Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Talk:Ron Stallworth

2023-10-10T16:25:26Z

66.172.182.2:

{{bannershell|1=
{{WikiProject Biography |living=yes |listas=Stallworth, Ron |class=Start}}
{{WikiProject Law enforcement|class=start|importance=low}}
{{WikiProject United States|class=start|importance=low|CO=yes|CO-importance=low}}
|blp=y
}}
== Photo ==

[[File:Ronnie Stallworth cheerleader.jpg|thumb|Ron Stallworth in 1969, at Austin High School, El Paso, Texas, doing a jump in cheerleader tryouts, scanned from the 1970 Round Up, his junior-year annual.]]

I added this photo from Stallworth's high-school yearbook (for which I was the head photographer that year), and [[User:Amsgearing]] removed it, with summary ''non-sensical to use an unverified high school cheerleading photo for a guy known for a career in law enforcement''. He has not responded to my query on his talk page about how this is "unverified" or why it's nonsensical to use a public-domain image of him on an article with no images. I put it back, he removed it again, wanting to discuss here, while ignoring the discussion I started, so here we are. By the way, before I uploaded the image, I checked with Stallworth to see if he cared one way or the other, and he said go ahead. Comments? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 04:47, 10 September 2018 (UTC)
: This would all be great - if it was verifiable. I don't have a copy of the yearbook, and I don't know of anywhere online where we could view the entire thing. I'm not saying it isn't real, but a cornerstone of Wikipedia is verifiability, and there's nothing stopping anyone from grabbing a random picture and labeling it with a subject's name and claiming it's from their yearbook. As for "I checked with Stallworth to see if he cared one way or the other, and he said go ahead" - well, maybe you did. But how would anyone know that for sure? What's stopping me from saying "I asked Stallworth about this and he said he was never a cheerleader in high school"? Because this is a BLP, that pic has to be vierifiable, and even if it was, is it really appropriate to make the main picture on the subject's page a cheerleading picture, when he's known for being a police officer? No, it isn't. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 13:05, 10 September 2018 (UTC)
::You're welcome to look at my copy (or someone in Silicon Valley can come visit me to have a look; or I can ask a fellow Wikipedian at work to look and certify that I'm not making this up), or drop in at Austin High School and look at their copy. Or I can scan that whole page and others for you; email me. Anyway, verifiable it is, whether that's easy for you to see or not. I'm not asking anyone to rely on my private exchange with Stallworth; I just mention that in case anyone thinks he might prefer that that picture not be used to represent him; that's why I offered him the choice; connect with him on LinkedIn and ask yourself if you think I'm pulling your leg. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 14:28, 10 September 2018 (UTC)
::: Unfortunately, none of those options are how Wikipedia works. See [[WP:VERIFY]] for a list of your options. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 19:57, 10 September 2018 (UTC)
::: Also, while you're reading, also check out [[MOS:IMAGERELEVANCE]]. Specifically, the part the says "A biography should lead with a portrait photograph of the subject alone." Obviously the cheerleading jump doesn't qualify, even if we could verify that it's really Ron Stallworth. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 20:01, 10 September 2018 (UTC)
::::Verifiability comes from it being in a published book, which it is. What are suggesting at [[WP:VERIFY]] that I need to do beyond verifying that it's in the book? As to [[MOS:IMAGERELEVANCE]], perhaps you missed where it says "When possible, find better images and improve captions instead of simply removing poor or inappropriate ones, especially on pages with few visuals." Personally, I think this photo says something about who he was, just a few years before he became a police officer; he was very at ease operating in a mostly white and Hispanic environment for one thing. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 21:27, 10 September 2018 (UTC)
::::: Simply put, there's no way to verify, currently, that that's really Ron Stallworth, and that's the problem. No, "Verifiability" is not '''simply''' "from it being in a published book"; it's not that easy, and I know you want it to be, because that would serve your purpose, but you can't will a rule into existence. As for ""When possible, find better images", that's trumped by the guideline that's specifically about biographical pages, which this is. If you want to continue this argument, I have to tell you that i find your current arguments unconvincing, and you'll have to seek out advice from someone else at this point. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 21:47, 10 September 2018 (UTC)

A third opinion has been requested at [[Wikipedia:Third opinion#Active disagreements]]. 22:06, 10 September 2018 (UTC)
{|style="border-top:solid thin lightgrey;background:transparent;padding:4px;"
|[[Image:Searchtool-80%.png|15px|link=]] '''Response to [[WP:Third opinion|third opinion request]] (Use of Yearbook Photo)''':
|-
|style="padding-left:0.6cm"|I am responding to a third opinion request for this page. I have made no previous edits on Ron Stallworth and have no known association with the editors involved in this discussion. The third opinion process is informal and I have no special powers or authority apart from being a fresh pair of eyes.
{{!}}-
{{!}}style="padding-left:0.6cm"{{!}}
First [[WP:V]] is obviously important but the claim the yearbook photo is making is that it is a yearbook photo of Stallworth as a cheerleader. Is the yearbook a reliable source for whether it says that Stallworth is a cheerleader? Yes. It is not a reliable source in general but for this particular claim can be seen as RS. The fact that a source is difficult to obtain for many editors for whatever reason isn't a legitimate reason not to use a source. That said I still wouldn't include the picture on this page. It's not a great photo of him, his time in High School is mentioned only in passing (and right fully so given why he's notable), and it's not representative of him as an adult. Given that there are currently no other photos if it were a good head-on shot of him in HS then maybe it would belong, but overall despite enjoying the photograph, I agree it doesn't belong on this page. Best, [[User:Barkeep49|Barkeep49]] ([[User_talk:Barkeep49|talk]]) 22:55, 10 September 2018 (UTC)
|}
::So his headshot from the same volume might be preferable, even though it's boring? Or the photo of him posing with the student council group maybe? Or the one where he's actually cheerleading at a football game (but that one doesn't have his name in the caption)? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 02:42, 11 September 2018 (UTC)
:::Yes in my thinking a headshot is more likely to add some illustrative value to the article for the reader. Again if we can get either a modern or historically licensed photo that would supplant the high school yearbook shot - which really should be a last resort - but that's the circumstance we're in. But really only if it can be made reasonable decent in terms of image quality at the size we'd need it. Best, [[User:Barkeep49|Barkeep49]] ([[User_talk:Barkeep49|talk]]) 03:00, 11 September 2018 (UTC)

*Summoned here by a notice at MOS/SomethingOrOther. There's no OR problem -- a yearbook is a reliable source for something like this, as long as there's no reason to doubt that this is right Ron Stallworth (by matching know biographical data). No opinion on relevance. [[User:EEng#s|E]][[User talk:EEng#s|Eng]] 22:00, 25 September 2018 (UTC)
*'''Support''' use of the yearbook portrait headshot, but '''Oppose''' the use of the cheerleading jump photo as it is irrelevant to his notabilty, and quite distracting, in my opinion. {{u|Dicklyon}}, since you have communicated with him through LinkedIn, please consider asking him for a freely licensed contemporary portrait photo. It could even be a selfie. [[User:Cullen328|Cullen328]] [[User talk:Cullen328|''Let's discuss it'']] 18:59, 15 October 2018 (UTC)

==Which photo of Ron Stallworth?==
Given the comments above, is there a better choice for what photo to use on the [[Ron Stallworth]] article? The only ones we know of are from this high-school annual. 03:50, 11 September 2018 (UTC)

[[File:Stallworth in 1970 Round Up.jpg|thumb|800px]]

Here are some more pages, snapped with my cell phone, including an index page and a couple that show that I was photographer for this. Can we pick a better image to use? I will then get a good scan. Note that none of this was ever copyrighted, and it was published before 1977, so is public domain. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 03:36, 11 September 2018 (UTC)

:Is this really the best we can do? Is there not one picture of Ron Stallworth from the years 1972 to 2018 anywhere?? Come on, people. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 13:52, 11 September 2018 (UTC)
::It's not hard to find photos of him online, but getting one that's public domain or licensable is not generally easy. So I realized I had some... [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 14:33, 11 September 2018 (UTC)
::: Well, that's not a great solution. Just because we HAVE a public domain photo, doesn't mean we SHOULD use that public domain photo. Until a more relevant photo is found, no photo is the better option. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 15:19, 11 September 2018 (UTC)
::::This is where we disagree; understood. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 18:10, 11 September 2018 (UTC)
:::::Given the options thus far, I suggest we don't include an image at this time. [[User:Meatsgains|Meatsgains]]([[User talk:Meatsgains|talk]]) 01:44, 12 September 2018 (UTC)
::::::Can you explain why you feel that the image I chose is not a good thing to add to the image, especially in light of Ron telling me it's OK with him? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 15:27, 12 September 2018 (UTC)
::::::: 1) You telling us "Ron said it's okay" is meaningless. 2) See my previous pointer to the Wikipedia policy on main images for bio pages. 3) He's known for being a police detective, not a cheerleader. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 04:28, 13 September 2018 (UTC)
::::::::I realize that the subject's consent is of no particular importance to Wikipedia, but it was to me; I didn't want to upload a photo that he would not like, which is why I reached out to him. I'm not asking anyone to rely on that information, just thought it might be worth sharing. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 05:12, 13 September 2018 (UTC)
::::::::: Sharing is great. But it's relevance we're after. It's not relevant. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 05:34, 14 September 2018 (UTC)
:Using the headshot from the yearbook seems fine, most appropriate as a lead image, I don't think the cheerleading photo is appropiate as a lead image - lead images aren't chosen for interestingness but to depict the person. [[WP:V]] is fine since there is no requirement that a source be easily accessible [[User:Galobtter|Galobtter]] ([[User talk:Galobtter|pingó mió]]) 15:49, 25 September 2018 (UTC)
*A high school headshot would fit well in the 'Early life' section. Or maybe one of those two-images-in-one deals using the headshot first and then the cheerleading image in question, with a single caption summarizing his high school years and activities. Neither are probably ideal for an infobox lead image, but down-the-page use seems reasonable. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 10:32, 26 September 2018 (UTC)
:: I don't think having the only pictures of him in the article come from a high school yearbook would be appropriate. Especially as the events in his life that make him notable all came long after high school. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 21:26, 26 September 2018 (UTC)
:::What I'm proposing is a duo-box image, with a caption underneath running full length. So the head picture and cheerleading acrobats could be counted as one image. Some images seem better than no image, and at some point another editor will also think a more up-to-date image is needed and make an effort to find one. {{u|Dicklyon}}, maybe, if you're in contact with the page subject, you can ask him for a few images to upload. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 22:52, 26 September 2018 (UTC)
::::He's not exactly a bud, just a brief exchange as 3rd-order connection on LinkedIn. Anyone else could reach out as I did and ask for a licensed photo, I suppose. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 02:26, 27 September 2018 (UTC)
::::: "Some images seem better than no image" - no, that's not true at all. And [[MOS:IMAGERELEVANCE]] disagree with that assessment as well. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 15:17, 27 September 2018 (UTC)

Since the source is agreed to be OK, and there's an expressed preference to lead with the head shot, I did that. Randy, if you want to try the "duo box" layout instead, feel free. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 05:24, 8 October 2018 (UTC)
: The only person who "expressed preference to lead with the head shot" was you. It's not appropriate to lead with a high school yearbook picture, period. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 13:24, 9 October 2018 (UTC)
::On the contrary, it was Galobtter who wrote "Using the headshot from the yearbook seems fine, most appropriate as a lead image...". Randy supported using the pictures, too, not necessarily in the lead. Why do you have such a problem with using these images? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 05:49, 11 October 2018 (UTC)
:::The headshot seems fine as the lead image. Stallworth looks quite mature in it, unlike the images in my high school yearbook, which is what I was thinking of when questioning its use. Other images may emerge at some point, but for now this one illustrates the page well. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 11:17, 11 October 2018 (UTC)

== Re-addition of photo without consensus ==

Regarding the addition of a yearbook photo as the lead image (and a non-sensical addition of a high school cheerleading photo from the same yearbook) by Dicklyon and Randy Kryn: it's been claimed by both users that the discussion on this page justifies the inclusion of the image. This is an outright falsehood. While it's true 2 users seem to want the inappropriate photos included, one of them (Randy Kryn) was summoned to this discussion by Dicklyon (the original uploader) with [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Randy_Kryn&diff=861166737&oldid=859820792 this edit], which could be seen as a violation of [[WP:CANVAS]]. Additionally, editor [[User:Barkeep49|Barkeep49]] ([[User_talk:Barkeep49|talk]]) stated "I agree it doesn't belong on this page", editor [[User:Meatsgains|Meatsgains]]([[User talk:Meatsgains|talk]]) stated, "Given the options thus far, I suggest we don't include an image at this time", and I also agree that the image is inappropriate, given that his time in high school is barely mentioned, and it's not what he's notable for (paraphrasing Barkeep there).

In any case, given that short discussion, there's no way anyone can claim that consensus says "include the images". I'm removing the images. I would appreciate if the tag-team of Dicklyon and Randy Kryn refrains from adding the images again without discussion. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 18:04, 15 October 2018 (UTC)
:There has been no good reason not to include the image. As for tag-team, once I comment on a page like this I keep it on my watchlist for awhile, and come back if needed, so please assume good faith. Please put the images back unless you have a policy or strict guideline reason not to do so, thanks. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 18:08, 15 October 2018 (UTC)
:: [[MOS:IMAGERELEVANCE]] is a pretty clear policy that disagrees with you. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 18:16, 15 October 2018 (UTC)
:::Thanks, and your link seems to uphold the use of the image. The MOS page reads "When possible, find better images and improve captions instead of simply removing poor or inappropriate ones, especially on pages with few visuals." So yes, pretty clear policy (or guideline). If the image was totally inappropriate I'd agree with you, but in this case the high school photo seems fine even though not the best possible. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 19:25, 15 October 2018 (UTC)
::::Thanks for taking my side for a change, Randy. We be a "tag team" now! I might be able to get a slightly better photo (bigger, one year newer) from his senior-year yearbook, if my bro Jim will ever come through with a scan for me. There are some other photos of him there worth considering, too. Certainly these pix from within 10 years of his most notable activities seem more relevant than something we'd get now, 40 years after. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 20:18, 15 October 2018 (UTC)
Your sarcasm is noted; however, it's not constructive, and doesn't change the fact that the two of you agreeing on a yearbook photo that one of you dug out of his own yearbook, while the other was summoned to this discussion by the first, does NOT equal consensus, since multiple editors disagreed with your additions. Conduct an RfC if you feel that strongly about changing what was a stable version of the page before you starting littering it with cheerleading photos. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 03:49, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
:I asked Randy for his opinion, even though we usually are on opposite sides of style issues, because I know he has a strong interest in topics related to black people and civil rights. I respect his opinion. I don't understand yours. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 03:59, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
:: You clearly don't respect Wikipedia policy, though, as you continue to revert, in the face of consensus on this talk page which is against adding a yearbook photo. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 09:08, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
:::I'm reading the consensus the other way, especially since the MOS language you pointed out reads "When possible, find better images and improve captions instead of simply removing poor or inappropriate ones, especially on pages with few visuals." That language seems to explicitly agree with the continued use of the high school photo as the first image, until a better one is uploaded. An RfC would only confirm that once that MOS language is made clear to participants. {{u|Dicklyon}}, I've agreed with you many times, and the point you make above about the image being closer chronologically to the subjects most notable time period than any recent photo adds weight to the current use of the image (now removed again in a slow-motion edit war). {{u|Amsgearing}}, is setting the use of high school photos as a precedent the thing that you disagree with? Like Dicklyon, I don't understand your objection to the lede image, especially with the MOS language above taken into into consideration. Thanks. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 10:43, 17 October 2018 (UTC)
:::: "An RfC would only confirm that once that MOS language is made clear to participants" - if this is true, why not start an RfC? Meanwhile, respect [[WP:CYCLE]] and leave the page as it was, until you actually have consensus to add this inappropriate yearbook picture. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 04:01, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
:::::We already did the RFC. [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Ron_Stallworth&oldid=863222998 Here] is the state of it just before the expired RFC tag was removed. I agree with Randy that the use of headshot seems to be preferred; and your original objection about "verifiability" was a non-issue to most editors. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 05:03, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
*'''I think I see the problem - bad maths'''. {{u|Amsgearing}}, in the recent revert, said there were three editors opposing the headpicture and two in favor. This is just bad maths. The count above is six in favor of allowing it and two opposed. Amsgearing is just reading it incorrectly. Please count again by reading all of the statements all the way through. Thanks. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 13:29, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
:::::: Don't act like "verifiability" was my only objection; you know full well that's not the case. But let me spell it out again: Myself and other editors agreed that a high school yearbook photo is not an appropriate lead image for an article about a police officer whose notability is entirely based on his law enforcement career and, later, his notable book that was made into a movie. This is per [[MOS:IMAGERELEVANCE]]. There's not even a section about his high school years in the article at all. You claim to have contact with the subject; why not just ask him for a current picture, or an old one of him in uniform, instead of being so attached to "your" picture that you scanned yourself? [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 13:34, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
:::::::By what copyright theory would you expect a person to have licensable or PD images of themself from 40 years ago? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 05:14, 23 October 2018 (UTC)

== RfC about using a high school yearbook photo as the lead image ==
{{archive top|status=no|result=There is consensus that Ron Stallworth's high school yearbook photo should '''not be used''' as the lead image for the article. Most editors believe the image is too early in Stallworth's life to be representative of his career, which is what he is notable for. — '''''[[User:Newslinger|Newslinger]]''' [[User talk:Newslinger#top|talk]]'' 04:52, 18 November 2018 (UTC)}}
Should a photo of Ron Stallworth from his high school yearbook be used as the lead image for the article? [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 13:40, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
{{infobox person
|image = File:Ron Stallworth 1970 yearbook photo.jpg
|caption = Stallworth as a high school junior, from his 1970 yearbook
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1953|6|18}}
|birth_place = [[Chicago|Chicago, Illinois]], U.S.
|occupation = Police officer (retired)
|known = Infiltration of the KKK Author of memoir ''Black Klansman'' Portrayal in ''[[BlacKkKlansman]]''
}}

===Votes===
* '''No''' - It's an inappropriate image for an encyclopedia article about a subject whose notability comes from his career in law enforcement, and to a lesser extent, his career as an author post-law-enforcement. [[MOS:IMAGERELEVANCE]] says "Images must be significant and relevant in the topic's context, not primarily decorative" and "Poor-quality images... should not be used." [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 13:46, 18 October 2018 (UTC)

* '''Yes''' – the image is relevant and of sufficient quality, so until we have something better there's no reason to object to it. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 21:54, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
* '''Yes''' (if we're doing this over again, per [[Groundhog Day (film)|WP:GROUNDHOGDAY]]) per [[WP:IMAGERELEVANCE]], which states "When possible, find better images and improve captions instead of simply removing poor or inappropriate ones, especially on pages with few visuals". The yearbook image seems fine, and, as Dicklyon says somewhere in the above discussions, it is only 10 years removed from the subject's most notable accomplishments, so is in the chronological ballpark. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 23:38, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
*'''No''' - Lead images are not required. [[MOS:LEADIMAGE|The lead image]] is perhaps the first thing to catch the reader's eye; it's not representative of him as an adult or his career in law-enforcement, and is irrelevant to his notabilty. There's not any mention of where he attended high school in this article or even what high school he graduated from. His early life section consists of two sentences and a quote from his book. It's also of inferior quality for a lead image. [https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/31/books/review/black-klansman-ron-stallworth-best-seller.html This picture of him] is the most closely associated and representative of him.[[User:Isaidnoway| '''''Isaidnoway''''' ]][[User talk:Isaidnoway|'''''(talk)''''']] 05:02, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
*'''No''' too early in his life [[User:Atlantic306|Atlantic306]] ([[User talk:Atlantic306|talk]]) 13:28, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
*'''No''' like the other voters said, too early, and that bit added about high school looks like a made-up award on some guy's personal website about an alumni association, so I took that out too, if anyone has a problem with it, feel free to revert it but I think this is mostly about a personal beef between amsgearing and dicklyon at this point. Both editors should recuse themselves from this article's discussions. [[User:ArchieOof|ArchieOof]] ([[User talk:ArchieOof|talk]]) 19:03, 20 October 2018 (UTC)
*'''No''' Far too early. It is his working career that he is notable for, and the image should be from that period. [[User:Scope creep|scope_creep]] ([[User talk:Scope creep|talk]]) 11:20, 21 October 2018 (UTC)
* '''Alternatives''': Why do so many people seem to prefer airing opinions than finding solutions? Here are some simple thoughts and considerations:
** Are there any alternative ("more appropriate") images available? If so, use them. If not (and I could find none within Wikipedia), then please take action and submit one.
** Do we even need an image for Ron Stallworth? Many biographical entries go without.
** Bottom line: please focus on practical steps to resolve.[[User:Aboudaqn|Aboudaqn]] ([[User talk:Aboudaqn|talk]]) 15:42, 22 October 2018 (UTC)
*'''Comment''' The current picture looks like a bromide print, gone bad. Not particularly attractive and it should be removed. [[User:Scope creep|scope_creep]] ([[User talk:Scope creep|talk]]) 08:19, 24 October 2018 (UTC)
::Not sure what you mean by that. Probably it was originally printed on Kodabromide F or similar, and then it was halftoned for the press, and then (a half century later) scanned in at 600 dpi and massaged a bit in Photoshot. I'm sure it could be done better, especially if you say what about it you see as "gone bad". [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 15:20, 24 October 2018 (UTC)
*'''No''' - The image is too old/early to include. We need to find a more recent picture. [[User:Meatsgains|Meatsgains]]([[User talk:Meatsgains|talk]]) 01:24, 25 October 2018 (UTC)

===Discussion===

Note - we already did an RFC on this, above. [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Ron_Stallworth&oldid=863222998 Here] is it's state just before the RFC tag expired and was removed. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 15:08, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
: To avoid confusion, let's explain that that was not the same discussion, as it also involved a picture of Stallworth (from the same yearbook) doing a cheerleading jump, and it ended with not much participation and without clear consensus anyway, except that most people felt the cheerleading photo was not relevant. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 18:31, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
::It also rejected your proposition that an image from a yearbook was unacceptable, and a majority of respondents were happy enough with the headshot, even before I made the high-res scan of it. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 21:52, 18 October 2018 (UTC)
::: That's a mischaracterization at best, and a flat-out lie at worst. Your obsession with adding this photo is really starting to seem like [[WP:TENDENTIOUS]] editing. Enough already. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 03:46, 22 October 2018 (UTC)
::::Please say what you think the truth is. I see Dicklyon, Randy Kryn, Galobtter, Barkeep49, and Cullen328 being OK with the headshot (that's 5); not necessarily as lead image though. I see Amsgearing and Meatsgains against it (perhaps I missed someone). Furthermore, explicitly rejecting your premise that "verifiability" is a problem, I see also Barkeep49 and EEng; nobody supported your idea that there was a problem there. Now I see you're challenging the images on copyright grounds; I doubt you'll see any support for that, either, given the US copyright law as summarized at [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:Hirtle_chart COM:HIRTLE]. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 22:59, 22 October 2018 (UTC)
For [[User:Aboudaqn|Aboudaqn]] ([[User talk:Aboudaqn|talk]]) and his questions above: Yes, I agree that anyone that really thinks an image is 100% necessary should take action and find a better image. However, the backstory here is that Dicklyon was a member of the yearbook staff in 1970 and appears to be emotionally attached to adding "his" picture (as he said himself, "I made the high-res scan of it.") Thus, he is pushing hard to add the photo anywhere he feels he can, despite consensus obviously being against him. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 21:51, 22 October 2018 (UTC)
:I don't think anyone is taking the position that an image is 100% necessary; that's a silly strawman. I take and upload 100 or more images per year. This subject is rather different, though, since the image was in my deep archive (I had to go dig out the annual after seeing the movie, to recall what Stallworth looked like back then; I didn't know him). I don't have much emotional involvement here, other than annoyance at Amsgearing for his obnoxious reverting without even reading edit summaries or correctly estimating the support in the first RFC. I have taken the advice of his second RFC and not used either image as a lead image. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 22:39, 22 October 2018 (UTC)
:: It would be nice if you would stop characterizing the original discussion, which was not the same question, as a proper RfC, which is clearly wasn't. Read [[WP:RFC]]: "Statement should be neutral and brief". It wasn't. It also didn't include a vote section. It also wasn't publicized properly, which this RfC was, which is why we're actually getting a good sampling of opinions on this RfC. You also didn't follow [[WP:RFCEND]] in any way; you simply took it upon yourself to keep adding a pair of inappropriate pictures. In short, you don't like the results of an actual RfC, so you're continuing to point to something that wasn't an RfC, in which you canvassed for help from RandyKryn to support your opinion, and not surprisingly, you're the only two that support the inclusion of the inappropriate picture now. You don't like the result, I get it. But you still have to accept it. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 23:56, 22 October 2018 (UTC)
:::I didn't know there were different kinds of RFCs, some "proper" and some not. The question was "Given the comments above, is there a better choice for what photo to use on the Ron Stallworth article?" which seems neutral and brief enough. It was advertised in the usual way, in listing of RFCs on biographies; if you advertised yours better, tell me how, so I'll learn something. You don't like the result, I get it. But you still have to accept it. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 00:27, 23 October 2018 (UTC)
:::: There's RfCs and there's discussions that are not RfCs. Right now an RfC is going on. The previous discussion was not an RfC. That's pretty straightforward. Also, you left out the fact that you said "Given the comments above, is there a better choice for what photo to use on the Ron Stallworth article? The only ones we know of are from this high-school annual." then immediately followed that with 4 more sentences supporting your position. That's not a neutral brief statement. Also, there was no "result", no uninvolved party closed the RfC, because it wasn't an RfC. You can't accept that an actual RfC is in favor of going with no picture, and you don't like it because the picture is from "your" yearbook. That's why you enlisted Randykryn to help you, because you know, deep down, this is an inappropriate picture for this article and that's how the majority of the community will see it. Your edit warring to get your way is not good editing. It's not like you [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log/block&page=User%3ADicklyon haven't been blocked before] for this attitude - I count 10 blocks in that list. 10!!!!! I can't recall seeing that many on any other user's record. It's amazing they still let you edit here. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 01:23, 24 October 2018 (UTC)
:::::Can you explain how my RFC that was tagged as an RFC was not an RFC? Typically, RFCs do not get "closed", they just expire. I don't understand what you're saying above; what was the reason you think I asked Randy Kryn's opinion? Because it was ''my'' yearbook? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 02:30, 24 October 2018 (UTC)
::::::I explained it clearly above. Meanwhile, you chose to not address the fact that you've been blocked 10 times for edit warring. What was the reason for that? [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 04:42, 24 October 2018 (UTC)
:::::::Not so clearly, I would say. I asked "if you advertised yours better, tell me how, so I'll learn something" but you did not reply. I still don't know what you're saying I did wrong. As for my block record, it is not relevant; what would you want me to say about things so far in the past? If you study what was behind each of those blocks, you still won't understand Wikipedia. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 05:17, 24 October 2018 (UTC)

===News===
[[File:Ronnie Stallworth cheerleader.jpg|thumb]]
Just noticed: Ron was named "Outstanding Ex" of [[Austin High School (El Paso, Texas)|Austin High School]] for 2018. See [https://www.austinpanthers.org/outstanding-ex/ahs-2018-outstanding-ex/]. They even talk about the fact that he was a cheerleader. So when the page gets unprotected, we should expand the early-life section based on this source, and then the cheerleader picture will be relevant. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 06:11, 19 October 2018 (UTC)
: #1 The Austin High School Alumni Association is not what I'd call a professional, published source. If a reliable news organization had published on article on this event, then sure, report on the the dubious award being given. Either way, it's still a stretch to suggest that that makes the cheerleading picture worthy of inclusion in a biographical encyclopedia article.
::How is "Outstanding Ex" a "dubious" award? And since when does a reliable source need to be "professional"? What is this concept of "worthy" that you're hung up on here? This is a second source, available to you online, confirming that he was a cheerleader. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 15:36, 20 October 2018 (UTC)
: #2 We should all be aware that Dicklyon took the cheerleading picture himself, which may explain his bias as far as why he wants so badly to have the picture included. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 11:03, 20 October 2018 (UTC)
::It's possible I took the photo myself; I don't specifically remember. It was me or one of three other yearbook photographers. As far as I know, I am the unique Wikipedia editor who is aware of being in possession of photos of the subject of this article, which is why I'm trying to get a photo added. I think both of the ones I added are OK. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 15:26, 20 October 2018 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== Category:Ku Klux Klan members ==

Myself and [[User:EEng|EEng]] ([[User talk:EEng#top|talk]]) both stated that adding Stallworth to the (Category:Ku Klux Klan members) was inappropriate. Both of us have reverted that addition. Rather than attempt to discuss it, [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] has re-added that category multiple times. I agreed with EEng that adding this category is akin to classifying an undercover police officer in a prositution sting as a sex worker. It's not what the category is meant for.

This section is an attempt to follow [[WP:CYCLE]] and discuss this change, in the hope that Dicklyon will not edit war, and participate in the discussion. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 16:04, 22 October 2018 (UTC)

:I respected that decision and added the parent category [[:Category:Ku Klux Klan]] instead; read my edit summary and stop reflexive reverting. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 16:38, 22 October 2018 (UTC)
::I think that makes a lot of sense. [[User:EEng#s|E]][[User talk:EEng#s|Eng]] 16:42, 22 October 2018 (UTC)
:::An alternative might be to make a sub-cat like "Ku Klux Klan infiltrators" or "infiltrations"; there are several others. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 23:03, 22 October 2018 (UTC)
::::There are those who think EEng infiltrated Wikipedia. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 23:11, 22 October 2018 (UTC)
:::::Oh yeah? I dare you to say that at [[Talk:Homonym#Ad hominem]], you... sexually aroused [https://findwords.info/term/kryn settlement in the administrative district of Gmina Barlinek, within Myślibórz County, West Pomeranian Voivodeship, in north-western Poland]. [[User:EEng#s|E]][[User talk:EEng#s|Eng]] 23:17, 22 October 2018 (UTC)
::::::Double dog dare me with a cherry on top. Or something like that. Mocking me with obviously made-up Eastern European sounding swear words? Ha! I toss Mr. Bojangles' shoes into the pot, or visa versa. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 19:13, 24 October 2018 (UTC)

== A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion ==
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion:
* [[commons:File:Ron Stallworth 1970 yearbook photo.jpg|Ron Stallworth 1970 yearbook photo.jpg]]
Participate in the deletion discussion at the [[commons:Commons:Deletion requests/File:Ron Stallworth 1970 yearbook photo.jpg|nomination page]]. —[[User:Community Tech bot|Community Tech bot]] ([[User talk:Community Tech bot|talk]]) 17:22, 22 October 2018 (UTC)

==High school yearbook image in Early life section?==
{{archive top green|status=yes|result=There is consensus to '''use''' the 1970 high school yearbook headshot of Ron Stallworth in the "[[Ron Stallworth#Early life|Early life]]" section of the article. Editors who supported inclusion argued that the image is [[WP:IRELEV|pertinent]] to the section. The minority of editors who opposed inclusion criticized the quality of the image and questioned the image's copyright status. Despite the consensus, most editors prefer to replace this image with a higher quality or more assuredly licensed image if one becomes available in the future. — '''''[[User:Newslinger|Newslinger]]''' [[User talk:Newslinger#top|talk]]'' 11:11, 6 December 2018 (UTC)}}
Should the 1970 high-school yearbook headshot of [[Ron Stallworth]] be used in the "Early life" section of the article? 02:10, 25 October 2018 (UTC)

[[File:Ron Stallworth 1970 yearbook photo.jpg|thumb|130px|The image in question, at the smallish 130px thumb size most recently used on the article]]
[[File:Ron Stallworth 1970 yearbook photo3.jpg|thumb|130px|The current best "improved" version, not so contrasty]]

::''Note: to get more points of view, to get beyond the originators and the users canvassed by them, announcements of this RFC have been added at various possibly interested communities: [[WT:MOS]], [[WT:WikiProject Biography#RFC on the use of a photo from a high-school yearbook on a bio article]], [[WT:WikiProject Civil Rights Movement#RFC on the use of a photo from a high-school yearbook]], [[WT:WikiProject Photography#RFC on the use of a photo from a high-school yearbook]]. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 22:41, 27 October 2018 (UTC)''
'''Replies''':

The use of the headshot from the subject's high school yearbook, which has been removed from the infobox by all involved, seems fine in the Early life section which summarizes the subjects high school years. But it has been objected to and removed from there as well, eliciting fears of ''[[The Forever War|The Forever Edit War]]''. Can it be returned to the Early life section, or should it be banished forever from Wikipedia? Thanks. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 19:36, 24 October 2018 (UTC)

pinging previous participants [[User:Meatsgains|Meatsgains]]([[User talk:Meatsgains|talk]]), [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]), [[User:Isaidnoway| '''''Isaidnoway''''' ]][[User talk:Isaidnoway|'''''(talk)''''']], [[User:Scope creep|scope_creep]] ([[User talk:Scope creep|talk]]), [[User:ArchieOof|ArchieOof]] ([[User talk:ArchieOof|talk]]), [[User:Atlantic306|Atlantic306]] ([[User talk:Atlantic306|talk]]), [[User:Aboudaqn|Aboudaqn]] ([[User talk:Aboudaqn|talk]]), in an effort to stimulate discussion so that no one declares the discussion over after just 2 people weigh in. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 19:58, 24 October 2018 (UTC)

:'''Don't add''' It's low-quality, it's not representative of anything that Stallworth is notable for, and as such, it's inappropriate for an encyclopedia. I also don't know of any bio article that doesn't have a lead image but includes a high school yearbook photo further down in the article, so this would be way outside the norm, for no good reason that I can see. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 19:41, 24 October 2018 (UTC)
:'''Add to the page''', not low-enough quality to disqualify it. And per the guideline cited often above, [[WP:IMAGERELEVANCE]], which states "When possible, find better images and improve captions instead of simply removing poor or inappropriate ones, especially on pages with few visuals", such an image is fine. Hopefully more images will surface. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 19:48, 24 October 2018 (UTC)
:: '''Comment''' [[WP:IMAGERELEVANCE]] doesn't say "add poor or inappropriate images on pages with no visuals", which is what you seem to be arguing. Many bio pages are fine without any images, and there's no reason to add poor ones just for the sake of having an image on the page. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 20:00, 24 October 2018 (UTC)
:::The image isn't poor, and certainly is not inappropriate. It's a high school yearbook image of the subject, which is as good as any other early life image. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 20:04, 24 October 2018 (UTC)
:::: [[The Big Lebowski|That's just, like, your opinion, man.]] [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 20:13, 24 October 2018 (UTC)
::::: Too much time spent on too little value... However, since we have not resolved, can we agree that a young photo is not particularly important in the absence of a photo from time/period of public prominence? In which case, '''no''' to younger image if unaccompanied by more recent. For that matter, is anyone in this group in touch with the subject himself, as perhaps he has a photo he would like used?... Meanwhile, shall we move onto more productive input? --[[User:Aboudaqn|Aboudaqn]] ([[User talk:Aboudaqn|talk]]) 18:44, 25 October 2018 (UTC)
::::::He can be contacted on LinkedIn. But if he has a photo of himself, who took it? Who owns the right? These problems get harder, not easier, for images that were not published. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 03:18, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
{{ping|Galobtter|Barkeep49|Cullen328}} – It seems that Amsgearing failed to ping most of those who had said the headshot was OK. Please confirm or update your opinions. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 02:02, 25 October 2018 (UTC)

{{ping|EEng}} – Oops, looks like another one we forgot to ping. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 02:08, 25 October 2018 (UTC)
:I am happy to affirm that my thinking matches Randy's. It shouldn't be a first choice but also isn't against policy and adds value to the reader with its inclusion. Having that picture is better than the current state of having no picture at all. Best, [[User:Barkeep49|Barkeep49]] ([[User_talk:Barkeep49|talk]]) 02:11, 25 October 2018 (UTC)

* '''Yes add the photo''' unless or until we come up with something better. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 03:21, 25 October 2018 (UTC)
*'''Support''' use of the high school headshot until a better, properly licensed portrait is available. [[User:Cullen328|Cullen328]] [[User talk:Cullen328|''Let's discuss it'']] 03:40, 25 October 2018 (UTC)
*'''No''' - and just so we're clear, I'm not in favor of using that photo ''anywhere'' in this article or section - or any other article or section of WP. It's of terrible quality. I also find it ironic that the [https://www.austinpanthers.org/outstanding-ex/ahs-2018-outstanding-ex/ source being used] for that single sentence, ridiculously described as a summary of his high school years (voted most popular??), even uses a recent photo of him, and doesn't use his crappy yearbook picture. Has anyone tried to contact that alumni association and asked for permission for use of a recent photo? It appears Stallworth is an ''active board member'', according to their website.[[User:Isaidnoway| '''''Isaidnoway''''' ]][[User talk:Isaidnoway|'''''(talk)''''']] 16:05, 25 October 2018 (UTC)
[[File:Ron Stallworth 1970 yearbook photo2.jpg|thumb|130px|Here's an alternate scan at the other extreme – low contrast and under-sharpened. We can make something in between if you think that helps.]]
*'''No''' I don't particularly like this image. It very low quality image, similar an old mid century out of focus bromide print. From an aesthetic view, it would reduce the quality of the article, particularly since the subject is handsome. These high contrast images should be of zero interest to any wikipedia seeking to improve an article. They are plain ugly and useless. Please don't use it. [[User:Scope creep|scope_creep]] ([[User talk:Scope creep|talk]]) 17:04, 25 October 2018 (UTC)
::{{ping|Scope creep}} – Can you help adjust one of these to your satisfaction as an alternative to just saying no? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 21:12, 25 October 2018 (UTC)
::: Here's a suggestion: since you've already contacted Stallworth once (so you say), why not contact him again, and ask for either a current photo or one of him in uniform? He gave those photos for use in various news articles, so why wouldn't he give one to you? [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 02:22, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
::{{ping|Scope creep}} – Let me know what you think; does this go in a direction that helps with the problem you reported? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 03:22, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
* '''No''' at least until a few attempts at [[WP:CONSENT]] have failed, regards [[User:Atlantic306|Atlantic306]] ([[User talk:Atlantic306|talk]]) 17:08, 25 October 2018 (UTC)
::This is the first I've heard of [[WP:CONSENT]] being an issue for this public-domain photo. What are you referring to? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 21:15, 25 October 2018 (UTC)
::: You may claim that it's a public domain photo, but apparently, the school owns the copyright to the yearbook, so at the very least, unless you're a copyright lawyer, I'd say that point is under dispute. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 23:03, 25 October 2018 (UTC)
::::There may not be a copyright issue. This was a 1970 high school yearbook, unless I'm mistaken many of those were printed without copyright. It would probably say in the yearbook if it were copyrighted. And if the yearbook is copyrighted, wouldn't Dicklyon still have copy rights to a photograph he took? A question for category: Wikipedian copyright lawyers. And I'm surprised at the bias against black and white photographs I'm reading in the comments. It doesn't seem at all a poor quality photograph to me, I'm just not seeing it. It looks to me like a regular black and white high school photograph. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 00:37, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
::::: No, Dicklyon would not have the rights to the photo even if he had taken it, which he didn't (he took the cheerleading photo, the other one he tried to force into the page against consensus). The school retains the rights to those photos, as they do to the entire contents of the yearbook. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 02:29, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
::::::There is no copyright law that I've heard of by which the school would retain rights to a book published in 1970 unless they had included a copyright notice and deposited a copy with the Library of Congress. That changed about 1978. And certainly I'm not suggesting that I have any rights in these images; they are public domain according to US copyright law. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 03:15, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
:::::::And there's no way the school owns a student's yearbook photo under US copyright law. Whether it is literally or effectively public domain is matter of caselaw interpretation, but probably irrelevant because of the fair use doctrine. Details below at [[#The school does not own the photo]]. — [[User:SMcCandlish|'''SMcCandlish''']] [[User talk:SMcCandlish|☏]] [[Special:Contributions/SMcCandlish|¢]] 😼 05:38, 9 November 2018 (UTC)
::{{ping|Atlantic306}} – What did you mean by a CONSENT problem? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 03:20, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
::* Hi, I meant there should be an attempt to ask the subject or his representatives for supply and permission of a more appropriate image, thanks [[User:Atlantic306|Atlantic306]] ([[User talk:Atlantic306|talk]]) 11:47, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
::*:OK, I sent him this message on LinkedIn: ''Ron, I hate to bother you about Wikipedia more, but I've got some more odd pushback. One editor suggests at https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Ron_Stallworth&diff=865822529&oldid=865818894 that we should "attempt to ask the subject or his representatives for supply and permission of a more appropriate image". Let us know if you have an image you could offer (it would need to be one where the photographer is known and could give permission, or one that's in the public domain due to being published in the 70s without a copyright notice). Dick''
* '''No''' I already said this before, and I still think, it's a photo from too early in his life. Other editors mentioned quality, and I kinda agree with that too - it shouldn't be this hard to find a better picture. [[User:ArchieOof|ArchieOof]] ([[User talk:ArchieOof|talk]]) 15:12, 27 October 2018 (UTC)
*:Actually, you answered before, in response to "Should a photo of Ron Stallworth from his high school yearbook be used as the lead image for the article?" that it was "too early". So that's why we're now talking about using it in the "early life" section. Did you want to consider the question and say if there's a reason to say "No" again? And if you have ideas how to find an alternative photo, please do speak up. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 20:07, 27 October 2018 (UTC)
* '''Yes''' until a better photo can be found. [[User:PopularOutcast|PopularOutcast]][[User talk:PopularOutcast|talk2me!]] 21:09, 27 October 2018 (UTC)
* '''Yes''' The argument that the image is not pertinent or not encyclopedic because the image quality is [[MOS:IMAGERELEVANCE|too poor]] is unconvincing. The argument that it's from "too early in his life" to be appropriate in the "Early life" section is untenable. There is no requirement that a photo in a biography be representative of something for which the subject is notable. Published in 1970 without a copyright notice, it's {{tl|PD-US-no notice}}. So I'm in agreement with Cullen328, use it until a better photo becomes available. --[[User:Worldbruce|Worldbruce]] ([[User talk:Worldbruce|talk]]) 00:35, 28 October 2018 (UTC)
*'''Yes''' This photo is better than no photo. No opinion on copyright issues. [[User:EEng#s|E]][[User talk:EEng#s|Eng]] 00:45, 28 October 2018 (UTC)
*'''Yes''', per EEng. I must say, the unmodified photo at the top of this thread looks better than the "brighter" one ... facial features clearer, though the original is a bit light-reflective in patches. Low-contrast and under-sharpened: awful. Maybe "Here's another with slightly more contrast and mild sharpening." is better. But it could be just my screen settings. [[User:Tony1|Tony]] [[User talk:Tony1|(talk)]] 05:09, 28 October 2018 (UTC)
*:Thanks, Tony. I'll be happy to have input on what makes a better adjustment after we get past these roadblocks. The first one was definitely over-sharpened by the Ricoh scanner, and then made too contrasty by me, but I agree my current best alternative goes to a bit too light and low contrast. I'm looking it on a Macbook Air; you? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 05:16, 28 October 2018 (UTC)
*'''Yes''', per EEng and WP:IMAGERELEVANCE. Great if better photo were available, but in its absence this one is more informative for our readers than having no image. {{sbb}} [[User:HouseOfChange|HouseOfChange]] ([[User talk:HouseOfChange|talk]]) 08:50, 1 November 2018 (UTC)
*'''Yes''' to image in early life section until better photo can be found. I personally don't have a problem with the original photo's quality (or perceived lack thereof). [[User:Cthomas3|'''''CThomas3''''']] ([[User talk:Cthomas3|talk]]) 23:22, 1 November 2018 (UTC)
*'''Weak ''yes'', in some form'''. It is better to have {{em|an}} image than none, as long as it's not awful. Some tweaking of it can probably make it look better. I'm sympathetic to the argument that it's of low relevance, being before the subject was notable, but it's not quite of zero relevance (as would be, say, a picture of him at age 5). Definitely replace it some day when we can. — [[User:AReaderOutThataway|AReaderOutThataway]] [[User talk:AReaderOutThataway|t]]/[[Special:Contributions/AReaderOutThataway|c]] 08:36, 7 November 2018 (UTC)

===Explicitly biased canvassing===
As if pinging only people on his side was not enough, Amsgearing has left them all these super biased invitations to come back here and support this position:
# [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Aboudaqn&diff=prev&oldid=865699441 Aboudaqn]
# [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Atlantic306&diff=prev&oldid=865699320 Atlantic306]
# [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:ArchieOof&diff=prev&oldid=865699157 ArchieOof]
# [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Scope_creep&diff=prev&oldid=865698735 Scope_creep]
# [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Isaidnoway&diff=prev&oldid=865698630 Isaidnoway]
# [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Meatsgains&diff=prev&oldid=865691835 Meatsgains]

So where can we go from here? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 15:17, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
: Yeah, you mean canvassing by YOU, on Randykryn's talk page?
: There's not a hint of bias in any of those, and the invitation to comment was based on previous participation in discussion on this very topic. I'd also remind you that you [[WP:CANVAS]]ed Randykryn, an editor you had been friendly with for a while, posting congratulations on his talk page and whatnot, with [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Randy_Kryn&diff=861166737&oldid=859820792 this edit here], and you were looking for him to weigh in on your side in the debate about making the yearbook photo the lead image. Coincidentally, you were the only two that voted to make it the lead picture, and everyone else told you why that would be inappropriate. So maybe you have a guilty conscience and you're projecting your guilt onto me, except that I don't know a single one of those editors. So I think an apology from you where we go from here, as what you've just written is definitely a personal attack. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 16:31, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
::I leave it to others to judge whether your canvassing messages are as explicitly biased as I said. My [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3ARandy_Kryn&type=revision&diff=861167231&oldid=859820792 message to Randy] was neutral, and I had no foreknowledge of what position he would take. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 17:12, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
For the record, I did not think the message on my talk page was explicitly biased canvassing. I still think this whole argument has turned into a personal beef between amsgearing and dicklyon and if my original suggestion had been carried out to keep them both out of this discussion, this probably woulda been resolved already. [[User:ArchieOof|ArchieOof]] ([[User talk:ArchieOof|talk]]) 15:12, 27 October 2018 (UTC)
:You didn't think "another attempt by an editor to force his scan of a yearbook picture onto the page" was biaed? Or that being addressed only to people who previously took his side was biased? OK. And yes, I agree it would have been better if we had stayed out of it, but after Amsgearing jumped in to the new RFC, I couldn't just sit back and watch him ping just his supporters. Or maybe I could have... [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 20:02, 27 October 2018 (UTC)

===Alternate yearbook photo===
[[File:Ron Stallworth 1970 yearbook photo2.jpg|thumb|130px|Here's an alternate scan at the other extreme – low contrast and under-sharpened. We can make something in between if you think that helps.]]
Dicklyon added this photo into the middle of a discussion about a different photo. As I felt this would only confuse the issue, I moved it.
: And for the record, I don't think it helps. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 02:29, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
::I have put it back in the appropriate context. When one is having a discussion about what's wrong with a photo, attempts to address the problem should be welcomed, not censored. Please stop editing my comments on the talk page. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 03:03, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
:For the record, it's the same photo. Just a different copy, differently adjusted. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 03:21, 26 October 2018 (UTC)

[[File:Ron Stallworth 1970 yearbook photo3.jpg|thumb|130px|Here's another with slightly more contrast and mild sharpening.]]
[[File:Ron Stallworth 1970 yearbook photo4.jpg|thumb|130px|Maybe Tony would prefer this adjustment?]]

I've added another, which I think is preferable. Comments? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 03:31, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
: Yeah I have a comment. Listen to the editors that say the picture is not appropriate and not relevant, and changing the luminance value 10% isn't going to change that fact. [[User:Amsgearing|Amsgearing]] ([[User talk:Amsgearing|talk]]) 11:03, 26 October 2018 (UTC)
::What resolution is it being scanned at? When you look at the image, you can see hatching, which indicates it has been scanned at too low a resolution. It is not that attractive. I would recommend that you take it to a shop, get it professionally scanned at a super high resolution of +4800dpi, it will come out absolutely gigantic. Upload it, and Ronz Bot will shrink it to size, and it will be perfect. [[User:Scope creep|scope_creep]] ([[User talk:Scope creep|talk]]) 09:12, 27 October 2018 (UTC)
::If you have done that already, or have all the kit already, then the base image is unsuitable, and an alternative image should be sought. There is way to get hold of a public domain image, which I found out how to do it recently, if it is available :) [[User:Scope creep|scope_creep]] ([[User talk:Scope creep|talk]]) 09:16, 27 October 2018 (UTC)
:::The hatching is the halftoning from the version printed in the book, scanned about 600 dpi and blurred a bit to make better grayscale; scanning at higher resolution isn't going to make it go away, but if you have better software for de-halftoning, let me know. A small yearbook headshot is not going to make a great high-res big image, but as you can see is perfectly adequate at a small size. If you have alternate sources for public-domain images of him, please do help along those lines. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 14:06, 27 October 2018 (UTC)
:::By the way, Scope, though I'm no expert on de-halftoning, I am not naive about image processing and photography (having received, for example, the [[Progress Medal (RPS)|Progress Medal]] from the Royal Photographic Society). If you give me coherent input about quality (like when you noted the contrast was too high) I can do something with that. But I can't get back to the orignal bromide print. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 20:32, 27 October 2018 (UTC)
::::Hi {{u|Dicklyon}} what software are you using? I understand that, its problematic. It might be worth trying to get a PD image. {{u|B}} would you be able to suggest a way or where more importantly, where we could get a public domain image? I know you mentioned on one of your articles about requesting one from somewhere. [[User:Scope creep|scope_creep]] ([[User talk:Scope creep|talk]]) 15:17, 28 October 2018 (UTC)
:::::I'm using Photoshop; just simple ops like blur and levels and unsharp mask; nothing sophisticated. I'm still hoping to hear from from Ron re my latest message on LinkedIn. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 15:33, 28 October 2018 (UTC)
:::::I just rescanned the cheerleader photo at 600 ppi (the previous one was 300, and I don't recall if that's how I scanned it or if I reduced it); and I did a de-halftone blur using a 2 pixel box blur instead of the other options, and that seems to have done a nicer job of reducing the hatching (I didn't blur the part where the caption is). I re-uploaded that one to the same place (you can compare in the history if you want to see in detail). I could try similarly on the headshot scan perhaps. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 01:29, 29 October 2018 (UTC)

===The school does not own the photo===

A "the school owns the copyright" result would only happen under specific contract-law circumstances, in which the school paid a photographer to take the photos, and they were explicitly created as works-for-hire under the contract terms. But that doesn't happen with student portraits, which are paid for by the students and their families, taken by any random local photographer, and under conditions that pretty much universally result in the copyright belonging jointly to the student/family and the photographer. The student is entirely unencumbered in their own personal use and distribution of these photos (and are supplied with several sheets of them in various sizes to use for any purpose they want), while the photographer is also free to use a copy of one they really like as part of their portfolio and as a sample in their own ads. I honestly don't know whether there's a special provision in US copyright law about such photos that would make them public domain. But there's a US caselaw principle, well established for many decades, that photos intended and provided for publicity purposes, even by commercial entities like movie studios, are {{em|effectively}} public domain. Even there weren't, most uses of them we could contemplate here would be covered by the fair use doctrine, anyway. That would {{em|probably}} cover yearbooks. I do have a lot of experience working with int-prop lawyers, but am not one myself, and and int-prop is also a moving target both in statutory and case law. The real problem is that WP's legal department is massively paranoid, and actually restrains us from making all the fair use we're legally able to make. (In a sense I don't blame them, because our legal system permits anyone to file a lawsuit against anyone else for any reason, even a stupid and invalid one, and dealing with bogus, nuisance lawsuits incurs costs usually borne by the individual parties; we don't have a "loser pays" system, except in a few legal areas where statutes explicitly create one.) — [[User:AReaderOutThataway|AReaderOutThataway]] [[User talk:AReaderOutThataway|t]]/[[Special:Contributions/AReaderOutThataway|c]] 08:30, 7 November 2018 (UTC)
:And unfortunately, the pragmatic issues go deeper than that--quite beyond the constraints the WMF may impose, the community itself (both as regards en.Wikipedia and especially at Commons, where the image is hosted) has embraced a rather extreme form of the precautionary principle when it comes to fair use images and even remotely borderline calls on media ownership. See, for example, the archives at [[Talk:Kim Jong-un]], where consensus discussion kept out any image for almost seven years after the subject took office as the head of state for his nation--until quite recently, in fact. Although a number us (that is to say, those of us who stuck with that long debate) were strongly of the opinion that a fair use exception should be made, consensus kept any image suggested on that basis out, and also forbid the introduction of several images which arguably may have been public domain, but for which there was some doubt as to their providence. That was for an article on a head of state, regional strongman, and figure of significant import in some major global affairs, where the absence of an image was truly glaring was considered by some to be a bit of an embarrassment to the project as a whole. I doubt very much that an image on this article would receive a more generous application of [[WP:NFCP]], [[WP:PD]], and [[WP:IUP]] standards, which are stacked pretty deep in favour of the presumption that most non-free and questionable ownership images, respectively, should be avoided. Indeed, even if (as seems likely) consensus here ultimately finds the image suitable to that section, there is something of a significant chance that the volunteers at commons will ultimately delete this image. Of course, that's for the community there to decide, and arguably we should be focused here on solving the RfC issue as an independent matter; I just want to prepare the propoents of this image for the very substantial possibility that they may prevail in gaining consensus here, only to see the image deleted. ''[[User:Snow Rise|Snow]] [[User talk:Snow Rise|let's rap]]'' 09:26, 7 November 2018 (UTC)
::Wow, that's really ridiculous! (The course of events you describe, I mean – not what you're writing.) This can't continue forever. At least we have the ability to host an image locally on en.wp, following en.wp consensus, should the int-prop paranoia at Commons actually exceed en.WP's own paranoia again. WP regularly uses fair-use materials (mostly for pop-culture articles). — [[User:SMcCandlish|'''SMcCandlish''']] [[User talk:SMcCandlish|☏]] [[Special:Contributions/SMcCandlish|¢]] 😼 05:34, 9 November 2018 (UTC)

:::Yup, that's always an option; in fact, it would have to be done in that fashion, since Commons does not permit any non-free images, last that I checked--nor indeed any other image that does not employ one of a specific set of explicit free-use licenses. That said, even at en.Wikipedia, it's pretty hard to get an non-free exception supported (you correctly identify pop culture images as an area where the show up, but that's usually just from lack of their being noticed--they are often on under-patrolled articles, but eventually get noticed and removed under one rationale or another) and even PD images need to clear a number of procedural hurtles to demonstrate that status.

:::Honestly, there's a bit of paradoxical / worst of both worlds quality to how this works: lots of rather useless and probably not truly fair use images get uploaded even where they do not add much in terms of illustrative value, and these often stay for a while--but then, simultaneously, desperately needed images for important topics are locked out. For example, about five years back, a groups of SPAs tried to completely recreate a number of "Dungeons and Dragons" rule books / monster indexes; they created many hundreds of articles and categories and filled them with copyvio text and copyrighted images. In addition to the non-free content, these were blatant violations of [[WP:WWIN]] and [[WP:Notability]], of course, but they stayed up for years; in fact, as regards the articles themselves, take a look at [[Lists_of_Dungeons_%26_Dragons_monsters]] to see how bad the problem remains to this day. The majority of the images (but by no means all) have been deleted, but it took an embarrassing number of years to happen and, to this day, the infoboxes and prose sections of most of those articles continue to prominently display external links to the copyrighted images, which is also blatantly against policy and a clear infringement upon the commercial rights associated with those images, in a manner that couldn't be more unacceptable, as an effort at providing a free replacement for said copyrighted media.

:::I gave up years ago on trying to organize an effort to delete those articles as utterly non-notable, brightline violations of numerous provisions of [[WP:NOT]] that are chalk-full of the most blatant copyright violations, images included. Meanwhile, if you want to include a fair-use image of a natural disaster or other major global event or issue, or of a major world leader to whom anglosphere / creative commons photographers have little or no access, you better be prepared for a grueling debate that could realistically last the better part of a decade. Talk about completely backwards priorities. Oh well, at least the discussion at Talk:Kim Jon-un always stayed markedly civil; I was always impressed by that and it made having to accept a consensus many of us strongly disagreed with a tad more tolerable. ''[[User:Snow Rise|Snow]] [[User talk:Snow Rise|let's rap]]'' 20:52, 10 November 2018 (UTC)

===Consensus to use the photo for now===

; Yes, OK to use the headshot in the "Early life" section
# Randy Kryn
# Dicklyon
# Barkeep49
# Cullen328
# PopularOutcast
# Worldbruce
# EEng
# Tony1
# HouseOfChange
# CThomas3
# Galobtter (in an earlier discussion than the current RFC)
# SMcCandlish
# DGG (below)
# Davey2010 (below)

; No do not use the yearbook headshot at all
# Amsgearing (a succession of different reasons to not use it)
# Isaidnoway ("terrible quality" and "not representative of him as an adult")
# Scope creep ("plain ugly and useless")
# Atlantic306 (no clear objection reason given)
# ArchieOof ("too early in his life"; no clear objection to use in Early life section)
# Meatsgain ("too early in his life"; in an earlier discussion about the lead)
# Aboudaqn (does not add enough value in the first place)
# North8000 (only photo being him as a child is not appropriate)

Is it clear enough by now that there's no good reason to not use the yearbook headshot unless/until we find something better, and with no prejudice against continuing to improve the quality of the scan and processing? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 15:13, 28 October 2018 (UTC)
:Should probably let an administrator decide when the RfC ends and the result of the process. I've kind of played around and kidded {{u|Amsgearing}} maybe a bit much, and my apologies. This may seem like a trivial thing to spend so much virtual ink on, but it's also an issue where everyone seems certain of their point of view, which equates to good faith all around. In the meantime, until an admin steps in to rule on the issue, it's an interesting study in how different people view old-timey photographs. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 02:16, 29 October 2018 (UTC)
::You should request a close then, which may take a week or two. Otherwise it won't end until it expires after 30 days. See [[WP:ANRFC]]. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 03:03, 29 October 2018 (UTC)
:::Thanks, I never read that page. So I guess we could agree that a decision has been reached, unless someone comes up with a reasonable explanation of why it hasn't. Seems to indicate that the use of the image in the early life section of the page is fine, on average. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 03:19, 29 October 2018 (UTC)
::::Right, most editors clearly agree that "too early" is not a reason to not use it in the "Early life" section, and that the limited quality is not a reason to leave the article with no photos. Of course, will continue to look for later and better photos, PD or licensed. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 16:23, 29 October 2018 (UTC)

If nobody brings up an objection real soon, I'd say we're done. And if they do, they better have something more substantial than the opinions refuted already, right? [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 02:28, 30 October 2018 (UTC)
:Sounds good. But the whole original discussion about a lede image could have been avoided if we went with [[Rocío Dúrcal|something like this]]. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 10:44, 30 October 2018 (UTC)
::And now Amsgearing has gone on break to spend his time on things more valuable. So I'll put the image back now that there's consensus and little chance of further warring about it. But go ahead and make that drawing – maybe we'll prefer it. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 17:15, 30 October 2018 (UTC)

:::{{u|Randy Kryn}}, {{u|Dicklyon}}--having been bot-summoned here for a second time and focusing on the summary of !votes, I was tempted to NAC this, with a notice that I'd take no exception to said close being reverted. The reason I did not previously lodge an !vote of my own was that I found myself very torn between the two obvious arguments ("not consistent with his notability" and "illustrative of the section and anyway better than nothing"), and thus when I returned here today I reckoned that I would bring very little bias towards reading the consensus. To that end, if I were going to close the discussion today, it would be in favour of the position the two of you have endorsed--since I believe that position has carried the consensus--with some additional observations.

:::However, I then noted that this RfC has not been up even two weeks yet, and the number of !votes cast so far is not so staggering that fuller community input could not change the advised course of action. Lacking any specific argument for forgoing the standard thirty day period until the RfC tag has expired, I do not think a close at this time is appropriate, and I suspect any admin responding to a request through the normal process at AN is likely to say the same. Though I am personally convinced your efforts are goodfaith, you should be aware that others involved here might reasonably view your efforts to close the discussion just as your position has seen a sharp uptake, without waiting the usual default period, as gamesmanship--especially coming so soon after the issue of this photo first arose, if I am reading the edit and talk histories correctly.

:::Additionally, I honestly think it was a little premature to add the disputed content back in prior to such a close, per [[WP:BRD]], which holds that disputed additions should stay out pending discussion. That said, if there have been no objections to your reintroducing the image since you did so, by all means, it's probably advisable to leave it in rather than reverting once more. However, if someone does object and remove it again pending a formal close here, you should definitely leave it out; otherwise, someone is likely to take this to [[WP:ANEW]], given the strong feelings that been forwarded here (somewhat inexplicably, in my personal opinion). I'll check back after the thirty day period has tolled and, assuming I don't see any comment here asking me to defer in preference of a formal AN close, I'll still be happy to review and summarize consensus then, to help bring this to resolution. ''[[User:Snow Rise|Snow]] [[User talk:Snow Rise|let's rap]]'' 06:32, 7 November 2018 (UTC)
::::Thanks, and a fair and good analysis. One reason why a close seemed reasonable was the length of time this question had been in existence even before this RfC, which itself was a late-in-the-game response to a slow unending edit war. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 10:55, 7 November 2018 (UTC)
:::::Yeah, and to be fair, I honestly don't expect much chance that the current proposal will not carry, full month or no; any concerns about appropriateness are likely be to assuaged by the fact that the current suggestion is to place the image next to the early life section, as opposed to the lead. That seems to have made for a big difference in the level of support in this RfC, compared against the last one (and indeed for rational and predictable enough reasons). But even so, it never hurts to be completely pro forma about these sorts of things: if nothing else it helps assure against the possibility that someone will try to re-open the discussion immediately after close, on a procedural argument. ''[[User:Snow Rise|Snow]] [[User talk:Snow Rise|let's rap]]'' 14:18, 7 November 2018 (UTC)
:::::: '''No''' on photo. Let's close this issue. The photo itself adds little value to the entry. People are making assertions without proof about its legal use. This is a time-suck with little value for anyone.[[User:Aboudaqn|Aboudaqn]] ([[User talk:Aboudaqn|talk]]) 14:40, 15 November 2018 (UTC)
*Additional input was asked for . I think we should '''use the picture, in the original form'''' Thee seems to be no copyright problems, even under our current absurdly restrictive interpretation of fair use. --I accept the agreement of the photographer that. it is PD. As for appropriateness, it's appropriate for us to use what we have until something from a more encyclopedically significant phase of his life is available. As for form, it's a student yearbook picture, so it should look like a student yearbook picture. '''[[User:DGG| DGG]]''' ([[User talk:DGG| talk ]]) 20:31, 8 November 2018 (UTC)
*'''Yes''' as per above - Better than no photo at all, It can be replaced when a freely licenced one becomes available. –[[User:Davey2010|'''Davey''''''2010''']][[User talk:Davey2010|'''Talk''']] 18:37, 16 November 2018 (UTC). –[[User:Davey2010|'''Davey''''''2010''']][[User talk:Davey2010|'''Talk''']] 18:37, 16 November 2018 (UTC)
*'''Leave it out''' Invited by the bot. Having the only photo in the article being him as a child is not appropriate. Also I found the opening of the RFC to be biased. Besides the "seems fine" wording, it listed the alternative to using it as being the straw man extreme of "forever banished from Wikipedia".''North8000'' ([[User talk:North8000#top|talk]]) 13:27, 18 November 2018 (UTC)
:*{{u|North8000}}, it is biased because it was just a comment of mine which was turned into an RfC by someone, but I did agree to hold the RfC and should have reread and edited the comment. While I didn't start the RfC, I ended up being the public face of the RfC discussion (I will link my high school photo to "public face" given time). [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 16:37, 18 November 2018 (UTC)
:*:The neutral RFC question was placed above Randy's comment; this is what was advertised: "Should the 1970 high-school yearbook headshot of Ron Stallworth be used in the "Early life" section of the article?" [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 17:01, 18 November 2018 (UTC)
:::*Makes sense. And to address {{u|North8000}}'s comment, the photo in question is a fair representation of the subject not too far removed from notable events in his life. Better to include a representative image (and this high school photo does seem fine for that purpose) than none at all. In any case, Wikipedia consensus (rather than a "consensus" where all parties in the discussion are fine with the overall decision, and that could have been reached when the photo was moved from the lede to "Early life" section) was reached on this sometime around Halloween and this RfC should be closed and filed. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 17:20, 18 November 2018 (UTC)
:::::It will expire in a week if not closed sooner. I was amused that the previous RFC just got an offiical close above, though it was clearly not needed or useful. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 17:52, 18 November 2018 (UTC)
:::Thanks {{u|Randy Kryn}} for that explanation on the wording. It does appear to be a part of the header.....maybe you might like to clarify it there just so it doesn't look like you worded a biased RFC. Regarding my place here, I'd was just invited by the bot and did my best to comment. Whatever the outcome is is fine with me. ''North8000'' ([[User talk:North8000#top|talk]]) 00:33, 19 November 2018 (UTC)
::::I've added 'Replies' to the top. Those AI bots do have a tendency to canvass. [[User:Randy Kryn|Randy Kryn]] ([[User talk:Randy Kryn|talk]]) 05:44, 19 November 2018 (UTC)
The RFC tag is finally removed as the 30 days are up. I see no need for a formal close. [[User:Dicklyon|Dicklyon]] ([[User talk:Dicklyon|talk]]) 02:32, 25 November 2018 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}
ya

The Baby-Sitters Club (1990 TV series)

2022-10-11T19:51:03Z

66.172.182.2: /* Episodes */

{{about|the original 1990 series|the Netflix series adaptation|The Baby-Sitters Club (2020 TV series)}}
{{Infobox television
|image = Baby-sitters club title card.jpg
|caption =
|genre = [[Children's television series]]
|writer = [[Jeanne Betancourt]] [[Ann M. Martin]] Mary Pleshette Willis
|director = [[Noel Black]] Lynn Hamrick
|based_on = {{Based on|''[[The Baby-Sitters Club]]''|[[Ann M. Martin]]}}
|starring = [[Meghan Andrews]] Melissa Chasse Avriel Hillman Meghan Lahey [[Nicole Leach]] [[Jessica Prunell]] Jeni F. Winslow
| opentheme = "Say Hello to Your Friends"
| endtheme = "Say Hello to Your Friends"
|composer = [[Glen Roven]]
|country = United States
|language = English
|num_seasons = 1
|num_episodes = 13
|producer = Tina Stern
|cinematography = [[Nancy Schreiber]]
|company = Amber Films, Ltd. [[Scholastic Corporation|Scholastic Productions]]
|distributor = [[9 Story Media Group]]
|runtime = 27 minutes
|channel = [[HBO]]
|first_aired = {{Start date|1990|1|1}}
|last_aired = {{End date|1990|3|26}}
}}

'''''The Baby-Sitters Club''''' is an American live action TV series based on [[Ann M. Martin]]'s [[The Baby-Sitters Club|children's novel series of the same name]]. The series originally aired on [[HBO]]<ref>{{cite news|first=Bill |last=Carter |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/10/arts/hbo-turns-baby-sitters-club-into-a-series-of-specials.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm |title=HBO Turns ''Baby-Sitters Club'' Into a Series of Specials |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=September 10, 1991 |access-date=January 22, 2014}}</ref> from January to March 1990, and was produced by the [[Scholastic Corporation]].

==Main cast==
* [[Meghan Andrews]] as Mallory Pike
* Melissa Chasse as Dawn Schafer
* Jeni F. Winslow as Claudia Kishi
* Avriel Hillman as Kristy Thomas
* Meghan Lahey as Mary Anne Spier
* [[Nicole Leach]] as Jessica "Jessi" Ramsey
* [[Jessica Prunell]] as Stacey McGill

==Episodes==
{{Episode table |overall= |title= |director= |writer= |airdate= |episodes=
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=1
|Title=Mary Anne and the Brunettes
|DirectedBy=Abbie H. Fink & Carol S. Fink
|WrittenBy=Mary Pleshette Willis
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1990|1|1}}
|ShortSummary=Mary Anne is devastated when someone tries to steal Logan from her.
|LineColor=
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=2
|Title=Dawn and the Haunted House
|DirectedBy=Abbie H. Fink & Carol S. Fink
|WrittenBy=Mary Pleshette Willis
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1990|1|8}}
|ShortSummary=Dawn thinks that Mrs. Slade is a witch but wonders if Claudia's odd behavior has something to do with it.
|LineColor=
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=3
|Title=Stacey's Big Break
|DirectedBy=Lynn Hamrick
|WrittenBy=Mary Pleshette Willis
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1990|1|15}}
|ShortSummary=Stacey is asked to become a model but finds that it is a lot harder than she expected.
|LineColor=
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=4
|Title=Kristy and the Great Campaign
|DirectedBy=Lynn Hamrick
|WrittenBy=Eileen Cowel
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1990|1|22}}
|ShortSummary=Kristy decides to help a shy girl run for class president.
|LineColor=
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=5
|Title=The Baby-Sitters' Special Christmas
|DirectedBy=Lynn Hamrick
|WrittenBy=Mary Pleshette Willis
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1990|1|29}}
|ShortSummary=At The Baby-Sitters Club Christmas party, Stacey begins eating sweets and ends up in the hospital.
|LineColor=
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=6
|Title=Claudia and the Missing Jewels
|DirectedBy=Lynn Hamrick
|WrittenBy=Mary Pleshette Willis
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1990|2|5}}
|ShortSummary=Claudia's new homemade jewelry disappears.
|LineColor=
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=7
|Title=Dawn and the Dream Boy
|DirectedBy=Lynn Hamrick
|WrittenBy=Mary Pleshette Willis
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1990|2|12}}
|ShortSummary=Dawn has a crush on a boy and accuses Mary Anne of flirting with him.
|LineColor=
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=8
|Title=Claudia and the Mystery of the Secret Passage
|DirectedBy=Lynn Hamrick
|WrittenBy=Jeanne Betancourt
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1990|2|19}}
|ShortSummary=Claudia discovers a note in the secret passage at Dawn's house.
|LineColor=
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=9
|Title=Jessi and the Mystery of the Stolen Secrets
|DirectedBy=Lynn Hamrick
|WrittenBy=Jeanne Betancourt
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1990|2|26}}
|ShortSummary=Jessi investigates when various people's secrets are being found out all over Stoneybrook.
|LineColor=
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=10
|Title=The Baby-Sitters and the Boy-Sitters
|DirectedBy=Lynn Hamrick
|WrittenBy=Mary Pleshette Willis
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1990|3|5}}
|ShortSummary=A group of boys want to join The Baby-Sitters Club.
|LineColor=
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=11
|Title=Dawn Saves the Trees
|DirectedBy=Noel Black
|WrittenBy=Mary Pleshette Willis
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1990|3|12}}
|ShortSummary=Dawn wants to save trees that may be destroyed by a new development in Stoneybrook.
|LineColor=
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=12
|Title=Stacey Takes a Stand
|DirectedBy=Noel Black
|WrittenBy=Jeanne Betancourt
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1990|3|19}}
|ShortSummary=Stacey's father wants her to attend school in New York, and she is forced to choose between her two homes.
|LineColor=
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=13
|Title=The Baby-Sitters Remember
|DirectedBy=Noel Black
|WrittenBy=Mary Pleshette Willis
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1990|3|26}}
|ShortSummary=The Baby-Sitters Club members recall their favorite memories at a sleepover.
|LineColor=
}}
}}
Stacy is the best

==Syndication==
''The Baby-Sitters Club'' aired on both the [[Disney Channel]] and [[Nickelodeon]]. Reruns of the show aired on the Disney Channel from early October 1994<ref>''The Disney Channel Magazine'', Vol. 12, no. 6, October/November 1994: pp. 36-37, 56.</ref> to January 1997.<ref>''The Disney Channel Magazine'', Vol. 14, no. 6, December 1996/January 1997: p. 28.</ref>

==Home media==
All 13 30-minute episodes were released to [[home video]]. All of the episodes are also available on [https://www.amazon.com/gp/video/detail/B00H89ML6W Amazon Prime Video].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|id=0125602|title=The Baby-Sitters Club}}

{{The Baby-Sitters Club}}
{{HBONetwork Shows}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baby-Sitters Club (1990 TV series), The}}
[[Category:1990 American television series debuts]]
[[Category:1990 American television series endings]]
[[Category:1990s American children's television series]]
[[Category:American television shows based on children's books]]
[[Category:Disney Channel original programming]]
[[Category:English-language television shows]]
[[Category:HBO original programming]]
[[Category:Television series about children]]
[[Category:Television shows based on American novels]]
[[Category:The Baby-Sitters Club]]
[[Category:Television shows set in Connecticut]]

Richard Henry Lee

2022-04-04T16:43:41Z

66.172.182.2: /* Early life and education */

{{Short description|18th-century American statesman and Founding Father}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|name = Richard Henry Lee
|image = File:Charles Willson Peale - Richard Henry Lee - NPG.74.5 - National Portrait Gallery.jpg
|caption =
|office = [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate]]
|term_start = April 18, 1792
|term_end = October 8, 1792
|predecessor = [[John Langdon (politician)|John Langdon]]
|successor = John Langdon
|office1 = [[United States Senate|United States Senator]] from [[Virginia]]
|term_start1 = March 4, 1789
|term_end1 = October 8, 1792
|predecessor1 = Inaugural Holder
|successor1 = [[John Taylor of Caroline|John Taylor]]
|order2 = 4th
|office2 = President of the Congress of the Confederation
|term_start2 = November 30, 1784
|term_end2 = November 4, 1785
|predecessor2 = [[Thomas Mifflin]]
|successor2 = [[John Hancock]]
|office3 = Delegate to the [[Congress of the Confederation]] from Virginia
|term_start3 = November 1, 1784
|term_end3 = October 30, 1787
|office4 = Member of the [[Virginia House of Burgesses]] from [[Westmoreland County, Virginia|Westmoreland County]]
|term_start4 = September 14, 1758
|term_end4 = May 6, 1776
|predecessor4 = [[Augustine Washington Jr.]]
|successor4 = ''Position abolished''
|birth_date = {{birth date|1732|1|20}}
|birth_place = [[Stratford Hall (plantation)|Stratford Hall]], [[Westmoreland County, Virginia|Westmoreland County]], [[Colony of Virginia]], [[British America]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1794|6|19|1732|1|20}}
|death_place = [[Chantilly (Montross, Virginia)|Chantilly Plantation]], [[Westmoreland County, Virginia|Westmoreland County]], [[Virginia]], U.S.
|resting_place = Burnt House Fields, Lee Family Estate, Coles Point, Westmoreland County, Virginia
|nationality =
|party = [[Anti-Administration Party (United States)|Anti-Administration]]
|spouse = Anne Aylett (died 1768) Anne (Gaskins) Pinckard
|children = 13
|parents = [[Thomas Lee (Virginia colonist)|Thomas Lee]] [[Hannah Harrison Ludwell]]
|residence =
|alma_mater =
|occupation =
|profession = [[Law]]
|signature = Richard Henry Lee Signature2.svg
|footnotes =
}}
'''Richard Henry Lee''' (January 20, 1732{{spaced ndash}}June 19, 1794) was an American statesman and [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Father]] from [[Virginia]], best known for the June 1776 [[Lee Resolution]], the motion in the [[Second Continental Congress]] calling for the colonies' independence from [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] leading to the [[United States Declaration of Independence]], which he signed. He also served a one-year term as the [[president of the Continental Congress]], was a signatory to the [[Articles of Confederation]], and was a [[United States Senate|United States Senator]] from Virginia from 1789 to 1792, serving during part of that time as the second [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|president ''pro tempore'']] of the upper house.

He was a member of the [[Lee family]], a historically influential family in Virginia politics.

==Early life and educatiLee was born in [[Westmoreland County, Virginia]], to Colonel [[Thomas Lee (Virginia colonist)|Thomas Lee]] and [[Hannah Harrison Ludwell Lee]] on January 20, 1732. He came from a line of military officers, diplomats, and legislators. His father was the governor of Virginia before his death in 1750. Lee spent most of his early life in Stratford, Virginia, at [[Stratford Hall (plantation)|Stratford Hall]]. Here he was tutored and taught in a variety of skills. To develop his political career, his father sent him around to neighboring planters with the intention for Lee to become associated with neighboring men of like prominence. In 1748, at 16, Lee left Virginia for Yorkshire, England, to complete his formal education at [[Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Wakefield]]. Both of his parents died in 1750. In 1753, after touring Europe, he returned to Virginia to help his brothers settle the estate his parents had left behind.<ref>McGaughy, J. K. Richard Henry Lee (1732–1794). (March 18, 2014). In Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved from http://www.EncyclopediaVirginia.org/ Lee Richard Henry 1732–1794
</ref>

==Career==
In 1757, Lee was appointed [[justice of the peace]] of Westmoreland County. In 1758, he was elected to the Virginia [[House of Burgesses]], where he met [[Patrick Henry]]. An early advocate of independence, Lee became one of the first to create [[Committees of correspondence]] among the many independence-minded Americans in the various colonies. In 1766, almost ten years before the [[American Revolutionary War]], Lee is credited with having authored the Westmoreland Resolution<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/westmorelandcou00wriggoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/westmorelandcou00wriggoog/page/n54 42]|quote=Westmoreland Resolution.|title=Westmoreland County, Virginia: Parts I and II : a Short Chapter and Bright Day in Its History|first1=Lawrence|last1=Washington|first2=Randolph Harrison|last2=McKim|first3=George William|last3=Beale|date=January 1, 1912|publisher=Whittet & Shepperson, printers|access-date=September 22, 2016|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> which was publicly signed by prominent landowners who met at [[Leedstown, Virginia]], on February 27, 1766. Among the signers were four brothers of [[George Washington]].

===American Revolution===
In August 1774, Lee was chosen as a delegate to the [[First Continental Congress]] in [[Philadelphia]]. In Lee's Resolution on June 7, 1776, during the Second Continental Congress, Lee put forth the motion to the Continental Congress to declare Independence from Great Britain, which read (in part):

<blockquote>Resolved: That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.</blockquote>

Lee had returned to Virginia by the time Congress voted on and adopted the Declaration of Independence, but he signed the document when he returned to Congress.

[[File:Coat of Arms of the Lee Family.svg|right|thumb|210px|Lee Family [[Coat of Arms]]]]

===President of Congress===
Lee was elected sixth president of Congress under the [[Articles of Confederation]] on November 30, 1784, in the [[French Arms Tavern]], [[Trenton, New Jersey]]. Congress convened on January 11, 1785, in the old [[New York City Hall]], with Lee presiding until November 23, 1785. Although he was not paid a salary, his household expenses were covered in the amount of $12,203.13.<ref>[http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-YhGJOCnB8bE/Uw4Iv1RksdI/AAAAAAAAJNg/VtgHb6N1bZk/s1600/President's+Expenses.png Estimate of the Annual Expenditure of the Civil Departments of the United States, on the present Establishment] [http://www.richardhenrylee.org/ President Richard Henry Lee]</ref>

Lee abhorred the notion of imposing federal taxes and believed that continuing to borrow foreign money was imprudent. Throughout his term, he maintained that the states should relinquish their claims in the [[Northwest Territory]], enabling the federal government to fund its obligations through land sales. He wrote to friend and colleague [[Samuel Adams]]:

<blockquote>I hope we shall shortly finish our plan for disposing of the western Lands to discharge the oppressive public debt created by the war & I think that if this source of revenue be rightly managed, that these republics may soon be discharged from that state of oppression and distress that an indebted people must invariably feel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://leearchive.wlu.edu/papers/letters/transcripts-ballagh/b311.html|title=President Richard Henry Lee to Samuel Adams, New York May 20. 1785|access-date=22 September 2016}}</ref></blockquote>

Debate began on the expansion of the [[Land Ordinance of 1784]] and [[Thomas Jefferson]]'s survey method; namely, "hundreds of ten geographical miles square, each mile containing 6086 and 4-10ths of a foot" and "sub-divided into lots of one mile square each, or 850 and 4-10ths of an acre" on April 14.<ref>[http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-HeY1dA9YuvQ/Um07Ec68twI/AAAAAAAAHgY/vVmemvCmfTg/s1600/Ohio+Territory+Section.jpg Plat of Township 2, Range 7 in the Ohio Seven Ranges ca. 1786] [http://www.richardhenrylee.org/ Richard Henry Lee, President of the United States in Congress Assembled]</ref> On May 3, 1785, [[William Grayson]] of Virginia made a motion, seconded by [[James Monroe]], to change "seven miles square" to "six miles square."

The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] passed on May 20, 1785,<ref>Olsen, J.S., & Mendoza, A.O. (2015). Land Ordinance of 1785. In ''American economic history: A dictionary and chronology'', (p. 367). Greenwood.</ref> yet the federal government lacked the resources to manage the newly surveyed lands. Not only did [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] refuse to relinquish their hold on the [[plat]]ted territory, but much of the remaining land was occupied by [[squatter]]s. With Congress unable to muster magistrates or troops to enforce the dollar-per-acre title fee, Lee's plan ultimately failed, although the [[U.S. Geological Survey|survey system]] developed under the Land Ordinance of 1785 has endured.<ref>{{cite web|author=Staff|date=May 29, 2012|title=The Public Land Survey System (PLSS)|url=http://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/boundaries/a_plss.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120607063232/http://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/boundaries/a_plss.html|archive-date=June 7, 2012|access-date=June 20, 2012|work=National Atlas of the United States|publisher=[[U.S. Department of the Interior]]}}</ref>

===Political offices===
* Justice of the Peace for Westmoreland County, Virginia (1757)
* Virginia [[House of Burgesses]] (1758–1775)
* Member of the Continental Congress (1774–1779, 1784–1785, 1787)
* [[Virginia House of Delegates]] (1777, 1780, 1785)
* [[President of the Confederation Congress]] (November 30, 1784 – November 4, 1785)
* [[United States Senate|United States Senator]] from [[Virginia]] (March 4, 1789 – October 8, 1792)
* [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|President pro tempore]] during the [[2nd United States Congress|Second Congress]] (April 18 – October 8, 1792)

==Personal life and family==
Lee's mother Hannah Harrison Ludwell died in 1750. On December 5, 1757, he married Anne Aylett, daughter of [[Aylett family of Virginia|William Aylett]]. Anne died on December 12, 1768. The couple had six children, four of whom survived infancy. Lee remarried in June or July 1769 to Anne (Gaskins) Pinckard. The couple had seven children, five of whom survived infancy.

Lee honored his brother, [[Francis Lightfoot Lee]] (another signer of the Articles of Confederation and the Declaration of Independence), by naming his fourth son after him.

==Death and legacy==
Lee died on June 19, 1794, at the age of 62. Lee is recognized as a Founding Father of the United States. Schools in [[Rossmoor, California]], and Glen Burnie, Maryland are named after him, and Richard Henry Lee School in Chicago is named in his honor. The [[World War II]] [[Liberty Ship]] {{SS|Richard Henry Lee}} was named in his honor. The [[Chantilly (Montross, Virginia)|Chantilly Archaeological Site]] was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1971.<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a|dateform=mdy}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence]]
* [[Federal Farmer]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* McGaughy, Kent J. ''Richard Henry Lee of Virginia: A Portrait of an American Revolutionary'' (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2003).
* Selby, John E. "Richard Henry Lee, John Adams, and the Virginia Constitution of 1776." ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 84.4 (1976): 387–400. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4248066 online]
* Unger, Harlow Giles. ''First Founding Father: Richard Henry Lee and the Call for Independence'' (2017) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=54369 online review]

===Primary sources===
* Lee, Richard Henry. ''The Letters of Richard Henry Lee: 1762-1778'' (2 vol 1911–1914) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=lang_en&id=hQsOAAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Richard+Henry+Lee+&ots=9g9n5AvkXo&sig=F3PPBX3m8RJZ1aioP92goVgd0zM online]. also [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=lang_en&id=8wsOAAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA11&dq=Richard+Henry+Lee+&ots=mZ9jiy18Hd&sig=lB8xzLM-e03GtwKCmcpeqx5bM7k vol 2 online]

==External links==
{{Commons category|Richard Henry Lee}}
{{Wikiquote|Richard Henry Lee}}
* {{congbio|L000201}}
* [http://www.richardhenrylee.org/ President Richard Henry Lee]
* [http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/signers/rhlee.htm Richard Henry Lee]
* [http://www.colonialhall.com/leerh/leerh.php Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856]
* [http://archives.nypl.org/mss/4522#detailed/ Richard Henry Lee papers] in the Manuscripts and Archives Division at The New York Public Library.
* {{Find a Grave|1168}}
* [http://www.leftjustified.com/richard-henry-lee Richard Henry Lee Bio]
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Lee, Richard Henry}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Thomas Mifflin]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[President of the Confederation Congress]]|years=November 30, 1784 – November 6, 1785}}
{{s-aft|after=[[John Hancock]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[John Langdon (politician)|John Langdon]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[President pro tempore of the United States Senate]]|years=April 18, 1792 – October 8, 1792}}
{{s-aft|after=[[John Langdon (politician)|John Langdon]]}}
{{s-par|us-sen}}
{{U.S. Senator box
|state=Virginia
|class=2
|before = ''None''
|after =[[John Taylor of Caroline|John Taylor]]
|years =March 4, 1789 – October 8, 1792
|alongside=[[William Grayson]], [[John Walker (Virginia politician)|John Walker]], [[James Monroe]] }}
{{s-end}}

{{Signers of the Continental Association}}
{{USDecOfIndSig}}
{{USArticlesOfConfederationSig}}
{{Presidents of the Continental Congress}}
{{USSenVA}}
{{USSenPresProTemp}}
{{Speakers of the Virginia House of Delegates}}
{{Historical American Documents}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lee, Richard Henry}}
[[Category:1732 births]]
[[Category:1794 deaths]]
[[Category:American people of English descent]]
[[Category:American slave owners]]
[[Category:Anti-Federalists]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen from Virginia]]
[[Category:18th-century American politicians]]
[[Category:House of Burgesses members]]
[[Category:Musical theatre characters]]
[[Category:People educated at Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Wakefield]]
[[Category:Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate]]
[[Category:Signers of the Articles of Confederation]]
[[Category:Signers of the Continental Association]]
[[Category:Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence]]
[[Category:United States senators from Virginia]]
[[Category:Lee family of Virginia]]
[[Category:People from Westmoreland County, Virginia]]
[[Category:Virginia colonial people]]

Roger Williams

2022-04-04T16:36:38Z

66.172.182.2: /* Settlement at Providence */

{{short description|English Protestant theologian and founder of the colony of Providence Plantation}}
{{Other people|Roger Williams}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|honorific_prefix=[[The Reverend]]
|name=Roger Williams
| image = Roger_Williams_statue_by_Franklin_Simmons.jpg
| caption = [[Statue of Roger Williams (U.S. Capitol)|''Roger Williams'']] (1872)
| order1 = 9th
| office1 = President of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
| term_start1 = 1654
| term_end1 = 1657
| predecessor1 = [[Nicholas Easton]]
| successor1 = [[Benedict Arnold (governor)|Benedict Arnold]]
| birth_date = {{circa|1603}}
| birth_place = London, [[Kingdom of England|England]]
| death_date = between 21 January and 15 March 1683 (aged 79)
| death_place = [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]], [[Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations|Rhode Island]], [[British America]]
| occupation = Minister, statesman, author
| title =
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| parties =
| alma_mater = [[Pembroke College, Cambridge]]
| spouse = Mary Bernard
| children = 6
| relations =
| website =
| footnotes =
| signature = Roger Williams signature.svg
}}
'''Roger Williams''' ({{circa}}21 December 1603{{mdash}}between 27 January and 15 March 1683)<ref name=":5">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Roger-Williams-American-religious-leader|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica|title=Roger Williams (American religious leader)|access-date=5 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206105338/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Roger-Williams-American-religious-leader|archive-date=6 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> was a [[Puritan]] minister, theologian, and author who founded [[Providence Plantations]], which became the [[Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]] and later the U.S. [[State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]], now the State of [[Rhode Island]]. He was a staunch advocate for [[religious freedom]], [[separation of church and state]], and fair dealings with Native Americans.<ref name="history">{{cite web|date=2009|title=Roger Williams|url=http://www.history.com/topics/roger-williams|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127084102/http://www.history.com/topics/roger-williams|archive-date=27 January 2018|access-date=26 January 2018|website=History.com|publisher=A&E Television Networks}}</ref>

Williams was expelled by the Puritan leaders from the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] and established Providence Plantations in 1636 as a refuge offering what he termed "[[liberty of conscience]]." In 1638, he founded the [[First Baptist Church in America]], in Providence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.abc-usa.org/what_we_believe/our-history/|title=Our History|website=American Baptist Churches USA|language=en-US|access-date=22 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404140106/http://www.abc-usa.org/what_we_believe/our-history/|archive-date=4 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://loc.gov/pictures/item/ri0188/|title=First Baptist Meetinghouse, 75 North Main Street, Providence, Providence County, RI|website=Library of Congress|access-date=12 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113140006/https://loc.gov/pictures/item/ri0188/|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Williams studied the indigenous languages of [[New England]] and published the first book-length study of a native North American language in English.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lawson|first=Russell M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5nYmCjtMcQC|title=Encyclopedia of American Indian Issues Today [2 volumes]|date=2013-04-02|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-38145-4|pages=181|language=en}}</ref>

==Early life==
Roger Williams was born in or near London between 1602 and 1606, with many historians citing 1603 as the probable year of his birth.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gaustad|first=Edwin S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sjmeBMAiyNMC|title=Roger Williams|date=2005-05-15|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-976053-4|language=en}}</ref> The exact details of Williams' birth are unknown as his birth records were destroyed when [[St Sepulchre-without-Newgate|St. Sepulchre's Church]] burned during the [[Great Fire of London]].<ref>William Gammell, ''Life of Roger Williams, the Founder of the State of Rhode Island'', Boston: Gould and Lincoln, 59 Washington Street. 1854</ref><ref>Romeo Elton, ''Life of Roger Williams, the earliest Legislator and true Champion for a Full and Absolute Liberty of Conscience'', London: Albert Cockshaw, 41, Ludgate Hill. New York: G.P. Putnam London: Miall and Cockhaw, Printers, Horse-Shoe Court, Ludgate Hill</ref><ref>James D. Knowles, ''Memoir of Roger Williams the Founder of the State of Rhode-Island'', Boston: Lln, Edmands and Co. 1834 Lewis & Penniman, Printers. Bromfield-street.</ref><ref>Rev. Z.A. Mudge, ''Foot-Prints of Roger Williams: A Biography, with sketches of important events in early New England History, with which he was connected'', New York: Carlton & Lanahan. San Francisco: E. Thomas. Cincinnati: Hitchcock & Waldon. Sunday-School Department. (Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871)</ref> His father was James Williams (1562–1620), a [[Worshipful Company of Merchant Taylors|merchant tailor]] in [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]], and his mother was Alice Pemberton (1564–1635).
[[File:Graduation_Day,_Pembroke_College,_Cambridge.jpg|thumb|Williams attended [[Pembroke College, Cambridge]]]]
At an early age, Williams had a spiritual conversion, of which his father disapproved. As an adolescent, he apprenticed under Sir [[Edward Coke]], (1552–1634) the famous jurist, and was educated at [[Charterhouse School]] under Coke's patronage. Williams later attended [[Pembroke College, Cambridge]], where he received a Bachelor of Arts in 1627.<ref>{{acad|id=WLMS623R||name=Williams, Roger}}</ref> Williams demonstrated a facility with languages, acquiring familiarity with Latin, Hebrew, Greek, Dutch, and French at an early age. Years later, he tutored [[John Milton]] in Dutch and Native American languages in exchange for refresher lessons in Hebrew.<ref>Pfeiffer, Robert H. (April 1955). "The Teaching of Hebrew in Colonial America". ''The Jewish Quarterly Review''. pp. 363–73. {{JSTOR|1452938}}.</ref>{{Better source needed|date=June 2021|reason=Pfeiffer does not cite his source}}

Williams took [[holy orders]] in the [[Church of England]] in connection with his studies, but he became a Puritan at Cambridge and thus ruined his chance for preferment in the Anglican church. After graduating from Cambridge, he became the chaplain to [[Sir William Masham, 1st Baronet|Sir William Masham]]. In April 1629, Williams proposed marriage to Jane Whalley, the niece of Lady Joan (Cromwell) Barrington, but she declined.<ref>Barry, John M. (2012). Roger Williams and the Creation of the American Soul: Church, State, and the Birth of Liberty. New York: Viking. {{ISBN|978-0-670-02305-9}}. pp. 73-74, pp. 136-139.</ref> Later that year, he married Mary Bernard (1609–76), the daughter of Rev. [[Richard Bernard]], a notable Puritan preacher and author, at the Church of [[High Laver]], in [[Epping Forest]], a few miles east of London.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.womenhistoryblog.com/2007/10/mary-barnard-williams.html |title= Wife of Roger Williams: Founder of Providence Plantation |date= 5 October 2007 |access-date= 5 November 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181106004755/http://www.womenhistoryblog.com/2007/10/mary-barnard-williams.html |archive-date= 6 November 2018 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }}</ref> Together Mary and Roger had six children, all born in America: Mary, Freeborn, Providence, Mercy, Daniel, and Joseph.

Williams knew that Puritan leaders planned to migrate to the [[New World]]. He did not join the [[Puritan migration to New England (1620–1640)|first wave of settlers]], but later decided that he could not remain in England under the administration of Archbishop [[William Laud]]. Williams regarded the Church of England as corrupt and false, and he had arrived at [[English Dissenters|the Separatist position]] by 1630; on December 1, Williams and his wife boarded the [[Boston]]-bound ''Lyon'' in [[Bristol]].<ref>{{Cite web|title="A Brief history of Jacob Belfry" Page 40, 1888|url=http://www.mocavo.com/A-Brief-History-of-Jacob-Belfry-Sen-With-a-Sketch-of-His-Wife-and-Family-and-Their-Descendants-Containing-Also-an-Outline-of-Sherman-Genealogy-and-Biography/103056/48|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305002139/http://www.mocavo.com/A-Brief-History-of-Jacob-Belfry-Sen-With-a-Sketch-of-His-Wife-and-Family-and-Their-Descendants-Containing-Also-an-Outline-of-Sherman-Genealogy-and-Biography/103056/48|archive-date=5 March 2014|access-date=28 February 2014}}</ref>

==Life in America==

=== Arrival in Boston ===
On 5 February 1631, the ''Lyon'' anchored in [[Nantasket Beach|Nantasket]], outside of the Puritan settlement of Boston.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Allison|first=Amy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1b5bAgAAQBAJ|title=Roger Williams|date=2013|publisher=Infobase Learning|isbn=978-1-4381-4450-4|language=en}}</ref> Upon his arrival, the [[First Church in Boston|church of Boston]] offered Williams the opportunity to serve during the vacancy of Rev. [[John Wilson (minister)|John Wilson]], who had returned to England to accompany his wife to the colony.<ref name="smith">{{cite news|last1=Barry|first1=John M.|date=January 2012|title=God, Government and Roger Williams' Big Idea|work=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/god-government-and-roger-williams-big-idea-6291280/|url-status=live|access-date=27 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104131844/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/god-government-and-roger-williams-big-idea-6291280/|archive-date=4 January 2018}}</ref> Williams declined the position on grounds that it was "an unseparated church." In addition, he asserted that civil [[magistrate]]s must not punish any sort of "breach of the first table" of the [[Ten Commandments]] such as [[idolatry]], [[Sabbath desecration|Sabbath-breaking]], false worship, and [[blasphemy]], and that individuals should be free to follow their own convictions in religious matters. These three principles later became central tenets of Williams' teachings and writings.

===Salem and Plymouth===
[[File:Witch_House,_Salem.jpg|thumb|The [[The Witch House|Jonathan Corwin House]] was long purported to be Williams' residence in Salem<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goff|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=at1-CQAAQBAJ|title=Salem's Witch House: A Touchstone to Antiquity|date=2009-09-16|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=978-1-61423-286-5|language=en}}</ref>]]
As a [[Definitions of Puritanism#Separatist groups|Separatist]], Williams considered the Church of England irredeemably corrupt and believed that one must completely separate from it to establish a new church for the true and pure worship of God. The [[Salem, Massachusetts|Salem]] church was also inclined to Separatism, and they invited him to become their teacher. In response, leaders in Boston vigorously protested, leading Salem to withdraw its offer. As the summer of 1631 ended, Williams moved to [[Plymouth Colony]] where he was welcomed, and informally assisted the minister. At Plymouth, he regularly preached; according to the colony's governor, [[William Bradford (Plymouth Colony governor)|William Bradford]], "his teachings were well approved."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Straus|first=Oscar Solomon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sem-3dTbOwUC|title=Roger Williams; the Pioneer of Religious Liberty|date=1894|publisher=Century Company|pages=30|language=en}}</ref>

After a time, Williams decided that the Plymouth church was not sufficiently separated from the Church of England. Furthermore, his contact with the [[Narragansett people|Narragansett Indians]] had caused him to question the validity of [[Colonial charters in the Thirteen Colonies|colonial charters]] that did not include legitimate purchase of Indian land. Governor Bradford later wrote that Williams fell "into some strange opinions which caused some controversy between the church and him."<ref>Quoted in Edwin Gaustad,''Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America'' Judson Press, 1999, p. 28.</ref>

In December 1632, Williams wrote a lengthy tract that openly condemned the King's charters and questioned the right of Plymouth to the land without first buying it from the Native Americans. He even charged that [[King James I of England|King James]] had uttered a "solemn lie" in claiming that he was the first Christian monarch to have discovered the land. Williams moved back to Salem by the fall of 1633 and was welcomed by Rev. [[Samuel Skelton]] as an unofficial assistant.

===Litigation and exile===
[[File:The_Banishment_of_Roger_Williams.jpg|thumb|''The Banishment of Roger Williams'' (c. 1850) by [[Peter F. Rothermel]]]]
The Massachusetts Bay authorities were not pleased at Williams' return. In December 1633, they summoned him to appear before the General Court in Boston to defend his tract attacking the King and the charter. The issue was smoothed out, and the tract disappeared forever, probably burned. In August 1634, Williams became acting pastor of the Salem church, the Rev. Skelton having died. In March 1635, he was again ordered to appear before the General Court, and he was summoned yet again for the Court's July term to answer for "erroneous" and "dangerous opinions." The Court finally ordered that he be removed from his church position.

This latest controversy welled up as the town of Salem petitioned the General Court to annex some land on [[Marblehead, Massachusetts|Marblehead]] Neck. The Court refused to consider the request unless the church in Salem removed Williams. The church felt that this order violated their independence, and sent a letter of protest to the other churches. However, the letter was not read publicly in those churches, and the General Court refused to seat the delegates from Salem at the next session. Support for Williams began to wane under this pressure, and he withdrew from the church and began meeting with a few of his most devoted followers in his home.

Finally, in October 1635, the General Court tried Williams and convicted him of sedition and heresy. They declared that he was spreading "diverse, new, and dangerous opinions"<ref>LaFantasie, Glenn W., ed. ''The Correspondence of Roger Williams,'' University Press of New England, 1988, Vol. 1, pp.12–23.</ref> and ordered that he be banished. The execution of the order was delayed because Williams was ill and winter was approaching, so he was allowed to stay temporarily, provided that he ceased publicly teaching his opinions. He failed to do so, and the sheriff came in January 1636, only to discover that he had slipped away three days earlier during a blizzard. He traveled 55 miles through the deep snow, from Salem to [[Raynham, Massachusetts]] where the local [[Wampanoag people|Wampanoags]] offered him shelter at their winter camp. [[Sachem]] [[Massasoit]] hosted Williams there for the three months until spring.

==Settlement at Providence==
[[File:Alonzo_Chappel_-_The_Landing_of_Roger_Williams_in_1636_-_43.003_-_Rhode_Island_School_of_Design_Museum.jpg|thumb|''The Landing of Roger Willoms in 1636'' (1857) by [[Alonzo Chappel]] depicts Williams crossing the Seekonk River]]
In the spring of 1636, Williams and a [[list of early settlers of Rhode Island|number of others]] from Salem began a new settlement on land which he had bought from Massasoit in [[Rumford, Rhode Island]]. After settling however, authorities of Plymouth Colony asserted that Williams and his followers were within their land grant and expressed concern that his presence there might anger the leaders of Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Accordingly, Williams, accompanied by Thomas Angell crossed the [[Seekonk River]], in search of a new location suitable for settlement. Upon reaching the shore, Williams and Angell were met by indigenous [[Narragansett (tribe)|Narragansett people]] who greeted them with the words "What cheer, Netop" ({{Translation|Hello, friend}}). The settlers then continued eastward along the [[Providence River]], where they encountered a cove and freshwater spring. Finding the area suitable for settlement, Williams acquired the tract from sachems [[Canonicus]] and [[Miantonomoh|Miantonomi]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cady|first=John Hutchins|url=https://archive.org/details/civicarchitectur00cady|title=The civic and architectural development of Providence, 1636-1950|date=1957|publisher=Providence, R.I. : Book Shop|others=Allen County Public Library Genealogy Center}}</ref> Here, Williams and his followers established a new, permanent settlement. Under the belief that [[divine providence]] had brought them there, the settlers named the settlement "[[Providence Plantations|Providence]]."<ref>''An Album of Rhode Island History'' by Patrick T. Conley</ref>

Williams wanted his settlement to be a haven for those "distressed of conscience," and it soon attracted a collection of dissenters and otherwise-minded individuals. From the beginning, a majority vote of the heads of households governed the new settlement, but only in civil things. Newcomers could also be admitted to full citizenship by a majority vote. In August 1637, a new town agreement again restricted the government to civil things. In 1640, 39 freemen (men who had full citizenship and voting rights) signed another agreement that declared their determination "still to hold forth liberty of conscience." Thus, Williams founded the first place in modern history where citizenship and religion were separate, providing religious liberty and separation of church and state. This was combined with the principle of [[majoritarian democracy]].

