early settlement===
People settled in the area from the 5th to 4th millennium BC, as witnessed by the archeological traces of the [[Narva culture]], named after the Narva river.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.narvamuuseum.ee/?next=kujunemine&lang=eng&menu=menu_ajalugu |title=History of Narva: Formation of city |access-date=19 March 2009 |publisher=Narva Museum}}</ref> The fortified settlement at Narva Joaoru is the oldest known in Estonia, dated to around 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kriiska |first=Aivar |author2=Lavento, Mika |year=2006 |title=Narva Joaoru asulakohalt leitud keraamika kõrbekihi AMS-dateeringud |journal=Narva Muuseumi Toimetised |language=et, en, ru |issue=6 |url=https://www.etis.ee/ShowFile.aspx?FileVID=15962 |access-date=2 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720131250/https://www.etis.ee/ShowFile.aspx?FileVID=15962 |archive-date=20 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The earliest written reference of Narva is in the [[First Novgorod Chronicle]], which in the year 1172 describes a district in [[Novgorod]] called ''Nerevsky'' or ''Narovsky konets'' (yard). According to historians, this name derives from the name of Narva or Narva river and indicates that a frequently used trade route went through Narva, although there is no evidence of the existence of a trading settlement at the time.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raik |first=Katri |year=2005 |title=Miks pidada linna, eriti Narva sünnipäeva? |journal=Narva Muuseumi Toimetised |language=et |issue=5 }}</ref>

===Middle Ages===
Narva's favourable location at the intersection of both trade routes and the Narva river was behind the founding of [[Narva castle]] and the subsequent development of the castle's surrounding urban settlement. The castle was founded during the [[Danish Estonia|Danish rule of northern Estonia]] in the second half of the 13th century; the earliest written record of the castle is from 1277.<ref name=kivimae>{{Cite book |last=Kivimäe |first=Jüri |chapter=Medieval Narva: Featuring a Small Town between East and West |year=2004 |editor-last=Brüggemann |editor-first=Karsten |title=Narva and the Baltic Sea Region |location=Narva |publisher=Narva College of the University of Tartu |isbn=9985-4-0417-3}}</ref> ''Narvia'' village is mentioned in the [[Danish Census Book]] already in 1241. A town developed around the stronghold and in 1345 obtained [[Lübeck City Rights]] from Danish king [[Valdemar IV of Denmark|Valdemar IV]].<ref name=museum>{{cite web |url=http://www.narvamuuseum.ee/?lang=eng&next=linnus&menu=menu_ajalugu |title=History of Narva: Narva fortifications and Narva Castle |access-date=19 March 2009 |publisher=Narva Museum}}</ref> The castle and surrounding town of Narva (''Narwa'', in German) became a possession of the [[Livonian Order]] in 1346, after the Danish king sold its lands in Northern Estonia. In 1492 [[Ivangorod fortress]] across the Narva river was established by [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]] of [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Moscow]].

Trade, particularly [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] long-distance trade remained Narva's ''raison d'être'' throughout the Middle Ages.<ref name=kivimae/> However, due to opposition from [[Tallinn]], Narva itself never became part of the Hanseatic League and also remained a small town – its population in 1530 is estimated at 600–750 people.<ref name=kivimae/>

===Swedish and Russian rule===
[[File:Mälestusmärk " Rootsi lõvi" Narvas.jpg|thumb|left|[[The Swedish Lion in Narva|Swedish Lion Monument]] in Narva]]
Captured by the Russians during the [[Livonian War]] in 1558, for a short period Narva became an important port and trading city for [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]] as a transshipment centre of goods from [[Pskov]] and [[Novgorod]]. Russian rule ended in 1581 when the Swedes under the command of [[Pontus De la Gardie]] conquered the city and it became part of [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]]. During the [[Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)]], when [[Arvid Stålarm the Younger|Arvid Stålarm]] was governor, Russian forces attempted to regain the city without success ([[Treaty of Teusina]], May 1595).

During the [[Estonia under Swedish rule|Swedish rule]], the Old Town of Narva was built. Following a big fire in 1659 that almost completely destroyed the town, only stone buildings were allowed to be built in the central part of the town. Incomes from flourishing trade allowed rebuilding of the town center in two decades.<ref name=museum/> Until World War II, the [[baroque architecture|baroque]] Old Town underwent practically no changes, and thus became renowned all over Europe.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} Towards the end of [[Swedish Estonia|Swedish rule]], the defence structures of Narva were greatly improved. Beginning in 1680s, an outstanding system of [[bastion]]s, planned by the renowned Swedish military engineer [[Erik Dahlbergh]], was built around the town. The new defences were among the most powerful in Northern Europe.<ref name="museum"/>

[[File:ZauerveydNA Petr1UsmirDA19.jpg|thumb|''[[Peter I of Russia]] pacifies his marauding troops after taking Narva in 1704'' by [[Nikolay Sauerweid]], 1859]]
During the [[Great Northern War]] of 1700–1721, Narva became the setting for [[Battle of Narva (1700)|the first great battle]] between the forces of King [[Charles XII of Sweden]] and Tsar [[Peter I of Russia]] (November 1700). Although outnumbered four to one, the Swedish forces routed their 40,000-strong opponent. [[Russian Empire|Russia]] subsequently [[Battle of Narva (1704)|conquered]] the city in 1704.

[[File:Old Narva.jpg|thumb|left|View of Narva in the 1750s]]
After the war, the bastions were renovated. Narva remained on the list of Russian fortifications until 1863, though there was no real military need for it.<ref name="museum"/> During Russian rule Narva formed part of the [[Saint Petersburg Governorate]].

In the middle of the 19th century, Narva started to develop into a major industrial town. [[Ludwig Knoop]] established the [[Krenholm Manufacturing Company]] in 1857. The factory could use the cheap energy of the powerful Narva waterfalls, and at the end of the century became, with about 10,000 workers, one of the largest [[cotton mill]]s in Europe and the world.<ref name="timeline">{{cite web |url= http://www.narvamuuseum.ee/?lang=eng&next=kronoloogia&menu=menu_ajalugu |title=History of Narva: Timeline |access-date=25 March 2009 |publisher=Narva Museum}}</ref> In 1872, Krenholm Manufacturing became the site of the first [[strike action|strike]] in Estonia.<ref name="raun"/> At the end of the 19th century, Narva was the leading industrial town in Estonia – 41% of industrial workers in Estonia worked in Narva, compared to 33% in [[Tallinn]].<ref name="raun">{{cite book |last=Raun |first=Toivo U. |title=Estonia and the Estonians |year=2001 |publisher=Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University |location=Stanford, United States |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YQ1NRJlUrwkC |isbn=0-8179-2852-9}}</ref> The first railway in Estonia, completed in 1870, connected Narva to [[Saint Petersburg]] and to Tallinn.

[[File:Narva. Resurrection of Christ Cathedral.jpg|thumb|The [[Resurrection of Christ Cathedral, Narva]] (constructed 1890–1896)]]
In August 1890, Narva was the site of a key meeting between German Kaiser [[Wilhelm II]] and Russian Tsar [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]].

===Post-World War I period===
The status of Narva was resolved in a July 1917 referendum, when the district population, at that time roughly equally divided between ethnic Russians and Estonians, voted to attach itself to the newly autonomous and soon to be independent republic of Estonia.<ref name=batt>{{cite book|title=Region, state and identity in Central and Eastern Europe|editor-last=Batt |editor-first=Judy |editor-last2=Wolczuk |editor-first2=Kataryna |location=London, [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] |publisher=Frank Cass Publishers |year=2002|pages=222|isbn=0-7146-5243-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sw72GPjF0DYC&q=narva%20referendum&pg=PA98 |access-date=12 November 2009}}</ref> Narva became part of an independent Estonia in 1918, at the end of [[World War I]]. The town saw fighting during the [[Estonian War of Independence]]. The war started when Russian [[Bolshevik]] troops attacked Narva on 28 November 1918, capturing the city on the next day. The Russian [[Red Army]] retained control of the city until 19 January 1919.<ref>{{cite book|script-title=ru:Нарва: культурно-исторический справочник |trans-title=Narva: kulturno-istoricheskiy spravochnik] |language=ru|year=2001|publisher=Narva Museum|location=Narva}}</ref>

[[File:Narva linna plaan, 1929.jpg|thumb|left|A 1929 plan of Narva (including Ivangorod, part of Narva at the time)]]
Heavy battles occurred both in and around Narva during World War II. The city was damaged in the German invasion of 1941 and by smaller air raids throughout the war, but remained relatively intact until February 1944.<ref name=kattago>{{cite journal |last=Kattago |first=Siobhan |year=2008 |title=Commemorating Liberation and Occupation: War Memorials Along the Road to Narva |journal=[[Journal of Baltic Studies]] |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=431–449 |doi=10.1080/01629770802461225|s2cid=145001694 }}</ref> However, as the focus of the [[Battle of Narva (1944)|Battle of Narva]], the city was destroyed by Soviet bombardment and fires and explosions set by retreating German troops.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.narva.ee/en/for_tourists/welcome_to_narva_city,_estonia!/narva_history/page:1016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413045732/http://www.narva.ee/en/for_tourists/welcome_to_narva_city,_estonia!/narva_history/page:1016 |archive-date=April 13, 2009|title=Old town: Expansion and Tragedy |date=13 April 2009|website=www.narva.ee }}</ref> The most devastating action was the bombing raids of 6 and 7 March 1944 by the [[Soviet Air Force]], which destroyed the [[Baroque]] old town.<ref name=museum/><ref name=kattago/>

===Soviet occupation 1944–1991===
By the end of July 1944, 98% of Narva had been destroyed.<ref name=kattago/> After the war, most of the buildings could have been restored as the walls of the houses still existed, but in early 1950s, the Soviet authorities decided to demolish the ruins to make room for apartment buildings.<ref name=kattago/><ref name='faure'>{{cite book|last1=Faure|first1=Gunter|last2=Mensing|first2=Teresa|title=The Estonians; The long road to independence|year=2012|publisher=Lulu|isbn=9781105530036|page=23}}</ref> Only three buildings remain of the old town, including the [[Baroque]]-style [[Narva Town Hall|Town Hall]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.narvamuuseum.ee/?next=vanalinn&lang=eng&menu=menu_ajalugu |title=History of Narva: The Old Town of Narva |access-date=19 March 2009 |publisher=Narva Museum}}</ref> The civilian casualties of the bombing were low as the [[Wehrmacht|German forces]] had evacuated the city in January 1944.

Narva was effectively [[Ethnic cleansing|ethnically cleansed]], as the original native inhabitants were not allowed to return after the war, and immigrant Russian-speaking workers from other parts of the USSR were brought in to populate the city.<ref name=duncan>{{cite book|last=Duncan |first=W. Raymond |title=Ethnic Nationalism And Regional Conflict: The Former Soviet Union And Yugoslavia |year=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780429715938 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NXekDwAAQBAJ&dq=narva+%22ethnic+cleansing%22+war&pg=PT169 }}</ref><ref name=kattago/> The city which population had been 65% Estonian according to the last census in 1934, became overwhelmingly non-Estonian.<ref name=duncan/> The main reason behind this was a plan to build a secret [[uranium]] processing plant in the city, which would turn Narva into a [[closed town]].<ref name='faure'/> In 1947 nearby [[Sillamäe]] was selected as the location of the factory instead of Narva, but the existence of such a plan was decisive for the development of Narva in the [[Aftermath of World War II#Soviet Union|postwar years]], and thus also shaped its later evolution.<ref name=vseviov>{{cite book|last=Vseviov |first=David |title=Nõukogudeaegne Narva. Elanikkonna kujunemine 1944–1970 |language=et, ru |year=2001 |location=Tartu |publisher=Okupatsioonide Repressiivpoliitika Uurimise Riiklik Komisjon }}</ref> The planned uranium factory and other large-scale industrial developments, like the restoring of Kreenholm Manufacture, were the driving force behind the influx of internal migrants from other parts of the Soviet Union, mainly Russia.<ref name=vseviov/>

In January 1945, [[Ivangorod]], the suburb on the eastern bank of the river was separated from Estonia (and from Narva) by the Soviet authorities, and the settlement around [[Ivangorod fortress]] was made administratively part of the neighboring [[Leningrad Oblast]] of the [[Russian SFSR]]. Ivangorod became officially a town by itself in 1954.
{{clear|left}}

[[File:Narva old town 2009.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Narva Town Hall|Town Hall]], surrounded by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-era apartment blocks, is one of the few buildings which were restored after World War II.]]

===Restoration of Estonian independence===
After Estonia [[History of Estonia#Regaining independence|regained its independence]] in 1991, the city's leaders, holdovers from the Soviet era, wanted autonomy, and contended that the notion of a breakaway "Transnarovan Soviet republic" in [[Ida-Viru County|northeastern Estonia]] was becoming increasingly popular, but this was contradicted by polls showing 87% of the region's population opposed secession from Estonia.<ref name=batt/>

In 1993, dissatisfaction with newly enacted [[Estonian nationality law|citizenship]] and election laws (non-citizens were not allowed to hold office) culminated in the Narva referendum of 16–17 July 1993, which proposed autonomy for both Narva and [[Sillamäe]], a nearby town.<ref name="batt"/> Although 97% voted in favor of the referendum, turnout in Narva was a mere 55%, and there were credible charges of vote rigging.<ref name="batt"/>

[[File:Kindlused Narva jõe kaldal.jpg|thumb|280px|View of Narva in 2014. [[Ivangorod fortress]], in Russia, lies across the river on the right.]]

After 1991, disputes regarding the Estonian-Russian border in the Narva sector remained, as the new [[constitution of Estonia]] (adopted in 1992) recognizes the 1920 [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]] border to be currently legal.

The Russian Federation, however, considers Estonia to be a successor of the [[Estonian SSR]] and recognizes the 1945 border between the two former national republics. Officially, Estonia has no territorial claims in the area, and which was also reflected in the new Estonian-Russian border treaty signed in Moscow on 18 May 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/93#treaties|title=Estonia and Russia: Treaties|publisher=Estonian Foreign Ministry|quote=Estonia sticks to its former position that it has no territorial claims with respect to Russia, and Narva presently sits peacefully within Estonia's borders. As such, Estonia sees no obstacles for the entry into force of the current treaty.|access-date=12 November 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102004351/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F93#treaties|archive-date=2 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/400839|title=Milleks meile idapiir ja ilma lepinguta?|last=Berg|first=Eiki|work=[[Eesti Päevaleht]]|language=et|access-date=27 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009061426/http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/400839|archive-date=9 October 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/476082|title=Enn Eesmaa: väide Petseri-soovist on ennekõike provokatiivne|work=[[Eesti Päevaleht]]|language=et|access-date=27 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826212424/http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/476082|archive-date=26 August 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> Russia failed to ratify it because, together with the ratification the Estonian parliament, approved a communiqué, which mentioned the Soviet Occupation.

