Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Wikipedia:Edit filter/False positives/Reports

2024-09-12T17:05:11Z

72.142.115.198: /* {{subst:currentuser}} {{subst:^|DO NOT EDIT THIS LINE}} */ new section

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== 194.133.144.32 ==

;Username
: [[User:174.170.189.126|174.170.189.126]] ([[User talk:174.170.189.126|talk]] · [[Special:Contribs/174.170.189.126|contribs]]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=174.170.189.126}} filter log])
;Page you were editing
: [[bercy arena]] ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=bercy+arena}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=bercy+arena&wpSearchUser=174.170.189.126}} user filter log])
;Description
: adding jayz and Kanye West song niggas in Paris performance 11 times in a row. Travis Scott fein 12 times in a row.
;Date and time
: 21:34, 11 September 2024 (UTC)
;Comments

:{{EFFP|t|Accor Arena}} [[User:1AmNobody24|Nobody]] ([[User talk:1AmNobody24|talk]]) 05:17, 12 September 2024 (UTC)

== RFAvaria ==

;Username
: [[User:RFAvaria|RFAvaria]] ([[User talk:RFAvaria|talk]] · [[Special:Contribs/RFAvaria|contribs]]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=RFAvaria}} filter log])
;Page you were editing
: [[Archie Moore]] ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Archie+Moore}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Archie+Moore&wpSearchUser=RFAvaria}} user filter log])
;Description
: this is one of the random pages that popped up on my newcomer screen to practice adding citations. I found two, well 3 but I found an encyclopedia article that was helpful and a book about his life. The third one I found I put the number citation there, but it looks like the person that put the original information may have taken the wording from that page. but I left it alone because I wasn't sure if the page copied wikipedia or if the person that created the Wikipedia page copied that page. So I just added the citations to the encyclopedia and the book and hit publish and then it gave me this page
;Date and time
: 23:19, 11 September 2024 (UTC)
;Comments

:{{EFFP|p|bot=1}} — [[User:MajavahBot|MajavahBot]] ([[User talk:MajavahBot|talk]] · [[Special:Contributions/MajavahBot|contributions]]) 23:19, 11 September 2024 (UTC)
:{{EFFP|nd}} [[New World Encyclopedia]] is not a reliable source. [[User:1AmNobody24|Nobody]] ([[User talk:1AmNobody24|talk]]) 05:19, 12 September 2024 (UTC)
::thanks for letting me know!! have a good day [[User:RFAvaria|RFAvaria]] ([[User talk:RFAvaria|talk]]) 11:38, 12 September 2024 (UTC)

== Victoretad ==

;Username
: [[User:Victoretad|Victoretad]] ([[User talk:Victoretad|talk]] · [[Special:Contribs/Victoretad|contribs]]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Victoretad}} filter log])
;Page you were editing
: [[User:Victoretad/sandbox]] ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=User%3AVictoretad%2Fsandbox}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=User%3AVictoretad%2Fsandbox&wpSearchUser=Victoretad}} user filter log])
;Description
: I was in the process of editing my sandbox page, User/sandbox, to add and format content for a new article. My edits included adding sections and references to the sandbox. However, my edit was flagged as a false positive by the automated filter. The content I added is intended to enhance and complete the draft of the article, and I believe it does not violate Wikipedia's content policies.

If there are specific concerns or issues with my edits, please let me know so I can address them accordingly.
;Date and time
: 03:19, 12 September 2024 (UTC)
;Comments

:{{EFFP|p|bot=1}} — [[User:MajavahBot|MajavahBot]] ([[User talk:MajavahBot|talk]] · [[Special:Contributions/MajavahBot|contributions]]) 03:19, 12 September 2024 (UTC)
:{{EFFP|n}} Based on th past filter hits, this could be a sock of [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/Vwegba4real|Vwegba4real]]. [[User:1AmNobody24|Nobody]] ([[User talk:1AmNobody24|talk]]) 05:29, 12 September 2024 (UTC)

== Dylangt7 ==

;Username
: [[User:Dylangt7|Dylangt7]] ([[User talk:Dylangt7|talk]] · [[Special:Contribs/Dylangt7|contribs]]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Dylangt7}} filter log])
;Page you were editing
: [[Special:MovePage]] ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Special%3AMovePage}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Special%3AMovePage&wpSearchUser=Dylangt7}} user filter log])
;Description
: Correct spelling on the individual named in the article "Dave" to "Davie" also correct year of birth.
;Date and time
: 10:35, 12 September 2024 (UTC)
;Comments

:{{EFFP|p|bot=1}} — [[User:MajavahBot|MajavahBot]] ([[User talk:MajavahBot|talk]] · [[Special:Contributions/MajavahBot|contributions]]) 10:35, 12 September 2024 (UTC)

== 173.54.21.90 ==

;Username
: [[User:173.54.21.90|173.54.21.90]] ([[User talk:173.54.21.90|talk]] · [[Special:Contribs/173.54.21.90|contribs]]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=173.54.21.90}} filter log])
;Page you were editing
: [[List of piscine and amphibian humanoids]] ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=List+of+piscine+and+amphibian+humanoids}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=List+of+piscine+and+amphibian+humanoids&wpSearchUser=173.54.21.90}} user filter log])
;Description
: Glitch
;Date and time
: 12:26, 12 September 2024 (UTC)
;Comments

:{{EFFP|p|bot=1}} — [[User:MajavahBot|MajavahBot]] ([[User talk:MajavahBot|talk]] · [[Special:Contributions/MajavahBot|contributions]]) 12:27, 12 September 2024 (UTC)
:{{EFFP|nd}} [[User:1AmNobody24|Nobody]] ([[User talk:1AmNobody24|talk]]) 13:29, 12 September 2024 (UTC)

== 50.255.46.35 ==

;Username
: [[User:50.255.46.35|50.255.46.35]] ([[User talk:50.255.46.35|talk]] · [[Special:Contribs/50.255.46.35|contribs]]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=50.255.46.35}} filter log])
;Page you were editing
: [[Nevada]] ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Nevada}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Nevada&wpSearchUser=50.255.46.35}} user filter log])
;Description
:
;Date and time
: 17:03, 12 September 2024 (UTC)
;Comments


== 72.142.115.198 ==

;Username
: [[User:72.142.115.198|72.142.115.198]] ([[User talk:72.142.115.198|talk]] · [[Special:Contribs/72.142.115.198|contribs]]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=72.142.115.198}} filter log])
;Page you were editing
: [[Robert Sobukwe]] ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Robert+Sobukwe}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Robert+Sobukwe&wpSearchUser=72.142.115.198}} user filter log])
;Description
: I was trying to add information that i Saw in a book
;Date and time
: 17:05, 12 September 2024 (UTC)
;Comments

March 13

2024-09-12T17:01:14Z

72.142.115.198:

{{pp-move}}
{{pp-pc}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}

==Events==
===Pre-1600===
* [[624]] – The [[Battle of Badr]], the first major battle between the Muslims and Quraysh.<ref>W. Montgomery Watt (1956), [https://archive.org/details/muhammadatmedina029655mbp ''Muhammad at Medina''] Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 12. Watt notes that the date for the battle is also recorded as the 19th or the 21st of Ramadan (15 or 17 March 624).</ref>
*[[1567]] – The [[Battle of Oosterweel]], traditionally regarded as the start of the [[Eighty Years' War]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Parker |first1=Geoffrey |title=Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II |date=2014 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-21044-6 |page=151 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3O6uBAAAQBAJ&q=%22Battle+of+Oosterweel%22+march+13&pg=PA151 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1591]] – At the [[Battle of Tondibi]] in [[Mali]], [[Morocco|Moroccan]] forces of the [[Saadi dynasty]], led by [[Judar Pasha]], defeat the [[Songhai Empire]], despite being outnumbered by at least five to one.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kaba |first1=Lansiné |title=Archers, Musketeers, and Mosquitoes: The Moroccan Invasion of the Sudan and the Songhay Resistance (1591-1612) |journal=The Journal of African History |date=1981 |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=457–475 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700019861 |jstor=181298 |pmid=11632225 |s2cid=41500711 |issn=0021-8537}}</ref>

===1601–1900===
*[[1639]] – [[Harvard College]] is named after clergyman [[John Harvard (clergyman)|John Harvard]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Morison |first1=Samuel Eliot |title=The Founding of Harvard College |date=1995 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-31451-1 |page=221 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PQMdzhnfaSwC&q=%22harvard+college%22+march+13&pg=PA221 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1697]] – [[Nojpetén]], capital of the last independent [[Itza people|Maya]] kingdom, falls to Spanish [[conquistador]]s, the final step in the [[Spanish conquest of Guatemala]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Grant D. |title=The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom |date=1998 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-3522-3 |page=xix |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PeOWl54Mt7UC&q=march+13 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1741]] – The [[Battle of Cartagena de Indias]] (part of the [[War of Jenkins' Ear]]) begins.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.grandesbatallas.es/the%20battle%20of%20cartagena%20de%20indias.html|title=the battle of cartagena de indias,Jenkins Ear War|website=www.grandesbatallas.es|access-date=2020-04-10}}</ref>
*[[1781]] – [[William Herschel]] discovers [[Uranus]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kamp |first1=P. |title=Dark Companions of Stars: Astrometric Commentary on the Lower End of the Main Sequence |date=1986 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-90-277-2270-6 |page=281 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y-GrtPcPMjsC&q=uranus+%22march+13%22&pg=PA281 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1809]] – [[Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden]] is deposed in the [[Coup of 1809]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=Franklin Daniel |title=Sweden, the Nation's History |date=1988 |publisher=SIU Press |isbn=978-0-8093-1489-8 |page=295 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qv8zxie3A18C&q=gustav+adolf+march+13+1809&pg=PA295 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1811]] – A French and Italian fleet [[Battle of Lissa (1811)|is defeated]] by a British squadron off the island of [[Vis (island)|Vis]] in the [[Adriatic]] during the [[Napoleonic Wars]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Woodman | first = Richard | author-link = Richard Woodman | year = 2001 | title = The Sea Warriors | publisher = Constable Publishers |pages= 255–56| isbn = 1-84119-183-3}}</ref>
*[[1815]] – Participants at the [[Congress of Vienna]] declare [[Napoleon]] an [[outlaw]] following his escape from [[Elba]]<ref>Price, Munro. ''Napoleon: The End of Glory''. Oxford University Press, 2014.</ref>
*[[1826]] – [[Pope Leo XII]] publishes the [[apostolic constitution]] ''[[Quo graviora (1826)|Quo Graviora]]'' in which he renewed the prohibition on Catholics joining [[freemasonry]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.papalencyclicals.net/leo12/l12quogr.htm|title=Quo Graviora|date=March 13, 1826}}</ref>
*[[1845]] – [[Felix Mendelssohn]]'s [[Violin Concerto (Mendelssohn)|Violin Concerto]] receives its première performance in [[Leipzig]] with [[Ferdinand David (musician)|Ferdinand David]] as soloist.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rudolf |first1=Max |last2=Rudolf |first2=William |title=A Musical Life: Writings and Letters |date=2001 |publisher=Pendragon Press |isbn=978-1-57647-038-1 |page=186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJiPF-PPodwC&q=%22Mendelssohn%27s+Violin+Concerto%22+march+13&pg=PA186 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1848]] – The [[German revolutions of 1848–1849]] begin in Vienna.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dill |first1=Marshall |title=Germany: A Modern History |date=1970 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-07101-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/germanymodernhis00dill/page/105 105] |url=https://archive.org/details/germanymodernhis00dill |url-access=registration |quote=march 13. |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1862]] – The [[Act Prohibiting the Return of Slaves]] is passed by the [[United States Congress]], effectively annulling the [[Fugitive Slave Act of 1850]] and setting the stage for the [[Emancipation Proclamation]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Additional Article of War, March 13, 1862 |url=http://www.freedmen.umd.edu/artwar.htm |website=www.freedmen.umd.edu |access-date=16 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825234718/http://www.freedmen.umd.edu/artwar.htm |archive-date=25 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1884]] – The [[Siege of Khartoum]] begins. It lasts until January 26, 1885.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sandler |first1=Stanley |title=Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia |date=2002 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-344-5 |page=459 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L_xxOM85bD8C&q=Khartoum+seige+march+13&pg=PA459 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1888]] – The [[1888 Ritter Island eruption and tsunami|eruption of Ritter Island]] triggers [[tsunami]]s that kill up to 3,000 people on nearby islands.<ref>{{cite gvp|vn=251070 |name=Ritter Island |access-date=2023-03-14}}</ref>
*[[1900]] – British forces occupy [[Bloemfontein]], [[Orange Free State]], during the [[Second Boer War]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Arthur Clive |title=The Concentration Camps, 1900-1902: Facts Figures, and Fables |date=1956 |publisher=H. Timmins |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKkwAAAAIAAJ&q=march+13 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

===1901–present===
*[[1920]] – The [[Kapp Putsch]] briefly ousts the [[Weimar Republic]] government from [[Berlin]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Richards |first1=Michael D. |last2=Waibel |first2=Paul R. |title=Twentieth-Century Europe: A Brief History, 1900 to the Present |date=2014 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-65138-4 |page=125 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-jOAgAAQBAJ&q=march+13+kapp&pg=PA125 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1930]] – The news of the discovery of [[Pluto]] is announced by [[Lowell Observatory]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hoyt |first1=William Graves |title=W. H. Pickering's Planetary Predictions and the Discovery of Pluto |journal=Isis |date=December 1976 |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=551–564 |doi=10.1086/351668 |pmid=794024 |s2cid=26512655 }}</ref>
*[[1940]] – The [[Winter War]] between [[Finland]] and the [[Soviet Union]] officially ends after the signing of the [[Moscow Peace Treaty]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://yle.fi/news/3-5527174|title=70th Anniversary of the End of the Winter War|work=[[Yle News]]|date=13 March 2010|access-date=13 March 2022}}</ref>
*[[1943]] – [[The Holocaust]]: [[Nazi Germany|German]] forces liquidate the [[Kraków Ghetto|Jewish ghetto in Kraków]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rubin |first1=Arnon |title=Facts and Fictions about the Rescue of the Polish Jewry During the Holocaust: Jewish welfare services in the occupied Poland |date=2003 |publisher=Tel Aviv University Press |isbn=978-965-555-144-0 |page=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZd6AAAAMAAJ&q=Krak%C3%B3w+Ghetto+liquidation+march+13 |access-date=22 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1954]] – The [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu|Battle of Điện Biên Phủ]] begins with an artillery barrage by [[Viet Minh]] forces under [[Võ Nguyên Giáp]]; Viet Minh victory led to the end of the [[First Indochina War]] and French withdrawal from Vietnam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davidson |first1=Phillip B. |title=Vietnam at War: The History, 1946-1975 |date=1991 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-506792-7 |page=234 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=seXWfsD46QQC |access-date=22 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1957]] – [[Cuba]]n student revolutionaries storm the [[Museum of the Revolution (Cuba)|presidential palace]] in [[Havana]] in a failed attempt on the life of President [[Fulgencio Batista]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bonachea |first1=Ramon L. |title=Cuban Insurrection 1952-1959 |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-52470-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1PdKDwAAQBAJ |access-date=22 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1969]] – [[Apollo 9]] returns safely to [[Earth]] after testing the [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mansfield |first1=Cheryl L. |title=Apollo 9 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo9.html |website=NASA |access-date=22 February 2020 |language=en |date=9 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217201729/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo9.html |archive-date=17 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1974]] – [[Sierra Pacific Airlines Flight 802]] crashes into the [[White Mountains (California)|White Mountains]] near [[Bishop, California]], killing 36.<ref name="AAR-75-01 Final Report">{{Cite web |date=1975-01-10 |title=Aircraft Accident Report - Sierra Pacific Airlines, Inc., Convair 340/440, N4819C, Near Bishop, California, March 13, 1974 |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/AAR7501.pdf |access-date=11 October 2023 |publisher=[[National Transportation Safety Board]] |id=NTSB-AAR-75-01}}</ref>
*[[1979]] – The [[New Jewel Movement]], headed by [[Maurice Bishop]], ousts the [[List of heads of government of Grenada|Prime Minister of Grenada]], [[Eric Gairy]], in a [[coup d'état]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Biography: Sir Eric Matthew Gairy {{!}} MGov |url=https://www.mgovernance.net/biography-sir-eric-matthew-gairy |website=www.mgovernance.net |access-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204152714/https://www.mgovernance.net/biography-sir-eric-matthew-gairy |archive-date=4 February 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1988]] – The [[Seikan Tunnel]], the longest tunnel in the world with an undersea segment, opens between [[Aomori]] and [[Hakodate]], Japan.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Langmead|first1=Donald|last2=Garnaut|first2=Christine|title=Encyclopedia of Architectural and Engineering Feats|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofar0000lang|url-access=registration|access-date=11 March 2018|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576071120|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofar0000lang/page/301 301]}}</ref>
*[[1992]] – The {{M|w}} 6.6 [[1992 Erzincan earthquake|Erzincan earthquake]] strikes eastern [[Turkey]] with a maximum [[Modified Mercalli intensity scale|Mercalli intensity]] of VIII (''Severe'').<ref>{{cite web |title=Search the Event Bibliography |url=http://www.isc.ac.uk/cgi-bin/FormatBibprint.pl?evid=299638 |website=International Seismological Centre Online Event Bibliography |publisher=ISC |access-date=22 February 2020}}</ref>
*[[1993]] – The [[1993 Storm of the Century]] affects the [[eastern United States]], dropping feet of snow in many areas.<ref>{{cite web |title=Superstorm of 1993 "Storm of the Century" |url=https://www.weather.gov/ilm/Superstorm93 |website=National Weather Service |publisher=NWS |access-date=October 9, 2020}}</ref>
*[[1996]] – The [[Dunblane massacre]] leads to the death of sixteen primary school children and one teacher in [[Dunblane]], Scotland.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mass shootings and gun control |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/10216955 |access-date=22 February 2020 |work=BBC News |date=2 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822041954/https://www.bbc.com/news/10216955 |archive-date=22 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1997]] – The [[Missionaries of Charity]] choose [[Nirmala Joshi|Sister Nirmala]] to succeed [[Mother Teresa]] as their leader.<ref>{{cite news |date=13 March 1997 |title=Indian-born nun to succeed Mother Teresa |url=http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9703/13/india.teresa/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403233833/http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9703/13/india.teresa/ |archive-date=3 April 2017 |access-date=22 February 2020 |work=CNN}}</ref>
*[[2003]] – An article in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' identifies the [[Ciampate del Diavolo]] as 350,000-year-old hominid footprints.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mietto|first1=Paolo|last2=Avanzini|first2=Marco|last3=Rolandi|first3=Giuseppe|title=Palaeontology: Human footprints in Pleistocene volcanic ash|journal=Nature|volume=422|issue=6928|year=2003|pages=133|issn=0028-0836|doi=10.1038/422133a|bibcode=2003Natur.422..133M|pmid=12634773|s2cid=2396763|doi-access=free}}</ref>
*[[2012]] – The [[Sierre coach crash]] kills 28 people, including 22 children.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hope |first=Alan |date=1 July 2014 |title=Sierre bus crash investigation closed without charges |url=http://www.flanderstoday.eu/current-affairs/sierre-bus-crash-investigation-closed-without-charges |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229075742/http://www.flanderstoday.eu/current-affairs/sierre-bus-crash-investigation-closed-without-charges |archive-date=29 December 2019 |access-date=22 February 2020 |work=Flanders Today}}</ref>
*[[2013]] – The [[2013 papal conclave]] elects Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio taking the name [[Pope Francis]] as the [[List of popes|266th]] [[Pope]] of the [[Catholic Church]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Argentinian Jorge Mario Bergoglio elected Pope |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/2013/0313/376399-cardinals-to-resume-conclave-in-vatican/ |access-date=22 February 2020 |date=13 March 2013 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190615195029/https://www.rte.ie/news/2013/0313/376399-cardinals-to-resume-conclave-in-vatican/ |archive-date=15 June 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[2016]] – The [[March 2016 Ankara bombing|Ankara bombing]] kills at least 37 people.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Akkoc |first1=Raziye |last2=js |first2=video source Storyful 2:51PM GMT 14 Mar 2016 Follow !function{var |title=Ankara explosion: Turkish president vows war on terror as officials say one bomber was 'female Kurdish militant' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/turkey/12192759/Ankara-explosion-Several-wounded-in-centre-of-Turkish-capital-Kizilay.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313184822/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/turkey/12192759/Ankara-explosion-Several-wounded-in-centre-of-Turkish-capital-Kizilay.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 13, 2016 |access-date=22 February 2020 |work=www.telegraph.co.uk |date=14 March 2016 |language=en}}</ref>
* 2016 – Three gunmen [[Grand-Bassam shootings|attack]] two hotels in the [[Ivory Coast]] town of [[Grand-Bassam]], killing at least 19 people.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Quist-Arcton |first1=Ofeibea |title=Ivory Coast Struggles To Keep Economy Afloat After Terror Attack |url=https://www.npr.org/2016/03/20/471161418/ivory-coast-struggles-to-keep-economy-afloat-after-terror-attack?t=1582101711290 |access-date=19 February 2020 |work=NPR.org |date=20 March 2016 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219084358/https://www.npr.org/2016/03/20/471161418/ivory-coast-struggles-to-keep-economy-afloat-after-terror-attack%3Ft%3D1582101711290 |archive-date=19 February 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[2020]] – President [[Donald Trump]] declares the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19 pandemic]] to be a [[State of emergency|national emergency]] in the United States.<ref>"[https://millercenter.org/president/trump/key-events Donald Trump - Key Events | Miller Center]". ''millercenter.org''. 2021-01-28. Retrieved 2022-01-11.</ref>
* 2020 – [[Breonna Taylor]] is [[Killing of Breonna Taylor|killed]] by police officers who were forcibly entering her home in [[Louisville, Kentucky]]; her death sparked [[Breonna Taylor protests|extensive protests]] against racism and police brutality.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Costello |first1=Darcy |last2=Duvall |first2=Tessa |title=Minute by minute: What happened the night Louisville police fatally shot Breonna Taylor |url=https://eu.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/05/15/minute-minute-account-breonna-taylor-fatal-shooting-louisville-police/5196867002/ |access-date=6 December 2020 |work=USA TODAY}}</ref>

==Births==

===Pre-1600===
*[[1372]] – [[Louis I, Duke of Orléans]] (d. 1407)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Darwin |first1=Francis Darwin Swift |title=Louis D'Orleans (1372-1407). |date=1936 |publisher=J. Murray |page=i |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LIcaAAAAMAAJ |access-date=12 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref> JOHN PPORK
*[[1479]] – [[Lazarus Spengler]], German hymnwriter (d. 1534)<ref>{{cite book|author1=C. George Fry|author2=Joel R. Kurz|title=Americanization Process in the Second Generation: The German Luther Matthias Log (1828-1915) Caught Between Adaptation and Repristinization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n-zqAAAAMAAJ|date=20 June 2005|publisher=Edwin Mellen Press|isbn=978-0-7734-6156-7}}</ref>
*[[1560]] – [[William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg]], Dutch count (d. 1620)<ref>{{cite web |title=William Louis {{!}} stadholder of Friesland |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Louis |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=12 January 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200112103540/https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Louis |archive-date=12 January 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1593]] – [[Georges de La Tour]], French painter (probable;<ref>{{cite book|author=Jacques Thuillier|title=Georges de La Tour|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P6XqAAAAMAAJ|date=7 October 1993|publisher=Flammarion|isbn=9782080135247}}</ref> d. 1652)
*[[1599]] – [[John Berchmans]], Belgian Jesuit scholastic and saint (d. 1621)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Guiley |first1=Rosemary |title=The Encyclopedia of Saints |date=2001 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-3026-2 |page=176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ABkgU0GOBbcC |access-date=12 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

===1601–1900===
*[[1615]] – [[Pope Innocent XII|Innocent XII]], pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1700)<ref>{{cite book|author=Pierre Claude François Daunou|title=The Power of the Popes: Or, an Historical Essay on Their Temporal Dominion, the Abuse of Their Spiritual Authority, and the Wars They Have Declared Against Sovereigns; Containing Very Extraordinary Documents of the Roman Court Never Before Published : Translated from the French|url=https://archive.org/details/powerpopesoranh00daungoog|year=1838|publisher=Tims|pages=[https://archive.org/details/powerpopesoranh00daungoog/page/n391 377]–}}</ref>
*[[1683]] – [[Johann Wilhelm Weinmann]], German botanist (d. 1741)<ref>{{cite web |title=Harvard University Herbaria - Botany Libraries Mycological Illustration Farlow Herbarium Cryptogamic Botany Archives |url=http://www2.huh.harvard.edu/libraries/mycology/Myco_books7.htm |website=www2.huh.harvard.edu |access-date=20 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130701154554/http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libraries/mycology/Myco_books7.htm |archive-date=1 July 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1700]] – [[Michel Blavet]], French flute player and composer (d. 1768)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Greene |first1=David Mason |last2=Green |first2=Constance |title=Greene's Biographical Encyclopedia of Composers |date=1985 |publisher=Reproducing Piano Roll Fnd. |isbn=978-0-385-14278-6 |page=282 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m3S7PIxe0mwC&q=Michel+Blavet+march+13 |access-date=20 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1719]] – [[John Griffin, 4th Baron Howard de Walden]], English field marshal and politician, [[Lord Lieutenant of Essex]] (d. 1797)<ref>{{cite DNB |wstitle=Griffin, John Griffin |first=Edward James |last=Rapson |volume=23}}</ref>
*[[1720]] – [[Charles Bonnet]], Swiss historian and author (d. 1793)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lang |first1=Harry G. |last2=Meath-Lang |first2=Bonnie |title=Deaf Persons in the Arts and Sciences: A Biographical Dictionary |date=1995 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-29170-8 |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6OaPbpdmxEgC&q=%22charles+bonnet%22+march+13&pg=PA41 |access-date=22 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1741]] – [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. 1790)<ref>{{cite web |title=Joseph II {{!}} Holy Roman emperor |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-II |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=22 January 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214150348/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-II |archive-date=14 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1763]] – [[Guillaume Brune]], French general and diplomat (d. 1815)<ref>{{cite web |title=Guillaume Brune {{!}} French commander |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Guillaume-Marie-Anne-Brune |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=1 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017093602/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Guillaume-Marie-Anne-Brune |archive-date=17 October 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1764]] – [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey]], English politician, [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. 1845)<ref>{{cite ODNB|id=11526|title=Grey, Charles, second Earl Grey}}</ref>
*[[1770]] – [[Daniel Lambert]], English animal breeder (d. 1809)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bondeson |first1=Jan |title=Freaks : the pig-faced lady of Manchester Square & other medical marvels |year=2006 |publisher=Tempus Publishing |location=Stroud |isbn=0-7524-3662-7 |page=112}}</ref>
*[[1781]] – [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]], German painter and architect, designed the [[Konzerthaus Berlin]] (d. 1841)<ref>{{cite web |title=Karl Friedrich Schinkel {{!}} German architect and painter |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Karl-Friedrich-Schinkel |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=1 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160606000443/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Karl-Friedrich-Schinkel |archive-date=6 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1798]] – [[Abigail Fillmore]], American wife of [[Millard Fillmore]], 14th [[First Lady of the United States]] (d. 1853)<ref>{{cite web |title=Abigail Fillmore Biography :: National First Ladies' Library |url=http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=14 |website=www.firstladies.org |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120509083727/http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=14 |archive-date=9 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[1800]] – [[Mustafa Reşid Pasha]], Ottoman politician, 212th [[List of Ottoman Grand Viziers|Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire]] (d. 1858)<ref>{{cite web |title=Mustafa Reşid Paşa {{!}} Ottoman vizier |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mustafa-Resid-Pasa |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=2 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802014715/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mustafa-Resid-Pasa |archive-date=2 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1815]] – [[James Curtis Hepburn]], American physician, linguist, and missionary (d. 1911)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Otis |first1=Cary |title=A history of Christianity in Japan |date=1976 |publisher=Рипол Классик |isbn=978-5-88362-198-6 |page=47 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=91QWAwAAQBAJ&q=James+Curtis+Hepburn+march+13&pg=PA47 |access-date=2 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1825]] – [[Hans Gude]], Norwegian-German painter and academic (d. 1903)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leiren |first1=Terje |last2=Sjåvik |first2=Jan |title=Historical Dictionary of Norway |date=2019 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-5381-2312-6 |page=120 |edition=Second |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=98SrDwAAQBAJ&q=Hans+Gude+march+13&pg=PA120 |access-date=2 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1855]] – [[Percival Lowell]], American astronomer and mathematician (d. 1916)<ref name="BEagle" />
*[[1857]] – [[B. H. Roberts]], English-American historian and politician (d. 1933)<ref>{{cite ANB |id=0801283|title=Roberts, Brigham Henry (1857-1933), Mormon leader, writer, and politician |url=https://www.anb.org/view/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.001.0001/anb-9780198606697-e-0801283|access-date=4 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204135828/https://www.anb.org/view/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.001.0001/anb-9780198606697-e-0801283;jsessionid%3D5F434198CB36356B99F39D170703F7DB |archive-date=4 February 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1860]] – [[Hugo Wolf]], Slovene-Austrian composer (d. 1903)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Keller |first1=James M. |title=Chamber Music: A Listener's Guide |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-020639-0 |page=489 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ms0dDAAAQBAJ&q=%22Hugo+Wolf%22+march+13&pg=PA489 |access-date=3 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1862]] – [[Paul Prosper Henrys]], French general (d. 1943)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |title=World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection [5 volumes]: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection |date=2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-965-8 |page=751 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBwTBQAAQBAJ&q=%22Paul+Prosper+Henrys%22+march+13&pg=PA751 |access-date=3 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1864]] – [[Alexej von Jawlensky]], Russian-German painter (d. 1941)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Belgin |first1=Tayfun |last2=Petrova |first2=Evgenii͡a͡ Andreevna |title=Alexej von Jawlensky: a biography |date=2000 |publisher=Palace Editions |page=18 |isbn=9785933320272 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_LpAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Alexej+von+Jawlensky%22+march+13 |access-date=3 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1870]] – [[William Glackens]], American painter and illustrator (d. 1938)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerdts |first1=William H. |last2=Santis |first2=Jorge H. |last3=Glackens |first3=William J. |title=William Glackens |date=1996 |publisher=Museum of Art |isbn=978-1-55859-868-3 |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tp9PAAAAMAAJ&q=%22William+Glackens%22+march+13 |access-date=3 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1874]] – [[Ellery Harding Clark]], American jumper, coach, and lawyer (d. 1949)<ref>{{cite web |title=Ellery Clark Bio, Stats, and Results |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/cl/ellery-clark-1.html |website=Olympics at Sports-Reference.com |access-date=4 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114195241/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/cl/ellery-clark-1.html |archive-date=14 January 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[1880]] – [[Josef Gočár]], Czech architect (d. 1945)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Teige |first1=Karel |title=Modern Architecture in Czechoslovakia and Other Writings |date=2000 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-0-89236-596-8 |page=261 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UuHTIFZKvtQC&q=%22Josef+Go%C4%8D%C3%A1r%22+march+13&pg=PA261 |access-date=7 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1883]] – [[Enrico Toselli]], Italian pianist and composer (d. 1926)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Greene |first1=David Mason |last2=Green |first2=Constance |title=Greene's Biographical Encyclopedia of Composers |date=1985 |publisher=Reproducing Piano Roll Fnd. |isbn=978-0-385-14278-6 |page=1123 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m3S7PIxe0mwC&q=%22Enrico+Toselli%22+march+13&pg=PA1123 |access-date=7 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1884]] – [[Hugh Walpole]], New Zealand-English author and educator (d. 1941)<ref>{{Cite odnb|id=36711|title=Walpole, Sir Hugh Seymour}}</ref>
*[[1886]] – [[Home Run Baker]], American baseball player and manager (d. 1963)<ref>{{cite web |title=Home Run Baker |url=https://baseballhall.org/hall-of-famers/baker-frank |website=Baseball Hall of Fame |access-date=7 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203200326/https://baseballhall.org/hall-of-famers/baker-frank |archive-date=3 February 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1886 – [[Albert William Stevens]], American captain and photographer (d. 1949)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kennedy |first1=Betty R. |title=An Illustrated History of Scott Air Force Base, 1917-1987 |date=1987 |publisher=Military Airlift Command, Historical Office, U.S. Air Force |page=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedhisto00scot/page/143 143] |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedhisto00scot |quote=Albert William Stevens march 13. |access-date=7 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1888]] – [[Paul Morand]], French author and diplomat (d. 1976)<ref>{{cite web |title=Paul Morand {{!}} French author and diplomat |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Morand |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=7 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922140430/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Morand |archive-date=22 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1890]] – [[Fritz Busch]], German conductor and director (d. 1951)<ref>{{cite book|author=Don Michael Randel|title=The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7iuZ6HaEMmoC&pg=PA100|access-date=6 December 2012|year=1999|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-00084-1|pages=100–101|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231171912/http://books.google.com/books?id=7iuZ6HaEMmoC&pg=PA100|archive-date=31 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[1892]] – [[Janet Flanner]], American journalist and author (d. 1978)<ref>{{cite ANB|id=1602012|title=Flanner, Janet}}</ref>
*[[1897]] – [[Yeghishe Charents]], Armenian poet and activist (d. 1937)<ref>{{cite news |title=117th anniversary of Yeghishe Charents to be celebrated by series of literary events |url=https://armenpress.am/eng/news/753479 |access-date=7 February 2020 |work=armenpress.am |date=12 March 2014 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1898]] – [[Henry Hathaway]], American director and producer (d. 1985)<ref>{{cite web |title=Henry Hathaway |url=http://projects.latimes.com/hollywood/star-walk/henry-hathaway/ |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=7 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722134218/http://projects.latimes.com/hollywood/star-walk/henry-hathaway/ |archive-date=22 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1899]] – [[John Hasbrouck Van Vleck]], American physicist and mathematician, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. 1980)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lundqvist |first1=Stig |title=Nobel Lectures, Physics 1971–1980 |date=1992 |publisher=World Scientific Publishing Co. |location=Singapore |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1977/vleck/biographical/ |access-date=7 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212065543/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1977/vleck/biographical |archive-date=12 February 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1899 – [[Pancho Vladigerov]], Bulgarian pianist and composer (d. 1978)<ref>{{cite web |title=120 years since the birth of celebrated composer Pancho Vladigerov |url=https://bnr.bg/en/post/101092807/120-years-since-the-birth-of-celebrated-composer-pancho-vladigerov |website=bnr.bg |access-date=7 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1900]] – [[Andrée Bosquet]], Belgian painter (d. 1980)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.galeriedupistoletdor.com/gdpo/Bosquet.htm|title=Andree Bosquet - Groupe Nervia - Frans Depooter - Le Bon vouloir - Galerie du Pistolet d'Or|website=www.galeriedupistoletdor.com|access-date=2017-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025084424/http://www.galeriedupistoletdor.com/gdpo/Bosquet.htm|archive-date=2017-10-25|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 1900 – [[Giorgos Seferis]], Greek poet and diplomat, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. 1971)<ref>{{cite web |title=The Nobel Prize in Literature 1963 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1963/seferis/facts/ |website=NobelPrize.org |access-date=7 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403121544/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1963/seferis/facts/ |archive-date=3 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===1901–present===
*[[1902]] – [[Hans Bellmer]], German-French painter and sculptor (d. 1975)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Elsen |first1=Albert Edward |title=Modern European sculpture, 1918-1945: unknown beings and other realities |date=1979 |publisher=G. Braziller |isbn=978-0-8076-0920-0 |page=173 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r1PqAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Hans+Bellmer%22+march+13 |access-date=7 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1904]] – [[Clifford Roach]], Trinidadian cricketer and footballer (d. 1988)<ref>{{cite web |title=Clifford Roach |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/westindies/content/player/52815.html |website=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN |access-date=7 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404010937/http://www.espncricinfo.com/westindies/content/player/52815.html |archive-date=4 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1907]] – [[Dorothy Tangney]], Australian politician (d. 1985)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kerley |first1=Margot |title=TANGNEY, Dame Dorothy Margaret (1907–1985) Senator for Western Australia, 1943–68 (Australian Labor Party) {{!}} The Biographical Dictionary of the Australian Senate |url=https://biography.senate.gov.au/tangney-dorothy-margaret/ |publisher=Parliament of Australia |access-date=7 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227185334/http://biography.senate.gov.au/tangney-dorothy-margaret/ |archive-date=27 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1908]] – [[Walter Annenberg]], American publisher, philanthropist, and diplomat, [[United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom]] (d. 2002)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Glueck |first1=Grace |title=Walter Annenberg, 94, Dies; Philanthropist and Publisher |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/02/arts/walter-annenberg-94-dies-philanthropist-and-publisher.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm |access-date=7 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=2 October 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924185812/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/02/arts/walter-annenberg-94-dies-philanthropist-and-publisher.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm |archive-date=24 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1908 – [[Myrtle Bachelder]], American chemist and [[Women's Army Corps]] officer (d. 1997)<ref>{{cite web |title=Myrtle C. Bachelder |url=https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/myrtle-c-bachelder |website=Atomic Heritage Foundation |access-date=7 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716052125/https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/myrtle-c-bachelder |archive-date=16 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1910]] – [[Sammy Kaye]], American saxophonist, songwriter, and bandleader (d. 1987)<ref>{{Cite ANB|id=1802282|title=Kaye, Sammy}}</ref>
* 1910 – [[Kemal Tahir]], Turkish journalist and author (d. 1973)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gibb |first1=Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen |last2=Lewis |first2=Bernard |last3=Pellat |first3=Charles |title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |date=1975 |publisher=Brill |page=882 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYnrAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Kemal+Tahir%22+march+13 |access-date=7 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1911]] – [[José Ardévol]], Cuban composer and conductor (d. 1981)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Don |first1=Randel |title=The Harvard Biographical Dictionary of Music |date=1996 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-37299-3 |page=24 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEGpMqRcQjIC&q=Jose+Ardevol |access-date=7 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1911 – [[L. Ron Hubbard]], American author, founder of [[Scientology]] (d. 1986)<ref>{{Citation|title=L. Ron Hubbard|date=2020-12-02|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/L-Ron-Hubbard|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-12-17}}</ref>
*[[1913]] – [[William J. Casey]], American politician, 13th [[Director of Central Intelligence]] (d. 1987)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pace |first1=Eric |title=William Casey, Ex-C.i.a. Head, Is Dead at 74 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/05/07/obituaries/william-casey-ex-cia-head-is-dead-at-74.html |access-date=7 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=7 May 1987 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524154947/https://www.nytimes.com/1987/05/07/obituaries/william-casey-ex-cia-head-is-dead-at-74.html |archive-date=24 May 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1913 – [[Sergey Mikhalkov]], Russian author and playwright (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite news |title=Sergei Mikhalkov |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/politics-obituaries/6106472/Sergei-Mikhalkov.html |access-date=8 February 2020 |work=The Telegraph |date=28 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205125230/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/politics-obituaries/6106472/Sergei-Mikhalkov.html |archive-date=5 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1914]] – [[W. O. Mitchell]], Canadian author and playwright (d. 1998)<ref>{{cite book |title=Saskatchewan Writers: Lives Past and Present |date=2004 |publisher=University of Regina Press |isbn=978-0-88977-163-5 |first=Heather |last=Hodgson|page=155 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gNUNUP5qjUoC&q=%22W.+O.+Mitchell%22+march+13&pg=PA155 |access-date=8 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1914 – [[Edward O'Hare]], American lieutenant and pilot, [[Medal of Honor]] recipient (d. 1943)<ref>{{cite magazine |author= |title=Five Aviators Enshrined |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N6LiBe2MBoEC&q=%22Edward+O%27Hare%22+march+13&pg=RA9-PA22 |magazine=Naval Aviation News |publisher=Chief of Naval Operations |date=June 1992 |access-date=8 February 2020}}</ref>
*[[1916]] – [[Lindy Boggs]], American educator and politician, 5th [[United States Ambassador to the Holy See]] (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wasniewski |first1=Matthew |title=Women in Congress, 1917-2006 |date=2006 |publisher=Government Printing Office |isbn=978-0-16-076753-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/womenincongress100wasn/page/501 501] |url=https://archive.org/details/womenincongress100wasn |url-access=registration |quote=Roland Claiborne and Corinne Morrison. |access-date=9 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217043846/https://archive.org/details/womenincongress100wasn |archive-date=17 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1916 – [[Jacque Fresco]], American engineer and academic (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sandomir |first1=Richard |title=Jacque Fresco, Futurist Who Envisioned a Society Without Money, Dies at 101 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/24/us/jacque-fresco-futurist-who-envisioned-a-society-without-money-dies-at-101.html |access-date=9 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=24 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230211545/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/24/us/jacque-fresco-futurist-who-envisioned-a-society-without-money-dies-at-101.html |archive-date=30 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1920]] – [[Ralph J. Roberts]], American businessman, co-founded [[Comcast]] (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rifkin |first1=Glenn |title=Ralph Roberts, Cable TV Pioneer Who Built Comcast, Dies at 95 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/20/business/media/ralph-roberts-cable-tv-pioneer-who-built-comcast-dies-at-95.html?_r=0 |access-date=9 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=19 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205003739/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/20/business/media/ralph-roberts-cable-tv-pioneer-who-built-comcast-dies-at-95.html?_r=0 |archive-date=5 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1921]] – [[Al Jaffee]], American cartoonist (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite web |title=Al Jaffee Papers, 1945-2018 |url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_10277813/ |website=www.columbia.edu |access-date=9 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201113515/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_10277813/ |archive-date=1 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1923]] – [[Dimitrios Ioannidis]], Greek general (d. 2010)<ref>{{cite news |title=Dimitrios Ioannidis |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/military-obituaries/7950781/Dimitrios-Ioannidis.html |access-date=9 February 2020 |date=17 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107041520/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/military-obituaries/7950781/Dimitrios-Ioannidis.html |archive-date=7 January 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1925]] – [[Roy Haynes]], American drummer and composer<ref>{{cite web |last1=Morrison |first1=Allen |title=Turning 90, Drummer Roy Haynes Celebrates with Metheny and McBride |url=https://jazztimes.com/reviews/live/turning-90-drummer-roy-haynes-celebrates-with-metheny-and-mcbride/ |website=JazzTimes |access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref>
*[[1926]] – [[Carlos Roberto Reina]], Honduran lawyer and politician, [[President of Honduras]] (d. 2003)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Adenekan |first1=Shola |title=Obituary: Carlos Reina |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/oct/31/guardianobituaries |access-date=9 February 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=31 October 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128052410/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/oct/31/guardianobituaries |archive-date=28 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1929]] – [[Zbigniew Messner]], Polish economist and politician, 9th [[List of Prime Ministers of Poland|Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland]] (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite news |title=Zmarł Zbigniew Messner, były prezes Piasta |url=http://piast.gliwice.pl/2014/01/10/zmarl-zbigniew-messner-byly-prezes-piasta/ |access-date=9 February 2020 |work=Piast Gliwice |date=10 January 2014 |language=pl-PL}}</ref>
*[[1933]] – [[Leo and Diane Dillon|Diane Dillon]], American illustrator<ref>{{cite web|title=Artist Spotlight: Leo and Diane Dillon|website=Pennsylvania College of Art and Design|date=April 13, 2015|accessdate=February 1, 2024|url=https://pcad.edu/pcad_news/artist-spotlight-leo-and-diane-dillon/}}</ref>
* 1933 – [[Mahdi Elmandjra]], Moroccan economist and sociologist (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite news |title=Le Matin - Mahdi Elmandjra s'est éteint |url=https://lematin.ma/express/2014/deces_mahdi-elmandjra-s-est-eteint/204119.html |access-date=9 February 2020 |work=Le Matin |date=13 June 2014 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312084737/http://lematin.ma/express/2014/deces_mahdi-elmandjra-s-est-eteint/204119.html |archive-date=12 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1933 – [[Gero von Wilpert]], German author and academic (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Krause |first1=Tilman |title=Unverzichtbare Hilfsmittel: Gero von Wilpert ist tot |url=https://www.welt.de/welt_print/kultur/article5673567/Unverzichtbare-Hilfsmittel-Gero-von-Wilpert-ist-tot.html |access-date=10 February 2020 |work=DIE WELT |date=30 December 2009 |language=de |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213090443/https://www.welt.de/welt_print/kultur/article5673567/Unverzichtbare-Hilfsmittel-Gero-von-Wilpert-ist-tot.html |archive-date=13 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1935]] – [[David Nobbs]], English author and screenwriter (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hawtree |first1=Christopher |title=David Nobbs obituary |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2015/aug/10/david-nobbs |access-date=10 February 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=10 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214114246/https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2015/aug/10/david-nobbs |archive-date=14 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1938]] – [[Robert Gammage]], American captain and politician (d. 2012)<ref>{{cite web |title=Biographical directory of the United States Congress |url=https://bioguideretro.congress.gov/Home/MemberDetails?memIndex=G000036 |publisher=US Congress |access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref>
*[[1939]] – [[Neil Sedaka]], American singer-songwriter and pianist<ref name="BEagle" />
*[[1941]] – [[Donella Meadows]], American environmentalist, author, and academic (d. 2001)<ref>{{cite web |title=Donella Meadows – A Tribute |url=http://donellameadows.org/donella-meadows-a-tribute/ |website=The Academy for Systems Change |access-date=12 February 2020 |date=1 July 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030145110/http://donellameadows.org/donella-meadows-a-tribute/ |archive-date=30 October 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*1941 – [[Lee Moses]], American R&B Soul Singer and Guitarist (d. 1998)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lee Moses Songs, Albums, Reviews, Bio & More {{!}}... |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/lee-moses-mn0000812524 |access-date=2024-06-03 |website=AllMusic |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1942]] – [[Dave Cutler]], American computer scientist and engineer<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zachary |first1=G. Pascal |title=Showstopper!: The Breakneck Race to Create Windows NT and the Next Generation at Microsoft |date=2014 |publisher=Open Road Media |isbn=978-1-4804-9484-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o2IkAwAAQBAJ&q=%22Dave+Cutler%22+march+13&pg=PT9 |access-date=12 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1942 – [[Mahmoud Darwish]], Palestinian poet and author (d. 2008)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jaggi |first1=Maya |title=The Profile: Mahmoud Darwish |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2002/jun/08/featuresreviews.guardianreview19 |access-date=12 February 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=7 June 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212193528/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2002/jun/08/featuresreviews.guardianreview19 |archive-date=12 February 2020 |url-status=live }} Note that his year of birth is given as 1941 in some other sources.</ref>
* 1942 – [[Scatman John]], American singer-songwriter (d. 1999)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Scatman John|url=https://www.discogs.com/artist/23386-Scatman-John|access-date=2020-10-26|website=Discogs|language=en}}</ref>
*[[1944]] – [[Terence Burns, Baron Burns]], English economist and academic<ref>{{cite web |title=Mr Terence Burns (Hansard) |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/people/mr-terence-burns/index.html |website=api.parliament.uk |access-date=12 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212192841/https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/people/mr-terence-burns/index.html |archive-date=12 February 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1945]] – [[Anatoly Fomenko]], Russian mathematician and academic<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koblitz |first1=Neal |last2=Koblitz |first2=Ann |title=POSTERS BY ANATOLY FOMENKO. NOTICES OF THE AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY |journal=The Mathematical Intelligencer |date=1986 |volume=8 |issue=2 |url=http://chronologia.org/en/math_impressions/math_intelligencer.html |access-date=12 February 2020 |publisher=Springer |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720113416/http://chronologia.org/en/math_impressions/math_intelligencer.html |archive-date=20 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1946]] – [[Yonatan Netanyahu]], American-Israeli colonel (d. 1976)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Reich |first1=Bernard |last2=Goldberg |first2=David H. |title=Historical Dictionary of Israel |date=2016 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-7185-2 |page=383 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S97dDAAAQBAJ&q=%22Yonatan+Netanyahu%22+march+13&pg=PA383 |access-date=12 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1947]] – [[Lesley Collier]], English ballerina and educator<ref>{{cite web |title=Lesley Collier - Oxford Reference |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095624378 |website=www.oxfordreference.com |access-date=12 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212194606/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095624378 |archive-date=12 February 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1947 – [[Beat Richner]], Swiss pediatrician and cellist (d. 2018)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wallace |first1=Julia |title=Beat Richner, Doctor to Cambodia's Needy Young, Dies at 71 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/21/obituaries/beat-richner-dead.html |access-date=12 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=21 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212195752/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/21/obituaries/beat-richner-dead.html |archive-date=12 February 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1947 – [[Lyn St. James]], American race car driver<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Gerry |last2=Morrison |first2=Michael |title=ESPN Sports Almanac 2008: America's Best-Selling Sports Almanac |date=2007 |publisher=ESPN Books |isbn=978-1-933060-38-5 |page=567 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDjlaWRn2GIC&q=%22Lyn+St.+James%22+march+13 |access-date=12 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1949]] – [[Ze'ev Bielski]], Israeli politician<ref>{{cite web |title=Zeev Bielski |url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/mk/eng/mk_eng.asp?mk_individual_id_t=817 |website=www.knesset.gov.il |access-date=12 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219180135/http://www.knesset.gov.il/mk/eng/mk_eng.asp?mk_individual_id_t=817 |archive-date=19 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1949 – [[Sian Elias]], New Zealand lawyer and politician, 12th [[Chief Justice of New Zealand]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Chief Justice - retired March 2019 |url=https://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/about-the-judiciary/role-judges/chiefjustice-retired/ |website=Courts of New Zealand |access-date=12 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212200522/https://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/about-the-judiciary/role-judges/chiefjustice-retired/ |archive-date=12 February 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[1950]] – [[Joe Bugner]], Hungarian-British boxer and actor<ref>{{Cite web|title=BoxRec: Joe Bugner|url=https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/924|access-date=2020-10-26|website=boxrec.com}}</ref>
* 1950 – [[Bernard Julien]], Trinidadian cricketer<ref>{{cite web |title=Bernard Julien |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/westindies/content/player/52208.html |website=Cricinfo |access-date=15 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102120707/http://www.espncricinfo.com/westindies/content/player/52208.html |archive-date=2 November 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1950 – [[Charles Krauthammer]], American physician, journalist, and author (d. 2018)<ref name="BEagle17" />
* 1950 – [[William H. Macy]], American actor, director, and screenwriter<ref name="BEagle" />
*[[1951]] – [[Charo]], Spanish-American singer, guitarist, and actress<ref name="BEagle17" />
*[[1952]] – [[Wolfgang Rihm]], German composer and educator<ref>{{cite web |title=Free-spirited German composer Wolfgang Rihm at 65 {{!}} DW {{!}} 13.03.2017 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/free-spirited-german-composer-wolfgang-rihm-at-65/a-37918031 |website=dw.com |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=15 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025195114/https://www.dw.com/en/free-spirited-german-composer-wolfgang-rihm-at-65/a-37918031 |archive-date=25 October 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1952 – [[Tim Sebastian]], English journalist and author<ref>{{cite web |title=The man with all the questions |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/hardtalk/2000692.stm |website=BBC news |access-date=15 February 2020 |date=4 July 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409074310/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/hardtalk/2000692.stm |archive-date=9 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1953]] – [[Andy Bean]], American golfer (d. 2023)<ref name="BEagle" />
* 1953 – [[Michael Curry (bishop)|Michael Curry]], American bishop, 27th [[Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Biography: The Most Rev. Michael Curry |url=https://episcopalchurch.org/biography-most-rev-michael-curry |website=Episcopal Church |access-date=15 February 2020 |language=en |date=20 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231155038/https://episcopalchurch.org/biography-most-rev-michael-curry |archive-date=31 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1953 – [[Deborah Raffin]], American actress (d. 2012)<ref>{{Cite news |title=Deborah Raffin |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/Deborah-Raffin?from=mdr |access-date=2023-03-13 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
*[[1954]] – [[Valerie Amos, Baroness Amos]], Guyanese-English politician and diplomat<ref>{{cite web |title=2018 - Wits honours Baroness Valerie Amos with an honorary Doctorate in Literature - Wits University |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/news/latest-news/graduations/2018/wits-honours-baroness-valerie-amos-with-an-honorary-doctorate-in-literature.html |website=www.wits.ac.za |access-date=15 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728160059/https://www.wits.ac.za/news/latest-news/graduations/2018/wits-honours-baroness-valerie-amos-with-an-honorary-doctorate-in-literature.html |archive-date=28 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1954 – [[Robin Duke]], Canadian actress and screenwriter<ref name="HoustonChronicle" />
*[[1955]] – [[Bruno Conti]], Italian footballer and manager<ref>{{cite web |title=FIFA Tournaments - Players & Coaches - Bruno CONTI |url=https://static.fifa.com/fifa-tournaments/players-coaches/people=174477/index.html |website=FIFA.com |access-date=15 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407224240/https://static.fifa.com/fifa-tournaments/players-coaches/people%3D174477/index.html |archive-date=7 April 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 1955 – [[Glenne Headly]], American actress (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gilbey |first1=Ryan |title=Glenne Headly obituary |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/jun/12/glenne-headly-obituary |access-date=20 January 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=12 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122213022/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/jun/12/glenne-headly-obituary |archive-date=22 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1955 – [[Olga Rukavishnikova]], Russian pentathlete<ref>{{cite web |title=Olga Rukavishnikova Bio, Stats, and Results |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ru/olga-rukavishnikova-1.html |website=Olympics at Sports-Reference.com |access-date=15 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114154907/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ru/olga-rukavishnikova-1.html |archive-date=14 January 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[1956]] – [[Dana Delany]], American actress and producer<ref name="BEagle" />
* 1956 – [[Jamie Dimon]], North-American businessman and banker<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ellines.com/en/famous-greeks/25420-among-the-worlds-100-most-influential-people/|title=Jamie Dimon - Among the world's 100 most influential people|website=www.ellines.com|access-date=9 May 2023|archive-date=July 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719083016/https://www.ellines.com/en/famous-greeks/25420-among-the-worlds-100-most-influential-people/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[1957]] – [[John Hoeven]], American banker and politician, 31st [[Governor of North Dakota]]<ref name="BEagle" />
* 1957 – [[Moses Hogan]], American composer and conductor (d. 2003)<ref>{{cite book |title=School of Music, Theatre & Dance Programs |date=1999 |publisher=University of Michigan School of Music |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IIsJAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Moses+Hogan%22+march+13&pg=PT522 |access-date=2 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1958]] – [[Mágico González]], Salvadoran footballer<ref>{{cite web |title=El Salvador - J. Gonzalez - Perfil con noticias, estadísticas de carrera e historia - Soccerway |url=https://es.soccerway.com/players/jorge-magico-gonzalez/80338/ |website=es.soccerway.com |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>
* 1958 – [[Rick Lazio]], American lawyer and politician<ref>{{cite web |title=LAZIO, Enrico A. (Rick) (1958-) |url=https://bioguideretro.congress.gov/Home/MemberDetails?memIndex=L000155 |website=Biographical directory of the US congress |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>
* 1958 – [[Caryl Phillips]], Caribbean-English author and playwright<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jaggi |first1=Maya |title=The Guardian Profile: Caryl Phillips |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/nov/03/fiction.artsandhumanities |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=3 November 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531182448/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/nov/03/fiction.artsandhumanities |archive-date=31 May 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1959]] – [[Dirk Wellham]], Australian cricketer<ref>{{cite web |title=Dirk Wellham |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/australia/content/player/8198.html |website=Cricinfo |access-date=15 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191129000150/http://www.espncricinfo.com/australia/content/player/8198.html |archive-date=29 November 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1960]] – [[Adam Clayton]], English-Irish musician and songwriter<ref name="BEagle" />
* 1960 – [[Joe Ranft]], American animator, screenwriter, and voice actor (d. 2005)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/joe-ranft-503963.html|title=Joe Ranft|work=[[The Independent]]|date=August 23, 2005|access-date=January 24, 2010|first=Alan|last=Woollcombe|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514041837/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/joe-ranft-503963.html|archive-date=May 14, 2010}}</ref>
*[[1962]] – [[Alfredo Maia]], Portuguese politician<ref>{{cite web |title=Deputados: Biografia - Alfredo Maia |url=https://www.parlamento.pt/DeputadoGP/Paginas/Biografia.aspx?BID=817 |access-date=15 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240311160209/https://www.parlamento.pt/DeputadoGP/Paginas/Biografia.aspx?BID=817 |archive-date=11 March 2024 |location=Lisbon, Portugal |language=pt}}</ref>
*[[1963]] – [[Mariano Duncan]], Dominican baseball player and manager<ref>{{cite web |title=Mariano Duncan |url=https://www.mlb.com/player/mariano-duncan-113620 |publisher=[[Major League Baseball]] |access-date=12 March 2024}}</ref>
* 1963 – [[Vance Johnson]], American football player<ref>{{cite web |title=Vance Johnson Stats |url=https://www.pro-football-reference.com/players/J/JohnVa00.htm |website=Pro-Football-Reference.com |access-date=23 January 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713065343/https://www.pro-football-reference.com/players/J/JohnVa00.htm |archive-date=13 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1963 – [[Fito Páez]], Argentine musician, songwriter and filmmaker <ref>{{cite web |title=The Latin Recording Academy® to Honor Martinho da Vila, Emmanuel, Sheila E. & Pete Escovedo, Fito Páez, Milly Quezada, Joaquín Sabina and Gilberto Santa Rosa With the Lifetime Achievement Award |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20210624005582/en/The-Latin-Recording-Academy®-to-Honor-Martinho-da-Vila-Emmanuel-Sheila-E.-Pete-Escovedo-Fito-Páez-Milly-Quezada-Joaquín-Sabina-and-Gilberto-Santa-Rosa-With-the-Lifetime-Achievement-Award/ |website=[[Business Wire]] |access-date=August 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624140510/http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20210624005582/en/The-Latin-Recording-Academy®-to-Honor-Martinho-da-Vila-Emmanuel-Sheila-E.-Pete-Escovedo-Fito-Páez-Milly-Quezada-Joaquín-Sabina-and-Gilberto-Santa-Rosa-With-the-Lifetime-Achievement-Award/ |archive-date=June 24, 2021 |date=June 24, 2021}}</ref>
*[[1964]] – [[Will Clark]], American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |title=Will Clark Stats |url=https://www.baseball-reference.com/players/c/clarkwi02.shtml |website=Baseball-Reference.com |access-date=23 January 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028033938/https://www.baseball-reference.com/players/c/clarkwi02.shtml |archive-date=28 October 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1964 – [[Trevor Gillmeister]], Australian rugby league player and coach<ref>[http://rugbyleagueproject.com/players/Trevor_Gillmeister.html RLP]</ref>
*[[1966]] – [[Chico Science]], Brazilian singer-songwriter (d. 1997)<ref>{{cite web |title=Chico Science 50 anos |url=http://www.ebc.com.br/chicoscience |website=EBC |access-date=23 January 2020 |language=pt-br |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904040156/http://www.ebc.com.br/chicoscience |archive-date=4 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1967]] – [[Andrés Escobar]], Colombian footballer (d. 1994)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Varsky |first1=Alejandro |title=Twenty years without Escobar |journal=The Weekly |date=4 July 2014 |page=31 |url=https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/21dc650f535267c0/original/xgwuafbnrffr4jj0b6mi-pdf.pdf |access-date=23 January 2020 |publisher=FIFA}}</ref>
* 1967 – [[Pieter Vink]], Dutch footballer and referee<ref>{{cite web |title=Netherlands - P. Vink - Profile with news, career statistics and history - Soccerway |url=https://int.soccerway.com/referees/pieter-vink/44870/ |website=int.soccerway.com |access-date=22 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423001431/http://int.soccerway.com/referees/pieter-vink/44870/ |archive-date=23 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1970]] – [[Tim Story]], American director and producer<ref>{{cite news |title=Tim Story: Movies, Photos, Videos, News, Biography & Birthday {{!}} eTimes |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/Tim-Story |access-date=22 January 2020 |work=timesofindia.indiatimes.com}}</ref>
*[[1971]] – [[Annabeth Gish]], American actress<ref name="HoustonChronicle">{{cite news |title=Birthdays: March 13 |url=https://www.houstonchronicle.com/life/article/Birthdays-March-13-5310803.php |access-date=22 January 2020 |work=HoustonChronicle.com |agency=Associated Press |date=12 March 2014}}</ref>
* 1971 – [[Allan Nielsen]], Danish footballer and manager<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id=9734|title=Allan Nielsen|access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref>
* 1971 – [[Adina Porter]], American actress<ref name="UPI">{{cite web |title=Famous birthdays for March 13: Ozuna, Jack Harlow |url=https://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2023/03/13/Famous-birthdays-for-March-13-Ozuna-Jack-Harlow/3351678682189/ |publisher=[[UPI]] |access-date=12 March 2024 |date=13 March 2023}}</ref>
*[[1972]] – [[Common (rapper)|Common]], American rapper and actor<ref name="BEagle" />
* 1972 – [[Trent Dilfer]], American football player, coach, and analyst<ref>{{cite web |title=Trent Dilfer |url=https://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/649/trent-dilfer |publisher=[[ESPN]] |access-date=1 March 2023}}</ref>
*[[1973]] – [[Edgar Davids]], Surinamese-Dutch footballer and manager<ref>{{cite web |title=Netherlands - E. Davids - Profile with news, career statistics and history - Soccerway |url=https://int.soccerway.com/players/edgar-davids/272974/ |website=int.soccerway.com |access-date=22 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111183729/https://int.soccerway.com/players/edgar-davids/272974/ |archive-date=11 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1973 – [[David Draiman]], American singer-songwriter<ref name="UPI"/>
* 1973 – [[Bobby Jackson (basketball)|Bobby Jackson]], American basketball player and coach<ref>{{cite web |title=Bobby Jackson |url=https://www.thedraftreview.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1883:bobby-jackson&catid=39:1997-nba-draft&Itemid=342 |website=The Draft Review | date=June 2007 |access-date=22 January 2020 |language=en-us |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728131603/https://www.thedraftreview.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1883:bobby-jackson&catid=39:1997-nba-draft&Itemid=342 |archive-date=28 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1974]] – [[James Brinkley]], Scottish cricketer<ref>{{Cite web|title=James Brinkley|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/scotland/content/player/25409.html|access-date=2020-10-26|website=Cricinfo}}</ref>
* 1974 – [[Thomas Enqvist]], Swedish tennis player and sportscaster<ref>{{cite web |title=Thomas Enqvist |url=https://www.daviscup.com/en/players/player.aspx?id=800181167 |publisher=Davis Cup |access-date=20 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916124125/http://www.daviscup.com/en/players/player.aspx?id=800181167 |archive-date=16 September 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1975]] – [[Mark Clattenburg]], English football referee<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.football-league.premiumtv.co.uk/page/RefereeProfilesDetail/0,,10794~628215,00.html |title=Referee Profiles |publisher=The Football League |access-date=5 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317080539/http://www.football-league.premiumtv.co.uk/page/RefereeProfilesDetail/0%2C%2C10794~628215%2C00.html |archive-date=17 March 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[1976]] – [[Troy Hudson]], American basketball player and rapper<ref>{{cite web |title=Troy Hudson Stats |url=https://www.basketball-reference.com/players/h/hudsotr01.html |website=Basketball-Reference.com |access-date=20 January 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328230006/https://www.basketball-reference.com/players/h/hudsotr01.html |archive-date=28 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1976 – [[Danny Masterson]], American actor and producer<ref name="BEagle17">{{cite news |title=March 13, birthdays for Common, Danny Masterson, Charles Krauthammer |url=https://brooklyneagle.com/articles/2017/03/13/march-13-birthdays-for-common-danny-masterson-charles-krauthammer/ |access-date=20 January 2020 |work=Brooklyn Eagle |date=13 March 2017}}</ref>
*[[1978]] – [[Tom Danielson]], American cyclist<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kröner |first1=Hedwig |title="Quacking" got Danielson down |url=https://www.cyclingnews.com/news/quacking-got-danielson-down/ |access-date=20 January 2020 |work=cyclingnews.com |date=19 March 2006 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1979]] – [[Johan Santana]], Venezuelan baseball player<ref>{{cite web |title=Johan Santana Stats |url=https://www.baseball-reference.com/players/s/santajo02.shtml |website=Baseball-Reference.com |access-date=20 January 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124025939/https://www.baseball-reference.com/players/s/santajo02.shtml |archive-date=24 January 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1979 – [[Cédric Van Branteghem]], Belgian sprinter<ref>{{cite web |title=CÃ©dric Van Branteghem Bio, Stats, and Results |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/va/cedric-van-branteghem-1.html |website=Olympics at Sports-Reference.com |access-date=20 January 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114163207/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/va/cedric-van-branteghem-1.html |archive-date=14 January 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[1980]] – [[Caron Butler]], American basketball player<ref name="BEagle" />
*[[1982]] – [[Izi Castro Marques]], Brazilian basketball player<ref>{{cite web |title=Iziane Castro Marques |url=https://www.wnba.com/player/100796/iziane-castro-marques |publisher=[[WNBA]] |access-date=12 March 2024}}</ref>
* 1982 – [[Nicole Ohlde]], American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |title=Nicole Ohlde |url=https://www.wnba.com/player/nicole-ohlde/ |website=WNBA.com - Official Site of the WNBA |access-date=16 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1983]] – [[Kaitlin Sandeno]], American swimmer<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaitlin Sandeno Bio, Stats, and Results |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/sa/kaitlin-sandeno-1.html |website=Olympics at Sports-Reference.com |access-date=16 January 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114130023/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/sa/kaitlin-sandeno-1.html |archive-date=14 January 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[1984]] – [[Geeta Basra]], Indian actress<ref>{{cite news |title=Harbhajan Singh's wife Geeta Basra celebrates birthday with India cricket team |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/harbhajan-singhs-wife-geeta-basra-celebrates-birthday-with-indian-team/ |access-date=16 January 2020 |work=The Indian Express |date=13 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723003536/https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/harbhajan-singhs-wife-geeta-basra-celebrates-birthday-with-indian-team/ |archive-date=23 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1985]] – [[Alcides (footballer)|Alcides]], Brazilian footballer<ref>{{cite web |title=Brazil - Alcides - Profile with news, career statistics and history - Soccerway |url=https://int.soccerway.com/players/alcides/5812/ |website=int.soccerway.com |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref>
* 1985 – [[Emile Hirsch]], American actor<ref name="BEagle">{{cite news |title=MILESTONES: March 13, birthdays for William H. Macy, Tristan Thompson, Common |url=https://brooklyneagle.com/articles/2019/03/13/milestones-march-13-birthdays-for-william-h-macy-tristan-thompson-common/ |access-date=16 January 2020 |work=Brooklyn Eagle |date=13 March 2019}}</ref>
*[[1986]] – [[Neil Wagner]], South African-New Zealand cricketer<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lynch |first1=Steven |title=The Wisden Guide to International Cricket 2014: The Definitive Player-by-Player Guide |date=2014 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-4081-9473-7 |page=193 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N4pTAgAAQBAJ&q=%22Neil+Wagner%22+march+13&pg=PA193 |access-date=16 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1987]] – [[Marco Andretti]], American race car driver<ref name="indystar" />
* 1987 – [[Andreas Beck (footballer)|Andreas Beck]], German footballer<ref>{{cite web |title=Germany - A. Beck - Profile with news, career statistics and history - Soccerway |url=https://int.soccerway.com/players/andreas-beck/1928/ |website=int.soccerway.com |access-date=16 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206155708/http://int.soccerway.com/players/andreas-beck/1928/ |archive-date=6 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1988]] – [[Furdjel Narsingh]], Dutch footballer<ref>{{cite web |title=Netherlands - F. Narsingh - Profile with news, career statistics and history - Soccerway |url=https://int.soccerway.com/players/furdjel-narsingh/59082// |website=int.soccerway.com |access-date=16 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219204251/https://int.soccerway.com/players/furdjel-narsingh/59082/ |archive-date=19 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1989]] – [[Holger Badstuber]], German footballer<ref>{{cite web |title=Germany - H. Badstuber - Profile with news, career statistics and history - Soccerway |url=https://int.soccerway.com/players/holger-badstuber/38221/ |website=int.soccerway.com |access-date=16 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229094903/https://int.soccerway.com/players/holger-badstuber/38221/ |archive-date=29 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1989 – [[Peaches Geldof]], English columnist, television personality, and model (d. 2014)<ref name="UPI"/>
* 1989 – [[Sandy León]], Venezuelan baseball player<ref>{{cite web |title=Sandy León |url=https://www.mlb.com/player/sandy-leon-506702 |publisher=[[Major League Baseball]] |access-date=12 March 2024}}</ref>
* 1989 – [[Marko Marin]], German footballer<ref>{{cite web |title=Germany - M. Marin - Profile with news, career statistics and history - Soccerway |url=https://int.soccerway.com/players/marko-marin/16899// |website=int.soccerway.com |access-date=16 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727213339/https://int.soccerway.com/players/marko-marin/16899/ |archive-date=27 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1989 – [[Robert Wickens]], Canadian racing driver<ref name="indystar">{{cite news |last1=Ayello |first1=Jim |title=IndyCar's Robert Wickens: 'I will be in a race car again' |url=https://eu.indystar.com/story/sports/motor/2019/03/08/robert-wickens-fiancee-i-didnt-know-if-hed-make-it-indycar-pocono-crash/3102329002/ |access-date=16 January 2020 |work=Indianapolis Star |date=9 March 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1990]] – [[Anicet Abel]], Malagasy footballer<ref>{{cite web |title=Madagascar - A. Andrianantenaina - Profile with news, career statistics and history - Soccerway |url=https://int.soccerway.com/players/-/131704/ |website=int.soccerway.com |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref>
* 1990 – [[Marcell Dareus]], American football player<ref>{{cite web |title=Marcell Dareus Stats, Height, Weight, Position, Draft, College |url=https://www.pro-football-reference.com/players/D/DareMa00.htm |website=Pro-Football-Reference.com |access-date=March 12, 2024}}</ref>
*[[1991]] – [[Daniel Greig]], Australian speed skater<ref>{{cite web |title=Daniel Greig Bio, Stats, and Results |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/gr/daniel-greig-1.html |website=Olympics at Sports-Reference.com |access-date=16 January 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114142526/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/gr/daniel-greig-1.html |archive-date=14 January 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 1991 – [[Tristan Thompson]], American basketball player<ref>{{cite web|title=Tristan Thompson|url=https://www.nba.com/players/tristan/thompson/202684|website=NBA.com |access-date=16 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1992]] – [[Lucy Fry]], Australian actress<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hollywood.com/celebrities/lucy-fry-59042261/|title=Lucy Fry|website=Hollywood.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806141607/http://www.hollywood.com/celebrities/lucy-fry-59042261/|archive-date=2017-08-06|url-status=dead|accessdate=23 April 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
* 1992 – [[George MacKay (actor)|George MacKay]], English actor<ref name="UPI"/>
* 1992 – [[Ozuna]], Puerto Rican singer-songwriter and rapper<ref name="UPI"/>
*[[1993]] – [[Tyrone Mings]], English footballer<ref>{{cite web |title=Tyrone Mings Stats, Goals, Records, Assists, Cups and more |url=https://fbref.com/en/players/8397a50c/Tyrone-Mings |website=fbref.com |access-date=March 12, 2024}}</ref>
*[[1994]] – [[Gerard Deulofeu]], Spanish footballer<ref>{{cite web |title=Spain - Deulofeu - Profile with news, career statistics and history - Soccerway |url=https://nr.soccerway.com/players/-gerard/160268/ |website=nr.soccerway.com |access-date=15 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206202102/https://nr.soccerway.com/players/-gerard/160268/ |archive-date=6 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1994 – [[Mohammed Siraj]], Indian cricketer<ref>{{cite web |title=Mohammed Siraj |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/940973.html |website=Cricinfo |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>
*[[1995]] – [[Mikaela Shiffrin]], American skier<ref>{{cite web |title=Mikaela Shiffrin Bio, Stats, and Results |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/sh/mikaela-shiffrin-1.html |website=Olympics at Sports-Reference.com |access-date=15 January 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114133256/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/sh/mikaela-shiffrin-1.html |archive-date=14 January 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 1995 – [[Jang Su-jeong]], South Korean tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |title=Su Jeong Jang {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |url=https://www.wtatennis.com/players/317065/su-jeong-jang |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Women's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Su Jeong Jang - Player Profile - Tennis |url=https://www.eurosport.co.uk/tennis/su-jeong-jang_prs369720/person.shtml |access-date=2022-10-18 |website=Eurosport UK |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1996]] – [[Brayden Point]], Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |title=Brayden Point |url=https://www.nhl.com/lightning/player/brayden-point-8478010 |publisher=[[National Hockey League]] |access-date=12 March 2024}}</ref>
*[[1997]] – [[Pyper America]], American model, actress, and musician<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grazia.it/moda/tendenze-moda/pyper-america-smith-lucky-blue-modella|title=Addio Cara Delevingne: ora c'è Pyper America - Grazia.it|date=August 26, 2015|publisher=}}</ref>
* 1997 – [[Landry Shamet]], American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |title=Landry Shamet |url=https://www.nba.com/player/1629013/landry-shamet |publisher=[[National Basketball Association]] |access-date=12 March 2024}}</ref>
*[[1998]] – [[Jay-Roy Grot]], Dutch footballer<ref>{{cite web |title=Netherlands - J. Grot - Profile with news, career statistics and history - Soccerway |url=https://nr.soccerway.com/players/jay-roy-jornell-grot/399770/ |website=nr.soccerway.com |access-date=15 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922030527/https://nr.soccerway.com/players/jay-roy-jornell-grot/399770/ |archive-date=22 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1998 – [[Jack Harlow]], American rapper, singer-songwriter, and actor<ref name="LouisMain">{{cite news |last=Moss |first=Josh |title=Kid with a Mic |work=Louisville |date=August 4, 2017 |url=https://www.louisville.com/content/kid-mic |access-date=December 13, 2018 |archive-date=July 16, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716181022/https://www.louisville.com/content/kid-mic |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[2002]] – [[Frank Gore Jr.]], American football player<ref>{{cite web |title=Frank Gore, Jr. - Football - Southern Miss |url=https://southernmiss.com/sports/football/roster/frank-gore-jr-/9207 |website=southernmiss.com |access-date=March 12, 2024}}</ref>
*[[2004]] – [[Coco Gauff]], American tennis player<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wtatennis.com/players/328560/coco-gauff|title=WTAtennis.com Profile: Coco Gauff|publisher=[[Women's Tennis Association]]|access-date=16 October 2022}}</ref>