[[File:First_Baptist_Church_in_America_from_Angell_St_3.jpg|thumb|The [[First Baptist Church in America]] which Williams co-founded in 1638]]
In November 1637, the General Court of Massachusetts disarmed, disenfranchised, and forced into exile some of the [[Antinomians]], including the followers of [[Anne Hutchinson]]. [[John Clarke (Baptist minister)|John Clarke]] was among them, and he learned from Williams that [[Aquidneck Island|Aquidneck (Rhode) Island]] might be purchased from the Narragansetts; Williams helped him to make the purchase, along with [[William Coddington]] and others, and they established the settlement of [[Portsmouth, Rhode Island|Portsmouth]]. In spring 1638, some of those settlers split away and founded the nearby settlement of [[Newport, Rhode Island|Newport]], also situated on Aquidneck Island.

In 1638, Williams and about twelve others were baptized and formed a congregation. Today, Williams' congregation is recognized as the [[First Baptist Church in America]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=King|first1=Henry Melville|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MylOAQAAMAAJ|title=Historical Catalogue of the Members of the First Baptist Church in Providence, Rhode Island|last2=Wilcox|first2=Charles Field|date=1908|publisher=Townsend, F.H., Printer|language=en}}</ref>

===Pequot War and relations with Native Americans===
{{More citations needed section|date=September 2016}}
In the meantime, the [[Pequot War]] had broken out. Massachusetts Bay asked for Williams' help, which he gave despite his exile, and he became the Bay colony's eyes and ears, and also dissuaded the Narragansetts from joining with the [[Pequots]]. Instead, the Narragansetts allied themselves with the colonists and helped to defeat the Pequots in 1637–38. The Narragansetts thus became the most powerful Native American tribe in southern New England.

Williams formed firm friendships and developed deep trust among the Native American tribes, especially the Narragansetts. He was able to keep the peace between the Native Americans and the [[Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]] for nearly 40 years by his constant mediation and negotiation. He twice surrendered himself as a hostage to the Native Americans to guarantee the safe return of a great [[sachem]] from a summons to a court: Pessicus in 1645 and [[Metacom]] ("King Philip") in 1671. Williams was trusted by the Native Americans more than any other Colonist, and he proved trustworthy.

[[File:Roger Williams and Narragansetts.jpg|thumb|A mid-19th century depiction of Williams meeting with Narragansett leaders]]
However, the other New England colonies began to fear and mistrust the Narragansetts and soon came to regard the Rhode Island colony as a common enemy. In the next three decades, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth exerted pressure to destroy both Rhode Island and the Narragansetts. In 1643, the neighboring colonies formed a military alliance called the United Colonies which pointedly excluded the towns around Narragansett Bay. In response, Williams traveled to England to secure a charter for the colony.

===Return to England and charter matters===

==== A Key into the Language of America ====
Williams arrived in London in the midst of the [[English Civil War]]. Puritans held power in London, and he was able to obtain a charter through the offices of [[Sir Henry Vane the Younger]], despite strenuous opposition from Massachusetts' agents. His first published book ''[[A Key into the Language of America]]'' proved crucial to the success of his charter, albeit indirectly.<ref>Gaustad, Edwin S.,''Liberty of Conscience'' (Judson Press, 1999), p. 62</ref><ref>Ernst, ''Roger Williams: New England Firebrand'' (Macmillan, 1932), p. 227-228</ref> Published in 1643 in London, the book combined a phrase-book with observations about life and culture as an aid to communicate with the Native Americans of [[New England]]. In its scope, the book covered everything from salutations to death and burial. Williams also sought to correct the attitudes of superiority displayed by the colonists towards Native Americans:

{{Blockquote|text=Boast not proud English, of thy birth & blood;
Thy brother Indian is by birth as Good.
Of one blood God made Him, and Thee and All,
As wise, as fair, as strong, as personal.}}

Printed by [[Gregory Dexter]]'','' the book was the first book-length study of a native North American language in the English language. In England, the book was well received by readers who were curious about the indigenous people of the New World.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Warren|first=James A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-n-aDwAAQBAJ|title=God, War, and Providence: The Epic Struggle of Roger Williams and the Narragansett Indians against the Puritans of New England|date=2019-06-18|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-5011-8042-2|pages=150|language=en}}</ref>

==== The Bloudy Tenent ====
Williams secured his charter from Parliament for Providence Plantations in July 1644, after which he published his most famous book ''[[The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience]]''. The publication produced a great uproar; between 1644 and 1649, at least 60 pamphlets were published addressing the work's arguments.<ref name=":0" /> Parliament responded to Williams on August 9, 1644, by ordering the public hangman to burn all copies. By this time, however, Williams was already en route to New England, where he arrived with his charter in September.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Return of Roger Williams.jpg|thumb|Return of Roger Williams from England with the First Charter from Parliament for [[Providence Plantations]] in July 1644]]It took Williams several years to unify the settlements of Narragansett Bay under a single government given the opposition of William Coddington. The four villages finally united in 1647 into the [[Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]]. [[Freedom of thought|Freedom of conscience]] was again proclaimed, and the colony became a safe haven for people who were persecuted for their beliefs, including Baptists, Quakers, and [[History of the Jews in Colonial America|Jews]]. Still, the divisions between the towns' powerful personalities did not bode well for the colony. Coddington disliked Williams and did not enjoy his position of subordination under the new charter government. Accordingly, Coddington sailed to England and returned to Rhode Island in 1651 with [[William Coddington#Coddington commission|his own patent]] making him "Governor for Life" over Aquidneck and [[Conanicut Island]]s.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

As a result, Providence, [[Warwick, Rhode Island|Warwick]], and Coddington's opponents on Aquidneck dispatched Roger Williams and John Clarke to England, seeking to cancel Coddington's commission. Williams sold his trading post at Cocumscussec (near [[Wickford, Rhode Island]]) to pay for his journey even though it provided his primary source of income. Williams and Clarke succeeded in rescinding Coddington's patent, with Clarke remaining in England for the following decade to protect the colonists' interests and secure a new charter. Williams returned to America in 1654 and was immediately elected the colony's president. He subsequently served in many offices in town and colonial governments.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

=== Slavery ===
Williams did not write extensively about slavery. He consistently expressed disapproval of perpetual [[Slavery#Chattel slavery|chattel slavery]], though generally did not object to the enslavement of captured enemy combatants for a fixed duration, a practice from which he occasionally profited.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=J. Stanley|first=Lemons|date=2002|title=Rhode Island and the Slave Trade|url=http://www.rihs.org/assetts/files/publications/2002_Fall.pdf|journal=Rhode Island History|volume=60| issue = 4}}</ref> During his life, Williams struggled with the morality of slavery and raised his concerns in letters to [[List of colonial governors of Massachusetts|Massachusetts Bay Governor]] [[John Winthrop]] concerning the treatment of the [[Pequots]] during the [[Pequot War]] (1636–1638).<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Slavery - Roger Williams Initiative|url=http://www.findingrogerwilliams.com/essays/slavery|access-date=2021-04-20|website=www.findingrogerwilliams.com}}</ref> In these letters, he requested Winthrop to prevent the enslavement of Pequot women and children as well as direct the colonial militia to spare them during the fighting.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Williams|first=Roger|date=May 15, 1637|title=Letter to Sir Henry Vane and John Winthrop from Roger Williams- May 15, 1637|url=http://www.masshist.org/publications/winthrop/index.php/view/PWF03d328|url-status=live|access-date=August 5, 2021|website=Massachusetts Historical Society}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Williams|first=Roger|date=June 21, 1637|title=Letter to John Winthrop from Roger Williams- June 21, 2021|url=http://www.masshist.org/publications/winthrop/index.php/view/PWF03d341#sn=4|url-status=live|access-date=August 5, 2021|website=Massachusetts Historical Society}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Williams|first=Roger|date=July 15, 1637|title=Letter to John Winthrop from Roger Williams- July 15, 1637|url=http://www.masshist.org/publications/winthrop/index.php/view/PWF03d341#sn=4|url-status=live|access-date=August 5, 2021|website=Massachusetts Historical Society}}</ref> In another letter to Winthrop written on July 31, 1637, Williams stated that he approved of the capture and indenture of remaining Pequot women and children in order to "lawfully" ensure that remaining enemy combatants were "weakned and despoild", but pleaded that their indenture not be permanent.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Williams|first=Roger|date=July 31, 1637|title=Letter to John Winthrop from Roger Williams- July 31, 1637|url=http://www.masshist.org/publications/winthrop/index.php/view/PWF03d359#sn=12|url-status=live|access-date=August 5, 2021|website=Massachusetts Historical Society}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Williams|first=Roger|date=February 28, 1638|title=Letter to John Winthrop from Roger Williams- February 28, 1638|url=http://www.masshist.org/publications/winthrop/index.php/view/PWF04d018#sn=23|url-status=live|archive-date=|access-date=August 5, 2021|website=Massachusetts Historical Society}}</ref>

Despite his reservations, Williams formed part of the colonial delegation sent to conduct negotiations at the end of the Pequot War, where the fates of the captured Pequot were decided upon between the [[New England Colonies|colonists of New England]] and their indigenous allies: the [[Narragansett people|Narragansett]], [[Mohegan Tribe|Mohegan]], and [[Niantic people|Niantic]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Gallay|first=Alan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HT69BbA3Is8C|title=Indian Slavery in Colonial America|date=2009-01-01|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-2200-7|pages=40–42|language=en}}</ref> Williams reported to Winthrop that he and the Narragansett sachem [[Miantonomoh]] discussed what to do with a group of captured Pequot; initially they discussed the possibility of distributing them as slaves amongst the four victorious parties, which Miantonomoh "liked well", though at Williams' suggestion, the non-combatants were relocated to an island in Niantic territory "because most of them were families".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Williams|first=Roger|date=July 10, 1637|title=Letter to John Winthrop From Roger Williams July 10, 1637 (2)|url=http://www.masshist.org/publications/winthrop/index.php/view/PWF03d351|url-status=live|access-date=August 3, 2021|website=Massachusetts Historical Society}}</ref> Miantonomoh later requested an enslaved female Pequot from Winthrop, to which Williams objected, stating that "he had his share sent to him". Instead, Williams suggested he "buy one or two of some English man".<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Williams|first=Roger|date=August 12, 1637|title=Letter to John Winthrop From Roger Williams- August 12, 1637|url=http://www.masshist.org/publications/winthrop/index.php/view/PWF03d364|url-status=live|access-date=August 3, 2021|website=Massachusetts Historical Society}}</ref> While some indigenous allies of the colonists aided in the export of enslaved Pequot to the [[West Indies]], others disagreed with the practice, instead believing that they should have been given land and provisions to contribute to the wellbeing of colonial settlements, as was their customary tradition concerning slavery.<ref name=":3" /> Many enslaved Pequot frequently ran away, where they were taken in by surrounding indigenous settlements; Williams, as part of his constant mediation between colonists and indigenous peoples, negotiated for the return of runaway Pequots and facilitated the trade of [[Slavery among Native Americans in the United States|indigenous slaves]].<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" />

In 1641, the Massachusetts Bay Colony passed laws sanctioning [[Slavery in the colonial history of the United States|slavery]].<ref>PBS. ''Africans in America: the Terrible Transformation.'' "[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1narr3.html From Indentured Servitude to Racial Slavery]." Accessed September 13, 2011.</ref> In response, under Williams' leadership, the Providence Plantations passed a law in 1652 restricting the amount of time for which an individual could be held in slavery and tried to prevent the [[Atlantic slave trade|importation of enslaved Africans]].<ref name=":2" /> The law established terms for slavery that mirrored that of indentured servitude; enslavement was to be limited in duration and not passed down to children.<ref name=":1" /> Upon the unification of Providence Plantations with Aquidneck Island, residents of the latter refused to accept this law, ensuring it became [[Legislation#Dead letter|dead letter]].<ref>McLoughlin, William G. ''Rhode Island: A History'' (W.W. Norton, 1978), p. 26.</ref> Later in life, at the time of [[King Philip's War|King Phillip's War]], tensions with the Narragansetts were irreparable, and, despite Williams' efforts to maintain peace, a destructive war ensued, during which his home was burned to the ground. During the war, Williams, with a group of Providence citizens, facilitated and profited from the sale of a number of captured Narragansetts and [[Wampanoag|Wamponoag]].<ref name=":2" />

== Relations with the Baptists ==
[[Ezekiel Holliman]] baptized Williams in late 1638. A few years later, [[Dr. John Clarke]] established the [[First Baptist Church in Newport, Rhode Island]], and both Roger Williams and John Clarke became the founders of the Baptist faith in America.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.redwoodlibrary.org/notables/clarke.htm | title = Newport Notables | publisher = Redwood Library. | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927062252/http://www.redwoodlibrary.org/notables/clarke.htm | archive-date = 27 September 2007 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Williams did not affiliate himself with any church, but he remained interested in the Baptists, agreeing with their rejection of [[infant baptism]] and most other matters. Both enemies and admirers sometimes called him a "Seeker," associating him with a heretical movement that accepted [[Socinianism]] and [[Universal Reconciliation]], but Williams rejected both of these ideas.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead (1960): ''History of Religion in the United States''. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., p. 106</ref>

==King Philip's War and death==
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction =
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Roger Williams statue at Propect Terrace Park (cropped).jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = Williams' final resting place in [[Prospect Terrace Park]]
| image2 = Roger Williams Root.jpg
| caption2 = The "Roger Williams Root"
}}
[[King Philip's War]] (1675–1676) pitted the colonists against indigenous peoples—including the Narragansett with which Williams had previously maintained good relations. Williams, although in his 70s, was elected captain of Providence's militia. On March 29, 1676, Narragansett warriors led by [[Canonchet]] burned Providence; among the structures destroyed were Williams' home.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mandell|first=Daniel R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_aDvP0d19rAC|title=King Philip's War: Colonial Expansion, Native Resistance, and the End of Indian Sovereignty|date=2010-09-01|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-9948-5|pages=100|language=en}}</ref>

=== Burial ===
Williams died sometime between January 16 and March 16, 1683 and was buried on his own property. Fifty years later, his house collapsed into the cellar and the location of his grave was forgotten.

According to the [[National Park Service]], in 1860, Providence residents determined to raise a monument in his honor "dug up the spot where they believed the remains to be, they found only nails, teeth, and bone fragments. They also found an apple tree root," which they thought followed the shape of a human body; the root followed the shape of a spine, split at the hips, bent at the knees, and turned up at the feet.<ref name="nps">{{cite news|last1=Bryant|first1=Sparkle|title=The Tree Root That Ate Roger Williams|url=https://www.nps.gov/rowi/learn/news/the-tree-root-that-ate-roger-williams.htm|access-date=27 January 2018|work=NPS News Releases|publisher=National Park Service|date=19 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408144524/https://www.nps.gov/rowi/learn/news/the-tree-root-that-ate-roger-williams.htm|archive-date=8 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Rhode Island Historical Society]] has cared for this tree root since 1860 as representative of Rhode Island's founder. Since 2007, the root has been displayed at the [[John Brown House (Providence, Rhode Island)|John Brown House]].<ref>Rhode Island Historical Society, "Body, Body, Who's Got the Body? Where in the World IS Roger Williams", ''New and Notes,'' (Spring/Winter, 2008), p. 4.</ref>

The few remains discovered alongside the root were reinterred in [[Prospect Terrace Park]] in 1939 at the base of a large stone monument.

==Separation of church and state==

Williams was a staunch advocate of [[separation of church and state]]. He was convinced that [[Civil authority|civil government]] had no basis for meddling in matters of religious belief. He declared that the state should concern itself only with matters of civil order, not with religious belief, and he rejected any attempt by civil authorities to enforce the "first Table" of the [[Ten Commandments]], those commandments that deal with an individual's relationship with and belief in God. Williams believed that the state must confine itself to the commandments dealing with the relations between people: murder, theft, [[adultery]], lying, and honoring parents.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hall|title=Separating Church and State: Roger Williams and Religious Liberty|publisher=University of Illinois Press|url=https://archive.org/details/separatingchurch00hall|url-access=registration|year=1998|page=[https://archive.org/details/separatingchurch00hall/page/77 77]}}</ref> Williams wrote of a "hedge or wall of Separation between the Garden of the Church and the Wilderness of the world." [[Thomas Jefferson]] later used the metaphor in his 1801 ''[[Baptists in the history of separation of church and state#American Baptists|Letter to Danbury Baptists]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/god-government-and-roger-williams-big-idea-6291280/ |title=God, Government and Roger Williams' Big Idea |last=Barry |first=John M. |date=January 2012 |website=Smithsonian |language=en |access-date=15 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215221553/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/god-government-and-roger-williams-big-idea-6291280/ |archive-date=15 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/05/14/shifting-boundaries4/ |title=''Everson'' and the Wall of Separation |date=14 May 2009 |work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |publisher=Pew Research Center |language=en-US |access-date=13 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214071354/http://www.pewforum.org/2009/05/14/shifting-boundaries4/ |archive-date=14 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Williams considered the state's sponsor of religious beliefs or practice "forced worship", declaring "Forced worship stinks in God's nostrils."<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.providenceri.com/archives/roger-williams-champion-of-religious | author = Lemons, Stanley | title = Roger Williams Champion of Religious Liberty | publisher = Providence, RI City Archives. | access-date = 28 May 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140529052810/http://www.providenceri.com/archives/roger-williams-champion-of-religious | archive-date = 29 May 2014 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }}</ref> He also believed [[Constantine the Great]] to be a worse enemy to Christianity than [[Nero]] because the subsequent state involvement in religious matters corrupted Christianity and led to the death of the Christian church. He described the attempt of the state to pass laws concerning an individual's religious beliefs as "rape of the soul" and spoke of the "oceans of blood" shed as a result of trying to command conformity.<ref>{{cite book|author=Chana B. Cox|title=Liberty: God's Gift to Humanity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2r2UBGf1nT4C&pg=PA26|year=2006|publisher=Lexington Books|page=26|isbn=9780739114421|access-date=13 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227064015/https://books.google.com/books?id=2r2UBGf1nT4C&pg=PA26|archive-date=27 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The moral principles in the [[Biblical canon|Scriptures]] ought to inform the civil magistrates, he believed, but he observed that well-ordered, just, and civil governments existed even where Christianity was not present. Thus, all governments had to maintain civil order and justice, but Williams decided that none had a warrant to promote or repress any religious views. Most of his contemporaries criticized his ideas as a prescription for chaos and anarchy, and the vast majority believed that each nation must have its national church and could require that dissenters conform.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

==Writings==
[[File:A_Key_into_the_Language_of_America.jpg|thumb|In 1643, Williams published ''[[A Key into the Language of America]],'' the first published study of an Amerindian language in English]]
Williams's career as an author began with ''[[A Key into the Language of America]]'' (London, 1643), written during his first voyage to England. His next publication was ''Mr. Cotton's Letter lately Printed, Examined and Answered'' (London, 1644; reprinted in ''Publications of the Narragansett Club'', vol. ii, along with [[John Cotton (minister)|John Cotton]]'s letter which it answered). His most famous work is ''[[The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience]]'' (published in 1644), considered by some to be one of the best defenses of liberty of conscience.<ref>James Emanuel Ernst, Roger Williams, New England Firebrand (Macmillan Co., Rhode Island, 1932), pg. 246 [https://books.google.com/books?id=IsgMAAAAYAAJ&q=bloudy+tenent+of+persecution+vigor+style+roger+williams&dq=bloudy+tenent+of+persecution+vigor+style+roger+williams&pgis=1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104135551/http://books.google.com/books?id=IsgMAAAAYAAJ&q=bloudy+tenent+of+persecution+vigor+style+roger+williams&dq=bloudy+tenent+of+persecution+vigor+style+roger+williams&pgis=1 |date=4 January 2014 }}</ref>

An anonymous pamphlet was published in London in 1644 entitled ''Queries of Highest Consideration Proposed to Mr. Tho. Goodwin, Mr. Phillip Nye, Mr. Wil. Bridges, Mr. Jer. Burroughs, Mr. Sidr. Simpson, all Independents, etc.'' which is now ascribed to Williams. These "Independents" were members of the [[Westminster Assembly]]; their ''Apologetical Narration'' sought a way between extreme Separatism and Presbyterianism, and their prescription was to accept the state church model of Massachusetts Bay.

Williams published ''The Bloody Tenent yet more Bloudy: by Mr. Cotton's Endeavor to wash it white in the Blood of the Lamb; of whose precious Blood, spilt in the Bloud of his Servants; and of the Blood of Millions spilt in former and later Wars for Conscience sake, that most Bloody Tenent of Persecution for cause of Conscience, upon, a second Tryal is found more apparently and more notoriously guilty, etc.'' (London, 1652) during his second visit to England. This work reiterated and amplified the arguments in ''Bloudy Tenent'', but it has the advantage of being written in answer to Cotton's ''A Reply to Mr. Williams his Examination'' (''Publications of the Narragansett Club'', vol. ii.).

Other works by Williams include:
* ''The Hireling Ministry None of Christ's'' (London, 1652)
* ''Experiments of Spiritual Life and Health, and their Preservatives'' (London, 1652; reprinted Providence, 1863)
* ''[[George Fox Digged out of his Burrowes]]'' (Boston, 1676) (discusses Quakerism with its different belief in the "inner light," which Williams considered heretical)

A volume of his letters is included in the Narragansett Club edition of Williams' ''Works'' (7 vols., Providence, 1866–74), and a volume was edited by [[John Russell Bartlett|J. R. Bartlett]] (1882).
* ''The Correspondence of Roger Williams,'' 2 vols., Rhode Island Historical Society, 1988, edited by Glenn W. LaFantasie.

[[Brown University]]'s [[John Carter Brown Library]] has long housed a 234-page volume referred to as the "Roger Williams Mystery Book".<ref>{{cite web|last=Mason-Brown|first=Lucas|title=Cracking the Code: Infant Baptism and Roger Williams|url=http://blogs.brown.edu/jcbbooks/2012/07/11/cracking-the-code/|work=JCB Books Speak|access-date=16 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618180720/http://blogs.brown.edu/jcbbooks/2012/07/11/cracking-the-code/|archive-date=18 June 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> The margins of this book are filled with notations in handwritten code, believed to be the work of Roger Williams. In 2012, Brown University undergraduate Lucas Mason-Brown cracked the code and uncovered conclusive historical evidence attributing its authorship to Williams.<ref>{{cite web|last=Fischer|first=Suzanne|title=Personal Tech for the 17th Century|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/04/personal-tech-for-the-17th-century/255609/|work=The Atlantic|date=9 April 2012|access-date=16 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910025030/http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/04/personal-tech-for-the-17th-century/255609/|archive-date=10 September 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Translations are revealing transcriptions of a geographical text, a medical text, and 20 pages of original notes addressing the issue of [[infant baptism]].<ref>{{cite news|last=McKinney|first=Michael|title=Reading Outside the Lines|url=https://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/images/Reading%20outside%20the%20lines.pdf|access-date=16 September 2012|newspaper=The Providence Journal|date=March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710004658/http://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/images/Reading%20outside%20the%20lines.pdf|archive-date=10 July 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Mason-Brown has since discovered more writings by Williams employing a separate code in the margins of a rare edition of the ''[[Eliot Indian Bible]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mason-Brown|first=Lucas|title=Cracking the Code: Infant Baptism and Roger Williams|url=http://blogs.brown.edu/jcbbooks/2012/07/11/cracking-the-code/|work=JCB Books Speak|publisher=Brown University|access-date=16 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618180720/http://blogs.brown.edu/jcbbooks/2012/07/11/cracking-the-code/|archive-date=18 June 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Legacy==
{{Multiple image
| header = Tributes to Roger Williams
| align = right
| direction =
| total_width = 260
| perrow = 1/2/2
| image1 = Roger Williams University sign, Bristol, Rhode Island (cropped).jpg
| caption1 = [[Roger Williams University]] in [[Bristol, Rhode Island]]
| image2= Statue_of_Roger_Williams_at_Roger_Williams_University,_Bristol,_Rhode_Island.jpg
| caption2 = Statue of Williams at Roger Williams University
| image3 = Roger Williams monument, Roger Williams Park, Providence, Rhode Island.jpg
| caption3 = Memorial statue in [[Roger Williams Park]]
| image4 = Roger_Williams_national_park2.jpg
| caption4 = [[Roger Williams National Memorial]] in [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]]
| image5 = Roger Williams Middle School.jpg
| caption5 = Roger Williams Middle School in [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]]
}}
Williams' defense of the Native Americans, his accusations that Puritans had reproduced the "evils" of the Anglican Church, and his insistence that England pay the Native Americans for their land all put him at the center of many political debates during his life. He was considered an important historical figure of religious liberty at the time of [[United States Declaration of Independence|American independence]], and he was a key influence on the thinking of the [[Founding Fathers]].

===Tributes===
Tributes to Williams include:
* The 1936 commemorative [[Rhode Island Tercentenary half dollar]]
* [[Roger Williams National Memorial]], a park in downtown Providence established in 1965
* [[Roger Williams Park]], [[Providence, Rhode Island]], and the [[Roger Williams Park Zoo]]
* [[Roger Williams University]] in [[Bristol, Rhode Island]]
* Roger Williams Dining Hall at the [[University of Rhode Island]]
* Roger Williams Inn, the main dining hall at the American Baptists' Green Lake Conference Center, founded in 1943 in [[Green Lake (town), Wisconsin|Green Lake, Wisconsin]]
* [[Roger Williams (Simmons)|Rhode Island's representative statue]] in the [[National Statuary Hall Collection]] in the United States Capitol, added in 1872
* A depiction of him on the [[Reformation Wall|International Monument to the Reformation]] in [[Geneva]], along with other prominent reformers
* A [[Lesser Feasts and Fasts|Lesser Feast]] (with [[Anne Hutchinson]]) on the [[Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)|liturgical calendar]] of the [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church]] on [[February 5|5 February]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Roger Williams & Anne Hutchinson|url=http://satucket.com/lectionary/roger_williams_anne_hutchinson.htm|access-date=2021-04-10|website=satucket.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Holy Women, Holy Men Celebrating the Saints|url=https://diobeth.typepad.com/files/holy-women-holy-men.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Roger Williams Middle School, a [[Providence Public School District|public school]] in Providence
*[[Pembroke College in Brown University]] was named for Williams' alma mater
===Slate Rock===
{{Multiple image
| header = Slate Rock
| align = right
| direction =
| total_width = 300
| perrow = 2
| image1= Slate Rock, from a painting by Edward L. Peckham, 1832.jpg
| caption1 = 1832 painting of Slate Rock by Edward L. Peckham
| image2= Roger Williams Landing Place monument in Slate Rock Park east facade.jpg
| caption2 = Memorial in Roger Williams Square
}}
Slate Rock, a prominent boulder on the west shore of the Seekonk River (near the current Gano Park) was once one of Providence's most important historic landmarks.<ref name="Quahog" /><ref name="Sowams" /><ref name="RIHS" /> The rock was believed to be the spot where the Narragansetts greeted Williams with the famous phrase "What cheer, netop?" The historic rock was accidentally blown up by city workers in 1877.<ref name="Quahog" /><ref name="Sowams" /> They were attempting to expose a buried portion of the stone, but used too much dynamite and the stone was "blasted to pieces."<ref name="Quahog" /> A memorial in Roger Williams Square commemorates the location.<ref name="Quahog">{{cite web |title=Roger Williams's Landing Place Monument |url=https://www.quahog.org/attractions/index.php?id=68 |website=Quahog dot org |access-date=23 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526145444/https://www.quahog.org/attractions/index.php?id=68 |archive-date=26 May 2021}}</ref><ref name="RIHS">{{cite web |last1=Shamgochian |first1=John |title=Slate Rock, The Landing Place of Roger Williams |url=https://www.rihs.org/slate-rock-the-landing-place-of-roger-williams/ |website=Rhode Island Historical Society |publisher=Rhode Island Historical Society |access-date=23 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223163312/https://www.rihs.org/slate-rock-the-landing-place-of-roger-williams/ |archive-date=23 December 2021 |date=3 August 2020}}</ref><ref name="Sowams">{{cite web |title=Slate Rock Park |url=http://sowamsheritagearea.org/wp/slate-rock-park/ |website=Sowams Heritage Area |access-date=23 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508111614/http://sowamsheritagearea.org/wp/slate-rock-park/ |archive-date=8 May 2021 |date=14 January 2019}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]]
* [[Rhode Island]]
* [[List of early settlers of Rhode Island]]
* [[John Cotton (puritan)]]
* [[John Winthrop]]
* [[Roger Williams National Memorial]]
* [[Roger Williams Park]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Barry, John, ''Roger Williams and the Creation of the American Soul'' (New York: Viking Press, 2012).
* [[Teresa Bejan|Bejan, Teresa]], ''Mere Civility: Disagreement and the Limits of Toleration'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017). Addresses Roger Williams' ideas in dialogue with Hobbes and Locke, and suggests lessons from Williams for how to disagree well in the modern public sphere.
* Brockunier, Samuel. ''The Irrepressible Democrat, Roger Williams'', (1940), popular biography
* Burrage, Henry S. "Why Was Roger Williams Banished?" ''[[American Journal of Theology]]'' 5 (January 1901): 1–17.
* Byrd, James P., Jr. ''The Challenges of Roger Williams: Religious Liberty, Violent Persecution, and the Bible'' (2002). 286 pp.
* Davis. Jack L. "Roger Williams among the Narragansett Indians", ''[[New England Quarterly]]'', Vol. 43, No. 4 (Dec. 1970), pp. 593–604 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/363134 in JSTOR]
* Field, Jonathan Beecher. "A Key for the Gate: Roger Williams, Parliament, and Providence", ''New England Quarterly'' 2007 80(3): 353–382
* Goodman, Nan. "Banishment, Jurisdiction, and Identity in Seventeenth-Century New England: The Case of Roger Williams", ''Early American Studies, An Interdisciplinary Journal'' Spring 2009, Vol. 7 Issue 1, pp 109–39.
*[[Edwin Gaustad|Gaustad, Edwin, S.]] ''Roger Williams'' (Oxford University Press, 2005). 140 pp. short scholarly biography stressing religion
*Gaustad, Edwin, S. ''Roger Williams: Prophet of Liberty'' (Oxford University Press, 2001).
* Gaustad, Edwin, S., ''Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America''. (Judson Press, Valley Forge, 1999).
* Gray, Nicole. “Aurality in Print: Revisiting Roger Williams's A Key into the Language of America.” PMLA/Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 131 (2016): 64 - 83.
* Hall, Timothy L. ''Separating Church and State: Roger Williams and Religious Liberty'' (1998). 206 pp.
* Johnson, Alan E. ''The First American Founder: Roger Williams and Freedom of Conscience'' (Pittsburgh, PA: Philosophia Publications, 2015). In-depth discussion of Roger Williams's life and work and his influence on the US Founders and later American history.
* Miller, Perry, ''Roger Williams, A Contribution to the American Tradition'', (1953). much debated study; Miller argues that Williams thought was primarily religious, not political as so many of the historians of the 1930s and 1940s had argued.
* Morgan, Edmund S. ''Roger Williams: the church and the state'' (1967) 170 pages; short biography by leading scholar
* Neff, Jimmy D. "Roger Williams: Pious Puritan and Strict Separationist", ''[[Journal of Church and State]]'' 1996 38(3): 529–546 in [[EBSCO]]
* Phillips, Stephen. "Roger Williams and the Two Tables of the Law", ''Journal of Church and State'' 1996 38(3): 547–568 in [[EBSCO]]
* Skaggs, Donald. ''Roger Williams' Dream for America'' (1993). 240 pp.
* Stanley, Alison. "'To Speak With Other Tongues': Linguistics, Colonialism and Identity in 17th Century New England", ''Comparative American Studies'' March 2009, Vol. 7 Issue 1, p1, 17p
* Winslow, Ola Elizabeth, ''Master Roger Williams, A Biography''. (1957) standard biography
* Wood, Timothy L. "Kingdom Expectations: The Native American in the Puritan Missiology of John Winthrop and Roger Williams", ''[[Fides et Historia]]'' 2000 32(1): 39–49

===Historiography===
* Carlino, Anthony O. "Roger Williams and his Place in History: The Background and the Last Quarter Century", ''Rhode Island History'' 2000 58(2): 34–71, historiography
* Irwin, Raymond D. "A Man for all Eras: The Changing Historical Image of Roger Williams, 1630–1993", ''Fides Et Historia'' 1994 26(3): 6–23, historiography
*[[Edmund Morgan (historian)|Morgan, Edmund S.]] " Miller's Williams", ''New England Quarterly'', Vol. 38, No. 4 (Dec. 1965), pp. 513–523 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/363219 in JSTOR]
* Moore, Leroy, Jr. "Roger Williams and the Historians", ''Church History'' 1963 32(4): 432–451 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3163291 in JSTOR]
* Peace, Nancy E. "Roger Williams: A Historiographical Essay", ''Rhode Island History'' 1976 35(4): 103–113,

===Primary sources===
* Williams, Roger. ''The Complete Writings of Roger Williams'', 7 vols. 1963
* Williams, Roger. ''The Correspondence of Roger Williams'', 2 vols. ed. by Glenn W. LaFantasie, 1988

===Fiction===
* Settle, Mary Lee, ''I, Roger Williams: A Novel'', W. W. Norton & Company, Reprint edition (2002).
* George, James W., ''The Prophet and the Witch: A Novel of Puritan New England'', Amazon Digital Services (2017).

==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Williams, Roger}}
* {{DNB-Portal|118807471}}
* {{Gutenberg author | id=52197 |name=Roger Williams}}
* {{BBKL|w/williams_r}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Roger Williams |birth=1604 |death=1683 |sopt=t}} 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120311223913/http://rogerwilliamsfellowship.squarespace.com/ Side of the US-American Roger Williams circle of friends]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ur8gTAsGETI Documentary about Roger Williams life: Roger Williams – Freedom's Forgotten Hero (Part 1 to 7)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150414211132/http://www.uctv.tv/search-details.asp?showID=11996 Lecture by Martha Nussbaum: Equal '''Liberty of Conscience''': Roger Williams and the Roots of a Constitutional Tradition]
* [http://www.sovereignredeemerbooks.com/views/books/book-list.php?author=roger-williams Roger Williams Hireling Ministry None of Christ's]
* [http://www.quahog.org/factsfolklore/index.php?id=40 Chronological list of Rhode Island leaders] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402010637/http://www.quahog.org/factsfolklore/index.php?id=40 |date=2 April 2021 }}
*''[[iarchive:keyintolanguageo02will/page/n5|A Key into the Language of America]]'' – digitization of a first edition copy held at the [[John Carter Brown Library]]

{{Colonial Governors of Rhode Island}}
{{Rhode Island settlers}}
{{Hall of Fame for Great Americans}}
{{Portal bar|Calvinism|Christianity|Rhode Island|New England|United States|Biography|British Empire}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Williams, Roger}}
[[Category:1603 births]]
[[Category:1683 deaths]]
[[Category:17th-century American writers]]
[[Category:17th-century Baptist ministers from the United States]]
[[Category:17th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians]]
[[Category:17th-century English writers]]
[[Category:17th-century English male writers]]
[[Category:17th-century New England Puritan ministers]]
[[Category:Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:American abolitionists]]
[[Category:American Calvinist and Reformed theologians]]
[[Category:American evangelicals]]
[[Category:American sermon writers]]
[[Category:Christian abolitionists]]
[[Category:Christians from Rhode Island]]
[[Category:Clergy from London]]
[[Category:Colonial governors of Rhode Island]]
[[Category:Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees]]
[[Category:Immigrants to Plymouth Colony]]
[[Category:Linguists of Algic languages]]
[[Category:Massachusetts colonial-era clergy]]
[[Category:People educated at Charterhouse School]]
[[Category:People of colonial Rhode Island]]
[[Category:Politicians from Providence, Rhode Island]]
[[Category:Anglican saints]]

List of Minnesota state symbols

2021-09-13T15:57:44Z

66.172.182.2: /* State symbols */

{{short description|Wikipedia list article}}
[[File:Minnesota in United States.svg|thumb|270px|[[Minnesota]]'s northerly location in the United States has resulted in its official designation as ''[[L'Étoile du Nord]]'' ("Star of the North").]]
There are '''nineteen official symbols''' of the US state of [[Minnesota]], as designated by the [[Minnesota Legislature]].<ref name=Minnesotasymbols/> The first named symbol is the [[List of U.S. state and territory mottos|state's motto]], ''[[L'Étoile du Nord]]'' – [[French language|French]] for "Star of the North". It was selected in 1861, shortly after Minnesota achieved statehood, by the first governor, [[Henry Hastings Sibley|Henry Sibley]], as a reflection of Minnesota's location in the [[Northern United States]]. That same year, the [[Seal of Minnesota|state seal]] was appointed. Minnesota did not designate another official symbol until 1945, when "[[Hail! Minnesota]]", then the official song of the [[University of Minnesota]], was designated as [[List of U.S. state songs|state song]]. In 1984, Minnesota became the first state to appoint a [[List of U.S. state foods|state mushroom]], the [[common morel]] (''Morchella esculenta'').<ref name=Minnesotasymbols/>

Minnesota schoolchildren have been the force behind the successful promotion of four official symbols: the [[blueberry]] muffin (1988), the [[monarch butterfly]] (2000), the [[Honeycrisp|Honeycrisp apple]] (2006), and [[ice hockey]] (2009). The 1918 black-and-white photograph ''[[Grace (photograph)|Grace]]'', taken by [[Eric Enstrom]] in [[Bovey, Minnesota|Bovey]] and later reproduced as a color painting by his daughter, was named state photograph in 2002. The newest symbol of Minnesota is the [[Bombus affinis|rusty patched bumblebee]], declared the state [[bee]] in 2019. In addition, many other symbols have been proposed as representations of the state, but for various reasons have been unsuccessful. Suggested animals have included the [[white-tailed deer]], the [[northern leopard frog]], the [[eastern timber wolf]], the [[thirteen-lined ground squirrel]], and the [[Blanding's turtle]]. Through the years, the state legislature has also voted on unsuccessful bills to designate the [[Tilt-A-Whirl]] as official amusement ride, the works ''[[Little House on the Prairie (novel)|Little House on the Prairie]]'' and ''[[On the Banks of Plum Creek]]'' as state book, "Minnesota Blue" as official poem, as well as the appointment of a [[List of U.S. states' Poets Laureate|poet laureate position]].

==State symbols==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
! width=10% | Type<ref name=Minnesotasymbols/>
! width=15% | Symbol<ref name=Minnesotasymbols/>
! width=50% class=unsortable | Description
! width=8% | Adopted<ref name=Minnesotasymbols/>
! width=20% class=unsortable | Image
|-
| [[List of U.S. state insects|Bee]]
| [[Bombus affinis|Rusty patched bumblebee]] (''Bombus affinis'')
| Once widespread across the United States, the rusty patched bumblebee has lost up to 90% of its range since the 2000s. Sightings in the 2010s were primarily reported around several upper Midwest urban areas; a third of these were in Minneapolis and Saint Paul.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gunderson |first1=Dan |title=Meet the rusty patched bumblebee, Minnesota's new bee ambassador |url=https://www.mprnews.org/story/2019/05/31/bombus-affinis-meet-the-rusty-patched-bumblebee-new-state-bee-minnesota |access-date=June 5, 2021 |work=[[NPR News]] |date=May 31, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123235520if_/https://www.mprnews.org/story/2019/05/31/bombus-affinis-meet-the-rusty-patched-bumblebee-new-state-bee-minnesota |archive-date=January 23, 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 2019
| [[File:Bombus affinis, m, racine wi, LW Macior 1964 face 2017-02-15-09.26 (32801121931).jpg|150px|alt=A closeup of a yellow and black bee against a black backdrop]]
|-
| [[State beverage|Beverage]]
| [[Milk]]
| Minnesota annually produces 9.7 billion pounds of milk, and among all states is ranked fifth in overall dairy production.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/drink.jsp |title=State Drink |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116130938/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/drink.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Milk was adopted as the state beverage due to its promotional value for the [[American Dairy Association]]; its ability to encourage tourism and increase awareness for dairy products; and as a signal to the state's dairy industry that Minnesota cares for it.<ref name=Minnesotasymbols>{{Cite news |url=http://www.leg.state.mn.us/leg/Symbols.aspx |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6NrWIYhKy?url=http://www.leg.state.mn.us/leg/Symbols.aspx |archive-date=March 6, 2014 |url-status=live |title=Minnesota Legislature List of Official Symbols |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=December 29, 2013 }}</ref>
| 1984
| [[File:Glass of milk.jpg|150px|alt=A clear glass of white milk on a brown wood table against a dark backdrop|[[Milk]], Minnesota's state beverage.]]
|-
| [[List of U.S. state birds|Bird]]
| [[Common loon]] (''Gavia immer'')
| An estimated 12,000 common loons reside in Minnesota.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/bird.jsp |title=State Bird |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116130929/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/bird.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Originally, eight bird choices were proposed in the late 1940s, which in addition to the common loon included the [[American goldfinch|eastern goldfinch]], the [[mourning dove]], the [[pileated woodpecker]], the [[scarlet tanager]], and the [[wood duck]].<ref name=Minnesotasymbols/> Each of these were eligible because they were not the state birds of another state. A decision was delayed due to citizen indecision, but a letter-writing campaign over a decade after the original proposal led to the selection of the loon.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-99769549.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611022024/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-99769549.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=Common loon was made state bird in 1961 |work=[[Star Tribune]] |date=April 7, 2003 |last=Youso |first=Karen |access-date=January 16, 2014 }} {{Subscription needed}}</ref>
| 1961
| [[File:Gavia immer -Minocqua, Wisconsin, USA -swimming-8.jpg|150px|The [[common loon]], Minnesota's state bird.]]
|-
| [[List of U.S. state butterflies|Butterfly]]
| [[Monarch butterfly|Monarch]] (''Danaus plexippus'')
| The monarch migrates to Minnesota during midsummer,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-62423031.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611004411/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-62423031.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=Monarch butterfly is king of State Capitol for a day; A bill to make the beautiful orange flash the state butterfly took flight on political winds fanned by eager (and well-educated) fourth-graders |work=[[Star Tribune]] |date=February 15, 2000 |last=McAuliffe |first=Bill |access-date=January 15, 2014 }} {{Subscription needed}}</ref> where approximately four generations are born each year.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/butterfly.jsp |title=State Butterfly |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116130945/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/butterfly.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was promoted as state butterfly by several students of Oscar Henry Anderson Elementary School from [[Mahtomedi]]. The bill's co-sponsor, [[State legislature (United States)|State Representative]] Harry Mares, said that "a lot of people have an early introduction to the magical world of nature through the monarch, and as we get older it becomes a thread that takes us through science to beauty and aesthetics."<ref name=Minnesotasymbols/>
| 2000
| [[File:Monarch In May.jpg|150px|The [[monarch butterfly]], Minnesota's state butterfly ]]
|-
| [[List of U.S. state fish|Fish]]
| [[Walleye]] (''Stizostedion vitreum'')
| The ''[[Star Tribune]]'' writes that the walleye is Minnesota's most popular fish, and it serves as "the mainstay of [[sport fishing]]" in the state.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-146555561.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324214952/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-146555561.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 24, 2016 |title=As apt symbol, the walleye has it |work=[[Star Tribune]] |date=June 2, 2006 |last=Gilbert |first=Jim |access-date=January 16, 2014 }} {{Subscription needed}}</ref> The walleye lives in every watery part of Minnesota, but prefers the cooler lakes of the northern part of the state.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/fish.jsp |title=State Fish |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116130924/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/fish.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was first proposed as the state fish in 1953.<ref name=Minnesotasymbols/>
| 1965
| [[File:Sander vitreus.jpg|150px|The [[walleye]], Minnesota's state fish ]]
|-
| [[Flags of the U.S. states|Flag]]
| [[Flag of Minnesota]]
| The Minnesota flag is royal blue with a gold fringe, and has the state seal displayed at its center. The state flower, the [[Cypripedium reginae|pink-and-white lady's slipper]], comprises a wreath surrounding the seal. Minnesota was the nineteenth state to join the United States after the original 13 colonies (Minnesota was the 32nd state to join the union); this is reflected in the flag's nineteen stars, with the largest representing the [[North Star]]. The flag also displays the word "Minnesota" as well as the state's motto, ''[[L'Étoile du Nord]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/flag.jsp |title=State Flag |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116130927/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/flag.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The flag's current design was adopted in 1957, and has since undergone numerous proposed, though unsuccessful, revisions.<ref name=Minnesotasymbols/>
| 1957
| [[File:Flag of Minnesota.svg|150px| The [[Flag of Minnesota]] ]]
|-
| [[List of U.S. state flowers|Flower]]
| [[Cypripedium reginae|Pink-and-white lady's slipper]] (''Cypripedium reginae'')
| The pink-and-white lady's slipper is found in swamps, bogs, and damp woods. It has largely disappeared due to habitat loss; as one of Minnesota's rarest wildflowers, the lady's slipper is illegal to pick in the state.{{sfn|McPherson|2013|p=49}}<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/flower.jsp |title=State Flower |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116130940/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/flower.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| 1967
| [[File:Cypripedium reginae MLA.jpg|150px| The [[Cypripedium reginae|pink-and-white lady's slipper]], Minnesota's state flower.]]
|-
| [[List of U.S. state foods|Fruit]]
| [[Honeycrisp|Honeycrisp apple]] (''Malus pumila'')
| The Honeycrisp apple was designed by [[University of Minnesota]] researchers to endure Minnesota's harsh winter climate.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-143737519.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611004413/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-143737519.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=The Apple of their eye; Bayport fifth-graders want the Honeycrisp, a homegrown variety, to be Minnesota's official fruit |work=[[Star Tribune]] |date=March 25, 2006 |last=Giles |first=Kevin |access-date=January 15, 2014}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref> It was proposed as the state fruit by Andersen Elementary School students from [[Bayport, Minnesota|Bayport]].<ref name=Minnesotasymbols/>
| 2006
| [[File:Honeycrisp-Apple.jpg|150px|The [[Honeycrisp|Honeycrisp apple]], Minnesota's state fruit ]]
|-
| [[List of U.S. state minerals, rocks, stones and gemstones|Gemstone]]
| [[Lake Superior agate]]
| Found in the northeastern and north central parts of Minnesota, the Lake Superior agate consists of [[quartz]] blended with the red and orange effects that come from soil rich in [[iron ore]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/gemstone.jsp |title=State Gemstone |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116130942/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/gemstone.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| 1969
| [[File:Agat Lake Superior - Duluth, Minnesota, USA..jpg|150px|The [[Lake Superior agate]], Minnesota's state gemstone ]]
|-
| [[List of U.S. state foods|Grain]]
| [[Wild rice]] (''Zizania palustris'')
| Wild rice grows in central and northern Minnesota lakes, and for a long time was produced nowhere else.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/grain.jsp |title=State Grain |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116130955/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/grain.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As of 2013, Minnesota produces 80 percent of all natural wild rice.{{sfn|McPherson|2013|p=49}} The [[Ojibwe people]] hold it sacred, believing it was given to them by their Creator.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-137244014.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529025806/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-137244014.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 29, 2007 |title=Research treading on sacred ground; A clash over genetically altered wild rice pits advancing science against deeply held Indian spirituality |work=[[Star Tribune]] |date=October 5, 2005 | last=Levy |first=Paul |access-date=January 15, 2014}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref>
| 1977
| [[File:Zizania palustris (20150198216).jpg|150px|[[Wild rice]], Minnesota's state grain|alt=Greenish-purple wild rice waves in the breeze against a white sky. ]]
|-
| [[List of U.S. state and territory mottos|Motto]]
| ''[[L'Étoile du Nord]]''
| ''L'Étoile du Nord'' is French for "Star of the North". It was chosen by [[Henry Hastings Sibley|Henry Sibley]], the state's first governor, shortly after the Minnesota territory became a state in 1858. Sibley selected it as a reflection of Minnesota's location so far north in the US.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-126803400.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611021834/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-126803400.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=Capitol quirks; Happy 100th birthday, Minnesota State Capitol. My really huge marble dome dominates the sky. Here are some other sweet things you may not know |work=[[Star Tribune]] |first=Peg |last=Meier |date=January 5, 2005 |access-date=January 18, 2014}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref>
| 1861
| [[File:L'Étoile du Nord from AmCyc Minnesota seal.png|150px|''[[L'Étoile du Nord]]'', Minnesota's official motto, as it appears on the state seal]]
|-
| [[List of U.S. state foods|Muffin]]
| [[Blueberry]] muffin
| Northeastern Minnesota is home to wild blueberries, where they grow in bogs and forests.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/muffin.jsp |title=State Muffin |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116131024/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/muffin.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The blueberry muffin was proposed as a state food by South Terrace Elementary students from [[Carlton, Minnesota|Carlton]], who were learning about the state legislature and its laws in their civics class.{{sfn|McPherson|2013|p=49}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1274431.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611013144/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1274431.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=Highway 61 Newly Revisited; Big Business for Duluth but Bad News for Dairy Farmers Along the Midwestern Route |work=[[The Washington Post]] |first=Ed |last=Vulliamy |date=August 20, 1988 |access-date=January 17, 2014}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref>
| 1988
| [[File:Muffin NIH.jpg|150px|The blueberry muffin, one of Minnesota's state foods]]
|-
| [[List of U.S. state mushrooms|Mushroom]]
| [[Common morel]] (''Morchella esculenta'')
| In the spring, morel mushrooms can be found in Minnesota fields and forests.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/mushroom.jsp |title=State Mushroom |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116131027/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/mushroom.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> They primarily grow in the southwest, northern, and middle parts of the state,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-163000645.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611022022/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-163000645.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=Outdoors Journal; Save room for the state 'shroom |work=[[Star Tribune]] |first=Jim |last=Gilbert |date=May 14, 2007 |access-date=January 15, 2014}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref> and are popular with gourmet cooks.{{sfn|McPherson|2013|p=49}}
| 1984
| [[File:MinnesotaMorels.jpg|150px|A red bin full of harvested morels, several-inch-high light-colored mushrooms with white stems and membranous caps]]
|-
| Photograph
| ''[[Grace (photograph)|Grace]]''
| ''Grace'' depicts a man sitting "at a table bowed in thankful prayer before a modest meal."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-281497829.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611013148/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-281497829.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=She brought 'Grace' photo to fame |work=[[Star Tribune]] |first=Paul |last=Walsh |date=February 28, 2012 |access-date=January 17, 2014}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref> The original 1918 black-and-white photograph was taken by [[Eric Enstrom]] in [[Bovey, Minnesota|Bovey]]. Enstrom's daughter later reproduced it as a color painting,<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/photograph.jsp |title=Grace official state photograph |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116131012/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/photograph.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-71722116.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611004422/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-71722116.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=Legislator is seeking stamp of approval for famous photo; A resolution, introduced in the hope that "Grace" will grace the nation's mail one day, passed a House committee |work=[[Star Tribune]] |first=Mark |last=Brunswick |date=March 15, 2001 |access-date=January 15, 2014}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref> leading to its wide distribution in homes and churches throughout the US.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1A1-cdfd657a8c0d4bfc91fcca521c43d952.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611013146/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1A1-cdfd657a8c0d4bfc91fcca521c43d952.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=Woman who colorized 'Grace' photo dies at 95 |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=February 27, 2012 |access-date=January 17, 2014}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref>
| 2002
| [[File:Eric Enstrom - Grace - bw.jpg|150px|''Grace'', a black and white photo of a bearded man bowed in prayer]]
|-
| [[Seals of the U.S. states|Seal]]
| [[Seal of Minnesota|Minnesota State Seal]]
| Minnesota's official seal stresses the importance of farming through its depiction of a plowing farmer, standing near [[St. Anthony Falls]] on the [[Mississippi River]]; nearby is a Native American on a horse, who serves as a representation of the state's first peoples. The seal also contains the state motto, ''[[L'Étoile du Nord]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/seal.jsp |title=State Seal |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116131021/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/seal.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{sfn|McAuliffe|2003|p=9}}
| 1861
| [[File:Minnesota-StateSeal.svg|150px|The [[Seal of Minnesota|Minnesota State Seal]], Minnesota's official seal]]
|-
| [[List of U.S. state soils|Soil]]
| Lester
| Named after the town of [[Lester Prairie, Minnesota|Lester Prairie]], Lester is a nutrient-rich soil ideal for the growing of pasture grasses and crops such as [[soybeans]] and [[corn]]. It is present in approximately sixteen Minnesota counties and covers over 400,000 acres.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.leg.state.mn.us/webcontent/leg/symbols/MCV_LesterSoil.pdf |journal=Minnesota Conservation Volunteer |title=Lester soil (official Minnesota state soil) |date=May–June 2013 |access-date=February 12, 2014 |pages=64–65}}</ref> Lester was chosen by the Minnesota Association of Professional Soil Scientists for fitting four criteria: it is based in Minnesota, is extensively located and economically important, and is photogenic. Minnesota is the 22nd state to have an official soil.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-298304150.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611004420/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-298304150.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=Famed for its Dirt; Minnetrista Farm Has a Prime Example of the New State Soil, Boosting Educational Programs |work=[[Star Tribune]] |first=Eric |last=Larson |date=August 1, 2012 |access-date=January 15, 2014}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref>
| 2012
| [[File:Lester soil USDA.png|150px|Lester, Minnesota's state soil]]
|-
| [[List of U.S. state songs|Song]]
| {{sort|Hail! Minnesota|"[[Hail! Minnesota]]"}}
| Between 1904 and 1905, Minnesota's state song was written by two [[University of Minnesota]] students; it served as the school's official song until 1945, when it was adopted as state song.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/song.jsp |title=State Song |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116131018/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/song.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The "[[Minnesota Rouser]]" eventually replaced it as the university's official song.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://cla.umn.edu/music/ensembles-creative-work/marching-band/history-traditions/school-songs/minnesota-rouser |title=Minnesota Rouser |publisher=[[University of Minnesota]] |access-date=June 26, 2017}}</ref>
| 1945
| [[File:Hail! Minnesota.jpeg|150px|The sheet music to "Hail! Minnesota", the state's official song]]
|-
| [[List of U.S. state sports|Sport]]
| [[Ice hockey]]
| Minnetonka Middle School East students first proposed ice hockey as the state sport in 2007.<ref name=Minnesotasymbols/> One of the children explained their choice, "One of the best reasons hockey should be our state sport is because Minnesota is the land of 10,000 lakes and they all freeze up to make great hockey rinks." The bill was co-sponsored by [[State Senator]] [[David Tomassoni]], a former hockey player.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-176664794.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611013150/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-176664794.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=Young puck fans make pitch for state sport; Two Minnetonka sixth-graders told a Senate committee of hockey's importance in the state, and the panel agreed |work=[[Star Tribune]] |date=March 6, 2008 | last=Relerford |first=Patrice |access-date=January 17, 2014}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref>
| 2009
| [[File:NHL 2010 Face Off Hurricanes @ Wild in Helsinki.jpg|150px|[[Ice hockey]], Minnesota's state sport|alt=Two hokey players, one with a primarily red outfit, the other in primarily white, compete for a puck in front of a referee in an indoor stadium. ]]
|-
| [[Norway pine]] (''Pinus resinosa'')
| The Norway pine, also known as the red pine, has historically been vital to Minnesota's economy, especially during its early settlement.{{sfn|McPherson|2013|p=49}} It can grow between {{convert|60|and|100|ft}} tall. The tallest Minnesota specimen, which is over 300 years old, is found in [[Itasca State Park]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/tree.jsp |title=State Tree |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116131015/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/tree.jsp |archive-date=2014-01-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| 1953
| [[File:Pinus resinosa1.jpg|150px|The [[Norway pine]], Minnesota's state tree ]]
|}

==Nicknames and unsuccessful proposals==
[[File:Gopher State Cartoon.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A complicated cartoon which focuses on a team of gophers pulling a self-proclaimed "Gopher Train"|The 1857 anti-railroad political cartoon that gave Minnesota the nickname "Gopher State"]]
Minnesota has three nicknames: "Land of 10,000 Lakes", which evolved from the desire of early settlers to advertise the state's large number of lakes to attract more people; "Gopher State", which was inspired by an early political cartoon criticizing the construction of several railroads in the mid-1800s; and "North Star State", a reference to both the state motto and Minnesota's position as the northernmost point in the [[contiguous United States]].<ref name=UnofficialSymbols/>{{sfn|McAuliffe|2003|p=7}} The [[Minnesota North Stars]], the state's hockey team from 1967 to 1993, also derived its name from the state motto.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nhl/minnystars/northstars.html |title=Minnesota North Stars (1967–1993) |publisher=Sportsecyclopedia.com |access-date=February 12, 2014}}</ref>

Many other symbols have been proposed for addition to the list of official state symbols but were never officially adopted. Since 1971, the [[white-tailed deer]] has been proposed as the state mammal eight times.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-288881216.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611021845/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-288881216.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=Serving up all things political, from Minnesota to D.C. This soil stands out in its field |work=[[Star Tribune]] |date=May 6, 2012 |last=Brooks |first=Jennifer |access-date=January 18, 2014}}</ref> Other creatures proposed as representations of the state have included the [[northern leopard frog]], the [[eastern timber wolf]], the [[thirteen-lined ground squirrel]], and the [[Blanding's turtle]].<ref name=UnofficialSymbols>{{Cite news |url=http://www.leg.state.mn.us/leg/unsym.aspx/ |title=Minnesota State Symbols—Unofficial, Proposed, or Facetious |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 18, 2014 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6NrWUKY4q?url=http://www.leg.state.mn.us/leg/unsym.aspx/ |archive-date=March 6, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2007, another proposal, also unsuccessful, was to designate the [[Tilt-A-Whirl]] as the state's official amusement ride. It was invented in [[Faribault, Minnesota|Faribault]] in 1926, and debuted at the [[Minnesota State Fair]] a year later.<ref name=UnofficialSymbols/><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1Y1-104777429.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611021843/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1Y1-104777429.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=Minn. Lawmaker Lobbies for Tilt-a-Whirl |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=March 30, 2007 |access-date=January 18, 2014}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref>

In 2005, the state legislature overwhelmingly voted in favor of appointing a [[List of U.S. states' Poets Laureate|state poet laureate]], a position offered by 34 other states. Governor [[Tim Pawlenty]] vetoed the measure, believing that the state could "benefit from the richness and diversity of all of the poets in Minnesota and recognize and embrace their work as merit and circumstances warrant."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-132946747.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104115848/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-132946747.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 4, 2007 |title=State poet? Pawlenty opts to forgo it; Laureate proposal vetoed despite strong legislative support |work=[[Star Tribune]] |date=June 1, 2005 |last1=DeFiebre |first1=Conrad |last2=Williams |first2=Sarah T. |access-date=January 18, 2014}}</ref> "Minnesota Blue", a 1985 poem by state native and poet-songwriter Cordell Keith Haugen, has been unsuccessfully proposed as state poem. Five other states have official poems.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/poem.jsp |title=Minnesota Blue Minnesota Poem |publisher=[[State of Minnesota]] |access-date=January 18, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211024759/http://mn.gov/portal/about-minnesota/state-symbols/poem.jsp |archive-date=2013-12-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-318768899.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611021839/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-318768899.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2014 |title=State Poem: It Rhymes, but Is There Reason? Not Everyone Agrees That "Minnesota Blue," by a Hawaiian Singer-Songwriter, Should Represent the State |work=[[Star Tribune]] |first=Laurel |last=Hertzel |date=February 14, 2013 |access-date=January 18, 2014}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref> Proposals for state book have included two of [[Laura Ingalls Wilder]]'s works, ''[[Little House on the Prairie (novel)|Little House on the Prairie]]'' and ''[[On the Banks of Plum Creek]]''.<ref name=UnofficialSymbols/>

==See also==
{{Portal|United States}}
*[[History of Minnesota]]
*[[Index of Minnesota-related articles]]
*[[Outline of Minnesota]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

;Works cited
* {{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UK_18SGS1P8C&q=minnesota+land+of+10%2C000+lakes+official+nickname&pg=PA7 | title = Minnesota Facts and Symbols | isbn = 9780736822534 | last = McAuliffe | first = Bill | year = 2003 |publisher=Capstone Press| location=Mankato, MN }}
* {{Cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sg0tpwxPI6wC&q=minnesota+Norway+Pine+state+tree&pg=PA49 | title = State Botanical Symbols | isbn = 9781481748858 | last = McPherson | first = Alan | year = 2013 |publisher=AuthorHouse | location=Bloomington, IN}}

{{Minnesota}}
{{state symbols}}
{{featured list}}

[[Category:Lists of United States state symbols by state|Minnesota]]
[[Category:Minnesota culture]]
[[Category:Minnesota-related lists]]

Nathan Hale

2021-04-14T16:50:37Z

66.172.182.2: /* Early life and family */

{{pp-pc1}}
{{short description|Soldier for the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War}}
{{Other uses}}{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox spy
| name = Nathan Hale
| nickname =
| image = Nathan-hale-cityhall.jpg
| caption = ''[[Nathan Hale (statue)|Nathan Hale]]'', by [[Frederick MacMonnies]], [[New York City Hall|City Hall Park]], New York
| allegiance = [[United States]] 
| birth_date = June 6, 1755
| birth_place = [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]], [[Connecticut Colony]], [[British America]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1776|9|22|1755|6|6}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], [[Province of New York]]
| death_cause = [[Hanging|Hanged]]
| alma_mater = [[Yale College]]
| module = [[File:Coat of Arms of Nathan Hale.svg|160px|thumb|center|Coat of arms of Nathan Hale]]
| signature = Nathan Hale Signature.svg
}}

'''Nathan Hale''' (June 6, 1755 – September 22, 1776) was an American soldier and spy for the [[Continental Army]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. He volunteered for an [[Military intelligence|intelligence]]-gathering mission in [[New York City]] but was captured by the British and executed. Hale has long been considered an American hero and, in 1985, he was officially designated the state hero of [[Connecticut]].<ref name="hero"/>

==Early life and family==
Nathan Hale was born in [[Coventry, Connecticut]], in 1755, to Deacon Richard Hale and Elizabeth Strong, a descendant of Elder [[John Strong (colonist)|John Strong]]. <ref> The History of the Descendants of Elder John Strong, Northampton, Mass by Benjamin Dwight, pages 331-332 </ref> He was a great-grandson of Reverend [[John Hale (Beverly minister)|John Hale]], an important figure in the [[Salem witch trials]] of 1692. He was also the uncle of orator and statesman [[Edward Everett]] (the other speaker at [[Gettysburg Address|Gettysburg]]) and the grand-uncle of [[Edward Everett Hale]], a Unitarian minister, writer, and activist noted for social causes including [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]]. He was the uncle of journalist [[Nathan Hale (journalist)|Nathan Hale]], who founded the ''[[Boston Daily Advertiser]]'' and helped establish the ''[[North American Review]]''.<ref name="NAR"/>

In 1769, when Nathan Hale was fourteen years old, he was sent with his brother Enoch, who was sixteen, to [[Yale College]]. He was a classmate of fellow [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]] spy [[Benjamin Tallmadge]].<ref name=NHweb/> The Hale brothers belonged to the [[Linonian Society]] of Yale, which debated topics in astronomy, mathematics, literature, and the ethics of [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]]. Nathan graduated with first-class honors in 1773 at age 18 and became a teacher, first in [[East Haddam, Connecticut|East Haddam]] and later in [[New London, Connecticut|New London]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title = Capt. Nathan Hale (1755-1776) - Sons of the American Revolution, Connecticut - CTSSAR|url = http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan.htm|website = www.connecticutsar.org|access-date = January 16, 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061105013230/http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan.htm|archive-date = November 5, 2006|url-status = dead}}</ref> King George 3rd is a weed

==American Revolutionary War==
After the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]] began in 1775, Hale joined a Connecticut militia unit and was elected [[first lieutenant]] within five months.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Nathan Hale: Yale 1773 :: Curator: Richard E. Mooney|url = http://www.library.yale.edu/mssa/exhibits/hale/RevolutionaryWar_item02.html|website = www.library.yale.edu|access-date = January 16, 2016|page = 2}}</ref> His company participated in the [[Siege of Boston]], but Hale remained behind. It has been suggested that he was unsure as to whether he wanted to fight, or possibly that he was hindered because his teaching contract in New London did not expire until several months later, in July 1775. On July 4, 1775, Hale received a letter from his classmate and friend Benjamin Tallmadge, who had gone to Boston to see the siege for himself. He wrote to Hale, "Was I in your condition, I think the more extensive service would be my choice. Our holy Religion, the honor of our God, a glorious country, & a happy constitution is what we have to defend."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1428600434|title=Documentary Life of Nathan Hale|work=google.com}}</ref> Tallmadge's letter was so inspiring that, several days later, Hale accepted a commission as first lieutenant in the [[7th Connecticut Regiment]] under Colonel Charles Webb of [[Stamford, Connecticut|Stamford]].

Hale was also a part of [[Knowlton's Rangers]], the first organized [[intelligence service]] organization of the [[United States of America]], led by Lieutenant Colonel [[Thomas Knowlton]]. In the spring of 1776, the Continental Army moved to [[Manhattan Island|Manhattan]] to defend New York City against the anticipated British attack. In August, the British soundly defeated the Continentals in the [[Battle of Long Island]] via a flanking move from [[Staten Island]] across [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]]. General [[George Washington]] was desperate to determine the location of the imminent British invasion of Manhattan; to that end, Washington called for a spy behind enemy lines, and Hale was the only volunteer.<ref name=":0" />
<gallery>
File:Nathan Hale commission as captain in the nineteenth regiment of foot.jpg|Commission of Nathan Hale, captain in the Nineteenth Regiment of foot, commanded by Colonel Charles Webb. Signed by [[John Hancock]]. January 1, 1776.
File:Nathan Hale bronze by MacMonnies IMG 3817.JPG|Nathan Hale as depicted in bronze (1890) by [[Frederick William MacMonnies]] at the [[Brooklyn Museum]]
File:Beekman House.gif|Beekman House, Manhattan
</gallery>

===Intelligence-gathering mission===
Hale volunteered on September 8, 1776, to go behind enemy lines and report on British troop movements, which he knew was an act of [[Espionage|spying]], which would be immediately punishable by death. He was ferried across the [[Long Island Sound]] to [[Huntington, New York]], on British-controlled Long Island, on September 12. Hale planned to disguise himself as a Dutch schoolteacher looking for work,<ref>{{cite book|last=McCullough|first=David|title=1776|year=2005|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-2671-4|author-link=David McCullough|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uu1mC6zWNTwC}}</ref> though he did not travel under an assumed name and reportedly carried with him his Yale diploma bearing his real name.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Smith, Jr. |first1=John L. |title=9 Rules of Spying That Nathan Hale Failed to Follow |url=https://allthingsliberty.com/2015/05/9-rules-of-spying-that-nathan-hale-failed-to-follow/#_edn17 |website=Journal of the American Revolution |access-date=13 November 2019 |date=May 21, 2015}}</ref>

While Hale was undercover, New York City (then the area at the southern tip of Manhattan, mostly south of what is now Chambers Street) fell to British forces on September 15, and Washington was forced to retreat to the island's north in [[Battle of Harlem Heights|Harlem Heights]] (what is now [[Morningside Heights]]).{{sfn|Neff|p=299–308}} Shortly after, on September 21, a quarter of the lower portion of Manhattan burned in the [[Great Fire of New York (1776)|Great New York Fire of 1776]]. The fire was later widely thought to have been started by American saboteurs in order to keep the city from falling into British hands,<ref name="fire"/> and though [[Scorched earth|setting fire]] to New York during Washington's retreat had indeed been proposed, Washington and the [[Second Continental Congress|Congress]] had rejected the idea and denied responsibility. The Americans accused British soldiers of starting the fires without orders from their superiors so they could sack the city.<ref name="fire"/> In the fire's aftermath, more than 200 American [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriots]] were detained by the British for questioning.{{cn|date=December 2020}}

An account of Hale's capture, later obtained by the [[Library of Congress]], was written by [[Consider Tiffany]], a Connecticut shopkeeper and Loyalist. In Tiffany's account, Major [[Robert Rogers (soldier)|Robert Rogers]] of the [[Queen's York Rangers|Queen's Rangers]] saw Hale in a tavern and recognized him. After luring Hale into betraying his allegiance by pretending to be a Patriot himself, Rogers and his Rangers apprehended Hale near [[Flushing Bay]] in [[Queens]], New York.<ref name="betray"/> Another story is that Hale's cousin, a Loyalist named Samuel Hale, was the one who revealed his true identity.{{Citation needed|date=September 2019}}

British General [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]] had established his headquarters in the Beekman House in a then-rural part of Manhattan, on a rise between what are now [[50th Street (Manhattan)|50th]] and [[51st Street (Manhattan)|51st]] Streets between First and Second Avenues,{{sfn|Haswell|p=22}} near where [[Beekman Place]] commemorates the connection. Hale reportedly was questioned by Howe, and physical evidence was found on him. Rogers provided information about the case. According to some accounts, Hale spent the night in a greenhouse at the mansion, while others say he spent it in a bedroom there. He requested a Bible; his request was denied. Sometime later, he requested a clergyman. Again, the request was denied. General Howe did permit him to write letters to his mother and sister, but the next day, they were torn up in front of him by the provost-marshal, Captain Cunningham.

===Death and purported last words===
[[File:Nathan Hale hanged by British 1776.gif|thumb|The British hang Nathan Hale in New York City, 1776]]
According to the standards of the time, spies were [[hanging|hanged]] as [[illegal combatant]]s. By all accounts, Hale comported himself well before the hanging.{{sfn|Seymour|p=292}}{{sfn|Seymour|p=xxxi}}{{sfn|Seymour|p=438}} Frederick MacKensie, a British officer, wrote this diary entry for the day:{{sfn|Seymour|p=292}}

{{quote |He behaved with great composure and resolution, saying he thought it the duty of every good Officer, to obey any orders given him by his Commander-in-Chief; and desired the Spectators to be at all times prepared to meet death in whatever shape it might appear.}}

On the morning of September 22, 1776, Hale was marched along [[Boston Post Road#Manhattan|Post Road]] to the Park of Artillery, which was next to a public house called the Dove Tavern (at modern-day [[66th Street (Manhattan)|66th Street]] and [[Third Avenue (Manhattan)|Third Avenue]]), and hanged.<ref name=ctssar/> He was 21 years old.

No official records were kept of Hale's final speech. It has traditionally been reported that his last words, either entirely or in part, were: "I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." The account of the quote originated with British Captain [[John Montresor]], who was present at the hanging. The next day, he spoke with American Captain [[William Hull]] under a [[flag of truce]]. Hull recorded in his memoirs the following quote by Montressor:

{{quote|"On the morning of his execution," continued the officer, "my station was near the fatal spot, and I requested the [[Provost Marshal]] [William Cunningham] to permit the prisoner to sit in my marquee, while he was making the necessary preparations. Captain Hale entered: he was calm, and bore himself with gentle dignity, in the consciousness of rectitude and high intentions. He asked for writing materials, which I furnished him: he wrote two letters, one to his mother and one to a brother officer. He was shortly after summoned to the [[gallows]]. But a few persons were around him, yet his characteristic dying words were remembered. He said, 'I only regret, that I have but one life to lose for my country.{{'"}}{{sfn|Seymour|p=310}}}}

Because Hull was not an eyewitness to Hale's speech, some historians have questioned the reliability of this account.<ref name=ctssar/>

Over the years, there has been a great deal of speculation as to whether or not Hale specifically uttered this line, or some variant of it.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A Possible Source for Nathan Hale's Dying Words|jstor = 1918934|journal = The William and Mary Quarterly|date = January 1, 1985|pages = 394–396|volume = 42|issue = 3|doi = 10.2307/1918934|first = F. K.|last = Donnelly}}</ref> If Hale did not originate the statement, it is possible he instead repeated a passage from [[Joseph Addison]]'s play ''[[Cato (tragedy)|Cato]]'',{{sfn|Seymour|p=xxxii}} which was widely popular at the time and an ideological inspiration to many [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Whigs]]:

{{quote|<poem>
How beautiful is death, when earn'd by virtue!
Who would not be that youth? What pity is it
That we can die but once to serve our country.
</poem>}}

It is almost certain that Hale's last speech was longer than one sentence. Several early accounts mention different things he said. These are not necessarily contradictory, but rather, together they give an idea of what the speech might have been like. The following quotes are all taken from George Dudley Seymour's book, ''Documentary Life of Nathan Hale'', published in 1941 by the author. Enoch Hale, Nathan's brother, wrote in his diary after he questioned people who had been present, October 26, 1776, "When at the Gallows he spoke & told them that he was a Capt in the Cont Army by name Nathan Hale."{{sfn|Seymour|p=301}} The February 13, 1777, issue of the ''Essex Journal'' stated, "However, at the gallows, he made a sensible and spirited speech; among other things, told them they were shedding the blood of the innocent, and that if he had ten thousand lives, he would lay them all down, if called to it, in defence of his injured, bleeding Country."{{sfn|Seymour|p=303}} The May 17, 1781, issue of the ''Independent Chronicle and the Universal Advertiser'' gave the following version: "I am so satisfied with the cause in which I have engaged, that my only regret is, that I have not more lives than one to offer in its service."{{sfn|Seymour|p=327}}

Aside from the site at 66th Street and Third Avenue, two other sites in [[Manhattan]] claim to be the hanging site:
* [[City Hall Park, Manhattan|City Hall Park]], where a statue of Hale designed by [[Frederick William MacMonnies]] was erected in 1890<ref name=nym>{{cite magazine|url=http://nymag.com/arts/books/features/robert-sullivan-my-american-revolution-2012-9/|title=Permanent Revolution|magazine=New York magazine|date=September 10, 2012}}</ref>
* Inside [[Grand Central Terminal]]<ref name=nym/>

The [[Yale Club of New York City|Yale Club]] bears a plaque hung by the [[Daughters of the American Revolution]] which states the event occurred "near" the Club.<ref>https://untappedcities.com/2011/02/11/nathan-hale-banana-republic/</ref> Yale is Hale's alma mater and the Club is at [[44th Street (Manhattan)|44th Street]] and [[Vanderbilt Avenue#Manhattan|Vanderbilt Avenue]], mere feet from Grand Central Terminal. Another account places Hale's execution at [[Bergen Beach, Brooklyn]], but there is no evidence to support this claim.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Black |first=Frederick R. |url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/gate/jamaica_bay_hrs.pdf |title=JAMAICA BAY: A HISTORY |publisher=[[United States Department of the Interior]], [[National Park Service]] |date=1981 |pages=11–12 }}</ref>

Hale's body was never found. His family erected an empty grave [[cenotaph]] in Nathan Hale Cemetery in [[South Coventry Historic District]], Connecticut.<ref name=NHweb/>

==Legacy==
===Statues and appearance===
[[File:Nathan-Hale-statue-Chicago-Tribune-Tower-figure.jpg|thumb|Statue by [[Bela Pratt]] at the [[Tribune Tower]], Chicago]]
[[File:Nathan Hale statue at Wadsworth Atheneum.jpg|thumb|Statue by Enoch Smith Woods at [[Wadsworth Atheneum]], Hartford, Connecticut, erected 1894]]
[[File:Nathan Hale Statue by Enoch Smith Woods, East Haddam, CT - September 2018.jpg|thumb|Bust in [[East Haddam, Connecticut]], sculpted by Enoch Smith Woods between 1885–1900]]
[[File:Statue of Nathan Hale at Fort Nathan Hale in New Haven, CT.jpg|thumb|Statue by [[Bela Lyon Pratt]] at [[Fort Nathan Hale]]]]
[[File:Nathan Hale statue flanked by two soldiers Yale University 1917.jpg|thumb|Nathan Hale statue flanked by [[Yale University|Yale]] servicemen, Yale campus, [[New Haven, Connecticut]], November 1917]]
[[File:NathnHalEmbar2.jpg|thumb|Marker in Freese Park, Norwalk, Connecticut that is denoted as the embarkation point for Hale's fatal mission]]
Statues of Hale are based on idealized archetypes; no contemporaneous portraits of him have been found.<ref name=NHweb/><ref name="Seymour1907"/> Documents and letters reveal Hale was an informed, practical, detail-oriented man who planned ahead.<ref name=NHweb/> Of his appearance and demeanor, fellow soldier Lieutenant Elisha Bostwick wrote that Hale had blue eyes, flaxen blond hair, darker eyebrows, and stood slightly taller than the average height of the time, with mental powers of a sedate mind and pious. Bostwick wrote:<ref name=NHweb/><ref name=AHMweb/>
{{quote|I can now in imagination see his person & hear his voice—his person I should say was a little above the common stature in height, his shoulders of a moderate breadth, his limbs strait & very plump: regular features—very fair skin—blue eyes—flaxen or very light hair which was always kept short—his eyebrows a shade darker than his hair & his voice rather sharp or piercing—his bodily agility was remarkable. I have seen him follow a football and kick it over the tops of the trees in the [[Bowery]] at New York, (an exercise which he was fond of)—his mental powers seemed to be above the common sort—his mind of a sedate and sober cast, & he was undoubtedly Pious; for it was remark'd that when any of the soldiers of his company were sick he always visited them & usually Prayed for & with them in their sickness.<ref name=AHMweb/>}}

Hale has been honored with two standing images:
* A statue designed by [[Frederick William MacMonnies]] was dedicated on the anniversary of [[Evacuation Day (New York)|Evacuation Day]], November 25, 1893, at City Hall Park, New York.<ref>{{cite web|title=City Hall Park, Nathan Hale|url=http://www.nycgovparks.org/parks/cityhallpark/monuments/654|publisher=[[New York City Department of Parks and Recreation]]}}</ref> The statue established Hale's modern idealized square-jawed image.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}
* A statue of Hale, sculpted 1908–1912 by [[Bela Pratt]], was cast in 1912 and stands in front of [[Connecticut Hall]], where Hale resided while at Yale. Copies of this sculpture stand at the [[Phillips Academy]] in [[Andover, Massachusetts]]; the Nathan Hale Homestead in Coventry; the [[Connecticut Governor's Residence]] in [[Hartford, Connecticut]]; [[Fort Nathan Hale]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]; [[Mitchell College]] in [[New London, Connecticut]]; the Department of Justice in [[Washington, D.C.]]; [[Tribune Tower]] in [[Chicago]]; and at the headquarters of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] in [[Langley, Virginia]].<ref name=CIA>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/a-walk-outside-headquarters.html|title=The CIA campus. A walk outside headquarters|publisher=Central Intelligence Agengy|date=July 9, 2009|access-date=July 10, 2014}}</ref>

Other statues/markers include:
* A statue of Hale with an inscription of his reported last words on the first floor of the [[Connecticut State Capitol]] in Hartford.<ref name="ctgov"/> Statues of Hale are also located in the [[Tulane University Law School]] reading room, and at the corner of Summit and Portland Avenues in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota]].<ref>[https://www.stpaul.gov/departments/parks-recreation/natural-resources/arts-gardens/public-art/nathan-hale "Nathan Hale"]. [[Saint Paul Minnesota]]. Retrieved September 25, 2017.</ref>
* A memorial for him located in [[Huntington, New York]], where he landed for his fatal spying mission.
* A historical marker in [[Central Norwalk|Freese Park]], [[Norwalk, Connecticut]] that is denoted as the embarkation point.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nathan Hale: Patriot Spy|url=http://ctamericanrevolution.com/tours/Tours_8_Nathan_Hale_January_2013.pdf|website=Revolutionary Connecticut|access-date=15 February 2017}}</ref>
* A {{convert|45|ft|adj=on}} [[obelisk]] known as the [[Captain Nathan Hale Monument]] was erected in his honor in 1846 in his birthplace of Coventry, Connecticut.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

===Namesake items===
{{More citations needed section|date=September 2016}}
[[File:Nathan Hale 1925 Issue-half-cent.jpg|thumb|Nathan Hale appeared on U.S. postage stamps issued in 1925 and 1929. The likeness is from a statue by [[Bela Lyon Pratt]].]]

* The hamlet of [[Halesite, New York]] (formerly Huntington Harbor) on Long Island is named after Hale. There is a memorial plaque set into a large boulder, which was removed from the beach nearby where Hale is thought to have landed on his fateful mission.
* Nathan Hale Army Depot, a [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] installation, is located in [[Darmstadt, Germany]].
* [[Fort Nathan Hale]], a Revolutionary War-era fort and historic site in [[New Haven, Connecticut]], is named after him.
* The Nathan Hale Inn and Nathan Hale dormitory on the University of Connecticut campus in [[Storrs, Connecticut]], are named after Hale.
* The Nathan Hale dormitory, traditionally a freshman girls' dorm, at [[Phillips Academy]] in [[Andover, Massachusetts]], is named after Hale.
* The Nathan Hale Center at [[Robert Morris University]], dedicated in 1971, is a classroom building located on campus.
* Nathan Hale Hall is a building at [[Farmingdale State College]] in [[Farmingdale, New York]], which is home to Biology and Art Centers.
* Nathan Hale Hall is a barracks building at [[Fort George G. Meade]], Maryland.
* Nathan Hale Hall is the main academic building at [[Mitchell College]] in [[New London, Connecticut]].
* The Nathan Hale Memorial Chapter of the [[Daughters of the American Revolution]] was organized June 6, 1900, in [[East Haddam, Connecticut]]. The ceremony took place at the [[Nathan Hale Schoolhouse (East Haddam)|one-room schoolhouse]] where he once taught.
* High schools named after Hale include Nathan Hale-Ray High School in [[East Haddam, Connecticut]] (where he was schoolmaster), [[Nathan Hale High School (Washington)|Nathan Hale High School]] in [[Seattle, Washington]], and high schools in [[West Allis, Wisconsin]], and [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]].
* Middle schools named after Hale include Nathan Hale-Ray Middle School in East Haddam, Connecticut; [[Nathan Hale Middle School]] in [[Norwalk, Connecticut]] (the departure point for his final mission); and Captain Nathan Hale Middle School in [[Coventry, Connecticut]] (his birthplace); as well as middle schools in [[Northvale, New Jersey]]; [[Omaha, Nebraska]]; [[Cleveland, Ohio]]; and [[Crestwood, Illinois]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.district130.org/schools/nhp/1_nathan_hale_home%20page.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2007-09-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820080658/http://www.district130.org/schools/nhp/1_nathan_hale_home%20page.htm |archive-date=August 20, 2008 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
* There are elementary schools named after Hale in [[Roxbury, Boston]]; [[New London, Connecticut]]; [[Enfield, Connecticut]]; [[Manchester, Connecticut]]; [[Meriden, Connecticut]]; New Haven, Connecticut; [[Whiting, Indiana]]; [[Schaumburg, Illinois]]; [[Lansing, Illinois]]; Crestwood, Illinois; [[Chicago, Illinois]]; [[Carteret, New Jersey]]; Northvale, New Jersey; [[Mesa, Arizona]]; and [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]].
* The [[United States Navy]] submarine [[USS Nathan Hale (SSBN-623)|USS ''Nathan Hale'' (SSBN-623)]] was named in his honor.
* The Nathan Hale Ancient [[Fife and drum corps|Fife and Drum Corps]] from Coventry, Connecticut, is named after him and includes a division called [[Knowlton's Rangers|Knowlton's Connecticut Rangers]].
* "Nathaniel Hale" Battalion is the name of the Battalion for Army ROTC based at the [[University of Connecticut]], with Knowlton Company (Company A) at the University of Connecticut and Sillman Company (Company B) at [[Sacred Heart University]].

===Ballads===
Two early ballads attempt to recreate Hale's last speech. ''Songs and Ballads of the Revolution'' (1855), collected by F. Moore, contained the "Ballad of Nathan Hale" (anonymous), dated 1776: "Thou pale king of terrors, thou life's gloomy foe, Go frighten the slave; go frighten the slave; Tell tyrants, to you their allegiance they owe. No fears for the brave; no fears for the brave.";{{sfn|Seymour|p=356}} and "To the Memory of Capt. Nathan Hale" by Eneas Munson, Sr., was written soon after Hale's death:{{sfn|Seymour|p=361}}

{{poemquote|"Hate of oppression's arbitrary plan,
The love of freedom, and the rights of man;
A strong desire to save from slavery's chain
The future millions of the western main,
And hand down safe, from men's invention cleared,
The sacred truths which all the just revered;
For ends like these, I wish to draw my breath,"
He bravely cried, "or dare encounter death."
And when a cruel wretch pronounced his doom,
Replied, {{"'}}Tis well,—for all is peace to come;
The sacred cause for which I drew my sword
Shall yet prevail, and peace shall be restored.
I've served with zeal the land that gave me birth,
Fulfilled my course, and done my work on earth;
Have ever aimed to tread that shining road
That leads a mortal to the blessed God.
I die resigned, and quit life's empty stage,
For brighter worlds my every wish engage;
And while my body slumbers in the dust,
My soul shall join the assemblies of the just."}}

Munson had tutored Hale before college, and knew him and his family well, so even though the particulars of this speech may be unlikely, Munson knew first-hand what Hale's opinions were.

==See also==
* [[Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War]]
* [[Intelligence operations in the American Revolutionary War]]
* [[Nathan Hale Homestead]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|40em|refs=

<ref name="hero">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sots.ct.gov/RegisterManual/SectionX/SITESEALSYMB.htm |title= Sites, Seals, Symbols |access-date=January 4, 2007 |year=2006 |work=Interactive Connecticut State Register & Manual |publisher=State of Connecticut |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061216130115/http://www.sots.ct.gov/RegisterManual/SectionX/SITESEALSYMB.htm  |archive-date = December 16, 2006}}</ref>

<ref name=NHweb>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hartnet.org/als/nathanhale/faq.htm |title=FAQ |access-date=January 22, 2007 |last=Mobed |first=Desiree |author2=Baker, Mary Beth |publisher=The Nathan Hale website |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061101065240/http://www.hartnet.org/als/nathanhale/faq.htm  |archive-date = November 1, 2006}}</ref>

<ref name="fire">{{Cite web|url=http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h550.html |title=Nathan Hale |access-date=February 9, 2007}}</ref>

<ref name="betray">{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/0307-8/hale.html |title=Nathan Hale Revisited— A Tory's Account of the Arrest of the First American Spy |access-date=February 9, 2007 |last=Hutson |first=James |date=July–August 2003 |work=Information Bulletin |publisher=[[The Library of Congress]]}}</ref>

<ref name=ctssar>{{Cite web |url=http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan_2.htm |title=Captain Nathan Hale (1755 - 1776) |access-date=February 9, 2007 |last=Ortner |first=Mary J. |year=2001 |work=Patriots |publisher=The Connecticut Society of the Sons of the American Revolution |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705134759/http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan_2.htm |archive-date=July 5, 2008 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

<ref name="ctgov">{{Cite web|url=http://www.kids.ct.gov/kids/cwp/view.asp?a=2572&q=314100 |title=ConneCT Kids Connecticut Government The Connecticut State Capitol 4|access-date=September 13, 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=AHMweb>{{Cite web |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1964/3/1964_3_50.shtml |title=The Last Days and Valiant Death of Nathan Hale |access-date=January 22, 2007 |date=April 1964 |work=American Heritage Magazine |publisher=American Heritage Inc. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929122501/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1964/3/1964_3_50.shtml |archive-date=September 29, 2007 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

<ref name="NAR">{{Cite journal|last = Sherman | year = 1885 | title = ''The Century'' | volume = 29| page = 339| publisher = The Century Co. | location = New York, NY|first =Sherman }}</ref>



<ref name="Seymour1907">{{cite book|author=George Dudley Seymour|title=The familiar Hale: an attempt to show by what standards of age, appearance and character the proposed statue to Nathan Hale for the campus of Yale college should be judged|url=https://archive.org/details/familiarhaleatte00seym|access-date=October 17, 2010|year=1907|publisher=The Yale publishing association|pages=[https://archive.org/details/familiarhaleatte00seym/page/6 6]–7}}</ref>

}}

===Sources===
* {{Cite book|author=H. W. Crocker III|title=Don't Tread on Me|publisher=Crown Forum|year=2006|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4000-5363-6|url=https://archive.org/details/donttreadonme40000croc}}
* {{cite book|author=Charles Haynes Haswell|title=Reminiscences of New York by an octogenarian (1816 to 1860)|url=https://archive.org/details/reminiscencesne01haswgoog|access-date=October 17, 2010|year=1896|publisher=Harper|author-link=Charles Haynes Haswell}}
* {{cite book|author=Jacob K. Neff|title=The Army and Navy of America: containing a view of the heroic adventures, battles, naval engagements, remarkable incidents, and glorious achievements in the cause of freedom, from the period of the French and Indian Wars to the close of the Florida War : independent of an account of warlike operations on land and sea : enlivened by a variety of the most interesting anecdotes, and splendidly embellished with numerous engravings|url=https://archive.org/details/armyandnavyamer00neffgoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/armyandnavyamer00neffgoog/page/n307 299]|access-date=October 17, 2010|year=1845|publisher=John S. Gable}}
* {{cite book|author=George D. Seymour|title=Documentary Life of Nathan Hale: Comprising All Available Official and Private Documents Bearing on the Life of the Patriot|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PxkkjSRgMiAC&pg=PA487|access-date=October 17, 2010|date=May 2006|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4286-0043-0}}

==Further reading==
* Baker, Mark Allen. "Spies of Revolutionary Connecticut, From Benedict Arnold to Nathan Hale." Charleston: The History Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-1-62619-407-6}}
* Circian. "The Story of Nathan Hale." Archiving Early America. N.p., 2011. Web. October 3, 2011. <http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2001_summer_fall/n_hale.html>.
* Fleming, Thomas. "George Washington, Spymaster." American Heritage. American Heritage Publishing Company, 2011. Web. October 3, 2011. <http://www.americanheritage.com/content/george-washington-spymaster>.
* Durante, Dianne, ''Outdoor Monuments of Manhattan: A Historical Guide'' (New York University Press, 2007): description of MacMonnies's Nathan Hale at City Hall Park, New York.
* {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|430873870}} |last1=Kirby |first1=David |title=MAKING IT WORK; Nathan Hale Was Here . . . and Here . . . and Here |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/11/23/nyregion/making-it-work-nathan-hale-was-here-and-here-and-here.html |work=The New York Times |date=23 November 1997 |page=3 }}
* Miller, Tom. "The Lost 1763 Beekman Mansion 'Mount Pleasant'—50th Street and 1st Avenue." Daytonian in Manhattan. N.p., September 21, 2011. Web. October 3, 2011. <http://daytoninmanhattan.blogspot.com/2011/09/lost-1763-beekman-mansion-mount.html>.
* Ortner, Mary J. "Captain Nathan Hale." The Connecticut Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. N.p., 2010. Web. October 3, 2011. <https://web.archive.org/web/20080705134759/http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan_2.htm>.
* Phelps, William M. "Nathan Hale: The Life and Death of America's First Spy" St. Martin's Press, New York, New York, 2008. {{ISBN|0-312-37641-3}}
* Rose, Alexander. ''Washington's Spies: The Story of America's First Spy Ring.'' Random House, New York, New York, 2006. {{ISBN|0-553-80421-9}}.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Nathan Hale}}
{{Wikiquote|Nathan Hale}}
* [http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2001_summer_fall/n_hale.html A Time for Heroes: The Story of Nathan Hale]
* {{Cite Appletons'|wstitle=Hale, John|year=1892|notaref=x |short=x}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan_2.htm|title=Captain Nathan Hale (1755–1776)|last=Ortner|first=Mary J.|year=2001|publisher=The Connecticut Society of the [[Sons of the American Revolution]]|access-date=November 3, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705134759/http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan_2.htm|archive-date=July 5, 2008|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}
* {{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/0307-8/hale.html|title=Nathan Hale Revisited|last=Hutson|first=James|work=Information Bulletin: July/August 2003|publisher=Library of Congress|quote=[A newly discovered] account of the capture of Nathan Hale fits the facts as we know them so well that one is tempted to accept it as being substantially true.}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h550.html|title=Nathan Hale, American Patriot|publisher=U-S-History.com}}
* [http://www.connecticutsar.org/ The Connecticut Society of the Sons of the American Revolution]
* {{findagrave|2306}}

{{New York in the American Revolutionary War}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hale, Nathan}}
[[Category:Nathan Hale| ]]
[[Category:1755 births]]
[[Category:1776 deaths]]
[[Category:American Revolutionary War executions]]
[[Category:Continental Army officers from Connecticut]]
[[Category:Executed spies]]
[[Category:People executed by the British military by hanging]]
[[Category:People of Connecticut in the American Revolution]]
[[Category:People from Coventry, Connecticut]]
[[Category:United States Army Rangers]]
[[Category:Yale College alumni]]
[[Category:Executed people from Connecticut]]
[[Category:People executed by the Kingdom of Great Britain]]
[[Category:Symbols of Connecticut]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Connecticut]]
[[Category:American spies during the American Revolution]]

Nathan Hale

2021-04-14T16:48:20Z

66.172.182.2: /* Early life and family */

{{pp-pc1}}
{{short description|Soldier for the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War}}
{{Other uses}}{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox spy
| name = Nathan Hale
| nickname =
| image = Nathan-hale-cityhall.jpg
| caption = ''[[Nathan Hale (statue)|Nathan Hale]]'', by [[Frederick MacMonnies]], [[New York City Hall|City Hall Park]], New York
| allegiance = [[United States]] 
| birth_date = June 6, 1755
| birth_place = [[Coventry, Connecticut|Coventry]], [[Connecticut Colony]], [[British America]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1776|9|22|1755|6|6}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], [[Province of New York]]
| death_cause = [[Hanging|Hanged]]
| alma_mater = [[Yale College]]
| module = [[File:Coat of Arms of Nathan Hale.svg|160px|thumb|center|Coat of arms of Nathan Hale]]
| signature = Nathan Hale Signature.svg
}}

'''Nathan Hale''' (June 6, 1755 – September 22, 1776) was an American soldier and spy for the [[Continental Army]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. He volunteered for an [[Military intelligence|intelligence]]-gathering mission in [[New York City]] but was captured by the British and executed. Hale has long been considered an American hero and, in 1985, he was officially designated the state hero of [[Connecticut]].<ref name="hero"/>

==Early life and family==
Nathan Hale was born in [[Coventry, Connecticut]], in 1755, to Deacon Richard Hale and Elizabeth Strong, a descendant of Elder [[John Strong (colonist)|John Strong]]. <ref> The History of the Descendants of Elder John Strong, Northampton, Mass by Benjamin Dwight, pages 331-332 </ref> He was a great-grandson of Reverend [[John Hale (Beverly minister)|John Hale]], an important figure in the [[Salem witch trials]] of 1692. He was also the uncle of orator and statesman [[Edward Everett]] (the other speaker at [[Gettysburg Address|Gettysburg]]) and the grand-uncle of [[Edward Everett Hale]], a Unitarian minister, writer, and activist noted for social causes including [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]]. He was the uncle of journalist [[Nathan Hale (journalist)|Nathan Hale]], who founded the ''[[Boston Daily Advertiser]]'' and helped establish the ''[[North American Review]]''.<ref name="NAR"/>

In 1769, when Nathan Hale was fourteen years old, he was sent with his brother Enoch, who was sixteen, to [[Yale College]]. He was a classmate of fellow [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]] spy [[Benjamin Tallmadge]].<ref name=NHweb/> The Hale brothers belonged to the [[Linonian Society]] of Yale, which debated topics in astronomy, mathematics, literature, and the ethics of [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]]. Nathan graduated with first-class honors in 1773 at age 18 and became a teacher, first in [[East Haddam, Connecticut|East Haddam]] and later in [[New London, Connecticut|New London]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title = Capt. Nathan Hale (1755-1776) - Sons of the American Revolution, Connecticut - CTSSAR|url = http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan.htm|website = www.connecticutsar.org|access-date = January 16, 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061105013230/http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan.htm|archive-date = November 5, 2006|url-status = dead}}</ref>
King George 3rd is werd

==American Revolutionary War==
After the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]] began in 1775, Hale joined a Connecticut militia unit and was elected [[first lieutenant]] within five months.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Nathan Hale: Yale 1773 :: Curator: Richard E. Mooney|url = http://www.library.yale.edu/mssa/exhibits/hale/RevolutionaryWar_item02.html|website = www.library.yale.edu|access-date = January 16, 2016|page = 2}}</ref> His company participated in the [[Siege of Boston]], but Hale remained behind. It has been suggested that he was unsure as to whether he wanted to fight, or possibly that he was hindered because his teaching contract in New London did not expire until several months later, in July 1775. On July 4, 1775, Hale received a letter from his classmate and friend Benjamin Tallmadge, who had gone to Boston to see the siege for himself. He wrote to Hale, "Was I in your condition, I think the more extensive service would be my choice. Our holy Religion, the honor of our God, a glorious country, & a happy constitution is what we have to defend."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1428600434|title=Documentary Life of Nathan Hale|work=google.com}}</ref> Tallmadge's letter was so inspiring that, several days later, Hale accepted a commission as first lieutenant in the [[7th Connecticut Regiment]] under Colonel Charles Webb of [[Stamford, Connecticut|Stamford]].

Hale was also a part of [[Knowlton's Rangers]], the first organized [[intelligence service]] organization of the [[United States of America]], led by Lieutenant Colonel [[Thomas Knowlton]]. In the spring of 1776, the Continental Army moved to [[Manhattan Island|Manhattan]] to defend New York City against the anticipated British attack. In August, the British soundly defeated the Continentals in the [[Battle of Long Island]] via a flanking move from [[Staten Island]] across [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]]. General [[George Washington]] was desperate to determine the location of the imminent British invasion of Manhattan; to that end, Washington called for a spy behind enemy lines, and Hale was the only volunteer.<ref name=":0" />
<gallery>
File:Nathan Hale commission as captain in the nineteenth regiment of foot.jpg|Commission of Nathan Hale, captain in the Nineteenth Regiment of foot, commanded by Colonel Charles Webb. Signed by [[John Hancock]]. January 1, 1776.
File:Nathan Hale bronze by MacMonnies IMG 3817.JPG|Nathan Hale as depicted in bronze (1890) by [[Frederick William MacMonnies]] at the [[Brooklyn Museum]]
File:Beekman House.gif|Beekman House, Manhattan
</gallery>

===Intelligence-gathering mission===
Hale volunteered on September 8, 1776, to go behind enemy lines and report on British troop movements, which he knew was an act of [[Espionage|spying]], which would be immediately punishable by death. He was ferried across the [[Long Island Sound]] to [[Huntington, New York]], on British-controlled Long Island, on September 12. Hale planned to disguise himself as a Dutch schoolteacher looking for work,<ref>{{cite book|last=McCullough|first=David|title=1776|year=2005|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-2671-4|author-link=David McCullough|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uu1mC6zWNTwC}}</ref> though he did not travel under an assumed name and reportedly carried with him his Yale diploma bearing his real name.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Smith, Jr. |first1=John L. |title=9 Rules of Spying That Nathan Hale Failed to Follow |url=https://allthingsliberty.com/2015/05/9-rules-of-spying-that-nathan-hale-failed-to-follow/#_edn17 |website=Journal of the American Revolution |access-date=13 November 2019 |date=May 21, 2015}}</ref>

While Hale was undercover, New York City (then the area at the southern tip of Manhattan, mostly south of what is now Chambers Street) fell to British forces on September 15, and Washington was forced to retreat to the island's north in [[Battle of Harlem Heights|Harlem Heights]] (what is now [[Morningside Heights]]).{{sfn|Neff|p=299–308}} Shortly after, on September 21, a quarter of the lower portion of Manhattan burned in the [[Great Fire of New York (1776)|Great New York Fire of 1776]]. The fire was later widely thought to have been started by American saboteurs in order to keep the city from falling into British hands,<ref name="fire"/> and though [[Scorched earth|setting fire]] to New York during Washington's retreat had indeed been proposed, Washington and the [[Second Continental Congress|Congress]] had rejected the idea and denied responsibility. The Americans accused British soldiers of starting the fires without orders from their superiors so they could sack the city.<ref name="fire"/> In the fire's aftermath, more than 200 American [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriots]] were detained by the British for questioning.{{cn|date=December 2020}}

An account of Hale's capture, later obtained by the [[Library of Congress]], was written by [[Consider Tiffany]], a Connecticut shopkeeper and Loyalist. In Tiffany's account, Major [[Robert Rogers (soldier)|Robert Rogers]] of the [[Queen's York Rangers|Queen's Rangers]] saw Hale in a tavern and recognized him. After luring Hale into betraying his allegiance by pretending to be a Patriot himself, Rogers and his Rangers apprehended Hale near [[Flushing Bay]] in [[Queens]], New York.<ref name="betray"/> Another story is that Hale's cousin, a Loyalist named Samuel Hale, was the one who revealed his true identity.{{Citation needed|date=September 2019}}

British General [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]] had established his headquarters in the Beekman House in a then-rural part of Manhattan, on a rise between what are now [[50th Street (Manhattan)|50th]] and [[51st Street (Manhattan)|51st]] Streets between First and Second Avenues,{{sfn|Haswell|p=22}} near where [[Beekman Place]] commemorates the connection. Hale reportedly was questioned by Howe, and physical evidence was found on him. Rogers provided information about the case. According to some accounts, Hale spent the night in a greenhouse at the mansion, while others say he spent it in a bedroom there. He requested a Bible; his request was denied. Sometime later, he requested a clergyman. Again, the request was denied. General Howe did permit him to write letters to his mother and sister, but the next day, they were torn up in front of him by the provost-marshal, Captain Cunningham.

===Death and purported last words===
[[File:Nathan Hale hanged by British 1776.gif|thumb|The British hang Nathan Hale in New York City, 1776]]
According to the standards of the time, spies were [[hanging|hanged]] as [[illegal combatant]]s. By all accounts, Hale comported himself well before the hanging.{{sfn|Seymour|p=292}}{{sfn|Seymour|p=xxxi}}{{sfn|Seymour|p=438}} Frederick MacKensie, a British officer, wrote this diary entry for the day:{{sfn|Seymour|p=292}}

{{quote |He behaved with great composure and resolution, saying he thought it the duty of every good Officer, to obey any orders given him by his Commander-in-Chief; and desired the Spectators to be at all times prepared to meet death in whatever shape it might appear.}}

On the morning of September 22, 1776, Hale was marched along [[Boston Post Road#Manhattan|Post Road]] to the Park of Artillery, which was next to a public house called the Dove Tavern (at modern-day [[66th Street (Manhattan)|66th Street]] and [[Third Avenue (Manhattan)|Third Avenue]]), and hanged.<ref name=ctssar/> He was 21 years old.