On 18 February 2014 a new border treaty was signed by both countries.<ref>{{cite news |date=February 14, 2014 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-estonia-idUSBREA1H0QN20140218|title=After 20 years, Russia and Estonia sign border treaty |publisher=Reuters}}</ref> However the treaty was not ratified by the parliaments of either Russia or Estonia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/short_news/russia-may-finally-ratify-2014-border-agreement-with-estonia/|title=Russia may finally ratify 2014 border agreement with Estonia|first=Pekka|last=Vanttinen|date=15 November 2021|website=www.euractiv.com}}</ref>

Overall, by 2014, Russian residents were happy with their status as both Estonian and [[European Union]] citizens and lived peacefully alongside their compatriots.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://m.epl.delfi.ee/arvamus/article.php?id=68259151|title=Katri Raik: Eesti, Venemaa... Ei, ikka Eesti|work=Delfi}}</ref>

Before the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], residents mixed relatively freely with the residents across the river in [[Ivangorod]].<ref name="onet">{{citation|url=https://www.onet.pl/turystyka/onetpodroze/narwa-najbardziej-rosyjskie-miasto-unii-europejskiej-w-estonii/7xlm226,07640b54|title=Najbardziej "rosyjskie" miasto Unii Europejskiej|author1= [[Deutsche Welle]] |author2 = BBC|language=pl|publisher=[[onet.pl]]|date=19 June 2022}}</ref>
[[File:A monument - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The "Narva tank" (a former Soviet war monument, removed in 2022)]]
Those on the Estonian side mainly crossed to buy cheaper petrol, [[Groat (grain)|groats]], cleaning products, pasta and sugar.<ref name="onet"/> Those crossing from the Russian side wanted to make use of the availability of non-sanctioned goods, entertainment facilities and overall better infrastructure.<ref name="onet"/>

The invasion and subsequent conflict seriously reduced cooperation between the two neighbours, especially as visas became difficult to obtain and the residents of Narva increased the take up in [[Estonian nationality law|Estonian citizenship]].<ref name="onet"/> Narva took many Ukrainian refugees fleeing the war<ref name="onet"/> and previously popular Russian TV stations among older Russophone residents were banned by the Estonian government.<ref name="onet"/>

On June 10, 2022, the Estonian foreign ministry summoned the Russian ambassador to protest about remarks by President Vladimir Putin praising [[Peter the Great]] for having captured Narva in the early 18th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs summons Russian ambassador {{!}} Ministry of Foreign Affairs |url=https://vm.ee/en/news/ministry-foreign-affairs-summons-russian-ambassador-3 |access-date=2022-06-11 |website=vm.ee |language=en}}</ref>

In August 2022, a Soviet T-34 tank memorial was removed from a stretch of road between the city centre and [[Narva-Jõesuu]], to mixed responses. It was moved to the [[Estonian War Museum]] in [[Viimsi]] near Tallinn.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://medium.com/@nayloraliide/dispatch-from-narva-ebcf7b5f5a8 | title=Dispatch from Narva | date=26 August 2022 }}</ref> In response to the tank's removal, the following month Russian authorities erected a similar T-34 tank monument in [[Ivangorod]] near the border crossing point with Narva.<ref>[https://rus.err.ee/1608712276/v-ivangorode-torzhestvenno-otkryli-pamjatnik-tank-t-34 ERR Novosti. ''В Ивангороде торжественно открыли памятник-танк "Т-34" (Monument-tank "T-34" solemnly opened in Ivangorod)''] (in Russian) Retrieved 13 September 2022.</ref>

==Demographics==
On 1 January 2013 Narva's population was 59,888, down from 60,454 inhabitants a year earlier.<ref>[http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PO0241&lang=1 Population by sex, age and administrative unit or type of settlement, 1 January]. Statistics Estonia.</ref> The population was 83,000 in 1992.<ref name=nf07>{{cite web |url=http://web.narva.ee/files/Narva_arvudes_2008.pdf |title=Narva in figures 2008 |access-date=12 November 2009 |publisher=Narva City Government}}</ref> 95.7% of the population of Narva are native Russian speakers,<ref>[http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC0432&lang=1 Census 2011: population by mother tongue, sex and place of residence]. Statistics Estonia.</ref> and 87.7% are ethnic [[Estonian Russians|Russians]].<ref name="PC0429" /> Most non-Estonians are ethnically Russian, Belarusian, or Ukrainian immigrants or the children of immigrants, though 69% of Narva residents in the early 1990s had been born in Narva or had lived there for more than 30 years.<ref name=batt/> Ethnic [[Estonians]] account for 5.2% of total population.<ref name="PC0429" /> Much of the city was destroyed during World War II and for several years during the following reconstruction the Soviet authorities largely prohibited return of Narva's pre-war residents (among whom ethnic Estonians had been the majority, forming 64.8% of the town's population of 23,512 according to the 1934 census),<ref>{{cite book |title=Rahvastiku koostis ja korteriolud. 1.III 1934 rahvaloenduse andmed. Vihk II |year=1935 |publisher=Riigi Statistika Keskbüroo |location=Tallinn |language=et, fr |hdl=10062/4439}}</ref> thus radically altering the city's ethnic composition.<ref name=raun/> Nevertheless, ethnic Russians had already formed a significant minority: 29.7% of the city's population were Russian in the census of 1934.

46.7% of the city's inhabitants are Estonian citizens, 36.3% are citizens of the [[Russian Federation]], while 15.3% of the population has [[Estonian nationality law#Undefined citizenship|undefined citizenship]].<ref name=narva2013>{{Cite web|url=http://www.narva.ee/files/7095.pdf |title=Üldinfo - Narva Linnavalitsus |trans-title=Narva in figures |date=2013 |website=www.narva.ee}}</ref> Since the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]] there has been increased the take up in [[Estonian nationality law|Estonian citizenship]] in the city.<ref name="onet"/>

A concern in Narva is the spread of HIV, which infected 1.2% of Estonia's population in 2012.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://world.time.com/2013/01/21/why-europes-healthiest-economy-has-its-worst-drug-problem/|title=Why Europe's Healthiest Economy Has Its Worst Drug Problem|first=Mark|last=Lewis|date=21 January 2013|publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] }}</ref> Between 2001 and 2008, more than 1,600 cases of HIV were registered in Narva, making it one of the worst areas in Estonia, alongside [[Tallinn]] and the rest of [[Ida-Viru County]].<ref>HIV statistics for Estonia: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070622223743/http://www.raplamv.ee/tervis/download.php?ID=13&type=Project 2001–2006], [http://www.tervisekaitse.ee/documents/nakkushaigused/statistika/hivstatistika_2007.pdf 2007]{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, [http://www.tervisekaitse.ee/documents/nakkushaigused/statistika/2008/hivstatistika2008.pdf 2008]{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The HIV infection rate in Estonia declined in 2014, with 59 new cases in Narva.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.err.ee/114731/hiv-infection-rate-slows-in-estonia|title=HIV infection rate slows in Estonia|date=5 January 2015|website=ERR.ee }}</ref>

{{wide image|Narva_panorama_to_west_2008_crop.jpg|800px|Panorama of the western part of the city}}
== Religion ==
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in Narva (2021) [https://andmed.stat.ee/en/stat/rahvaloendus__rel2021__rahvastiku-demograafilised-ja-etno-kultuurilised-naitajad__usk/RL21452]
|label1 = Orthodox & Old Believers
|value1 = 56.7
|color1 = Pink
|label2 = Catholic
|value2 = 1.1
|color2 = Purple
|label3 = Others Christians
|value3 = 1.7
|color3 = LightBlue
|label4 = Others Religions
|value4 = 1.0
|color4 = Yellow
|label5 = Unaffiliated
|value5 = 39.1
|color5 = White
|label6 =
|value6 =
|color6 =
}}

==Geography==
Narva is situated in the eastern extreme point of Estonia, {{convert|200|km|0|abbr=on}} to the east from the Estonian capital Tallinn and {{convert|130|km|0|abbr=on}} southwest from Saint Petersburg. The capital of Ida-Viru County, [[Jõhvi]], lies {{convert|50|km|0|abbr=on}} to the west. The eastern border of the city along the Narva river (which drains [[Lake Peipus]]) coincides with the Estonian-Russian border. The Estonian part of the [[Narva Reservoir]] lies mostly within the territory of Narva, to the southwest of city center. The mouth of the Narva river to the [[Gulf of Finland]] is about {{convert|13|km|0|abbr=on}} downstream from the city.

The municipality of Narva covers {{convert|84.54|km2|2|abbr=on}}, of which the city proper occupies {{convert|62|km2|0|abbr=on}} (excluding the reservoir), while two separate districts surrounded by [[Vaivara Parish]], Kudruküla and Olgina, cover {{convert|5.6|km2|2|abbr=on}} and {{convert|0.58|km2|2|abbr=on}}, respectively.<ref>[http://www.narvaplan.ee/index.php?lang=et&menu=5&page=3 Narva LV Arhitektuuri- ja Linnaplaneerimise Amet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828135519/http://www.narvaplan.ee/index.php?lang=et&menu=5&page=3 |date=28 August 2008 }} (in Estonian)</ref> Kudruküla is the largest of Narva's [[dacha]] regions, located {{convert|6|km|0|abbr=on}} to northwest from the main city, near [[Narva-Jõesuu]].

===Climate===
Narva has a warm-summer [[humid continental climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]] ''Dfb'') with mild to warm, rainy summers with cool nights and cold, cloudy and snowy winters. Narva is one of the coldest settlements in Estonia, being located at the very northeast of the country and bordering Russia.
{{Weather box
|location = Narva, 1971–2000 normals, extremes 1928–present
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan record high C = 8.9
|Feb record high C = 10.6
|Mar record high C = 16.0
|Apr record high C = 25.7
|May record high C = 31.7
|Jun record high C = 34.6
|Jul record high C = 34.5
|Aug record high C = 35.4
|Sep record high C = 29.9
|Oct record high C = 21.0
|Nov record high C = 12.5
|Dec record high C = 10.4
|year record high C = 35.4
|Jan high C = −3.2
|Feb high C = −3.1
|Mar high C = 1.6
|Apr high C = 8.7
|May high C = 15.7
|Jun high C = 19.9
|Jul high C = 21.7
|Aug high C = 20.2
|Sep high C = 14.4
|Oct high C = 8.3
|Nov high C = 2.0
|Dec high C = −1.4
|year high C = 8.7
|Jan mean C = -5.8
|Feb mean C = -6.2
|Mar mean C = -2.0
|Apr mean C = 4.0
|May mean C = 10.1
|Jun mean C = 14.8
|Jul mean C = 16.9
|Aug mean C = 15.4
|Sep mean C = 10.3
|Oct mean C = 5.4
|Nov mean C = -0.1
|Dec mean C = -3.8
|year mean C = 4.9
|Jan low C = −8.9
|Feb low C = −9.7
|Mar low C = −5.4
|Apr low C = -0.1
|May low C = 4.4
|Jun low C = 9.3
|Jul low C = 11.7
|Aug low C = 10.7
|Sep low C = 6.3
|Oct low C = 2.5
|Nov low C = −2.5
|Dec low C = −6.7
|year low C = 0.9
|Jan record low C = −39.4
|Feb record low C = −37.4
|Mar record low C = −32.7
|Apr record low C = −25.1
|May record low C = −6.3
|Jun record low C = -0.9
|Jul record low C = 2.3
|Aug record low C = -0.5
|Sep record low C = −5.4
|Oct record low C = −12.4
|Nov record low C = −22.9
|Dec record low C = −42.6
|year record low C = −42.6
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 36
|Feb precipitation mm = 28
|Mar precipitation mm = 33
|Apr precipitation mm = 32
|May precipitation mm = 43
|Jun precipitation mm = 62
|Jul precipitation mm = 75
|Aug precipitation mm = 89
|Sep precipitation mm = 76
|Oct precipitation mm = 72
|Nov precipitation mm = 54
|Dec precipitation mm = 47
|year precipitation mm = 646
|unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 11
|Feb precipitation days = 8
|Mar precipitation days = 9
|Apr precipitation days = 8
|May precipitation days = 7
|Jun precipitation days = 9
|Jul precipitation days = 10
|Aug precipitation days = 11
|Sep precipitation days = 12
|Oct precipitation days = 13
|Nov precipitation days = 14
|Dec precipitation days = 12
|year precipitation days = 124
|Jan humidity = 86
|Feb humidity = 84
|Mar humidity = 79
|Apr humidity = 72
|May humidity = 67
|Jun humidity = 73
|Jul humidity = 76
|Aug humidity = 79
|Sep humidity = 83
|Oct humidity = 84
|Nov humidity = 87
|Dec humidity = 87
|year humidity = 80
|Jan sun = 29.6
|Feb sun = 60.3
|Mar sun = 123.9
|Apr sun = 178.4
|May sun = 274.5
|Jun sun = 284.0
|Jul sun = 286.7
|Aug sun = 231.0
|Sep sun = 133.2
|Oct sun = 76.0
|Nov sun = 26.8
|Dec sun = 16.5
|year sun = 1718.7
|source 1 = Estonian Weather Service<ref name=temp>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.emhi.ee/index.php?ide=6,299,302
|title = Kliimanormid-Õhutemperatuur
|publisher = Estonian Weather Service
|language = et
|access-date = 24 September 2016
|url-status = bot: unknown
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|df = dmy-all
}}</ref><ref name=precip>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.emhi.ee/index.php?ide=6,299,303
|title = Kliimanormid-Sademed, õhuniiskus
|publisher = Estonian Weather Service
|language = et
|access-date = 24 September 2016
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{{cite web
|url = http://www.emhi.ee/index.php?ide=6,299,307
|title = Kliimanormid-Päikesepaiste kestus
|publisher = Estonian Weather Service
|language = et
|access-date = 24 September 2016
|url-status = bot: unknown
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{{cite web
| url = http://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/rekordid/ohutemperatuur/
| title = Rekordid
| language= Estonian
| publisher = Estonian Weather Service
| access-date = 19 March 2021}}</ref>
}}

===Neighbourhoods===
{{Main|Narva neighbourhoods}}

[[File:Narva linnaosad.png|thumb|Neighbourhoods of Narva]]
Narva is officially divided into 15 neighbourhoods: [[Elektrijaama]], [[Joaoru]], [[Kalevi, Narva|Kalevi]], [[Kerese]], [[Kreenholmi]], [[Kudruküla, Narva|Kudruküla]], [[Kulgu]], [[Olgina, Narva|Olgina]], [[Paemurru]], [[Pähklimäe]], [[Siivertsi]], [[Soldina, Narva|Soldina]], [[Sutthoffi]], [[Vanalinn, Narva|Vanalinn]] and [[Veekulgu]].

== Landmarks ==
[[File:Narva jõgi 1999.jpg|260px|thumb|The reconstructed fortress of Narva (to the left) overlooking the Russian fortress of Ivangorod (to the right).]]
{{See also|Hermann Castle}}
Narva's [[skyline]] is dominated by the 15th-century castle, with the {{convert|51|m|ft|sp=us|adj=mid|-tall}} [[Pikk Hermann, Narva|Pikk Hermann]] tower as its most prominent landmark. The sprawling complex of the [[Kreenholm Manufacture]], located in the proximity of scenic waterfalls, is one of the largest textile mills of 19th-century Northern Europe. Other notable buildings include Swedish mansions of the 17th century, a Baroque town hall (1668–71), and remains of [[Erik Dahlberg]]'s fortifications.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

Across the Narva river lies the Russian Ivangorod fortress, established during the rule of Grand Prince [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III of Muscovy]] in 1492 and also referred to in some contemporary sources as the "Counter-Narva".  From the 17th century until 1945, both the fortress and the adjacent suburb of Ivangorod ({{lang-et|Jaanilinn}}) were an administrative part of Narva.

[[Narva Kreenholmi Stadium]] is home to [[Meistriliiga]] football team, [[FC Narva Trans]].

==Transportation==
The [[Narva railway station]] is located on an international railway line between Estonia and Russia ([[Tallinn–Narva railway]]). A daily international passenger train used to link (as of 2019) the two countries: the overnight train between Moscow via St. Petersburg to Tallinn, which stops at Narva.
Four daily domestic trains run between Narva and Tallinn - modern trains were introduced in 2016 and now take less than 3 hours between the two cities.
Adjacent to the central rail station is a central bus station, which has multiple domestic and international connections (including to Russia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belarus etc.). There is a general aviation [[grass airfield]] near Narva (ICAO: EENA).

==Sport==
The two main professional sports in the city are [[ice hockey]] and [[association football|football]].

[[Narva PSK]] play at the [[Narva Ice Hall]], which also was the host arena of the [[2005 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships#Division I|2005 World Junior Ice Hockey Division I Championship Group B]].