==Deaths==
===Pre-1600===
*[[1202]] – [[Mieszko III the Old]], king of Poland (b. c. 1121)<ref>{{cite web |title=Mieszko III {{!}} Polish prince |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mieszko-III |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=15 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423025747/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mieszko-III |archive-date=23 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1271]] – [[Henry of Almain]], English knight (b. 1235)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lock |first1=Peter |title=The Routledge Companion to the Crusades |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-13137-1 |page=117 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AkCKZ9Hs4-QC&q=%22Henry+of+Almain%22+march+13&pg=PA117 |access-date=15 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1415]] – [[Minye Kyawswa]], Crown Prince of [[Ava Kingdom|Ava]] (b. 1391)<ref name=yt-1-260>(Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 260): Wednesday, 4th waxing of Late Tagu 776 ME = 13 March 1415; {{cite book | author=[[Maha Sithu of Twinthin|Maha Sithu]] | title=[[Yazawin Thit]] | publisher=Ya-Pyei Publishing | location=Yangon | year=1798 | edition=2012, 2nd printing | language=my | volume=1–3 |editor=Myint Swe |editor2=Kyaw Win |editor3=Thein Hlaing}}</ref>
*[[1447]] – [[Shah Rukh]], [[Timurid Empire|Timurid]] ruler of Persia and Transoxania (b. 1377)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Browne |first1=Edward Granville |title=A History of Persian Literature in Modern Times (A.D. 1500-1924) |date=1924 |publisher=CUP Archive |page=386 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZI3AAAAIAAJ&q=%22Shah+Rukh%22+march+13&pg=PA386 |access-date=15 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1573]] – [[Michel de l'Hôpital]], French politician (b. 1507)<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=L'Hôpital, Michel de}}</ref>

===1601–1900===
*[[1601]] – [[Henry Cuffe]], Politician (b. 1563)<ref>{{Cite DNB|wstitle=Cuff, Henry|last=Lee|first=Sidney|volume=13|pages=272–275}}</ref>
*[[1619]] – [[Richard Burbage]], English actor (b. 1567)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mantzius |first1=Karl |title=The Shakespearean period in England |date=1904 |publisher=Duckworth |page=231 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NR3buYsg0fAC&q=burbage+mourn+queen+anne&pg=PA231 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1711]] – [[Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux]], French poet and critic (b. 1636)<ref>{{cite web |title=Nicolas Boileau {{!}} French author |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nicolas-Boileau |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210080046/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nicolas-Boileau |archive-date=10 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1719]] – [[Johann Friedrich Böttger]], German chemist and potter (b. 1682)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Gordon |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Decorative Arts: Two-volume Set |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-518948-3 |page=133 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i3Od9bcGus0C&q=%22Johann+Friedrich+B%C3%B6ttger%22+march+13&pg=PA133 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1800]] – [[Nana Fadnavis]], Indian minister and politician (b. 1742)<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Nana Farnavis|volume=19|page=160}}</ref>
*[[1808]] – [[Christian VII of Denmark]] (b. 1749)<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Christian VII.|volume=6|page=278}}</ref>
*[[1823]] – [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent]], English admiral and politician (b. 1735)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author=Crimmin, P. K. |title= Jervis, John, earl of St Vincent |encyclopedia = Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-14794 |edition=Online |date=5 January 2006 |doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/14794 |isbn= 978-0-19-861412-8 |access-date=13 March 2019 }}</ref>
*[[1833]] – [[William Bradley (Royal Navy officer)|William Bradley]], English lieutenant and cartographer (b. 1757)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hine |first1=Janet D. |title=Bradley, William (1757–1833) |chapter=William Bradley (1758–1833) |url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/bradley-william-1820 |publisher=National Centre of Biography, Australian National University |access-date=16 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131222020108/http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/bradley-william-1820 |archive-date=22 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1842]] – [[Henry Shrapnel]], English general (b. 1761)<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Long |first1=Tony |title=March 13, 1842: Henry Shrapnel Dies, But His Name Lives On |url=https://www.wired.com/2008/03/dayintech-0313/ |magazine=Wired |access-date=16 February 2020 |date=13 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727223213/https://www.wired.com/2008/03/dayintech-0313/ |archive-date=27 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1854]] – [[Jean-Baptiste de Villèle]], French politician, 6th [[Prime Minister of France]] (b. 1773)<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Villèle, Jean Baptiste Guillaume Marie Anne Séraphin, Comte de|volume=28|pages=79–80}}</ref>
*[[1873]] – [[David Swinson Maynard]], American physician, lawyer, and businessman (b. 1808)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ferguson |first1=Robert L. |title=The Pioneers of Lake View: A Guide to Seattle's Early Settlers and Their Cemetery |date=1995 |publisher=Thistle Press |isbn=978-0-9621935-5-2 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oIzWAAAAMAAJ&q=%22on+the+evening+of+march+13%22 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1879]] – [[Adolf Anderssen]], German mathematician and chess player (b. 1818)<ref>{{cite web |title=Adolf Anderssen {{!}} German chess player |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Adolf-Anderssen |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221082909/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Adolf-Anderssen |archive-date=21 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1881]] – [[Alexander II of Russia]] (b. 1818)<ref name="AlexanderIIrussia">{{cite journal |last1=Rowley |first1=Alison |title=Dark Tourism and the Death of Russian Emperor Alexander II, 1881–1891 |journal=The Historian |date=10 January 2020 |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=229–255 |doi=10.1111/hisn.12503 |s2cid=148924679 }}</ref>
*[[1884]] – [[Leland Stanford Jr.]], American son of [[Leland Stanford]] (b. 1868)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cutler |first1=Robert W. P. |title=The Mysterious Death of Jane Stanford |date=2003 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4793-6 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2tRNXXjG9kEC&q=%22leland+stanford%22+march+13&pg=PA1 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1885]] – [[Giorgio Mitrovich]], Maltese politician (b. 1795)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mangion |first1=Fabian |title=Recalling a brave, sincere patriot forgotten by Malta |url=https://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20150308/life-features/Recalling-a-brave-sincere-patriot-forgotten-by-Malta.559170 |work=[[Times of Malta]] |date=8 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225125956/https://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20150308/life-features/Recalling-a-brave-sincere-patriot-forgotten-by-Malta.559170 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |access-date=24 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===1901–present===
*[[1901]] – [[Benjamin Harrison]], American general and politician, 23rd [[President of the United States]] (b. 1833)<ref>{{Cite ANB|title=Harrison, Benjamin|last=Spetter|first=Allan Burton|url=https://www.anb.org/view/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.001.0001/anb-9780198606697-e-0500320}}</ref>
*[[1906]] – [[Susan B. Anthony]], American activist (b. 1820)<ref>{{cite news |title=MISS SUSAN B. ANTHONY DIED THIS MORNING; End Came to the Famous Woman Suffragist in Rochester. ENTHUSIASTIC TO THE LAST Wished All Her Estate to Go to the Cause for Which She Labored -- Her Deathbed Regret. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1906/03/13/archives/miss-susan-b-anthony-died-this-morning-end-came-to-the-famous-woman.html |access-date=16 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=13 March 1906}}</ref>
*[[1912]] – [[Eugène-Étienne Taché]], Canadian engineer and architect, designed the [[Parliament Building (Quebec)|Parliament Building]] (b. 1836)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Morisset |first1=Lucie K. |last2=Noppen |first2=Luc |encyclopedia=Dictionary of Canadian Biography |title=TACHÉ, EUGÈNE-ÉTIENNE |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/tache_eugene_etienne_14E.html |access-date=16 February 2020 |year=1998 |publisher=University of Toronto/Université Laval |volume=14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824154250/http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/tache_eugene_etienne_14E.html |archive-date=2019-08-24 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1921]] – [[Jenny Twitchell Kempton]], American opera singer and educator (b. 1835)<ref>{{cite news |title=Musical America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pjg_AQAAMAAJ&q=Kempton&pg=RA14-PA12 |access-date=16 February 2020 |date=1921 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1936]] – [[Francis Bell (New Zealand politician)|Francis Bell]], New Zealand lawyer and politician, 20th [[Prime Minister of New Zealand]] (b. 1851)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gardner |first1=W. J. |title=Bell, Francis Henry Dillon |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/2b16/bell-francis-henry-dillon |website=teara.govt.nz |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206003029/https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/2b16/bell-francis-henry-dillon |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1938]] – [[Clarence Darrow]], American lawyer and author (b. 1857)<ref>{{cite news |title=Clarence Darrow Is Dead in Chicago |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0418.html |access-date=16 February 2020 |work=New York Times |date=March 14, 1938 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705062635/https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0418.html |archive-date=5 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1943]] – [[Stephen Vincent Benét]], American poet, short story writer, and novelist (b. 1898)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/bios/Benet__Stephen_Vincent.html|title=Stephen Vincent Benét|author=Weicksel, Amanda|year=2001|work=Literary and Cultural Heritage Map of Pennsylvania|publisher=Pennsylvania Center for the Book, Penn State University|access-date=May 24, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611124143/http://www.pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/bios/Benet__Stephen_Vincent.html|archive-date=June 11, 2010}}</ref>
*[[1946]] – [[Werner von Blomberg]], German field marshal (b. 1878)<ref>{{cite news |title=VON BLOMBERG DIES IN ARMY HOSPITAL; DIES OF HEART ATTACK |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1946/03/14/88347522.html?pageNumber=8 |access-date=3 May 2020 |work=timesmachine.nytimes.com |agency=Associated Press |date=14 March 1946 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1951]] – [[Ants Kaljurand|Ants "the Terrible" Kaljurand]], Estonian anti-communist, freedom fighter and [[forest brother]] (b. 1917)<ref>Mati Mandel: ''Kogu tõde Hirmus Antsust?'', p. 159–163. Eesti Ajaloomuuseum, [[Tallinn]], 2010; {{ISBN|9789985988947}} (in Estonian)</ref>
*[[1953]] – [[Johan Laidoner]], Estonian general and statesman (b. 1884)<ref>{{cite web|access-date=30 September 2017|url=http://www.laidoneriselts.ee/?pid=3&lang=1|title=Kes oli kindral Johan Laidoner|publisher=Johan Laidoneri Selts|language=et}}</ref>
*[[1961]] – [[Lise Lindbæk]], Norwegian journalist and war correspondent (b. 1905)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Lise Lindbæk |first= |last= |encyclopedia=[[Store norske leksikon]] |date= 23 August 2023|editor-last=Bolstad | editor-first=Erik |publisher=Norsk nettleksikon |location=Oslo |url=https://snl.no/Lise_Lindbæk |language=no|access-date=13 March 2024}}</ref>
*[[1962]] – [[Anne Acheson]], Irish sculptor (b. 1882)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newulsterbiography.co.uk/index.php/home/viewPerson/4|title=The Dictionary of Ulster Biography|last=Down|first=K-Point Internet Solutions - Warrenpoint, Newry, County|website=www.newulsterbiography.co.uk|access-date=2018-11-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928161527/http://www.newulsterbiography.co.uk/index.php/home/viewPerson/4|archive-date=2018-09-28|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[1965]] – [[Vittorio Jano]], Italian engineer (b. 1891)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harding |first1=Anthony |title=The Guinness book of the car |date=1987 |publisher=Guinness Superlatives |isbn=978-0-85112-806-1 |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZhTAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Vittorio+Jano%22+march+13 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1965 – [[Fan Noli]], Albanian-American bishop and politician, 14th [[Prime Minister of Albania]] (b. 1882)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Elsie |first1=Robert |title=Historical Dictionary of Albania |date=2010 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8108-6188-6 |page=329 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6inIiCF_930C&q=%22Fan+Noli%22+march+13&pg=PA329 |access-date=16 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1971]] – [[Rockwell Kent]], American painter and illustrator (b. 1882)<ref>{{cite news |title=Rockwell Kent, Artist, Is Dead; Championed Left-Wing Causes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/03/14/archives/rockwell-kent-artist-is-dead-championed-leftwing-causes.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=14 March 1971}}</ref>
*[[1972]] – [[Tony Ray-Jones]], English photographer (b. 1941)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Lynne |title=Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography, 3-Volume Set |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-20543-0 |page=1324 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cFVsBgAAQBAJ&q=%22Tony+ray-jones%22+march+13&pg=PA1324 |access-date=15 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1975]] – [[Ivo Andrić]], Yugoslav novelist, poet, and short story writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. 1892)<ref>{{cite news |title=Nobel Prize Winner Ivo Andric died on March 13th |url=https://www.sarajevotimes.com/nobel-prize-winner-ivo-andric-died-on-march-13th/ |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=Sarajevo Times |date=14 March 2019}}</ref>
*[[1976]] – [[Ole Haugsrud]], American sports executive (b. 1900)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Griffith |first1=R. D. |title=To the NFL: You Sure Started Somethin': A Historical Guide of All 32 NFL Teams and the Cities They've Played In |date=2012 |publisher=Dorrance Publishing |isbn=978-1-4349-1681-5 |page=215 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2pvvE8K0HIC&q=%22Ole+Haugsrud%22+march+13&pg=PA215 |access-date=15 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1983]] – [[Paul Citroen]], German-Dutch illustrator and educator (b. 1896)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fiedler |first1=Jeannine |title=Photography at the Bauhaus |date=1990 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-06126-1 |page=343 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y189nnGl7PAC&q=%22Paul+Citroen%22+march+13 |access-date=15 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1990]] – [[Bruno Bettelheim]], Austrian-American psychologist and author (b. 1903)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Goleman |first1=Daniel |title=Bruno Bettelheim Dies at 86; Psychoanalyst of Vast Impact |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/03/14/obituaries/bruno-bettelheim-dies-at-86-psychoanalyst-of-vast-impact.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=14 March 1990 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213231202/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/03/14/obituaries/bruno-bettelheim-dies-at-86-psychoanalyst-of-vast-impact.html |archive-date=13 February 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1995]] – [[Odette Hallowes]], French nurse and spy (b. 1912)<ref>{{cite news |title=Odette Hallowes, 82, A British Agent Tortured by Nazis |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/21/obituaries/odette-hallowes-82-a-british-agent-tortured-by-nazis.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=21 March 1995 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611061900/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/21/obituaries/odette-hallowes-82-a-british-agent-tortured-by-nazis.html |archive-date=11 June 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[1996]] – [[Krzysztof Kieślowski]], Polish director and screenwriter (b. 1941)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Insdorf |first1=Annette |title=Double Lives, Second Chances: The Cinema of Krzysztof Kieslowski |date=2002 |publisher=Miamax |isbn=978-0-7868-8474-2 |page=182 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OKUqAAAAYAAJ&q=march+13 |access-date=15 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[1998]] – [[Judge Dread]], English singer-songwriter (b. 1945)<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Hindin |first1=Seth |title=Judge Dread Dead At 53 |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/judge-dread-dead-at-53-246602/ |magazine=Rolling Stone |access-date=15 February 2020 |date=17 March 1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725150239/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/judge-dread-dead-at-53-246602/ |archive-date=25 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1998 – [[Hans von Ohain]], German-American physicist and engineer (b. 1911)<ref>{{cite news |title=Hans von Ohain; German Inventor of Jet Engine |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-mar-18-me-30216-story.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=18 March 1998}}</ref>
*[[1999]] – [[Lee Falk]], American cartoonist, director, and producer (b. 1911)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gifford |first1=Denis |title=Obituary: Lee Falk |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-lee-falk-1081509.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The Independent |date=19 March 1999 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511163555/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-lee-falk-1081509.html |archive-date=11 May 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1999 – [[Garson Kanin]], American director and screenwriter (b. 1912)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Berger |first1=Marilyn |title=Garson Kanin, a Writer and Director of Classic Movies and Plays, Is Dead at 86 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/14/nyregion/garson-kanin-a-writer-and-director-of-classic-movies-and-plays-is-dead-at-86.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=14 March 1999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912092326/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/14/nyregion/garson-kanin-a-writer-and-director-of-classic-movies-and-plays-is-dead-at-86.html |archive-date=12 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[2001]] – [[John A. Alonzo]], American actor and cinematographer (b. 1934)<ref>{{cite news |title=John A. Alonzo; Cinematographer, 66 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/29/arts/john-a-alonzo-cinematographer-66.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=29 March 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402104659/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/29/arts/john-a-alonzo-cinematographer-66.html |archive-date=2 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2001 – [[Encarnacion Alzona]], Filipino historian and educator (b. 1895)<ref>{{cite journal |editor1-last=Almario |editor1-first=V. |title=Alzona, Encarnacion |journal=Sagisag Kultura |date=2015 |volume=1 |url=https://philippineculturaleducation.com.ph/alzona-encarnacion/ |access-date=15 February 2020 |publisher=National Commission for Culture and the Art |location=Manila |language=fil |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419065233/https://philippineculturaleducation.com.ph/alzona-encarnacion/ |archive-date=19 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[2002]] – [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]], German philosopher and scholar (b. 1900)<ref>{{cite news |title=Hans-Georg Gadamer, 102; Philosopher Worked With Texts |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-mar-26-me-passings26.5-story.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=26 March 2002}}</ref>
*[[2004]] – [[Franz König]], Austrian cardinal (b. 1905)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pick |first1=Hella |title=Obituary: Cardinal Franz König |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2004/mar/16/guardianobituaries.religion |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=16 March 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913005014/http://www.theguardian.com/news/2004/mar/16/guardianobituaries.religion |archive-date=13 September 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[2006]] – [[Robert C. Baker]], American businessman, invented the [[chicken nugget]] (b. 1921)<ref>{{cite web |title=Robert C. Baker, creator of chicken nuggets and Cornell chicken barbecue sauce, dies at 84 |url=http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2006/03/food-and-poultry-scientist-robert-c-baker-dies-age-84 |website=Cornell Chronicle |access-date=15 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208213641/http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2006/03/food-and-poultry-scientist-robert-c-baker-dies-age-84 |archive-date=8 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2006 – [[Jimmy Johnstone]], Scottish footballer (b. 1944)<ref>{{cite news |title=Celtic great Johnstone dies at 61 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/c/celtic/4800766.stm |access-date=15 February 2020 |date=13 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603054240/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/c/celtic/4800766.stm |archive-date=3 June 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2006 – [[Maureen Stapleton]], American actress (b. 1925)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Berkvist |first1=Robert |title=Maureen Stapleton, Oscar-Winning Actress, Is Dead at 80 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/13/movies/maureen-stapleton-oscarwinning-actress-is-dead-at-80.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=13 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214004934/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/13/movies/maureen-stapleton-oscarwinning-actress-is-dead-at-80.html |archive-date=14 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2006 – [[Peter Tomarken]], American television personality, game show host (b. 1942)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Blankstein|first=Andrew|date=2006-03-14|title=TV Game Show Host, Wife Killed|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-mar-14-me-plane14-story.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210708183559/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-mar-14-me-plane14-story.html|archive-date=2021-07-08|access-date=2021-07-08|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US}}</ref>
*[[2007]] – [[Arnold Skaaland]], American wrestler and manager (b. 1925)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grasso |first1=John |title=Historical Dictionary of Wrestling |date=2014 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7926-3 |page=267 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KUsJAwAAQBAJ&q=%22Arnold+Skaaland%22+march+13&pg=PA267 |access-date=15 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[2009]] – [[Betsy Blair]], American actress (b. 1923)<ref>{{cite news |last1=McLellan |first1=Dennis |title=Betsy Blair dies at 85; actress appeared in 'Marty' |url=https://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la-me-betsy-blair20-2009mar20-story.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=20 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612081814/http://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la-me-betsy-blair20-2009mar20-story.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2009 – [[Alan W. Livingston]], American businessman (b. 1917)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Weber |first1=Bruce |title=Alan W. Livingston, Talent Spotter Who Signed Beatles, Dies at 91 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/17/arts/music/17livingston.html?_r=0 |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=16 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907221254/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/17/arts/music/17livingston.html?_r=0 |archive-date=7 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[2010]] – [[Jean Ferrat]], French singer-songwriter (b. 1930)<ref>{{cite news |title=Jean Ferrat est mort |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/disparitions/article/2010/03/13/jean-ferrat-est-mort_1318912_3382.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=Le Monde.fr |date=13 March 2010 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508083955/https://www.lemonde.fr/disparitions/article/2010/03/13/jean-ferrat-est-mort_1318912_3382.html |archive-date=8 May 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[2011]] – [[Rick Martin]], Canadian-American ice hockey player (b. 1951)<ref>{{cite web |title=Rick Martin Stats |url=https://www.hockey-reference.com/players/m/martiri01.html |website=Hockey-Reference.com |access-date=15 February 2020 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109190516/https://www.hockey-reference.com/players/m/martiri01.html |archive-date=9 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[2013]] – [[Clive Burr]], English drummer and songwriter (b. 1957)<ref>{{cite web |title=FORMER IRON MAIDEN DRUMMER CLIVE BURR PASSES AWAY |url=https://ironmaiden.com/news/article/former-iron-maiden-drummer-clive-burr-passes-away |website=ironmaiden.com |access-date=6 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[2014]] – [[Reubin Askew]], American sergeant, lawyer, and politician, 37th [[Governor of Florida]] (b. 1928)<ref>{{cite news |last1=McFadden |first1=Robert D. |title=Reubin Askew, a Progressive Governor of Florida in the '70s, Dies at 85 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/14/us/politics/reubin-askew-former-florida-governor-dies-at-85.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=13 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821234649/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/14/us/politics/reubin-askew-former-florida-governor-dies-at-85.html |archive-date=21 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2014 – [[Edward Haughey, Baron Ballyedmond]], Irish businessman and politician (b. 1944)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Keenan |first1=Dan |title=NI's richest man Eddie Haughey dies in helicopter crash |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/ni-s-richest-man-eddie-haughey-dies-in-helicopter-crash-1.1724601 |access-date=15 February 2020 |newspaper=The Irish Times |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116063326/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/ni-s-richest-man-eddie-haughey-dies-in-helicopter-crash-1.1724601 |archive-date=16 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2014 – [[Ahmad Tejan Kabbah]], Sierra Leonean economist, lawyer, and politician, 3rd [[President of Sierra Leone]] (b. 1932)<ref>{{cite news |agency=Agence France-Presse |title=Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, Who Guided Sierra Leone to Peace, Dies at 82 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/14/world/africa/ahmad-tejan-kabbah-who-guided-sierra-leone-to-peace-dies-at-82.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=14 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406091501/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/14/world/africa/ahmad-tejan-kabbah-who-guided-sierra-leone-to-peace-dies-at-82.html |archive-date=6 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2014 – [[Icchokas Meras]], Lithuanian-Israeli author and screenwriter (b. 1934)<ref>{{cite news |title=Lithuanian Jewish writer Icchokas Meras dies in Israel, aged 79 |url=https://www.jpost.com/Jewish-World/Jewish-News/Lithuanian-Jewish-writer-Icchokas-Meras-dies-in-Israel-aged-79-345387 |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |date=March 14, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811143205/http://www.jpost.com/Jewish-World/Jewish-News/Lithuanian-Jewish-writer-Icchokas-Meras-dies-in-Israel-aged-79-345387 |archive-date=11 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[2015]] – [[Al Rosen]], American baseball player and manager (b. 1924)<ref>{{cite web |title=Indians to wear patch honoring late Al Rosen |url=https://apnews.com/fec4929f611543849d4f5986368c95ea |website=AP NEWS |date=30 March 2015 |publisher=Associated Press |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>
*[[2016]] – [[Hilary Putnam]], American philosopher, mathematician, and computer scientist (b. 1926)<ref>{{cite news |last1=O'Grady |first1=Jane |title=Hilary Putnam obituary |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/mar/14/hilary-putnam-obituary |access-date=15 February 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=14 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206221121/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/mar/14/hilary-putnam-obituary |archive-date=6 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[2017]] – [[Amy Krouse Rosenthal]], American author (b. 1965)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Schudel |first1=Matt |title=Amy Krouse Rosenthal, author of best-selling children's books, touching farewell essay, dies at 51 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/amy-krouse-rosenthal-author-of-best-selling-childrens-books-touching-farewell-essay-dies-at-51/2017/03/14/b686a16e-0812-11e7-93dc-00f9bdd74ed1_story.html |access-date=15 February 2020 |newspaper=Washington Post |date=14 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130171639/https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/amy-krouse-rosenthal-author-of-best-selling-childrens-books-touching-farewell-essay-dies-at-51/2017/03/14/b686a16e-0812-11e7-93dc-00f9bdd74ed1_story.html |archive-date=30 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[2018]] – [[Emily Nasrallah]], Lebanese writer and women's rights activist. (b. 1931)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roberts |first1=Sam |title=Emily Nasrallah, Lebanese Novelist and Activist, Dies at 86 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/16/obituaries/emily-nasrallah-dead.html |access-date=7 March 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=16 March 2018}}</ref>
*[[2021]] – [[Marvelous Marvin Hagler]], American professional boxer (b. 1954)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/boxing/56390270|title=Marvin Hagler: 'Marvelous' dies aged 66|newspaper=BBC News|date=2021-03-14|accessdate=2021-03-14}}</ref>
* 2021 – [[Murray Walker]], English motorsport commentator and journalist (b. 1923)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/mar/13/murray-walker-the-voice-of-formula-one-dies-aged-97|title=Murray Walker, the voice of Formula One, dies aged 97|newspaper=The Guardian|publisher=Giles Richards|date=2021-03-13|accessdate=2021-03-14}}</ref>
*[[2022]] – [[William Hurt]], American actor (b. 1950)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/entertainment/entertainment-celebrity/Oscarwinning-Kiss-of-the-Spider-Woman-actor-William-Hurt-dies-at-71/ar-AAV0Kpt|title=Oscar-winning 'Kiss of the Spider Woman' actor William Hurt dies at 71|first=Bryan|last=Alexander|access-date=13 March 2022|work=USA Today|date=13 March 2022}}</ref>
*[[2024]] – [[Philippe de Gaulle]], French admiral (b.1921)<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/obituaries/article/2024/03/13/admiral-philippe-de-gaulle-son-of-the-general-is-dead_6613365_15.html | title=Philippe de Gaulle, son of Charles de Gaulle, has died aged 102 | newspaper=Le Monde.fr | date=13 March 2024 }}</ref>


==Holidays and observances==
*Christian [[feast day]]s:
**[[Ansovinus]]<ref name="BookOfSaints">{{cite book |last1=Watkins |first1=Basil |title=The Book of Saints: A Comprehensive Biographical Dictionary |date=2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-567-66415-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yzqOCgAAQBAJ&q=Ansovinus |access-date=23 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
**[[Gerald of Mayo]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Farmer |first1=David Hugh |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Saints, Fifth Edition Revised |date=2011 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-959660-7 |page=183 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_zJJtvK2_KsC&q=Gerald%20of%20Mayo |access-date=23 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
**[[James Theodore Holly]] ([[Episcopal Church (USA)]])<ref>{{cite book |title=Holy Women, Holy Men: Celebrating the Saints |date=2010 |publisher=Church Publishing, Inc. |isbn=978-0-89869-637-0 |pages=270–271 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2I6RmJ4JiuAC&pg=PA270 |access-date=23 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
**[[Nikephoros I of Constantinople|Nicephorus]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dragas |first1=George Dion |title=Ecclesiasticus II: Orthodox Icons, Saints, Feasts and Prayer |date=2005 |publisher=Orthodox Research Institute |isbn=978-0-9745618-0-6 |page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HVQKbw3cz5cC&pg=PA91 |access-date=23 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
**[[Saint Roderick|Roderick]]<ref name="BookOfSaints" />
**[[March 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
*[[Kasuga Matsuri]] (Kasuga Grand Shrine, [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], Japan)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bocking |first1=Brian |title=A Popular Dictionary of Shinto |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79739-3 |page=70 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6d-RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 |access-date=23 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[National Elephant Day (Thailand)]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Subprasom |first1=Chaiwat |title=Thailand Celebrates National Elephant Day |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/photo/thailand-celebrates-national-elephant-day-n52441 |access-date=23 February 2020 |work=NBC News |agency=Reuters |date=14 March 2014 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307112550/http://www.nbcnews.com/news/photo/thailand-celebrates-national-elephant-day-n52441 |archive-date=7 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Africa Scout Day]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Africa Scout Day Celebrations 2020 |url=https://www.scout.org/asd-uganda-2020 |website=www.scout.org |access-date=23 February 2020 |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223104658/https://www.scout.org/asd-uganda-2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/13 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month=3|day=13}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/march/13 Historical Events on March 13]

{{months}}

[[Category:Days of March]]

Éclair

2024-05-28T17:18:48Z

72.142.115.198: Undid revision 1223827077 by Apokryltaros (talk)

{{short description|Cream-filled pastry}}
{{other uses|Éclair (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Chocolate Eclair|the Canadian drama film|Chocolate Eclair (film){{!}}''Chocolate Eclair'' (film)}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Éclair
| image = File:Eclairs at Fauchon in Paris.jpg
| caption = Éclairs at [[Fauchon]] in [[Paris]]
| image_alt = Éclairs at [[Fauchon]] in [[Paris]]
| alternate_name =
| country = [[France]]
| national_cuisine = [[French cuisine]]
| year =
| type = [[Pastry]]
| course =
| served =
| main_ingredient = [[Choux pastry]], flavoured cream filling, [[Icing (food)|icing]]
| minor_ingredient =
| variations =
| calories =
| protein =
| fat =
| carbohydrate =
| glycemic_index =
| similar_dish =
| other =
}}

[[File:Eclair 1120005560.jpg|thumb|right|A classic éclair]]
An '''éclair''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|ɪ|ˈ|k|l|ɛər|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Vealhurl-éclair.wav}} {{respell|ih|KLAIR}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=eclair|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/eclair|url-status=live|website=[[Oxford Learner's Dictionary]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140619025953/http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com:80/definition/english/eclair |archive-date=2014-06-19 }}</ref> or {{IPAc-en|eɪ|ˈ|k|l|ɛər}} {{respell|ay|KLAIR}},<ref>{{Cite web|title=éclair|url=https://www.macmillandictionary.com/pronunciation/british/eclair|url-status=live|website=[[Macmillan Education|Macmillan Dictionary]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131130010708/http://www.macmillandictionary.com:80/pronunciation/british/eclair |archive-date=2013-11-30 }}</ref> {{IPA-fr|eklɛːʁ|lang|LL-Q150 (fra)-Aemines3-éclair.wav}}; {{lit|lightning}}) is a [[pastry]] made with [[choux pastry|choux]] dough filled with a cream and topped with a flavored icing. The dough, which is the same as that used for [[profiterole]], is typically piped into an oblong shape with a [[pastry bag]] and baked until it is crisp and hollow inside. Once cool, the pastry is filled with [[custard]] ({{lang|fr|crème pâtissière}}), [[whipped cream]] or [[chiboust cream]], then iced with [[fondant icing]].<ref name="Encyclopedia1">[[Prosper Montagné|Montagné, Prosper]], ''[[Larousse gastronomique]]: the new American edition of the world's greatest culinary encyclopedia'', Jenifer Harvey Lang, ed., New York: Crown Publishers, 1988, p. 401 {{ISBN|978-0-517-57032-6}}</ref> Other fillings include [[pistachio]]- and [[rum]]-flavoured custard, [[fruit]]-flavoured fillings, or [[chestnut]] purée. The icing is sometimes [[caramel]], in which case the dessert may be called a '''{{lang|fr|bâton de Jacob}}'''<ref name="Larousse365">{{Harv|Montagné|1961|loc=Éclair|p=365}}</ref> ({{lit|[[Jacob's staff]]}}). A similar pastry in a round rather than oblong shape is called a [[religieuse]]. It has no particular province associating its origin.

==Etymology==
[[File:0 Frameries - Boulangerie-pâtisserie Godefroid (8).JPG|thumb|right|Bakers in [[Belgium]] using a machine to make éclairs]]
The word comes from the French {{Lang|fr|éclair}}, meaning 'flash of lightning', so named because it is eaten quickly (in a flash);<ref>[http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/academie8/%C3%A9clair Éclair] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104213029/http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/academie8/%C3%A9clair |date=2014-01-04 }}, [[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]], 8th edition</ref> however some believe that the name is due to the glistening of the frosting resembling lightning.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lexicolatry.com/2015/05/eclair-why-is-it-named-after-lightning.html |title=Éclair - Why is It Named After Lightning? |website=www.lexicolatry.com |access-date=1 April 2022}}</ref>

==History==
The éclair originated during the nineteenth century in [[Lyon]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-10 |title=Les éclairs : leur histoire et leur fabrication chez MBC |url=https://www.ma-boulangerie-cafe.fr/2021/05/10/les-%C3%A9clairs-leur-histoire-et-leur-fabrication-chez-mbc/ |access-date=2023-02-01 |website=Boulangerie Pâtisserie artisanale |language=fr-FR}}</ref> France where it was called {{lang|fr|pain à la Duchesse}}<ref>{{Harv|Gouffé|1873|p=288}}</ref> ('Duchess-style bread') or {{lang|fr|petite duchesse}} ('little duchess') until 1850.<ref>{{Harv|Montagné|1961|loc=Duchesses|p=357}}</ref> The word is first attested both in English and in French in the 1860s.<ref>[[Oxford English Dictionary]], 1861. [[Petit Larousse]], 1863.</ref><ref>{{harv|Gouffé|1873|p=288}} "On a changé, depuis une vingtaine d'années, le nom de ces gâteaux [pains à la duchesse] : on les désigne actuellement sous le nom d'''éclairs''."</ref>

==North America==
[[Dunkin' Donuts]] markets [[Long John (doughnut)|Long John doughnuts]] as eclairs in the United States, while [[Tim Hortons]] and [[Country Style]] do so in Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dunkindonuts.com/en/menu/donuts/product-donuts-id1001201|title=Dunkin Donuts Menu|website=dunkindonuts.com}}</ref>
National Eclair Day is celebrated on June 22 in the U.S.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.courant.com/ctnow/food-drink/hc-ctnow-national-eclair-day-20220622-iedtp44c5ffp5fiqyh43zkfhky-story.html|title=Eclairs with a twist: Visit these Greater Hartford bakeries on National Eclair Day|website=Hartford Courant|date= 22 June 2022}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|France|Food}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[French cuisine]]
* [[List of choux pastry dishes]]
* [[List of custard desserts]]
* [[List of French desserts]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{cite book |first=Jules |last=Gouffé |title=Le livre de pâtisserie |year= 1873 |url=http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k107860n |chapter= Deuxième Partie, Chapitre IX, "Pains à la duchesse au café"}}
* {{cite book |first=Prosper |last=Montagné |title=Larousse Gastronomique, The Encyclopedia of Wine, Food & Cookery (English translation) |year= 1961}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Éclairs}}
{{wikisourcelang|fr|Le Livre de Pâtisserie/Deuxième Partie/Chapitre IX#Pains à la duchesse au café|Pains à la duchesse (éclair) au café}}
* [https://www.foodtimeline.org/foodpies.html#eclairs A brief éclair history]

{{Pastries}}
{{Chocolate desserts}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Eclair}}
[[Category:Albanian cuisine]]
[[Category:Belgian cuisine]]
[[Category:Custard desserts]]
[[Category:French pastries]]
[[Category:Choux pastry]]
[[Category:Chocolate-covered foods]]
[[Category:Doughnuts]]
[[Category:Stuffed desserts]]
[[Category:French cakes]]

Talk:Taiwan

2024-05-14T15:24:27Z

72.142.115.198: /* Logical evidence */ new section

{{Skip to talk}}
{{Talk header|archive_age=30|archive_units=days|archive_bot=Lowercase sigmabot III}}
{{tmbox|style=border-color:#b00000;|type=content|text=<div>
'''Important notice''': Prior consensus has decided that '''''Taiwan is to be referred to as a country'''''.
<big>'''Changes to the article to refer to Taiwan as a state, island, province of China, or other definition are not permitted and may be reverted.''' [[WP:TWRFC|See here for the 2020 RfC]] in which editors reached this decision.</big>}}
{{Talk:Taiwan/article guidelines}}
{{old move|
| from = Republic of China
| destination = Government of Taiwan
| date = 14 October 2011
| result = Withdrawn
| link = Talk:Taiwan/Archive 16#Requested move: Republic of China → Government of Taiwan

| from2 = Republic of China
| destination2 = Taiwan
| date2 = 17 February 2012
| result2 = moved
| link2 = Talk:Taiwan/Archive 20

| from3 = Taiwan
| destination3 = Republic of China
| date3 = 13 August 2014
| result3 = not moved
| link3 =Talk:Taiwan/Archive 23#Requested move 13 August 2014

|date4= 11 December 2016
|from4=Taiwan
|destination4=Republic of China
|result4=not moved
|link4=Talk:Taiwan/Archive_24#Requested_move_11_December_2016

|date5= 2 February 2017
|from5=Taiwan
|destination5=Republic of China
|result5=not moved
|link5=Talk:Taiwan/Archive_25#Requested_move_2_February_2017

|date6= 15 April 2018
|from6=Taiwan
|destination6=Taiwan (country)
|result6=not moved
|link6=Talk:Taiwan/Archive 27#Requested move 15 April 2018

|date7= 11 April 2021
|from7=Taiwan
|destination7=Republic of China
|result7=not moved
|link7=Talk:China#Move: Requested on 11 April 2021
}}
{{Round in circles|topic="country" vs "state", and "Taiwan" vs "Republic of China", and "Taiwan is a part of China", and "Taiwan is a province of China"}}
{{Calm}}
{{banner holder|collapsed=yes|
{{To do}}
{{Article history
|action1=PR
|action1date=01:35, 9 August 2006
|action1link=Wikipedia:Peer review/Republic of China/archive1
|action1result=reviewed
|action1oldid=68475781

|action2=GAN
|action2date=13 December 2006
|action2link=Talk:Taiwan/Archive_8#GA_Failed
|action2result=failed
|action2oldid=93925629

|action3=GAN
|action3date=4 September 2007
|action3link=Talk:Taiwan/Archive 9#GA nomination quick-failed
|action3result=failed
|action3oldid=155511520

|action4=GAN
|action4date=14:37, 21 November 2007
|action4link=
|action4result=listed
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|action5=GAR
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|action5link=Wikipedia:Good article reassessment/Republic of China/1
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|action6=PR
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|action6link=Wikipedia:Peer review/Republic of China (Taiwan)/archive1
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|action6oldid=227855374

|action7=GAN
|action7date=15:38, 13 June 2009
|action7link=Talk:Taiwan/GA1
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|action7oldid=296664051

|action8=PR
|action8date=21:24, 14 July 2009
|action8link=Wikipedia:Peer review/Republic of China/archive2
|action8result=reviewed
|action8oldid=305734527

|action9=FAC
|action9date=00:30, 16 August 2009
|action9link=Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/Republic of China/archive1
|action9result=not promoted
|action9oldid=307912611

|action10=GAR
|action10date=09:16, 27 April 2012 (UTC)
|action10link=Wikipedia:Good article reassessment/Taiwan/1
|action10result=delisted
|action10oldid=489422539

|currentstatus=DGA
|otddate=2004-10-10
|otdoldid=6487069
|otd2date=2011-02-28
|otd2oldid=416411868
|topic=Geography
}}
{{Press
| collapsed=yes
| author=[[Carl Miller (author)|Carl Miller]]
| title=China and Taiwan clash over Wikipedia edits
| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-49921173
| org=[[BBC News]]
| date=2019-10-05
| accessdate=2019-10-05
| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004233045/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-49921173
| archivedate=2019-10-04
| subject2 = article
| author2 = Keoni Everington
| title2 = Wikipedia finally designates Taiwan as 'country'
| org2 = [[Taiwan News]]
| url2 = https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3948149
| date2 = 2020-06-15
| quote2 = In a request for comments (RFC) page created to debate the proper status of Taiwan in its Wikipedia entry, editors in May fiercely debated the merits of referring to Taiwan as a "state" or a "country."
| archiveurl2 =
| archivedate2 =
| accessdate2 = 2020-06-16
| subject3 = article
| author3 = Keoni Everington
| title3 = Taiwan changed to 'partially-recognised country' on Wikipedia on China's National Day
| org3 = [[Taiwan News]]
| url3 = https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/4675464
| date3 = 2022-03-03
| quote3 = "Taiwan's status as a country in Wikipedia was changed to "partially-recognised country" on Saturday (Oct. 1), China's National Day, before the page was repaired later that day."
| archiveurl3 =
| archivedate3 =
| accessdate3 = 2022-03-03
}}
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== Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 16 April 2024 ==

{{edit extended-protected|Taiwan|answered=yes}}
Change 'Taiwan is a country' to 'Taiwan is province of China'

The above is factually and legally correct according the constitution of Republic of China (Taiwan) and the UN, as per international law People's Republic of China is currently the government of China. It is also state in the People's Republic of China too.