No official records were kept of Hale's final speech. It has traditionally been reported that his last words, either entirely or in part, were: "I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." The account of the quote originated with British Captain [[John Montresor]], who was present at the hanging. The next day, he spoke with American Captain [[William Hull]] under a [[flag of truce]]. Hull recorded in his memoirs the following quote by Montressor:

{{quote|"On the morning of his execution," continued the officer, "my station was near the fatal spot, and I requested the [[Provost Marshal]] [William Cunningham] to permit the prisoner to sit in my marquee, while he was making the necessary preparations. Captain Hale entered: he was calm, and bore himself with gentle dignity, in the consciousness of rectitude and high intentions. He asked for writing materials, which I furnished him: he wrote two letters, one to his mother and one to a brother officer. He was shortly after summoned to the [[gallows]]. But a few persons were around him, yet his characteristic dying words were remembered. He said, 'I only regret, that I have but one life to lose for my country.{{'"}}{{sfn|Seymour|p=310}}}}

Because Hull was not an eyewitness to Hale's speech, some historians have questioned the reliability of this account.<ref name=ctssar/>

Over the years, there has been a great deal of speculation as to whether or not Hale specifically uttered this line, or some variant of it.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A Possible Source for Nathan Hale's Dying Words|jstor = 1918934|journal = The William and Mary Quarterly|date = January 1, 1985|pages = 394–396|volume = 42|issue = 3|doi = 10.2307/1918934|first = F. K.|last = Donnelly}}</ref> If Hale did not originate the statement, it is possible he instead repeated a passage from [[Joseph Addison]]'s play ''[[Cato (tragedy)|Cato]]'',{{sfn|Seymour|p=xxxii}} which was widely popular at the time and an ideological inspiration to many [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Whigs]]:

{{quote|<poem>
How beautiful is death, when earn'd by virtue!
Who would not be that youth? What pity is it
That we can die but once to serve our country.
</poem>}}

It is almost certain that Hale's last speech was longer than one sentence. Several early accounts mention different things he said. These are not necessarily contradictory, but rather, together they give an idea of what the speech might have been like. The following quotes are all taken from George Dudley Seymour's book, ''Documentary Life of Nathan Hale'', published in 1941 by the author. Enoch Hale, Nathan's brother, wrote in his diary after he questioned people who had been present, October 26, 1776, "When at the Gallows he spoke & told them that he was a Capt in the Cont Army by name Nathan Hale."{{sfn|Seymour|p=301}} The February 13, 1777, issue of the ''Essex Journal'' stated, "However, at the gallows, he made a sensible and spirited speech; among other things, told them they were shedding the blood of the innocent, and that if he had ten thousand lives, he would lay them all down, if called to it, in defence of his injured, bleeding Country."{{sfn|Seymour|p=303}} The May 17, 1781, issue of the ''Independent Chronicle and the Universal Advertiser'' gave the following version: "I am so satisfied with the cause in which I have engaged, that my only regret is, that I have not more lives than one to offer in its service."{{sfn|Seymour|p=327}}

Aside from the site at 66th Street and Third Avenue, two other sites in [[Manhattan]] claim to be the hanging site:
* [[City Hall Park, Manhattan|City Hall Park]], where a statue of Hale designed by [[Frederick William MacMonnies]] was erected in 1890<ref name=nym>{{cite magazine|url=http://nymag.com/arts/books/features/robert-sullivan-my-american-revolution-2012-9/|title=Permanent Revolution|magazine=New York magazine|date=September 10, 2012}}</ref>
* Inside [[Grand Central Terminal]]<ref name=nym/>

The [[Yale Club of New York City|Yale Club]] bears a plaque hung by the [[Daughters of the American Revolution]] which states the event occurred "near" the Club.<ref>https://untappedcities.com/2011/02/11/nathan-hale-banana-republic/</ref> Yale is Hale's alma mater and the Club is at [[44th Street (Manhattan)|44th Street]] and [[Vanderbilt Avenue#Manhattan|Vanderbilt Avenue]], mere feet from Grand Central Terminal. Another account places Hale's execution at [[Bergen Beach, Brooklyn]], but there is no evidence to support this claim.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Black |first=Frederick R. |url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/gate/jamaica_bay_hrs.pdf |title=JAMAICA BAY: A HISTORY |publisher=[[United States Department of the Interior]], [[National Park Service]] |date=1981 |pages=11–12 }}</ref>

Hale's body was never found. His family erected an empty grave [[cenotaph]] in Nathan Hale Cemetery in [[South Coventry Historic District]], Connecticut.<ref name=NHweb/>

==Legacy==
===Statues and appearance===
[[File:Nathan-Hale-statue-Chicago-Tribune-Tower-figure.jpg|thumb|Statue by [[Bela Pratt]] at the [[Tribune Tower]], Chicago]]
[[File:Nathan Hale statue at Wadsworth Atheneum.jpg|thumb|Statue by Enoch Smith Woods at [[Wadsworth Atheneum]], Hartford, Connecticut, erected 1894]]
[[File:Nathan Hale Statue by Enoch Smith Woods, East Haddam, CT - September 2018.jpg|thumb|Bust in [[East Haddam, Connecticut]], sculpted by Enoch Smith Woods between 1885–1900]]
[[File:Statue of Nathan Hale at Fort Nathan Hale in New Haven, CT.jpg|thumb|Statue by [[Bela Lyon Pratt]] at [[Fort Nathan Hale]]]]
[[File:Nathan Hale statue flanked by two soldiers Yale University 1917.jpg|thumb|Nathan Hale statue flanked by [[Yale University|Yale]] servicemen, Yale campus, [[New Haven, Connecticut]], November 1917]]
[[File:NathnHalEmbar2.jpg|thumb|Marker in Freese Park, Norwalk, Connecticut that is denoted as the embarkation point for Hale's fatal mission]]
Statues of Hale are based on idealized archetypes; no contemporaneous portraits of him have been found.<ref name=NHweb/><ref name="Seymour1907"/> Documents and letters reveal Hale was an informed, practical, detail-oriented man who planned ahead.<ref name=NHweb/> Of his appearance and demeanor, fellow soldier Lieutenant Elisha Bostwick wrote that Hale had blue eyes, flaxen blond hair, darker eyebrows, and stood slightly taller than the average height of the time, with mental powers of a sedate mind and pious. Bostwick wrote:<ref name=NHweb/><ref name=AHMweb/>
{{quote|I can now in imagination see his person & hear his voice—his person I should say was a little above the common stature in height, his shoulders of a moderate breadth, his limbs strait & very plump: regular features—very fair skin—blue eyes—flaxen or very light hair which was always kept short—his eyebrows a shade darker than his hair & his voice rather sharp or piercing—his bodily agility was remarkable. I have seen him follow a football and kick it over the tops of the trees in the [[Bowery]] at New York, (an exercise which he was fond of)—his mental powers seemed to be above the common sort—his mind of a sedate and sober cast, & he was undoubtedly Pious; for it was remark'd that when any of the soldiers of his company were sick he always visited them & usually Prayed for & with them in their sickness.<ref name=AHMweb/>}}

Hale has been honored with two standing images:
* A statue designed by [[Frederick William MacMonnies]] was dedicated on the anniversary of [[Evacuation Day (New York)|Evacuation Day]], November 25, 1893, at City Hall Park, New York.<ref>{{cite web|title=City Hall Park, Nathan Hale|url=http://www.nycgovparks.org/parks/cityhallpark/monuments/654|publisher=[[New York City Department of Parks and Recreation]]}}</ref> The statue established Hale's modern idealized square-jawed image.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}
* A statue of Hale, sculpted 1908–1912 by [[Bela Pratt]], was cast in 1912 and stands in front of [[Connecticut Hall]], where Hale resided while at Yale. Copies of this sculpture stand at the [[Phillips Academy]] in [[Andover, Massachusetts]]; the Nathan Hale Homestead in Coventry; the [[Connecticut Governor's Residence]] in [[Hartford, Connecticut]]; [[Fort Nathan Hale]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]; [[Mitchell College]] in [[New London, Connecticut]]; the Department of Justice in [[Washington, D.C.]]; [[Tribune Tower]] in [[Chicago]]; and at the headquarters of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] in [[Langley, Virginia]].<ref name=CIA>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/a-walk-outside-headquarters.html|title=The CIA campus. A walk outside headquarters|publisher=Central Intelligence Agengy|date=July 9, 2009|access-date=July 10, 2014}}</ref>

Other statues/markers include:
* A statue of Hale with an inscription of his reported last words on the first floor of the [[Connecticut State Capitol]] in Hartford.<ref name="ctgov"/> Statues of Hale are also located in the [[Tulane University Law School]] reading room, and at the corner of Summit and Portland Avenues in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota]].<ref>[https://www.stpaul.gov/departments/parks-recreation/natural-resources/arts-gardens/public-art/nathan-hale "Nathan Hale"]. [[Saint Paul Minnesota]]. Retrieved September 25, 2017.</ref>
* A memorial for him located in [[Huntington, New York]], where he landed for his fatal spying mission.
* A historical marker in [[Central Norwalk|Freese Park]], [[Norwalk, Connecticut]] that is denoted as the embarkation point.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nathan Hale: Patriot Spy|url=http://ctamericanrevolution.com/tours/Tours_8_Nathan_Hale_January_2013.pdf|website=Revolutionary Connecticut|access-date=15 February 2017}}</ref>
* A {{convert|45|ft|adj=on}} [[obelisk]] known as the [[Captain Nathan Hale Monument]] was erected in his honor in 1846 in his birthplace of Coventry, Connecticut.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

===Namesake items===
{{More citations needed section|date=September 2016}}
[[File:Nathan Hale 1925 Issue-half-cent.jpg|thumb|Nathan Hale appeared on U.S. postage stamps issued in 1925 and 1929. The likeness is from a statue by [[Bela Lyon Pratt]].]]

* The hamlet of [[Halesite, New York]] (formerly Huntington Harbor) on Long Island is named after Hale. There is a memorial plaque set into a large boulder, which was removed from the beach nearby where Hale is thought to have landed on his fateful mission.
* Nathan Hale Army Depot, a [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] installation, is located in [[Darmstadt, Germany]].
* [[Fort Nathan Hale]], a Revolutionary War-era fort and historic site in [[New Haven, Connecticut]], is named after him.
* The Nathan Hale Inn and Nathan Hale dormitory on the University of Connecticut campus in [[Storrs, Connecticut]], are named after Hale.
* The Nathan Hale dormitory, traditionally a freshman girls' dorm, at [[Phillips Academy]] in [[Andover, Massachusetts]], is named after Hale.
* The Nathan Hale Center at [[Robert Morris University]], dedicated in 1971, is a classroom building located on campus.
* Nathan Hale Hall is a building at [[Farmingdale State College]] in [[Farmingdale, New York]], which is home to Biology and Art Centers.
* Nathan Hale Hall is a barracks building at [[Fort George G. Meade]], Maryland.
* Nathan Hale Hall is the main academic building at [[Mitchell College]] in [[New London, Connecticut]].
* The Nathan Hale Memorial Chapter of the [[Daughters of the American Revolution]] was organized June 6, 1900, in [[East Haddam, Connecticut]]. The ceremony took place at the [[Nathan Hale Schoolhouse (East Haddam)|one-room schoolhouse]] where he once taught.
* High schools named after Hale include Nathan Hale-Ray High School in [[East Haddam, Connecticut]] (where he was schoolmaster), [[Nathan Hale High School (Washington)|Nathan Hale High School]] in [[Seattle, Washington]], and high schools in [[West Allis, Wisconsin]], and [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]].
* Middle schools named after Hale include Nathan Hale-Ray Middle School in East Haddam, Connecticut; [[Nathan Hale Middle School]] in [[Norwalk, Connecticut]] (the departure point for his final mission); and Captain Nathan Hale Middle School in [[Coventry, Connecticut]] (his birthplace); as well as middle schools in [[Northvale, New Jersey]]; [[Omaha, Nebraska]]; [[Cleveland, Ohio]]; and [[Crestwood, Illinois]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.district130.org/schools/nhp/1_nathan_hale_home%20page.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2007-09-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820080658/http://www.district130.org/schools/nhp/1_nathan_hale_home%20page.htm |archive-date=August 20, 2008 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
* There are elementary schools named after Hale in [[Roxbury, Boston]]; [[New London, Connecticut]]; [[Enfield, Connecticut]]; [[Manchester, Connecticut]]; [[Meriden, Connecticut]]; New Haven, Connecticut; [[Whiting, Indiana]]; [[Schaumburg, Illinois]]; [[Lansing, Illinois]]; Crestwood, Illinois; [[Chicago, Illinois]]; [[Carteret, New Jersey]]; Northvale, New Jersey; [[Mesa, Arizona]]; and [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]].
* The [[United States Navy]] submarine [[USS Nathan Hale (SSBN-623)|USS ''Nathan Hale'' (SSBN-623)]] was named in his honor.
* The Nathan Hale Ancient [[Fife and drum corps|Fife and Drum Corps]] from Coventry, Connecticut, is named after him and includes a division called [[Knowlton's Rangers|Knowlton's Connecticut Rangers]].
* "Nathaniel Hale" Battalion is the name of the Battalion for Army ROTC based at the [[University of Connecticut]], with Knowlton Company (Company A) at the University of Connecticut and Sillman Company (Company B) at [[Sacred Heart University]].

===Ballads===
Two early ballads attempt to recreate Hale's last speech. ''Songs and Ballads of the Revolution'' (1855), collected by F. Moore, contained the "Ballad of Nathan Hale" (anonymous), dated 1776: "Thou pale king of terrors, thou life's gloomy foe, Go frighten the slave; go frighten the slave; Tell tyrants, to you their allegiance they owe. No fears for the brave; no fears for the brave.";{{sfn|Seymour|p=356}} and "To the Memory of Capt. Nathan Hale" by Eneas Munson, Sr., was written soon after Hale's death:{{sfn|Seymour|p=361}}

{{poemquote|"Hate of oppression's arbitrary plan,
The love of freedom, and the rights of man;
A strong desire to save from slavery's chain
The future millions of the western main,
And hand down safe, from men's invention cleared,
The sacred truths which all the just revered;
For ends like these, I wish to draw my breath,"
He bravely cried, "or dare encounter death."
And when a cruel wretch pronounced his doom,
Replied, {{"'}}Tis well,—for all is peace to come;
The sacred cause for which I drew my sword
Shall yet prevail, and peace shall be restored.
I've served with zeal the land that gave me birth,
Fulfilled my course, and done my work on earth;
Have ever aimed to tread that shining road
That leads a mortal to the blessed God.
I die resigned, and quit life's empty stage,
For brighter worlds my every wish engage;
And while my body slumbers in the dust,
My soul shall join the assemblies of the just."}}

Munson had tutored Hale before college, and knew him and his family well, so even though the particulars of this speech may be unlikely, Munson knew first-hand what Hale's opinions were.

==See also==
* [[Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War]]
* [[Intelligence operations in the American Revolutionary War]]
* [[Nathan Hale Homestead]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|40em|refs=

<ref name="hero">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sots.ct.gov/RegisterManual/SectionX/SITESEALSYMB.htm |title= Sites, Seals, Symbols |access-date=January 4, 2007 |year=2006 |work=Interactive Connecticut State Register & Manual |publisher=State of Connecticut |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061216130115/http://www.sots.ct.gov/RegisterManual/SectionX/SITESEALSYMB.htm  |archive-date = December 16, 2006}}</ref>

<ref name=NHweb>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hartnet.org/als/nathanhale/faq.htm |title=FAQ |access-date=January 22, 2007 |last=Mobed |first=Desiree |author2=Baker, Mary Beth |publisher=The Nathan Hale website |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061101065240/http://www.hartnet.org/als/nathanhale/faq.htm  |archive-date = November 1, 2006}}</ref>

<ref name="fire">{{Cite web|url=http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h550.html |title=Nathan Hale |access-date=February 9, 2007}}</ref>

<ref name="betray">{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/0307-8/hale.html |title=Nathan Hale Revisited— A Tory's Account of the Arrest of the First American Spy |access-date=February 9, 2007 |last=Hutson |first=James |date=July–August 2003 |work=Information Bulletin |publisher=[[The Library of Congress]]}}</ref>

<ref name=ctssar>{{Cite web |url=http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan_2.htm |title=Captain Nathan Hale (1755 - 1776) |access-date=February 9, 2007 |last=Ortner |first=Mary J. |year=2001 |work=Patriots |publisher=The Connecticut Society of the Sons of the American Revolution |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705134759/http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan_2.htm |archive-date=July 5, 2008 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

<ref name="ctgov">{{Cite web|url=http://www.kids.ct.gov/kids/cwp/view.asp?a=2572&q=314100 |title=ConneCT Kids Connecticut Government The Connecticut State Capitol 4|access-date=September 13, 2014}}</ref>

<ref name=AHMweb>{{Cite web |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1964/3/1964_3_50.shtml |title=The Last Days and Valiant Death of Nathan Hale |access-date=January 22, 2007 |date=April 1964 |work=American Heritage Magazine |publisher=American Heritage Inc. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929122501/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1964/3/1964_3_50.shtml |archive-date=September 29, 2007 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

<ref name="NAR">{{Cite journal|last = Sherman | year = 1885 | title = ''The Century'' | volume = 29| page = 339| publisher = The Century Co. | location = New York, NY|first =Sherman }}</ref>



<ref name="Seymour1907">{{cite book|author=George Dudley Seymour|title=The familiar Hale: an attempt to show by what standards of age, appearance and character the proposed statue to Nathan Hale for the campus of Yale college should be judged|url=https://archive.org/details/familiarhaleatte00seym|access-date=October 17, 2010|year=1907|publisher=The Yale publishing association|pages=[https://archive.org/details/familiarhaleatte00seym/page/6 6]–7}}</ref>

}}

===Sources===
* {{Cite book|author=H. W. Crocker III|title=Don't Tread on Me|publisher=Crown Forum|year=2006|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4000-5363-6|url=https://archive.org/details/donttreadonme40000croc}}
* {{cite book|author=Charles Haynes Haswell|title=Reminiscences of New York by an octogenarian (1816 to 1860)|url=https://archive.org/details/reminiscencesne01haswgoog|access-date=October 17, 2010|year=1896|publisher=Harper|author-link=Charles Haynes Haswell}}
* {{cite book|author=Jacob K. Neff|title=The Army and Navy of America: containing a view of the heroic adventures, battles, naval engagements, remarkable incidents, and glorious achievements in the cause of freedom, from the period of the French and Indian Wars to the close of the Florida War : independent of an account of warlike operations on land and sea : enlivened by a variety of the most interesting anecdotes, and splendidly embellished with numerous engravings|url=https://archive.org/details/armyandnavyamer00neffgoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/armyandnavyamer00neffgoog/page/n307 299]|access-date=October 17, 2010|year=1845|publisher=John S. Gable}}
* {{cite book|author=George D. Seymour|title=Documentary Life of Nathan Hale: Comprising All Available Official and Private Documents Bearing on the Life of the Patriot|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PxkkjSRgMiAC&pg=PA487|access-date=October 17, 2010|date=May 2006|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4286-0043-0}}

==Further reading==
* Baker, Mark Allen. "Spies of Revolutionary Connecticut, From Benedict Arnold to Nathan Hale." Charleston: The History Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-1-62619-407-6}}
* Circian. "The Story of Nathan Hale." Archiving Early America. N.p., 2011. Web. October 3, 2011. <http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2001_summer_fall/n_hale.html>.
* Fleming, Thomas. "George Washington, Spymaster." American Heritage. American Heritage Publishing Company, 2011. Web. October 3, 2011. <http://www.americanheritage.com/content/george-washington-spymaster>.
* Durante, Dianne, ''Outdoor Monuments of Manhattan: A Historical Guide'' (New York University Press, 2007): description of MacMonnies's Nathan Hale at City Hall Park, New York.
* {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|430873870}} |last1=Kirby |first1=David |title=MAKING IT WORK; Nathan Hale Was Here . . . and Here . . . and Here |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/11/23/nyregion/making-it-work-nathan-hale-was-here-and-here-and-here.html |work=The New York Times |date=23 November 1997 |page=3 }}
* Miller, Tom. "The Lost 1763 Beekman Mansion 'Mount Pleasant'—50th Street and 1st Avenue." Daytonian in Manhattan. N.p., September 21, 2011. Web. October 3, 2011. <http://daytoninmanhattan.blogspot.com/2011/09/lost-1763-beekman-mansion-mount.html>.
* Ortner, Mary J. "Captain Nathan Hale." The Connecticut Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. N.p., 2010. Web. October 3, 2011. <https://web.archive.org/web/20080705134759/http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan_2.htm>.
* Phelps, William M. "Nathan Hale: The Life and Death of America's First Spy" St. Martin's Press, New York, New York, 2008. {{ISBN|0-312-37641-3}}
* Rose, Alexander. ''Washington's Spies: The Story of America's First Spy Ring.'' Random House, New York, New York, 2006. {{ISBN|0-553-80421-9}}.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Nathan Hale}}
{{Wikiquote|Nathan Hale}}
* [http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2001_summer_fall/n_hale.html A Time for Heroes: The Story of Nathan Hale]
* {{Cite Appletons'|wstitle=Hale, John|year=1892|notaref=x |short=x}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan_2.htm|title=Captain Nathan Hale (1755–1776)|last=Ortner|first=Mary J.|year=2001|publisher=The Connecticut Society of the [[Sons of the American Revolution]]|access-date=November 3, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705134759/http://www.connecticutsar.org/patriots/hale_nathan_2.htm|archive-date=July 5, 2008|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}
* {{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/0307-8/hale.html|title=Nathan Hale Revisited|last=Hutson|first=James|work=Information Bulletin: July/August 2003|publisher=Library of Congress|quote=[A newly discovered] account of the capture of Nathan Hale fits the facts as we know them so well that one is tempted to accept it as being substantially true.}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h550.html|title=Nathan Hale, American Patriot|publisher=U-S-History.com}}
* [http://www.connecticutsar.org/ The Connecticut Society of the Sons of the American Revolution]
* {{findagrave|2306}}

{{New York in the American Revolutionary War}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hale, Nathan}}
[[Category:Nathan Hale| ]]
[[Category:1755 births]]
[[Category:1776 deaths]]
[[Category:American Revolutionary War executions]]
[[Category:Continental Army officers from Connecticut]]
[[Category:Executed spies]]
[[Category:People executed by the British military by hanging]]
[[Category:People of Connecticut in the American Revolution]]
[[Category:People from Coventry, Connecticut]]
[[Category:United States Army Rangers]]
[[Category:Yale College alumni]]
[[Category:Executed people from Connecticut]]
[[Category:People executed by the Kingdom of Great Britain]]
[[Category:Symbols of Connecticut]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Connecticut]]
[[Category:American spies during the American Revolution]]

Wabasso, Minnesota

2019-05-24T13:54:58Z

66.172.182.2:

{{short description|City in Minnesota, United States}}
{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Wabasso
|settlement_type = [[City]]
|nickname =
|motto =


|image_skyline =
|imagesize =
|image_caption =
|image_flag =
|image_seal =


|image_map = Redwood_County_Minnesota_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Wabasso_Highlighted.svg
|mapsize = 250x200px
|map_caption = Cities and townships of Redwood County
|image_map1 =
|mapsize1 =
|map_caption1 =


|subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
|subdivision_name = United States
|subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Minnesota]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Minnesota|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Redwood County, Minnesota|Redwood]]


|government_footnotes =
|government_type =
|leader_title =
|leader_name =
|leader_title1 =
|leader_name1 =
|established_title =
|established_date =


|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes = <ref name="CenPopGazetteer2016">{{cite web|title=2017 U.S. Gazetteer Files|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2017_Gazetteer/2017_gaz_place_27.txt|publisher=United States Census Bureau|accessdate=Jan 3, 2019}}</ref>
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 2.20
|area_land_km2 = 2.20
|area_water_km2 = 0.00
|area_total_sq_mi = 0.85
|area_land_sq_mi = 0.85
|area_water_sq_mi = 0.00


|population_as_of = [[2010 United States Census|2010]]
|population_est = 665
|pop_est_as_of = 2017
|population_footnotes = <ref name ="FactFinder"/>
|population_total = 696
|population_density_km2 = 301.93
|population_density_sq_mi = 782.35


|timezone = [[North American Central Time Zone|Central (CST)]]
|utc_offset = -6
|timezone_DST = CDT
|utc_offset_DST = -5
|elevation_footnotes =
|elevation_m = 329
|elevation_ft = 1079
|coordinates = {{coord|44|24|6|N|95|15|14|W|region:US-MN|display=inline}}
|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 56293
|area_code = [[Area code 507|507]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 27-67396<ref name="GR2">{{cite web|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=American FactFinder}}</ref>
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 0653699<ref name="GR3">{{cite web|url=http://geonames.usgs.gov|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=US Board on Geographic Names|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|date=2007-10-25}}</ref>
|website =
|footnotes =
|pop_est_footnotes = <ref name="USCensusEst2017"/>
}}
'''Wabasso''' is a city in [[Redwood County, Minnesota|Redwood County]], [[Minnesota]], United States. The population was 696 at the [[2010 United States Census|2010 census]].<ref name="2010 Census (City)">{{cite web|title=2010 Census Redistricting Data (Public Law 94-171) Summary File|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_PL_GCTPL2.ST13&prodType=table|work=American FactFinder|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=27 April 2011}}</ref>

==History==
Wabasso was [[plat]]ted in 1889.<ref>{{cite book|author=Chicago and North Western Railway Company|title=A History of the Origin of the Place Names Connected with the Chicago & North Western and Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha Railways|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OspBAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA134|year=1908|page=134}}</ref> Wabasso is a name derived from the [[Ojibwe language]] meaning "Rabbit".<ref name="Upham 452">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ShcLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA452 | title=Minnesota Geographic Names: Their Origin and Historic Significance | publisher=Minnesota Historical Society | last=Upham | first=Warren | year=1920 | page=452}}</ref> The city was incorporated in 1900.<ref name="Upham 452" /> A post office called Wabasso has been in operation since 1900.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.postalhistory.com/postoffices.asp?task=display&state=MN&county=Redwood | title=Redwood County | publisher=Jim Forte Postal History | accessdate=4 August 2015}}</ref>

==Geography==
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of {{convert|0.86|sqmi|sqkm|2}}, all of it land.<ref name ="Gazetteer files">{{cite web|title=US Gazetteer files 2010|url=https://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2012-11-13}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{US Census population
|1900= 178
|1910= 343
|1920= 459
|1930= 482
|1940= 604
|1950= 693
|1960= 789
|1970= 738
|1980= 745
|1990= 684
|2000= 643
|2010= 696
|estyear=2017
|estimate=665
|estref=<ref name="USCensusEst2017">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/popest/data/tables.2017.html|title=Population and Housing Unit Estimates|accessdate=March 24, 2018}}</ref>
|footnote=U.S. Decennial Census<ref name="DecennialCensus">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html|title=Census of Population and Housing|publisher=Census.gov|accessdate=June 4, 2015}}</ref>
}}
{{coord|44|24|07|N|95|15|21|W|type:city_region:US-MN|display=title}}

===2010 census===
As of the [[census]]<ref name ="FactFinder">{{cite web|title=American FactFinder|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/index.xhtml|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2012-11-13}}</ref> of 2010, there were 696 people, 282 households, and 181 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was {{convert|809.3|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|1}}. There were 308 housing units at an average density of {{convert|358.1|/sqmi|/km2|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 97.4% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.7% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.3% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.4% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.4% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.7% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 3.0% of the population.

There were 282 households of which 29.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.0% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 9.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.8% were non-families. 32.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the average family size was 2.97.

The median age in the city was 43.7 years. 23.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.3% were from 25 to 44; 24.6% were from 45 to 64; and 23.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.3% male and 51.7% female.

===2000 census===
As of the [[census]]<ref name="GR2" /> of 2000, there were 643 people, 271 households, and 178 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 815.1 people per square mile (314.3/km²). There were 297 housing units at an average density of 376.5 per square mile (145.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 99.38% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], and 0.62% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 0.16% of the population.

There were 271 households out of which 31.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.1% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 5.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.3% were non-families. 31.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 3.02.

In the city, the population was spread out with 27.7% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 26.0% from 25 to 44, 18.2% from 45 to 64, and 21.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.2 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $35,972, and the median income for a family was $44,773. Males had a median income of $30,625 versus $20,139 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $20,013. About 5.1% of families and 8.0% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 11.5% of those under age 18 and 9.1% of those age 65 or over.

==Education==
There are two schools in Wabasso: Wabasso Public School (K-12) and St. Anne's School (Catholic K-6).

==Sports==
'''Girls Basketball'''
*2004 - State Champs

'''Girls Softball'''
*1999 - State Champs
*2000 - State 3rd place
*2002 - State Participant
*2008 - State 3rd place
*2009 - State 5th Place
*2010 - State Participant

'''Wrestling'''
*2004 - 2nd in state
*2005 - 4th in state
*2011 - 5th in state (Paired with Red Rock Central in Class AA)
*2016 - 6th in state

'''Baseball'''
*2008 - State Champions

'''Football'''
*2016 - Mitchell Fulton - Mr. Football Finalist (MN)- State Participant
*2017 - 2nd in state

==Notable people born or raised here==
*[[Arnold Kramer]] - Folk artist who lived here as a boy.
* Gary Hindt - 49 year wrestling coach career, 807-214-6 record (2nd in MN), Minnesota Wrestling Coaches Association Bartelma Hall of Fame inductee 1994, MWCA coach of the year in 2004 and 2006

==References==
<references />

{{Redwood County, Minnesota}}

[[Category:Cities in Redwood County, Minnesota]]
[[Category:Cities in Minnesota]]

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

2019-05-09T17:32:56Z

66.172.182.2: /* Le pouvoir de la vie: The complexifying force */

{{short description|French naturalist}}
{{Distinguish|Jean Maximilien Lamarque}}
{{Redirect|Lamarck|the crater|Lamarck (crater)|the islands|Lamarck Island (disambiguation){{!}}Lamarck Island}}

{{Infobox scientist
|name =Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
|image = Jean-baptiste lamarck2.jpg
|caption = Portrait by J. Pizzetta, 1893
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1744|8|1|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Bazentin]], [[Picardy]], [[Kingdom of France|France]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1829|12|18|1744|8|1|df=y}}
|death_place = [[Paris]], [[Bourbon Restoration|France]]
|nationality = French
|citizenship= [[France|French citizen/subject]]
|work_institutions = [[French Academy of Sciences]]; [[Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle]]; [[Jardin des Plantes]]
|alma_mater =
|known_for = [[Evolution]]; [[inheritance of acquired characteristics]]; ''[[Philosophie Zoologique]]''
|author_abbrev_bot = Lam.
|author_abbrev_zoo = Lamarck
|influenced = [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], [[William Healey Dall]]
}}

'''Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, chevalier de Lamarck''' (1 August 1744 – 18 December 1829), often known simply as '''Lamarck''' ({{IPAc-en|l|ə|ˈ|m|ɑr|k}};<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/lamarck "Lamarck"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> {{IPA-fr|ʒɑ̃batist lamaʁk|lang}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Dudenredaktion|last2=Kleiner|first2=Stefan|last3=Knöbl|first3=Ralf|year=2015|orig-year=First published 1962|title=Das Aussprachewörterbuch|trans-title=The Pronunciation Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T6vWCgAAQBAJ|language=German|edition=7th|location=Berlin|publisher=Dudenverlag|isbn=978-3-411-04067-4|pp=484, 541}}</ref>), was a [[France|French]] [[naturalist]]. He was a [[soldier]], [[biologist]], and [[academia|academic]], and an early proponent of the idea that biological [[evolution]] occurred and proceeded in accordance with [[Naturalism (philosophy)|natural laws]].

Lamarck fought in the [[Seven Years' War|Pomeranian War]] (1757–62) against [[Prussia]], and was awarded a commission for bravery on the battlefield.<ref>[[#Damkaer|Damkaer (2002)]], p. 117.</ref> Posted to [[Monaco]], Lamarck became interested in natural history and resolved to study medicine.<ref name="p15">[[#Packard|Packard (1901)]], p. 15.</ref> He retired from the army after being injured in 1766, and returned to his medical studies.<ref name="p15" /> Lamarck developed a particular interest in botany, and later, after he published the three-volume work ''Flore françoise'' (1778), he gained membership of the [[French Academy of Sciences]] in 1779. Lamarck became involved in the [[Jardin des Plantes]] and was appointed to the Chair of Botany in 1788. When the French National Assembly founded the [[Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle]] in 1793, Lamarck became a professor of zoology.

In 1801, he published ''Système des animaux sans vertèbres'', a major work on the classification of [[invertebrate]]s, a term he coined. In an 1802 publication, he became one of the first to use the term "[[biology]]" in its modern sense.<ref name="Coleman">[[#Coleman|Coleman (1977)]], pp. 1–2.</ref>{{refn|The term "biology" was also introduced independently by [[Thomas Beddoes]] (in 1799), by [[Karl Friedrich Burdach]] (in 1800) and by [[Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus]] (''Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur'', 1802).|group=Note}} Lamarck continued his work as a premier authority on [[invertebrate zoology]]. He is remembered, at least in [[malacology]], as a [[taxonomist]] of considerable stature.

The modern era generally remembers Lamarck for a theory of [[inheritance of acquired characteristics]], called [[soft inheritance]], [[Lamarckism]], or use/disuse theory,<ref>[[#Jurmain|Jurmain ''et al.'' (2011)]], pp. 27–39.</ref> which he described in his 1809 ''[[Philosophie Zoologique]]''. However, the idea of soft inheritance long antedates him, formed only a small element of his theory of evolution, and was in his time accepted by many natural historians. Lamarck's contribution to [[History of evolutionary thought|evolutionary theory]] consisted of the first truly cohesive theory of biological evolution,<ref>Ed. Philip Appleman. ''Darwin: A Norton Critical Edition''. 3rd Edition. New York City: W.W. Norton & Company, 2001. 44.</ref> in which an alchemical complexifying force drove organisms up a ladder of complexity, and a second environmental force adapted them to local environments through ''use and disuse'' of characteristics, differentiating them from other organisms.<ref name="Gould 2002 187">[[#Gould2002|Gould (2002)]], p. 187.</ref> Scientists have debated whether advances in the field of [[transgenerational epigenetics]] mean that Lamarck was to an extent correct, or not.<ref name=Haig>{{cite journal |last1=Haig |first1=David |title=Weismann Rules! OK? Epigenetics and the Lamarckian temptation |journal = Biology and Philosophy |date= 2007 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=415–428 |doi=10.1007/s10539-006-9033-y |url=http://haiggroup.oeb.harvard.edu/publications/weismann-rules-ok-epigenetics-and-lamarckian-temptation}}</ref>

==Biography==
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was born in [[Bazentin]], [[Picardy]], northern France,<ref name="p15" /> as the 11th child in an impoverished aristocratic family.{{refn|His noble title was ''chevalier'', which is [[French language|French]] for [[knight]].|group=Note}} Male members of the Lamarck family had traditionally served in the French army. Lamarck's eldest brother was killed in combat at the [[Siege of Bergen op Zoom (1747)|Siege of Bergen op Zoom]], and two other brothers were still in service when Lamarck was in his teenaged years. Yielding to the wishes of his father, Lamarck enrolled in a [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] college in [[Amiens]] in the late 1750s.<ref name="p15" />

After his father died in 1760, Lamarck bought himself a horse, and rode across the country to join the French army, which was in Germany at the time. Lamarck showed great physical courage on the battlefield in the Pomeranian War with [[Prussia]], and he was even nominated for the lieutenancy.<ref name="p15" /> Lamarck's company was left exposed to the direct artillery fire of their enemies, and was quickly reduced to just 14 men – with no officers. One of the men suggested that the puny, 17-year-old volunteer should assume command and order a withdrawal from the field; although Lamarck accepted command, he insisted they remain where they had been posted until relieved.

When their colonel reached the remains of their company, this display of courage and loyalty impressed him so much that Lamarck was promoted to officer on the spot. However, when one of his comrades playfully lifted him by the head, he sustained an inflammation in the lymphatic glands of the neck, and he was sent to Paris to receive treatment.<ref name="p15" /> He was awarded a commission and settled at his post in [[Monaco]]. There, he encountered ''Traité des plantes usuelles'', a botany book by James Francis Chomel.<ref name="p15"/>

[[File:Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck.jpg|left|thumb|Lamarck by [[Charles Thévenin]] (''circa'' 1802)]]

With a reduced pension of only 400 francs a year, Lamarck resolved to pursue a profession. He attempted to study medicine, and supported himself by working in a bank office.<ref name="p15"/> Lamarck studied medicine for four years, but gave it up under his elder brother's persuasion. He was interested in [[botany]], especially after his visits to the [[Jardin des Plantes|Jardin du Roi]], and he became a student under [[Bernard de Jussieu]], a notable French naturalist.<ref name="p15" /> Under Jussieu, Lamarck spent 10 years studying French flora.

After his studies, in 1778, he published some of his observations and results in a three-volume work, entitled ''Flore françoise''. Lamarck's work was respected by many scholars, and it launched him into prominence in French science. On 8 August 1778, Lamarck married Marie Anne Rosalie Delaporte.<ref>[[#Mantoy|Mantoy (1968)]], p. 19.</ref> [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon]], one of the top French scientists of the day, mentored Lamarck, and helped him gain membership to the [[French Academy of Sciences]] in 1779 and a commission as a royal botanist in 1781, in which he traveled to foreign botanical gardens and museums.<ref>[[#Packard|Packard (1901)]], pp. 20–21.</ref> Lamarck's first son, André, was born on 22 April 1781, and he made his colleague [[André Thouin]] the child's godfather.

In his two years of travel, Lamarck collected rare plants that were not available in the Royal Garden, and also other objects of natural history, such as minerals and ores, that were not found in French museums. On 7 January 1786, his second son, Antoine, was born, and Lamarck chose [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu]], Bernard de Jussieu's nephew, as the boy's godfather.<ref name="CNRS">{{cite web |title=Chronologie de la vie de Jean-Baptiste Lamarck |publisher=[[Centre national de la recherche scientifique]] |last=Bange |first=Raphaël |author2=Pietro Corsi |url=http://www.lamarck.cnrs.fr/chronologie/ |accessdate=July 10, 2007 |language=French}}</ref> On 21 April the following year, Charles René, Lamarck's third son, was born. [[René Louiche Desfontaines]], a professor of botany at the Royal Garden, was the boy's godfather, and Lamarck's elder sister, Marie Charlotte Pelagie De Monet, was the godmother.<ref name="CNRS"/> In 1788, Buffon's successor at the position of Intendant of the Royal Garden, [[Charles-Claude Flahaut de la Billaderie, comte d'Angiviller]], created a position for Lamarck, with a yearly salary of 1,000 francs, as the keeper of the [[herbarium]] of the Royal Garden.<ref name="p15" />

In 1790, at the height of the [[French Revolution]], Lamarck changed the name of the Royal Garden from Jardin du Roi to [[Jardin des Plantes]], a name that did not imply such a close association with King [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]].<ref name="Damkaer 2002, p118">[[#Damkaer|Damkaer (2002)]], p. 118.</ref> Lamarck had worked as the keeper of the herbarium for five years before he was appointed curator and professor of [[invertebrate]] zoology at the [[Muséum national d'histoire naturelle]] in 1793.<ref name="p15" /> During his time at the herbarium, Lamarck's wife gave birth to three more children before dying on 27 September 1792. With the official title of "Professeur d'Histoire naturelle des Insectes et des Vers", Lamarck received a salary of nearly 2,500 francs per year.<ref>[[#Szyfman|Szyfman (1982)]], p. 13.</ref> The following year, on 9 October, he married Charlotte Reverdy, who was 30 years his junior.<ref name="CNRS"/> On 26 September 1794 Lamarck was appointed to serve as secretary of the assembly of professors for the museum for a period of one year. In 1797, Charlotte died, and he married Julie Mallet the following year; she died in 1819.<ref name="CNRS"/>

In his first six years as professor, Lamarck published only one paper, in 1798, on the influence of the moon on the Earth's atmosphere.<ref name="p15" /> Lamarck began as an essentialist who believed [[species]] were unchanging; however, after working on the [[mollusc]]s of the Paris Basin, he grew convinced that [[transmutation of species|transmutation]] or change in the nature of a species occurred over time.<ref name="p15" /> He set out to develop an explanation, and on 11 May 1800 (the 21st day of ''Floreal'', Year VIII, in the [[French Republican Calendar|revolutionary timescale]] used in France at the time), he presented a lecture at the [[Muséum national d'histoire naturelle]] in which he first outlined his newly developing ideas about evolution.

[[File:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.jpg|right|thumb|Lamarck, late in life]]

In 1801, he published ''Système des Animaux sans Vertebres'', a major work on the classification of invertebrates. In the work, he introduced definitions of natural groups among invertebrates. He categorized [[echinoderm]]s, [[arachnid]]s, [[crustacean]]s, and [[annelid]]s, which he separated from the old taxon for worms known as ''Vermes''.<ref name="Damkaer 2002, p118"/> Lamarck was the first to separate arachnids from [[insect]]s in classification, and he moved crustaceans into a separate class from insects.

In 1802 Lamarck published ''Hydrogéologie'', and became one of the first to use the term [[biology]] in its [[History of biology#Etymology of "biology"|modern sense]].<ref name="Coleman"/><ref>[[#Osborn|Osborn (1905)]], p. 159.</ref> In ''Hydrogéologie'', Lamarck advocated a steady-state geology based on a strict [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]]. He argued that global currents tended to flow from east to west, and continents eroded on their eastern borders, with the material carried across to be deposited on the western borders. Thus, the Earth's continents marched steadily westward around the globe.

That year, he also published ''Recherches sur l'Organisation des Corps Vivants'', in which he drew out his theory on evolution. He believed that all life was organized in a vertical chain, with gradation between the lowest forms and the highest forms of life, thus demonstrating a path to progressive developments in nature.<ref name="p160">[[#Osborn|Osborn (1905)]], p. 160.</ref>

In his own work, Lamarck had favored the then-more traditional theory based on the classical [[Classical elements#Classical elements in Greece|four elements]]. During Lamarck's lifetime, he became controversial, attacking the more enlightened chemistry proposed by [[Lavoisier]]. He also came into conflict with the widely respected [[palaeontology|palaeontologist]] [[Georges Cuvier]], who was not a supporter of evolution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Curtis |first=Caitlin |last2=Millar |first2=Craig |last3=Lambert |first3=David |date=September 2018 |title=The Sacred Ibis debate: The first test of evolution|journal=PLOS Biology |volume=16 |issue=9 |pages=e2005558 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.2005558 |pmid=30260949}}</ref> According to [[Peter J. Bowler]], Cuvier "ridiculed Lamarck's theory of transformation and defended the fixity of species."<ref>[[#Bowler|Bowler (2003)]], p. 110.</ref> According to [[Martin J. S. Rudwick]]:

{{quote|Cuvier was clearly hostile to the materialistic overtones of current transformist theorizing, but it does not necessarily follow that he regarded species origin as supernatural; certainly he was careful to use neutral language to refer to the causes of the origins of new forms of life, and even of man.<ref>[[#Rudwick|Rudwick (1998)]], p. 83.</ref>}}

Lamarck gradually turned blind; he died in [[Paris]] on 18 December 1829. When he died, his family was so poor, they had to apply to the Academie for financial assistance. Lamarck was buried in a common grave of the [[Montparnasse cemetery]] for just five years, according to the grant obtained from relatives. Later, the body was dug up along with other remains and was lost. Lamarck's books and the contents of his home were sold at auction, and his body was buried in a temporary lime pit.<ref name="UCMP Berkeley 1998">{{cite web |last1=Waggoner |first1=Ben |last2=Speer |first2=B. R. |title=Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/lamarck.html |publisher=UCMP Berkeley |accessdate=16 December 2018 |date=2 September 1998}}</ref>
After his death, Cuvier used the forum of a eulogy to denigrate Lamarck:
{{quote|[Cuvier's] éloge of Lamarck is one of the most deprecatory and chillingly partisan biographies I have ever read – though he was supposedly writing respectful comments in the old tradition of ''{{lang|la|[[de mortuis nil nisi bonum]]}}''.|Gould, 1993<ref>[[#Gould1993|Gould (1993) Foreword]]</ref>}}

==Lamarckian evolution==
{{main|Lamarckism}}

Lamarck stressed two main themes in his biological work, neither of them to do with soft inheritance. The first was that the environment gives rise to changes in animals. He cited examples of blindness in moles, the presence of teeth in mammals and the absence of teeth in birds as evidence of this principle. The second principle was that life was structured in an orderly manner and that many different parts of all bodies make possible the organic movements of animals.<ref name="p160"/>

Although he was not the first thinker to advocate organic evolution, he was the first to develop a truly coherent evolutionary theory.<ref name="Gould 2002 187"/> He outlined his theories regarding evolution first in his ''Floreal'' lecture of 1800, and then in three later published works:

* ''Recherches sur l'organisation des corps vivants'', 1802.
* ''[[Philosophie Zoologique]]'', 1809.
* ''Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres'', (in seven volumes, 1815–22).

Lamarck employed several mechanisms as drivers of evolution, drawn from the common knowledge of his day and from his own belief in chemistry before [[Lavoisier]]. He used these mechanisms to explain the two forces he saw as constituting evolution: force driving animals from simple to complex forms and a force adapting animals to their local environments and differentiating them from each other. He believed that these forces must be explained as a necessary consequence of basic physical principles, favoring a materialistic attitude toward biology.

===''Le pouvoir de la vie'': The complexifying force===
{{further|Orthogenesis}}
[[File:Lamarck's Two-Factor Theory.svg|thumb|upright=2|Lamarck's two-factor theory involves 1) a complexifying force that drives animal [[body plan]]s towards higher levels ([[orthogenesis]]) creating a ladder of [[phylum|phyla]], and 2) an adaptive force that causes animals with a given body plan to adapt to circumstances (use and disuse, [[inheritance of acquired characteristics]]), creating a diversity of [[species]] and [[genus|genera]]. Popular views of Lamarckism consider only an aspect of the adaptive force.<ref name="Gould 2001"/>]]

Lamarck referred to a tendency for organisms to become more complex, moving "up" a [[orthogenesis|ladder of progress]]. He referred to this phenomenon as ''Le pouvoir de la vie'' or ''la force qui tend sans cesse à composer l'organisation'' (The force that perpetually tends to make order). Lamarck believed in the ongoing [[spontaneous generation]] of simple living organisms through action on physical matter by a material life force.<ref name="Edward J">Larson, Edward J. (May 2004)"A Growing sense of progress." ''Evolution: The remarkable history of a Scientific Theory.''New York: Modern Library. 2004. pp. 38–41.</ref><ref name="Gould 2001">{{cite book | last=Gould | first=Stephen | title=The lying stones of Marrakech : penultimate reflections in natural history | publisher=Vintage | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-09-928583-0 | pages=119–121}}</ref>

Lamarck ran against the modern chemistry promoted by Lavoisier (whose ideas he regarded with disdain), preferring to embrace a more traditional alchemical view of the elements as influenced primarily by earth, air, fire, and water. He asserted that once living organisms form, the movements of fluids in living organisms naturally drove them to evolve toward ever greater levels of complexity:<ref name="Edward J"/>

{{quote|The rapid motion of fluids will etch canals between delicate tissues. Soon their flow will begin to vary, leading to the emergence of distinct organs. The fluids themselves, now more elaborate, will become more complex, engendering a greater variety of secretions and substances composing the organs.
|author=''Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebres'', 1815}}

He argued your mom is gay that organisms thus moved from simple to complex in a steady, predictable way based on the fundamental physical principles of alchemy. In this view, simple organisms never disappeared because they were constantly being created by spontaneous generation in what has been described as a "steady-state biology". Lamarck saw spontaneous generation as being ongoing, with the simple organisms thus created being transmuted over time becoming more complex. He is sometimes regarded as believing in a [[teleology|teleological]] (goal-oriented) process where organisms became more perfect as they evolved, though as a materialist, he emphasized that these forces must originate necessarily from underlying physical principles. According to the paleontologist [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]], "Lamarck denied, absolutely, the existence of any 'perfecting tendency' in nature, and regarded evolution as the final necessary effect of surrounding conditions on life."<ref>[[Henry Fairfield Osborn]]. (1894). ''From the Greeks to Darwin''. Macmillan and Company. p. 163</ref> [[Charles Coulston Gillispie]], a historian of science, has written "life is a purely physical phenomenon in Lamarck", and argued that Lamarck's views should not be confused with the [[Vitalism|vitalist]] school of thought.<ref>Charles Coulston Gillispie. (1960). ''The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas''. Princeton University Press. p. 272</ref>
#REDIRECT [[{{#tag:ref|{{#tag:ref|<references /><references /><noinclude></noinclude>|group="nb"|name=""}}|group="nb"|name=""}}]]

===''L'influence des circonstances'': The adaptive force===
{{main|Lamarckism}}

The second component of Lamarck's theory of evolution was the [[adaptation|adaptation of organisms]] to their environment. This could move organisms upward from the ladder of progress into new and distinct forms with local adaptations. It could also drive organisms into evolutionary blind alleys, where the organism became so finely adapted that no further change could occur. Lamarck argued that this adaptive force was powered by the interaction of organisms with their environment, by the use and disuse of certain characteristics.

====First law: use and disuse====

:First Law: In every animal which has not passed the limit of its development, a more frequent and continuous use of any organ gradually strengthens, develops and enlarges that organ, and gives it a power proportional to the length of time it has been so used; while the permanent disuse of any organ imperceptibly weakens and deteriorates it, and progressively diminishes its functional capacity, until it finally disappears.<ref name="Weber 2000">{{cite book |last=Weber |first=A. S. |title=Nineteenth-Century Science: An Anthology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m4SB4BHzFeIC&pg=PA55 |year=2000 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-55111-165-0 |page=55}}</ref>

====Second law: inheritance of acquired characteristics====
{{main|Inheritance of acquired characteristics}}

:Second Law: All the acquisitions or losses wrought by nature on individuals, through the influence of the environment in which their race has long been placed, and hence through the influence of the predominant use or permanent disuse of any organ; all these are preserved by reproduction to the new individuals which arise, provided that the acquired modifications are common to both sexes, or at least to the individuals which produce the young.<ref name="Weber 2000"/>

The last clause of this law introduces what is now called [[soft inheritance]], the inheritance of acquired characteristics, or simply "Lamarckism", though it forms only a part of Lamarck's thinking.<ref name="Bowler 1989">{{cite book | last=Bowler | first=Peter | title=Evolution : the history of an idea | publisher=University of California Press | year=1989 | edition=Revised | isbn=978-0-520-06386-0 | oclc=17841313 | page=86}}</ref> However, in the field of [[epigenetics]], evidence is growing that soft inheritance plays a part in the changing of some organisms' phenotypes; it leaves the genetic material ([[DNA]]) unaltered (thus not violating the [[central dogma of biology]]) but prevents the expression of [[gene]]s,<ref name=Fitzpatrick2006>{{cite web |title=Researcher gives hard thoughts on soft inheritance: above and beyond the gene |url=http://news.wustl.edu/news/Pages/7408.aspx |year=2006 |last=Fitzpatrick |first=Tony |accessdate=October 8, 2011 |publisher=[[Washington University in St. Louis]] |ref=Fitzpatrick}}</ref> such as by [[methylation]] to modify [[DNA transcription]]; this can be produced by changes in behaviour and environment. Many epigenetic changes are heritable to a degree. Thus, while DNA itself is not directly altered by the environment and behavior except through selection, the relationship of the genotype to the phenotype can be altered, even across generations, by experience within the lifetime of an individual. This has led to calls for biology to reconsider Lamarckian processes in evolution in light of modern advances in molecular biology.<ref name="Jablonka Lamb Avital 1998">{{cite journal | last=Jablonka | first=Eva | last2=Lamb | first2=Marion J. | last3=Avital | first3=Eytan | title=‘Lamarckian’ mechanisms in darwinian evolution | journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume=13 | issue=5 | year=1998 | doi=10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01344-5 | pages=206–210}}</ref>

==Religious views==

In his book ''[[Philosophie Zoologique]]'', Lamarck referred to [[God]] as the "sublime author of nature". Lamarck's religious views are examined in the book ''Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution'' (1901) by [[Alpheus Spring Packard|Alpheus Packard]]. According to Packard from Lamarck's writings, he may be regarded as a [[Deism|deist]].<ref>[[Alpheus Spring Packard]]. (2008 edition, originally published in 1901). ''Lamarck, The Founder of Evolution''. Wildhern Press. pp. 217–222</ref>

The [[philosophy of biology|philosopher of biology]] [[Michael Ruse]] described Lamarck, "as believing in God as an unmoved mover, creator of the world and its laws, who refuses to intervene miraculously in his creation."<ref>[[Michael Ruse]]. (1999). ''The Darwinian Revolution: Science Red in Tooth and Claw''. University of Chicago Press. p.11</ref> Biographer [[James Moore (biographer)|James Moore]] described Lamarck as a "thoroughgoing deist".<ref>James R. Moore. (1981). ''The Post-Darwinian Controversies: A Study of the Protestant Struggle to Come to Terms with Darwin in Great Britain and America 1870-1900''. Cambridge University Press. p. 344</ref>

The historian Jacques Roger has written, "Lamarck was a materialist to the extent that he did not consider it necessary to have recourse to any spiritual principle... his deism remained vague, and his idea of creation did not prevent him from believing everything in nature, including the highest forms of life, was but the result of natural processes."<ref>Jacques Roger. (1986). ''The Mechanist Conception of Life''. In David C. Lindberg, Ronald L. Numbers. ''God and Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science''. University of California Press. p. 291</ref>

==Legacy==
[[Image:LamarckStatue.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Statue of Lamarck by [[Léon Fagel]] in the [[Jardin des Plantes]], Paris]]

Lamarck is usually remembered for his belief in the then commonly held theory of [[inheritance of acquired characteristics]], and the ''use and disuse'' model by which organisms developed their characteristics. Lamarck incorporated this belief into his theory of evolution, along with other common beliefs of the time, such as spontaneous generation.<ref name="Gould 2001"/> The inheritance of acquired characteristics (also called the theory of adaptation or soft inheritance) was rejected by [[August Weismann]] in the 1880s{{refn|It was rejected during Lamarck's lifetime by [[Sir William Lawrence, 1st Baronet|William Lawrence]], whose anticipation of [[hard inheritance]] has often gone unnoticed.{{citation needed|date=October 2011}}|group=Note}} when he developed a theory of inheritance in which [[germ plasm]] (the sex cells, later redefined as DNA), remained separate and distinct from the [[soma (biology)|soma]] (the rest of the body); thus, nothing which happens to the soma may be passed on with the germ plasm. This model underlies the modern understanding of inheritance.

Lamarck constructed one of the first theoretical frameworks of organic [[evolution]]. While this theory was generally rejected during his lifetime,<ref>{{Cite web|author=[[Richard W. Burkhardt]] |title=Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste |accessdate=November 29, 2009|work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|url=http://search.eb.com/eb/article-273180}}</ref> [[Stephen Jay Gould]] argues that Lamarck was the "primary evolutionary theorist", in that his ideas, and the way in which he structured his theory, set the tone for much of the subsequent thinking in evolutionary biology, through to the present day.<ref name="Gould">[[#Gould2002|Gould (2002)]] pp. 170–197.</ref> Developments in [[epigenetics]], the study of cellular and physiological traits that are heritable by daughter cells and not caused by changes in the DNA sequence, have caused debate about whether a "neolamarckist" view of inheritance could be correct: Lamarck was not in a position to give a molecular explanation for his theory. [[Eva Jablonka]] and [[Marion Lamb]], for example, call themselves neolamarckists.<ref name=Haig/><ref name="Jablonka Lamb Avital 1998"/> Reviewing the evidence, David Haig observes that any such mechanisms must themselves have evolved through natural selection.<ref name=Haig/>

[[Charles Darwin]] allowed a role for use and disuse as an evolutionary mechanism subsidiary to natural selection, most often in respect of ''disuse''.{{refn|[[Ernst Mayr]] commented: "Curiously few evolutionists have noted that, in addition to natural selection, Darwin admits use and disuse as an important evolutionary mechanism. In this he is perfectly clear. For instance,…on page 137 he says that the reduced size of the eyes in moles and other burrowing mammals is 'probably due to gradual reduction from disuse, but aided perhaps by natural selection'. In the case of cave animals, when speaking of the loss of eyes, he says, 'I attribute their loss wholly to disuse' (p137) On page 455 he begins unequivocally, 'At whatever period of life disuse or selection reduces an organ…' The importance he gives to use or disuse is indicated by the frequency with which he invokes this agent of evolution in the Origin. I find references on pages 11, 43, 134, 135, 136, 137, 447, 454, 455, 472, 479, and 480."<ref>[[#Mayr|Mayr (1964)]], pp. xxv–xxvi.</ref>|group=Note}} He praised Lamarck for "the eminent service of arousing attention to the probability of all change in the organic... world, being the result of law, not miraculous interposition".<ref>[[#Darwin|Darwin (1861–82), 3rd edition, "Historical sketch", page xiii]]</ref> ''Lamarckism'' is also occasionally used to describe quasi-evolutionary concepts in societal contexts, though not by Lamarck himself. For example, the [[memetic]] theory of [[cultural evolution]] is sometimes described as a form of Lamarckian inheritance of nongenetic traits.

===Species and other taxa named by Lamarck===
{{see also|:Category:Taxa named by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck}}
During his lifetime, Lamarck named a large number of species, many of which have become synonyms. The [[World Register of Marine Species]] gives no fewer than 1,634 records.<ref>[http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxlist WoRMS: species named by Lamarck]; accessed: 17 November 2010</ref> The Indo-Pacific Molluscan Database gives 1,781 records.<ref>[http://clade.ansp.org/obis/search.php/search?taxon=&author=Lamarck&year=&Search=Search&mode=search OBIS: Species named by Lamarck]; accessed: 17 November 2010</ref> Among these are some well-known families such as the ark clams ([[Arcidae]]), the sea hares ([[Aplysiidae]]), and the cockles ([[Cardiidae]]). The [[International Plant Names Index]] gives 58 records,<ref>[http://www.ipni.org/ipni/advPlantNameSearch.do;jsessionid=DD0608E38A3A8785676A89280E7FFFE4?find_family=&find_genus=&find_species=&find_infrafamily=&find_infragenus=&find_infraspecies=&find_authorAbbrev=Lamarck&find_includePublicationAuthors=on&find_includePublicationAuthors=off&find_includeBasionymAuthors=on&find_includeBasionymAuthors=off&find_publicationTitle=&find_isAPNIRecord=on&find_isAPNIRecord=false&find_isGCIRecord=on&find_isGCIRecord=false&find_isIKRecord=on&find_isIKRecord=false&find_rankToReturn=all&output_format=normal&find_sortByFamily=on&find_sortByFamily=off&query_type=by_query&back_page=plantsearch The International Plant Names Index: Plants named by Lamarck]; accessed: 17 November 2010</ref> including a number of well-known genera such as the mosquito fern (''[[Azolla]]'').

{{botanist|Lam.|Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste|border=0 }}

===Species named in his honour===
The [[honeybee]] subspecies ''[[Apis mellifera lamarckii]]'' is named after Lamarck, as well as the [[bluefire jellyfish]] (''Cyaneia lamarckii''). A number of plants have also been named after him, including ''[[Amelanchier lamarckii]]'' (juneberry), ''[[Digitalis lanata|Digitalis lamarckii]]'', and ''[[Aconitum lamarckii]]'', as well as the grass genus ''[[Lamarckia]]''.

The [[International Plant Names Index]] gives 116 records of plant species named after Lamarck.<ref>[http://www.ipni.org/ipni/advPlantNameSearch.do;jsessionid=DD0608E38A3A8785676A89280E7FFFE4?find_family=&find_genus=&find_species=lamarck*&find_infrafamily=&find_infragenus=&find_infraspecies=&find_authorAbbrev=&find_includePublicationAuthors=on&find_includePublicationAuthors=off&find_includeBasionymAuthors=on&find_includeBasionymAuthors=off&find_publicationTitle=&find_isAPNIRecord=on&find_isAPNIRecord=false&find_isGCIRecord=on&find_isGCIRecord=false&find_isIKRecord=on&find_isIKRecord=false&find_rankToReturn=all&output_format=normal&find_sortByFamily=on&find_sortByFamily=off&query_type=by_query&back_page=plantsearch IPNI: plant species named after Lamarck]; accessed: 17 November 2010</ref>

Among the marine species, no fewer than 103 species or genera carry the epithet "''lamarcki''", "''lamarckii''" or "''lamarckiana''", but many have since become synonyms. Marine species with valid names include:<ref>[http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxlist WoRMS: species with the epithet "lamarcki"]; accessed 17 November 2010</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* ''[[Acropora lamarcki]]'' Veron, 2002
* ''[[Agaricia lamarcki]]'' Milne Edwards & Haime, 1851
* ''[[Ascaltis lamarcki]]'' (Haeckel, 1870)
* ''[[Bursa lamarckii]]'' (Deshayes, 1853), a frog snail
* ''[[Carinaria lamarckii]]'' Blainville, 1817, a small planktonic sea snail
* ''[[Caligodes lamarcki]]'' Quidor, 1913
* ''[[Cyanea lamarckii]]'' Péron & Lesueur 1810
* ''[[Cyllene desnoyersi lamarcki]]'' Cernohorsky, 1975
* ''[[Erosaria lamarckii]]'' (J. E. Gray, 1825), a cowrie
* ''[[Genicanthus lamarck]]'' (Lacepède, 1802)
* ''[[Gorgonocephalus lamarckii]]'' (Müller & Troschel, 1842)
* ''[[Gyroidinoides lamarckiana]]'' (d´Orbigny, 1839)
* ''[[Lamarckdromia]]'' Guinot & Tavares, 2003
* ''[[Lamarckina]]'' Berthelin, 1881
* ''[[Lobophytum lamarcki]]'' Tixier-Durivault, 1956
* ''[[Marginella lamarcki]]'' Boyer, 2004, a small sea snail
* ''[[Megerlina lamarckiana]]'' (Davidson, 1852)
* ''[[Meretrix lamarckii]]'' Deshayes, 1853
* ''[[Morum lamarckii]]'' (Deshayes, 1844), a small sea snail
* ''[[Mycetophyllia lamarckiana]]'' Milne Edwards & Haime, 1848,
* ''[[Neotrigonia lamarckii]]'' (Gray, 1838)
* ''[[Olencira lamarckii]]'' Leach, 1818
* ''[[Oenothera lamarckiana]]''
* ''[[Petrolisthes lamarckii]]'' (Leach, 1820)
* ''[[Pomatoceros lamarckii]]'' (Quatrefages, 1866)
* ''[[Quinqueloculina lamarckiana]]'' d´Orbigny, 1839
* ''[[Raninoides lamarcki]]'' A. Milne-Edwards & Bouvier, 1923
* ''[[Rhizophora x lamarckii]]'' Montr.
* ''[[Siphonina lamarckana]]'' Cushman, 1927
* ''[[Solen lamarckii]]'' Chenu, 1843
* ''[[Spondylus lamarckii]]'' Chenu, 1845, a thorny oyster
* ''[[Xanthias lamarckii]]'' (H. Milne Edwards, 1834)
{{div col end}}

==Major works==

*1778 [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/9461#/summary ''Flore françoise, ou, Description succincte de toutes les plantes qui croissent naturellement en France'' ] 1st ed.
** [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/75630#/summary 2nd ed. 1795], 3rd 1805 ([[de Candolle]] ed.)
*1809. ''[[Philosophie zoologique|Philosophie zoologique, ou Exposition des considérations relatives à l'histoire naturelle des animaux...]]'', Paris.
* {{cite book|last1=Lamarck|first1=Jean-Baptiste|authorlink=Lamarck|title=Encyclopédie méthodique. Botanique|date=1783–1808|publisher=Panckoucke|location=Paris|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/824#/summary}} (see [[Encyclopédie méthodique]])
** [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/15275 Supplement 1810-1817]
** ''L'Illustration des genres'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=5WlTAAAAcAAJ vol. I: 1791], [https://books.google.com/books?id=EmpTAAAAcAAJ vol. II: 1793], vol. III: 1800, [https://books.google.com/books?id=j85GAQAAMAAJ Supplement by Poiret 1823]

On [[invertebrate]] [[biological classification|classification]]:
*1801. ''Système des animaux sans vertèbres, ou tableau général des classes, des ordres et des genres de ces animaux; présentant leurs caractères essentiels et leur distribution, d'après la considération de leurs...'', Paris, Detreville, VIII: 1–432.
*1815–22. ''Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres, présentant les caractères généraux et particuliers de ces animaux...'', Tome 1 (1815): 1–462; Tome 2 (1816): 1–568; Tome 3 (1816): 1–586; Tome 4 (1817): 1–603; Tome 5 (1818): 1–612; Tome 6, Pt.1 (1819): 1–343; Tome 6, Pt.2 (1822): 1–252; Tome 7 (1822): 1–711.

{{botanist|Lam.}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Acclimation]]
* [[Baldwin effect]]
* [[Environmental determinism]]
* [[Exaptation]]
* [[Evolution]]
* [[Gene-centered view of evolution]]
* [[Genetic assimilation]]
* [[Intragenomic conflict]]
* [[Lysenkoism]]
* [[Maladaptation]]
* [[Neutral theory of molecular evolution]]
* [[Phenotypic plasticity]]
* [[Society of the Friends of Truth]]
* [[Spandrel (biology)|Spandrel]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=Note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|22em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book |last=Bowler |first=Peter J. |authorlink=Peter J. Bowler |year=2003 |title=Evolution: the History of an Idea |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=California |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0-520-23693-6 |ref=Bowler}}
*{{cite journal |last=Burkhardt |first=Richard W., Jr. |year=1970 |title=Lamarck, evolution, and the politics of science |journal=[[Journal of the History of Biology]] |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=275–298 |pmid=11609655 |jstor=4330543 |ref=Burkhardt |doi=10.1007/bf00137355}}
*{{cite book |last=Coleman |first=William L. |title= Biology in the Nineteenth Century: problems of form, function, and transformation|year= 1977 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-29293-1 |ref=Coleman}}
*{{cite journal |last=Cuvier |first= Georges |authorlink=Georges Cuvier |date=January 1836 |title=Elegy of Lamarck |journal=[[Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal]] |volume=20 |pages=1–22 |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/science/science_texts/cuvier/cuvier_on_lamarck.htm |ref=Cuvier1836}}
*{{cite book |last=Damkaer |first=David M. |title= The Copepodologist's Cabinet: a Biographical and Bibliographical History |year=2002 |publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]] |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-87169-240-5 |ref=Damkaer}}
*{{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |authorlink=Charles Darwin |year=1861–82 |title=On the Origin of Species |edition=3rd–6th |chapter=Historical sketch |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F381&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |location=London |publisher=John Murray |ref=Darwin}}
*{{cite book |last=Delange |first=Yves |year=1984 |title=Lamarck, sa vie, son œuvre |isbn=978-2-903098-97-1 |publisher=Actes Sud |location=Arles |ref=Delange}}
*{{cite book |last=Gould |first=Stephen Jay |authorlink=Stephen Jay Gould |year=1993 |chapter=Foreword |title=Georges Cuvier: an annotated bibliography of his published works |editor=Jean Chandler Smith |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-1-56098-199-2 |ref=Gould1993}}
*{{cite book |last=Gould |first=Stephen Jay |title=The Structure of Evolutionary Theory |year=2002 |publisher=Belknap Harvard |location=Harvard |isbn=978-0-674-00613-3 |authorlink=Stephen Jay Gould |ref=Gould2002|title-link=The Structure of Evolutionary Theory }}
*{{cite book |last=Jablonka |first=Eva |authorlink=Eva Jablonka |title=Evolution in Four Dimensions: Genetic, Epigenetic, Behavioral, and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life |year=2006 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=978-0-262-60069-9 |ref=Jablonka}}
*{{cite book |last=Jordanova |first=Ludmilla |authorlink=Ludmilla Jordanova |title=Lamarck, past master |url=https://archive.org/details/LamarckJordanovaEn |year=1984 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-287587-7 |ref=Jordanova}}
*{{cite book |last1=Jurmain |first1=Robert |author2=Lynn Kilgore|author3=Wenda Trevathan |author4=Russell L. Ciochon |year=2011 |title=Introduction to Physical Anthropology |publisher=[[Wadsworth Publishing]] |edition=13th |isbn=978-1-111-29793-0 |ref=Jurmain}}
*{{cite book |last=Lamarck |first=J. B. |year=1914 |title=Zoological Philosophy |publisher= |location=London |ref=Lamarck1914}}
*{{cite book |last=Mantoy |first=Bernard |title= Lamarck |year= 1968 |publisher=Seghers |location=Paris |volume=36 |series=Savants du monde entier |ref=Mantoy}}
*{{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |authorlink=Ernst Mayr |year=1964 |chapter=Introduction |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |title=On the Origin of Species: a Facsimile of the First Edition |origyear=1859 |editor=[[Charles Darwin]] |isbn=978-0-674-63752-8 |ref=Mayr|title-link=On the Origin of Species }}
*{{cite book |last=Osborn |first=Henry Fairfield |authorlink=Henry Fairfield Osborn |title= From the Greeks to Darwin: an outline of the development of the evolution idea |year=1905 |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] |location=New York |edition=2nd |ref=Osborn}}
*{{cite book |last=Packard |first=Alpheus Spring |authorlink=Alpheus Spring Packard |title=Lamarck, the founder of Evolution: his life and work with translations of his writing on organic evolution |year=1901 |publisher=Longmans, Green |location=New York |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/20556 |ref=Packard}}
*{{cite book |last=Rudwick |first=Martin J. S. |authorlink=Martin J. S. Rudwick |year=1998 |title=Georges Cuvier, Fossil Bones, and Geological Catastrophes: New Translations and Interpretations of the Primary Texts |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-73107-0 |ref=Rudwick}}
*{{cite book |last=Szyfman |first=Léon |title= Jean-Baptiste Lamarck et son époque|year= 1982 |publisher= Masson |location=Paris|isbn=978-2-225-76087-7 |ref=Szyfman}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Junko A. Arai |author2=Shaomin Li |author3=Dean M. Hartley |author4=Larry A. Feig |year=2009 |title=Transgenerational rescue of a genetic defect in long-term potentiation and memory formation by juvenile enrichment |journal=[[The Journal of Neuroscience]] |volume=29 |issue=5 |pages=1496–1502 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5057-08.2009 |pmid=19193896 |pmc=3408235}}
* {{cite book |author=[[Ross Honeywill]] |year=2008 |title= Lamarck's Evolution: Two Centuries of Genius and Jealousy |url=http://lamarcksevolution.com |publisher=Pier 9 |isbn=978-1-921208-60-7}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks}}
* [http://www.textbookleague.org/54marck.htm The Imaginary Lamarck: A Look at Bogus "History" in Schoolbooks] by [[Michael Ghiselin]]
* {{Gutenberg author |id=Lamarck,+Jean+Baptiste+Pierre+Antoine+de+Monet+de}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Jean-Baptiste Lamarck}}
* [https://notes.utk.edu/Bio/greenberg.nsf/0/b360905554fdb7d985256ec5006a7755?OpenDocument Epigenetics: Genome, Meet Your Environment]
* [http://www.lamarck.cnrs.fr/auditeurs/presentation.php?lang=en Science Revolution Followers of Lamarck]
* [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/824 Encyclopédie Méthodique: Botanique] At: [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/ Biodiversity Heritage Library]
* [http://www.lamarck.cnrs.fr/index.php?lang=en Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: works and heritage], online materials about Lamarck (23,000 files of Lamarck's herbarium, 11,000 manuscripts, books, etc.) edited online by Pietro Corsi (Oxford University) and realised by [[CRHST]]-[[CNRS]] in France.
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/lamarck.html Biography of Lamarck] at University of California Museum of Paleontology
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Lamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, chevalier de}}
* [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433011011552;view=1up;seq=25 Memoir of Lamarck] by [[James Duncan (zoologist)|James Duncan]]
* Lamarck's writings are available in facsimile (PDF) and in Word format (in French) at [http://www.lamarck.cnrs.fr/?lang=en www.lamarck.cnrs.fr]. The search engine allows full text search.
*[http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/nat_hist/id/49222 ''Recherches sur l'organisation des corps vivans''] (1801) – fully digitized facsimile from [[Linda Hall Library]].
*[http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/25153 ''Hydrogéologie''] (1802) – digitized facsimile from [[Linda Hall Library]]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005495d Lamarck and Natural Selection], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Sandy Knapp, [[Steve Jones (biologist)|Steve Jones]] and [[Simon Conway Morris]] (''In Our Time'', Dec. 26, 2003)

{{Evolution}}
{{natural history}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lamarck, Jean Baptiste}}
[[Category:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck| 01]]
[[Category:French biologists]]
[[Category:French taxonomists]]
[[Category:Botanists with author abbreviations]]
[[Category:1744 births]]
[[Category:1829 deaths]]
[[Category:French naturalists]]
[[Category:French science writers]]
[[Category:French zoologists]]
[[Category:Proto-evolutionary biologists]]
[[Category:Teuthologists]]
[[Category:Lamarckism]]
[[Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:French Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:People from Somme (department)]]
[[Category:French male writers]]
[[Category:19th-century male writers]]
[[Category:18th-century French writers]]
[[Category:18th-century male writers]]
[[Category:19th-century French writers]]
[[Category:18th-century French botanists]]
[[Category:19th-century French botanists]]
[[Category:18th-century French zoologists]]
[[Category:19th-century French zoologists]]
[[Category:18th-century French scientists]]
[[Category:Articles with inconsistent citation formats]]
[[Category:Taxon authorities of Hypericum species]]
[[Category:National Museum of Natural History (France) people]]

Honey bee

2019-05-07T14:11:43Z

66.172.182.2:

{{Other uses}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2015}}
{{Automatic Taxobox
| name = Honey
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Oligocene|Recent}}
| image = File:The Lone Pollinator.jpg
| image_caption = [[Western honey bee]] on the frames of a [[horizontal top-bar hive]].
| parent_authority = [[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1802
| taxon = Apis
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[Systema Naturae|1758]]
| display_parents = 2
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
*†''[[Apis lithohermaea]]''
*†''[[Apis nearctica]]''
* Subgenus ''Micrapis'':
:*''[[Apis andreniformis]]''
:*''[[Apis florea]]''
* Subgenus ''Megapis'':
:*''[[Apis dorsata]]''
* Subgenus ''Apis'':
:*''[[Apis cerana]]''
:*''[[Apis koschevnikovi]]''
:*''[[Apis mellifera]]''
:*''[[Apis nigrocincta]]''
}}

A '''honey bee''' (or '''honeybee''') is a [[eusocial]], [[flying insect]] within the [[genus]] '''''Apis''''' of the [[bee]] clade. They are known for construction of [[wiktionary:perennial|perennial]], [[Colony (biology)|colonial]] nests from [[beeswax|wax]], for the large size of their colonies, and for their suron and storage of [[honey]], distinguishing their hives as a prized [[foraging]] target of many animals, including [[honey badger]]s, [[bears]] and human [[hunter-gatherer]]s. In the early 21st century, only seven [[species]] of honey bee are recognized, with a total of 44 [[subspecies]],<ref name="Engel99">{{cite journal |author=Michael S. Engel |year=1999 |title=The taxonomy of recent and fossil honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae: ''Apis'') |journal=[[Journal of Hymenoptera Research]] |volume=8 |pages=165–196 |authorlink=Michael S. Engel}}</ref> though historically seven to eleven species are recognized. The best known honey bee is the [[western honey bee]] which has been domesticated for honey production and crop pollination; modern humans also value the wax for [[candlemaking]], soapmaking, lip balms, and other crafts. Honey bees repre - Facts About Bees - Types of Bees - PestWorldforKids.org|website=pestworldforkids.org|access-date=2016-04-26}}</ref> Some other types of related bees produce and store honey and have been kept by humans for that purpose, including the [[stingless bee|stingless honey bees]], but only members of the genus ''Apis'' are true honey bees. The study of bees, which includes the study of honey bees, is known as [[melittology]].

==Etymology and name==
The [[genus]] name ''Apis'' is [[Latin]] for "bee".<ref>{{cite web |title=Honeybee |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper |date=2019 |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Honeybee |accessdate=2016-02-27 }}</ref> Although modern dictionaries may refer to ''Apis'' as either honey bee or honeybee, [[entomologist]] [[Robert Evans Snodgrass|Robert Snodgrass]] asserts that [[linguistic prescription|correct usage]] requires two words, i.e. '''honey bee''', as it is a kind or type of bee, whereas it is incorrect to run the two words together, as in dragonfly or butterfly, because the latter are not flies.<ref name=Snodgrass1984>{{cite book|author=Robert E. Snodgrass|title=Anatomy of the Honey Bee|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IHGmkX1zDS8C|year=1984|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-9302-7|page=vii}}</ref> Honey bee, not honeybee, is the listed common name in the [[Integrated Taxonomic Information System]], the [[Entomological Society of America]] Common Names of Insects Database, and the [[Tree of Life Web Project]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Integrated Taxonomic Information System - Search, ''Apinae''|url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=633913#null |accessdate=February 26, 2016|date=2008}}</ref><ref name=ESA>{{cite web |title=Common Names of Insects Database|publisher=Entomological Society of America |url=http://entsoc.org/common-names |accessdate=February 21, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Tree of Life Web Project |title=Apinae|url=http://tolweb.org/Apinae|date=2004 |accessdate=2016-02-25 }}</ref>

==Origin, systematics and distribution==

[[File:Apis distribution map.svg|right|thumb|Distribution of honey bees around the world]]
[[File:HoneyBeeAnatomy.svg|right|thumb|[[Morphology (biology)|Morphology]] of a female honey bee]]

Honey bees appear to have their center of origin in [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]] (including the [[Philippines]]), as all the extant species except ''[[Apis mellifera]]'' are native to that region. Notably, living representatives of the earliest lineages to diverge (''[[Apis florea]]'' and ''[[Apis andreniformis]]'') have their center of origin there.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Deborah R. Smith |author2=Lynn Villafuerte |author3=Gard Otisc |author4=Michael R. Palmer |url=http://www.culturaapicola.com.ar/apuntes/revistaselectronicas/apidologie/31-2/m0209.pdf |title=Biogeography of ''Apis cerana'' F. and ''A. nigrocincta'' Smith: insights from mtDNA studies |journal=[[Apidologie]] |volume=31 |year=2000 |issue=2 |pages=265–279 |doi=10.1051/apido:2000121 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229201522/http://www.culturaapicola.com.ar/apuntes/revistaselectronicas/apidologie/31-2/m0209.pdf |archivedate=February 29, 2012 }}</ref>

The first ''Apis'' bees appear in the [[fossil record]] at the [[Eocene]]-[[Oligocene]] boundary (34 [[myr|mya]]), in European deposits. The origin of these prehistoric honey bees does not necessarily indicate Europe as the place of origin of the genus, only that the bees were present in Europe by that time. Few fossil deposits are known from South Asia, the suspected region of honey bee origin, and fewer still have been thoroughly studied.

No ''Apis'' species existed in the New World during human times before the introduction of ''A. mellifera'' by Europeans. Only one fossil species is documented from the New World, ''[[Apis nearctica]]'', known from a single 14 million-year-old specimen from Nevada.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Michael S. Engel |author2=I. A. Hinojosa-Diaz |author3=A. P. Rasnitsyn |year=2009 |title=A honey bee from the Miocene of Nevada and the biogeography of ''Apis'' (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Apini) |journal=[[Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences]] |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=23–38}}</ref>

The close relatives of modern honey bees – ''e.g.'' [[bumblebee]]s and [[stingless bee]]s – are also social to some degree, and social behavior seems a [[plesiomorphic]] trait that predates the origin of the genus. Among the extant members of ''Apis'', the more [[basal (biology)|basal]] species make single, exposed combs, while the more recently evolved species nest in cavities and have multiple combs, which has greatly facilitated their domestication.

Most species have historically been cultured or at least exploited for honey and [[beeswax]] by humans indigenous to their native ranges. Only two species have been truly [[domesticated]]: ''[[Apis mellifera]]'' and ''[[Apis cerana indica]]''. ''A. mellifera'' has been cultivated at least since the time of the building of the [[Egyptian pyramid]]s, and only that species has been moved extensively beyond its native range.

Honey bees are the only extant members of the [[Tribe (biology)|tribe]] Apini. Today's honey bees constitute three [[clade]]s: ''Micrapis'' (dwarf honey bees), ''Megapis'' (giant honey bee), and ''Apis'' (domestic honey bees and close relatives).<ref name="Engel99"/><ref name="Arias">{{cite journal |author1=Maria C. Arias |author2=Walter S. Sheppard |year=2005 |title=Phylogenetic relationships of honey bees (Hymenoptera:Apinae:Apini) inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=25–35 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.02.017 |pmid=16182149}} {{cite journal |author1=Maria C. Arias |author2=Walter S. Sheppard | year=2005 |title=Corrigendum to "Phylogenetic relationships of honey bees (Hymenoptera:Apinae:Apini) inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data" |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |volume=40 |issue=1 |page=315 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.002}}</ref>

===''Micrapis''===
''[[Apis florea]]'' and ''[[Apis andreniformis]]'' are small honey bees of southern and southeastern Asia. They make very small, exposed nests in trees and shrubs. Their stings are often incapable of penetrating human skin, so the [[Beehive (beekeeping)|hive]] and [[swarm]]s can be handled with minimal protection. They occur largely [[sympatric]]ally, though they are very distinct [[evolution]]arily and are probably the result of [[allopatric speciation]], their distribution later converging.

Given that ''A. florea'' is more widely distributed and ''A. andreniformis'' is considerably more aggressive, honey is, if at all, usually harvested from the former only. They are the most ancient extant lineage of honey bees, maybe diverging in the [[Bartonian]] (some 40 million years ago or slightly later) from the other lineages, but do not seem to have diverged from each other a long time before the [[Neogene]].<ref name="Arias"/> ''[[Apis florea]]'' have smaller wing spans than its sister species.<ref name=":0">Wongsiri, S., et al. "Comparative biology of Apis andreniformis and Apis florea in Thailand." Bee World 78.1 (1997): 23–35.</ref> ''Apis florea'' are also completely yellow with the exception of the scutellum of workers, which is black.<ref name=":0" />

===''Megapis''===
One species is recognized in the subgenus ''Megapis''. It usually builds single or a few exposed combs on high tree limbs, on cliffs, and sometimes on buildings. They can be very fierce. Periodically robbed of their honey by human "honey hunters", colonies are easily capable of [[bee sting|stinging]] a human being to death if provoked.

*''[[Apis dorsata]]'', the giant honey bee, is native and widespread across most of South and Southeast Asia.
**''A. d. binghami'', the Indonesian giant honey bee, is classified as the [[Indonesia]]n subspecies of the giant honey bee or a distinct species; in the latter case, ''A. d. breviligula'' and / or other lineages would probably also have to be considered species.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Nathan Lo |author2=Rosalyn S. Gloag |author3=Denis L. Anderson |author4=Benjamin P. Oldroyd |year=2009 |title=A molecular phylogeny of the genus ''Apis'' suggests that the Giant Honey Bee of the Philippines, ''A. breviligula'' Maa, and the Plains Honey Bee of southern India, ''A. indica'' Fabricius, are valid species |journal=[[Systematic Entomology]] |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=226–233 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3113.2009.00504.x}}</ref>
**''[[Apis dorsata laboriosa|A. d. laboriosa]]'', the Himalayan giant honey bee, was initially described as a distinct species. Later, it was included in ''A. dorsata'' as a subspecies<ref name="Engel99"/> based on the [[biological species concept]], though authors applying a genetic species concept have suggested it should be considered a separate species.<ref name="Arias"/> Essentially restricted to the [[Himalayas]], it differs little from the giant honey bee in appearance, but has extensive behavioral [[adaptation (biology)|adaptations]] that enable it to nest in the open at high altitudes despite low ambient temperatures. It is the largest living honey bee.

===''Apis''===
Eastern ''Apis'' species include three or four species, including ''[[Apis koschevnikovi|A. koschevnikovi]]'', ''[[Apis nigrocincta]]'', and ''[[Apis cerana|A. cerana]]''. The genetics of the western honey bee ''[[Apis mellifera|A. mellifera]]'' are unclear.

====Koschevnikov's honey bee====
Koschevnikov's honey bee (''[[Apis koschevnikovi]]'') is often referred to in the literature as the “red bee of Sabah;” however, ''A. koschevnikovi'' is pale reddish in [[Sabah|Sabah State]], [[Borneo]], [[Malaysia]], but a dark, coppery color in the [[Malay Peninsula]] and [[Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|title = Morphometric analysis and biogeography of Apis koschevnikovi Enderlein (1906)|journal = Apidologie|date = 2008-09-01|issn = 0044-8435|pages = 495–503|volume = 39|issue = 5|doi = 10.1051/apido:2008029|first = S.|last = Hadisoesilo|first2 = Rika|last2 = Raffiudin|first3 = Wirian|last3 = Susanti|first4 = Tri|last4 = Atmowidi|first5 = Colleen|last5 = Hepburn|first6 = Sarah E.|last6 = Radloff|first7 = Stefan|last7 = Fuchs|first8 = H. Randall|last8 = Hepburn}}</ref> Its habitat is limited to the tropical evergreen forests of the [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Borneo]] and [[Sumatra]] and they do not live in tropical evergreen rain forests which extend into [[Thailand]], [[Myanmar]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Vietnam]].<ref name=":2"/>

====Philippine honey bee====
''[[Apis nigrocincta]]'' is a cavity-nesting species. The species has rust-colored [[Antenna (biology)#Insects|scapes]], legs, and [[Clypeus (arthropod anatomy)|clypeuses]], with reddish-tan hair color that covers most of the body.<ref name="KanEntSoc">{{cite journal |last=Hadisoesilo |first=S. |last2=Otis |first2=G. W. |last3=Meixner |first3=M. |title=Two distinct populations of cavity-nesting honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in South Sulawesi, Indonesia |journal=Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society |volume=68 |issue=4 |year=1995 |pages=399–407 |jstor=25085613 }}</ref>

====Eastern honey bee====
''[[Apis cerana]]'', the eastern honey bee proper, is the traditional honey bee of southern and eastern Asia. It was [[domestication|domesticated]] as subspecies ''[[Apis cerana indica|A. c. indica]]'' and kept in hives in a fashion similar to ''A. mellifera'', though on a more limited, regional scale.

It has not been possible yet to resolve its relationship to the Bornean ''[[Apis cerana nuluensis|A. c. nuluensis]]'' and ''[[Apis nigrocincta]]'' from the Philippines to satisfaction; the most recent hypothesis is that these are indeed distinct species, but that ''[[Apis cerana|A. cerana]]'' is still [[paraphyletic]], consisting of several separate species.<ref name="Arias" />

====Western honey bee====
{{Main|Apis mellifera}}
[[File:Apis mellifera Tanzania.jpg|thumb|The European honey bee may have originated from eastern Africa. This bee is pictured in [[Tanzania]].]]

''A. mellifera'', the most common domesticated<ref>[http://scientificbeekeeping.com/whats-happening-to-the-bees-part-5-is-there-a-difference-between-domesticated-and-feral-bees/ mostly domesticated or more accurately, "managed"]</ref> species, was the third insect to have its [[genome]] mapped. It seems to have originated in eastern tropical [[Africa]] and spread from there to [[Europe]] and eastwards into [[Asia]] to the [[Tien Shan]] range. It is variously called the European, western, or common honey bee in different parts of the world. Many [[subspecies]] have adapted to the local geographic and climatic environments; in addition breeds such as the [[Buckfast bee]], have been bred. Behavior, color, and anatomy can be quite different from one subspecies or even strain to another.{{Citation needed|date=December 2018}}

''A. mellifera'' [[phylogeny]] is the most enigmatic of all honey bee species. It seems to have diverged from its eastern relatives only during the [[Late Miocene]]. This would fit the hypothesis that the ancestral stock of cave-nesting honey bees was separated into the western group of East Africa and the eastern group of tropical Asia by [[desertification]] in the [[Middle East]] and adjacent regions, which caused declines of food plants and trees that provided nest sites, eventually causing [[gene flow]] to cease.{{Citation needed|date=December 2018}}

The diversity of ''A. mellifera'' subspecies is probably the product of a largely [[Early Pleistocene]] [[Radiation (biology)|radiation]] aided by climate and habitat changes during the [[Quaternary glaciation|last ice age]]. That the western honey bee has been intensively managed by humans for many millennia – including hybridization and introductions – has apparently increased the speed of its [[evolution]] and confounded the DNA sequence data to a point where little of substance can be said about the exact relationships of many ''A. mellifera'' subspecies.<ref name="Arias" />

''Apis mellifera'' is not native to [[the Americas]], so was not present upon the arrival of the European explorers and colonists. However, other native bee species were kept and traded by indigenous peoples. In 1622, European colonists brought the European dark bee (''[[Apis mellifera mellifera|A. m. mellifera]]'') to the Americas, followed later by [[Italian bee]]s (''A. m. ligustica'') and others. Many of the crops that depend on honey bees for pollination have also been imported since colonial times. Escaped swarms (known as "wild" bees, but actually [[feral]]) spread rapidly as far as the [[Great Plains]], usually preceding the colonists. Honey bees did not naturally cross the [[Rocky Mountains]]; they were transported by the Mormon pioneers to Utah in the late 1840s, and by ship to [[California]] in the early 1850s.<ref>{{cite web|author=Head RJ|title=A Brief Survey of Ancient Near Eastern Beekeeping; A Final Note|url=http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/publications/review/?vol=20&num=1&id=694#_ednref30|date=2008|publisher=The FARMS Review}}</ref>

[[File:Honey Bee takes Nectar.JPG|thumb|right|An African honey bee in [[Tanzania]]]]

=====Africanized bee=====
{{Main|Africanized bee}}

Africanized bees (known colloquially as "killer bees") are [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] between European stock and one of the African subspecies ''[[Apis mellifera scutellata|A. m. scutellata]]''; they are often more aggressive than European bees and do not create as much of a honey surplus, but are more resistant to disease and are better foragers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/ahb.htm|title=Africanized honey bee - Apis mellifera scutellata Lepeletier|website=entnemdept.ufl.edu|access-date=2019-05-01}}</ref> Originating by accident in [[Brazil]], they have spread to North America and constitute a [[Pest (animal)|pest]] in some regions. However, these strains do not overwinter well, so are not often found in the colder, more northern parts of North America. The original breeding experiment for which the African bees were brought to Brazil in the first place has continued (though not as originally intended). Novel hybrid strains of domestic and redomesticated Africanized bees combine high resilience to tropical conditions and good yields. They are popular among beekeepers in Brazil.

== Living and fossil honey bees (Apini: ''Apis'') ==
'''Tribe Apini Latreille'''<ref>{{cite journal |author=Michael S. Engel, Ismael A. Hinojosa-Díaz & Alexandr P. Rasnitsyn |year=2009 |url=http://susquehannabeekeepers.com/pdfs/A_honey_bee_from_the_Miocene_of_Nevada_and_the_bio.pdf |title=A honey bee from the Miocene of Nevada and the biogeography of ''Apis'' (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Apini) |journal=[[Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences]] |series=4 |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=23–38 }}</ref>

Genus ''Apis'' Linnaeus (s. lato)
*''henshawi'' species group (†''Priorapis'' Engel, †''Synapis'' Cockerell)
***†''A. vetusta'' Engel
***†''A. henshawi'' Cockerell
***†''A. petrefacta'' (Říha)
***†''A. miocenica'' Hong
***†''A. "longtibia"'' Zhang
***†''A.'' "Miocene 1"
*''armbrusteri'' species group (†''Cascapis'' Engel)
***†''A. armbrusteri'' Zeuner
***†''A. nearctica'', sp. Nov.
*''florea'' species group (''Micrapis'' Ashmead)
***''A. florea'' Fabricius
***''A. andreniformis'' Smith
*''dorsata'' species group (''Megapis'' Ashmead)
***†''A. lithohermaea'' Engel
***''A. dorsata'' Fabricius
*''mellifera'' species group (''Apis'' Linnaeus ''s. stricto'')
**''mellifera'' subgroup
***''A. mellifera'' Linnaeus (''Apis'' Linnaeus ''s. strictissimo'')
**''cerana'' subgroup (''Sigmatapis'' Maa)
***''A. cerana'' Fabricius
***''A. nigrocincta'' Smith
***''A. koschevnikovi'' Enderlein

==Life cycle==
As in a few other types of [[eusocial]] bees, a colony generally contains one [[queen bee]], a fertile female; seasonally up to a few thousand [[drone bee]]s, or fertile males;<ref name="gould">{{cite book |author1=James L. Gould |author2=Carol Grant Gould |title=The Honey Bee |publisher=Scientific American Library |year=1995 |page=19 |isbn=978-0-7167-6010-8 }}</ref> and tens of thousands of sterile female [[worker bee]]s. Details vary among the different species of honey bees, but common features include:
#Eggs are laid singly in a cell in a wax [[honeycomb]], produced and shaped by the worker bees. Using her [[spermatheca]], the queen can choose to fertilize the egg she is laying, usually depending on into which cell she is laying. Drones develop from unfertilised eggs and are [[Ploidy#Haploid and monoploid|haploid]], while females (queens and worker bees) develop from fertilised eggs and are [[Ploidy#Diploid|diploid]]. Larvae are initially fed with [[royal jelly]] produced by worker bees, later switching to honey and pollen. The exception is a larva fed solely on royal jelly, which will develop into a queen bee. The larva undergoes several moultings before spinning a cocoon within the cell, and [[pupate|pupating]].
#Young worker bees, sometimes called "nurse bees", clean the hive and feed the larvae. When their royal jelly-producing glands begin to atrophy, they begin building comb cells. They progress to other within-colony tasks as they become older, such as receiving nectar and pollen from foragers, and guarding the hive. Later still, a worker takes her first orientation flights and finally leaves the hive and typically spends the remainder of her life as a forager.
#Worker bees cooperate to find food and use a pattern of "dancing" (known as the [[bee dance]] or waggle dance) to communicate information regarding resources with each other; this dance varies from species to species, but all living species of ''Apis'' exhibit some form of the behavior. If the resources are very close to the hive, they may also exhibit a less specific dance commonly known as the "round dance".
#Honey bees also perform [[tremble dance]]s, which recruit receiver bees to collect nectar from returning foragers.
#Virgin queens go on mating flights away from their home colony to a drone congregation area, and mate with multiple drones before returning. The drones die in the act of mating. Queen honey bees do not mate with drones from their home colony.
#Colonies are established not by solitary queens, as in most bees, but by groups known as "[[Swarming (honey bee)|swarm]]s", which consist of a mated queen and a large contingent of worker bees. This group moves ''en masse'' to a nest site which was scouted by worker bees beforehand and whose location is communicated with a special type of dance. Once the swarm arrives, they immediately construct a new wax comb and begin to raise new worker brood. This type of nest founding is not seen in any other living bee genus, though several groups of [[vespid]] wasps also found new nests by swarming (sometimes including multiple queens). Also, [[stingless bee]]s will start new nests with large numbers of worker bees, but the nest is constructed before a queen is escorted to the site, and this worker force is not a true "swarm".

===Life cycle===
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Bienenwabe mit Eiern 39.jpg|Honey bee eggs shown in opened wax cells
File:Bienenwabe mit Eiern und Brut 5.jpg|Eggs and larvae
File:Drohnenpuppen 79b.jpg|Drone pupae
File:Birth of black bee (Apis mellifera mellifera).jpg|Emergence of a black bee (''A. m. mellifera'')
</gallery>

===Winter survival===
In cold climates, honey bees stop flying when the temperature drops below about {{convert|10|C|F}} and crowd into the central area of the hive to form a "winter cluster". The worker bees huddle around the queen bee at the center of the cluster, shivering to keep the center between {{convert|27|C|F}} at the start of winter (during the broodless period) and {{convert|34|C|F}} once the queen resumes laying. The worker bees rotate through the cluster from the outside to the inside so that no bee gets too cold. The outside edges of the cluster stay at about {{convert|8-9|C|F}}. The colder the weather is outside, the more compact the cluster becomes. During winter, they consume their stored honey to produce body heat. The amount of honey consumed during the winter is a function of winter length and severity, but ranges in temperate climates from {{convert|15 to 50|kg|lb}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bees-online.com/Winter.htm|title=What do bees do in the winter?|publisher=|accessdate=12 March 2016|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304175741/http://www.bees-online.com/Winter.htm|archivedate=4 March 2016|df=}}</ref> In addition, certain bees, including the [[western honey bee]] as well as ''[[Apis cerana]]'', are known to engage in effective methods of nest thermoregulation during periods of varying temperature in both summer and winter. During the summer, however, this is achieved through fanning and water evaporation from water collected in various fields.<ref>Oldroyd, Benjamin P.; Wongsiri, Siriwat (2006). ''Asian Honey Bees (Biology, Conservation, and Human Interactions)''. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press.{{ISBN|0674021940}}.</ref>


==Pollination==
{{Main|Pollination management|List of crop plants pollinated by bees}}

Of all the honey bee species, only ''A. mellifera'' has been used extensively for commercial pollination of fruit and vegetable crops. The scale of these pollination services is commonly measured in the billions of dollars, credited with adding about 9% to the value of crops across the world. However, despite contributing substantially to crop pollination, there is debate about the potential spillover to natural landscapes and competition between managed honey bees and many of the ~20,000 species of wild pollinators.<ref name="GeldmannGonzález-Varo2018">{{cite journal |last1=Geldmann |first1=Jonas |last2=González-Varo|first2=Juan P. |title=Conserving honey bees does not help wildlife |journal=Science |volume=359 |issue=6374 |year=2018 |pages=392–393 |doi=10.1126/science.aar2269|pmid=29371456 }}</ref>

Species of ''Apis'' are generalist floral visitors, and pollinate many species of flowering plants, but because of their "generalized" nature, they do so inefficiently. Without specialized adaptations for specific flowers, their ability to reach pollen and nectar is often limited. What's more, their tendency to visit all species in a given area means that the pollen they carry for any one species is often very diluted. As such, they can provide some pollination to many plants, especially non-native crops, but most native plants have some native pollinator that is far more effective at pollinating that species.<ref>[https://www.decodedscience.org/plants-pollinators-and-the-price-of-almonds/28797/2 Plants, Pollinators, and the Price of Almonds] "Flowers set more seeds when visited by wild insects, and the more plants that were visited by wild insects, the more likely they were to set fruit. In some places the researchers considered, wild insects were pollinating most of the plants despite rented honey bees being present."</ref> When honeybees are present as an invasive species in an area, they compete for flowers with native pollinators, which can actually push out the native species.<ref>[https://www.popsci.com/honeybees-hog-limelight Saving pollinators is about more than just honeybees] The problem is that there are only so many flowers and places to nest. And once the numbers of honeybees have been artificially inflated (commercial-scale beekeeping wouldn’t exist without humans) the increased competition for these resources can push native non-''Apis'' pollinators out of their natural habitats. Honeybees also spread exotic plants and transmit pathogens, both of which have been shown to harm other pollinators.</ref>

===Claims of human dependency===

[[European honey bee]]s are often described as being essential to all human food production, leading to claims that without their pollination, all of humanity would starve, or even die out.<ref>[https://www.elitedaily.com/news/world/humans-need-bees-to-survive/755737 If All The Bees In The World Die, Humans Will Not Survive]</ref><ref>[https://www.businessinsider.com.au/the-world-without-honeybees-2013-6#if-bees-dies-beekeepers-who-make-their-living-by-managing-bee-colonies-will-go-out-of-business-1 A Devastating Look At Our World If Honeybees Disappeared] "A world without honeybees would also mean a world without fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds."</ref> Einstein is sometimes misquoted as saying ''If bees disappeared off the face of the earth, man would only have four years left to live.''<ref>[https://tonic.vice.com/en_us/article/d7ezaq/what-would-happen-if-all-the-bees-died-tomorrow What Would Happen if All the Bees Went Extinct?] "First, the easy part: "I've never seen anything definitively link the quote to Einstein," says Mark Dykes, the chief inspector for Texas Apiary Inspection Service. Quote checkers like this one, and this one agree. But debunking its message? That's more complicated."</ref> But not only did the scientist not say that, there is no science to support the prediction, itself.<ref>[https://www.nrdc.org/onearth/would-world-without-bees-be-world-without-us Would a World Without Bees Be a World Without Us?] "Albert Einstein is sometimes quoted as saying, “If the bee disappears from the surface of the earth, man would have no more than four years to live.” It’s highly unlikely that Einstein said that. For one thing, there’s no evidence of him saying it. For another, the statement is hyperbolic and wrong (and Einstein was rarely wrong)."</ref> In fact, many important crops need no insect pollination at all.
The ten most important crops,<ref>[https://www.businessinsider.com/10-crops-that-feed-the-world-2011-9#5-cassava-6 The 10 Most Important Crops In The World]</ref> comprising 60% of all human food energy,<ref>[https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/most-important-staple-foods-in-the-world.html What Are The World's Most Important Staple Foods?]</ref> all fall into this category: [[Plantain (cooking)|Plantain]]s are sterile and propagated by cuttings, as are [[cassava]]. [[Potato]]es, [[Yam (vegetable)|yam]]s, and [[sweet potato]]es are root vegetables propagated by [[tubers]]. [[Soybeans]] are [[self pollination|self-pollinated]]. [[Rice]], [[wheat]], and [[corn]] are all [[wind pollination|wind-pollinated]], as with all other grasses.