[[JK Narva Trans]] play at the [[Narva Kreenholm Stadium]]. They are founding members of the [[Meistriliiga]], and are one of two clubs which have never been relegated from the Estonian top division. They have won 2 [[Estonian Cup]]s and 2 [[Estonian Supercup]]s.

==Notable residents==

*[[Evert Horn]] (1585–1615), governor of Narva (1613)
*[[Ludwig Busbetzky]] (1687-1699), composer and organist at the German Church in Narva
*[[Aleksander Promet]] (1879–1938), artist
*[[Raimund Kull]] (1882–1942), conductor and composer
*[[Adolf Szyszko-Bohusz]] (1883–1948), architect
*[[Albert Üksip]] (1886–1966), botanist
*[[Emmanuel Steinschneider]] (1886–1970), professor.
*[[Nikolai Stepulov]] (1913–1968), Olympic boxer
*[[Kersti Merilaas]] (1913–1986), poet, playwright
*[[Paul Keres]] (1916–1975), chess grandmaster
*[[Paul Felix Schmidt]] (1916–1984), chess player
*[[Ortvin Sarapu]] (1924–1999), chess player
*[[Valeri Karpin]] (born 1969), Russian football player
*[[Maksim Gruznov]] (1974), football player
*[[Reinar Hallik]] (1984), basketball player
*[[Leo Komarov]] (1987), ice hockey player
*[[Alika Milova]] (2002), singer

==In popular culture==

In the first-person shooter video game ''[[Squad (video game)|Squad]]'', the map Narva is loosely based on the real city, containing [[Narva Castle]], [[Ivangorod Fortress]] and a southern industrial area.

==Twin towns – sister cities==
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in Estonia}}
Narva is [[Sister city|twinned]] with:<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Города - побратимы и партнеры|url=http://www.narva.ee/ru/gorosaninu/narva_cegodna/inoctrannoe_i_druseckie_cvasi/page:536/subpage:2|website=narva.ee|publisher=Narva linn|language=ru|access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*{{flagicon|MDA}} [[Bălți]], Moldova
*{{flagicon|BLR}} [[Barysaw]], Belarus
*{{flagicon|USA}} [[Bel Air, Harford County, Maryland|Bel Air]], United States

*{{flagicon|POL}} [[Elbląg]], Poland
*{{flagicon|BUL}} [[Gorna Oryahovitsa Municipality|Gorna Oryahovitsa]], Bulgaria
*{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Ivangorod]], Russia
*{{flagicon|FIN}} [[Kanta-Häme]], Finland
*{{flagicon|SWE}} [[Karlskoga Municipality|Karlskoga]], Sweden
*{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Kingiseppsky District]], Russia
*{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Kirovsky District, Saint Petersburg|Kirovsky (Saint Petersburg)]], Russia
*{{flagicon|GEO}} [[Kobuleti]], Georgia
*{{flagicon|FIN}} [[Lahti]], Finland
*{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Petrozavodsk]], Russia

{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
* [http://www.narva.ee/en/ Narva – Official site]
* [https://visitnarva.ee Visit Narva official city guide]

{{Cities of Estonia}}
{{Ida-Virumaa}}
{{Narva landmarks}}
{{Placename toponym Narva}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Narva| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Estonia]]
[[Category:Yamburgsky Uyezd]]
[[Category:Estonia–Russia border crossings]]
[[Category:Populated places in Ida-Viru County]]
[[Category:Russian communities]]
[[Category:Port cities and towns in Estonia]]
[[Category:Extreme points of Estonia]]

2023 Estonian parliamentary election

2023-03-05T18:02:45Z

3 Löwi: lower case

{{short description|none}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Current election||recent election|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox election
| country = Estonia
| type = parliamentary
| ongoing = yes
| previous_election = 2019 Estonian parliamentary election
| previous_year = 2019
| outgoing_members = List of members of the Riigikogu
| next_election =
| next_year =
| elected_members =
| seats_for_election = All 101 seats in the [[Riigikogu]]
| majority_seats = 51
| election_date = 5 March 2023
| turnout =
| reporting =
| last_update =
| time_zone =
| image_size = 130x130px

| image1 = Kaja Kallas (crop) (cropped).jpg
| leader1 = [[Kaja Kallas]]
| party1 = Estonian Reform Party
| last_election1 = 28.93%, 34 seats
| seats1 =
| seat_change1 =
| popular_vote1 =
| percentage1 =
| swing1 =

| image2 = Jüri Ratas 2022.jpg
| leader2 = [[Jüri Ratas]]
| party2 = Estonian Centre Party
| color2 = 00AA54
| last_election2 = 23.10%, 26 seats
| seats2 =
| seat_change2 =
| popular_vote2 =
| percentage2 =
| swing2 =

| image3 = RK Martin Helme (cropped).jpg
| leader3 = [[Martin Helme]]
| party3 = Conservative People's Party of Estonia
| last_election3 = 17.76%, 19 seats
| seats3 =
| seat_change3 =
| popular_vote3 =
| percentage3 =
| swing3 =

| image4 = Helir-Valdor Seeder 2016.jpg
| leader4 = [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| party4 = Isamaa
| last_election4 = 11.44%, 12 seats
| seats4 =
| seat_change4 =
| popular_vote4 =
| percentage4 =
| swing4 =

| image5 = Lauri Läänemets at the Opinion Festival 2022 in Paide, Estonia (cropped).jpg
| leader5 = [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| party5 = Social Democratic Party (Estonia)
| last_election5 = 9.83%, 10 seats
| seats5 =
| seat_change5 =
| popular_vote5 =
| percentage5 =
| swing5 =

| image6 = Lavly Perling 2021-10-14 (cropped).jpg
| leader6 = [[Lavly Perling]]
| party6 = Parempoolsed
| last_election6 = ''New party''
| seats6 =
| seat_change6 =
| popular_vote6 =
| percentage6 =
| swing6 =

| title = Prime Minister
| posttitle = Prime Minister after election
| before_election = [[Kaja Kallas]]
| before_party = Estonian Reform Party
| after_election =
| after_party =

| map_image = 2023 Estonian parliamentary election by electoral districts.svg
| map_size = 300px
| map_caption = Electoral districts
}}

Parliamentary elections are being held in [[Estonia]] on 5 March 2023 to elect all 101 members of the [[Riigikogu]]. The [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]] led by [[Jüri Ratas]] formed a government after the [[2019 Estonian parliamentary election|2019 parliamentary election]], with Ratas serving as prime minister. His government was brought down in January 2021 after a corruption investigation; [[Kaja Kallas]] of the [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]] formed a coalition government with the Centre Party afterwards although it fell in June 2022. Kallas then formed a government with [[Isamaa]] and the [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]] and remained in the position as prime minister. In January 2023, the National Electoral Committee announced that 9 political parties and 10 individual candidates had registered to take part in the 2023 parliamentary election.

During the campaign period, issues discussed most extensively regarded national defence and security, due to the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], and the economy. Individuals from contesting political parties also took part in organised debates in January and February 2023. Voting at foreign embassies took place from 18 to 23 February while voters had the option to vote during the pre-election period from 27 February to 4 March.

== Background ==
The [[2019 Estonian parliamentary election|previous parliamentary election]], which was held in March 2019, saw the loss of the [[absolute majority]] held by [[Jüri Ratas]]'s [[Jüri Ratas' first cabinet|cabinet]] in [[Riigikogu]], the unicameral parliament of Estonia. Ratas' [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]], [[Isamaa]], and [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]] (SDE) all suffered a setback in favour of the [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]], led by [[Kaja Kallas]], and the [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia]] (EKRE).<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 April 2019 |title=Kaja Kallas: Coalition ready for Riigikogu vote on 15 April |url=https://news.err.ee/927272/kaja-kallas-coalition-ready-for-riigikogu-vote-on-15-april |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201063626/https://news.err.ee/927272/kaja-kallas-coalition-ready-for-riigikogu-vote-on-15-april |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Kersti Kaljulaid]], the [[president of Estonia]], gave a mandate to Kallas to form a government after the election.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 March 2019 |title=Reform to begin coalition talks with Centre Party |url=https://news.err.ee/917068/reform-to-begin-coalition-talks-with-centre-party |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201063622/https://news.err.ee/917068/reform-to-begin-coalition-talks-with-centre-party |url-status=live }}</ref> The Reform Party negotiated with the Centre Party, Isamaa, and SDE, but ultimately failed to form a government.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 March 2019 |title=Centre rejects Reform's offer to begin coalition talks |url=https://news.err.ee/918142/centre-rejects-reform-s-offer-to-begin-coalition-talks |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208152648/https://news.err.ee/918142/centre-rejects-reform-s-offer-to-begin-coalition-talks |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 March 2019 |title=Kallas: Reform to approach Isamaa, Social Democrats next |url=https://news.err.ee/918169/kallas-reform-to-approach-isamaa-social-democrats-next |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=2 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202172143/https://news.err.ee/918169/kallas-reform-to-approach-isamaa-social-democrats-next |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=15 April 2019 |title=Estonian parliament rejects Reform's Kallas as PM |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-estonia-politics-government-idUSKCN1RR1AI |access-date=7 February 2023 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207145259/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-estonia-politics-government-idUSKCN1RR1AI |url-status=live }}</ref> After the vote in April 2019, Ratas received the mandate and successfully formed a government with Isamaa and EKRE.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2019 |title=Estonie: Le Premier ministre sortant scelle un accord de coalition tripartite |url=https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/international/070419/estonie-le-premier-ministre-sortant-scelle-un-accord-de-coalition-tripartite |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Mediapart |language=fr |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201063623/https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/international/070419/estonie-le-premier-ministre-sortant-scelle-un-accord-de-coalition-tripartite |url-status=live }}</ref> His [[Jüri Ratas' second cabinet|cabinet]] was sworn on 29 April 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 July 2021 |title=Estonia likely to see euroskeptic party brought to power |url=https://apnews.com/article/europe-estonia-legislature-54d52f04e95944d8bf93f1bbb69ad2ed |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Associated Press |language=en |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207145259/https://apnews.com/article/europe-estonia-legislature-54d52f04e95944d8bf93f1bbb69ad2ed |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 April 2019 |title=Nationalist Party Enters Estonia's Government |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/nationalist-party-enters-estonia-s-government/4897062.html |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Voice of America |language=en |archive-date=1 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501011712/https://www.voanews.com/a/nationalist-party-enters-estonia-s-government/4897062.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In January 2021, the Centre Party-led government fell down after a corruption investigation in which the Centre Party was accused of requesting a financial support of up to €1 million within a year in return of the €39 million loan to [[Hillar Teder]]'s real estate development in [[Tallinn]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tambur |first=Silver |date=13 January 2021 |title=Estonia's prime minister Jüri Ratas resigns, Kaja Kallas asked to form the government |url=https://estonianworld.com/security/a-political-crisis-in-estonia-prime-minister-juri-ratas-resigns/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Estonian World |language=en-GB |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126072044/https://estonianworld.com/security/a-political-crisis-in-estonia-prime-minister-juri-ratas-resigns/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In response, Ratas resigned as prime minister, while Kallas was offered to form a government.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Belga |first=Par |date=14 January 2021 |title=Estonie: l'europhile convaincue Kaja Kallas désignée au poste du Premier ministre |url=https://www.rtbf.be/article/estonie-l-europhile-convaincue-kaja-kallas-designee-au-poste-du-premier-ministre-10673384 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Radio-télévision belge de la Communauté française |language=fr |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207160811/https://www.rtbf.be/article/estonie-l-europhile-convaincue-kaja-kallas-designee-au-poste-du-premier-ministre-10673384 |url-status=live }}</ref> She struck a deal with the Centre Party, with Kallas now serving as prime minister.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Kallas' coalition votes total second-highest since independence restoration |url=https://news.err.ee/1608086218/kallas-coalition-votes-total-second-highest-since-independence-restoration |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201063626/https://news.err.ee/1608086218/kallas-coalition-votes-total-second-highest-since-independence-restoration |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2022 however, the coalition government between the Centre and Reform Party collapsed due to Centre Party's opposition against a law regarding education.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Belga |first=Par |last2=Louvigny |first2=Adeline |date=3 June 2022 |title=Estonie: la coalition gouvernementale s'effondre |url=https://www.rtbf.be/article/estonie-la-coalition-gouvernementale-s-effondre-11006114 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Radio-télévision belge de la Communauté française |language=fr |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201070629/https://www.rtbf.be/article/estonie-la-coalition-gouvernementale-s-effondre-11006114 |url-status=live }}</ref> This occurred during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]; the Centre Party was seen as being close to the [[Russians in Estonia|Russian minority]] in Estonia.<ref name=":0" /> In response, Kallas opened negotiations with Isamaa and SDE, successfully forming a [[Kaja Kallas' second cabinet|government]] on 15 July 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2022 |title=Riigikogu grants Kallas mandate to form new government |url=https://news.err.ee/1608658447/riigikogu-grants-kallas-mandate-to-form-new-government |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=15 July 2022 |title=Estonian parliament confirms PM Kallas to lead new government |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/estonian-parliament-confirms-pm-kallas-lead-new-government-2022-07-15/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207145259/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/estonian-parliament-confirms-pm-kallas-lead-new-government-2022-07-15/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Electoral system ==
The Riigikogu is made up of 101 seats and its representatives are elected by [[proportional representation]] in twelve multi-member constituencies.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 January 2015 |title=Riigikogu Election Act |url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/501092014005/consolide/current |accessdate=1 April 2015 |publisher=Riigi Teataja |archive-date=12 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200912184449/https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/501092014005/consolide/current |url-status=live }}</ref> Of this total, 75 seats are to be filled in 12 constituencies of 5 to 15 seats depending on their population, and the remaining 26 seats, known as "compensation seats", are allocated using the [[d'Hondt method]] to all parties that exceeded the 5% [[electoral threshold]], to bring the results in terms of seats as close as possible to those of the vote of the population.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Estonia: Riigikogu (The Estonian Parliament) |url=http://archive.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/2105.htm |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Inter-Parliamentary Union Parline |archive-date=8 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208181137/http://archive.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/2105.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Valimised |url=https://www.eesti.ee/et/kodakondsus-ja-dokumendid/kodakondsus/valimised |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti.ee |language=et |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207150124/https://www.eesti.ee/et/kodakondsus-ja-dokumendid/kodakondsus/valimised |url-status=live }}</ref> Voters have the possibility of casting a preferential vote for one of the candidates on the list for which they are voting.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> If a candidate collects more preferential votes than the amount of the simple quotient in his constituency, they are declared elected even if the list for which they are candidate for fails to cross the 5% electoral threshold.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