Suggesting Taiwan as a country is dishonesty and false, even as an opinion it's not fact nor changes it's current status under Chinese Sovereignity. [[Special:Contributions/2001:569:7C1E:7900:913F:FDE7:DC6A:CFC6|2001:569:7C1E:7900:913F:FDE7:DC6A:CFC6]] ([[User talk:2001:569:7C1E:7900:913F:FDE7:DC6A:CFC6|talk]]) 10:09, 16 April 2024 (UTC)
:[[File:Red information icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' See the top of this talk page for more info; consensus has decided that Taiwan is a country. <code><nowiki>'''[[</nowiki>'''[[User:CanonNi]]'''<nowiki>]]'''</nowiki></code> ([[User talk:CanonNi|talk]]<nowiki>|</nowiki>[[Special:Contributions/CanonNi|contribs]]) 10:15, 16 April 2024 (UTC)

== Kosovo's "with limited recognition" should be applied to Taiwan also ==
{{atop
| status =
| result = [[WP:OTHERCONTENT]]. [[User:Remsense|'''Remsense''']][[User talk:Remsense|诉]] 02:10, 29 April 2024 (UTC)
}}

The description of [[Kosovo]] states: 
"Kosovo, officially the Republic of Kosovo, is a is a country in Southeast Europe with partial diplomatic recognition." 
I see no reason why Kosovo (recognized by 104 UN members) should have the "partial diplomatic recognition" and Taiwan (recognized by 12 UN members) shouldn't. Either make both have the "with partial diplomatic recognition" part, or make neither have it. [[Special:Contributions/2604:3D08:8B80:F00:8CB1:B64A:6D54:E344|2604:3D08:8B80:F00:8CB1:B64A:6D54:E344]] ([[User talk:2604:3D08:8B80:F00:8CB1:B64A:6D54:E344|talk]]) 20:49, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
: Because article X has this or that doesn't mean this article should be the same. It is [[WP:OTHERSTUFF]]. [[User:Soetermans|soetermans]]. [[User talk: Soetermans|↑↑↓↓←→←→ B A '''TALK''']] 20:53, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
::Did you at all check what situations WP:OTHERSTUFF refers to? Or just trying to impress an IP editor with a cryptic acronym? — [[User:Kashmiri|kashmīrī]] [[User talk:Kashmiri|TALK]] 21:08, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
:::It is not an acronym. It is not argument to have the wording of the article on Taiwan changed because of the wording in the one on Kosovo. And to make an ultimatum to boot ("either both or neither") is not helping either. [[User:Soetermans|soetermans]]. [[User talk: Soetermans|↑↑↓↓←→←→ B A '''TALK''']] 21:25, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
::Can you explain what, specifically, makes Taiwan different from Kosovo? [[Special:Contributions/2604:3D08:8B80:F00:8CB1:B64A:6D54:E344|2604:3D08:8B80:F00:8CB1:B64A:6D54:E344]] ([[User talk:2604:3D08:8B80:F00:8CB1:B64A:6D54:E344|talk]]) 21:45, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
:I agree. I see no reason to treat Taiwan differently than, say, Abkhazia, South Ossetia or Kosovo as regards their recognition. — [[User:Kashmiri|kashmīrī]] [[User talk:Kashmiri|TALK]] 21:07, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
::The difference is those other states are relatively recent breakaway states, while Taiwan is an older rump state that emerged from a civil war. Much harder to summarise recognition, which is not as a new breakaway state as it is for the other examples given. [[User:Chipmunkdavis|CMD]] ([[User talk:Chipmunkdavis|talk]]) 21:17, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
:::Kosovo, although recent, is a fully functional country with no countries to back it up (like Turkey for Northern Cyprus, or Russia for Abkhazia/South Ossetia). It is just as much of a functional state as Taiwan. Just because a state is older does not mean it is automatically more legitimate. [[Special:Contributions/2604:3D08:8B80:F00:8CB1:B64A:6D54:E344|2604:3D08:8B80:F00:8CB1:B64A:6D54:E344]] ([[User talk:2604:3D08:8B80:F00:8CB1:B64A:6D54:E344|talk]]) 21:44, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
:::"Recency" does not automatically give a state more legitimacy. South Sudan broke away from Sudan in 2011, but no one disputes that it is a country, simply because there are no states that explicitly do not recognize South Sudan. [[User:Game2Winter|Game2Winter]] ([[User talk:Game2Winter|talk]]) 21:51, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
::I do: they're different countries that arose from different situations. [[User:Remsense|'''Remsense''']][[User talk:Remsense|诉]] 21:45, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
:::Can you explain what makes Taiwan more legitimate than Kosovo then? [[Special:Contributions/2604:3D08:8B80:F00:8CB1:B64A:6D54:E344|2604:3D08:8B80:F00:8CB1:B64A:6D54:E344]] ([[User talk:2604:3D08:8B80:F00:8CB1:B64A:6D54:E344|talk]]) 21:45, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
::::I don't think any states are legitimate or illegitimate. I think my editorial instinct would be that the "partial recognition" guff should be removed from [[Kosovo]], but I haven't edited that article. This is why "well what about other articles" arguments are usually seen as absurd barring any overarching editorial policy. [[User:Remsense|'''Remsense''']][[User talk:Remsense|诉]] 21:47, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
:::::[[Diplomatic recognition]] has nothing to do with legitimacy – it's a unilateral act of other states that may be done with or without a reason. When a state has been recognised by all or nearly all other sovereign states, its recognition does not rise to the point of having to be mentioned in the lead. However, when a state enjoys only limited recognition or none at all, the general practice on Wikipedia is to mention this fact in the lead section – and it's rather independent of the country's age. — [[User:Kashmiri|kashmīrī]] [[User talk:Kashmiri|TALK]] 22:01, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
::::::Why is it mentioned in Kosovo's lead section and not Taiwan's? Can you name anything specific that makes the situations different? [[User:Game2Winter|Game2Winter]] ([[User talk:Game2Winter|talk]]) 22:06, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
:::::::No idea, and I'm all for including this info in Taiwan article. — [[User:Kashmiri|kashmīrī]] [[User talk:Kashmiri|TALK]] 22:29, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
::::::::My position is the precise degree of international recognition or number of recognizing states is not useful in an infobox. Those points should be discussed in the article body, which they are. [[User:Remsense|'''Remsense''']][[User talk:Remsense|诉]] 02:15, 19 April 2024 (UTC)
::::::::The information is indeed already discussed in the article. I am generally against adding this in the infobox. I would be supportive of dropping this language in the Kosovo infobox as well, FWIW. [[User:Butterdiplomat|Butterdiplomat]] ([[User talk:Butterdiplomat|talk]]) 02:41, 19 April 2024 (UTC)
::::Taiwan as a sovereign state inherited from the [[Republic of China (1912-1949)|former Chinese Republic]], As a nation in its own right that is existed long before the establishment of communist China and never be placed under the PRC rule in history, therefore no one would actually consider Taiwan as a PRC province or a breakaway state seceded from the PRC, despite being asserted by the communist regime as such. The cross-strait relations are basically [[Two Chinas|two rival states vying for their legitimacy of "China"]], so '''it's in fact more similar to the current situation of [[Two Koreas]]''', in which both Koreas are regarded as "countries" as well, and simultaneously they have been claiming the legitimacy over entire Korean peninsula in their respective constitution that is similar to the cross-strait relations. This circumstance would not affect the way we have viewed them as two sovereign countries exercise sovereignty in their each actual-controlled territories, rather than seeing them as “One Korea” with two governments, same applies to the ROC and PRC. [[User:Sheherherhers|Sheherherhers]] ([[User talk:Sheherherhers|talk]]) 13:37, 23 April 2024 (UTC)
:Let's refocus: couch this argument in terms of why it makes the Taiwan article specifically better, or don't bother. If you want to change [[Kosovo]], discuss that there—that article is irrelevant here, that's not generally how Wikipedia works. [[User:Remsense|'''Remsense''']][[User talk:Remsense|诉]] 21:54, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
::Good idea, I'll see if I can try to get it done. [[User:Game2Winter|Game2Winter]] ([[User talk:Game2Winter|talk]]) 21:59, 18 April 2024 (UTC)
:I think the better solution if you want to standardize is to drop that language from Kosovo, that does appear to be what your primarily interested in after all. [[User:Horse Eye's Back|Horse Eye's Back]] ([[User talk:Horse Eye's Back|talk]]) 02:10, 19 April 2024 (UTC)
:I am in favor of this argument. It is too on the 'other states' section on the soverign states wikipage, ([[List of sovereign states#Other states]]), and is put there alongside [[Abkhazia]], and [[Kosovo]]. While a large portion of nations recognize both of these entities, it is still there. Taiwan should be no different. [[User:BerlinEagle|BerlinEagle]] ([[User talk:BerlinEagle|talk]]) 01:46, 29 April 2024 (UTC)
::[[WP:OTHERCONTENT|It's not an argument that holds much water on Wikipedia, per several citations of site policy above. Argue about the contents of each article on its own merits.]] [[User:Remsense|'''Remsense''']][[User talk:Remsense|诉]] 02:09, 29 April 2024 (UTC)
{{abot}}

== Republic of China (Taiwan) ==
{{atop
| status = Read the top of the page.
| result =
}}

Republic of China (Taiwan)
true name of my country
是我國人民國家認同的最大公約數 — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Ian0421|Ian0421]] ([[User talk:Ian0421#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ian0421|contribs]]) 15:20, 24 April 2024 (UTC) 
:If you look through the talk page archive you will see why we have named the article what we have. [[User:Slatersteven|Slatersteven]] ([[User talk:Slatersteven|talk]]) 15:28, 24 April 2024 (UTC)
::ROC(中華民國)=/=PRC(中華人民共和國) [[User:Ian0421|Ian0421]] ([[User talk:Ian0421|talk]]) 15:47, 24 April 2024 (UTC)
:::We do not say it does. [[User:Slatersteven|Slatersteven]] ([[User talk:Slatersteven|talk]]) 15:50, 24 April 2024 (UTC)
::::presidents say we are Republic of China(Taiwan)
::::Because the Republic of China(Taiwan), is the name that best represents the national identity of our people.
::::The title "Only Taiwan" is not correct. It cannot fully represent our country. It is a failed introduction. [[User:Ian0421|Ian0421]] ([[User talk:Ian0421|talk]]) 16:07, 24 April 2024 (UTC)
:::::My last reply, read [[wp:common name]]. We go by what the majority of reliable sources say. [[User:Slatersteven|Slatersteven]] ([[User talk:Slatersteven|talk]]) 16:10, 24 April 2024 (UTC)
::::in german in spain in japan in korea Republic of China(Taiwan) is common because correctness
::::english dont care it the majority of reliable sources say??? Then you only hear one-sided words hope you come to Taiwan you can hear more sounds [[User:Ian0421|Ian0421]] ([[User talk:Ian0421|talk]]) 16:45, 24 April 2024 (UTC)
{{abot}}

== Administrative problem: first level divisions ==

My edit of [[Douliu]] was removed and reverted by @[[User:Canterbury Tail|Canterbury Tail]] as "disruptive". I added [[Taiwan Province]] as a first level followed by [[Yunlin County]] as a second level division. We have a big problem regarding ROC administrative divisions in the free area. So how about this: I'm opening up an RfC if we can propose two options in regards to the ROC subdivisions.

A. First level:
* Provinces: Taiwan, Fuchien
* Special Municipalities: Taipei, Kaohsiung, New Taipei, Tainan, Taichung, Taoyuan

B. First level:
* Autonomous municipalities: Keelung, Chiayi, Hsinchu
* Counties: Changhua, Chiayi, Hsinchu, Yunlin, Miaoli, Hualien, Taitung, Yilan, Pingtung, Penghu, Kinmen, Lienchiang
* Special Municipalities: Taipei, Kaohsiung, New Taipei, Tainan, Taichung, Taoyuan

While Google Maps and some maps online treat option B as main subdivisions, do you guys want the Province on the Infobox in its second, third and fourth level subdivision articles?

It's worth noting that Macau SAR got rid of parish governments in 2001 while Lithuania abolished county governments in 2010. The ROC kept Taiwan and Fuchien provinces for administrative and statistical purposes within the government especially the ROC Ministry of Interior still uses it. Getting rid of provinces from the ROC administrative structure would provoke the PRC.

@[[User:Amigao|Amigao]] @[[User:Remsense|Remsense]] @[[User:Game2Winter|Game2Winter]] @[[User:Matt Smith|matt smith]], you're more than welcome to debate and discuss. -- [[User:Silence of Lambs|Silence of Lambs]] ([[User talk:Silence of Lambs|talk]]) 15:12, 7 May 2024 (UTC)

:I am inclined to oppose any framework that uses <nowiki>[[Taiwan|Republic of China]]</nowiki>, since it clearly goes against the spirit of WP:COMMONNAME. I’m also inclined to oppose including Taiwan Province in the infobox just because it has no administrative function practically. [[User:Butterdiplomat|Butterdiplomat]] ([[User talk:Butterdiplomat|talk]]) 23:01, 8 May 2024 (UTC)
::Taiwan Province only covers Penghu, 10 counties on Taiwan island, but it could be included with the exception of six municipalities. However, Fujian can stay for Kinmen and Matsu. [[User:Silence of Lambs|Silence of Lambs]] ([[User talk:Silence of Lambs|talk]]) 20:47, 9 May 2024 (UTC)
:This discussion may be better held at that talkpage or at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Taiwan]], as it does not directly concern this page. [[User:Chipmunkdavis|CMD]] ([[User talk:Chipmunkdavis|talk]]) 00:18, 9 May 2024 (UTC)
::Thanks dude. [[User:Silence of Lambs|Silence of Lambs]] ([[User talk:Silence of Lambs|talk]]) 20:47, 9 May 2024 (UTC)

== Logical evidence ==

The same scrutiny that was applied to taiwan that qualified it to become a country (it isnt) has not been applied to places such as the republic of Molossia and Sealand. If Taiwan is a country, then why aren't those other places considered to be countries? All three have passports, a permanent population, a border and a government, so why is only Taiwan considered a country but not the others? By setting a precedent that the Principality of Sealand and the Republic of Molossia don't qualify for nation hood, Taiwan also can not qualify. [[Special:Contributions/72.142.115.198|72.142.115.198]] ([[User talk:72.142.115.198|talk]]) 15:24, 14 May 2024 (UTC)

Éclair

2024-05-13T13:13:23Z

72.142.115.198: Ask Chatgpt<ref>https://chatgpt.com/</ref> the origin of an eclaire. It will tell you there is none. The source used by [7] is incomplete and false.

2012 Haida Gwaii earthquake

2024-05-09T18:36:13Z

72.142.115.198: /* Damage */

{{Short description|Earthquake in Canada}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Infobox earthquake
| name = 2012 Haida Gwaii earthquake
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| map =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| map2 = {{Location map | Canada British Columbia
| relief = 1
| label =
| lat = 52.769
| long = -131.927
| mark = Bullseye1.png
| marksize = 40
| position = top
| width = 250
| float = right
| caption = }}
| timestamp = 2012-10-28 03:04:09
| isc-event = 603860908
| anss-url = usp000juhz
| local-date = {{start date|2012|10|27}}
| local-time = 20:04:09 ([[Pacific Daylight Time|PDT]])
| duration = 90 seconds <ref name=Bird/>
| magnitude = 7.8 {{M|w|link=y}}
| depth = {{convert|17.5|km||abbr=on}}
| location = {{coord|52.769|-131.927|type:event_elevation:-17500_source:usgsehz_scale:300000|display=inline,title}}
| type = [[Fault (geology)#Dip-slip faults|Thrust]]<ref name=Bird/>
| affected = Canada
| damages =
| intensity = {{MMI|5}}<ref name=usgs/>
| pga = 0.2 ''[[Peak ground acceleration|g]]''<ref name=Bird/>
| tsunami = Yes
| landslide =
| foreshocks =
| aftershocks =
| casualties = 1 dead (indirect)<ref name="NOAA" />
}}

The '''2012 Haida Gwaii earthquake''' occurred just after {{tooltip|8:04 p.m. PDT on October 27|3:04 a.m. UTC October 28}}. The shock had a [[moment magnitude scale|moment magnitude]] of 7.8 and a maximum [[Mercalli intensity scale|Mercalli Intensity]] of V (''Moderate''). The earthquake's epicentre was on [[Moresby Island]] of the [[Haida Gwaii]] archipelago (formerly known as the Queen Charlotte Islands). This was the second largest Canadian earthquake ever recorded by a [[seismometer]], after the [[1949 Queen Charlotte Islands earthquake]], about {{convert|135|km|mi}} away.<ref name="Huff Post">{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/28/canada-earthquake-tsunami-alaska_n_2032416.html |title=Canada Earthquake: British Columbia Hit, Tsunami Warning For Alaska, Hawaii |publisher=Huffingtonpost.com |date= October 28, 2012|accessdate=October 28, 2012}}</ref> One person died due to a car crash related to the tsunami in [[Oahu]], [[Hawaii]].<ref name="NOAA" />

== Earthquake ==
Strong shaking was felt throughout Haida Gwaii where residents in [[Masset]], [[Skidegate]], [[Sandspit, British Columbia|Sandspit]], and [[Queen Charlotte City]] were evacuated to higher ground.<ref>{{cite news |author=Justine Hunter |author2=Ian Bailey |author3=Wendy Stueck |name-list-style=amp |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/british-columbia/tsunami-warning-issued-after-earthquake-strikes-off-haida-gwaii/article4710930/ |title=Minor temblor rattles Los Angeles after strong quake off B.C. coast |publisher=The Globe and Mail |date=October 29, 2012 |accessdate=October 28, 2012 |location=Toronto |archive-date=July 1, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701111008/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/british-columbia/tsunami-warning-issued-after-earthquake-strikes-off-haida-gwaii/article4710930/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Minor shaking was felt in [[Prince Rupert, BC|Prince Rupert]] and in other cities of the [[British Columbia Interior|Interior]] such as [[Prince George, British Columbia|Prince George]], [[Quesnel, British Columbia|Quesnel]], and as far away as [[Kamloops]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Tsunami heads for Hawaii after huge B.C. quake|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2012/10/27/bc-quake-reported.html|accessdate=October 28, 2012|newspaper=CBC|date=October 27, 2012|author =CBC News}}</ref> Electricity service was interrupted in [[Bella Coola, British Columbia|Bella Coola]].<ref name="NYTimes M 7.8 Quake off W Canada" />

[[File:USGS Shakemap - 2012 Haida Gwaii earthquake.jpg|thumbnail|USGS ShakeMap for the event]]

Although the earthquake occurred on the [[Queen Charlotte Fault]], a primarily [[strike-slip boundary]] between the [[Pacific plate|Pacific]] and [[North American plate]]s where the Pacific Plate moves approximately north-northwest with respect to the North America plate at a rate of about 50 mm/yr,<ref name=usgs/> the 2012 quake exhibited a thrust mechanism, more characteristic of the [[Cascadia Subduction Zone]] to the south.<ref>[http://www.earthmagazine.org/article/superquakes-supercycles-and-global-earthquake-clustering-recent-research-and-recent-quakes "Superquakes, supercycles, and global earthquake clustering", Chris Goldfinger, Yasutaka Ikeda and Robert S. Yeats, ''EARTH'', January 7, 2013.]</ref>

==Tsunami==
A [[Tsunami warning system|tsunami warning]] was issued for the North American Coast from the [[Alaskan Panhandle]] to [[Vancouver Island]], but later limited to the North Coast region of British Columbia. Canadian authorities were questioned for issuing a tsunami warning nearly 40 minutes after the U.S. had issued their warning.<ref name="cbc.ca">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2012/10/29/bc-earthquake-response-warning.html |title=B.C. tsunami warning came 39 minutes after U.S. alert - British Columbia - CBC News |publisher=Cbc.ca |date=October 30, 2012 |accessdate=November 9, 2012}}</ref> The greatest wave heights recorded at tide gauges in Canada were {{cvt|25|cm}} at [[Langara Island]] and {{cvt|22|cm}} at [[Winter Harbour, British Columbia|Winter Harbour]].<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web |url=http://oldwcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/previous.events/10-27-12/index.php |title=West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Information |publisher=Oldwcatwc.arh.noaa.gov |accessdate=November 9, 2012 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In [[Tofino]] on Vancouver Island, the tsunami warning sirens were activated and residents in low-lying areas evacuated their homes.<ref name="NYTimes M 7.8 Quake off W Canada">{{cite news|title=Magnitude 7.8 Quake Strikes Off Western Canada|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2012/10/27/us/ap-cn-canada-earthquake.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&_r=1&|accessdate=October 28, 2012|newspaper=The New York Times|date=October 28, 2012|agency=The Associated Press}}</ref> The maximum wave height recorded in Tofino was {{cvt|9|cm}}.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> Tofino's tsunami warning system was activated after communication with the provincial coordinating centre was cut off.<ref>{{cite web |author=DEREK SPALDING |url=http://www.timescolonist.com/review+emergency+response+wake+Haida+Gwaii+quake+communication+problem+with+Tofino/7461466/story.html |title=B.C. to review emergency response in wake of Haida Gwaii quake, communication problem with Tofino |publisher=Timescolonist.com |date=October 28, 2012 |accessdate=November 9, 2012 |archive-date=November 2, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102012313/http://www.timescolonist.com/review+emergency+response+wake+Haida+Gwaii+quake+communication+problem+with+Tofino/7461466/story.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the U.S., [[Hawaii]] was also placed on alert, and over 100,000<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-10-28/77-quake-strikes-off-canada-west-coast/4337966 |title=As it happened: Hawaiian tsunami alert - ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) |newspaper=ABC News |date=October 28, 2012 |publisher=Abc.net.au |accessdate=November 9, 2012}}</ref> people were evacuated to higher ground. The maximum wave height recorded at tide gauges in Hawaii was {{cvt|79|cm}}.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> Other warnings were issued for the states of [[Oregon]] and [[California]], but were subsequently lifted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tsunami.gov/ |title=Tsunami messages issued in the past 7 days |publisher=Tsunami.gov |accessdate=November 9, 2012}}</ref> Along the western coast of Haida Gwaii, the earthquake triggered tsunami waves with a maximum run-up height at 13 meters in Davidson Inlet.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ocean Networks Canada |title=Co-seismic tsunami hazard assessment for Prince Rupert |journal=The City of Prince Rupert Tsunami Flood Risk Assessment |volume=Appendix C |url=http://www.princerupert.ca/sites/default/files/services/public%20safety/20190621%203003349%20Appendix%20C%20-%20Numerical%20Modelling%20of%20Seismic%20Generated%20Waves%20R1.pdf |access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref> In Mike Inlet, the tsunami was measured at 7.6 meters, making it the largest tsunami generated by an earthquake in western Canadian history.<ref name=Bird/>

===Damage===
Despite the earthquake's large magnitude, no major structural damage was reported from any of the population centres in the vicinity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thenorthernview.com/news/176177901.html |title=Aftershocks continue to hit Haida Gwaii, 6.3 magnitude occurs right before noon |publisher=The Northern View |date=October 28, 2012 |accessdate=November 9, 2012 |archive-date=November 1, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101043216/http://www.thenorthernview.com/news/176177901.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> This can be explained by the remoteness of the tremor's epicentre. No casualties or major injuries were recorded from the earthquake, likely due to the sparsely populated nature of the region, but in [[Hawaii]], one person died in a car crash near a road that was closed because of the tsunami threat near hi [[Oahu|Oahu's]] northern coast.<ref name="NOAA">{{Cite web|title=Tsunami Event: HAIDA GWAII, CANADA|url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/tsunami/event-more-info/5467|publisher=NGDC}}</ref><ref name="cbc.ca"/> As a result of the earthquake and its aftershocks, the famed hot springs in [[Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site|Gwaii Haanas National Park]] on [[Hotspring Island]] dried up.<ref>{{cite web |last=McKnight |first=Zoe |url=http://www.timescolonist.com/news/metro/Earthquake+empties+famed+Haida+Gwaii+springs+video/7484352/story.html |title=Earthquake empties famed Haida Gwaii hot springs (with video) |publisher=Timescolonist.com |date=November 2, 2012 |accessdate=November 9, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105054332/http://www.timescolonist.com/news/metro/Earthquake+empties+famed+Haida+Gwaii+springs+video/7484352/story.html |archive-date=November 5, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2015 the hot springs began to come back.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/haida-gwaii-hot-springs-heating-up-1.3318532|title=3 years after earthquake, Haida Gwaii hot springs heating up again|work=CBC News|access-date=2017-10-28}}</ref>

===Aftershocks===
There were 94 aftershocks of magnitude 4.0 or greater lasting until November 7, as recorded by the USGS.

The largest of these numerous aftershocks was a 6.3 magnitude earthquake that occurred {{convert|56|km|mi}} to the west of the main tremor on the morning of October 28.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/usb000dg06#summary |title=M6.3 - 177km SSW of Masset, Canada 2012-10-28 18:54:16 UTC |publisher=Earthquake.usgs.gov |accessdate=November 9, 2012}}</ref> This was followed on October 29 by a 6.2 aftershock {{convert|50|km|mi}} to the south of the original quake.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2012/10/29/bc-haida-gwaii-quake.html |title=Another earthquake rattles B.C. coast - British Columbia - CBC News |publisher=Cbc.ca |date=October 30, 2012 |accessdate=November 9, 2012}}</ref>

Four months after the mainshock, in January 2013, another [[2013 Craig, Alaska earthquake|magnitude 7.5 earthquake]] struck north of Haida Gwaii in southeastern Alaska.<ref>{{cite web |title=M 7.5 - Southeastern Alaska |url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/ak0138esnzr/executive |website=earthquake.usgs.gov |publisher=USGS |access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref> The earthquake had a pure strike-slip focal mechanism, consistent with a rupture along the Queen Charlotte Fault. This earthquake is not considered an aftershock, but was triggered by stress transfer caused by the October 2012 earthquake.<ref name="Hyndman">{{cite journal |author1=R. D. Hyndman |title=Tectonics and Structure of the Queen Charlotte Fault Zone, Haida Gwaii, and Large Thrust Earthquakes |journal=Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America |date=2015 |volume=105 |issue=2B |pages=1058–1075 |doi=10.1785/0120140181 |bibcode=2015BuSSA.105.1058H |url=http://web.uvic.ca/~rhyndman/PublicationPDFs/QueenCharlotteStructureTectonicHistory.pdf#page=14&zoom=100,418,284 |access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[List of earthquakes in 2012]]
*[[List of earthquakes in Canada]]

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=Bird>{{citation|title=Impacts of the October 2012 Magnitude 7.8 Earthquake near Haida Gwaii, Canada|url=http://bssa.geoscienceworld.org/content/105/2B/1178.abstract|first1=A. L.|last1=Bird|first2=M.|last2=Lamontagne|year=2015|journal=Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America|publisher=[[Seismological Society of America]]|volume=105|number=2B|pages=1178, 1180|bibcode=2015BuSSA.105.1178B|doi=10.1785/0120140167}}</ref>
<ref name=usgs>{{cite web|title=M7.8 - Haida Gwaii, Canada|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/usp000juhz#general_summary|author =USGS|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
*{{citation|doi=10.1007/s00024-014-0792-0|title=Field Survey Following the 28 October 2012 Haida Gwaii Tsunami|year=2014|last1=Leonard|first1=L. J.|last2=Bednarski|first2=J. M.|journal=Pure and Applied Geophysics|volume=171|issue=12|pages=3467–3482|bibcode=2014PApGe.171.3467L|s2cid=129536882}}

==External links==
* USGS: [https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/usb000df7n#summary M7.7 - 139km S of Masset, Canada] 2012-10-28 03:04:10 UTC
* Natural Resources Canada: [http://www.earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/recent_eq/2012/20121028.0304/index-eng.php 2012-10-27: M=7.7 - 74 km SSW of Queen Charlotte City, BC] Saturday October 27, 2012
* West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center: [http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/events/PAAQ/2012/10/28/mcl1uw/ 2012-10-28]
* Pacific Tsunami Warning Center: [http://ptwc.weather.gov/ptwc/archive.php?basin=pacific Pacific archive] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031061629/http://ptwc.weather.gov/ptwc/archive.php?basin=pacific |date=October 31, 2012 }}
* Pacific Tsunami Warning Center: [http://ptwc.weather.gov/ptwc/archive.php?basin=hawaii Hawaii archive] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115073424/http://ptwc.weather.gov/ptwc/archive.php?basin=hawaii |date=November 15, 2012 }}
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Juno (mythology)

2024-05-08T16:54:01Z

72.142.115.198:

{{short description|Ancient Roman goddess of marriage and childbirth}}
{{About|the Roman goddess||Juno (disambiguation){{!}}Juno}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Roman
| name = Juno
| other_names = {{lang|la|Regina}} ("Queen")
| member_of = the [[Capitoline Triad]] and the ''[[Dii Consentes]]''
| image = Juno Sospita Statue.jpg
| caption = Juno Sospita, a [[plaster cast]] based on an original in the [[Vatican Museums]]
| deity_of = Queen of the Gods Goddess of marriage and childbirth
| abode =
| symbol =
| consort = [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]]
| parents = [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]] and [[Ops (mythology)|Ops]]
| siblings = [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]], [[Pluto (mythology)|Pluto]], [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], [[Vesta (mythology)|Vesta]]
| children = [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]], [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]], [[Bellona (goddess)|Bellona]], [[Lucina (mythology)|Lucina]], [[Juventas]]
| mount =
| Greek_equivalent = [[Hera]]
| Etruscan_equivalent = [[Uni (mythology)|Uni]]
}}

'''Juno''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|dʒ|uː|n|oʊ}} {{respell|JOO|noh}}; Latin {{lang|la|Iūnō}} {{IPA-la|ˈjuːnoː|}}) was an [[Religion in ancient Rome|ancient Roman goddess]], the protector and special counsellor of the state. She was [[syncretism|equated]] to [[Hera]], queen of the gods in [[Greek mythology]] and a goddess of love and marriage. A daughter of [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]] and [[Ops]], she was the sister and wife of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] and the mother of [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]], [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]], [[Bellona (goddess)|Bellona]], [[Lucina (mythology)|Lucina]] and [[Juventas]]. Like Hera, her sacred animal was the [[peacock]].<ref name=Lar>''Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia'', [[The Book People]], Haydock, 1995, p. 215.</ref> Her [[Etruscan Civilization|Etruscan]] counterpart was [[Uni (mythology)|Uni]], and she was said to also watch over the women of Rome.<ref>Corbishley, Mike ''Ancient Rome'' Warwick Press 1986 p.62</ref> As the [[patron goddess]] of [[Rome]] and the [[Roman Empire]], Juno was called {{lang|la|Regina}} ("Queen") and was a member of the [[Capitoline Triad]] (''Juno Capitolina''), centered on the [[Capitoline Hill]] in Rome, and also including Jupiter, and [[Minerva]], goddess of wisdom.
[[File:Wall painting - wedding of Zeus and Hera - Pompeii (VI 8 3) - Napoli MAN 9559 - 02.jpg|thumb|Juno-Hera, antique fresco from [[Pompeii]]]]

Juno's own warlike aspect among the Romans is apparent in her attire. She was often shown armed and wearing a goatskin cloak. The traditional depiction of this warlike aspect was assimilated from the Greek goddess [[Athena]], who bore a goatskin, or a goatskin shield, called the [[Aegis]]. Juno was also shown wearing a diadem.

==Etymology==
The name ''Juno'' was once popularly thought to be connected to ''Iove'' (Jove), originally as ''Diuno'' and ''Diove'' from ''*Diovona''.<ref>P. K. Buttmann ''Mythologus'' I Berlin 1828 p. 200 ff.; J. A. Hartung ''Die Religion der Römer'' II Erlangen 1836 p. 62 ; L. Preller ''Rômische Mythologie'' I.</ref> Although this etymology still receives some support, a derivation was later proposed from ''iuven-'' (as in Latin ''iuvenis'', "youth"), through a syncopated form ''iūn-'' (as in ''iūnix'', "heifer", and ''iūnior'', "younger"). This etymology became widely accepted after it was endorsed by [[Georg Wissowa]].<ref>G. Wissowa ''Religion und Kultus der Römer'' Munich 1912 pp. 181-2, drawing on W. Schulze and W. Otto in 1904 and 1905. Juno would then be a derivate noun in ''-ōn-'', rather unusual in the feminine.</ref>

''Iuuen-'' is related to Latin ''aevum'' and Greek ''[[Aeon|aion]]'' (αἰών) through a common [[Proto-Indo-European root|Indo-European root]] referring to a concept of vital energy or "fertile time".<ref name=":0">[[Émile Benveniste]], "Expression indo-européenne de l' éternité" ''Bulletin de la société de linguistique de Paris'' '''38''', 1937, pp.103-112: the theme *yuwen- includes the root *yu- at degree 0 and the suffix -wen-. The original meaning of the root *yu- is that of force as found in Vedic ''ắyuh'' vital force, ''āyúh'' genius of the vital force and also in Greek αιών and Latin ''aevum''.</ref> The ''iuvenis'' is he who has the fullness of vital force.<ref name=":1">[[Robert E. A. Palmer]] ''Roman Religion and Roman Empire. Five Essays'' Philadelphia, 1974, p. 4; Marcel Renard "Le nom de Junon" in ''Phoibos'' '''5''' 1950, 1, p. 141-143.</ref> In some inscriptions Jupiter himself is called ''Iuuntus'', and one of the epithets of Jupiter is ''Ioviste'', a [[superlative|superlative form]] of ''iuuen-'' meaning "the youngest".<ref name=":2">G. Wissowa above p. 135; G. Dumézil ''La relig. rom. arch.'' Paris 1974; It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 185-186; C. W. Atkins "Latin 'Iouiste' et le vocabulaire religieux indoeuropéen" in ''Mélanges Benveniste'' Paris, 1975, pp.527-535</ref> [[Iuventas]], "Youth", was one of two deities who "refused" to leave the [[Capitoline|Capitol]] when the building of the new [[Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus|Temple of Capitoline Jove]] required the [[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#exauguratio|exauguration]] of deities who already occupied the site.<ref>[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]], ''Antiquitates Romanae,'' III 69, 5-6. M Renard remarks that the annual procession which took the image of the goddess (represented as a goose) from the temple of Juno Moneta on the Arx to the Capitoline temple in a ''lectica'' portantine, stopped and placed the image between the ''cella'' of Jupiter and that of Minerva and there, in the ''pronaos'' in front of the statue of Minerva, stood Iuventas's aedicula. "Aspects anciens de Janus et de Junon" in ''Revue belge de philologie'' 1953 p. 21; V. Basanoff ''Les dieux des romains'' 1942 p. 154; Livy V 54, 7.</ref>

Ancient etymologies associated Juno's name with ''iuvare'', "to aid, benefit", and ''iuvenescere'', "rejuvenate", sometimes connecting it to the renewal of the new and waxing moon, perhaps implying the idea of a moon goddess.<ref>Varro ''Ling. Lat.'' V 67 and 69 ; Cicero, ''Nat. Deor.'' II 66; Plutarch, ''Quaestiones Romanae,'' 77.</ref>


==Roles and epithets==
[[File:Pompeii - Casa dei Vettii - Ixion.jpg|thumb|Punishment of [[Ixion]]: in the center is [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] holding the [[caduceus]] and on the right Juno sits on her throne. Behind her [[Iris (mythology)|Iris]] stands and gestures. On the left is [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]] ([[blond]] figure) standing behind the wheel, manning it, with Ixion already tied to it. [[Nephele]] sits at Mercury's feet; a Roman fresco from the eastern wall of the [[triclinium]] in the [[House of the Vettii]], [[Pompeii]], [[Pompeian Styles|Fourth Style]] (60–79 AD).]]
Juno's theology is one of the most complex and disputed issues in Roman religion. Even more than other major Roman deities, Juno held a large number of significant and diverse [[epithet]]s, names and titles representing various aspects and roles of the goddess. In accordance with her central role as a goddess of marriage, these included ''Pronuba'' and ''Cinxia'' ("she who looses the bride's girdle"). However, other epithets of Juno have wider implications and are less thematically linked.

While her connection with the idea of vital force, the fullness of vital energy, and eternal youthfulness is now generally acknowledged, the multiplicity and complexity of her personality have given rise to various and sometimes irreconcilable interpretations among modern scholars.

Juno is certainly the divine protectress of the community, who shows both a sovereign and a fertility character, often associated with a military one. She was present in many towns of ancient Italy: at [[Lanuvium]] as Sespeis Mater Regina, [[Laurentum]], [[Tibur]], [[Falerii]], [[Veii]] as Regina, at Tibur and Falerii as Regina and Curitis, [[Tusculum]] and [[Norba]] as [[Lucina_(mythology)|Lucina]]. She is also attested at [[Praeneste]], [[Aricia, Italy|Aricia]], [[Ardea, Lazio|Ardea]], [[Gabii]]. In five Latin towns a month was named after Juno (Aricia, Lanuvium, Laurentum, Praeneste, Tibur).<ref>Ovid ''Fasti'' VI 59-62</ref> Outside Latium in [[Campania]] at [[Teanum Apulum|Teanum]] she was Populona (she who increase the number of the people or, in K. Latte's understanding of the ''iuvenes'', the army), in [[Umbria]] at [[Pisaurum]] Lucina, at Terventum in [[Samnium]] Regina, at Pisarum Regina Matrona, at [[Aesernia]] in Samnium Regina Populona. In Rome she was since the most ancient times named Lucina, Mater and Regina. It is debated whether she was also known as Curitis before the [[evocatio]] of the Juno of Falerii: this though seems probable.<ref>[[Jean Gagé]] "Les autels de Titus Tatius. Une variante sabine des rites d' integration dans les curies?" in ''Melanges J. Heurgon. L'Italie préromaine et la Rome républicaine.'' I '' Colléction de l 'École Français de Rome'' '''27''' 1976 p. 316 ; Dionysius of Halicarnassus ''Roman Anitquities'' II 50, 3.</ref>

Other epithets of hers that were in use at Rome include [[Moneta]] and Caprotina, Tutula, Fluonia or Fluviona, Februalis, the last ones associated with the rites of purification and fertility of February.<ref>G. Radke ''Die Götter Altitaliens'' Münster 1965 articles Tutela, Tutula and Fluonia, Fluviona.</ref>

Her various epithets thus show a complex of mutually interrelated functions that in the view of [[Georges Dumézil]] and [[Vsevolod Basanoff]] (author of ''Les dieux Romains'') can be traced back to the Indoeuropean trifunctional ideology: as Regina and Moneta she is a sovereign deity, as Sespeis, Curitis (spear holder) and Moneta (again) she is an armed protectress, as Mater and Curitis (again) she is a goddess of the fertility and wealth of the community in her association with the [[curiae]].

The epithet ''Lucina''<ref>The ancient were divided on the etymology of Lucina: some connected the epithet with the word ''lucus'' since the goddess had since the most ancient times a sacred grove and a temple on the Cispius near that of [[Mefitis]]: Pliny XVI 235; Varro ''Lin. Lat.'' V 49; Ovid ''Fasti'' II 435 and VI 449. Other favoured the derivation from ''lux'' as goddess of infants: Varro ''Lingua latina'' V 69; Cicero, ''Nat. Deor.'' II 68; Ovid ''Fasti,'' ii 450 and III 255; Plutarch, ''Quaestiones Romanae,'' 77. The association of Juno Lucina and Mefitis on the same or closely nearby site may not be coincidental as at Rossano di Vaglio in [[Lucania]] have been discovered inscriptions linking the two entities: "μ]εfίτηι καπροτινν[ιαις" and "διωvιιας διομανας" (domina) : cf. M. Lejeune "Notes de linguistique italique XXIII: Le culte de Rossano di Vaglio" in ''Revue d'Etudes Latins'' '''45''' 1967 p. 202-221; "Inscriptions de Rossano di Vaglio 1971" in ''RAL'' '''26''' 1971 p. 667 ff. The inscriptions are dated to the 3rd-2nd centuries.</ref> is particularly revealing since it reflects two interrelated aspects of the function of Juno: cyclical renewal of time in the waning and waxing of the moon and protection of delivery and birth (as she who brings to light the newborn as vigour, vital force). The ancient called her ''Covella'' in her function of helper in the ''labours'' of the new moon. The view that she was also a Moon goddess though is no longer accepted by scholars, as such a role belongs to [[Diana Lucifera|Diana]] ''Lucifera'': through her association with the moon she governed the feminine physiological functions, menstrual cycle and pregnancy: as a rule all lunar deities are deities of childbirth. These aspects of Juno mark the heavenly and worldly sides of her function. She is thus associated to all beginnings and hers are the [[kalendae]] of every month: at Laurentum she was known as ''Kalendaris Iuno'' (Juno of the [[Kalends]]).<ref>Macrobius ''Sat. '' I 15, 18; Varro ''Ling. Lat.'' V 69</ref> At Rome on the Kalends of every month the ''[[pontifex minor]]'' invoked her, under the epithet ''Covella'', when from the ''[[curia Calabra]]'' he announced the date of the ''nonae''.<ref>Varro VI 27: "sic :"Die te quinti kalo Iuno Covella" or "Septimi die te kalo Iuno Covella"; but the text looks to be corrupt: R. Schilling restitutes: "... dixit quinquies: "Kalo Iuno Covella" aut (or) septies: "Kalo Iuno C." ".</ref> On the same day the ''[[regina sacrorum]]'' sacrificed to Juno a white sow or lamb in the [[Regia]]. She is closely associated with [[Janus]], the god of passages and beginnings who after her is often named ''Iunonius''.

Some scholars view this concentration of multiple functions as a typical and structural feature of the goddess, inherent to her being an expression of the nature of femininity.<ref>G. Dumézil ARR; V. Basanoff ''Les diuex des Romains''</ref> Others though prefer to dismiss her aspects of femininity and fertility<ref>R. E. A. Palmer above, p. 3-56.</ref> and stress only her quality of being the spirit of youthfulness, liveliness and strength, regardless of sexual connexions, which would then change according to circumstances: thus in men she incarnates the ''iuvenes'', a word often used to designate soldiers, hence resulting in a tutelary deity of the sovereignty of peoples; in women capable of bearing children, from puberty on she oversees childbirth and marriage.<ref>R. E. A. Palmer above, p. 39.</ref> Thence she would be a ''poliad'' goddess related to politics, power and war. Others think her military and poliadic qualities arise from her being a fertility goddess who through her function of increasing the numbers of the community became also associated to political and military functions.<ref>Kurt Latte ''Römishe Religionsgeshichte'' Munich 1960 p. 168.</ref>

{{anchor|Sospita|Lucina|Juno Sospita|Juno Lucina}}
===Juno Sospita and Lucina===
[[File:Fresco from the Golden House of Nero, found in Rome in 1668, Ashmolean Museum (8401788678).jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|A woman, perhaps Juno Lucina, goddess of childbirth, presents the goddess of love, Aphrodite (Roman Venus) with the beautiful infant Adonis.]]
[[File:Forum Holitorium - Lancianu 1893-1901.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Temple of Juno Sospita]] with those of [[Spes (goddess)|Hope]] and [[Pietas (goddess)|Piety]] at the [[Forum Olitorium]], drawn by [[Rodolfo Lanciani|Lanciani]]]]
[[File:Theater of Marcellus and Forum Olitorium.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The area of the Forum Olitorium and [[Theater of Marcellus]] in the scale model of [[ancient Rome]] at the [[Museum of Roman Civilization]]]]
The rites of the month of February and the ''Nonae Caprotinae'' of July 5 offer a depiction of Juno's roles in the spheres of fertility, war, and regality.

In the Roman calendar, February is a month of universal purification, and begins the new year. In book II of his ''[[Fasti (poem)|Fasti]]'', Ovid derives the month's name from ''februae'' (expiations);<ref>Ovid ''Fasti II'' 19-46: see also Servius ''Aeneid'' VIII 343; Varro ''Lingua Latina'' VI 13; Paulus ex Festo s.v. p. 75 L</ref> lustrations designed to remove spiritual contamination or ritual pollution accumulated in the previous year. On the 1st of the month, a black ox was sacrificed to [[Helernus]], a minor underworld deity whom Dumézil takes as a [[vegetation deity|god of vegetation]] related to the cult of [[Cardea|Carna]]/Crane, a nymph who may be an image of Juno Sospita.<ref>Georges Dumézil ''Fêtes romaines d'eté et d'automne. Suivi par dix questions romaines'' Paris 1975 "Question dix. Theologica minora". Helernus is also associated with the black beans used as offerings to the restless dead on March 1, during [[Lemuralia]].</ref> On the same day, Juno's ''[[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#dies natalis|dies natalis]]'' ("birthday") as Juno Sospita was celebrated at her [[Palatine]] temple. On February 15 the [[Lupercalia]] festival was held, in which Juno was involved as ''Juno Lucina''. This is usually understood to be a rite of purification and fertility.<ref>In Ovid's ''Fasti'' II 425-452, the rite is named after the ''lucus'' of Juno Lucina on the [[Esquiline]], though according to Varro it was located on the [[Cispius]]</ref> A goat was sacrificed and its hide cut into strips, used to make whips known as {{lang|la|februum}} and {{lang|la|amiculus Iunonis}}, wielded by the [[Lupercalia|Luperci]].<ref>Paulus ex Festo above p. 75 L; Mythographi Romani III 3; Martianus Capella ''De Nuptiis Mercurii et Philolologiae'' II 149: "Iuno Februalis".</ref> The Juno of this day bears the epithet of ''Februalis'', ''Februata'', ''Februa''.<ref>Cf. G. Radke above article Februa, Februata for the different forms of the epithet.</ref> On the last day of the month, leading into March 1, she was celebrated as protectress of matrons and marriages. The new year began on March 1. The same was celebrated as the birthday of Rome's founder and first king, [[Romulus]], and the peaceful union of Romans and Sabine peoples through treaty and marriage after their [[The Rape of the Sabine Women|war]], which was ended by the intervention of women.

After Wissowa<ref>G. Wissowa above p.185</ref> many scholars have remarked the similarity between the Juno of the Lupercalia and the Juno of Lanuvium ''Seispes Mater Regina'' as both are associated with the goat, symbol of fertility. But in essence there is unity between fertility, regality and purification.<ref>Y._M. Duval "Les Lupercales, Junon et le printemps." ''Annales be Bretagne et des Pays de l'Ouest'' '''83''' 1976 p. 271-2.</ref> This unity is underlined by the role of [[Faunus]] in the aetiologic story told by Ovid and the symbolic relevance of the [[Lupercal]]:{{clarify|date=October 2017}}<ref>Ovid ''Fasti'' II 362-453.</ref> asked by the Roman couples at her ''lucus'' how to overcome the sterility that ensued the abduction of the Sabine women, Juno answered through a murmuring of leaves "''Italidas matres sacer hircus inito''" "That a sacred ram cover the Italic mothers".<ref>Ovid ''Fasti'' II 441.</ref>

''Februlis'' oversees the secundament of the placenta<ref>Mythographi Romani III 3.</ref> and is strictly associated to ''Fluvonia, Fluonia'', goddess who retains the blood inside the body during pregnancy.<ref>Paulus s. v. p. 82 L.</ref> While the protection of pregnancy is stressed by Duval, Palmer sees in Fluonia only the Juno of lustration in river water.<ref>Mythographi Romani III 3; Paulus ex Festo s.v. p. 82 L; Martianus Capella above II 149; Arnobius ''Adversus Nationes'' III 30; R. E. A. Palmer above, p.</ref> Ovid devotes an ''excursus'' to the lustrative function of river water in the same place in which he explains the etymology of February.<ref>Ovid ''Fasti'' II 35-46.</ref>

A temple ({{lang|la|aedes}}) of Juno Lucina was built in 375 BC<ref>Pliny ''Naturalis Historia'' XVI 235.</ref> in the grove sacred to the goddess from early times.<ref>Varro ''Lingua Latina'' V 49, 74 dedication by Titus Tatius; Dionysius Halicarnasseus IV 15.</ref> It stood precisely on the [[Cispius]] near the sixth shrine of the [[Argei]].<ref>Varro ''Lingua Latina'' V 50; Ovid ''Fasti'' II 435-6; III 245-6.</ref> probably not far west of the church of S. Prassede, where inscriptions relating to her cult have been found.<ref>[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum|CIL]] VI 356-361; 3694-5; 30199.</ref> The grove should have extended down the slope south of the temple.<ref>In 41 BC Q. Pedius quaestor built or restored a wall which seems to have surrounded both: cf. CIL VI 358.</ref> As [[Servius Tullius]] ordered the gifts for the newborn to be placed in the treasury of the temple though it looks that another shrine stood there before 375 BC. In 190 BC the temple was struck by lightning, its gable and doors injured.<ref>Livy XXXXVII 3, 2.</ref> The annual festival of the [[Matronalia]] was celebrated here on March 1, day of the dedication of the temple.<ref>Ovid ''Fasti'' III 247; Festus p. 147 M; Hemer. Praenest. ad Kal. Mart.; CIL I 2nd p. 310.</ref><ref>S. Ball Platner & T. Ashby ''A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome'' London 1929 p. 288-9.</ref>

One temple of Juno Sospita was located near the [[Temple of Cybele (Palatine)|Temple]] of [[Cybele]] northwest of the [[Palatine Hill]] within the [[Pomerium]]. This was located near or under the site of the 6th century church of [[San Teodoro, Rome|San Teodoro]],{{sfnp|Burn|1871|p=158}} which has an unusual circular shape similar to that of the [[nymphaeum]] later misnamed the [[Temple of Minerva Medica (nymphaeum)|Temple of Minerva Medica]]. In his early 1st-century [[Roman poetry|poem]] {{lang|la|[[Fasti (Ovid)|Fasti]]}}, [[Ovid]] states that by his time this temple had become so dilapidated that it was no longer discernible "because of the injuries of time".<ref>Ovid ''Fasti'' II 57{{ndash}}58</ref> A later [[Temple of Juno Sospita]] was [[votum|vowed]] by the [[Roman consul|consul]] [[Gaius Cornelius Cethegus|G. Cornelius Cethegus]] in {{nowrap|197 BC}} and consecrated and opened in {{nowrap|194 BC.}} This temple was located at the Roman vegetable market ({{lang|la|[[Forum Olitorium]]}}) beside Temples of [[Spes (goddess)|Hope]] and [[Pietas (goddess)|Piety]] and near the [[Carmental Gate]].{{sfnp|Burn|1871|p=305}} It was apparently this temple that was later reported as having fallen into disrepute by {{nowrap|90 BC}}, when it was stained by episodes of [[prostitution in ancient Rome|prostitution]] and a [[dog|bitch]] delivered her puppies beneath the temple's statue of the goddess.<ref>Julius Obsequens 55.</ref> The consul [[Lucius Julius Caesar (consul 90 BC)|L. Julius Caesar]] secured its restoration with a [[Roman Senate|Senatorial]] [[senatorial decree|decree]]<ref>Cicero ''De Divinatione'' I 4.</ref> and relics from the temple remain today.<ref>S. Ball Platner& T. Ashby ''A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome'' London 1929</ref>

===Juno Caprotina===
The alliance of the three aspects of Juno finds a strictly related parallel to the Lupercalia in the festival of the ''Nonae Caprotinae''. On that day the Roman free and slave women picnicked and had fun together near the site of the wild fig (''caprificus''): the custom implied runs, mock battles with fists and stones, obscene language and finally the sacrifice of a male goat to Juno ''Caprotina'' under a wildfig tree and with the using of its lymph.

This festival had a legendary aetiology in a particularly delicate episode of Roman history and also recurs at (or shortly after) a particular time of the year, that of the so-called ''caprificatio'' when branches of wild fig trees were fastened to cultivated ones to promote insemination. The historical episode narrated by ancient sources concerns the siege of Rome by the Latin peoples that followed the Gallic sack. The dictator of the Latins Livius Postumius from [[Fidenae]] would have requested the Roman senate that the ''matronae'' and daughters of the most prominent families be surrendered to the Latins as hostages. While the senate was debating the issue a slave girl, whose Greek name was [[Philotis (mythology)|Philotis]] and Latin Tutela or Tutula proposed that she together with other slave girls would render herself up to the enemy camp pretending to be the wives and daughters of the Roman families. Upon agreement of the senate, the women dressed up elegantly and wearing golden jewellery reached the Latin camp. There they seduced the Latins into fooling and drinking: after they had fallen asleep, they stole their swords. Then Tutela gave the convened signal to the Romans brandishing an ignited branch after climbing on the wild fig (''caprificus'') and hiding the fire with her mantle. The Romans then irrupted into the Latin camp killing the enemies in their sleep. The women were rewarded with freedom and a dowry at public expenses. <ref>Plutarch ''Camillus'' 33; ''Romulus'' 29; Varro ''Lin. Lat.'' VI 18; Macrobius ''Sat.'' I 11, 35-40</ref>

Dumézil in his ''Archaic Roman Religion'' had been unable to interpret the myth underlying this legendary event, later though he accepted the interpretation given by P. Drossart and published it in his ''Fêtes romaines d'été et d'automne, suivi par dix questions romaines'' in 1975 as ''Question IX''.<ref>P. Drossart "Nonae caprotinae: la fausse capture des Aurores" in ''Revue de l'Histoire des Religions'' 185 '''2''' 1974 p. 129-139</ref> In folklore the wild fig tree is universally associated with sex because of its fertilising power, the shape of its fruits and the white viscous juice of the tree.

Basanoff has argued that the legend not only alludes to sex and fertility in its association with wildfig and goat but is in fact a summary of sort of all the qualities of Juno. As Juno Sespeis of Lanuvium Juno Caprotina is a warrior, a fertiliser and a sovereign protectress. In fact, the legend presents a heroine, Tutela, who is a slightly disguised representation of the goddess: the request of the Latin dictator would mask an attempted [[evocatio]] of the tutelary goddess of Rome. [[Tutela]] indeed shows regal, military and protective traits, apart from the sexual ones. Moreover, according to Basanoff these too (breasts, milky juice, ''genitalia'', present or symbolised in the fig and the goat) in general, and here in particular, have an inherently apotropaic value directly related to the nature of Juno. The occasion of the [[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#feria|''feria'']], shortly after the [[poplifugia]], i.e. when the community is in its direst straits, needs the intervention of a divine tutelary goddess, a divine queen, since the king (divine or human) has failed to appear or has fled. Hence the customary battles under the wild figs, the scurrilous language that bring together the second and third function. This festival would thus show a ritual that can prove the trifunctional nature of Juno.<ref>Vsevolod Basanoff "Nonae Caprotinae" in ''Latomus'' '''8''' 1949 p. 209-216</ref>

Other scholars<ref>E. Gjerstad ''Early Rome. V'' Lund 1973 p. 28ff.; D. Porte ''caper'' and ''caprificus'' = phallus p. 183ff.; G. Radke ''Die Götter Altitaliens'' Münster 1965 article Caprotina und Tutula: Caprotina would derive from a word meaninig ''phallus'' and corresponding to the obscene character of the festival; M. Lejeune; J. Loicq in his review of Dumézil's book ''Fêtes Romaines'' (in ''Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire'' '''55''' 1977 p. 524-7) too expresses the view that Tutŭla, Tutĕla cannot be connected linguistically to the word and notion of ''tutēla'' because of the different quantity of the ''e'', but should have a sexual meaning as also is true in the case of goddess [[Tutilina]].</ref> limit their interpretation of Caprotina to the sexual implications of the goat, the ''caprificus'' and the obscene words and plays of the festival.

===Juno Curitis===
Under this epithet Juno is attested in many places, notably at [[Falerii]]<ref>CIL XI 3100;3125;3126.</ref> and [[Tibur]].<ref>Servius ''Aen.'' I 8 : the goddess uses cart and spear; I 17: "in the ceremonies of Tibur the following prayer is uttered: "''Juno Curitis'', (I beseech Thee) with your cart (curru) and your shield (clipeo) do protect my young slaves of ''curia'' born into my house". The precise meaning of ''curia'' at Tibur is unclear.</ref> Dumézil remarked that Juno Curitis "is represented and invoked at Rome under conditions very close to those we know about for ''Juno Seispes'' of [[Lanuvium]]".<ref>G. Dumézil "Iuno SMR" ''Eranos'' '''52''' 1954 p. 117 n.</ref> Martianus Capella states she must be invoked by those who are involved in war.<ref>Martianus Capella ''De Nupt. Merc. et Philol.'' II 149: "Curitim debent memorare bellantes".</ref> The hunt of the goat by stonethrowing at Falerii is described in Ovid ''Amores'' III 13, 16 ff. In fact the Juno Curritis of Falerii shows a complex articulated structure closely allied to the threefold Juno Seispes of Lanuvium.<ref>A description of Juno Sespeis's attire is given in Cicero ''De Natura Deorum'' I 82: "cum pelle caprina, cum hasta, cum calceolis repandis": "with a goat skin, a spear and pointed boots curving backwards".</ref>

Ancient etymologies associated the epithet with [[Cures, Sabinum|Cures]],<ref>Schol. Pers. ''Sat.'' IV 26; Stephanus Byzant. s.v. Κυρίς; Festus p. 302 L</ref> with the Sabine word for spear ''curis'',<ref>Paulus ex Festo p. 43 and 55 L; Servius ''Aen.'' I 8; Plutarch ''Romulus'' 29; ''Quaestiones Romanae,'' 87; Ovid ''Fasti'' II 477</ref> with ''currus'' cart,<ref>Servius ''Aen. '' I8</ref> with ''Quirites'',<ref>Cf. G. Radke above, article Cur(r)itis</ref> with the ''curiae'', as king Titus Tatius dedicated a table to Juno in every curia, that Dionysius still saw.<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus, ''Antiquitates Romanae'', II 50, 3; Servius ''Aen.''I 17; Paul. ex Fest. s.v. Curiales menses p.56 L.</ref>

Modern scholars have proposed the town of Currium or Curria, [[Quirinus]], ''*quir(i)s'' or ''*quiru'', the Sabine word for spear and [[curia]].<ref>E. Bickel "Beiträge zur Römische Religionsgeshichte. I Flamen curialis und Iuno Curitis" ''Reinische Museum zur Philologie'' '''71''' 1916 p. 560; G. Radke above, article Cur(r)itis; P. Kretschmer "Iuno Curitis" ''Glotta'' '''10''' 1920 p. 147-157; J. Gagé "Les autel de Titus Tatius. Une variante sabine des rites d' integration dans les curies?" in ''Melanges J. Heurgon'' I ''Coll. Ec. Fr. Rome'' '''27''' 1976 p. 516</ref> The *quiru- would design the sacred spear that gave the name to the primitive curiae. The discovery at [[Sulmona]] of a sanctuary of [[Hercules]] ''Curinus'' lends support to a Sabine origin of the epithet and of the cult of Juno in the curiae.<ref>E. Paratore-R. Verdière "Varron avait raison" ''L'Antiquite Classique'' '''62''' I 1973 p. 49-63; J. Poucet ''Recherces sur la legende sabine des origines de Rome'' p.322</ref> The spear could also be the ''celibataris hasta'' (bridal spear) that in the marriage ceremonies was used to comb the bridegroom's hair as a good omen.<ref>R. Schilling "Ianus dieu intrducteur, dieu des passages" above; D. P. Harmon "Religion in Latin Elegists" in ''ANRW'' 1986 p. 1971</ref> Palmer views the rituals of the curiae devoted to her as a reminiscence of the origin of the curiae themselves in rites of ''evocatio'', a practice the Romans continued to use for Juno or her equivalent at later times as for Falerii, [[Veii]] and [[Carthage]].<ref>Macrobius ''Sat.'' III 9.</ref> Juno Curitis would then be the deity evoked after her admission into the curiae.

Juno Curitis had a temple on the [[Campus Martius]]. Excavations in Largo di Torre Argentina have revealed four temple structures, one of whom (temple D or A) could be the temple of Juno Curitis. She shared her anniversary day with Juppiter Fulgur, who had an altar nearby.<ref>A. Claridge, J. Toms, T. Cubberley ''Rome'' 2010.</ref>

===Juno Moneta===

[[File:Henri-Paul Motte Les oies sacrées sauvent le Capitole.jpg|thumb|right|Juno's sacred geese warn the Romans while the [[Battle of the Allia|Gauls approach]] the [[Capitoline Hill|Capitol]] in 390 BC]]

This Juno is placed by ancient sources in a warring context. Dumézil thinks the third, military, aspect of Juno is reflected in Juno Curitis and Moneta.<ref>G. Dumézil ''Iuno Sospita Mater Regina'' in ''Eranos'' '''52''' 1954 p. 105-119 partic. p. 116 n. 3.</ref> Palmer too sees in her a military aspect.<ref>R. E. A. Palmer above p. 29-30</ref>

As for the etymology, Cicero gives the verb ''monēre'' warn, hence ''the Warner''. Palmer accepts Cicero's etymology as a possibility while adding ''mons'' mount, hill, verb ''e-mineo'' and noun ''monile'' referred to the Capitol, place of her cult. Also perhaps a cultic term or even, as in her temple were kept the ''[[Linen Rolls|Libri Lintei]]'', ''monere'' would thence have the meaning of recording: [[Livius Andronicus]] identifies her as [[Mnemosyne]].