Similarly, no crops originating in the New World depend on the domesticated honey bee ''Apis mellifera'' at all, as the insect is invasive, having been brought over with colonists in the last few centuries. [[Thomas Jefferson]] mentioned this in his ''[[Notes on the State of Virginia]]'':
{{cquote|The honey-bee is not a native of our continent. [[Georg Marcgrave|Marcgrave]] indeed mentions a species of honey-bee in Brasil. But this has no sting, and is therefore different from the one we have, which resembles perfectly that of Europe. The [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] concur with us in the tradition that it was brought from Europe; but, when, and by whom, we know not. The bees have generally extended themselves into the country, a little in advance of the white settlers. The Indians therefore call them the white man's fly, and consider their approach as indicating the approach of the settlements of the whites.<ref>[https://www.monticello.org/site/plantation-and-slavery/bees-and-honey Bees and Honey]</ref>}}

[[Tomato]]es, [[Capsicum annuum|pepper]]s, [[Cucurbita|squash]], and all other New World crops evolved with native pollinators like [[squash bee]]s, [[bumble bee]]s, other native bees. The [[stingless bee]]s mentioned by Jefferson are distant relatives of the honey bees, in the genus ''[[Melipona]]''.

==Nutrition==

Honey bees obtain all of their nutritional requirements from a diverse combination of pollen and nectar. Pollen is the only natural protein source for honey bees. Adult worker honey bees consume 3.4–4.3 mg of pollen per day to meet a dry matter requirement of 66–74% protein.<ref name="Brodschneider">{{Cite journal |last=Brodschneider |first=Robert |last2=Crailsheim|first2=Karl|date=2010-05-01 |title=Nutrition and health in honey bees |journal=Apidologie |language=en |volume=41|issue=3|pages=278–294|doi=10.1051/apido/2010012|issn=0044-8435}}</ref> The rearing of one larva requires 125-187.5 mg pollen or 25-37.5 mg protein for proper development.<ref name="Brodschneider" /> Dietary proteins are broken down into amino acids, ten of which are considered essential to honey bees: methionine, tryptophan, arginine, lysine, histidine, phenylalanine, isoleucine, threonine, leucine, and valine. Of these amino acids, honey bees require highest concentrations of leucine, isoleucine, and valine, however elevated concentrations of arginine and lysine are required for brood rearing.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Leroy M|last2=Dietz|first2=A.|date=1976|title=Pyridoxine Requirement of the Honey Bee (Apis mellifera) For Brood Rearing|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00890394/document|journal=Apidologie|doi=10.1051/apido:19760105|pmid=|access-date=|volume=7|pages=67–84}}</ref> In addition to these amino acids, some B vitamins including biotin, folic acid, nicotinamide, riboflavin, thiamine, pantothenate, and most importantly, pyridoxine are required to rear larvae. Pyridoxine is the most prevalent B vitamin found in royal jelly and concentrations vary throughout the foraging season with lowest concentrations found in May and highest concentrations found in July and August. Honey bees lacking dietary pyridoxine were unable to rear brood.<ref name=":1" />

[[File:Bees Collecting Pollen 2004-08-14.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A forager collecting pollen]]

Pollen is also a lipid source for honey bees ranging from 0.8% to 18.9%.<ref name="Brodschneider" /> Lipids are metabolized during the brood stage for precursors required for future biosynthesis. Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K are not considered essential but have shown to significantly improve the number of brood reared.<ref name="Brodschneider" /> Honey bees ingest phytosterols from pollen to produce 24-methylenecholesterol and other sterols as they cannot directly synthesize cholesterol from phytosterols. Nurse bees have the ability to selectively transfer sterols to larvae through brood food.<ref name="Brodschneider" />

Nectar is collected by foraging worker bees as a source of water and carbohydrates in the form of sucrose. The dominant monosaccharides in honey bee diets are fructose and glucose but the most common circulating sugar in hemolymph is trehalose which is a disaccharide consisting of two glucose molecules.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Physiological Ecology: How Animals Process Energy, Nutrients, and Toxins|last=Karasov|first=William H.|last2=Martinez del Rio|first2=Carlos|publisher=Princeton|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=63–66}}</ref> Adult worker honey bees require 4 mg of utilizable sugars per day and larvae require about 59.4 mg of carbohydrates for proper development.<ref name="Brodschneider" />

Honey bees require water to maintain osmotic homeostasis, prepare liquid brood food, and to cool the hive through evaporation. A colony's water needs can generally be met by nectar foraging as it has high water content. Occasionally on hot days or when nectar is limited, foragers will collect water from streams or ponds to meet the needs of the hive.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuhnholz|first=Susanne|date=1997|title=The Control of Water Collection in Honey Bee Colonies|url=|journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology|doi=10.1007/s002650050402|pmid=|access-date=|volume=41|issue=6|pages=407–422}}</ref>

== Parasites ==

=== ''Galleria mellonella'' ===
Larval stages of the ''[[Galleria mellonella|G. mellonella]]'' moth parasitize both wild and cultivated honeybees. Eggs are laid within the hive, and the [[larva]] that hatch tunnel through and destroy the honeycombs that contain bee larva and their honey stores. The tunnels they create are lined with silk, which entangles and starves emerging bees. Destruction of honeycombs also result in honey leaking and being wasted. Both ''G. mellonella'' adults and larvae are possible vectors for pathogens that can infect bees, including the [[Israeli acute paralysis virus]] and the [[black queen cell virus]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Kwadha|first=Charles A.|last2=Ong'amo|first2=George O.|last3=Ndegwa|first3=Paul N.|last4=Raina|first4=Suresh K.|last5=Fombong|first5=Ayuka T.|date=2017-06-09|title=The Biology and Control of the Greater Wax Moth, Galleria mellonella|journal=Insects|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=61|doi=10.3390/insects8020061|pmid=28598383}}</ref>

==== Management ====
Temperature treatments are possible, but also distorts wax of the honeycombs. Chemical fumigants, particularly CO2, are also used.<ref name=":3" />

==Beekeeping==
{{Main|Beekeeping}}
The only domesticated species of honey bee are ''A. mellifera'' and ''[[Apis cerana|A. cerana]]'', and they are often maintained, fed, and transported by beekeepers. In Japan, where ''mellifera'' is vulnerable to local hornets and disease, the Japanese honey bee ''[[a. cerana japonica]]'' is used in its place. Modern hives also enable beekeepers to transport bees, moving from field to field as the crop needs pollinating and allowing the beekeeper to charge for the pollination services they provide, revising the historical role of the self-employed beekeeper, and favoring large-scale commercial operations. Bees of various types other than honey bees are also domesticated and used for pollination or other means around the world, including ''[[Tetragonula iridipennis]]'' in India, the [[blue orchard bee]] for tree nut and fruit pollination in the United States, and a number of species of ''[[Bombus]]'' (bumblebees) for pollination in various regions globally, such as [[tomato]]es, which are not effectively pollinated by honey bees.<ref>[https://www.biobestgroup.com/en/biobest/pollination/things-to-know-about-bumblebees-7052/species-6674/ Bumblebee species]</ref>

===Colony collapse disorder===
{{Main|Colony collapse disorder}}

Primarily in places where the bee was imported by humans, periodic collapses in honeybee populations have occurred at least since the late 19th century.<ref>[https://scholar.colorado.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1915&context=honr_theses Colony Collapse Disorder: The Vanishing Honeybee (Apis Mellifera)] However, as humans continued to manipulate the honeybee and deliberately transferred them on a global scale, diseases simultaneously spread and harmed managed colonies. Colony losses have occurred periodically throughout history. Fungus, mites, and starvation have all been thought to be the cause of the deaths. The first recorded collapses were called “May Disease” in Colorado in 1891 and 1896</ref> Starting in the first decade of the 21st century, abnormally high die-offs (30–70% of hives) of European honey bee colonies have occurred in North America. This has been dubbed "colony collapse disorder" (CCD) and was at first unexplained.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bryony|first1=Bonning|title=Honey Bee Disease Overview|journal=Journal of Invertebrate Pathology|date=11 November 2009|volume=103|page=s2–s4|doi=10.1016/j.jip.2009.07.015 |pmid=19909974}}</ref> It seems to be caused by a combination of factors rather than a single [[pathogen]] or [[poison]], possibly including [[neonicotinoid]] pesticides<ref>{{cite web|last1=McDonald-Gibson|first1=Charlotte|title='Victory for bees' as European Union bans neonicotinoid pesticides blamed for destroying bee population|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/victory-for-bees-as-european-union-bans-neonicotinoid-pesticides-blamed-for-destroying-bee-population-8595408.html|publisher=The Independent|accessdate=2 July 2014}}</ref> or [[Israeli acute paralysis virus]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Colony Collapse Disorder |url=http://www.beeologics.com/colony-health/colony-collapse-disorder/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130206024748/http://www.beeologics.com/colony-health/colony-collapse-disorder/ |dead-url=yes |archive-date=6 February 2013 |website=Beeologics |accessdate=23 October 2014 }}</ref>

==Bee products==

===Honey===
{{Main|Honey}}
Honey is the complex substance made when bees ingest nectar, process it, and store the substance into honey combs.<ref name="Crane1990">{{cite journal | author= [[Eva Crane|Crane E]]| title = Honey from honeybees and other insects | journal = Ethology Ecology & Evolution | volume = 3 | issue = sup1 | pages = 100–105 | year = 1990 | doi = 10.1080/03949370.1991.10721919}}</ref> All living species of ''Apis'' have had their honey gathered by indigenous peoples for consumption. ''A. mellifera'' and ''A. cerana'' are the only species that have had their honey harvested for commercial purposes.

===Beeswax===
{{Main|Beeswax}}

Worker bees of a certain age secrete [[beeswax]] from a series of exocrine glands on their abdomens.<ref name=Sanford>{{cite journal |last1=Sanford |first1=M.T. |last2=Dietz |first2=A. |year=1976 |title=The fine structure of the wax gland of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.). |journal=Apidologie |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=197–207 |doi=10.1051/apido:19760301}}</ref> They use the wax to form the walls and caps of the comb. As with honey, beeswax is gathered by humans for various purposes such as candle making, waterproofing, soap and cosmetics manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, art, furniture polish and more.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.beeculture.com/wax-rendering/|title=Wax Rendering {{!}} Bee Culture|date=2016-03-23|work=Bee Culture|access-date=2018-10-26|language=en-US}}</ref>

===Bee bread===
{{Main|Bee pollen}}
Bees collect [[pollen]] in their [[pollen basket]]s and carry it back to the hive.<ref>{{cite book |author=Gillott, Cedric |title=Entomology |publisher=Springer |year=1995 |page=79}}</ref>

Worker bees combine pollen, honey and glandular secretions and allow it to ferment in the comb to make bee bread. The fermentation process releases additional nutrients from the pollen and can produce antibiotics and fatty acids which inhibit spoilage.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Kirk E. |last2=Carroll |first2=Mark J. |last3=Sheehan |first3=Tim |last4=Lanan |first4=Michele C. |last5=Mott |first5=Brendon M. |last6=Maes |first6=Patrick |last7=Corby-Harris |first7=Vanessa |date=5 November 2014 |title=Hive-stored pollen of honey bees: many lines of evidence are consistent with pollen preservation, not nutrient conversion |journal=Molecular Ecology |volume=23 |issue=23 |pages=5904–5917 |doi=10.1111/mec.12966 |pmc=4285803 |pmid=25319366}}</ref> Bee bread is eaten by [[Worker bee#Nurse bee (days 3–11)|nurse bees]] (younger workers) which produce the protein-rich royal jelly needed by the queen and developing larvae in their hypopharyngeal glands.
In the hive, pollen is used as a [[protein]] source necessary during brood-rearing. In certain environments, excess pollen can be collected from the hives of ''A. mellifera'' and ''A. cerana''. The product is used as a health supplement. It has been used with moderate success as a source of pollen for [[hand-pollination|hand pollination]].

===Bee brood===
{{Main|Bee brood#As food}}

Bee brood – the eggs, larvae or [[pupa]]e of honeybees – is nutritious and seen as a delicacy in countries such as Indonesia,<ref name=Sayangi2015>{{cite web |last1=Haris |first1=Emmaria |title=Sensasi Rasa Unik Botok Lebah yang Menyengat (Unique taste sensation botok with stinging bees) |url=http://www.sayangi.com/gayahidup1/kuliner/read/12669/sensasi-rasa-unik-botok-lebah-yang-menyengat |publisher=Sayangi.com |accessdate=14 February 2018 |language=Indonesian |date=6 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622203413/http://www.sayangi.com/gayahidup1/kuliner/read/12669/sensasi-rasa-unik-botok-lebah-yang-menyengat |archive-date=2015-06-22 |dead-url=yes |df= }}</ref> Mexico, Thailand, and many African countries; it has been consumed since ancient times by the Chinese and Egyptians.{{efn|The Mayans kept and collected honey and brood, but from stingless social bees such as ''[[Melipona beecheii]]'', not from ''Apis'' honeybees.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Pearson|first1=Gwen|title=Women Work to Save Native Bees of Mexico|url=https://www.wired.com/2014/03/women-work-save-native-bees-mexico/|publisher=Wired|accessdate=15 May 2018|date=3 May 2014}}</ref>}}<ref name=FAO8775>{{cite web|url=http://teca.fao.org/read/8775|title=How to collect drone larvae from the beehive|publisher=Home technologies and practices for small agricultural producers, UN Food and Agriculture Organization|date=29 August 2016|access-date=2018-02-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213135222/http://teca.fao.org/read/8775|archive-date=2018-02-13|dead-url=yes|df=}}</ref><ref name=Holland2013>{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/13/130514-edible-insects-entomophagy-science-food-bugs-beetles/ |title=U.N. Urges Eating Insects: 8 Popular Bugs to Try |author=Holland, Jennifer |date=14 May 2013 |work=National Geographic}}</ref>

===Propolis===
{{Main|Propolis}}

Propolis is a resinous mixture collected by honey bees from tree buds, sap flows or other botanical sources, which is used as a sealant for unwanted open spaces in the hive.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simone-Finstrom |first1=Michael |last2=Spivak |first2=Marla |doi=10.1051/apido/2010016 |title=Propolis and bee health: The natural history and significance of resin use by honey bees |journal=Apidologie |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=295–311 |date=May–June 2010}}</ref> Although propolis is alleged to have health benefits (tincture of Propolis is marketed as a cold and flu remedy), it may cause severe allergic reactions in some individuals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/390.html|title=Propolis:MedlinePlus Supplements|publisher=U.S. National Library of Medicine |date= January 19, 2012}}</ref> Propolis is also used in wood finishes, and gives a [[Stradivarius]] violin its unique red color.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gambichler T |author2=Boms S |author3=Freitag M |title=Contact dermatitis and other skin conditions in instrumental musicians |journal=BMC Dermatol. |volume=4|pages=3 |date=April 2004 |pmid=15090069 |pmc=416484 |doi=10.1186/1471-5945-4-3 }}</ref>

===Royal jelly===
{{Main|Royal jelly}}

Royal jelly is a honey-bee secretion used to nourish the larvae.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Jung-Hoffmann | first1=L | year=1966 | title=Die Determination von Königin und Arbeiterin der Honigbiene | url=| journal=Z Bienenforsch | volume=8 | pages=296–322 }}</ref> It is marketed for its alleged but unsupported claims of health benefits.<ref>{{cite journal | journal = EFSA Journal | date = 2011 | volume = 9 | issue = 4| pages = 2083 | doi = 10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2083 | title = Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to: anthocyanidins and proanthocyanidins (ID 1787, 1788, 1789, 1790, 1791); sodium alginate and ulva (ID 1873); vitamins, minerals, trace elements and standardised ginseng G115 extract (ID 8, 1673, 1674); vitamins, minerals, lysine and/or arginine and/or taurine (ID 6, 1676, 1677); plant-based preparation for use in beverages (ID 4210, 4211); Carica papaya L. (ID 2007); "fish protein" (ID 651); acidic water-based, non-alcoholic flavoured beverages containing calcium in the range of 0.3 to 0.8 mol per mol of acid with a pH not lower than 3.7 (ID 1170); royal jelly (ID 1225, 1226, 1227, 1228, 1230, 1231, 1326, 1328, 1329, 1982, 4696, 4697); foods low in cholesterol (ID 624); and foods low in trans-fatty acids (ID 672, 4333) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006|author=EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies, European Food Safety Authority}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm207416.htm | title = Federal Government Seizes Dozens of Misbranded Drug Products: FDA warned company about making medical claims for bee-derived products | date = Apr 5, 2010 | publisher = [[Food and Drug Administration]]}}</ref> On the other hand, it may cause severe allergic reactions in some individuals.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 9088660 | volume=27 | issue=3 | title=Royal jelly consumption and hypersensitivity in the community |date=March 1997 | journal=Clin. Exp. Allergy | pages=333–6 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2222.1997.tb00712.x | last1 = Leung | first1 = R | last2 = Ho | first2 = A | last3 = Chan | first3 = J | last4 = Choy | first4 = D | last5 = Lai | first5 = CK}}</ref>

==Sexes and castes==

Honey bees have three [[caste]]s: [[drone (bee)|drones]], workers, and [[queen bee|queens]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ikonet.com/en/visualdictionary/animal-kingdom/insects-and-arachnids/honeybee/castes.php|title=Bee castes|publisher=Visual Dictionary, QA International|date=2017|accessdate=18 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="uga">{{cite web|title=Getting Started: Honey Bee Biology|url=http://caes2.caes.uga.edu/bees/get-started/biology.html|publisher=University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences|accessdate=18 May 2017|date=2017}}</ref> Drones are male, while workers and queens are female.<ref name=uga/>

===Drones===
[[File:Haplodiploid Sex Determination in Honey Bees.svg|thumb|upright=2.0|Honey bees have a [[haplodiploid]] system of sex determination.]]

{{Main|Drone (bee)}}
Males, or drones, are typically [[haploid]], having only one set of [[chromosome]]s, and primarily exist for the purpose of [[reproduction]].<ref name=uga/> They are produced by the queen if she chooses not to fertilize an egg or by an unfertilized laying worker. There are rare instances of diploid drone larvae. This phenomenon usually arises when there is more than two generations of brother-sister mating.<ref>Woyka, J.; Pszczelnictwa, Zaklad; [http://jerzy_woyke.users.sggw.pl/1963_dipldrlarvae.pdf Drone Larvae from Fertilized Eggs of the Honey Bee] [[Journal of Apiculture Research]], (1963), pages 19-24</ref> Sex determination in honey bees is initially due to a single locus, called the complementary sex determiner (''csd'') gene. In developing bees, if the conditions are that the individual is heterozygous for the ''csd'' gene, they will develop into females. If the conditions are so that the individual is [[zygosity|hemizygous]] or homozygous for the ''csd'' gene, they will develop into males. The instances where the individual is homozygous at this gene are the instances of diploid males.<ref>Weinstock, George M.; Robinson, Gene E., & the Honeybee Genome Sequencing Consortium [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v443/n7114/full/nature05260.htm Insights into social insects from the genome of the honeybee Apis mellifera] ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', volume "'443'" (2006), pages 931-949</ref> Drones take 24 days to develop, and may be produced from summer through to autumn, numbering as many as 500 per hive.<ref name=uga/> They are expelled from the hive during the winter months when the hive's primary focus is warmth and food conservation.<ref name=uga/> Drones have large eyes used to locate queens during mating flights. They do not defend the hive or kill intruders, and do not have a [[stinger]].<ref name=perfect/>

===Workers===

{{Main|Worker bee}}
Workers have two sets of chromosomes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://beesource.com/resources/usda/breeding-and-genetics-of-honey-bees/|title=Breeding and Genetics of Honey Bees|vauthors=Harbo JR, Rinderer TE|publisher=Beesource Beekeeping|date=1980|accessdate=18 May 2017}}</ref> They are produced from an egg that the queen has selectively fertilized from stored sperm. Workers typically develop in 21 days. A typical colony may contain as many as 60,000 worker bees.<ref name=uga/> Workers exhibit a wider range of behaviors than either queens or drones. Their duties change upon the age of the bee in the following order (beginning with cleaning out their own cell after eating through their capped brood cell): feed brood, receive nectar, clean hive, guard duty, and foraging.<ref name=uga/><ref name="perfect">{{cite web|url=https://www.perfectbee.com/learn-about-bees/types-of-bees/|title=Worker, drone and queen bees|publisher=PerfectBee LLC|date=2017|accessdate=18 May 2017}}</ref> Some workers engage in other specialized behaviors, such as "undertaking" (removing corpses of their nestmates from inside the hive).<ref name=perfect/>

Workers have morphological specializations, including the [[pollen basket]] ''(corbicula)'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ikonet.com/en/visualdictionary/animal-kingdom/insects-and-arachnids/honeybee/morphology-of-a-honeybee-worker.php|title=Morphology of a honeybee: worker|publisher=Visual Dictionary, QA International|date=2017|accessdate=18 May 2017}}</ref> abdominal glands that produce beeswax, brood-feeding glands, and barbs on the sting. Under certain conditions (for example, if the colony becomes queenless), a worker may develop ovaries.

Worker honey bees perform different behavioural tasks that cause them to be exposed to different local environments.<ref name="jones">{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/ece3.3597|pmid=29321884|pmc=5756847|title=Gut microbiota composition is associated with environmental landscape in honey bees|journal=Ecology and Evolution|volume=8|issue=1|pages=441–451|year=2018|last1=Jones|first1=Julia C|last2=Fruciano|first2=Carmelo|last3=Hildebrand|first3=Falk|last4=Al Toufalilia|first4=Hasan|last5=Balfour|first5=Nicholas J|last6=Bork|first6=Peer|last7=Engel|first7=Philipp|last8=Ratnieks|first8=Francis LW|last9=Hughes|first9=William OH}}</ref><ref name="jones2">{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00040-018-0624-9|pmid=30100619|pmc=6061168|title=The gut microbiome is associated with behavioural task in honey bees|journal=Insectes Sociaux|volume=65|issue=3|pages=419–429|year=2018|last1=Jones|first1=J. C|last2=Fruciano|first2=C|last3=Marchant|first3=J|last4=Hildebrand|first4=F|last5=Forslund|first5=S|last6=Bork|first6=P|last7=Engel|first7=P|last8=Hughes|first8=W. O. H}}</ref> The [[Gut flora|gut microbial]] composition of workers varies according to the landscape and plant species they [[foraging|forage]], such as differences in [[rapeseed]] crops,<ref name=jones/> and with different hive tasks, such as nursing or food processing.<ref name=jones2/>

===Queens===
{{Main|Queen bee}}
Queen honey bees are created when worker bees feed a single female larvae an exclusive diet of a food called "[[royal jelly]]".<ref name=uga/><ref name=perfect/> Queens are produced in oversized cells and develop in only 16 days; they differ in physiology, morphology, and behavior from worker bees. In addition to the greater size of the queen, she has a functional set of ovaries, and a spermatheca, which stores and maintains sperm after she has mated. ''Apis'' queens practice [[polyandry]], with one female mating with multiple males. The highest documented mating frequency for an ''Apis'' queen is in ''[[Apis nigrocincta]]'', where queens mate with an extremely high number of males with observed numbers of different matings ranging from 42 to 69 drones per queen.<ref>Hadisoesilo, Soesilawati. "The Comparative Study of Two Species of Cavity-Nesting Honey Bees of Sulawesi, Indonesia" (PDF).</ref> The sting of queens is not barbed like a worker's sting, and queens lack the glands that produce beeswax. Once mated, queens may lay up to 2,000 eggs per day.<ref name=perfect/> They produce a variety of pheromones that regulate behavior of workers, and helps swarms track the queen's location during the swarming.<ref name=perfect/>

=== Queen-worker conflict ===
{{Main|Worker policing}}
When a fertile female worker produces drones, a conflict arises between her interests and those of the queen. The worker shares half her genes with the drone and one-quarter with her brothers, favouring her offspring over those of the queen. The queen shares half her genes with her sons and one-quarter with the sons of fertile female workers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wenseleers | first1 = T. | last2 = Helanterä | first2 = H. | last3 = Hart | first3 = A. | last4 = Ratnieks | first4 = F. L. W. | year = 2004 | title = Worker reproduction and policing in insect societies: an ESS analysis | url = | journal = Journal of Evolutionary Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 5| pages = 1035–1047 | doi = 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2004.00751.x | pmid = 15312076 }}</ref> This pits the worker against the queen and other workers, who try to maximize their [[reproductive fitness]] by rearing the offspring most related to them. This relationship leads to a phenomenon known as "worker policing". In these rare situations, other worker bees in the hive who are genetically more related to the queen's sons than those of the fertile workers will patrol the hive and remove worker-laid eggs. Another form of worker-based policing is aggression toward fertile females.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ratnieks | first1 = F. | last2 = Visscher | first2 = P. Kirk | year = 1989 | title = Worker policing in the honeybee | url = | journal = Nature | volume = 342 | issue = 6251| pages = 796–797 | doi = 10.1038/342796a0 | bibcode=1989Natur.342..796R}}</ref> Some studies have suggested a queen pheromone which may help workers distinguish worker- and queen-laid eggs, but others indicate egg viability as the key factor in eliciting the behavior.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Pirk | first1 = C. | last2 = Neumann | first2 = P. | last3 = Hepburn | first3 = R. | last4 = Moritz | first4 = R. | last5 = Tautz | first5 = J. | year = 2003 | title = Egg viability and worker policing in honey bees | url = | journal = PNAS | volume = 101 | issue = 23| pages = 8649–8651 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0402506101 | pmc = 423249 | bibcode = 2004PNAS..101.8649P }}</ref><ref>Oldroyd, B., and Francis Ratnieks. (2002) Egg-marking pheromones in honey-bees Apis mellifera. Behavior Ecology and Sociobiology, 51: 590–591. {{doi|10.1007/s00265-002-0480-4}}</ref> Worker policing is an example of [[coercion|forced altruism]], where the benefits of worker reproduction are minimized and that of rearing the queen's offspring maximized.

In very rare instances workers subvert the policing mechanisms of the hive, laying eggs which are removed at a lower rate by other workers; this is known as anarchic syndrome. Anarchic workers can activate their ovaries at a higher rate and contribute a greater proportion of males to the hive. Although an increase in the number of drones would decrease the overall productivity of the hive, the reproductive fitness of the drones' mother would increase. Anarchic syndrome is an example of selection working in opposite directions at the [[Unit of selection|individual and group levels]] for the stability of the hive.<ref>Barron, A., Oldroyd, B, and Ratnieks, F.L.W. (2001) Worker reproduction in honey-bees (Apis) and the anarchic syndrome: a review. Behavior Ecology and Sociobiology, 50: 199–208. {{doi|10.1007/s002650100362}}</ref>

Under ordinary circumstances the death (or removal) of a queen increases reproduction in workers, and a significant proportion of workers will have active ovaries in the absence of a queen. The workers of the hive produce a last batch of drones before the hive eventually collapses. Although during this period worker policing is usually absent, in certain groups of bees it continues.<ref>Châline, N., Martin, S.J., and Ratnieks, F.L.W. Worker policing persists in a hopelessly queenless honey bee colony (Apis mellifera). (2004) Insectes Soc, 51: 1–4. {{doi|10.1007/s00040-003-0708-0}}</ref>

According to the strategy of [[kin selection]], worker policing is not favored if a queen does not mate multiple times. Workers would be related by three-quarters of their genes, and the difference in [[Coefficient of relationship|relationship]] between sons of the queen and those of the other workers would decrease. The benefit of policing is negated, and policing is less favored. Experiments confirming this hypothesis have shown a correlation between higher mating rates and increased rates of worker policing in many species of social [[hymenoptera]].<ref>Davies, N.R., Krebs, J.R., and West, S.A. An Introduction to Behavioral Ecology. 4th ed. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. Print. pp. 387–388</ref>

==Defense==
{{Main|Bee sting}}
{{more citations needed|section|date=June 2018}}
[[File:Honeybee thermal defence01.jpg|thumb|''[[Apis cerana japonica]]'' forming a ball around two [[Asian giant hornet|hornets]]: The body heat trapped by the ball will overheat and kill the hornets.]]
All honey bees live in colonies where the workers [[Bee sting|sting]] intruders as a form of defense, and alarmed bees release a [[pheromone]] that stimulates the attack response in other bees. The different species of honey bees are distinguished from all other bee species (and virtually all other [[Hymenoptera]]) by the possession of small barbs on the sting, but these barbs are found only in the worker bees.

The sting apparatus, including the barbs, may have evolved specifically in response to predation by vertebrates, as the barbs do not usually function (and the sting apparatus does not detach) unless the sting is embedded in fleshy tissue. While the sting can also penetrate the membranes between joints in the exoskeleton of other insects (and is used in fights between queens), in the case of ''Apis cerana japonica'', defense against larger insects such as predatory wasps (e.g. [[Asian giant hornet]]) is usually performed by surrounding the intruder with a mass of defending worker bees, which vibrate their muscles vigorously to raise the temperature of the intruder to a lethal level ("balling").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/midorcas/animalphysiology/websites/2001/Thawley/defense.htm |title=Heat tolerance as a weapon |author=C. H. Thawley |publisher=[[Davidson College]] |accessdate=June 1, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20131002163618/http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/midorcas/animalphysiology/websites/2001/Thawley/defense.htm |archivedate=October 2, 2013 |df= }}</ref> Previously, heat alone was thought to be responsible for killing intruding wasps, but recent experiments have demonstrated the increased temperature in combination with increased carbon dioxide levels within the ball produce the lethal effect.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Heat and carbon dioxide generated by honeybees jointly act to kill hornets|journal=[[Naturwissenschaften]] |year=2009 |author1=Michio Sugahara |author2=Fumio Sakamoto |volume=96 |issue=9 |pages=1133–6 |doi=10.1007/s00114-009-0575-0 |pmid=19551367|bibcode=2009NW.....96.1133S }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Victoria Gill |title=Honeybee mobs overpower hornets |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8129536.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=July 3, 2009 |accessdate=July 5, 2009}}</ref> This phenomenon is also used to kill a queen perceived as intruding or defective, an action known to beekeepers as 'balling the queen', named for the ball of bees formed.

Defense can vary based on the habitat of the bee. In the case of those honey bee species with open combs (e.g., ''A. dorsata''), would-be predators are given a warning signal that takes the form of a "[[Mexican wave]]" that spreads as a ripple across a layer of bees densely packed on the surface of the comb when a threat is perceived, and consists of bees momentarily arching their bodies and flicking their wings.<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080909204550.htm Giant Honeybees Use Shimmering 'Mexican Waves' To Repel Predatory Wasps – ScienceDaily]</ref> In cavity dwelling species such as ''[[Apis cerana]]'', ''[[Apis mellifera]]'', and ''[[Apis nigrocincta]]'', entrances to these cavities are guarded and checked for intruders in incoming traffic. Another act of defense against nest invaders, particularly wasps, is "body shaking," a violent and pendulum like swaying of the abdomen, performed by worker bees.<ref>Radloff, Sara E.; Hepburn, H. Randall; Engel, Michael S. (2011). ''Honeybees of Asia''. Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media. {{ISBN|978-3642164217}}.</ref>

===Venom===
The sting and associated venom sac are modified so as to pull free of the body once lodged (autotomy), and the sting apparatus has its own musculature and ganglion that allow it to keep delivering venom once detached.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}} The gland which produces the alarm pheromone is also associated with the sting apparatus. The embedded stinger continues to emit additional alarm pheromone after it has torn loose; other defensive workers are thereby attracted to the sting site. The worker dies after the sting becomes lodged and is subsequently torn loose from the bee's abdomen. The honey bee's venom, known as [[apitoxin]], carries several active components, the most abundant of which is [[melittin]],<ref name="Chen_2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen J, Guan SM, Sun W, Fu H | title = Melittin, the Major Pain-Producing Substance of Bee Venom | journal = Neuroscience Bulletin | volume = 32 | issue = 3 | pages = 265–72 | year = 2016 | pmid = 26983715 | pmc = 5563768 | doi = 10.1007/s12264-016-0024-y }}</ref> and the most biologically active are [[enzyme]]s, particularly [[phospholipase A2]].<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=4548770|year=2015|author1=Ramanadham|first1=S|title=Calcium-independent phospholipases A2 and their roles in biological processes and diseases|journal=Journal of Lipid Research|volume=56|issue=9|pages=1643–1668|last2=Ali|first2=T|last3=Ashley|first3=J. W|last4=Bone|first4=R. N|last5=Hancock|first5=W. D|last6=Lei|first6=X|doi=10.1194/jlr.R058701|pmid=26023050}}</ref>

Bee venom is under laboratory and [[clinical research]] for its potential properties and uses in reducing risks for [[adverse event]]s from bee venom [[therapy]],<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=4440710|year=2015|author1=Park|first1=J. H|title=Risk Associated with Bee Venom Therapy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=PLOS One|volume=10|issue=5|pages=e0126971|last2=Yim|first2=B. K|last3=Lee|first3=J. H|last4=Lee|first4=S|last5=Kim|first5=T. H|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0126971|pmid=25996493}}</ref> [[rheumatoid arthritis]],<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=4225238|year=2014|author1=Lee|first1=J. A|title=Bee venom acupuncture for rheumatoid arthritis: A systematic review of randomised clinical trials|journal=BMJ Open|volume=4|issue=11|pages=e006140|last2=Son|first2=M. J|last3=Choi|first3=J|last4=Jun|first4=J. H|last5=Kim|first5=J. I|last6=Lee|first6=M. S|doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006140|pmid=25380812}}</ref> and use as an [[immunotherapy]] for protection against [[allergy|allergies]] from insect stings.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=23076950|year=2012|author1=Boyle|first1=R. J|title=Venom immunotherapy for preventing allergic reactions to insect stings|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=10|pages=CD008838|last2=Elremeli|first2=M|last3=Hockenhull|first3=J|last4=Cherry|first4=M. G|last5=Bulsara|first5=M. K|last6=Daniels|first6=M|last7=Oude Elberink|first7=J. N|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008838.pub2|url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/67436563/Boyle_et_al_2012_Cochrane_Database_of_Systematic_Reviews.pdf}}</ref> Bee venom products are marketed in many countries, but, as of 2018, there are no approved clinical uses for these products which carry various warnings for potential allergic reactions.<ref name="drugs">{{cite web |title=Wasp and Bee venom |url=https://www.drugs.com/pro/wasp-and-bee-venom.html |publisher=Drugs.com |accessdate=29 June 2018 |date=2018}}</ref>

==Competition==
With an increased number of honey bees in a specific area due to beekeeping, domesticated bees and native wild bees often have to compete for the limited habitat and food sources available.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hudewenz|first=Anika|last2=Klein|first2=Alexandra-Maria|date=2013-12-01|title=Competition between honey bees and wild bees and the role of nesting resources in a nature reserve|journal=Journal of Insect Conservation|language=en|volume=17|issue=6|pages=1275–1283|doi=10.1007/s10841-013-9609-1|issn=1366-638X}}</ref> European bees may become defensive in response to the seasonal arrival of competition from other colonies, particularly Africanized bees which may be on the offence and defense year round due to their tropical origin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Brian R.|last2=Nieh|first2=James C.|date=2010-11-01|title=Modeling the Adaptive Role of Negative Signaling in Honey Bee Intraspecific Competition|journal=Journal of Insect Behavior|language=en|volume=23|issue=6|pages=459–471|doi=10.1007/s10905-010-9229-5|issn=0892-7553|pmc=2955239|pmid=21037953}}</ref> In the [[United Kingdom]], honey bees are known to compete with ''[[Bombus hortorum]]'', a bumblebee species, because they forage at the same sites. To resolve the issue and maximize both their total consumption during foraging, bumblebees forage early in the morning, while honey bees forage during the afternoon.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Extrapolating from Honeybees to Bumblebees in Pesticide Risk Assessment|last = Thompson|first = Helen|date = 1999|journal = Ecotoxicology|doi = |pmid = |last2 = Hunt|first2 = Lynn|pages = 147–166}}</ref>

==Communication==
{{Main|Bee learning and communication}}
Honey bees are known to communicate through many different chemicals and odors, as is common in insects. They also rely on a sophisticated dance language that conveys information about the distance and direction to a specific location (typically a nutritional source, e.g., flowers or water). The dance language is also used during the process of reproductive fission, or swarming, when scouts communicate the location and quality of nesting sites.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/honey-bee-dance-language|title=The Honey Bee Dance Language|last=Tarpy|first=David|date=2016|website=NC State Extension|access-date=}}</ref>

The details of the signalling being used vary from species to species; for example, the two smallest species, ''[[Apis andreniformis]]'' and ''A. florea'', dance on the upper surface of the comb, which is horizontal (not vertical, as in other species), and worker bees orient the dance in the actual compass direction of the resource to which they are recruiting.

''[[Apis mellifera carnica]]'' honey bees use their antennae asymmetrically for social interactions with a strong lateral preference to use their right antennae.<ref name=sr2045>{{cite journal|last=Rogers|first=Lesley J.|author2=Elisa Rigosi |author3=Elisa Frasnelli |author4=Giorgio Vallortigara |title=A right antenna for social behaviour in honeybees|journal=Scientific Reports|date=27 June 2013|issue=|pages=2045|doi=10.1038/srep02045|pmid=23807465|pmc=3694496|volume=3|bibcode=2013NatSR...3E2045R}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/351355/description/Honeybees_use_right_antennae_to_tell_friend_from_foe|title=Honeybees use right antennae to tell friend from foe|author=Jessica Shugart|work=Science News|accessdate=12 March 2016}}</ref>

There has been speculation as to honeybee [[consciousness]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/19/science/honeybees-insects-consciousness-brains.html|title=Do Honeybees Feel? Scientists Are Entertaining the Idea|first=James|last=Gorman|date=18 April 2016|publisher=|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref>

==Symbolism==
{{Main|Bee (mythology)}}

The bee was used as a symbol of government by [[Napoleon I of France|Emperor Napoleon I]] of France.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.napoleon.org/en/essential_napoleon/symbols/index.asp |title=The symbols of empire |publisher=Napoleon.org |accessdate=June 1, 2010}}</ref> Both the [[Hindu]] ''[[Atharva Veda]]''<ref>"O Asvins, lords of brightness, anoint me with the honey of the bee, that I may speak forceful speech among men! ''Atharva Veda'' 91–258, quoted in Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat (Anthea Bell, tr.) ''The History of Food'', 2nd ed. 2009:14.</ref> and the ancient Greeks associated lips anointed with honey with the gift of eloquence and even of prescience. The priestess at [[Delphi]] was the "Delphic Bee". The ''[[Quran]]'' has a chapter titled "[[An-Nahl|The Bee]]". In ancient Egyptian mythology, honeybees were believed to be born from the tears of the [[Sun God]], [[Ra]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/may/24/honey-i-love-you-our-40000-year-relationship-with-the-humble-bee|title=Honey, I love you: our 40,000-year relationship with the humble bee|author=Holly Norton|date=24 May 2017|newspaper=The Guardian|accessdate=29 June 2018}}</ref>

A community of honey bees has often been employed by political theorists as a model of human society, from Aristotle and Plato to Virgil.<ref>Virgil, ''[[Georgics]]'', book IV.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Bee Wilson |year=2004 |title=The Hive: The Story of the Honeybee |publisher=[[John Murray (publisher)|John Murray]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-7195-6598-4 |page=14}}</ref> Honey bees, signifying immortality and resurrection, were royal emblems of the [[Merovingians]]. The state of [[Utah]] is called the "Beehive State", the state emblem is the beehive, the state insect is the honey bee, and a beehive and the word "industry" appear on both the state flag and seal.<ref>{{citeweb |title=Utah State Motto and Emblem |url=http://onlinelibrary.utah.gov/research/utah_symbols/motto.html|publisher=Utah State Library |accessdate=2017-10-13}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150">
File:Bienenkoenigin.JPG|A coloured dot applied by a beekeeper identifies the [[queen bee|queen]]
File:Honeybee02.jpg|Foragers loaded with pollen on the hive landing board
File:Cerana.jpg|[[Eastern honey bee]] (''A. cerana'') in [[Hong Kong]]
File:ApisDorsataHive.jpg|[[Apis dorsata|Giant honey bee]] (''A. dorsata'')
File:Pollinationn.jpg|Honey bee visiting flowers
File:Natural Beehive and Honeycombs.jpg|A colony of giant honey bees (''A. dorsata'') on their comb
File:Honey Bee Pollinating.webm|Pollinating flowers
File:Bee-apis.jpg|Genus ''Apis''
File:Honey bee on rock rose.jpg|''Apis mellifera'' on rock rose (Cistus) in Oakland, California
File:Green Bee-eater Merops orientalis feeding on Honey-bee by Dr. Raju Kasambe DSCN1640 (1).jpg|A predator, the green bee-eater
</gallery>

==See also==
* {{Portal-inline|size=tiny|Honey bees}}
* [[Bees and toxic chemicals]]
* [[Honey bee life cycle]]
* ''[[More than Honey]]'' – a 2012 Swiss documentary film about honey bees
* [[Honeybee starvation]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Apis (insect)}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://watch.opb.org/video/2365583178/ Could a Mushroom Save a Honeybee?] Documentary produced by [[Oregon Field Guide]], 14 October 2015
* {{Wikispecies inline|Apis|''Apis''}}

{{BeeColonyMemberTypes}}
{{Insects in culture}}
{{Eusociality}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q102857}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Honey Bee}}
[[Category:Apis (genus)]]
[[Category:Beekeeping]]
[[Category:Symbols of Mississippi]]
[[Category:Matriarchism among animals]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Extant Oligocene first appearances]]
[[Category:Insects in culture]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Symbols of New Jersey]]

List of Greek and Latin roots in English/C

2018-11-12T15:41:52Z

66.172.182.2: i dont like wikipedia

==C==

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%"
|-
! Root !! Meaning in English !! Origin language !! Etymology (root origin) !! English examples
|-
| '''c
| '''chlor-'''<ref>{{LSJ|xlwro/s|χλωρός|shortref}}</ref> || [[green]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|χλωρός}} ({{grc-transl|χλωρός}}) || [[chloranthy]], [[chlorine]], [[chlorophobia]], [[chlorophyll]], [[chloroplast]], [[pyrochlore]]
|-
| '''chondr-''' || [[cartilage]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|χόνδρος}} ({{grc-transl|χόνδρος}}) || [[hypochondriasis]], [[osteochondritis]]
|-
| '''chore-''' || relating to [[dance]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|χορεία}} ({{grc-transl|χορεία}}) "dancing in unison" from {{wikt-lang|grc|χορός}} ({{grc-transl|χορός}}) "chorus" || [[chorea]], [[choree]], [[choreia]], [[choreography]], chorus, [[hemichorea]]
|-
| '''chord-'''<ref>{{LSJ|xordh/|χορδή|shortref}}</ref> || [[cord (sewing)|cord]] || Latin and Greek || {{wikt-lang|la|chorda}} "rope" from {{wikt-lang|grc|χορδή}} ({{grc-transl|χορδή}}) || [[chordata]], cord, [[hexachord]], [[monochord]], [[polychord]], [[tetrachord]]
|-
| '''chres-''' || use || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|χράω}}, [[wikt:χράομαι#Ancient Greek|χρῆσθαι]] ({{grc-transl|χρῆσθαι}}), [[wikt:χρηστός#Ancient Greek|χρηστός]] (''khrēstós''), χρήστης, {{wikt-lang|grc|χρῆσις}} ({{grc-transl|χρῆσις}}), χρήσιμος || chresard, [[chresonym]], chrestomathic, [[chrestomathy]], [[heterochresonym]], heterochresonymy, [[orthochresonym]], orthochresonymy
|- id="chro-"
| '''chro-''', '''chrom-''' || [[color]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|χρῶμα}} ({{grc-transl|χρῶμα}}) || [[achromat]], achromatic, achromatism, [[achromatopsia]], [[achromatopsic]], amphichroic, [[apochromat]], [[auxochrome]], chroma, chromatic, [[chromatid]], [[chromatophore]], chrome, [[chromium]], [[chromogen]], [[chromolithography]], [[chromophobia]], [[chromophore]], [[chromosome]], dichroic, dichroism, dichromatic, [[heliochrome]], heterochromatic, [[heterochromatin]], [[microchromosome]], monochromatic, monochrome, [[photochromism]], [[pleochroism]], polychromatic, [[polychrome]], trichroism, trichromatic, trichromic
|-
| '''chron-'''<ref>{{LSJ|xro/nos|χρόνος|shortref}}</ref> || [[time]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|χρόνος}} ({{grc-transl|χρόνος}}) || [[anachronism]], asynchronous, [[biochronology]], [[chronaxie]], [[chronic (medicine)|chronic]], chronicle, [[chronogram]], [[chronograph]], [[chronology]], [[chronometer watch|chronometer]], [[chronometry]], [[chronophobia]], [[chronophotography]], [[chronostasis]], [[geochronology]], [[heterochrony]], [[hydrochronometer]], [[isochron]], [[protochronism]], synchronic, synchronism, synchronize, synchronous, [[Tautochrone curve|tautochrone]]
|-
| '''chrys-'''<ref>{{LSJ|xruso/s|χρυσός|shortref}}</ref> || [[gold]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|χρυσός}} ({{grc-transl|χρυσός}}), χρύσεος "golden" || chrysalis, [[chryselephantine]], [[Chrysoberyl|chrysolite]], [[chrysophobia]]
|-
| '''cili-''' || [[eyelash]] || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|cilium}} || cilia, supercilious
|-
| '''ciner-''' || ash || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|cinis}}, {{wikt-lang|la|cineris}} || [[incineration]]
|-
| '''cing-''', '''cinct-''' || gird || Latin || ''{{lang|la|cingere}}'', ''{{lang|la|cinctus}}'' || succinct
|-
| '''circ-''' || circle, ring || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|circluus|circulus}}, {{wikt-lang|la|circus}} || circle, circular, circulate, [[circus]]
|-
| '''circum-''' || around || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|circum}} || [[circumcise]], [[circumference]], circumlocution, circumnavigate, circumscribe
|-
| '''cirr-'''<ref>{{LSJ|kirro/s|κιρρός|shortref}}</ref> || [[Orange (colour)|orange]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κιρρός}} ({{grc-transl|κιρρός}}) || [[cirrhosis]]
|-
| '''cirr-''' || curl, [[tentacle]] || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|cirrus}} || [[cirrus cloud|cirrus]]
|-
| '''cit-''' || call, start || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|citare}}, frequentative of {{wikt-lang|la|ciere}} || citation, cite, excite, incite, solicit, solicitous
|-
| '''civ-''' || citizen || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|civis}} || civic, civil, civilian, civility, civilization
|-
| '''clad-'''<ref>{{LSJ|kla/dos|κλάδος|shortref}}</ref> || [[branch]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κλάδος}} ({{grc-transl|κλάδος}}) || clade, [[cladistics]], [[cladogenesis]], [[cladogram]], heterocladic
|-
| '''clam-''' || cry out || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|clamare}} || acclaim, claim, clamor, exclamation, proclamation, reclamation
|-
| '''clar-''' || clear || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|clarus}}, ''{{lang|la|clarare}}'' || clarity, clear, declaration
|-
| '''clast-''' || broken || Greek || κλᾶν, {{wikt-lang|grc|κλαστός}} ({{grc-transl|κλαστός}}), κλάσις, κλάσμα || [[anorthoclase]], [[antanaclasis]], [[clastic]], [[iconoclasm|iconoclast]], [[orthoclase]], [[osteoclast]], [[plagioclase]], [[pyroclastic]], synclastic
|-
| '''claud-''', '''{{nowrap|-clud-}}''', '''claus-''', '''{{nowrap|-clus-}}''' || close, shut || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|claudo|claudere}}, ''{{lang|la|clausus}}'' || clause, claustrophobia, conclude, exclude, exclusive, include, occlusion, occult, recluse, seclude
|-
| '''clav-''' || key || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κλείς}} ({{grc-transl|κλείς}}) "key" from {{wikt-lang|grc|κλείειν}}, ({{grc-transl|κλείειν}}) "to close" || [[clavichord]], [[clavicle]], [[conclave]]
|-
| '''cleist-''' || closed || Greek || κλείειν, {{wikt-lang|grc|κλειστός}} ({{grc-transl|κλειστός}}), κλεῖσμα || [[cleistogamy]], cleistothecium, enterocleisis, [[kleisma]]
|-
| '''cleithr-''' || bar, key || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κλεῖϑρον}} ({{grc-transl|κλεῖϑρον}}) || [[Clathrus]], cleithrophobia, [[cleithrum]]
|- id="cale-"
| '''cle-'''<ref>{{LSJ|kale/w|καλέω|shortref}}</ref> || call || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|ἐκκλησίᾱ}}, {{lang|grc|κλῆσις}}, {{lang|grc|κλητός}} ({{grc-transl|ἐκκλησίᾱ, κλῆσις, κλητός}}) || [[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|ecclesia]], [[Ecclesiastes]], [[ecclesiastic]], [[ecclesiology]], ecclesiophobia, [[epiclesis]], [[paraclete]]
|-
| '''clement-''' || mild || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|clemens}}, ''{{lang|la|clementis}}'' || [[clemency]], inclement
|-
| '''clin-''' || [[bed]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κλίνη}} ({{grc-transl|κλίνη}}) || clinic
|-
| '''clin-''' || lean, recline || Latin || ''{{lang|la|-clinare}}'' || decline, [[declination]], incline, inclination, recline
|-
| '''cochl-'''<ref>{{LSJ|ko/xlos|κόχλος|shortref}}</ref> || snail, spiral [[Animal shell|shell]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κόχλος}} ({{grc-transl|κόχλος}}) || cochlea
|-
| '''coel-''' || hollow || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κοῖλος}} ({{grc-transl|κοῖλος}}) || [[blastocoel]], [[coelom]], [[coelomate]], [[coelomic]], [[enterocoely]], [[pseudocoelomate]], sarcocele, schizocoelomate, [[schizocoely]], spongocoel
|-
| '''col-''' || strain || Latin || ''{{lang|la|colare}}'', {{wikt-lang|la|cōlum}} || [[colander]], [[coulee]], [[coulis]], coulisse, couloir, cullender, cullis, percolate, [[percolation]], percolator, [[piña colada]], [[portcullis]]
|-
| '''col-''', '''cult-''' || cultivate, till, inhabit || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|colo|colere}}, {{wikt-lang|la|cultus}} || acculturate, acculturation, [[agriculture]], [[apiculture]], bicultural, colonial, colony, countercultural, counterculture, cult, cultivable, cultivate, cultivation, [[cultivator]], cultural, culturati, culture, deculturate, deculturation, incult, [[inculturation]], [[inquiline]], inquilinity, inquilinous, intercultural, multicultural, postcolonial, precolonial, subcultural, subculture
|-
| '''coll-''' || [[hill]] || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|collis}} || colliculus
|-
| '''coll-''' || [[neck]] || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|collum}} || accolade, [[col]], [[Collar (clothing)|collar]], decollate, [[decollation]], décolletage, encollar
|-
| '''color-''' || color || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|color}} || bicolor, [[Colorado]], coloration, [[coloratura]], concolorous, decolor, discolor, discoloration, encolor, multicolor, quadricolor, recolor, tricolor, unicolor, versicolor
|-
| '''com-''' || friendly, kind || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|cōmis}} "courteous, kind" || comity
|-
| '''con-''', '''co-''', '''col-''', '''com-''', '''cor-'''<ref>{{L&S|cum1|cum|ref|access-date=September 3, 2016}}
: "In compounds ''com-'' was unchanged before ''b'', ''p'', ''m'', and in ''comes'' and its derivatives; ''m'' was usu. assimilated before ''r'', sometimes before ''l'', but was usu. dropped before ''n''; before other consonants ''m'' became ''n'', but ''conicio'' was written for ''coniicio''. Before a vowel (or ''h'') ''m'' was dropped."</ref> || with, together || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|cum}} || coagulate, collide, compress, connect, connote, contain, corrode, quondam
|-
| '''con-'''<ref>{{LSJ|kw{{=}}nos|κῶνος|shortref}}</ref> || [[cone (geometry)|cone]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κῶνος}} ({{grc-transl|κῶνος}}), {{lang|grc|κωνικός}} ({{grc-transl|κωνικός}}) || [[Conic section|conic]], conical, conicoid, conodont, [[conoid]], conoscope, [[orthocone]], [[orthoconic]], [[Polyconic projection|polyconic]]
|-
| '''condi-''' || season || Latin || ''{{lang|la|condire}}'' || [[condiment]]
|-
| '''contra-''' || against || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|contra}} || contraband, [[contraception]], contradict, contraindicate, [[Contrast (vision)|contrast]], contravene
|-
| '''copi-''' || plenty || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|copia}} || copious, copy, cornucopia
|-
| '''copr-'''<ref>{{LSJ|ko/pros|κόπρος|shortref}}</ref> || [[feces|dung]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κόπρος}} ({{grc-transl|κόπρος}}) || copremia, [[coprographia]], [[coprolagnia]], [[coprolalia]], [[coprolite]], coprolith, [[coprology]], [[coprophagia]], coprophagy, [[coprophilia]], [[copropraxia]], encopresis, encopretic
|-
| '''copul-''' || bond || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|copula}} "that which binds" || copula, copulation, couple
|-
| '''cor-''', '''cord-''' || [[heart]] || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|cor}}, {{wikt-lang|la|cordis}} || accord, accordance, accordant, accordatura, concord, concordance, concordant, [[concordat]], corcle, cordate, cordial, cordiality, cordiform, core, courage, courageous, discord, discordance, discordant, discourage, discouragement, encourage, encouragement, [[misericord]], nonaccordant, obcordate, record, [[scordatura]]
|-
| '''corac-'''<ref>{{LSJ|ko/rac|κόραξ|shortref}}</ref> || [[raven]] || Greek || {{lang|grc|κόραξ, κόρακος}} ({{grc-transl|κόραξ, κόρακος}}) || [[coracoid]]
|-
| '''cori-''' || hide, leather || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|corium}}, ''{{lang|la|corii}}'' || coriaceous, corious, corium, [[cuirass]], [[cuirassier]], cuirie, excoriate, excoriation
|-
| '''corn-''' || [[Horn (anatomy)|horn]] || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|cornū}} || [[bicorn]], [[bicorne]], [[Capricorn (astrology)|Capricorn]], [[cornea]], [[corneal]], corneous, corner, cornicle, corniculate, corniferous, [[cornification]], corniform, [[cornucopia]], [[quadricorn]], quadricornous, tricorn, [[tricorne]], tricornigerous, tricornute, [[unicorn]], unicornous
|-
| '''coron-''' || [[Crown (headgear)|crown]] || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|corona}}, {{wikt-lang|la|corono|coronare}} || [[corona]], [[coronation]], [[coronavirus]], coroner, coronet, coroniform, Coronilla, crown, incoronate
|-
| '''corpor-''' || [[Human body|body]] || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|corpus}}, {{wikt-lang|la|corporis}} || accorporate, bicorporal, concorporate, concorporation, corporal, corporality, corporate, [[corporation]], corporative, corporature, corporeal, corporeality, corporeity, corps, corpse, corpulence, corpulent, corpus, corpuscle, corpuscular, disincorporate, disincorporation, extracorporeal, incorporal, incorporality, incorporate, incorporation, incorporeal, incorporeality, incorporeity, tricorporal
|-
| '''cortic-''' || [[Bark (botany)|bark]] || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|cortex}}, {{wikt-lang|la|corticis}} || cortical, [[corticate]], corticiform, corticifugal, corticipetal, decorticate, decortication, decorticator
|-
| '''cosm-'''<ref>{{LSJ|ko/smos|κόσμος|shortref}}</ref> || [[universe]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κόσμος}} ({{grc-transl|κόσμος}}) || cosmic, cosmogeny, cosmogony, cosmology, [[cosmonaut]], cosmopolitan, cosmopolite, cosmos, [[Macrocosm and microcosm|microcosm]]
|-
| '''cosmet-''' || the art of dress and ornament || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κοσμέω|κοσμεῖν}} ({{grc-transl|κοσμεῖν}}), {{lang|grc|κοσμητική}} ({{grc-transl|κοσμητική}}) from {{lang|grc|κόσμος}} ({{grc-transl|κόσμος}}) || cosmesis, [[cosmetics]], cosmetologist, [[cosmetology]]
|-
| '''cost-''' || [[rib]] || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|costa}} || accost, bicostate, [[coast]], coastal, costa, costal, costate, curvicostate, [[entrecôte]], infracostal, intercostal, intracoastal, multicostate, quadricostate, supracostal, tricostate, unicostate
|-
| '''cotyl-'''<ref>{{LSJ|kotu/lh|κοτύλη|shortref}}</ref> || [[Drinkware|cup]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κοτύλη}} ({{grc-transl|κοτύλη}}) || [[cotyledon]], [[dicotyledon]], [[dicotyledonous]], [[Eudicots|eudicotyledon]], [[monocotyledon]], [[monocotyledonous]], tricotyledonous
|-
| '''-cracy''', '''{{nowrap|-crat}}''' || government, rule, authority || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κράτος}} ({{grc-transl|κράτος}}), {{lang|grc|κρατία}} ({{grc-transl|κρατία}}) || [[acrasia]], [[akrasia]], akratic, [[anocracy]], aristocracy, [[autocracy]], autocrat, autocratic, bureaucracy, [[democracy]], democratic, pancratium, [[plutocracy]], [[technocracy]], [[technocrat]], [[theocracy]]
|-
| '''crani-'''<ref>{{LSJ|krani/on|κρανίον|shortref}}</ref> || [[skull]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κρανίον}} ({{grc-transl|κρανίον}}) || craniologist, [[craniometry]], [[craniosynostosis]], cranium, hemicrania, megrim, [[migraine]]
|-
| '''crass-''' || thick || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|crassus}} || crass, crassitude, crassulaceous
|-
| '''crea-''' || make || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|creo|creare}}, ''{{lang|la|creatus}}'' || [[Matter creation|creation]], creative, creator, [[Organism|creature]], creole, procreation, recreation
|-
| '''cred-''' || believe, trust || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|credo|credere}}, ''{{lang|la|creditus}}'' || accreditation, credence, credentials, credibility, credible, credit, creditor, credo, credulity, credulous, creed, discredit, incredible, incredulous, miscreant, recreant
|-
| '''crepid-'''<ref>{{LSJ|krhpi/s|κρηπίς|shortref}}</ref> || [[boot]], [[shoe]] || Greek || {{lang|grc|κρηπίς, κρηπίδος}} ({{grc-transl|κρηπίς, κρηπίδος}}), {{lang|grc|κρηπίδιον, κρηπίδωμα}} || [[crepidoma]]
|-
| '''cresc-''' || grow, rise || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|cresco|crescere}} || accresce, accrescence, accrescent, accrete, accretion, accrue, concrete, crescendo, crescent, crew, decrease, increase, recruit, recruitment, surcrew
|-
| '''cribr-''' || [[sieve]] || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|cribrum}}, ''{{lang|la|cribrare}}'' || cribble, cribellate, [[cribellum]], cribrate, cribriform, garble
|-
| '''cric-'''<ref>{{LSJ|kri/kos|κρίκος|shortref}}</ref> || [[wikt:ring#English|ring]] || Greek || {{wikt-lang|grc|κρίκος}} ({{grc-transl|κρίκος}}), {{lang|grc|κρικοειδής}} ({{grc-transl|κρικοειδής}}) || cricoid, [[cricoidectomy]], [[Cricosaurus]], cricothyroid, [[cricothyrotomy]], cricotomy
|-
| '''crisp-''' || curled || Latin || {{wikt-lang|la|crispus}} || [[crape]], crepe, [[crêpe]], crisp, crispate, crispation
|

J. D. Salinger

2018-10-31T16:14:23Z

66.172.182.2:

{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = J. D. Salinger
| image = JD Salinger.jpg
| caption = Salinger in 1950 (photo by [[Lotte Jacobi]])
| birth_name = Jerome David Salinger
| birth_date = {{Birth date|mf=yes|1919|1|1}}
| birth_place = [[Manhattan, New York]], U.S.
| death_date = {{Death date and age|mf=yes|2010|1|27|1919|1|1}}
| death_place = [[Cornish, New Hampshire]], U.S.
| occupation = Writer
| education = [[New York University]] [[Ursinus College]] [[Columbia University]]
| period = 1940–1965
| movement =
| notableworks = ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' (1951) ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' (1953) ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction]]'' (1963) ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' (1961)
| spouse = {{marriage|Sylvia Welter |1945|1947|end=divorced}} {{marriage|Claire Douglas |1955|1967|end=divorced}} {{marriage|Colleen O'Neill |1988}}
| children = Margaret Salinger [[Matt Salinger]]
| signature = J. D. Salinger Signature.svg
| parents = Marie Salinger Sol Salinger
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Jerome David Salinger''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|69|ᵻ|n|dʒ|ər}}; January 1, 1919{{spnd}} January 27, 2010) was an American writer known for his widely read novel, ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]''. Following his early success publishing short stories and ''The Catcher in the Rye'', Salinger led a very private life for more than a half-century. He published his final original work in 1965 and gave his last interview in 1980.

Salinger was raised in [[Manhattan]] and began writing short stories while in secondary school. Several were published in ''[[Story (magazine)|Story]]'' magazine<ref>"J. D. Salinger". EXPLORING Novels. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Web. November 9, 2010.</ref> in the early 1940s before he began serving in [[World War II]]. In 1948, his critically acclaimed story "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" appeared in ''[[The New Yorker]]'' magazine, which became home to much of his later work. ''The Catcher in the Rye'' was published in 1951 and became an immediate popular success. His depiction of adolescent alienation and loss of innocence in the protagonist [[Holden Caulfield]] was influential, especially among adolescent readers.<ref name="sonny">{{Cite news|last=Skow |first=John |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,938775,00.html |title=Sonny: An Introduction |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=September 15, 1961 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref> The novel remains widely read and controversial,{{efn|See Beidler's ''A Reader's Companion to J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye''.}} selling around 250,000 copies a year.

The success of ''The Catcher in the Rye'' led to public attention and scrutiny. Salinger became reclusive, publishing new work less frequently. He followed ''Catcher'' with a short story collection, ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' (1953); a volume containing a novella and a short story, ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' (1961); and a volume containing two novellas, ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters]]'' and ''[[Seymour: An Introduction]]'' (1963). His last published work, a novella entitled "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", appeared in ''The New Yorker'' on June 19, 1965. Afterward, Salinger struggled with unwanted attention, including a legal battle in the 1980s with biographer [[Ian Hamilton (critic)|Ian Hamilton]] and the release in the late 1990s of memoirs written by two people close to him: [[Joyce Maynard]], an ex-lover; and Margaret Salinger, his daughter. In 1996, a small publisher announced a deal with Salinger to publish "Hapworth 16, 1924" in book form, but amid the ensuing publicity the release was indefinitely delayed.<ref name="BBCNews">{{Cite AV media|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p042pqff|accessdate=August 3, 2016|title=The Reclusive JD Salinger}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/arts/books/features/65210/ |date=April 4, 2010 |title=Betraying Salinger |publisher=[[New York Magazine]] |accessdate=April 16, 2010}}</ref> He made headlines around the globe in June 2009 when he filed a lawsuit against another writer for copyright infringement resulting from that writer's use of one of the characters from ''The Catcher in the Rye''.<ref>Gross D. "[http://www.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/books/06/03/salinger.catcher.lawsuit/index.html Lawsuit targets 'rip-off' of 'Catcher in the Rye']". ''CNN''. Retrieved June 6, 2009.</ref>

Salinger died of natural causes on January 27, 2010, at his home in [[Cornish, New Hampshire]].<ref name="BBCNews2">{{Cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/8486169.stm|title=JD Salinger, author of Catcher in the Rye, dies at 91|work=BBC|accessdate=January 29, 2010 | date=January 29, 2010}}</ref><ref name="DeathABC">{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory?id=9688535|title='Catcher in the Rye' Author J.D. Salinger Dies|last=Italie|first=Hillel|date=January 28, 2010|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=January 28, 2010}}</ref><ref name="death">{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704878904575031273026569184?mod=WSJ_latestheadlines|title=J.D. Salinger Is Dead at Age 91|work=Wall Street Journal|date=January 28, 2010|accessdate=January 28, 2010 | first=Stephen | last=Miller}}</ref> In November 2013, three unpublished stories by Salinger were briefly posted online. One of the stories, "[[The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls]]", is said to be a prequel to ''The Catcher in the Rye''.

==Early life==
[[File:1133 Park Avenue cloudy jeh.jpg|thumb|right|1133 Park Avenue in Manhattan, where Salinger grew up]]
Jerome David Salinger was born in [[Manhattan]], New York on January 1, 1919. His father, Sol Salinger, sold [[Kosher foods|kosher]] cheese, and was from a Jewish family of Lithuanian descent,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aronoff.com/family/i0004005.htm#i4005 |title=The Genealogy of Richard L. Aronoff |publisher=Aronoff.com |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref> his own father having been the rabbi for the [[Adath Jeshurun Congregation]] in [[Louisville, Kentucky]].<ref>Fiene, Donald. "EBSCOhost: J. D. Salinger". EBSCO Publishing Service Selection Page. Web. November 24, 2010. [https://archive.is/20120720161948/http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=10&hid=106&sid=1f91a394-98e5-4b44-a386-0794517d18ee@sessionmgr4&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ==%23db=lfh&AN=MOL0270000268#db=lfh&AN=MOL0270000268 ebscohost.com]</ref> Salinger's mother, Marie (''née'' Jillich), was born in [[Atlantic, Iowa]], of German, Irish, and Scottish descent,<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite news |last=Skow |first=John |url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,938775,00.html |title=Sonny: An Introduction |work=Time | date=September 15, 1961 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/books/excerpt-j-d-salinger-a-life.html|title=Excerpt – J. D. Salinger – By Kenneth Slawenski|last=Slawenski|first=Kenneth|date=2011-02-10|work=The New York Times|access-date=2018-03-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403141657/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/books/excerpt-j-d-salinger-a-life.html|archive-date=2015-04-03|dead-url=|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="D. Salinger 2007">"J. D. Salinger". LitFinder Contemporary Collection. Gale, 2007. Web. November 9, 2010.</ref> but changed her name to Miriam and considered herself Jewish after marrying Salinger's father.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.algemeiner.com/2014/04/27/j-d-salinger-and-the-holocaust/ |title=J.D. Salinger and the Holocaust |publisher=Algemeiner.com |date= April 17, 2014 |accessdate= August 13, 2014}}</ref> Salinger did not learn that his mother was not of Jewish ancestry until just after he celebrated his [[bar mitzvah]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Salinger.html |title= J.D. Salinger |publisher= Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |date= January 1, 1919 |accessdate= January 30, 2010}}</ref> He had only one sibling, an older sister, Doris (1912–2001).<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=32}}</ref>

In youth, Salinger attended public schools on the [[West Side (Manhattan)|West Side of Manhattan]]. Then in 1932, the family moved to [[Park Avenue]], and Salinger was enrolled at the [[McBurney School]], a nearby private school.<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/> Salinger had trouble fitting in at his new school and took measures to conform, such as calling himself Jerry.<ref name="Lutz, Norma Jean"/> His family called him Sonny.<ref name="Hathcock, Barrett 2010">Hathcock, Barrett. "J.D. Salinger". EBSCO. Web. November 8, 2010.</ref> At McBurney, he managed the fencing team, wrote for the school newspaper and appeared in plays.<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/> He "showed an innate talent for drama", though his father opposed the idea of his becoming an actor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=10}}</ref> His parents then enrolled him at [[Valley Forge Military Academy and College|Valley Forge Military Academy]] in [[Wayne, Pennsylvania]].<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/> Salinger began writing stories "under the covers [at night], with the aid of a flashlight".<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=42}}</ref> Salinger was the literary editor of the class yearbook, ''Crossed Sabres''. He also participated in the Glee Club, Aviation Club, French Club, and the [[Staff Noncommissioned Officer|Non-Commissioned Officers]] Club.<ref name="Lutz, Norma Jean">{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002}} {{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

Salinger's Valley Forge [[201 file]] reveals that he was a "mediocre" student, and unlike the [[overachievement]] enjoyed by members of the [[Glass family]] he would go on to write about, his recorded [[IQ]] of 104 was average.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|pp=3–4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oBPBiaBBF24C&pg=PA13|title=J.D. Salinger|author= Raychel Haugrud Reiff|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|date= 2008}}</ref> He graduated in 1936. Salinger started his freshman year at [[New York University]] in 1936. He considered studying [[special education]]<ref>[http://special.library.louisville.edu/display-collection.asp?ID=434 Fiene, Donald M.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109160008/http://special.library.louisville.edu/display-collection.asp?ID=434 |date=January 9, 2008 }} "A Bibliographical Study of J. D. Salinger: Life, Work, and Reputation", M.A. Thesis, [[University of Louisville]], 1962.</ref> but [[High school dropouts|dropped out]] the following spring. That fall, his father urged him to learn about the meat-importing business, and he went to work at a company in the Austrian city of [[Vienna]] and the Polish city of [[Bydgoszcz]].<ref name="thirtynine">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=39}}</ref> Surprisingly, Salinger went willingly, but he was so disgusted by the slaughterhouses that after that, he firmly decided to embark on a different career path. His disgust for the meat business and his rejection of his father probably had a lot to do with his vegetarianism as an adult.<ref>A Brief Biography of J. D. Salinger © April 2002, February 2006, by Sarah Morrill</ref> He left Austria one month before it was [[Anschluss|annexed by Nazi Germany]] on March 12, 1938.

In the fall of 1938, Salinger attended [[Ursinus College]] in [[Collegeville, Pennsylvania]], and wrote a column called "skipped diploma", which included movie reviews.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|p=xiii}}</ref> He dropped out after one semester.<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/><ref name="Hathcock, Barrett 2010"/> In 1939, Salinger attended the [[Columbia University School of General Studies]], where he took a writing class taught by [[Whit Burnett]], longtime editor of ''[[Story (magazine)|Story]]'' magazine. According to Burnett, Salinger did not distinguish himself until a few weeks before the end of the second semester, at which point "he suddenly came to life" and completed three stories.<ref name="burnett">{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=55–58}}. Burnett's quotes were included in ''Fiction Writer's Handbook'', edited by Whit and Hallie Burnett and published in 1975.</ref> Burnett told Salinger that his stories were skillful and accomplished, accepting "[[The Young Folks]]", a [[vignette (literature)|vignette]] about several aimless youths, for publication in ''Story''.<ref name="burnett" /> Salinger's debut short story was published in the magazine's March–April 1940 issue. Burnett became Salinger's mentor, and they corresponded for several years.<ref name="Lutz, Norma Jean"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=55, 63–65}}</ref>

==World War II==
In 1942, Salinger started dating [[Oona O'Neill]], daughter of the playwright [[Eugene O'Neill]]. Despite finding her immeasurably self-absorbed (he confided to a friend that "Little Oona's hopelessly in love with little Oona"), he called her often and wrote her long letters.<ref name="oona">{{Cite book|last=Scovell |first=Jane |title=Oona Living in the Shadows: A Biography of Oona O'Neill Chaplin |year=1998 |publisher=Warner |location=New York |isbn=0-446-51730-5 |page= 87}}</ref> Their relationship ended when Oona began seeing [[Charlie Chaplin]], whom she eventually married.<ref name="trespass">{{Cite news|last=Sheppard |first=R.Z |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,967473-1,00.html |title=Trespassers Will Be Prosecuted: ''In Search of J.D. Salinger'' by Ian Hamilton |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=March 23, 1988 |accessdate=April 14, 2007}}</ref> In late 1941, Salinger briefly worked on a [[Caribbean]] [[cruise ship]], serving as an activity director and possibly as a performer.<ref name="cruise">{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=18}}</ref>

The same year, Salinger began submitting short stories to ''[[The New Yorker]]''. Seven of Salinger's stories were rejected by the magazine that year, including "Lunch for Three", "Monologue for a Watery Highball", and "I Went to School with Adolf Hitler". In December 1941, however, the publication accepted "[[Slight Rebellion off Madison]]", a Manhattan-set story about a disaffected teenager named [[Holden Caulfield]] with "pre-war jitters".<ref name="yagoda">{{Cite book|last=Yagoda |first=Ben |authorlink=Ben Yagoda |title=About Town: The New Yorker and the World It Made |year=2000 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=0-684-81605-9|pages=98, 233}}</ref> When Japan carried out the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] that month, the story was rendered "unpublishable." Salinger was devastated. Later, in [[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters]], he wrote, "I think I'll hate 1942 till I die, just on general principles."<ref>{{cite web|title=Holden Caulfield Hits the Beach|url=https://www.theattic.space/home-page-blogs/salingerbeach|website=The Attic|accessdate=9 July 2018}}</ref> The story did not appear in The New Yorker until 1946.<ref name="yagoda" /> In the spring of 1942, several months after the United States entered [[World War II]], Salinger was [[conscription in the United States|drafted]] into the army, wherein he saw combat with the [[U.S. 12th Infantry Regiment|12th Infantry Regiment]], [[U.S. 4th Infantry Division|4th Infantry Division]].<ref name="cruise" /> He was present at [[Utah Beach]] on [[D-Day]], in the [[Battle of the Bulge]], and the [[Battle of Hürtgen Forest]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=58}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002}}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

During the campaign from Normandy into Germany, Salinger arranged to meet with [[Ernest Hemingway]], a writer who had influenced him and was then working as a war correspondent in Paris.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lamb |first=Robert Paul |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0403/is_n4_v42/ai_20119140/pg_17 |title=Hemingway and the creation of twentieth-century dialogue – American author Ernest Hemingway |publisher=Twentieth Century Literature |date=Winter 1996 |accessdate=July 10, 2007 |format=reprint}}</ref> Salinger was impressed with Hemingway's friendliness and modesty, finding him more "soft" than his gruff public persona.<ref name="baker">{{Cite book|last=Baker |first=Carlos |authorlink=Carlos Baker |title=Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story |year=1969 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |isbn=0-02-001690-5|pages=420, 646}}</ref> Hemingway was impressed by Salinger's writing and remarked: "Jesus, he has a helluva talent."<ref name="sonny" /> The two writers began corresponding; Salinger wrote Hemingway in July 1946 that their talks were among his few positive memories of the war.<ref name="baker" /> Salinger added that he was working on a play about Holden Caulfield, the protagonist of his story "Slight Rebellion off Madison", and hoped to play the part himself.<ref name="baker" />

Salinger was assigned to a [[counter-intelligence]] unit, for which he used his proficiency in French and German to interrogate [[prisoners of war]].<ref name="fiff">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=55}}</ref> In April 1945 he entered a liberated [[concentration camp]], probably one of [[Dachau Concentration Camp|Dachau]]'s sub-camps.<ref name="fiff" /> Salinger earned the rank of Staff Sergeant<ref>"J.D. Salinger". Contemporary Authors Online. 2011.n.pag.Gale. Web. October 20, 2011.</ref> and served in five campaigns.<ref>Slawenski, K. (2011). [https://books.google.com/books?id=pmvwxOFaP6AC&pg=PA100 ''J. D. Salinger: A Life'']. Random House, p. 100.</ref> Salinger's experiences in the war affected him emotionally. He was hospitalized for a few weeks for [[combat stress reaction]] after Germany was defeated,<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=89}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=7}}</ref> and he later told his daughter: "You never really get the smell of burning flesh out of your nose entirely, no matter how long you live."<ref name="fiff"/> Both of his biographers speculate that Salinger drew upon his wartime experiences in several stories,<ref name="at fifty">{{Cite news |last=Menand |first=Louis |authorlink=Louis Menand |url=http://homepage.mac.com/mseffie/assignments/catcher/HoldenatFifty.pdf |title=Holden at Fifty: ''The Catcher in the Rye'' and what it spawned |work=The New Yorker |date=October 1, 2001 |accessdate=July 10, 2007 |format=reprint |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807224322/http://homepage.mac.com/mseffie/assignments/catcher/HoldenatFifty.pdf |archivedate=August 7, 2007 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> such as "[[For Esmé—with Love and Squalor]]", which is narrated by a traumatized soldier. Salinger continued to write while serving in the army, publishing several stories in [[Slick (magazine format)|slick magazines]] such as ''[[Collier's]]'' and ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]''. He also continued to submit stories to ''The New Yorker'', but with little success; it rejected all of his submissions from 1944 to 1946, a group of 15 poems in 1945 alone.<ref name="yagoda" />

==Post-war years==
After Germany's defeat, Salinger signed up for a six-month period of "[[Denazification]]" duty in Germany<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000||p=67}}</ref> for the [[Counterintelligence Corps (United States Army)|Counterintelligence Corps]]. He lived in [[Weißenburg in Bayern|Weissenburg]] and, soon after, married Sylvia Welter. He brought her to the United States in April 1946, but the marriage fell apart after eight months and Sylvia returned to Germany.<ref name="thir">{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=113}}</ref> In 1972, Salinger's daughter Margaret was with him when he received a letter from Sylvia. He looked at the envelope, and without reading it, tore it apart. It was the first time he had heard from her since the breakup, but as Margaret put it, "when he was finished with a person, he was through with them."<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=359}}</ref>

In 1946, Whit Burnett agreed to help Salinger publish a collection of his short stories through ''Story'' Press's Lippincott Imprint.<ref name="young">{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=118–20}}</ref> Titled ''The Young Folks'', the collection was to consist of twenty stories—ten, like the title story and "Slight Rebellion off Madison", were already in print; ten were previously unpublished.<ref name="young" /> Though Burnett implied the book would be published and even negotiated Salinger a $1,000 advance on its sale, Lippincott overruled Burnett and rejected the book.<ref name="young" /> Salinger blamed Burnett for the book's failure to see print, and the two became estranged.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=120, 164, 204–5}}</ref>

By the late 1940s, Salinger had become an avid follower of [[Zen Buddhism]], to the point that he "gave reading lists on the subject to his dates"<ref name="sonny" /> and arranged a meeting with Buddhist scholar [[D. T. Suzuki]].

In 1947, the author submitted a short story titled simply "The Bananafish" to ''The New Yorker''. William Maxwell, the magazine's fiction editor, was impressed enough with "the singular quality of the story" that the magazine asked Salinger to continue revising it. He spent a year reworking it with ''New Yorker'' editors and the magazine accepted the story, now titled "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]", and published it in the January 31, 1948 issue. The magazine thereon offered Salinger a "first-look" contract that allowed them [[right of first refusal]] on any future stories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=124}}</ref> The critical acclaim accorded "Bananafish", coupled with problems Salinger had with stories being altered by the "slicks", led him to publish almost exclusively in ''The New Yorker''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=130}}</ref> "Bananafish" was also the first of Salinger's published stories to feature the [[Glass family|Glasses]], a fictional family consisting of two retired [[vaudeville]] performers and their seven precocious children: [[Seymour Glass|Seymour]], Buddy, Boo Boo, Walt, Waker, Zooey, and Franny.<ref name="glass">{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|pp=97–99}}</ref> Salinger eventually published seven stories about the Glasses, developing a detailed family history and focusing particularly on Seymour, the brilliant but troubled eldest child.<ref name="glass" />

In the early 1940s, Salinger had confided in a letter to Whit Burnett that he was eager to sell the film rights to some of his stories in order to achieve financial security.<ref name="holly">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=75}}</ref> According to Ian Hamilton, Salinger was disappointed when "rumblings from Hollywood" over his 1943 short story "[[The Varioni Brothers]]" came to nothing. Therefore, he immediately agreed when, in mid-1948, independent film producer [[Samuel Goldwyn]] offered to buy the film rights to his short story "[[Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut]]".<ref name="holly" /> Though Salinger sold his story with the hope—in the words of his agent Dorothy Olding—that it "would make a good movie",<ref>{{Cite news|last=Fosburgh |first=Lacey |authorlink=Lacey Fosburgh |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/11/21/archives/why-more-top-novelists-dont-go-hollywood-novelists-who-dont-go.html |title=Why More Top Novelists Don't Go Hollywood |work=The New York Times |date=November 21, 1976 |accessdate=April 6, 2007 |format=fee required}}</ref> the film version of "Wiggily" was lambasted by critics upon its release in 1949.<ref name="berg">[[A. Scott Berg|Berg, A. Scott]]. ''Goldwyn: A Biography''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. {{ISBN|1-57322-723-4}}. p. 446.</ref> Renamed ''[[My Foolish Heart (film)|My Foolish Heart]]'' and starring [[Dana Andrews]] and [[Susan Hayward]], the melodramatic film departed to such an extent from Salinger's story that Goldwyn biographer [[A. Scott Berg]] referred to it as a "[[Corruption (linguistics)|bastardization]]".<ref name="berg" /> As a result of this experience, Salinger never again permitted [[film adaptations]] to be made from his work.<ref name="depos">{{Cite news|url=https://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F50713F63B5A0C718DDDAB0994DE484D81 |title=Depositions Yield J. D. Salinger Details |work=The New York Times |date=December 12, 1986 |accessdate=April 14, 2007 |format=fee required}}</ref> When [[Brigitte Bardot]] wanted to buy the rights to "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]", Salinger refused the request, but told his friend, [[Lillian Ross (journalist)|Lillian Ross]], longtime staff writer for ''The New Yorker'', "She's a cute, talented, lost ''enfante'', and I'm tempted to accommodate her, ''pour le sport''."<ref name="Ross2010">{{Cite journal
| last = Ross
| first = Lillian
| author-link =
| title = The Talk of the Town: Remembrance Bearable
| journal = The New Yorker
| issue = February 8, 2010
| pages = 22–23
| year = 2010
| postscript = }}</ref>

==''The Catcher in the Rye''==
{{Main|The Catcher in the Rye}}
[[File:Catcher-in-the-rye-red-cover.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Cover of ''The Catcher in the Rye'' 1985 edition]]

In the 1940s, Salinger confided to several people that he was working on a novel featuring Holden Caulfield, the teenage protagonist of his short story "Slight Rebellion off Madison",<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=142}}</ref> and ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' was published on July 16, 1951, by Little, Brown and Company.<ref>Salinger, J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1951. hi Print.</ref> The novel's plot is simple,<ref name="simp">{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|p=77}}</ref> detailing 16-year-old Holden's experiences in New York City following his expulsion and departure from an elite [[college preparatory school]]. Not only was he expelled from his current school, he had also been expelled from three previous schools.<ref>Blackstock, Alan. "J.D. Salinger". Magill’s Survey of American, Revised Edition. Pasadena, Ca: Salem Press. EBSCO 2007. Web. Nov. 8</ref> The book is more notable for the persona and testimonial voice of its [[first-person narrative|first-person narrator]], Holden.<ref name="nandel">Nandel, Alan. "The Significance of Holden Caulfield's Testimony". Reprinted in Bloom, Harold, ed. ''Modern Critical Interpretations: J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye''. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2000. pp. 75–89.</ref> He serves as an insightful but [[unreliable narrator]] who expounds on the importance of loyalty, the "phoniness" of adulthood, and his own duplicity.<ref name="nandel" /> In a 1953 interview with a high school newspaper, Salinger admitted that the novel was "sort of" autobiographical, explaining, "My boyhood was very much the same as that of the boy in the book ... [I]t was a great relief telling people about it."<ref>{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|p=4}}</ref>

Initial reactions to the book were mixed, ranging from ''[[The New York Times]]'' hailing ''Catcher'' as "an unusually brilliant first novel"<ref>{{Cite news|last=Burger |first=Nash K |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-rye02.html |title=Books of The Times |work=The New York Times |date=July 16, 1951 |accessdate=July 10, 2007}}</ref> to denigrations of the book's monotonous language and the "immorality and perversion" of Holden,<ref name="virginia">Whitfield, Stephen J. [http://www.vqronline.org/articles/2002/spring/whitfield-raise-high/ "Raise High the Bookshelves, Censors!"] (book review), [[The Virginia Quarterly Review]], Spring 2002. Retrieved November 27, 2007. In a review of the book in ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'', the reviewer found the book unfit "for children to read", writing that they would be influenced by Holden, "as too easily happens when immorality and perversion are recounted by writers of talent whose work is countenanced in the name of art or good intention."</ref> who uses religious slurs and freely discusses casual sex and prostitution.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=117}}</ref> The novel was a popular success; within two months of its publication, ''The Catcher in the Rye'' had been reprinted eight times. It spent 30 weeks on the [[New York Times Bestseller|''New York Times'' Bestseller list]].<ref name="simp" />

The book's initial success was followed by a brief lull in popularity, but by the late 1950s, according to Ian Hamilton, it had "become the book all brooding adolescents had to buy, the indispensable manual from which cool styles of disaffectation could be borrowed."<ref name="cult">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=155}}</ref> It has been compared to [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''.<ref>"J. D. Salinger". Encyclopædia Britannica Online School ed. 2011. Web.</ref> Newspapers began publishing articles about the "Catcher Cult",<ref name="cult" /> and the novel was banned in several countries—as well as some U.S. schools—because of its subject matter and what ''[[Catholic World]]'' reviewer Riley Hughes called an "excessive use of amateur swearing and coarse language".<ref name="swearing">{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|p=97}}</ref> According to one angry parent's tabulation, 237 instances of "goddamn," 58 uses of "bastard", 31 "Chrissakes," and one incident of flatulence constituted what was wrong with Salinger's book.<ref name="swearing"/>

In the 1970s, several U.S. high school teachers who assigned the book were fired or forced to resign. A 1979 study of [[censorship]] noted that ''The Catcher in the Rye'' "had the dubious distinction of being at once the most frequently censored book across the nation and the second-most frequently taught novel in public high schools" (after [[John Steinbeck]]'s ''[[Of Mice and Men]]'').<ref name="cens">{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|pp=82, 78}}</ref> The book remains widely read; in 2004, the novel was selling about 250,000 copies per year, "with total worldwide sales over 10 million copies".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Yardley |first=Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Yardley |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A43680-2004Oct18.html |title=J.D. Salinger's Holden Caulfield, Aging Gracelessly |work=The Washington Post |date=October 19, 2004 |accessdate=November 13, 2011}}</ref>

In the wake of its 1950s success, Salinger received (and rejected) numerous offers to adapt ''The Catcher in the Rye'' for the screen, including one from Samuel Goldwyn.<ref name="berg" /> Since its publication, there has been sustained interest in the novel among filmmakers, with [[Billy Wilder]],<ref>[[Cameron Crowe|Crowe, Cameron]], ed. ''Conversations with Wilder''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999. {{ISBN|0-375-40660-3}}. p. 299.</ref> [[Harvey Weinstein]], and [[Steven Spielberg]]<ref name="post">{{cite web|url=http://entertainment.myway.com/celebgossip/pgsix/id/12_04_2003_1.html |date=December 4, 2003 |title=PAGE SIX; Inside Salinger's Own World |work=New York Post |accessdate=January 18, 2007}}</ref> among those seeking to secure the rights. Salinger stated in the 1970s that "[[Jerry Lewis]] tried for years to get his hands on the part of Holden."<ref name="mayn">{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=93}}</ref> Salinger repeatedly refused, though, and in 1999, Joyce Maynard definitively concluded: "The only person who might ever have played Holden Caulfield would have been J. D. Salinger."<ref name="mayn" />

==Writing in the 1950s and move to Cornish==
In a July 1951 profile in ''Book of the Month Club News'', Salinger's friend and ''New Yorker'' editor [[William Keepers Maxwell, Jr.|William Maxwell]] asked Salinger about his literary influences. Salinger responded: "A writer, when he's asked to discuss his craft, ought to get up and call out in a loud voice just the names of the writers he loves. I love [[Franz Kafka|Kafka]], [[Gustave Flaubert|Flaubert]], [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]], [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]], [[Fyodor Dostoevsky|Dostoevsky]], [[Marcel Proust|Proust]], [[Sean O'Casey|O'Casey]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke|Rilke]], [[Federico García Lorca|Lorca]], [[John Keats|Keats]], [[Arthur Rimbaud|Rimbaud]], [[Robert Burns|Burns]], [[Emily Brontë|E. Brontë]], [[Jane Austen]], [[Henry James]], [[William Blake|Blake]], [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge|Coleridge]]. I won't name any living writers. I don't think it's right" (although O'Casey was in fact living at the time).<ref>Silverman, Al, ed. ''The Book of the Month: Sixty Years of Books in American Life''. Boston: Little, Brown, 1986. {{ISBN|0-316-10119-2}}. pp. 129–130.</ref> In letters written in the 1940s, Salinger had expressed his admiration of three living, or recently deceased, writers: [[Sherwood Anderson]], [[Ring Lardner]], and [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]];<ref name="influ">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=53}}</ref> Ian Hamilton wrote that Salinger even saw himself for some time as "Fitzgerald's successor".<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=64}}</ref> Salinger's "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" has an ending similar to that of Fitzgerald's earlier published short story "[[May Day (short story)|May Day]]".<ref>Smith, Dominic (Fall, 2003). "Salinger's Nine Stories: Fifty Years Later". ''The Antioch Review''.</ref>

Salinger wrote friends of a momentous change in his life in 1952, after several years of practicing Zen Buddhism, while reading ''[[The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna]]'' about [[Hinduism|Hindu]] religious teacher [[Sri Ramakrishna]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=127}}</ref> He became an adherent of Ramakrishna's [[Advaita Vedanta]] Hinduism, which advocated celibacy for those seeking enlightenment, and detachment from human responsibilities such as family.<ref name="vive">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=129}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranchan |first=Som P. |title=An Adventure in Vedanta: J. D. Salinger's The Glass Family |year=1989 |publisher=Ajanta |location=Delhi |isbn=81-202-0245-7 }}</ref> Salinger's religious studies were reflected in some of his writing. The story "[[Teddy (story)|Teddy]]" features a ten-year-old child who expresses [[Vedantic]] insights.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=12}}</ref> He also studied [[Bibliography of Swami Vivekananda|the writings]] of Ramakrishna's disciple [[Vivekananda]]; in the story "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", the character of Seymour Glass describes him as "one of the most exciting, original and best-equipped giants of this century."<ref name="vive" />

In 1953, Salinger published a collection of seven stories from ''The New Yorker'' ("Bananafish" among them), as well as two that the magazine had rejected. The collection was published as ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' in the United States, and "[[For Esmé—with Love and Squalor]]" in the UK, after one of Salinger's best-known stories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=92}}</ref> The book received grudgingly positive reviews, and was a financial success—"remarkably so for a volume of short stories", according to Hamilton.<ref name="niney">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|pp=136–7}}</ref> ''Nine Stories'' spent three months on the ''New York Times'' Bestseller list.<ref name="niney" /> Already tightening his grip on publicity, though, Salinger refused to allow publishers of the collection to depict his characters in dust jacket illustrations, lest readers form preconceived notions of them.

As the notoriety of ''The Catcher in the Rye'' grew, Salinger gradually withdrew from public view. In 1953, he moved from an apartment at
[[300 East 57th Street]],<ref>{{Cite news|last=Leigh |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/30/nyregion/30address.html?scp=1&sq=salinger%20apartment&st=cse |title=300 East 57th Street, Salinger's Last Known Manhattan Home |work=The New York Times |date=January 3, 2010 |accessdate=January 30, 2010}}</ref> New York, to [[Cornish, New Hampshire]]. Early in his time at Cornish he was relatively sociable, particularly with students at Windsor High School. Salinger invited them to his house frequently to play records and talk about problems at school.<ref name="twelve">{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|pp=12–14}}</ref> One such student, Shirley Blaney, persuaded Salinger to be interviewed for the high school page of ''The Daily Eagle'', the city paper. Nonetheless, after Blaney's interview appeared prominently in the newspaper's editorial section, Salinger cut off all contact with the high schoolers without explanation.<ref name="twelve" /> He was also seen less frequently around town, meeting only one close friend—jurist [[Learned Hand]]—with any regularity.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=30}}</ref> He also began to publish with less frequency. After the 1953 publication of ''Nine Stories'', he published only four stories through the rest of the decade; two in 1955 and one each in 1957 and 1959.

==Marriage, family, spiritual beliefs==
In February 1955, at the age of 36, Salinger married Claire Douglas, a [[Radcliffe College|Radcliffe]] student (her father was the art critic [[Robert Langton Douglas]]). They had two children, Margaret (also known as Peggy - born December 10, 1955) and [[Matt Salinger|Matthew]] (born February 13, 1960). Margaret Salinger wrote in her memoir ''Dream Catcher'' that she believes her parents would not have married, nor would she have been born, had her father not read the teachings of [[Lahiri Mahasaya]], a guru of [[Paramahansa Yogananda]], which brought the possibility of enlightenment to those following the path of the "householder" (a married person with children).<ref name="eiga">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=89}}</ref> After their marriage, Salinger and Claire were initiated into the path of [[Kriya yoga]] in a small store-front Hindu temple in Washington, D.C., during the summer of 1955.<ref name="nine">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=90}}</ref> They received a mantra and breathing exercises to practice for ten minutes twice a day.<ref name="nine" />

Salinger also insisted that Claire drop out of school and live with him, only four months shy of graduation, which she did. Certain elements of the story "Franny", published in January 1955, are based on his relationship with Claire, including her ownership of the book ''[[The Way of the Pilgrim]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=84}}</ref> Because of their isolated location and Salinger's proclivities, they hardly saw other people for long stretches of time. Claire was also frustrated by Salinger's ever-changing religious beliefs. Though she committed herself to Kriya yoga, she remembered that Salinger would chronically leave Cornish to work on a story "for several weeks only to return with the piece he was supposed to be finishing all undone or destroyed and some new 'ism' we had to follow."<ref name="Salinger94">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|pp=94–5}}</ref> Claire believed "it was to cover the fact that Jerry had just destroyed or junked or couldn't face the quality of, or couldn't face publishing, what he had created."<ref name="Salinger94" />

After abandoning Kriya yoga, Salinger tried [[Dianetics]] (the forerunner of [[Scientology]]), even meeting its founder [[L. Ron Hubbard]], but according to Claire he was quickly disenchanted with it.<ref name="Salinger94" /><ref>{{Cite news|last=Smith |first=Dinitia |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/library/books/083000salinger-daughter.html |title=Salinger's Daughter's Truths as Mesmerizing as His Fiction |work=The New York Times |date=August 30, 2000 |accessdate=March 9, 2007}}</ref> This was followed by an adherence to a number of spiritual, medical, and nutritional belief systems including an interest in [[Christian Science]], [[Edgar Cayce]], [[homeopathy]], [[acupuncture]], and [[macrobiotics]].<ref name="Salinger, M 2000. p. 195">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=195}}</ref>

Salinger's family life was further marked by discord after the first child was born; according to Margaret's book, Claire felt that her daughter had replaced her in Salinger's affections.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=115}}</ref> The infant Margaret was sick much of the time, but Salinger, having embraced the tenets of Christian Science, refused to take her to a doctor.<ref name="sixteen">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|pp=115–116}}</ref> According to Margaret, her mother admitted to her years later that she went "over the edge" in the winter of 1957 and had made plans to murder her and then commit suicide. Claire had supposedly intended to do it during a trip to New York City with Salinger, but she instead acted on a sudden impulse to take Margaret from the hotel and run away. After a few months, Salinger persuaded her to return to Cornish.<ref name="sixteen" />

==Last publications and Maynard relationship==
[[File:J-D-Salinger-TIME-1961.jpg|thumb|upright|Salinger on the cover of ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' (September 15, 1961)]]
Salinger published ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' in 1961, and ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction]]'' in 1963. Each book contained two short stories or novellas, previously published in ''The New Yorker'', about members of the Glass family. These four stories were originally published between 1955 and 1959, and were the only ones Salinger had published since ''Nine Stories''. On the dust jacket of ''Franny and Zooey'', Salinger wrote, in reference to his interest in privacy: "It is my rather subversive opinion that a writer's feelings of anonymity-obscurity are the second most valuable property on loan to him during his working years."<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,895497,00.html "People"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', August 4, 1961. Retrieved 2007-07-10.</ref>

On September 15, 1961, ''Time'' magazine devoted its cover to Salinger. In an article that profiled his "life of recluse", the magazine reported that the Glass family series "is nowhere near completion ... Salinger intends to write a Glass trilogy."<ref name="sonny" /> Nonetheless, Salinger published only one other story after that: "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", a novella in the form of a long letter from seven-year-old Seymour Glass while at summer camp. His first new work in six years, the novella took up most of the June 19, 1965, issue of ''The New Yorker'', and was universally panned by critics. Around this time, Salinger had isolated Claire from friends and relatives and made her—in the words of Margaret Salinger—"a virtual prisoner".<ref name="Salinger94" /> Claire separated from him in September 1966; their divorce was finalized on October 3, 1967.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=35}}</ref>

In 1972, at the age of 53, Salinger had a relationship with 18-year-old [[Joyce Maynard]] that lasted for nine months. Maynard, at this time, was already an experienced writer for ''[[Seventeen (American magazine)|Seventeen]]'' magazine. ''[[The New York Times]]'' had asked Maynard to write an article for them which, when published as "An Eighteen-Year-Old Looks Back On Life" on April 23, 1972,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/maynard-mag.html |title="An Eighteen-Year-Old Looks Back On Life" |accessdate=2007-04-14 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20001214180000/http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/maynard-mag.html |archivedate=December 14, 2000 |df= }}, ''The New York Times''</ref> made her a celebrity. Salinger wrote a letter to her warning about living with fame. After exchanging 25 letters, Maynard moved in with Salinger the summer after her freshman year at [[Yale University]].<ref name="women">{{Cite news|last=Alexander |first=Paul |url=http://nymag.com/nymetro/arts/features/2162/ |title=J. D. Salinger's Women |work=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] |date=February 9, 1998 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref> Maynard did not return to Yale that fall, and spent ten months as a guest in Salinger's Cornish home. The relationship ended, he told his daughter Margaret at a family outing, because Maynard wanted children, and he felt he was too old.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|pp=361–2}}</ref> Nevertheless, in her own autobiography, Maynard paints a different picture, saying Salinger abruptly ended the relationship and refused to take her back. She had dropped out of Yale to be with him, even forgoing a scholarship. Maynard later writes in her own memoir how she came to find out that Salinger had begun relationships with young women by exchanging letters. One of those letter recipients included Salinger's last wife, a nurse who was already engaged to be married to someone else when she met the author.<ref>{{cite book|last=Maynard|first=Joyce|title=At Home in the World|year=1998}} {{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

While he was living with Maynard, Salinger continued to write in a disciplined fashion, a few hours every morning. According to Maynard, by 1972 he had completed two new novels.<ref>{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=158}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Pollitt |first=Katha |authorlink=Katha Pollitt |url= https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/reviews/980913.13pollitt.html |title=With Love and Squalor |work= The New York Times |date=September 13, 1998 |accessdate=April 14, 2007 }}</ref> In a rare 1974 interview with ''The New York Times'', he explained: "There is a marvelous peace in not publishing ... I like to write. I love to write. But I write just for myself and my own pleasure."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Fosburgh |first=Lacey |authorlink=Lacey Fosburgh |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-speaks.html |title=J. D. Salinger Speaks About His Silence |work=The New York Times |date=November 3, 1974 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref> According to Maynard, he saw publication as "a damned interruption".<ref name="damned">{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=97}}</ref> In her memoir, Margaret Salinger describes the detailed filing system her father had for his unpublished manuscripts: "A red mark meant, if I die before I finish my work, publish this 'as is,' blue meant publish but edit first, and so on."<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=307}}</ref> A neighbor said that Salinger told him that he had written 15 unpublished novels.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/7103758/JD-Salingers-death-sparks-speculation-over-unpublished-manuscripts.html "JD Salinger's death sparks speculation over unpublished manuscripts"], ''The Telegraph'', January 29, 2010</ref>

Salinger's final interview was in June 1980 with Betty Eppes of ''[[The Advocate (Louisiana)|The Baton Rouge Advocate]]'', which has been represented somewhat differently, depending on the secondary source. By one account, Eppes was an attractive young woman who misrepresented herself as an aspiring novelist, and managed to record audio of the interview as well as take several photographs of Salinger, both without his knowledge or consent.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|p=16}}</ref> In a separate account, emphasis is placed on her contact by letter writing from the local Post Office, and Salinger's personal initiative to cross the bridge to meet with the woman, who in the course of the interview made clear she was a reporter (and who did indeed, at the close, take pictures of Salinger as he departed).<ref name="autogenerated4">{{cite web|author=Shane Salerno|year=2014|title=Interview of B. Eppes, in documentary "Salinger"|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/episodes/jd-salinger/film-salinger/2642/|accessdate=January 21, 2014}}</ref> According to the first account, the interview ended "disastrously" when a local passer-by from Cornish attempted to shake the famous author's hand, at which point Salinger became enraged.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|p=15}}</ref> A further account of the interview published later in ''[[The Paris Review]]'', purportedly by Eppes as author, has been disowned by Eppes and separately ascribed as a derived work of Review Editor [[George Plimpton]].<ref name="autogenerated4"/><ref>{{cite journal
| author = Betty Eppes
| year = 1981
| title = What I Did Last Summer
| journal = [[The Paris Review]]
| volume = 23
| issue = 80
| arxiv =
| id =
| bibcode =
| url =
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bettytraxlereppes.wordpress.com/that-jd-salinger-connection/ |title=That J.D. Salinger Connection | Betty Traxler Eppes |publisher=Bettytraxlereppes.wordpress.com |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-visit.html |title=Publishing: Visit With J. D. Salinger |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=September 11, 1981 |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref>

==Legal conflicts==
Although Salinger tried to escape public exposure as much as possible, he continued to struggle with unwanted attention from both the media and the public.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=33}}</ref> Readers of his work and students from nearby [[Dartmouth College]] often came to Cornish in groups, hoping to catch a glimpse of him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|p=79}}</ref> In May 1986 Salinger learned that the British writer [[Ian Hamilton (critic)|Ian Hamilton]] intended to publish a biography that made extensive use of letters Salinger had written to other authors and friends. Salinger sued to stop the book's publication. The court in ''[[Salinger v. Random House]]'' ruled that Hamilton's extensive use of the letters, including quotation and paraphrasing, was not acceptable since the author's right to control publication overrode the right of fair use.
The book was not published.<ref name="lubas">{{Cite news|last=Lubasch |first=Arnold H |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-blocked.html |title=Salinger Biography is Blocked |work=The New York Times |date=January 30, 1987 |accessdate=April 14, 2007}}</ref>
Later, Hamilton published ''In Search of J.D. Salinger: A Writing Life (1935–65)'', but this book was more about his experience in tracking down information and the copyright fights over the planned biography than about Salinger himself.<ref>{{cite book |ref=harv
|last=Sableman|first=Mark |page=265
|title=More Speech, Not Less: Communications Law in the Information Age
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S63dbhsFaYoC&pg=PA265
|date=November 21, 1997|publisher=SIU Press|isbn=978-0-8093-2135-3}}</ref>

An [[unintended consequence]] of the lawsuit was that many details of Salinger's private life, including that he had spent the last twenty years writing, in his words, "Just a work of fiction ... That's all",<ref name="depos" /> became public in the form of court transcripts. Excerpts from his letters were also widely disseminated, most notably a bitter remark written in response to [[Oona O'Neill]]'s marriage to [[Charlie Chaplin]]:
{{quote|
I can see them at home evenings. Chaplin squatting grey and nude, atop his [[chiffonier]], swinging his [[thyroid]] around his head by his bamboo cane, like a dead rat. Oona in an aquamarine gown, applauding madly from the bathroom.<ref name="trespass" /><ref name="lubas" />
}}

Salinger was romantically involved with television actress [[Elaine Joyce]] for several years in the 1980s.<ref name="women" /> The relationship ended when he met Colleen O'Neill (b. June 11, 1959), a nurse and quiltmaker, whom he married around 1988.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Alexander |first=Paul |url=http://nymag.com/nymetro/arts/features/2162/ |title=J. D. Salinger's Women |publisher=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] |date=February 9, 1998 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}} The 1998 article mentions that "the couple has been 'married for about ten years'".</ref> O'Neill, forty years his junior, once told Margaret Salinger that she and Salinger were trying to have a child.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=108}}</ref>

In 1995, [[Cinema of Iran|Iranian director]] [[Dariush Mehrjui]] released the film ''[[Pari (1995 film)|Pari]]'', an unauthorized and loose adaptation of Salinger's ''Franny and Zooey''. Though the film could be distributed legally in Iran since the country has no official copyright relations with the United States,<ref>[http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070328192739/http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html|date=March 28, 2007}}</ref> Salinger had his lawyers block a planned screening of the film at the [[Lincoln Center]] in 1998.<ref name="mehr">{{Cite news|last=Mckinley |first=Jesse |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0DE2DD1330F932A15752C1A96E958260 |title=Iranian Film Is Canceled After Protest By Salinger |work=The New York Times |date=November 21, 1998 |accessdate=April 5, 2007}}</ref> Mehrjui called Salinger's action "bewildering", explaining that he saw his film as "a kind of cultural exchange".<ref name="autogenerated3">{{Cite news|last=Mckinley |first=Jesse |url=https://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F00713FC38540C728EDDA80994D0494D81 |title=Iranian Film Is Canceled After Protest By Salinger |work=The New York Times |date=November 21, 1998 |accessdate=April 5, 2007 |format=fee required}}</ref>

In 1996, Salinger gave a small publisher, Orchises Press, permission to publish "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", the previously uncollected novella.<ref>Lundegaard, Karen M. "[http://www.bizjournals.com/washington/stories/1996/11/18/tidbits.html J.D. Salinger resurfaces ... in Alexandria?]", ''[[Washington Business Journal]]'', November 15, 1996. Retrieved August 13, 2008.</ref> It was to be published that year, and listings for it appeared at [[Amazon.com]] and other book-sellers. After a flurry of articles and critical reviews of the story appeared in the press, the publication date was pushed back repeatedly before apparently being cancelled altogether. Amazon anticipated that Orchises would publish the story in January 2009,<ref name="orchise">{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|pp=42–3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hapworth 16, 1924 – Hardcover |author=J. D. Salinger |url=https://www.amazon.co.uk/d/cka/Hapworth-16-1924-J-D-Salinger/0914061658 |date=January 1, 2009 |publisher=Orchises Press |website=amazon.co.uk |accessdate=March 26, 2017}}</ref> but at the time of his death it was still listed as "currently unavailable".<ref>{{cite web|title=Hapworth 16, 1924 (June 19, 1965 ''The New Yorker'') (Paperback)|publisher=Amazon.com|url=https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000PGW43K|accessdate=January 29, 2010}}</ref>

In June 2009, Salinger consulted lawyers about the upcoming publication in the US of an unauthorized sequel to ''The Catcher in the Rye'' written by Swedish book publisher [[John David California|Fredrik Colting]] under the pseudonym 'J. D. California'. California's book is called ''[[60 Years Later: Coming Through the Rye]]'', and appears to pick up the story of Salinger's protagonist Holden Caulfield. In Salinger's novel, Caulfield is 16 years old, wandering the streets of New York after being expelled from his private school; the California book features a 76-year-old man, "Mr. C", musing on having escaped his nursing home. Salinger's New York literary agent Phyllis Westberg told Britain's ''[[Sunday Telegraph]]'': "The matter has been turned over to a lawyer". The fact that little was known about Colting and the book was set to be published by a new publishing imprint called 'Windupbird Publishing' gave rise to speculation in literary circles that the whole thing might be a stunt.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/5413559/JD-Salinger-considers-legal-action-to-stop-The-Catcher-in-the-Rye-sequel.html |last=Sherwell |first=Philip |title=JD Salinger considers legal action to stop The Catcher in the Rye sequel |date=May 30, 2009 |work=The Daily Telegraph| location=London}}</ref> District court judge [[Deborah A. Batts]] issued an [[injunction]] which prevents the book from being published within the U.S.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/02/books/02salinger.html |title=Judge Rules for J.D. Salinger in 'Catcher' Copyright Suit |last=Chan |first=Sewell |date=July 2, 2009 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=July 2, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lawupdates.com/commentary/isalinger_v._colting_i_too_much_borrowing_not_enough_transforming_to_consti/ | title=Salinger v. Colting / Salinger v. Colting: Too Much Borrowing, Not Enough Transforming to Constitute Fair Use / Article / Copyright Law Updates / Copyright Legal Updates |publisher=Lawupdates.com |accessdate=April 4, 2010}}</ref> The book's author filed an appeal on July 23, 2009; it was heard in the Second Circuit Court of Appeals on September 3, 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6672842.html |title=Appeal Filed to Overturn Ban in Salinger Case |accessdate=August 28, 2009 |date=July 24, 2009 |publisher=Publishers Weekly |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090807110303/http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6672842.html |archivedate=August 7, 2009 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Associated Press |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/sep/04/judge-salinger-spinoff-dismal-review |title=Judge gives Salinger spinoff 'dismal' review | Books | guardian.co.uk |work=The Guardian |date= September 4, 2009|accessdate=April 4, 2010 | location=London}}</ref> The case was settled in 2011 when Colting agreed not to publish or otherwise distribute the book, e-book, or any other editions of ''60 Years Later'' in the U.S. or Canada until ''The Catcher in the Rye'' enters the public domain, while also refraining from using the title "Coming through the Rye", dedicating the book to Salinger or referring to the title "The Catcher in the Rye", while Colting remains free to sell the book in other international territories without fear of interference.<ref>{{cite news|last=Albanese|first=Andrew|title=J.D. Salinger Estate, Swedish Author Settle Copyright Suit|url=http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/45738-j-d-salinger-estate-swedish-author-settle-copyright-suit.html|accessdate=December 30, 2012|newspaper=Publishers Weekly|date=January 11, 2011}}</ref>

==Later publicity==
On October 23, 1992, ''The New York Times'' reported, "Not even a fire that consumed at least half his home on Tuesday could smoke out the reclusive J. D. Salinger, author of the classic novel of adolescent rebellion, ''The Catcher in the Rye''. Mr. Salinger is almost equally famous for having elevated privacy to an art form." <ref>{{cite news|date=October 23, 1992|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/24/books/fire-fails-to-shake-salinger-s-seclusion.html |work=The New York Times |title=Fire Fails to Shake Salinger's Seclusion}}</ref>

In 1999, 25 years after the end of their relationship, [[Joyce Maynard]] auctioned a series of letters Salinger had written her. Maynard's memoir of her life and her relationship with Salinger, ''At Home in the World: A Memoir'', was published the same year. Among other topics, the book described how Maynard's mother had consulted with her on how to appeal to the aging author: by dressing in a childlike manner, and described Joyce's relationship with him at length. In the ensuing controversy over both the memoir and the letters, Maynard claimed that she was forced to auction the letters for financial reasons; she would have preferred to donate them to the [[Beinecke Library]]. Software developer [[Peter Norton]] bought the letters for US$156,500 and announced his intention to return them to Salinger.<ref name="auction">{{Cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/books/news/9906/22/salinger.letters/ |title=Salinger letters bring $156,500 at auction |publisher=CNN |date=June 22, 1999 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref>

[[File:Dream Catcher (memoir).jpg|thumb|upright|Margaret Salinger's memoir ''Dream Catcher'', its cover featuring a rare photograph of Salinger and Margaret as a child]]
A year later, Salinger's daughter Margaret, by his second wife Claire Douglas, published ''Dream Catcher: A Memoir''. In her book, she described the harrowing control that Salinger had over her mother and dispelled many of the Salinger myths established by Ian Hamilton's book. One of Hamilton's arguments was that Salinger's experience with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] left him psychologically scarred, and that he was unable to deal with the traumatic nature of his war service. Margaret Salinger allowed that "the few men who lived through [[Operation Lüttich|Bloody Mortain]], a battle in which her father fought, were left with much to sicken them, body and soul",<ref name="fiff"/> but she also painted a picture of her father as a man immensely proud of his service record, maintaining his military haircut and service jacket, and moving about his compound (and town) in an old [[Jeep]].