In November 2022, president [[Alar Karis]] signed the election decree, setting the date for 5 March 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 November 2022 |title=President signs election decree, warns against two-party battle |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |url=https://news.err.ee/1608803485/president-signs-election-decree-warns-against-two-party-battle |access-date=7 February 2023 |archive-date=9 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209091359/https://news.err.ee/1608803485/president-signs-election-decree-warns-against-two-party-battle |url-status=live }}</ref> Estonian citizens who are at least 18 years, are registered in the voting list, have not been declared incapacitated or convicted of a crime by a court, or serving a prison sentence have the right to vote.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=23 January 2023 |title=Valimiste korralduses tehtud muudatused peaks hääletamise mugavamaks tegema |url=https://www.err.ee/1608858128/valimiste-korralduses-tehtud-muudatused-peaks-haaletamise-mugavamaks-tegema |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=31 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131185124/https://www.err.ee/1608858128/valimiste-korralduses-tehtud-muudatused-peaks-haaletamise-mugavamaks-tegema |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hääleõigus |url=https://www.valimised.ee/et/valimiste-meelespea/haaleoigus |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et |archive-date=31 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131185123/https://www.valimised.ee/et/valimiste-meelespea/haaleoigus |url-status=live }}</ref> In foreign embassies abroad, voting took place from 18 to 23 February 2023, while to vote by mail in foreign countries, the voter had to submit a written request to the foreign mission by 3 February 2023.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> Advance voting in Estonia took place from 27 February to 4 March, meaning that a voter could vote outside the electoral district of their residence and electronically.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> Unlike in previous election, on 5 March voters will be able to vote in any precinct within the constituency, while voters who had voted electronically during the advance voting would be able to vote on a paper ballot, although their electronic vote would be cancelled.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> Citizens who are not able to go to the polling stations or to vote electronically could order a ballot box at home and vote between 3 and 5 March 2023.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Riigikogu valimised 2023 |url=https://www.valimised.ee/et/riigikogu-valimised-2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015160544/https://www.valimised.ee/et/riigikogu-valimised-2023 |archive-date=15 October 2022 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et}}</ref> Around eighty foreign observers will monitor the election.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=1 March 2023 |title=Around 80 foreign observers monitoring Riigikogu elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608900455/around-80-foreign-observers-monitoring-riigikogu-elections |access-date=4 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302063610/https://news.err.ee/1608900455/around-80-foreign-observers-monitoring-riigikogu-elections |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Seats by electoral district ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! {{No.}}
! Electoral district
! Seats
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 1|1]]
| [[Haabersti]], [[Põhja-Tallinn]] and [[Kristiine]] districts in [[Tallinn]]
| 10
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 2|2]]
| [[Kesklinn, Tallinn|Kesklinn]], [[Lasnamäe]] and [[Pirita]] districts in [[Tallinn]]
| 13
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 3|3]]
| [[Mustamäe]] and [[Nõmme]] districts in [[Tallinn]]
| 8
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 4|4]]
| [[Harju County|Harju]] (excluding [[Tallinn]]) and [[Rapla County|Rapla]] counties
| 16
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 5|5]]
| [[Hiiu County|Hiiu]], [[Lääne County|Lääne]] and [[Saare County|Saare]] counties
| 6
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 6|6]]
| [[Lääne-Viru County|Lääne-Viru]] county
| 5
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 7|7]]
| [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]] county
| 6
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 8|8]]
| [[Järva County|Järva]] and [[Viljandi County|Viljandi]] counties
| 7
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 9|9]]
| [[Jõgeva County|Jõgeva]] and [[Tartu County|Tartu]] counties (excluding [[Tartu]])
| 7
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 10|10]]
| City of [[Tartu]]
| 8
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 11|11]]
| [[Võru County|Võru]], [[Valga County|Valga]] and [[Põlva County|Põlva]] counties
| 8
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 12|12]]
| [[Pärnu County|Pärnu]] county
| 7
|-
| colspan="3"| Source: Eesti Rahvusringhääling<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 November 2022 |title=Harju- ja Raplamaa saab Ida-Viru arvelt valimistel ühe mandaadi juurde |url=https://www.err.ee/1608786028/harju-ja-raplamaa-saab-ida-viru-arvelt-valimistel-uhe-mandaadi-juurde |access-date=8 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215233826/https://www.err.ee/1608786028/harju-ja-raplamaa-saab-ida-viru-arvelt-valimistel-uhe-mandaadi-juurde |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

=== Pre-election composition ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"
| colspan="7" style="text-align:center" | {{Parliament diagram
| width = 250
| background = #f8f9fa
| n1 = 9 | p1 = Social Democratic Party (Estonia)
| n2 = 23 | p2 = Estonian Centre Party (2023)
| n3 = 34 | p3 = Estonian Reform Party
| n4 = 11 | p4 = Isamaa
| n5 = 1 | p5 = Parempoolsed
| n6 = 19 | p6 = Conservative People's Party of Estonia
| n7 = 4 | p7 = Independent
}}
|-
! colspan="2"| Party
! Seats
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"|
| align="left"| [[Estonian Reform Party]]
| 34
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}"|
| align="left"| [[Estonian Centre Party]]
| 23
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}"|
| align="left"| [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia]]
| 19
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Isamaa}}"|
| align="left"| [[Isamaa]]
| 11
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Estonia)}}"|
| align="left"| [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]]
| 9
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Parempoolsed}}"|
| align="left"| [[Parempoolsed]]
| 1
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Independent politician}}"|
| align="left"| [[Independent politician|Independents]]
| 4
|-
| style="text-align:left" colspan="3"| Source: Riigikogu<ref>{{cite web |title=Riigikogu liikmed: Faktsioonid |url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/riigikogu/koosseis/riigikogu-liikmed/ |publisher=Riigikogu |access-date=7 February 2023 |language=et |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101145345/http://www.riigikogu.ee/riigikogu/koosseis/riigikogu-liikmed/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

== Contesting parties ==
The Estonian National Electoral Committee announced that 9 political parties and 10 individual candidates registered to take part in the 2023 parliamentary election. Their registration numbers and order were determined by a draw lot.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 January 2023 |title=Riigikogu valimistele soovis registreeruda 9 erakonda ja 11 üksikkandidaati |url=https://www.valimised.ee/et/riigikogu-valimistele-soovis-registreeruda-9-erakonda-ja-11-uksikkandidaati |access-date=5 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205025042/https://www.valimised.ee/et/riigikogu-valimistele-soovis-registreeruda-9-erakonda-ja-11-uksikkandidaati |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 January 2023 |title=Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon registreeris Riigikogu valimisteks 968 kandidaati |url=https://www.valimised.ee/et/vabariigi-valimiskomisjon-registreeris-riigikogu-valimisteks-968-kandidaati |access-date=5 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205025040/https://www.valimised.ee/et/vabariigi-valimiskomisjon-registreeris-riigikogu-valimisteks-968-kandidaati |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kandidaadid |url=https://rk2023.valimised.ee/et/candidates/electoral_district/general |access-date=5 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205025040/https://rk2023.valimised.ee/et/candidates/electoral_district/general |url-status=live }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
! rowspan="2"| {{No.}}
! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| Name
! rowspan="2"| Ideology
! rowspan="2"| Political position
! rowspan="2"| Leader
! rowspan="2"| Total candidates
! colspan="2"| 2019 result
|-
! Votes (%)
! Seats
|-
! {{center|1}}
| style="background:{{party color|Parempoolsed}}"|
| [[Parempoolsed]]
| [[Fiscal conservatism]]
| [[Centre-right]]
| [[Lavly Perling]]
| 125
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| ''did not exist''
|-
! {{center|2}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Greens}}"|
| [[Estonian Greens|Greens]]
| [[Green politics]]
| [[Centre-left]]
| [[Johanna Maria Tõugu]]
| 58
| style="text-align:center"| 1.8%
| {{Composition bar|0|101|{{party color|Estonian Greens}}}}
|-
! {{center|3}}
| style="background:{{party color|Isamaa}}"|
| [[Isamaa]]
| [[National conservatism]]
| [[Centre-right]] to [[right-wing]]
| [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 11.4%
| {{Composition bar|12|101|{{party color|Isamaa}}}}
|-
! {{center|4}}
| style="background:{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Estonia)}}"|
| [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]]
| [[Social democracy]]
| [[Centre-left]]
| [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 9.8%
| {{Composition bar|10|101|{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Estonia)}}}}
|-
! {{center|5}}
| style="background:{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}"|
| [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia|Conservative People's Party]]
| [[Right-wing populism]]
| [[Right-wing]] to [[far-right]]
| [[Martin Helme]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 17.8%
| {{Composition bar|19|101|{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}}}
|-
! {{center|6}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}"|
| [[Estonia 200]]
| [[Liberalism]]
| [[Centrism|Centre]]
| [[Lauri Hussar]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 4.4%
| {{Composition bar|0|101|{{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}}}
|-
! {{center|7}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"|
| [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]]
| [[Classical liberalism]]
| [[Centre-right]]
| [[Kaja Kallas]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 28.9%
| {{Composition bar|34|101|{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}}}
|-
! {{center|8}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}"|
| [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]]
| [[Social liberalism]]
| [[Centre-left]]
| [[Jüri Ratas]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 23.1%
| {{Composition bar|26|101|{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}}}
|-
! {{center|9}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian United Left Party}}"|
| [[Estonian United Left Party|United Left Party]]–[[Koos/Together]]{{efn|According to ''Eesti Ekspress'', the Tartu County Court did not register the Russian nationalist political group "Koos/Together" as a political party on 30 November 2022, as the total number of its members was below the required minimum of 500. The "[[Putinist]]" group's leaders decided to participate in the 2023 elections on the list of the [[Estonian United Left Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eesti putinistide erakonda ei registeeritud ja riigikogu valimistel nad osaleda ei tohi |url=https://ekspress.delfi.ee/a/120109138 |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Ekspress |language=et |date=5 March 2023 |archive-date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214193131/https://ekspress.delfi.ee/a/120109138 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| [[Russian nationalism]]{{efn|In the online Russian-language edition of [[Postimees]], publicist Valery Saïkovski has asserted that "the United Left Party is only relevant for Russian nationalist purposes."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Saïkovski |first1=Valery |title=Non-systemic left opposition: why there are almost only Russians and there is no result |url=https://rus.postimees.ee/7123041/vnesistemnaya-levaya-oppoziciya-pochemu-tam-pochti-odni-russkie-i-net-rezultata |website=Postimees |date=2 December 2020 |access-date=24 June 2022 |archive-date=25 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625043523/https://rus.postimees.ee/7123041/vnesistemnaya-levaya-oppoziciya-pochemu-tam-pochti-odni-russkie-i-net-rezultata |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| [[Left-wing]]
| [[Igor Rosenfeld]]
| 25
| style="text-align:center"| 0.1%
| {{Composition bar|0|101|{{party color|Estonian United Left Party}}}}
|-
! {{center|—}}
| style="background:{{party color|Independent politician}}"|
| [[Independent politician|Individual candidates]]
| colspan="3"| —
| 10
| style="text-align:center"| 0.3%
| {{Composition bar|0|101|{{party color|Independent politician}}}}
|}

== Campaign ==
=== Issues ===
[[File:Tallinn Ukraina toetusmeeleavaldus 3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|alt=A demonstration in support of Ukraine in Tallinn, Estonia on 26 February 2022|Issues regarding the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine were discussed during the campaign period]]
The ''[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]]'' and ''[[National Public Radio]]'' noted that the issues that were discussed during the campaign period were the cost of living crisis, especially regarding rising prices and inflation, as well as issues regarding security and national defence due to the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 November 2022 |title=FAQ: A brief overview of Estonia's 2023 elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608795952/faq-a-brief-overview-of-estonia-s-2023-elections |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119163938/https://news.err.ee/1608795952/faq-a-brief-overview-of-estonia-s-2023-elections |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Schmitz |first=Rob |date=4 March 2023 |title=Ukraine is dominating the election in Estonia, a key NATO ally. Here's what to watch |work=National Public Radio |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/03/04/1160926037/ukraine-war-estonia-election-nato-russia |access-date=5 March 2023 |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135221/https://www.npr.org/2023/03/04/1160926037/ukraine-war-estonia-election-nato-russia |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Eesti Rahvusringhääling'' also asserted that the programmes of the contesting parties were largely influenced by the current war in Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=15 January 2023 |title=Analüütikud: valimiste põhiteemaks saab julgeolek või inimeste toimetulek |url=https://www.err.ee/1608851294/analuutikud-valimiste-pohiteemaks-saab-julgeolek-voi-inimeste-toimetulek |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119142059/https://www.err.ee/1608851294/analuutikud-valimiste-pohiteemaks-saab-julgeolek-voi-inimeste-toimetulek |url-status=live }}</ref> Ellu Saar, a sociology professor, and Triin Lauri, an associate professor at the [[Tallinn University]], stated that in the programmes of EKRE and Isamaa stated their support to protect Estonian language in higher education, while [[Estonia 200]] and SDE mention "united schools" where native Estonian-speaking and Russian-speaking students would study together.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Saar |first=Ellu |last2=Lauri |first2=Triin |date=28 February 2023 |title=Analysis: Parties' election programs ignore problems of inequality |url=https://news.err.ee/1608899732/analysis-parties-election-programs-ignore-problems-of-inequality |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228202734/https://news.err.ee/api/statistics/articleStatistics |url-status=live }}</ref>

Saar and Lauri also noted that the Centre Party has a vague opinion regarding the issue of education.<ref name=":5" /> The [[Estonian Greens]] and SDE also mentioned school culture, quality of management, reducing path dependence as issues they would tackle.<ref name=":5" /> The Reform Party also stated its support for introducing national defence classes in schools, while Isamaa stated that there should be more investments in national defence.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=31 January 2023 |title=Several parties call for mandatory school defense education |url=https://news.err.ee/1608870026/several-parties-call-for-mandatory-school-defense-education |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202054946/https://news.err.ee/1608870026/several-parties-call-for-mandatory-school-defense-education |url-status=live }}</ref> The Centre Party called for higher salaries for those who work to contribute to the national defence, SDE suggested to implement a new tax regarding defence spending, while EKRE said that militarised border guards should be brought back.<ref name=":6" /> Anne Raiste of ''Eesti Rahvusringhääling'' noted that the contesting parties all share similar positions regarding foreign policy and that they pledged to implement forms of [[direct democracy]] or a more efficient [[representative democracy]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=31 January 2023 |title=Political parties' election manifestos share similar foreign policy goals |url=https://news.err.ee/1608868757/political-parties-election-manifestos-share-similar-foreign-policy-goals |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155420/https://news.err.ee/1608868757/political-parties-election-manifestos-share-similar-foreign-policy-goals |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=17 February 2023 |title=Political parties pledge more direct democracy, a more efficient Riigikogu |url=https://news.err.ee/1608889109/political-parties-pledge-more-direct-democracy-a-more-efficient-riigikogu |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155427/https://news.err.ee/1608889109/political-parties-pledge-more-direct-democracy-a-more-efficient-riigikogu |url-status=live }}</ref> EKRE and Isamaa have pledged to not accept any new [[2022–2023 Ukrainian refugee crisis|Ukrainian refugees]],<ref name=":9">{{Cite news |date=5 March 2023 |title=Estonia votes in election test for pro-Kyiv government |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/estonia-goes-polls-test-pro-kyiv-government-2023-03-05/ |access-date=5 March 2023 |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135256/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/estonia-goes-polls-test-pro-kyiv-government-2023-03-05/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=5 March 2023 |title=Economy, Ukraine war top campaign issues in Estonia general election |url=https://www.euronews.com/2023/03/05/estonia-election-soaring-inflation-and-weapon-deliveries-to-ukraine-top-voter-concerns |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Euronews |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135242/https://www.euronews.com/2023/03/05/estonia-election-soaring-inflation-and-weapon-deliveries-to-ukraine-top-voter-concerns |url-status=live }}</ref> while on the other hand, the Reform Party has stated that it would continue accepting new Ukrainian refugees.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |date=5 March 2023 |title=Estonia Is Voting Sunday |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/estonia-is-voting-sunday-/6990379.html |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=VOA |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135234/https://www.voanews.com/a/estonia-is-voting-sunday-/6990379.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Euronews]]'' has noted that EKRE's support in opinion polls fell down due to alleged links with Russia.<ref name=":10" />