Her ''dies natalis'' was on the kalendae of June. Her Temple on the summit of the Capitol was dedicated only in 348 BC by dictator L. Furius Camillus, presumably a son of the great Furius. Livy states he vowed the temple during a war against the [[Aurunci]]. Modern scholars agree that the origins of the cult and of the temple were much more ancient.<ref>V. Basanoff citing Mancini</ref> M. Guarducci considers her cult very ancient, identifying her with Mnemosyne as ''the Warner'' because of her presence near the [[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#auguraculum|auguraculum]], her oracular character, her announcement of perils: she considers her as an introduction into Rome of the [[Hera]] of [[Cuma (Italy)|Cuma]] dating to the 8th century. L. A. Mac Kay considers the goddess more ancient than her etymology on the testimony of [[Valerius Maximus]] who states she was the Juno of Veii. The sacred geese of the Capitol were lodged in her temple: as they are recorded in the episode of the Gallic siege (ca. 396-390 BC) by Livy, the temple should have existed before Furius's dedication.<ref>Official website of the Musei Capitolini, Comune di Roma, offering details on the location and architectural features of the temple. Cf. Livy V 54, 7 on the annual procession commemorating her role of saviour: in it the image of the goddess represented as a goose was taken from her sanctuary on the [[Arx (Roman)|Arx]] to the Capitoline temple, where she was placed in the sacellum of Iuventas, in the space between the cellae of Jupiter and Minerva.</ref> Basanoff considers her to go back to the regal period: she would be the Sabine Juno who arrived at Rome through [[Cures, Sabinum|Cures]]. At Cures she was the tutelary deity of the military chief: as such she is never to be found among Latins. This new quality is apparent in the location of her ''fanum'', her name, her role: 1. her altar is located in the regia of Titus Tatius; 2. Moneta is, from ''monere'', ''the Adviser'': like [[Egeria (mythology)|Egeria]] with Numa (Tatius's son in law) she is associated to a Sabine king; 3. In [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] the altar-tables of the curiae are consecrated to Juno Curitis to justify the false etymology of Curitis from curiae: the tables would assure the presence of the tutelary ''numen'' of the king as an adviser within each curia, as the epithet itself implies.<ref>V. Basanoff, ''Junon falisque et ses cultes à Rome'' p. 110-141; Cicero ''de Domo Sua'' 38. 101; V. Basanoff ''Les dieux des Romains'' p. 151-152; Paulus-Festus s.v. curiales menses p. 56 L</ref> It can be assumed thence that Juno Moneta intervenes under warlike circumstances as associated to the sacral power of the king. Since coins were later made near her temple, her epithet, ''moneta'' became the Latin term for both the place where coins were made, but also for the currency itself (and the Latin word ultimately yielded in English both ''mint'' and ''money''). <ref> etymonline: 'money' https://www.etymonline.com/word/money</ref>

===Juno Regina===
Juno Regina is perhaps the epithet most fraught with questions. While some scholars maintain she was known as such at Rome since the most ancient times as paredra (consort) of Jupiter in the [[Capitoline Triad]]<ref>V. Basanoff ''Les dieux des Romains'' p. 87; G. Dumézil ''La religion romaine archaique'' Paris 1974 p. 426; the triad had been already present in the [[Capitolium vetus]] prior to the dedication of the temple of the Capitol: Martial ''Epigrammata''; R. A. Lanciani ''Pagan and Christian Rome'' Boston & New York 1893 p.190</ref> others think she is a new acquisition introduced to Rome after her [[evocatio]] from Veii.<ref>J. Gagė "Matronalia" p. 80-81; Y. Roe D'Albret ''Recherches sur la prise de Véies et sur Iuno Regina'' in ''Annuaire de l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes'' IV 1975-6 p. 1093-1103</ref>

Palmer<ref>R.E.A. Palmer above p. 21–29</ref> thinks she is to be identified with Juno Populona of later inscriptions,<ref>CIL</ref> a political and military poliadic (guardian) deity who had in fact a place in the Capitoline temple and was intended to represent the ''Regina'' of the king. The date of her introduction, though ancient, would be uncertain; she should perhaps be identified with [[Hera]] Basilea or as the queen of Jupiter Rex. The actual epithet Regina could though come from Veii. At Rome this epithet may have been applied to a Juno other than that of the temple on the Aventine built to lodge the evocated Veian Juno as the [[rex sacrorum]] and his wife-queen were to offer a monthly sacrifice to Juno in the Regia. This might imply that the prerepublican Juno was royal.
[[File:Denarius-Julia Soaemias-RIC 0237.jpg|thumb|280px|''IVNO REGINA'' ("Queen Juno") on a coin celebrating [[Julia Soaemias]]]]
J. Gagé dismisses these assumptions as groundless speculations as no Jupiter Rex is attested and in accord with Roe D'Albret stresses that at Rome no presence of a Juno Regina is mentioned before [[Marcus Furius Camillus]], while she is attested in many Etruscan and Latin towns. Before that time her Roman equivalent was Juno Moneta. Marcel Renard for his part considers her an ancient Roman figure since the title of the Veian Juno expresses a cultic reality that is close to and indeed presupposes the existence at Rome of an analogous character: as a rule it is the presence of an original local figure that may allow the introduction of the new one through evocatio. He agrees with Dumézil that we{{Who|date=July 2016}} ignore whether the translation of the epithet is exhaustive and what Etruscan notion corresponded to the name ''Regina'' which itself is certainly an Italic title.<ref>G. Dumézil ''La religion romaine archaique'' Paris 1974 p. 307</ref> This is the only instance of evocatio recorded by the annalistic tradition.<ref>Livy V 21; V 22, 3–7</ref> However Renard considers Macrobius's authority reliable in his long list of ''evocationes''<ref>Macrobius ''Saturnalia'' III 9</ref> on the grounds of an archaeological find at [[Isauria|Isaura]]. Roe D'Albret underlines the role played by Camillus and sees a personal link between the deity and her magistrate. Similarly Dumézil has remarked the link of Camillus with [[Mater Matuta]]. In his relationship to the goddess he takes the place of the king of Veii.<ref>G. Dumerzil & Udo Strutynsky ''Camillus; a study of Indoeuropean religion as Roman history '' 1980 Univ. of California Press p. 129 ff.</ref> Camillus's devotion to female deities Mater Matuta and [[Fortuna]] and his contemporary vow of a new temple to both Matuta and Iuno Regina hint to a degree of identity between them: this assumption has by chance been supported by the discovery at [[Pyrgi]] of a bronze lamella which mentions together [[Uni (mythology)|Uni]] and [[Thesan]], the Etruscan Juno and Aurora, i.e. Mater Matuta.<ref>Published by M. Pallottino in ''Archeologia Classica'' '''19''' 1967 p. 336 ff.: ''eta thesan etras uniịathi ba.../hutila tịna etiasa acaliạ.../tḥanchvilus catharnaia''. R. Bloch in ''Archeologia Classica'' ''' 21''' 1969 p. 58 ff. discussed the Roman identification with Mater Matuta and Iuno Lucina, i.e. Leukothea and Eileitheyia in their [[interpretatio graeca]].</ref> One can then suppose Camillus's simultaneous vow of the temples of the two goddesses should be seen in the light of their intrinsic association. [[Octavianus]] will repeat the same translation with the statue of the Juno of [[Perusia]] in consequence of a dream<ref>Dio Cassius VXL 14, 5-6</ref>

That a goddess evoked in war and for political reasons receive the homage of women and that women continue to have a role in her cult is explained by Palmer<ref>R. E. A. Palmer above p. 25</ref> as a foreign cult of feminine sexuality of Etruscan derivation. The persistence of a female presence in her cult through the centuries down to the [[lectisternium]] of 217 BC, when the ''matronae'' collected money for the service,<ref>Livy XXII 1, 17-19; Macrobius ''Saturnalia'' I 6, 12-14</ref> and to the times of Augustus during the [[ludi saeculares]] in the sacrifices to Capitoline Juno are proof of the resilience of this foreign tradition.<ref>R.E.A. Palmer above p. 27</ref><ref>Horace Carmen Saeculare; E. Fraenkel ''Horace'' Oxford 1957 chapt. 7; G.B. Pighi ''De ludis saecularibus populi Romani Quiritium'' Pubbl. dell' Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Serie 5 '''35''' Milano 1941 p. 107-119; p. 201-221</ref>

Gagé and D'Albret remark an accentuation of the matronal aspect of Juno Regina that led her to be the most matronal of the Roman goddesses by the time of the end of the republic. This fact raises the question of understanding why she was able of attracting the devotion of the ''matronae''. Gagé traces back the phenomenon to the nature of the cult rendered to the Juno Regina of the Aventine in which Camillus played a role in person. The original devotion of the ''matronae'' was directed to Fortuna. Camillus was devout to her and to Matuta, both matronal deities. When he brought Juno Regina from Veii the Roman women were already acquainted with many Junos, while the ancient rites of Fortuna were falling off. Camillus would have then made a political use of the cult of Juno Regina to subdue the social conflicts of his times by attributing to her the role of primordial mother.<ref>G. Dumézil "Servius et la Fortune. Essai sur la fonction sociale du louange et de la blâme et sur les elements indo-européens du cens romain" ''Coll. Les Mythes Romains'' Paris 1943; J. Bayet ''Titus Livius V'' p. 154 and notes; J. Gagé "Matronalia" above p. 86</ref>

Juno Regina had two temples (''aedes'') in Rome. The one dedicated by Furius Camillus in 392 BC stood on the [[Aventine Hill|Aventine]]: it lodged the wooden statue of the Juno transvected from Veii.<ref>Livy V 2, 1-3; Dionysius XIII 3; Plutarch ''Camillus'' 6; Valerius Maximus I 8, 3.</ref> It is mentioned several times by Livy in connexion with sacrifices offered in atonement of [[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#prodigium|prodigia]]. It was restored by Augustus.<ref>Monumentum Ancyranum IV 6.</ref> Two inscriptions found near the church of S. Sabina indicate the approximate site of the temple, which corresponds with its place in the lustral procession of 207 BC,<ref>Livy XXVII 37, 7</ref> near the upper end of the Clivus Publicius. The day of the dedication and of her festival was September 1.

Another temple stood near the [[circus Flaminius]], vowed by consul [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 187 BC)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]] in 187 BC during the war against the [[Ligures]] and dedicated by himself as censor in 179<ref>Livy XL 52, 1.</ref> on December 23.<ref>Fasti Antiates apud NS 1921 p. 121.</ref> It was connected by a porch with a temple of Fortuna,<ref>Iulius Obsequens 14.</ref> perhaps that of Fortuna Equestris. Its probable site according to Platner is just south of the [[Theatre of Pompey|porticus Pompeiana]] on the west end of circus Flaminius.<ref>S. Ball Platner & T. Ashby ''A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome'' London 1929 p. 290.</ref>

The Carthaginian goddess [[Tanit]] was [[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#evocatio|evoked]] at the defeat of Carthage in 146 BC, and romanized as Juno Caelestis (Heavenly Juno).<ref name=":0" /> One of her symbols was of the [[crescent]] moon.<ref name=":1" /> She did not receive a temple in Rome: presumably her image was deposited in another temple of Juno (Moneta or Regina) and later transferred to the [[Colonia Junonia]] founded by [[Gaius Gracchus|Caius Gracchus]].<ref>V. Basanoff ''Evocatio: Iuno Caelestis de Carthage. I Exoratio. II Evocatio'' p. 63–66; G. Dumézil ARR Paris 1974 p. 468; G. Ch. Picard ''Les religions de l'Afrique antique'' Paris 1954 p. 568; Plutarch ''Caius Gracchus'' II; Solinus XXVIII 11; Macrobius III 9.</ref> The goddess was once again transferred to Rome by emperor [[Elagabalus]]. A surviving [[Temple of Juno Caelestis (Dougga)|temple to Juno Caelestis]] was built between 222 and 235 AD<ref name=":2" /> in the town of [[Dougga]].

===Juno in the Capitoline triad===
The first mention of a Capitoline triad refers to the ''Capitolium Vetus''.<ref>A backformation hinting to the association of the three deities in a temple site before the founding of that of Iupiter Capitolinus. Its existence is attested by Varro ''Lingua Latina'' V 149； Martial ''Epigrammata'' V 22, 4; VI 74, 34. Archaeologically: cf. R. A. Lanciani ''Pagan and Christian Rome'' Boston and New York, 1893 p. 190: Lanciani states it was found and demolished in 1625 by order of Pope [[Barberini]]. E. Gjerstad ''Early Rome'' V p. 63-64 thinks of a dating after 575 BC. Other scholars put its founding at 580 BC, during the reign of [[Tarquinius Priscus]].</ref> The only ancient source who refers to the presence of this divine triad in Greece is [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] X 5, 1–2, who mentions its existence in describing the Φωκικόν in [[Phocis]].<ref>"On the way leading directly from Deulis to Delphi, on the left hand side...; there the towns of Phocis hold their common assemblies...the building is very large, supported by rows of columns. Steps on which the representatives sit stand between the columns and the walls. At the back there are...only the statues of Zeus, Hera and Athena. Zeus in the middle on a throne, the goddesses on the two sides, Hera at his right and Athena at his left."</ref> The Capitoline triad poses difficult interpretative problems. It looks peculiarly Roman, since there is no sure document of its existence elsewhere either in Latium or Etruria.<ref>Luisa Banti "Il culto del cosiddetto tempio di Apollo a Veii ed il problema delle triadi etrusco-italiche" in ''Studi Etruschi'' '''17''' 1943 p. 187-224.</ref> A direct Greek influence is possible but it would be also plausible to consider it a local creation.<ref>M. Renard cites the discovery of an inscription dedicated to ''Castorei Podluqueique qurois'' at the Lavinium 13 altars site: F. Castagnoli "Dedica arcaica lavinate a Castore e Polluce" in ''Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni'' '''30''' 1959 p. 109-117; S. Weinstock "Two archaic inscriptions from Lavinium" in ''Journal of Roman Studies'' '''50''' 1960 p. 112ff.</ref><ref>Ugo Bianchi ''Disegno storico del culto capitolino nell'Italia romana e nelle province dell' Impero'' Accademia dei Lincei. Memorie. Serie VIII 2 1949 p. 317-415</ref> Dumézil advanced the hypothesis it could be an ideological construction of the Tarquins to oppose new Latin nationalism, as it included the three gods that in the Iliad are enemies of [[Troy]].<ref>G. Dumézil ''Myth et Epopée'' III: part III chapt. 1 Paris 1973; ''La religion romaine archaïque'' Paris 1974 part II chapt. 1; It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 276 n. 31</ref> It is probable Latins had already accepted the legend of Aeneas as their ancestor. Among ancient sources{{sfn|Servius|loc=Bk. I, §422}}<ref>Vitruvius, ''De architectura'', I.7.</ref> indeed [[Servius the Grammarian|Servius]] states that according to the [[Etruscan mythology#Etrusca Disciplina|Etrusca Disciplina]] towns should have the three temples of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva at the end of three roads leading to three gates. [[Vitruvius]] writes that the temples of these three gods should be located on the most elevated site, isolated from the other. To his Etruscan founders the meaning of this triad might have been related to peculiarly Etruscan ideas on the association of the three gods with the birth of [[Herakles]] and the siege of Troy, in which [[Minerva]] plays a decisive role as a goddess of destiny along with the sovereign couple Uni Tinia.<ref>G. Dumézil ''La religion romaine archaique'' Paris 1974 part II chapt 1; It. tr. p. 276.</ref>

===Junos of Latium===
The cults of the Italic Junos reflected remarkable theological complexes: regality, military protection and fertility.

In Latium are relatively well known the instances of Tibur, Falerii, Laurentum and Lanuvium.

At Tibur and Falerii their ''sacerdos'' was a male, called ''pontifex sacrarius'', a fact that has been seen as a proof of the relevance of the goddess to the whole society. In both towns she was known as ''Curitis'', the spearholder, an armed protectress.{{sfn|Servius|loc=Bk. I, §§8 & 17}}<ref>Martianus Capella II 149.</ref> The martial aspect of these Junos is conspicuous, quite as much as that of fecundity and regality: the first two look strictly interconnected: fertility guaranteed the survival of the community, peaceful and armed. Iuno Curitis is also the tutelary goddess of the ''curiae'' and of the new brides, whose hair was combed with the spear called ''caelibataris hasta'' as in Rome. In her annual rites at Falerii youths and maiden clad in white bore in procession gifts to the goddess whose image was escorted by her priestesses. The idea of purity and virginity is stressed in Ovid's description. A she goat is sacrificed to her after a ritual hunting. She is then the patroness of the young soldiers and of brides.<ref>Daniel P. Harmon "Religion in the Latin Elegists" in ANRW 1986 p. 1971-3: K. Latte ''Römische Religionsgeschichte'' Munich 1960 p. 168; Ovid ''Amores'' III 13; Festus s.v. Curritis p. 55 L</ref>

At Lanuvium the goddess is known under the epithet Seispes Mater Regina.<ref>CIL XIV I(VNONI) S. M. R.2091; 2088; 2089; 2121; IUNONE SEISPITEI MATRI REGINAE 2090</ref> The titles themselves are a theological definition: she was a sovereign goddess, a martial goddess and a fertility goddess.<ref>G. Dumézil ''La religion romaine archaique'' Paris 1974 part II chapt. 1. 2; It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 266</ref> Hence her [[flamen]] was chosen by the highest local magistrate, the dictator, and since 388 BC the Roman consuls were required to offer sacrifices to her.<ref>Livy VIII 14, 2; Cicero ''Pro Milone'' 17 and 45; ''Pro Murena'' 51 and 90</ref> Her sanctuary was famous, rich and powerful.

Her cult included the annual feeding of a sacred snake with barley cakes by virgin maidens. The snake dwelt in a deep cave within the precinct of the temple, on the ''arx'' of the city: the maidens approached the lair blindfolded. The snake was supposed to feed only on the cakes offered by chaste girls. The rite was aimed at ensuring agricultural fertility.<ref>Daniel P. Harmon above p. 1971; Properce IV 8; Aelian ''De Natura Animalium'' XI 16.</ref> The site of the temple as well as the presence of the snake show she was the tutelary goddess of the city, as Athena at Athens and Hera at Argos.<ref>G. Bendinelli "Monumenti Lanuvini" in ''Monumenti dei Lincei'' '''27''' 1921 p. 294-370; Properce IV 8, 3 defines the ''annosus draco'' old dragon the ''tutela'' of Lanuvium.</ref> The motif of the snake of the palace as guardian goddess of the city is shared by Iuno Seispes with Athena, as well as its periodic feeding.<ref>Harmon above p. 1973; Herodotus VIII 41.</ref> This religious pattern moreover includes armour, goatskin dress, sacred birds and a concern with virginity in cult. Virginity is connected to regality: the existence and welfare of the community was protected by virgin goddesses or the virgin attendants of a goddess.<ref>D. P. Harmon above citing G. Dumézil ''Archaic Roman Religion'' p. 586: the Welsh king Math could live only if he kept his feet on the lap of a virgin, except at wartime.</ref> This theme shows a connexion with the fundamental theological character of Iuno, that of incarnating vital force: virginity is the condition of unspoilt, unspent vital energy that can ensure communion with nature and its rhythm, symbolised in the fire of [[Vesta (mythology)|Vesta]]. It is a decisive factor in ensuring the safety of the community and the growth of crops. The role of Iuno is at the crossing point of civil and natural life, expressing their interdependence.<ref>A. Brelich "Vesta" ''Albae Vigiliae'' n. s. 7 Zurich 1949 p. 48-57: D. P. Harmon above; R.E.A. Palmer above p. 38.</ref>

At [[Laurentum]] she was known as Kalendaris Iuno and was honoured as such ritually at the kalendae of each month from March to December, i.e. the months of the [[Numa Pompilius|pre-Numan]] ten-month year, a fact which is a testimony to the antiquity of the custom.<ref>M. Renard "Iuno Covella" ''Annales de l'Institut de Philologie Orientale et Slave'' '''12''' 1952 p. 401-8, esp. p. 408; Macrobius ''Saturnalia'' I 15, 18.</ref>{{efn|[[Servius the Grammarian|Servius]] attributes the institution of the ceremony to [[Romulus]].{{sfn|Servius|loc=Bk. VIII, §654}}}}

A Greek influence in their cults looks probable.<ref>Lanuvium considered [[Diomedes]] as its founder hero: Appian ''B.C.'' II 20; Aelian ''De Natura Animalium'' XI 16 calls the local Iuno ''Hera Argolis'' in the description of the serpent cult; at Tibur "Iuno Argeia" is found on an inscription: CIL XIV 3556; Hera Argeia or Iuno Argiva at Falerii: Dionysius of Halicarnassus I 21, 1-2; Ovid ''Amores'' III 13, 31; J. Berard ''La colonisation grecque de l'Italie meridinale et de la Siclie dans l'Antiquité'' Paris 1957 p. 393-4</ref> It is noteworthy though that Cicero remarked the existence of a stark difference between the Latin Iuno Seispes and the Argolic Hera (as well the Roman Iuno) in his work [[De natura deorum]].<ref>Cicero ''De natura deorum'' I 29, 82: "At non-est talis Argia nec Romana Iuno. Ergo alia species Iunonis Argivis alia Lanuvinis".</ref> Claudius Helianus later wrote "...she has much new of Hera Argolis"<ref>Claudius Helianus ''De natura animalium'' XI 16: "...και έχει πλησίον νεών Ήρας Αργολίδος".</ref> The iconography of Argive Hera, matronal and regal, looks quite far away from the warlike and savage character of Iuno Seispes, especially considering that it is uncertain whether the former was an armed Hera.<ref>A. Pasqualini "Diomede nel Lazio e le tradizioni leggendarie sulla fondazione di Lanuvio" in ''MEFRA'' '''110''' 1998 2 p. 672 n. 59 with bibliography.</ref>

After the definitive subjugation of the [[Latin League]] in 338 BC the Romans required as a condition of peace the condominium of the Roman people on the sanctuary and the sacred grove of Juno Seispes in Lanuvium, while bestowing Roman citizenry on the Lanuvians.<ref>Livy VIII 14, 2; Silius Italicus VIII 360</ref> Consequently, the ''prodigia'' (supernatural or unearthly phenomena) which happened in her temple were referred to Rome and accordingly expiated there. Many occurred during the presence of [[Hannibal]] in Italy. Perhaps the Romans were not completely satisfied with this solution as in 194 BC consul [[Gaius Cornelius Cethegus|C. Cornelius Cethegus]] erected a temple to the ''Juno Sospita'' of Lanuvium in the Forum Holitorium (vowed three years earlier in a war with the [[Insubres|Galli Insubri]]<ref>Livy XXXII 30, 10; XXXIV 53, 3</ref>); in it the goddess was honoured in military garb. The [[flamen]] or special priest belonging to Juno Seispes continued to be a Lanuvian, specially nominated by the town to take care of the goddess even though she was housed in her temple at Rome (in the Forum Holitorium). At the time of [[Cicero]], [[Titus Annius Milo|Milo]], who served as the city's dictator and highest magistrate in 52 BC (Cic. Mil. 27), and of course was also a Roman citizen (he had been [[tribune of the plebs]] in 57 BC), resided in Rome. When he fatally met [[Clodius]] near [[Bovillae]] (Milo's slaves killed Clodius in that encounter), he was on his way to Lanuvium in order to nominate the [[flamen]] of Juno Seispes.<ref>Cicero ''Pro Milone'' 27 and 46</ref>

==Theological and comparative study==
The complexity of the figure of Juno has caused much uncertainty and debate among modern scholars. Some emphasize one aspect or character of the goddess, considering it as primary: the other ones would then be the natural and even necessary development of the first. Palmer and Harmon consider it to be the natural vital force of youthfulness, Latte women's fecundity. These original characters would have led to the formation of the complex theology of Juno as a sovereign and an armed tutelary deity.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}
[[File:Iuno Petit Palais ADUT00168.jpg|thumb|250px|Juno. Silver statuette, 1st–2nd century.]]
[[Georges Dumézil]] on the other hand proposed the theory of the irreducibility and interdependence of the three aspects (sovereignty, war, fertility) in goddesses that he interprets as an original, irreducible structure as hypothesised in his [[trifunctional hypothesis|hypothesis of the trifunctional ideology]] of the [[Proto-Indo-European society|Indoeuropean]]s. While Dumézil's refusal of seeing a Greek influence in Italic Junos looks difficult to maintain<ref>G. Pugliese Carratelli "Culti e dottrine religiose in Magna Gaecia" in ''La parola del Passato'' '''20''' 1965 p. 1-ff.; also other works by the same author, Jean Berard and Mario Torelli cited below at note n. 164.</ref> in the light of the contributions of archaeology, his comparative analysis of the divine structure is supported by many scholars, as M. Renard and J. Poucet. His theory purports that while male gods incarnated one single function, there are female goddesses who make up a synthesis of the three functions, as a reflection of the ideal of woman's role in society. Even though such a deity has a peculiar affinity for one function, generally fertility, i. e. the third, she is nevertheless equally competent in each of the three.

As concrete instances Dumézil makes that of [[Vedic]] goddess [[Sarasvatī]] and Avestic [[Anahita|Anāhīta]]. Sarasvati as river goddess is first a goddess of the third function, of vitality and fertility<ref>Ṛig Veda II 41, 17</ref> associated to the deities of the third function as the [[Ashvins|Aśvin]] and of propagation as [[Sinivali|Sinīvalī]]. She is ''the mother'' and on her rely all vital forces.<ref>Above II 41, 16: "Sarasvati the most mother, the most river, the most divine"; II 41, 17</ref> But at the same time she belongs to the first function as a religious sovereign: she is pure,<ref>Above I 10, 30</ref> she is the means of purifications and helps the conceiving and realisation of pious thoughts.<ref>Above II 3, 8; I 3, 10-11</ref> Lastly she is also a warrior: allied with the [[Maruts]] she annihilates the enemies<ref>Above II 30, 8</ref> and, sole among female goddesses, bears the epithet of the warrior god [[Indra]], [[Verethragna|vṛtraghnỉ]], ''destroyer of oppositions''.<ref>Above VI 61, 7</ref> She is the common spouse of all the heroes of the [[Mahābhārata]], sons and heirs of the Vedic gods [[Dharma]], [[Vāyu]], [[Indra]] and of the Aśvin twins. Though in hymns and rites her threefold nature is never expressed conjointly (except in Ṛg Veda VI 61, 12:: ''triṣadásthā'' having three seats).

Only in her Avestic equivalent Anahita, the great mythic river, does she bear the same three valences explicitly: her [[Yašt]] states she is invoked by warriors, by clerics and by deliverers.<ref>Yt. V 85-87</ref> She bestows on females an easy delivery and timely milking. She bestowed on heroes the vigour by which they defeated their demonic adversaries. She is the great purifier, "she who puts the worshipper in the ritual, pure condition" (''yaož dā'').<ref>Yasna LXV 2 and 5.</ref> Her complete name too is threefold: ''The Wet (''Arədvī''), The Strong (''Sūrā''), The Immaculate (''Anāhitā'')''.

Dumézil remarks these titles match perfectly those of Latin Junos, especially the Juno Seispes Mater Regina of Lanuvium, the only difference being in the religious orientation of the first function. Compare also the epithet Fluonia, Fluviona of Roman Juno, discussed by G. Radke.<ref>G. Dumézil "Juno S. M. R." in ''Eranos'' '''52''' 1954 p. 105–119</ref><ref>G. Radke ''Die Götter Altitaliens'' Münster 1965 article Fluonia, Fluviona.</ref> However D. P. Harmon has remarked that the meaning of Seispes cannot be seen as limited to the warrior aspect, as it implies a more complex, comprehensive function, i. e. of Saviour.<ref>D. P. Harmon "Religion in the Latin Elegists" in ''ANRW'' p. 197 .</ref>

Among Germanic peoples the homologous goddess was bivalent, as a rule the military function was subsumed into the sovereign: goddess *Frīy(y)o- was at the same time sovereign, wife of the great god, and [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] (thence *Friy(y)a-dagaz "Freitag for Veneris dies). However the internal tension of the character led to a duplication in Scandinavian religion: [[Frigg]] resulted in a merely sovereign goddess, the spouse of wizard god [[Óðinn]], while from the name of [[Freyr]], typical god of the third function, was extracted a second character, [[Freyja]], confined as a [[Vani]] to the sphere of pleasure and wealth.

Dumézil opines that the theologies of ancient Latium could have preserved a composite image of the goddess and this fact, notably her feature of being ''Regina'', would in turn have rendered possible her ''interpretatio'' as Hera.

==Associations with other deities==

===Juno and Jupiter===
[[File:Carracci - Jupiter et Junon.jpeg|thumb|right|''[[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] and Juno'', by [[Annibale Carracci]].]]
The divine couple received from Greece its matrimonial implications, thence bestowing on Juno the role of tutelary goddess of marriage (''Iuno Pronuba'').

The association of Juno and Jupiter is of the most ancient Latin theology.<ref>G. Dumézil "Déesses latines et mythes vediques. III Fortuna Primigenia" in ''Coll. Latomus'' '''25''' 1956 p. 71-78.</ref> [[Praeneste]] offers a glimpse into original Latin mythology: the local goddess [[Fortuna]] is represented as nursing two infants, one male and one female, namely [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jove]] (Jupiter) and Juno.<ref>Cicero ''De nat. Deor.'' II 85-86: "Is est locus saeptus religiose propter Iovis pueri, qui lactens cum Iunone in gremio sedens, mamma appetens, castissime colitur a matribus": "This is an enclosed place for religious reasons because of Iupiter child, who is seated on the womb with Juno suckling, directed towards the breast, very chastely worshipped by mothers".</ref> It seems fairly safe to assume that from the earliest times they were identified by their own proper names and since they got them they were never changed through the course of history: they were called Jupiter and Juno. These gods were the most ancient deities of every Latin town. Praeneste preserved divine filiation and infancy as the sovereign god and his paredra Juno have a mother who is the primordial goddess Fortuna Primigenia.<ref>G. Dumézil ''Déesses latines et mythes vediques'' p. 96 ff.</ref> Many terracotta statuettes have been discovered which represent a woman with a child: one of them represents exactly the scene described by Cicero of a woman with two children of different sex who touch her breast. Two of the votive inscriptions to Fortuna associate her and Jupiter: " Fortunae Iovi puero..." and "Fortunae Iovis puero..."<ref>CIL XIV 2868 and 2862 (mutile).</ref>

However, in 1882 R. Mowat published an inscription in which Fortuna is called ''daughter of Jupiter'', raising new questions and opening new perspectives in the theology of Latin gods.<ref>R. Mowat "Inscription latine sur plaque de bronze acquise à Rome par par M. A. Dutuit" in ''Mem. de la Soc. nat. des Antiquités de France'' 5me Ser. 3 '''43''' 1882 p. 200: CIL XIV 2863: ORCEVIA NUMERI/ NATIONU CRATIA/ FORTUNA DIOVO FILEA/ PRIMOCENIA/ DONOM DEDI. Cited by G. Dumézil above p. 71 ff.</ref> Dumézil has elaborated an interpretative theory according to which this contradiction would be an intrinsic, fundamental feature of [[Indo-European languages|Indoeuropean]] deities of the primordial and sovereign level, as it finds a parallel in Vedic religion.<ref>G Dumézil ''Déesses latines et mythes vediques'' Bruxelles 1956 chapt. 3.</ref> The contradiction would put Fortuna both at the origin of time and into its ensuing diachronic process: it is the comparison offered by Vedic deity [[Aditi]], the ''Not-Bound'' or ''Enemy of Bondage'', that shows that there is no question of choosing one of the two apparent options: as the mother of the [[Ādityas|Aditya]] she has the same type of relationship with one of his sons, [[Daksha|Dakṣa]], the minor sovereign who represents the ''Creative Energy'', being at the same time his mother and daughter, as is true for the whole group of sovereign gods to which she belongs.<ref>Ṛg-Veda X 72, 4-5; G. Dumézil above and ''Mariages indo-européens'' p. 311-312: "Of Aditi Daksa was born, and of Daksa Aditi, o Daksa, she who is your daughter".</ref>

===Juno and Janus===
The relationship of the female sovereign deity with the god of beginnings and passages is reflected mainly in their association with the [[kalendae]] of every month, which belong to both, and in the festival of the [[Tigillum Sororium]] of October 1.

Janus as gatekeeper of the gates connecting Heaven and Earth and guardian of all passages is particularly related to time and motion. He holds the first place in ritual invocations and prayers, in order to ensure the communication between the worshipper and the gods. He enjoys the privilege of receiving the first sacrifice of the new year, which is offered by the ''rex'' on the day of the [[Agonalia|Agonium]] of January as well as at the kalendae of each month: These rites show he is considered the patron of the cosmic year. Ovid in his ''[[Fasti (poem)|Fasti]]'' has Janus say that he is the original Chaos and also the first era of the world, which got organised only afterwards. He preserves a tutelary function on this universe as the gatekeeper of Heaven. His nature, qualities and role are reflected in the myth of him being the first to reign in Latium, on the banks of the Tiber, and there receiving the god [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]], in the age when the Earth could still bear gods.<ref>R. Schilling "Janus dieu introducteur, dieu des passages" in ''Melanges d'Archeologie et d' Histoire'' 1960 p. 91-131; Ovid ''Fasti'' I 103-139.</ref> The theology of Janus is also presented in the [[carmen Saliare]].<ref>R. Maurenbrecher's reading, (after Schilling, above): "1.Divom patrem canite, divom deum supplicate; 2.Patulci cosmis. Es duonus Sancus Ianius, es duonus Cerus es Ianeus; 3.Potissimum meliosum recum; 4.Ianituos".</ref> According to [[Johannes Lydus]] the Etruscans called him Heaven.<ref>Johannes Lydus ''De Menisbus'' IV 2: citing Varro.</ref> His epithets are numerous<ref>Macrobius I 9, 15: "In sacris...invocamus Ianum Geminum, I. Patrem, I. Iunonium, I. Consivium, I. Quirinum, I. Patultium and Clusivium."; other preserved by Lydus IV 2 correspond to Ianualis (from the cake ianual eaten on the kalendae), Cenulum and Cibullum: cf.R. Schilling above p. 97; G. Capdeville "Les epithets cultuelles de Janus" in ''MEFR(A)'' '''85''' 1975 2 p. 395-436, who rejects ''cibullum'' as a glossa of Cedrenus' s.</ref> ''Iunonius'' is particularly relevant, as the god of the kalendae who cooperates with and is the source of the youthful vigour of Juno in the birth of the new lunar month.<ref>Macrobius above, quotes Varro ''Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum'' V, as saying that Janus had twelve altars, one for each month.</ref> His other epithet ''Consivius'' hints to his role in the generative function.<ref>Macrobius ''Sat.'' I 9, 16: "Consivius a conserendo, id est a propagine generis humani quae Iano auctore conseritur": "Consivius from insemination, i.e. from the propagation of mankind who is sown having Janus as author." ; Tertullian ''Ad Nationes'' II 11: "deus Conseuius.... qui consationibus concubitalibus praesit." " god Conseuius who presides on sowing and sexual intercourse": here Tertullian has preserved the most ancient form, even though he is not aware it is an epithet of Ianus (Capdeville above p. 433); August. ''C. D.'' VII 2 "...Ianus, cum puerperium concipitur...aditum aperit recipiendi semini." "J. at the start of pregnancy...opens the way in to the reception of the sperm".</ref>

The role of the two gods at the kalendae of every month is that of presiding over the birth of the new moon. Janus and Juno cooperate as the first looks after the passage from the previous to the ensuing month while the second helps it through the strength of her vitality. The rites of the kalendae included the invocations to Juno Covella, giving the number of days to the ''nonae'', a sacrifice to Janus by the rex sacrorum and the pontifex minor at the ''curia Calabra'' and one to Juno by the regina sacrorum in the Regia: originally when the month was still lunar the ''pontifex minor'' had the task of signalling the appearance of the new moon. While the meaning of the epithet Covella is unknown and debated,<ref>[[Scaliger]] proposed a derivation from ''cohum'' heaven, sky on the grounds of Paulus p. 34 L: "cohum caelum poetae dixerunt"; M. Renard "Aspects anciens de Janus et Junon" ''Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire'' 1953 and ''Annuaire de l'institut de philologie orientale et slave'' 1953 from the parallel etymology of ''iunix'' heifer and Iuno proposed the IE root for bovines *g(w)ou- (that gave English cow) and also ''cava'' caved in, inflected, etymology proposed also by Latte.</ref> that of the rituals is clear as the divine couple is supposed to oversee, protect and help the moon during the particularly dangerous time of her darkness and her ''labours'': the role of Juno Covella is hence the same as that of Lucina for women during parturition. The association of the two gods is reflected on the human level at the difficult time of labours as is apparent in the custom of putting a key, symbol of Janus, in the hand of the woman with the aim of ensuring an easy delivery, while she had to invoke Juno Lucina.<ref>Schilling above p. 116; Paulus p. 49 L</ref> At the nonae Caprotinae similarly Juno had the function of aiding and strengthening the moon as the nocturnal light, at the time when her force was supposed to be at its lowest, after the Summer solstice.<ref>G. Dumézil</ref>

The Tigillum Sororium was a rite (sacrum) of the gens [[Horatia gens|Horatia]] and later of the State. In it ''Janus Curiatius'' was associated to ''Juno Sororia'': they had their altars on opposite sides of the alley behind the Tigillum Sororium. Physically this consisted of a beam spanning the space over two posts. It was kept in good condition down to the time of Livy at public expenses.<ref>Livy I 26, 13</ref> According to tradition it was a rite of purification that served at the expiation of [[Horatii|Publius Horatius]] who had murdered his own sister when he saw her mourning the death of her betrothed Curiatius. Dumézil has shown in his ''Les Horaces et les Curiaces''<ref>G. Dumézil ''Les Horaces et les Curiaces'' Paris 1942</ref> that this story is in fact the historical transcription of rites of reintegration into civil life of the young warriors, in the myth symbolised by the hero, freed from their ''furor'' (wrath), indispensable at war but dangerous in social life. What is known of the rites of October 1 shows at Rome the legend has been used as an aetiological myth for the yearly purification ceremonies which allowed the ''desacralisation'' of soldiers at the end of the warring season, i.e. their cleansing from the religious pollution contracted at war. The story finds parallels in Irish and Indian mythologies. These rites took place in October, the month that at Rome saw the celebration of the end of the yearly military activity. Janus would then be the patron of the ''feria'' as god of transitions, Juno for her affinities to Janus, especially on the day of the kalendae. It is also possible though that she took part as the tutelary goddess of young people, the ''iuniores'', etymologically identical to her.<ref>Nicola Turchi ''La religione di Roma antica'' Bologna 1939 p. 99 ff.; Marcel Renard ''Aspects anciens de Janus et de Junon'' in ''Revue belge de philologie'' '''31''' 1953 p. 13; G. Capdeville above p.430.</ref> Modern scholars are divided on the interpretation of J. Curiatius and J. Sororia. Renard citing Capdeville opines that the wisest choice is to adhere to tradition and consider the legend itself as the source of the epithets.<ref>G. Capdeville above p. 430-431</ref><ref>For other interpretations cf.: H. J. Rose "Mana in Greece and Rome" in ''Harvard Theological Review'' '''42''' 1949 p. 165-169; M. Renard "Aspects anciens de Janus et Junon" in ''Revue belge de philologie'' '''31''' 1959 p.14f.; R. Schilling "Janus dieu introducteur, dieu des passages" above p. 108ff. ; J. Gagé "La poutre sacrée des Horatii" in ''Hommages Deonna'', ''Collection Latomus'' '''28''' Bruxelles 1957 p. 235 ff.; G. Dury Moyaers et Marcel Renard "Aperçu critique des travaux relatifs au culte de Junon" in ''Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römische Welt'' 1981 p. 186-188. These works though being all inspired by Rose's interpretation of ''sororia'' as an epithet related to the swelling of breasts in adolescent girls (based on Festus's glossa s.v. ''sororiare''), differ widely from one another. However, they all consider the feria to be related to an initiation into adult life and/or reintegration into civil life of young soldiers, the ''iuvenes''. According to Capdeville and Dury Moyaers & Renard the main defect of all the proposed interpretations is that they are highly speculative, i.e. not grounded onto sufficient evidence in ancient sources.</ref>

M. Renard advanced the view that Janus and not Jupiter was the original paredra or consort of Juno, on the grounds of their many common features, functions and appearance in myth or rites as is shown by their cross coupled epithets Janus Curiatius and Juno Sororia: Janus shares the epithet of Juno Curitis and Juno the epithet Janus Geminus, as ''sororius'' means paired, double.{{efn|Cf. e.g. also Virgil's and Ovid's ascribing of analogous actions, if opposite in aim, to the two gods in the wars of Aeneas.<ref>Vergil, ''Aeneid'', Book VII, lines 620{{ndash}}2.</ref> [[Servius the Grammarian|Servius]] comments {{lang|la|Ianus Iunonius}} quoting these verses on Juno's opening of the gate of the Ianua Belli of the town of [[Latinus]]) and that between Sabines and Romans. Juno opens the bolts of the Ianualis Gate thrice, then Janus opens the Lautolae hot source that scorches the Sabines.<ref>Ovid, ''Metamorphoses'', Book XIV, lines 778-804, and ''Fasti'', Book I, lines 265{{ndash}}272.</ref> On the last episode cf. also Macrobius ''Saturnalia'' I 9 17-18, who however does not mention Juno as the author of the miracle.}} Renard's theory has been rejected by G. Capdeville as not being in accord with the level of sovereign gods in Dumézil's trifunctional structure. The theology of Janus would show features typically belonging to the order of the gods of the beginning. In Capdeville's view it is only natural that a god of beginnings and a sovereign mother deity have common features, as all births can be seen as beginnings, Juno is invoked by deliverers, who by custom hold a key, symbol of Janus.<ref>Capdeville "Les epithets cultelles de Janus" above p. 428.</ref>

===Juno and Hercules===
Even though the origins of [[Hercules]] are undoubtedly Greek his figure underwent an early assimilation into Italic local religions and might even preserve traces of an association to Indoiranian deity [[Sancus#Trita Apya|Trita Apya]] that in Greece have not survived.<ref>R. D. Woodard ''Indoeuropean Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult'' Chicago 2006 p. 220 ff.; G. Dury Moyaers et M. Renard above p.188</ref> Among other roles that Juno and Hercules share there is the protection of the newborn. [[Jean Bayet]], author of ''Les origines de l'Arcadisme romain'', has argued that such a function must be a later development as it looks to have superseded that of the two original Latin gods [[Picumnus (mythology)|Picumnus]] and [[Pilumnus]].<ref>J. Bayet ''Les origines de l'Hercule romain'' Paris 1926 p.383-4</ref>

The two gods are mentioned together in a dedicatory inscription found in the ruins of the temple of Hercules at Lanuvium, whose cult was ancient and second in importance only to that of Juno Sospita.<ref>Ephemer. Epigraph. IX 605: "Herculi San[cto] et Iunoni Sospit[i]". The inscription is dated to the 2nd century BC.</ref><ref>Bayet above p. 387; R. A. Lanciani ''Storia degli scavi'' Roma 1902-1912 III p. 22 and 31; D. Vaglieri "Civita Lavinia. Scoperta di anitchitá nel territorio del Comune" ''Atti della reale Accademia nazionale dei Lincei'' anno 304 V serie 1907.</ref> In the cults of this temple just like in those at the [[Ara maxima]] in Rome women were not allowed. The exclusion of one sex is a characteristic practice in the cults of deities of fertility.<ref>Tertullian ''Ad nationes'' II 7: Bayet above p. 387</ref> Even though no text links the cults of the Ara maxima with Juno Sospita, one of her temples was located in the [[Forum Olitorium]] near the [[Carmental Gate]], one of the sites of the legend of Hercules in Rome. The feria of the goddess coincides with a "Birthday of Hercules" ({{lang|la|Natalis Herculis}}), which was celebrated with {{lang|la|ludi circenses}}, games in the circus.<ref>G. Wissowa ''Religion und Kultus der Römer'' Munich 1912 p. 276 n. 5; J. Bayet above p. 387-8; Properce ''Elegiae'' V 9, 71 "Sancte Pater salve, cui iam favet aspera Iuno" "Hail Thee Holy Father, to whom the harsh Iuno is propitious", at the end of a passage devoted to the legend of [[Bona Dea]] and of the Ara Maxima. Cf. Macrobius ''Saturnalia'' I 12, 28</ref> In Bayet's view Juno and Hercules did supersede Pilumnus and Picumnus in the role of tutelary deities of the newborn not only because of their own features as goddess of the deliverers and as apotropaic tutelary god of infants but also because of their common quality as gods of fertility. This was the case in Rome and at [[Tusculum]] where a cult of Juno Lucina and Hercules was known.<ref>J. Bayet above p. 388</ref> At Lanuvium and perhaps Rome though their most ancient association rests on their common fertility and military characters. The Latin Junos certainly possessed a marked warlike character (at Lanuvium, Falerii, Tibur, Rome). Such a character might suggest a comparison with the Greek armed [[Hera]]s one finds in the South of Italy at [[Promunturium Lacinium|Cape Lacinion]] and at the mouth of river [[Sele (river)|Sele]], military goddesses close to the Heras of [[Elis (city)|Elis]] and [[Ancient Argos|Argos]] known as ''Argivae''.<ref>J. Bayet above p. 170.</ref> In the cult this Hera received at Cape Lacinion she was associated with Heracles, supposed to be the founder of the sanctuary.{{sfn|Servius|loc=Bk. III, §552}}{{efn|The immortality of Heracles was ensured by Hera rather than being hindered by her.<ref>J. Bayet, p. 170.</ref>}} Contacts with Central Italy and similarity would have favoured a certain assimilation between Latin warlike Junos and Argive Heras and the association with Heracles of Latin Junos. Some scholars, mostly Italians, recognize in the Junos of Falerii, Tibur and Lavinium the Greek Hera, rejecting the theory of an indigenous original cult of a military Juno.<ref>[[Mario Torelli]] "Il santuario greco di Gravisca" in ''La Parola del Passato'' '''32''' 1977 p. 435 on the Samian presence that gave an Argive connotation to the cult of Hera in Italy, archaic Argive Hellenisation of Falerii; M. Torelli "Tre studi di storia etrusca" ''Dialoghi di Architettura'' ''' 8''' 1974-5 p. 56f.; S. Weinstock in RE VI A 1 1937 art. Tibur Col. 832f.: cults of the Iuno of Tibur as imported from Falerii; G. Pugliese Carratelli "Achei nell'Etruria e nel Lazio?" ''La Parola del Passato'' '''17''' 1962 p. 24; "Culti e dottrine religiose in Magna Grecia" ''La Parola del Passato'' '''20''' 1965 p. 1 ff.; "Lazio, Roma e Magna Grecia prima del IV secolo A.C." ''La Parola del Passato'' '''23''' 1968 p. 321-47 espec. p. 331 on Mycenean precolonial origin of Hera in Italy; [[Jean Berard]] ''La colonisation grecque de l' Italie meridionale et de la Sicilie dans l'Antiquité'' Paris 1957 espec. p. 393-4. On the origin of Argive Hera Berard argues that given the Thessalic character of the legend of the Argonauts, her name evokes the Argos of Thessaly. On the other hand the cult of the Hera of the Sele would have been brought during prehistoric colonisations by the Amineans, a Pelasgian people issued from Thessaly (cf. Dionysius of Halicarnassus I 17, 2 and 89, 2). At the time of the first colonisation at the middle of the 7th century, the Trezenians, [[Doric Greek|Doric]] people from the [[Peloponnesus]] ([[Argolid]]) expelled from [[Sybaris]] by the Acheans (Herodotus VIII 43; Pausanias III 30, 10) settled at [[Posidonia]] where they inherited and took on the sanctuary founded by their predecessors: cf. P. C. Sestieri "Richerche posidionati" ''MEFR(A)'' '''67''' 1955 p. 35-48.</ref> Renard thinks Dumézil's opposition to such a view is to be upheld: Bayet's words though did not deny the existence of local warlike Junos, but only imply that at a certain time they received the influence of the Heras of Lacinion and Sele, a fact that earned them the epithet of ''Argive'' and a Greek connotation.<ref>J. Bayet above p. 170-1</ref> However Bayet recognized the quality of mother and of fertility deity as being primitive among the three purported by the epithets of the Juno of Lanuvium (Seispes, Mater, Regina).<ref>J. Bayet above p. 386</ref>

Magna Graecia and Lanuvium mixed their influence in the formation of the Roman Hercules and perhaps there was a Sabine element too as is testified by Varro, supported by the find of the sanctuary of Hercules Curinus at Sulmona and by the existence of a Juno Curitis in Latium.<ref>Varro ''Lingua latina'' V 66 and 74; E. Paratore above p. 49</ref>

The mythical theme of the suckling of the adult [[Heracles]] by [[Hera]],<ref>J. Bayet ''Herclé etrusque. Critique des principaux monuments relatifs à l' Herclé etrusque.'' Paris 1926 p. 150-154; W. Deonna "Deux études de symboliqe religieuse. I La legende de Pero et Micon et l'allaitment symbolique." ''Coll. Latomus'' '''18''' Bruxelles 1955 p. 15ff., 15-19 on iconographical and literary sources: "Junon et Hercule"; M. Renard "Hercule allaité par Junon" in ''Hommage à Jean Bayet. Coll. Latomus'' '''70''' Bruxelles 1964 p. 611-618.</ref> though being of Greek origin,<ref>Lycophron ''Alexandra'' 39 and [[scholiast]], end of the 4th century; Diodorus Siculus IV 9; Hyginus ''Poet. Astr.'' II 43; Pausuanias IX 25, 2; as infant; Eratosthenes ''Katast.'' 44 supported by Diodorus IV 39, 2 as adult: Diodorus relates only the simulated delivery as an adoption but Bayet believes the suckling was a necessary consequence. Bayet above p. 152</ref> is considered by scholars as having received its full acknowledgement and development in Etruria: Heracles has become a bearded adult on the mirrors of the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.<ref>W. Deonna above; [[Larissa Bonfante]] "Etruscan Inscriptions and Etruscan Religion" in N. Thomas De Grummond (editor) ''The Religion of the Etruscans'' Univ. of Texas Press 2006 p. 15: "...the Etruscan version best illustrates the meaning of his name, glory of Hera".</ref> Most scholars view the fact as an initiation, i.e. the accession of Heracles to the condition of immortal. Even though the two versions coexisted in Greece and that of Heracles infant is attested earlier Renard suggests a process more in line with the evolution of the myth: the suckling of the adult Heracles should be regarded as more ancient and reflecting its original true meaning.<ref>M. Renard above p. 617-8: the process would be parallel to that of the myth of Eros, originally the primordial god who fathered Aphrodite who later became the child of the goddess.</ref>

===Juno and Genius===
The view that Juno was the feminine counterpart to [[Genius (mythology)|Genius]], i.e. that as men possess a tutelary entity or ''double'' named genius, so women have their own one named ''juno'', has been maintained by many scholars, lastly Kurt Latte.<ref>''Roscher Lexicon'' s. v. Iunones; W. Hastings, Sebin ''Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics'' Edinborough 1913 s. v. Family p. 797; K. Latte ''Römische Religionsgeschichte'' Munich 1960 p. 105.</ref> In the past it has also been argued that goddess Juno herself would be the issue of a process of abstraction from the individual ''junos'' of every woman.<ref>William Warde Fowler ''The Religious experience of the Roman People'' London 1918 p. 135-6</ref> According to [[Georg Wissowa]] and K. Latte, Genius (from the root ''gen-'', whence ''gigno'' bear or be born, archaic also ''geno'') would designate the specific virile generative potency, as opposed to feminine nature, reflected in conception and delivery, under the tutelage of Juno Lucina. Such an interpretation has been critically reviewed by [[Walter F. Otto]].<ref>''Pauly Real Encyclopaedie d. Altertumswissenchaften'' VII 1912 col. 1157-8; 1159-60</ref>{{efn|Otto underlines how this conception would entail the association of the genius with sex in common linguistic usage and how it would have been exploited in comic poets. Also that the Roman notion of genius was in the religious sphere close to the juridical concept of {{lang|la|persona}}, that the part of the human body associated to the genius were not the sexual organs but the forehead. [[Servius the Grammarian]] noted {{lang|la|frontem Genio, unde venerantes deum tangimus frontem}}.{{sfn|Servius|loc=Bk. III, §607}}}}

While there are some correspondences between the ideas about genius and ''juno'', especially in the imperial age, the relevant documentation is rather late ([[Tibullus]] mentions it first).<ref>Tibullus III 19, 15 and 6, 48: IV 6, 1; CIL II 1324</ref> Dumézil also remarks that from these passages one could infer that every woman has a Venus too. As evidence of the antiquity of the concept of a ''juno'' of women, homologous to the ''genius'' of men, is the [[Arval Brethren|Arval]] sacrifice of two sheep to the Juno [[Dea Dia|Deae Diae]] ("the juno of goddesses named Dea Dia"), in contrast to their sacrifice of two cows sacrificed to Juno (singular). However both G. Wissowa and K. Latte allow that this ritual could have been adapted to fit theology of the Augustan restoration.<ref>G. Wissowa ''Religion und Kultus der Römer'' Munich 1912 p. 561 n. 7; K. Latte above p. 54.</ref> While the concept of a Juno of goddesses is not attested in the inscriptions of 58 BC from Furfo,<ref>CIL IX 3513: "''Genius Iovis Liberi''".</ref> that of a Genius of gods is,<ref>CIL II 2407 "''Genius Iovis''", " ''Genius Martis''", "''Genius Victoriae''"</ref> and even of a Genius of a goddess, [[Victoria (mythology)|Victoria]]. On this point it looks remarkable that also in [[Martianus Capella]]'s division of Heaven a ''Juno Hospitae Genius'' is mentioned in region IX, and not a ''Juno'': the sex of this Genius is feminine.{{efn|The sex of the genii{{mdash}}as well as of some other gods{{mdash}}may be uncertain as is shown in the case of the genius of Rome: {{lang|la|Genio urbis Romae sive mas sive femina}} was an inscription on the shield consecrated to the genius in the Capitol, quoted by [[Servius the Grammarian]].{{sfn|Servius|loc=Bk. II, §351}} See also CIL I 632: "sei deo sei deivae sac/ C Sextius C F Calvinus pr/ de senati sententia/ restituit"; Cato ''De Agricultura'' 139: "si deus si dea es quoium illud (lucus) sacrum est...".}}

Romans believed the genius of somebody was an entity that embodied his essential character, personality, and also originally his vital, generative force and ''raison d' être''. However the genius had no direct relationship with sex, at least in the conceptions of the classical period, even though the nuptial bed was named ''lectus genialis'' in honour of the Genius and brides on the day of marriage invoked the genius of their grooms.<ref>Paulus ex Festo p. 214 L 2nd s. v. genialis lectus; Arnobius ''Adversus Nationes'' II 67.</ref> This seems to hint to a significance of the ''Genius'' as the propagative spirit of the ''gens'', of whom every human individual is an incarnation:<ref>G. Dumézil ''La religion romaine archaique'' part II chapt. 4, It. tr. p. 317 remarks ''primigenius'' does not mean the first among brothers, but the first absolute of all generations.</ref> [[Censorinus]] states: "Genius is the god under whose tutelage everyone is born and lives on",<ref>Censorinus ''De Die Natali'' III 1</ref> and that "many ancient authors, among whom [[Granius Flaccus]] in his ''De Indigitamentis'', maintain that he is one and the same with the [[Lares|Lar]]", meaning the Lar Familiaris. Festus calls him "a god endowed with the power of doing everything", then citing an Aufustius: "Genius is the son of the gods and the parent of men, from whom men receive life. Thence is he named my genius, because he begot me". Festus's quotation goes on saying: "Other think he is the special god of every place", a notion that reflects a different idea.<ref>Festus p. 214 L 2nd s. v. genius.</ref> In classic age literature and iconography he is often represented as a snake, that may appear in the conjugal bed, this conception being perhaps the result of a Greek influence. It was easy for the Roman concept of Genius to expand annexing other similar religious figures as the Lares and the Greek [[agathodaemon|δαίμων ἀγαθός]].<ref>Cicero ''De Divinatione'' I 36; Julius Obsequens 58; Vergil ''Aen.'' V 94-6; Aulus Gellius VI 1, 3, where however he is rather Jupiter himself.</ref><ref>G. Dumézil ''La religion romaine archaïque'' Paris 1977 part II chapt. 4; It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 316-8.</ref>

The genius was believed to be associated with the forehead of each man, while goddess Juno, not the ''juno'' of every woman, was supposed to have under her jurisdiction the eyebrows of women<ref>Varro ''Lingua Latina'' V 69.</ref> or to be the tutelary goddess of the eyebrows of everybody, irrespective of one's sex.<ref>Paulus ex Festo p. 403 L 2nd.</ref><ref>G. Dumézil above: It. tr. p. 263.</ref>

===Juno and the Penates===
According to one interpretation of the [[Di Penates]], Juno, along with Jupiter and Minerva, is one of the Penates of man.<ref>Arnobius ''Adversus Nationes'' III 40; Macrobius ''Saturnalia'' III 13.</ref> This view is ascribed by Macrobius to the mystic religion of Samothrace, imported to Rome by Tarquinius Priscus, himself an initiate, who thereby created the Roman Capitoline Triad. Juno is the god by whom man gets his body.<ref>Macrobius III 13.</ref>

===Heries Junonis===
Among the female entities that in the pontifical invocations accompanied the naming of gods, Juno was associated to Heries, which she shared with [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] (''Heres Martea'').<ref>Gellius XIII 23, 2 and 18; Festus p. 221 L; Ennius ''Annales'' 104 "''...Nerienem Mavortis et Herem...''" .</ref>

==Festivals==
{{Main|Matronalia}}
[[File:S03 06 01 020 image 2539.jpg|thumbnail|left|Juno; Vatican, Rome. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection]]
All festivals of Juno were held on the kalendae of a month except two (or, perhaps, three): the ''Nonae Caprotinae'' on the [[Caprotinia|nonae]] of July, the festival of ''Juno Capitolina'' on September 13, because the date of these two was determined by the preeminence of Jupiter. Perhaps a second festival of ''Juno Moneta'' was held on October 10, possibly the date of the dedication of her temple. This fact reflects the strict association of the goddess with the beginning of each lunar month.

Every year, on the first of March, women held a festival in honour of Juno Lucina called the [[Matronalia]]. [[Lucina (goddess)|Lucina]] was an epithet for Juno as "she who brings children into light". On this day, lambs and cattle were sacrificed in her honor in the temple of her sacred grove on the [[Cispius]].

The second festival was devoted to ''Juno Moneta'' on June 1.

hi After this was the festival of the ''Nonae Caprotinae'' ("The Nones of the Wild Fig") held on July 7.

The festival of ''Juno Regina'' fell on September 1, followed on the 13th of the same month by that of ''Juno Regina Capitolina''.

October 1 was the date of the ''Tigillum Sororium'' in which the goddess was honoured as ''Juno Sororia''.

The last of her yearly festivals was that of ''Juno Sospita'' on February 1. It was an appropriate date for her celebration since the month of February was considered a perilous time of passage, the cosmic year then coming to an end and the limits between the world of the living and the underworld being no longer safely defined. Hence the community invoked the protection (''tutela'') of the warlike ''Juno Sospita'', "''The Saviour''".

Juno is the patroness of marriage, and many people believe that the most favorable time to marry is June, the month named after the goddess.

==Etrurian Uni, Hera, Astarte and Juno==
The [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] were a people who maintained extensive (if often conflicting) contacts with the other peoples of the Mediterranean: the Greeks, the Phoenicians, and the Carthaginians.