Both Margaret Salinger and Maynard characterized the author as a devoted film buff. According to Margaret, his favorite movies include ''[[Gigi (1958 film)|Gigi]]'' (1958), ''[[The Lady Vanishes (1938 film)|The Lady Vanishes]]'' (1938), ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)|The 39 Steps]]'' (1935; Phoebe's favorite movie in ''The Catcher in the Rye''), and the comedies of [[W.C. Fields]], [[Laurel and Hardy]], and the [[Marx Brothers]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=7}}</ref> Predating VCRs, Salinger had an extensive collection of classic movies from the 1940s in 16 mm prints. Maynard wrote that "he loves movies, not films",<ref>{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=94}}</ref> and Margaret Salinger argued that her father's "worldview is, essentially, a product of the movies of his day. To my father, all Spanish speakers are [[Puerto Rican people|Puerto Rican]] washerwomen, or the toothless, grinning-gypsy types in a Marx Brothers movie".<ref name="Salinger, M 2000. p. 195"/> [[Lillian Ross (journalist)|Lillian Ross]], a staff writer for ''The New Yorker'' and longtime friend of Salinger's, wrote following his death, "Salinger loved movies, and he was more fun than anyone to discuss them with. He enjoyed watching actors work, and he enjoyed knowing them. (He loved [[Anne Bancroft]], hated [[Audrey Hepburn]], and said that he had seen ''[[Grand Illusion (film)|Grand Illusion]]'' ten times.)"<ref name="Ross2010" />

Margaret also offered many insights into other Salinger myths, including her father's supposed long-time interest in [[macrobiotics]], and involvement with "alternative medicine" and Eastern philosophies. A few weeks after ''Dream Catcher'' was published, Margaret's brother [[Matt Salinger|Matt]] discredited the memoir in a letter to ''[[The New York Observer]]''. He disparaged his sister's "gothic tales of our supposed childhood" and stated: "I can't say with any authority that she is consciously making anything up. I just know that I grew up in a very different house, with two very different parents from those my sister describes."<ref name="justice">{{Cite news|last=Malcolm |first=Janet |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/14272 |title=Justice to J. D. Salinger |publisher=[[The New York Review of Books]] |date=June 21, 2001 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061115210517/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/14272 | archivedate=November 15, 2006}}</ref>

==Death==
[[File:J-D-Salinger-Illustration-TIME-1961.jpg|thumb|upright|Created for the cover of ''Time'' magazine, [[Robert Vickrey]]'s 1961 portrait of Salinger was placed on view in the [[National Portrait Gallery (United States)|National Portrait Gallery]] in Washington, D.C., after Salinger's death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://npg.si.edu/blog/j-d-salinger-1919-2010 |title=J. D. Salinger, 1919–2010|last= |first= |date=February 1, 2010 |website= |publisher=National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonia Institution |access-date=2017-06-30}}</ref>]]
Salinger died of [[natural causes]] at his home in [[New Hampshire]] on January 27, 2010. He was 91.<ref name="DeathABC" /> Salinger's literary representative told ''[[The New York Times]]'' that the writer had broken his [[hip bone|hip]] in May 2009, but that "his health had been excellent until a rather sudden decline after the new year."<ref name="nyt12810">[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/29/books/29salinger.html nytimes.com]: "J. D. Salinger, Enigmatic Author, Dies at 91".</ref> The representative believed that Salinger's death was not a painful one.<ref name="nyt12810"/> His third wife and widow, Colleen O'Neill Zakrzeski Salinger, and Salinger's son Matt became the [[executor]]s of his [[Estate (law)|estate]].<ref name="nyt12810"/>

==Literary style and themes==
In a contributor's note Salinger gave to ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'' in 1946, he wrote: "I almost always write about very young people", a statement that has been referred to as his [[credo]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|p=96}}</ref> Adolescents are featured or appear in all of Salinger's work, from his first published short story, "[[The Young Folks]]" (1940), to ''The Catcher in the Rye'' and his [[Glass family]] stories. In 1961, the critic [[Alfred Kazin]] explained that Salinger's choice of teenagers as a subject matter was one reason for his appeal to young readers, but another was "a consciousness [among youths] that he speaks for them and virtually ''to'' them, in a language that is peculiarly honest and their own, with a vision of things that capture their most secret judgments of the world."<ref>[[Alfred Kazin|Kazin, Alfred]]. "J.D. Salinger: "Everybody's Favorite"", [[The Atlantic Monthly]] 208.2, August 1961. Rpt. in [[Harold Bloom|Bloom, Harold]], ed. {{Cite book|title=Bloom's BioCritiques: J. D. Salinger |year=2001 |publisher=Chelsea House |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0-7910-6175-2 |author=edited and with an introduction by Harold Bloom. }} pp. 67–75.</ref> For this reason, [[Norman Mailer]] once remarked that Salinger was "the greatest mind ever to stay in prep school".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,584170,00.html |title='Catcher in the Rye' Author J.D. Salinger Dies |publisher=Fox News |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref> Salinger's language, especially his energetic, realistically sparse dialogue, was revolutionary at the time his first stories were published and was seen by several critics as "the most distinguishing thing" about his work.<ref>Shuman, R. Baird, ed. ''Great American Writers: Twentieth Century.'' Vol. 13. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 2002. 14 vols. p. 1308.</ref>

Salinger identified closely with his characters,<ref name="damned" /> and used techniques such as interior monologue, letters, and extended telephone calls to display his gift for dialogue. Such style elements also "[gave] him the illusion of having, as it were, delivered his characters' destinies into their own keeping."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=70}}</ref> Recurring themes in Salinger's stories also connect to the ideas of innocence and adolescence, including the "corrupting influence of Hollywood and the world at large",<ref name="mondy">Mondloch, Helen. "Squalor and Redemption: The Age of Salinger", [[The World & I]]. SIRS Knowledge Source: SIRS Renaissance. November 2003. Retrieved April 2, 2004.</ref> the disconnect between teenagers and "phony" adults,<ref name="mondy" /> and the perceptive, precocious intelligence of children.<ref name="at fifty" />

Contemporary critics discuss a clear progression over the course of Salinger's published work, as evidenced by the increasingly negative reviews received by each of his three post-''Catcher'' story collections.<ref name="justice" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=34}}</ref> Ian Hamilton adheres to this view, arguing that while Salinger's early stories for the "slicks" boasted "tight, energetic" dialogue, they had also been formulaic and sentimental. It took the standards of ''The New Yorker'' editors, among them [[William Shawn]], to refine his writing into the "spare, teasingly mysterious, withheld" qualities of "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" (1948), ''The Catcher in the Rye'', and his stories of the early 1950s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|pp=105–6}}</ref> By the late 1950s, as Salinger became more reclusive and involved in religious study, Hamilton notes that his stories became longer, less plot-driven, and increasingly filled with [[digression]] and parenthetical remarks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=188}}</ref> [[Louis Menand]] agrees, writing in ''The New Yorker'' that Salinger "stopped writing stories, in the conventional sense ... He seemed to lose interest in fiction as an art form—perhaps he thought there was something manipulative or inauthentic about literary device and authorial control."<ref name="at fifty" /> In recent years, some critics have defended certain post-''Nine Stories'' works by Salinger; in 2001, [[Janet Malcolm]] wrote in ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'' that "Zooey" "is arguably Salinger's masterpiece ... Rereading it and its companion piece "Franny" is no less rewarding than rereading ''[[The Great Gatsby]]''."<ref name="justice" />

==Influence==
Salinger's writing has influenced several prominent writers, prompting [[Harold Brodkey]] (himself an [[O. Henry Award]]-winning author) to state in 1991: "His is the most influential body of work in English prose by anyone since Hemingway."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Brozan |first=Nadine |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE0D81030F934A15757C0A967958260 |title=Chronicle |work=The New York Times |date=April 27, 1991 |accessdate=July 10, 2007}}</ref> Of the writers in Salinger's generation, [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning novelist [[John Updike]] attested that "the short stories of J. D. Salinger really opened my eyes as to how you can weave fiction out of a set of events that seem almost unconnected, or very lightly connected ... [Reading Salinger] stick[s] in my mind as really having moved me a step up, as it were, toward knowing how to handle my own material."<ref>Osen, Diane. [http://www.nationalbook.org/authorsguide_jupdike.html "Interview with John Updike"], The National Book Foundation. 2007. Retrieved July 10, 2007.</ref> The critic [[Louis Menand]] has observed that the early stories of Pulitzer Prize-winner [[Philip Roth]] were affected by "Salinger's voice and comic timing".<ref name="at fifty" />

[[National Book Award]] finalist [[Richard Yates (novelist)|Richard Yates]] told ''[[The New York Times]]'' in 1977 that reading Salinger's stories for the first time was a landmark experience, and that "nothing quite like it has happened to me since".<ref>[[Richard Yates (novelist)|Yates, Richard]]. [https://www.nytimes.com/1977/12/04/archives/article-11-no-title-writers-writers-writers.html "Writers' Writers"] (fee required), [[The New York Times]], December 4, 1977. Retrieved 2007-10-24. Relevant passage is [http://www.richardyates.org/bib_onsalinger.html excerpted] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107171445/http://www.richardyates.org/bib_onsalinger.html |date=November 7, 2007 }} on richardyates.org.</ref> Yates describes Salinger as "a man who used language as if it were pure energy beautifully controlled, and who knew exactly what he was doing in every silence as well as in every word." [[Gordon Lish]]'s [[O. Henry Award]]-winning short story "For Jeromé—With Love and Kisses" (1977, collected in ''What I Know So Far'', 1984) is a play on Salinger's "For Esmé—with Love and Squalor".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1984/05/20/playing-the-game-of-what-if/d458b5ef-9387-4947-a24e-892ac5553672/|title=Playing the Game Of 'What If...'|last=Drabelle|first=Dennis|date=1984-05-20|work=The Washington Post|access-date=2017-06-20|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/book_blitz/2007/10/i_was_gordon_lishs_editor.html|title=I Was Gordon Lish's Editor|last=Howard|first=Gerald|date=2007-10-31|work=Slate|access-date=2017-06-20|language=en-US|issn=1091-2339}}</ref>

In 2001, [[Louis Menand]] wrote in ''The New Yorker'' that "''Catcher in the Rye'' rewrites" among each new generation had become "a literary genre all its own".<ref name="at fifty" /> He classed among them [[Sylvia Plath]]'s ''[[The Bell Jar]]'' (1963), [[Hunter S. Thompson]]'s ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'' (1971), [[Jay McInerney]]'s ''[[Bright Lights, Big City (novel)|Bright Lights, Big City]]'' (1984), and [[Dave Eggers]]'s ''[[A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius]]'' (2000). Writer [[Aimee Bender]] was struggling with her first short stories when a friend gave her a copy of ''Nine Stories''; inspired, she later described Salinger's effect on writers, explaining: "[I]t feels like Salinger wrote ''The Catcher in the Rye'' in a day, and that incredible feeling of ease inspires writing. Inspires the pursuit of voice. Not his voice. My voice. Your voice."<ref>[[Aimee Bender|Bender, Aimee]]. "Holden Schmolden". Kotzen, Kip, and Thomas Beller, ed. ''With Love and Squalor: 14 Writers Respond to the Work of J.D. Salinger''. New York: Broadway, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-7679-0799-6}}. pp. 162–9.</ref> Authors such as [[Stephen Chbosky]],<ref>Beisch, Ann. [http://www.layouth.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=Issue&action=IssueArticle&aid=1393&nid=19 "Interview with Stephen Chbosky, author of The Perks of Being a Wallflower"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927161523/http://www.layouth.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=Issue&action=IssueArticle&aid=1393&nid=19 |date=September 27, 2007 }}, ''LA Youth'', November–December 2001. Retrieved July 10, 2007.</ref> [[Jonathan Safran Foer]],<ref>Epstein, Jennifer. [http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2004/12/06/news/11661.shtml "Creative writing program produces aspiring writers"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113022519/http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2004/12/06/news/11661.shtml |date=January 13, 2008 }}, [[The Daily Princetonian]], December 6, 2004. Retrieved October 30, 2008.</ref> [[Carl Hiaasen]], [[Susan Minot]],<ref name="minot">[http://www.authorsontheweb.com/features/0012author-influences/author-influences.asp "What Authors Influenced You?"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927203055/http://www.authorsontheweb.com/features/0012author-influences/author-influences.asp |date=September 27, 2007 }}, Authorsontheweb.com. Retrieved July 10, 2007. Both Hiaasen and Minot cite him as an influence here.</ref> [[Haruki Murakami]], [[Gwendoline Riley]],<ref>[http://books.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,2064808,00.html "You have to trawl the depths"], [[The Guardian]], April 25, 2007. Retrieved December 26, 2007.</ref> [[Tom Robbins]], [[Louis Sachar]],<ref>[http://www.louissachar.com/Bio.htm "Author Bio"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910015014/http://www.louissachar.com/Bio.htm |date=September 10, 2015 }}, Louis Sachar's Official Web Site, 2002. Retrieved July 14, 2007.</ref> [[Joel Stein]]<ref>[[Joel Stein|Stein, Joel]]. "The Yips". Kotzen, Kip, and Thomas Beller, ed. ''With Love and The Squalor: 14 Writers Respond to the Work of J. D. Salinger''. New York: Broadway, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-7679-0799-6}}. pp. 170–6.</ref> and [[John Green (author)|John Green]] have cited Salinger as an influence. Musician [[Tomas Kalnoky]] of [[Streetlight manifesto|Streetlight Manifesto]] also cites Salinger as an influence, referencing him and [[Holden Caulfield]], the main character of ''Catcher in the Rye'', in the song "[[Everything Goes Numb#Cultural references|Here's To Life]]". Biographer Paul Alexander called Salinger "the [[Greta Garbo]] of literature".<ref>Beam, A. (2006) "J.D. Salinger, Failed Recluse", in ‘’If you Really Want to Hear About It: Writers on J.D. Salinger and His Work". Catherine Crawford (ed.) Thunder’s Mouth Press</ref>

In the mid-1960s, J. D. Salinger was himself drawn to [[Sufism|Sufi mysticism]] through the writer and thinker [[Idries Shah]]'s seminal work ''[[The Sufis]]'', as were others writers such as [[Doris Lessing]] and [[Geoffrey Grigson]], and the poets [[Robert Graves]] and [[Ted Hughes]].<ref name="Sufism-Guardian-Webster">{{cite web
| author = Webster
| first = Jason
| title = Sufism: ‘a natural antidote to fanaticism’
| publisher = [[The Guardian]]
| date = October 23, 2014
| url = https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/23/sufism-natural-antidote-fanaticism-the-sufis-idries-shah
| accessdate = October 23, 2014}}</ref> As well as Idries Shah, Salinger also read the Taoist philosopher [[Laozi|Lao Tse]] and the Hindu [[Vivekananda|Swami Vivekananda]] who introduced the Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world.<ref name="Istorie a Amantelor">{{cite book
| last = Abbott
| first = Elizabeth
| authorlink =
| title = Une histoire des maîtresses
| publisher = FIDES
| language = fr
| year = 2004
| location =
| page = 387
| isbn = 978-2762124941
| url = https://books.google.com/?id=fEsPUICzDY4C&pg=PA387&dq=%22elizabeth+abbott%22+Vivekananda+idries+shah#v=onepage&q=%22elizabeth%20abbott%22%20Vivekananda%20idries%20shah&f=false}}</ref>

==Legacy==
In an oral biography titled ''Salinger'', authors [[David Shields]] and [[Shane Salerno]] assert that the author had left specific instructions authorizing a timetable, to start between 2015 and 2020, for the release of several unpublished works. According to the authors and their sources, these include five new Glass-family stories; a novel based on Salinger's relationship with his first wife, Sylvia; a novella in the form of a World War II counterintelligence officer’s diary; a "manual" of stories about Vedanta; and other new or retooled stories that illuminate the life of Holden Caulfield.<ref name="Shields">{{cite news|last= Kakutani |first= Michiko |title= Hunting Again for Salinger Within the Silences and Secrets: A Biography From David Shields and Shane Salerno |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/26/books/a-biography-from-david-shields-and-shane-salerno.html |accessdate=August 27, 2013 |newspaper=The New York Times Book Review |date=August 25, 2013}}</ref>

The ''Salinger'' biography is also described as a companion volume to [[Salinger (film)|a film documentary of the same title]]. The directorial debut of writer [[Shane Salerno]], ''Salinger'' was made over nine years and received a limited theatrical release on September 6, 2013.<ref name="NYTimes">{{cite news|last=Cieply |first=Michael |author2=Julie Bosman |title=Film on Salinger Claims More Books Are Coming |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/25/business/media/film-on-j-d-salinger-claims-more-books-coming.html |accessdate=August 27, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=August 25, 2013}}</ref><ref name="IMDb">{{cite web|title=Salinger (2013) |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1596753/combined |publisher=[[Internet Movie Database]] |accessdate=August 27, 2013}}</ref>

==List of works==

===Books===
* ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' (1951)
* ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' (1953)
** "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" (1948)
** "[[Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut]]" (1948)
** "[[Just Before the War with the Eskimos]]" (1948)
** "[[The Laughing Man (short story)|The Laughing Man]]" (1949)
** "[[Down at the Dinghy]]" (1949)
** "[[For Esmé—with Love and Squalor]]" (1950)
** "[[Pretty Mouth and Green My Eyes]]" (1951)
** "[[De Daumier-Smith's Blue Period]]" (1952)
** "[[Teddy (story)|Teddy]]" (1953)
* ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' (1961)
** "Franny" (1955)
** "Zooey" (1957)
* ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction]]'' (1963)
** "Raise High the Roof-Beam, Carpenters" (1955)
** "Seymour: An Introduction" (1959)
* ''[[Three Early Stories]]'' (2014)
** "[[The Young Folks]]" (1940)
** "[[Go See Eddie]]" (1940)
** "[[Once a Week Won't Kill You]]" (1944)

===Published and anthologized stories===
* "[[Go See Eddie]]" (1940, republished in ''Fiction: Form & Experience'', ed. William M. Jones, 1969 and in ''Three Early Stories'', 2014)
* "[[The Young Folks]]" (1940, republished in ''Three Early Stories'', 2014)
* "[[The Hang of It]]" (1941, republished in ''The Kit Book for Soldiers, Sailors and Marines'', 1943)
* "[[The Long Debut of Lois Taggett]]" (1942, republished in ''Stories: The Fiction of the Forties'', ed. Whit Burnett, 1949)
* "[[Once a Week Won't Kill You]]" (1944, republished in ''Three Early Stories'', 2014)
* "[[A Boy in France]]" (1945, republished in ''Post Stories 1942–45'', ed. Ben Hibbs, 1946 and July/August 2010 issue of ''Saturday Evening Post'' magazine)
* "[[This Sandwich Has No Mayonnaise]]" (1945, republished in ''The Armchair Esquire'', ed. L. Rust Hills, 1959)
* "[[Slight Rebellion off Madison]]" (1946, republished in ''Wonderful Town: New York Stories from The New Yorker'', ed. David Remnick, 2000)
* "[[A Girl I Knew]]" (1948, republished in ''Best American Short Stories 1949'', ed. Martha Foley, 1949)

===Published and unanthologized stories===

* "[[The Heart of a Broken Story]]" (1941)
* "[[Personal Notes of an Infantryman]]" (1942)
* "[[The Varioni Brothers]]" (1943)
* "[[Both Parties Concerned]]" (1944)
* "[[Soft-Boiled Sergeant]]" (1944)
* "[[Last Day of the Last Furlough]]" (1944)
* "[[Elaine (short story)|Elaine]]" (1945)
* "[[The Stranger (Salinger short story)|The Stranger]]" (1945)
* "[[I'm Crazy]]" (1945)
* "[[A Young Girl in 1941 with No Waist at All]]" (1947)
* "[[The Inverted Forest]]" (1947)
* "[[Blue Melody]]" (1948)
* "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]" (1965)

===Unpublished stories===
*"[[Mrs. Hincher]]" (1942)
*"[[The Last and Best of the Peter Pans]]" (1942)
*"[[The Children's Echelon]]" (1944)
*"[[Two Lonely Men]]" (1944)
*"[[The Magic Foxhole]]" (1944)
*"[[Birthday Boy (story)|Birthday Boy]]" (1946)
*"[[The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls]]" (1947)

==Media portrayals and references==
*In [[W. P. Kinsella]]'s 1982 novel, ''[[Shoeless Joe (novel)|Shoeless Joe]]'', the main character "kidnaps" the reclusive Salinger to take him to a baseball game. When the novel was adapted for cinema as ''[[Field of Dreams]]'', Salinger's character was replaced by the fictional Terence Mann, amid fears that Salinger might sue.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Geddes|first1=John|title=W.P. on J.D.: Kinsella talks about writing Salinger into 'Shoeless Joe'|url=http://www.macleans.ca/politics/ottawa/w-p-on-j-d-kinsella-talks-about-writing-salinger-into-shoeless-joe/|accessdate=14 September 2016|work=[[Maclean's]]|date=January 29, 2010}}</ref>
*In the 2002 film ''[[The Good Girl]]'', the character of "Holden" (played by [[Jake Gyllenhaal]]) adopts the name because of his admiration of ''The Catcher in the Rye''. Coincidentally the film also stars [[Zooey Deschanel]] who was named after the character from Salinger's Franny and Zooey.
*Salinger is portrayed by [[Chris Cooper]] in [[James Steven Sadwith]]'s 2015 film ''[[Coming Through the Rye (film)|Coming Through the Rye]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lee|first=Ashley|title=Chris Cooper Is J.D. Salinger in 'Coming Through the Rye' Clip (Exclusive Video)|date=14 October 2016|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/chris-cooper-is-jd-salinger-938110|accessdate=18 October 2016}}</ref>
*Salinger appears as a character (voiced by [[Alan Arkin]]) in several 2015–2016 episodes of ''[[BoJack Horseman]]'' (season 2 episodes 6, 7, 8, 10 and season 3 episode 1), where he is said to have faked his own death to escape public attention and pursue a career in television production. He quotes numerous lines from his works, bemoaning how ''The Catcher in the Rye'' has become his only work that anyone knows about.
*Salinger was portrayed by [[Nicholas Hoult]] in the 2017 film ''[[Rebel in the Rye]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Child|first=Ben|title=Nicholas Hoult to play JD Salinger in new biopic|date=1 September 2015|publisher=''[[The Guardian]]''|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/sep/01/nicholas-hoult-rebel-in-the-rye-jd-salinger|accessdate=9 January 2017}}</ref>
*Salinger's name is mentioned in the title for [[The Wonder Years (band)|The Wonder Years]] song "[[You're Not Salinger. Get Over It.]]"
*In the book and TV show [[You_(TV_series)|You]] by Caroline Kepnes, one of the characters, Peach, is named as being a relative of Salinger.

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|colwidth=25em}}

==References==
* {{Cite book|last=Mueller |first=Bruce F. |author2=Hochman, Will|title=Critical Companion to J. D. Salinger: a Literary Reference to His Life and Work |year=2011 |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |isbn=978-0816065974}}
* {{Cite book|last=Alexander |first=Paul|title=Salinger: A Biography |year=1999 |publisher=Renaissance |location=Los Angeles |isbn=1-58063-080-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crawford |first=Catherine, ed. |title=If You Really Want to Hear About It: Writers on J. D. Salinger and His Work |year=2006 |publisher=Thunder's Mouth |location=New York |isbn=1-56025-880-2 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Grunwald |first=Henry Anatole, ed. |title=Salinger, the Classic Critical and Personal Portrait |year=1962 |publisher=Harper Perennial, Harper & Row |location=New York |isbn=0-06185-250-3}}
* {{Cite book|last=French |first=Warren |title=J. D. Salinger, Revisted |year=1988 |publisher=Twayne Publishers |location=Boston, Massachusetts |isbn=0-8057-7522-6 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Hamilton |first=Ian |authorlink=Ian Hamilton (critic) |title=In Search of J. D. Salinger |year=1988 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=0-394-53468-9 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kubica |first=Chris |author2=Hochman, Will |title=Letters to J. D. Salinger |year=2002 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison |isbn=0-299-17800-5 }}
*{{cite book|last1= Lutz |first1= Norma Jean |year= 2002 |origyear= |chapter= Biography of J.D. Salinger |chapterurl= |editor1-last= Bloom |editor1-first= Harold |editor1-link= Harold Bloom |title= J. D. Salinger |url= |type= |series= Bloom's BioCritiques |edition= |location= Philadelphia |publisher= [[Chelsea House]] |publication-date= |pages= 3–44 |doi= |isbn= 0-7910-6175-2 |jstor= |lccn= |oclc= 48473975 |ol= |ssrn= |id= |accessdate= |via= |registration= |subscription= |laysummary= |laysource= |laydate= |ref= harv }}
*{{Cite book|last= Maynard |first= Joyce |authorlink= Joyce Maynard |title= At Home in the World |year= 1998 |publisher= Picador |location= New York |isbn= 0-312-19556-7 |ref= harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Salinger |first=Margaret |title=Dream Catcher: A Memoir |year=2000 |publisher=Washington Square Press |location=New York |isbn=0-671-04281-5 |ref= {{harvid|Margaret Salinger|2000}}}}
* Slawenski, Kenneth (2010). ''J. D. Salinger: A Life Raised High'', London, Pomona Books. {{ISBN|978-1-904590-23-1}}
* {{cite journal | title = Cherished and Cursed: Toward a Social History of The Catcher in the Rye | last = Whitfield | first = Stephen | journal = The New England Quarterly | volume = 70 | issue = 4 | date = December 1997 | pages = 567–600 | doi = 10.2307/366646 | jstor = 366646  | url = http://www.northeastern.edu/neq/pdfs/Whitfield%2C_Stephen_J.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2012-11-02 | ref = harv | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120912144104/http://www.northeastern.edu/neq/pdfs/Whitfield%2C_Stephen_J.pdf | archivedate = September 12, 2012 | df = mdy-all }}
:Reprinted in {{Cite book |title= J. D. Salinger |year=2001 |publisher= [[Chelsea House]] |location=Philadelphia |series= Bloom's BioCritiques |isbn=0-7910-6175-2 |editor1-last= Bloom |editor1-first= Harold |editor1-link= Harold Bloom | pages = 77–105}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Jerome David Salinger}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/29/books/29salinger.html J. D. Salinger, Enigmatic Author, Dies at 91], ''The New York Times'', January 28, 2010
* [http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/nation-world/bal-te.ob.salinger29jan29,0,4629261.story The Reclusive Writer Inspired a Generation], ''Baltimore Sun'', January 29, 2010
* [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/culture-obituaries/books-obituaries/7096097/JD-Salinger.html JD Salinger] – ''Daily Telegraph'' obituary
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3786891.stm Obituary: JD Salinger], BBC News, January 28, 2010
* [http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2010/02/sali-f02.html ''J.D. Salinger (1919–2010): An appreciation''] World Socialist Web Site. February 2, 2010.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040615211038/http://www.tversu.ru/Science/Hermeneutics/1998-2/1998-2-28-eng.pdf Implied meanings in J. D. Salinger stories and reverting]
* [http://www.deadcaulfields.com/DCHome.html Dead Caulfields – The Life and Work of J.D. Salinger]
* [http://catchingsalinger.wordpress.com Catching Salinger] – Serialized documentary about the search for J.D. Salinger
* [http://www.shmoop.com/jd-salinger/ J.D. Salinger] biography, quotes, multimedia, teacher resources
* [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/23725 On J.D. Salinger] by [[Michael Greenberg (writer)|Michael Greenberg]] from ''[[The New York Review of Books]]''
* [http://www.haaretz.com/culture/books/the-courage-to-be-an-absolute-nobody-1.346920 Essay on Salinger's life from Haaretz]
* {{OL author}}
* [http://www.uea.ac.uk/is/archives# J.D. Salinger – Hartog Letters, University of East Anglia]
* [http://www.life.com/gallery/62491/salinger-and-catcher-in-the-rye#index/0 Salinger and 'Catcher in the Rye'] — slideshow by ''[[Life magazine]]''
* [http://www.esquire.com/features/jd-salinger-bio-0697 The Man in the Glass House] — Ron Rosenbaum's 1997 profile for ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]''
* {{IMDb name|0758409}}
* {{LCAuth|n50016589|J. D. Salinger|18|}}
*[https://www.yeyebook.com/en/jerome-david-salinger-a-perfect-day-for-bananafish-short-stories-eng/ J. D. Salinger - A perfect day for Bananafish] (Text of the short story, in: EN FR DE IT ES CH)

{{J. D. Salinger}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Salinger, J. D.}}
[[Category:J. D. Salinger| ]]
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:2010 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century American short story writers]]
[[Category:American Hindus]]
[[Category:American military personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:American people of German descent]]
[[Category:American people of Irish descent]]
[[Category:American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:American people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:Converts to Christianity from Judaism]]
[[Category:Hindus of Jewish descent]]
[[Category:Jewish American novelists]]
[[Category:People from Cornish, New Hampshire]]
[[Category:People from Manhattan]]
[[Category:United States Army soldiers]]
[[Category:Ursinus College alumni]]
[[Category:Columbia University School of General Studies alumni]]
[[Category:Novelists from New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Writers from New York City]]
[[Category:American male novelists]]
[[Category:American male short story writers]]
[[Category:20th-century American male writers]]
[[Category:McBurney School alumni]]
[[Category:Novelists from New York (state)]]
[[Category:Operation Overlord people]]

J. D. Salinger

2018-10-18T16:43:40Z

66.172.182.2:

{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = J. D. Salinger
| image = JD Salinger.jpg
| caption = Salinger in 1950 (photo by [[Lotte Jacobi]])
| birth_name = Jerome David Salinger
| birth_date = {{Birth date|mf=yes|1919|1|1}}
| birth_place = [[Manhattan, New York]], U.S.
| death_date = {{Death date and age|mf=yes|2010|1|27|1919|1|1}}
| death_place = [[Cornish, New Hampshire]], U.S.
| occupation = Writer
| education = [[New York University]] [[Ursinus College]] [[Columbia University]]
| period = 1940–1965
| movement =
| notableworks = ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' (1951) ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' (1953) ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction]]'' (1963) ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' (1961)
| spouse = {{marriage|Sylvia Welter |1945|1947|end=divorced}} {{marriage|Claire Douglas |1955|1967|end=divorced}} {{marriage|Colleen O'Neill |1988}}
| children = Margaret Salinger [[Matt Salinger]]
| signature = J. D. Salinger Signature.svg
| parents = Marie Salinger Sol Salinger
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Jerome David Salinger''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|l|ᵻ|n|dʒ|ər}}; January 1, 1919{{spnd}} January 27, 2010) was an American writer known for his widely read novel, ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]''. Following his early success publishing short stories and ''The Catcher in the Rye'', Salinger led a very private life for more than a half-century. He published his final original work in 1965 and gave his last interview in 1980. he loved goblin porn

Salinger was raised in [[Manhattan]] and began writing short stories while in secondary school. Several were published in ''[[Story (magazine)|Story]]'' magazine<ref>"J. D. Salinger". EXPLORING Novels. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Web. November 9, 2010.</ref> in the early 1940s before he began serving in [[World War II]]. In 1948, his critically acclaimed story "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" appeared in ''[[The New Yorker]]'' magazine, which became home to much of his later work. ''The Catcher in the Rye'' was published in 1951 and became an immediate popular success. His depiction of adolescent alienation and loss of innocence in the protagonist [[Holden Caulfield]] was influential, especially among adolescent readers.<ref name="sonny">{{Cite news|last=Skow |first=John |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,938775,00.html |title=Sonny: An Introduction |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=September 15, 1961 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref> The novel remains widely read and controversial,{{efn|See Beidler's ''A Reader's Companion to J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye''.}} selling around 250,000 copies a year.

The success of ''The Catcher in the Rye'' led to public attention and scrutiny. Salinger became reclusive, publishing new work less frequently. He followed ''Catcher'' with a short story collection, ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' (1953); a volume containing a novella and a short story, ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' (1961); and a volume containing two novellas, ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters]]'' and ''[[Seymour: An Introduction]]'' (1963). His last published work, a novella entitled "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", appeared in ''The New Yorker'' on June 19, 1965. Afterward, Salinger struggled with unwanted attention, including a legal battle in the 1980s with biographer [[Ian Hamilton (critic)|Ian Hamilton]] and the release in the late 1990s of memoirs written by two people close to him: [[Joyce Maynard]], an ex-lover; and Margaret Salinger, his daughter. In 1996, a small publisher announced a deal with Salinger to publish "Hapworth 16, 1924" in book form, but amid the ensuing publicity the release was indefinitely delayed.<ref name="BBCNews">{{Cite AV media|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p042pqff|accessdate=August 3, 2016|title=The Reclusive JD Salinger}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/arts/books/features/65210/ |date=April 4, 2010 |title=Betraying Salinger |publisher=[[New York Magazine]] |accessdate=April 16, 2010}}</ref> He made headlines around the globe in June 2009 when he filed a lawsuit against another writer for copyright infringement resulting from that writer's use of one of the characters from ''The Catcher in the Rye''.<ref>Gross D. "[http://www.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/books/06/03/salinger.catcher.lawsuit/index.html Lawsuit targets 'rip-off' of 'Catcher in the Rye']". ''CNN''. Retrieved June 6, 2009.</ref>

Salinger died of natural causes on January 27, 2010, at his home in [[Cornish, New Hampshire]].<ref name="BBCNews2">{{Cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/8486169.stm|title=JD Salinger, author of Catcher in the Rye, dies at 91|work=BBC|accessdate=January 29, 2010 | date=January 29, 2010}}</ref><ref name="DeathABC">{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory?id=9688535|title='Catcher in the Rye' Author J.D. Salinger Dies|last=Italie|first=Hillel|date=January 28, 2010|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=January 28, 2010}}</ref><ref name="death">{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704878904575031273026569184?mod=WSJ_latestheadlines|title=J.D. Salinger Is Dead at Age 91|work=Wall Street Journal|date=January 28, 2010|accessdate=January 28, 2010 | first=Stephen | last=Miller}}</ref> In November 2013, three unpublished stories by Salinger were briefly posted online. One of the stories, "[[The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls]]", is said to be a prequel to ''The Catcher in the Rye''.

==Early life==
[[File:1133 Park Avenue cloudy jeh.jpg|thumb|right|1133 Park Avenue in Manhattan, where Salinger grew up]]
Jerome David Salinger was born in [[Manhattan]], New York on January 1, 1919. His father, Sol Salinger, sold [[Kosher foods|kosher]] cheese, and was from a Jewish family of Lithuanian descent,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aronoff.com/family/i0004005.htm#i4005 |title=The Genealogy of Richard L. Aronoff |publisher=Aronoff.com |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref> his own father having been the rabbi for the [[Adath Jeshurun Congregation]] in [[Louisville, Kentucky]].<ref>Fiene, Donald. "EBSCOhost: J. D. Salinger". EBSCO Publishing Service Selection Page. Web. November 24, 2010. [https://archive.is/20120720161948/http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=10&hid=106&sid=1f91a394-98e5-4b44-a386-0794517d18ee@sessionmgr4&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ==%23db=lfh&AN=MOL0270000268#db=lfh&AN=MOL0270000268 ebscohost.com]</ref> Salinger's mother, Marie (''née'' Jillich), was born in [[Atlantic, Iowa]], of German, Irish, and Scottish descent,<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite news |last=Skow |first=John |url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,938775,00.html |title=Sonny: An Introduction |work=Time | date=September 15, 1961 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/books/excerpt-j-d-salinger-a-life.html|title=Excerpt – J. D. Salinger – By Kenneth Slawenski|last=Slawenski|first=Kenneth|date=2011-02-10|work=The New York Times|access-date=2018-03-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403141657/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/books/excerpt-j-d-salinger-a-life.html|archive-date=2015-04-03|dead-url=|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="D. Salinger 2007">"J. D. Salinger". LitFinder Contemporary Collection. Gale, 2007. Web. November 9, 2010.</ref> but changed her name to Miriam and considered herself Jewish after marrying Salinger's father.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.algemeiner.com/2014/04/27/j-d-salinger-and-the-holocaust/ |title=J.D. Salinger and the Holocaust |publisher=Algemeiner.com |date= April 17, 2014 |accessdate= August 13, 2014}}</ref> Salinger did not learn that his mother was not of Jewish ancestry until just after he celebrated his [[bar mitzvah]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Salinger.html |title= J.D. Salinger |publisher= Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |date= January 1, 1919 |accessdate= January 30, 2010}}</ref> He had only one sibling, an older sister, Doris (1912–2001).<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=32}}</ref>

In youth, Salinger attended public schools on the [[West Side (Manhattan)|West Side of Manhattan]]. Then in 1932, the family moved to [[Park Avenue]], and Salinger was enrolled at the [[McBurney School]], a nearby private school.<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/> Salinger had trouble fitting in at his new school and took measures to conform, such as calling himself Jerry.<ref name="Lutz, Norma Jean"/> His family called him Sonny.<ref name="Hathcock, Barrett 2010">Hathcock, Barrett. "J.D. Salinger". EBSCO. Web. November 8, 2010.</ref> At McBurney, he managed the fencing team, wrote for the school newspaper and appeared in plays.<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/> He "showed an innate talent for drama", though his father opposed the idea of his becoming an actor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=10}}</ref> His parents then enrolled him at [[Valley Forge Military Academy and College|Valley Forge Military Academy]] in [[Wayne, Pennsylvania]].<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/> Salinger began writing stories "under the covers [at night], with the aid of a flashlight".<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=42}}</ref> Salinger was the literary editor of the class yearbook, ''Crossed Sabres''. He also participated in the Glee Club, Aviation Club, French Club, and the [[Staff Noncommissioned Officer|Non-Commissioned Officers]] Club.<ref name="Lutz, Norma Jean">{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002}} {{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

Salinger's Valley Forge [[201 file]] reveals that he was a "mediocre" student, and unlike the [[overachievement]] enjoyed by members of the [[Glass family]] he would go on to write about, his recorded [[IQ]] of 104 was average.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|pp=3–4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oBPBiaBBF24C&pg=PA13|title=J.D. Salinger|author= Raychel Haugrud Reiff|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|date= 2008}}</ref> He graduated in 1936. Salinger started his freshman year at [[New York University]] in 1936. He considered studying [[special education]]<ref>[http://special.library.louisville.edu/display-collection.asp?ID=434 Fiene, Donald M.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109160008/http://special.library.louisville.edu/display-collection.asp?ID=434 |date=January 9, 2008 }} "A Bibliographical Study of J. D. Salinger: Life, Work, and Reputation", M.A. Thesis, [[University of Louisville]], 1962.</ref> but [[High school dropouts|dropped out]] the following spring. That fall, his father urged him to learn about the meat-importing business, and he went to work at a company in the Austrian city of [[Vienna]] and the Polish city of [[Bydgoszcz]].<ref name="thirtynine">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=39}}</ref> Surprisingly, Salinger went willingly, but he was so disgusted by the slaughterhouses that after that, he firmly decided to embark on a different career path. His disgust for the meat business and his rejection of his father probably had a lot to do with his vegetarianism as an adult.<ref>A Brief Biography of J. D. Salinger © April 2002, February 2006, by Sarah Morrill</ref> He left Austria one month before it was [[Anschluss|annexed by Nazi Germany]] on March 12, 1938.

In the fall of 1938, Salinger attended [[Ursinus College]] in [[Collegeville, Pennsylvania]], and wrote a column called "skipped diploma", which included movie reviews.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|p=xiii}}</ref> He dropped out after one semester.<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/><ref name="Hathcock, Barrett 2010"/> In 1939, Salinger attended the [[Columbia University School of General Studies]], where he took a writing class taught by [[Whit Burnett]], longtime editor of ''[[Story (magazine)|Story]]'' magazine. According to Burnett, Salinger did not distinguish himself until a few weeks before the end of the second semester, at which point "he suddenly came to life" and completed three stories.<ref name="burnett">{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=55–58}}. Burnett's quotes were included in ''Fiction Writer's Handbook'', edited by Whit and Hallie Burnett and published in 1975.</ref> Burnett told Salinger that his stories were skillful and accomplished, accepting "[[The Young Folks]]", a [[vignette (literature)|vignette]] about several aimless youths, for publication in ''Story''.<ref name="burnett" /> Salinger's debut short story was published in the magazine's March–April 1940 issue. Burnett became Salinger's mentor, and they corresponded for several years.<ref name="Lutz, Norma Jean"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=55, 63–65}}</ref>

==World War II==
In 1942, Salinger started dating [[Oona O'Neill]], daughter of the playwright [[Eugene O'Neill]]. Despite finding her immeasurably self-absorbed (he confided to a friend that "Little Oona's hopelessly in love with little Oona"), he called her often and wrote her long letters.<ref name="oona">{{Cite book|last=Scovell |first=Jane |title=Oona Living in the Shadows: A Biography of Oona O'Neill Chaplin |year=1998 |publisher=Warner |location=New York |isbn=0-446-51730-5 |page= 87}}</ref> Their relationship ended when Oona began seeing [[Charlie Chaplin]], whom she eventually married.<ref name="trespass">{{Cite news|last=Sheppard |first=R.Z |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,967473-1,00.html |title=Trespassers Will Be Prosecuted: ''In Search of J.D. Salinger'' by Ian Hamilton |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=March 23, 1988 |accessdate=April 14, 2007}}</ref> In late 1941, Salinger briefly worked on a [[Caribbean]] [[cruise ship]], serving as an activity director and possibly as a performer.<ref name="cruise">{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=18}}</ref>

The same year, Salinger began submitting short stories to ''[[The New Yorker]]''. Seven of Salinger's stories were rejected by the magazine that year, including "Lunch for Three", "Monologue for a Watery Highball", and "I Went to School with Adolf Hitler". In December 1941, however, the publication accepted "[[Slight Rebellion off Madison]]", a Manhattan-set story about a disaffected teenager named [[Holden Caulfield]] with "pre-war jitters".<ref name="yagoda">{{Cite book|last=Yagoda |first=Ben |authorlink=Ben Yagoda |title=About Town: The New Yorker and the World It Made |year=2000 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=0-684-81605-9|pages=98, 233}}</ref> When Japan carried out the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] that month, the story was rendered "unpublishable." Salinger was devastated. Later, in [[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters]], he wrote, "I think I'll hate 1942 till I die, just on general principles."<ref>{{cite web|title=Holden Caulfield Hits the Beach|url=https://www.theattic.space/home-page-blogs/salingerbeach|website=The Attic|accessdate=9 July 2018}}</ref> The story did not appear in The New Yorker until 1946.<ref name="yagoda" /> In the spring of 1942, several months after the United States entered [[World War II]], Salinger was [[conscription in the United States|drafted]] into the army, wherein he saw combat with the [[U.S. 12th Infantry Regiment|12th Infantry Regiment]], [[U.S. 4th Infantry Division|4th Infantry Division]].<ref name="cruise" /> He was present at [[Utah Beach]] on [[D-Day]], in the [[Battle of the Bulge]], and the [[Battle of Hürtgen Forest]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=58}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002}}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

During the campaign from Normandy into Germany, Salinger arranged to meet with [[Ernest Hemingway]], a writer who had influenced him and was then working as a war correspondent in Paris.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lamb |first=Robert Paul |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0403/is_n4_v42/ai_20119140/pg_17 |title=Hemingway and the creation of twentieth-century dialogue – American author Ernest Hemingway |publisher=Twentieth Century Literature |date=Winter 1996 |accessdate=July 10, 2007 |format=reprint}}</ref> Salinger was impressed with Hemingway's friendliness and modesty, finding him more "soft" than his gruff public persona.<ref name="baker">{{Cite book|last=Baker |first=Carlos |authorlink=Carlos Baker |title=Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story |year=1969 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |isbn=0-02-001690-5|pages=420, 646}}</ref> Hemingway was impressed by Salinger's writing and remarked: "Jesus, he has a helluva talent."<ref name="sonny" /> The two writers began corresponding; Salinger wrote Hemingway in July 1946 that their talks were among his few positive memories of the war.<ref name="baker" /> Salinger added that he was working on a play about Holden Caulfield, the protagonist of his story "Slight Rebellion off Madison", and hoped to play the part himself.<ref name="baker" />

Salinger was assigned to a [[counter-intelligence]] unit, for which he used his proficiency in French and German to interrogate [[prisoners of war]].<ref name="fiff">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=55}}</ref> In April 1945 he entered a liberated [[concentration camp]], probably one of [[Dachau Concentration Camp|Dachau]]'s sub-camps.<ref name="fiff" /> Salinger earned the rank of Staff Sergeant<ref>"J.D. Salinger". Contemporary Authors Online. 2011.n.pag.Gale. Web. October 20, 2011.</ref> and served in five campaigns.<ref>Slawenski, K. (2011). [https://books.google.com/books?id=pmvwxOFaP6AC&pg=PA100 ''J. D. Salinger: A Life'']. Random House, p. 100.</ref> Salinger's experiences in the war affected him emotionally. He was hospitalized for a few weeks for [[combat stress reaction]] after Germany was defeated,<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=89}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=7}}</ref> and he later told his daughter: "You never really get the smell of burning flesh out of your nose entirely, no matter how long you live."<ref name="fiff"/> Both of his biographers speculate that Salinger drew upon his wartime experiences in several stories,<ref name="at fifty">{{Cite news |last=Menand |first=Louis |authorlink=Louis Menand |url=http://homepage.mac.com/mseffie/assignments/catcher/HoldenatFifty.pdf |title=Holden at Fifty: ''The Catcher in the Rye'' and what it spawned |work=The New Yorker |date=October 1, 2001 |accessdate=July 10, 2007 |format=reprint |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807224322/http://homepage.mac.com/mseffie/assignments/catcher/HoldenatFifty.pdf |archivedate=August 7, 2007 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> such as "[[For Esmé—with Love and Squalor]]", which is narrated by a traumatized soldier. Salinger continued to write while serving in the army, publishing several stories in [[Slick (magazine format)|slick magazines]] such as ''[[Collier's]]'' and ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]''. He also continued to submit stories to ''The New Yorker'', but with little success; it rejected all of his submissions from 1944 to 1946, a group of 15 poems in 1945 alone.<ref name="yagoda" />

==Post-war years==
After Germany's defeat, Salinger signed up for a six-month period of "[[Denazification]]" duty in Germany<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000||p=67}}</ref> for the [[Counterintelligence Corps (United States Army)|Counterintelligence Corps]]. He lived in [[Weißenburg in Bayern|Weissenburg]] and, soon after, married Sylvia Welter. He brought her to the United States in April 1946, but the marriage fell apart after eight months and Sylvia returned to Germany.<ref name="thir">{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=113}}</ref> In 1972, Salinger's daughter Margaret was with him when he received a letter from Sylvia. He looked at the envelope, and without reading it, tore it apart. It was the first time he had heard from her since the breakup, but as Margaret put it, "when he was finished with a person, he was through with them."<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=359}}</ref>

In 1946, Whit Burnett agreed to help Salinger publish a collection of his short stories through ''Story'' Press's Lippincott Imprint.<ref name="young">{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=118–20}}</ref> Titled ''The Young Folks'', the collection was to consist of twenty stories—ten, like the title story and "Slight Rebellion off Madison", were already in print; ten were previously unpublished.<ref name="young" /> Though Burnett implied the book would be published and even negotiated Salinger a $1,000 advance on its sale, Lippincott overruled Burnett and rejected the book.<ref name="young" /> Salinger blamed Burnett for the book's failure to see print, and the two became estranged.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=120, 164, 204–5}}</ref>

By the late 1940s, Salinger had become an avid follower of [[Zen Buddhism]], to the point that he "gave reading lists on the subject to his dates"<ref name="sonny" /> and arranged a meeting with Buddhist scholar [[D. T. Suzuki]].

In 1947, the author submitted a short story titled simply "The Bananafish" to ''The New Yorker''. William Maxwell, the magazine's fiction editor, was impressed enough with "the singular quality of the story" that the magazine asked Salinger to continue revising it. He spent a year reworking it with ''New Yorker'' editors and the magazine accepted the story, now titled "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]", and published it in the January 31, 1948 issue. The magazine thereon offered Salinger a "first-look" contract that allowed them [[right of first refusal]] on any future stories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=124}}</ref> The critical acclaim accorded "Bananafish", coupled with problems Salinger had with stories being altered by the "slicks", led him to publish almost exclusively in ''The New Yorker''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=130}}</ref> "Bananafish" was also the first of Salinger's published stories to feature the [[Glass family|Glasses]], a fictional family consisting of two retired [[vaudeville]] performers and their seven precocious children: [[Seymour Glass|Seymour]], Buddy, Boo Boo, Walt, Waker, Zooey, and Franny.<ref name="glass">{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|pp=97–99}}</ref> Salinger eventually published seven stories about the Glasses, developing a detailed family history and focusing particularly on Seymour, the brilliant but troubled eldest child.<ref name="glass" />

In the early 1940s, Salinger had confided in a letter to Whit Burnett that he was eager to sell the film rights to some of his stories in order to achieve financial security.<ref name="holly">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=75}}</ref> According to Ian Hamilton, Salinger was disappointed when "rumblings from Hollywood" over his 1943 short story "[[The Varioni Brothers]]" came to nothing. Therefore, he immediately agreed when, in mid-1948, independent film producer [[Samuel Goldwyn]] offered to buy the film rights to his short story "[[Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut]]".<ref name="holly" /> Though Salinger sold his story with the hope—in the words of his agent Dorothy Olding—that it "would make a good movie",<ref>{{Cite news|last=Fosburgh |first=Lacey |authorlink=Lacey Fosburgh |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/11/21/archives/why-more-top-novelists-dont-go-hollywood-novelists-who-dont-go.html |title=Why More Top Novelists Don't Go Hollywood |work=The New York Times |date=November 21, 1976 |accessdate=April 6, 2007 |format=fee required}}</ref> the film version of "Wiggily" was lambasted by critics upon its release in 1949.<ref name="berg">[[A. Scott Berg|Berg, A. Scott]]. ''Goldwyn: A Biography''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. {{ISBN|1-57322-723-4}}. p. 446.</ref> Renamed ''[[My Foolish Heart (film)|My Foolish Heart]]'' and starring [[Dana Andrews]] and [[Susan Hayward]], the melodramatic film departed to such an extent from Salinger's story that Goldwyn biographer [[A. Scott Berg]] referred to it as a "[[Corruption (linguistics)|bastardization]]".<ref name="berg" /> As a result of this experience, Salinger never again permitted [[film adaptations]] to be made from his work.<ref name="depos">{{Cite news|url=https://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F50713F63B5A0C718DDDAB0994DE484D81 |title=Depositions Yield J. D. Salinger Details |work=The New York Times |date=December 12, 1986 |accessdate=April 14, 2007 |format=fee required}}</ref> When [[Brigitte Bardot]] wanted to buy the rights to "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]", Salinger refused the request, but told his friend, [[Lillian Ross (journalist)|Lillian Ross]], longtime staff writer for ''The New Yorker'', "She's a cute, talented, lost ''enfante'', and I'm tempted to accommodate her, ''pour le sport''."<ref name="Ross2010">{{Cite journal
| last = Ross
| first = Lillian
| author-link =
| title = The Talk of the Town: Remembrance Bearable
| journal = The New Yorker
| issue = February 8, 2010
| pages = 22–23
| year = 2010
| postscript = }}</ref>

==''The Catcher in the Rye''==
{{Main|The Catcher in the Rye}}
[[File:Catcher-in-the-rye-red-cover.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Cover of ''The Catcher in the Rye'' 1985 edition]]

In the 1940s, Salinger confided to several people that he was working on a novel featuring Holden Caulfield, the teenage protagonist of his short story "Slight Rebellion off Madison",<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=142}}</ref> and ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' was published on July 16, 1951, by Little, Brown and Company.<ref>Salinger, J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1951. hi Print.</ref> The novel's plot is simple,<ref name="simp">{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|p=77}}</ref> detailing 16-year-old Holden's experiences in New York City following his expulsion and departure from an elite [[college preparatory school]]. Not only was he expelled from his current school, he had also been expelled from three previous schools.<ref>Blackstock, Alan. "J.D. Salinger". Magill’s Survey of American, Revised Edition. Pasadena, Ca: Salem Press. EBSCO 2007. Web. Nov. 8</ref> The book is more notable for the persona and testimonial voice of its [[first-person narrative|first-person narrator]], Holden.<ref name="nandel">Nandel, Alan. "The Significance of Holden Caulfield's Testimony". Reprinted in Bloom, Harold, ed. ''Modern Critical Interpretations: J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye''. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2000. pp. 75–89.</ref> He serves as an insightful but [[unreliable narrator]] who expounds on the importance of loyalty, the "phoniness" of adulthood, and his own duplicity.<ref name="nandel" /> In a 1953 interview with a high school newspaper, Salinger admitted that the novel was "sort of" autobiographical, explaining, "My boyhood was very much the same as that of the boy in the book ... [I]t was a great relief telling people about it."<ref>{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|p=4}}</ref>

Initial reactions to the book were mixed, ranging from ''[[The New York Times]]'' hailing ''Catcher'' as "an unusually brilliant first novel"<ref>{{Cite news|last=Burger |first=Nash K |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-rye02.html |title=Books of The Times |work=The New York Times |date=July 16, 1951 |accessdate=July 10, 2007}}</ref> to denigrations of the book's monotonous language and the "immorality and perversion" of Holden,<ref name="virginia">Whitfield, Stephen J. [http://www.vqronline.org/articles/2002/spring/whitfield-raise-high/ "Raise High the Bookshelves, Censors!"] (book review), [[The Virginia Quarterly Review]], Spring 2002. Retrieved November 27, 2007. In a review of the book in ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'', the reviewer found the book unfit "for children to read", writing that they would be influenced by Holden, "as too easily happens when immorality and perversion are recounted by writers of talent whose work is countenanced in the name of art or good intention."</ref> who uses religious slurs and freely discusses casual sex and prostitution.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=117}}</ref> The novel was a popular success; within two months of its publication, ''The Catcher in the Rye'' had been reprinted eight times. It spent 30 weeks on the [[New York Times Bestseller|''New York Times'' Bestseller list]].<ref name="simp" />

The book's initial success was followed by a brief lull in popularity, but by the late 1950s, according to Ian Hamilton, it had "become the book all brooding adolescents had to buy, the indispensable manual from which cool styles of disaffectation could be borrowed."<ref name="cult">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=155}}</ref> It has been compared to [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''.<ref>"J. D. Salinger". Encyclopædia Britannica Online School ed. 2011. Web.</ref> Newspapers began publishing articles about the "Catcher Cult",<ref name="cult" /> and the novel was banned in several countries—as well as some U.S. schools—because of its subject matter and what ''[[Catholic World]]'' reviewer Riley Hughes called an "excessive use of amateur swearing and coarse language".<ref name="swearing">{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|p=97}}</ref> According to one angry parent's tabulation, 237 instances of "goddamn," 58 uses of "bastard", 31 "Chrissakes," and one incident of flatulence constituted what was wrong with Salinger's book.<ref name="swearing"/>

In the 1970s, several U.S. high school teachers who assigned the book were fired or forced to resign. A 1979 study of [[censorship]] noted that ''The Catcher in the Rye'' "had the dubious distinction of being at once the most frequently censored book across the nation and the second-most frequently taught novel in public high schools" (after [[John Steinbeck]]'s ''[[Of Mice and Men]]'').<ref name="cens">{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|pp=82, 78}}</ref> The book remains widely read; in 2004, the novel was selling about 250,000 copies per year, "with total worldwide sales over 10 million copies".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Yardley |first=Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Yardley |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A43680-2004Oct18.html |title=J.D. Salinger's Holden Caulfield, Aging Gracelessly |work=The Washington Post |date=October 19, 2004 |accessdate=November 13, 2011}}</ref>

In the wake of its 1950s success, Salinger received (and rejected) numerous offers to adapt ''The Catcher in the Rye'' for the screen, including one from Samuel Goldwyn.<ref name="berg" /> Since its publication, there has been sustained interest in the novel among filmmakers, with [[Billy Wilder]],<ref>[[Cameron Crowe|Crowe, Cameron]], ed. ''Conversations with Wilder''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999. {{ISBN|0-375-40660-3}}. p. 299.</ref> [[Harvey Weinstein]], and [[Steven Spielberg]]<ref name="post">{{cite web|url=http://entertainment.myway.com/celebgossip/pgsix/id/12_04_2003_1.html |date=December 4, 2003 |title=PAGE SIX; Inside Salinger's Own World |work=New York Post |accessdate=January 18, 2007}}</ref> among those seeking to secure the rights. Salinger stated in the 1970s that "[[Jerry Lewis]] tried for years to get his hands on the part of Holden."<ref name="mayn">{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=93}}</ref> Salinger repeatedly refused, though, and in 1999, Joyce Maynard definitively concluded: "The only person who might ever have played Holden Caulfield would have been J. D. Salinger."<ref name="mayn" />

==Writing in the 1950s and move to Cornish==
In a July 1951 profile in ''Book of the Month Club News'', Salinger's friend and ''New Yorker'' editor [[William Keepers Maxwell, Jr.|William Maxwell]] asked Salinger about his literary influences. Salinger responded: "A writer, when he's asked to discuss his craft, ought to get up and call out in a loud voice just the names of the writers he loves. I love [[Franz Kafka|Kafka]], [[Gustave Flaubert|Flaubert]], [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]], [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]], [[Fyodor Dostoevsky|Dostoevsky]], [[Marcel Proust|Proust]], [[Sean O'Casey|O'Casey]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke|Rilke]], [[Federico García Lorca|Lorca]], [[John Keats|Keats]], [[Arthur Rimbaud|Rimbaud]], [[Robert Burns|Burns]], [[Emily Brontë|E. Brontë]], [[Jane Austen]], [[Henry James]], [[William Blake|Blake]], [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge|Coleridge]]. I won't name any living writers. I don't think it's right" (although O'Casey was in fact living at the time).<ref>Silverman, Al, ed. ''The Book of the Month: Sixty Years of Books in American Life''. Boston: Little, Brown, 1986. {{ISBN|0-316-10119-2}}. pp. 129–130.</ref> In letters written in the 1940s, Salinger had expressed his admiration of three living, or recently deceased, writers: [[Sherwood Anderson]], [[Ring Lardner]], and [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]];<ref name="influ">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=53}}</ref> Ian Hamilton wrote that Salinger even saw himself for some time as "Fitzgerald's successor".<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=64}}</ref> Salinger's "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" has an ending similar to that of Fitzgerald's earlier published short story "[[May Day (short story)|May Day]]".<ref>Smith, Dominic (Fall, 2003). "Salinger's Nine Stories: Fifty Years Later". ''The Antioch Review''.</ref>

Salinger wrote friends of a momentous change in his life in 1952, after several years of practicing Zen Buddhism, while reading ''[[The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna]]'' about [[Hinduism|Hindu]] religious teacher [[Sri Ramakrishna]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=127}}</ref> He became an adherent of Ramakrishna's [[Advaita Vedanta]] Hinduism, which advocated celibacy for those seeking enlightenment, and detachment from human responsibilities such as family.<ref name="vive">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=129}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranchan |first=Som P. |title=An Adventure in Vedanta: J. D. Salinger's The Glass Family |year=1989 |publisher=Ajanta |location=Delhi |isbn=81-202-0245-7 }}</ref> Salinger's religious studies were reflected in some of his writing. The story "[[Teddy (story)|Teddy]]" features a ten-year-old child who expresses [[Vedantic]] insights.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=12}}</ref> He also studied [[Bibliography of Swami Vivekananda|the writings]] of Ramakrishna's disciple [[Vivekananda]]; in the story "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", the character of Seymour Glass describes him as "one of the most exciting, original and best-equipped giants of this century."<ref name="vive" />

In 1953, Salinger published a collection of seven stories from ''The New Yorker'' ("Bananafish" among them), as well as two that the magazine had rejected. The collection was published as ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' in the United States, and "[[For Esmé—with Love and Squalor]]" in the UK, after one of Salinger's best-known stories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=92}}</ref> The book received grudgingly positive reviews, and was a financial success—"remarkably so for a volume of short stories", according to Hamilton.<ref name="niney">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|pp=136–7}}</ref> ''Nine Stories'' spent three months on the ''New York Times'' Bestseller list.<ref name="niney" /> Already tightening his grip on publicity, though, Salinger refused to allow publishers of the collection to depict his characters in dust jacket illustrations, lest readers form preconceived notions of them.

As the notoriety of ''The Catcher in the Rye'' grew, Salinger gradually withdrew from public view. In 1953, he moved from an apartment at
[[300 East 57th Street]],<ref>{{Cite news|last=Leigh |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/30/nyregion/30address.html?scp=1&sq=salinger%20apartment&st=cse |title=300 East 57th Street, Salinger's Last Known Manhattan Home |work=The New York Times |date=January 3, 2010 |accessdate=January 30, 2010}}</ref> New York, to [[Cornish, New Hampshire]]. Early in his time at Cornish he was relatively sociable, particularly with students at Windsor High School. Salinger invited them to his house frequently to play records and talk about problems at school.<ref name="twelve">{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|pp=12–14}}</ref> One such student, Shirley Blaney, persuaded Salinger to be interviewed for the high school page of ''The Daily Eagle'', the city paper. Nonetheless, after Blaney's interview appeared prominently in the newspaper's editorial section, Salinger cut off all contact with the high schoolers without explanation.<ref name="twelve" /> He was also seen less frequently around town, meeting only one close friend—jurist [[Learned Hand]]—with any regularity.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=30}}</ref> He also began to publish with less frequency. After the 1953 publication of ''Nine Stories'', he published only four stories through the rest of the decade; two in 1955 and one each in 1957 and 1959.

==Marriage, family, spiritual beliefs==
In February 1955, at the age of 36, Salinger married Claire Douglas, a [[Radcliffe College|Radcliffe]] student (her father was the art critic [[Robert Langton Douglas]]). They had two children, Margaret (also known as Peggy - born December 10, 1955) and [[Matt Salinger|Matthew]] (born February 13, 1960). Margaret Salinger wrote in her memoir ''Dream Catcher'' that she believes her parents would not have married, nor would she have been born, had her father not read the teachings of [[Lahiri Mahasaya]], a guru of [[Paramahansa Yogananda]], which brought the possibility of enlightenment to those following the path of the "householder" (a married person with children).<ref name="eiga">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=89}}</ref> After their marriage, Salinger and Claire were initiated into the path of [[Kriya yoga]] in a small store-front Hindu temple in Washington, D.C., during the summer of 1955.<ref name="nine">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=90}}</ref> They received a mantra and breathing exercises to practice for ten minutes twice a day.<ref name="nine" />

Salinger also insisted that Claire drop out of school and live with him, only four months shy of graduation, which she did. Certain elements of the story "Franny", published in January 1955, are based on his relationship with Claire, including her ownership of the book ''[[The Way of the Pilgrim]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=84}}</ref> Because of their isolated location and Salinger's proclivities, they hardly saw other people for long stretches of time. Claire was also frustrated by Salinger's ever-changing religious beliefs. Though she committed herself to Kriya yoga, she remembered that Salinger would chronically leave Cornish to work on a story "for several weeks only to return with the piece he was supposed to be finishing all undone or destroyed and some new 'ism' we had to follow."<ref name="Salinger94">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|pp=94–5}}</ref> Claire believed "it was to cover the fact that Jerry had just destroyed or junked or couldn't face the quality of, or couldn't face publishing, what he had created."<ref name="Salinger94" />

After abandoning Kriya yoga, Salinger tried [[Dianetics]] (the forerunner of [[Scientology]]), even meeting its founder [[L. Ron Hubbard]], but according to Claire he was quickly disenchanted with it.<ref name="Salinger94" /><ref>{{Cite news|last=Smith |first=Dinitia |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/library/books/083000salinger-daughter.html |title=Salinger's Daughter's Truths as Mesmerizing as His Fiction |work=The New York Times |date=August 30, 2000 |accessdate=March 9, 2007}}</ref> This was followed by an adherence to a number of spiritual, medical, and nutritional belief systems including an interest in [[Christian Science]], [[Edgar Cayce]], [[homeopathy]], [[acupuncture]], and [[macrobiotics]].<ref name="Salinger, M 2000. p. 195">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=195}}</ref>

Salinger's family life was further marked by discord after the first child was born; according to Margaret's book, Claire felt that her daughter had replaced her in Salinger's affections.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=115}}</ref> The infant Margaret was sick much of the time, but Salinger, having embraced the tenets of Christian Science, refused to take her to a doctor.<ref name="sixteen">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|pp=115–116}}</ref> According to Margaret, her mother admitted to her years later that she went "over the edge" in the winter of 1957 and had made plans to murder her and then commit suicide. Claire had supposedly intended to do it during a trip to New York City with Salinger, but she instead acted on a sudden impulse to take Margaret from the hotel and run away. After a few months, Salinger persuaded her to return to Cornish.<ref name="sixteen" />

==Last publications and Maynard relationship==
[[File:J-D-Salinger-TIME-1961.jpg|thumb|upright|Salinger on the cover of ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' (September 15, 1961)]]
Salinger published ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' in 1961, and ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction]]'' in 1963. Each book contained two short stories or novellas, previously published in ''The New Yorker'', about members of the Glass family. These four stories were originally published between 1955 and 1959, and were the only ones Salinger had published since ''Nine Stories''. On the dust jacket of ''Franny and Zooey'', Salinger wrote, in reference to his interest in privacy: "It is my rather subversive opinion that a writer's feelings of anonymity-obscurity are the second most valuable property on loan to him during his working years."<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,895497,00.html "People"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', August 4, 1961. Retrieved 2007-07-10.</ref>

On September 15, 1961, ''Time'' magazine devoted its cover to Salinger. In an article that profiled his "life of recluse", the magazine reported that the Glass family series "is nowhere near completion ... Salinger intends to write a Glass trilogy."<ref name="sonny" /> Nonetheless, Salinger published only one other story after that: "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", a novella in the form of a long letter from seven-year-old Seymour Glass while at summer camp. His first new work in six years, the novella took up most of the June 19, 1965, issue of ''The New Yorker'', and was universally panned by critics. Around this time, Salinger had isolated Claire from friends and relatives and made her—in the words of Margaret Salinger—"a virtual prisoner".<ref name="Salinger94" /> Claire separated from him in September 1966; their divorce was finalized on October 3, 1967.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=35}}</ref>

In 1972, at the age of 53, Salinger had a relationship with 18-year-old [[Joyce Maynard]] that lasted for nine months. Maynard, at this time, was already an experienced writer for ''[[Seventeen (American magazine)|Seventeen]]'' magazine. ''[[The New York Times]]'' had asked Maynard to write an article for them which, when published as "An Eighteen-Year-Old Looks Back On Life" on April 23, 1972,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/maynard-mag.html |title="An Eighteen-Year-Old Looks Back On Life" |accessdate=2007-04-14 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20001214180000/http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/maynard-mag.html |archivedate=December 14, 2000 |df= }}, ''The New York Times''</ref> made her a celebrity. Salinger wrote a letter to her warning about living with fame. After exchanging 25 letters, Maynard moved in with Salinger the summer after her freshman year at [[Yale University]].<ref name="women">{{Cite news|last=Alexander |first=Paul |url=http://nymag.com/nymetro/arts/features/2162/ |title=J. D. Salinger's Women |work=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] |date=February 9, 1998 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref> Maynard did not return to Yale that fall, and spent ten months as a guest in Salinger's Cornish home. The relationship ended, he told his daughter Margaret at a family outing, because Maynard wanted children, and he felt he was too old.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|pp=361–2}}</ref> Nevertheless, in her own autobiography, Maynard paints a different picture, saying Salinger abruptly ended the relationship and refused to take her back. She had dropped out of Yale to be with him, even forgoing a scholarship. Maynard later writes in her own memoir how she came to find out that Salinger had begun relationships with young women by exchanging letters. One of those letter recipients included Salinger's last wife, a nurse who was already engaged to be married to someone else when she met the author.<ref>{{cite book|last=Maynard|first=Joyce|title=At Home in the World|year=1998}} {{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

While he was living with Maynard, Salinger continued to write in a disciplined fashion, a few hours every morning. According to Maynard, by 1972 he had completed two new novels.<ref>{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=158}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Pollitt |first=Katha |authorlink=Katha Pollitt |url= https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/reviews/980913.13pollitt.html |title=With Love and Squalor |work= The New York Times |date=September 13, 1998 |accessdate=April 14, 2007 }}</ref> In a rare 1974 interview with ''The New York Times'', he explained: "There is a marvelous peace in not publishing ... I like to write. I love to write. But I write just for myself and my own pleasure."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Fosburgh |first=Lacey |authorlink=Lacey Fosburgh |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-speaks.html |title=J. D. Salinger Speaks About His Silence |work=The New York Times |date=November 3, 1974 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref> According to Maynard, he saw publication as "a damned interruption".<ref name="damned">{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=97}}</ref> In her memoir, Margaret Salinger describes the detailed filing system her father had for his unpublished manuscripts: "A red mark meant, if I die before I finish my work, publish this 'as is,' blue meant publish but edit first, and so on."<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=307}}</ref> A neighbor said that Salinger told him that he had written 15 unpublished novels.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/7103758/JD-Salingers-death-sparks-speculation-over-unpublished-manuscripts.html "JD Salinger's death sparks speculation over unpublished manuscripts"], ''The Telegraph'', January 29, 2010</ref>

Salinger's final interview was in June 1980 with Betty Eppes of ''[[The Advocate (Louisiana)|The Baton Rouge Advocate]]'', which has been represented somewhat differently, depending on the secondary source. By one account, Eppes was an attractive young woman who misrepresented herself as an aspiring novelist, and managed to record audio of the interview as well as take several photographs of Salinger, both without his knowledge or consent.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|p=16}}</ref> In a separate account, emphasis is placed on her contact by letter writing from the local Post Office, and Salinger's personal initiative to cross the bridge to meet with the woman, who in the course of the interview made clear she was a reporter (and who did indeed, at the close, take pictures of Salinger as he departed).<ref name="autogenerated4">{{cite web|author=Shane Salerno|year=2014|title=Interview of B. Eppes, in documentary "Salinger"|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/episodes/jd-salinger/film-salinger/2642/|accessdate=January 21, 2014}}</ref> According to the first account, the interview ended "disastrously" when a local passer-by from Cornish attempted to shake the famous author's hand, at which point Salinger became enraged.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|p=15}}</ref> A further account of the interview published later in ''[[The Paris Review]]'', purportedly by Eppes as author, has been disowned by Eppes and separately ascribed as a derived work of Review Editor [[George Plimpton]].<ref name="autogenerated4"/><ref>{{cite journal
| author = Betty Eppes
| year = 1981
| title = What I Did Last Summer
| journal = [[The Paris Review]]
| volume = 23
| issue = 80
| arxiv =
| id =
| bibcode =
| url =
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bettytraxlereppes.wordpress.com/that-jd-salinger-connection/ |title=That J.D. Salinger Connection | Betty Traxler Eppes |publisher=Bettytraxlereppes.wordpress.com |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-visit.html |title=Publishing: Visit With J. D. Salinger |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=September 11, 1981 |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref>

==Legal conflicts==
Although Salinger tried to escape public exposure as much as possible, he continued to struggle with unwanted attention from both the media and the public.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=33}}</ref> Readers of his work and students from nearby [[Dartmouth College]] often came to Cornish in groups, hoping to catch a glimpse of him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|p=79}}</ref> In May 1986 Salinger learned that the British writer [[Ian Hamilton (critic)|Ian Hamilton]] intended to publish a biography that made extensive use of letters Salinger had written to other authors and friends. Salinger sued to stop the book's publication. The court in ''[[Salinger v. Random House]]'' ruled that Hamilton's extensive use of the letters, including quotation and paraphrasing, was not acceptable since the author's right to control publication overrode the right of fair use.
The book was not published.<ref name="lubas">{{Cite news|last=Lubasch |first=Arnold H |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-blocked.html |title=Salinger Biography is Blocked |work=The New York Times |date=January 30, 1987 |accessdate=April 14, 2007}}</ref>
Later, Hamilton published ''In Search of J.D. Salinger: A Writing Life (1935–65)'', but this book was more about his experience in tracking down information and the copyright fights over the planned biography than about Salinger himself.<ref>{{cite book |ref=harv
|last=Sableman|first=Mark |page=265
|title=More Speech, Not Less: Communications Law in the Information Age
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S63dbhsFaYoC&pg=PA265
|date=November 21, 1997|publisher=SIU Press|isbn=978-0-8093-2135-3}}</ref>

An [[unintended consequence]] of the lawsuit was that many details of Salinger's private life, including that he had spent the last twenty years writing, in his words, "Just a work of fiction ... That's all",<ref name="depos" /> became public in the form of court transcripts. Excerpts from his letters were also widely disseminated, most notably a bitter remark written in response to [[Oona O'Neill]]'s marriage to [[Charlie Chaplin]]:
{{quote|
I can see them at home evenings. Chaplin squatting grey and nude, atop his [[chiffonier]], swinging his [[thyroid]] around his head by his bamboo cane, like a dead rat. Oona in an aquamarine gown, applauding madly from the bathroom.<ref name="trespass" /><ref name="lubas" />
}}

Salinger was romantically involved with television actress [[Elaine Joyce]] for several years in the 1980s.<ref name="women" /> The relationship ended when he met Colleen O'Neill (b. June 11, 1959), a nurse and quiltmaker, whom he married around 1988.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Alexander |first=Paul |url=http://nymag.com/nymetro/arts/features/2162/ |title=J. D. Salinger's Women |publisher=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] |date=February 9, 1998 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}} The 1998 article mentions that "the couple has been 'married for about ten years'".</ref> O'Neill, forty years his junior, once told Margaret Salinger that she and Salinger were trying to have a child.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=108}}</ref>

In 1995, [[Cinema of Iran|Iranian director]] [[Dariush Mehrjui]] released the film ''[[Pari (1995 film)|Pari]]'', an unauthorized and loose adaptation of Salinger's ''Franny and Zooey''. Though the film could be distributed legally in Iran since the country has no official copyright relations with the United States,<ref>[http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070328192739/http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html|date=March 28, 2007}}</ref> Salinger had his lawyers block a planned screening of the film at the [[Lincoln Center]] in 1998.<ref name="mehr">{{Cite news|last=Mckinley |first=Jesse |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0DE2DD1330F932A15752C1A96E958260 |title=Iranian Film Is Canceled After Protest By Salinger |work=The New York Times |date=November 21, 1998 |accessdate=April 5, 2007}}</ref> Mehrjui called Salinger's action "bewildering", explaining that he saw his film as "a kind of cultural exchange".<ref name="autogenerated3">{{Cite news|last=Mckinley |first=Jesse |url=https://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F00713FC38540C728EDDA80994D0494D81 |title=Iranian Film Is Canceled After Protest By Salinger |work=The New York Times |date=November 21, 1998 |accessdate=April 5, 2007 |format=fee required}}</ref>

In 1996, Salinger gave a small publisher, Orchises Press, permission to publish "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", the previously uncollected novella.<ref>Lundegaard, Karen M. "[http://www.bizjournals.com/washington/stories/1996/11/18/tidbits.html J.D. Salinger resurfaces ... in Alexandria?]", ''[[Washington Business Journal]]'', November 15, 1996. Retrieved August 13, 2008.</ref> It was to be published that year, and listings for it appeared at [[Amazon.com]] and other book-sellers. After a flurry of articles and critical reviews of the story appeared in the press, the publication date was pushed back repeatedly before apparently being cancelled altogether. Amazon anticipated that Orchises would publish the story in January 2009,<ref name="orchise">{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|pp=42–3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hapworth 16, 1924 – Hardcover |author=J. D. Salinger |url=https://www.amazon.co.uk/d/cka/Hapworth-16-1924-J-D-Salinger/0914061658 |date=January 1, 2009 |publisher=Orchises Press |website=amazon.co.uk |accessdate=March 26, 2017}}</ref> but at the time of his death it was still listed as "currently unavailable".<ref>{{cite web|title=Hapworth 16, 1924 (June 19, 1965 ''The New Yorker'') (Paperback)|publisher=Amazon.com|url=https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000PGW43K|accessdate=January 29, 2010}}</ref>

In June 2009, Salinger consulted lawyers about the upcoming publication in the US of an unauthorized sequel to ''The Catcher in the Rye'' written by Swedish book publisher [[John David California|Fredrik Colting]] under the pseudonym 'J. D. California'. California's book is called ''[[60 Years Later: Coming Through the Rye]]'', and appears to pick up the story of Salinger's protagonist Holden Caulfield. In Salinger's novel, Caulfield is 16 years old, wandering the streets of New York after being expelled from his private school; the California book features a 76-year-old man, "Mr. C", musing on having escaped his nursing home. Salinger's New York literary agent Phyllis Westberg told Britain's ''[[Sunday Telegraph]]'': "The matter has been turned over to a lawyer". The fact that little was known about Colting and the book was set to be published by a new publishing imprint called 'Windupbird Publishing' gave rise to speculation in literary circles that the whole thing might be a stunt.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/5413559/JD-Salinger-considers-legal-action-to-stop-The-Catcher-in-the-Rye-sequel.html |last=Sherwell |first=Philip |title=JD Salinger considers legal action to stop The Catcher in the Rye sequel |date=May 30, 2009 |work=The Daily Telegraph| location=London}}</ref> District court judge [[Deborah A. Batts]] issued an [[injunction]] which prevents the book from being published within the U.S.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/02/books/02salinger.html |title=Judge Rules for J.D. Salinger in 'Catcher' Copyright Suit |last=Chan |first=Sewell |date=July 2, 2009 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=July 2, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lawupdates.com/commentary/isalinger_v._colting_i_too_much_borrowing_not_enough_transforming_to_consti/ | title=Salinger v. Colting / Salinger v. Colting: Too Much Borrowing, Not Enough Transforming to Constitute Fair Use / Article / Copyright Law Updates / Copyright Legal Updates |publisher=Lawupdates.com |accessdate=April 4, 2010}}</ref> The book's author filed an appeal on July 23, 2009; it was heard in the Second Circuit Court of Appeals on September 3, 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6672842.html |title=Appeal Filed to Overturn Ban in Salinger Case |accessdate=August 28, 2009 |date=July 24, 2009 |publisher=Publishers Weekly |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090807110303/http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6672842.html |archivedate=August 7, 2009 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Associated Press |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/sep/04/judge-salinger-spinoff-dismal-review |title=Judge gives Salinger spinoff 'dismal' review | Books | guardian.co.uk |work=The Guardian |date= September 4, 2009|accessdate=April 4, 2010 | location=London}}</ref> The case was settled in 2011 when Colting agreed not to publish or otherwise distribute the book, e-book, or any other editions of ''60 Years Later'' in the U.S. or Canada until ''The Catcher in the Rye'' enters the public domain, while also refraining from using the title "Coming through the Rye", dedicating the book to Salinger or referring to the title "The Catcher in the Rye", while Colting remains free to sell the book in other international territories without fear of interference.<ref>{{cite news|last=Albanese|first=Andrew|title=J.D. Salinger Estate, Swedish Author Settle Copyright Suit|url=http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/45738-j-d-salinger-estate-swedish-author-settle-copyright-suit.html|accessdate=December 30, 2012|newspaper=Publishers Weekly|date=January 11, 2011}}</ref>

==Later publicity==
On October 23, 1992, ''The New York Times'' reported, "Not even a fire that consumed at least half his home on Tuesday could smoke out the reclusive J. D. Salinger, author of the classic novel of adolescent rebellion, ''The Catcher in the Rye''. Mr. Salinger is almost equally famous for having elevated privacy to an art form." <ref>{{cite news|date=October 23, 1992|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/24/books/fire-fails-to-shake-salinger-s-seclusion.html |work=The New York Times |title=Fire Fails to Shake Salinger's Seclusion}}</ref>

In 1999, 25 years after the end of their relationship, [[Joyce Maynard]] auctioned a series of letters Salinger had written her. Maynard's memoir of her life and her relationship with Salinger, ''At Home in the World: A Memoir'', was published the same year. Among other topics, the book described how Maynard's mother had consulted with her on how to appeal to the aging author: by dressing in a childlike manner, and described Joyce's relationship with him at length. In the ensuing controversy over both the memoir and the letters, Maynard claimed that she was forced to auction the letters for financial reasons; she would have preferred to donate them to the [[Beinecke Library]]. Software developer [[Peter Norton]] bought the letters for US$156,500 and announced his intention to return them to Salinger.<ref name="auction">{{Cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/books/news/9906/22/salinger.letters/ |title=Salinger letters bring $156,500 at auction |publisher=CNN |date=June 22, 1999 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref>

[[File:Dream Catcher (memoir).jpg|thumb|upright|Margaret Salinger's memoir ''Dream Catcher'', its cover featuring a rare photograph of Salinger and Margaret as a child]]
A year later, Salinger's daughter Margaret, by his second wife Claire Douglas, published ''Dream Catcher: A Memoir''. In her book, she described the harrowing control that Salinger had over her mother and dispelled many of the Salinger myths established by Ian Hamilton's book. One of Hamilton's arguments was that Salinger's experience with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] left him psychologically scarred, and that he was unable to deal with the traumatic nature of his war service. Margaret Salinger allowed that "the few men who lived through [[Operation Lüttich|Bloody Mortain]], a battle in which her father fought, were left with much to sicken them, body and soul",<ref name="fiff"/> but she also painted a picture of her father as a man immensely proud of his service record, maintaining his military haircut and service jacket, and moving about his compound (and town) in an old [[Jeep]].

Both Margaret Salinger and Maynard characterized the author as a devoted film buff. According to Margaret, his favorite movies include ''[[Gigi (1958 film)|Gigi]]'' (1958), ''[[The Lady Vanishes (1938 film)|The Lady Vanishes]]'' (1938), ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)|The 39 Steps]]'' (1935; Phoebe's favorite movie in ''The Catcher in the Rye''), and the comedies of [[W.C. Fields]], [[Laurel and Hardy]], and the [[Marx Brothers]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=7}}</ref> Predating VCRs, Salinger had an extensive collection of classic movies from the 1940s in 16 mm prints. Maynard wrote that "he loves movies, not films",<ref>{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=94}}</ref> and Margaret Salinger argued that her father's "worldview is, essentially, a product of the movies of his day. To my father, all Spanish speakers are [[Puerto Rican people|Puerto Rican]] washerwomen, or the toothless, grinning-gypsy types in a Marx Brothers movie".<ref name="Salinger, M 2000. p. 195"/> [[Lillian Ross (journalist)|Lillian Ross]], a staff writer for ''The New Yorker'' and longtime friend of Salinger's, wrote following his death, "Salinger loved movies, and he was more fun than anyone to discuss them with. He enjoyed watching actors work, and he enjoyed knowing them. (He loved [[Anne Bancroft]], hated [[Audrey Hepburn]], and said that he had seen ''[[Grand Illusion (film)|Grand Illusion]]'' ten times.)"<ref name="Ross2010" />

Margaret also offered many insights into other Salinger myths, including her father's supposed long-time interest in [[macrobiotics]], and involvement with "alternative medicine" and Eastern philosophies. A few weeks after ''Dream Catcher'' was published, Margaret's brother [[Matt Salinger|Matt]] discredited the memoir in a letter to ''[[The New York Observer]]''. He disparaged his sister's "gothic tales of our supposed childhood" and stated: "I can't say with any authority that she is consciously making anything up. I just know that I grew up in a very different house, with two very different parents from those my sister describes."<ref name="justice">{{Cite news|last=Malcolm |first=Janet |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/14272 |title=Justice to J. D. Salinger |publisher=[[The New York Review of Books]] |date=June 21, 2001 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061115210517/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/14272 | archivedate=November 15, 2006}}</ref>

==Death==
[[File:J-D-Salinger-Illustration-TIME-1961.jpg|thumb|upright|Created for the cover of ''Time'' magazine, [[Robert Vickrey]]'s 1961 portrait of Salinger was placed on view in the [[National Portrait Gallery (United States)|National Portrait Gallery]] in Washington, D.C., after Salinger's death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://npg.si.edu/blog/j-d-salinger-1919-2010 |title=J. D. Salinger, 1919–2010|last= |first= |date=February 1, 2010 |website= |publisher=National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonia Institution |access-date=2017-06-30}}</ref>]]
Salinger died of [[natural causes]] at his home in [[New Hampshire]] on January 27, 2010. He was 91.<ref name="DeathABC" /> Salinger's literary representative told ''[[The New York Times]]'' that the writer had broken his [[hip bone|hip]] in May 2009, but that "his health had been excellent until a rather sudden decline after the new year."<ref name="nyt12810">[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/29/books/29salinger.html nytimes.com]: "J. D. Salinger, Enigmatic Author, Dies at 91".</ref> The representative believed that Salinger's death was not a painful one.<ref name="nyt12810"/> His third wife and widow, Colleen O'Neill Zakrzeski Salinger, and Salinger's son Matt became the [[executor]]s of his [[Estate (law)|estate]].<ref name="nyt12810"/>

==Literary style and themes==
In a contributor's note Salinger gave to ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'' in 1946, he wrote: "I almost always write about very young people", a statement that has been referred to as his [[credo]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|p=96}}</ref> Adolescents are featured or appear in all of Salinger's work, from his first published short story, "[[The Young Folks]]" (1940), to ''The Catcher in the Rye'' and his [[Glass family]] stories. In 1961, the critic [[Alfred Kazin]] explained that Salinger's choice of teenagers as a subject matter was one reason for his appeal to young readers, but another was "a consciousness [among youths] that he speaks for them and virtually ''to'' them, in a language that is peculiarly honest and their own, with a vision of things that capture their most secret judgments of the world."<ref>[[Alfred Kazin|Kazin, Alfred]]. "J.D. Salinger: "Everybody's Favorite"", [[The Atlantic Monthly]] 208.2, August 1961. Rpt. in [[Harold Bloom|Bloom, Harold]], ed. {{Cite book|title=Bloom's BioCritiques: J. D. Salinger |year=2001 |publisher=Chelsea House |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0-7910-6175-2 |author=edited and with an introduction by Harold Bloom. }} pp. 67–75.</ref> For this reason, [[Norman Mailer]] once remarked that Salinger was "the greatest mind ever to stay in prep school".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,584170,00.html |title='Catcher in the Rye' Author J.D. Salinger Dies |publisher=Fox News |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref> Salinger's language, especially his energetic, realistically sparse dialogue, was revolutionary at the time his first stories were published and was seen by several critics as "the most distinguishing thing" about his work.<ref>Shuman, R. Baird, ed. ''Great American Writers: Twentieth Century.'' Vol. 13. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 2002. 14 vols. p. 1308.</ref>

Salinger identified closely with his characters,<ref name="damned" /> and used techniques such as interior monologue, letters, and extended telephone calls to display his gift for dialogue. Such style elements also "[gave] him the illusion of having, as it were, delivered his characters' destinies into their own keeping."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=70}}</ref> Recurring themes in Salinger's stories also connect to the ideas of innocence and adolescence, including the "corrupting influence of Hollywood and the world at large",<ref name="mondy">Mondloch, Helen. "Squalor and Redemption: The Age of Salinger", [[The World & I]]. SIRS Knowledge Source: SIRS Renaissance. November 2003. Retrieved April 2, 2004.</ref> the disconnect between teenagers and "phony" adults,<ref name="mondy" /> and the perceptive, precocious intelligence of children.<ref name="at fifty" />

Contemporary critics discuss a clear progression over the course of Salinger's published work, as evidenced by the increasingly negative reviews received by each of his three post-''Catcher'' story collections.<ref name="justice" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=34}}</ref> Ian Hamilton adheres to this view, arguing that while Salinger's early stories for the "slicks" boasted "tight, energetic" dialogue, they had also been formulaic and sentimental. It took the standards of ''The New Yorker'' editors, among them [[William Shawn]], to refine his writing into the "spare, teasingly mysterious, withheld" qualities of "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" (1948), ''The Catcher in the Rye'', and his stories of the early 1950s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|pp=105–6}}</ref> By the late 1950s, as Salinger became more reclusive and involved in religious study, Hamilton notes that his stories became longer, less plot-driven, and increasingly filled with [[digression]] and parenthetical remarks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=188}}</ref> [[Louis Menand]] agrees, writing in ''The New Yorker'' that Salinger "stopped writing stories, in the conventional sense ... He seemed to lose interest in fiction as an art form—perhaps he thought there was something manipulative or inauthentic about literary device and authorial control."<ref name="at fifty" /> In recent years, some critics have defended certain post-''Nine Stories'' works by Salinger; in 2001, [[Janet Malcolm]] wrote in ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'' that "Zooey" "is arguably Salinger's masterpiece ... Rereading it and its companion piece "Franny" is no less rewarding than rereading ''[[The Great Gatsby]]''."<ref name="justice" />

==Influence==
Salinger's writing has influenced several prominent writers, prompting [[Harold Brodkey]] (himself an [[O. Henry Award]]-winning author) to state in 1991: "His is the most influential body of work in English prose by anyone since Hemingway."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Brozan |first=Nadine |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE0D81030F934A15757C0A967958260 |title=Chronicle |work=The New York Times |date=April 27, 1991 |accessdate=July 10, 2007}}</ref> Of the writers in Salinger's generation, [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning novelist [[John Updike]] attested that "the short stories of J. D. Salinger really opened my eyes as to how you can weave fiction out of a set of events that seem almost unconnected, or very lightly connected ... [Reading Salinger] stick[s] in my mind as really having moved me a step up, as it were, toward knowing how to handle my own material."<ref>Osen, Diane. [http://www.nationalbook.org/authorsguide_jupdike.html "Interview with John Updike"], The National Book Foundation. 2007. Retrieved July 10, 2007.</ref> The critic [[Louis Menand]] has observed that the early stories of Pulitzer Prize-winner [[Philip Roth]] were affected by "Salinger's voice and comic timing".<ref name="at fifty" />

[[National Book Award]] finalist [[Richard Yates (novelist)|Richard Yates]] told ''[[The New York Times]]'' in 1977 that reading Salinger's stories for the first time was a landmark experience, and that "nothing quite like it has happened to me since".<ref>[[Richard Yates (novelist)|Yates, Richard]]. [https://www.nytimes.com/1977/12/04/archives/article-11-no-title-writers-writers-writers.html "Writers' Writers"] (fee required), [[The New York Times]], December 4, 1977. Retrieved 2007-10-24. Relevant passage is [http://www.richardyates.org/bib_onsalinger.html excerpted] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107171445/http://www.richardyates.org/bib_onsalinger.html |date=November 7, 2007 }} on richardyates.org.</ref> Yates describes Salinger as "a man who used language as if it were pure energy beautifully controlled, and who knew exactly what he was doing in every silence as well as in every word." [[Gordon Lish]]'s [[O. Henry Award]]-winning short story "For Jeromé—With Love and Kisses" (1977, collected in ''What I Know So Far'', 1984) is a play on Salinger's "For Esmé—with Love and Squalor".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1984/05/20/playing-the-game-of-what-if/d458b5ef-9387-4947-a24e-892ac5553672/|title=Playing the Game Of 'What If...'|last=Drabelle|first=Dennis|date=1984-05-20|work=The Washington Post|access-date=2017-06-20|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/book_blitz/2007/10/i_was_gordon_lishs_editor.html|title=I Was Gordon Lish's Editor|last=Howard|first=Gerald|date=2007-10-31|work=Slate|access-date=2017-06-20|language=en-US|issn=1091-2339}}</ref>

In 2001, [[Louis Menand]] wrote in ''The New Yorker'' that "''Catcher in the Rye'' rewrites" among each new generation had become "a literary genre all its own".<ref name="at fifty" /> He classed among them [[Sylvia Plath]]'s ''[[The Bell Jar]]'' (1963), [[Hunter S. Thompson]]'s ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'' (1971), [[Jay McInerney]]'s ''[[Bright Lights, Big City (novel)|Bright Lights, Big City]]'' (1984), and [[Dave Eggers]]'s ''[[A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius]]'' (2000). Writer [[Aimee Bender]] was struggling with her first short stories when a friend gave her a copy of ''Nine Stories''; inspired, she later described Salinger's effect on writers, explaining: "[I]t feels like Salinger wrote ''The Catcher in the Rye'' in a day, and that incredible feeling of ease inspires writing. Inspires the pursuit of voice. Not his voice. My voice. Your voice."<ref>[[Aimee Bender|Bender, Aimee]]. "Holden Schmolden". Kotzen, Kip, and Thomas Beller, ed. ''With Love and Squalor: 14 Writers Respond to the Work of J.D. Salinger''. New York: Broadway, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-7679-0799-6}}. pp. 162–9.</ref> Authors such as [[Stephen Chbosky]],<ref>Beisch, Ann. [http://www.layouth.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=Issue&action=IssueArticle&aid=1393&nid=19 "Interview with Stephen Chbosky, author of The Perks of Being a Wallflower"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927161523/http://www.layouth.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=Issue&action=IssueArticle&aid=1393&nid=19 |date=September 27, 2007 }}, ''LA Youth'', November–December 2001. Retrieved July 10, 2007.</ref> [[Jonathan Safran Foer]],<ref>Epstein, Jennifer. [http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2004/12/06/news/11661.shtml "Creative writing program produces aspiring writers"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113022519/http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2004/12/06/news/11661.shtml |date=January 13, 2008 }}, [[The Daily Princetonian]], December 6, 2004. Retrieved October 30, 2008.</ref> [[Carl Hiaasen]], [[Susan Minot]],<ref name="minot">[http://www.authorsontheweb.com/features/0012author-influences/author-influences.asp "What Authors Influenced You?"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927203055/http://www.authorsontheweb.com/features/0012author-influences/author-influences.asp |date=September 27, 2007 }}, Authorsontheweb.com. Retrieved July 10, 2007. Both Hiaasen and Minot cite him as an influence here.</ref> [[Haruki Murakami]], [[Gwendoline Riley]],<ref>[http://books.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,2064808,00.html "You have to trawl the depths"], [[The Guardian]], April 25, 2007. Retrieved December 26, 2007.</ref> [[Tom Robbins]], [[Louis Sachar]],<ref>[http://www.louissachar.com/Bio.htm "Author Bio"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910015014/http://www.louissachar.com/Bio.htm |date=September 10, 2015 }}, Louis Sachar's Official Web Site, 2002. Retrieved July 14, 2007.</ref> [[Joel Stein]]<ref>[[Joel Stein|Stein, Joel]]. "The Yips". Kotzen, Kip, and Thomas Beller, ed. ''With Love and The Squalor: 14 Writers Respond to the Work of J. D. Salinger''. New York: Broadway, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-7679-0799-6}}. pp. 170–6.</ref> and [[John Green (author)|John Green]] have cited Salinger as an influence. Musician [[Tomas Kalnoky]] of [[Streetlight manifesto|Streetlight Manifesto]] also cites Salinger as an influence, referencing him and [[Holden Caulfield]], the main character of ''Catcher in the Rye'', in the song "[[Everything Goes Numb#Cultural references|Here's To Life]]". Biographer Paul Alexander called Salinger "the [[Greta Garbo]] of literature".<ref>Beam, A. (2006) "J.D. Salinger, Failed Recluse", in ‘’If you Really Want to Hear About It: Writers on J.D. Salinger and His Work". Catherine Crawford (ed.) Thunder’s Mouth Press</ref>

In the mid-1960s, J. D. Salinger was himself drawn to [[Sufism|Sufi mysticism]] through the writer and thinker [[Idries Shah]]'s seminal work ''[[The Sufis]]'', as were others writers such as [[Doris Lessing]] and [[Geoffrey Grigson]], and the poets [[Robert Graves]] and [[Ted Hughes]].<ref name="Sufism-Guardian-Webster">{{cite web
| author = Webster
| first = Jason
| title = Sufism: ‘a natural antidote to fanaticism’
| publisher = [[The Guardian]]
| date = October 23, 2014
| url = https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/23/sufism-natural-antidote-fanaticism-the-sufis-idries-shah
| accessdate = October 23, 2014}}</ref> As well as Idries Shah, Salinger also read the Taoist philosopher [[Laozi|Lao Tse]] and the Hindu [[Vivekananda|Swami Vivekananda]] who introduced the Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world.<ref name="Istorie a Amantelor">{{cite book
| last = Abbott
| first = Elizabeth
| authorlink =
| title = Une histoire des maîtresses
| publisher = FIDES
| language = fr
| year = 2004
| location =
| page = 387
| isbn = 978-2762124941
| url = https://books.google.com/?id=fEsPUICzDY4C&pg=PA387&dq=%22elizabeth+abbott%22+Vivekananda+idries+shah#v=onepage&q=%22elizabeth%20abbott%22%20Vivekananda%20idries%20shah&f=false}}</ref>

==Legacy==
In an oral biography titled ''Salinger'', authors [[David Shields]] and [[Shane Salerno]] assert that the author had left specific instructions authorizing a timetable, to start between 2015 and 2020, for the release of several unpublished works. According to the authors and their sources, these include five new Glass-family stories; a novel based on Salinger's relationship with his first wife, Sylvia; a novella in the form of a World War II counterintelligence officer’s diary; a "manual" of stories about Vedanta; and other new or retooled stories that illuminate the life of Holden Caulfield.<ref name="Shields">{{cite news|last= Kakutani |first= Michiko |title= Hunting Again for Salinger Within the Silences and Secrets: A Biography From David Shields and Shane Salerno |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/26/books/a-biography-from-david-shields-and-shane-salerno.html |accessdate=August 27, 2013 |newspaper=The New York Times Book Review |date=August 25, 2013}}</ref>

The ''Salinger'' biography is also described as a companion volume to [[Salinger (film)|a film documentary of the same title]]. The directorial debut of writer [[Shane Salerno]], ''Salinger'' was made over nine years and received a limited theatrical release on September 6, 2013.<ref name="NYTimes">{{cite news|last=Cieply |first=Michael |author2=Julie Bosman |title=Film on Salinger Claims More Books Are Coming |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/25/business/media/film-on-j-d-salinger-claims-more-books-coming.html |accessdate=August 27, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=August 25, 2013}}</ref><ref name="IMDb">{{cite web|title=Salinger (2013) |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1596753/combined |publisher=[[Internet Movie Database]] |accessdate=August 27, 2013}}</ref>

==List of works==

===Books===
* ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' (1951)
* ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' (1953)
** "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" (1948)
** "[[Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut]]" (1948)
** "[[Just Before the War with the Eskimos]]" (1948)
** "[[The Laughing Man (short story)|The Laughing Man]]" (1949)
** "[[Down at the Dinghy]]" (1949)
** "[[For Esmé—with Love and Squalor]]" (1950)
** "[[Pretty Mouth and Green My Eyes]]" (1951)
** "[[De Daumier-Smith's Blue Period]]" (1952)
** "[[Teddy (story)|Teddy]]" (1953)
* ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' (1961)
** "Franny" (1955)
** "Zooey" (1957)
* ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction]]'' (1963)
** "Raise High the Roof-Beam, Carpenters" (1955)
** "Seymour: An Introduction" (1959)
* ''[[Three Early Stories]]'' (2014)
** "[[The Young Folks]]" (1940)
** "[[Go See Eddie]]" (1940)
** "[[Once a Week Won't Kill You]]" (1944)

===Published and anthologized stories===
* "[[Go See Eddie]]" (1940, republished in ''Fiction: Form & Experience'', ed. William M. Jones, 1969 and in ''Three Early Stories'', 2014)
* "[[The Young Folks]]" (1940, republished in ''Three Early Stories'', 2014)
* "[[The Hang of It]]" (1941, republished in ''The Kit Book for Soldiers, Sailors and Marines'', 1943)
* "[[The Long Debut of Lois Taggett]]" (1942, republished in ''Stories: The Fiction of the Forties'', ed. Whit Burnett, 1949)
* "[[Once a Week Won't Kill You]]" (1944, republished in ''Three Early Stories'', 2014)
* "[[A Boy in France]]" (1945, republished in ''Post Stories 1942–45'', ed. Ben Hibbs, 1946 and July/August 2010 issue of ''Saturday Evening Post'' magazine)
* "[[This Sandwich Has No Mayonnaise]]" (1945, republished in ''The Armchair Esquire'', ed. L. Rust Hills, 1959)
* "[[Slight Rebellion off Madison]]" (1946, republished in ''Wonderful Town: New York Stories from The New Yorker'', ed. David Remnick, 2000)
* "[[A Girl I Knew]]" (1948, republished in ''Best American Short Stories 1949'', ed. Martha Foley, 1949)

===Published and unanthologized stories===

* "[[The Heart of a Broken Story]]" (1941)
* "[[Personal Notes of an Infantryman]]" (1942)
* "[[The Varioni Brothers]]" (1943)
* "[[Both Parties Concerned]]" (1944)
* "[[Soft-Boiled Sergeant]]" (1944)
* "[[Last Day of the Last Furlough]]" (1944)
* "[[Elaine (short story)|Elaine]]" (1945)
* "[[The Stranger (Salinger short story)|The Stranger]]" (1945)
* "[[I'm Crazy]]" (1945)
* "[[A Young Girl in 1941 with No Waist at All]]" (1947)
* "[[The Inverted Forest]]" (1947)
* "[[Blue Melody]]" (1948)
* "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]" (1965)

===Unpublished stories===
*"[[Mrs. Hincher]]" (1942)
*"[[The Last and Best of the Peter Pans]]" (1942)
*"[[The Children's Echelon]]" (1944)
*"[[Two Lonely Men]]" (1944)
*"[[The Magic Foxhole]]" (1944)
*"[[Birthday Boy (story)|Birthday Boy]]" (1946)
*"[[The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls]]" (1947)

==Media portrayals and references==
*In [[W. P. Kinsella]]'s 1982 novel, ''[[Shoeless Joe (novel)|Shoeless Joe]]'', the main character "kidnaps" the reclusive Salinger to take him to a baseball game. When the novel was adapted for cinema as ''[[Field of Dreams]]'', Salinger's character was replaced by the fictional Terence Mann, amid fears that Salinger might sue.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Geddes|first1=John|title=W.P. on J.D.: Kinsella talks about writing Salinger into 'Shoeless Joe'|url=http://www.macleans.ca/politics/ottawa/w-p-on-j-d-kinsella-talks-about-writing-salinger-into-shoeless-joe/|accessdate=14 September 2016|work=[[Maclean's]]|date=January 29, 2010}}</ref>
*In the 2002 film ''[[The Good Girl]]'', the character of "Holden" (played by [[Jake Gyllenhaal]]) adopts the name because of his admiration of ''The Catcher in the Rye''. Coincidentally the film also stars [[Zooey Deschanel]] who was named after the character from Salinger's Franny and Zooey.
*Salinger is portrayed by [[Chris Cooper]] in [[James Steven Sadwith]]'s 2015 film ''[[Coming Through the Rye (film)|Coming Through the Rye]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lee|first=Ashley|title=Chris Cooper Is J.D. Salinger in 'Coming Through the Rye' Clip (Exclusive Video)|date=14 October 2016|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/chris-cooper-is-jd-salinger-938110|accessdate=18 October 2016}}</ref>
*Salinger appears as a character (voiced by [[Alan Arkin]]) in several 2015–2016 episodes of ''[[BoJack Horseman]]'' (season 2 episodes 6, 7, 8, 10 and season 3 episode 1), where he is said to have faked his own death to escape public attention and pursue a career in television production. He quotes numerous lines from his works, bemoaning how ''The Catcher in the Rye'' has become his only work that anyone knows about.
*Salinger was portrayed by [[Nicholas Hoult]] in the 2017 film ''[[Rebel in the Rye]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Child|first=Ben|title=Nicholas Hoult to play JD Salinger in new biopic|date=1 September 2015|publisher=''[[The Guardian]]''|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/sep/01/nicholas-hoult-rebel-in-the-rye-jd-salinger|accessdate=9 January 2017}}</ref>
*Salinger's name is mentioned in the title for [[The Wonder Years (band)|The Wonder Years]] song "[[You're Not Salinger. Get Over It.]]"