Regarding the economy, Raiste also said that the contesting parties had pledged to raise pensions to €1,000 or more.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=2 February 2023 |title=Parties pledge €1,000 pensions, more senior centers and flexible pensions |url=https://news.err.ee/1608872807/parties-pledge-1-000-pensions-more-senior-centers-and-flexible-pensions |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155419/https://news.err.ee/1608872807/parties-pledge-1-000-pensions-more-senior-centers-and-flexible-pensions |url-status=live }}</ref> The Centre Party stated its support for the introduction of [[progressive taxation]], while SDE and the Greens had adopted similar positions.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Pott |first=Toomas |date=14 February 2023 |title=Political parties try to woo voters with tax cut promises |url=https://news.err.ee/1608885440/political-parties-try-to-woo-voters-with-tax-cut-promises |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155418/https://news.err.ee/1608885440/political-parties-try-to-woo-voters-with-tax-cut-promises |url-status=live }}</ref> On the other hand, Reform stated that it would [[balance the budget]], while EKRE called for reduction of taxes.<ref name=":7" /> Estonia 200 said that labour taxes should be lowered while Parempoolsed promised to not introduce any new taxes.<ref name=":7" /> Scholars Liili Abuladze and Luule Sakkeus stated that EKRE and Isamaa put their family policy focuses on families with many children and that the needs of those most vulnerable are hardly addressed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Abuladze |first=Liili |last2=Sakkeus |first2=Luule |date=26 February 2023 |title=Analüüs: Erakondade perekonnapoliitika lubadused |url=https://www.err.ee/1608897593/analuus-erakondade-perekonnapoliitika-lubadused |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228041009/https://www.err.ee/1608897593/analuus-erakondade-perekonnapoliitika-lubadused |url-status=live }}</ref> EKRE has also stated its opposition to transition to [[sustainable energy]] to lower energy bills, while the Reform Party has pledged to adopt sustainable energy.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11" /> EKRE has criticised Kallas' Reform Party due to the growing inflation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tanner |first=Jari |date=4 March 2023 |title=Ukraine ally Kallas fights for reelection in Estonia vote |url=https://apnews.com/article/estonia-parliamentary-election-ukraine-russia-war-kallas-757d969e3b76312962292898c6c59bcc |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Associated Press |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135240/https://apnews.com/article/estonia-parliamentary-election-ukraine-russia-war-kallas-757d969e3b76312962292898c6c59bcc |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Debates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:85%; line-height:15px; text-align:center;"
! colspan="12"| 2023 Estonian parliamentary election debates
|-
! rowspan="3"| Date
! rowspan="3"| Organisers
! colspan="9"| {{small|  }} {{Colors|black|#D0FFD0| P }} {{small|Present  }} {{Colors|black|#FFD0D0| N }} {{small|Non-invitee }}
|-
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia|EKRE]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Estonia 200|E200]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|SDE]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Isamaa]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Estonian Greens|EER]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Parempoolsed]]
! rowspan="2"| Refs
|-
! style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Estonia)}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Isamaa}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Estonian Greens}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Parempoolsed}}"|
|-
| {{nowrap|1 March}}
| [[Eesti Televisioon]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kaja Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Martin Helme]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jüri Ratas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Hussar]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lavly Perling]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Kell 21.40 ETV valimisdebattide suur finaal: peaministrikandidaatide debatt |url=https://www.err.ee/1608900950/kell-21-40-etv-valimisdebattide-suur-finaal-peaministrikandidaatide-debatt |access-date=4 March 2023 |date=1 March 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=2 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302081607/https://www.err.ee/1608900950/kell-21-40-etv-valimisdebattide-suur-finaal-peaministrikandidaatide-debatt |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|27 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Urmas Klaas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Valge]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaan Toots]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristina Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Krista Aru]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tõnis Lukas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Johanna Maria Tõugu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Elmo Somelar]]
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Teedema |first1=Kristjan |title=Tartu esinumbrid debateerisid olulistel teemadel |url=https://tartu.postimees.ee/7721004/jarelvaadatav-tartu-esinumbrid-debateerisid-olulistel-teemadel |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=27 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227220901/https://tartu.postimees.ee/7721004/jarelvaadatav-tartu-esinumbrid-debateerisid-olulistel-teemadel |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|23 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jürgen Ligi]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Madison]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Aab]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ando Kiviberg]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Priit Põllumäe]]
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Loide |first1=Triin |last2=Saarm |first2=Marko |last3=Riig |first3=Elmo |title=Üks valimisdebatt, seitse esinumbrit, palju küsimusi ja veidi tüli |url=https://jarvateataja.postimees.ee/7718725/uks-valimisdebatt-seitse-esinumbrit-palju-kusimusi-ja-veidi-tuli |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Postimees |date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227125056/https://jarvateataja.postimees.ee/7718725/uks-valimisdebatt-seitse-esinumbrit-palju-kusimusi-ja-veidi-tuli |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|23 Feb}}
| [[Lääne Elu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kalle Laanet]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helle-Moonika Helme]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Janek Mäggi]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kalev Stoicescu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Madis Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Mikk Lõhmus]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marko Kaasik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristjan Vanaselja]]
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Raigla |first1=Malle-Liisa |title=Valimisdebatt sotsiaalmajas: me ei taha enam sellist riigikogu |url=https://online.le.ee/2023/02/23/valimisdebatt-sotsiaalmajas-me-ei-taha-enam-sellist-riigikogu/ |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=23 February 2023 |work=Lääne Elu |language=et |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227203311/https://online.le.ee/2023/02/23/valimisdebatt-sotsiaalmajas-me-ei-taha-enam-sellist-riigikogu/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|22 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jüri Ratas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Hussar]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Müller |first1=Arp |last2=Ojakivi |first2=Mirko |title=Jüri Ratas, Lauri Hussar lock swords in heated Vikerradio head-to-head show |url=https://news.err.ee/1608894836/juri-ratas-lauri-hussar-lock-swords-in-heated-vikerradio-head-to-head-show |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227203900/https://news.err.ee/1608894836/juri-ratas-lauri-hussar-lock-swords-in-heated-vikerradio-head-to-head-show |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|22 Feb}}
| [[Eesti Televisioon]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristen Michal]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Rain Epler]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Taavi Aas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marek Reinaas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Riina Sikkut]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Priit Sibul]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Siim Kiisler]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Kell 21.40 "Valimisstuudios" erakondade majandusdebatt |url=https://www.err.ee/1608894179/kell-21-40-valimisstuudios-erakondade-majandusdebatt |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=22 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223231252/https://www.err.ee/1608894179/kell-21-40-valimisstuudios-erakondade-majandusdebatt |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|21 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lavly Perling]]
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ojakivi |first1=Mirko |title=SDE, Parempoolsed and Isamaa leaders debate key issues ahead of elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608893036/sde-parempoolsed-and-isamaa-leaders-debate-key-issues-ahead-of-elections |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=21 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=22 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222080501/https://news.err.ee/1608893036/sde-parempoolsed-and-isamaa-leaders-debate-key-issues-ahead-of-elections |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|20 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Yoko Alender]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Rain Epler]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ismail Mirzojev]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Gea Kangilaski]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lemmit Kaplinski]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Priit Humal]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kaia Solnik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Indrek Adler]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Oecologicumis toimuval valimisdebatil vaetakse keskkonnateemasid |url=https://tartu.postimees.ee/7716469/oecologicumis-toimuval-valimisdebatil-vaetakse-keskkonnateemasid |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=20 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=21 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221142848/https://tartu.postimees.ee/7716469/oecologicumis-toimuval-valimisdebatil-vaetakse-keskkonnateemasid |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|16 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jürgen Ligi]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kalle Grünthal]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kersti Sarapuu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kaspar Taimsoo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Eimar Veldre]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ründo Mülts]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Oliver Rohesalu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Priit Põllumäe]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Otse: Riigikogu kandidaatide valimisdebatt |url=https://jarvateataja.postimees.ee/7713801/otse-riigikogu-kandidaatide-valimisdebatt |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=16 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216125445/https://jarvateataja.postimees.ee/7713801/otse-riigikogu-kandidaatide-valimisdebatt |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|16 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Signe Risalo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kert Kingo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tanel Kiik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Irja Lutsar]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helmen Kütt]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lea Danilson-Järg]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marelle Erlenheim]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Third 'Valimisstuudio' election debate focuses on healthcare |url=https://news.err.ee/1608887429/third-valimisstuudio-election-debate-focuses-on-healthcare |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=16 February 2023 |archive-date=17 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217072044/https://news.err.ee/1608887429/third-valimisstuudio-election-debate-focuses-on-healthcare |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|16 Feb}}
| [[Eesti Televisioon]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marko Kaasik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristjan Vanaselja]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Valimisdebatt: Parempoolsed ja Rohelised jäid tuumajaama teemal eriarvamusele |url=https://www.err.ee/1608888647/valimisdebatt-parempoolsed-ja-rohelised-jaid-tuumajaama-teemal-eriarvamusele |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=16 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228202705/https://www.err.ee/api/statistics/articleStatistics |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|15 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Signe Riisalo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kert Kingo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Monika Haukanõmm]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Diana Ingerainen]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Heljo Pikhof]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Merike Värik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Susanna Saar]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Toomas Kasemaa]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Valimisdebatt keskendub puuetega inimeste toimetulekule |url=https://www.postimees.ee/7712677/otse-valimisdebatt-keskendub-puuetega-inimeste-toimetulekule |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=15 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215080749/https://www.postimees.ee/7712677/otse-valimisdebatt-keskendub-puuetega-inimeste-toimetulekule |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|13 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Andres Sutt]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Raul Siem]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Andrei Korobeinik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristina Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Riina Sikkut]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristjan Järvan]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marti Soosaar]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lavly Perling]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Tehnoloogiaettevõtjad: Eesti kasutab tehnoloogiasektori võimekusest tühise osa |url=https://www.postimees.ee/7708474/valimisdebatt-tehnoloogiaettevotjad-eesti-kasutab-tehnoloogiasektori-voimekusest-tuhise-osa |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=13 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=13 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213105502/https://www.postimees.ee/7708474/valimisdebatt-tehnoloogiaettevotjad-eesti-kasutab-tehnoloogiasektori-voimekusest-tuhise-osa |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|9 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Liina Kersna]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Valge]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Aab]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristina Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Piret Hartman]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tauno Õunapuu]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Second 'Valimisstuudio' election debate on education, science and culture |url=https://news.err.ee/1608879242/second-valimisstuudio-election-debate-on-education-science-and-culture |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=9 February 2023 |language=et |archive-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212205247/https://news.err.ee/1608879242/second-valimisstuudio-election-debate-on-education-science-and-culture |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|7 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Annely Akkermann]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Siim Pohlak]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Laats]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Joakim Helenius]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Paeveer]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Aivar Kokk]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Alar Voitka]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title="Vikerraadio" valimisdebatis vaieldi laenukoormuse ja uute maksude üle |url=https://www.err.ee/1608877121/vikerraadio-valimisdebatis-vaieldi-laenukoormuse-ja-uute-maksude-ule |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=7 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=24 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230224232916/https://www.err.ee/1608877121/vikerraadio-valimisdebatis-vaieldi-laenukoormuse-ja-uute-maksude-ule |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|2 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Liina Kersna]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Loone Ots]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tõnis Mölder]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristina Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jevgeni Ossinovski]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tõnis Lukas]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Andres Kaarmann]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Valimisstuudio. Riigikogu valimised. Haridus ja teadus |url=https://vikerraadio.err.ee/1608857249/valimisstuudio-riigikogu-valimised-haridus-ja-teadus |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=2 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223084800/https://vikerraadio.err.ee/1608857249/valimisstuudio-riigikogu-valimised-haridus-ja-teadus |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|2 Feb}}
| {{abbr|AmCham|American Chamber of Commerce in Estonia}} {{abbr|FICE|Foreign Investors Council of Estonia}}
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Andres Sutt]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Martin Helme]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tanel Kiik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Joakim Helenius]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Riina Sikkut]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Urmas Reinsalu]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Whyte |first1=Andrew |title=AmCham/FICE pre-election political party debate |url=https://news.err.ee/1608871619/watch-again-amcham-fice-pre-election-political-party-debate |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=2 February 2023 |archive-date=8 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208095913/https://news.err.ee/1608871619/watch-again-amcham-fice-pre-election-political-party-debate |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|1 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Hanno Pevkur]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Madison]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Neeme Väli]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Margus Tsahkna]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Raimond Kaljulaid]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Urmas Reinsalu]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ilmar Raag]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Security first topic of 'Valimisstuudio' series of election debates |url=https://news.err.ee/1608871661/security-first-topic-of-valimisstuudio-series-of-election-debates |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=2 February 2023 |language=et |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204034326/https://news.err.ee/1608871661/security-first-topic-of-valimisstuudio-series-of-election-debates |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|31 Jan}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Meelis Kiili]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Valge]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Mihhail Kõlvart]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Aleksei Jašin]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Piret Hartman]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Hendrik Agur]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ivo Loide]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Vikerraadio elections debate: Learning language key to integration |url=https://news.err.ee/1608870431/vikerraadio-elections-debate-learning-language-key-to-integration |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=1 February 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155418/https://news.err.ee/1608870431/vikerraadio-elections-debate-learning-language-key-to-integration |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

== Opinion polls ==
{{main|Opinion polling for the 2023 Estonian parliamentary election}}
[[File:Opinion polls Estonia 2019-2023.svg|center|thumb|1000x1000px|[[Local regression]] chart of poll results from 3 March 2019 to 5 March 2023]]

== Results ==
Voting at Estonian foreign embassies took place between 18 and 23 February 2023.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Parliamentary elections 2023 |url=https://www.valimised.ee/en/parliamentary-elections-2023/parliamentary-elections-2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Valimised |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227121607/https://www.valimised.ee/en/parliamentary-elections-2023/parliamentary-elections-2023 |url-status=live }}</ref> The National Electoral Committee had announced that 47.3% of voters cast their ballot during the pre-election period, which began on 27 February and ended before 5 March, a majority of whom voted online.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 February 2023 |title=13 percent of Estonia's electorate have already voted |url=https://news.err.ee/1608899960/13-percent-of-estonia-s-electorate-have-already-voted |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228202706/https://platform.twitter.com/embed/Tweet.html?dnt=false&embedId=twitter-widget-1&features=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%3D&frame=false&hideCard=false&hideThread=false&id=1629405767576047616&lang=en&origin=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.err.ee%2F1608897260%2Faround-1-300-russian-belarusian-citizens-firearms-permits-to-be-revoked&sessionId=0dd4b0d6c9e45d6b45d1b07e23b6a48bd9a2cf8c&siteScreenName=errnews&theme=light&widgetsVersion=aaf4084522e3a%3A1674595607486&width=550px |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 March 2023 |title=Estonia sets new e-voting record at Riigikogu 2023 elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608904730/estonia-sets-new-e-voting-record-at-riigikogu-2023-elections |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135218/https://news.err.ee/1608904730/estonia-sets-new-e-voting-record-at-riigikogu-2023-elections |url-status=live }}</ref> Voting stations on 5 March 2023 are opened from 9:00 am to 8:00 pm.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Election activities and deadlines – Election of the Riigikogu 2023 |url=https://www.valimised.ee/en/parliament-2023/election-activities-and-deadlines-election-riigikogu-2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Valimised |archive-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129230510/https://www.valimised.ee/en/parliament-2023/election-activities-and-deadlines-election-riigikogu-2023 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=3 March 2023 |title=Expert: Poll variations can be cause for celebration for Reform and EKRE |url=https://news.err.ee/1608903230/expert-poll-variations-can-be-cause-for-celebration-for-reform-and-ekre |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135314/https://news.err.ee/1608903230/expert-poll-variations-can-be-cause-for-celebration-for-reform-and-ekre |url-status=live }}</ref> There are 966,105 citizens that have the right to vote in the election.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Key participation figures |url=https://www.valimised.ee/en |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Valimised |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227141223/https://www.valimised.ee/en |url-status=live }}</ref> The turnout progressed towards 63% by 7:00 pm according to ''Eesti Rahvusringhääling'', with the highest turnout being in the Rapla County and the lowest in the Ida-Viru County.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 March 2023 |title=Voter turnout 63 percent by 7 p.m. Sunday |url=https://news.err.ee/1608905111/voter-turnout-63-percent-by-7-p-m-sunday |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305174213/https://news.err.ee/1608905111/voter-turnout-63-percent-by-7-p-m-sunday |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Election results
| image = {{Parliament diagram
| background = #F8F9FA
| n1 = 101 | c1 = #DCDCDC}}
| party1 = [[Estonian Reform Party]]
| votes1 =
| seats1 =
| sc1 =

| party2 = [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia]]
| votes2 =
| seats2 =
| sc2 =

| party3 = [[Estonian Centre Party]]
| colour3 = {{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}
| votes3 =
| seats3 =
| sc3 =

| party4 = [[Estonia 200]]
| colour4 = {{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}
| votes4 =
| seats4 =
| sc4 =

| party5 = [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]]
| votes5 =
| seats5 =
| sc5 =

| party6 = [[Isamaa]]
| votes6 =
| seats6 =
| sc6 =

| party7 = [[Estonian Greens]]
| votes7 =
| seats7 =
| sc7 =

| party8 = [[Parempoolsed]]
| votes8 =
| seats8 =
| sc8 =

| party9 = [[Estonian United Left Party]]–[[Koos/Together|Koos]]
| votes9 =
| seats9 =
| sc9 =

| party10 = [[Independent politician|Independents]]
| votes10 =
| seats10 =
| sc10 =

| total_sc =
| invalid =
| electorate = 966105
| source = National Electoral Committee<ref>{{cite web |title=Riigikogu elections 2023: Voting results in detail |url=https://rk2023.valimised.ee/en/detailed-voting-result/index.html |website=Valimised |access-date=28 February 2023 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228202659/https://rk2023.valimised.ee/en/detailed-voting-result/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[https://www.valimised.ee/en Official website] of the National Electoral Committee