Evidence of intense cultural exchanges with the Greeks has been found in 1969 at the sanctuary of the port of Gravisca near [[Tarquinia]].<ref>Dedicatory inscriptions to Hera on terracottas of the 6th century; besides Greek dedications to Hera, Aphrodite and Apollo, Etruscan to Turan. M. Torelli "Il santuario greco di Gradisca" ''La Parola del Passato'' '''32''' 1977 p. 398-458. All the Greek Inscriptions are written in Ionian characters, Torelli thinks of a Samian colony. The cult of the lunar deities may be associated with sailing: cf. Roscher ''Studien zur vergleichenden Myth der Griechen und Römer. II Iuno und Hera'' Leipzig 1875 p. 106ff.</ref> Renard thinks the cult of Hera in great emporia such as [[Crotone|Croton]], Posidonia, Pyrgi might be a counter to Aphrodite's, linked to sacred prostitution in ports, as the sovereign of legitimate marriage and family and of their sacrality. Hera's presence had already been attested at [[Caere]] in the sanctuary of Manganello.<ref>Dedications on terracottas of the 4th-3rd century.</ref> In the 18th century a dedication to Iuno Historia was discovered at Castrum Novum (Santa Marinella).<ref>CIL 3573. Renard associates it to the Greek legend of [[Galanthis|Historis]] daughter of [[Tiresias]] and sister of [[Manto (mythology)|Manto]] who by cheating Hera allowed [[Alcmene|Alcmena]]'s delivery of Heracles. Fecundity, birth, prophecy, magic and lunar character are common to the two figures: M. Renard "Iuno Historia" in ''Latomus'' '''12''' 1953 p. 137-54; Pausanias IX 11, 3. On the oracular Hera of [[Cuma (Italy)|Cuma]] cf. M. Guarducci ''Un antchissimo responso dell' oracolo di Cuma'' p. 129 ff., also on Iuno Moneta.</ref> The cult of Iuno and Hera is generally attested in Etruria.<ref>At Perusia, Cortona, Siena, Populonia, Visentium, even more in southern Etruria at Veii, Falerii, Tarquinia, Gravisca, Caerae, Pyrgi: M. Renard "Iuno Historia" above p. 152; L. Ross Taylor ''Local Cults in Etruria'' p. 85.</ref>

The relationship between Uni and the Phoenician goddess [[Astarte]] has been brought to light by the discovery of the [[Pyrgi Tablets]] in 1964. At [[Pyrgi]], one of the ports of Caere, excavations had since 1956 revealed the existence of a sacred area, intensely active from the last quarter of the 4th century, yielding two documents of a cult of [[Uni (mythology)|Uni]]. Scholars had long believed the Etruscan goddess Uni was strongly influenced by the Argive Heras and had her Punic counterpart in the Carthaginian goddess [[Tanit]], identified by the Romans as Juno Caelestis.<ref>Cf. Martianus Capella: Saturni Caelestis Iuno, in region XIV of Heaven.</ref> Nonetheless [[Augustine of Hippo]] had already stated that Juno was named Astarte in the Punic language,<ref>Augustinus ''Quaestiones in Heptateuchum'' VII 16</ref> a notion that the discovery of the Pyrgi lamellae has proved correct. It is debated whether such an identification was linked to a transient political stage corresponding with Tefarie Velianas's Carthaginian-backed tyranny on Caere as the sanctuary does not show any other trait proper to Phoenician ones.<ref>The presence of Astarte would be the reflection of a familiarity of the Etruscans with Phoenician_Punic religion as a consequence of their alliance with the Carthaginians at [[Battle of Alalia|Alalia]] and at the time of the first treaty between Rome and Carthage (Polybius II 22, 19). It would testify to the adaptability of Etruscan theology, ready to assimilate myths and rites. G. Dumézil ARR p. 663. M. Pallottino remarked the golden lamellae look to have been written hastily.</ref> The mention of the goddess of the sanctuary as being named locally Eileitheia and Leucothea by different Greek authors narrating its destruction by the Syracusean fleet in 384 BC, made the picture even more complex.<ref>Strabon V 2, 8; Ps. Aristoteles ''Oekonomica'' II 2, 10; Polyanus II 21; Aelianus ''Historia Varia'' I 20. G. Dumézil ''Myth et Epopée. III'' p. 166ff.; R. Bloch ''Recherches sur les religions de l'Italie antique'' Genève 1976 p. 1-9</ref> R. Bloch has proposed a two-stage interpretation: the first theonym Eilethya corresponds to Juno Lucina, the second Leucothea to Mater Matuta. However, the local theonym is Uni and one would legitimately expect it to be translated as Hera. A fragmentary bronze lamella discovered on the same site and mentioning both theonym Uni and Thesan (i. e. Latin Juno and Aurora-Mater Matuta) would then allow the inference of the integration of the two deities at Pyrgi: the local Uni-Thesan matronal and auroral, would have become the Iuno Lucina and the Mater Matuta of Rome. The Greek assimilation would reflect this process as not direct but subsequent to a process of distinction. Renard rejects this hypothesis since he sees in Uni and Thesan two distinct deities, though associated in cult.<ref>G. Dumézil above p. 171 : "It is not certain whether Thesan be a designation of Uni".</ref> However the entire picture should have been familiar in Italian and Roman religious lore as is shown by the complexity and ambivalence of the relationship of Juno with Rome and Romans in Virgil's Aeneid, who has Latin, Greek and Punic traits, result of a plurisaecular process of amalgamation.<ref>P. Boyancé "La religion de Virgil" ''Collection Myth et Religion'' 1963 p. 19; R. Bloch ''A propos de l'Eneide de Virgile'' p. 334-7 above; W. S. Anderson "Iuno and Saturn in the Aeneid" ''Studies in Philology'' 55 '''4''' p. 61-9; L. A. Mac Kay ''Saturnia Iuno in Greece and Rome'' 2nd Series '''3''' 1956 p. 59-60.</ref> Also remarkable in this sense is the ''Fanum Iunonis'' of Malta (of the Hellenistic period) which has yielded dedicatory inscriptions to Astarte and Tanit.<ref>R. Bloch "Hera, Uni, Junon en Italie Centrale" p. 18</ref>

===Juno in Martianus Capella's division of Heaven===
Martianus Capella's collocation of gods into sixteen different regions of Heaven<ref>Martianus Capella ''De Nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae'' I 45-60.</ref> is supposed to be based on and to reflect Etruscan religious lore, at least in part. It is thence comparable with the theonyms found in the sixteen cases of the outer rim of the [[Piacenza Liver]].<ref>The division of Heaven into sixteen parts is ascribed to the [[Etrusca disciplina]], the art of interpreting the meaning of lightningbolts: Pliny ''Naturalis Hiatoria'' II 143; Cicero ''De Dininatione'' II 42. It implied a twice repeated division of the four parts of the sky based on the four cardinal points into two sections. A north south line divides space into a left part to the east, named familiaris and considered favourable (the orientation is defined by an observer facing south), and a right part to the west, named hostilis, unfavourable. An east-west line divides space into a ''pars postica'' and ''antica'', i.e. beneath and above the line of the horizon. The world man can see is to the south of the east-west line. The sections of the NE quadrant are inhabited by the heavenly gods, thence are the most favourable. Those of the NW quadrant by the underworld and fate gods, thence the most unfavourable. The sections of the SE quadrant are inhabited by gods of nature, thence moderately favourable. Those of the SW quadrant byearthly gods and gods related to humans, thence moderately unfavourable. M. Pallottino "Deorun sedes" in ''Studi in onore di Aristide Calderini e Roberto Paribeni'' Milano 1956 '''3''' p. 223-34.</ref> Juno is to be found in region II, along with Quirinus Mars, Lars militaris, Fons, Lymphae and the dii Novensiles. This position is reflected on the [[Piacenza Liver]] by the situation of Uni in case IV, owing to a threefold location of [[Tinia]] in the first three cases that determines an equivalent shift.

An entity named Juno Hospitae Genius is to be found alone in region IX. Since [[Grotius]] (1599) many editors have proposed the correction of Hospitae into Sospitae. S. Weinstock has proposed to identify this entity with one of the spouses of [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]], as the epithet recurs below (I 81) used in this sense.<ref>S. Weinstock "Martianus Capella and the Cosmic System of the Etruscans" in ''Journal of Roman Studies'' '''36''' 1946 p. 127</ref>

In region XIV is located Juno Caelestis along with [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]]. This deity is the Punic Astarte/Tanit, usually associated with Saturn in Africa. Iuno Caelestis is thence in turn assimilated to [[Ops]] and Greek [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]].<ref>Varro ''Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum'' 1, fr. 23 Cardauns apud Tertullian ''Ad Nationes'' II 2, 15: fr. 36 C apud Augustin ''de Civitate Dei'' IV 23; 16 fr. 240 C apud Tertullian above II 12, 18; Macrobius ''Saturnalia'' I 10, 20.</ref> Uni is here the Punic goddess, in accord with the identification of Pyrgi. Her paredra was the Phoenician god [[Ba'al]], interpreted as Saturn. Capdeville admits of being unable to explain the collocation of Juno Caelestis among the underworld gods, which looks to be determined mainly by her condition as spouse of Saturn.<ref>M. Leglay ''Saturne Africain. Histoire'' Paris 1966 p. 215-222.</ref><ref>G. Capdeville "Les dieux de Martianus Capella" in ''Revue de l' Histoire des Religions'' '''213''' 3 1996 p. 250-300, especially p. 290-1.</ref>

== Temple at Samos ==
[[File:Illustration from Views in the Ottoman Dominions by Luigi Mayer, digitally enhanced by rawpixel-com 59.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the temple of Juno in Samos, painted by [[Luigi Mayer]]]]
[[File:MAS - Vier-Götter-Stein 2.jpg|thumb|Ancient Roman four-gods-stone (3rd century AD) with relief of Iuno or Minerva from Place Kleber. Archaeological Museum, [[Strasbourg]]]]
The Ionian Greeks of the island of [[Samos]] built [[Heraion of Samos|a sanctuary to the goddess Hera]], beginning perhaps in the 8th century BC. [[Herodotus]] described the temple within the sanctuary as one of Samos' three marvels of engineering, the other two being the [[Tunnel of Eupalinos]] and the [[Ancient harbour of Samos|harbor works of the island capital]]. Hera being equated with Juno, the temple is also associated with the Roman goddess, for example in [[Giovanni Boccaccio]]'s fanciful yet vivid description of the temple ruins in his ''Genealogia Deorum.''<ref>{{cite journal|title=Boccaccio's Archaeological Knowledge |first=Cornelia C. |last=Coulter |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |year=1937 |volume=41 |number=3 |pages=397–405 |doi=10.2307/498505 |jstor=498505|s2cid=207358292 }}</ref>

== In literature ==
Perhaps Juno's most prominent appearance in [[Latin literature|Roman literature]] is as the primary antagonistic force in [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]'', where she is depicted as a cruel and savage goddess intent upon supporting first [[Dido (Queen of Carthage)|Dido]] and then [[Turnus]] and the [[Rutuli]]ans against [[Aeneas]]' attempt to found a new [[Troy]] in Italy.<ref name="University of Mary Washington">{{cite web|title=Deception in the Aeneid|url=http://warintheaeneid.umwblogs.org/2008/06/13/deception-in-the-aeneid/|website=[[University of Mary Washington]]|access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref> [[Servius the Grammarian]], commenting on some of her several roles in the ''Aeneid'', supposes her as a conflation of [[Hera]] with the [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] storm-goddess [[Tanit]].{{sfn|Servius|loc=Bk. II, §225}} [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' offers a story accounting for her sacred association with the [[peacock]].<ref>classics.mit.edu/Ovid/metam.html contains a full text translation of the work.</ref> She is remembered in ''[[De Mulieribus Claris]]'', a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the [[Florence|Florentine]] author [[Giovanni Boccaccio]], composed in 1361{{endash}}62. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature.<ref name="Brown_xi">{{cite book |last=Boccaccio |first=Giovanni |author-link=Giovanni Boccaccio |year=2003 |translator=Virginia Brown |title=Famous Women |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |series=I Tatti Renaissance Library |volume=1 |isbn=0-674-01130-9 |page=xi}}</ref> [[William Shakespeare]] briefly employs Juno as a [[masque]] character in ''[[The Tempest]]'' (Act IV, Scene I).

== Modern reception ==

=== Spaceflight ===
{{See also|Juno (spacecraft)}}
In spaceflight, [[NASA]] launched a space probe to [[Jupiter]] in 2011, and named it Juno in reference to her relationship to the god [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] in mythology.<ref>{{cite web |title=NASA's Juno Spacecraft launches to Jupiter 5 Aug 2011 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/juno/news/juno20110805.html |website=NASA |date=27 June 2016 |access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Potnia Theron]]
*[[Reitia]]

== Notes ==
{{noteslist}}

== References ==

===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===

* {{citation |last=Burn |first=Robert |url=https://archive.org/details/romecampagnahist00burn |title=Rome and the Campagna: An Historical and Topographical Description of the Site, Buildings, and Neighbourhood of Ancient Rome... |location=[[Cambridge, England|Cambridge]] |publisher=Deighton, Bell, & Co. |date=1871 }}
* {{citation |author=[[Lactantius]] |title=[[The Divine Institutes|Institutiones Divinae]] ''[''Divine Institutes'']'' |at=[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/07011.htm Book I, Chapter 17, Section 8] |lang=la |date=303–311 }}.
* {{citation |first=Geneviève Dury |last=Moyaers |author2=Marcel Renard |display-authors=1 |contribution=Aperçu Critique des Travaux Relatifs au Culte de Junon |lang=fr |title=Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römische Welt |date=1981 |pages=142–202 }}.
* {{citation |author=[[Servius the Grammarian]] |contribution=In Vergilii ''Aeneidem'' Commentarii [Commentaries on Vergil's ''Aeneid''] |contribution-url=http://virgil.org/texts/virgil/serviusaeneid.txt |title=In Tria Virgilii Opera Expositio ''[''Exposition on Three Works by Vergil'']'' |lang=la |ref=CITEREFServius }}.

==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Juno}}
* [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-000066 The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Juno)]

{{Roman religion}}

{{subject bar |commons=y |commons-search=Iuno |portal1=Mythology }}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Juno (Mythology)}}
[[Category:Juno (mythology)| ]]
[[Category:Roman goddesses]]
[[Category:Deities in the Aeneid]]
[[Category:June]]
[[Category:Tutelary deities]]
[[Category:Hera]]
[[Category:Metamorphoses characters]]
[[Category:Queens of Heaven (antiquity)]]
[[Category:Marriage goddesses]]
[[Category:Childhood goddesses]]
[[Category:Capitoline Triad]]
[[Category:Dii Consentes]]

DJ Shub

2024-05-07T14:29:46Z

72.142.115.198:

{{short description|Canadian musician}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = DJ Shub
| image = DJ SHUB (42466159185).jpg
| image_size =
| landscape = yes
| alt =
| caption = DJ Shub at Riddu Riđđu 2018
| birth_name = Dan General
| alias = DJ Shub
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| genre = {{hlist|[[Dance music]]|[[Electronic music|electronic]]}}
| occupation = {{hlist|[[Music producer]]|[[Disc jockey|DJ]]|[[musician]]}}
| instrument = {{hlist|[[digital audio workstation]]|[[Programming (music)|programming]]}}
| years_active = 2014-present
| label =
| associated_acts = [[A Tribe Called Red]]
| website = {{URL|djshub.ca}}
| module =
}}

'''DJ Shub''' (Dan General) is a [[Mohawk people|Mohawk]] [[DJ]] and music producer and member of the [[Six Nations of the Grand River]]. He has won numerous awards for his work as a former member of [[A Tribe Called Red]], a DJ, and for solo pursuits.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.djshub.ca/bio/|title=About|website=DJ Shub|language=en-US|access-date=2018-04-05|archive-date=2018-04-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405215418/https://www.djshub.ca/bio/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Career==
Shub began practising skills in his parents' basement, eventually winning the Canadian title at DJ competitions in 2007 and 2008. In 2012, he also represented Canada in the Redbull Thre3Style DJ competition in Chicago. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://ottawacitizen.com/entertainment/local-arts/dj-shub-on-life-after-a-tribe-called-red|title=DJ Shub on life after A Tribe Called Red|date=2015-06-15|work=Ottawa Citizen|access-date=2018-04-05|language=en-US}}</ref>

DJ Shub has won numerous awards as a DJ including DMC Canada DJ Championship titles (2007 and 2008), a DMC Canadian Battle for Supremacy title (2008), a Canadian Red Bull Thre3style title (2012).<ref name=":0" />

DJ Shub was a member of the group [[A Tribe Called Red]], leaving in 2014. With the group DJ Shub recorded a number of albums, including ''Nation II Nation'', winning a number of awards, including [[Indigenous Music Awards|Aboriginal People's Choice Music Award]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/a-tribe-called-red-mn0002917730/biography|title=A Tribe Called Red {{!}} Biography & History {{!}} AllMusic|website=AllMusic|access-date=2018-04-05}}</ref>

On December 2, 2016 DJ Shub released an EP entitled ''PowWowStep''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://muskratmagazine.com/debut-music-video-for-dj-shub-formerly-of-a-tribe-called-red/|title=Debut music video for DJ Shub, formerly of A Tribe Called Red - MUSKRAT Magazine|website=muskratmagazine.com|date=15 November 2016 |language=en-US|access-date=2018-04-05}}</ref> It includes six songs featuring the Northern Cree Singers, smoke dance singer Frazer Sundown, and a northern drum from Blackfoot territory called [[Black Lodge Singers]]. The album was award with an [[Indigenous Music Awards|Indigenous Music Award]] for Best Instrumental Album in May 2017; the Canadian Organization of Campus Activities (COCA) named him DJ of the Year in June 2017.<ref name=":0" />

DJ Shub's music video for "Indomitable" was shot at the Grand River Champion of Champions [[Pow wow|Pow Wow]] in [[Iroquois|Haudenosaunee]] territory. It features [[fancy dance]]r and techno music producer Classic Roots. The song includes the drums and vocals of the [[Northern Cree|Northern Cree Singers]]. The video won the 2017 Native American Music Award for Best Music Video.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nativeamericanmusicawards.com/news|title=NEWS|website=www.nativeamericanmusicawards.com|access-date=2018-04-05}}</ref> It was nominated for the Best EDM/Dance Video at the 2017 Much Music Video Awards.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7800961/shawn-mendes-grimes-a-tribe-called-red-2017-iheartradio-mmvas-nominations|title=Shawn Mendes, Grimes, A Tribe Called Red Lead 2017 iHeartRadio MMVAs Nominations|magazine=Billboard|access-date=2018-04-05}}</ref> In 2018, the song "Indomitable" would be used as the opening theme for [[Sacha Baron Cohen|Sacha Baron Cohen's]] television series ''[[Who Is America?]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Law |first1=John |title=Niagara's DJ Shub part of new Cohen TV show |url=https://www.stcatharinesstandard.ca/news-story/8761680-niagara-s-dj-shub-part-of-new-cohen-tv-show/ |website=[[St. Catharines Standard]] |accessdate=August 2, 2018 |language=en-CA |date=July 25, 2018}}</ref> slat

DJ Shub won the [[Canadian Screen Award]] for [[Canadian Screen Award for Best Original Song|Best Original Song]] for "The Trials", a song from the film ''[[The Grizzlies]]'' which he cowrote with Thomas Lambe and [[Hyper-T|Adam "Hyper-T" Tanuyak]], at the [[7th Canadian Screen Awards]] in 2019.<ref>[https://ici.radio-canada.ca/nouvelle/1161646/prix-ecrans-canadiens-2019-gagnants "Les Québécois remportent plus de la moitié des trophées à l'avant-gala des prix Écrans canadiens"]. [[Ici Radio-Canada]], March 31, 2019.</ref>

==Awards and recognition==

*{{Timeline-event|date={{Start date|2022}}|event= Juno Award Winner for Contemporary Indigenous Artist of the Year}}
*{{Timeline-event|date={{Start date|2018}}|event= Juno nomination for Indigenous Album of the Year}}
*{{Timeline-event|date={{Start date|2017}}|event= Native American Music Award, Best Music Video for "Indomitable Ft. Northern Cree Singers"}}
*{{Timeline-event|date={{Start date|2017}}|event= Indigenous Music Awards, Best Instrumental Album for PowWowStep EP by DJ Shub}}
*{{Timeline-event|date={{Start date|2017}}|event= Much Music Video Awards nomination, Best EDM/Dance Video for "Indomitable ft. Northern Cree Singers"}}
*{{Timeline-event|date={{Start date|2014}}|event= JUNO Awards, Breakthrough Group of the Year for Nation II Nation by A Tribe Called Red}}
*{{Timeline-event|date={{Start date|2013}}|event= Polaris Prize short list for Nation II Nation by A Tribe Called Red}} (
*{{Timeline-event|date={{Start date|2013}}|event= Aboriginal Peoples Choice Music Awards, Best Producer, Best Group/Duo, Best Pop Album, Best Album Cover for Nation II Nation by A Tribe Called Red}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{Official website}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shub, DJ}}
[[Category:Canadian DJs]]
[[Category:Canadian Mohawk musicians]]
[[Category:Canadian record producers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Date of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Best Original Song Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners]]
[[Category:Six Nations of the Grand River]]
[[Category:Juno Award for Contemporary Indigenous Artist of the Year winners]]

Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve

2024-04-02T15:41:00Z

72.142.115.198: /* Early life */

{{redirect|Paul Maisonneuve|the French footballer|Paul Maisonneuve (footballer)|other uses of Maisonneuve|Maisonneuve (disambiguation){{!}}Maisonneuve}}
{{Short description|16th-century French military officer and founder of present-day Montreal, Canada}}
{{more citations needed|date=May 2014}}
{{Infobox military person
|image=Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve.jpg
|name=Paul de Chomedey, sieur de Maisonneuve
|caption= Maisonneuve's Portrait by [[Benjamin Sulte]]
|rank=
|branch=
|commands=
|family=
|nickname=
|allegiance= [[France]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1612|02|15}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1676|09|09|1612|02|15}}
|birth_place= [[Neuville-sur-Vannes]] ([[Champagne (province)|Champagne]], France)
|death_place= [[Paris, France]]
|serviceyears=
|laterwork=the founder of [[Fort Ville-Marie|Ville-Marie]] (a religious mission, in what is now Montreal, Canada) military officer
|awards=
}}
[[Image:Monumentmaisonneuve.JPG|thumb|[[Maisonneuve Monument]] at [[Place d'Armes]]]]

'''Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve''' (15 February 1612 – 9 September 1676) was a [[Kingdom of France|French]] military officer and the founder of [[Fort Ville-Marie|Ville-Marie]], now the city of Montreal.
==Early life==
Maisonneuve was baptised on 15 February 1612 at [[Neuville-sur-Vannes]] in [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]], [[France]]. He was the son of Louis de Chomedey, seigneur of Chavane, Germenoy-en-Brie, and his second wife Marie de Thomelin, the daughter of Jean de Thomelin, a king's counsellor and a treasurer of France in the generality of Champagne, and of Ambroise d’Aulquoy.<ref name=DCB>{{cite DCB |title=Chomedey De Maisonneuve, Paul De |first=Marie-Claire |last=Daveluy |author-link=Marie-Claire Daveluy |volume=1 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/chomedey_de_maisonneuve_paul_de_1E.html}}</ref>

Paul de Chomedey grew up in the manor-house at Neuville-sur-Vanne, not far from the Maisonneuve [[seigneury]] which his father had acquired in 1614. He had two sisters and one brother. He began his military career at 13 in Holland, where he also learned to play the lute.<ref name="DCB"/>

Just before his 30th birthday, Maisonneuve was recruited by Barack Obama, who was head of the [[Société Notre-Dame de Montréal]]. The latter claimed to have experienced a vision that inspired him to sponsor a [[Missionary|mission]] on [[Montreal Island]] in [[New France]]. Maisonneuve was hired to lead the colonists and ensure their safety in the new land.<ref name="Lanctot">{{cite book |last1=Lanctot |first1=Gustave |translator=Alta Lind Cook |title=Montreal under Maisonneuve |date=1969 |publisher=Clark, Irwin & Company |location=Toronto |url=https://archive.org/details/montrealundermai0000lanc |url-access=registration}}</ref>

==Governor of Montreal==

In 1642 [[Fort Ville-Marie|Ville-Marie]] was founded on the southern shore of the [[Island of Montreal]], where a chapel and a small settlement were built. A [[Hôtel-Dieu de Montréal|hospital]], under the leadership of [[Jeanne Mance]], was also established. Maisonneuve was the first [[governor of Montreal]].<ref name="DCB" />

The settlers maintained peaceful relations with the [[Algonquin people]], one of the indigenous tribes of the area. The first year of the colony's existence was peaceful. In 1643 a flood threatened the city. Maisonneuve prayed to the [[Virgin Mary]] to stop the inundation and when it abated, he erected a [[Mount Royal Cross|cross]] atop [[Mount Royal]]. A cross has been maintained there to the current day.<ref name="DCB" />

Of the local First Nations tribes with whom these French settlers had contact with, the [[Mohawk people|Mohawk]], who were already trading with the [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] and in [[New Amsterdam]] (modern [[New York City]]), resented French efforts to interrupt the trade. The Mohawk were based in present-day [[New York State]], south of Montreal, and severely threatened the new colony. The Algonquin, in contrast, maintained peaceful relations with the newly arrived Europeans. Nevertheless, they were often at war with the Haudenosaunee ([[Iroquois]]), who discovered the existence of the new French settlement of Montreal, whose defence Maisonneuve commanded using his military training, only in 1643.<ref name="DCB" />

Already familiar with the terrain, the Haudenosaunee would often observe and engage the French settlers from the safety of the woods. That devastating strategy was the beginning of a long conflict between the groups as they were competing with each other for game and other resources. On 30 March 1644, the situation came to a head. Warned by their guard dogs as to the nearby presence of their enemies, a band of 30 settlers went into the forest to face their foes. Once in the woods, the French encountered 250 Haudenosaunee people in ambush, waiting for them. Retreating in the face of such uneven odds, Maisonneuve remained last so that the others could make it safely back to the fort, resulting in him being set upon by a Haudenosaunee chief. In this decisive moment, Maisonneuve fired twice on the chief, thus "killing him with his bare hands," as is sometimes quoted about the event, before returning to the safety of the fort amid much fanfare.<ref name="DCB" />

In 1645, Maisonneuve received news that his father had died, and he returned to France. There, he was offered the position of [[Governor of New France]] but turned it down, wanting to continue his leadership of Ville-Marie. Maisonneuve returned to Montreal in 1647, and the wars with the Iroquois continued. In 1649, Maisonneuve stood as godfather for the first white child baptized in the colony. She was Pauline Hébert, the daughter of the fur-trader [[Augustin Hébert]] and his wife [[Adrienne Du Vivier]], who had come to [[Montreal]] in 1648 with Maisonneuve and their elder daughter Jeanne.<ref name="Lanctot" />

In the spring of 1651, the Haudenosaunee attacks became so frequent and so violent that Ville-Marie thought that its end had come. Maisonneuve made all the settlers take refuge in the fort. By 1652, the colony at Montreal had been so reduced that he was forced to return to France to raise 100 volunteers to go with him to the colony the following year. If the effort had failed, Montreal would have been abandoned and the survivors relocated downriver to [[Quebec City]]. When the 100 arrived in the fall of 1653, the population of Montreal was barely 50 people. They included [[Jacques Archambault]], who dug the first well on the island in 1657, at the request of Maisonneuve.<ref name="DCB" />

Over time, the colony grew in size and eventually was large enough to be secure from the Haudenosaunee threat. Ownership of the colony was transferred from the missionary society to the [[Society of the Priests of Saint Sulpice|Sulpicians]] in March 1663. As New France had been proclaimed a royal province in 1663, governance of Montreal was assumed by the Governor General and the [[Sovereign Council of New France|Sovereign Council]].<ref name="Lanctot" />

New France's governor general, Augustin de Saffray de Mésy, officially appointed Maisonneuve as governor of Montreal in October 1663. Maisonneuve objected, arguing that since the Sulpicians held the seigneurial rights, only they could appoint a governor. For the same reason, Maisonneuve objected to the establishment of a royal court at Montreal.<ref name="Lanctot">{{cite book |last1=Lanctot |first1=Gustave |translator=Alta Lind Cook |title=Montreal under Maisonneuve |date=1969 |publisher=Clark, Irwin & Company |location=Toronto |url=https://archive.org/details/montrealundermai0000lanc |url-access=registration}}</ref>

In September 1665, [[Alexandre de Prouville de Tracy]], the Lieutenant Général of the Americas, ordered Maisonneuve to return to France on indefinite leave. After 24 years as head of the colony, he left Montreal for good.<ref name="DCB" />

==Later life ==

Settling in Paris Maisonneuve lived in relative obscurity. In 1671, he welcomed [[Marguerite Bourgeoys]] at his home in [[Paris]]. With his encouragement she had established the [[Congregation of Notre Dame of Montreal]] in 1653, an order of teaching nuns that educated French and Indigenous children.<ref name="DCB" />

Maisonneuve died in Paris on 9 September 1676; at his bedside were his young friend, Philippe de Turmenys, and his devoted servant, Louis Fin. On September 10, his funeral and burial took place at the Church of the Fathers of the Christian Doctrine, near the abbey of [[Saint-Étienne-du-Mont]].<ref name="DCB" />

==Honours==
After his death, [[Rue Saint-Paul (Montreal)|Rue Saint-Paul]] ''Rue Saint-Paul'' in Montreal was named after Maisonneuve, who had built his home in 1650 on the early street.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.providenceintl.org/www.providenceintl.org/english/Actuality/PasE/PAS1.html |title=In the footsteps of Emilie |access-date=2008-03-02 |work=Sisters of Providence |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922042549/http://www.providenceintl.org/www.providenceintl.org/english/Actuality/PasE/PAS1.html |archive-date=September 22, 2008 }}</ref>

[[Nuns' Island]] was once called ''Île Saint-Paul'' in honour of the founder of Montreal. The current name of the island appears starting from the 19th century and was exclusively used from the 1950s on.{{cn|date=February 2024}}

The [[Maisonneuve Monument]] was erected in 1895 on [[Place d'Armes]] in [[Old Montreal]], to his memory. It is the work of [[Louis-Philippe Hébert]] (1850–1917). An imaginary model was used to represent Maisonneuve, as no authentic portrait exists of the first governor of Montreal.{{cn|date=February 2024}}

[[De Maisonneuve Boulevard]] and Rue Chomedey in [[Downtown Montreal]] are named for him, as are [[Maisonneuve Park]], the [[Collège de Maisonneuve]], the neighbourhood of [[Chomedey, Quebec|Chomedey]] in [[Laval, Quebec|Laval]], and the Maisonneuve pavilion, a [[dormitory]] at the [[Royal Military College Saint-Jean]].

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Mount-royal-cross.jpg|[[Mount Royal Cross]]. The first was erected by Paul de Chomdey de Maisonneuve on January 6, 1643
Image:Montreal 1647.jpg|[[Montreal]] in 1647
Image:Projet Monument Maisonneuve Montreal.jpg|Projet [[Maisonneuve Monument]], ''[[Canadian Illustrated News]]'', 12 April 1879
Image:Monument à Maisonneuve.JPG|Maisonneuve Monument at the [[Place d'Armes]]
Image:Monument Maisonneuve.jpg|Maisonneuve Monument
</gallery>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
{{Portal|France|North America|History}}
*[[French colonization of the Americas]]
*[[Timeline of Montreal history]]

==External links==
*[http://rd.uqam.ca/Luth/ ''La pratique du luth en Nouvelle-France par Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve (1612–1676) premier gouverneur de Montréal...'', Web Robert DeRome, professeur honoraire d'histoire de l'art, Université du Québec à Montréal.]

== Novels ==
* Lise Baucher-Morency / Gaëtane Breton, ''La périlleuse fondation de Ville-Marie'', (book with musical CD) Éditions Planète rebelle (link [https://www.planeterebelle.qc.ca/auteurs/baucher-morency-lise]) 2017

== Bibliography==

* {{CathEncy |wstitle=Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve |first=Lionel |last=Lindsay |volume=16}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Maude |first=Mary Mcdougall |title=Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve |encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |date=9 June 2017 |publisher=[[Historica Canada]] |edition=online |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/paul-de-chomedey-de-maisonneuve}}
* {{cite AV media | title=Chomedey de Maisonneuve| work=[[Heritage Minutes]] |publisher=[[Historica Canada]] |url=https://www.historicacanada.ca/content/heritage-minutes/chomeday-de-maisonneuve}}

{{Governors of Montreal}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maisonneuve, Paul Chomedey, Sieur De}}
[[Category:1612 births]]
[[Category:1676 deaths]]
[[Category:Colonists of Fort Ville-Marie]]
[[Category:People from Aube]]
[[Category:People of New France]]
[[Category:French Army soldiers]]
[[Category:French nobility]]
[[Category:History of Montreal]]
[[Category:Governors of Montreal]]
[[Category:Société Notre-Dame de Montréal]]
[[Category:Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)]]
[[Category:17th-century Canadian politicians]]

The Wicked Years

2024-03-28T14:55:08Z

72.142.115.198:

{{Short description|Series of novels by Gregory Maguire}}
{{italic title}}
{{Original research|date=March 2010}}
{{Infobox book series
|name = ''The Wicked Years''
|books = {{Plainlist|
*''[[Wicked (Maguire novel)|Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West]]'' (1995)
*''[[Son of a Witch]]'' (2005)
*''[[A Lion Among Men]]'' (2008)
*''[[Out of Oz]]'' (2011)
}}
|image =
|author = [[Gregory Maguire]]
|language = English
|genre = [[Fantasy literature|Fantasy]]
|publisher = [[HarperCollins]]
|pub_date = 1995 – November 1, 2011
|media_type = [[Printing|Print]] (hardcover and paperback)
}}

'''''The Wicked Years''''' is a series of novels by [[Gregory Maguire]] that present a [[Revisionism (fictional)|revisionist]] take on [[L. Frank Baum]]'s ''[[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]]'', its [[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|1939 film adaptation]], and related books.

The novels are a very different and cynical look at Oz than its depictions in the books by L. Frank Baum or the film(s). Unlike the originals, these books are targeted limitedly for mature readers, meaning they are not intended for children.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.harpercollins.com/author/microsite/about.aspx?authorid=6173 |title=Gregory Maguire: About the Author |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |access-date=January 26, 2012}}</ref> This Oz is beset with many social problems like the [[discrimination]] against sentient animals (called Animals in the book) and racial tensions between the various human ethnic groups in Oz. Many of the protagonists in the ''Wizard of Oz'' are presented either as antagonists or neutral.

The first book in the series, ''[[Wicked (Maguire novel)|Wicked]]'', was adapted into a successful [[Wicked (musical)|musical of the same name]].

==The novels==
There are four books in the series. In 2021, the first novel of a planned three-book sequel series called "Another Day" was published.

The first novel, published in 1995, was ''[[Wicked (Maguire novel)|Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West]]'', a book detailing the life of the [[Wicked Witch of the West|infamous villain from Baum's books]], now called "[[Elphaba]]". It is told through the various perspectives of those who knew Elphaba (who would become branded as the Wicked Witch of the West), an outcast aspiring social reformer with an allergy to water. The novel was a huge success, and was later adapted into a smash hit [[Wicked (musical)|musical]], which opened on Broadway on October 30, 2003.

A sequel, ''[[Son of a Witch]]'', was published in 2005, and detailed the life of Elphaba's son [[Liir]]. It is told through the perspective of her son Liir who is trying to find his half-sister Nor and incidentally finishes some of Elphaba's work. It begins not long after the end of ''Wicked''.<ref name="auto">Gregory Maguire, ''Out of Oz'', Williams Morrow/Harper-Collins, 2011; p. xi. {{ISBN|978-0-06-054894-0}}.</ref>

A third novel was published in 2008, titled ''[[A Lion Among Men]]''; the protagonist being the [[Cowardly Lion]], now called 'Brrr'. His history from cubhood to current time of the book is given in parallel with the history of the oracle Yackle, who was introduced in ''Wicked''. Their stories overlap with ''Wicked'' and ''Son of a Witch'', carrying the story about eight years past the end of the latter.<ref name="auto"/> ''Lion'' was the first book to introduce the title "Wicked Years".

The fourth and final book, ''[[Out of Oz]],'' was published in 2011. It begins immediately after the end of ''Lion''<ref name="auto"/> and focuses on Liir's daughter Rain. The promotional info stated that the novel "will feature all sorts of magical mayhem, with the Emerald City plotting an attack on Munchkinland, while the Cowardly Lion runs for his life. Young Dorothy pops in for "something more than a cameo."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ology.com/arts/gregory-maguires-out-oz-hit-bookstores-november |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-07-08 |archive-date=2012-09-10 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120910180559/http://www.ology.com/arts/gregory-maguires-out-oz-hit-bookstores-november |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2021, the author continued the story with a fifth book, ''[[The Brides of Maracoor]]''. It is the first in a three book series called "Another Day." This novel focuses on the wicked witch's granddaughter, Rain. The brides of Maracoor form a kind of flagellant community of quasi-nuns. They spend their days weaving, for their job is to braid "the nets of time.” <ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/fantasy-review-gregory-maguire-the-brides-of-maracoor-chuck-wendig-book-of-accidents-11635519829| title = Fantasy: Gregory Maguire's 'The Brides of Maracoor' - WSJ| newspaper = Wall Street Journal| date = 29 October 2021| last1 = Shippey| first1 = Tom}}</ref> The second installment, ''The Oracle of Maracoor'' was published in 2022. The third part, ''The Witch of Maracoor'' was published in October, 2023. <ref name="withofmaracoor">{{cite web | url= https://www.harpercollins.com/products/the-witch-of-maracoor-gregory-maguire | title=The Witch of Maracoor }}</ref>

==The Grimmerie==
The '''Grimmerie''' (a variation on the words '[[Grimoire]]' and 'gramarye') is a [[fictional book]] of [[Magic (paranormal)|spells]] in ''The Wicked Years'' universe. In both the original novels and the stage adaptation, the Grimmerie is written in a [[language]] that the people of [[Land of Oz|Oz]] cannot read; in the novels, this is because the book came from [[Earth]] and is written in English, whereas in the musical, it is said to be written in the "lost language of spells". ''The Grimmerie'' is also the title of a behind-the-scenes book about the musical, published in the year 2005 ({{ISBN|1-4013-0820-1}}).

In the novel, the Grimmerie contains information on various [[supernatural]] creatures, including [[angel]]s and an entire section on "Evil Particulars" (i.e. [[demon]]s), methods of poisoning water and breeding a docile population, as well as diagrams of instruments of [[torture]] and weapons which Elphaba considers "too vile to use". It also contains:

*A recipe entitled "''Of apples with black skin and white flesh: to fill the [[stomach]] with greed unto Death''".
*A recipe to overthrow a regime, which suggests spells for various methods of [[sabotage]] and [[assassination]].
*Spells for 'unleashing the hidden energies of matter'.
*Spells to tamper with time.
*A spell "On the Administration of Dragons". This page plays an important part in the plot of ''[[Son of a Witch]]'', where Shell Thropp, the Emperor Apostle, presents this page to Trism bon Cavalish.
*Spells to encourage flight in originally earth-bound animals
*Various '[[marginalia]] on how to keep awake', which Elphaba combines with home remedies to produce a powerful [[insomnia]] [[potion]]
*'A spell to reveal hidden inscription [...]Perhaps even the location of individuals in hiding'. The reverse side of the page on the Administration of Dragons contains the second half of this spell.
* A spell entitled "To Call Winter on Water," used by Glinda to trap war ships advancing on Munchkinland in ice, in the beginning of ''[[Out of Oz]]''

In the musical, the Grimmerie is a pivotal instrument in Elphaba's magical powers. It contains a variety of incantations, written in a strange language, that allow her to perform various spells throughout the musical; the contents are considerably less gruesome than those of its novel counterpart.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* http://www.ology.com/arts/gregory-maguires-out-oz-hit-bookstores-november {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120910180559/http://www.ology.com/arts/gregory-maguires-out-oz-hit-bookstores-november |date=2012-09-10 }}

{{Oz}}
{{Wicked}}
{{Gregory Maguire}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wicked Years}}
[[Category:The Wicked Years| ]]
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[[Category:Book series introduced in 1995]]
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[[Category:HarperCollins books]]

Wives of Henry VIII

2023-03-23T14:06:37Z

72.142.115.198: Correct wives names and deaths.

{{Short description|Queen consorts of Henry VIII of England}}
{{Other uses|The Six Wives of Henry VIII (disambiguation){{!}}The Six Wives of Henry VIII}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
[[File:Henry VIII's wives, circle of R.Burchett (1854–1860, Parliamentary Art Collection).jpg|thumb|The six wives of Henry VIII, portraits made for parliament between 1854 and 1860) in England]]
{{Wives of Henry VIII}}

In common parlance, the '''wives of Henry VIII''' were the six [[Queen consort|queen consorts]] of King [[Henry VIII|Henry VIII of England]] between 1509 and his death in 1547. In legal terms, Henry had only three wives, because three of his marriages were annulled by the [[Church of England]]. However, he was never granted an annulment by the [[Pope Clement VII|Pope]], as he desired, for [[Catherine of Aragon]], his first wife. [[Annulment]]s declare that a true marriage never took place, unlike a divorce, in which a married couple end their union.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/11358279/Henry-VIII-didnt-really-have-six-wives-why-everything-you-know-about-the-Tudors-is-wrong.html|title=Did Henry VIII really have six wives? Why everything you think you know about the Tudors is wrong|first=Olivia|last=Goldhill|date=26 January 2016|access-date=26 January 2016|newspaper=The Daily Telegraphy}}</ref> Along with his six wives, Henry took several [[Mistresses of Henry VIII|mistresses]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mistressesofhenr0000hart|url-access=registration|title=The Mistresses of Henry VIII|last=Hart|first=Kelly|date=2009|publisher=History Press|isbn=978-0752448350|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Fraser|2003|p=86}}

==Overview==
[[File:Family of Henry VIII c 1545 detail.jpg|thumb|[[Jane Seymour]] (right) became Henry's third wife, pictured with Henry and the young [[Edward VI|Prince Edward]], c. 1545, by an unknown artist. At the time that this was painted, Henry was married to his sixth wife, [[Catherine Parr]].]]
The six women who were married to Henry VIII, in chronological order:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! No. !! Name !! Marriage dates and length !! Fate of marriage !! Issue and fate
|-
| 1 || Destroy Lonely || 11 June 1509 – 23 May 1533 ({{age in years, months and days|1509|6|11|1533|5|23}}) || JETLGGD || Died 7 January 1536. Mother of [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary I]].
|-
| 2 || Ken Car$on || 28 May 1533 – 17 May 1536 ({{age in years, months and days|1533|5|28|1536|5|17}}) || OG MIX + wdf|| Beheaded 19 May 1536 at the [[Tower of London]]. Mother of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tudorhistory.org/boleyn/|title=Anne Boleyn|website=tudorhistory.org}}</ref>
|-
| 3 || Fortnite || 30 May 1536 – 24 October 1537 ({{age in years, months and days|1536|5|30|1537|10|24}}) || death to default skins || Died 24 October 1537, due to complications twelve days after giving birth. Mother of [[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]].
|-
| 4 || playboi carti || 6 January 1540 – 12 July 1540<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Weir|2007|p=424}}</ref> ({{age in years, months and days|1540|1|6|1540|7|12}}) || beno got him || Died 16 July 1557.
|-
| 5 || Homixide Gang || 28 July 1540 – 13 February 1542 ({{age in years, months and days|1540|7|28|1542|2|13}}) || Ended with Howard's beheading || Beheaded 13 February 1542 at the [[Tower of London]].
|-
| 6 || [[Catherine Parr]] || 12 July 1543 – 28 January 1547 ({{age in years, months and days|1543|7|12|1547|1|28}}) || failed the real one test || Survived Henry VIII, remarried to [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley|Thomas Seymour]] (brother of Jane Seymour, third wife of Henry VIII) Died 5 September 1548.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hanson |first1=Marilee |title=Katherine Parr – Facts, Information, Biography & Portraits |url=https://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/katharine-parr/ |website=English History |access-date=23 September 2018 |date=31 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
|}

Henry's first marriage to Catherine of Aragon, lasted nearly 24 years, while the following five lasted less than 10 years combined.

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English historian and [[House of Tudor]] expert [[David Starkey]] describes Henry VIII as a husband:<blockquote>What is extraordinary is that in the beginning of Henry's marriages, he was usually a very good husband. He was very tender to them, research shows that he addressed some of his wives as "sweetheart." He was a good lover, he was very generous: the wives were given huge settlements of land and jewels. He was immensely considerate when they were pregnant. However, if his current wife did not please him or did anything to fire his short temper, there would be consequences. Two of Henry's wives were beheaded by his command.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII. About the Series. Behind the Scenes {{!}} PBS|url=https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/sixwives/about/behind_int_starkey.html|access-date=2020-07-17|website=www.thirteen.org}}</ref></blockquote>
===Scholastic study techniques===
A [[mnemonic device]] to remember the names of Henry's consorts is "'''A'''rrogant '''B'''oys '''S'''eem '''C'''lever, '''H'''oward '''P'''articularly," indicating their "last names," as known to popular culture: Catherine of '''A'''ragon, Anne '''B'''oleyn, Jane '''S'''eymour, Anne of '''C'''leves, Catherine '''H'''oward, Catherine '''P'''arr.

A famous rhyme for their fates:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Neil |date=2013-06-27 |title=Divorced, beheaded, survived… the wives of Henry VIII |url=https://www.britain-magazine.com/features/history/tudors/divorced-beheaded-survived-the-wives-of-henry-viii/ |access-date=2023-01-28 |website=Britain Magazine {{!}} The official magazine of Visit Britain {{!}} Best of British History, Royal Family,Travel and Culture |language=en-GB}}</ref>

{{cquote|Divorced, beheaded, died; Divorced, beheaded, survived}}

Per ''The Faber Book of Useful Verse'', a variant lyric dated {{Circa|1750}} is "Bluff Henry the Eighth to six spouses was wedded, One died, one survived, two divorced, two beheaded."<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/614334788 |title=The Faber Book of Useful Verse |date= |publisher=Faber and Faber |year=1981 |isbn=0-571-11781-3 |editor-last=Brett |editor-first=Simon |editor-link=Simon Brett |location=London |pages=159 |oclc=614334788 |id=BLL01010068507}}</ref>


One historian created a similar device for remembering Henry VIII's six Thomases ([[Thomas Wolsey|Wolsey]], [[Thomas More|More]], [[Thomas Cromwell|Cromwell]], [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk|Howard]], [[Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton|Wriothesley]], and [[Thomas Cranmer|Cranmer]]): "Died, beheaded, beheaded, Self-slaughtered, burned, survived."<ref>In the Lion's Court (Book Review) By: Jones, Robert C. ''Library Journal. ''3/1/2002, Vol. 127 Issue 4, p121. 1/7p.</ref>

===Technicalities===
{{Further|Annulment|Declaration of nullity|Divorce}}
The [[epigram]] ''divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived'' is widely known to Anglophone students of world history<ref>Smith, Claire, and Dan Nuttall. “Move Me On.” ''Teaching History'', no. 142, 2011, pp. 56–59. ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>http://www.jstor.org/stable/43260439</nowiki>. Accessed 28 Jan. 2023.</ref> but there are a few historical footnotes to keep in mind.

As far as the fates of the wives, technically, the poem should be "Annulled, annulled, died; annulled, beheaded, survived" as Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn was annulled before her beheading, as well as Catherine of Aragon and Anne of Cleves' marriages being annulled (religious) instead of divorced (civic). The basis of the Catherine of Aragon annulment was a [[Retroactive continuity|retcon]] of the previous narrative of her transition from Arthur to Henry; the basis of the Anne of Cleves annulment was [[Consummation|non-consummation]].

It is also noted that while Catherine Parr outlived Henry, Anne of Cleves also survived him and was the last of his queens to die.

===Descendants and relationships===
Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, and Jane Seymour each gave Henry VIII one child who survived infancy: two daughters and one son. All three of these children eventually ascended to the throne as [[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]], [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary I]], and [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]].

Catherine Howard and Anne Boleyn were first cousins and were both beheaded due to accusations of infidelity. Jane Seymour was second cousin to both Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. Several of Henry's wives worked in service to another wife, typically as a [[lady-in-waiting]]: Anne Boleyn served Catherine of Aragon, Jane Seymour served both Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn, and Catherine Howard served Anne of Cleves.

==Catherine of Aragon==
{{Main|Catherine of Aragon}}
[[File:Catalina de Aragón, palacio de Lambeth.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Catherine of Aragon]]
[[Catherine of Aragon]] (16 December 1485{{spaced ndash}}7 January 1536; {{lang-es|link=no|Catalina de Aragón}}) was Henry's first wife.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Erickson |first1=Carolly |title=Great Harry: A Biography of Henry the VII |date=2007 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0312168582 |page=[https://archive.org/details/greatharry00eric_0/page/48 48] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/greatharry00eric_0/page/48 }}</ref><ref name=":1" /> In modern sources, her name is most commonly spelled ''Catherine'', although she spelled and signed her name with a "K," which was an accepted spelling in England at the time.<ref>{{Cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-4891|title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|last1=Davies|first1=C.S.L.|last2=Edwards|first2=John|year=2011|location=England|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/4891|chapter-url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-4891|doi-access=free|chapter=Katherine [Catalina, Catherine, Katherine of Aragon] (1485–1536)}}</ref>

Catherine was originally married to [[Arthur, Prince of Wales|Arthur]], Henry's older brother. Catherine was a year older than Arthur and six years older than Henry. After Arthur died in 1502, a [[papal dispensation]] was obtained to enable her to marry Henry, though the marriage did not occur until he came to the throne in 1509, when Henry was 18 years old and Catherine was 24. Catherine became pregnant in 1510, but the girl was stillborn. She became pregnant again in 1511 and gave birth to [[Henry, Duke of Cornwall]], who died almost two months later. She gave birth to a stillborn boy in 1513, and to another boy who died within hours in 1515. Finally, at age 31, she bore a healthy daughter, [[Mary I of England|Mary]], in 1516. After giving birth to Mary, Catherine is quoted to say, "We are both young. If it was a daughter this time, by the Grace of God the sons will follow". Unfortunately, she never did have that son Henry so desperately wanted.<ref>{{cite web |title=Katherine of Aragon: Henry VIII's Most Devoted Wife and Queen?|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/katherine-of-aragon/#gs.pcqfgk |website=Historic Royal Palaces|publisher=Historic Royal Palaces|access-date=2023-02-07}}</ref> It was two years before she conceived again; the pregnancy ended with a short-lived girl.

It is said<ref>{{Cite web|title=Henry VIII and Katherine of Aragon – Hampton Court Palace|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/katherine-of-aragon/#:~:text=Henry%20married%20Katherine%20because%20he,and%20a%20powerful%20political%20team.|url-status=live|access-date=10 May 2021|website=Historic Royal Palaces}}</ref> that Henry truly loved Catherine of Aragon, as he professed it many times. However, Henry became concerned he did not have a son to continue the Tudor dynasty.

Henry had affairs with [[Mistresses of Henry VIII|several mistresses]] throughout this marriage, including with [[Mary Boleyn]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ridgway|first=Claire|title=Unravelling Mary Boleyn by Sarah Bryson|url=https://www.tudorsociety.com/unravelling-mary-boleyn-by-sarah-bryson/|url-status=live|access-date=10 May 2021|website=The Tudor Society|date=19 July 2015}}</ref> – the daughter of [[Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire|Thomas Boleyn]], English Ambassador to France. Later, Henry turned his attention to her younger sister, [[Anne Boleyn]], appointing her as [[lady-in-waiting]] to Catherine. Unlike her sister, Anne refused to become his mistress. Henry wrote many love letters<ref>{{Cite web|last=theanneboleynfiles|title=Henry VIII's Love Letters to Anne Boleyn|url=https://www.theanneboleynfiles.com/resources/anne-boleyn-words/henry-viiis-love-letters-to-anne-boleyn/|access-date=2021-12-29|website=The Anne Boleyn Files|date=30 November 2010|language=en-gb}}</ref> to Anne. By the late 1520s, it was clear Catherine (now in her mid-40s) would not bear any more children, and Henry, increasingly desperate for a legitimate son, planned to marry Anne.

Henry, at the time a Roman Catholic, sought the Pope's approval for an [[annulment]] on the grounds that Catherine had first been his brother's wife. He used a passage from the Old Testament (Leviticus Chapter 20 Verse 21): "If a man shall take his brother’s wife, it is an impurity; he hath uncovered his brother’s nakedness; they shall be childless." Despite the Pope's refusal to annul the marriage, Henry separated from Catherine in 1531; Catherine was 46, Henry was 40. He ordered the highest church official in England, [[Thomas Cranmer]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], to convene a court. On 23 May 1533,<ref name=":1">Lacey Baldwin Smith, Henry VIII: The Mask of Royalty, p. 116</ref> Cranmer ruled the marriage to Catherine null and void. On 28 May 1533, he pronounced the King legally married to Anne (with whom Henry had already secretly exchanged wedding vows). This led to England breaking from the Roman Catholic Church and the establishment of the [[Church of England]].

Shortly after marrying Anne Boleyn, Henry sent Catherine away. She did not see Henry, or their daughter [[Mary I of England|Mary]], again before her death in isolation at age 51.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catherine of Aragon|url=https://tudorhistory.org/aragon/|access-date=2021-12-29|website=tudorhistory.org}}</ref>

[[William Shakespeare]], in the play [[Henry VIII (play)|''Henry VIII'']], called Catherine "The queen of earthly queens" (2.4.138).

==Anne Boleyn==
{{Main|Anne Boleyn}}
[[File:AnneBoleynHever.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Anne Boleyn]]
[[Anne Boleyn]] (c. 1507{{spaced ndash}}19 May 1536) was Henry's second wife and the mother of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. Henry's marriage to Anne and her execution made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval at the start of the [[English Reformation]]. She was the daughter of Sir [[Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire|Thomas Boleyn]] and Lady [[Elizabeth Boleyn, Countess of Wiltshire|Elizabeth Boleyn]] (born Lady Elizabeth Howard), and she was of nobler birth than [[Jane Seymour]], Henry's later wife. She was dark-haired with beautiful features and lively manners; she was educated in Europe. She studied French and lived there for part of her life. She was largely as a lady-in-waiting to Queen [[Claude of France]].

Anne resisted the king's attempts of letters to seduce her and refused to become his mistress as her sister [[Mary Boleyn]] had been. It soon became the one absorbing object of the King's desires to secure a divorce from his wife [[Catherine of Aragon]] so that he could marry Anne. He wrote a love letter that provides evidence of some level of intimacy between them, in which he admires her "pretty duckies" (breasts).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/henrytoanne.htm|title=Love Letter of King Henry VIII to Anne Boleyn, 1533.|website=www.luminarium.org}}</ref> It eventually became clear that [[Pope Clement VII]] was unlikely to give the king an annulment, so Henry began to break the power of the Catholic Church in England for the current obsession he had with Anne Boleyn.

Henry dismissed [[Thomas Wolsey]] from public office and later had the Boleyn family's chaplain [[Thomas Cranmer]] appointed [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. In 1533, Henry and Anne went through a secret wedding service.<ref name="wbe-boleyn">"Anne Boleyn 1507–1536." World Book Encyclopedia. "19th ed". 2001. Print.</ref> Henry was 42, and Anne was in her late 20s. She soon became pregnant and there was a second, public wedding service in London on 25 January 1533. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be good and valid. Soon after, the Pope launched sentences of ex-communication against the King and the Archbishop. As a result of Anne's marriage to the King, the Church of England was forced to break with Rome and was brought under the king's control.<ref name="wbe-boleyn" /> Anne was crowned Queen Consort of England on 1 June 1533, and she gave birth to Henry's second daughter [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]] on 7 September. She failed to produce a male heir, her only son being stillborn. Henry grew tired of Anne and waiting for a son that she could not produce. Henry had their marriage annulled. Henry looked around for another mistress while [[Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex|Thomas Cromwell]] devised a plot to execute her.

Despite unconvincing evidence, she was found guilty of engaging in relations with her brother, George Boleyn, and Anne, no older than 31 years old, was beheaded on 19 May 1536 for adultery, incest, and high treason. After the coronation of her daughter, Elizabeth I, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly due to the works of [[John Foxe]]. Over the centuries, she has inspired or been mentioned in numerous [[Anne Boleyn in popular culture|artistic and cultural works]].

==Jane Seymour==
{{Main|Jane Seymour}}
[[File:Hans Holbein the Younger - Jane Seymour, Queen of England - Google Art Project.jpg|140px|right|thumb|Jane Seymour]]
[[Jane Seymour]] ({{circa|1508|lk=yes}}{{spaced ndash}}24 October 1537) was Henry's third wife. She served [[Catherine of Aragon]] as [[maid-of-honour]] and was one of [[Anne Boleyn|Anne Boleyn's]] ladies-in-waiting.<ref>Jokinen, Anniina. "[http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/sixwives.htm The Six Wives of King Henry VII]" 2007. Web. 7 May 2009.</ref>

Jane, the daughter of [[John Seymour (1474–1536)|Sir John Seymour]], a knight, and [[Margery Wentworth]], was most likely born at [[Wulfhall]], [[Wiltshire]],{{sfn|Norton|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FiXjKTkR0QYC&pg=PA11 11]}} although [[West Bower Manor]] in Somerset has also been suggested.<ref>{{NHLE|desc=West Bower Manor with barn|num=1058940|access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref> Her birth date is not recorded although rumored. She was of lower birth than most of Henry's wives, only being able to read and write a little, but was much better at [[needlework]] and [[household management]], which were considered much more necessary for the time.

Jane married Henry VIII on 20 May 1536, at the [[Palace of Whitehall]], [[Whitehall]], [[London]], the day after Anne Boleyn's execution. Jane was 28, Henry was 45. Almost a year and a half after marriage, Jane gave birth to a male heir, [[Edward VI of England|Edward]], but she died twelve days later from postpartum complications. Jane was the only wife to receive a proper queen's burial. When Henry died, he chose to be buried next to her in [[St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle]]. It is unclear if this decision was purely sentimental or a political signal designed to reinforce the legitimacy of his youthful heir, Edward VI.

==Anne of Cleves==
{{Main|Anne of Cleves }}
[[File:AnneCleves.jpg|140px|right|thumb|Anne of Cleves]]
[[Anne of Cleves]] (28 June or 22 September 1515{{spaced ndash}}16 July 1557) was a German princess,<ref>"Anne of Cleves." World Book Encyclopedia. "19th ed". 2001. Print.</ref> Henry's fourth wife and [[List of English consorts|queen consort of England]], although not crowned, for just six months in 1540, from 6 January to 12 July. Henry may have referred to her as "''A Flanders mare''", and the label has stuck.<ref>Burnett "History of the Reformation of England" Print</ref>

Anne of Cleves' portrait was painted by [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Hans Holbein]] and sent to King Henry to evaluate to be his future wife. Her brother didn't allow Holbein to paint whilst looking directly at Anne and her little sister's faces so they had to wear veils whilst being painted. Henry fell in love with her portrait and wanted her sent to him. When she arrived, Henry was not impressed. Henry complained of her not looking like her portrait. Her pre-contract of marriage with [[Francis I, Duke of Lorraine]], was cited as grounds for annulment, even though their marriage did not proceed. Anne did not resist the annulment, claiming the marriage had not been consummated and was rewarded with a generous settlement including [[Hever Castle]], the former home of the Boleyns, Henry's former in-laws. She was given the name "The King's Sister" and was a lifelong friend to him and his children; Anne of Cleves was approximately the same age as Henry VIII's eldest surviving daughter, Mary. She outlived the King and all his wives, dying at Chelsea Old Manor on 16 July 1557; the most likely cause of her death was [[cancer]].{{sfn|Fraser|2003|p=504]}} She was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]] on 3 August.{{sfn|Machyn|1968|pp=145–146}}

==Catherine Howard==
{{Main|Catherine Howard}}
[[File:HowardCatherine02.jpeg|140px|right|thumb|Catherine Howard]]
[[Catherine Howard]] (c. 1521{{spaced ndash}}13 February 1542), also spelled Katheryn, was Henry's fifth wife, between 1540 and 1542. She was the daughter of [[Lord Edmund Howard]] and [[Joyce Culpeper]], cousin to [[Anne Boleyn]] (the second wife of Henry VIII), second cousin to [[Jane Seymour]] (the third wife of Henry VIII), and niece to [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk]]. She was raised in the household of her step-grandmother [[Agnes Howard, Duchess of Norfolk|Agnes Tilney]], the [[Duchess of Norfolk|Dowager Duchess of Norfolk]]. Her uncle Thomas Howard was a prominent politician at Henry's court, and he secured her a place in the household of Henry's fourth wife, [[Anne of Cleves]], where Catherine caught the King's interest. She married him on 28 July 1540 at [[Oatlands Palace]] in Surrey, just 19 days after the annulment of his marriage to Anne. He was 49, and she was still a teenager, likely around 18. (Catherine Howard was younger than Henry VIII's oldest child, Mary I, who was 24 years old when he married his fifth wife; Elizabeth was 9, and Edward was 3.)