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|colwidth=25em}}

==References==
* {{Cite book|last=Mueller |first=Bruce F. |author2=Hochman, Will|title=Critical Companion to J. D. Salinger: a Literary Reference to His Life and Work |year=2011 |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |isbn=978-0816065974}}
* {{Cite book|last=Alexander |first=Paul|title=Salinger: A Biography |year=1999 |publisher=Renaissance |location=Los Angeles |isbn=1-58063-080-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crawford |first=Catherine, ed. |title=If You Really Want to Hear About It: Writers on J. D. Salinger and His Work |year=2006 |publisher=Thunder's Mouth |location=New York |isbn=1-56025-880-2 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Grunwald |first=Henry Anatole, ed. |title=Salinger, the Classic Critical and Personal Portrait |year=1962 |publisher=Harper Perennial, Harper & Row |location=New York |isbn=0-06185-250-3}}
* {{Cite book|last=French |first=Warren |title=J. D. Salinger, Revisted |year=1988 |publisher=Twayne Publishers |location=Boston, Massachusetts |isbn=0-8057-7522-6 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Hamilton |first=Ian |authorlink=Ian Hamilton (critic) |title=In Search of J. D. Salinger |year=1988 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=0-394-53468-9 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kubica |first=Chris |author2=Hochman, Will |title=Letters to J. D. Salinger |year=2002 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison |isbn=0-299-17800-5 }}
*{{cite book|last1= Lutz |first1= Norma Jean |year= 2002 |origyear= |chapter= Biography of J.D. Salinger |chapterurl= |editor1-last= Bloom |editor1-first= Harold |editor1-link= Harold Bloom |title= J. D. Salinger |url= |type= |series= Bloom's BioCritiques |edition= |location= Philadelphia |publisher= [[Chelsea House]] |publication-date= |pages= 3–44 |doi= |isbn= 0-7910-6175-2 |jstor= |lccn= |oclc= 48473975 |ol= |ssrn= |id= |accessdate= |via= |registration= |subscription= |laysummary= |laysource= |laydate= |ref= harv }}
*{{Cite book|last= Maynard |first= Joyce |authorlink= Joyce Maynard |title= At Home in the World |year= 1998 |publisher= Picador |location= New York |isbn= 0-312-19556-7 |ref= harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Salinger |first=Margaret |title=Dream Catcher: A Memoir |year=2000 |publisher=Washington Square Press |location=New York |isbn=0-671-04281-5 |ref= {{harvid|Margaret Salinger|2000}}}}
* Slawenski, Kenneth (2010). ''J. D. Salinger: A Life Raised High'', London, Pomona Books. {{ISBN|978-1-904590-23-1}}
* {{cite journal | title = Cherished and Cursed: Toward a Social History of The Catcher in the Rye | last = Whitfield | first = Stephen | journal = The New England Quarterly | volume = 70 | issue = 4 | date = December 1997 | pages = 567–600 | doi = 10.2307/366646 | jstor = 366646  | url = http://www.northeastern.edu/neq/pdfs/Whitfield%2C_Stephen_J.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2012-11-02 | ref = harv | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120912144104/http://www.northeastern.edu/neq/pdfs/Whitfield%2C_Stephen_J.pdf | archivedate = September 12, 2012 | df = mdy-all }}
:Reprinted in {{Cite book |title= J. D. Salinger |year=2001 |publisher= [[Chelsea House]] |location=Philadelphia |series= Bloom's BioCritiques |isbn=0-7910-6175-2 |editor1-last= Bloom |editor1-first= Harold |editor1-link= Harold Bloom | pages = 77–105}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Jerome David Salinger}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/29/books/29salinger.html J. D. Salinger, Enigmatic Author, Dies at 91], ''The New York Times'', January 28, 2010
* [http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/nation-world/bal-te.ob.salinger29jan29,0,4629261.story The Reclusive Writer Inspired a Generation], ''Baltimore Sun'', January 29, 2010
* [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/culture-obituaries/books-obituaries/7096097/JD-Salinger.html JD Salinger] – ''Daily Telegraph'' obituary
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3786891.stm Obituary: JD Salinger], BBC News, January 28, 2010
* [http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2010/02/sali-f02.html ''J.D. Salinger (1919–2010): An appreciation''] World Socialist Web Site. February 2, 2010.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040615211038/http://www.tversu.ru/Science/Hermeneutics/1998-2/1998-2-28-eng.pdf Implied meanings in J. D. Salinger stories and reverting]
* [http://www.deadcaulfields.com/DCHome.html Dead Caulfields – The Life and Work of J.D. Salinger]
* [http://catchingsalinger.wordpress.com Catching Salinger] – Serialized documentary about the search for J.D. Salinger
* [http://www.shmoop.com/jd-salinger/ J.D. Salinger] biography, quotes, multimedia, teacher resources
* [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/23725 On J.D. Salinger] by [[Michael Greenberg (writer)|Michael Greenberg]] from ''[[The New York Review of Books]]''
* [http://www.haaretz.com/culture/books/the-courage-to-be-an-absolute-nobody-1.346920 Essay on Salinger's life from Haaretz]
* {{OL author}}
* [http://www.uea.ac.uk/is/archives# J.D. Salinger – Hartog Letters, University of East Anglia]
* [http://www.life.com/gallery/62491/salinger-and-catcher-in-the-rye#index/0 Salinger and 'Catcher in the Rye'] — slideshow by ''[[Life magazine]]''
* [http://www.esquire.com/features/jd-salinger-bio-0697 The Man in the Glass House] — Ron Rosenbaum's 1997 profile for ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]''
* {{IMDb name|0758409}}
* {{LCAuth|n50016589|J. D. Salinger|18|}}
*[https://www.yeyebook.com/en/jerome-david-salinger-a-perfect-day-for-bananafish-short-stories-eng/ J. D. Salinger - A perfect day for Bananafish] (Text of the short story, in: EN FR DE IT ES CH)

{{J. D. Salinger}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Salinger, J. D.}}
[[Category:J. D. Salinger| ]]
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:2010 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century American short story writers]]
[[Category:American Hindus]]
[[Category:American military personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:American people of German descent]]
[[Category:American people of Irish descent]]
[[Category:American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:American people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:Converts to Christianity from Judaism]]
[[Category:Hindus of Jewish descent]]
[[Category:Jewish American novelists]]
[[Category:People from Cornish, New Hampshire]]
[[Category:People from Manhattan]]
[[Category:United States Army soldiers]]
[[Category:Ursinus College alumni]]
[[Category:Columbia University School of General Studies alumni]]
[[Category:Novelists from New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Writers from New York City]]
[[Category:American male novelists]]
[[Category:American male short story writers]]
[[Category:20th-century American male writers]]
[[Category:McBurney School alumni]]
[[Category:Novelists from New York (state)]]
[[Category:Operation Overlord people]]

J. D. Salinger

2018-10-18T16:41:09Z

66.172.182.2:

{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = J. D. Salinger
| image = JD Salinger.jpg
| caption = Salinger in 1950 (photo by [[Lotte Jacobi]])
| birth_name = Jerome David Salinger
| birth_date = {{Birth date|mf=yes|1919|1|1}}
| birth_place = [[Manhattan, New York]], U.S.
| death_date = {{Death date and age|mf=yes|2010|1|27|1919|1|1}}
| death_place = [[Cornish, New Hampshire]], U.S.
| occupation = Writer
| education = [[New York University]] [[Ursinus College]] [[Columbia University]]
| period = 1940–1965
| movement =
| notableworks = ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' (1951) ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' (1953) ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction]]'' (1963) ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' (1961)
| spouse = {{marriage|Sylvia Welter |1945|1947|end=divorced}} {{marriage|Claire Douglas |1955|1967|end=divorced}} {{marriage|Colleen O'Neill |1988}}
| children = Margaret Salinger [[Matt Salinger]]
| signature = J. D. Salinger Signature.svg
| parents = Marie Salinger Sol Salinger
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Jerome David Salinger''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|l|ᵻ|n|dʒ|ər}}; January 1, 1919{{spnd}} January 27, 2010) was an American writer known for his widely read novel, ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]''. Following his early success publishing short stories and ''The Catcher in the Rye'', Salinger led a very private life for more than a half-century. He published his final original work in 1965 and gave his last interview in 1980. he loved little boys

Salinger was raised in [[Manhattan]] and began writing short stories while in secondary school. Several were published in ''[[Story (magazine)|Story]]'' magazine<ref>"J. D. Salinger". EXPLORING Novels. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Web. November 9, 2010.</ref> in the early 1940s before he began serving in [[World War II]]. In 1948, his critically acclaimed story "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" appeared in ''[[The New Yorker]]'' magazine, which became home to much of his later work. ''The Catcher in the Rye'' was published in 1951 and became an immediate popular success. His depiction of adolescent alienation and loss of innocence in the protagonist [[Holden Caulfield]] was influential, especially among adolescent readers.<ref name="sonny">{{Cite news|last=Skow |first=John |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,938775,00.html |title=Sonny: An Introduction |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=September 15, 1961 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref> The novel remains widely read and controversial,{{efn|See Beidler's ''A Reader's Companion to J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye''.}} selling around 250,000 copies a year.

The success of ''The Catcher in the Rye'' led to public attention and scrutiny. Salinger became reclusive, publishing new work less frequently. He followed ''Catcher'' with a short story collection, ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' (1953); a volume containing a novella and a short story, ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' (1961); and a volume containing two novellas, ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters]]'' and ''[[Seymour: An Introduction]]'' (1963). His last published work, a novella entitled "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", appeared in ''The New Yorker'' on June 19, 1965. Afterward, Salinger struggled with unwanted attention, including a legal battle in the 1980s with biographer [[Ian Hamilton (critic)|Ian Hamilton]] and the release in the late 1990s of memoirs written by two people close to him: [[Joyce Maynard]], an ex-lover; and Margaret Salinger, his daughter. In 1996, a small publisher announced a deal with Salinger to publish "Hapworth 16, 1924" in book form, but amid the ensuing publicity the release was indefinitely delayed.<ref name="BBCNews">{{Cite AV media|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p042pqff|accessdate=August 3, 2016|title=The Reclusive JD Salinger}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/arts/books/features/65210/ |date=April 4, 2010 |title=Betraying Salinger |publisher=[[New York Magazine]] |accessdate=April 16, 2010}}</ref> He made headlines around the globe in June 2009 when he filed a lawsuit against another writer for copyright infringement resulting from that writer's use of one of the characters from ''The Catcher in the Rye''.<ref>Gross D. "[http://www.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/books/06/03/salinger.catcher.lawsuit/index.html Lawsuit targets 'rip-off' of 'Catcher in the Rye']". ''CNN''. Retrieved June 6, 2009.</ref>

Salinger died of natural causes on January 27, 2010, at his home in [[Cornish, New Hampshire]].<ref name="BBCNews2">{{Cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/8486169.stm|title=JD Salinger, author of Catcher in the Rye, dies at 91|work=BBC|accessdate=January 29, 2010 | date=January 29, 2010}}</ref><ref name="DeathABC">{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory?id=9688535|title='Catcher in the Rye' Author J.D. Salinger Dies|last=Italie|first=Hillel|date=January 28, 2010|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=January 28, 2010}}</ref><ref name="death">{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704878904575031273026569184?mod=WSJ_latestheadlines|title=J.D. Salinger Is Dead at Age 91|work=Wall Street Journal|date=January 28, 2010|accessdate=January 28, 2010 | first=Stephen | last=Miller}}</ref> In November 2013, three unpublished stories by Salinger were briefly posted online. One of the stories, "[[The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls]]", is said to be a prequel to ''The Catcher in the Rye''.

==Early life==
[[File:1133 Park Avenue cloudy jeh.jpg|thumb|right|1133 Park Avenue in Manhattan, where Salinger grew up]]
Jerome David Salinger was born in [[Manhattan]], New York on January 1, 1919. His father, Sol Salinger, sold [[Kosher foods|kosher]] cheese, and was from a Jewish family of Lithuanian descent,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aronoff.com/family/i0004005.htm#i4005 |title=The Genealogy of Richard L. Aronoff |publisher=Aronoff.com |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref> his own father having been the rabbi for the [[Adath Jeshurun Congregation]] in [[Louisville, Kentucky]].<ref>Fiene, Donald. "EBSCOhost: J. D. Salinger". EBSCO Publishing Service Selection Page. Web. November 24, 2010. [https://archive.is/20120720161948/http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=10&hid=106&sid=1f91a394-98e5-4b44-a386-0794517d18ee@sessionmgr4&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ==%23db=lfh&AN=MOL0270000268#db=lfh&AN=MOL0270000268 ebscohost.com]</ref> Salinger's mother, Marie (''née'' Jillich), was born in [[Atlantic, Iowa]], of German, Irish, and Scottish descent,<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite news |last=Skow |first=John |url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,938775,00.html |title=Sonny: An Introduction |work=Time | date=September 15, 1961 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/books/excerpt-j-d-salinger-a-life.html|title=Excerpt – J. D. Salinger – By Kenneth Slawenski|last=Slawenski|first=Kenneth|date=2011-02-10|work=The New York Times|access-date=2018-03-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403141657/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/books/excerpt-j-d-salinger-a-life.html|archive-date=2015-04-03|dead-url=|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="D. Salinger 2007">"J. D. Salinger". LitFinder Contemporary Collection. Gale, 2007. Web. November 9, 2010.</ref> but changed her name to Miriam and considered herself Jewish after marrying Salinger's father.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.algemeiner.com/2014/04/27/j-d-salinger-and-the-holocaust/ |title=J.D. Salinger and the Holocaust |publisher=Algemeiner.com |date= April 17, 2014 |accessdate= August 13, 2014}}</ref> Salinger did not learn that his mother was not of Jewish ancestry until just after he celebrated his [[bar mitzvah]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Salinger.html |title= J.D. Salinger |publisher= Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |date= January 1, 1919 |accessdate= January 30, 2010}}</ref> He had only one sibling, an older sister, Doris (1912–2001).<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=32}}</ref>

In youth, Salinger attended public schools on the [[West Side (Manhattan)|West Side of Manhattan]]. Then in 1932, the family moved to [[Park Avenue]], and Salinger was enrolled at the [[McBurney School]], a nearby private school.<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/> Salinger had trouble fitting in at his new school and took measures to conform, such as calling himself Jerry.<ref name="Lutz, Norma Jean"/> His family called him Sonny.<ref name="Hathcock, Barrett 2010">Hathcock, Barrett. "J.D. Salinger". EBSCO. Web. November 8, 2010.</ref> At McBurney, he managed the fencing team, wrote for the school newspaper and appeared in plays.<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/> He "showed an innate talent for drama", though his father opposed the idea of his becoming an actor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=10}}</ref> His parents then enrolled him at [[Valley Forge Military Academy and College|Valley Forge Military Academy]] in [[Wayne, Pennsylvania]].<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/> Salinger began writing stories "under the covers [at night], with the aid of a flashlight".<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=42}}</ref> Salinger was the literary editor of the class yearbook, ''Crossed Sabres''. He also participated in the Glee Club, Aviation Club, French Club, and the [[Staff Noncommissioned Officer|Non-Commissioned Officers]] Club.<ref name="Lutz, Norma Jean">{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002}} {{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

Salinger's Valley Forge [[201 file]] reveals that he was a "mediocre" student, and unlike the [[overachievement]] enjoyed by members of the [[Glass family]] he would go on to write about, his recorded [[IQ]] of 104 was average.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|pp=3–4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oBPBiaBBF24C&pg=PA13|title=J.D. Salinger|author= Raychel Haugrud Reiff|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|date= 2008}}</ref> He graduated in 1936. Salinger started his freshman year at [[New York University]] in 1936. He considered studying [[special education]]<ref>[http://special.library.louisville.edu/display-collection.asp?ID=434 Fiene, Donald M.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109160008/http://special.library.louisville.edu/display-collection.asp?ID=434 |date=January 9, 2008 }} "A Bibliographical Study of J. D. Salinger: Life, Work, and Reputation", M.A. Thesis, [[University of Louisville]], 1962.</ref> but [[High school dropouts|dropped out]] the following spring. That fall, his father urged him to learn about the meat-importing business, and he went to work at a company in the Austrian city of [[Vienna]] and the Polish city of [[Bydgoszcz]].<ref name="thirtynine">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=39}}</ref> Surprisingly, Salinger went willingly, but he was so disgusted by the slaughterhouses that after that, he firmly decided to embark on a different career path. His disgust for the meat business and his rejection of his father probably had a lot to do with his vegetarianism as an adult.<ref>A Brief Biography of J. D. Salinger © April 2002, February 2006, by Sarah Morrill</ref> He left Austria one month before it was [[Anschluss|annexed by Nazi Germany]] on March 12, 1938.

In the fall of 1938, Salinger attended [[Ursinus College]] in [[Collegeville, Pennsylvania]], and wrote a column called "skipped diploma", which included movie reviews.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|p=xiii}}</ref> He dropped out after one semester.<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/><ref name="Hathcock, Barrett 2010"/> In 1939, Salinger attended the [[Columbia University School of General Studies]], where he took a writing class taught by [[Whit Burnett]], longtime editor of ''[[Story (magazine)|Story]]'' magazine. According to Burnett, Salinger did not distinguish himself until a few weeks before the end of the second semester, at which point "he suddenly came to life" and completed three stories.<ref name="burnett">{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=55–58}}. Burnett's quotes were included in ''Fiction Writer's Handbook'', edited by Whit and Hallie Burnett and published in 1975.</ref> Burnett told Salinger that his stories were skillful and accomplished, accepting "[[The Young Folks]]", a [[vignette (literature)|vignette]] about several aimless youths, for publication in ''Story''.<ref name="burnett" /> Salinger's debut short story was published in the magazine's March–April 1940 issue. Burnett became Salinger's mentor, and they corresponded for several years.<ref name="Lutz, Norma Jean"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=55, 63–65}}</ref>

==World War II==
In 1942, Salinger started dating [[Oona O'Neill]], daughter of the playwright [[Eugene O'Neill]]. Despite finding her immeasurably self-absorbed (he confided to a friend that "Little Oona's hopelessly in love with little Oona"), he called her often and wrote her long letters.<ref name="oona">{{Cite book|last=Scovell |first=Jane |title=Oona Living in the Shadows: A Biography of Oona O'Neill Chaplin |year=1998 |publisher=Warner |location=New York |isbn=0-446-51730-5 |page= 87}}</ref> Their relationship ended when Oona began seeing [[Charlie Chaplin]], whom she eventually married.<ref name="trespass">{{Cite news|last=Sheppard |first=R.Z |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,967473-1,00.html |title=Trespassers Will Be Prosecuted: ''In Search of J.D. Salinger'' by Ian Hamilton |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=March 23, 1988 |accessdate=April 14, 2007}}</ref> In late 1941, Salinger briefly worked on a [[Caribbean]] [[cruise ship]], serving as an activity director and possibly as a performer.<ref name="cruise">{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=18}}</ref>

The same year, Salinger began submitting short stories to ''[[The New Yorker]]''. Seven of Salinger's stories were rejected by the magazine that year, including "Lunch for Three", "Monologue for a Watery Highball", and "I Went to School with Adolf Hitler". In December 1941, however, the publication accepted "[[Slight Rebellion off Madison]]", a Manhattan-set story about a disaffected teenager named [[Holden Caulfield]] with "pre-war jitters".<ref name="yagoda">{{Cite book|last=Yagoda |first=Ben |authorlink=Ben Yagoda |title=About Town: The New Yorker and the World It Made |year=2000 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=0-684-81605-9|pages=98, 233}}</ref> When Japan carried out the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] that month, the story was rendered "unpublishable." Salinger was devastated. Later, in [[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters]], he wrote, "I think I'll hate 1942 till I die, just on general principles."<ref>{{cite web|title=Holden Caulfield Hits the Beach|url=https://www.theattic.space/home-page-blogs/salingerbeach|website=The Attic|accessdate=9 July 2018}}</ref> The story did not appear in The New Yorker until 1946.<ref name="yagoda" /> In the spring of 1942, several months after the United States entered [[World War II]], Salinger was [[conscription in the United States|drafted]] into the army, wherein he saw combat with the [[U.S. 12th Infantry Regiment|12th Infantry Regiment]], [[U.S. 4th Infantry Division|4th Infantry Division]].<ref name="cruise" /> He was present at [[Utah Beach]] on [[D-Day]], in the [[Battle of the Bulge]], and the [[Battle of Hürtgen Forest]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=58}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002}}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

During the campaign from Normandy into Germany, Salinger arranged to meet with [[Ernest Hemingway]], a writer who had influenced him and was then working as a war correspondent in Paris.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lamb |first=Robert Paul |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0403/is_n4_v42/ai_20119140/pg_17 |title=Hemingway and the creation of twentieth-century dialogue – American author Ernest Hemingway |publisher=Twentieth Century Literature |date=Winter 1996 |accessdate=July 10, 2007 |format=reprint}}</ref> Salinger was impressed with Hemingway's friendliness and modesty, finding him more "soft" than his gruff public persona.<ref name="baker">{{Cite book|last=Baker |first=Carlos |authorlink=Carlos Baker |title=Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story |year=1969 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |isbn=0-02-001690-5|pages=420, 646}}</ref> Hemingway was impressed by Salinger's writing and remarked: "Jesus, he has a helluva talent."<ref name="sonny" /> The two writers began corresponding; Salinger wrote Hemingway in July 1946 that their talks were among his few positive memories of the war.<ref name="baker" /> Salinger added that he was working on a play about Holden Caulfield, the protagonist of his story "Slight Rebellion off Madison", and hoped to play the part himself.<ref name="baker" />

Salinger was assigned to a [[counter-intelligence]] unit, for which he used his proficiency in French and German to interrogate [[prisoners of war]].<ref name="fiff">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=55}}</ref> In April 1945 he entered a liberated [[concentration camp]], probably one of [[Dachau Concentration Camp|Dachau]]'s sub-camps.<ref name="fiff" /> Salinger earned the rank of Staff Sergeant<ref>"J.D. Salinger". Contemporary Authors Online. 2011.n.pag.Gale. Web. October 20, 2011.</ref> and served in five campaigns.<ref>Slawenski, K. (2011). [https://books.google.com/books?id=pmvwxOFaP6AC&pg=PA100 ''J. D. Salinger: A Life'']. Random House, p. 100.</ref> Salinger's experiences in the war affected him emotionally. He was hospitalized for a few weeks for [[combat stress reaction]] after Germany was defeated,<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=89}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=7}}</ref> and he later told his daughter: "You never really get the smell of burning flesh out of your nose entirely, no matter how long you live."<ref name="fiff"/> Both of his biographers speculate that Salinger drew upon his wartime experiences in several stories,<ref name="at fifty">{{Cite news |last=Menand |first=Louis |authorlink=Louis Menand |url=http://homepage.mac.com/mseffie/assignments/catcher/HoldenatFifty.pdf |title=Holden at Fifty: ''The Catcher in the Rye'' and what it spawned |work=The New Yorker |date=October 1, 2001 |accessdate=July 10, 2007 |format=reprint |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807224322/http://homepage.mac.com/mseffie/assignments/catcher/HoldenatFifty.pdf |archivedate=August 7, 2007 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> such as "[[For Esmé—with Love and Squalor]]", which is narrated by a traumatized soldier. Salinger continued to write while serving in the army, publishing several stories in [[Slick (magazine format)|slick magazines]] such as ''[[Collier's]]'' and ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]''. He also continued to submit stories to ''The New Yorker'', but with little success; it rejected all of his submissions from 1944 to 1946, a group of 15 poems in 1945 alone.<ref name="yagoda" />

==Post-war years==
After Germany's defeat, Salinger signed up for a six-month period of "[[Denazification]]" duty in Germany<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000||p=67}}</ref> for the [[Counterintelligence Corps (United States Army)|Counterintelligence Corps]]. He lived in [[Weißenburg in Bayern|Weissenburg]] and, soon after, married Sylvia Welter. He brought her to the United States in April 1946, but the marriage fell apart after eight months and Sylvia returned to Germany.<ref name="thir">{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=113}}</ref> In 1972, Salinger's daughter Margaret was with him when he received a letter from Sylvia. He looked at the envelope, and without reading it, tore it apart. It was the first time he had heard from her since the breakup, but as Margaret put it, "when he was finished with a person, he was through with them."<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=359}}</ref>

In 1946, Whit Burnett agreed to help Salinger publish a collection of his short stories through ''Story'' Press's Lippincott Imprint.<ref name="young">{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=118–20}}</ref> Titled ''The Young Folks'', the collection was to consist of twenty stories—ten, like the title story and "Slight Rebellion off Madison", were already in print; ten were previously unpublished.<ref name="young" /> Though Burnett implied the book would be published and even negotiated Salinger a $1,000 advance on its sale, Lippincott overruled Burnett and rejected the book.<ref name="young" /> Salinger blamed Burnett for the book's failure to see print, and the two became estranged.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=120, 164, 204–5}}</ref>

By the late 1940s, Salinger had become an avid follower of [[Zen Buddhism]], to the point that he "gave reading lists on the subject to his dates"<ref name="sonny" /> and arranged a meeting with Buddhist scholar [[D. T. Suzuki]].

In 1947, the author submitted a short story titled simply "The Bananafish" to ''The New Yorker''. William Maxwell, the magazine's fiction editor, was impressed enough with "the singular quality of the story" that the magazine asked Salinger to continue revising it. He spent a year reworking it with ''New Yorker'' editors and the magazine accepted the story, now titled "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]", and published it in the January 31, 1948 issue. The magazine thereon offered Salinger a "first-look" contract that allowed them [[right of first refusal]] on any future stories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=124}}</ref> The critical acclaim accorded "Bananafish", coupled with problems Salinger had with stories being altered by the "slicks", led him to publish almost exclusively in ''The New Yorker''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=130}}</ref> "Bananafish" was also the first of Salinger's published stories to feature the [[Glass family|Glasses]], a fictional family consisting of two retired [[vaudeville]] performers and their seven precocious children: [[Seymour Glass|Seymour]], Buddy, Boo Boo, Walt, Waker, Zooey, and Franny.<ref name="glass">{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|pp=97–99}}</ref> Salinger eventually published seven stories about the Glasses, developing a detailed family history and focusing particularly on Seymour, the brilliant but troubled eldest child.<ref name="glass" />

In the early 1940s, Salinger had confided in a letter to Whit Burnett that he was eager to sell the film rights to some of his stories in order to achieve financial security.<ref name="holly">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=75}}</ref> According to Ian Hamilton, Salinger was disappointed when "rumblings from Hollywood" over his 1943 short story "[[The Varioni Brothers]]" came to nothing. Therefore, he immediately agreed when, in mid-1948, independent film producer [[Samuel Goldwyn]] offered to buy the film rights to his short story "[[Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut]]".<ref name="holly" /> Though Salinger sold his story with the hope—in the words of his agent Dorothy Olding—that it "would make a good movie",<ref>{{Cite news|last=Fosburgh |first=Lacey |authorlink=Lacey Fosburgh |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/11/21/archives/why-more-top-novelists-dont-go-hollywood-novelists-who-dont-go.html |title=Why More Top Novelists Don't Go Hollywood |work=The New York Times |date=November 21, 1976 |accessdate=April 6, 2007 |format=fee required}}</ref> the film version of "Wiggily" was lambasted by critics upon its release in 1949.<ref name="berg">[[A. Scott Berg|Berg, A. Scott]]. ''Goldwyn: A Biography''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. {{ISBN|1-57322-723-4}}. p. 446.</ref> Renamed ''[[My Foolish Heart (film)|My Foolish Heart]]'' and starring [[Dana Andrews]] and [[Susan Hayward]], the melodramatic film departed to such an extent from Salinger's story that Goldwyn biographer [[A. Scott Berg]] referred to it as a "[[Corruption (linguistics)|bastardization]]".<ref name="berg" /> As a result of this experience, Salinger never again permitted [[film adaptations]] to be made from his work.<ref name="depos">{{Cite news|url=https://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F50713F63B5A0C718DDDAB0994DE484D81 |title=Depositions Yield J. D. Salinger Details |work=The New York Times |date=December 12, 1986 |accessdate=April 14, 2007 |format=fee required}}</ref> When [[Brigitte Bardot]] wanted to buy the rights to "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]", Salinger refused the request, but told his friend, [[Lillian Ross (journalist)|Lillian Ross]], longtime staff writer for ''The New Yorker'', "She's a cute, talented, lost ''enfante'', and I'm tempted to accommodate her, ''pour le sport''."<ref name="Ross2010">{{Cite journal
| last = Ross
| first = Lillian
| author-link =
| title = The Talk of the Town: Remembrance Bearable
| journal = The New Yorker
| issue = February 8, 2010
| pages = 22–23
| year = 2010
| postscript = }}</ref>

==''The Catcher in the Rye''==
{{Main|The Catcher in the Rye}}
[[File:Catcher-in-the-rye-red-cover.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Cover of ''The Catcher in the Rye'' 1985 edition]]

In the 1940s, Salinger confided to several people that he was working on a novel featuring Holden Caulfield, the teenage protagonist of his short story "Slight Rebellion off Madison",<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=142}}</ref> and ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' was published on July 16, 1951, by Little, Brown and Company.<ref>Salinger, J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1951. hi Print.</ref> The novel's plot is simple,<ref name="simp">{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|p=77}}</ref> detailing 16-year-old Holden's experiences in New York City following his expulsion and departure from an elite [[college preparatory school]]. Not only was he expelled from his current school, he had also been expelled from three previous schools.<ref>Blackstock, Alan. "J.D. Salinger". Magill’s Survey of American, Revised Edition. Pasadena, Ca: Salem Press. EBSCO 2007. Web. Nov. 8</ref> The book is more notable for the persona and testimonial voice of its [[first-person narrative|first-person narrator]], Holden.<ref name="nandel">Nandel, Alan. "The Significance of Holden Caulfield's Testimony". Reprinted in Bloom, Harold, ed. ''Modern Critical Interpretations: J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye''. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2000. pp. 75–89.</ref> He serves as an insightful but [[unreliable narrator]] who expounds on the importance of loyalty, the "phoniness" of adulthood, and his own duplicity.<ref name="nandel" /> In a 1953 interview with a high school newspaper, Salinger admitted that the novel was "sort of" autobiographical, explaining, "My boyhood was very much the same as that of the boy in the book ... [I]t was a great relief telling people about it."<ref>{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|p=4}}</ref>

Initial reactions to the book were mixed, ranging from ''[[The New York Times]]'' hailing ''Catcher'' as "an unusually brilliant first novel"<ref>{{Cite news|last=Burger |first=Nash K |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-rye02.html |title=Books of The Times |work=The New York Times |date=July 16, 1951 |accessdate=July 10, 2007}}</ref> to denigrations of the book's monotonous language and the "immorality and perversion" of Holden,<ref name="virginia">Whitfield, Stephen J. [http://www.vqronline.org/articles/2002/spring/whitfield-raise-high/ "Raise High the Bookshelves, Censors!"] (book review), [[The Virginia Quarterly Review]], Spring 2002. Retrieved November 27, 2007. In a review of the book in ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'', the reviewer found the book unfit "for children to read", writing that they would be influenced by Holden, "as too easily happens when immorality and perversion are recounted by writers of talent whose work is countenanced in the name of art or good intention."</ref> who uses religious slurs and freely discusses casual sex and prostitution.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=117}}</ref> The novel was a popular success; within two months of its publication, ''The Catcher in the Rye'' had been reprinted eight times. It spent 30 weeks on the [[New York Times Bestseller|''New York Times'' Bestseller list]].<ref name="simp" />

The book's initial success was followed by a brief lull in popularity, but by the late 1950s, according to Ian Hamilton, it had "become the book all brooding adolescents had to buy, the indispensable manual from which cool styles of disaffectation could be borrowed."<ref name="cult">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=155}}</ref> It has been compared to [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''.<ref>"J. D. Salinger". Encyclopædia Britannica Online School ed. 2011. Web.</ref> Newspapers began publishing articles about the "Catcher Cult",<ref name="cult" /> and the novel was banned in several countries—as well as some U.S. schools—because of its subject matter and what ''[[Catholic World]]'' reviewer Riley Hughes called an "excessive use of amateur swearing and coarse language".<ref name="swearing">{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|p=97}}</ref> According to one angry parent's tabulation, 237 instances of "goddamn," 58 uses of "bastard", 31 "Chrissakes," and one incident of flatulence constituted what was wrong with Salinger's book.<ref name="swearing"/>

In the 1970s, several U.S. high school teachers who assigned the book were fired or forced to resign. A 1979 study of [[censorship]] noted that ''The Catcher in the Rye'' "had the dubious distinction of being at once the most frequently censored book across the nation and the second-most frequently taught novel in public high schools" (after [[John Steinbeck]]'s ''[[Of Mice and Men]]'').<ref name="cens">{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|pp=82, 78}}</ref> The book remains widely read; in 2004, the novel was selling about 250,000 copies per year, "with total worldwide sales over 10 million copies".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Yardley |first=Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Yardley |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A43680-2004Oct18.html |title=J.D. Salinger's Holden Caulfield, Aging Gracelessly |work=The Washington Post |date=October 19, 2004 |accessdate=November 13, 2011}}</ref>

In the wake of its 1950s success, Salinger received (and rejected) numerous offers to adapt ''The Catcher in the Rye'' for the screen, including one from Samuel Goldwyn.<ref name="berg" /> Since its publication, there has been sustained interest in the novel among filmmakers, with [[Billy Wilder]],<ref>[[Cameron Crowe|Crowe, Cameron]], ed. ''Conversations with Wilder''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999. {{ISBN|0-375-40660-3}}. p. 299.</ref> [[Harvey Weinstein]], and [[Steven Spielberg]]<ref name="post">{{cite web|url=http://entertainment.myway.com/celebgossip/pgsix/id/12_04_2003_1.html |date=December 4, 2003 |title=PAGE SIX; Inside Salinger's Own World |work=New York Post |accessdate=January 18, 2007}}</ref> among those seeking to secure the rights. Salinger stated in the 1970s that "[[Jerry Lewis]] tried for years to get his hands on the part of Holden."<ref name="mayn">{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=93}}</ref> Salinger repeatedly refused, though, and in 1999, Joyce Maynard definitively concluded: "The only person who might ever have played Holden Caulfield would have been J. D. Salinger."<ref name="mayn" />

==Writing in the 1950s and move to Cornish==
In a July 1951 profile in ''Book of the Month Club News'', Salinger's friend and ''New Yorker'' editor [[William Keepers Maxwell, Jr.|William Maxwell]] asked Salinger about his literary influences. Salinger responded: "A writer, when he's asked to discuss his craft, ought to get up and call out in a loud voice just the names of the writers he loves. I love [[Franz Kafka|Kafka]], [[Gustave Flaubert|Flaubert]], [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]], [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]], [[Fyodor Dostoevsky|Dostoevsky]], [[Marcel Proust|Proust]], [[Sean O'Casey|O'Casey]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke|Rilke]], [[Federico García Lorca|Lorca]], [[John Keats|Keats]], [[Arthur Rimbaud|Rimbaud]], [[Robert Burns|Burns]], [[Emily Brontë|E. Brontë]], [[Jane Austen]], [[Henry James]], [[William Blake|Blake]], [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge|Coleridge]]. I won't name any living writers. I don't think it's right" (although O'Casey was in fact living at the time).<ref>Silverman, Al, ed. ''The Book of the Month: Sixty Years of Books in American Life''. Boston: Little, Brown, 1986. {{ISBN|0-316-10119-2}}. pp. 129–130.</ref> In letters written in the 1940s, Salinger had expressed his admiration of three living, or recently deceased, writers: [[Sherwood Anderson]], [[Ring Lardner]], and [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]];<ref name="influ">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=53}}</ref> Ian Hamilton wrote that Salinger even saw himself for some time as "Fitzgerald's successor".<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=64}}</ref> Salinger's "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" has an ending similar to that of Fitzgerald's earlier published short story "[[May Day (short story)|May Day]]".<ref>Smith, Dominic (Fall, 2003). "Salinger's Nine Stories: Fifty Years Later". ''The Antioch Review''.</ref>

Salinger wrote friends of a momentous change in his life in 1952, after several years of practicing Zen Buddhism, while reading ''[[The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna]]'' about [[Hinduism|Hindu]] religious teacher [[Sri Ramakrishna]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=127}}</ref> He became an adherent of Ramakrishna's [[Advaita Vedanta]] Hinduism, which advocated celibacy for those seeking enlightenment, and detachment from human responsibilities such as family.<ref name="vive">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=129}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranchan |first=Som P. |title=An Adventure in Vedanta: J. D. Salinger's The Glass Family |year=1989 |publisher=Ajanta |location=Delhi |isbn=81-202-0245-7 }}</ref> Salinger's religious studies were reflected in some of his writing. The story "[[Teddy (story)|Teddy]]" features a ten-year-old child who expresses [[Vedantic]] insights.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=12}}</ref> He also studied [[Bibliography of Swami Vivekananda|the writings]] of Ramakrishna's disciple [[Vivekananda]]; in the story "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", the character of Seymour Glass describes him as "one of the most exciting, original and best-equipped giants of this century."<ref name="vive" />

In 1953, Salinger published a collection of seven stories from ''The New Yorker'' ("Bananafish" among them), as well as two that the magazine had rejected. The collection was published as ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' in the United States, and "[[For Esmé—with Love and Squalor]]" in the UK, after one of Salinger's best-known stories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=92}}</ref> The book received grudgingly positive reviews, and was a financial success—"remarkably so for a volume of short stories", according to Hamilton.<ref name="niney">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|pp=136–7}}</ref> ''Nine Stories'' spent three months on the ''New York Times'' Bestseller list.<ref name="niney" /> Already tightening his grip on publicity, though, Salinger refused to allow publishers of the collection to depict his characters in dust jacket illustrations, lest readers form preconceived notions of them.

As the notoriety of ''The Catcher in the Rye'' grew, Salinger gradually withdrew from public view. In 1953, he moved from an apartment at
[[300 East 57th Street]],<ref>{{Cite news|last=Leigh |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/30/nyregion/30address.html?scp=1&sq=salinger%20apartment&st=cse |title=300 East 57th Street, Salinger's Last Known Manhattan Home |work=The New York Times |date=January 3, 2010 |accessdate=January 30, 2010}}</ref> New York, to [[Cornish, New Hampshire]]. Early in his time at Cornish he was relatively sociable, particularly with students at Windsor High School. Salinger invited them to his house frequently to play records and talk about problems at school.<ref name="twelve">{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|pp=12–14}}</ref> One such student, Shirley Blaney, persuaded Salinger to be interviewed for the high school page of ''The Daily Eagle'', the city paper. Nonetheless, after Blaney's interview appeared prominently in the newspaper's editorial section, Salinger cut off all contact with the high schoolers without explanation.<ref name="twelve" /> He was also seen less frequently around town, meeting only one close friend—jurist [[Learned Hand]]—with any regularity.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=30}}</ref> He also began to publish with less frequency. After the 1953 publication of ''Nine Stories'', he published only four stories through the rest of the decade; two in 1955 and one each in 1957 and 1959.

==Marriage, family, spiritual beliefs==
In February 1955, at the age of 36, Salinger married Claire Douglas, a [[Radcliffe College|Radcliffe]] student (her father was the art critic [[Robert Langton Douglas]]). They had two children, Margaret (also known as Peggy - born December 10, 1955) and [[Matt Salinger|Matthew]] (born February 13, 1960). Margaret Salinger wrote in her memoir ''Dream Catcher'' that she believes her parents would not have married, nor would she have been born, had her father not read the teachings of [[Lahiri Mahasaya]], a guru of [[Paramahansa Yogananda]], which brought the possibility of enlightenment to those following the path of the "householder" (a married person with children).<ref name="eiga">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=89}}</ref> After their marriage, Salinger and Claire were initiated into the path of [[Kriya yoga]] in a small store-front Hindu temple in Washington, D.C., during the summer of 1955.<ref name="nine">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=90}}</ref> They received a mantra and breathing exercises to practice for ten minutes twice a day.<ref name="nine" />

Salinger also insisted that Claire drop out of school and live with him, only four months shy of graduation, which she did. Certain elements of the story "Franny", published in January 1955, are based on his relationship with Claire, including her ownership of the book ''[[The Way of the Pilgrim]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=84}}</ref> Because of their isolated location and Salinger's proclivities, they hardly saw other people for long stretches of time. Claire was also frustrated by Salinger's ever-changing religious beliefs. Though she committed herself to Kriya yoga, she remembered that Salinger would chronically leave Cornish to work on a story "for several weeks only to return with the piece he was supposed to be finishing all undone or destroyed and some new 'ism' we had to follow."<ref name="Salinger94">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|pp=94–5}}</ref> Claire believed "it was to cover the fact that Jerry had just destroyed or junked or couldn't face the quality of, or couldn't face publishing, what he had created."<ref name="Salinger94" />

After abandoning Kriya yoga, Salinger tried [[Dianetics]] (the forerunner of [[Scientology]]), even meeting its founder [[L. Ron Hubbard]], but according to Claire he was quickly disenchanted with it.<ref name="Salinger94" /><ref>{{Cite news|last=Smith |first=Dinitia |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/library/books/083000salinger-daughter.html |title=Salinger's Daughter's Truths as Mesmerizing as His Fiction |work=The New York Times |date=August 30, 2000 |accessdate=March 9, 2007}}</ref> This was followed by an adherence to a number of spiritual, medical, and nutritional belief systems including an interest in [[Christian Science]], [[Edgar Cayce]], [[homeopathy]], [[acupuncture]], and [[macrobiotics]].<ref name="Salinger, M 2000. p. 195">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=195}}</ref>

Salinger's family life was further marked by discord after the first child was born; according to Margaret's book, Claire felt that her daughter had replaced her in Salinger's affections.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=115}}</ref> The infant Margaret was sick much of the time, but Salinger, having embraced the tenets of Christian Science, refused to take her to a doctor.<ref name="sixteen">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|pp=115–116}}</ref> According to Margaret, her mother admitted to her years later that she went "over the edge" in the winter of 1957 and had made plans to murder her and then commit suicide. Claire had supposedly intended to do it during a trip to New York City with Salinger, but she instead acted on a sudden impulse to take Margaret from the hotel and run away. After a few months, Salinger persuaded her to return to Cornish.<ref name="sixteen" />

==Last publications and Maynard relationship==
[[File:J-D-Salinger-TIME-1961.jpg|thumb|upright|Salinger on the cover of ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' (September 15, 1961)]]
Salinger published ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' in 1961, and ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction]]'' in 1963. Each book contained two short stories or novellas, previously published in ''The New Yorker'', about members of the Glass family. These four stories were originally published between 1955 and 1959, and were the only ones Salinger had published since ''Nine Stories''. On the dust jacket of ''Franny and Zooey'', Salinger wrote, in reference to his interest in privacy: "It is my rather subversive opinion that a writer's feelings of anonymity-obscurity are the second most valuable property on loan to him during his working years."<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,895497,00.html "People"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', August 4, 1961. Retrieved 2007-07-10.</ref>

On September 15, 1961, ''Time'' magazine devoted its cover to Salinger. In an article that profiled his "life of recluse", the magazine reported that the Glass family series "is nowhere near completion ... Salinger intends to write a Glass trilogy."<ref name="sonny" /> Nonetheless, Salinger published only one other story after that: "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", a novella in the form of a long letter from seven-year-old Seymour Glass while at summer camp. His first new work in six years, the novella took up most of the June 19, 1965, issue of ''The New Yorker'', and was universally panned by critics. Around this time, Salinger had isolated Claire from friends and relatives and made her—in the words of Margaret Salinger—"a virtual prisoner".<ref name="Salinger94" /> Claire separated from him in September 1966; their divorce was finalized on October 3, 1967.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=35}}</ref>

In 1972, at the age of 53, Salinger had a relationship with 18-year-old [[Joyce Maynard]] that lasted for nine months. Maynard, at this time, was already an experienced writer for ''[[Seventeen (American magazine)|Seventeen]]'' magazine. ''[[The New York Times]]'' had asked Maynard to write an article for them which, when published as "An Eighteen-Year-Old Looks Back On Life" on April 23, 1972,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/maynard-mag.html |title="An Eighteen-Year-Old Looks Back On Life" |accessdate=2007-04-14 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20001214180000/http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/maynard-mag.html |archivedate=December 14, 2000 |df= }}, ''The New York Times''</ref> made her a celebrity. Salinger wrote a letter to her warning about living with fame. After exchanging 25 letters, Maynard moved in with Salinger the summer after her freshman year at [[Yale University]].<ref name="women">{{Cite news|last=Alexander |first=Paul |url=http://nymag.com/nymetro/arts/features/2162/ |title=J. D. Salinger's Women |work=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] |date=February 9, 1998 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref> Maynard did not return to Yale that fall, and spent ten months as a guest in Salinger's Cornish home. The relationship ended, he told his daughter Margaret at a family outing, because Maynard wanted children, and he felt he was too old.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|pp=361–2}}</ref> Nevertheless, in her own autobiography, Maynard paints a different picture, saying Salinger abruptly ended the relationship and refused to take her back. She had dropped out of Yale to be with him, even forgoing a scholarship. Maynard later writes in her own memoir how she came to find out that Salinger had begun relationships with young women by exchanging letters. One of those letter recipients included Salinger's last wife, a nurse who was already engaged to be married to someone else when she met the author.<ref>{{cite book|last=Maynard|first=Joyce|title=At Home in the World|year=1998}} {{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

While he was living with Maynard, Salinger continued to write in a disciplined fashion, a few hours every morning. According to Maynard, by 1972 he had completed two new novels.<ref>{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=158}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Pollitt |first=Katha |authorlink=Katha Pollitt |url= https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/reviews/980913.13pollitt.html |title=With Love and Squalor |work= The New York Times |date=September 13, 1998 |accessdate=April 14, 2007 }}</ref> In a rare 1974 interview with ''The New York Times'', he explained: "There is a marvelous peace in not publishing ... I like to write. I love to write. But I write just for myself and my own pleasure."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Fosburgh |first=Lacey |authorlink=Lacey Fosburgh |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-speaks.html |title=J. D. Salinger Speaks About His Silence |work=The New York Times |date=November 3, 1974 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref> According to Maynard, he saw publication as "a damned interruption".<ref name="damned">{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=97}}</ref> In her memoir, Margaret Salinger describes the detailed filing system her father had for his unpublished manuscripts: "A red mark meant, if I die before I finish my work, publish this 'as is,' blue meant publish but edit first, and so on."<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=307}}</ref> A neighbor said that Salinger told him that he had written 15 unpublished novels.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/7103758/JD-Salingers-death-sparks-speculation-over-unpublished-manuscripts.html "JD Salinger's death sparks speculation over unpublished manuscripts"], ''The Telegraph'', January 29, 2010</ref>

Salinger's final interview was in June 1980 with Betty Eppes of ''[[The Advocate (Louisiana)|The Baton Rouge Advocate]]'', which has been represented somewhat differently, depending on the secondary source. By one account, Eppes was an attractive young woman who misrepresented herself as an aspiring novelist, and managed to record audio of the interview as well as take several photographs of Salinger, both without his knowledge or consent.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|p=16}}</ref> In a separate account, emphasis is placed on her contact by letter writing from the local Post Office, and Salinger's personal initiative to cross the bridge to meet with the woman, who in the course of the interview made clear she was a reporter (and who did indeed, at the close, take pictures of Salinger as he departed).<ref name="autogenerated4">{{cite web|author=Shane Salerno|year=2014|title=Interview of B. Eppes, in documentary "Salinger"|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/episodes/jd-salinger/film-salinger/2642/|accessdate=January 21, 2014}}</ref> According to the first account, the interview ended "disastrously" when a local passer-by from Cornish attempted to shake the famous author's hand, at which point Salinger became enraged.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|p=15}}</ref> A further account of the interview published later in ''[[The Paris Review]]'', purportedly by Eppes as author, has been disowned by Eppes and separately ascribed as a derived work of Review Editor [[George Plimpton]].<ref name="autogenerated4"/><ref>{{cite journal
| author = Betty Eppes
| year = 1981
| title = What I Did Last Summer
| journal = [[The Paris Review]]
| volume = 23
| issue = 80
| arxiv =
| id =
| bibcode =
| url =
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bettytraxlereppes.wordpress.com/that-jd-salinger-connection/ |title=That J.D. Salinger Connection | Betty Traxler Eppes |publisher=Bettytraxlereppes.wordpress.com |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-visit.html |title=Publishing: Visit With J. D. Salinger |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=September 11, 1981 |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref>

==Legal conflicts==
Although Salinger tried to escape public exposure as much as possible, he continued to struggle with unwanted attention from both the media and the public.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=33}}</ref> Readers of his work and students from nearby [[Dartmouth College]] often came to Cornish in groups, hoping to catch a glimpse of him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|p=79}}</ref> In May 1986 Salinger learned that the British writer [[Ian Hamilton (critic)|Ian Hamilton]] intended to publish a biography that made extensive use of letters Salinger had written to other authors and friends. Salinger sued to stop the book's publication. The court in ''[[Salinger v. Random House]]'' ruled that Hamilton's extensive use of the letters, including quotation and paraphrasing, was not acceptable since the author's right to control publication overrode the right of fair use.
The book was not published.<ref name="lubas">{{Cite news|last=Lubasch |first=Arnold H |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-blocked.html |title=Salinger Biography is Blocked |work=The New York Times |date=January 30, 1987 |accessdate=April 14, 2007}}</ref>
Later, Hamilton published ''In Search of J.D. Salinger: A Writing Life (1935–65)'', but this book was more about his experience in tracking down information and the copyright fights over the planned biography than about Salinger himself.<ref>{{cite book |ref=harv
|last=Sableman|first=Mark |page=265
|title=More Speech, Not Less: Communications Law in the Information Age
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S63dbhsFaYoC&pg=PA265
|date=November 21, 1997|publisher=SIU Press|isbn=978-0-8093-2135-3}}</ref>

An [[unintended consequence]] of the lawsuit was that many details of Salinger's private life, including that he had spent the last twenty years writing, in his words, "Just a work of fiction ... That's all",<ref name="depos" /> became public in the form of court transcripts. Excerpts from his letters were also widely disseminated, most notably a bitter remark written in response to [[Oona O'Neill]]'s marriage to [[Charlie Chaplin]]:
{{quote|
I can see them at home evenings. Chaplin squatting grey and nude, atop his [[chiffonier]], swinging his [[thyroid]] around his head by his bamboo cane, like a dead rat. Oona in an aquamarine gown, applauding madly from the bathroom.<ref name="trespass" /><ref name="lubas" />
}}

Salinger was romantically involved with television actress [[Elaine Joyce]] for several years in the 1980s.<ref name="women" /> The relationship ended when he met Colleen O'Neill (b. June 11, 1959), a nurse and quiltmaker, whom he married around 1988.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Alexander |first=Paul |url=http://nymag.com/nymetro/arts/features/2162/ |title=J. D. Salinger's Women |publisher=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] |date=February 9, 1998 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}} The 1998 article mentions that "the couple has been 'married for about ten years'".</ref> O'Neill, forty years his junior, once told Margaret Salinger that she and Salinger were trying to have a child.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=108}}</ref>

In 1995, [[Cinema of Iran|Iranian director]] [[Dariush Mehrjui]] released the film ''[[Pari (1995 film)|Pari]]'', an unauthorized and loose adaptation of Salinger's ''Franny and Zooey''. Though the film could be distributed legally in Iran since the country has no official copyright relations with the United States,<ref>[http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070328192739/http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html|date=March 28, 2007}}</ref> Salinger had his lawyers block a planned screening of the film at the [[Lincoln Center]] in 1998.<ref name="mehr">{{Cite news|last=Mckinley |first=Jesse |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0DE2DD1330F932A15752C1A96E958260 |title=Iranian Film Is Canceled After Protest By Salinger |work=The New York Times |date=November 21, 1998 |accessdate=April 5, 2007}}</ref> Mehrjui called Salinger's action "bewildering", explaining that he saw his film as "a kind of cultural exchange".<ref name="autogenerated3">{{Cite news|last=Mckinley |first=Jesse |url=https://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F00713FC38540C728EDDA80994D0494D81 |title=Iranian Film Is Canceled After Protest By Salinger |work=The New York Times |date=November 21, 1998 |accessdate=April 5, 2007 |format=fee required}}</ref>

In 1996, Salinger gave a small publisher, Orchises Press, permission to publish "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", the previously uncollected novella.<ref>Lundegaard, Karen M. "[http://www.bizjournals.com/washington/stories/1996/11/18/tidbits.html J.D. Salinger resurfaces ... in Alexandria?]", ''[[Washington Business Journal]]'', November 15, 1996. Retrieved August 13, 2008.</ref> It was to be published that year, and listings for it appeared at [[Amazon.com]] and other book-sellers. After a flurry of articles and critical reviews of the story appeared in the press, the publication date was pushed back repeatedly before apparently being cancelled altogether. Amazon anticipated that Orchises would publish the story in January 2009,<ref name="orchise">{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|pp=42–3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hapworth 16, 1924 – Hardcover |author=J. D. Salinger |url=https://www.amazon.co.uk/d/cka/Hapworth-16-1924-J-D-Salinger/0914061658 |date=January 1, 2009 |publisher=Orchises Press |website=amazon.co.uk |accessdate=March 26, 2017}}</ref> but at the time of his death it was still listed as "currently unavailable".<ref>{{cite web|title=Hapworth 16, 1924 (June 19, 1965 ''The New Yorker'') (Paperback)|publisher=Amazon.com|url=https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000PGW43K|accessdate=January 29, 2010}}</ref>

In June 2009, Salinger consulted lawyers about the upcoming publication in the US of an unauthorized sequel to ''The Catcher in the Rye'' written by Swedish book publisher [[John David California|Fredrik Colting]] under the pseudonym 'J. D. California'. California's book is called ''[[60 Years Later: Coming Through the Rye]]'', and appears to pick up the story of Salinger's protagonist Holden Caulfield. In Salinger's novel, Caulfield is 16 years old, wandering the streets of New York after being expelled from his private school; the California book features a 76-year-old man, "Mr. C", musing on having escaped his nursing home. Salinger's New York literary agent Phyllis Westberg told Britain's ''[[Sunday Telegraph]]'': "The matter has been turned over to a lawyer". The fact that little was known about Colting and the book was set to be published by a new publishing imprint called 'Windupbird Publishing' gave rise to speculation in literary circles that the whole thing might be a stunt.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/5413559/JD-Salinger-considers-legal-action-to-stop-The-Catcher-in-the-Rye-sequel.html |last=Sherwell |first=Philip |title=JD Salinger considers legal action to stop The Catcher in the Rye sequel |date=May 30, 2009 |work=The Daily Telegraph| location=London}}</ref> District court judge [[Deborah A. Batts]] issued an [[injunction]] which prevents the book from being published within the U.S.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/02/books/02salinger.html |title=Judge Rules for J.D. Salinger in 'Catcher' Copyright Suit |last=Chan |first=Sewell |date=July 2, 2009 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=July 2, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lawupdates.com/commentary/isalinger_v._colting_i_too_much_borrowing_not_enough_transforming_to_consti/ | title=Salinger v. Colting / Salinger v. Colting: Too Much Borrowing, Not Enough Transforming to Constitute Fair Use / Article / Copyright Law Updates / Copyright Legal Updates |publisher=Lawupdates.com |accessdate=April 4, 2010}}</ref> The book's author filed an appeal on July 23, 2009; it was heard in the Second Circuit Court of Appeals on September 3, 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6672842.html |title=Appeal Filed to Overturn Ban in Salinger Case |accessdate=August 28, 2009 |date=July 24, 2009 |publisher=Publishers Weekly |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090807110303/http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6672842.html |archivedate=August 7, 2009 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Associated Press |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/sep/04/judge-salinger-spinoff-dismal-review |title=Judge gives Salinger spinoff 'dismal' review | Books | guardian.co.uk |work=The Guardian |date= September 4, 2009|accessdate=April 4, 2010 | location=London}}</ref> The case was settled in 2011 when Colting agreed not to publish or otherwise distribute the book, e-book, or any other editions of ''60 Years Later'' in the U.S. or Canada until ''The Catcher in the Rye'' enters the public domain, while also refraining from using the title "Coming through the Rye", dedicating the book to Salinger or referring to the title "The Catcher in the Rye", while Colting remains free to sell the book in other international territories without fear of interference.<ref>{{cite news|last=Albanese|first=Andrew|title=J.D. Salinger Estate, Swedish Author Settle Copyright Suit|url=http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/45738-j-d-salinger-estate-swedish-author-settle-copyright-suit.html|accessdate=December 30, 2012|newspaper=Publishers Weekly|date=January 11, 2011}}</ref>

==Later publicity==
On October 23, 1992, ''The New York Times'' reported, "Not even a fire that consumed at least half his home on Tuesday could smoke out the reclusive J. D. Salinger, author of the classic novel of adolescent rebellion, ''The Catcher in the Rye''. Mr. Salinger is almost equally famous for having elevated privacy to an art form." <ref>{{cite news|date=October 23, 1992|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/24/books/fire-fails-to-shake-salinger-s-seclusion.html |work=The New York Times |title=Fire Fails to Shake Salinger's Seclusion}}</ref>

In 1999, 25 years after the end of their relationship, [[Joyce Maynard]] auctioned a series of letters Salinger had written her. Maynard's memoir of her life and her relationship with Salinger, ''At Home in the World: A Memoir'', was published the same year. Among other topics, the book described how Maynard's mother had consulted with her on how to appeal to the aging author: by dressing in a childlike manner, and described Joyce's relationship with him at length. In the ensuing controversy over both the memoir and the letters, Maynard claimed that she was forced to auction the letters for financial reasons; she would have preferred to donate them to the [[Beinecke Library]]. Software developer [[Peter Norton]] bought the letters for US$156,500 and announced his intention to return them to Salinger.<ref name="auction">{{Cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/books/news/9906/22/salinger.letters/ |title=Salinger letters bring $156,500 at auction |publisher=CNN |date=June 22, 1999 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref>

[[File:Dream Catcher (memoir).jpg|thumb|upright|Margaret Salinger's memoir ''Dream Catcher'', its cover featuring a rare photograph of Salinger and Margaret as a child]]
A year later, Salinger's daughter Margaret, by his second wife Claire Douglas, published ''Dream Catcher: A Memoir''. In her book, she described the harrowing control that Salinger had over her mother and dispelled many of the Salinger myths established by Ian Hamilton's book. One of Hamilton's arguments was that Salinger's experience with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] left him psychologically scarred, and that he was unable to deal with the traumatic nature of his war service. Margaret Salinger allowed that "the few men who lived through [[Operation Lüttich|Bloody Mortain]], a battle in which her father fought, were left with much to sicken them, body and soul",<ref name="fiff"/> but she also painted a picture of her father as a man immensely proud of his service record, maintaining his military haircut and service jacket, and moving about his compound (and town) in an old [[Jeep]].

Both Margaret Salinger and Maynard characterized the author as a devoted film buff. According to Margaret, his favorite movies include ''[[Gigi (1958 film)|Gigi]]'' (1958), ''[[The Lady Vanishes (1938 film)|The Lady Vanishes]]'' (1938), ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)|The 39 Steps]]'' (1935; Phoebe's favorite movie in ''The Catcher in the Rye''), and the comedies of [[W.C. Fields]], [[Laurel and Hardy]], and the [[Marx Brothers]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=7}}</ref> Predating VCRs, Salinger had an extensive collection of classic movies from the 1940s in 16 mm prints. Maynard wrote that "he loves movies, not films",<ref>{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=94}}</ref> and Margaret Salinger argued that her father's "worldview is, essentially, a product of the movies of his day. To my father, all Spanish speakers are [[Puerto Rican people|Puerto Rican]] washerwomen, or the toothless, grinning-gypsy types in a Marx Brothers movie".<ref name="Salinger, M 2000. p. 195"/> [[Lillian Ross (journalist)|Lillian Ross]], a staff writer for ''The New Yorker'' and longtime friend of Salinger's, wrote following his death, "Salinger loved movies, and he was more fun than anyone to discuss them with. He enjoyed watching actors work, and he enjoyed knowing them. (He loved [[Anne Bancroft]], hated [[Audrey Hepburn]], and said that he had seen ''[[Grand Illusion (film)|Grand Illusion]]'' ten times.)"<ref name="Ross2010" />

Margaret also offered many insights into other Salinger myths, including her father's supposed long-time interest in [[macrobiotics]], and involvement with "alternative medicine" and Eastern philosophies. A few weeks after ''Dream Catcher'' was published, Margaret's brother [[Matt Salinger|Matt]] discredited the memoir in a letter to ''[[The New York Observer]]''. He disparaged his sister's "gothic tales of our supposed childhood" and stated: "I can't say with any authority that she is consciously making anything up. I just know that I grew up in a very different house, with two very different parents from those my sister describes."<ref name="justice">{{Cite news|last=Malcolm |first=Janet |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/14272 |title=Justice to J. D. Salinger |publisher=[[The New York Review of Books]] |date=June 21, 2001 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061115210517/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/14272 | archivedate=November 15, 2006}}</ref>

==Death==
[[File:J-D-Salinger-Illustration-TIME-1961.jpg|thumb|upright|Created for the cover of ''Time'' magazine, [[Robert Vickrey]]'s 1961 portrait of Salinger was placed on view in the [[National Portrait Gallery (United States)|National Portrait Gallery]] in Washington, D.C., after Salinger's death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://npg.si.edu/blog/j-d-salinger-1919-2010 |title=J. D. Salinger, 1919–2010|last= |first= |date=February 1, 2010 |website= |publisher=National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonia Institution |access-date=2017-06-30}}</ref>]]
Salinger died of [[natural causes]] at his home in [[New Hampshire]] on January 27, 2010. He was 91.<ref name="DeathABC" /> Salinger's literary representative told ''[[The New York Times]]'' that the writer had broken his [[hip bone|hip]] in May 2009, but that "his health had been excellent until a rather sudden decline after the new year."<ref name="nyt12810">[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/29/books/29salinger.html nytimes.com]: "J. D. Salinger, Enigmatic Author, Dies at 91".</ref> The representative believed that Salinger's death was not a painful one.<ref name="nyt12810"/> His third wife and widow, Colleen O'Neill Zakrzeski Salinger, and Salinger's son Matt became the [[executor]]s of his [[Estate (law)|estate]].<ref name="nyt12810"/>

==Literary style and themes==
In a contributor's note Salinger gave to ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'' in 1946, he wrote: "I almost always write about very young people", a statement that has been referred to as his [[credo]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|p=96}}</ref> Adolescents are featured or appear in all of Salinger's work, from his first published short story, "[[The Young Folks]]" (1940), to ''The Catcher in the Rye'' and his [[Glass family]] stories. In 1961, the critic [[Alfred Kazin]] explained that Salinger's choice of teenagers as a subject matter was one reason for his appeal to young readers, but another was "a consciousness [among youths] that he speaks for them and virtually ''to'' them, in a language that is peculiarly honest and their own, with a vision of things that capture their most secret judgments of the world."<ref>[[Alfred Kazin|Kazin, Alfred]]. "J.D. Salinger: "Everybody's Favorite"", [[The Atlantic Monthly]] 208.2, August 1961. Rpt. in [[Harold Bloom|Bloom, Harold]], ed. {{Cite book|title=Bloom's BioCritiques: J. D. Salinger |year=2001 |publisher=Chelsea House |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0-7910-6175-2 |author=edited and with an introduction by Harold Bloom. }} pp. 67–75.</ref> For this reason, [[Norman Mailer]] once remarked that Salinger was "the greatest mind ever to stay in prep school".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,584170,00.html |title='Catcher in the Rye' Author J.D. Salinger Dies |publisher=Fox News |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref> Salinger's language, especially his energetic, realistically sparse dialogue, was revolutionary at the time his first stories were published and was seen by several critics as "the most distinguishing thing" about his work.<ref>Shuman, R. Baird, ed. ''Great American Writers: Twentieth Century.'' Vol. 13. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 2002. 14 vols. p. 1308.</ref>

Salinger identified closely with his characters,<ref name="damned" /> and used techniques such as interior monologue, letters, and extended telephone calls to display his gift for dialogue. Such style elements also "[gave] him the illusion of having, as it were, delivered his characters' destinies into their own keeping."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=70}}</ref> Recurring themes in Salinger's stories also connect to the ideas of innocence and adolescence, including the "corrupting influence of Hollywood and the world at large",<ref name="mondy">Mondloch, Helen. "Squalor and Redemption: The Age of Salinger", [[The World & I]]. SIRS Knowledge Source: SIRS Renaissance. November 2003. Retrieved April 2, 2004.</ref> the disconnect between teenagers and "phony" adults,<ref name="mondy" /> and the perceptive, precocious intelligence of children.<ref name="at fifty" />

Contemporary critics discuss a clear progression over the course of Salinger's published work, as evidenced by the increasingly negative reviews received by each of his three post-''Catcher'' story collections.<ref name="justice" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=34}}</ref> Ian Hamilton adheres to this view, arguing that while Salinger's early stories for the "slicks" boasted "tight, energetic" dialogue, they had also been formulaic and sentimental. It took the standards of ''The New Yorker'' editors, among them [[William Shawn]], to refine his writing into the "spare, teasingly mysterious, withheld" qualities of "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" (1948), ''The Catcher in the Rye'', and his stories of the early 1950s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|pp=105–6}}</ref> By the late 1950s, as Salinger became more reclusive and involved in religious study, Hamilton notes that his stories became longer, less plot-driven, and increasingly filled with [[digression]] and parenthetical remarks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=188}}</ref> [[Louis Menand]] agrees, writing in ''The New Yorker'' that Salinger "stopped writing stories, in the conventional sense ... He seemed to lose interest in fiction as an art form—perhaps he thought there was something manipulative or inauthentic about literary device and authorial control."<ref name="at fifty" /> In recent years, some critics have defended certain post-''Nine Stories'' works by Salinger; in 2001, [[Janet Malcolm]] wrote in ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'' that "Zooey" "is arguably Salinger's masterpiece ... Rereading it and its companion piece "Franny" is no less rewarding than rereading ''[[The Great Gatsby]]''."<ref name="justice" />

==Influence==
Salinger's writing has influenced several prominent writers, prompting [[Harold Brodkey]] (himself an [[O. Henry Award]]-winning author) to state in 1991: "His is the most influential body of work in English prose by anyone since Hemingway."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Brozan |first=Nadine |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE0D81030F934A15757C0A967958260 |title=Chronicle |work=The New York Times |date=April 27, 1991 |accessdate=July 10, 2007}}</ref> Of the writers in Salinger's generation, [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning novelist [[John Updike]] attested that "the short stories of J. D. Salinger really opened my eyes as to how you can weave fiction out of a set of events that seem almost unconnected, or very lightly connected ... [Reading Salinger] stick[s] in my mind as really having moved me a step up, as it were, toward knowing how to handle my own material."<ref>Osen, Diane. [http://www.nationalbook.org/authorsguide_jupdike.html "Interview with John Updike"], The National Book Foundation. 2007. Retrieved July 10, 2007.</ref> The critic [[Louis Menand]] has observed that the early stories of Pulitzer Prize-winner [[Philip Roth]] were affected by "Salinger's voice and comic timing".<ref name="at fifty" />

[[National Book Award]] finalist [[Richard Yates (novelist)|Richard Yates]] told ''[[The New York Times]]'' in 1977 that reading Salinger's stories for the first time was a landmark experience, and that "nothing quite like it has happened to me since".<ref>[[Richard Yates (novelist)|Yates, Richard]]. [https://www.nytimes.com/1977/12/04/archives/article-11-no-title-writers-writers-writers.html "Writers' Writers"] (fee required), [[The New York Times]], December 4, 1977. Retrieved 2007-10-24. Relevant passage is [http://www.richardyates.org/bib_onsalinger.html excerpted] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107171445/http://www.richardyates.org/bib_onsalinger.html |date=November 7, 2007 }} on richardyates.org.</ref> Yates describes Salinger as "a man who used language as if it were pure energy beautifully controlled, and who knew exactly what he was doing in every silence as well as in every word." [[Gordon Lish]]'s [[O. Henry Award]]-winning short story "For Jeromé—With Love and Kisses" (1977, collected in ''What I Know So Far'', 1984) is a play on Salinger's "For Esmé—with Love and Squalor".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1984/05/20/playing-the-game-of-what-if/d458b5ef-9387-4947-a24e-892ac5553672/|title=Playing the Game Of 'What If...'|last=Drabelle|first=Dennis|date=1984-05-20|work=The Washington Post|access-date=2017-06-20|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/book_blitz/2007/10/i_was_gordon_lishs_editor.html|title=I Was Gordon Lish's Editor|last=Howard|first=Gerald|date=2007-10-31|work=Slate|access-date=2017-06-20|language=en-US|issn=1091-2339}}</ref>

In 2001, [[Louis Menand]] wrote in ''The New Yorker'' that "''Catcher in the Rye'' rewrites" among each new generation had become "a literary genre all its own".<ref name="at fifty" /> He classed among them [[Sylvia Plath]]'s ''[[The Bell Jar]]'' (1963), [[Hunter S. Thompson]]'s ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'' (1971), [[Jay McInerney]]'s ''[[Bright Lights, Big City (novel)|Bright Lights, Big City]]'' (1984), and [[Dave Eggers]]'s ''[[A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius]]'' (2000). Writer [[Aimee Bender]] was struggling with her first short stories when a friend gave her a copy of ''Nine Stories''; inspired, she later described Salinger's effect on writers, explaining: "[I]t feels like Salinger wrote ''The Catcher in the Rye'' in a day, and that incredible feeling of ease inspires writing. Inspires the pursuit of voice. Not his voice. My voice. Your voice."<ref>[[Aimee Bender|Bender, Aimee]]. "Holden Schmolden". Kotzen, Kip, and Thomas Beller, ed. ''With Love and Squalor: 14 Writers Respond to the Work of J.D. Salinger''. New York: Broadway, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-7679-0799-6}}. pp. 162–9.</ref> Authors such as [[Stephen Chbosky]],<ref>Beisch, Ann. [http://www.layouth.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=Issue&action=IssueArticle&aid=1393&nid=19 "Interview with Stephen Chbosky, author of The Perks of Being a Wallflower"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927161523/http://www.layouth.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=Issue&action=IssueArticle&aid=1393&nid=19 |date=September 27, 2007 }}, ''LA Youth'', November–December 2001. Retrieved July 10, 2007.</ref> [[Jonathan Safran Foer]],<ref>Epstein, Jennifer. [http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2004/12/06/news/11661.shtml "Creative writing program produces aspiring writers"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113022519/http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2004/12/06/news/11661.shtml |date=January 13, 2008 }}, [[The Daily Princetonian]], December 6, 2004. Retrieved October 30, 2008.</ref> [[Carl Hiaasen]], [[Susan Minot]],<ref name="minot">[http://www.authorsontheweb.com/features/0012author-influences/author-influences.asp "What Authors Influenced You?"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927203055/http://www.authorsontheweb.com/features/0012author-influences/author-influences.asp |date=September 27, 2007 }}, Authorsontheweb.com. Retrieved July 10, 2007. Both Hiaasen and Minot cite him as an influence here.</ref> [[Haruki Murakami]], [[Gwendoline Riley]],<ref>[http://books.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,2064808,00.html "You have to trawl the depths"], [[The Guardian]], April 25, 2007. Retrieved December 26, 2007.</ref> [[Tom Robbins]], [[Louis Sachar]],<ref>[http://www.louissachar.com/Bio.htm "Author Bio"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910015014/http://www.louissachar.com/Bio.htm |date=September 10, 2015 }}, Louis Sachar's Official Web Site, 2002. Retrieved July 14, 2007.</ref> [[Joel Stein]]<ref>[[Joel Stein|Stein, Joel]]. "The Yips". Kotzen, Kip, and Thomas Beller, ed. ''With Love and The Squalor: 14 Writers Respond to the Work of J. D. Salinger''. New York: Broadway, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-7679-0799-6}}. pp. 170–6.</ref> and [[John Green (author)|John Green]] have cited Salinger as an influence. Musician [[Tomas Kalnoky]] of [[Streetlight manifesto|Streetlight Manifesto]] also cites Salinger as an influence, referencing him and [[Holden Caulfield]], the main character of ''Catcher in the Rye'', in the song "[[Everything Goes Numb#Cultural references|Here's To Life]]". Biographer Paul Alexander called Salinger "the [[Greta Garbo]] of literature".<ref>Beam, A. (2006) "J.D. Salinger, Failed Recluse", in ‘’If you Really Want to Hear About It: Writers on J.D. Salinger and His Work". Catherine Crawford (ed.) Thunder’s Mouth Press</ref>

In the mid-1960s, J. D. Salinger was himself drawn to [[Sufism|Sufi mysticism]] through the writer and thinker [[Idries Shah]]'s seminal work ''[[The Sufis]]'', as were others writers such as [[Doris Lessing]] and [[Geoffrey Grigson]], and the poets [[Robert Graves]] and [[Ted Hughes]].<ref name="Sufism-Guardian-Webster">{{cite web
| author = Webster
| first = Jason
| title = Sufism: ‘a natural antidote to fanaticism’
| publisher = [[The Guardian]]
| date = October 23, 2014
| url = https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/23/sufism-natural-antidote-fanaticism-the-sufis-idries-shah
| accessdate = October 23, 2014}}</ref> As well as Idries Shah, Salinger also read the Taoist philosopher [[Laozi|Lao Tse]] and the Hindu [[Vivekananda|Swami Vivekananda]] who introduced the Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world.<ref name="Istorie a Amantelor">{{cite book
| last = Abbott
| first = Elizabeth
| authorlink =
| title = Une histoire des maîtresses
| publisher = FIDES
| language = fr
| year = 2004
| location =
| page = 387
| isbn = 978-2762124941
| url = https://books.google.com/?id=fEsPUICzDY4C&pg=PA387&dq=%22elizabeth+abbott%22+Vivekananda+idries+shah#v=onepage&q=%22elizabeth%20abbott%22%20Vivekananda%20idries%20shah&f=false}}</ref>

==Legacy==
In an oral biography titled ''Salinger'', authors [[David Shields]] and [[Shane Salerno]] assert that the author had left specific instructions authorizing a timetable, to start between 2015 and 2020, for the release of several unpublished works. According to the authors and their sources, these include five new Glass-family stories; a novel based on Salinger's relationship with his first wife, Sylvia; a novella in the form of a World War II counterintelligence officer’s diary; a "manual" of stories about Vedanta; and other new or retooled stories that illuminate the life of Holden Caulfield.<ref name="Shields">{{cite news|last= Kakutani |first= Michiko |title= Hunting Again for Salinger Within the Silences and Secrets: A Biography From David Shields and Shane Salerno |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/26/books/a-biography-from-david-shields-and-shane-salerno.html |accessdate=August 27, 2013 |newspaper=The New York Times Book Review |date=August 25, 2013}}</ref>

The ''Salinger'' biography is also described as a companion volume to [[Salinger (film)|a film documentary of the same title]]. The directorial debut of writer [[Shane Salerno]], ''Salinger'' was made over nine years and received a limited theatrical release on September 6, 2013.<ref name="NYTimes">{{cite news|last=Cieply |first=Michael |author2=Julie Bosman |title=Film on Salinger Claims More Books Are Coming |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/25/business/media/film-on-j-d-salinger-claims-more-books-coming.html |accessdate=August 27, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=August 25, 2013}}</ref><ref name="IMDb">{{cite web|title=Salinger (2013) |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1596753/combined |publisher=[[Internet Movie Database]] |accessdate=August 27, 2013}}</ref>

==List of works==

===Books===
* ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' (1951)
* ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' (1953)
** "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" (1948)
** "[[Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut]]" (1948)
** "[[Just Before the War with the Eskimos]]" (1948)
** "[[The Laughing Man (short story)|The Laughing Man]]" (1949)
** "[[Down at the Dinghy]]" (1949)
** "[[For Esmé—with Love and Squalor]]" (1950)
** "[[Pretty Mouth and Green My Eyes]]" (1951)
** "[[De Daumier-Smith's Blue Period]]" (1952)
** "[[Teddy (story)|Teddy]]" (1953)
* ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' (1961)
** "Franny" (1955)
** "Zooey" (1957)
* ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction]]'' (1963)
** "Raise High the Roof-Beam, Carpenters" (1955)
** "Seymour: An Introduction" (1959)
* ''[[Three Early Stories]]'' (2014)
** "[[The Young Folks]]" (1940)
** "[[Go See Eddie]]" (1940)
** "[[Once a Week Won't Kill You]]" (1944)

===Published and anthologized stories===
* "[[Go See Eddie]]" (1940, republished in ''Fiction: Form & Experience'', ed. William M. Jones, 1969 and in ''Three Early Stories'', 2014)
* "[[The Young Folks]]" (1940, republished in ''Three Early Stories'', 2014)
* "[[The Hang of It]]" (1941, republished in ''The Kit Book for Soldiers, Sailors and Marines'', 1943)
* "[[The Long Debut of Lois Taggett]]" (1942, republished in ''Stories: The Fiction of the Forties'', ed. Whit Burnett, 1949)
* "[[Once a Week Won't Kill You]]" (1944, republished in ''Three Early Stories'', 2014)
* "[[A Boy in France]]" (1945, republished in ''Post Stories 1942–45'', ed. Ben Hibbs, 1946 and July/August 2010 issue of ''Saturday Evening Post'' magazine)
* "[[This Sandwich Has No Mayonnaise]]" (1945, republished in ''The Armchair Esquire'', ed. L. Rust Hills, 1959)
* "[[Slight Rebellion off Madison]]" (1946, republished in ''Wonderful Town: New York Stories from The New Yorker'', ed. David Remnick, 2000)
* "[[A Girl I Knew]]" (1948, republished in ''Best American Short Stories 1949'', ed. Martha Foley, 1949)

===Published and unanthologized stories===

* "[[The Heart of a Broken Story]]" (1941)
* "[[Personal Notes of an Infantryman]]" (1942)
* "[[The Varioni Brothers]]" (1943)
* "[[Both Parties Concerned]]" (1944)
* "[[Soft-Boiled Sergeant]]" (1944)
* "[[Last Day of the Last Furlough]]" (1944)
* "[[Elaine (short story)|Elaine]]" (1945)
* "[[The Stranger (Salinger short story)|The Stranger]]" (1945)
* "[[I'm Crazy]]" (1945)
* "[[A Young Girl in 1941 with No Waist at All]]" (1947)
* "[[The Inverted Forest]]" (1947)
* "[[Blue Melody]]" (1948)
* "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]" (1965)

===Unpublished stories===
*"[[Mrs. Hincher]]" (1942)
*"[[The Last and Best of the Peter Pans]]" (1942)
*"[[The Children's Echelon]]" (1944)
*"[[Two Lonely Men]]" (1944)
*"[[The Magic Foxhole]]" (1944)
*"[[Birthday Boy (story)|Birthday Boy]]" (1946)
*"[[The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls]]" (1947)

==Media portrayals and references==
*In [[W. P. Kinsella]]'s 1982 novel, ''[[Shoeless Joe (novel)|Shoeless Joe]]'', the main character "kidnaps" the reclusive Salinger to take him to a baseball game. When the novel was adapted for cinema as ''[[Field of Dreams]]'', Salinger's character was replaced by the fictional Terence Mann, amid fears that Salinger might sue.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Geddes|first1=John|title=W.P. on J.D.: Kinsella talks about writing Salinger into 'Shoeless Joe'|url=http://www.macleans.ca/politics/ottawa/w-p-on-j-d-kinsella-talks-about-writing-salinger-into-shoeless-joe/|accessdate=14 September 2016|work=[[Maclean's]]|date=January 29, 2010}}</ref>
*In the 2002 film ''[[The Good Girl]]'', the character of "Holden" (played by [[Jake Gyllenhaal]]) adopts the name because of his admiration of ''The Catcher in the Rye''. Coincidentally the film also stars [[Zooey Deschanel]] who was named after the character from Salinger's Franny and Zooey.
*Salinger is portrayed by [[Chris Cooper]] in [[James Steven Sadwith]]'s 2015 film ''[[Coming Through the Rye (film)|Coming Through the Rye]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lee|first=Ashley|title=Chris Cooper Is J.D. Salinger in 'Coming Through the Rye' Clip (Exclusive Video)|date=14 October 2016|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/chris-cooper-is-jd-salinger-938110|accessdate=18 October 2016}}</ref>
*Salinger appears as a character (voiced by [[Alan Arkin]]) in several 2015–2016 episodes of ''[[BoJack Horseman]]'' (season 2 episodes 6, 7, 8, 10 and season 3 episode 1), where he is said to have faked his own death to escape public attention and pursue a career in television production. He quotes numerous lines from his works, bemoaning how ''The Catcher in the Rye'' has become his only work that anyone knows about.
*Salinger was portrayed by [[Nicholas Hoult]] in the 2017 film ''[[Rebel in the Rye]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Child|first=Ben|title=Nicholas Hoult to play JD Salinger in new biopic|date=1 September 2015|publisher=''[[The Guardian]]''|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/sep/01/nicholas-hoult-rebel-in-the-rye-jd-salinger|accessdate=9 January 2017}}</ref>
*Salinger's name is mentioned in the title for [[The Wonder Years (band)|The Wonder Years]] song "[[You're Not Salinger. Get Over It.]]"

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|colwidth=25em}}

==References==
* {{Cite book|last=Mueller |first=Bruce F. |author2=Hochman, Will|title=Critical Companion to J. D. Salinger: a Literary Reference to His Life and Work |year=2011 |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |isbn=978-0816065974}}
* {{Cite book|last=Alexander |first=Paul|title=Salinger: A Biography |year=1999 |publisher=Renaissance |location=Los Angeles |isbn=1-58063-080-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crawford |first=Catherine, ed. |title=If You Really Want to Hear About It: Writers on J. D. Salinger and His Work |year=2006 |publisher=Thunder's Mouth |location=New York |isbn=1-56025-880-2 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Grunwald |first=Henry Anatole, ed. |title=Salinger, the Classic Critical and Personal Portrait |year=1962 |publisher=Harper Perennial, Harper & Row |location=New York |isbn=0-06185-250-3}}
* {{Cite book|last=French |first=Warren |title=J. D. Salinger, Revisted |year=1988 |publisher=Twayne Publishers |location=Boston, Massachusetts |isbn=0-8057-7522-6 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Hamilton |first=Ian |authorlink=Ian Hamilton (critic) |title=In Search of J. D. Salinger |year=1988 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=0-394-53468-9 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kubica |first=Chris |author2=Hochman, Will |title=Letters to J. D. Salinger |year=2002 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison |isbn=0-299-17800-5 }}
*{{cite book|last1= Lutz |first1= Norma Jean |year= 2002 |origyear= |chapter= Biography of J.D. Salinger |chapterurl= |editor1-last= Bloom |editor1-first= Harold |editor1-link= Harold Bloom |title= J. D. Salinger |url= |type= |series= Bloom's BioCritiques |edition= |location= Philadelphia |publisher= [[Chelsea House]] |publication-date= |pages= 3–44 |doi= |isbn= 0-7910-6175-2 |jstor= |lccn= |oclc= 48473975 |ol= |ssrn= |id= |accessdate= |via= |registration= |subscription= |laysummary= |laysource= |laydate= |ref= harv }}
*{{Cite book|last= Maynard |first= Joyce |authorlink= Joyce Maynard |title= At Home in the World |year= 1998 |publisher= Picador |location= New York |isbn= 0-312-19556-7 |ref= harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Salinger |first=Margaret |title=Dream Catcher: A Memoir |year=2000 |publisher=Washington Square Press |location=New York |isbn=0-671-04281-5 |ref= {{harvid|Margaret Salinger|2000}}}}
* Slawenski, Kenneth (2010). ''J. D. Salinger: A Life Raised High'', London, Pomona Books. {{ISBN|978-1-904590-23-1}}
* {{cite journal | title = Cherished and Cursed: Toward a Social History of The Catcher in the Rye | last = Whitfield | first = Stephen | journal = The New England Quarterly | volume = 70 | issue = 4 | date = December 1997 | pages = 567–600 | doi = 10.2307/366646 | jstor = 366646  | url = http://www.northeastern.edu/neq/pdfs/Whitfield%2C_Stephen_J.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2012-11-02 | ref = harv | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120912144104/http://www.northeastern.edu/neq/pdfs/Whitfield%2C_Stephen_J.pdf | archivedate = September 12, 2012 | df = mdy-all }}
:Reprinted in {{Cite book |title= J. D. Salinger |year=2001 |publisher= [[Chelsea House]] |location=Philadelphia |series= Bloom's BioCritiques |isbn=0-7910-6175-2 |editor1-last= Bloom |editor1-first= Harold |editor1-link= Harold Bloom | pages = 77–105}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Jerome David Salinger}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/29/books/29salinger.html J. D. Salinger, Enigmatic Author, Dies at 91], ''The New York Times'', January 28, 2010
* [http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/nation-world/bal-te.ob.salinger29jan29,0,4629261.story The Reclusive Writer Inspired a Generation], ''Baltimore Sun'', January 29, 2010
* [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/culture-obituaries/books-obituaries/7096097/JD-Salinger.html JD Salinger] – ''Daily Telegraph'' obituary
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3786891.stm Obituary: JD Salinger], BBC News, January 28, 2010
* [http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2010/02/sali-f02.html ''J.D. Salinger (1919–2010): An appreciation''] World Socialist Web Site. February 2, 2010.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040615211038/http://www.tversu.ru/Science/Hermeneutics/1998-2/1998-2-28-eng.pdf Implied meanings in J. D. Salinger stories and reverting]
* [http://www.deadcaulfields.com/DCHome.html Dead Caulfields – The Life and Work of J.D. Salinger]
* [http://catchingsalinger.wordpress.com Catching Salinger] – Serialized documentary about the search for J.D. Salinger
* [http://www.shmoop.com/jd-salinger/ J.D. Salinger] biography, quotes, multimedia, teacher resources
* [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/23725 On J.D. Salinger] by [[Michael Greenberg (writer)|Michael Greenberg]] from ''[[The New York Review of Books]]''
* [http://www.haaretz.com/culture/books/the-courage-to-be-an-absolute-nobody-1.346920 Essay on Salinger's life from Haaretz]
* {{OL author}}
* [http://www.uea.ac.uk/is/archives# J.D. Salinger – Hartog Letters, University of East Anglia]
* [http://www.life.com/gallery/62491/salinger-and-catcher-in-the-rye#index/0 Salinger and 'Catcher in the Rye'] — slideshow by ''[[Life magazine]]''
* [http://www.esquire.com/features/jd-salinger-bio-0697 The Man in the Glass House] — Ron Rosenbaum's 1997 profile for ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]''
* {{IMDb name|0758409}}
* {{LCAuth|n50016589|J. D. Salinger|18|}}
*[https://www.yeyebook.com/en/jerome-david-salinger-a-perfect-day-for-bananafish-short-stories-eng/ J. D. Salinger - A perfect day for Bananafish] (Text of the short story, in: EN FR DE IT ES CH)

{{J. D. Salinger}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Salinger, J. D.}}
[[Category:J. D. Salinger| ]]
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:2010 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century American short story writers]]
[[Category:American Hindus]]
[[Category:American military personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:American people of German descent]]
[[Category:American people of Irish descent]]
[[Category:American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:American people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:Converts to Christianity from Judaism]]
[[Category:Hindus of Jewish descent]]
[[Category:Jewish American novelists]]
[[Category:People from Cornish, New Hampshire]]
[[Category:People from Manhattan]]
[[Category:United States Army soldiers]]
[[Category:Ursinus College alumni]]
[[Category:Columbia University School of General Studies alumni]]
[[Category:Novelists from New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Writers from New York City]]
[[Category:American male novelists]]
[[Category:American male short story writers]]
[[Category:20th-century American male writers]]
[[Category:McBurney School alumni]]
[[Category:Novelists from New York (state)]]
[[Category:Operation Overlord people]]

Randy Rhoads

2018-10-18T16:39:51Z

66.172.182.2:

{{About|the guitarist|the guitar model|Jackson Rhoads|the radio talk show host|Randi Rhodes}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox musical artist 
| name = Randy Rhoads
| image = Randy Rhoads (1980).jpg
| caption = Rhoads performing on stage in 1980
| background = non_vocal_instrumentalist
| alias =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1956|12|6|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Santa Monica, California]], United States
| death_date = {{death date and age|1982|3|19|1956|12|6}}
| death_place = [[Leesburg, Florida]], United States
| instrument = {{hlist|Guitar}}
| genre = {{hlist|[[Heavy metal music|Heavy metal]]|[[hard rock]]|{{Nowrap|[[neoclassical metal]]}}}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Musician|songwriter|producer|[[Music education|music teacher]]}}
| years_active = 1972–1982
| label = {{hlist|[[Epic Records|Epic]]|[[CBS Sony]]|[[Jet Records|Jet]]}}
| associated_acts = {{hlist|[[Ozzy Osbourne]]|[[Quiet Riot]]}}
| website = {{URL|randyrhoads.us}}
}}

'''Randall William Rhoads''' (December 6, 1956 – March 19, 1982)<ref>{{cite book|last=Nick Talevski|first=|title=Rock Obituaries - Knocking On Heaven's Door|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DykffzkFALoC&pg=PA545|year=2006|publisher=Omnibus Press.}}</ref> was an American [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] guitarist who played with [[Quiet Riot]] and [[Ozzy Osbourne]]. A devoted student of classical guitar, Rhoads combined his classical music influences with his own heavy metal style. He died in a [[Aviation accidents and incidents|plane accident]] while on tour with Osbourne in [[Florida]] in 1982. Despite his short career, Rhoads, who was a major influence on [[neoclassical metal]], is cited as an influence by many guitarists. Rhoads is included in several "Greatest Guitarist" lists.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/5937559/the_100_greatest_guitarists_of_all_time/ |title=100 Greatest Guitarists: David Fricke's Picks |work=Rolling Stone |accessdate=July 5, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/Blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=18446|title=GUITAR WORLD's 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists Of All Time|publisher=BlabberMouth}}</ref>

==Biography==
69 420
===Early life===
Rhoads was born in [[Santa Monica, California]]. The youngest of three children, he had a brother named Doug and a sister named Kathy. Doug, who performed under the name "Kelle", is also a musician. Their parents, Delores and William, were both music teachers. In 1958, father William left the family when Randy was 1 year and 5 months old<ref name="csun">{{cite web |author=California State University, Northridge |title=Randy Rhoads: Beginnings |url=http://library.csun.edu/SCA/OnlineExhibits/rhoadsbeginnings |publisher=csun.edu |accessdate=September 28, 2013}}</ref> and remarried, and all three children were subsequently raised by Delores, who also opened a music school in [[North Hollywood]] called Musonia to support the family.<ref name="ozzyhead">{{cite web |author=Perry, Randy |title=Randy Rhoads Biography/Timeline |url=http://www.ozzyhead.com/randbio.htm |publisher=ozzyhead.com |accessdate=May 27, 2013}}</ref> Delores had received a [[bachelor's degree]] in music from [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] and had played [[piano]] professionally.<ref name="csun" />

The Rhoads family did not own a stereo and the children created their own music at home to entertain themselves.<ref name="gibson">{{cite web |author=Wright, Michael |date=April 6, 2009 |title=The Gibson Interview: The Randy Rhoads Family |url=http://www2.gibson.com/News-Lifestyle/Features/en-us/randy-rhoads-family-1011.aspx |publisher=gibson.com |accessdate=May 25, 2013}}</ref> Rhoads began taking [[folk music|folk]] and [[classical guitar|classical]] guitar lessons at approximately age 7 at his mother's music school.<ref name="csun" /> He soon became interested in electric guitar and began taking lessons at Musonia from an instructor named Scott Shelly. Shelly soon approached Delores to inform her that he could no longer teach her son, as Rhoads' knowledge of the electric guitar had exceeded his own.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> Rhoads also received piano lessons from his mother to build his understanding of music theory.<ref name="csun" />

Rhoads met future bandmate [[Kelly Garni]] while attending [[John Muir Middle School (Burbank, California)|John Muir Middle School]]<ref name="csun" /> and the two became best friends.<ref name="Garni_talks">{{Cite news |author=Parks, John |date=July 19, 2012 |title=Quiet Riot original bassist and co-founder Kelly Garni talks Randy, Kevin and his new book with LRI |url=http://www.legendaryrockinterviews.com/2012/07/19/legendary-rock-interview-with-original-quiet-riot-bassist-and-author-kelly-garni-part-one/ |publisher=Legendaryrockinterviews.com |accessdate=May 28, 2013}}</ref> According to Garni, the pair were unpopular due to "the way we looked". "Every time we showed up for school it was usually problematic so we pretty much avoided it. We weren't nerds, we weren't jocks, we weren't dopers, we were just on our own".<ref name="Garni_talks" /> Rhoads taught Garni how to play bass guitar, and together they formed a band called "The Whore", rehearsing during the day at [[Rodney Bingenheimer's English Disco]], a 1970s Hollywood nightspot. It was during this period that Rhoads learned to play lead guitar. "When I met him he didn't know how to play lead guitar yet at all. He was just starting to take lessons for it and really just riffing around", said Garni.<ref name="Garni_talks" /> With this band, Rhoads spent several months playing at backyard parties around the Los Angeles area in the mid-1970s.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> The pair formed a cover band called Violet Fox (after his mother's middle name, Violet),<ref name="ozzyhead" /> with his older brother Kelle on drums. Violet Fox, who were together for approximately five months, staged several performances in the Grand Salon at Musonia. Among their setlist was "[[Mississippi Queen]]" by [[Mountain (band)|Mountain]], and songs from [[the Rolling Stones]], [[Alice Cooper]] and [[David Bowie]]. After Violet Fox dissolved, Rhoads formed various other short-lived bands such as The Katzenjammer Kids and Mildred Pierce.<ref name="ozzyhead" />

Rhoads' brother states that a July 11, 1971 [[Alice Cooper]] concert at the Long Beach Auditorium that the pair attended was a defining point in the guitarist's life. After the concert was over Kelle said "Randy was mesmerized. He was catatonic just staring at the stage. Later that night Randy said "I can do this. I can look like this. I can be this." Something clicked that night and I think that kind of showed him what he could do with his talent."<ref name="csun" /> [[Glen Buxton]] of Alice Cooper and [[Mick Ronson]] were two early rock influences on his playing.<ref name="csun" />

===Quiet Riot===
At age 16, Rhoads and Garni formed the band ''Little Women''. At approximately the same time, Rhoads began teaching guitar in his mother's school during the day and playing live gigs at night. He graduated from [[Burbank High School (Burbank, California)|Burbank High School]], participating in a special program that allowed him to condense his studies and graduate early so he could teach guitar and pursue music full-time.<ref name="csun" /> Recruiting lead vocalist [[Kevin DuBrow]] and drummer [[Drew Forsyth (musician)|Drew Forsyth]], the band soon changed its name to [[Quiet Riot]]. Forsyth had periodically played with Rhoads and Garni in the past.