{{Estonian elections}}
[[Category:Parliamentary elections in Estonia]]
[[Category:2023 elections in Europe|Estonia]]
[[Category:2023 in Estonia|Parliamentary]]

2023 Estonian parliamentary election

2023-03-05T16:26:06Z

3 Löwi: who did and who did not exist

{{short description|none}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Current election|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox election
| country = Estonia
| type = parliamentary
| ongoing = yes
| previous_election = 2019 Estonian parliamentary election
| previous_year = 2019
| outgoing_members = List of members of the Riigikogu
| next_election =
| next_year =
| elected_members =
| seats_for_election = All 101 seats in the [[Riigikogu]]
| majority_seats = 51
| election_date = 5 March 2023
| turnout =
| reporting =
| last_update =
| time_zone =
| image_size = 130x130px

| image1 = Kaja Kallas (crop) (cropped).jpg
| leader1 = [[Kaja Kallas]]
| party1 = Estonian Reform Party
| last_election1 = 28.93%, 34 seats
| seats1 =
| seat_change1 =
| popular_vote1 =
| percentage1 =
| swing1 =

| image2 = Jüri Ratas 2022.jpg
| leader2 = [[Jüri Ratas]]
| party2 = Estonian Centre Party
| color2 = 00AA54
| last_election2 = 23.10%, 26 seats
| seats2 =
| seat_change2 =
| popular_vote2 =
| percentage2 =
| swing2 =

| image3 = RK Martin Helme (cropped).jpg
| leader3 = [[Martin Helme]]
| party3 = Conservative People's Party of Estonia
| last_election3 = 17.76%, 19 seats
| seats3 =
| seat_change3 =
| popular_vote3 =
| percentage3 =
| swing3 =

| image4 = Helir-Valdor Seeder 2016.jpg
| leader4 = [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| party4 = Isamaa
| last_election4 = 11.44%, 12 seats
| seats4 =
| seat_change4 =
| popular_vote4 =
| percentage4 =
| swing4 =

| image5 = Lauri Läänemets at the Opinion Festival 2022 in Paide, Estonia (cropped).jpg
| leader5 = [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| party5 = Social Democratic Party (Estonia)
| last_election5 = 9.83%, 10 seats
| seats5 =
| seat_change5 =
| popular_vote5 =
| percentage5 =
| swing5 =

| image6 = Lavly Perling 2021-10-14 (cropped).jpg
| leader6 = [[Lavly Perling]]
| party6 = Parempoolsed
| last_election6 = ''New party''
| seats6 =
| seat_change6 =
| popular_vote6 =
| percentage6 =
| swing6 =

| title = Prime Minister
| posttitle = Prime Minister after election
| before_election = [[Kaja Kallas]]
| before_party = Estonian Reform Party
| after_election =
| after_party =

| map_image = 2023 Estonian parliamentary election by electoral districts.svg
| map_size = 300px
| map_caption = Electoral districts
}}

Parliamentary elections are being held in [[Estonia]] on 5 March 2023 to elect all 101 members of the [[Riigikogu]]. The [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]] led by [[Jüri Ratas]] formed a government after the [[2019 Estonian parliamentary election|2019 parliamentary election]], with Ratas serving as prime minister. His government was brought down in January 2021 after a corruption investigation; [[Kaja Kallas]] of the [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]] formed a coalition government with the Centre Party afterwards although it fell in June 2022. Kallas then formed a government with [[Isamaa]] and the [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]] and remained in the position as prime minister. In January 2023, the National Electoral Committee announced that 9 political parties and 10 individual candidates had registered to take part in the 2023 parliamentary election.

During the campaign period, issues discussed most extensively regarded national defence and security, due to the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], and the economy. Individuals from contesting political parties also took part in organised debates in January and February 2023. Voting at foreign embassies took place from 18 to 23 February while voters had the option to vote during the pre-election period from 27 February to 4 March.

== Background ==
The [[2019 Estonian parliamentary election|previous parliamentary election]], which was held in March 2019, saw the loss of the [[absolute majority]] held by [[Jüri Ratas]]'s [[Jüri Ratas' first cabinet|cabinet]] in [[Riigikogu]], the unicameral parliament of Estonia. Ratas' [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]], [[Isamaa]], and [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]] (SDE) all suffered a setback in favour of the [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]], led by [[Kaja Kallas]], and the [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia]] (EKRE).<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 April 2019 |title=Kaja Kallas: Coalition ready for Riigikogu vote on 15 April |url=https://news.err.ee/927272/kaja-kallas-coalition-ready-for-riigikogu-vote-on-15-april |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201063626/https://news.err.ee/927272/kaja-kallas-coalition-ready-for-riigikogu-vote-on-15-april |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Kersti Kaljulaid]], the [[president of Estonia]], gave a mandate to Kallas to form a government after the election.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 March 2019 |title=Reform to begin coalition talks with Centre Party |url=https://news.err.ee/917068/reform-to-begin-coalition-talks-with-centre-party |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201063622/https://news.err.ee/917068/reform-to-begin-coalition-talks-with-centre-party |url-status=live }}</ref> The Reform Party negotiated with the Centre Party, Isamaa, and SDE, but ultimately failed to form a government.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 March 2019 |title=Centre rejects Reform's offer to begin coalition talks |url=https://news.err.ee/918142/centre-rejects-reform-s-offer-to-begin-coalition-talks |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208152648/https://news.err.ee/918142/centre-rejects-reform-s-offer-to-begin-coalition-talks |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 March 2019 |title=Kallas: Reform to approach Isamaa, Social Democrats next |url=https://news.err.ee/918169/kallas-reform-to-approach-isamaa-social-democrats-next |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=2 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202172143/https://news.err.ee/918169/kallas-reform-to-approach-isamaa-social-democrats-next |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=15 April 2019 |title=Estonian parliament rejects Reform's Kallas as PM |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-estonia-politics-government-idUSKCN1RR1AI |access-date=7 February 2023 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207145259/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-estonia-politics-government-idUSKCN1RR1AI |url-status=live }}</ref> After the vote in April 2019, Ratas received the mandate and successfully formed a government with Isamaa and EKRE.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2019 |title=Estonie: Le Premier ministre sortant scelle un accord de coalition tripartite |url=https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/international/070419/estonie-le-premier-ministre-sortant-scelle-un-accord-de-coalition-tripartite |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Mediapart |language=fr |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201063623/https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/international/070419/estonie-le-premier-ministre-sortant-scelle-un-accord-de-coalition-tripartite |url-status=live }}</ref> His [[Jüri Ratas' second cabinet|cabinet]] was sworn on 29 April 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 July 2021 |title=Estonia likely to see euroskeptic party brought to power |url=https://apnews.com/article/europe-estonia-legislature-54d52f04e95944d8bf93f1bbb69ad2ed |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Associated Press |language=en |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207145259/https://apnews.com/article/europe-estonia-legislature-54d52f04e95944d8bf93f1bbb69ad2ed |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 April 2019 |title=Nationalist Party Enters Estonia's Government |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/nationalist-party-enters-estonia-s-government/4897062.html |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Voice of America |language=en |archive-date=1 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501011712/https://www.voanews.com/a/nationalist-party-enters-estonia-s-government/4897062.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In January 2021, the Centre Party-led government fell down after a corruption investigation in which the Centre Party was accused of requesting a financial support of up to €1 million within a year in return of the €39 million loan to [[Hillar Teder]]'s real estate development in [[Tallinn]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tambur |first=Silver |date=13 January 2021 |title=Estonia's prime minister Jüri Ratas resigns, Kaja Kallas asked to form the government |url=https://estonianworld.com/security/a-political-crisis-in-estonia-prime-minister-juri-ratas-resigns/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Estonian World |language=en-GB |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126072044/https://estonianworld.com/security/a-political-crisis-in-estonia-prime-minister-juri-ratas-resigns/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In response, Ratas resigned as prime minister, while Kallas was offered to form a government.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Belga |first=Par |date=14 January 2021 |title=Estonie: l'europhile convaincue Kaja Kallas désignée au poste du Premier ministre |url=https://www.rtbf.be/article/estonie-l-europhile-convaincue-kaja-kallas-designee-au-poste-du-premier-ministre-10673384 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Radio-télévision belge de la Communauté française |language=fr |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207160811/https://www.rtbf.be/article/estonie-l-europhile-convaincue-kaja-kallas-designee-au-poste-du-premier-ministre-10673384 |url-status=live }}</ref> She struck a deal with the Centre Party, with Kallas now serving as prime minister.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Kallas' coalition votes total second-highest since independence restoration |url=https://news.err.ee/1608086218/kallas-coalition-votes-total-second-highest-since-independence-restoration |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201063626/https://news.err.ee/1608086218/kallas-coalition-votes-total-second-highest-since-independence-restoration |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2022 however, the coalition government between the Centre and Reform Party collapsed due to Centre Party's opposition against a law regarding education.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Belga |first=Par |last2=Louvigny |first2=Adeline |date=3 June 2022 |title=Estonie: la coalition gouvernementale s'effondre |url=https://www.rtbf.be/article/estonie-la-coalition-gouvernementale-s-effondre-11006114 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Radio-télévision belge de la Communauté française |language=fr |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201070629/https://www.rtbf.be/article/estonie-la-coalition-gouvernementale-s-effondre-11006114 |url-status=live }}</ref> This occurred during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]; the Centre Party was seen as being close to the [[Russians in Estonia|Russian minority]] in Estonia.<ref name=":0" /> In response, Kallas opened negotiations with Isamaa and SDE, successfully forming a [[Kaja Kallas' second cabinet|government]] on 15 July 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2022 |title=Riigikogu grants Kallas mandate to form new government |url=https://news.err.ee/1608658447/riigikogu-grants-kallas-mandate-to-form-new-government |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=15 July 2022 |title=Estonian parliament confirms PM Kallas to lead new government |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/estonian-parliament-confirms-pm-kallas-lead-new-government-2022-07-15/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207145259/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/estonian-parliament-confirms-pm-kallas-lead-new-government-2022-07-15/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Electoral system ==
The Riigikogu is made up of 101 seats and its representatives are elected by [[proportional representation]] in twelve multi-member constituencies.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 January 2015 |title=Riigikogu Election Act |url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/501092014005/consolide/current |accessdate=1 April 2015 |publisher=Riigi Teataja |archive-date=12 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200912184449/https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/501092014005/consolide/current |url-status=live }}</ref> Of this total, 75 seats are to be filled in 12 constituencies of 5 to 15 seats depending on their population, and the remaining 26 seats, known as "compensation seats", are allocated using the [[d'Hondt method]] to all parties that exceeded the 5% [[electoral threshold]], to bring the results in terms of seats as close as possible to those of the vote of the population.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Estonia: Riigikogu (The Estonian Parliament) |url=http://archive.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/2105.htm |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Inter-Parliamentary Union Parline |archive-date=8 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208181137/http://archive.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/2105.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Valimised |url=https://www.eesti.ee/et/kodakondsus-ja-dokumendid/kodakondsus/valimised |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti.ee |language=et |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207150124/https://www.eesti.ee/et/kodakondsus-ja-dokumendid/kodakondsus/valimised |url-status=live }}</ref> Voters have the possibility of casting a preferential vote for one of the candidates on the list for which they are voting.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> If a candidate collects more preferential votes than the amount of the simple quotient in his constituency, they are declared elected even if the list for which they are candidate for fails to cross the 5% electoral threshold.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

In November 2022, president [[Alar Karis]] signed the election decree, setting the date for 5 March 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 November 2022 |title=President signs election decree, warns against two-party battle |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |url=https://news.err.ee/1608803485/president-signs-election-decree-warns-against-two-party-battle |access-date=7 February 2023 |archive-date=9 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209091359/https://news.err.ee/1608803485/president-signs-election-decree-warns-against-two-party-battle |url-status=live }}</ref> Estonian citizens who are at least 18 years, are registered in the voting list, have not been declared incapacitated or convicted of a crime by a court, or serving a prison sentence have the right to vote.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=23 January 2023 |title=Valimiste korralduses tehtud muudatused peaks hääletamise mugavamaks tegema |url=https://www.err.ee/1608858128/valimiste-korralduses-tehtud-muudatused-peaks-haaletamise-mugavamaks-tegema |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=31 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131185124/https://www.err.ee/1608858128/valimiste-korralduses-tehtud-muudatused-peaks-haaletamise-mugavamaks-tegema |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hääleõigus |url=https://www.valimised.ee/et/valimiste-meelespea/haaleoigus |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et |archive-date=31 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131185123/https://www.valimised.ee/et/valimiste-meelespea/haaleoigus |url-status=live }}</ref> In foreign embassies abroad, voting took place from 18 to 23 February 2023, while to vote by mail in foreign countries, the voter had to submit a written request to the foreign mission by 3 February 2023.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> Advance voting in Estonia took place from 27 February to 4 March, meaning that a voter could vote outside the electoral district of their residence and electronically.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> Unlike in previous election, on 5 March voters will be able to vote in any precinct within the constituency, while voters who had voted electronically during the advance voting would be able to vote on a paper ballot, although their electronic vote would be cancelled.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> Citizens who are not able to go to the polling stations or to vote electronically could order a ballot box at home and vote between 3 and 5 March 2023.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Riigikogu valimised 2023 |url=https://www.valimised.ee/et/riigikogu-valimised-2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015160544/https://www.valimised.ee/et/riigikogu-valimised-2023 |archive-date=15 October 2022 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et}}</ref> Around eighty foreign observers will monitor the election.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=1 March 2023 |title=Around 80 foreign observers monitoring Riigikogu elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608900455/around-80-foreign-observers-monitoring-riigikogu-elections |access-date=4 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302063610/https://news.err.ee/1608900455/around-80-foreign-observers-monitoring-riigikogu-elections |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Seats by electoral district ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! {{No.}}
! Electoral district
! Seats
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 1|1]]
| [[Haabersti]], [[Põhja-Tallinn]] and [[Kristiine]] districts in [[Tallinn]]
| 10
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 2|2]]
| [[Kesklinn, Tallinn|Kesklinn]], [[Lasnamäe]] and [[Pirita]] districts in [[Tallinn]]
| 13
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 3|3]]
| [[Mustamäe]] and [[Nõmme]] districts in [[Tallinn]]
| 8
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 4|4]]
| [[Harju County|Harju]] (excluding [[Tallinn]]) and [[Rapla County|Rapla]] counties
| 16
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 5|5]]
| [[Hiiu County|Hiiu]], [[Lääne County|Lääne]] and [[Saare County|Saare]] counties
| 6
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 6|6]]
| [[Lääne-Viru County|Lääne-Viru]] county
| 5
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 7|7]]
| [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]] county
| 6
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 8|8]]
| [[Järva County|Järva]] and [[Viljandi County|Viljandi]] counties
| 7
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 9|9]]
| [[Jõgeva County|Jõgeva]] and [[Tartu County|Tartu]] counties (excluding [[Tartu]])
| 7
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 10|10]]
| City of [[Tartu]]
| 8
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 11|11]]
| [[Võru County|Võru]], [[Valga County|Valga]] and [[Põlva County|Põlva]] counties
| 8
|-
| [[Riigikogu electoral district no. 12|12]]
| [[Pärnu County|Pärnu]] county
| 7
|-
| colspan="3"| Source: Eesti Rahvusringhääling<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 November 2022 |title=Harju- ja Raplamaa saab Ida-Viru arvelt valimistel ühe mandaadi juurde |url=https://www.err.ee/1608786028/harju-ja-raplamaa-saab-ida-viru-arvelt-valimistel-uhe-mandaadi-juurde |access-date=8 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215233826/https://www.err.ee/1608786028/harju-ja-raplamaa-saab-ida-viru-arvelt-valimistel-uhe-mandaadi-juurde |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