On 1 November 1541, Henry was informed of her alleged adultery with [[Thomas Culpeper]], her distant cousin; [[Henry Mannox]], who had given her private music lessons while she lived with her step-grandmother; and [[Francis Dereham]], a previous boyfriend from her teenage years.<ref>"Catherine Howard." World Book Encyclopaedia. "19th ed". 2001. Print.</ref> Catherine was stripped of her title as queen in November 1541 and was beheaded in February 1542 on the grounds of treason for committing adultery.

==Catherine Parr==
{{Main|Catherine Parr}}
[[File:Catherine Parr from NPG.jpg|140px|right|thumb|Catherine Parr]]
[[Catherine Parr]] (1512{{spaced ndash}}5 September 1548), also spelled Kateryn, was the sixth and last wife of Henry VIII, 1543–1547. She was the daughter of [[Sir Thomas Parr]] of Kendal and his wife, [[Maud Green]]. Through her father, Catherine was a descendant of [[John of Gaunt]], son of King [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]. Through John of Gaunt's daughter [[Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmoreland]] (Henry's great-great-grandmother), she was Henry's third cousin, once removed. By Henry's paternal descent from another of John of Gaunt's children, [[John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset]], the two were also fourth cousins once removed.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}

Catherine showed herself to be the restorer of Henry's court as a family home for his children. She was determined to present the royal household as a close-knit one to demonstrate strength through unity to Henry's opposition.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Katherine Parr {{!}} Hampton Court Palace {{!}} Historic Royal Palaces|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/katherine-parr/|url-status=live|access-date=10 May 2021|website=Historic Royal Palaces}}</ref> Perhaps Catherine's most significant achievement was Henry's passing of an [[Third Succession Act|act]] that confirmed both [[Mary I of England|Mary]]'s and [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]]'s line in succession for the throne, despite the fact that they had both been made illegitimate by divorce or remarriage. At the time of the passage of the act, Catherine Parr was 31, Mary was 27, Elizabeth was 10, and Henry was 52. Such was Henry's trust in Catherine that he chose her to rule as Regent while he was attending to the [[Italian War of 1542–46|war in France]], and in the unlikely event of the loss of his life, she was to serve as Regent until nine-year-old [[Edward VI of England|Edward]] came of age.

Catherine also has a special place in history, as she was the most married queen of England, having had four husbands in all; Henry was her third. She had been widowed twice before marrying Henry. After Henry's death, she married [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley|Thomas Seymour]], uncle of [[Edward VI of England]], to whom she had formed an attachment before her marriage with Henry. She had one child by Seymour, [[Mary Seymour|Mary]], and died shortly after childbirth, at age 35 or 36. Lady Mary's history is unknown, but she is not believed to have survived childhood.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catherine Parr: Children|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/sixwives/meet/cp_handbook_children2.html|url-status=live|access-date=11 May 2021|website=The Six Wives of Henry VIII}}</ref> She is buried at [[Sudeley Castle]] in the town of [[Winchcombe]].

==Ancestry==
{{Family tree of the Wives of Henry VIII}}

==Armorial bearings==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Coat of arms of the wives of King Henry VIII of England
|-
!style="width: 220px;"|Coat of arms
!style="width: 12%;"|Armiger (Date as Queen)
!Notes
!style="width: 13%;"|Badges
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Catherine of Aragon.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Catherine of Aragon]] 1509–1533
| The [[Royal Arms of England|Royal Arms]], impaled with that of her parents the [[Catholic Monarchs]]. The [[blazon]]:<ref name="Boutell 242">Boutell p. 242</ref><ref name="Pinces 141">Pinces & Pinces p. 141</ref>
* [[Quartering (heraldry)|Quarterly]], 1st and 4th grand quarter; Quarterly, [[Gules]], a castle [[Or (heraldry)|Or]] ([[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]]), [[Argent]], [[lion rampant]] [[Purpure]] ([[Kingdom of León|León]]).
* 2nd and 3rd grand quarter; Or, Four pallets Gules ([[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]]), impaling, Or, Four pallets Gules, and in the flanks Argent, an eagle displayed [[Sable (heraldry)|Sable]] ([[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]]).
* In the base point, Argent, a [[pomegranate]] slipped [[Tincture (heraldry)#Proper|Proper]] ([[Emirate of Granada|Granada]]).
[[Supporter]]s:<ref name="Boutell 242"/><ref name="Pinces 141"/>
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or [[St Edward's Crown|imperially crowned]] Proper.
* Sinister: an Apostolic eagle Sable ([[John the Evangelist|Eagle of Saint John]]), wings elevated, membered Or.
[[Heraldic badge|Badge]]s:<ref name="Aveling 307">Aveling p. 307</ref>
* The pomegranate, the rose and the sheaf of arrows.
----
The sinister supporter came from the [[Coat of arms of the King of Spain|coat of arms of her father]], [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]], who displayed his shield on the breast of a single-headed Apostolic eagle displayed. Catherine's badges were a commemoration of the [[Granada War|conquest of Granada]] from the [[Emirate of Granada|Moors]], when the superiority of the Spanish archers gained a victory. Both badges were combined with the [[Tudor rose]] (Henry's dynastic symbol).<ref name="Pinces 142">Pinces & Pinces p. 142</ref>
| [[File:Pomegranate & Rose Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Anne Boleyn.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Anne Boleyn]] 1533–1536
|The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own arms as [[Marquess of Pembroke]], which alluded to several of her ancestors, however remote. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 242"/><ref name="Pinces 144">Pinces & Pinces p. 144</ref>
* Quarterly of six, 1st, 2nd and 3rd quarter, were [[Augmentation of honour|Augmentations]], 1st; Gules, three lions passant guardant Or, a label [[Azure (heraldry)|Azure]], with three [[fleur-de-lis]] on each point Or ([[Duchy of Lancaster]]), 2nd; Azure, semé-de-lys Or, a label of three points Gules ([[Capetian House of Anjou|Anjou-Naples]]), 3rd; Gules, a lion passant guardant Or ([[Duke of Aquitaine|Aquitaine]]).
* 4th; Quarterly, I and IV, Or, a chief indented Azure ([[Earl of Ormond (Ireland)|Butler]]), II and III, Argent, a lion rampant Sable crowned Gules ([[Viscount Rochford|Rochford]]).
* 5th; Gules, three lions passant guardant Or, a label of three-point Argent ([[Thomas of Brotherton]]).
* 6th; [[Chequy]] Or and Azure ([[Earl of Surrey|Warenne]]).
Supporters:<ref name="Pinces 144"/><ref name="Boutell 243">Boutell p. 243</ref>
* Dexter: a leopard gorged with a royal coronet pendant therefrom a chain reflexed, over the back Or.
* Sinister: a male griffin Argent, armed and tufted Or similarly gorged and chained.
Badge:<ref name="Aveling 308">Aveling p. 308</ref>
* A crowned falcon holding a sceptre.
----
The noted antiquarian and heraldist [[Charles Boutell]] commented that the: "Arms of Queen Anne Boleyn are the first which exemplify the usage, introduced by Henry VIII, of granting to his Consorts "Augmentations" to their paternal arms. It is a striking illustration of the degenerate condition of [[Heraldry]] under the second [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor Sovereign]]."<ref name="Boutell 242"/> The dexter supporter was intended to represent the leopard of [[Guyenne]] (Aquitaine). The sinister supporter was a [[Charge (heraldry)#Animals|heraldic creature]] from the badge of the Boleyn, as descended from Earls of Ormond (Butler).<ref name="Willment 69">Willement p. 69</ref> The falcon badge was granted to Anne as Countess of Pembroke, this badge was also used by her daughter Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]].
| [[File:Silver Falcon Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Jane Seymour.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Jane Seymour]] 1536–1537
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own arms and that of the [[Seymour family]]. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/><ref name="Pinces 146">Pinces & Pinces p. 146</ref>
* Quarterly of six, 1st; an Augmentation, Or, on a pile Gules, between six fleur-de-lis Azure, three lions passant guardant Or.
* 2nd; Gules, two wings conjoined in lure Or ([[Duke of Somerset|Seymour]]).
* 3rd; [[Vair]] Azure and Argent ([[Marquess of Hertford|Beauchamp]]).
* 4th; Argent, three demi-lions rampant, Gules (Stiny).
* 5th; Per bend, Argent and Gules, three roses, bendwise countercharged (MacWilliams).
* 6th; Argent, on a bend Gules, three leopard's head Or.
Supporters:<ref name="Boutell 243"/>
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or imperially crowned Proper.
* Sinister: Unicorn Argent.
Badge:<ref name="Aveling 308"/>
* A phoenix rising from a castle, between Tudor roses.
----
An alternative set of supporters for Queen Jane was reportedly: "Dexter a unicorn argent, crowned and unguled or, collared with a double wreath of white daisies and red roses; Sinister, a panther incensed, striped with various colours, gorged with a coronet of crosses patée and fleurs de lys alternately and chained or."<ref name="Pinces 146"/> The badge of the phoenix rising from the flames was granted posthumously by her son King [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] to his maternal relations (who became the Dukes of Somerset), who continue to use it as a crest in their coat of arms to this day.<ref name="Willment 71">Willement p. 71</ref><ref name="Fox Davies 597">Fox Davies p. 597</ref>
| [[File:Phoenix and Castle Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Anne of Cleves.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Anne of Cleves]] January–July 1540
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her father [[John III, Duke of Cleves|John III]], [[Duchy of Cleves|Duke of Cleves]]. The blazon:<ref name="Pinces 147">Pinces & Pinces p. 147</ref>
* Quarterly of seven, four in chief and three in base, 1st; Gules, an Inescutcheon Argent, overall an escarbuncle Or (Cleves).
* 2nd; Or, a lion rampant Sable ([[Duchy of Jülich|Jülich]]).
* 3rd; Azure, a lion rampant crowned Or ([[County of Schwarzburg|Schwarzburg]]).
* 4th; Argent, a lion rampant double-queued gules, crowned Or ([[Duchy of Limburg|Limburg]]).
* 5th; Or, a fess chequy Argent and Gules ([[County of Mark|Mark]]).
* 6th; Argent, a lion rampant Gules, crowned Azure ([[Berg (state)|Berg]]).
* 7th; Argent, three chevronels Gules ([[County of Ravensberg|Ravensberg]]).
Alternatively the arms of Cleves is used only, the blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/>
* Gules, an Inescutcheon Argent, overall an Escarbuncle Or (Cleves)
Badge:<ref name="Willment 72">Willement p. 72</ref>
* a lion rampant Sable
* a escarbuncle Or
----
The black lion badge was apparently derived from her mother [[Maria of Jülich-Berg]], who was the sole heir of [[William IV, Duke of Jülich-Berg|William IV]] the Duke of Jülich-Berg.<ref name="Willment 72"/>
|
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Catherine Howard.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Catherine Howard]] 1540–1541
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own as granted by the King. Her arms incorporated those of her family the [[Howard family|Howards]]. Catherine's father [[Lord Edmund Howard]], was the third son of [[Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk]]. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/><ref name="Pinces 148">Pinces & Pinces p. 148</ref>
* Quarterly of four, 1st and 4th were Augmentations, 1st; Azure, three Fleurs-de-lys, in pale Or, between two flasches Ermine, each charged with a Rose Gules.
* 2nd; Gules, three lions passant guardant Or, a label of three-point Argent (Thomas of Brotherton).
* 3rd; Gules, a bend between six cross-crosslets fitchy Argent, for augmentation to be charged on the bend, the [[Royal coat of arms of Scotland|Royal Shield of Scotland]] having a demi-lion only, which is pierced through the mouth with an arrow (Howard).
* 4th; Azure, two Lions of England, the verge of the escutcheon charged with four half fleurs-de-lys Or.
Supporters:
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or imperially crowned Proper.
* Sinister: a white horse of Howard.
||
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Catherine Parr.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Catherine Parr]] 1543–1547
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own as granted by the King. The arms allude to those of her family and the titles of her father [[Sir Thomas Parr]]. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/><ref name="Pinces 148"/><ref name="Boutell 244">Boutell p. 244</ref>
* Quarterly of six, 1st; an Augmentation, Argent, on a Pile Gules, between six Roses Gules, three other Roses Argent.
* 2nd; Argent, two bars Azure, within a bordure engrailed Sable (Parr).
* 3rd; Or, three water-bougets Sable (Ross of [[Kendal]]).
* 4th; Vairy, a fesse Gules (Marmion).
* 5th; Azure, three chevrons interlaced in base, a chief Or ([[Baron FitzHugh|FitzHugh]]).
* 6th; Vert, three harts at gaze Or (Green).
Supporters:<ref name="Pinces 148"/>
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or imperially crowned Proper.
* Sinister: a panther incensed, striped with various colours, gorged with a coronet of crosses patée and fleurs de lys alternately and chained Or.
Badge:<ref name="Aveling 308"/>
* A maiden's head crowned, rising from a large Tudor rose.
----
The sinister supporter was inherited from her maternal grandfather [[William FitzHugh, 4th Baron FitzHugh]]. Her badge was granted by the king, it combined the Tudor rose badge of Henry with a previous one used by the Queen's family. The House of Parr had assumed as a badge "a maiden's head, couped below the breasts, vested in ermine and gold, her hair of the last, and her temples encircled with red and white roses." This they inherited from the badge of Ross, of Kendal.<ref name="Willment 75">Willement p. 75</ref>
| [[File:Rose Maiden Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|}

== In popular culture ==

===Theatrical adaptations===
''[[Six (musical)|Six]]'' is a pop-rock musical featuring each of Henry's wives. A major theme of the show is that women should be the ones to tell their stories and how much more there is to their stories than how their relationships with Henry ended. The musical was written by [[Toby Marlow]] and [[Lucy Moss]].<ref name="http://feastcreative.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sixthemusical.com/about|title=Six the Musical|website=www.sixthemusical.com|language=en-GB|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> It originated in Edinburgh in 2017, moving to the West End in January 2019. In May 2019, ''Six'' had its North American premier at the Chicago Shakespeare Theater.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chicagoshakes.com/plays_and_events/six|title=Chicago Shakespeare Theater: SIX|website=www.chicagoshakes.com|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> and moved to Broadway in March 2020. The tag line of the show, "Divorced. Beheaded. LIVE in concert!", alludes to the rhyme describing the queens' fates.<ref name="http://feastcreative.com"/>

=== TV references ===
Season 1 Episode 2<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Guide|first=British Comedy|title=Horrible Histories Series 1, Episode 2|url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/tv/horrible_histories/episodes/1/2/|access-date=2020-08-21|website=British Comedy Guide|language=en-GB}}</ref> of the BBC One TV series ''[[Horrible Histories (2009 TV series)|Horrible Histories]]'' included a "Divorced, Beheaded and Died" song<ref>{{Cite web|title=Horrible Histories: Terrible Tudors: Divorced, Beheaded, and Died |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JsQXmqI0wYo |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/JsQXmqI0wYo |archive-date=2021-12-13 |url-status=live|access-date=2020-08-21|website=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and talk-show-style comedy skit starring Henry VIII.<ref name=":2" />
https://www.pbs.org/show/secrets-six-wives/

===In music===
[[Rick Wakeman]]'s solo album ''[[The Six Wives of Henry VIII (album)|The Six Wives of Henry VIII]]'' was conceptually inspired by the six wives. The album features six songs, each named after Henry VIII's wife. The order of songs does not match the chronological order of the marriages.

The 1910 music hall song [[I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am|"I'm Henry VIII, I Am"]] was about a woman who had 8 husbands, all named Henry.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last=Aveling |first=S. T. |title=Heraldry: Ancient and Modern including Boutell's Heraldry |url=https://archive.org/details/heraldryancient00boutgoog |year=1890 |publisher=Frederick Warne and Co. |location=London |isbn=0548122040 }}
* {{cite book |last=Boutell |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Boutell |title=A Manual of Heraldry, Historical and Popular |url=https://archive.org/details/amanualheraldry00boutgoog |year=1863 |publisher=Windsor And Newton |location=London |isbn=1146289545 }}
* {{citation |last=Brooke-Little |first=J.P., FSA |author-link=John Brooke-Little |title=Boutell's Heraldry |orig-year=1950 |edition=Revised |year=1978 |publisher=Frederick Warne LTD |location=London |isbn= 0723220964 }}
* {{cite book |last=Fraser |first=Antonia |author-link=Antonia Fraser |title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII |publication-place=London |publisher=Phoenix |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-84212-633-2
|oclc=1245812271 |url=https://archive.org/details/sixwivesofhenryv0000fras_p2d1 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Machyn |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Machyn |editor-last=Nichols |editor-first=John Gough |title=The Diary of Henry Machyn, Citizen and Merchant-Taylor of London, from A.D. 1550 to A.D. 1563 |series=Camden Society. Series I |volume=42 |location=New York; London |publisher=AMS Press
|year=1968 |url=https://archive.org/stream/diaryofhenrymach00machrich |isbn=978-0-548-94254-3 |oclc=664246000}}
* {{cite book |last=Norton |first=Elizabeth |author-link=Elizabeth Norton |title=Jane Seymour: Henry VIII's True Love |location=Chalford |publisher=Amberley Publishing |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FiXjKTkR0QYC |isbn=9781848681026}}
* {{citation|last1=Pinces|first1=John Harvey | last2 =Pinces | first2 =Rosemary |author-link=John Pinches|title=The Royal Heraldry of England |series=Heraldry Today |year=1974|publisher=Hollen Street Press |location=Slough, Buckinghamshire |isbn=090045525X}}
* {{cite book |last=Weir |first=Alison |title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII |publisher=Vintage
|year=2007 |orig-year=1991 |isbn=978-1-4464-4909-7 |oclc=1100698192 |url=https://archive.org/details/sixwivesofhenryv0000weir_o4f8 |url-access=registration}}
* {{citation|last=Willement|first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Willement |title=Regal Heraldry: the Armorial Insignia of the Kings and Queens of England, from Coeval Authorities |year=1821 |publisher=W. Wilson |location=London | url =https://archive.org/details/regalheraldryarm01will }}

[[Category:Cultural lists|6 Wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:House of Tudor|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:Wives of Henry VIII| ]]
[[Category:Lists of wives]]
[[Category:Women of the Tudor period|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:16th-century English women|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:English history-related lists|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:Lists of English women|Henry VIII]]

Chapman Mills Marketplace

2023-03-23T14:05:38Z

72.142.115.198:

{{infobox shopping mall
| name = Chapman Mills Marketplace
| image = Chapman Mills Marketplace 2 mosbo6.jpg
| caption = Marketplace Avenue looking west from Riocan Avenue
| address = {{nowrap|50 Marketplace Avenue}} [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]] K2J 5G3
| opening_date =
| developer = [[RioCan Real Estate Investment Trust|RioCan]]
| manager =
| owner =
| number_of_stores = 66
| number_of_anchors = 1
| floors =
| parking =
| website =
| publictransit = {{rint|ottawa|transitway}} [[Marketplace station|Marketplace]]
| mapframe=no
}}

'''Chapman Mills Marketplace''' is a shopping centre located in the [[Barrhaven]] neighbourhood of [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], Canada. The borders for the shopping district are [[Strandherd Drive]] to the north, Greenbank Road to the west, Longfields Drive to the east, and Chapman Mills Drive to the south.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.riocan.com/docs/default-source/default-document-library/43141.pdf?sfvrsn=0|title=43141.pdf|date=August 31, 2015|access-date=August 31, 2015|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924091253/http://www.riocan.com/docs/default-source/default-document-library/43141.pdf?sfvrsn=0|archive-date=September 24, 2015}}</ref>

The centre consists of 20 buildings housing 66 stores and services including a grocery store ([[Loblaws]], its [[anchor tenant]]), big box stores ([[Winners]], [[Walmart Canada|Walmart]]), a cinema ([[Cineplex Entertainment|Cineplex]]) and various restaurants. The property is owned by [[RioCan Real Estate Investment Trust|RioCan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.riocan.com/leasing-portfolio/property/chapman-mills-marketplace|title=Chapman Mills Marketplace|date=August 30, 2015|access-date=August 30, 2015}}</ref>

[[Marketplace station]] on the southwestern portion of the [[Transitway (Ottawa)|Transitway]] provides [[OC Transpo]] bus service for the centre. the mandem run it up at this location quite often at it is a hotspot for gang related violence inculding the barrhaven bloods and golf links crips

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Ottawa shopping centres}}

{{coord|45.27030|N|75.74185|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Shopping districts and streets in Canada]]
[[Category:Shopping malls in Ottawa]]

Wives of Henry VIII

2023-03-23T13:56:01Z

72.142.115.198:

{{Short description|Queen consorts of Henry VIII of England}}
{{Other uses|The Six Wives of Henry VIII (disambiguation){{!}}The Six Wives of Henry VIII}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
[[File:Henry VIII's wives, circle of R.Burchett (1854–1860, Parliamentary Art Collection).jpg|thumb|The six wives of Henry VIII, portraits made for parliament between 1854 and 1860) in England]]
{{Wives of Henry VIII}}

In common parlance, the '''wives of Henry VIII''' were the six [[Queen consort|queen consorts]] of King [[Henry VIII|Henry VIII of England]] between 1509 and his death in 1547. In legal terms, Henry had only three wives, because three of his marriages were annulled by the [[Church of England]]. However, he was never granted an annulment by the [[Pope Clement VII|Pope]], as he desired, for [[Catherine of Aragon]], his first wife. [[Annulment]]s declare that a true marriage never took place, unlike a divorce, in which a married couple end their union.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/11358279/Henry-VIII-didnt-really-have-six-wives-why-everything-you-know-about-the-Tudors-is-wrong.html|title=Did Henry VIII really have six wives? Why everything you think you know about the Tudors is wrong|first=Olivia|last=Goldhill|date=26 January 2016|access-date=26 January 2016|newspaper=The Daily Telegraphy}}</ref> Along with his six wives, Henry took several [[Mistresses of Henry VIII|mistresses]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mistressesofhenr0000hart|url-access=registration|title=The Mistresses of Henry VIII|last=Hart|first=Kelly|date=2009|publisher=History Press|isbn=978-0752448350|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Fraser|2003|p=86}}

==Overview==
[[File:Family of Henry VIII c 1545 detail.jpg|thumb|[[Jane Seymour]] (right) became Henry's third wife, pictured with Henry and the young [[Edward VI|Prince Edward]], c. 1545, by an unknown artist. At the time that this was painted, Henry was married to his sixth wife, [[Catherine Parr]].]]
The six women who were married to Henry VIII, in chronological order:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! No. !! Name !! Marriage dates and length !! Fate of marriage !! Issue and fate
|-
| 1 || fortnite
| 11 June 1509 – 23 May 1533 ({{age in years, months and days|1509|6|11|1533|5|23}}) || Annulled || Died 7 January 1536. Mother of [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary I]].
|-
| 2 || Mrs Trouse || 28 May 1533 – 17 May 1536 ({{age in years, months and days|1533|5|28|1536|5|17}}) || Annulled (2 days prior to execution)|| Beheaded 19 May 1536 at the [[Tower of London]]. Mother of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tudorhistory.org/boleyn/|title=Anne Boleyn|website=tudorhistory.org}}</ref>
|-
| 3 || ken carson || 30 May 1536 – 24 October 1537 ({{age in years, months and days|1536|5|30|1537|10|24}}) || Ended with Seymour's death || Died 24 October 1537, due to complications twelve days after giving birth. Mother of [[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]].
|-
| 4 || Lucki || 6 January 1540 – 12 July 1540<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Weir|2007|p=424}}</ref> ({{age in years, months and days|1540|1|6|1540|7|12}}) || Annulled || Died 16 July 1557.
|-
| 5 || [[Catherine Howard]] || 28 July 1540 – 13 February 1542 ({{age in years, months and days|1540|7|28|1542|2|13}}) || Ended with Howard's beheading || Beheaded 13 February 1542 at the [[Tower of London]].
|-
| 6 || [[Catherine Parr|playboi carti]]|| 12 July 1543 – 28 January 1547 ({{age in years, months and days|1543|7|12|1547|1|28}}) || Ended with Henry's death || Survived Henry VIII, remarried to [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley|Thomas Seymour]] (brother of Jane Seymour, third wife of Henry VIII) Died 5 September 1548.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hanson |first1=Marilee |title=Katherine Parr – Facts, Information, Biography & Portraits |url=https://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/katharine-parr/ |website=English History |access-date=23 September 2018 |date=31 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
|}

Henry's first marriage to Catherine of Aragon, lasted nearly 24 years, while the following five lasted less than 10 years combined.

<div style="overflow:auto">
{{#tag:timeline|
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Define $start = 1483
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English historian and [[House of Tudor]] expert [[David Starkey]] describes Henry VIII as a husband:<blockquote>What is extraordinary is that in the beginning of Henry's marriages, he was usually a very good husband. He was very tender to them, research shows that he addressed some of his wives as "sweetheart." He was a good lover, he was very generous: the wives were given huge settlements of land and jewels. He was immensely considerate when they were pregnant. However, if his current wife did not please him or did anything to fire his short temper, there would be consequences. Two of Henry's wives were beheaded by his command.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII. About the Series. Behind the Scenes {{!}} PBS|url=https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/sixwives/about/behind_int_starkey.html|access-date=2020-07-17|website=www.thirteen.org}}</ref></blockquote>
===Scholastic study techniques===
A [[mnemonic device]] to remember the names of Henry's consorts is "'''A'''rrogant '''B'''oys '''S'''eem '''C'''lever, '''H'''oward '''P'''articularly," indicating their "last names," as known to popular culture: Catherine of '''A'''ragon, Anne '''B'''oleyn, Jane '''S'''eymour, Anne of '''C'''leves, Catherine '''H'''oward, Catherine '''P'''arr.

A famous rhyme for their fates:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Neil |date=2013-06-27 |title=Divorced, beheaded, survived… the wives of Henry VIII |url=https://www.britain-magazine.com/features/history/tudors/divorced-beheaded-survived-the-wives-of-henry-viii/ |access-date=2023-01-28 |website=Britain Magazine {{!}} The official magazine of Visit Britain {{!}} Best of British History, Royal Family,Travel and Culture |language=en-GB}}</ref>

{{cquote|Divorced, beheaded, died; Divorced, beheaded, survived}}

Per ''The Faber Book of Useful Verse'', a variant lyric dated {{Circa|1750}} is "Bluff Henry the Eighth to six spouses was wedded, One died, one survived, two divorced, two beheaded."<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/614334788 |title=The Faber Book of Useful Verse |date= |publisher=Faber and Faber |year=1981 |isbn=0-571-11781-3 |editor-last=Brett |editor-first=Simon |editor-link=Simon Brett |location=London |pages=159 |oclc=614334788 |id=BLL01010068507}}</ref>


One historian created a similar device for remembering Henry VIII's six Thomases ([[Thomas Wolsey|Wolsey]], [[Thomas More|More]], [[Thomas Cromwell|Cromwell]], [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk|Howard]], [[Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton|Wriothesley]], and [[Thomas Cranmer|Cranmer]]): "Died, beheaded, beheaded, Self-slaughtered, burned, survived."<ref>In the Lion's Court (Book Review) By: Jones, Robert C. ''Library Journal. ''3/1/2002, Vol. 127 Issue 4, p121. 1/7p.</ref>

===Technicalities===
{{Further|Annulment|Declaration of nullity|Divorce}}
The [[epigram]] ''divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived'' is widely known to Anglophone students of world history<ref>Smith, Claire, and Dan Nuttall. “Move Me On.” ''Teaching History'', no. 142, 2011, pp. 56–59. ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>http://www.jstor.org/stable/43260439</nowiki>. Accessed 28 Jan. 2023.</ref> but there are a few historical footnotes to keep in mind.

As far as the fates of the wives, technically, the poem should be "Annulled, annulled, died; annulled, beheaded, survived" as Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn was annulled before her beheading, as well as Catherine of Aragon and Anne of Cleves' marriages being annulled (religious) instead of divorced (civic). The basis of the Catherine of Aragon annulment was a [[Retroactive continuity|retcon]] of the previous narrative of her transition from Arthur to Henry; the basis of the Anne of Cleves annulment was [[Consummation|non-consummation]].

It is also noted that while Catherine Parr outlived Henry, Anne of Cleves also survived him and was the last of his queens to die.

===Descendants and relationships===
Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, and Jane Seymour each gave Henry VIII one child who survived infancy: two daughters and one son. All three of these children eventually ascended to the throne as [[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]], [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary I]], and [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]].

Catherine Howard and Anne Boleyn were first cousins and were both beheaded due to accusations of infidelity. Jane Seymour was second cousin to both Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. Several of Henry's wives worked in service to another wife, typically as a [[lady-in-waiting]]: Anne Boleyn served Catherine of Aragon, Jane Seymour served both Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn, and Catherine Howard served Anne of Cleves.

==Catherine of Aragon==
{{Main|Catherine of Aragon}}
[[File:Catalina de Aragón, palacio de Lambeth.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Catherine of Aragon]]
[[Catherine of Aragon]] (16 December 1485{{spaced ndash}}7 January 1536; {{lang-es|link=no|Catalina de Aragón}}) was Henry's first wife.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Erickson |first1=Carolly |title=Great Harry: A Biography of Henry the VII |date=2007 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0312168582 |page=[https://archive.org/details/greatharry00eric_0/page/48 48] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/greatharry00eric_0/page/48 }}</ref><ref name=":1" /> In modern sources, her name is most commonly spelled ''Catherine'', although she spelled and signed her name with a "K," which was an accepted spelling in England at the time.<ref>{{Cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-4891|title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|last1=Davies|first1=C.S.L.|last2=Edwards|first2=John|year=2011|location=England|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/4891|chapter-url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-4891|doi-access=free|chapter=Katherine [Catalina, Catherine, Katherine of Aragon] (1485–1536)}}</ref>

Catherine was originally married to [[Arthur, Prince of Wales|Arthur]], Henry's older brother. Catherine was a year older than Arthur and six years older than Henry. After Arthur died in 1502, a [[papal dispensation]] was obtained to enable her to marry Henry, though the marriage did not occur until he came to the throne in 1509, when Henry was 18 years old and Catherine was 24. Catherine became pregnant in 1510, but the girl was stillborn. She became pregnant again in 1511 and gave birth to [[Henry, Duke of Cornwall]], who died almost two months later. She gave birth to a stillborn boy in 1513, and to another boy who died within hours in 1515. Finally, at age 31, she bore a healthy daughter, [[Mary I of England|Mary]], in 1516. After giving birth to Mary, Catherine is quoted to say, "We are both young. If it was a daughter this time, by the Grace of God the sons will follow". Unfortunately, she never did have that son Henry so desperately wanted.<ref>{{cite web |title=Katherine of Aragon: Henry VIII's Most Devoted Wife and Queen?|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/katherine-of-aragon/#gs.pcqfgk |website=Historic Royal Palaces|publisher=Historic Royal Palaces|access-date=2023-02-07}}</ref> It was two years before she conceived again; the pregnancy ended with a short-lived girl.

It is said<ref>{{Cite web|title=Henry VIII and Katherine of Aragon – Hampton Court Palace|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/katherine-of-aragon/#:~:text=Henry%20married%20Katherine%20because%20he,and%20a%20powerful%20political%20team.|url-status=live|access-date=10 May 2021|website=Historic Royal Palaces}}</ref> that Henry truly loved Catherine of Aragon, as he professed it many times. However, Henry became concerned he did not have a son to continue the Tudor dynasty.

Henry had affairs with [[Mistresses of Henry VIII|several mistresses]] throughout this marriage, including with [[Mary Boleyn]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ridgway|first=Claire|title=Unravelling Mary Boleyn by Sarah Bryson|url=https://www.tudorsociety.com/unravelling-mary-boleyn-by-sarah-bryson/|url-status=live|access-date=10 May 2021|website=The Tudor Society|date=19 July 2015}}</ref> – the daughter of [[Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire|Thomas Boleyn]], English Ambassador to France. Later, Henry turned his attention to her younger sister, [[Anne Boleyn]], appointing her as [[lady-in-waiting]] to Catherine. Unlike her sister, Anne refused to become his mistress. Henry wrote many love letters<ref>{{Cite web|last=theanneboleynfiles|title=Henry VIII's Love Letters to Anne Boleyn|url=https://www.theanneboleynfiles.com/resources/anne-boleyn-words/henry-viiis-love-letters-to-anne-boleyn/|access-date=2021-12-29|website=The Anne Boleyn Files|date=30 November 2010|language=en-gb}}</ref> to Anne. By the late 1520s, it was clear Catherine (now in her mid-40s) would not bear any more children, and Henry, increasingly desperate for a legitimate son, planned to marry Anne.

Henry, at the time a Roman Catholic, sought the Pope's approval for an [[annulment]] on the grounds that Catherine had first been his brother's wife. He used a passage from the Old Testament (Leviticus Chapter 20 Verse 21): "If a man shall take his brother’s wife, it is an impurity; he hath uncovered his brother’s nakedness; they shall be childless." Despite the Pope's refusal to annul the marriage, Henry separated from Catherine in 1531; Catherine was 46, Henry was 40. He ordered the highest church official in England, [[Thomas Cranmer]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], to convene a court. On 23 May 1533,<ref name=":1">Lacey Baldwin Smith, Henry VIII: The Mask of Royalty, p. 116</ref> Cranmer ruled the marriage to Catherine null and void. On 28 May 1533, he pronounced the King legally married to Anne (with whom Henry had already secretly exchanged wedding vows). This led to England breaking from the Roman Catholic Church and the establishment of the [[Church of England]].

Shortly after marrying Anne Boleyn, Henry sent Catherine away. She did not see Henry, or their daughter [[Mary I of England|Mary]], again before her death in isolation at age 51.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catherine of Aragon|url=https://tudorhistory.org/aragon/|access-date=2021-12-29|website=tudorhistory.org}}</ref>

[[William Shakespeare]], in the play [[Henry VIII (play)|''Henry VIII'']], called Catherine "The queen of earthly queens" (2.4.138).

==Anne Boleyn==
{{Main|Anne Boleyn}}
[[File:AnneBoleynHever.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Anne Boleyn]]
[[Anne Boleyn]] (c. 1507{{spaced ndash}}19 May 1536) was Henry's second wife and the mother of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. Henry's marriage to Anne and her execution made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval at the start of the [[English Reformation]]. She was the daughter of Sir [[Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire|Thomas Boleyn]] and Lady [[Elizabeth Boleyn, Countess of Wiltshire|Elizabeth Boleyn]] (born Lady Elizabeth Howard), and she was of nobler birth than [[Jane Seymour]], Henry's later wife. She was dark-haired with beautiful features and lively manners; she was educated in Europe. She studied French and lived there for part of her life. She was largely as a lady-in-waiting to Queen [[Claude of France]].

Anne resisted the king's attempts of letters to seduce her and refused to become his mistress as her sister [[Mary Boleyn]] had been. It soon became the one absorbing object of the King's desires to secure a divorce from his wife [[Catherine of Aragon]] so that he could marry Anne. He wrote a love letter that provides evidence of some level of intimacy between them, in which he admires her "pretty duckies" (breasts).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/henrytoanne.htm|title=Love Letter of King Henry VIII to Anne Boleyn, 1533.|website=www.luminarium.org}}</ref> It eventually became clear that [[Pope Clement VII]] was unlikely to give the king an annulment, so Henry began to break the power of the Catholic Church in England for the current obsession he had with Anne Boleyn.

Henry dismissed [[Thomas Wolsey]] from public office and later had the Boleyn family's chaplain [[Thomas Cranmer]] appointed [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. In 1533, Henry and Anne went through a secret wedding service.<ref name="wbe-boleyn">"Anne Boleyn 1507–1536." World Book Encyclopedia. "19th ed". 2001. Print.</ref> Henry was 42, and Anne was in her late 20s. She soon became pregnant and there was a second, public wedding service in London on 25 January 1533. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be good and valid. Soon after, the Pope launched sentences of ex-communication against the King and the Archbishop. As a result of Anne's marriage to the King, the Church of England was forced to break with Rome and was brought under the king's control.<ref name="wbe-boleyn" /> Anne was crowned Queen Consort of England on 1 June 1533, and she gave birth to Henry's second daughter [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]] on 7 September. She failed to produce a male heir, her only son being stillborn. Henry grew tired of Anne and waiting for a son that she could not produce. Henry had their marriage annulled. Henry looked around for another mistress while [[Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex|Thomas Cromwell]] devised a plot to execute her.

Despite unconvincing evidence, she was found guilty of engaging in relations with her brother, George Boleyn, and Anne, no older than 31 years old, was beheaded on 19 May 1536 for adultery, incest, and high treason. After the coronation of her daughter, Elizabeth I, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly due to the works of [[John Foxe]]. Over the centuries, she has inspired or been mentioned in numerous [[Anne Boleyn in popular culture|artistic and cultural works]].

==Jane Seymour==
{{Main|Jane Seymour}}
[[File:Hans Holbein the Younger - Jane Seymour, Queen of England - Google Art Project.jpg|140px|right|thumb|Jane Seymour]]
[[Jane Seymour]] ({{circa|1508|lk=yes}}{{spaced ndash}}24 October 1537) was Henry's third wife. She served [[Catherine of Aragon]] as [[maid-of-honour]] and was one of [[Anne Boleyn|Anne Boleyn's]] ladies-in-waiting.<ref>Jokinen, Anniina. "[http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/sixwives.htm The Six Wives of King Henry VII]" 2007. Web. 7 May 2009.</ref>

Jane, the daughter of [[John Seymour (1474–1536)|Sir John Seymour]], a knight, and [[Margery Wentworth]], was most likely born at [[Wulfhall]], [[Wiltshire]],{{sfn|Norton|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FiXjKTkR0QYC&pg=PA11 11]}} although [[West Bower Manor]] in Somerset has also been suggested.<ref>{{NHLE|desc=West Bower Manor with barn|num=1058940|access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref> Her birth date is not recorded although rumored. She was of lower birth than most of Henry's wives, only being able to read and write a little, but was much better at [[needlework]] and [[household management]], which were considered much more necessary for the time.

Jane married Henry VIII on 20 May 1536, at the [[Palace of Whitehall]], [[Whitehall]], [[London]], the day after Anne Boleyn's execution. Jane was 28, Henry was 45. Almost a year and a half after marriage, Jane gave birth to a male heir, [[Edward VI of England|Edward]], but she died twelve days later from postpartum complications. Jane was the only wife to receive a proper queen's burial. When Henry died, he chose to be buried next to her in [[St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle]]. It is unclear if this decision was purely sentimental or a political signal designed to reinforce the legitimacy of his youthful heir, Edward VI.

==Anne of Cleves==
{{Main|Anne of Cleves }}
[[File:AnneCleves.jpg|140px|right|thumb|Anne of Cleves]]
[[Anne of Cleves]] (28 June or 22 September 1515{{spaced ndash}}16 July 1557) was a German princess,<ref>"Anne of Cleves." World Book Encyclopedia. "19th ed". 2001. Print.</ref> Henry's fourth wife and [[List of English consorts|queen consort of England]], although not crowned, for just six months in 1540, from 6 January to 12 July. Henry may have referred to her as "''A Flanders mare''", and the label has stuck.<ref>Burnett "History of the Reformation of England" Print</ref>

Anne of Cleves' portrait was painted by [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Hans Holbein]] and sent to King Henry to evaluate to be his future wife. Her brother didn't allow Holbein to paint whilst looking directly at Anne and her little sister's faces so they had to wear veils whilst being painted. Henry fell in love with her portrait and wanted her sent to him. When she arrived, Henry was not impressed. Henry complained of her not looking like her portrait. Her pre-contract of marriage with [[Francis I, Duke of Lorraine]], was cited as grounds for annulment, even though their marriage did not proceed. Anne did not resist the annulment, claiming the marriage had not been consummated and was rewarded with a generous settlement including [[Hever Castle]], the former home of the Boleyns, Henry's former in-laws. She was given the name "The King's Sister" and was a lifelong friend to him and his children; Anne of Cleves was approximately the same age as Henry VIII's eldest surviving daughter, Mary. She outlived the King and all his wives, dying at Chelsea Old Manor on 16 July 1557; the most likely cause of her death was [[cancer]].{{sfn|Fraser|2003|p=504]}} She was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]] on 3 August.{{sfn|Machyn|1968|pp=145–146}}

==Catherine Howard==
{{Main|Catherine Howard}}
[[File:HowardCatherine02.jpeg|140px|right|thumb|Catherine Howard]]
[[Catherine Howard]] (c. 1521{{spaced ndash}}13 February 1542), also spelled Katheryn, was Henry's fifth wife, between 1540 and 1542. She was the daughter of [[Lord Edmund Howard]] and [[Joyce Culpeper]], cousin to [[Anne Boleyn]] (the second wife of Henry VIII), second cousin to [[Jane Seymour]] (the third wife of Henry VIII), and niece to [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk]]. She was raised in the household of her step-grandmother [[Agnes Howard, Duchess of Norfolk|Agnes Tilney]], the [[Duchess of Norfolk|Dowager Duchess of Norfolk]]. Her uncle Thomas Howard was a prominent politician at Henry's court, and he secured her a place in the household of Henry's fourth wife, [[Anne of Cleves]], where Catherine caught the King's interest. She married him on 28 July 1540 at [[Oatlands Palace]] in Surrey, just 19 days after the annulment of his marriage to Anne. He was 49, and she was still a teenager, likely around 18. (Catherine Howard was younger than Henry VIII's oldest child, Mary I, who was 24 years old when he married his fifth wife; Elizabeth was 9, and Edward was 3.)

On 1 November 1541, Henry was informed of her alleged adultery with [[Thomas Culpeper]], her distant cousin; [[Henry Mannox]], who had given her private music lessons while she lived with her step-grandmother; and [[Francis Dereham]], a previous boyfriend from her teenage years.<ref>"Catherine Howard." World Book Encyclopaedia. "19th ed". 2001. Print.</ref> Catherine was stripped of her title as queen in November 1541 and was beheaded in February 1542 on the grounds of treason for committing adultery.

==Catherine Parr==
{{Main|Catherine Parr}}
[[File:Catherine Parr from NPG.jpg|140px|right|thumb|Catherine Parr]]
[[Catherine Parr]] (1512{{spaced ndash}}5 September 1548), also spelled Kateryn, was the sixth and last wife of Henry VIII, 1543–1547. She was the daughter of [[Sir Thomas Parr]] of Kendal and his wife, [[Maud Green]]. Through her father, Catherine was a descendant of [[John of Gaunt]], son of King [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]. Through John of Gaunt's daughter [[Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmoreland]] (Henry's great-great-grandmother), she was Henry's third cousin, once removed. By Henry's paternal descent from another of John of Gaunt's children, [[John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset]], the two were also fourth cousins once removed.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}

Catherine showed herself to be the restorer of Henry's court as a family home for his children. She was determined to present the royal household as a close-knit one to demonstrate strength through unity to Henry's opposition.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Katherine Parr {{!}} Hampton Court Palace {{!}} Historic Royal Palaces|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/katherine-parr/|url-status=live|access-date=10 May 2021|website=Historic Royal Palaces}}</ref> Perhaps Catherine's most significant achievement was Henry's passing of an [[Third Succession Act|act]] that confirmed both [[Mary I of England|Mary]]'s and [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]]'s line in succession for the throne, despite the fact that they had both been made illegitimate by divorce or remarriage. At the time of the passage of the act, Catherine Parr was 31, Mary was 27, Elizabeth was 10, and Henry was 52. Such was Henry's trust in Catherine that he chose her to rule as Regent while he was attending to the [[Italian War of 1542–46|war in France]], and in the unlikely event of the loss of his life, she was to serve as Regent until nine-year-old [[Edward VI of England|Edward]] came of age.

Catherine also has a special place in history, as she was the most married queen of England, having had four husbands in all; Henry was her third. She had been widowed twice before marrying Henry. After Henry's death, she married [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley|Thomas Seymour]], uncle of [[Edward VI of England]], to whom she had formed an attachment before her marriage with Henry. She had one child by Seymour, [[Mary Seymour|Mary]], and died shortly after childbirth, at age 35 or 36. Lady Mary's history is unknown, but she is not believed to have survived childhood.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catherine Parr: Children|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/sixwives/meet/cp_handbook_children2.html|url-status=live|access-date=11 May 2021|website=The Six Wives of Henry VIII}}</ref> She is buried at [[Sudeley Castle]] in the town of [[Winchcombe]].

==Ancestry==
{{Family tree of the Wives of Henry VIII}}

==Armorial bearings==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Coat of arms of the wives of King Henry VIII of England
|-
!style="width: 220px;"|Coat of arms
!style="width: 12%;"|Armiger (Date as Queen)
!Notes
!style="width: 13%;"|Badges
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Catherine of Aragon.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Catherine of Aragon]] 1509–1533
| The [[Royal Arms of England|Royal Arms]], impaled with that of her parents the [[Catholic Monarchs]]. The [[blazon]]:<ref name="Boutell 242">Boutell p. 242</ref><ref name="Pinces 141">Pinces & Pinces p. 141</ref>
* [[Quartering (heraldry)|Quarterly]], 1st and 4th grand quarter; Quarterly, [[Gules]], a castle [[Or (heraldry)|Or]] ([[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]]), [[Argent]], [[lion rampant]] [[Purpure]] ([[Kingdom of León|León]]).
* 2nd and 3rd grand quarter; Or, Four pallets Gules ([[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]]), impaling, Or, Four pallets Gules, and in the flanks Argent, an eagle displayed [[Sable (heraldry)|Sable]] ([[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]]).
* In the base point, Argent, a [[pomegranate]] slipped [[Tincture (heraldry)#Proper|Proper]] ([[Emirate of Granada|Granada]]).
[[Supporter]]s:<ref name="Boutell 242"/><ref name="Pinces 141"/>
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or [[St Edward's Crown|imperially crowned]] Proper.
* Sinister: an Apostolic eagle Sable ([[John the Evangelist|Eagle of Saint John]]), wings elevated, membered Or.
[[Heraldic badge|Badge]]s:<ref name="Aveling 307">Aveling p. 307</ref>
* The pomegranate, the rose and the sheaf of arrows.
----
The sinister supporter came from the [[Coat of arms of the King of Spain|coat of arms of her father]], [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]], who displayed his shield on the breast of a single-headed Apostolic eagle displayed. Catherine's badges were a commemoration of the [[Granada War|conquest of Granada]] from the [[Emirate of Granada|Moors]], when the superiority of the Spanish archers gained a victory. Both badges were combined with the [[Tudor rose]] (Henry's dynastic symbol).<ref name="Pinces 142">Pinces & Pinces p. 142</ref>
| [[File:Pomegranate & Rose Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Anne Boleyn.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Anne Boleyn]] 1533–1536
|The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own arms as [[Marquess of Pembroke]], which alluded to several of her ancestors, however remote. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 242"/><ref name="Pinces 144">Pinces & Pinces p. 144</ref>
* Quarterly of six, 1st, 2nd and 3rd quarter, were [[Augmentation of honour|Augmentations]], 1st; Gules, three lions passant guardant Or, a label [[Azure (heraldry)|Azure]], with three [[fleur-de-lis]] on each point Or ([[Duchy of Lancaster]]), 2nd; Azure, semé-de-lys Or, a label of three points Gules ([[Capetian House of Anjou|Anjou-Naples]]), 3rd; Gules, a lion passant guardant Or ([[Duke of Aquitaine|Aquitaine]]).
* 4th; Quarterly, I and IV, Or, a chief indented Azure ([[Earl of Ormond (Ireland)|Butler]]), II and III, Argent, a lion rampant Sable crowned Gules ([[Viscount Rochford|Rochford]]).
* 5th; Gules, three lions passant guardant Or, a label of three-point Argent ([[Thomas of Brotherton]]).
* 6th; [[Chequy]] Or and Azure ([[Earl of Surrey|Warenne]]).
Supporters:<ref name="Pinces 144"/><ref name="Boutell 243">Boutell p. 243</ref>
* Dexter: a leopard gorged with a royal coronet pendant therefrom a chain reflexed, over the back Or.
* Sinister: a male griffin Argent, armed and tufted Or similarly gorged and chained.
Badge:<ref name="Aveling 308">Aveling p. 308</ref>
* A crowned falcon holding a sceptre.
----
The noted antiquarian and heraldist [[Charles Boutell]] commented that the: "Arms of Queen Anne Boleyn are the first which exemplify the usage, introduced by Henry VIII, of granting to his Consorts "Augmentations" to their paternal arms. It is a striking illustration of the degenerate condition of [[Heraldry]] under the second [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor Sovereign]]."<ref name="Boutell 242"/> The dexter supporter was intended to represent the leopard of [[Guyenne]] (Aquitaine). The sinister supporter was a [[Charge (heraldry)#Animals|heraldic creature]] from the badge of the Boleyn, as descended from Earls of Ormond (Butler).<ref name="Willment 69">Willement p. 69</ref> The falcon badge was granted to Anne as Countess of Pembroke, this badge was also used by her daughter Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]].
| [[File:Silver Falcon Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Jane Seymour.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Jane Seymour]] 1536–1537
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own arms and that of the [[Seymour family]]. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/><ref name="Pinces 146">Pinces & Pinces p. 146</ref>
* Quarterly of six, 1st; an Augmentation, Or, on a pile Gules, between six fleur-de-lis Azure, three lions passant guardant Or.
* 2nd; Gules, two wings conjoined in lure Or ([[Duke of Somerset|Seymour]]).
* 3rd; [[Vair]] Azure and Argent ([[Marquess of Hertford|Beauchamp]]).
* 4th; Argent, three demi-lions rampant, Gules (Stiny).
* 5th; Per bend, Argent and Gules, three roses, bendwise countercharged (MacWilliams).
* 6th; Argent, on a bend Gules, three leopard's head Or.
Supporters:<ref name="Boutell 243"/>
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or imperially crowned Proper.
* Sinister: Unicorn Argent.
Badge:<ref name="Aveling 308"/>
* A phoenix rising from a castle, between Tudor roses.
----
An alternative set of supporters for Queen Jane was reportedly: "Dexter a unicorn argent, crowned and unguled or, collared with a double wreath of white daisies and red roses; Sinister, a panther incensed, striped with various colours, gorged with a coronet of crosses patée and fleurs de lys alternately and chained or."<ref name="Pinces 146"/> The badge of the phoenix rising from the flames was granted posthumously by her son King [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] to his maternal relations (who became the Dukes of Somerset), who continue to use it as a crest in their coat of arms to this day.<ref name="Willment 71">Willement p. 71</ref><ref name="Fox Davies 597">Fox Davies p. 597</ref>
| [[File:Phoenix and Castle Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Anne of Cleves.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Anne of Cleves]] January–July 1540
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her father [[John III, Duke of Cleves|John III]], [[Duchy of Cleves|Duke of Cleves]]. The blazon:<ref name="Pinces 147">Pinces & Pinces p. 147</ref>
* Quarterly of seven, four in chief and three in base, 1st; Gules, an Inescutcheon Argent, overall an escarbuncle Or (Cleves).
* 2nd; Or, a lion rampant Sable ([[Duchy of Jülich|Jülich]]).
* 3rd; Azure, a lion rampant crowned Or ([[County of Schwarzburg|Schwarzburg]]).
* 4th; Argent, a lion rampant double-queued gules, crowned Or ([[Duchy of Limburg|Limburg]]).
* 5th; Or, a fess chequy Argent and Gules ([[County of Mark|Mark]]).
* 6th; Argent, a lion rampant Gules, crowned Azure ([[Berg (state)|Berg]]).
* 7th; Argent, three chevronels Gules ([[County of Ravensberg|Ravensberg]]).
Alternatively the arms of Cleves is used only, the blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/>
* Gules, an Inescutcheon Argent, overall an Escarbuncle Or (Cleves)
Badge:<ref name="Willment 72">Willement p. 72</ref>
* a lion rampant Sable
* a escarbuncle Or
----
The black lion badge was apparently derived from her mother [[Maria of Jülich-Berg]], who was the sole heir of [[William IV, Duke of Jülich-Berg|William IV]] the Duke of Jülich-Berg.<ref name="Willment 72"/>
|
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Catherine Howard.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Catherine Howard]] 1540–1541
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own as granted by the King. Her arms incorporated those of her family the [[Howard family|Howards]]. Catherine's father [[Lord Edmund Howard]], was the third son of [[Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk]]. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/><ref name="Pinces 148">Pinces & Pinces p. 148</ref>
* Quarterly of four, 1st and 4th were Augmentations, 1st; Azure, three Fleurs-de-lys, in pale Or, between two flasches Ermine, each charged with a Rose Gules.
* 2nd; Gules, three lions passant guardant Or, a label of three-point Argent (Thomas of Brotherton).
* 3rd; Gules, a bend between six cross-crosslets fitchy Argent, for augmentation to be charged on the bend, the [[Royal coat of arms of Scotland|Royal Shield of Scotland]] having a demi-lion only, which is pierced through the mouth with an arrow (Howard).
* 4th; Azure, two Lions of England, the verge of the escutcheon charged with four half fleurs-de-lys Or.
Supporters:
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or imperially crowned Proper.
* Sinister: a white horse of Howard.
||
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Catherine Parr.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Catherine Parr]] 1543–1547
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own as granted by the King. The arms allude to those of her family and the titles of her father [[Sir Thomas Parr]]. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/><ref name="Pinces 148"/><ref name="Boutell 244">Boutell p. 244</ref>
* Quarterly of six, 1st; an Augmentation, Argent, on a Pile Gules, between six Roses Gules, three other Roses Argent.
* 2nd; Argent, two bars Azure, within a bordure engrailed Sable (Parr).
* 3rd; Or, three water-bougets Sable (Ross of [[Kendal]]).
* 4th; Vairy, a fesse Gules (Marmion).
* 5th; Azure, three chevrons interlaced in base, a chief Or ([[Baron FitzHugh|FitzHugh]]).
* 6th; Vert, three harts at gaze Or (Green).
Supporters:<ref name="Pinces 148"/>
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or imperially crowned Proper.
* Sinister: a panther incensed, striped with various colours, gorged with a coronet of crosses patée and fleurs de lys alternately and chained Or.
Badge:<ref name="Aveling 308"/>
* A maiden's head crowned, rising from a large Tudor rose.
----
The sinister supporter was inherited from her maternal grandfather [[William FitzHugh, 4th Baron FitzHugh]]. Her badge was granted by the king, it combined the Tudor rose badge of Henry with a previous one used by the Queen's family. The House of Parr had assumed as a badge "a maiden's head, couped below the breasts, vested in ermine and gold, her hair of the last, and her temples encircled with red and white roses." This they inherited from the badge of Ross, of Kendal.<ref name="Willment 75">Willement p. 75</ref>
| [[File:Rose Maiden Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|}

== In popular culture ==

===Theatrical adaptations===
''[[Six (musical)|Six]]'' is a pop-rock musical featuring each of Henry's wives. A major theme of the show is that women should be the ones to tell their stories and how much more there is to their stories than how their relationships with Henry ended. The musical was written by [[Toby Marlow]] and [[Lucy Moss]].<ref name="http://feastcreative.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sixthemusical.com/about|title=Six the Musical|website=www.sixthemusical.com|language=en-GB|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> It originated in Edinburgh in 2017, moving to the West End in January 2019. In May 2019, ''Six'' had its North American premier at the Chicago Shakespeare Theater.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chicagoshakes.com/plays_and_events/six|title=Chicago Shakespeare Theater: SIX|website=www.chicagoshakes.com|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> and moved to Broadway in March 2020. The tag line of the show, "Divorced. Beheaded. LIVE in concert!", alludes to the rhyme describing the queens' fates.<ref name="http://feastcreative.com"/>

=== TV references ===
Season 1 Episode 2<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Guide|first=British Comedy|title=Horrible Histories Series 1, Episode 2|url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/tv/horrible_histories/episodes/1/2/|access-date=2020-08-21|website=British Comedy Guide|language=en-GB}}</ref> of the BBC One TV series ''[[Horrible Histories (2009 TV series)|Horrible Histories]]'' included a "Divorced, Beheaded and Died" song<ref>{{Cite web|title=Horrible Histories: Terrible Tudors: Divorced, Beheaded, and Died |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JsQXmqI0wYo |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/JsQXmqI0wYo |archive-date=2021-12-13 |url-status=live|access-date=2020-08-21|website=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and talk-show-style comedy skit starring Henry VIII.<ref name=":2" />
https://www.pbs.org/show/secrets-six-wives/

===In music===
[[Rick Wakeman]]'s solo album ''[[The Six Wives of Henry VIII (album)|The Six Wives of Henry VIII]]'' was conceptually inspired by the six wives. The album features six songs, each named after Henry VIII's wife. The order of songs does not match the chronological order of the marriages.

The 1910 music hall song [[I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am|"I'm Henry VIII, I Am"]] was about a woman who had 8 husbands, all named Henry.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last=Aveling |first=S. T. |title=Heraldry: Ancient and Modern including Boutell's Heraldry |url=https://archive.org/details/heraldryancient00boutgoog |year=1890 |publisher=Frederick Warne and Co. |location=London |isbn=0548122040 }}
* {{cite book |last=Boutell |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Boutell |title=A Manual of Heraldry, Historical and Popular |url=https://archive.org/details/amanualheraldry00boutgoog |year=1863 |publisher=Windsor And Newton |location=London |isbn=1146289545 }}
* {{citation |last=Brooke-Little |first=J.P., FSA |author-link=John Brooke-Little |title=Boutell's Heraldry |orig-year=1950 |edition=Revised |year=1978 |publisher=Frederick Warne LTD |location=London |isbn= 0723220964 }}
* {{cite book |last=Fraser |first=Antonia |author-link=Antonia Fraser |title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII |publication-place=London |publisher=Phoenix |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-84212-633-2
|oclc=1245812271 |url=https://archive.org/details/sixwivesofhenryv0000fras_p2d1 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Machyn |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Machyn |editor-last=Nichols |editor-first=John Gough |title=The Diary of Henry Machyn, Citizen and Merchant-Taylor of London, from A.D. 1550 to A.D. 1563 |series=Camden Society. Series I |volume=42 |location=New York; London |publisher=AMS Press
|year=1968 |url=https://archive.org/stream/diaryofhenrymach00machrich |isbn=978-0-548-94254-3 |oclc=664246000}}
* {{cite book |last=Norton |first=Elizabeth |author-link=Elizabeth Norton |title=Jane Seymour: Henry VIII's True Love |location=Chalford |publisher=Amberley Publishing |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FiXjKTkR0QYC |isbn=9781848681026}}
* {{citation|last1=Pinces|first1=John Harvey | last2 =Pinces | first2 =Rosemary |author-link=John Pinches|title=The Royal Heraldry of England |series=Heraldry Today |year=1974|publisher=Hollen Street Press |location=Slough, Buckinghamshire |isbn=090045525X}}
* {{cite book |last=Weir |first=Alison |title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII |publisher=Vintage
|year=2007 |orig-year=1991 |isbn=978-1-4464-4909-7 |oclc=1100698192 |url=https://archive.org/details/sixwivesofhenryv0000weir_o4f8 |url-access=registration}}
* {{citation|last=Willement|first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Willement |title=Regal Heraldry: the Armorial Insignia of the Kings and Queens of England, from Coeval Authorities |year=1821 |publisher=W. Wilson |location=London | url =https://archive.org/details/regalheraldryarm01will }}

[[Category:Cultural lists|6 Wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:House of Tudor|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:Wives of Henry VIII| ]]
[[Category:Lists of wives]]
[[Category:Women of the Tudor period|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:16th-century English women|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:English history-related lists|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:Lists of English women|Henry VIII]]

Wives of Henry VIII

2023-03-23T13:48:02Z

72.142.115.198: Fixed incorrect name of one of his wives.