Quiet Riot quickly became one of the most popular acts on the Los Angeles club circuit, and by late 1976 were signed to [[Sony Music Entertainment Japan|CBS/Sony Records]]. Rhoads' "polka-dot theme" became the visual focal point of the band, as many fans began showing up at Quiet Riot shows wearing polka-dot [[bow-tie]]s and vests, emulating what the guitarist wore on stage.<ref name="csun" />

While the band had a strong following in Los Angeles, ''[[Quiet Riot (1977 album)|Quiet Riot]]'' and ''[[Quiet Riot II]]'' were released only in [[Japan]].<ref name="ozzyhead" />

===Ozzy Osbourne===
In 1979, ex-[[Black Sabbath]] vocalist [[Ozzy Osbourne]] was in Los Angeles, attempting to form a new band. An acquaintance of Rhoads' from the LA club circuit, future [[Slaughter (band)|Slaughter]] bassist [[Dana Strum]], phoned Rhoads relentlessly to coax him into auditioning. Rhoads initially told Quiet Riot bandmate [[Rudy Sarzo]] that he wasn't really interested in auditioning, but finally agreed to go simply to get Strum off his back.<ref name="SarzoMemoir">Sarzo, Rudy (2017). Off the Rails (third edition). CreateSpace Publishing. {{ISBN|1-53743-746-1}}</ref> Rhoads got the call for the audition just before his final show with Quiet Riot in September 1979.<ref name="csun" /> The day before Osbourne was scheduled to return to England, Rhoads agreed to audition for Osbourne at a Los Angeles studio with his [[Gibson Les Paul]] guitar and a practice [[guitar amplifier|amp]] and started warming up. Osbourne, who was very inebriated on that day, said of the audition "He played this fucking solo and I'm like, am I that fucking stoned or am I hallucinating or what the fuck is this?!" Osbourne immediately gave him the job. Rhoads recalled later, "I just tuned up and did some riffs, and he said, 'You've got the gig'; I had the weirdest feeling, because I thought, 'You didn't even hear me yet'". After the audition, Rhoads returned to Musonia and told Sarzo that he had never actually met Osbourne; Osbourne was drunk and had stayed in the studio's control room the entire time, and it was Strum in fact who had informed Rhoads that he had the job. He was, however, scheduled to meet Osbourne the following night in his hotel room.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> Rhoads, Osbourne, Strum, and drummer [[Frankie Banali]] subsequently spent a couple of days jamming together before Osbourne returned to England.<ref name="bwbk">{{cite web |author=Lambert, Cory |title=Bass Legend Bob Daisley Talks About The BLIZZARD OF OZZ, His Battle With THE OSBOURNES And More Diaries Of A Madman! |url=http://www.bravewords.com/features/1000971 |publisher=Brave Words & Bloody Knuckles |accessdate=March 25, 2014}}</ref> Disillusioned with Quiet Riot's inability to land an American recording deal, Rhoads discussed with his mother Delores the possibility of joining an already established band. When she asked him if he would accept "an offer like this one", the guitarist replied "Of course!"<ref name="csun" />

Upon returning to England, Osbourne was introduced to ex-[[Rainbow (rock band)|Rainbow]] bassist [[Bob Daisley]] by a [[Jet Records]] employee named Arthur Sharpe<ref name="bwbk" /> in a pub, and the pair hit it off and decided to work together.<ref name="daisley">{{cite web |author=Daisley, Robert |title=Bob Daisley's History With The Osbournes |url=http://www.bobdaisley.com/interview/website |publisher=bobdaisley.com |accessdate=May 27, 2013}}</ref> Unhappy with the guitarist they were initially working with,<ref name="bwbk" /> Osbourne mentioned to Daisley that he had recently met a talented young guitarist in Los Angeles by the name of Randy Rhoads.<ref name="daisley" /> The new group's management intended to keep the lineup all-British and was reluctant to hire an unknown American guitarist, but manager Don Arden eventually relented.<ref name="bwbk" /> Rhoads flew to England only to return home a couple of days later, being turned away by English customs at [[Heathrow Airport]] when he didn't have the necessary work permit. A representative from [[Jet Records]] was dispatched to clear the matter up but he never arrived, and Rhoads spent the night in a holding cell before being handcuffed and put on a plane back to the United States the next day. Osbourne subsequently called him to apologize, and arrangements were made for Rhoads to return to England with the proper paperwork.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> Rhoads flew to England on November 27, 1979,<ref name="daisley" /> and met with Osbourne and Daisley at the Jet Records' offices in [[London]]. The trio traveled by train to Osbourne's home,<ref name="bwbk" /> Bulrush Cottage, which also housed a rehearsal space. It was here that Rhoads lived with Osbourne, his then-wife Thelma, and their two children, during his first weeks in England.<ref name="IAmOzzy" /> Years later, Osbourne said in his [[autobiography]] that he could not understand why a musician as talented as Rhoads would want to get involved with a "bloated alcoholic wreck" like himself.<ref name="IAmOzzy">{{Cite book |author=Osbourne, Ozzy |year=2011 |title=I Am Ozzy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yNzCgAEkW8cC&pg=PT134 |publisher=I Am Ozzy |page=134 |accessdate=May 24, 2013}}</ref>

After a short search, drummer [[Lee Kerslake]] completed the new band, then known as The Blizzard of Ozz.<ref name="daisley" /> The group headed into the studio to record their debut album, titled ''[[Blizzard of Ozz]]''. Rhoads's guitar playing had changed due to the level of freedom allowed by Osbourne and Daisley and he was encouraged to play what he wanted. His work with Quiet Riot had been criticized as being "dull" and did not rely on classical scales or arrangements.<ref>All Music [{{Allmusic|class=album|id=r375893|pure_url=yes}} Quiet Riot 1977] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref> Propelled by Rhoads's neo-classical guitar work, the album proved an instant hit with rock fans, particularly in the USA. They released two singles from the album: "[[Mr. Crowley]]" and the hit "[[Crazy Train]]". Osbourne said years later, "One day Randy came to me and said that most heavy metal songs are written in an A to E chord structure. He said, 'Let's try to change that' ...so we made a rule that almost every number that we recorded on an album was never played in the same key."<ref name="csun" />
[[File:Randy Rhoads playing with the Blizzard of Oz.jpg|thumb|Rhoads playing live with Osbourne's band in September 1981]]
Following a UK tour the band recorded another album, ''[[Diary of a Madman (album)|Diary of a Madman]]''. During a break before leaving for their first US tour, both Kerslake and Daisley were suddenly fired by [[Sharon Osbourne|Sharon Arden]], the band's manager and Osbourne's future wife. For the US tour, ex-[[Black Oak Arkansas]] drummer [[Tommy Aldridge]] and bassist [[Rudy Sarzo]] - who had been Rhoads' bandmate in Quiet Riot - were hired. ''Diary of a Madman'' was released soon after in October 1981, and since Kerslake and Daisley were already out of the band, Aldridge and Sarzo's names and photos appeared on the album sleeve. Disputes over royalties performance and other intellectual property rights became a source of future court battles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=144056 |title=Daisley, Kerslake court battles |publisher=Roadrunnerrecords.com |accessdate=July 5, 2012}}</ref> Kerslake has maintained that Rhoads almost left Osbourne's band in late 1981 due to his displeasure with the firing of Kerslake and Daisley. "He didn't want to go (on tour with Osbourne). We told him we were thrown out. He said he was going to leave the band as he did not want to leave us behind. I told him not to be stupid but thanks for the sentiment," the drummer later recalled.<ref>{{cite web|author=bravewords.com |url=http://www.bravewords.com/news/166075 |title=Legendary OZZY OSBOURNE Drummer Lee Kerslake Talks About Blizzard/Diary Reissues, Randy Rhoads, The "Evil And Nasty" Sharon Osbourne |publisher=Bravewords.com |date=July 25, 2011 |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref>

Around this time, Rhoads remarked to Osbourne, bandmates Aldridge and Sarzo, and friend Kelly Garni that he was considering leaving rock for a few years to earn a degree in classical guitar at UCLA. In the 1991 [[documentary film]] ''Don't Blame Me'', Osbourne confirmed Rhoads' desire to earn the degree and stated that had he lived, he did not believe Rhoads would have stayed in his band. Friend and ex-Quiet Riot bassist Garni has speculated in interviews that if Rhoads had continued to play rock, he might have gone the route of more keyboard-driven rock, which had become popular through the 1980s. It was at this time that Rhoads was beginning to receive recognition for his playing. Just before his death [[Jackson Guitars]] created a signature model, the [[Jackson Randy Rhoads]] (though Rhoads had originally called his white pinstriped V "the Concorde"). Rhoads received one prototype—a black offset V hardtail that is the base for today's RR line of Jackson guitars—but died before the guitar went into production. Rhoads also received the Best New Talent award from ''[[Guitar Player]]'' magazine. While on tour with Osbourne, Rhoads would seek out classical guitar tutors for lessons whenever possible.

At the time of his death, Rhoads had already made the decision to part ways with Osbourne once his contractual obligations had been fulfilled. Though he had a good relationship with Osbourne, the vocalist's constant drug and alcohol abuse made day-to-day life on tour difficult for the members of his band. As the ''Diary of a Madman'' US tour progressed, Osbourne would often refuse to perform due to the lingering after-effects of the previous night's excesses, and only Sharon could talk him into taking the stage. Many shows were simply canceled, and Rhoads grew tired of the unpredictability. The final straw came when a plan was announced in February 1982 by Osbourne's management and record label to record a live album of [[Black Sabbath]] songs at Toronto's [[Maple Leaf Gardens]] later that year. He and bandmate [[Tommy Aldridge]] felt that they had established themselves as recording artists, and they regarded an album of cover songs to be a step backwards artistically and professionally. Thus, they refused to participate in the planned live recording. Osbourne viewed this decision as a betrayal, and the relationship between he and Rhoads became quite strained. Already drinking heavily, Osbourne's drinking increased and began to tear the band apart. At one point he drunkenly fired the entire band, including Rhoads, though he later had no memory of doing so. He began taunting Rhoads with claims that the likes of [[Frank Zappa]] and [[Gary Moore]] were willing to replace him on the proposed live album. Osbourne's unstable and confrontational behavior soon convinced Rhoads to leave the band. He grudgingly agreed to perform on the live album with the stipulation that he would depart after fulfilling his contractual obligations to Jet Records, which consisted of one more studio album and subsequent tour. The proposed live album was scrapped upon the guitarist's sudden death weeks later, though the plan was quickly resurrected with the release of ''[[Speak of the Devil (Ozzy Osbourne album)|Speak of the Devil]]'' in November of that year.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" />

==Death==
[[File:1957 Bonanza H35 N5589D.jpg|thumb|right|250px|<center>A 1957 [[Beechcraft Bonanza]] Model H35, very similar to the 1955 model in which Rhoads died.</center>]]
Rhoads played his last show on Thursday, March 18, 1982, at the [[Knoxville Civic Coliseum]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Mitch Van Beekum |url=http://www.ozzyhead.com/randbio.htm |title=Randy Rhoads Biography/Timeline |publisher=Ozzyhead.com |date= |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.gibson.com/News-Lifestyle/Features/en-us/spotlight-0319-2011.aspx |title=This Day in Music Spotlight: The Final Flight of Randy Rhoads |publisher=.gibson.com |date= |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref> The next day, the band was heading to a festival in Orlando, Florida. Osbourne recalls his final conversation with Rhoads that night on the bus involved the guitarist admonishing him over his heavy drinking.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> The last thing Rhoads said to him that night was, "You'll kill yourself, you know? One of these days."<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> After driving much of the night, they stopped in [[Leesburg, Florida]], to fix a malfunctioning [[air conditioning]] unit on the bus while Osbourne remained asleep.<ref name="osbourneautobiography">{{cite book |last=Osbourne |first=Ozzy |title=I Am Ozzy |year=2011 |publisher=Grand Central Publishing |isbn=978-0446569903}}</ref> On the property there was an airstrip with small helicopters and planes. Without permission, tour bus driver and private pilot Andrew Aycock took a single-engine Beechcraft F35 plane registered to a Mike Partin.<ref name="NTSB PC Brief">{{cite journal|last1=National Transportation Safety Board|title=NTSB ID: MIA82FA078|journal=Probable Cause, Brief of Accident|date=19 March 1983|url=http://ntsb.gov/_layouts/ntsb.aviation/GeneratePDF.aspx?id=MIA82FA078&rpt=fi|accessdate=24 October 2016}}</ref><ref name="ntsb_report">{{cite web |date=March 19, 1982 |title=Aircraft Incident/Accident Report;Leesburg, Florida 32748 Friday, March 19, 1982 10:00 EST |url=http://www.aircraftone.com/aircraft/accidents/20020917X02406.asp |publisher=[[NTSB]] |accessdate=July 31, 2013}}</ref> On the first flight, Aycock took keyboardist [[Don Airey]] and tour manager Jake Duncan.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> He then landed and a second flight took to the air with Rhoads and makeup artist Rachel Youngblood aboard. Rhoads had tried unsuccessfully to coax bassist Rudy Sarzo to join him on the flight, but Sarzo chose to get some extra sleep instead.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> During the second flight, attempts were made to 'buzz' the tour bus.<ref name="NTSB PC Brief" /> Aycock succeeded in making two close passes, but botched the third attempt. At approximately 10 am, after being in the air for approximately five minutes,<ref name="ntsb_report" /> one of the plane's wings clipped the top of the tour bus, breaking the wing into two parts and sending the plane spiraling out of control.<ref name="sharonbiography">{{Cite news |author=Osbourne, Sharon |title=Sharon Osbourne Extreme: My Autobiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F1otWOKcZ8MC&pg=PT118 |publisher=Little Brown |accessdate=May 24, 2013}}</ref> The initial impact with the bus caused Rhoads' and Youngblood's heads to crash through the plane's windshield.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> The plane then severed the top of a pine tree and crashed into the garage of a nearby mansion, bursting into flames.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> Keyboardist Don Airey was the only member of the band to witness the crash, because the rest were asleep in the bus.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> Rhoads was killed instantly, as were Aycock (36) and Youngblood (58). All three bodies were burned beyond recognition, and Rhoads was identified by dental records and personal jewelry. According to Sharon Osbourne, who was asleep in the bus and awoken by the crash, "They were all in bits, it was just body parts everywhere".<ref name="sharonbiography" /> Though all were quite distraught, the remaining band and crew members were forced to remain in Leesburg for an additional two days,<ref name="ozzyhead" /> until preliminary investigations were completed.<ref name="sharonbiography" /> Rhoads' brother-in-law flew from California to Leesburg to identify what remained of the guitarist's body.<ref name="sharonbiography" /> Ozzy Osbourne's official statement to crash investigators was:

{{quote|At approximately 9:00 a.m. on Friday, March 19, 1982, I was awoken from my sleep by a loud explosion. I immediately thought that we'd hit a vehicle on the road. I got out of the bed, screaming to my fiancée, Sharon, 'Get off the bus.' Meanwhile, she was screaming to everyone else to get off the bus. After getting out of the bus, I saw that a plane had crashed. I didn't know who was on the plane at the time. When we realized that our people were on the plane, I found it very difficult to get assistance from anyone to help. In fact, it took almost a half-hour before anyone arrived. One small fire engine arrived, which appeared to squirt three gallons of water over the inferno. We asked for further assistance, such as telephones, and didn't receive any further help. In the end, we finally found a telephone and Sharon phoned her father.<ref>{{cite web
| url =http://www2.gibson.com/News-Lifestyle/Features/en-us/spotlight-0319-2011.aspx
| title =This Day in Music Spotlight: The Final Flight of Randy Rhoads
| accessdate=2015-04-04
| date =2011-03-19
| publisher =gibson.com }}</ref>}}

The band was scheduled to perform at an outdoor festival called [[Rock Super Bowl|Rock Super Bowl XIV]] later that day in [[Orlando]]. Though the event was not canceled, promoters offered refunds to all ticket holders.<ref name="ozzyhead" />

Bob Daisley and Lee Kerslake, who had recorded ''Blizzard of Ozz'' and ''Diary of a Madman'' with Rhoads and had been recently fired from Osbourne's band, were together in [[Houston]], [[Texas]] with [[Uriah Heep (band)|Uriah Heep]] when they heard news of the accident. Kerslake recalled in 2002:

{{quote|I was already sitting at the bar when Bob Daisley came into the bar. I turned and looked at Bob and said, 'Fuck, you have gone all white. What is wrong?' Bob said, 'Lee, there was a plane crash this morning and Randy was in it... and he is dead.' That was it. Oh God, to hear that - I just turned and cried my eyes out. Bob and me were crying our eyes out over him, cause we loved him. He was such a lovely guy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bobdaisley.com/interview/fuse-lee-kerslake |title=The Fuze interviews Lee Kerslake |publisher=Bob Daisley |date=March 19, 1982 |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref>}}
[[File:Tumba de Randy Rhoads.jpg|thumb|right|250px|<center>Rhoads' tomb, San Bernardino, California</center>]]

Rhoads' longtime girlfriend Jody was in her car when she recalls hearing a block of songs from ''Blizzard of Ozz'' on the radio before the DJ announced the accident and the news that Rhoads had been killed. She was too distraught to continue driving.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" />

It was later revealed after autopsy that Aycock's system tested positive for [[cocaine]]. Rhoads' toxicology test revealed only nicotine.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> Osbourne later said that Aycock had been doing cocaine all night prior to the crash.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> The [[National Transportation Safety Board|NTSB]] investigation determined that Aycock's aviation medical certificate had expired.<ref name="NTSB PC Brief" /><ref name="ntsb_report" /> Aycock's estranged wife had spent that last night on the bus; the band were well aware that the driver was attempting to reconcile with her, and witnesses described the driver's state of mind as agitated in the hours before the fatal crash. Bassist Sarzo believes the driver/pilot's troubled emotional state that day, combined with the effects of the cocaine, was directly responsible for the accident.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> It was later learned that Aycock had been the pilot in another fatal crash in the [[United Arab Emirates]] six years earlier.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" />

Rhoads' funeral was held at the First Lutheran Church in [[Burbank, California]]. [[Pall-bearer]]s at the funeral included Osbourne, Aldridge, Sarzo, and Rhoads' former Quiet Riot bandmate Kevin DuBrow.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> On his coffin was a photo of the guitarist as well as a photo of himself on stage with Osbourne in [[San Francisco]].<ref name="sharonbiography" /> Rhoads is buried at Mountain View Cemetery in [[San Bernardino, California]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Benoit|first=Tod|title=Where Are They Buried? How Did They Die?|year=2009|publisher=Black Dog & Leventhal|location=New York|isbn=978-1-57912-822-7|pages=412–3}}</ref>

===Posthumous recognition===

As a tribute to Rhoads, [[Marshall Amplification]] released the 1959RR at [[NAMM Show|NAMM]] 2008. The amp is a limited-edition all-white Marshall Super Lead 100-watt head modeled after Rhoads' own Super Lead amp. Marshall engineers looked extensively at Rhoads' actual amplifier and made the 1959RR to those exact specifications, right down to the special high-gain modification Rhoads specifically requested when he visited the Marshall factory in 1980.<ref>Premier Guitar [http://www.premierguitar.com/Magazine/Issue/Daily/News/NAMM_VIDEO_Marshalls_New_Randy_Rhoads_Amp.aspx Marshall's New Randy Rhoads Amp] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>

Jackson Guitars released an exact replica of Rhoads' original white "shortwing" V. His original guitar was handled, photographed, and measured extensively by Jackson's luthiers to produce the most precise replica possible. The guitar comes with black gaffer's tape covering the top wing and the back of the guitar, just like Rhoads'. Only 60 of the guitars were manufactured, each with the symbolic price tag of $12,619.56, which is Rhoads' birthday.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=133840 |title=Jackson Representative Talks To Premier Guitar About Randy Rhoads Tribute Axe - Blabbermouth.net |publisher=Roadrunnerrecords.com |date=January 21, 2010 |access-date=July 23, 2014}}</ref> In 2010, [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson Guitars]] announced a new custom shop signature guitar modeled after Rhoads' 1974 Les Paul Custom.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gibson.com/en-us/Lifestyle/News/randy-rhoads-0823/ |title=Breaking News: Gibson to Reproduce Classic Randy Rhoads Les Paul |publisher=Gibson.com |date=August 23, 2010 |access-date=July 5, 2012}}</ref> In April 2011, author [[Joel McIver]] announced the publication of the first fully comprehensive Rhoads biography, ''Crazy Train: The High Life and Tragic Death of Randy Rhoads'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=147006|title=New RANDY RHOADS, MOTÖRHEAD Biographies To Arrive in the Spring|publisher=BlabberMouth}}</ref> with a foreword written by [[Zakk Wylde]] and an afterword by [[Yngwie Malmsteen]]. In June 2012, Velocity Publishing Group announced a comprehensive Rhoads biography, written by Steven Rosen and Andrew Klein, and containing over 400 pages of material.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://velocitybooks.org|title=Randy Rhoads Biography|publisher=Velocity Books}}</ref>

May 31, 2011, marked the 30th anniversary and remaster-release of ''Blizzard of Ozz'' and ''Diary of a Madman''. Both albums were remastered and restored to their original state with Bob Daisley's bass and Lee Kerslake's drums intact. ''Blizzard'' has three bonus tracks: "You, Looking at Me, Looking at You", "Goodbye to Romance" (2010 Vocal & Guitar Mix), and "RR" (Randy Rhoads in-studio guitar solo). Originally, ''Diary'' was to include long fade-out versions of "You Can't Kill Rock and Roll", "Tonight", and "Diary of a Madman" (2010 Re-mix version), but they were not included in the re-issue. The Legacy version of ''Diary of a Madman'' includes a second CD called ''Ozzy Live'', a live album pulled together from multiple performances on the 1981 Blizzard of Ozz tour.<ref name="Churko">{{cite web |author=Ward, Marshall |date=March 2012 |title=Randy Rhoads: 30 Years Later His Music Lives On |url=http://www.rockcellarmagazine.com/2012/03/19/randy-rhoads/ |publisher=rockcellarmagazine.com |access-date=May 28, 2013}}</ref> This performance features the same line-up as the ''Tribute'' album. Also included exclusively in the special box set are the 180-gram vinyl versions of the original albums, a 100-page coffee table book and the DVD ''Thirty Years After the Blizzard'', which includes unreleased Rhoads video footage.

Producer [[Kevin Churko]], who mixed the 2010 ''Ozzy Live'' CD, has stated that [[Epic Records]] has "a lot more in the vault" for future releases of Rhoads' material with Osbourne, as many of the band's live performances from that era were recorded.<ref name="Churko" />

On January 18, 2017, Rhoads was inducted into the Hall of Heavy Metal History for defining heavy metal lead guitar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/scorpions-metal-blade-records-nominated-to-hall-of-heavy-metal-history-w457434|title=Scorpions Among Nominees for Hall of Heavy Metal History|first=Althea|last=Legaspi|date=December 22, 2016|work=Rolling Stone}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Rhoads' older brother Kelle is also a musician while older sister Kathy operates a [[vineyard]].<ref name="gibson" />

Rhoads was an avid collector of [[toy train]]s, and traveled around England in search of them when he first arrived from the United States to record ''Blizzard of Ozz'' in 1980.<ref name="IAmOzzy" />

Though their relationship was largely a professional one, Rhoads had a brief sexual relationship with manager [[Sharon Osbourne|Sharon Arden]] in 1981. Rhoads told bandmate and close friend Rudy Sarzo that he and Arden were having a few celebratory drinks together in a hotel one night and ended up sleeping together. At the time, Ozzy Osbourne was trying to save his marriage to first wife Thelma, and Sharon was just his manager.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" />

Osbourne has said that Rhoads did not use drugs and drank very little, preferring [[Anisette]] when he did drink. Osbourne says that while Rhoads did not like to party, he made up for it by [[Cigarettes|smoking]] heavily, saying "He could have won a gold medal in the Lung Cancer Olympics, could Randy Rhoads."<ref name="IAmOzzy" />

According to his brother Kelle, Rhoads was a "fairly devout" [[Lutheran]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3aoCAifNZ9g|title=KELLE RHOADS RADIO INTERVIEW (5 of 5) - RANDY RHOADS & OZZY OSBOURNE|publisher=YouTube|date=|accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref>

Rhoads' mother Delores Rhoads died on November 11, 2015 at the age of 95.<ref>{{cite web|title=DELORES RHOADS, Mother Of RANDY RHOADS, Dies At 95|url=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/delores-rhoads-mother-of-randy-rhoads-dies-at-95/|publisher=[[Blabbermouth.net]]|date=November 11, 2015|accessdate=November 12, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Delores Rhoads, Mother of Randy Rhoads, Dies|url=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/delores-rhoads-r-i-p/|publisher=Ultimate Classic Rock|date=November 11, 2015|accessdate=November 12, 2015}}</ref>

==Musicianship and influence==
[[Rolling Stone|''Rolling Stone'' Magazine]] lists Rhoads as one of the greatest guitarists of all time.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-guitarists-of-all-time-19691231/randy-rhoads-19691231 |title=100 Greatest Guitarists: David Fricke's Picks: Randy Rhoads |work=Rolling Stone |access-date=July 5, 2012}}</ref> Rhoads has been on the covers of many guitar magazines and has influenced many guitar players, including [[Dimebag Darrell]],<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.musicradar.com/news/guitars/classic-guitar-interview-dimebag-darrell-july-1994-534866/ |title=Classic guitar interview: Dimebag Darrell, July 1994|author= |publisher=MusicRadar.com |date=March 16, 2012}}</ref> [[John Petrucci]],<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.alloutguitar.com/interviews/john-petrucci-interview-systematic-precision |title=John Petrucci Interview - Systematic Precision|author= Mike Blackburn |publisher=AllOutGuitar.com |date=May 19, 2007}}</ref> [[Zakk Wylde]],<ref name="Zakk">{{cite web
|title = The Man, The Myth, The Metal: Gibson Interviews Zakk Wylde
|publisher = Gibson.com
|url = http://www.gibson.com/en-us/Lifestyle/Features/ZakkWylde/
|access-date = November 10, 2008
|deadurl = yes
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081202040909/http://www.gibson.com/en-us/Lifestyle/Features/ZakkWylde/
|archivedate = December 2, 2008
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref> [[Michael Romeo]],<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.alloutguitar.com/interviews/michael-romeo-interview-%E2%80%93-perfect-symphony-part-one-1970s-2000 |title=Michael Romeo Interview – A Perfect Symphony Part One: 1970's to 2000 |author= Owen Edwards |publisher=AllOutGuitar.com |date=April 3, 2008}}</ref> [[Alexi Laiho]],<ref>FourteenG [http://www.fourteeng.net/alexilaiho.html Alexi Laiho interview] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514032638/http://www.fourteeng.net/alexilaiho.html |date=May 14, 2008 }} Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref> [[Mick Thomson]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fischer|first=Peter|title=Masters of Rock Guitar 2: The New Generation|publisher=Mel Bay|year=2006|page=88|isbn=978-3-89922-078-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VRDRKvQZBbUC&pg=PA88}}</ref> [[Paul Gilbert]]<ref>Metal-Rules [http://www.metal-rules.com/interviews/paulgilbert-May2004.htm Interview With Paul Gilbert] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref> [[Buckethead]],<ref>MTV [http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1458813/20021121/guns_n_roses.jhtml Beneath The Bucket, Behind The Mask: Kurt Loder Meets GN'R's Buckethead] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref> and [[Mike McCready]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ryancaldarone.com/playwithmeblog/artist-series-mike-mccready/3032015|title=Ryan Caldarone - PocketWriter.biz|website=Ryan Caldarone}}</ref>
Rhoads' talent was not always met with such praise during his lifetime. [[J. D. Considine]] of ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' was critical of his playing, referring to Rhoads in his review of ''Diary Of A Madman'' as "a junior-league [[Eddie Van Halen]] – bustling with chops but somewhat short on imagination".<ref name="RS">{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/artists/ozzyosbourne/albums/album/192271/review/6211330/diary_of_a_madman|title=Album review ''Diary of a Madman''|last=Considine|first=J.D.|authorlink=J.D. Considine|date=February 4, 1982|work=[[Rolling Stone]]|publisher=[[Jann Wenner|Wenner Media]]|access-date=August 29, 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205085458/http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/ozzyosbourne/albums/album/192271/review/6211330/diary_of_a_madman|archivedate=February 5, 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref>

Rhoads was influenced by [[the Beatles]] and [[the Rolling Stones]] as a child and would imitate their performances with his brother Kelle in the family garage.<ref name="gibson" /> His biggest influences as a guitarist were [[Leslie West]], [[Ritchie Blackmore]], [[Michael Schenker]], [[Gary Moore]], [[Charlie Christian]], and [[John Williams (guitarist)|John Williams]].<ref name="IAmOzzy" /><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www2.gibson.com/News-Lifestyle/Features/en-us/interview-with-randy-rhoads-biographer-1024-2012.aspx |title=Interview with Randy Rhoads' Biographer |author= Russell Hall |publisher=Gibson.com |date=October 24, 2012}}</ref>

Shortly before leaving Quiet Riot in 1979, Rhoads presented hand-drawn pictures of a polka-dot [[Flying V]]-style guitar to [[Karl Sandoval]], a California [[luthier]]. The guitar Sandoval built for Rhoads became one of the guitarist's trademark instruments.<ref name="csun" />

==Equipment==
Rhoads used a relatively simple setup, with a small number of guitars, effects and favored amplifiers. He preferred .009 gauge on ''Blizzard of Ozz'' and .010 gauge strings on ''Diary of a Madman'' <ref name="gress">{{Cite journal|last=Gress|first=Jesse|date=May 2009|title=10 Things You Gotta Do to Play Like Randy Rhoads|journal=[[Guitar Player]]|volume=43|issue=5|pages=98–105}}</ref>

===Guitars===
*Gibson '74' Alpine White [[Les Paul Custom]]
*[[Karl Sandoval]] "Polka Dot" V
*[[Jackson Rhoads]] White "Prototype" Concorde
*Jackson Black Rhoads w/ Fixed Bridge
*1950s [[Gibson Les Paul]] Black Beauty (used for photographs only)
*[[Fender Stratocaster]]

===Strings===
*GHS Boomers, .009-.042 (Blizzard); .010-.046 (Diary)

===Effects===
*Dunlop Crybaby Wah<ref name="shop">{{Cite book|last=Hurwitz|first=Tobias|title=Guitar Shop – Getting Your Sound: Handy Guide|publisher=Alfred Publishing|year=1999|page=46|isbn=978-0-88284-956-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OjSsW1wizrYC&pg=PA46|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref>
* [[Roland Corporation|Roland]]:
**RE-201 'Space Echo'
**Volume Foot Pedal
*[[Korg]] echo<ref name="shop"/>
* [[MXR]]:
**Distortion +<ref name="shop"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Prown|first=Pete|author2=Lisa Sharken |title=Gear Secrets of the Guitar Legends: How to Sound Like Your Favorite Players|publisher=Hal Leonard Corporation|year=2003|isbn=978-0-87930-751-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vqQjuzPrqIwC&pg=PA80|page=80}}</ref>
**10 Band EQ <ref name="shop"/>
**Flanger <ref name="shop"/>
**Stereo Chorus <ref name="shop"/>

===Guitar rig and signal flow===
* A detailed gear diagram of Randy Rhoads' guitar rig for Ozzy's 1981 "Diary of a Madman" Tour is well-documented.<ref>[http://www.guitareuromedia.com/gallery/randy-rhoads-guitar-gear-rig-ozzy-osbourne-1981/ Randy Rhoads Guitar Gear & Rig - Ozzy Osbourne - 1981]. guitareuromedia.com. June 1, 2018.</ref>

===Pickups===
*Dimarzio Super Distortion/PAF On Karl Sandoval's Flying V.
*Stock pickups on 1974 Gibson Les Paul Custom.
*Seymour Duncan Distortion/Jazz Model on Jacksons.

==Awards and honors==
*Voted "Best New Talent" by the readers of ''Guitar Player'' magazine in December 1981
*Voted "Best Heavy Metal Guitarist" by the readers of UK-based ''Sounds'' magazine in December 1981
* Placed 36th on ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' Magazine's 100 Greatest Guitarists.<ref>Rolling Stone [https://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-guitarists-of-all-time-19691231/randy-rhoads-19691231/ The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>
* Placed 4th on ''Guitar World'' Magazine's 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/Blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=18446 |title=Guitar World's 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists Of All Time - Blabbermouth.net |publisher=Roadrunnerrecords.com |date=January 23, 2004 |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref>
* "Crazy Train" and "Mr. Crowley" placed 9th and 28th respectively on ''Guitar World''{{'}}s 100 Greatest Guitar Solos readers poll.<ref>About.com: Guitar [http://guitar.about.com/library/bl100greatest.htm 100 Greatest Guitar Solos] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>
* Named 26 in ''Guitar World''{{'}}s 50 Fastest Guitarists list.<ref>deviantART [http://forum.deviantart.com/entertainment/music/1092964/ Guitar World's 50 Fastest Guitarists of All Time] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>
* "Crazy Train" placed 51 in ''Rolling Stone''{{'}}s "100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time" list.<ref>Rolling Stone [https://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/20947527/the_100_greatest_guitar_songs_of_all_time/print The 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>

==Discography==

===With Quiet Riot===
{{Main|Quiet Riot}}
* ''[[Quiet Riot (1977 album)|Quiet Riot]]'' (1977)
* ''[[Quiet Riot II]]'' (1978)
* ''[[The Randy Rhoads Years]]'' (1993)

===With Ozzy Osbourne===
{{Main|Ozzy Osbourne discography}}
* ''[[Blizzard of Ozz]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Mr Crowley Live EP]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Diary of a Madman (album)|Diary of a Madman]]'' (1981)
* ''[[Tribute (Ozzy Osbourne album)|Tribute]]'' (1987)
* ''[[Diary of a Madman (album)#'Ozzy Live' 180g vinyl|Ozzy Live]]'' (2011)

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|randyrhoads.us}}
* [https://www.facebook.com/randyrhoads.society Randy Rhoads Society]
* [http://www.randyrhoads.info Diary of an Axeman]
* {{FAG|2149}}

{{Ozzy Osbourne}}
{{Quiet Riot}}
{{Jackson Guitars}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rhoads, Randy}}
[[Category:Randy Rhoads| ]]
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:1982 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American musicians]]
[[Category:Accidental deaths in Florida]]
[[Category:American Lutherans]]
[[Category:American heavy metal guitarists]]
[[Category:Burials in California]]
[[Category:Lead guitarists]]
[[Category:The Ozzy Osbourne Band members]]
[[Category:Quiet Riot members]]
[[Category:Musicians from Burbank, California]]
[[Category:Musicians from Santa Monica, California]]
[[Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the United States]]
[[Category:Guitarists from California]]
[[Category:20th-century American guitarists]]

Randy Rhoads

2018-10-18T16:38:40Z

66.172.182.2:

{{About|the guitarist|the guitar model|Jackson Rhoads|the radio talk show host|Randi Rhodes}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox musical artist 
| name = Randy Rhoads
| image = Randy Rhoads (1980).jpg
| caption = Rhoads performing on stage in 1980
| background = non_vocal_instrumentalist
| alias =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1956|12|6|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Santa Monica, California]], United States
| death_date = {{death date and age|1982|3|19|1956|12|6}}
| death_place = [[Leesburg, Florida]], United States
| instrument = {{hlist|Guitar}}
| genre = {{hlist|[[Heavy metal music|Heavy metal]]|[[hard rock]]|{{Nowrap|[[neoclassical metal]]}}}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Musician|songwriter|producer|[[Music education|music teacher]]}}
| years_active = 1972–1982
| label = {{hlist|[[Epic Records|Epic]]|[[CBS Sony]]|[[Jet Records|Jet]]}}
| associated_acts = {{hlist|[[Ozzy Osbourne]]|[[Quiet Riot]]}}
| website = {{URL|randyrhoads.us}}
}}

'''Randall William Rhoads''' (December 69, 1956 – March 19, 1982)<ref>{{cite book|last=Nick Talevski|first=|title=Rock Obituaries - Knocking On Heaven's Door|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DykffzkFALoC&pg=PA545|year=2006|publisher=Omnibus Press.}}</ref> was an American [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] guitarist who played with [[Quiet Riot]] and [[Ozzy Osbourne]]. A devoted student of classical guitar, Rhoads combined his classical music influences with his own heavy metal style. He died in a [[Aviation accidents and incidents|plane accident]] while on tour with Osbourne in [[Florida]] in 1982. Despite his short career, Rhoads, who was a major influence on [[neoclassical metal]], is cited as an influence by many guitarists. Rhoads is included in several "Greatest Guitarist" lists.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/5937559/the_100_greatest_guitarists_of_all_time/ |title=100 Greatest Guitarists: David Fricke's Picks |work=Rolling Stone |accessdate=July 5, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/Blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=18446|title=GUITAR WORLD's 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists Of All Time|publisher=BlabberMouth}}</ref>

==Biography==
he was a raging anti semite and homophodbe and he loved little boys
===Early life===
Rhoads was born in [[Santa Monica, California]]. The youngest of three children, he had a brother named Doug and a sister named Kathy. Doug, who performed under the name "Kelle", is also a musician. Their parents, Delores and William, were both music teachers. In 1958, father William left the family when Randy was 1 year and 5 months old<ref name="csun">{{cite web |author=California State University, Northridge |title=Randy Rhoads: Beginnings |url=http://library.csun.edu/SCA/OnlineExhibits/rhoadsbeginnings |publisher=csun.edu |accessdate=September 28, 2013}}</ref> and remarried, and all three children were subsequently raised by Delores, who also opened a music school in [[North Hollywood]] called Musonia to support the family.<ref name="ozzyhead">{{cite web |author=Perry, Randy |title=Randy Rhoads Biography/Timeline |url=http://www.ozzyhead.com/randbio.htm |publisher=ozzyhead.com |accessdate=May 27, 2013}}</ref> Delores had received a [[bachelor's degree]] in music from [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] and had played [[piano]] professionally.<ref name="csun" />

The Rhoads family did not own a stereo and the children created their own music at home to entertain themselves.<ref name="gibson">{{cite web |author=Wright, Michael |date=April 6, 2009 |title=The Gibson Interview: The Randy Rhoads Family |url=http://www2.gibson.com/News-Lifestyle/Features/en-us/randy-rhoads-family-1011.aspx |publisher=gibson.com |accessdate=May 25, 2013}}</ref> Rhoads began taking [[folk music|folk]] and [[classical guitar|classical]] guitar lessons at approximately age 7 at his mother's music school.<ref name="csun" /> He soon became interested in electric guitar and began taking lessons at Musonia from an instructor named Scott Shelly. Shelly soon approached Delores to inform her that he could no longer teach her son, as Rhoads' knowledge of the electric guitar had exceeded his own.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> Rhoads also received piano lessons from his mother to build his understanding of music theory.<ref name="csun" />

Rhoads met future bandmate [[Kelly Garni]] while attending [[John Muir Middle School (Burbank, California)|John Muir Middle School]]<ref name="csun" /> and the two became best friends.<ref name="Garni_talks">{{Cite news |author=Parks, John |date=July 19, 2012 |title=Quiet Riot original bassist and co-founder Kelly Garni talks Randy, Kevin and his new book with LRI |url=http://www.legendaryrockinterviews.com/2012/07/19/legendary-rock-interview-with-original-quiet-riot-bassist-and-author-kelly-garni-part-one/ |publisher=Legendaryrockinterviews.com |accessdate=May 28, 2013}}</ref> According to Garni, the pair were unpopular due to "the way we looked". "Every time we showed up for school it was usually problematic so we pretty much avoided it. We weren't nerds, we weren't jocks, we weren't dopers, we were just on our own".<ref name="Garni_talks" /> Rhoads taught Garni how to play bass guitar, and together they formed a band called "The Whore", rehearsing during the day at [[Rodney Bingenheimer's English Disco]], a 1970s Hollywood nightspot. It was during this period that Rhoads learned to play lead guitar. "When I met him he didn't know how to play lead guitar yet at all. He was just starting to take lessons for it and really just riffing around", said Garni.<ref name="Garni_talks" /> With this band, Rhoads spent several months playing at backyard parties around the Los Angeles area in the mid-1970s.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> The pair formed a cover band called Violet Fox (after his mother's middle name, Violet),<ref name="ozzyhead" /> with his older brother Kelle on drums. Violet Fox, who were together for approximately five months, staged several performances in the Grand Salon at Musonia. Among their setlist was "[[Mississippi Queen]]" by [[Mountain (band)|Mountain]], and songs from [[the Rolling Stones]], [[Alice Cooper]] and [[David Bowie]]. After Violet Fox dissolved, Rhoads formed various other short-lived bands such as The Katzenjammer Kids and Mildred Pierce.<ref name="ozzyhead" />

Rhoads' brother states that a July 11, 1971 [[Alice Cooper]] concert at the Long Beach Auditorium that the pair attended was a defining point in the guitarist's life. After the concert was over Kelle said "Randy was mesmerized. He was catatonic just staring at the stage. Later that night Randy said "I can do this. I can look like this. I can be this." Something clicked that night and I think that kind of showed him what he could do with his talent."<ref name="csun" /> [[Glen Buxton]] of Alice Cooper and [[Mick Ronson]] were two early rock influences on his playing.<ref name="csun" />

===Quiet Riot===
At age 16, Rhoads and Garni formed the band ''Little Women''. At approximately the same time, Rhoads began teaching guitar in his mother's school during the day and playing live gigs at night. He graduated from [[Burbank High School (Burbank, California)|Burbank High School]], participating in a special program that allowed him to condense his studies and graduate early so he could teach guitar and pursue music full-time.<ref name="csun" /> Recruiting lead vocalist [[Kevin DuBrow]] and drummer [[Drew Forsyth (musician)|Drew Forsyth]], the band soon changed its name to [[Quiet Riot]]. Forsyth had periodically played with Rhoads and Garni in the past.

Quiet Riot quickly became one of the most popular acts on the Los Angeles club circuit, and by late 1976 were signed to [[Sony Music Entertainment Japan|CBS/Sony Records]]. Rhoads' "polka-dot theme" became the visual focal point of the band, as many fans began showing up at Quiet Riot shows wearing polka-dot [[bow-tie]]s and vests, emulating what the guitarist wore on stage.<ref name="csun" />

While the band had a strong following in Los Angeles, ''[[Quiet Riot (1977 album)|Quiet Riot]]'' and ''[[Quiet Riot II]]'' were released only in [[Japan]].<ref name="ozzyhead" />

===Ozzy Osbourne===
In 1979, ex-[[Black Sabbath]] vocalist [[Ozzy Osbourne]] was in Los Angeles, attempting to form a new band. An acquaintance of Rhoads' from the LA club circuit, future [[Slaughter (band)|Slaughter]] bassist [[Dana Strum]], phoned Rhoads relentlessly to coax him into auditioning. Rhoads initially told Quiet Riot bandmate [[Rudy Sarzo]] that he wasn't really interested in auditioning, but finally agreed to go simply to get Strum off his back.<ref name="SarzoMemoir">Sarzo, Rudy (2017). Off the Rails (third edition). CreateSpace Publishing. {{ISBN|1-53743-746-1}}</ref> Rhoads got the call for the audition just before his final show with Quiet Riot in September 1979.<ref name="csun" /> The day before Osbourne was scheduled to return to England, Rhoads agreed to audition for Osbourne at a Los Angeles studio with his [[Gibson Les Paul]] guitar and a practice [[guitar amplifier|amp]] and started warming up. Osbourne, who was very inebriated on that day, said of the audition "He played this fucking solo and I'm like, am I that fucking stoned or am I hallucinating or what the fuck is this?!" Osbourne immediately gave him the job. Rhoads recalled later, "I just tuned up and did some riffs, and he said, 'You've got the gig'; I had the weirdest feeling, because I thought, 'You didn't even hear me yet'". After the audition, Rhoads returned to Musonia and told Sarzo that he had never actually met Osbourne; Osbourne was drunk and had stayed in the studio's control room the entire time, and it was Strum in fact who had informed Rhoads that he had the job. He was, however, scheduled to meet Osbourne the following night in his hotel room.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> Rhoads, Osbourne, Strum, and drummer [[Frankie Banali]] subsequently spent a couple of days jamming together before Osbourne returned to England.<ref name="bwbk">{{cite web |author=Lambert, Cory |title=Bass Legend Bob Daisley Talks About The BLIZZARD OF OZZ, His Battle With THE OSBOURNES And More Diaries Of A Madman! |url=http://www.bravewords.com/features/1000971 |publisher=Brave Words & Bloody Knuckles |accessdate=March 25, 2014}}</ref> Disillusioned with Quiet Riot's inability to land an American recording deal, Rhoads discussed with his mother Delores the possibility of joining an already established band. When she asked him if he would accept "an offer like this one", the guitarist replied "Of course!"<ref name="csun" />

Upon returning to England, Osbourne was introduced to ex-[[Rainbow (rock band)|Rainbow]] bassist [[Bob Daisley]] by a [[Jet Records]] employee named Arthur Sharpe<ref name="bwbk" /> in a pub, and the pair hit it off and decided to work together.<ref name="daisley">{{cite web |author=Daisley, Robert |title=Bob Daisley's History With The Osbournes |url=http://www.bobdaisley.com/interview/website |publisher=bobdaisley.com |accessdate=May 27, 2013}}</ref> Unhappy with the guitarist they were initially working with,<ref name="bwbk" /> Osbourne mentioned to Daisley that he had recently met a talented young guitarist in Los Angeles by the name of Randy Rhoads.<ref name="daisley" /> The new group's management intended to keep the lineup all-British and was reluctant to hire an unknown American guitarist, but manager Don Arden eventually relented.<ref name="bwbk" /> Rhoads flew to England only to return home a couple of days later, being turned away by English customs at [[Heathrow Airport]] when he didn't have the necessary work permit. A representative from [[Jet Records]] was dispatched to clear the matter up but he never arrived, and Rhoads spent the night in a holding cell before being handcuffed and put on a plane back to the United States the next day. Osbourne subsequently called him to apologize, and arrangements were made for Rhoads to return to England with the proper paperwork.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> Rhoads flew to England on November 27, 1979,<ref name="daisley" /> and met with Osbourne and Daisley at the Jet Records' offices in [[London]]. The trio traveled by train to Osbourne's home,<ref name="bwbk" /> Bulrush Cottage, which also housed a rehearsal space. It was here that Rhoads lived with Osbourne, his then-wife Thelma, and their two children, during his first weeks in England.<ref name="IAmOzzy" /> Years later, Osbourne said in his [[autobiography]] that he could not understand why a musician as talented as Rhoads would want to get involved with a "bloated alcoholic wreck" like himself.<ref name="IAmOzzy">{{Cite book |author=Osbourne, Ozzy |year=2011 |title=I Am Ozzy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yNzCgAEkW8cC&pg=PT134 |publisher=I Am Ozzy |page=134 |accessdate=May 24, 2013}}</ref>

After a short search, drummer [[Lee Kerslake]] completed the new band, then known as The Blizzard of Ozz.<ref name="daisley" /> The group headed into the studio to record their debut album, titled ''[[Blizzard of Ozz]]''. Rhoads's guitar playing had changed due to the level of freedom allowed by Osbourne and Daisley and he was encouraged to play what he wanted. His work with Quiet Riot had been criticized as being "dull" and did not rely on classical scales or arrangements.<ref>All Music [{{Allmusic|class=album|id=r375893|pure_url=yes}} Quiet Riot 1977] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref> Propelled by Rhoads's neo-classical guitar work, the album proved an instant hit with rock fans, particularly in the USA. They released two singles from the album: "[[Mr. Crowley]]" and the hit "[[Crazy Train]]". Osbourne said years later, "One day Randy came to me and said that most heavy metal songs are written in an A to E chord structure. He said, 'Let's try to change that' ...so we made a rule that almost every number that we recorded on an album was never played in the same key."<ref name="csun" />
[[File:Randy Rhoads playing with the Blizzard of Oz.jpg|thumb|Rhoads playing live with Osbourne's band in September 1981]]
Following a UK tour the band recorded another album, ''[[Diary of a Madman (album)|Diary of a Madman]]''. During a break before leaving for their first US tour, both Kerslake and Daisley were suddenly fired by [[Sharon Osbourne|Sharon Arden]], the band's manager and Osbourne's future wife. For the US tour, ex-[[Black Oak Arkansas]] drummer [[Tommy Aldridge]] and bassist [[Rudy Sarzo]] - who had been Rhoads' bandmate in Quiet Riot - were hired. ''Diary of a Madman'' was released soon after in October 1981, and since Kerslake and Daisley were already out of the band, Aldridge and Sarzo's names and photos appeared on the album sleeve. Disputes over royalties performance and other intellectual property rights became a source of future court battles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=144056 |title=Daisley, Kerslake court battles |publisher=Roadrunnerrecords.com |accessdate=July 5, 2012}}</ref> Kerslake has maintained that Rhoads almost left Osbourne's band in late 1981 due to his displeasure with the firing of Kerslake and Daisley. "He didn't want to go (on tour with Osbourne). We told him we were thrown out. He said he was going to leave the band as he did not want to leave us behind. I told him not to be stupid but thanks for the sentiment," the drummer later recalled.<ref>{{cite web|author=bravewords.com |url=http://www.bravewords.com/news/166075 |title=Legendary OZZY OSBOURNE Drummer Lee Kerslake Talks About Blizzard/Diary Reissues, Randy Rhoads, The "Evil And Nasty" Sharon Osbourne |publisher=Bravewords.com |date=July 25, 2011 |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref>

Around this time, Rhoads remarked to Osbourne, bandmates Aldridge and Sarzo, and friend Kelly Garni that he was considering leaving rock for a few years to earn a degree in classical guitar at UCLA. In the 1991 [[documentary film]] ''Don't Blame Me'', Osbourne confirmed Rhoads' desire to earn the degree and stated that had he lived, he did not believe Rhoads would have stayed in his band. Friend and ex-Quiet Riot bassist Garni has speculated in interviews that if Rhoads had continued to play rock, he might have gone the route of more keyboard-driven rock, which had become popular through the 1980s. It was at this time that Rhoads was beginning to receive recognition for his playing. Just before his death [[Jackson Guitars]] created a signature model, the [[Jackson Randy Rhoads]] (though Rhoads had originally called his white pinstriped V "the Concorde"). Rhoads received one prototype—a black offset V hardtail that is the base for today's RR line of Jackson guitars—but died before the guitar went into production. Rhoads also received the Best New Talent award from ''[[Guitar Player]]'' magazine. While on tour with Osbourne, Rhoads would seek out classical guitar tutors for lessons whenever possible.

At the time of his death, Rhoads had already made the decision to part ways with Osbourne once his contractual obligations had been fulfilled. Though he had a good relationship with Osbourne, the vocalist's constant drug and alcohol abuse made day-to-day life on tour difficult for the members of his band. As the ''Diary of a Madman'' US tour progressed, Osbourne would often refuse to perform due to the lingering after-effects of the previous night's excesses, and only Sharon could talk him into taking the stage. Many shows were simply canceled, and Rhoads grew tired of the unpredictability. The final straw came when a plan was announced in February 1982 by Osbourne's management and record label to record a live album of [[Black Sabbath]] songs at Toronto's [[Maple Leaf Gardens]] later that year. He and bandmate [[Tommy Aldridge]] felt that they had established themselves as recording artists, and they regarded an album of cover songs to be a step backwards artistically and professionally. Thus, they refused to participate in the planned live recording. Osbourne viewed this decision as a betrayal, and the relationship between he and Rhoads became quite strained. Already drinking heavily, Osbourne's drinking increased and began to tear the band apart. At one point he drunkenly fired the entire band, including Rhoads, though he later had no memory of doing so. He began taunting Rhoads with claims that the likes of [[Frank Zappa]] and [[Gary Moore]] were willing to replace him on the proposed live album. Osbourne's unstable and confrontational behavior soon convinced Rhoads to leave the band. He grudgingly agreed to perform on the live album with the stipulation that he would depart after fulfilling his contractual obligations to Jet Records, which consisted of one more studio album and subsequent tour. The proposed live album was scrapped upon the guitarist's sudden death weeks later, though the plan was quickly resurrected with the release of ''[[Speak of the Devil (Ozzy Osbourne album)|Speak of the Devil]]'' in November of that year.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" />

==Death==
[[File:1957 Bonanza H35 N5589D.jpg|thumb|right|250px|<center>A 1957 [[Beechcraft Bonanza]] Model H35, very similar to the 1955 model in which Rhoads died.</center>]]
Rhoads played his last show on Thursday, March 18, 1982, at the [[Knoxville Civic Coliseum]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Mitch Van Beekum |url=http://www.ozzyhead.com/randbio.htm |title=Randy Rhoads Biography/Timeline |publisher=Ozzyhead.com |date= |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.gibson.com/News-Lifestyle/Features/en-us/spotlight-0319-2011.aspx |title=This Day in Music Spotlight: The Final Flight of Randy Rhoads |publisher=.gibson.com |date= |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref> The next day, the band was heading to a festival in Orlando, Florida. Osbourne recalls his final conversation with Rhoads that night on the bus involved the guitarist admonishing him over his heavy drinking.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> The last thing Rhoads said to him that night was, "You'll kill yourself, you know? One of these days."<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> After driving much of the night, they stopped in [[Leesburg, Florida]], to fix a malfunctioning [[air conditioning]] unit on the bus while Osbourne remained asleep.<ref name="osbourneautobiography">{{cite book |last=Osbourne |first=Ozzy |title=I Am Ozzy |year=2011 |publisher=Grand Central Publishing |isbn=978-0446569903}}</ref> On the property there was an airstrip with small helicopters and planes. Without permission, tour bus driver and private pilot Andrew Aycock took a single-engine Beechcraft F35 plane registered to a Mike Partin.<ref name="NTSB PC Brief">{{cite journal|last1=National Transportation Safety Board|title=NTSB ID: MIA82FA078|journal=Probable Cause, Brief of Accident|date=19 March 1983|url=http://ntsb.gov/_layouts/ntsb.aviation/GeneratePDF.aspx?id=MIA82FA078&rpt=fi|accessdate=24 October 2016}}</ref><ref name="ntsb_report">{{cite web |date=March 19, 1982 |title=Aircraft Incident/Accident Report;Leesburg, Florida 32748 Friday, March 19, 1982 10:00 EST |url=http://www.aircraftone.com/aircraft/accidents/20020917X02406.asp |publisher=[[NTSB]] |accessdate=July 31, 2013}}</ref> On the first flight, Aycock took keyboardist [[Don Airey]] and tour manager Jake Duncan.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> He then landed and a second flight took to the air with Rhoads and makeup artist Rachel Youngblood aboard. Rhoads had tried unsuccessfully to coax bassist Rudy Sarzo to join him on the flight, but Sarzo chose to get some extra sleep instead.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> During the second flight, attempts were made to 'buzz' the tour bus.<ref name="NTSB PC Brief" /> Aycock succeeded in making two close passes, but botched the third attempt. At approximately 10 am, after being in the air for approximately five minutes,<ref name="ntsb_report" /> one of the plane's wings clipped the top of the tour bus, breaking the wing into two parts and sending the plane spiraling out of control.<ref name="sharonbiography">{{Cite news |author=Osbourne, Sharon |title=Sharon Osbourne Extreme: My Autobiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F1otWOKcZ8MC&pg=PT118 |publisher=Little Brown |accessdate=May 24, 2013}}</ref> The initial impact with the bus caused Rhoads' and Youngblood's heads to crash through the plane's windshield.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> The plane then severed the top of a pine tree and crashed into the garage of a nearby mansion, bursting into flames.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> Keyboardist Don Airey was the only member of the band to witness the crash, because the rest were asleep in the bus.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> Rhoads was killed instantly, as were Aycock (36) and Youngblood (58). All three bodies were burned beyond recognition, and Rhoads was identified by dental records and personal jewelry. According to Sharon Osbourne, who was asleep in the bus and awoken by the crash, "They were all in bits, it was just body parts everywhere".<ref name="sharonbiography" /> Though all were quite distraught, the remaining band and crew members were forced to remain in Leesburg for an additional two days,<ref name="ozzyhead" /> until preliminary investigations were completed.<ref name="sharonbiography" /> Rhoads' brother-in-law flew from California to Leesburg to identify what remained of the guitarist's body.<ref name="sharonbiography" /> Ozzy Osbourne's official statement to crash investigators was:

{{quote|At approximately 9:00 a.m. on Friday, March 19, 1982, I was awoken from my sleep by a loud explosion. I immediately thought that we'd hit a vehicle on the road. I got out of the bed, screaming to my fiancée, Sharon, 'Get off the bus.' Meanwhile, she was screaming to everyone else to get off the bus. After getting out of the bus, I saw that a plane had crashed. I didn't know who was on the plane at the time. When we realized that our people were on the plane, I found it very difficult to get assistance from anyone to help. In fact, it took almost a half-hour before anyone arrived. One small fire engine arrived, which appeared to squirt three gallons of water over the inferno. We asked for further assistance, such as telephones, and didn't receive any further help. In the end, we finally found a telephone and Sharon phoned her father.<ref>{{cite web
| url =http://www2.gibson.com/News-Lifestyle/Features/en-us/spotlight-0319-2011.aspx
| title =This Day in Music Spotlight: The Final Flight of Randy Rhoads
| accessdate=2015-04-04
| date =2011-03-19
| publisher =gibson.com }}</ref>}}

The band was scheduled to perform at an outdoor festival called [[Rock Super Bowl|Rock Super Bowl XIV]] later that day in [[Orlando]]. Though the event was not canceled, promoters offered refunds to all ticket holders.<ref name="ozzyhead" />

Bob Daisley and Lee Kerslake, who had recorded ''Blizzard of Ozz'' and ''Diary of a Madman'' with Rhoads and had been recently fired from Osbourne's band, were together in [[Houston]], [[Texas]] with [[Uriah Heep (band)|Uriah Heep]] when they heard news of the accident. Kerslake recalled in 2002:

{{quote|I was already sitting at the bar when Bob Daisley came into the bar. I turned and looked at Bob and said, 'Fuck, you have gone all white. What is wrong?' Bob said, 'Lee, there was a plane crash this morning and Randy was in it... and he is dead.' That was it. Oh God, to hear that - I just turned and cried my eyes out. Bob and me were crying our eyes out over him, cause we loved him. He was such a lovely guy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bobdaisley.com/interview/fuse-lee-kerslake |title=The Fuze interviews Lee Kerslake |publisher=Bob Daisley |date=March 19, 1982 |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref>}}
[[File:Tumba de Randy Rhoads.jpg|thumb|right|250px|<center>Rhoads' tomb, San Bernardino, California</center>]]

Rhoads' longtime girlfriend Jody was in her car when she recalls hearing a block of songs from ''Blizzard of Ozz'' on the radio before the DJ announced the accident and the news that Rhoads had been killed. She was too distraught to continue driving.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" />

It was later revealed after autopsy that Aycock's system tested positive for [[cocaine]]. Rhoads' toxicology test revealed only nicotine.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> Osbourne later said that Aycock had been doing cocaine all night prior to the crash.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> The [[National Transportation Safety Board|NTSB]] investigation determined that Aycock's aviation medical certificate had expired.<ref name="NTSB PC Brief" /><ref name="ntsb_report" /> Aycock's estranged wife had spent that last night on the bus; the band were well aware that the driver was attempting to reconcile with her, and witnesses described the driver's state of mind as agitated in the hours before the fatal crash. Bassist Sarzo believes the driver/pilot's troubled emotional state that day, combined with the effects of the cocaine, was directly responsible for the accident.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> It was later learned that Aycock had been the pilot in another fatal crash in the [[United Arab Emirates]] six years earlier.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" />

Rhoads' funeral was held at the First Lutheran Church in [[Burbank, California]]. [[Pall-bearer]]s at the funeral included Osbourne, Aldridge, Sarzo, and Rhoads' former Quiet Riot bandmate Kevin DuBrow.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> On his coffin was a photo of the guitarist as well as a photo of himself on stage with Osbourne in [[San Francisco]].<ref name="sharonbiography" /> Rhoads is buried at Mountain View Cemetery in [[San Bernardino, California]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Benoit|first=Tod|title=Where Are They Buried? How Did They Die?|year=2009|publisher=Black Dog & Leventhal|location=New York|isbn=978-1-57912-822-7|pages=412–3}}</ref>

===Posthumous recognition===

As a tribute to Rhoads, [[Marshall Amplification]] released the 1959RR at [[NAMM Show|NAMM]] 2008. The amp is a limited-edition all-white Marshall Super Lead 100-watt head modeled after Rhoads' own Super Lead amp. Marshall engineers looked extensively at Rhoads' actual amplifier and made the 1959RR to those exact specifications, right down to the special high-gain modification Rhoads specifically requested when he visited the Marshall factory in 1980.<ref>Premier Guitar [http://www.premierguitar.com/Magazine/Issue/Daily/News/NAMM_VIDEO_Marshalls_New_Randy_Rhoads_Amp.aspx Marshall's New Randy Rhoads Amp] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>

Jackson Guitars released an exact replica of Rhoads' original white "shortwing" V. His original guitar was handled, photographed, and measured extensively by Jackson's luthiers to produce the most precise replica possible. The guitar comes with black gaffer's tape covering the top wing and the back of the guitar, just like Rhoads'. Only 60 of the guitars were manufactured, each with the symbolic price tag of $12,619.56, which is Rhoads' birthday.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=133840 |title=Jackson Representative Talks To Premier Guitar About Randy Rhoads Tribute Axe - Blabbermouth.net |publisher=Roadrunnerrecords.com |date=January 21, 2010 |access-date=July 23, 2014}}</ref> In 2010, [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson Guitars]] announced a new custom shop signature guitar modeled after Rhoads' 1974 Les Paul Custom.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gibson.com/en-us/Lifestyle/News/randy-rhoads-0823/ |title=Breaking News: Gibson to Reproduce Classic Randy Rhoads Les Paul |publisher=Gibson.com |date=August 23, 2010 |access-date=July 5, 2012}}</ref> In April 2011, author [[Joel McIver]] announced the publication of the first fully comprehensive Rhoads biography, ''Crazy Train: The High Life and Tragic Death of Randy Rhoads'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=147006|title=New RANDY RHOADS, MOTÖRHEAD Biographies To Arrive in the Spring|publisher=BlabberMouth}}</ref> with a foreword written by [[Zakk Wylde]] and an afterword by [[Yngwie Malmsteen]]. In June 2012, Velocity Publishing Group announced a comprehensive Rhoads biography, written by Steven Rosen and Andrew Klein, and containing over 400 pages of material.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://velocitybooks.org|title=Randy Rhoads Biography|publisher=Velocity Books}}</ref>

May 31, 2011, marked the 30th anniversary and remaster-release of ''Blizzard of Ozz'' and ''Diary of a Madman''. Both albums were remastered and restored to their original state with Bob Daisley's bass and Lee Kerslake's drums intact. ''Blizzard'' has three bonus tracks: "You, Looking at Me, Looking at You", "Goodbye to Romance" (2010 Vocal & Guitar Mix), and "RR" (Randy Rhoads in-studio guitar solo). Originally, ''Diary'' was to include long fade-out versions of "You Can't Kill Rock and Roll", "Tonight", and "Diary of a Madman" (2010 Re-mix version), but they were not included in the re-issue. The Legacy version of ''Diary of a Madman'' includes a second CD called ''Ozzy Live'', a live album pulled together from multiple performances on the 1981 Blizzard of Ozz tour.<ref name="Churko">{{cite web |author=Ward, Marshall |date=March 2012 |title=Randy Rhoads: 30 Years Later His Music Lives On |url=http://www.rockcellarmagazine.com/2012/03/19/randy-rhoads/ |publisher=rockcellarmagazine.com |access-date=May 28, 2013}}</ref> This performance features the same line-up as the ''Tribute'' album. Also included exclusively in the special box set are the 180-gram vinyl versions of the original albums, a 100-page coffee table book and the DVD ''Thirty Years After the Blizzard'', which includes unreleased Rhoads video footage.

Producer [[Kevin Churko]], who mixed the 2010 ''Ozzy Live'' CD, has stated that [[Epic Records]] has "a lot more in the vault" for future releases of Rhoads' material with Osbourne, as many of the band's live performances from that era were recorded.<ref name="Churko" />

On January 18, 2017, Rhoads was inducted into the Hall of Heavy Metal History for defining heavy metal lead guitar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/scorpions-metal-blade-records-nominated-to-hall-of-heavy-metal-history-w457434|title=Scorpions Among Nominees for Hall of Heavy Metal History|first=Althea|last=Legaspi|date=December 22, 2016|work=Rolling Stone}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Rhoads' older brother Kelle is also a musician while older sister Kathy operates a [[vineyard]].<ref name="gibson" />

Rhoads was an avid collector of [[toy train]]s, and traveled around England in search of them when he first arrived from the United States to record ''Blizzard of Ozz'' in 1980.<ref name="IAmOzzy" />

Though their relationship was largely a professional one, Rhoads had a brief sexual relationship with manager [[Sharon Osbourne|Sharon Arden]] in 1981. Rhoads told bandmate and close friend Rudy Sarzo that he and Arden were having a few celebratory drinks together in a hotel one night and ended up sleeping together. At the time, Ozzy Osbourne was trying to save his marriage to first wife Thelma, and Sharon was just his manager.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" />

Osbourne has said that Rhoads did not use drugs and drank very little, preferring [[Anisette]] when he did drink. Osbourne says that while Rhoads did not like to party, he made up for it by [[Cigarettes|smoking]] heavily, saying "He could have won a gold medal in the Lung Cancer Olympics, could Randy Rhoads."<ref name="IAmOzzy" />

According to his brother Kelle, Rhoads was a "fairly devout" [[Lutheran]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3aoCAifNZ9g|title=KELLE RHOADS RADIO INTERVIEW (5 of 5) - RANDY RHOADS & OZZY OSBOURNE|publisher=YouTube|date=|accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref>

Rhoads' mother Delores Rhoads died on November 11, 2015 at the age of 95.<ref>{{cite web|title=DELORES RHOADS, Mother Of RANDY RHOADS, Dies At 95|url=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/delores-rhoads-mother-of-randy-rhoads-dies-at-95/|publisher=[[Blabbermouth.net]]|date=November 11, 2015|accessdate=November 12, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Delores Rhoads, Mother of Randy Rhoads, Dies|url=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/delores-rhoads-r-i-p/|publisher=Ultimate Classic Rock|date=November 11, 2015|accessdate=November 12, 2015}}</ref>

==Musicianship and influence==
[[Rolling Stone|''Rolling Stone'' Magazine]] lists Rhoads as one of the greatest guitarists of all time.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-guitarists-of-all-time-19691231/randy-rhoads-19691231 |title=100 Greatest Guitarists: David Fricke's Picks: Randy Rhoads |work=Rolling Stone |access-date=July 5, 2012}}</ref> Rhoads has been on the covers of many guitar magazines and has influenced many guitar players, including [[Dimebag Darrell]],<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.musicradar.com/news/guitars/classic-guitar-interview-dimebag-darrell-july-1994-534866/ |title=Classic guitar interview: Dimebag Darrell, July 1994|author= |publisher=MusicRadar.com |date=March 16, 2012}}</ref> [[John Petrucci]],<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.alloutguitar.com/interviews/john-petrucci-interview-systematic-precision |title=John Petrucci Interview - Systematic Precision|author= Mike Blackburn |publisher=AllOutGuitar.com |date=May 19, 2007}}</ref> [[Zakk Wylde]],<ref name="Zakk">{{cite web
|title = The Man, The Myth, The Metal: Gibson Interviews Zakk Wylde
|publisher = Gibson.com
|url = http://www.gibson.com/en-us/Lifestyle/Features/ZakkWylde/
|access-date = November 10, 2008
|deadurl = yes
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081202040909/http://www.gibson.com/en-us/Lifestyle/Features/ZakkWylde/
|archivedate = December 2, 2008
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref> [[Michael Romeo]],<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.alloutguitar.com/interviews/michael-romeo-interview-%E2%80%93-perfect-symphony-part-one-1970s-2000 |title=Michael Romeo Interview – A Perfect Symphony Part One: 1970's to 2000 |author= Owen Edwards |publisher=AllOutGuitar.com |date=April 3, 2008}}</ref> [[Alexi Laiho]],<ref>FourteenG [http://www.fourteeng.net/alexilaiho.html Alexi Laiho interview] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514032638/http://www.fourteeng.net/alexilaiho.html |date=May 14, 2008 }} Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref> [[Mick Thomson]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fischer|first=Peter|title=Masters of Rock Guitar 2: The New Generation|publisher=Mel Bay|year=2006|page=88|isbn=978-3-89922-078-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VRDRKvQZBbUC&pg=PA88}}</ref> [[Paul Gilbert]]<ref>Metal-Rules [http://www.metal-rules.com/interviews/paulgilbert-May2004.htm Interview With Paul Gilbert] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref> [[Buckethead]],<ref>MTV [http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1458813/20021121/guns_n_roses.jhtml Beneath The Bucket, Behind The Mask: Kurt Loder Meets GN'R's Buckethead] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref> and [[Mike McCready]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ryancaldarone.com/playwithmeblog/artist-series-mike-mccready/3032015|title=Ryan Caldarone - PocketWriter.biz|website=Ryan Caldarone}}</ref>
Rhoads' talent was not always met with such praise during his lifetime. [[J. D. Considine]] of ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' was critical of his playing, referring to Rhoads in his review of ''Diary Of A Madman'' as "a junior-league [[Eddie Van Halen]] – bustling with chops but somewhat short on imagination".<ref name="RS">{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/artists/ozzyosbourne/albums/album/192271/review/6211330/diary_of_a_madman|title=Album review ''Diary of a Madman''|last=Considine|first=J.D.|authorlink=J.D. Considine|date=February 4, 1982|work=[[Rolling Stone]]|publisher=[[Jann Wenner|Wenner Media]]|access-date=August 29, 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205085458/http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/ozzyosbourne/albums/album/192271/review/6211330/diary_of_a_madman|archivedate=February 5, 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref>

Rhoads was influenced by [[the Beatles]] and [[the Rolling Stones]] as a child and would imitate their performances with his brother Kelle in the family garage.<ref name="gibson" /> His biggest influences as a guitarist were [[Leslie West]], [[Ritchie Blackmore]], [[Michael Schenker]], [[Gary Moore]], [[Charlie Christian]], and [[John Williams (guitarist)|John Williams]].<ref name="IAmOzzy" /><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www2.gibson.com/News-Lifestyle/Features/en-us/interview-with-randy-rhoads-biographer-1024-2012.aspx |title=Interview with Randy Rhoads' Biographer |author= Russell Hall |publisher=Gibson.com |date=October 24, 2012}}</ref>

Shortly before leaving Quiet Riot in 1979, Rhoads presented hand-drawn pictures of a polka-dot [[Flying V]]-style guitar to [[Karl Sandoval]], a California [[luthier]]. The guitar Sandoval built for Rhoads became one of the guitarist's trademark instruments.<ref name="csun" />

==Equipment==
Rhoads used a relatively simple setup, with a small number of guitars, effects and favored amplifiers. He preferred .009 gauge on ''Blizzard of Ozz'' and .010 gauge strings on ''Diary of a Madman'' <ref name="gress">{{Cite journal|last=Gress|first=Jesse|date=May 2009|title=10 Things You Gotta Do to Play Like Randy Rhoads|journal=[[Guitar Player]]|volume=43|issue=5|pages=98–105}}</ref>

===Guitars===
*Gibson '74' Alpine White [[Les Paul Custom]]
*[[Karl Sandoval]] "Polka Dot" V
*[[Jackson Rhoads]] White "Prototype" Concorde
*Jackson Black Rhoads w/ Fixed Bridge
*1950s [[Gibson Les Paul]] Black Beauty (used for photographs only)
*[[Fender Stratocaster]]

===Strings===
*GHS Boomers, .009-.042 (Blizzard); .010-.046 (Diary)

===Effects===
*Dunlop Crybaby Wah<ref name="shop">{{Cite book|last=Hurwitz|first=Tobias|title=Guitar Shop – Getting Your Sound: Handy Guide|publisher=Alfred Publishing|year=1999|page=46|isbn=978-0-88284-956-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OjSsW1wizrYC&pg=PA46|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref>
* [[Roland Corporation|Roland]]:
**RE-201 'Space Echo'
**Volume Foot Pedal
*[[Korg]] echo<ref name="shop"/>
* [[MXR]]:
**Distortion +<ref name="shop"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Prown|first=Pete|author2=Lisa Sharken |title=Gear Secrets of the Guitar Legends: How to Sound Like Your Favorite Players|publisher=Hal Leonard Corporation|year=2003|isbn=978-0-87930-751-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vqQjuzPrqIwC&pg=PA80|page=80}}</ref>
**10 Band EQ <ref name="shop"/>
**Flanger <ref name="shop"/>
**Stereo Chorus <ref name="shop"/>

===Guitar rig and signal flow===
* A detailed gear diagram of Randy Rhoads' guitar rig for Ozzy's 1981 "Diary of a Madman" Tour is well-documented.<ref>[http://www.guitareuromedia.com/gallery/randy-rhoads-guitar-gear-rig-ozzy-osbourne-1981/ Randy Rhoads Guitar Gear & Rig - Ozzy Osbourne - 1981]. guitareuromedia.com. June 1, 2018.</ref>

===Pickups===
*Dimarzio Super Distortion/PAF On Karl Sandoval's Flying V.
*Stock pickups on 1974 Gibson Les Paul Custom.
*Seymour Duncan Distortion/Jazz Model on Jacksons.

==Awards and honors==
*Voted "Best New Talent" by the readers of ''Guitar Player'' magazine in December 1981
*Voted "Best Heavy Metal Guitarist" by the readers of UK-based ''Sounds'' magazine in December 1981
* Placed 36th on ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' Magazine's 100 Greatest Guitarists.<ref>Rolling Stone [https://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-guitarists-of-all-time-19691231/randy-rhoads-19691231/ The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>
* Placed 4th on ''Guitar World'' Magazine's 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/Blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=18446 |title=Guitar World's 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists Of All Time - Blabbermouth.net |publisher=Roadrunnerrecords.com |date=January 23, 2004 |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref>
* "Crazy Train" and "Mr. Crowley" placed 9th and 28th respectively on ''Guitar World''{{'}}s 100 Greatest Guitar Solos readers poll.<ref>About.com: Guitar [http://guitar.about.com/library/bl100greatest.htm 100 Greatest Guitar Solos] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>
* Named 26 in ''Guitar World''{{'}}s 50 Fastest Guitarists list.<ref>deviantART [http://forum.deviantart.com/entertainment/music/1092964/ Guitar World's 50 Fastest Guitarists of All Time] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>
* "Crazy Train" placed 51 in ''Rolling Stone''{{'}}s "100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time" list.<ref>Rolling Stone [https://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/20947527/the_100_greatest_guitar_songs_of_all_time/print The 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>

==Discography==

===With Quiet Riot===
{{Main|Quiet Riot}}
* ''[[Quiet Riot (1977 album)|Quiet Riot]]'' (1977)
* ''[[Quiet Riot II]]'' (1978)
* ''[[The Randy Rhoads Years]]'' (1993)

===With Ozzy Osbourne===
{{Main|Ozzy Osbourne discography}}
* ''[[Blizzard of Ozz]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Mr Crowley Live EP]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Diary of a Madman (album)|Diary of a Madman]]'' (1981)
* ''[[Tribute (Ozzy Osbourne album)|Tribute]]'' (1987)
* ''[[Diary of a Madman (album)#'Ozzy Live' 180g vinyl|Ozzy Live]]'' (2011)

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|randyrhoads.us}}
* [https://www.facebook.com/randyrhoads.society Randy Rhoads Society]
* [http://www.randyrhoads.info Diary of an Axeman]
* {{FAG|2149}}

{{Ozzy Osbourne}}
{{Quiet Riot}}
{{Jackson Guitars}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rhoads, Randy}}
[[Category:Randy Rhoads| ]]
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:1982 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American musicians]]
[[Category:Accidental deaths in Florida]]
[[Category:American Lutherans]]
[[Category:American heavy metal guitarists]]
[[Category:Burials in California]]
[[Category:Lead guitarists]]
[[Category:The Ozzy Osbourne Band members]]
[[Category:Quiet Riot members]]
[[Category:Musicians from Burbank, California]]
[[Category:Musicians from Santa Monica, California]]
[[Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the United States]]
[[Category:Guitarists from California]]
[[Category:20th-century American guitarists]]

Randy Rhoads

2018-10-18T16:37:33Z

66.172.182.2:

{{About|the guitarist|the guitar model|Jackson Rhoads|the radio talk show host|Randi Rhodes}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox musical artist 
| name = Randy Rhoads
| image = Randy Rhoads (1980).jpg
| caption = Rhoads performing on stage in 1980
| background = non_vocal_instrumentalist
| alias =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1956|12|6|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Santa Monica, California]], United States
| death_date = {{death date and age|1982|3|19|1956|12|6}}
| death_place = [[Leesburg, Florida]], United States
| instrument = {{hlist|Guitar}}
| genre = {{hlist|[[Heavy metal music|Heavy metal]]|[[hard rock]]|{{Nowrap|[[neoclassical metal]]}}}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Musician|songwriter|producer|[[Music education|music teacher]]}}
| years_active = 1972–1982
| label = {{hlist|[[Epic Records|Epic]]|[[CBS Sony]]|[[Jet Records|Jet]]}}
| associated_acts = {{hlist|[[Ozzy Osbourne]]|[[Quiet Riot]]}}
| website = {{URL|randyrhoads.us}}
}}

'''Randall William Rhoads''' (December 69, 1956 – March 19, 1982)<ref>{{cite book|last=Nick Talevski|first=|title=Rock Obituaries - Knocking On Heaven's Door|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DykffzkFALoC&pg=PA545|year=2006|publisher=Omnibus Press.}}</ref> was an American [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] guitarist who played with [[Quiet Riot]] and [[Ozzy Osbourne]]. A devoted student of classical guitar, Rhoads combined his classical music influences with his own heavy metal style. He died in a [[Aviation accidents and incidents|plane accident]] while on tour with Osbourne in [[Florida]] in 1982. Despite his short career, Rhoads, who was a major influence on [[neoclassical metal]], is cited as an influence by many guitarists. Rhoads is included in several "Greatest Guitarist" lists.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/5937559/the_100_greatest_guitarists_of_all_time/ |title=100 Greatest Guitarists: David Fricke's Picks |work=Rolling Stone |accessdate=July 5, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/Blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=18446|title=GUITAR WORLD's 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists Of All Time|publisher=BlabberMouth}}</ref>

==Biography==

===Early life===
Rhoads was born in [[Santa Monica, California]]. The youngest of three children, he had a brother named Doug and a sister named Kathy. Doug, who performed under the name "Kelle", is also a musician. Their parents, Delores and William, were both music teachers. In 1958, father William left the family when Randy was 1 year and 5 months old<ref name="csun">{{cite web |author=California State University, Northridge |title=Randy Rhoads: Beginnings |url=http://library.csun.edu/SCA/OnlineExhibits/rhoadsbeginnings |publisher=csun.edu |accessdate=September 28, 2013}}</ref> and remarried, and all three children were subsequently raised by Delores, who also opened a music school in [[North Hollywood]] called Musonia to support the family.<ref name="ozzyhead">{{cite web |author=Perry, Randy |title=Randy Rhoads Biography/Timeline |url=http://www.ozzyhead.com/randbio.htm |publisher=ozzyhead.com |accessdate=May 27, 2013}}</ref> Delores had received a [[bachelor's degree]] in music from [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] and had played [[piano]] professionally.<ref name="csun" />

The Rhoads family did not own a stereo and the children created their own music at home to entertain themselves.<ref name="gibson">{{cite web |author=Wright, Michael |date=April 6, 2009 |title=The Gibson Interview: The Randy Rhoads Family |url=http://www2.gibson.com/News-Lifestyle/Features/en-us/randy-rhoads-family-1011.aspx |publisher=gibson.com |accessdate=May 25, 2013}}</ref> Rhoads began taking [[folk music|folk]] and [[classical guitar|classical]] guitar lessons at approximately age 7 at his mother's music school.<ref name="csun" /> He soon became interested in electric guitar and began taking lessons at Musonia from an instructor named Scott Shelly. Shelly soon approached Delores to inform her that he could no longer teach her son, as Rhoads' knowledge of the electric guitar had exceeded his own.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> Rhoads also received piano lessons from his mother to build his understanding of music theory.<ref name="csun" />

Rhoads met future bandmate [[Kelly Garni]] while attending [[John Muir Middle School (Burbank, California)|John Muir Middle School]]<ref name="csun" /> and the two became best friends.<ref name="Garni_talks">{{Cite news |author=Parks, John |date=July 19, 2012 |title=Quiet Riot original bassist and co-founder Kelly Garni talks Randy, Kevin and his new book with LRI |url=http://www.legendaryrockinterviews.com/2012/07/19/legendary-rock-interview-with-original-quiet-riot-bassist-and-author-kelly-garni-part-one/ |publisher=Legendaryrockinterviews.com |accessdate=May 28, 2013}}</ref> According to Garni, the pair were unpopular due to "the way we looked". "Every time we showed up for school it was usually problematic so we pretty much avoided it. We weren't nerds, we weren't jocks, we weren't dopers, we were just on our own".<ref name="Garni_talks" /> Rhoads taught Garni how to play bass guitar, and together they formed a band called "The Whore", rehearsing during the day at [[Rodney Bingenheimer's English Disco]], a 1970s Hollywood nightspot. It was during this period that Rhoads learned to play lead guitar. "When I met him he didn't know how to play lead guitar yet at all. He was just starting to take lessons for it and really just riffing around", said Garni.<ref name="Garni_talks" /> With this band, Rhoads spent several months playing at backyard parties around the Los Angeles area in the mid-1970s.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> The pair formed a cover band called Violet Fox (after his mother's middle name, Violet),<ref name="ozzyhead" /> with his older brother Kelle on drums. Violet Fox, who were together for approximately five months, staged several performances in the Grand Salon at Musonia. Among their setlist was "[[Mississippi Queen]]" by [[Mountain (band)|Mountain]], and songs from [[the Rolling Stones]], [[Alice Cooper]] and [[David Bowie]]. After Violet Fox dissolved, Rhoads formed various other short-lived bands such as The Katzenjammer Kids and Mildred Pierce.<ref name="ozzyhead" />

Rhoads' brother states that a July 11, 1971 [[Alice Cooper]] concert at the Long Beach Auditorium that the pair attended was a defining point in the guitarist's life. After the concert was over Kelle said "Randy was mesmerized. He was catatonic just staring at the stage. Later that night Randy said "I can do this. I can look like this. I can be this." Something clicked that night and I think that kind of showed him what he could do with his talent."<ref name="csun" /> [[Glen Buxton]] of Alice Cooper and [[Mick Ronson]] were two early rock influences on his playing.<ref name="csun" />

===Quiet Riot===
At age 16, Rhoads and Garni formed the band ''Little Women''. At approximately the same time, Rhoads began teaching guitar in his mother's school during the day and playing live gigs at night. He graduated from [[Burbank High School (Burbank, California)|Burbank High School]], participating in a special program that allowed him to condense his studies and graduate early so he could teach guitar and pursue music full-time.<ref name="csun" /> Recruiting lead vocalist [[Kevin DuBrow]] and drummer [[Drew Forsyth (musician)|Drew Forsyth]], the band soon changed its name to [[Quiet Riot]]. Forsyth had periodically played with Rhoads and Garni in the past.

Quiet Riot quickly became one of the most popular acts on the Los Angeles club circuit, and by late 1976 were signed to [[Sony Music Entertainment Japan|CBS/Sony Records]]. Rhoads' "polka-dot theme" became the visual focal point of the band, as many fans began showing up at Quiet Riot shows wearing polka-dot [[bow-tie]]s and vests, emulating what the guitarist wore on stage.<ref name="csun" />

While the band had a strong following in Los Angeles, ''[[Quiet Riot (1977 album)|Quiet Riot]]'' and ''[[Quiet Riot II]]'' were released only in [[Japan]].<ref name="ozzyhead" />

===Ozzy Osbourne===
In 1979, ex-[[Black Sabbath]] vocalist [[Ozzy Osbourne]] was in Los Angeles, attempting to form a new band. An acquaintance of Rhoads' from the LA club circuit, future [[Slaughter (band)|Slaughter]] bassist [[Dana Strum]], phoned Rhoads relentlessly to coax him into auditioning. Rhoads initially told Quiet Riot bandmate [[Rudy Sarzo]] that he wasn't really interested in auditioning, but finally agreed to go simply to get Strum off his back.<ref name="SarzoMemoir">Sarzo, Rudy (2017). Off the Rails (third edition). CreateSpace Publishing. {{ISBN|1-53743-746-1}}</ref> Rhoads got the call for the audition just before his final show with Quiet Riot in September 1979.<ref name="csun" /> The day before Osbourne was scheduled to return to England, Rhoads agreed to audition for Osbourne at a Los Angeles studio with his [[Gibson Les Paul]] guitar and a practice [[guitar amplifier|amp]] and started warming up. Osbourne, who was very inebriated on that day, said of the audition "He played this fucking solo and I'm like, am I that fucking stoned or am I hallucinating or what the fuck is this?!" Osbourne immediately gave him the job. Rhoads recalled later, "I just tuned up and did some riffs, and he said, 'You've got the gig'; I had the weirdest feeling, because I thought, 'You didn't even hear me yet'". After the audition, Rhoads returned to Musonia and told Sarzo that he had never actually met Osbourne; Osbourne was drunk and had stayed in the studio's control room the entire time, and it was Strum in fact who had informed Rhoads that he had the job. He was, however, scheduled to meet Osbourne the following night in his hotel room.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> Rhoads, Osbourne, Strum, and drummer [[Frankie Banali]] subsequently spent a couple of days jamming together before Osbourne returned to England.<ref name="bwbk">{{cite web |author=Lambert, Cory |title=Bass Legend Bob Daisley Talks About The BLIZZARD OF OZZ, His Battle With THE OSBOURNES And More Diaries Of A Madman! |url=http://www.bravewords.com/features/1000971 |publisher=Brave Words & Bloody Knuckles |accessdate=March 25, 2014}}</ref> Disillusioned with Quiet Riot's inability to land an American recording deal, Rhoads discussed with his mother Delores the possibility of joining an already established band. When she asked him if he would accept "an offer like this one", the guitarist replied "Of course!"<ref name="csun" />

Upon returning to England, Osbourne was introduced to ex-[[Rainbow (rock band)|Rainbow]] bassist [[Bob Daisley]] by a [[Jet Records]] employee named Arthur Sharpe<ref name="bwbk" /> in a pub, and the pair hit it off and decided to work together.<ref name="daisley">{{cite web |author=Daisley, Robert |title=Bob Daisley's History With The Osbournes |url=http://www.bobdaisley.com/interview/website |publisher=bobdaisley.com |accessdate=May 27, 2013}}</ref> Unhappy with the guitarist they were initially working with,<ref name="bwbk" /> Osbourne mentioned to Daisley that he had recently met a talented young guitarist in Los Angeles by the name of Randy Rhoads.<ref name="daisley" /> The new group's management intended to keep the lineup all-British and was reluctant to hire an unknown American guitarist, but manager Don Arden eventually relented.<ref name="bwbk" /> Rhoads flew to England only to return home a couple of days later, being turned away by English customs at [[Heathrow Airport]] when he didn't have the necessary work permit. A representative from [[Jet Records]] was dispatched to clear the matter up but he never arrived, and Rhoads spent the night in a holding cell before being handcuffed and put on a plane back to the United States the next day. Osbourne subsequently called him to apologize, and arrangements were made for Rhoads to return to England with the proper paperwork.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> Rhoads flew to England on November 27, 1979,<ref name="daisley" /> and met with Osbourne and Daisley at the Jet Records' offices in [[London]]. The trio traveled by train to Osbourne's home,<ref name="bwbk" /> Bulrush Cottage, which also housed a rehearsal space. It was here that Rhoads lived with Osbourne, his then-wife Thelma, and their two children, during his first weeks in England.<ref name="IAmOzzy" /> Years later, Osbourne said in his [[autobiography]] that he could not understand why a musician as talented as Rhoads would want to get involved with a "bloated alcoholic wreck" like himself.<ref name="IAmOzzy">{{Cite book |author=Osbourne, Ozzy |year=2011 |title=I Am Ozzy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yNzCgAEkW8cC&pg=PT134 |publisher=I Am Ozzy |page=134 |accessdate=May 24, 2013}}</ref>

After a short search, drummer [[Lee Kerslake]] completed the new band, then known as The Blizzard of Ozz.<ref name="daisley" /> The group headed into the studio to record their debut album, titled ''[[Blizzard of Ozz]]''. Rhoads's guitar playing had changed due to the level of freedom allowed by Osbourne and Daisley and he was encouraged to play what he wanted. His work with Quiet Riot had been criticized as being "dull" and did not rely on classical scales or arrangements.<ref>All Music [{{Allmusic|class=album|id=r375893|pure_url=yes}} Quiet Riot 1977] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref> Propelled by Rhoads's neo-classical guitar work, the album proved an instant hit with rock fans, particularly in the USA. They released two singles from the album: "[[Mr. Crowley]]" and the hit "[[Crazy Train]]". Osbourne said years later, "One day Randy came to me and said that most heavy metal songs are written in an A to E chord structure. He said, 'Let's try to change that' ...so we made a rule that almost every number that we recorded on an album was never played in the same key."<ref name="csun" />
[[File:Randy Rhoads playing with the Blizzard of Oz.jpg|thumb|Rhoads playing live with Osbourne's band in September 1981]]
Following a UK tour the band recorded another album, ''[[Diary of a Madman (album)|Diary of a Madman]]''. During a break before leaving for their first US tour, both Kerslake and Daisley were suddenly fired by [[Sharon Osbourne|Sharon Arden]], the band's manager and Osbourne's future wife. For the US tour, ex-[[Black Oak Arkansas]] drummer [[Tommy Aldridge]] and bassist [[Rudy Sarzo]] - who had been Rhoads' bandmate in Quiet Riot - were hired. ''Diary of a Madman'' was released soon after in October 1981, and since Kerslake and Daisley were already out of the band, Aldridge and Sarzo's names and photos appeared on the album sleeve. Disputes over royalties performance and other intellectual property rights became a source of future court battles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=144056 |title=Daisley, Kerslake court battles |publisher=Roadrunnerrecords.com |accessdate=July 5, 2012}}</ref> Kerslake has maintained that Rhoads almost left Osbourne's band in late 1981 due to his displeasure with the firing of Kerslake and Daisley. "He didn't want to go (on tour with Osbourne). We told him we were thrown out. He said he was going to leave the band as he did not want to leave us behind. I told him not to be stupid but thanks for the sentiment," the drummer later recalled.<ref>{{cite web|author=bravewords.com |url=http://www.bravewords.com/news/166075 |title=Legendary OZZY OSBOURNE Drummer Lee Kerslake Talks About Blizzard/Diary Reissues, Randy Rhoads, The "Evil And Nasty" Sharon Osbourne |publisher=Bravewords.com |date=July 25, 2011 |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref>

Around this time, Rhoads remarked to Osbourne, bandmates Aldridge and Sarzo, and friend Kelly Garni that he was considering leaving rock for a few years to earn a degree in classical guitar at UCLA. In the 1991 [[documentary film]] ''Don't Blame Me'', Osbourne confirmed Rhoads' desire to earn the degree and stated that had he lived, he did not believe Rhoads would have stayed in his band. Friend and ex-Quiet Riot bassist Garni has speculated in interviews that if Rhoads had continued to play rock, he might have gone the route of more keyboard-driven rock, which had become popular through the 1980s. It was at this time that Rhoads was beginning to receive recognition for his playing. Just before his death [[Jackson Guitars]] created a signature model, the [[Jackson Randy Rhoads]] (though Rhoads had originally called his white pinstriped V "the Concorde"). Rhoads received one prototype—a black offset V hardtail that is the base for today's RR line of Jackson guitars—but died before the guitar went into production. Rhoads also received the Best New Talent award from ''[[Guitar Player]]'' magazine. While on tour with Osbourne, Rhoads would seek out classical guitar tutors for lessons whenever possible.