=== Pre-election composition ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"
| colspan="7" style="text-align:center" | {{Parliament diagram
| width = 250
| background = #f8f9fa
| n1 = 9 | p1 = Social Democratic Party (Estonia)
| n2 = 23 | p2 = Estonian Centre Party (2023)
| n3 = 34 | p3 = Estonian Reform Party
| n4 = 11 | p4 = Isamaa
| n5 = 1 | p5 = Parempoolsed
| n6 = 19 | p6 = Conservative People's Party of Estonia
| n7 = 4 | p7 = Independent
}}
|-
! colspan="2"| Party
! Seats
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"|
| align="left"| [[Estonian Reform Party]]
| 34
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}"|
| align="left"| [[Estonian Centre Party]]
| 23
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}"|
| align="left"| [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia]]
| 19
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Isamaa}}"|
| align="left"| [[Isamaa]]
| 11
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Estonia)}}"|
| align="left"| [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]]
| 9
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Parempoolsed}}"|
| align="left"| [[Parempoolsed]]
| 1
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Independent politician}}"|
| align="left"| [[Independent politician|Independents]]
| 4
|-
| style="text-align:left" colspan="3"| Source: Riigikogu<ref>{{cite web |title=Riigikogu liikmed: Faktsioonid |url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/riigikogu/koosseis/riigikogu-liikmed/ |publisher=Riigikogu |access-date=7 February 2023 |language=et |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101145345/http://www.riigikogu.ee/riigikogu/koosseis/riigikogu-liikmed/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

== Contesting parties ==
The Estonian National Electoral Committee announced that 9 political parties and 10 individual candidates registered to take part in the 2023 parliamentary election. Their registration numbers and order were determined by a draw lot.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 January 2023 |title=Riigikogu valimistele soovis registreeruda 9 erakonda ja 11 üksikkandidaati |url=https://www.valimised.ee/et/riigikogu-valimistele-soovis-registreeruda-9-erakonda-ja-11-uksikkandidaati |access-date=5 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205025042/https://www.valimised.ee/et/riigikogu-valimistele-soovis-registreeruda-9-erakonda-ja-11-uksikkandidaati |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 January 2023 |title=Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon registreeris Riigikogu valimisteks 968 kandidaati |url=https://www.valimised.ee/et/vabariigi-valimiskomisjon-registreeris-riigikogu-valimisteks-968-kandidaati |access-date=5 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205025040/https://www.valimised.ee/et/vabariigi-valimiskomisjon-registreeris-riigikogu-valimisteks-968-kandidaati |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kandidaadid |url=https://rk2023.valimised.ee/et/candidates/electoral_district/general |access-date=5 February 2023 |website=Valimised |language=et |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205025040/https://rk2023.valimised.ee/et/candidates/electoral_district/general |url-status=live }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
! rowspan="2"| {{No.}}
! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| Name
! rowspan="2"| Ideology
! rowspan="2"| Political position
! rowspan="2"| Leader
! rowspan="2"| Total candidates
! colspan="2"| 2019 result
|-
! Votes (%)
! Seats
|-
! {{center|1}}
| style="background:{{party color|Parempoolsed}}"|
| [[Parempoolsed]]
| [[Fiscal conservatism]]
| [[Centre-right]]
| [[Lavly Perling]]
| 125
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| ''Party did not exist''
|-
! {{center|2}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Greens}}"|
| [[Estonian Greens|Greens]]
| [[Green politics]]
| [[Centre-left]]
| [[Johanna Maria Tõugu]]
| 58
| style="text-align:center"| 1.8%
| {{Composition bar|0|101|{{party color|Estonian Greens}}}}
|-
! {{center|3}}
| style="background:{{party color|Isamaa}}"|
| [[Isamaa]]
| [[National conservatism]]
| [[Centre-right]] to [[right-wing]]
| [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 11.4%
| {{Composition bar|12|101|{{party color|Isamaa}}}}
|-
! {{center|4}}
| style="background:{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Estonia)}}"|
| [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]]
| [[Social democracy]]
| [[Centre-left]]
| [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 9.8%
| {{Composition bar|10|101|{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Estonia)}}}}
|-
! {{center|5}}
| style="background:{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}"|
| [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia|Conservative People's Party]]
| [[Right-wing populism]]
| [[Right-wing]] to [[far-right]]
| [[Martin Helme]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 17.8%
| {{Composition bar|19|101|{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}}}
|-
! {{center|6}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}"|
| [[Estonia 200]]
| [[Liberalism]]
| [[Centrism|Centre]]
| [[Lauri Hussar]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 4.4%
| {{Composition bar|0|101|{{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}}}
|-
! {{center|7}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"|
| [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]]
| [[Classical liberalism]]
| [[Centre-right]]
| [[Kaja Kallas]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 28.9%
| {{Composition bar|34|101|{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}}}
|-
! {{center|8}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}"|
| [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]]
| [[Social liberalism]]
| [[Centre-left]]
| [[Jüri Ratas]]
| 125
| style="text-align:center"| 23.1%
| {{Composition bar|26|101|{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}}}
|-
! {{center|9}}
| style="background:{{party color|Estonian United Left Party}}"|
| [[Estonian United Left Party|United Left Party]]–[[Koos/Together]]{{efn|According to ''Eesti Ekspress'', the Tartu County Court did not register the Russian nationalist political group "Koos/Together" as a political party on 30 November 2022, as the total number of its members was below the required minimum of 500. The "[[Putinist]]" group's leaders decided to participate in the 2023 elections on the list of the [[Estonian United Left Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eesti putinistide erakonda ei registeeritud ja riigikogu valimistel nad osaleda ei tohi |url=https://ekspress.delfi.ee/a/120109138 |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Ekspress |language=et |date=5 March 2023 |archive-date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214193131/https://ekspress.delfi.ee/a/120109138 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| [[Russian nationalism]]{{efn|In the online Russian-language edition of [[Postimees]], publicist Valery Saïkovski has asserted that "the United Left Party is only relevant for Russian nationalist purposes."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Saïkovski |first1=Valery |title=Non-systemic left opposition: why there are almost only Russians and there is no result |url=https://rus.postimees.ee/7123041/vnesistemnaya-levaya-oppoziciya-pochemu-tam-pochti-odni-russkie-i-net-rezultata |website=[[Postimees]] |date=2 December 2020 |access-date=24 June 2022}}</ref>}}
| [[Left-wing]]
| [[Igor Rosenfeld]]
| 25
| style="text-align:center"| 0.1%
| {{Composition bar|0|101|{{party color|Estonian United Left Party}}}}
|-
! {{center|—}}
| style="background:{{party color|Independent politician}}"|
| [[Independent politician|Individual candidates]]
| colspan="3"| —
| 10
| style="text-align:center"| 0.3%
| {{Composition bar|0|101|{{party color|Independent politician}}}}
|-
|}

== Campaign ==
=== Issues ===
[[File:Tallinn Ukraina toetusmeeleavaldus 3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|alt=A demonstration in support of Ukraine in Tallinn, Estonia on 26 February 2022|Issues regarding the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine were discussed during the campaign period]]
The ''[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]]'' and ''[[National Public Radio]]'' noted that the issues that were discussed during the campaign period were the cost of living crisis, especially regarding rising prices and inflation, as well as issues regarding security and national defence due to the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 November 2022 |title=FAQ: A brief overview of Estonia's 2023 elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608795952/faq-a-brief-overview-of-estonia-s-2023-elections |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119163938/https://news.err.ee/1608795952/faq-a-brief-overview-of-estonia-s-2023-elections |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Schmitz |first=Rob |date=4 March 2023 |title=Ukraine is dominating the election in Estonia, a key NATO ally. Here's what to watch |work=National Public Radio |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/03/04/1160926037/ukraine-war-estonia-election-nato-russia |access-date=5 March 2023 |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135221/https://www.npr.org/2023/03/04/1160926037/ukraine-war-estonia-election-nato-russia |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Eesti Rahvusringhääling'' also asserted that the programmes of the contesting parties were largely influenced by the current war in Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=15 January 2023 |title=Analüütikud: valimiste põhiteemaks saab julgeolek või inimeste toimetulek |url=https://www.err.ee/1608851294/analuutikud-valimiste-pohiteemaks-saab-julgeolek-voi-inimeste-toimetulek |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119142059/https://www.err.ee/1608851294/analuutikud-valimiste-pohiteemaks-saab-julgeolek-voi-inimeste-toimetulek |url-status=live }}</ref> Ellu Saar, a sociology professor, and Triin Lauri, an associate professor at the [[Tallinn University]], stated that in the programmes of EKRE and Isamaa stated their support to protect Estonian language in higher education, while [[Estonia 200]] and SDE mention "united schools" where native Estonian-speaking and Russian-speaking students would study together.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Saar |first=Ellu |last2=Lauri |first2=Triin |date=28 February 2023 |title=Analysis: Parties' election programs ignore problems of inequality |url=https://news.err.ee/1608899732/analysis-parties-election-programs-ignore-problems-of-inequality |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228202734/https://news.err.ee/api/statistics/articleStatistics |url-status=live }}</ref>

Saar and Lauri also noted that the Centre Party has a vague opinion regarding the issue of education.<ref name=":5" /> The [[Estonian Greens]] and SDE also mentioned school culture, quality of management, reducing path dependence as issues they would tackle.<ref name=":5" /> The Reform Party also stated its support for introducing national defence classes in schools, while Isamaa stated that there should be more investments in national defence.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=31 January 2023 |title=Several parties call for mandatory school defense education |url=https://news.err.ee/1608870026/several-parties-call-for-mandatory-school-defense-education |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202054946/https://news.err.ee/1608870026/several-parties-call-for-mandatory-school-defense-education |url-status=live }}</ref> The Centre Party called for higher salaries for those who work to contribute to the national defence, SDE suggested to implement a new tax regarding defence spending, while EKRE said that militarised border guards should be brought back.<ref name=":6" /> Anne Raiste of ''Eesti Rahvusringhääling'' noted that the contesting parties all share similar positions regarding foreign policy and that they pledged to implement forms of [[direct democracy]] or a more efficient [[representative democracy]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=31 January 2023 |title=Political parties' election manifestos share similar foreign policy goals |url=https://news.err.ee/1608868757/political-parties-election-manifestos-share-similar-foreign-policy-goals |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155420/https://news.err.ee/1608868757/political-parties-election-manifestos-share-similar-foreign-policy-goals |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=17 February 2023 |title=Political parties pledge more direct democracy, a more efficient Riigikogu |url=https://news.err.ee/1608889109/political-parties-pledge-more-direct-democracy-a-more-efficient-riigikogu |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155427/https://news.err.ee/1608889109/political-parties-pledge-more-direct-democracy-a-more-efficient-riigikogu |url-status=live }}</ref> EKRE and Isamaa have pledged to not accept any new [[2022–2023 Ukrainian refugee crisis|Ukrainian refugees]],<ref name=":9">{{Cite news |date=5 March 2023 |title=Estonia votes in election test for pro-Kyiv government |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/estonia-goes-polls-test-pro-kyiv-government-2023-03-05/ |access-date=5 March 2023 |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135256/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/estonia-goes-polls-test-pro-kyiv-government-2023-03-05/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=5 March 2023 |title=Economy, Ukraine war top campaign issues in Estonia general election |url=https://www.euronews.com/2023/03/05/estonia-election-soaring-inflation-and-weapon-deliveries-to-ukraine-top-voter-concerns |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Euronews |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135242/https://www.euronews.com/2023/03/05/estonia-election-soaring-inflation-and-weapon-deliveries-to-ukraine-top-voter-concerns |url-status=live }}</ref> while on the other hand, the Reform Party has stated that it would continue accepting new Ukrainian refugees.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |date=5 March 2023 |title=Estonia Is Voting Sunday |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/estonia-is-voting-sunday-/6990379.html |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=VOA |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135234/https://www.voanews.com/a/estonia-is-voting-sunday-/6990379.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Euronews]]'' has noted that EKRE's support in opinion polls fell down due to alleged links with Russia.<ref name=":10" />