{{Short description|Queen consorts of Henry VIII of England}}
{{Other uses|The Six Wives of Henry VIII (disambiguation){{!}}The Six Wives of Henry VIII}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
[[File:Henry VIII's wives, circle of R.Burchett (1854–1860, Parliamentary Art Collection).jpg|thumb|The six wives of Henry VIII, portraits made for parliament between 1854 and 1860) in England]]
{{Wives of Henry VIII}}

In common parlance, the '''wives of Henry VIII''' were the six [[Queen consort|queen consorts]] of King [[Henry VIII|Henry VIII of England]] between 1509 and his death in 1547. In legal terms, Henry had only three wives, because three of his marriages were annulled by the [[Church of England]]. However, he was never granted an annulment by the [[Pope Clement VII|Pope]], as he desired, for [[Catherine of Aragon]], his first wife. [[Annulment]]s declare that a true marriage never took place, unlike a divorce, in which a married couple end their union.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/11358279/Henry-VIII-didnt-really-have-six-wives-why-everything-you-know-about-the-Tudors-is-wrong.html|title=Did Henry VIII really have six wives? Why everything you think you know about the Tudors is wrong|first=Olivia|last=Goldhill|date=26 January 2016|access-date=26 January 2016|newspaper=The Daily Telegraphy}}</ref> Along with his six wives, Henry took several [[Mistresses of Henry VIII|mistresses]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mistressesofhenr0000hart|url-access=registration|title=The Mistresses of Henry VIII|last=Hart|first=Kelly|date=2009|publisher=History Press|isbn=978-0752448350|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Fraser|2003|p=86}}

==Overview==
[[File:Family of Henry VIII c 1545 detail.jpg|thumb|[[Jane Seymour]] (right) became Henry's third wife, pictured with Henry and the young [[Edward VI|Prince Edward]], c. 1545, by an unknown artist. At the time that this was painted, Henry was married to his sixth wife, [[Catherine Parr]].]]
The six women who were married to Henry VIII, in chronological order:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! No. !! Name !! Marriage dates and length !! Fate of marriage !! Issue and fate
|-
| 1 || [[Catherine of Aragon]] || 11 June 1509 – 23 May 1533 ({{age in years, months and days|1509|6|11|1533|5|23}}) || Annulled || Died 7 January 1536. Mother of [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary I]].
|-
| 2 || [[Anne Boleyn]] || 28 May 1533 – 17 May 1536 ({{age in years, months and days|1533|5|28|1536|5|17}}) || Annulled (2 days prior to execution)|| Beheaded 19 May 1536 at the [[Tower of London]]. Mother of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tudorhistory.org/boleyn/|title=Anne Boleyn|website=tudorhistory.org}}</ref>
|-
| 3 || [[Jane Seymour]] || 30 May 1536 – 24 October 1537 ({{age in years, months and days|1536|5|30|1537|10|24}}) || Ended with Seymour's death || Died 24 October 1537, due to complications twelve days after giving birth. Mother of [[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]].
|-
| 4 || Lucki || 6 January 1540 – 12 July 1540<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Weir|2007|p=424}}</ref> ({{age in years, months and days|1540|1|6|1540|7|12}}) || Annulled || Died 16 July 1557.
|-
| 5 || [[Catherine Howard]] || 28 July 1540 – 13 February 1542 ({{age in years, months and days|1540|7|28|1542|2|13}}) || Ended with Howard's beheading || Beheaded 13 February 1542 at the [[Tower of London]].
|-
| 6 || [[Catherine Parr|playboi carti]]|| 12 July 1543 – 28 January 1547 ({{age in years, months and days|1543|7|12|1547|1|28}}) || Ended with Henry's death || Survived Henry VIII, remarried to [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley|Thomas Seymour]] (brother of Jane Seymour, third wife of Henry VIII) Died 5 September 1548.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hanson |first1=Marilee |title=Katherine Parr – Facts, Information, Biography & Portraits |url=https://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/katharine-parr/ |website=English History |access-date=23 September 2018 |date=31 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
|}

Henry's first marriage to Catherine of Aragon, lasted nearly 24 years, while the following five lasted less than 10 years combined.

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English historian and [[House of Tudor]] expert [[David Starkey]] describes Henry VIII as a husband:<blockquote>What is extraordinary is that in the beginning of Henry's marriages, he was usually a very good husband. He was very tender to them, research shows that he addressed some of his wives as "sweetheart." He was a good lover, he was very generous: the wives were given huge settlements of land and jewels. He was immensely considerate when they were pregnant. However, if his current wife did not please him or did anything to fire his short temper, there would be consequences. Two of Henry's wives were beheaded by his command.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII. About the Series. Behind the Scenes {{!}} PBS|url=https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/sixwives/about/behind_int_starkey.html|access-date=2020-07-17|website=www.thirteen.org}}</ref></blockquote>
===Scholastic study techniques===
A [[mnemonic device]] to remember the names of Henry's consorts is "'''A'''rrogant '''B'''oys '''S'''eem '''C'''lever, '''H'''oward '''P'''articularly," indicating their "last names," as known to popular culture: Catherine of '''A'''ragon, Anne '''B'''oleyn, Jane '''S'''eymour, Anne of '''C'''leves, Catherine '''H'''oward, Catherine '''P'''arr.

A famous rhyme for their fates:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Neil |date=2013-06-27 |title=Divorced, beheaded, survived… the wives of Henry VIII |url=https://www.britain-magazine.com/features/history/tudors/divorced-beheaded-survived-the-wives-of-henry-viii/ |access-date=2023-01-28 |website=Britain Magazine {{!}} The official magazine of Visit Britain {{!}} Best of British History, Royal Family,Travel and Culture |language=en-GB}}</ref>

{{cquote|Divorced, beheaded, died; Divorced, beheaded, survived}}

Per ''The Faber Book of Useful Verse'', a variant lyric dated {{Circa|1750}} is "Bluff Henry the Eighth to six spouses was wedded, One died, one survived, two divorced, two beheaded."<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/614334788 |title=The Faber Book of Useful Verse |date= |publisher=Faber and Faber |year=1981 |isbn=0-571-11781-3 |editor-last=Brett |editor-first=Simon |editor-link=Simon Brett |location=London |pages=159 |oclc=614334788 |id=BLL01010068507}}</ref>


One historian created a similar device for remembering Henry VIII's six Thomases ([[Thomas Wolsey|Wolsey]], [[Thomas More|More]], [[Thomas Cromwell|Cromwell]], [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk|Howard]], [[Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton|Wriothesley]], and [[Thomas Cranmer|Cranmer]]): "Died, beheaded, beheaded, Self-slaughtered, burned, survived."<ref>In the Lion's Court (Book Review) By: Jones, Robert C. ''Library Journal. ''3/1/2002, Vol. 127 Issue 4, p121. 1/7p.</ref>

===Technicalities===
{{Further|Annulment|Declaration of nullity|Divorce}}
The [[epigram]] ''divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived'' is widely known to Anglophone students of world history<ref>Smith, Claire, and Dan Nuttall. “Move Me On.” ''Teaching History'', no. 142, 2011, pp. 56–59. ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>http://www.jstor.org/stable/43260439</nowiki>. Accessed 28 Jan. 2023.</ref> but there are a few historical footnotes to keep in mind.

As far as the fates of the wives, technically, the poem should be "Annulled, annulled, died; annulled, beheaded, survived" as Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn was annulled before her beheading, as well as Catherine of Aragon and Anne of Cleves' marriages being annulled (religious) instead of divorced (civic). The basis of the Catherine of Aragon annulment was a [[Retroactive continuity|retcon]] of the previous narrative of her transition from Arthur to Henry; the basis of the Anne of Cleves annulment was [[Consummation|non-consummation]].

It is also noted that while Catherine Parr outlived Henry, Anne of Cleves also survived him and was the last of his queens to die.

===Descendants and relationships===
Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, and Jane Seymour each gave Henry VIII one child who survived infancy: two daughters and one son. All three of these children eventually ascended to the throne as [[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]], [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary I]], and [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]].

Catherine Howard and Anne Boleyn were first cousins and were both beheaded due to accusations of infidelity. Jane Seymour was second cousin to both Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. Several of Henry's wives worked in service to another wife, typically as a [[lady-in-waiting]]: Anne Boleyn served Catherine of Aragon, Jane Seymour served both Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn, and Catherine Howard served Anne of Cleves.

==Catherine of Aragon==
{{Main|Catherine of Aragon}}
[[File:Catalina de Aragón, palacio de Lambeth.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Catherine of Aragon]]
[[Catherine of Aragon]] (16 December 1485{{spaced ndash}}7 January 1536; {{lang-es|link=no|Catalina de Aragón}}) was Henry's first wife.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Erickson |first1=Carolly |title=Great Harry: A Biography of Henry the VII |date=2007 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0312168582 |page=[https://archive.org/details/greatharry00eric_0/page/48 48] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/greatharry00eric_0/page/48 }}</ref><ref name=":1" /> In modern sources, her name is most commonly spelled ''Catherine'', although she spelled and signed her name with a "K," which was an accepted spelling in England at the time.<ref>{{Cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-4891|title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|last1=Davies|first1=C.S.L.|last2=Edwards|first2=John|year=2011|location=England|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/4891|chapter-url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-4891|doi-access=free|chapter=Katherine [Catalina, Catherine, Katherine of Aragon] (1485–1536)}}</ref>

Catherine was originally married to [[Arthur, Prince of Wales|Arthur]], Henry's older brother. Catherine was a year older than Arthur and six years older than Henry. After Arthur died in 1502, a [[papal dispensation]] was obtained to enable her to marry Henry, though the marriage did not occur until he came to the throne in 1509, when Henry was 18 years old and Catherine was 24. Catherine became pregnant in 1510, but the girl was stillborn. She became pregnant again in 1511 and gave birth to [[Henry, Duke of Cornwall]], who died almost two months later. She gave birth to a stillborn boy in 1513, and to another boy who died within hours in 1515. Finally, at age 31, she bore a healthy daughter, [[Mary I of England|Mary]], in 1516. After giving birth to Mary, Catherine is quoted to say, "We are both young. If it was a daughter this time, by the Grace of God the sons will follow". Unfortunately, she never did have that son Henry so desperately wanted.<ref>{{cite web |title=Katherine of Aragon: Henry VIII's Most Devoted Wife and Queen?|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/katherine-of-aragon/#gs.pcqfgk |website=Historic Royal Palaces|publisher=Historic Royal Palaces|access-date=2023-02-07}}</ref> It was two years before she conceived again; the pregnancy ended with a short-lived girl.

It is said<ref>{{Cite web|title=Henry VIII and Katherine of Aragon – Hampton Court Palace|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/katherine-of-aragon/#:~:text=Henry%20married%20Katherine%20because%20he,and%20a%20powerful%20political%20team.|url-status=live|access-date=10 May 2021|website=Historic Royal Palaces}}</ref> that Henry truly loved Catherine of Aragon, as he professed it many times. However, Henry became concerned he did not have a son to continue the Tudor dynasty.

Henry had affairs with [[Mistresses of Henry VIII|several mistresses]] throughout this marriage, including with [[Mary Boleyn]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ridgway|first=Claire|title=Unravelling Mary Boleyn by Sarah Bryson|url=https://www.tudorsociety.com/unravelling-mary-boleyn-by-sarah-bryson/|url-status=live|access-date=10 May 2021|website=The Tudor Society|date=19 July 2015}}</ref> – the daughter of [[Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire|Thomas Boleyn]], English Ambassador to France. Later, Henry turned his attention to her younger sister, [[Anne Boleyn]], appointing her as [[lady-in-waiting]] to Catherine. Unlike her sister, Anne refused to become his mistress. Henry wrote many love letters<ref>{{Cite web|last=theanneboleynfiles|title=Henry VIII's Love Letters to Anne Boleyn|url=https://www.theanneboleynfiles.com/resources/anne-boleyn-words/henry-viiis-love-letters-to-anne-boleyn/|access-date=2021-12-29|website=The Anne Boleyn Files|date=30 November 2010|language=en-gb}}</ref> to Anne. By the late 1520s, it was clear Catherine (now in her mid-40s) would not bear any more children, and Henry, increasingly desperate for a legitimate son, planned to marry Anne.

Henry, at the time a Roman Catholic, sought the Pope's approval for an [[annulment]] on the grounds that Catherine had first been his brother's wife. He used a passage from the Old Testament (Leviticus Chapter 20 Verse 21): "If a man shall take his brother’s wife, it is an impurity; he hath uncovered his brother’s nakedness; they shall be childless." Despite the Pope's refusal to annul the marriage, Henry separated from Catherine in 1531; Catherine was 46, Henry was 40. He ordered the highest church official in England, [[Thomas Cranmer]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], to convene a court. On 23 May 1533,<ref name=":1">Lacey Baldwin Smith, Henry VIII: The Mask of Royalty, p. 116</ref> Cranmer ruled the marriage to Catherine null and void. On 28 May 1533, he pronounced the King legally married to Anne (with whom Henry had already secretly exchanged wedding vows). This led to England breaking from the Roman Catholic Church and the establishment of the [[Church of England]].

Shortly after marrying Anne Boleyn, Henry sent Catherine away. She did not see Henry, or their daughter [[Mary I of England|Mary]], again before her death in isolation at age 51.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catherine of Aragon|url=https://tudorhistory.org/aragon/|access-date=2021-12-29|website=tudorhistory.org}}</ref>

[[William Shakespeare]], in the play [[Henry VIII (play)|''Henry VIII'']], called Catherine "The queen of earthly queens" (2.4.138).

==Anne Boleyn==
{{Main|Anne Boleyn}}
[[File:AnneBoleynHever.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Anne Boleyn]]
[[Anne Boleyn]] (c. 1507{{spaced ndash}}19 May 1536) was Henry's second wife and the mother of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. Henry's marriage to Anne and her execution made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval at the start of the [[English Reformation]]. She was the daughter of Sir [[Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire|Thomas Boleyn]] and Lady [[Elizabeth Boleyn, Countess of Wiltshire|Elizabeth Boleyn]] (born Lady Elizabeth Howard), and she was of nobler birth than [[Jane Seymour]], Henry's later wife. She was dark-haired with beautiful features and lively manners; she was educated in Europe. She studied French and lived there for part of her life. She was largely as a lady-in-waiting to Queen [[Claude of France]].

Anne resisted the king's attempts of letters to seduce her and refused to become his mistress as her sister [[Mary Boleyn]] had been. It soon became the one absorbing object of the King's desires to secure a divorce from his wife [[Catherine of Aragon]] so that he could marry Anne. He wrote a love letter that provides evidence of some level of intimacy between them, in which he admires her "pretty duckies" (breasts).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/henrytoanne.htm|title=Love Letter of King Henry VIII to Anne Boleyn, 1533.|website=www.luminarium.org}}</ref> It eventually became clear that [[Pope Clement VII]] was unlikely to give the king an annulment, so Henry began to break the power of the Catholic Church in England for the current obsession he had with Anne Boleyn.

Henry dismissed [[Thomas Wolsey]] from public office and later had the Boleyn family's chaplain [[Thomas Cranmer]] appointed [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. In 1533, Henry and Anne went through a secret wedding service.<ref name="wbe-boleyn">"Anne Boleyn 1507–1536." World Book Encyclopedia. "19th ed". 2001. Print.</ref> Henry was 42, and Anne was in her late 20s. She soon became pregnant and there was a second, public wedding service in London on 25 January 1533. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be good and valid. Soon after, the Pope launched sentences of ex-communication against the King and the Archbishop. As a result of Anne's marriage to the King, the Church of England was forced to break with Rome and was brought under the king's control.<ref name="wbe-boleyn" /> Anne was crowned Queen Consort of England on 1 June 1533, and she gave birth to Henry's second daughter [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]] on 7 September. She failed to produce a male heir, her only son being stillborn. Henry grew tired of Anne and waiting for a son that she could not produce. Henry had their marriage annulled. Henry looked around for another mistress while [[Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex|Thomas Cromwell]] devised a plot to execute her.

Despite unconvincing evidence, she was found guilty of engaging in relations with her brother, George Boleyn, and Anne, no older than 31 years old, was beheaded on 19 May 1536 for adultery, incest, and high treason. After the coronation of her daughter, Elizabeth I, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly due to the works of [[John Foxe]]. Over the centuries, she has inspired or been mentioned in numerous [[Anne Boleyn in popular culture|artistic and cultural works]].

==Jane Seymour==
{{Main|Jane Seymour}}
[[File:Hans Holbein the Younger - Jane Seymour, Queen of England - Google Art Project.jpg|140px|right|thumb|Jane Seymour]]
[[Jane Seymour]] ({{circa|1508|lk=yes}}{{spaced ndash}}24 October 1537) was Henry's third wife. She served [[Catherine of Aragon]] as [[maid-of-honour]] and was one of [[Anne Boleyn|Anne Boleyn's]] ladies-in-waiting.<ref>Jokinen, Anniina. "[http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/sixwives.htm The Six Wives of King Henry VII]" 2007. Web. 7 May 2009.</ref>

Jane, the daughter of [[John Seymour (1474–1536)|Sir John Seymour]], a knight, and [[Margery Wentworth]], was most likely born at [[Wulfhall]], [[Wiltshire]],{{sfn|Norton|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FiXjKTkR0QYC&pg=PA11 11]}} although [[West Bower Manor]] in Somerset has also been suggested.<ref>{{NHLE|desc=West Bower Manor with barn|num=1058940|access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref> Her birth date is not recorded although rumored. She was of lower birth than most of Henry's wives, only being able to read and write a little, but was much better at [[needlework]] and [[household management]], which were considered much more necessary for the time.

Jane married Henry VIII on 20 May 1536, at the [[Palace of Whitehall]], [[Whitehall]], [[London]], the day after Anne Boleyn's execution. Jane was 28, Henry was 45. Almost a year and a half after marriage, Jane gave birth to a male heir, [[Edward VI of England|Edward]], but she died twelve days later from postpartum complications. Jane was the only wife to receive a proper queen's burial. When Henry died, he chose to be buried next to her in [[St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle]]. It is unclear if this decision was purely sentimental or a political signal designed to reinforce the legitimacy of his youthful heir, Edward VI.

==Anne of Cleves==
{{Main|Anne of Cleves }}
[[File:AnneCleves.jpg|140px|right|thumb|Anne of Cleves]]
[[Anne of Cleves]] (28 June or 22 September 1515{{spaced ndash}}16 July 1557) was a German princess,<ref>"Anne of Cleves." World Book Encyclopedia. "19th ed". 2001. Print.</ref> Henry's fourth wife and [[List of English consorts|queen consort of England]], although not crowned, for just six months in 1540, from 6 January to 12 July. Henry may have referred to her as "''A Flanders mare''", and the label has stuck.<ref>Burnett "History of the Reformation of England" Print</ref>

Anne of Cleves' portrait was painted by [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Hans Holbein]] and sent to King Henry to evaluate to be his future wife. Her brother didn't allow Holbein to paint whilst looking directly at Anne and her little sister's faces so they had to wear veils whilst being painted. Henry fell in love with her portrait and wanted her sent to him. When she arrived, Henry was not impressed. Henry complained of her not looking like her portrait. Her pre-contract of marriage with [[Francis I, Duke of Lorraine]], was cited as grounds for annulment, even though their marriage did not proceed. Anne did not resist the annulment, claiming the marriage had not been consummated and was rewarded with a generous settlement including [[Hever Castle]], the former home of the Boleyns, Henry's former in-laws. She was given the name "The King's Sister" and was a lifelong friend to him and his children; Anne of Cleves was approximately the same age as Henry VIII's eldest surviving daughter, Mary. She outlived the King and all his wives, dying at Chelsea Old Manor on 16 July 1557; the most likely cause of her death was [[cancer]].{{sfn|Fraser|2003|p=504]}} She was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]] on 3 August.{{sfn|Machyn|1968|pp=145–146}}

==Catherine Howard==
{{Main|Catherine Howard}}
[[File:HowardCatherine02.jpeg|140px|right|thumb|Catherine Howard]]
[[Catherine Howard]] (c. 1521{{spaced ndash}}13 February 1542), also spelled Katheryn, was Henry's fifth wife, between 1540 and 1542. She was the daughter of [[Lord Edmund Howard]] and [[Joyce Culpeper]], cousin to [[Anne Boleyn]] (the second wife of Henry VIII), second cousin to [[Jane Seymour]] (the third wife of Henry VIII), and niece to [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk]]. She was raised in the household of her step-grandmother [[Agnes Howard, Duchess of Norfolk|Agnes Tilney]], the [[Duchess of Norfolk|Dowager Duchess of Norfolk]]. Her uncle Thomas Howard was a prominent politician at Henry's court, and he secured her a place in the household of Henry's fourth wife, [[Anne of Cleves]], where Catherine caught the King's interest. She married him on 28 July 1540 at [[Oatlands Palace]] in Surrey, just 19 days after the annulment of his marriage to Anne. He was 49, and she was still a teenager, likely around 18. (Catherine Howard was younger than Henry VIII's oldest child, Mary I, who was 24 years old when he married his fifth wife; Elizabeth was 9, and Edward was 3.)

On 1 November 1541, Henry was informed of her alleged adultery with [[Thomas Culpeper]], her distant cousin; [[Henry Mannox]], who had given her private music lessons while she lived with her step-grandmother; and [[Francis Dereham]], a previous boyfriend from her teenage years.<ref>"Catherine Howard." World Book Encyclopaedia. "19th ed". 2001. Print.</ref> Catherine was stripped of her title as queen in November 1541 and was beheaded in February 1542 on the grounds of treason for committing adultery.

==Catherine Parr==
{{Main|Catherine Parr}}
[[File:Catherine Parr from NPG.jpg|140px|right|thumb|Catherine Parr]]
[[Catherine Parr]] (1512{{spaced ndash}}5 September 1548), also spelled Kateryn, was the sixth and last wife of Henry VIII, 1543–1547. She was the daughter of [[Sir Thomas Parr]] of Kendal and his wife, [[Maud Green]]. Through her father, Catherine was a descendant of [[John of Gaunt]], son of King [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]. Through John of Gaunt's daughter [[Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmoreland]] (Henry's great-great-grandmother), she was Henry's third cousin, once removed. By Henry's paternal descent from another of John of Gaunt's children, [[John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset]], the two were also fourth cousins once removed.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}

Catherine showed herself to be the restorer of Henry's court as a family home for his children. She was determined to present the royal household as a close-knit one to demonstrate strength through unity to Henry's opposition.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Katherine Parr {{!}} Hampton Court Palace {{!}} Historic Royal Palaces|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/katherine-parr/|url-status=live|access-date=10 May 2021|website=Historic Royal Palaces}}</ref> Perhaps Catherine's most significant achievement was Henry's passing of an [[Third Succession Act|act]] that confirmed both [[Mary I of England|Mary]]'s and [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]]'s line in succession for the throne, despite the fact that they had both been made illegitimate by divorce or remarriage. At the time of the passage of the act, Catherine Parr was 31, Mary was 27, Elizabeth was 10, and Henry was 52. Such was Henry's trust in Catherine that he chose her to rule as Regent while he was attending to the [[Italian War of 1542–46|war in France]], and in the unlikely event of the loss of his life, she was to serve as Regent until nine-year-old [[Edward VI of England|Edward]] came of age.

Catherine also has a special place in history, as she was the most married queen of England, having had four husbands in all; Henry was her third. She had been widowed twice before marrying Henry. After Henry's death, she married [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley|Thomas Seymour]], uncle of [[Edward VI of England]], to whom she had formed an attachment before her marriage with Henry. She had one child by Seymour, [[Mary Seymour|Mary]], and died shortly after childbirth, at age 35 or 36. Lady Mary's history is unknown, but she is not believed to have survived childhood.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catherine Parr: Children|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/sixwives/meet/cp_handbook_children2.html|url-status=live|access-date=11 May 2021|website=The Six Wives of Henry VIII}}</ref> She is buried at [[Sudeley Castle]] in the town of [[Winchcombe]].

==Ancestry==
{{Family tree of the Wives of Henry VIII}}

==Armorial bearings==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Coat of arms of the wives of King Henry VIII of England
|-
!style="width: 220px;"|Coat of arms
!style="width: 12%;"|Armiger (Date as Queen)
!Notes
!style="width: 13%;"|Badges
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Catherine of Aragon.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Catherine of Aragon]] 1509–1533
| The [[Royal Arms of England|Royal Arms]], impaled with that of her parents the [[Catholic Monarchs]]. The [[blazon]]:<ref name="Boutell 242">Boutell p. 242</ref><ref name="Pinces 141">Pinces & Pinces p. 141</ref>
* [[Quartering (heraldry)|Quarterly]], 1st and 4th grand quarter; Quarterly, [[Gules]], a castle [[Or (heraldry)|Or]] ([[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]]), [[Argent]], [[lion rampant]] [[Purpure]] ([[Kingdom of León|León]]).
* 2nd and 3rd grand quarter; Or, Four pallets Gules ([[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]]), impaling, Or, Four pallets Gules, and in the flanks Argent, an eagle displayed [[Sable (heraldry)|Sable]] ([[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]]).
* In the base point, Argent, a [[pomegranate]] slipped [[Tincture (heraldry)#Proper|Proper]] ([[Emirate of Granada|Granada]]).
[[Supporter]]s:<ref name="Boutell 242"/><ref name="Pinces 141"/>
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or [[St Edward's Crown|imperially crowned]] Proper.
* Sinister: an Apostolic eagle Sable ([[John the Evangelist|Eagle of Saint John]]), wings elevated, membered Or.
[[Heraldic badge|Badge]]s:<ref name="Aveling 307">Aveling p. 307</ref>
* The pomegranate, the rose and the sheaf of arrows.
----
The sinister supporter came from the [[Coat of arms of the King of Spain|coat of arms of her father]], [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]], who displayed his shield on the breast of a single-headed Apostolic eagle displayed. Catherine's badges were a commemoration of the [[Granada War|conquest of Granada]] from the [[Emirate of Granada|Moors]], when the superiority of the Spanish archers gained a victory. Both badges were combined with the [[Tudor rose]] (Henry's dynastic symbol).<ref name="Pinces 142">Pinces & Pinces p. 142</ref>
| [[File:Pomegranate & Rose Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Anne Boleyn.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Anne Boleyn]] 1533–1536
|The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own arms as [[Marquess of Pembroke]], which alluded to several of her ancestors, however remote. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 242"/><ref name="Pinces 144">Pinces & Pinces p. 144</ref>
* Quarterly of six, 1st, 2nd and 3rd quarter, were [[Augmentation of honour|Augmentations]], 1st; Gules, three lions passant guardant Or, a label [[Azure (heraldry)|Azure]], with three [[fleur-de-lis]] on each point Or ([[Duchy of Lancaster]]), 2nd; Azure, semé-de-lys Or, a label of three points Gules ([[Capetian House of Anjou|Anjou-Naples]]), 3rd; Gules, a lion passant guardant Or ([[Duke of Aquitaine|Aquitaine]]).
* 4th; Quarterly, I and IV, Or, a chief indented Azure ([[Earl of Ormond (Ireland)|Butler]]), II and III, Argent, a lion rampant Sable crowned Gules ([[Viscount Rochford|Rochford]]).
* 5th; Gules, three lions passant guardant Or, a label of three-point Argent ([[Thomas of Brotherton]]).
* 6th; [[Chequy]] Or and Azure ([[Earl of Surrey|Warenne]]).
Supporters:<ref name="Pinces 144"/><ref name="Boutell 243">Boutell p. 243</ref>
* Dexter: a leopard gorged with a royal coronet pendant therefrom a chain reflexed, over the back Or.
* Sinister: a male griffin Argent, armed and tufted Or similarly gorged and chained.
Badge:<ref name="Aveling 308">Aveling p. 308</ref>
* A crowned falcon holding a sceptre.
----
The noted antiquarian and heraldist [[Charles Boutell]] commented that the: "Arms of Queen Anne Boleyn are the first which exemplify the usage, introduced by Henry VIII, of granting to his Consorts "Augmentations" to their paternal arms. It is a striking illustration of the degenerate condition of [[Heraldry]] under the second [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor Sovereign]]."<ref name="Boutell 242"/> The dexter supporter was intended to represent the leopard of [[Guyenne]] (Aquitaine). The sinister supporter was a [[Charge (heraldry)#Animals|heraldic creature]] from the badge of the Boleyn, as descended from Earls of Ormond (Butler).<ref name="Willment 69">Willement p. 69</ref> The falcon badge was granted to Anne as Countess of Pembroke, this badge was also used by her daughter Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]].
| [[File:Silver Falcon Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Jane Seymour.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Jane Seymour]] 1536–1537
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own arms and that of the [[Seymour family]]. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/><ref name="Pinces 146">Pinces & Pinces p. 146</ref>
* Quarterly of six, 1st; an Augmentation, Or, on a pile Gules, between six fleur-de-lis Azure, three lions passant guardant Or.
* 2nd; Gules, two wings conjoined in lure Or ([[Duke of Somerset|Seymour]]).
* 3rd; [[Vair]] Azure and Argent ([[Marquess of Hertford|Beauchamp]]).
* 4th; Argent, three demi-lions rampant, Gules (Stiny).
* 5th; Per bend, Argent and Gules, three roses, bendwise countercharged (MacWilliams).
* 6th; Argent, on a bend Gules, three leopard's head Or.
Supporters:<ref name="Boutell 243"/>
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or imperially crowned Proper.
* Sinister: Unicorn Argent.
Badge:<ref name="Aveling 308"/>
* A phoenix rising from a castle, between Tudor roses.
----
An alternative set of supporters for Queen Jane was reportedly: "Dexter a unicorn argent, crowned and unguled or, collared with a double wreath of white daisies and red roses; Sinister, a panther incensed, striped with various colours, gorged with a coronet of crosses patée and fleurs de lys alternately and chained or."<ref name="Pinces 146"/> The badge of the phoenix rising from the flames was granted posthumously by her son King [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] to his maternal relations (who became the Dukes of Somerset), who continue to use it as a crest in their coat of arms to this day.<ref name="Willment 71">Willement p. 71</ref><ref name="Fox Davies 597">Fox Davies p. 597</ref>
| [[File:Phoenix and Castle Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Anne of Cleves.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Anne of Cleves]] January–July 1540
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her father [[John III, Duke of Cleves|John III]], [[Duchy of Cleves|Duke of Cleves]]. The blazon:<ref name="Pinces 147">Pinces & Pinces p. 147</ref>
* Quarterly of seven, four in chief and three in base, 1st; Gules, an Inescutcheon Argent, overall an escarbuncle Or (Cleves).
* 2nd; Or, a lion rampant Sable ([[Duchy of Jülich|Jülich]]).
* 3rd; Azure, a lion rampant crowned Or ([[County of Schwarzburg|Schwarzburg]]).
* 4th; Argent, a lion rampant double-queued gules, crowned Or ([[Duchy of Limburg|Limburg]]).
* 5th; Or, a fess chequy Argent and Gules ([[County of Mark|Mark]]).
* 6th; Argent, a lion rampant Gules, crowned Azure ([[Berg (state)|Berg]]).
* 7th; Argent, three chevronels Gules ([[County of Ravensberg|Ravensberg]]).
Alternatively the arms of Cleves is used only, the blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/>
* Gules, an Inescutcheon Argent, overall an Escarbuncle Or (Cleves)
Badge:<ref name="Willment 72">Willement p. 72</ref>
* a lion rampant Sable
* a escarbuncle Or
----
The black lion badge was apparently derived from her mother [[Maria of Jülich-Berg]], who was the sole heir of [[William IV, Duke of Jülich-Berg|William IV]] the Duke of Jülich-Berg.<ref name="Willment 72"/>
|
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Catherine Howard.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Catherine Howard]] 1540–1541
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own as granted by the King. Her arms incorporated those of her family the [[Howard family|Howards]]. Catherine's father [[Lord Edmund Howard]], was the third son of [[Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk]]. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/><ref name="Pinces 148">Pinces & Pinces p. 148</ref>
* Quarterly of four, 1st and 4th were Augmentations, 1st; Azure, three Fleurs-de-lys, in pale Or, between two flasches Ermine, each charged with a Rose Gules.
* 2nd; Gules, three lions passant guardant Or, a label of three-point Argent (Thomas of Brotherton).
* 3rd; Gules, a bend between six cross-crosslets fitchy Argent, for augmentation to be charged on the bend, the [[Royal coat of arms of Scotland|Royal Shield of Scotland]] having a demi-lion only, which is pierced through the mouth with an arrow (Howard).
* 4th; Azure, two Lions of England, the verge of the escutcheon charged with four half fleurs-de-lys Or.
Supporters:
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or imperially crowned Proper.
* Sinister: a white horse of Howard.
||
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Catherine Parr.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Catherine Parr]] 1543–1547
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own as granted by the King. The arms allude to those of her family and the titles of her father [[Sir Thomas Parr]]. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/><ref name="Pinces 148"/><ref name="Boutell 244">Boutell p. 244</ref>
* Quarterly of six, 1st; an Augmentation, Argent, on a Pile Gules, between six Roses Gules, three other Roses Argent.
* 2nd; Argent, two bars Azure, within a bordure engrailed Sable (Parr).
* 3rd; Or, three water-bougets Sable (Ross of [[Kendal]]).
* 4th; Vairy, a fesse Gules (Marmion).
* 5th; Azure, three chevrons interlaced in base, a chief Or ([[Baron FitzHugh|FitzHugh]]).
* 6th; Vert, three harts at gaze Or (Green).
Supporters:<ref name="Pinces 148"/>
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or imperially crowned Proper.
* Sinister: a panther incensed, striped with various colours, gorged with a coronet of crosses patée and fleurs de lys alternately and chained Or.
Badge:<ref name="Aveling 308"/>
* A maiden's head crowned, rising from a large Tudor rose.
----
The sinister supporter was inherited from her maternal grandfather [[William FitzHugh, 4th Baron FitzHugh]]. Her badge was granted by the king, it combined the Tudor rose badge of Henry with a previous one used by the Queen's family. The House of Parr had assumed as a badge "a maiden's head, couped below the breasts, vested in ermine and gold, her hair of the last, and her temples encircled with red and white roses." This they inherited from the badge of Ross, of Kendal.<ref name="Willment 75">Willement p. 75</ref>
| [[File:Rose Maiden Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|}

== In popular culture ==

===Theatrical adaptations===
''[[Six (musical)|Six]]'' is a pop-rock musical featuring each of Henry's wives. A major theme of the show is that women should be the ones to tell their stories and how much more there is to their stories than how their relationships with Henry ended. The musical was written by [[Toby Marlow]] and [[Lucy Moss]].<ref name="http://feastcreative.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sixthemusical.com/about|title=Six the Musical|website=www.sixthemusical.com|language=en-GB|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> It originated in Edinburgh in 2017, moving to the West End in January 2019. In May 2019, ''Six'' had its North American premier at the Chicago Shakespeare Theater.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chicagoshakes.com/plays_and_events/six|title=Chicago Shakespeare Theater: SIX|website=www.chicagoshakes.com|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> and moved to Broadway in March 2020. The tag line of the show, "Divorced. Beheaded. LIVE in concert!", alludes to the rhyme describing the queens' fates.<ref name="http://feastcreative.com"/>

=== TV references ===
Season 1 Episode 2<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Guide|first=British Comedy|title=Horrible Histories Series 1, Episode 2|url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/tv/horrible_histories/episodes/1/2/|access-date=2020-08-21|website=British Comedy Guide|language=en-GB}}</ref> of the BBC One TV series ''[[Horrible Histories (2009 TV series)|Horrible Histories]]'' included a "Divorced, Beheaded and Died" song<ref>{{Cite web|title=Horrible Histories: Terrible Tudors: Divorced, Beheaded, and Died |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JsQXmqI0wYo |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/JsQXmqI0wYo |archive-date=2021-12-13 |url-status=live|access-date=2020-08-21|website=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and talk-show-style comedy skit starring Henry VIII.<ref name=":2" />
https://www.pbs.org/show/secrets-six-wives/

===In music===
[[Rick Wakeman]]'s solo album ''[[The Six Wives of Henry VIII (album)|The Six Wives of Henry VIII]]'' was conceptually inspired by the six wives. The album features six songs, each named after Henry VIII's wife. The order of songs does not match the chronological order of the marriages.

The 1910 music hall song [[I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am|"I'm Henry VIII, I Am"]] was about a woman who had 8 husbands, all named Henry.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last=Aveling |first=S. T. |title=Heraldry: Ancient and Modern including Boutell's Heraldry |url=https://archive.org/details/heraldryancient00boutgoog |year=1890 |publisher=Frederick Warne and Co. |location=London |isbn=0548122040 }}
* {{cite book |last=Boutell |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Boutell |title=A Manual of Heraldry, Historical and Popular |url=https://archive.org/details/amanualheraldry00boutgoog |year=1863 |publisher=Windsor And Newton |location=London |isbn=1146289545 }}
* {{citation |last=Brooke-Little |first=J.P., FSA |author-link=John Brooke-Little |title=Boutell's Heraldry |orig-year=1950 |edition=Revised |year=1978 |publisher=Frederick Warne LTD |location=London |isbn= 0723220964 }}
* {{cite book |last=Fraser |first=Antonia |author-link=Antonia Fraser |title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII |publication-place=London |publisher=Phoenix |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-84212-633-2
|oclc=1245812271 |url=https://archive.org/details/sixwivesofhenryv0000fras_p2d1 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Machyn |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Machyn |editor-last=Nichols |editor-first=John Gough |title=The Diary of Henry Machyn, Citizen and Merchant-Taylor of London, from A.D. 1550 to A.D. 1563 |series=Camden Society. Series I |volume=42 |location=New York; London |publisher=AMS Press
|year=1968 |url=https://archive.org/stream/diaryofhenrymach00machrich |isbn=978-0-548-94254-3 |oclc=664246000}}
* {{cite book |last=Norton |first=Elizabeth |author-link=Elizabeth Norton |title=Jane Seymour: Henry VIII's True Love |location=Chalford |publisher=Amberley Publishing |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FiXjKTkR0QYC |isbn=9781848681026}}
* {{citation|last1=Pinces|first1=John Harvey | last2 =Pinces | first2 =Rosemary |author-link=John Pinches|title=The Royal Heraldry of England |series=Heraldry Today |year=1974|publisher=Hollen Street Press |location=Slough, Buckinghamshire |isbn=090045525X}}
* {{cite book |last=Weir |first=Alison |title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII |publisher=Vintage
|year=2007 |orig-year=1991 |isbn=978-1-4464-4909-7 |oclc=1100698192 |url=https://archive.org/details/sixwivesofhenryv0000weir_o4f8 |url-access=registration}}
* {{citation|last=Willement|first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Willement |title=Regal Heraldry: the Armorial Insignia of the Kings and Queens of England, from Coeval Authorities |year=1821 |publisher=W. Wilson |location=London | url =https://archive.org/details/regalheraldryarm01will }}

[[Category:Cultural lists|6 Wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:House of Tudor|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:Wives of Henry VIII| ]]
[[Category:Lists of wives]]
[[Category:Women of the Tudor period|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:16th-century English women|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:English history-related lists|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:Lists of English women|Henry VIII]]

Wives of Henry VIII

2023-03-23T13:45:20Z

72.142.115.198:

{{Short description|Queen consorts of Henry VIII of England}}
{{Other uses|The Six Wives of Henry VIII (disambiguation){{!}}The Six Wives of Henry VIII}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
[[File:Henry VIII's wives, circle of R.Burchett (1854–1860, Parliamentary Art Collection).jpg|thumb|The six wives of Henry VIII, portraits made for parliament between 1854 and 1860) in England]]
{{Wives of Henry VIII}}

In common parlance, the '''wives of Henry VIII''' were the six [[Queen consort|queen consorts]] of King [[Henry VIII|Henry VIII of England]] between 1509 and his death in 1547. In legal terms, Henry had only three wives, because three of his marriages were annulled by the [[Church of England]]. However, he was never granted an annulment by the [[Pope Clement VII|Pope]], as he desired, for [[Catherine of Aragon]], his first wife. [[Annulment]]s declare that a true marriage never took place, unlike a divorce, in which a married couple end their union.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/11358279/Henry-VIII-didnt-really-have-six-wives-why-everything-you-know-about-the-Tudors-is-wrong.html|title=Did Henry VIII really have six wives? Why everything you think you know about the Tudors is wrong|first=Olivia|last=Goldhill|date=26 January 2016|access-date=26 January 2016|newspaper=The Daily Telegraphy}}</ref> Along with his six wives, Henry took several [[Mistresses of Henry VIII|mistresses]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mistressesofhenr0000hart|url-access=registration|title=The Mistresses of Henry VIII|last=Hart|first=Kelly|date=2009|publisher=History Press|isbn=978-0752448350|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Fraser|2003|p=86}}

==Overview==
[[File:Family of Henry VIII c 1545 detail.jpg|thumb|[[Jane Seymour]] (right) became Henry's third wife, pictured with Henry and the young [[Edward VI|Prince Edward]], c. 1545, by an unknown artist. At the time that this was painted, Henry was married to his sixth wife, [[Catherine Parr]].]]
The six women who were married to Henry VIII, in chronological order:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! No. !! Name !! Marriage dates and length !! Fate of marriage !! Issue and fate
|-
| 1 || [[Catherine of Aragon]] || 11 June 1509 – 23 May 1533 ({{age in years, months and days|1509|6|11|1533|5|23}}) || Annulled || Died 7 January 1536. Mother of [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary I]].
|-
| 2 || [[Anne Boleyn]] || 28 May 1533 – 17 May 1536 ({{age in years, months and days|1533|5|28|1536|5|17}}) || Annulled (2 days prior to execution)|| Beheaded 19 May 1536 at the [[Tower of London]]. Mother of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tudorhistory.org/boleyn/|title=Anne Boleyn|website=tudorhistory.org}}</ref>
|-
| 3 || [[Jane Seymour]] || 30 May 1536 – 24 October 1537 ({{age in years, months and days|1536|5|30|1537|10|24}}) || Ended with Seymour's death || Died 24 October 1537, due to complications twelve days after giving birth. Mother of [[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]].
|-
| 4 || [[Anne of Cleves]] || 6 January 1540 – 12 July 1540<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Weir|2007|p=424}}</ref> ({{age in years, months and days|1540|1|6|1540|7|12}}) || Annulled || Died 16 July 1557.
|-
| 5 || [[Catherine Howard]] || 28 July 1540 – 13 February 1542 ({{age in years, months and days|1540|7|28|1542|2|13}}) || Ended with Howard's beheading || Beheaded 13 February 1542 at the [[Tower of London]].
|-
| 6 || [[Catherine Parr|playboi carti]]|| 12 July 1543 – 28 January 1547 ({{age in years, months and days|1543|7|12|1547|1|28}}) || Ended with Henry's death || Survived Henry VIII, remarried to [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley|Thomas Seymour]] (brother of Jane Seymour, third wife of Henry VIII) Died 5 September 1548.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hanson |first1=Marilee |title=Katherine Parr – Facts, Information, Biography & Portraits |url=https://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/katharine-parr/ |website=English History |access-date=23 September 2018 |date=31 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
|}

Henry's first marriage to Catherine of Aragon, lasted nearly 24 years, while the following five lasted less than 10 years combined.

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English historian and [[House of Tudor]] expert [[David Starkey]] describes Henry VIII as a husband:<blockquote>What is extraordinary is that in the beginning of Henry's marriages, he was usually a very good husband. He was very tender to them, research shows that he addressed some of his wives as "sweetheart." He was a good lover, he was very generous: the wives were given huge settlements of land and jewels. He was immensely considerate when they were pregnant. However, if his current wife did not please him or did anything to fire his short temper, there would be consequences. Two of Henry's wives were beheaded by his command.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII. About the Series. Behind the Scenes {{!}} PBS|url=https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/sixwives/about/behind_int_starkey.html|access-date=2020-07-17|website=www.thirteen.org}}</ref></blockquote>
===Scholastic study techniques===
A [[mnemonic device]] to remember the names of Henry's consorts is "'''A'''rrogant '''B'''oys '''S'''eem '''C'''lever, '''H'''oward '''P'''articularly," indicating their "last names," as known to popular culture: Catherine of '''A'''ragon, Anne '''B'''oleyn, Jane '''S'''eymour, Anne of '''C'''leves, Catherine '''H'''oward, Catherine '''P'''arr.

A famous rhyme for their fates:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Neil |date=2013-06-27 |title=Divorced, beheaded, survived… the wives of Henry VIII |url=https://www.britain-magazine.com/features/history/tudors/divorced-beheaded-survived-the-wives-of-henry-viii/ |access-date=2023-01-28 |website=Britain Magazine {{!}} The official magazine of Visit Britain {{!}} Best of British History, Royal Family,Travel and Culture |language=en-GB}}</ref>

{{cquote|Divorced, beheaded, died; Divorced, beheaded, survived}}

Per ''The Faber Book of Useful Verse'', a variant lyric dated {{Circa|1750}} is "Bluff Henry the Eighth to six spouses was wedded, One died, one survived, two divorced, two beheaded."<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/614334788 |title=The Faber Book of Useful Verse |date= |publisher=Faber and Faber |year=1981 |isbn=0-571-11781-3 |editor-last=Brett |editor-first=Simon |editor-link=Simon Brett |location=London |pages=159 |oclc=614334788 |id=BLL01010068507}}</ref>


One historian created a similar device for remembering Henry VIII's six Thomases ([[Thomas Wolsey|Wolsey]], [[Thomas More|More]], [[Thomas Cromwell|Cromwell]], [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk|Howard]], [[Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton|Wriothesley]], and [[Thomas Cranmer|Cranmer]]): "Died, beheaded, beheaded, Self-slaughtered, burned, survived."<ref>In the Lion's Court (Book Review) By: Jones, Robert C. ''Library Journal. ''3/1/2002, Vol. 127 Issue 4, p121. 1/7p.</ref>

===Technicalities===
{{Further|Annulment|Declaration of nullity|Divorce}}
The [[epigram]] ''divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived'' is widely known to Anglophone students of world history<ref>Smith, Claire, and Dan Nuttall. “Move Me On.” ''Teaching History'', no. 142, 2011, pp. 56–59. ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>http://www.jstor.org/stable/43260439</nowiki>. Accessed 28 Jan. 2023.</ref> but there are a few historical footnotes to keep in mind.

As far as the fates of the wives, technically, the poem should be "Annulled, annulled, died; annulled, beheaded, survived" as Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn was annulled before her beheading, as well as Catherine of Aragon and Anne of Cleves' marriages being annulled (religious) instead of divorced (civic). The basis of the Catherine of Aragon annulment was a [[Retroactive continuity|retcon]] of the previous narrative of her transition from Arthur to Henry; the basis of the Anne of Cleves annulment was [[Consummation|non-consummation]].

It is also noted that while Catherine Parr outlived Henry, Anne of Cleves also survived him and was the last of his queens to die.

===Descendants and relationships===
Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, and Jane Seymour each gave Henry VIII one child who survived infancy: two daughters and one son. All three of these children eventually ascended to the throne as [[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]], [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary I]], and [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]].

Catherine Howard and Anne Boleyn were first cousins and were both beheaded due to accusations of infidelity. Jane Seymour was second cousin to both Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. Several of Henry's wives worked in service to another wife, typically as a [[lady-in-waiting]]: Anne Boleyn served Catherine of Aragon, Jane Seymour served both Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn, and Catherine Howard served Anne of Cleves.

==Catherine of Aragon==
{{Main|Catherine of Aragon}}
[[File:Catalina de Aragón, palacio de Lambeth.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Catherine of Aragon]]
[[Catherine of Aragon]] (16 December 1485{{spaced ndash}}7 January 1536; {{lang-es|link=no|Catalina de Aragón}}) was Henry's first wife.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Erickson |first1=Carolly |title=Great Harry: A Biography of Henry the VII |date=2007 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0312168582 |page=[https://archive.org/details/greatharry00eric_0/page/48 48] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/greatharry00eric_0/page/48 }}</ref><ref name=":1" /> In modern sources, her name is most commonly spelled ''Catherine'', although she spelled and signed her name with a "K," which was an accepted spelling in England at the time.<ref>{{Cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-4891|title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|last1=Davies|first1=C.S.L.|last2=Edwards|first2=John|year=2011|location=England|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/4891|chapter-url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-4891|doi-access=free|chapter=Katherine [Catalina, Catherine, Katherine of Aragon] (1485–1536)}}</ref>

Catherine was originally married to [[Arthur, Prince of Wales|Arthur]], Henry's older brother. Catherine was a year older than Arthur and six years older than Henry. After Arthur died in 1502, a [[papal dispensation]] was obtained to enable her to marry Henry, though the marriage did not occur until he came to the throne in 1509, when Henry was 18 years old and Catherine was 24. Catherine became pregnant in 1510, but the girl was stillborn. She became pregnant again in 1511 and gave birth to [[Henry, Duke of Cornwall]], who died almost two months later. She gave birth to a stillborn boy in 1513, and to another boy who died within hours in 1515. Finally, at age 31, she bore a healthy daughter, [[Mary I of England|Mary]], in 1516. After giving birth to Mary, Catherine is quoted to say, "We are both young. If it was a daughter this time, by the Grace of God the sons will follow". Unfortunately, she never did have that son Henry so desperately wanted.<ref>{{cite web |title=Katherine of Aragon: Henry VIII's Most Devoted Wife and Queen?|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/katherine-of-aragon/#gs.pcqfgk |website=Historic Royal Palaces|publisher=Historic Royal Palaces|access-date=2023-02-07}}</ref> It was two years before she conceived again; the pregnancy ended with a short-lived girl.

It is said<ref>{{Cite web|title=Henry VIII and Katherine of Aragon – Hampton Court Palace|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/katherine-of-aragon/#:~:text=Henry%20married%20Katherine%20because%20he,and%20a%20powerful%20political%20team.|url-status=live|access-date=10 May 2021|website=Historic Royal Palaces}}</ref> that Henry truly loved Catherine of Aragon, as he professed it many times. However, Henry became concerned he did not have a son to continue the Tudor dynasty.

Henry had affairs with [[Mistresses of Henry VIII|several mistresses]] throughout this marriage, including with [[Mary Boleyn]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ridgway|first=Claire|title=Unravelling Mary Boleyn by Sarah Bryson|url=https://www.tudorsociety.com/unravelling-mary-boleyn-by-sarah-bryson/|url-status=live|access-date=10 May 2021|website=The Tudor Society|date=19 July 2015}}</ref> – the daughter of [[Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire|Thomas Boleyn]], English Ambassador to France. Later, Henry turned his attention to her younger sister, [[Anne Boleyn]], appointing her as [[lady-in-waiting]] to Catherine. Unlike her sister, Anne refused to become his mistress. Henry wrote many love letters<ref>{{Cite web|last=theanneboleynfiles|title=Henry VIII's Love Letters to Anne Boleyn|url=https://www.theanneboleynfiles.com/resources/anne-boleyn-words/henry-viiis-love-letters-to-anne-boleyn/|access-date=2021-12-29|website=The Anne Boleyn Files|date=30 November 2010|language=en-gb}}</ref> to Anne. By the late 1520s, it was clear Catherine (now in her mid-40s) would not bear any more children, and Henry, increasingly desperate for a legitimate son, planned to marry Anne.

Henry, at the time a Roman Catholic, sought the Pope's approval for an [[annulment]] on the grounds that Catherine had first been his brother's wife. He used a passage from the Old Testament (Leviticus Chapter 20 Verse 21): "If a man shall take his brother’s wife, it is an impurity; he hath uncovered his brother’s nakedness; they shall be childless." Despite the Pope's refusal to annul the marriage, Henry separated from Catherine in 1531; Catherine was 46, Henry was 40. He ordered the highest church official in England, [[Thomas Cranmer]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], to convene a court. On 23 May 1533,<ref name=":1">Lacey Baldwin Smith, Henry VIII: The Mask of Royalty, p. 116</ref> Cranmer ruled the marriage to Catherine null and void. On 28 May 1533, he pronounced the King legally married to Anne (with whom Henry had already secretly exchanged wedding vows). This led to England breaking from the Roman Catholic Church and the establishment of the [[Church of England]].

Shortly after marrying Anne Boleyn, Henry sent Catherine away. She did not see Henry, or their daughter [[Mary I of England|Mary]], again before her death in isolation at age 51.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catherine of Aragon|url=https://tudorhistory.org/aragon/|access-date=2021-12-29|website=tudorhistory.org}}</ref>

[[William Shakespeare]], in the play [[Henry VIII (play)|''Henry VIII'']], called Catherine "The queen of earthly queens" (2.4.138).

==Anne Boleyn==
{{Main|Anne Boleyn}}
[[File:AnneBoleynHever.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Anne Boleyn]]
[[Anne Boleyn]] (c. 1507{{spaced ndash}}19 May 1536) was Henry's second wife and the mother of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. Henry's marriage to Anne and her execution made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval at the start of the [[English Reformation]]. She was the daughter of Sir [[Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire|Thomas Boleyn]] and Lady [[Elizabeth Boleyn, Countess of Wiltshire|Elizabeth Boleyn]] (born Lady Elizabeth Howard), and she was of nobler birth than [[Jane Seymour]], Henry's later wife. She was dark-haired with beautiful features and lively manners; she was educated in Europe. She studied French and lived there for part of her life. She was largely as a lady-in-waiting to Queen [[Claude of France]].

Anne resisted the king's attempts of letters to seduce her and refused to become his mistress as her sister [[Mary Boleyn]] had been. It soon became the one absorbing object of the King's desires to secure a divorce from his wife [[Catherine of Aragon]] so that he could marry Anne. He wrote a love letter that provides evidence of some level of intimacy between them, in which he admires her "pretty duckies" (breasts).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/henrytoanne.htm|title=Love Letter of King Henry VIII to Anne Boleyn, 1533.|website=www.luminarium.org}}</ref> It eventually became clear that [[Pope Clement VII]] was unlikely to give the king an annulment, so Henry began to break the power of the Catholic Church in England for the current obsession he had with Anne Boleyn.

Henry dismissed [[Thomas Wolsey]] from public office and later had the Boleyn family's chaplain [[Thomas Cranmer]] appointed [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. In 1533, Henry and Anne went through a secret wedding service.<ref name="wbe-boleyn">"Anne Boleyn 1507–1536." World Book Encyclopedia. "19th ed". 2001. Print.</ref> Henry was 42, and Anne was in her late 20s. She soon became pregnant and there was a second, public wedding service in London on 25 January 1533. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be good and valid. Soon after, the Pope launched sentences of ex-communication against the King and the Archbishop. As a result of Anne's marriage to the King, the Church of England was forced to break with Rome and was brought under the king's control.<ref name="wbe-boleyn" /> Anne was crowned Queen Consort of England on 1 June 1533, and she gave birth to Henry's second daughter [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]] on 7 September. She failed to produce a male heir, her only son being stillborn. Henry grew tired of Anne and waiting for a son that she could not produce. Henry had their marriage annulled. Henry looked around for another mistress while [[Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex|Thomas Cromwell]] devised a plot to execute her.

Despite unconvincing evidence, she was found guilty of engaging in relations with her brother, George Boleyn, and Anne, no older than 31 years old, was beheaded on 19 May 1536 for adultery, incest, and high treason. After the coronation of her daughter, Elizabeth I, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly due to the works of [[John Foxe]]. Over the centuries, she has inspired or been mentioned in numerous [[Anne Boleyn in popular culture|artistic and cultural works]].

==Jane Seymour==
{{Main|Jane Seymour}}
[[File:Hans Holbein the Younger - Jane Seymour, Queen of England - Google Art Project.jpg|140px|right|thumb|Jane Seymour]]
[[Jane Seymour]] ({{circa|1508|lk=yes}}{{spaced ndash}}24 October 1537) was Henry's third wife. She served [[Catherine of Aragon]] as [[maid-of-honour]] and was one of [[Anne Boleyn|Anne Boleyn's]] ladies-in-waiting.<ref>Jokinen, Anniina. "[http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/sixwives.htm The Six Wives of King Henry VII]" 2007. Web. 7 May 2009.</ref>

Jane, the daughter of [[John Seymour (1474–1536)|Sir John Seymour]], a knight, and [[Margery Wentworth]], was most likely born at [[Wulfhall]], [[Wiltshire]],{{sfn|Norton|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FiXjKTkR0QYC&pg=PA11 11]}} although [[West Bower Manor]] in Somerset has also been suggested.<ref>{{NHLE|desc=West Bower Manor with barn|num=1058940|access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref> Her birth date is not recorded although rumored. She was of lower birth than most of Henry's wives, only being able to read and write a little, but was much better at [[needlework]] and [[household management]], which were considered much more necessary for the time.

Jane married Henry VIII on 20 May 1536, at the [[Palace of Whitehall]], [[Whitehall]], [[London]], the day after Anne Boleyn's execution. Jane was 28, Henry was 45. Almost a year and a half after marriage, Jane gave birth to a male heir, [[Edward VI of England|Edward]], but she died twelve days later from postpartum complications. Jane was the only wife to receive a proper queen's burial. When Henry died, he chose to be buried next to her in [[St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle]]. It is unclear if this decision was purely sentimental or a political signal designed to reinforce the legitimacy of his youthful heir, Edward VI.

==Anne of Cleves==
{{Main|Anne of Cleves }}
[[File:AnneCleves.jpg|140px|right|thumb|Anne of Cleves]]
[[Anne of Cleves]] (28 June or 22 September 1515{{spaced ndash}}16 July 1557) was a German princess,<ref>"Anne of Cleves." World Book Encyclopedia. "19th ed". 2001. Print.</ref> Henry's fourth wife and [[List of English consorts|queen consort of England]], although not crowned, for just six months in 1540, from 6 January to 12 July. Henry may have referred to her as "''A Flanders mare''", and the label has stuck.<ref>Burnett "History of the Reformation of England" Print</ref>

Anne of Cleves' portrait was painted by [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Hans Holbein]] and sent to King Henry to evaluate to be his future wife. Her brother didn't allow Holbein to paint whilst looking directly at Anne and her little sister's faces so they had to wear veils whilst being painted. Henry fell in love with her portrait and wanted her sent to him. When she arrived, Henry was not impressed. Henry complained of her not looking like her portrait. Her pre-contract of marriage with [[Francis I, Duke of Lorraine]], was cited as grounds for annulment, even though their marriage did not proceed. Anne did not resist the annulment, claiming the marriage had not been consummated and was rewarded with a generous settlement including [[Hever Castle]], the former home of the Boleyns, Henry's former in-laws. She was given the name "The King's Sister" and was a lifelong friend to him and his children; Anne of Cleves was approximately the same age as Henry VIII's eldest surviving daughter, Mary. She outlived the King and all his wives, dying at Chelsea Old Manor on 16 July 1557; the most likely cause of her death was [[cancer]].{{sfn|Fraser|2003|p=504]}} She was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]] on 3 August.{{sfn|Machyn|1968|pp=145–146}}

==Catherine Howard==
{{Main|Catherine Howard}}
[[File:HowardCatherine02.jpeg|140px|right|thumb|Catherine Howard]]
[[Catherine Howard]] (c. 1521{{spaced ndash}}13 February 1542), also spelled Katheryn, was Henry's fifth wife, between 1540 and 1542. She was the daughter of [[Lord Edmund Howard]] and [[Joyce Culpeper]], cousin to [[Anne Boleyn]] (the second wife of Henry VIII), second cousin to [[Jane Seymour]] (the third wife of Henry VIII), and niece to [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk]]. She was raised in the household of her step-grandmother [[Agnes Howard, Duchess of Norfolk|Agnes Tilney]], the [[Duchess of Norfolk|Dowager Duchess of Norfolk]]. Her uncle Thomas Howard was a prominent politician at Henry's court, and he secured her a place in the household of Henry's fourth wife, [[Anne of Cleves]], where Catherine caught the King's interest. She married him on 28 July 1540 at [[Oatlands Palace]] in Surrey, just 19 days after the annulment of his marriage to Anne. He was 49, and she was still a teenager, likely around 18. (Catherine Howard was younger than Henry VIII's oldest child, Mary I, who was 24 years old when he married his fifth wife; Elizabeth was 9, and Edward was 3.)