At the time of his death, Rhoads had already made the decision to part ways with Osbourne once his contractual obligations had been fulfilled. Though he had a good relationship with Osbourne, the vocalist's constant drug and alcohol abuse made day-to-day life on tour difficult for the members of his band. As the ''Diary of a Madman'' US tour progressed, Osbourne would often refuse to perform due to the lingering after-effects of the previous night's excesses, and only Sharon could talk him into taking the stage. Many shows were simply canceled, and Rhoads grew tired of the unpredictability. The final straw came when a plan was announced in February 1982 by Osbourne's management and record label to record a live album of [[Black Sabbath]] songs at Toronto's [[Maple Leaf Gardens]] later that year. He and bandmate [[Tommy Aldridge]] felt that they had established themselves as recording artists, and they regarded an album of cover songs to be a step backwards artistically and professionally. Thus, they refused to participate in the planned live recording. Osbourne viewed this decision as a betrayal, and the relationship between he and Rhoads became quite strained. Already drinking heavily, Osbourne's drinking increased and began to tear the band apart. At one point he drunkenly fired the entire band, including Rhoads, though he later had no memory of doing so. He began taunting Rhoads with claims that the likes of [[Frank Zappa]] and [[Gary Moore]] were willing to replace him on the proposed live album. Osbourne's unstable and confrontational behavior soon convinced Rhoads to leave the band. He grudgingly agreed to perform on the live album with the stipulation that he would depart after fulfilling his contractual obligations to Jet Records, which consisted of one more studio album and subsequent tour. The proposed live album was scrapped upon the guitarist's sudden death weeks later, though the plan was quickly resurrected with the release of ''[[Speak of the Devil (Ozzy Osbourne album)|Speak of the Devil]]'' in November of that year.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" />

==Death==
[[File:1957 Bonanza H35 N5589D.jpg|thumb|right|250px|<center>A 1957 [[Beechcraft Bonanza]] Model H35, very similar to the 1955 model in which Rhoads died.</center>]]
Rhoads played his last show on Thursday, March 18, 1982, at the [[Knoxville Civic Coliseum]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Mitch Van Beekum |url=http://www.ozzyhead.com/randbio.htm |title=Randy Rhoads Biography/Timeline |publisher=Ozzyhead.com |date= |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.gibson.com/News-Lifestyle/Features/en-us/spotlight-0319-2011.aspx |title=This Day in Music Spotlight: The Final Flight of Randy Rhoads |publisher=.gibson.com |date= |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref> The next day, the band was heading to a festival in Orlando, Florida. Osbourne recalls his final conversation with Rhoads that night on the bus involved the guitarist admonishing him over his heavy drinking.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> The last thing Rhoads said to him that night was, "You'll kill yourself, you know? One of these days."<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> After driving much of the night, they stopped in [[Leesburg, Florida]], to fix a malfunctioning [[air conditioning]] unit on the bus while Osbourne remained asleep.<ref name="osbourneautobiography">{{cite book |last=Osbourne |first=Ozzy |title=I Am Ozzy |year=2011 |publisher=Grand Central Publishing |isbn=978-0446569903}}</ref> On the property there was an airstrip with small helicopters and planes. Without permission, tour bus driver and private pilot Andrew Aycock took a single-engine Beechcraft F35 plane registered to a Mike Partin.<ref name="NTSB PC Brief">{{cite journal|last1=National Transportation Safety Board|title=NTSB ID: MIA82FA078|journal=Probable Cause, Brief of Accident|date=19 March 1983|url=http://ntsb.gov/_layouts/ntsb.aviation/GeneratePDF.aspx?id=MIA82FA078&rpt=fi|accessdate=24 October 2016}}</ref><ref name="ntsb_report">{{cite web |date=March 19, 1982 |title=Aircraft Incident/Accident Report;Leesburg, Florida 32748 Friday, March 19, 1982 10:00 EST |url=http://www.aircraftone.com/aircraft/accidents/20020917X02406.asp |publisher=[[NTSB]] |accessdate=July 31, 2013}}</ref> On the first flight, Aycock took keyboardist [[Don Airey]] and tour manager Jake Duncan.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> He then landed and a second flight took to the air with Rhoads and makeup artist Rachel Youngblood aboard. Rhoads had tried unsuccessfully to coax bassist Rudy Sarzo to join him on the flight, but Sarzo chose to get some extra sleep instead.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> During the second flight, attempts were made to 'buzz' the tour bus.<ref name="NTSB PC Brief" /> Aycock succeeded in making two close passes, but botched the third attempt. At approximately 10 am, after being in the air for approximately five minutes,<ref name="ntsb_report" /> one of the plane's wings clipped the top of the tour bus, breaking the wing into two parts and sending the plane spiraling out of control.<ref name="sharonbiography">{{Cite news |author=Osbourne, Sharon |title=Sharon Osbourne Extreme: My Autobiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F1otWOKcZ8MC&pg=PT118 |publisher=Little Brown |accessdate=May 24, 2013}}</ref> The initial impact with the bus caused Rhoads' and Youngblood's heads to crash through the plane's windshield.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> The plane then severed the top of a pine tree and crashed into the garage of a nearby mansion, bursting into flames.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> Keyboardist Don Airey was the only member of the band to witness the crash, because the rest were asleep in the bus.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> Rhoads was killed instantly, as were Aycock (36) and Youngblood (58). All three bodies were burned beyond recognition, and Rhoads was identified by dental records and personal jewelry. According to Sharon Osbourne, who was asleep in the bus and awoken by the crash, "They were all in bits, it was just body parts everywhere".<ref name="sharonbiography" /> Though all were quite distraught, the remaining band and crew members were forced to remain in Leesburg for an additional two days,<ref name="ozzyhead" /> until preliminary investigations were completed.<ref name="sharonbiography" /> Rhoads' brother-in-law flew from California to Leesburg to identify what remained of the guitarist's body.<ref name="sharonbiography" /> Ozzy Osbourne's official statement to crash investigators was:

{{quote|At approximately 9:00 a.m. on Friday, March 19, 1982, I was awoken from my sleep by a loud explosion. I immediately thought that we'd hit a vehicle on the road. I got out of the bed, screaming to my fiancée, Sharon, 'Get off the bus.' Meanwhile, she was screaming to everyone else to get off the bus. After getting out of the bus, I saw that a plane had crashed. I didn't know who was on the plane at the time. When we realized that our people were on the plane, I found it very difficult to get assistance from anyone to help. In fact, it took almost a half-hour before anyone arrived. One small fire engine arrived, which appeared to squirt three gallons of water over the inferno. We asked for further assistance, such as telephones, and didn't receive any further help. In the end, we finally found a telephone and Sharon phoned her father.<ref>{{cite web
| url =http://www2.gibson.com/News-Lifestyle/Features/en-us/spotlight-0319-2011.aspx
| title =This Day in Music Spotlight: The Final Flight of Randy Rhoads
| accessdate=2015-04-04
| date =2011-03-19
| publisher =gibson.com }}</ref>}}

The band was scheduled to perform at an outdoor festival called [[Rock Super Bowl|Rock Super Bowl XIV]] later that day in [[Orlando]]. Though the event was not canceled, promoters offered refunds to all ticket holders.<ref name="ozzyhead" />

Bob Daisley and Lee Kerslake, who had recorded ''Blizzard of Ozz'' and ''Diary of a Madman'' with Rhoads and had been recently fired from Osbourne's band, were together in [[Houston]], [[Texas]] with [[Uriah Heep (band)|Uriah Heep]] when they heard news of the accident. Kerslake recalled in 2002:

{{quote|I was already sitting at the bar when Bob Daisley came into the bar. I turned and looked at Bob and said, 'Fuck, you have gone all white. What is wrong?' Bob said, 'Lee, there was a plane crash this morning and Randy was in it... and he is dead.' That was it. Oh God, to hear that - I just turned and cried my eyes out. Bob and me were crying our eyes out over him, cause we loved him. He was such a lovely guy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bobdaisley.com/interview/fuse-lee-kerslake |title=The Fuze interviews Lee Kerslake |publisher=Bob Daisley |date=March 19, 1982 |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref>}}
[[File:Tumba de Randy Rhoads.jpg|thumb|right|250px|<center>Rhoads' tomb, San Bernardino, California</center>]]

Rhoads' longtime girlfriend Jody was in her car when she recalls hearing a block of songs from ''Blizzard of Ozz'' on the radio before the DJ announced the accident and the news that Rhoads had been killed. She was too distraught to continue driving.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" />

It was later revealed after autopsy that Aycock's system tested positive for [[cocaine]]. Rhoads' toxicology test revealed only nicotine.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> Osbourne later said that Aycock had been doing cocaine all night prior to the crash.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" /> The [[National Transportation Safety Board|NTSB]] investigation determined that Aycock's aviation medical certificate had expired.<ref name="NTSB PC Brief" /><ref name="ntsb_report" /> Aycock's estranged wife had spent that last night on the bus; the band were well aware that the driver was attempting to reconcile with her, and witnesses described the driver's state of mind as agitated in the hours before the fatal crash. Bassist Sarzo believes the driver/pilot's troubled emotional state that day, combined with the effects of the cocaine, was directly responsible for the accident.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" /> It was later learned that Aycock had been the pilot in another fatal crash in the [[United Arab Emirates]] six years earlier.<ref name="osbourneautobiography" />

Rhoads' funeral was held at the First Lutheran Church in [[Burbank, California]]. [[Pall-bearer]]s at the funeral included Osbourne, Aldridge, Sarzo, and Rhoads' former Quiet Riot bandmate Kevin DuBrow.<ref name="ozzyhead" /> On his coffin was a photo of the guitarist as well as a photo of himself on stage with Osbourne in [[San Francisco]].<ref name="sharonbiography" /> Rhoads is buried at Mountain View Cemetery in [[San Bernardino, California]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Benoit|first=Tod|title=Where Are They Buried? How Did They Die?|year=2009|publisher=Black Dog & Leventhal|location=New York|isbn=978-1-57912-822-7|pages=412–3}}</ref>

===Posthumous recognition===

As a tribute to Rhoads, [[Marshall Amplification]] released the 1959RR at [[NAMM Show|NAMM]] 2008. The amp is a limited-edition all-white Marshall Super Lead 100-watt head modeled after Rhoads' own Super Lead amp. Marshall engineers looked extensively at Rhoads' actual amplifier and made the 1959RR to those exact specifications, right down to the special high-gain modification Rhoads specifically requested when he visited the Marshall factory in 1980.<ref>Premier Guitar [http://www.premierguitar.com/Magazine/Issue/Daily/News/NAMM_VIDEO_Marshalls_New_Randy_Rhoads_Amp.aspx Marshall's New Randy Rhoads Amp] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>

Jackson Guitars released an exact replica of Rhoads' original white "shortwing" V. His original guitar was handled, photographed, and measured extensively by Jackson's luthiers to produce the most precise replica possible. The guitar comes with black gaffer's tape covering the top wing and the back of the guitar, just like Rhoads'. Only 60 of the guitars were manufactured, each with the symbolic price tag of $12,619.56, which is Rhoads' birthday.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=133840 |title=Jackson Representative Talks To Premier Guitar About Randy Rhoads Tribute Axe - Blabbermouth.net |publisher=Roadrunnerrecords.com |date=January 21, 2010 |access-date=July 23, 2014}}</ref> In 2010, [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson Guitars]] announced a new custom shop signature guitar modeled after Rhoads' 1974 Les Paul Custom.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gibson.com/en-us/Lifestyle/News/randy-rhoads-0823/ |title=Breaking News: Gibson to Reproduce Classic Randy Rhoads Les Paul |publisher=Gibson.com |date=August 23, 2010 |access-date=July 5, 2012}}</ref> In April 2011, author [[Joel McIver]] announced the publication of the first fully comprehensive Rhoads biography, ''Crazy Train: The High Life and Tragic Death of Randy Rhoads'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=147006|title=New RANDY RHOADS, MOTÖRHEAD Biographies To Arrive in the Spring|publisher=BlabberMouth}}</ref> with a foreword written by [[Zakk Wylde]] and an afterword by [[Yngwie Malmsteen]]. In June 2012, Velocity Publishing Group announced a comprehensive Rhoads biography, written by Steven Rosen and Andrew Klein, and containing over 400 pages of material.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://velocitybooks.org|title=Randy Rhoads Biography|publisher=Velocity Books}}</ref>

May 31, 2011, marked the 30th anniversary and remaster-release of ''Blizzard of Ozz'' and ''Diary of a Madman''. Both albums were remastered and restored to their original state with Bob Daisley's bass and Lee Kerslake's drums intact. ''Blizzard'' has three bonus tracks: "You, Looking at Me, Looking at You", "Goodbye to Romance" (2010 Vocal & Guitar Mix), and "RR" (Randy Rhoads in-studio guitar solo). Originally, ''Diary'' was to include long fade-out versions of "You Can't Kill Rock and Roll", "Tonight", and "Diary of a Madman" (2010 Re-mix version), but they were not included in the re-issue. The Legacy version of ''Diary of a Madman'' includes a second CD called ''Ozzy Live'', a live album pulled together from multiple performances on the 1981 Blizzard of Ozz tour.<ref name="Churko">{{cite web |author=Ward, Marshall |date=March 2012 |title=Randy Rhoads: 30 Years Later His Music Lives On |url=http://www.rockcellarmagazine.com/2012/03/19/randy-rhoads/ |publisher=rockcellarmagazine.com |access-date=May 28, 2013}}</ref> This performance features the same line-up as the ''Tribute'' album. Also included exclusively in the special box set are the 180-gram vinyl versions of the original albums, a 100-page coffee table book and the DVD ''Thirty Years After the Blizzard'', which includes unreleased Rhoads video footage.

Producer [[Kevin Churko]], who mixed the 2010 ''Ozzy Live'' CD, has stated that [[Epic Records]] has "a lot more in the vault" for future releases of Rhoads' material with Osbourne, as many of the band's live performances from that era were recorded.<ref name="Churko" />

On January 18, 2017, Rhoads was inducted into the Hall of Heavy Metal History for defining heavy metal lead guitar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/scorpions-metal-blade-records-nominated-to-hall-of-heavy-metal-history-w457434|title=Scorpions Among Nominees for Hall of Heavy Metal History|first=Althea|last=Legaspi|date=December 22, 2016|work=Rolling Stone}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Rhoads' older brother Kelle is also a musician while older sister Kathy operates a [[vineyard]].<ref name="gibson" />

Rhoads was an avid collector of [[toy train]]s, and traveled around England in search of them when he first arrived from the United States to record ''Blizzard of Ozz'' in 1980.<ref name="IAmOzzy" />

Though their relationship was largely a professional one, Rhoads had a brief sexual relationship with manager [[Sharon Osbourne|Sharon Arden]] in 1981. Rhoads told bandmate and close friend Rudy Sarzo that he and Arden were having a few celebratory drinks together in a hotel one night and ended up sleeping together. At the time, Ozzy Osbourne was trying to save his marriage to first wife Thelma, and Sharon was just his manager.<ref name="SarzoMemoir" />

Osbourne has said that Rhoads did not use drugs and drank very little, preferring [[Anisette]] when he did drink. Osbourne says that while Rhoads did not like to party, he made up for it by [[Cigarettes|smoking]] heavily, saying "He could have won a gold medal in the Lung Cancer Olympics, could Randy Rhoads."<ref name="IAmOzzy" />

According to his brother Kelle, Rhoads was a "fairly devout" [[Lutheran]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3aoCAifNZ9g|title=KELLE RHOADS RADIO INTERVIEW (5 of 5) - RANDY RHOADS & OZZY OSBOURNE|publisher=YouTube|date=|accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref>

Rhoads' mother Delores Rhoads died on November 11, 2015 at the age of 95.<ref>{{cite web|title=DELORES RHOADS, Mother Of RANDY RHOADS, Dies At 95|url=http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/delores-rhoads-mother-of-randy-rhoads-dies-at-95/|publisher=[[Blabbermouth.net]]|date=November 11, 2015|accessdate=November 12, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Delores Rhoads, Mother of Randy Rhoads, Dies|url=http://ultimateclassicrock.com/delores-rhoads-r-i-p/|publisher=Ultimate Classic Rock|date=November 11, 2015|accessdate=November 12, 2015}}</ref>

==Musicianship and influence==
[[Rolling Stone|''Rolling Stone'' Magazine]] lists Rhoads as one of the greatest guitarists of all time.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-guitarists-of-all-time-19691231/randy-rhoads-19691231 |title=100 Greatest Guitarists: David Fricke's Picks: Randy Rhoads |work=Rolling Stone |access-date=July 5, 2012}}</ref> Rhoads has been on the covers of many guitar magazines and has influenced many guitar players, including [[Dimebag Darrell]],<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.musicradar.com/news/guitars/classic-guitar-interview-dimebag-darrell-july-1994-534866/ |title=Classic guitar interview: Dimebag Darrell, July 1994|author= |publisher=MusicRadar.com |date=March 16, 2012}}</ref> [[John Petrucci]],<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.alloutguitar.com/interviews/john-petrucci-interview-systematic-precision |title=John Petrucci Interview - Systematic Precision|author= Mike Blackburn |publisher=AllOutGuitar.com |date=May 19, 2007}}</ref> [[Zakk Wylde]],<ref name="Zakk">{{cite web
|title = The Man, The Myth, The Metal: Gibson Interviews Zakk Wylde
|publisher = Gibson.com
|url = http://www.gibson.com/en-us/Lifestyle/Features/ZakkWylde/
|access-date = November 10, 2008
|deadurl = yes
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081202040909/http://www.gibson.com/en-us/Lifestyle/Features/ZakkWylde/
|archivedate = December 2, 2008
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref> [[Michael Romeo]],<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.alloutguitar.com/interviews/michael-romeo-interview-%E2%80%93-perfect-symphony-part-one-1970s-2000 |title=Michael Romeo Interview – A Perfect Symphony Part One: 1970's to 2000 |author= Owen Edwards |publisher=AllOutGuitar.com |date=April 3, 2008}}</ref> [[Alexi Laiho]],<ref>FourteenG [http://www.fourteeng.net/alexilaiho.html Alexi Laiho interview] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514032638/http://www.fourteeng.net/alexilaiho.html |date=May 14, 2008 }} Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref> [[Mick Thomson]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fischer|first=Peter|title=Masters of Rock Guitar 2: The New Generation|publisher=Mel Bay|year=2006|page=88|isbn=978-3-89922-078-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VRDRKvQZBbUC&pg=PA88}}</ref> [[Paul Gilbert]]<ref>Metal-Rules [http://www.metal-rules.com/interviews/paulgilbert-May2004.htm Interview With Paul Gilbert] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref> [[Buckethead]],<ref>MTV [http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1458813/20021121/guns_n_roses.jhtml Beneath The Bucket, Behind The Mask: Kurt Loder Meets GN'R's Buckethead] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref> and [[Mike McCready]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ryancaldarone.com/playwithmeblog/artist-series-mike-mccready/3032015|title=Ryan Caldarone - PocketWriter.biz|website=Ryan Caldarone}}</ref>
Rhoads' talent was not always met with such praise during his lifetime. [[J. D. Considine]] of ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' was critical of his playing, referring to Rhoads in his review of ''Diary Of A Madman'' as "a junior-league [[Eddie Van Halen]] – bustling with chops but somewhat short on imagination".<ref name="RS">{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/artists/ozzyosbourne/albums/album/192271/review/6211330/diary_of_a_madman|title=Album review ''Diary of a Madman''|last=Considine|first=J.D.|authorlink=J.D. Considine|date=February 4, 1982|work=[[Rolling Stone]]|publisher=[[Jann Wenner|Wenner Media]]|access-date=August 29, 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205085458/http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/ozzyosbourne/albums/album/192271/review/6211330/diary_of_a_madman|archivedate=February 5, 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref>

Rhoads was influenced by [[the Beatles]] and [[the Rolling Stones]] as a child and would imitate their performances with his brother Kelle in the family garage.<ref name="gibson" /> His biggest influences as a guitarist were [[Leslie West]], [[Ritchie Blackmore]], [[Michael Schenker]], [[Gary Moore]], [[Charlie Christian]], and [[John Williams (guitarist)|John Williams]].<ref name="IAmOzzy" /><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www2.gibson.com/News-Lifestyle/Features/en-us/interview-with-randy-rhoads-biographer-1024-2012.aspx |title=Interview with Randy Rhoads' Biographer |author= Russell Hall |publisher=Gibson.com |date=October 24, 2012}}</ref>

Shortly before leaving Quiet Riot in 1979, Rhoads presented hand-drawn pictures of a polka-dot [[Flying V]]-style guitar to [[Karl Sandoval]], a California [[luthier]]. The guitar Sandoval built for Rhoads became one of the guitarist's trademark instruments.<ref name="csun" />

==Equipment==
Rhoads used a relatively simple setup, with a small number of guitars, effects and favored amplifiers. He preferred .009 gauge on ''Blizzard of Ozz'' and .010 gauge strings on ''Diary of a Madman'' <ref name="gress">{{Cite journal|last=Gress|first=Jesse|date=May 2009|title=10 Things You Gotta Do to Play Like Randy Rhoads|journal=[[Guitar Player]]|volume=43|issue=5|pages=98–105}}</ref>

===Guitars===
*Gibson '74' Alpine White [[Les Paul Custom]]
*[[Karl Sandoval]] "Polka Dot" V
*[[Jackson Rhoads]] White "Prototype" Concorde
*Jackson Black Rhoads w/ Fixed Bridge
*1950s [[Gibson Les Paul]] Black Beauty (used for photographs only)
*[[Fender Stratocaster]]

===Strings===
*GHS Boomers, .009-.042 (Blizzard); .010-.046 (Diary)

===Effects===
*Dunlop Crybaby Wah<ref name="shop">{{Cite book|last=Hurwitz|first=Tobias|title=Guitar Shop – Getting Your Sound: Handy Guide|publisher=Alfred Publishing|year=1999|page=46|isbn=978-0-88284-956-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OjSsW1wizrYC&pg=PA46|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref>
* [[Roland Corporation|Roland]]:
**RE-201 'Space Echo'
**Volume Foot Pedal
*[[Korg]] echo<ref name="shop"/>
* [[MXR]]:
**Distortion +<ref name="shop"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Prown|first=Pete|author2=Lisa Sharken |title=Gear Secrets of the Guitar Legends: How to Sound Like Your Favorite Players|publisher=Hal Leonard Corporation|year=2003|isbn=978-0-87930-751-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vqQjuzPrqIwC&pg=PA80|page=80}}</ref>
**10 Band EQ <ref name="shop"/>
**Flanger <ref name="shop"/>
**Stereo Chorus <ref name="shop"/>

===Guitar rig and signal flow===
* A detailed gear diagram of Randy Rhoads' guitar rig for Ozzy's 1981 "Diary of a Madman" Tour is well-documented.<ref>[http://www.guitareuromedia.com/gallery/randy-rhoads-guitar-gear-rig-ozzy-osbourne-1981/ Randy Rhoads Guitar Gear & Rig - Ozzy Osbourne - 1981]. guitareuromedia.com. June 1, 2018.</ref>

===Pickups===
*Dimarzio Super Distortion/PAF On Karl Sandoval's Flying V.
*Stock pickups on 1974 Gibson Les Paul Custom.
*Seymour Duncan Distortion/Jazz Model on Jacksons.

==Awards and honors==
*Voted "Best New Talent" by the readers of ''Guitar Player'' magazine in December 1981
*Voted "Best Heavy Metal Guitarist" by the readers of UK-based ''Sounds'' magazine in December 1981
* Placed 36th on ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' Magazine's 100 Greatest Guitarists.<ref>Rolling Stone [https://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-guitarists-of-all-time-19691231/randy-rhoads-19691231/ The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>
* Placed 4th on ''Guitar World'' Magazine's 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/Blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=18446 |title=Guitar World's 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists Of All Time - Blabbermouth.net |publisher=Roadrunnerrecords.com |date=January 23, 2004 |accessdate=July 23, 2014}}</ref>
* "Crazy Train" and "Mr. Crowley" placed 9th and 28th respectively on ''Guitar World''{{'}}s 100 Greatest Guitar Solos readers poll.<ref>About.com: Guitar [http://guitar.about.com/library/bl100greatest.htm 100 Greatest Guitar Solos] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>
* Named 26 in ''Guitar World''{{'}}s 50 Fastest Guitarists list.<ref>deviantART [http://forum.deviantart.com/entertainment/music/1092964/ Guitar World's 50 Fastest Guitarists of All Time] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>
* "Crazy Train" placed 51 in ''Rolling Stone''{{'}}s "100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time" list.<ref>Rolling Stone [https://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/20947527/the_100_greatest_guitar_songs_of_all_time/print The 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time] Retrieved July 18, 2008.</ref>

==Discography==

===With Quiet Riot===
{{Main|Quiet Riot}}
* ''[[Quiet Riot (1977 album)|Quiet Riot]]'' (1977)
* ''[[Quiet Riot II]]'' (1978)
* ''[[The Randy Rhoads Years]]'' (1993)

===With Ozzy Osbourne===
{{Main|Ozzy Osbourne discography}}
* ''[[Blizzard of Ozz]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Mr Crowley Live EP]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Diary of a Madman (album)|Diary of a Madman]]'' (1981)
* ''[[Tribute (Ozzy Osbourne album)|Tribute]]'' (1987)
* ''[[Diary of a Madman (album)#'Ozzy Live' 180g vinyl|Ozzy Live]]'' (2011)

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|randyrhoads.us}}
* [https://www.facebook.com/randyrhoads.society Randy Rhoads Society]
* [http://www.randyrhoads.info Diary of an Axeman]
* {{FAG|2149}}

{{Ozzy Osbourne}}
{{Quiet Riot}}
{{Jackson Guitars}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rhoads, Randy}}
[[Category:Randy Rhoads| ]]
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:1982 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American musicians]]
[[Category:Accidental deaths in Florida]]
[[Category:American Lutherans]]
[[Category:American heavy metal guitarists]]
[[Category:Burials in California]]
[[Category:Lead guitarists]]
[[Category:The Ozzy Osbourne Band members]]
[[Category:Quiet Riot members]]
[[Category:Musicians from Burbank, California]]
[[Category:Musicians from Santa Monica, California]]
[[Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the United States]]
[[Category:Guitarists from California]]
[[Category:20th-century American guitarists]]

J. D. Salinger

2018-10-18T16:35:06Z

66.172.182.2:

{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = J. D. Salinger
| image = JD Salinger.jpg
| caption = Salinger in 1950 (photo by [[Lotte Jacobi]])
| birth_name = Jerome David Salinger
| birth_date = {{Birth date|mf=yes|1919|1|1}}
| birth_place = [[Manhattan, New York]], U.S.
| death_date = {{Death date and age|mf=yes|2010|1|27|1919|1|1}}
| death_place = [[Cornish, New Hampshire]], U.S.
| occupation = Writer
| education = [[New York University]] [[Ursinus College]] [[Columbia University]]
| period = 1940–1965
| movement =
| notableworks = ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' (1951) ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' (1953) ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction]]'' (1963) ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' (1961)
| spouse = {{marriage|Sylvia Welter |1945|1947|end=divorced}} {{marriage|Claire Douglas |1955|1967|end=divorced}} {{marriage|Colleen O'Neill |1988}}
| children = Margaret Salinger [[Matt Salinger]]
| signature = J. D. Salinger Signature.svg
| parents = Marie Salinger Sol Salinger
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Jerome David Salinger''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|l|ᵻ|n|dʒ|ər}}; January 1, 1919{{spnd}} January 27, 2010) was an American writer known for his widely read novel, ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]''. Following his early success publishing short stories and ''The Catcher in the Rye'', Salinger led a very private life for more than a half-century. He published his final original work in 1965 and gave his last interview in 1980.

Salinger was raised in [[Manhattan]] and began writing short stories while in secondary school. Several were published in ''[[Story (magazine)|Story]]'' magazine<ref>"J. D. Salinger". EXPLORING Novels. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Web. November 9, 2010.</ref> in the early 1940s before he began serving in [[World War II]]. In 1948, his critically acclaimed story "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" appeared in ''[[The New Yorker]]'' magazine, which became home to much of his later work. ''The Catcher in the Rye'' was published in 1951 and became an immediate popular success. His depiction of adolescent alienation and loss of innocence in the protagonist [[Holden Caulfield]] was influential, especially among adolescent readers.<ref name="sonny">{{Cite news|last=Skow |first=John |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,938775,00.html |title=Sonny: An Introduction |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=September 15, 1961 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref> The novel remains widely read and controversial,{{efn|See Beidler's ''A Reader's Companion to J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye''.}} selling around 250,000 copies a year.

The success of ''The Catcher in the Rye'' led to public attention and scrutiny. Salinger became reclusive, publishing new work less frequently. He followed ''Catcher'' with a short story collection, ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' (1953); a volume containing a novella and a short story, ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' (1961); and a volume containing two novellas, ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters]]'' and ''[[Seymour: An Introduction]]'' (1963). His last published work, a novella entitled "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", appeared in ''The New Yorker'' on June 19, 1965. Afterward, Salinger struggled with unwanted attention, including a legal battle in the 1980s with biographer [[Ian Hamilton (critic)|Ian Hamilton]] and the release in the late 1990s of memoirs written by two people close to him: [[Joyce Maynard]], an ex-lover; and Margaret Salinger, his daughter. In 1996, a small publisher announced a deal with Salinger to publish "Hapworth 16, 1924" in book form, but amid the ensuing publicity the release was indefinitely delayed.<ref name="BBCNews">{{Cite AV media|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p042pqff|accessdate=August 3, 2016|title=The Reclusive JD Salinger}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/arts/books/features/65210/ |date=April 4, 2010 |title=Betraying Salinger |publisher=[[New York Magazine]] |accessdate=April 16, 2010}}</ref> He made headlines around the globe in June 2009 when he filed a lawsuit against another writer for copyright infringement resulting from that writer's use of one of the characters from ''The Catcher in the Rye''.<ref>Gross D. "[http://www.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/books/06/03/salinger.catcher.lawsuit/index.html Lawsuit targets 'rip-off' of 'Catcher in the Rye']". ''CNN''. Retrieved June 6, 2009.</ref>

Salinger died of natural causes on January 27, 2010, at his home in [[Cornish, New Hampshire]].<ref name="BBCNews2">{{Cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/8486169.stm|title=JD Salinger, author of Catcher in the Rye, dies at 91|work=BBC|accessdate=January 29, 2010 | date=January 29, 2010}}</ref><ref name="DeathABC">{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory?id=9688535|title='Catcher in the Rye' Author J.D. Salinger Dies|last=Italie|first=Hillel|date=January 28, 2010|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=January 28, 2010}}</ref><ref name="death">{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704878904575031273026569184?mod=WSJ_latestheadlines|title=J.D. Salinger Is Dead at Age 91|work=Wall Street Journal|date=January 28, 2010|accessdate=January 28, 2010 | first=Stephen | last=Miller}}</ref> In November 2013, three unpublished stories by Salinger were briefly posted online. One of the stories, "[[The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls]]", is said to be a prequel to ''The Catcher in the Rye''.

==Early life==
[[File:1133 Park Avenue cloudy jeh.jpg|thumb|right|1133 Park Avenue in Manhattan, where Salinger grew up]]
Jerome David Salinger was born in [[Manhattan]], New York on January 1, 1919. His father, Sol Salinger, sold [[Kosher foods|kosher]] cheese, and was from a Jewish family of Lithuanian descent,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aronoff.com/family/i0004005.htm#i4005 |title=The Genealogy of Richard L. Aronoff |publisher=Aronoff.com |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref> his own father having been the rabbi for the [[Adath Jeshurun Congregation]] in [[Louisville, Kentucky]].<ref>Fiene, Donald. "EBSCOhost: J. D. Salinger". EBSCO Publishing Service Selection Page. Web. November 24, 2010. [https://archive.is/20120720161948/http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=10&hid=106&sid=1f91a394-98e5-4b44-a386-0794517d18ee@sessionmgr4&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ==%23db=lfh&AN=MOL0270000268#db=lfh&AN=MOL0270000268 ebscohost.com]</ref> Salinger's mother, Marie (''née'' Jillich), was born in [[Atlantic, Iowa]], of German, Irish, and Scottish descent,<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite news |last=Skow |first=John |url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,938775,00.html |title=Sonny: An Introduction |work=Time | date=September 15, 1961 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/books/excerpt-j-d-salinger-a-life.html|title=Excerpt – J. D. Salinger – By Kenneth Slawenski|last=Slawenski|first=Kenneth|date=2011-02-10|work=The New York Times|access-date=2018-03-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403141657/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/books/excerpt-j-d-salinger-a-life.html|archive-date=2015-04-03|dead-url=|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="D. Salinger 2007">"J. D. Salinger". LitFinder Contemporary Collection. Gale, 2007. Web. November 9, 2010.</ref> but changed her name to Miriam and considered herself Jewish after marrying Salinger's father.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.algemeiner.com/2014/04/27/j-d-salinger-and-the-holocaust/ |title=J.D. Salinger and the Holocaust |publisher=Algemeiner.com |date= April 17, 2014 |accessdate= August 13, 2014}}</ref> Salinger did not learn that his mother was not of Jewish ancestry until just after he celebrated his [[bar mitzvah]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Salinger.html |title= J.D. Salinger |publisher= Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |date= January 1, 1919 |accessdate= January 30, 2010}}</ref> He had only one sibling, an older sister, Doris (1912–2001).<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=32}}</ref>

In youth, Salinger attended public schools on the [[West Side (Manhattan)|West Side of Manhattan]]. Then in 1932, the family moved to [[Park Avenue]], and Salinger was enrolled at the [[McBurney School]], a nearby private school.<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/> Salinger had trouble fitting in at his new school and took measures to conform, such as calling himself Jerry.<ref name="Lutz, Norma Jean"/> His family called him Sonny.<ref name="Hathcock, Barrett 2010">Hathcock, Barrett. "J.D. Salinger". EBSCO. Web. November 8, 2010.</ref> At McBurney, he managed the fencing team, wrote for the school newspaper and appeared in plays.<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/> He "showed an innate talent for drama", though his father opposed the idea of his becoming an actor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=10}}</ref> His parents then enrolled him at [[Valley Forge Military Academy and College|Valley Forge Military Academy]] in [[Wayne, Pennsylvania]].<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/> Salinger began writing stories "under the covers [at night], with the aid of a flashlight".<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=42}}</ref> Salinger was the literary editor of the class yearbook, ''Crossed Sabres''. He also participated in the Glee Club, Aviation Club, French Club, and the [[Staff Noncommissioned Officer|Non-Commissioned Officers]] Club.<ref name="Lutz, Norma Jean">{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002}} {{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

Salinger's Valley Forge [[201 file]] reveals that he was a "mediocre" student, and unlike the [[overachievement]] enjoyed by members of the [[Glass family]] he would go on to write about, his recorded [[IQ]] of 104 was average.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|pp=3–4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oBPBiaBBF24C&pg=PA13|title=J.D. Salinger|author= Raychel Haugrud Reiff|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|date= 2008}}</ref> He graduated in 1936. Salinger started his freshman year at [[New York University]] in 1936. He considered studying [[special education]]<ref>[http://special.library.louisville.edu/display-collection.asp?ID=434 Fiene, Donald M.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109160008/http://special.library.louisville.edu/display-collection.asp?ID=434 |date=January 9, 2008 }} "A Bibliographical Study of J. D. Salinger: Life, Work, and Reputation", M.A. Thesis, [[University of Louisville]], 1962.</ref> but [[High school dropouts|dropped out]] the following spring. That fall, his father urged him to learn about the meat-importing business, and he went to work at a company in the Austrian city of [[Vienna]] and the Polish city of [[Bydgoszcz]].<ref name="thirtynine">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=39}}</ref> Surprisingly, Salinger went willingly, but he was so disgusted by the slaughterhouses that after that, he firmly decided to embark on a different career path. His disgust for the meat business and his rejection of his father probably had a lot to do with his vegetarianism as an adult.<ref>A Brief Biography of J. D. Salinger © April 2002, February 2006, by Sarah Morrill</ref> He left Austria one month before it was [[Anschluss|annexed by Nazi Germany]] on March 12, 1938.

In the fall of 1938, Salinger attended [[Ursinus College]] in [[Collegeville, Pennsylvania]], and wrote a column called "skipped diploma", which included movie reviews.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|p=xiii}}</ref> He dropped out after one semester.<ref name="D. Salinger 2007"/><ref name="Hathcock, Barrett 2010"/> In 1939, Salinger attended the [[Columbia University School of General Studies]], where he took a writing class taught by [[Whit Burnett]], longtime editor of ''[[Story (magazine)|Story]]'' magazine. According to Burnett, Salinger did not distinguish himself until a few weeks before the end of the second semester, at which point "he suddenly came to life" and completed three stories.<ref name="burnett">{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=55–58}}. Burnett's quotes were included in ''Fiction Writer's Handbook'', edited by Whit and Hallie Burnett and published in 1975.</ref> Burnett told Salinger that his stories were skillful and accomplished, accepting "[[The Young Folks]]", a [[vignette (literature)|vignette]] about several aimless youths, for publication in ''Story''.<ref name="burnett" /> Salinger's debut short story was published in the magazine's March–April 1940 issue. Burnett became Salinger's mentor, and they corresponded for several years.<ref name="Lutz, Norma Jean"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=55, 63–65}}</ref>

==World War II==
In 1942, Salinger started dating [[Oona O'Neill]], daughter of the playwright [[Eugene O'Neill]]. Despite finding her immeasurably self-absorbed (he confided to a friend that "Little Oona's hopelessly in love with little Oona"), he called her often and wrote her long letters.<ref name="oona">{{Cite book|last=Scovell |first=Jane |title=Oona Living in the Shadows: A Biography of Oona O'Neill Chaplin |year=1998 |publisher=Warner |location=New York |isbn=0-446-51730-5 |page= 87}}</ref> Their relationship ended when Oona began seeing [[Charlie Chaplin]], whom she eventually married.<ref name="trespass">{{Cite news|last=Sheppard |first=R.Z |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,967473-1,00.html |title=Trespassers Will Be Prosecuted: ''In Search of J.D. Salinger'' by Ian Hamilton |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=March 23, 1988 |accessdate=April 14, 2007}}</ref> In late 1941, Salinger briefly worked on a [[Caribbean]] [[cruise ship]], serving as an activity director and possibly as a performer.<ref name="cruise">{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=18}}</ref>

The same year, Salinger began submitting short stories to ''[[The New Yorker]]''. Seven of Salinger's stories were rejected by the magazine that year, including "Lunch for Three", "Monologue for a Watery Highball", and "I Went to School with Adolf Hitler". In December 1941, however, the publication accepted "[[Slight Rebellion off Madison]]", a Manhattan-set story about a disaffected teenager named [[Holden Caulfield]] with "pre-war jitters".<ref name="yagoda">{{Cite book|last=Yagoda |first=Ben |authorlink=Ben Yagoda |title=About Town: The New Yorker and the World It Made |year=2000 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=0-684-81605-9|pages=98, 233}}</ref> When Japan carried out the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] that month, the story was rendered "unpublishable." Salinger was devastated. Later, in [[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters]], he wrote, "I think I'll hate 1942 till I die, just on general principles."<ref>{{cite web|title=Holden Caulfield Hits the Beach|url=https://www.theattic.space/home-page-blogs/salingerbeach|website=The Attic|accessdate=9 July 2018}}</ref> The story did not appear in The New Yorker until 1946.<ref name="yagoda" /> In the spring of 1942, several months after the United States entered [[World War II]], Salinger was [[conscription in the United States|drafted]] into the army, wherein he saw combat with the [[U.S. 12th Infantry Regiment|12th Infantry Regiment]], [[U.S. 4th Infantry Division|4th Infantry Division]].<ref name="cruise" /> He was present at [[Utah Beach]] on [[D-Day]], in the [[Battle of the Bulge]], and the [[Battle of Hürtgen Forest]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=58}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002}}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

During the campaign from Normandy into Germany, Salinger arranged to meet with [[Ernest Hemingway]], a writer who had influenced him and was then working as a war correspondent in Paris.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lamb |first=Robert Paul |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0403/is_n4_v42/ai_20119140/pg_17 |title=Hemingway and the creation of twentieth-century dialogue – American author Ernest Hemingway |publisher=Twentieth Century Literature |date=Winter 1996 |accessdate=July 10, 2007 |format=reprint}}</ref> Salinger was impressed with Hemingway's friendliness and modesty, finding him more "soft" than his gruff public persona.<ref name="baker">{{Cite book|last=Baker |first=Carlos |authorlink=Carlos Baker |title=Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story |year=1969 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |isbn=0-02-001690-5|pages=420, 646}}</ref> Hemingway was impressed by Salinger's writing and remarked: "Jesus, he has a helluva talent."<ref name="sonny" /> The two writers began corresponding; Salinger wrote Hemingway in July 1946 that their talks were among his few positive memories of the war.<ref name="baker" /> Salinger added that he was working on a play about Holden Caulfield, the protagonist of his story "Slight Rebellion off Madison", and hoped to play the part himself.<ref name="baker" />

Salinger was assigned to a [[counter-intelligence]] unit, for which he used his proficiency in French and German to interrogate [[prisoners of war]].<ref name="fiff">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=55}}</ref> In April 1945 he entered a liberated [[concentration camp]], probably one of [[Dachau Concentration Camp|Dachau]]'s sub-camps.<ref name="fiff" /> Salinger earned the rank of Staff Sergeant<ref>"J.D. Salinger". Contemporary Authors Online. 2011.n.pag.Gale. Web. October 20, 2011.</ref> and served in five campaigns.<ref>Slawenski, K. (2011). [https://books.google.com/books?id=pmvwxOFaP6AC&pg=PA100 ''J. D. Salinger: A Life'']. Random House, p. 100.</ref> Salinger's experiences in the war affected him emotionally. He was hospitalized for a few weeks for [[combat stress reaction]] after Germany was defeated,<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=89}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=7}}</ref> and he later told his daughter: "You never really get the smell of burning flesh out of your nose entirely, no matter how long you live."<ref name="fiff"/> Both of his biographers speculate that Salinger drew upon his wartime experiences in several stories,<ref name="at fifty">{{Cite news |last=Menand |first=Louis |authorlink=Louis Menand |url=http://homepage.mac.com/mseffie/assignments/catcher/HoldenatFifty.pdf |title=Holden at Fifty: ''The Catcher in the Rye'' and what it spawned |work=The New Yorker |date=October 1, 2001 |accessdate=July 10, 2007 |format=reprint |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807224322/http://homepage.mac.com/mseffie/assignments/catcher/HoldenatFifty.pdf |archivedate=August 7, 2007 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> such as "[[For Esmé—with Love and Squalor]]", which is narrated by a traumatized soldier. Salinger continued to write while serving in the army, publishing several stories in [[Slick (magazine format)|slick magazines]] such as ''[[Collier's]]'' and ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]''. He also continued to submit stories to ''The New Yorker'', but with little success; it rejected all of his submissions from 1944 to 1946, a group of 15 poems in 1945 alone.<ref name="yagoda" />

==Post-war years==
After Germany's defeat, Salinger signed up for a six-month period of "[[Denazification]]" duty in Germany<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000||p=67}}</ref> for the [[Counterintelligence Corps (United States Army)|Counterintelligence Corps]]. He lived in [[Weißenburg in Bayern|Weissenburg]] and, soon after, married Sylvia Welter. He brought her to the United States in April 1946, but the marriage fell apart after eight months and Sylvia returned to Germany.<ref name="thir">{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=113}}</ref> In 1972, Salinger's daughter Margaret was with him when he received a letter from Sylvia. He looked at the envelope, and without reading it, tore it apart. It was the first time he had heard from her since the breakup, but as Margaret put it, "when he was finished with a person, he was through with them."<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=359}}</ref>

In 1946, Whit Burnett agreed to help Salinger publish a collection of his short stories through ''Story'' Press's Lippincott Imprint.<ref name="young">{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=118–20}}</ref> Titled ''The Young Folks'', the collection was to consist of twenty stories—ten, like the title story and "Slight Rebellion off Madison", were already in print; ten were previously unpublished.<ref name="young" /> Though Burnett implied the book would be published and even negotiated Salinger a $1,000 advance on its sale, Lippincott overruled Burnett and rejected the book.<ref name="young" /> Salinger blamed Burnett for the book's failure to see print, and the two became estranged.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|pp=120, 164, 204–5}}</ref>

By the late 1940s, Salinger had become an avid follower of [[Zen Buddhism]], to the point that he "gave reading lists on the subject to his dates"<ref name="sonny" /> and arranged a meeting with Buddhist scholar [[D. T. Suzuki]].

In 1947, the author submitted a short story titled simply "The Bananafish" to ''The New Yorker''. William Maxwell, the magazine's fiction editor, was impressed enough with "the singular quality of the story" that the magazine asked Salinger to continue revising it. He spent a year reworking it with ''New Yorker'' editors and the magazine accepted the story, now titled "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]", and published it in the January 31, 1948 issue. The magazine thereon offered Salinger a "first-look" contract that allowed them [[right of first refusal]] on any future stories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=124}}</ref> The critical acclaim accorded "Bananafish", coupled with problems Salinger had with stories being altered by the "slicks", led him to publish almost exclusively in ''The New Yorker''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=130}}</ref> "Bananafish" was also the first of Salinger's published stories to feature the [[Glass family|Glasses]], a fictional family consisting of two retired [[vaudeville]] performers and their seven precocious children: [[Seymour Glass|Seymour]], Buddy, Boo Boo, Walt, Waker, Zooey, and Franny.<ref name="glass">{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|pp=97–99}}</ref> Salinger eventually published seven stories about the Glasses, developing a detailed family history and focusing particularly on Seymour, the brilliant but troubled eldest child.<ref name="glass" />

In the early 1940s, Salinger had confided in a letter to Whit Burnett that he was eager to sell the film rights to some of his stories in order to achieve financial security.<ref name="holly">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=75}}</ref> According to Ian Hamilton, Salinger was disappointed when "rumblings from Hollywood" over his 1943 short story "[[The Varioni Brothers]]" came to nothing. Therefore, he immediately agreed when, in mid-1948, independent film producer [[Samuel Goldwyn]] offered to buy the film rights to his short story "[[Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut]]".<ref name="holly" /> Though Salinger sold his story with the hope—in the words of his agent Dorothy Olding—that it "would make a good movie",<ref>{{Cite news|last=Fosburgh |first=Lacey |authorlink=Lacey Fosburgh |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/11/21/archives/why-more-top-novelists-dont-go-hollywood-novelists-who-dont-go.html |title=Why More Top Novelists Don't Go Hollywood |work=The New York Times |date=November 21, 1976 |accessdate=April 6, 2007 |format=fee required}}</ref> the film version of "Wiggily" was lambasted by critics upon its release in 1949.<ref name="berg">[[A. Scott Berg|Berg, A. Scott]]. ''Goldwyn: A Biography''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. {{ISBN|1-57322-723-4}}. p. 446.</ref> Renamed ''[[My Foolish Heart (film)|My Foolish Heart]]'' and starring [[Dana Andrews]] and [[Susan Hayward]], the melodramatic film departed to such an extent from Salinger's story that Goldwyn biographer [[A. Scott Berg]] referred to it as a "[[Corruption (linguistics)|bastardization]]".<ref name="berg" /> As a result of this experience, Salinger never again permitted [[film adaptations]] to be made from his work.<ref name="depos">{{Cite news|url=https://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F50713F63B5A0C718DDDAB0994DE484D81 |title=Depositions Yield J. D. Salinger Details |work=The New York Times |date=December 12, 1986 |accessdate=April 14, 2007 |format=fee required}}</ref> When [[Brigitte Bardot]] wanted to buy the rights to "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]", Salinger refused the request, but told his friend, [[Lillian Ross (journalist)|Lillian Ross]], longtime staff writer for ''The New Yorker'', "She's a cute, talented, lost ''enfante'', and I'm tempted to accommodate her, ''pour le sport''."<ref name="Ross2010">{{Cite journal
| last = Ross
| first = Lillian
| author-link =
| title = The Talk of the Town: Remembrance Bearable
| journal = The New Yorker
| issue = February 8, 2010
| pages = 22–23
| year = 2010
| postscript = }}</ref>

==''The Catcher in the Rye''==
{{Main|The Catcher in the Rye}}
[[File:Catcher-in-the-rye-red-cover.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Cover of ''The Catcher in the Rye'' 1985 edition]]

In the 1940s, Salinger confided to several people that he was working on a novel featuring Holden Caulfield, the teenage protagonist of his short story "Slight Rebellion off Madison",<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|1999|p=142}}</ref> and ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' was published on July 16, 1951, by Little, Brown and Company.<ref>Salinger, J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1951. hi Print.</ref> The novel's plot is simple,<ref name="simp">{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|p=77}}</ref> detailing 16-year-old Holden's experiences in New York City following his expulsion and departure from an elite [[college preparatory school]]. Not only was he expelled from his current school, he had also been expelled from three previous schools.<ref>Blackstock, Alan. "J.D. Salinger". Magill’s Survey of American, Revised Edition. Pasadena, Ca: Salem Press. EBSCO 2007. Web. Nov. 8</ref> The book is more notable for the persona and testimonial voice of its [[first-person narrative|first-person narrator]], Holden.<ref name="nandel">Nandel, Alan. "The Significance of Holden Caulfield's Testimony". Reprinted in Bloom, Harold, ed. ''Modern Critical Interpretations: J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye''. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2000. pp. 75–89.</ref> He serves as an insightful but [[unreliable narrator]] who expounds on the importance of loyalty, the "phoniness" of adulthood, and his own duplicity.<ref name="nandel" /> In a 1953 interview with a high school newspaper, Salinger admitted that the novel was "sort of" autobiographical, explaining, "My boyhood was very much the same as that of the boy in the book ... [I]t was a great relief telling people about it."<ref>{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|p=4}}</ref>

Initial reactions to the book were mixed, ranging from ''[[The New York Times]]'' hailing ''Catcher'' as "an unusually brilliant first novel"<ref>{{Cite news|last=Burger |first=Nash K |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-rye02.html |title=Books of The Times |work=The New York Times |date=July 16, 1951 |accessdate=July 10, 2007}}</ref> to denigrations of the book's monotonous language and the "immorality and perversion" of Holden,<ref name="virginia">Whitfield, Stephen J. [http://www.vqronline.org/articles/2002/spring/whitfield-raise-high/ "Raise High the Bookshelves, Censors!"] (book review), [[The Virginia Quarterly Review]], Spring 2002. Retrieved November 27, 2007. In a review of the book in ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'', the reviewer found the book unfit "for children to read", writing that they would be influenced by Holden, "as too easily happens when immorality and perversion are recounted by writers of talent whose work is countenanced in the name of art or good intention."</ref> who uses religious slurs and freely discusses casual sex and prostitution.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=117}}</ref> The novel was a popular success; within two months of its publication, ''The Catcher in the Rye'' had been reprinted eight times. It spent 30 weeks on the [[New York Times Bestseller|''New York Times'' Bestseller list]].<ref name="simp" />

The book's initial success was followed by a brief lull in popularity, but by the late 1950s, according to Ian Hamilton, it had "become the book all brooding adolescents had to buy, the indispensable manual from which cool styles of disaffectation could be borrowed."<ref name="cult">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=155}}</ref> It has been compared to [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''.<ref>"J. D. Salinger". Encyclopædia Britannica Online School ed. 2011. Web.</ref> Newspapers began publishing articles about the "Catcher Cult",<ref name="cult" /> and the novel was banned in several countries—as well as some U.S. schools—because of its subject matter and what ''[[Catholic World]]'' reviewer Riley Hughes called an "excessive use of amateur swearing and coarse language".<ref name="swearing">{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|p=97}}</ref> According to one angry parent's tabulation, 666 instances of "goddamn," 69 uses of "bastard", 69 "Chrissakes," and one incident of flatulence constituted what was wrong with Salinger's book.<ref name="swearing"/>

In the 1970s, several U.S. high school teachers who assigned the book were fired or forced to resign. A 1979 study of [[censorship]] noted that ''The Catcher in the Rye'' "had the dubious distinction of being at once the most frequently censored book across the nation and the second-most frequently taught novel in public high schools" (after [[John Steinbeck]]'s ''[[Of Mice and Men]]'').<ref name="cens">{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|pp=82, 78}}</ref> The book remains widely read; in 2004, the novel was selling about 250,000 copies per year, "with total worldwide sales over 10 million copies".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Yardley |first=Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Yardley |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A43680-2004Oct18.html |title=J.D. Salinger's Holden Caulfield, Aging Gracelessly |work=The Washington Post |date=October 19, 2004 |accessdate=November 13, 2011}}</ref>

In the wake of its 1950s success, Salinger received (and rejected) numerous offers to adapt ''The Catcher in the Rye'' for the screen, including one from Samuel Goldwyn.<ref name="berg" /> Since its publication, there has been sustained interest in the novel among filmmakers, with [[Billy Wilder]],<ref>[[Cameron Crowe|Crowe, Cameron]], ed. ''Conversations with Wilder''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999. {{ISBN|0-375-40660-3}}. p. 299.</ref> [[Harvey Weinstein]], and [[Steven Spielberg]]<ref name="post">{{cite web|url=http://entertainment.myway.com/celebgossip/pgsix/id/12_04_2003_1.html |date=December 4, 2003 |title=PAGE SIX; Inside Salinger's Own World |work=New York Post |accessdate=January 18, 2007}}</ref> among those seeking to secure the rights. Salinger stated in the 1970s that "[[Jerry Lewis]] tried for years to get his hands on the part of Holden."<ref name="mayn">{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=93}}</ref> Salinger repeatedly refused, though, and in 1999, Joyce Maynard definitively concluded: "The only person who might ever have played Holden Caulfield would have been J. D. Salinger."<ref name="mayn" />

==Writing in the 1950s and move to Cornish==
In a July 1951 profile in ''Book of the Month Club News'', Salinger's friend and ''New Yorker'' editor [[William Keepers Maxwell, Jr.|William Maxwell]] asked Salinger about his literary influences. Salinger responded: "A writer, when he's asked to discuss his craft, ought to get up and call out in a loud voice just the names of the writers he loves. I love [[Franz Kafka|Kafka]], [[Gustave Flaubert|Flaubert]], [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]], [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]], [[Fyodor Dostoevsky|Dostoevsky]], [[Marcel Proust|Proust]], [[Sean O'Casey|O'Casey]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke|Rilke]], [[Federico García Lorca|Lorca]], [[John Keats|Keats]], [[Arthur Rimbaud|Rimbaud]], [[Robert Burns|Burns]], [[Emily Brontë|E. Brontë]], [[Jane Austen]], [[Henry James]], [[William Blake|Blake]], [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge|Coleridge]]. I won't name any living writers. I don't think it's right" (although O'Casey was in fact living at the time).<ref>Silverman, Al, ed. ''The Book of the Month: Sixty Years of Books in American Life''. Boston: Little, Brown, 1986. {{ISBN|0-316-10119-2}}. pp. 129–130.</ref> In letters written in the 1940s, Salinger had expressed his admiration of three living, or recently deceased, writers: [[Sherwood Anderson]], [[Ring Lardner]], and [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]];<ref name="influ">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=53}}</ref> Ian Hamilton wrote that Salinger even saw himself for some time as "Fitzgerald's successor".<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=64}}</ref> Salinger's "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" has an ending similar to that of Fitzgerald's earlier published short story "[[May Day (short story)|May Day]]".<ref>Smith, Dominic (Fall, 2003). "Salinger's Nine Stories: Fifty Years Later". ''The Antioch Review''.</ref>

Salinger wrote friends of a momentous change in his life in 1952, after several years of practicing Zen Buddhism, while reading ''[[The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna]]'' about [[Hinduism|Hindu]] religious teacher [[Sri Ramakrishna]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=127}}</ref> He became an adherent of Ramakrishna's [[Advaita Vedanta]] Hinduism, which advocated celibacy for those seeking enlightenment, and detachment from human responsibilities such as family.<ref name="vive">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=129}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranchan |first=Som P. |title=An Adventure in Vedanta: J. D. Salinger's The Glass Family |year=1989 |publisher=Ajanta |location=Delhi |isbn=81-202-0245-7 }}</ref> Salinger's religious studies were reflected in some of his writing. The story "[[Teddy (story)|Teddy]]" features a ten-year-old child who expresses [[Vedantic]] insights.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=12}}</ref> He also studied [[Bibliography of Swami Vivekananda|the writings]] of Ramakrishna's disciple [[Vivekananda]]; in the story "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", the character of Seymour Glass describes him as "one of the most exciting, original and best-equipped giants of this century."<ref name="vive" />

In 1953, Salinger published a collection of seven stories from ''The New Yorker'' ("Bananafish" among them), as well as two that the magazine had rejected. The collection was published as ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' in the United States, and "[[For Esmé—with Love and Squalor]]" in the UK, after one of Salinger's best-known stories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=92}}</ref> The book received grudgingly positive reviews, and was a financial success—"remarkably so for a volume of short stories", according to Hamilton.<ref name="niney">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|pp=136–7}}</ref> ''Nine Stories'' spent three months on the ''New York Times'' Bestseller list.<ref name="niney" /> Already tightening his grip on publicity, though, Salinger refused to allow publishers of the collection to depict his characters in dust jacket illustrations, lest readers form preconceived notions of them.

As the notoriety of ''The Catcher in the Rye'' grew, Salinger gradually withdrew from public view. In 1953, he moved from an apartment at
[[300 East 57th Street]],<ref>{{Cite news|last=Leigh |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/30/nyregion/30address.html?scp=1&sq=salinger%20apartment&st=cse |title=300 East 57th Street, Salinger's Last Known Manhattan Home |work=The New York Times |date=January 3, 2010 |accessdate=January 30, 2010}}</ref> New York, to [[Cornish, New Hampshire]]. Early in his time at Cornish he was relatively sociable, particularly with students at Windsor High School. Salinger invited them to his house frequently to play records and talk about problems at school.<ref name="twelve">{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|pp=12–14}}</ref> One such student, Shirley Blaney, persuaded Salinger to be interviewed for the high school page of ''The Daily Eagle'', the city paper. Nonetheless, after Blaney's interview appeared prominently in the newspaper's editorial section, Salinger cut off all contact with the high schoolers without explanation.<ref name="twelve" /> He was also seen less frequently around town, meeting only one close friend—jurist [[Learned Hand]]—with any regularity.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=30}}</ref> He also began to publish with less frequency. After the 1953 publication of ''Nine Stories'', he published only four stories through the rest of the decade; two in 1955 and one each in 1957 and 1959.

==Marriage, family, spiritual beliefs==
In February 1955, at the age of 36, Salinger married Claire Douglas, a [[Radcliffe College|Radcliffe]] student (her father was the art critic [[Robert Langton Douglas]]). They had two children, Margaret (also known as Peggy - born December 10, 1955) and [[Matt Salinger|Matthew]] (born February 13, 1960). Margaret Salinger wrote in her memoir ''Dream Catcher'' that she believes her parents would not have married, nor would she have been born, had her father not read the teachings of [[Lahiri Mahasaya]], a guru of [[Paramahansa Yogananda]], which brought the possibility of enlightenment to those following the path of the "householder" (a married person with children).<ref name="eiga">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=89}}</ref> After their marriage, Salinger and Claire were initiated into the path of [[Kriya yoga]] in a small store-front Hindu temple in Washington, D.C., during the summer of 1955.<ref name="nine">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=90}}</ref> They received a mantra and breathing exercises to practice for ten minutes twice a day.<ref name="nine" />

Salinger also insisted that Claire drop out of school and live with him, only four months shy of graduation, which she did. Certain elements of the story "Franny", published in January 1955, are based on his relationship with Claire, including her ownership of the book ''[[The Way of the Pilgrim]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=84}}</ref> Because of their isolated location and Salinger's proclivities, they hardly saw other people for long stretches of time. Claire was also frustrated by Salinger's ever-changing religious beliefs. Though she committed herself to Kriya yoga, she remembered that Salinger would chronically leave Cornish to work on a story "for several weeks only to return with the piece he was supposed to be finishing all undone or destroyed and some new 'ism' we had to follow."<ref name="Salinger94">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|pp=94–5}}</ref> Claire believed "it was to cover the fact that Jerry had just destroyed or junked or couldn't face the quality of, or couldn't face publishing, what he had created."<ref name="Salinger94" />

After abandoning Kriya yoga, Salinger tried [[Dianetics]] (the forerunner of [[Scientology]]), even meeting its founder [[L. Ron Hubbard]], but according to Claire he was quickly disenchanted with it.<ref name="Salinger94" /><ref>{{Cite news|last=Smith |first=Dinitia |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/library/books/083000salinger-daughter.html |title=Salinger's Daughter's Truths as Mesmerizing as His Fiction |work=The New York Times |date=August 30, 2000 |accessdate=March 9, 2007}}</ref> This was followed by an adherence to a number of spiritual, medical, and nutritional belief systems including an interest in [[Christian Science]], [[Edgar Cayce]], [[homeopathy]], [[acupuncture]], and [[macrobiotics]].<ref name="Salinger, M 2000. p. 195">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=195}}</ref>

Salinger's family life was further marked by discord after the first child was born; according to Margaret's book, Claire felt that her daughter had replaced her in Salinger's affections.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=115}}</ref> The infant Margaret was sick much of the time, but Salinger, having embraced the tenets of Christian Science, refused to take her to a doctor.<ref name="sixteen">{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|pp=115–116}}</ref> According to Margaret, her mother admitted to her years later that she went "over the edge" in the winter of 1957 and had made plans to murder her and then commit suicide. Claire had supposedly intended to do it during a trip to New York City with Salinger, but she instead acted on a sudden impulse to take Margaret from the hotel and run away. After a few months, Salinger persuaded her to return to Cornish.<ref name="sixteen" />

==Last publications and Maynard relationship==
[[File:J-D-Salinger-TIME-1961.jpg|thumb|upright|Salinger on the cover of ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' (September 15, 1961)]]
Salinger published ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' in 1961, and ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction]]'' in 1963. Each book contained two short stories or novellas, previously published in ''The New Yorker'', about members of the Glass family. These four stories were originally published between 1955 and 1959, and were the only ones Salinger had published since ''Nine Stories''. On the dust jacket of ''Franny and Zooey'', Salinger wrote, in reference to his interest in privacy: "It is my rather subversive opinion that a writer's feelings of anonymity-obscurity are the second most valuable property on loan to him during his working years."<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,895497,00.html "People"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', August 4, 1961. Retrieved 2007-07-10.</ref>

On September 15, 1961, ''Time'' magazine devoted its cover to Salinger. In an article that profiled his "life of recluse", the magazine reported that the Glass family series "is nowhere near completion ... Salinger intends to write a Glass trilogy."<ref name="sonny" /> Nonetheless, Salinger published only one other story after that: "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", a novella in the form of a long letter from seven-year-old Seymour Glass while at summer camp. His first new work in six years, the novella took up most of the June 19, 1965, issue of ''The New Yorker'', and was universally panned by critics. Around this time, Salinger had isolated Claire from friends and relatives and made her—in the words of Margaret Salinger—"a virtual prisoner".<ref name="Salinger94" /> Claire separated from him in September 1966; their divorce was finalized on October 3, 1967.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=35}}</ref>

In 1972, at the age of 53, Salinger had a relationship with 18-year-old [[Joyce Maynard]] that lasted for nine months. Maynard, at this time, was already an experienced writer for ''[[Seventeen (American magazine)|Seventeen]]'' magazine. ''[[The New York Times]]'' had asked Maynard to write an article for them which, when published as "An Eighteen-Year-Old Looks Back On Life" on April 23, 1972,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/maynard-mag.html |title="An Eighteen-Year-Old Looks Back On Life" |accessdate=2007-04-14 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20001214180000/http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/maynard-mag.html |archivedate=December 14, 2000 |df= }}, ''The New York Times''</ref> made her a celebrity. Salinger wrote a letter to her warning about living with fame. After exchanging 25 letters, Maynard moved in with Salinger the summer after her freshman year at [[Yale University]].<ref name="women">{{Cite news|last=Alexander |first=Paul |url=http://nymag.com/nymetro/arts/features/2162/ |title=J. D. Salinger's Women |work=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] |date=February 9, 1998 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref> Maynard did not return to Yale that fall, and spent ten months as a guest in Salinger's Cornish home. The relationship ended, he told his daughter Margaret at a family outing, because Maynard wanted children, and he felt he was too old.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|pp=361–2}}</ref> Nevertheless, in her own autobiography, Maynard paints a different picture, saying Salinger abruptly ended the relationship and refused to take her back. She had dropped out of Yale to be with him, even forgoing a scholarship. Maynard later writes in her own memoir how she came to find out that Salinger had begun relationships with young women by exchanging letters. One of those letter recipients included Salinger's last wife, a nurse who was already engaged to be married to someone else when she met the author.<ref>{{cite book|last=Maynard|first=Joyce|title=At Home in the World|year=1998}} {{Page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

While he was living with Maynard, Salinger continued to write in a disciplined fashion, a few hours every morning. According to Maynard, by 1972 he had completed two new novels.<ref>{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=158}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Pollitt |first=Katha |authorlink=Katha Pollitt |url= https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/reviews/980913.13pollitt.html |title=With Love and Squalor |work= The New York Times |date=September 13, 1998 |accessdate=April 14, 2007 }}</ref> In a rare 1974 interview with ''The New York Times'', he explained: "There is a marvelous peace in not publishing ... I like to write. I love to write. But I write just for myself and my own pleasure."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Fosburgh |first=Lacey |authorlink=Lacey Fosburgh |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-speaks.html |title=J. D. Salinger Speaks About His Silence |work=The New York Times |date=November 3, 1974 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref> According to Maynard, he saw publication as "a damned interruption".<ref name="damned">{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=97}}</ref> In her memoir, Margaret Salinger describes the detailed filing system her father had for his unpublished manuscripts: "A red mark meant, if I die before I finish my work, publish this 'as is,' blue meant publish but edit first, and so on."<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=307}}</ref> A neighbor said that Salinger told him that he had written 15 unpublished novels.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/7103758/JD-Salingers-death-sparks-speculation-over-unpublished-manuscripts.html "JD Salinger's death sparks speculation over unpublished manuscripts"], ''The Telegraph'', January 29, 2010</ref>

Salinger's final interview was in June 1980 with Betty Eppes of ''[[The Advocate (Louisiana)|The Baton Rouge Advocate]]'', which has been represented somewhat differently, depending on the secondary source. By one account, Eppes was an attractive young woman who misrepresented herself as an aspiring novelist, and managed to record audio of the interview as well as take several photographs of Salinger, both without his knowledge or consent.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|p=16}}</ref> In a separate account, emphasis is placed on her contact by letter writing from the local Post Office, and Salinger's personal initiative to cross the bridge to meet with the woman, who in the course of the interview made clear she was a reporter (and who did indeed, at the close, take pictures of Salinger as he departed).<ref name="autogenerated4">{{cite web|author=Shane Salerno|year=2014|title=Interview of B. Eppes, in documentary "Salinger"|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/episodes/jd-salinger/film-salinger/2642/|accessdate=January 21, 2014}}</ref> According to the first account, the interview ended "disastrously" when a local passer-by from Cornish attempted to shake the famous author's hand, at which point Salinger became enraged.<ref>{{Harvnb|French|1988|p=15}}</ref> A further account of the interview published later in ''[[The Paris Review]]'', purportedly by Eppes as author, has been disowned by Eppes and separately ascribed as a derived work of Review Editor [[George Plimpton]].<ref name="autogenerated4"/><ref>{{cite journal
| author = Betty Eppes
| year = 1981
| title = What I Did Last Summer
| journal = [[The Paris Review]]
| volume = 23
| issue = 80
| arxiv =
| id =
| bibcode =
| url =
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bettytraxlereppes.wordpress.com/that-jd-salinger-connection/ |title=That J.D. Salinger Connection | Betty Traxler Eppes |publisher=Bettytraxlereppes.wordpress.com |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-visit.html |title=Publishing: Visit With J. D. Salinger |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=September 11, 1981 |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref>

==Legal conflicts==
Although Salinger tried to escape public exposure as much as possible, he continued to struggle with unwanted attention from both the media and the public.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=33}}</ref> Readers of his work and students from nearby [[Dartmouth College]] often came to Cornish in groups, hoping to catch a glimpse of him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Crawford|2006|p=79}}</ref> In May 1986 Salinger learned that the British writer [[Ian Hamilton (critic)|Ian Hamilton]] intended to publish a biography that made extensive use of letters Salinger had written to other authors and friends. Salinger sued to stop the book's publication. The court in ''[[Salinger v. Random House]]'' ruled that Hamilton's extensive use of the letters, including quotation and paraphrasing, was not acceptable since the author's right to control publication overrode the right of fair use.
The book was not published.<ref name="lubas">{{Cite news|last=Lubasch |first=Arnold H |url=http://partners.nytimes.com/books/98/09/13/specials/salinger-blocked.html |title=Salinger Biography is Blocked |work=The New York Times |date=January 30, 1987 |accessdate=April 14, 2007}}</ref>
Later, Hamilton published ''In Search of J.D. Salinger: A Writing Life (1935–65)'', but this book was more about his experience in tracking down information and the copyright fights over the planned biography than about Salinger himself.<ref>{{cite book |ref=harv
|last=Sableman|first=Mark |page=265
|title=More Speech, Not Less: Communications Law in the Information Age
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S63dbhsFaYoC&pg=PA265
|date=November 21, 1997|publisher=SIU Press|isbn=978-0-8093-2135-3}}</ref>

An [[unintended consequence]] of the lawsuit was that many details of Salinger's private life, including that he had spent the last twenty years writing, in his words, "Just a work of fiction ... That's all",<ref name="depos" /> became public in the form of court transcripts. Excerpts from his letters were also widely disseminated, most notably a bitter remark written in response to [[Oona O'Neill]]'s marriage to [[Charlie Chaplin]]:
{{quote|
I can see them at home evenings. Chaplin squatting grey and nude, atop his [[chiffonier]], swinging his [[thyroid]] around his head by his bamboo cane, like a dead rat. Oona in an aquamarine gown, applauding madly from the bathroom.<ref name="trespass" /><ref name="lubas" />
}}

Salinger was romantically involved with television actress [[Elaine Joyce]] for several years in the 1980s.<ref name="women" /> The relationship ended when he met Colleen O'Neill (b. June 11, 1959), a nurse and quiltmaker, whom he married around 1988.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Alexander |first=Paul |url=http://nymag.com/nymetro/arts/features/2162/ |title=J. D. Salinger's Women |publisher=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] |date=February 9, 1998 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}} The 1998 article mentions that "the couple has been 'married for about ten years'".</ref> O'Neill, forty years his junior, once told Margaret Salinger that she and Salinger were trying to have a child.<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=108}}</ref>

In 1995, [[Cinema of Iran|Iranian director]] [[Dariush Mehrjui]] released the film ''[[Pari (1995 film)|Pari]]'', an unauthorized and loose adaptation of Salinger's ''Franny and Zooey''. Though the film could be distributed legally in Iran since the country has no official copyright relations with the United States,<ref>[http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070328192739/http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html|date=March 28, 2007}}</ref> Salinger had his lawyers block a planned screening of the film at the [[Lincoln Center]] in 1998.<ref name="mehr">{{Cite news|last=Mckinley |first=Jesse |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0DE2DD1330F932A15752C1A96E958260 |title=Iranian Film Is Canceled After Protest By Salinger |work=The New York Times |date=November 21, 1998 |accessdate=April 5, 2007}}</ref> Mehrjui called Salinger's action "bewildering", explaining that he saw his film as "a kind of cultural exchange".<ref name="autogenerated3">{{Cite news|last=Mckinley |first=Jesse |url=https://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F00713FC38540C728EDDA80994D0494D81 |title=Iranian Film Is Canceled After Protest By Salinger |work=The New York Times |date=November 21, 1998 |accessdate=April 5, 2007 |format=fee required}}</ref>

In 1996, Salinger gave a small publisher, Orchises Press, permission to publish "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]", the previously uncollected novella.<ref>Lundegaard, Karen M. "[http://www.bizjournals.com/washington/stories/1996/11/18/tidbits.html J.D. Salinger resurfaces ... in Alexandria?]", ''[[Washington Business Journal]]'', November 15, 1996. Retrieved August 13, 2008.</ref> It was to be published that year, and listings for it appeared at [[Amazon.com]] and other book-sellers. After a flurry of articles and critical reviews of the story appeared in the press, the publication date was pushed back repeatedly before apparently being cancelled altogether. Amazon anticipated that Orchises would publish the story in January 2009,<ref name="orchise">{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|pp=42–3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hapworth 16, 1924 – Hardcover |author=J. D. Salinger |url=https://www.amazon.co.uk/d/cka/Hapworth-16-1924-J-D-Salinger/0914061658 |date=January 1, 2009 |publisher=Orchises Press |website=amazon.co.uk |accessdate=March 26, 2017}}</ref> but at the time of his death it was still listed as "currently unavailable".<ref>{{cite web|title=Hapworth 16, 1924 (June 19, 1965 ''The New Yorker'') (Paperback)|publisher=Amazon.com|url=https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000PGW43K|accessdate=January 29, 2010}}</ref>

In June 2009, Salinger consulted lawyers about the upcoming publication in the US of an unauthorized sequel to ''The Catcher in the Rye'' written by Swedish book publisher [[John David California|Fredrik Colting]] under the pseudonym 'J. D. California'. California's book is called ''[[60 Years Later: Coming Through the Rye]]'', and appears to pick up the story of Salinger's protagonist Holden Caulfield. In Salinger's novel, Caulfield is 16 years old, wandering the streets of New York after being expelled from his private school; the California book features a 76-year-old man, "Mr. C", musing on having escaped his nursing home. Salinger's New York literary agent Phyllis Westberg told Britain's ''[[Sunday Telegraph]]'': "The matter has been turned over to a lawyer". The fact that little was known about Colting and the book was set to be published by a new publishing imprint called 'Windupbird Publishing' gave rise to speculation in literary circles that the whole thing might be a stunt.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/5413559/JD-Salinger-considers-legal-action-to-stop-The-Catcher-in-the-Rye-sequel.html |last=Sherwell |first=Philip |title=JD Salinger considers legal action to stop The Catcher in the Rye sequel |date=May 30, 2009 |work=The Daily Telegraph| location=London}}</ref> District court judge [[Deborah A. Batts]] issued an [[injunction]] which prevents the book from being published within the U.S.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/02/books/02salinger.html |title=Judge Rules for J.D. Salinger in 'Catcher' Copyright Suit |last=Chan |first=Sewell |date=July 2, 2009 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=July 2, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lawupdates.com/commentary/isalinger_v._colting_i_too_much_borrowing_not_enough_transforming_to_consti/ | title=Salinger v. Colting / Salinger v. Colting: Too Much Borrowing, Not Enough Transforming to Constitute Fair Use / Article / Copyright Law Updates / Copyright Legal Updates |publisher=Lawupdates.com |accessdate=April 4, 2010}}</ref> The book's author filed an appeal on July 23, 2009; it was heard in the Second Circuit Court of Appeals on September 3, 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6672842.html |title=Appeal Filed to Overturn Ban in Salinger Case |accessdate=August 28, 2009 |date=July 24, 2009 |publisher=Publishers Weekly |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090807110303/http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6672842.html |archivedate=August 7, 2009 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Associated Press |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/sep/04/judge-salinger-spinoff-dismal-review |title=Judge gives Salinger spinoff 'dismal' review | Books | guardian.co.uk |work=The Guardian |date= September 4, 2009|accessdate=April 4, 2010 | location=London}}</ref> The case was settled in 2011 when Colting agreed not to publish or otherwise distribute the book, e-book, or any other editions of ''60 Years Later'' in the U.S. or Canada until ''The Catcher in the Rye'' enters the public domain, while also refraining from using the title "Coming through the Rye", dedicating the book to Salinger or referring to the title "The Catcher in the Rye", while Colting remains free to sell the book in other international territories without fear of interference.<ref>{{cite news|last=Albanese|first=Andrew|title=J.D. Salinger Estate, Swedish Author Settle Copyright Suit|url=http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/45738-j-d-salinger-estate-swedish-author-settle-copyright-suit.html|accessdate=December 30, 2012|newspaper=Publishers Weekly|date=January 11, 2011}}</ref>

==Later publicity==
On October 23, 1992, ''The New York Times'' reported, "Not even a fire that consumed at least half his home on Tuesday could smoke out the reclusive J. D. Salinger, author of the classic novel of adolescent rebellion, ''The Catcher in the Rye''. Mr. Salinger is almost equally famous for having elevated privacy to an art form." <ref>{{cite news|date=October 23, 1992|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/24/books/fire-fails-to-shake-salinger-s-seclusion.html |work=The New York Times |title=Fire Fails to Shake Salinger's Seclusion}}</ref>

In 1999, 25 years after the end of their relationship, [[Joyce Maynard]] auctioned a series of letters Salinger had written her. Maynard's memoir of her life and her relationship with Salinger, ''At Home in the World: A Memoir'', was published the same year. Among other topics, the book described how Maynard's mother had consulted with her on how to appeal to the aging author: by dressing in a childlike manner, and described Joyce's relationship with him at length. In the ensuing controversy over both the memoir and the letters, Maynard claimed that she was forced to auction the letters for financial reasons; she would have preferred to donate them to the [[Beinecke Library]]. Software developer [[Peter Norton]] bought the letters for US$156,500 and announced his intention to return them to Salinger.<ref name="auction">{{Cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/books/news/9906/22/salinger.letters/ |title=Salinger letters bring $156,500 at auction |publisher=CNN |date=June 22, 1999 |accessdate=April 12, 2007}}</ref>

[[File:Dream Catcher (memoir).jpg|thumb|upright|Margaret Salinger's memoir ''Dream Catcher'', its cover featuring a rare photograph of Salinger and Margaret as a child]]
A year later, Salinger's daughter Margaret, by his second wife Claire Douglas, published ''Dream Catcher: A Memoir''. In her book, she described the harrowing control that Salinger had over her mother and dispelled many of the Salinger myths established by Ian Hamilton's book. One of Hamilton's arguments was that Salinger's experience with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] left him psychologically scarred, and that he was unable to deal with the traumatic nature of his war service. Margaret Salinger allowed that "the few men who lived through [[Operation Lüttich|Bloody Mortain]], a battle in which her father fought, were left with much to sicken them, body and soul",<ref name="fiff"/> but she also painted a picture of her father as a man immensely proud of his service record, maintaining his military haircut and service jacket, and moving about his compound (and town) in an old [[Jeep]].

Both Margaret Salinger and Maynard characterized the author as a devoted film buff. According to Margaret, his favorite movies include ''[[Gigi (1958 film)|Gigi]]'' (1958), ''[[The Lady Vanishes (1938 film)|The Lady Vanishes]]'' (1938), ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)|The 39 Steps]]'' (1935; Phoebe's favorite movie in ''The Catcher in the Rye''), and the comedies of [[W.C. Fields]], [[Laurel and Hardy]], and the [[Marx Brothers]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Margaret Salinger|2000|p=7}}</ref> Predating VCRs, Salinger had an extensive collection of classic movies from the 1940s in 16 mm prints. Maynard wrote that "he loves movies, not films",<ref>{{Harvnb|Maynard|1998|p=94}}</ref> and Margaret Salinger argued that her father's "worldview is, essentially, a product of the movies of his day. To my father, all Spanish speakers are [[Puerto Rican people|Puerto Rican]] washerwomen, or the toothless, grinning-gypsy types in a Marx Brothers movie".<ref name="Salinger, M 2000. p. 195"/> [[Lillian Ross (journalist)|Lillian Ross]], a staff writer for ''The New Yorker'' and longtime friend of Salinger's, wrote following his death, "Salinger loved movies, and he was more fun than anyone to discuss them with. He enjoyed watching actors work, and he enjoyed knowing them. (He loved [[Anne Bancroft]], hated [[Audrey Hepburn]], and said that he had seen ''[[Grand Illusion (film)|Grand Illusion]]'' ten times.)"<ref name="Ross2010" />

Margaret also offered many insights into other Salinger myths, including her father's supposed long-time interest in [[macrobiotics]], and involvement with "alternative medicine" and Eastern philosophies. A few weeks after ''Dream Catcher'' was published, Margaret's brother [[Matt Salinger|Matt]] discredited the memoir in a letter to ''[[The New York Observer]]''. He disparaged his sister's "gothic tales of our supposed childhood" and stated: "I can't say with any authority that she is consciously making anything up. I just know that I grew up in a very different house, with two very different parents from those my sister describes."<ref name="justice">{{Cite news|last=Malcolm |first=Janet |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/14272 |title=Justice to J. D. Salinger |publisher=[[The New York Review of Books]] |date=June 21, 2001 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061115210517/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/14272 | archivedate=November 15, 2006}}</ref>

==Death==
[[File:J-D-Salinger-Illustration-TIME-1961.jpg|thumb|upright|Created for the cover of ''Time'' magazine, [[Robert Vickrey]]'s 1961 portrait of Salinger was placed on view in the [[National Portrait Gallery (United States)|National Portrait Gallery]] in Washington, D.C., after Salinger's death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://npg.si.edu/blog/j-d-salinger-1919-2010 |title=J. D. Salinger, 1919–2010|last= |first= |date=February 1, 2010 |website= |publisher=National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonia Institution |access-date=2017-06-30}}</ref>]]
Salinger died of [[natural causes]] at his home in [[New Hampshire]] on January 27, 2010. He was 91.<ref name="DeathABC" /> Salinger's literary representative told ''[[The New York Times]]'' that the writer had broken his [[hip bone|hip]] in May 2009, but that "his health had been excellent until a rather sudden decline after the new year."<ref name="nyt12810">[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/29/books/29salinger.html nytimes.com]: "J. D. Salinger, Enigmatic Author, Dies at 91".</ref> The representative believed that Salinger's death was not a painful one.<ref name="nyt12810"/> His third wife and widow, Colleen O'Neill Zakrzeski Salinger, and Salinger's son Matt became the [[executor]]s of his [[Estate (law)|estate]].<ref name="nyt12810"/>

==Literary style and themes==
In a contributor's note Salinger gave to ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'' in 1946, he wrote: "I almost always write about very young people", a statement that has been referred to as his [[credo]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Whitfield|1997|p=96}}</ref> Adolescents are featured or appear in all of Salinger's work, from his first published short story, "[[The Young Folks]]" (1940), to ''The Catcher in the Rye'' and his [[Glass family]] stories. In 1961, the critic [[Alfred Kazin]] explained that Salinger's choice of teenagers as a subject matter was one reason for his appeal to young readers, but another was "a consciousness [among youths] that he speaks for them and virtually ''to'' them, in a language that is peculiarly honest and their own, with a vision of things that capture their most secret judgments of the world."<ref>[[Alfred Kazin|Kazin, Alfred]]. "J.D. Salinger: "Everybody's Favorite"", [[The Atlantic Monthly]] 208.2, August 1961. Rpt. in [[Harold Bloom|Bloom, Harold]], ed. {{Cite book|title=Bloom's BioCritiques: J. D. Salinger |year=2001 |publisher=Chelsea House |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0-7910-6175-2 |author=edited and with an introduction by Harold Bloom. }} pp. 67–75.</ref> For this reason, [[Norman Mailer]] once remarked that Salinger was "the greatest mind ever to stay in prep school".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,584170,00.html |title='Catcher in the Rye' Author J.D. Salinger Dies |publisher=Fox News |accessdate=February 5, 2014}}</ref> Salinger's language, especially his energetic, realistically sparse dialogue, was revolutionary at the time his first stories were published and was seen by several critics as "the most distinguishing thing" about his work.<ref>Shuman, R. Baird, ed. ''Great American Writers: Twentieth Century.'' Vol. 13. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 2002. 14 vols. p. 1308.</ref>

Salinger identified closely with his characters,<ref name="damned" /> and used techniques such as interior monologue, letters, and extended telephone calls to display his gift for dialogue. Such style elements also "[gave] him the illusion of having, as it were, delivered his characters' destinies into their own keeping."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=70}}</ref> Recurring themes in Salinger's stories also connect to the ideas of innocence and adolescence, including the "corrupting influence of Hollywood and the world at large",<ref name="mondy">Mondloch, Helen. "Squalor and Redemption: The Age of Salinger", [[The World & I]]. SIRS Knowledge Source: SIRS Renaissance. November 2003. Retrieved April 2, 2004.</ref> the disconnect between teenagers and "phony" adults,<ref name="mondy" /> and the perceptive, precocious intelligence of children.<ref name="at fifty" />

Contemporary critics discuss a clear progression over the course of Salinger's published work, as evidenced by the increasingly negative reviews received by each of his three post-''Catcher'' story collections.<ref name="justice" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Lutz|2002|p=34}}</ref> Ian Hamilton adheres to this view, arguing that while Salinger's early stories for the "slicks" boasted "tight, energetic" dialogue, they had also been formulaic and sentimental. It took the standards of ''The New Yorker'' editors, among them [[William Shawn]], to refine his writing into the "spare, teasingly mysterious, withheld" qualities of "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" (1948), ''The Catcher in the Rye'', and his stories of the early 1950s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|pp=105–6}}</ref> By the late 1950s, as Salinger became more reclusive and involved in religious study, Hamilton notes that his stories became longer, less plot-driven, and increasingly filled with [[digression]] and parenthetical remarks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|1988|p=188}}</ref> [[Louis Menand]] agrees, writing in ''The New Yorker'' that Salinger "stopped writing stories, in the conventional sense ... He seemed to lose interest in fiction as an art form—perhaps he thought there was something manipulative or inauthentic about literary device and authorial control."<ref name="at fifty" /> In recent years, some critics have defended certain post-''Nine Stories'' works by Salinger; in 2001, [[Janet Malcolm]] wrote in ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'' that "Zooey" "is arguably Salinger's masterpiece ... Rereading it and its companion piece "Franny" is no less rewarding than rereading ''[[The Great Gatsby]]''."<ref name="justice" />

==Influence==
Salinger's writing has influenced several prominent writers, prompting [[Harold Brodkey]] (himself an [[O. Henry Award]]-winning author) to state in 1991: "His is the most influential body of work in English prose by anyone since Hemingway."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Brozan |first=Nadine |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE0D81030F934A15757C0A967958260 |title=Chronicle |work=The New York Times |date=April 27, 1991 |accessdate=July 10, 2007}}</ref> Of the writers in Salinger's generation, [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning novelist [[John Updike]] attested that "the short stories of J. D. Salinger really opened my eyes as to how you can weave fiction out of a set of events that seem almost unconnected, or very lightly connected ... [Reading Salinger] stick[s] in my mind as really having moved me a step up, as it were, toward knowing how to handle my own material."<ref>Osen, Diane. [http://www.nationalbook.org/authorsguide_jupdike.html "Interview with John Updike"], The National Book Foundation. 2007. Retrieved July 10, 2007.</ref> The critic [[Louis Menand]] has observed that the early stories of Pulitzer Prize-winner [[Philip Roth]] were affected by "Salinger's voice and comic timing".<ref name="at fifty" />

[[National Book Award]] finalist [[Richard Yates (novelist)|Richard Yates]] told ''[[The New York Times]]'' in 1977 that reading Salinger's stories for the first time was a landmark experience, and that "nothing quite like it has happened to me since".<ref>[[Richard Yates (novelist)|Yates, Richard]]. [https://www.nytimes.com/1977/12/04/archives/article-11-no-title-writers-writers-writers.html "Writers' Writers"] (fee required), [[The New York Times]], December 4, 1977. Retrieved 2007-10-24. Relevant passage is [http://www.richardyates.org/bib_onsalinger.html excerpted] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107171445/http://www.richardyates.org/bib_onsalinger.html |date=November 7, 2007 }} on richardyates.org.</ref> Yates describes Salinger as "a man who used language as if it were pure energy beautifully controlled, and who knew exactly what he was doing in every silence as well as in every word." [[Gordon Lish]]'s [[O. Henry Award]]-winning short story "For Jeromé—With Love and Kisses" (1977, collected in ''What I Know So Far'', 1984) is a play on Salinger's "For Esmé—with Love and Squalor".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1984/05/20/playing-the-game-of-what-if/d458b5ef-9387-4947-a24e-892ac5553672/|title=Playing the Game Of 'What If...'|last=Drabelle|first=Dennis|date=1984-05-20|work=The Washington Post|access-date=2017-06-20|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/book_blitz/2007/10/i_was_gordon_lishs_editor.html|title=I Was Gordon Lish's Editor|last=Howard|first=Gerald|date=2007-10-31|work=Slate|access-date=2017-06-20|language=en-US|issn=1091-2339}}</ref>

In 2001, [[Louis Menand]] wrote in ''The New Yorker'' that "''Catcher in the Rye'' rewrites" among each new generation had become "a literary genre all its own".<ref name="at fifty" /> He classed among them [[Sylvia Plath]]'s ''[[The Bell Jar]]'' (1963), [[Hunter S. Thompson]]'s ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'' (1971), [[Jay McInerney]]'s ''[[Bright Lights, Big City (novel)|Bright Lights, Big City]]'' (1984), and [[Dave Eggers]]'s ''[[A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius]]'' (2000). Writer [[Aimee Bender]] was struggling with her first short stories when a friend gave her a copy of ''Nine Stories''; inspired, she later described Salinger's effect on writers, explaining: "[I]t feels like Salinger wrote ''The Catcher in the Rye'' in a day, and that incredible feeling of ease inspires writing. Inspires the pursuit of voice. Not his voice. My voice. Your voice."<ref>[[Aimee Bender|Bender, Aimee]]. "Holden Schmolden". Kotzen, Kip, and Thomas Beller, ed. ''With Love and Squalor: 14 Writers Respond to the Work of J.D. Salinger''. New York: Broadway, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-7679-0799-6}}. pp. 162–9.</ref> Authors such as [[Stephen Chbosky]],<ref>Beisch, Ann. [http://www.layouth.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=Issue&action=IssueArticle&aid=1393&nid=19 "Interview with Stephen Chbosky, author of The Perks of Being a Wallflower"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927161523/http://www.layouth.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=Issue&action=IssueArticle&aid=1393&nid=19 |date=September 27, 2007 }}, ''LA Youth'', November–December 2001. Retrieved July 10, 2007.</ref> [[Jonathan Safran Foer]],<ref>Epstein, Jennifer. [http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2004/12/06/news/11661.shtml "Creative writing program produces aspiring writers"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113022519/http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2004/12/06/news/11661.shtml |date=January 13, 2008 }}, [[The Daily Princetonian]], December 6, 2004. Retrieved October 30, 2008.</ref> [[Carl Hiaasen]], [[Susan Minot]],<ref name="minot">[http://www.authorsontheweb.com/features/0012author-influences/author-influences.asp "What Authors Influenced You?"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927203055/http://www.authorsontheweb.com/features/0012author-influences/author-influences.asp |date=September 27, 2007 }}, Authorsontheweb.com. Retrieved July 10, 2007. Both Hiaasen and Minot cite him as an influence here.</ref> [[Haruki Murakami]], [[Gwendoline Riley]],<ref>[http://books.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,2064808,00.html "You have to trawl the depths"], [[The Guardian]], April 25, 2007. Retrieved December 26, 2007.</ref> [[Tom Robbins]], [[Louis Sachar]],<ref>[http://www.louissachar.com/Bio.htm "Author Bio"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910015014/http://www.louissachar.com/Bio.htm |date=September 10, 2015 }}, Louis Sachar's Official Web Site, 2002. Retrieved July 14, 2007.</ref> [[Joel Stein]]<ref>[[Joel Stein|Stein, Joel]]. "The Yips". Kotzen, Kip, and Thomas Beller, ed. ''With Love and The Squalor: 14 Writers Respond to the Work of J. D. Salinger''. New York: Broadway, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-7679-0799-6}}. pp. 170–6.</ref> and [[John Green (author)|John Green]] have cited Salinger as an influence. Musician [[Tomas Kalnoky]] of [[Streetlight manifesto|Streetlight Manifesto]] also cites Salinger as an influence, referencing him and [[Holden Caulfield]], the main character of ''Catcher in the Rye'', in the song "[[Everything Goes Numb#Cultural references|Here's To Life]]". Biographer Paul Alexander called Salinger "the [[Greta Garbo]] of literature".<ref>Beam, A. (2006) "J.D. Salinger, Failed Recluse", in ‘’If you Really Want to Hear About It: Writers on J.D. Salinger and His Work". Catherine Crawford (ed.) Thunder’s Mouth Press</ref>

In the mid-1960s, J. D. Salinger was himself drawn to [[Sufism|Sufi mysticism]] through the writer and thinker [[Idries Shah]]'s seminal work ''[[The Sufis]]'', as were others writers such as [[Doris Lessing]] and [[Geoffrey Grigson]], and the poets [[Robert Graves]] and [[Ted Hughes]].<ref name="Sufism-Guardian-Webster">{{cite web
| author = Webster
| first = Jason
| title = Sufism: ‘a natural antidote to fanaticism’
| publisher = [[The Guardian]]
| date = October 23, 2014
| url = https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/23/sufism-natural-antidote-fanaticism-the-sufis-idries-shah
| accessdate = October 23, 2014}}</ref> As well as Idries Shah, Salinger also read the Taoist philosopher [[Laozi|Lao Tse]] and the Hindu [[Vivekananda|Swami Vivekananda]] who introduced the Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world.<ref name="Istorie a Amantelor">{{cite book
| last = Abbott
| first = Elizabeth
| authorlink =
| title = Une histoire des maîtresses
| publisher = FIDES
| language = fr
| year = 2004
| location =
| page = 387
| isbn = 978-2762124941
| url = https://books.google.com/?id=fEsPUICzDY4C&pg=PA387&dq=%22elizabeth+abbott%22+Vivekananda+idries+shah#v=onepage&q=%22elizabeth%20abbott%22%20Vivekananda%20idries%20shah&f=false}}</ref>

==Legacy==
In an oral biography titled ''Salinger'', authors [[David Shields]] and [[Shane Salerno]] assert that the author had left specific instructions authorizing a timetable, to start between 2015 and 2020, for the release of several unpublished works. According to the authors and their sources, these include five new Glass-family stories; a novel based on Salinger's relationship with his first wife, Sylvia; a novella in the form of a World War II counterintelligence officer’s diary; a "manual" of stories about Vedanta; and other new or retooled stories that illuminate the life of Holden Caulfield.<ref name="Shields">{{cite news|last= Kakutani |first= Michiko |title= Hunting Again for Salinger Within the Silences and Secrets: A Biography From David Shields and Shane Salerno |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/26/books/a-biography-from-david-shields-and-shane-salerno.html |accessdate=August 27, 2013 |newspaper=The New York Times Book Review |date=August 25, 2013}}</ref>

The ''Salinger'' biography is also described as a companion volume to [[Salinger (film)|a film documentary of the same title]]. The directorial debut of writer [[Shane Salerno]], ''Salinger'' was made over nine years and received a limited theatrical release on September 6, 2013.<ref name="NYTimes">{{cite news|last=Cieply |first=Michael |author2=Julie Bosman |title=Film on Salinger Claims More Books Are Coming |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/25/business/media/film-on-j-d-salinger-claims-more-books-coming.html |accessdate=August 27, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=August 25, 2013}}</ref><ref name="IMDb">{{cite web|title=Salinger (2013) |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1596753/combined |publisher=[[Internet Movie Database]] |accessdate=August 27, 2013}}</ref>

==List of works==

===Books===
* ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' (1951)
* ''[[Nine Stories (Salinger)|Nine Stories]]'' (1953)
** "[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]" (1948)
** "[[Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut]]" (1948)
** "[[Just Before the War with the Eskimos]]" (1948)
** "[[The Laughing Man (short story)|The Laughing Man]]" (1949)
** "[[Down at the Dinghy]]" (1949)
** "[[For Esmé—with Love and Squalor]]" (1950)
** "[[Pretty Mouth and Green My Eyes]]" (1951)
** "[[De Daumier-Smith's Blue Period]]" (1952)
** "[[Teddy (story)|Teddy]]" (1953)
* ''[[Franny and Zooey]]'' (1961)
** "Franny" (1955)
** "Zooey" (1957)
* ''[[Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction]]'' (1963)
** "Raise High the Roof-Beam, Carpenters" (1955)
** "Seymour: An Introduction" (1959)
* ''[[Three Early Stories]]'' (2014)
** "[[The Young Folks]]" (1940)
** "[[Go See Eddie]]" (1940)
** "[[Once a Week Won't Kill You]]" (1944)

===Published and anthologized stories===
* "[[Go See Eddie]]" (1940, republished in ''Fiction: Form & Experience'', ed. William M. Jones, 1969 and in ''Three Early Stories'', 2014)
* "[[The Young Folks]]" (1940, republished in ''Three Early Stories'', 2014)
* "[[The Hang of It]]" (1941, republished in ''The Kit Book for Soldiers, Sailors and Marines'', 1943)
* "[[The Long Debut of Lois Taggett]]" (1942, republished in ''Stories: The Fiction of the Forties'', ed. Whit Burnett, 1949)
* "[[Once a Week Won't Kill You]]" (1944, republished in ''Three Early Stories'', 2014)
* "[[A Boy in France]]" (1945, republished in ''Post Stories 1942–45'', ed. Ben Hibbs, 1946 and July/August 2010 issue of ''Saturday Evening Post'' magazine)
* "[[This Sandwich Has No Mayonnaise]]" (1945, republished in ''The Armchair Esquire'', ed. L. Rust Hills, 1959)
* "[[Slight Rebellion off Madison]]" (1946, republished in ''Wonderful Town: New York Stories from The New Yorker'', ed. David Remnick, 2000)
* "[[A Girl I Knew]]" (1948, republished in ''Best American Short Stories 1949'', ed. Martha Foley, 1949)

===Published and unanthologized stories===

* "[[The Heart of a Broken Story]]" (1941)
* "[[Personal Notes of an Infantryman]]" (1942)
* "[[The Varioni Brothers]]" (1943)
* "[[Both Parties Concerned]]" (1944)
* "[[Soft-Boiled Sergeant]]" (1944)
* "[[Last Day of the Last Furlough]]" (1944)
* "[[Elaine (short story)|Elaine]]" (1945)
* "[[The Stranger (Salinger short story)|The Stranger]]" (1945)
* "[[I'm Crazy]]" (1945)
* "[[A Young Girl in 1941 with No Waist at All]]" (1947)
* "[[The Inverted Forest]]" (1947)
* "[[Blue Melody]]" (1948)
* "[[Hapworth 16, 1924]]" (1965)

===Unpublished stories===
*"[[Mrs. Hincher]]" (1942)
*"[[The Last and Best of the Peter Pans]]" (1942)
*"[[The Children's Echelon]]" (1944)
*"[[Two Lonely Men]]" (1944)
*"[[The Magic Foxhole]]" (1944)
*"[[Birthday Boy (story)|Birthday Boy]]" (1946)
*"[[The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls]]" (1947)

==Media portrayals and references==
*In [[W. P. Kinsella]]'s 1982 novel, ''[[Shoeless Joe (novel)|Shoeless Joe]]'', the main character "kidnaps" the reclusive Salinger to take him to a baseball game. When the novel was adapted for cinema as ''[[Field of Dreams]]'', Salinger's character was replaced by the fictional Terence Mann, amid fears that Salinger might sue.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Geddes|first1=John|title=W.P. on J.D.: Kinsella talks about writing Salinger into 'Shoeless Joe'|url=http://www.macleans.ca/politics/ottawa/w-p-on-j-d-kinsella-talks-about-writing-salinger-into-shoeless-joe/|accessdate=14 September 2016|work=[[Maclean's]]|date=January 29, 2010}}</ref>
*In the 2002 film ''[[The Good Girl]]'', the character of "Holden" (played by [[Jake Gyllenhaal]]) adopts the name because of his admiration of ''The Catcher in the Rye''. Coincidentally the film also stars [[Zooey Deschanel]] who was named after the character from Salinger's Franny and Zooey.
*Salinger is portrayed by [[Chris Cooper]] in [[James Steven Sadwith]]'s 2015 film ''[[Coming Through the Rye (film)|Coming Through the Rye]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lee|first=Ashley|title=Chris Cooper Is J.D. Salinger in 'Coming Through the Rye' Clip (Exclusive Video)|date=14 October 2016|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/chris-cooper-is-jd-salinger-938110|accessdate=18 October 2016}}</ref>
*Salinger appears as a character (voiced by [[Alan Arkin]]) in several 2015–2016 episodes of ''[[BoJack Horseman]]'' (season 2 episodes 6, 7, 8, 10 and season 3 episode 1), where he is said to have faked his own death to escape public attention and pursue a career in television production. He quotes numerous lines from his works, bemoaning how ''The Catcher in the Rye'' has become his only work that anyone knows about.
*Salinger was portrayed by [[Nicholas Hoult]] in the 2017 film ''[[Rebel in the Rye]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Child|first=Ben|title=Nicholas Hoult to play JD Salinger in new biopic|date=1 September 2015|publisher=''[[The Guardian]]''|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/sep/01/nicholas-hoult-rebel-in-the-rye-jd-salinger|accessdate=9 January 2017}}</ref>
*Salinger's name is mentioned in the title for [[The Wonder Years (band)|The Wonder Years]] song "[[You're Not Salinger. Get Over It.]]"

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|colwidth=25em}}

==References==
* {{Cite book|last=Mueller |first=Bruce F. |author2=Hochman, Will|title=Critical Companion to J. D. Salinger: a Literary Reference to His Life and Work |year=2011 |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |isbn=978-0816065974}}
* {{Cite book|last=Alexander |first=Paul|title=Salinger: A Biography |year=1999 |publisher=Renaissance |location=Los Angeles |isbn=1-58063-080-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crawford |first=Catherine, ed. |title=If You Really Want to Hear About It: Writers on J. D. Salinger and His Work |year=2006 |publisher=Thunder's Mouth |location=New York |isbn=1-56025-880-2 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Grunwald |first=Henry Anatole, ed. |title=Salinger, the Classic Critical and Personal Portrait |year=1962 |publisher=Harper Perennial, Harper & Row |location=New York |isbn=0-06185-250-3}}
* {{Cite book|last=French |first=Warren |title=J. D. Salinger, Revisted |year=1988 |publisher=Twayne Publishers |location=Boston, Massachusetts |isbn=0-8057-7522-6 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Hamilton |first=Ian |authorlink=Ian Hamilton (critic) |title=In Search of J. D. Salinger |year=1988 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=0-394-53468-9 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kubica |first=Chris |author2=Hochman, Will |title=Letters to J. D. Salinger |year=2002 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison |isbn=0-299-17800-5 }}
*{{cite book|last1= Lutz |first1= Norma Jean |year= 2002 |origyear= |chapter= Biography of J.D. Salinger |chapterurl= |editor1-last= Bloom |editor1-first= Harold |editor1-link= Harold Bloom |title= J. D. Salinger |url= |type= |series= Bloom's BioCritiques |edition= |location= Philadelphia |publisher= [[Chelsea House]] |publication-date= |pages= 3–44 |doi= |isbn= 0-7910-6175-2 |jstor= |lccn= |oclc= 48473975 |ol= |ssrn= |id= |accessdate= |via= |registration= |subscription= |laysummary= |laysource= |laydate= |ref= harv }}
*{{Cite book|last= Maynard |first= Joyce |authorlink= Joyce Maynard |title= At Home in the World |year= 1998 |publisher= Picador |location= New York |isbn= 0-312-19556-7 |ref= harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Salinger |first=Margaret |title=Dream Catcher: A Memoir |year=2000 |publisher=Washington Square Press |location=New York |isbn=0-671-04281-5 |ref= {{harvid|Margaret Salinger|2000}}}}
* Slawenski, Kenneth (2010). ''J. D. Salinger: A Life Raised High'', London, Pomona Books. {{ISBN|978-1-904590-23-1}}
* {{cite journal | title = Cherished and Cursed: Toward a Social History of The Catcher in the Rye | last = Whitfield | first = Stephen | journal = The New England Quarterly | volume = 70 | issue = 4 | date = December 1997 | pages = 567–600 | doi = 10.2307/366646 | jstor = 366646  | url = http://www.northeastern.edu/neq/pdfs/Whitfield%2C_Stephen_J.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2012-11-02 | ref = harv | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120912144104/http://www.northeastern.edu/neq/pdfs/Whitfield%2C_Stephen_J.pdf | archivedate = September 12, 2012 | df = mdy-all }}
:Reprinted in {{Cite book |title= J. D. Salinger |year=2001 |publisher= [[Chelsea House]] |location=Philadelphia |series= Bloom's BioCritiques |isbn=0-7910-6175-2 |editor1-last= Bloom |editor1-first= Harold |editor1-link= Harold Bloom | pages = 77–105}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Jerome David Salinger}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/29/books/29salinger.html J. D. Salinger, Enigmatic Author, Dies at 91], ''The New York Times'', January 28, 2010
* [http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/nation-world/bal-te.ob.salinger29jan29,0,4629261.story The Reclusive Writer Inspired a Generation], ''Baltimore Sun'', January 29, 2010
* [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/culture-obituaries/books-obituaries/7096097/JD-Salinger.html JD Salinger] – ''Daily Telegraph'' obituary
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3786891.stm Obituary: JD Salinger], BBC News, January 28, 2010
* [http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2010/02/sali-f02.html ''J.D. Salinger (1919–2010): An appreciation''] World Socialist Web Site. February 2, 2010.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040615211038/http://www.tversu.ru/Science/Hermeneutics/1998-2/1998-2-28-eng.pdf Implied meanings in J. D. Salinger stories and reverting]
* [http://www.deadcaulfields.com/DCHome.html Dead Caulfields – The Life and Work of J.D. Salinger]
* [http://catchingsalinger.wordpress.com Catching Salinger] – Serialized documentary about the search for J.D. Salinger
* [http://www.shmoop.com/jd-salinger/ J.D. Salinger] biography, quotes, multimedia, teacher resources
* [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/23725 On J.D. Salinger] by [[Michael Greenberg (writer)|Michael Greenberg]] from ''[[The New York Review of Books]]''
* [http://www.haaretz.com/culture/books/the-courage-to-be-an-absolute-nobody-1.346920 Essay on Salinger's life from Haaretz]
* {{OL author}}
* [http://www.uea.ac.uk/is/archives# J.D. Salinger – Hartog Letters, University of East Anglia]
* [http://www.life.com/gallery/62491/salinger-and-catcher-in-the-rye#index/0 Salinger and 'Catcher in the Rye'] — slideshow by ''[[Life magazine]]''
* [http://www.esquire.com/features/jd-salinger-bio-0697 The Man in the Glass House] — Ron Rosenbaum's 1997 profile for ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]''
* {{IMDb name|0758409}}
* {{LCAuth|n50016589|J. D. Salinger|18|}}
*[https://www.yeyebook.com/en/jerome-david-salinger-a-perfect-day-for-bananafish-short-stories-eng/ J. D. Salinger - A perfect day for Bananafish] (Text of the short story, in: EN FR DE IT ES CH)

{{J. D. Salinger}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Salinger, J. D.}}
[[Category:J. D. Salinger| ]]
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:2010 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century American short story writers]]
[[Category:American Hindus]]
[[Category:American military personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:American people of German descent]]
[[Category:American people of Irish descent]]
[[Category:American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:American people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:Converts to Christianity from Judaism]]
[[Category:Hindus of Jewish descent]]
[[Category:Jewish American novelists]]
[[Category:People from Cornish, New Hampshire]]
[[Category:People from Manhattan]]
[[Category:United States Army soldiers]]
[[Category:Ursinus College alumni]]
[[Category:Columbia University School of General Studies alumni]]
[[Category:Novelists from New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Writers from New York City]]
[[Category:American male novelists]]
[[Category:American male short story writers]]
[[Category:20th-century American male writers]]
[[Category:McBurney School alumni]]
[[Category:Novelists from New York (state)]]
[[Category:Operation Overlord people]]