Regarding the economy, Raiste also said that the contesting parties had pledged to raise pensions to €1,000 or more.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raiste |first=Anne |date=2 February 2023 |title=Parties pledge €1,000 pensions, more senior centers and flexible pensions |url=https://news.err.ee/1608872807/parties-pledge-1-000-pensions-more-senior-centers-and-flexible-pensions |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155419/https://news.err.ee/1608872807/parties-pledge-1-000-pensions-more-senior-centers-and-flexible-pensions |url-status=live }}</ref> The Centre Party stated its support for the introduction of [[progressive taxation]], while SDE and the Greens had adopted similar positions.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Pott |first=Toomas |date=14 February 2023 |title=Political parties try to woo voters with tax cut promises |url=https://news.err.ee/1608885440/political-parties-try-to-woo-voters-with-tax-cut-promises |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155418/https://news.err.ee/1608885440/political-parties-try-to-woo-voters-with-tax-cut-promises |url-status=live }}</ref> On the other hand, Reform stated that it would [[balance the budget]], while EKRE called for reduction of taxes.<ref name=":7" /> Estonia 200 said that labour taxes should be lowered while Parempoolsed promised to not introduce any new taxes.<ref name=":7" /> Scholars Liili Abuladze and Luule Sakkeus stated that EKRE and Isamaa put their family policy focuses on families with many children and that the needs of those most vulnerable are hardly addressed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Abuladze |first=Liili |last2=Sakkeus |first2=Luule |date=26 February 2023 |title=Analüüs: Erakondade perekonnapoliitika lubadused |url=https://www.err.ee/1608897593/analuus-erakondade-perekonnapoliitika-lubadused |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228041009/https://www.err.ee/1608897593/analuus-erakondade-perekonnapoliitika-lubadused |url-status=live }}</ref> EKRE has also stated its opposition to transition to [[sustainable energy]] to lower energy bills, while the Reform Party has pledged to adopt sustainable energy.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11" /> EKRE has criticised Kallas' Reform Party due to the growing inflation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tanner |first=Jari |date=4 March 2023 |title=Ukraine ally Kallas fights for reelection in Estonia vote |url=https://apnews.com/article/estonia-parliamentary-election-ukraine-russia-war-kallas-757d969e3b76312962292898c6c59bcc |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Associated Press |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135240/https://apnews.com/article/estonia-parliamentary-election-ukraine-russia-war-kallas-757d969e3b76312962292898c6c59bcc |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Debates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:85%; line-height:15px; text-align:center;"
! colspan="12"| 2023 Estonian parliamentary election debates
|-
! rowspan="3"| Date
! rowspan="3"| Organisers
! colspan="9"| {{small|  }} {{Colors|black|#D0FFD0| P }} {{small|Present  }} {{Colors|black|#FFD0D0| N }} {{small|Non-invitee }}
|-
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia|EKRE]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Estonia 200|E200]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|SDE]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Isamaa]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Estonian Greens|EER]]
! scope="col" style="width:5em"| [[Parempoolsed]]
! rowspan="2"| Refs
|-
! style="background:{{party color|Estonian Reform Party}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Conservative People's Party of Estonia}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Estonia)}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Isamaa}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Estonian Greens}}"|
! style="background:{{party color|Parempoolsed}}"|
|-
| {{nowrap|1 March}}
| [[Eesti Televisioon]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kaja Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Martin Helme]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jüri Ratas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Hussar]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lavly Perling]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Kell 21.40 ETV valimisdebattide suur finaal: peaministrikandidaatide debatt |url=https://www.err.ee/1608900950/kell-21-40-etv-valimisdebattide-suur-finaal-peaministrikandidaatide-debatt |access-date=4 March 2023 |date=1 March 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=2 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302081607/https://www.err.ee/1608900950/kell-21-40-etv-valimisdebattide-suur-finaal-peaministrikandidaatide-debatt |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|27 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Urmas Klaas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Valge]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaan Toots]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristina Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Krista Aru]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tõnis Lukas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Johanna Maria Tõugu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Elmo Somelar]]
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Teedema |first1=Kristjan |title=Tartu esinumbrid debateerisid olulistel teemadel |url=https://tartu.postimees.ee/7721004/jarelvaadatav-tartu-esinumbrid-debateerisid-olulistel-teemadel |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=27 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227220901/https://tartu.postimees.ee/7721004/jarelvaadatav-tartu-esinumbrid-debateerisid-olulistel-teemadel |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|23 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jürgen Ligi]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Madison]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Aab]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ando Kiviberg]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Priit Põllumäe]]
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Loide |first1=Triin |last2=Saarm |first2=Marko |last3=Riig |first3=Elmo |title=Üks valimisdebatt, seitse esinumbrit, palju küsimusi ja veidi tüli |url=https://jarvateataja.postimees.ee/7718725/uks-valimisdebatt-seitse-esinumbrit-palju-kusimusi-ja-veidi-tuli |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Postimees |date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227125056/https://jarvateataja.postimees.ee/7718725/uks-valimisdebatt-seitse-esinumbrit-palju-kusimusi-ja-veidi-tuli |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|23 Feb}}
| [[Lääne Elu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kalle Laanet]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helle-Moonika Helme]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Janek Mäggi]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kalev Stoicescu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Madis Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Mikk Lõhmus]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marko Kaasik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristjan Vanaselja]]
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Raigla |first1=Malle-Liisa |title=Valimisdebatt sotsiaalmajas: me ei taha enam sellist riigikogu |url=https://online.le.ee/2023/02/23/valimisdebatt-sotsiaalmajas-me-ei-taha-enam-sellist-riigikogu/ |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=23 February 2023 |work=Lääne Elu |language=et |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227203311/https://online.le.ee/2023/02/23/valimisdebatt-sotsiaalmajas-me-ei-taha-enam-sellist-riigikogu/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|22 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jüri Ratas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Hussar]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Müller |first1=Arp |last2=Ojakivi |first2=Mirko |title=Jüri Ratas, Lauri Hussar lock swords in heated Vikerradio head-to-head show |url=https://news.err.ee/1608894836/juri-ratas-lauri-hussar-lock-swords-in-heated-vikerradio-head-to-head-show |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227203900/https://news.err.ee/1608894836/juri-ratas-lauri-hussar-lock-swords-in-heated-vikerradio-head-to-head-show |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|22 Feb}}
| [[Eesti Televisioon]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristen Michal]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Rain Epler]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Taavi Aas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marek Reinaas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Riina Sikkut]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Priit Sibul]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Siim Kiisler]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Kell 21.40 "Valimisstuudios" erakondade majandusdebatt |url=https://www.err.ee/1608894179/kell-21-40-valimisstuudios-erakondade-majandusdebatt |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=22 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223231252/https://www.err.ee/1608894179/kell-21-40-valimisstuudios-erakondade-majandusdebatt |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|21 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Läänemets]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helir-Valdor Seeder]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lavly Perling]]
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ojakivi |first1=Mirko |title=SDE, Parempoolsed and Isamaa leaders debate key issues ahead of elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608893036/sde-parempoolsed-and-isamaa-leaders-debate-key-issues-ahead-of-elections |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=21 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=22 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222080501/https://news.err.ee/1608893036/sde-parempoolsed-and-isamaa-leaders-debate-key-issues-ahead-of-elections |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|20 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Yoko Alender]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Rain Epler]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ismail Mirzojev]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Gea Kangilaski]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lemmit Kaplinski]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Priit Humal]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kaia Solnik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Indrek Adler]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Oecologicumis toimuval valimisdebatil vaetakse keskkonnateemasid |url=https://tartu.postimees.ee/7716469/oecologicumis-toimuval-valimisdebatil-vaetakse-keskkonnateemasid |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=20 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=21 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221142848/https://tartu.postimees.ee/7716469/oecologicumis-toimuval-valimisdebatil-vaetakse-keskkonnateemasid |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|16 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jürgen Ligi]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kalle Grünthal]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kersti Sarapuu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kaspar Taimsoo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Eimar Veldre]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ründo Mülts]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Oliver Rohesalu]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Priit Põllumäe]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Otse: Riigikogu kandidaatide valimisdebatt |url=https://jarvateataja.postimees.ee/7713801/otse-riigikogu-kandidaatide-valimisdebatt |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=16 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216125445/https://jarvateataja.postimees.ee/7713801/otse-riigikogu-kandidaatide-valimisdebatt |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|16 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Signe Risalo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kert Kingo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tanel Kiik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Irja Lutsar]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Helmen Kütt]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lea Danilson-Järg]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marelle Erlenheim]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Third 'Valimisstuudio' election debate focuses on healthcare |url=https://news.err.ee/1608887429/third-valimisstuudio-election-debate-focuses-on-healthcare |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=16 February 2023 |archive-date=17 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217072044/https://news.err.ee/1608887429/third-valimisstuudio-election-debate-focuses-on-healthcare |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|16 Feb}}
| [[Eesti Televisioon]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marko Kaasik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristjan Vanaselja]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Valimisdebatt: Parempoolsed ja Rohelised jäid tuumajaama teemal eriarvamusele |url=https://www.err.ee/1608888647/valimisdebatt-parempoolsed-ja-rohelised-jaid-tuumajaama-teemal-eriarvamusele |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=16 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228202705/https://www.err.ee/api/statistics/articleStatistics |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|15 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Signe Riisalo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kert Kingo]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Monika Haukanõmm]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Diana Ingerainen]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Heljo Pikhof]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Merike Värik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Susanna Saar]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Toomas Kasemaa]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Valimisdebatt keskendub puuetega inimeste toimetulekule |url=https://www.postimees.ee/7712677/otse-valimisdebatt-keskendub-puuetega-inimeste-toimetulekule |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=15 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215080749/https://www.postimees.ee/7712677/otse-valimisdebatt-keskendub-puuetega-inimeste-toimetulekule |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|13 Feb}}
| [[Postimees]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Andres Sutt]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Raul Siem]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Andrei Korobeinik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristina Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Riina Sikkut]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristjan Järvan]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Marti Soosaar]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lavly Perling]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Tehnoloogiaettevõtjad: Eesti kasutab tehnoloogiasektori võimekusest tühise osa |url=https://www.postimees.ee/7708474/valimisdebatt-tehnoloogiaettevotjad-eesti-kasutab-tehnoloogiasektori-voimekusest-tuhise-osa |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=13 February 2023 |work=Postimees |language=et |archive-date=13 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213105502/https://www.postimees.ee/7708474/valimisdebatt-tehnoloogiaettevotjad-eesti-kasutab-tehnoloogiasektori-voimekusest-tuhise-osa |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|9 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Liina Kersna]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Valge]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Aab]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristina Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Piret Hartman]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tauno Õunapuu]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Second 'Valimisstuudio' election debate on education, science and culture |url=https://news.err.ee/1608879242/second-valimisstuudio-election-debate-on-education-science-and-culture |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=9 February 2023 |language=et |archive-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212205247/https://news.err.ee/1608879242/second-valimisstuudio-election-debate-on-education-science-and-culture |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|7 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Annely Akkermann]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Siim Pohlak]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Laats]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Joakim Helenius]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Lauri Paeveer]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Aivar Kokk]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Alar Voitka]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title="Vikerraadio" valimisdebatis vaieldi laenukoormuse ja uute maksude üle |url=https://www.err.ee/1608877121/vikerraadio-valimisdebatis-vaieldi-laenukoormuse-ja-uute-maksude-ule |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=7 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=24 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230224232916/https://www.err.ee/1608877121/vikerraadio-valimisdebatis-vaieldi-laenukoormuse-ja-uute-maksude-ule |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|2 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Liina Kersna]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Loone Ots]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tõnis Mölder]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Kristina Kallas]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jevgeni Ossinovski]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tõnis Lukas]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Andres Kaarmann]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Valimisstuudio. Riigikogu valimised. Haridus ja teadus |url=https://vikerraadio.err.ee/1608857249/valimisstuudio-riigikogu-valimised-haridus-ja-teadus |access-date=28 February 2023 |date=2 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=et |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223084800/https://vikerraadio.err.ee/1608857249/valimisstuudio-riigikogu-valimised-haridus-ja-teadus |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|2 Feb}}
| {{abbr|AmCham|American Chamber of Commerce in Estonia}} {{abbr|FICE|Foreign Investors Council of Estonia}}
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Andres Sutt]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Martin Helme]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Tanel Kiik]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Joakim Helenius]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Riina Sikkut]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Urmas Reinsalu]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Whyte |first1=Andrew |title=AmCham/FICE pre-election political party debate |url=https://news.err.ee/1608871619/watch-again-amcham-fice-pre-election-political-party-debate |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=2 February 2023 |archive-date=8 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208095913/https://news.err.ee/1608871619/watch-again-amcham-fice-pre-election-political-party-debate |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|1 Feb}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Hanno Pevkur]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Madison]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Neeme Väli]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Margus Tsahkna]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Raimond Kaljulaid]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Urmas Reinsalu]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ilmar Raag]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Security first topic of 'Valimisstuudio' series of election debates |url=https://news.err.ee/1608871661/security-first-topic-of-valimisstuudio-series-of-election-debates |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=2 February 2023 |language=et |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204034326/https://news.err.ee/1608871661/security-first-topic-of-valimisstuudio-series-of-election-debates |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{nowrap|31 Jan}}
| [[Vikerraadio]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Meelis Kiili]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Jaak Valge]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Mihhail Kõlvart]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Aleksei Jašin]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Piret Hartman]]
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Hendrik Agur]]
| style="background:#FFD0D0"| '''N'''
| style="background:#D0FFD0"| '''P''' [[Ivo Loide]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Vikerraadio elections debate: Learning language key to integration |url=https://news.err.ee/1608870431/vikerraadio-elections-debate-learning-language-key-to-integration |access-date=28 February 2023 |work=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |date=1 February 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223155418/https://news.err.ee/1608870431/vikerraadio-elections-debate-learning-language-key-to-integration |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

== Opinion polls ==
{{main|Opinion polling for the 2023 Estonian parliamentary election}}
[[File:Opinion polls Estonia 2019-2023.svg|center|thumb|1000x1000px|[[Local regression]] chart of poll results from 3 March 2019 to 5 March 2023]]

== Results ==
Voting at Estonian foreign embassies took place between 18 and 23 February 2023.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Parliamentary elections 2023 |url=https://www.valimised.ee/en/parliamentary-elections-2023/parliamentary-elections-2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Valimised |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227121607/https://www.valimised.ee/en/parliamentary-elections-2023/parliamentary-elections-2023 |url-status=live }}</ref> The National Electoral Committee had announced that over 456,000 voters cast their ballot during the pre-election period, which began on 27 February and ended before 5 March, a majority of whom voted online.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 February 2023 |title=13 percent of Estonia's electorate have already voted |url=https://news.err.ee/1608899960/13-percent-of-estonia-s-electorate-have-already-voted |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228202706/https://platform.twitter.com/embed/Tweet.html?dnt=false&embedId=twitter-widget-1&features=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%3D&frame=false&hideCard=false&hideThread=false&id=1629405767576047616&lang=en&origin=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.err.ee%2F1608897260%2Faround-1-300-russian-belarusian-citizens-firearms-permits-to-be-revoked&sessionId=0dd4b0d6c9e45d6b45d1b07e23b6a48bd9a2cf8c&siteScreenName=errnews&theme=light&widgetsVersion=aaf4084522e3a%3A1674595607486&width=550px |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 March 2023 |title=Estonia sets new e-voting record at Riigikogu 2023 elections |url=https://news.err.ee/1608904730/estonia-sets-new-e-voting-record-at-riigikogu-2023-elections |access-date=5 March 2023 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305135218/https://news.err.ee/1608904730/estonia-sets-new-e-voting-record-at-riigikogu-2023-elections |url-status=live }}</ref> Voting stations on 5 March 2023 are opened from 9:00 am to 8:00 pm.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Election activities and deadlines – Election of the Riigikogu 2023 |url=https://www.valimised.ee/en/parliament-2023/election-activities-and-deadlines-election-riigikogu-2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Valimised |archive-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129230510/https://www.valimised.ee/en/parliament-2023/election-activities-and-deadlines-election-riigikogu-2023 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-03 |title=Expert: Poll variations can be cause for celebration for Reform and EKRE |url=https://news.err.ee/1608903230/expert-poll-variations-can-be-cause-for-celebration-for-reform-and-ekre |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=Eesti Rahvusringhääling |language=en}}</ref> There are 966,105 citizens that have the right to vote in the election.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Key participation figures |url=https://www.valimised.ee/en |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Valimised |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227141223/https://www.valimised.ee/en |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Election results
| image = {{Parliament diagram
| background = #F8F9FA
| n1 = 101 | c1 = #DCDCDC}}
| party1 = [[Estonian Reform Party]]
| votes1 =
| seats1 =
| sc1 =

| party2 = [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia]]
| votes2 =
| seats2 =
| sc2 =

| party3 = [[Estonian Centre Party]]
| colour3 = {{party color|Estonian Centre Party (2023)}}
| votes3 =
| seats3 =
| sc3 =

| party4 = [[Estonia 200]]
| colour4 = {{party color|Estonia 200 (2021)}}
| votes4 =
| seats4 =
| sc4 =

| party5 = [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]]
| votes5 =
| seats5 =
| sc5 =

| party6 = [[Isamaa]]
| votes6 =
| seats6 =
| sc6 =

| party7 = [[Estonian Greens]]
| votes7 =
| seats7 =
| sc7 =

| party8 = [[Parempoolsed]]
| votes8 =
| seats8 =
| sc8 =

| party9 = [[Estonian United Left Party]]–[[Koos/Together|Koos]]
| votes9 =
| seats9 =
| sc9 =

| party10 = [[Independent politician|Independents]]
| votes10 =
| seats10 =
| sc10 =

| total_sc =
| invalid =
| electorate = 966105
| source = National Electoral Committee<ref>{{cite web |title=Riigikogu elections 2023: Voting results in detail |url=https://rk2023.valimised.ee/en/detailed-voting-result/index.html |website=Valimised |access-date=28 February 2023 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228202659/https://rk2023.valimised.ee/en/detailed-voting-result/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[https://www.valimised.ee/en Official website] of the National Electoral Committee

{{Estonian elections}}
[[Category:Parliamentary elections in Estonia]]
[[Category:2023 elections in Europe|Estonia]]
[[Category:2023 in Estonia|Parliamentary]]