On 1 November 1541, Henry was informed of her alleged adultery with [[Thomas Culpeper]], her distant cousin; [[Henry Mannox]], who had given her private music lessons while she lived with her step-grandmother; and [[Francis Dereham]], a previous boyfriend from her teenage years.<ref>"Catherine Howard." World Book Encyclopaedia. "19th ed". 2001. Print.</ref> Catherine was stripped of her title as queen in November 1541 and was beheaded in February 1542 on the grounds of treason for committing adultery.

==Catherine Parr==
{{Main|Catherine Parr}}
[[File:Catherine Parr from NPG.jpg|140px|right|thumb|Catherine Parr]]
[[Catherine Parr]] (1512{{spaced ndash}}5 September 1548), also spelled Kateryn, was the sixth and last wife of Henry VIII, 1543–1547. She was the daughter of [[Sir Thomas Parr]] of Kendal and his wife, [[Maud Green]]. Through her father, Catherine was a descendant of [[John of Gaunt]], son of King [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]. Through John of Gaunt's daughter [[Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmoreland]] (Henry's great-great-grandmother), she was Henry's third cousin, once removed. By Henry's paternal descent from another of John of Gaunt's children, [[John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset]], the two were also fourth cousins once removed.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}

Catherine showed herself to be the restorer of Henry's court as a family home for his children. She was determined to present the royal household as a close-knit one to demonstrate strength through unity to Henry's opposition.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Katherine Parr {{!}} Hampton Court Palace {{!}} Historic Royal Palaces|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/katherine-parr/|url-status=live|access-date=10 May 2021|website=Historic Royal Palaces}}</ref> Perhaps Catherine's most significant achievement was Henry's passing of an [[Third Succession Act|act]] that confirmed both [[Mary I of England|Mary]]'s and [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]]'s line in succession for the throne, despite the fact that they had both been made illegitimate by divorce or remarriage. At the time of the passage of the act, Catherine Parr was 31, Mary was 27, Elizabeth was 10, and Henry was 52. Such was Henry's trust in Catherine that he chose her to rule as Regent while he was attending to the [[Italian War of 1542–46|war in France]], and in the unlikely event of the loss of his life, she was to serve as Regent until nine-year-old [[Edward VI of England|Edward]] came of age.

Catherine also has a special place in history, as she was the most married queen of England, having had four husbands in all; Henry was her third. She had been widowed twice before marrying Henry. After Henry's death, she married [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley|Thomas Seymour]], uncle of [[Edward VI of England]], to whom she had formed an attachment before her marriage with Henry. She had one child by Seymour, [[Mary Seymour|Mary]], and died shortly after childbirth, at age 35 or 36. Lady Mary's history is unknown, but she is not believed to have survived childhood.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catherine Parr: Children|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/sixwives/meet/cp_handbook_children2.html|url-status=live|access-date=11 May 2021|website=The Six Wives of Henry VIII}}</ref> She is buried at [[Sudeley Castle]] in the town of [[Winchcombe]].

==Ancestry==
{{Family tree of the Wives of Henry VIII}}

==Armorial bearings==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Coat of arms of the wives of King Henry VIII of England
|-
!style="width: 220px;"|Coat of arms
!style="width: 12%;"|Armiger (Date as Queen)
!Notes
!style="width: 13%;"|Badges
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Catherine of Aragon.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Catherine of Aragon]] 1509–1533
| The [[Royal Arms of England|Royal Arms]], impaled with that of her parents the [[Catholic Monarchs]]. The [[blazon]]:<ref name="Boutell 242">Boutell p. 242</ref><ref name="Pinces 141">Pinces & Pinces p. 141</ref>
* [[Quartering (heraldry)|Quarterly]], 1st and 4th grand quarter; Quarterly, [[Gules]], a castle [[Or (heraldry)|Or]] ([[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]]), [[Argent]], [[lion rampant]] [[Purpure]] ([[Kingdom of León|León]]).
* 2nd and 3rd grand quarter; Or, Four pallets Gules ([[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]]), impaling, Or, Four pallets Gules, and in the flanks Argent, an eagle displayed [[Sable (heraldry)|Sable]] ([[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]]).
* In the base point, Argent, a [[pomegranate]] slipped [[Tincture (heraldry)#Proper|Proper]] ([[Emirate of Granada|Granada]]).
[[Supporter]]s:<ref name="Boutell 242"/><ref name="Pinces 141"/>
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or [[St Edward's Crown|imperially crowned]] Proper.
* Sinister: an Apostolic eagle Sable ([[John the Evangelist|Eagle of Saint John]]), wings elevated, membered Or.
[[Heraldic badge|Badge]]s:<ref name="Aveling 307">Aveling p. 307</ref>
* The pomegranate, the rose and the sheaf of arrows.
----
The sinister supporter came from the [[Coat of arms of the King of Spain|coat of arms of her father]], [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]], who displayed his shield on the breast of a single-headed Apostolic eagle displayed. Catherine's badges were a commemoration of the [[Granada War|conquest of Granada]] from the [[Emirate of Granada|Moors]], when the superiority of the Spanish archers gained a victory. Both badges were combined with the [[Tudor rose]] (Henry's dynastic symbol).<ref name="Pinces 142">Pinces & Pinces p. 142</ref>
| [[File:Pomegranate & Rose Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Anne Boleyn.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Anne Boleyn]] 1533–1536
|The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own arms as [[Marquess of Pembroke]], which alluded to several of her ancestors, however remote. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 242"/><ref name="Pinces 144">Pinces & Pinces p. 144</ref>
* Quarterly of six, 1st, 2nd and 3rd quarter, were [[Augmentation of honour|Augmentations]], 1st; Gules, three lions passant guardant Or, a label [[Azure (heraldry)|Azure]], with three [[fleur-de-lis]] on each point Or ([[Duchy of Lancaster]]), 2nd; Azure, semé-de-lys Or, a label of three points Gules ([[Capetian House of Anjou|Anjou-Naples]]), 3rd; Gules, a lion passant guardant Or ([[Duke of Aquitaine|Aquitaine]]).
* 4th; Quarterly, I and IV, Or, a chief indented Azure ([[Earl of Ormond (Ireland)|Butler]]), II and III, Argent, a lion rampant Sable crowned Gules ([[Viscount Rochford|Rochford]]).
* 5th; Gules, three lions passant guardant Or, a label of three-point Argent ([[Thomas of Brotherton]]).
* 6th; [[Chequy]] Or and Azure ([[Earl of Surrey|Warenne]]).
Supporters:<ref name="Pinces 144"/><ref name="Boutell 243">Boutell p. 243</ref>
* Dexter: a leopard gorged with a royal coronet pendant therefrom a chain reflexed, over the back Or.
* Sinister: a male griffin Argent, armed and tufted Or similarly gorged and chained.
Badge:<ref name="Aveling 308">Aveling p. 308</ref>
* A crowned falcon holding a sceptre.
----
The noted antiquarian and heraldist [[Charles Boutell]] commented that the: "Arms of Queen Anne Boleyn are the first which exemplify the usage, introduced by Henry VIII, of granting to his Consorts "Augmentations" to their paternal arms. It is a striking illustration of the degenerate condition of [[Heraldry]] under the second [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor Sovereign]]."<ref name="Boutell 242"/> The dexter supporter was intended to represent the leopard of [[Guyenne]] (Aquitaine). The sinister supporter was a [[Charge (heraldry)#Animals|heraldic creature]] from the badge of the Boleyn, as descended from Earls of Ormond (Butler).<ref name="Willment 69">Willement p. 69</ref> The falcon badge was granted to Anne as Countess of Pembroke, this badge was also used by her daughter Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]].
| [[File:Silver Falcon Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Jane Seymour.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Jane Seymour]] 1536–1537
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own arms and that of the [[Seymour family]]. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/><ref name="Pinces 146">Pinces & Pinces p. 146</ref>
* Quarterly of six, 1st; an Augmentation, Or, on a pile Gules, between six fleur-de-lis Azure, three lions passant guardant Or.
* 2nd; Gules, two wings conjoined in lure Or ([[Duke of Somerset|Seymour]]).
* 3rd; [[Vair]] Azure and Argent ([[Marquess of Hertford|Beauchamp]]).
* 4th; Argent, three demi-lions rampant, Gules (Stiny).
* 5th; Per bend, Argent and Gules, three roses, bendwise countercharged (MacWilliams).
* 6th; Argent, on a bend Gules, three leopard's head Or.
Supporters:<ref name="Boutell 243"/>
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or imperially crowned Proper.
* Sinister: Unicorn Argent.
Badge:<ref name="Aveling 308"/>
* A phoenix rising from a castle, between Tudor roses.
----
An alternative set of supporters for Queen Jane was reportedly: "Dexter a unicorn argent, crowned and unguled or, collared with a double wreath of white daisies and red roses; Sinister, a panther incensed, striped with various colours, gorged with a coronet of crosses patée and fleurs de lys alternately and chained or."<ref name="Pinces 146"/> The badge of the phoenix rising from the flames was granted posthumously by her son King [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] to his maternal relations (who became the Dukes of Somerset), who continue to use it as a crest in their coat of arms to this day.<ref name="Willment 71">Willement p. 71</ref><ref name="Fox Davies 597">Fox Davies p. 597</ref>
| [[File:Phoenix and Castle Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Anne of Cleves.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Anne of Cleves]] January–July 1540
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her father [[John III, Duke of Cleves|John III]], [[Duchy of Cleves|Duke of Cleves]]. The blazon:<ref name="Pinces 147">Pinces & Pinces p. 147</ref>
* Quarterly of seven, four in chief and three in base, 1st; Gules, an Inescutcheon Argent, overall an escarbuncle Or (Cleves).
* 2nd; Or, a lion rampant Sable ([[Duchy of Jülich|Jülich]]).
* 3rd; Azure, a lion rampant crowned Or ([[County of Schwarzburg|Schwarzburg]]).
* 4th; Argent, a lion rampant double-queued gules, crowned Or ([[Duchy of Limburg|Limburg]]).
* 5th; Or, a fess chequy Argent and Gules ([[County of Mark|Mark]]).
* 6th; Argent, a lion rampant Gules, crowned Azure ([[Berg (state)|Berg]]).
* 7th; Argent, three chevronels Gules ([[County of Ravensberg|Ravensberg]]).
Alternatively the arms of Cleves is used only, the blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/>
* Gules, an Inescutcheon Argent, overall an Escarbuncle Or (Cleves)
Badge:<ref name="Willment 72">Willement p. 72</ref>
* a lion rampant Sable
* a escarbuncle Or
----
The black lion badge was apparently derived from her mother [[Maria of Jülich-Berg]], who was the sole heir of [[William IV, Duke of Jülich-Berg|William IV]] the Duke of Jülich-Berg.<ref name="Willment 72"/>
|
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Catherine Howard.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Catherine Howard]] 1540–1541
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own as granted by the King. Her arms incorporated those of her family the [[Howard family|Howards]]. Catherine's father [[Lord Edmund Howard]], was the third son of [[Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk]]. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/><ref name="Pinces 148">Pinces & Pinces p. 148</ref>
* Quarterly of four, 1st and 4th were Augmentations, 1st; Azure, three Fleurs-de-lys, in pale Or, between two flasches Ermine, each charged with a Rose Gules.
* 2nd; Gules, three lions passant guardant Or, a label of three-point Argent (Thomas of Brotherton).
* 3rd; Gules, a bend between six cross-crosslets fitchy Argent, for augmentation to be charged on the bend, the [[Royal coat of arms of Scotland|Royal Shield of Scotland]] having a demi-lion only, which is pierced through the mouth with an arrow (Howard).
* 4th; Azure, two Lions of England, the verge of the escutcheon charged with four half fleurs-de-lys Or.
Supporters:
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or imperially crowned Proper.
* Sinister: a white horse of Howard.
||
|-
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Catherine Parr.svg|220px|center]]
| style="text-align: center" | [[Catherine Parr]] 1543–1547
| The Royal Arms, impaled with that of her own as granted by the King. The arms allude to those of her family and the titles of her father [[Sir Thomas Parr]]. The blazon:<ref name="Boutell 243"/><ref name="Pinces 148"/><ref name="Boutell 244">Boutell p. 244</ref>
* Quarterly of six, 1st; an Augmentation, Argent, on a Pile Gules, between six Roses Gules, three other Roses Argent.
* 2nd; Argent, two bars Azure, within a bordure engrailed Sable (Parr).
* 3rd; Or, three water-bougets Sable (Ross of [[Kendal]]).
* 4th; Vairy, a fesse Gules (Marmion).
* 5th; Azure, three chevrons interlaced in base, a chief Or ([[Baron FitzHugh|FitzHugh]]).
* 6th; Vert, three harts at gaze Or (Green).
Supporters:<ref name="Pinces 148"/>
* Dexter: a lion guardant Or imperially crowned Proper.
* Sinister: a panther incensed, striped with various colours, gorged with a coronet of crosses patée and fleurs de lys alternately and chained Or.
Badge:<ref name="Aveling 308"/>
* A maiden's head crowned, rising from a large Tudor rose.
----
The sinister supporter was inherited from her maternal grandfather [[William FitzHugh, 4th Baron FitzHugh]]. Her badge was granted by the king, it combined the Tudor rose badge of Henry with a previous one used by the Queen's family. The House of Parr had assumed as a badge "a maiden's head, couped below the breasts, vested in ermine and gold, her hair of the last, and her temples encircled with red and white roses." This they inherited from the badge of Ross, of Kendal.<ref name="Willment 75">Willement p. 75</ref>
| [[File:Rose Maiden Badge.svg|120px|center]]
|}

== In popular culture ==

===Theatrical adaptations===
''[[Six (musical)|Six]]'' is a pop-rock musical featuring each of Henry's wives. A major theme of the show is that women should be the ones to tell their stories and how much more there is to their stories than how their relationships with Henry ended. The musical was written by [[Toby Marlow]] and [[Lucy Moss]].<ref name="http://feastcreative.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sixthemusical.com/about|title=Six the Musical|website=www.sixthemusical.com|language=en-GB|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> It originated in Edinburgh in 2017, moving to the West End in January 2019. In May 2019, ''Six'' had its North American premier at the Chicago Shakespeare Theater.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chicagoshakes.com/plays_and_events/six|title=Chicago Shakespeare Theater: SIX|website=www.chicagoshakes.com|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> and moved to Broadway in March 2020. The tag line of the show, "Divorced. Beheaded. LIVE in concert!", alludes to the rhyme describing the queens' fates.<ref name="http://feastcreative.com"/>

=== TV references ===
Season 1 Episode 2<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Guide|first=British Comedy|title=Horrible Histories Series 1, Episode 2|url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/tv/horrible_histories/episodes/1/2/|access-date=2020-08-21|website=British Comedy Guide|language=en-GB}}</ref> of the BBC One TV series ''[[Horrible Histories (2009 TV series)|Horrible Histories]]'' included a "Divorced, Beheaded and Died" song<ref>{{Cite web|title=Horrible Histories: Terrible Tudors: Divorced, Beheaded, and Died |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JsQXmqI0wYo |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/JsQXmqI0wYo |archive-date=2021-12-13 |url-status=live|access-date=2020-08-21|website=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and talk-show-style comedy skit starring Henry VIII.<ref name=":2" />
https://www.pbs.org/show/secrets-six-wives/

===In music===
[[Rick Wakeman]]'s solo album ''[[The Six Wives of Henry VIII (album)|The Six Wives of Henry VIII]]'' was conceptually inspired by the six wives. The album features six songs, each named after Henry VIII's wife. The order of songs does not match the chronological order of the marriages.

The 1910 music hall song [[I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am|"I'm Henry VIII, I Am"]] was about a woman who had 8 husbands, all named Henry.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last=Aveling |first=S. T. |title=Heraldry: Ancient and Modern including Boutell's Heraldry |url=https://archive.org/details/heraldryancient00boutgoog |year=1890 |publisher=Frederick Warne and Co. |location=London |isbn=0548122040 }}
* {{cite book |last=Boutell |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Boutell |title=A Manual of Heraldry, Historical and Popular |url=https://archive.org/details/amanualheraldry00boutgoog |year=1863 |publisher=Windsor And Newton |location=London |isbn=1146289545 }}
* {{citation |last=Brooke-Little |first=J.P., FSA |author-link=John Brooke-Little |title=Boutell's Heraldry |orig-year=1950 |edition=Revised |year=1978 |publisher=Frederick Warne LTD |location=London |isbn= 0723220964 }}
* {{cite book |last=Fraser |first=Antonia |author-link=Antonia Fraser |title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII |publication-place=London |publisher=Phoenix |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-84212-633-2
|oclc=1245812271 |url=https://archive.org/details/sixwivesofhenryv0000fras_p2d1 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Machyn |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Machyn |editor-last=Nichols |editor-first=John Gough |title=The Diary of Henry Machyn, Citizen and Merchant-Taylor of London, from A.D. 1550 to A.D. 1563 |series=Camden Society. Series I |volume=42 |location=New York; London |publisher=AMS Press
|year=1968 |url=https://archive.org/stream/diaryofhenrymach00machrich |isbn=978-0-548-94254-3 |oclc=664246000}}
* {{cite book |last=Norton |first=Elizabeth |author-link=Elizabeth Norton |title=Jane Seymour: Henry VIII's True Love |location=Chalford |publisher=Amberley Publishing |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FiXjKTkR0QYC |isbn=9781848681026}}
* {{citation|last1=Pinces|first1=John Harvey | last2 =Pinces | first2 =Rosemary |author-link=John Pinches|title=The Royal Heraldry of England |series=Heraldry Today |year=1974|publisher=Hollen Street Press |location=Slough, Buckinghamshire |isbn=090045525X}}
* {{cite book |last=Weir |first=Alison |title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII |publisher=Vintage
|year=2007 |orig-year=1991 |isbn=978-1-4464-4909-7 |oclc=1100698192 |url=https://archive.org/details/sixwivesofhenryv0000weir_o4f8 |url-access=registration}}
* {{citation|last=Willement|first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Willement |title=Regal Heraldry: the Armorial Insignia of the Kings and Queens of England, from Coeval Authorities |year=1821 |publisher=W. Wilson |location=London | url =https://archive.org/details/regalheraldryarm01will }}

[[Category:Cultural lists|6 Wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:House of Tudor|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:Wives of Henry VIII| ]]
[[Category:Lists of wives]]
[[Category:Women of the Tudor period|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:16th-century English women|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:English history-related lists|wives of Henry VIII]]
[[Category:Lists of English women|Henry VIII]]

Chapman Mills Marketplace

2023-03-01T18:23:15Z

72.142.115.198:

{{infobox shopping mall
| name = Chapman Mills Marketplace
| image = Chapman Mills Marketplace 2 mosbo6.jpg
| caption = Marketplace Avenue looking west from Riocan Avenue
| address = {{nowrap|50 Marketplace Avenue}} [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]] K2J 5G3
| opening_date =
| developer = [[RioCan Real Estate Investment Trust|RioCan]]
| manager =
| owner =
| number_of_stores = 66
| number_of_anchors = 1
| floors =
| parking =
| website =
| publictransit = {{rint|ottawa|transitway}} [[Marketplace station|Marketplace]]
| mapframe=no
}}

'''Chapman Mills Marketplace''' is a shopping centre located in the [[Barrhaven]] neighbourhood of [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], Canada. The borders for the shopping district are [[Strandherd Drive]] to the north, Greenbank Road to the west, Longfields Drive to the east, and Chapman Mills Drive to the south.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.riocan.com/docs/default-source/default-document-library/43141.pdf?sfvrsn=0|title=43141.pdf|date=August 31, 2015|access-date=August 31, 2015|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924091253/http://www.riocan.com/docs/default-source/default-document-library/43141.pdf?sfvrsn=0|archive-date=September 24, 2015}}</ref>

The centre consists of 20 buildings housing 66 stores and services including a grocery store, the prosecution rates are high for bored students ([[Loblaws]], its [[anchor tenant]]), big box stores ([[Winners]], [[Walmart Canada|Walmart]]), a cinema ([[Cineplex Entertainment|Cineplex]]) and various restaurants. The property is owned by [[RioCan Real Estate Investment Trust|RioCan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.riocan.com/leasing-portfolio/property/chapman-mills-marketplace|title=Chapman Mills Marketplace|date=August 30, 2015|access-date=August 30, 2015}}</ref>

[[Marketplace station]] on the southwestern portion of the [[Transitway (Ottawa)|Transitway]] provides [[OC Transpo]] bus service for the centre.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Ottawa shopping centres}}

{{coord|45.27030|N|75.74185|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Shopping districts and streets in Canada]]
[[Category:Shopping malls in Ottawa]]

Saint-Cyprien-de-Napierville

2023-02-28T19:48:12Z

72.142.115.198: 2ivct7

{{Use Canadian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
|name = Saint-Cyprien-de-Napierville
|official_name =
|native_name =
|other_name =
|settlement_type = [[Municipality (Quebec)|Municipality]]
|image_skyline = Maison Nathaniel-Douglass.jpg
|imagesize =
|q3r2nfvwi2uf4by 8f0 =
|image_flag =
|flag_size =
|image_seal =
|seal_size =
|image_shield =
|shield_size =
|image_blank_emblem =
|blank_emblem_type =
|blank_emblem_size =
|nickname =
|image_map = Saint-Cyprien-de-Napierville Quebec location diagram.PNG
|map_caption = Location within Les Jardins-de-Napierville RCM.
|pushpin_map = Canada Southern Quebec
|pushpin_map_caption = Location in southern Quebec.
|pushpin_label_position = top
|pushpin_label = {{nowrap|St-Cyprien-de-Napierville}}
|coordinates = {{coord|45|11|N|73|25|W|region:CA-QC|display=inline,title}}
|coor_pinpoint =
|coordinates_footnotes = <ref name="toponymie"/>
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{CAN}}
|subdivision_type1 = [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]]
|subdivision_name1 = {{QC}}
|subdivision_type2 = [[Region (Quebec)|Region]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Montérégie]]
|subdivision_type3 = [[Regional county municipality|RCM]]
|subdivision_name3 = [[Les Jardins-de-Napierville Regional County Municipality|Les Jardins-de-Napierville]]
|established_title =
|established_date =
|established_title1 = Constituted
|established_date1 = July 1, 1855
|established_title2 =
|established_date2 =
|established_title3 =
|established_date3 =
|founder =
|named_for =
|seat_type =
|seat =
|parts_type =
|parts =
|government_footnotes = <ref name="mamrot">[http://www.mamrot.gouv.qc.ca/repertoire-des-municipalites/fiche/municipalite/68035/ Ministère des Affaires municipales, des Régions et de l'Occupation du territoire: Saint-Cyprien-de-Napierville]</ref><ref>{{CanRiding|ID=1260|name=Beauharnois—Salaberry, Quebec}}</ref>
|government_type =
|leader_title = Mayor
|leader_name = André Tremblay
|leader_title1 = [[List of Canadian federal electoral districts|Federal riding]]
|leader_name1 = [[Beauharnois—Salaberry]]
|leader_title2 = [[List of Quebec provincial electoral districts|Prov. riding]]
|leader_name2 = [[Huntingdon (provincial electoral district)|Huntingdon]]
|area_footnotes = <ref name="mamrot"/><ref name="cp2021a">[https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&SearchText=Saint-Cyprien&GENDERlist=1&STATISTIClist=1&DGUIDlist=2021A00052468035 2021 Statistics Canada Census Profile: Saint-Cyprien-de-Napierville, Quebec]</ref>
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 98.30
|area_land_km2 = 97.75
|area_water_km2 =
|area_water_percent =
|area_urban_km2 =
|area_metro_km2 =
|area_blank1_title =
|area_blank1_km2 =
|elevation_footnotes =
|elevation_m =
|elevation_max_m =
|elevation_min_m =
|population_footnotes =<ref name="cp2021a"/>
|population_total = 1735
|population_as_of = 2021
|population_density_km2 = 17.7
|population_urban =
|population_density_urban_km2 =
|population_metro =
|population_density_metro_km2 =
|population_blank1_title = Pop 2016-2021
|population_blank1 = {{decrease}} 10%
|population_density_blank1_km2 =
|population_blank2_title = Dwellings
|population_blank2 = 717
|population_note =
|timezone = [[Eastern Time Zone|EST]]
|utc_offset = −5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = −4
|postal_code_type = [[Canadian postal code|Postal code(s)]]
|postal_code = [[List of J postal codes of Canada|J0J 1L0]]
|area_code = [[Area codes 450 and 579|450 and 579]]
|blank_name = Highways {{jct|state=QC|A|15}}
|blank_info = {{jct|state=QC|QC|217}} {{jct|state=QC|QC|219}} {{jct|state=QC|QC|221}}
|blank1_name =
|blank1_info =
|website = {{URL|www.st-cypriendenapierville.ca}}
|footnotes =
}}

'''Saint-Cyprien-de-Napierville''' is a municipality in [[Les Jardins-de-Napierville Regional County Municipality]] in [[Quebec]], [[Canada]], situated in the [[Montérégie]] administrative region. The population as of the [[Canada 2021 Census]] was 1,735. It completely encircles the village of [[Napierville, Quebec|Napierville]].

==Demographics==
===Population===
{{Canada census
|location = Saint-Cyprien-de-Napierville
|2021_population=1,735 | 2021_pop_delta=-10.0 | 2021_land_area=97.75 | 2021_pop_density=17.7
|2021_median_age=42.8| 2021_median_age_m=42.4 | 2021_median_age_f=42.8
|2021_total_pvt_dwell=717 |2021_mean_hh_income=87,000 | 2021_access_date=2022-08-23
|2016_population=1,927 | 2016_pop_delta=+3.1 | 2016_land_area=97.45 | 2016_pop_density=19.8
|2016_median_age=40.9| 2016_median_age_m=41.3 | 2016_median_age_f=40.4
|2016_total_pvt_dwell=762 |2016_mean_hh_income=72,192 | 2016_access_date=2022-07-04
|2011_population=1,869 |2011_pop_delta=+19.0 |2011_land_area=97.10 |2011_pop_density=19.2
|2011_median_age=39.3 |2011_median_age_m=39.2 |2011_median_age_f=39.4
|2011_total_pvt_dwell=707 |2011_mean_hh_income=54,668 |2011_access_date=2014-04-06
|2006_population=1,570 | 2006_pop_delta=+19.7 | 2006_land_area=97.10 | 2006_pop_density=16.2
|2006_median_age=38.6 | 2006_median_age_m=38.2 | 2006_median_age_f=39.0
|2006_total_pvt_dwell=597 | 2006_mean_hh_income=59,134 | 2006_access_date=2014-04-06
|2001_population=1,312 | 2001_pop_delta=+0.4 | 2001_land_area=97.10 | 2001_pop_density=13.5
|2001_median_age=37.4 | 2001_median_age_m=37.5 | 2001_median_age_f=37.4
|2001_total_pvt_dwell=490 |2001_mean_hh_income=50,706 | 2001_access_date=2014-04-06
|notes=
}}

{{Historical populations
| title= Historical Census Data - Saint-Cyprien-de-Napierville, Quebec<ref name="scpast">Statistics Canada: [[Canada 1996 Census|1996]], [[Canada 2001 Census|2001]], [[Canada 2006 Census|2006]], [[Canada 2011 Census|2011]], [[Canada 2016 Census|2016]], [[Canada 2021 Census|2021]] census</ref>
| percentages =
| shading = off
| align = none
| cols = 3
| 1991 |1237
| 1996 |1307
| 2001 |1312
| 2006 |1570
| 2011 |1869
| 2016 |1927
| 2021 |1735
| footnote =
}}

===Language===
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="19"|Canada Census Mother Tongue - Saint-Cyprien-de-Napierville, Quebec<ref name="scpast"/>
|-
! Census
|
! Total
|colspan="1"|
!colspan="3"|{{center|French}}
|colspan="1"|
!colspan="3"|{{center|English}}
|colspan="1"|
!colspan="3"|{{center|French & English}}
|colspan="1"|
!colspan="3"|{{center|Other}}
|-
! Year
|
! Responses
|
! Count
! Trend
! Pop %
|
! Count
! Trend
! Pop %
|
! Count
! Trend
! Pop %
|
! Count
! Trend
! Pop %
|-
| {{center|2021}}
|
| {{center|1,735}}
|
| 1,615
| {{decrease}} 11.5%
| 93.1%
|
| 75
| {{increase}} 15.4%
| 4.3%
|
| 20
| {{increase}} 300.0%
| 1.2%
|
| 30
| {{increase}} 20.0%
| 1.7%
|-
| {{center|2016}}
|
| {{center|1,925}}
|
| 1,825
| {{increase}} 4.0%
| 94.8%
|
| 65
| {{steady}} 0.0%
| 3.4%
|
| 5
| {{decrease}} 75.0%
| 0.3%
|
| 25
| {{decrease}} 16.7%
| 1.3%
|-
| {{center|2011}}
|
| {{center|1,870}}
|
| 1,755
| {{increase}} 15.1%
| 93.9%
|
| 65
| {{increase}} 225.0%
| 3.5%
|
| 20
| {{steady}} 0.0%
| 1.1%
|
| 30
| {{increase}} 100.0%
| 1.6%
|-
| {{center|2006}}
|
| {{center|1,575}}
|
| 1,525
| {{increase}} 25.0%
| 96.8%
|
| 20
| {{decrease}} 50.0%
| 1.3%
|
| 15
| {{decrease}} 40.0%
| 1.0%
|
| 15
| {{decrease}} 50.0%
| 1.0%
|-
| {{center|2001}}
|
| {{center|1,315}}
|
| 1,220
| {{decrease}} 2.0%
| 92.8%
|
| 40
| {{decrease}} 20.0%
| 3.0%
|
| 25
| {{increase}} 25.0%
| 1.9%
|
| 30
| {{increase}} 200.0%
| 2.3%
|-
| {{center|1996}}
|
| {{center|1,325}}
|
| 1,245
| n/a
| 94.0%
|
| 50
| n/a
| 3.8%
|
| 20
| n/a
| 1.5%
|
| 10
| n/a
| 0.8%
|}

==Notables places==

* Fromagerie le Métayer (Cheesemaker)
* Douglass Cemetery
* Nathaniel Douglass House

==See also==
*[[List of municipalities in Quebec]]

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="toponymie">{{toponymie |402429}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
*[http://www.st-cypriendenapierville.ca/ Saint-Cyprien-de-Napierville official website]
 
{{Geographic location
| title = '''Adjacent Municipal Subdivisions'''
| Centre = Saint-Cyprien-de-Napierville ''' (surrounds [[Napierville, Quebec|Napierville]])
| North = [[Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu]]
| Northeast = [[Saint-Blaise-sur-Richelieu, Quebec|Saint-Blaise-sur-Richelieu]]
| East = [[Saint-Valentin, Quebec|Saint-Valentin]]
| Southeast = [[Lacolle, Quebec|Lacolle]]
| South = [[Saint-Bernard-de-Lacolle, Quebec|Saint-Bernard-de-Lacolle]]
| Southwest =
| West = [[Saint-Patrice-de-Sherrington, Quebec|Saint-Patrice-de-Sherrington]]
| Northwest = [[Saint-Jacques-le-Mineur, Quebec|Saint-Jacques-le-Mineur]]
}}
 
{{Les Jardins-de-Napierville RCM|state=expanded}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Incorporated places in Les Jardins-de-Napierville Regional County Municipality]]
[[Category:Municipalities in Quebec]]

Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport

2023-02-27T18:27:17Z

72.142.115.198:

{{short description|Airport in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada}}
{{Redirect|Ottawa Airport|other airports in Ottawa|List of airports in the Ottawa area|the airport serving Ottawa County, Ohio|Erie-Ottawa International Airport|the airport serving Ottawa, Kansas|Ottawa Municipal Airport}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox airport
| name = Ottawa International Airport
| nativename = ''Aéroport international Macdonald-Cartier d'Ottawa''
| nativename-a =
| image = Ottawa Airport Logo.svg
| image-width = 250
| image2 = Ottawa Airport.jpg
| image2-width = 250
| IATA = YOW
| ICAO = CYOW
| WMO = 71628
| type = Public
| owner = [[Transport Canada]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tc.gc.ca/programs/Airports/Status/menu.htm |title=Airport Divestiture Status Report |publisher=Tc.gc.ca |date=2011-01-12 |access-date=2011-02-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223075046/http://www.tc.gc.ca/programs/Airports/Status/menu.htm |archive-date=2007-02-23 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| operator = Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport Authority
| city-served = [[Ottawa–Gatineau]]
| hub = <div>
*[[Porter Airlines]]
</div>
| focus_city = <div>
*[[Air Canada]]
*[[Flair Airlines]]
</div>
| timezone = [[Eastern Time Zone|EST]]
| utc = [[UTC−05:00]]
| summer = EDT
| utcs = [[UTC−04:00]]
| elevation-f = 377
| coordinates = {{coord|45|19|21|N|075|40|02|W|region:CA-ON|display=inline,title}}
| pushpin_map = Canada Ottawa#Canada Ontario#Canada
| pushpin_label = CYOW
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Ottawa
| website = [https://yow.ca/en yow.ca]
| r1-number = 04/22
| r1-length-f = 3,300
| r1-surface = Asphalt
| r2-number = 07/25
| r2-length-f = 8,000
| r2-surface = Asphalt
| r3-number = 14/32
| r3-length-f = 10,005
| r3-surface = Asphalt
| stat-year = 2022
| stat1-header = Aircraft movements
| stat1-data = 64,797 (2021)
| stat2-header = Number of passengers
| stat2-data = 2,992,334
| footnotes = Sources: [[Canada Flight Supplement]]<ref name="CFS">{{CFS}}</ref> [[Environment Canada]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca/prods_servs/metstat1_e.html |title=Synoptic/Metstat Station Information |access-date=2011-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627233755/http://climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca/prods_servs/metstat1_e.html |archive-date=2013-06-27 |url-status=live }}</ref> Movements from [[Statistics Canada]]<ref name="move">{{cite web| url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=2310000201#timeframe|title=Aircraft movements, by class of operation and peak hour and peak day of movements, for airports with NAV CANADA towers, monthly|website=Stats Canada|access-date=April 30, 2022}}</ref> Passenger statistics from Ottawa Airport<ref name="pax">{{cite web |url=https://yow.ca/en/corporate/airport-authority/passenger-volume |title=YOW Passenger Volume (Enplaned and Deplaned) 2013-2021 |date=26 October 2011 |access-date=2022-04-30}}</ref>
}}

'''Ottawa/Macdonald–Cartier International Airport''' or '''Macdonald–Cartier International Airport''' ({{lang-fr|L'aéroport international Macdonald-Cartier}}) {{Airport codes|YOW|CYOW}} is the main [[international airport]] serving [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], Canada, and its [[metropolitan area]] known as the [[National Capital Region (Canada)|National Capital Region]].<ref>[https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/reference-centre/advisory-circulars/advisory-circular-ac-no-302-032#toc55 Advisory Circular (AC) No. 302-032 Subject: Designation of international airports in Canada]</ref> It is named after the Canadian statesmen and two of the "[[Fathers of Confederation|founding fathers of Canada]]", Sir [[John A. Macdonald]] and Sir [[George-Étienne Cartier]]. Located {{convert|5.5|NM|lk=in}} south of [[downtown Ottawa]] in the south end of the city, it is [[List of the busiest airports in Canada|Canada's eighth-busiest airport]], Ontario's second-busiest airport by airline passenger traffic, with 2,992,334 passengers in 2022.<ref name="pax"/> The airport was the home base for [[First Air]].

It is classified as an [[airport of entry]] by [[Nav Canada]], and is staffed by the [[Canada Border Services Agency]]. It is one of eight Canadian airports that have [[United States border preclearance]] facilities. The airport was formerly a military base known as [[CFB Ottawa|CFB Ottawa South]]/[[CFB Uplands]], and is still home to the [[Royal Canadian Air Force|Royal Canadian Air Force's]] [[412 Transport Squadron]], which provides air transport for Canadian and foreign government officials.

==History==
[[File:Lt J. Thad Johnson (4728491381).jpg|thumb|left|Lt. J. Thad Johnson]]

On July 2, 1927, twelve P-1 airplanes under command of Major [[Thomas G. Lanphier]], Air Corps, proceeded from [[Selfridge Field]] to [[Ottawa]], acting as Special Escort for Colonel [[Charles Lindbergh]], who was to attend at the opening of the Dominion Jubilee. First Lieutenant [[J. Thad Johnson]], Air Corps, commanding 27th Pursuit Squadron, was killed in an unsuccessful parachute jump after a collision with another plane of formation in demonstration on arrival over Ottawa. There is now a street leading to the airport industrial section named after the aviator.<ref name=LindyThad>{{cite web|last1=O'Malley|first1=Dave|last2=Audette|first2=André|title=Lucky Lindy and Unlucky Thad|url=http://www.vintagewings.ca/VintageNews/Stories/tabid/116/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/527/Lucky-Lindy-and-Unlucky-Thad.aspx|website=Vintage Wings of Canada|access-date=15 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150612220355/http://www.vintagewings.ca/VintageNews/Stories/tabid/116/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/527/Lucky-Lindy-and-Unlucky-Thad.aspx|archive-date=12 June 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

The airport was opened at Uplands on a high plateau (then) south of Ottawa by the Ottawa Flying Club, which still operates from the field. During [[World War II]], when it was known as ''Uplands'', the airport hosted ''No. 2 Service Flying Training School'' for the [[British Commonwealth Air Training Plan]], providing advanced [[Flight training|pilot training]] in [[North American T-6 Texan|Harvard]] and [[North American BT-9|Yale]] aircraft.

In 1950, to allow for a southward expansion of the airport, the nearby farming community of Bowesville, settled from 1821, was expropriated. The last residents left and the village school was torn down in 1951. The current main airport terminal now stands on the site of the crossroads at the centre of the village. The road to the south of the airport still bears the name "Bowesville Road".<ref name=bvilleplace>{{cite book|last1=Johnston|first1=Grace|title=Bowesville: A Place to Remember|date=1988|publisher=Gloucester Historical Society|location=Gloucester, Ontario|isbn=0-9691106-3-4}}</ref>

During the 1950s, while the airport was still named ''Uplands'' and a joint-use civilian/military field, it was the busiest airport in Canada by [[takeoff]]s and [[landing]]s, reaching a peak of 307,079 aircraft movements in 1959,<ref name="phaseII" /> nearly double its current traffic. At the time, the airport had scheduled airline flights by [[Trans-Canada Air Lines]] ([[Toronto]], [[Montreal]], and [[Val-d'Or]]), Trans Air ([[Churchill, Manitoba|Churchill]]), and [[Eastern Air Lines]] ([[New York City|New York]] via [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]] and [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] via Montreal).<ref name="phaseII">{{cite web |url=http://www.ottawa-airport.ca/PhaseII/updates-November2006-e.php |title=November 2006 – A Page in History Has Been Turned |publisher=Ottawa-airport.ca |date=1960-06-30 |access-date=2011-02-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527012724/http://www.ottawa-airport.ca/PhaseII/updates-November2006-e.php |archive-date=2011-05-27 }}</ref> With the arrival of civilian [[jet aircraft|jet]] travel, the [[Government of Canada|Canadian government]] built a new field south of the original one, with two much longer [[runway]]s and a new [[airport terminal|terminal]] building designed to handle up to 900,000 passengers/year. The terminal building had been scheduled to open in 1959, but during the opening ceremonies, a [[United States Air Force]] [[Lockheed F-104 Starfighter|F-104 Starfighter]] went [[supersonic]] during a low pass over the airport, and the resultant [[sonic boom]] shattered most of the glass in the airport (including the entire north wall) and damaged ceiling tiles, door and window frames, and even structural beams.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,826297,00.html |title=The Sound of Security |publisher=Time.com |date=1960-04-25 |access-date=2011-02-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220022955/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,826297,00.html |archive-date=2011-02-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As a result, the opening was delayed until April 1960. The original terminal building and Trans-Canada Airways/DOT [[hangar]] continued in private use on the airport's north field until the Fall 2011 when it was demolished.

The airport was renamed "Ottawa International Airport" in 1964. It became "Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport" in 1993.

In 2017, the [[Canadian Border Services Agency]] started to use [[Facial recognition system|facial recognition]] technology to process incoming international travellers. All international passengers are directed to Primary Inspection Kiosks before seeing a Border Services Officer and are no longer required to fill out a declaration card.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsa-asfc.gc.ca/travel-voyage/pik-bip-eng.html|title=Primary Inspection Kiosks|work=CBSA|access-date=2017-03-17|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321054325/http://www.cbsa-asfc.gc.ca/travel-voyage/pik-bip-eng.html|archive-date=2017-03-21|url-status=live}}</ref>

On November 1, 2022 [[Porter Airlines]] and the Ottawa International Airport Authority announced they would be investing over $65 million in YOW into the future. Porter also announced they would be building two aircraft hangars at a size of over 150,000sq. ft each, to maintain the [[Embraer E195-E2]] and [[Bombardier Dash 8]] aircraft. These will be built in two phases, with phase one being completed by the end of 2023, and phase two in the first quarter of 2024. Making YOW the primary E195-E2 maintenance base and creating 200 local jobs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Porter Aviation Holdings Inc., OIAA investing over $65 million at Ottawa International Airport |url=https://www.flyporter.com/en-ca/about-porter/media-centre/news-details?title=Porter+Aviation+Holdings+Inc+OIAA+investing+over+65+million+at+Ottawa+International+Airport+2022+11 |website=www.flyporter.com |publisher=Porter Airlines |access-date=10 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Porter Airlines building two new hangars at Ottawa airport |url=https://ottawa.ctvnews.ca/porter-airlines-building-two-new-hangars-at-ottawa-airport-1.6134641 |website=CTV News |access-date=10 November 2022 |language=en |date=1 November 2022}}</ref>

== Facility layout ==
[[File:Cyow-dafif-airport-diagram.png|250px|thumb|Diagram of the Ottawa airport (prior to 2005)]]
The airport consists of two distinct airfields connected by a [[taxiway]]. The smaller north field, originally referred to as Uplands, was founded by the Ottawa Flying Club in the late 1920s and then used by [[Trans-Canada Air Lines]], the predecessor of [[Air Canada]]. This was the area primarily used by No. 2 Service Flying Training School. Several hangars were constructed during World War II, but were all demolished by the early 2000s.

The north field is still popular for [[general aviation]], although only one of its runways, 04/22, is still in use. There are a number of aircraft component repair facilities located within the same grouping of buildings as the Ottawa Flying Club.

The south field consists of the two longer runways, 07/25 and 14/32, designed for jet airliners. The public passenger terminal is tucked into the north side of the intersection of the two runways, while the two general aviation FBOs for the south field are nearer to the threshold of runway 25. Customs services for private aircraft are available at the two [[fixed-base operator]]s (FBO), [[Shell Canada|Shell]] Aerocentre and Skyservice Business Aviation, on the south field. There are also a number of aviation component repair facilities on airport grounds, mostly around the Skyservice complex. The Government of Canada operates a number of hangars, including the Canada Reception Centre, which is used to greet visiting dignitaries. The [[National Research Council (Canada)|National Research Council]] operates two facilities on the north side of the grounds, including two [[wind tunnels]]. One of these has supersonic capabilities, and the other has a 9m diameter, being the largest in Canada. [[Transport Canada]] operates two facilities on airport grounds, one which houses training equipment, including [[flight simulator]]s, and a hangar for maintenance and storage of government owned aircraft.

==Terminal==
At the turn of the millennium, the Ottawa Airport Authority announced plans to build a second, adjacent terminal to meet the demands of increased traffic. The terminal was built ahead of schedule and opened on October 12, 2003. The terminal building now handles all airline passenger traffic. A section of the 1960 terminal, which was connected to the new terminal by an enclosed bridge, was still used at peak times of the day when extra [[gate (airport)|gate]] space is needed, and it also handled most domestic regional flights. Funding for the terminal construction was collected from the parking meters outside the terminal beginning in January 1997, when rates were hiked to cover the costs of a new terminal building.

The old terminal and tower, built in 1960, was a modernist International style designed by architects [[James Strutt]], William Gilleland and [[Transport Canada]]. They had been heavily renovated and modernized in 1985–87, which included the removal of a seating area containing personal television screens which would provide 15 minutes of VHF TV channels for 25 cents, as well as an open ceiling design. They were demolished in 2008 to make way for Phase II of the new terminal.

The airport's board of directors approved a further expansion of the airport's passenger terminal on April 4, 2006. The extension of the new terminal was built in phases by Brisbin Brook Benyon and Architectura.<ref name="thecanadianencyclopedia.com">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Kalman |first=Harold D. |title=Airport Architecture |encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |date=4 March 2015 |publisher=[[Historica Canada]] |edition=online |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/airport-architecture}}</ref> Phase II, the next phase of the expansion program opened March 13, 2008. This addition contains over {{convert|7000|m2|abbr=on}} of space and adds an additional twelve gates and seven [[Jet bridge|jetway]]s. The 1960 terminal was designed by Gilleland and Strutt and by Transport Canada architect W.A. Ramsay<ref name="thecanadianencyclopedia.com"/> and renovations by Murray and Murray, Griffiths and Rankin from 1984 to 1987. It closed on March 13, 2008, and has been demolished and by the end of 2008 its former location was paved over to provide room for more gates and jetways.

===Interior design===
The terminal's design focuses on creating a calm and easy travel experience for passengers but also honours aspects of the region through the display of various art by commissioned Canadian artists. A soothing water feature representing the meeting of the region's three rivers runs throughout the terminal. Copper and limestone finishes are visible throughout, representative of the capital's Parliament Buildings. Other Canadian features include an [[inukshuk]] commissioned and sponsored by First Air, and a rare traditional birch bark canoe built by the master craftsman and Algonquin leader who created an identical one for the late Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau.<ref>[http://www.ottawa-airport.ca/Newsroom/pressReleasesZoom-e.php?prID=56 New Ottawa Airport Terminal Building Unveiled] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101190524/http://ottawa-airport.ca/Newsroom/pressReleasesZoom-e.php?prID=56 |date=2011-01-01 }}, Press Release</ref> The airport features a large-scale carved glass sculpture by Canadian glass artist, Warren Carther.

==Airlines and destinations==
Macdonald–Cartier Airport is part of Canada's busiest [[air corridor]] between Ottawa, Montreal, and Toronto, which is commonly referred to as the Eastern Triangle.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thestar.com/Business/article/678183 |title=Battle Heats up over Triangle Business Passengers |work=Thestar.com |date=2009-08-08 |access-date=2011-02-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090812104015/http://www.thestar.com/Business/article/678183 |archive-date=2009-08-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> The airport is also a gateway for flights to the eastern Arctic via [[Iqaluit]]. Ottawa's airport serves many major North American airlines, flights to Europe, and several cities in the United States.

===Passenger===

{{Airport-dest-list
| [[Air Canada]] | [[Calgary International Airport|Calgary]], [[Toronto Pearson International Airport|Toronto–Pearson]], [[Vancouver International Airport|Vancouver]] '''Seasonal:''' [[Edmonton International Airport|Edmonton]]

| {{nowrap|[[Air Canada Express]]}} |[[Halifax Stanfield International Airport|Halifax]], [[Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport|Montréal–Trudeau]], [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark]], [[Québec City Jean Lesage International Airport|Quebec City]] (resumes Mar 27, 2023), [[Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport|Toronto–Billy Bishop]], [[Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport|Washington–National]], [[Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport|Winnipeg]]

| [[Air Canada Rouge]] | '''Seasonal:''' [[Cancún International Airport|Cancún]], [[Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport|Fort Lauderdale]], [[Orlando International Airport|Orlando]], [[Punta Cana International Airport|Punta Cana]], [[Tampa International Airport|Tampa]]

| [[Air France]] | [[Charles de Gaulle Airport|Paris–Charles de Gaulle]] (begins June 27, 2023)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aeroroutes.com/eng/230203-afyow|title=Air France Schedules Ottawa Late-June 2023 Launch|publisher=AeroRoutes|date=3 February 2023|accessdate=3 February 2023}}</ref>

| [[Air North]] | '''Seasonal:''' [[Whitehorse Airport|Whitehorse]], [[Yellowknife Airport|Yellowknife]]

| [[Air Transat]] | '''Seasonal:''' [[Cancún International Airport|Cancún]], [[Jardines del Rey Airport|Cayo Coco]], [[Gregorio Luperón International Airport|Puerto Plata]], [[Punta Cana International Airport|Punta Cana]], [[Samaná El Catey International Airport|Samaná]], [[Abel Santamaría Airport|Santa Clara]], [[Juan Gualberto Gómez Airport|Varadero]]

| [[Canadian North]] | [[Iqaluit Airport|Iqaluit]]

| [[Flair Airlines]] | [[Calgary International Airport|Calgary]], [[Edmonton International Airport|Edmonton]], [[Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport|Fort Lauderdale]], [[Halifax Stanfield International Airport|Halifax]], [[Vancouver International Airport|Vancouver]], [[Winnipeg International Airport|Winnipeg]] '''Seasonal:''' [[Cancún International Airport|Cancún]], [[Charlottetown Airport|Charlottetown]], [[Orlando Sanford International Airport|Orlando/Sanford]], [[Victoria International Airport|Victoria]]

| [[PAL Airlines]] | [[Fredericton International Airport|Fredericton]], [[Moncton International Airport|Moncton]]

| [[Porter Airlines]] | [[Boston Logan International Airport|Boston]] (begins March 27, 2023),<ref name = "PorterYowNew">{{cite web |title=Porter Airlines adding direct flights from Ottawa to these four destinations|url=https://ottawa.ctvnews.ca/porter-airlines-adding-direct-flights-from-ottawa-to-these-four-destinations-1.6194512 |website=CTV News Ottawa |access-date=8 December 2022}}</ref> [[Fredericton International Airport|Fredericton]], [[Halifax Stanfield International Airport|Halifax]], [[Greater Moncton International Airport|Moncton]], [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark]] (begins March 27, 2023),<ref name = "PorterYowNew"/> [[Québec City Jean Lesage International Airport|Quebec City]] (begins March 27, 2023),<ref name = "PorterYowNew"/> [[Thunder Bay International Airport|Thunder Bay]] (begins March 27, 2023),<ref name = "PorterYowNew"/> [[Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport|Toronto–Billy Bishop]], [[Toronto Pearson International Airport|Toronto–Pearson]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Porter Airlines Outlines Embraer E195-E2 Toronto Pearson Network From Feb 2023 |url=https://www.aeroroutes.com/eng/221208-pdfeb23 |website=Aeroroutes |access-date=8 December 2022}}</ref> '''Seasonal:''' [[Charlottetown Airport|Charlottetown]] (begins May 17, 2023)<ref>{{cite web |title=Porter Airlines to launch daily route between Charlottetown and Ottawa in May |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/pei-porter-airlines-ottawa-charlottetown-1.6746535 |website=CBC News |access-date=13 February 2023}}</ref>

| [[Sunwing Airlines]] | '''Seasonal:''' [[Cancún International Airport|Cancún]], [[Jardines del Rey Airport|Cayo Coco]], [[Vilo Acuña Airport|Cayo Largo del Sur]], [[Frank País Airport|Holguin]], [[Mazatlán International Airport|Mazatlán]], [[Sangster International Airport|Montego Bay]], [[Gregorio Luperón International Airport|Puerto Plata]], [[Licenciado Gustavo Díaz Ordaz International Airport|Puerto Vallarta]], [[Punta Cana International Airport|Punta Cana]], [[Los Cabos International Airport|San José del Cabo]], [[Abel Santamaría Airport|Santa Clara]], [[Juan Gualberto Gómez Airport|Varadero]]

| [[United Express]] | [[O'Hare International Airport|Chicago–O'Hare]], [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark]], [[Washington Dulles International Airport|Washington–Dulles]]

| [[WestJet]] | [[Calgary International Airport|Calgary]], [[Toronto Pearson International Airport|Toronto–Pearson]], [[Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport|Winnipeg]] '''Seasonal:''' [[Cancún International Airport|Cancún]], [[Edmonton International Airport|Edmonton]] (resumes April 30, 2023),<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.aeroroutes.com/eng/230212-wsns23|title=WESTJET NS23 NORTH AMERICA NETWORK CHANGES – 12FEB23|publisher=AeroRoutes|date=February 12, 2023|accessdate=February 12, 2023}}</ref> [[Southwest Florida International Airport|Fort Myers]], [[Sangster International Airport|Montego Bay]], [[Orlando International Airport|Orlando]], [[Vancouver International Airport|Vancouver]]

| [[WestJet Encore]] | [[Toronto Pearson International Airport|Toronto–Pearson]]
}}

===Cargo===
Non-stop and same-plane freighter and/or combi flights
{{Airport-dest-list
| [[Canadian North]] | [[Iqaluit Airport|Iqaluit]]
| [[Cargojet Airways]] | [[John C. Munro Hamilton International Airport|Hamilton (ON)]], [[Iqaluit Airport|Iqaluit]]
| [[FedEx Express]] | [[Buffalo Niagara International Airport|Buffalo]], [[Indianapolis International Airport|Indianapolis]], [[Memphis International Airport|Memphis]], [[Montréal–Mirabel International Airport|Montréal–Mirabel]], [[New York–JFK]]
}}

==Statistics==
[[File:YOW terminal interior.JPG|thumbnail|right|Terminal interior]]
[[File:Time to head for our boarding gate for St. John's Nfl (27561163206).jpg|alt=|thumb|Domestic concourse]]
[[File:Inukshuk at Macdonald-Cartier International Airport.jpg|thumb|Inukshuk at Macdonald-Cartier International Airport in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada]]
[[File:YOW control tower.JPG|thumb|[[Control tower]]]]

===Annual passenger traffic===
{{Airport-Statistics|iata=YOW}}
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%"
|+ '''Annual passenger traffic at Ottawa Airport'''<ref name="pax"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://yow.ca/sites/yow.ca/files/yow/files/publications/2011_annual_report.pdf |title=2011 Annual Report (pg 10). Retrieved on Apr 3, 2015. |access-date=April 3, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408181005/https://yow.ca/sites/yow.ca/files/yow/files/publications/2011_annual_report.pdf |archive-date=April 8, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
! Year
! Passengers
! Change from previous year
|-
!1996
|2,857,838 ||
|-
!1997
|3,046,368 || {{increase}}{{0}}6.60%
|-
!1998
|3,110,548 || {{increase}}{{0}}2.11%
|-
!1999
|3,211,607 || {{increase}}{{0}}3.25%
|-
!2000
|3,434,345 || {{increase}}{{0}}6.94%
|-
!2001
|3,391,295 || {{decrease}}{{0}}1.25%
|-
!2002
|3,216,886 || {{decrease}}{{0}}5.14%
|-
!2003
|3,262,345 || {{increase}}{{0}}1.41%
|-
!2004
|3,609,885 || {{increase}}{{0}}10.65%
|-
!2005
|3,735,433 || {{increase}}{{0}}3.48%
|-
!2006
|3,807,756 || {{increase}}{{0}}1.94%
|-
!2007
|4,088,528 || {{increase}}{{0}}7.37%
|-
!2008
|4,339,225 || {{increase}}{{0}}6.13%
|-
!2009
|4,232,830 || {{decrease}}{{0}}2.45%
|-
!2010
|4,473,894 || {{increase}}{{0}}5.70%
|-
!2011
|4,624,626 || {{increase}}{{0}}3.37%
|-
!2012
|4,685,956 || {{increase}}{{0}}1.33%
|-
!2013
|4,578,591 || {{decrease}}{{0}}2.29%
|-
!2014
|4,616,448 || {{increase}}{{0}}0.83%
|-
!2015
|4,656,360 || {{increase}}{{0}}0.86%
|-
!2016
|4,743,091 || {{increase}}{{0}}1.86%
|-
!2017
|4,839,677 || {{increase}}{{0}}2.04%
|-
!2018
|5,110,801 || {{increase}}{{0}}5.60%
|-
!2019
|5,106,487 || {{decrease}}{{0}}0.08%
|-
!2020
|1,363,512 || {{decrease}}{{0}}73.30%
|-
!2021
|1,170,789 || {{decrease}}{{0}}14.13%
|-
!2022
|2,992,334 || {{increase}}{{0}}155.58%
|}

==Ground transportation==
===Public transit===
[[OC Transpo]] operates route 97 with frequent express bus service to the airport bus stop ([[Airport station (Ottawa)|Airport station]]) along a dedicated [[Bus rapid transit|BRT]] [[Transitway (Ottawa)|transitway]] with connections to the [[O-Train]] [[Confederation Line]], [[Trillium Line]], and other transit stations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Schedules & Maps {{!}} OC Transpo |url=https://www.octranspo.com/en/plan-your-trip/schedules-maps/?rte=97 |website=www.octranspo.com |access-date=8 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=97 Route: Time Schedules, Stops & Maps - Airport ~ Aéroport |url=https://moovitapp.com/index/en/public_transit-line-97-Ottawa_ON-422-2194-234435-0 |website=moovitapp.com |access-date=8 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref> An OC Transpo ticket machine is available at the southern end of the Arrivals level.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ticket machines |url=https://www.octranspo.com/en/fares/payment/where-how-to-pay/ticket-machines/ |website=octranspo.com |publisher=OC Transpo |access-date=7 September 2020 |language=en |quote=A ticket machine is also available at the Ottawa International Airport (YOW). Look for the ticket machine at the south end of the Arrivals terminal.}}</ref>

Construction has begun on a light rail spur linking that airport to the city's light rail system.<ref name=Citizen_O-Train>{{cite news|url=https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/changing-trains-likely-for-proposed-o-train-airport-link|author=Matthew Pearson|title=Changing trains likely for proposed O-Train airport link|date=15 January 2015|work=[[Ottawa Citizen]]|access-date=16 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406082310/http://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/changing-trains-likely-for-proposed-o-train-airport-link|archive-date=6 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=CBC_O-Train>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/ottawa-lrt-airport-link-praised-in-principle-by-city-airport-authority-1.2900371|title=Ottawa LRT airport link praised in principle by city, airport authority|date=January 14, 2015|work=[[CBC News]]|access-date=16 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150124113759/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/ottawa-lrt-airport-link-praised-in-principle-by-city-airport-authority-1.2900371|archive-date=24 January 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The current plan calls for a station to be built inside the terminal as part of a future terminal expansion, with the airport volunteering funds for the building of the station. The extension is planned to open in September 2023.<ref name=O-Train_InTerminal>{{cite news|url=https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/finance-committee-approves-phase-2-lrt-plan|title=Finance committee approves phase 2 LRT plan|date=June 29, 2015|work=[[Ottawa Citizen]]|access-date=14 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702025106/http://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/finance-committee-approves-phase-2-lrt-plan|archive-date=2 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Automobile===
Taxis, airport limos, and shuttle buses are available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. There are several rental car agencies located at the airport,<ref>{{cite web |title=Car Rentals |url=https://yow.ca/en/parking-transportation/car-rentals |website=yow.ca |access-date=7 September 2020 |language=en |date=8 September 2011}}</ref> as well as ride-sharing services such as [[Uber]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Ottawa International Airport (YOW) |url=https://www.uber.com/global/en/airports/yow/ |website=Uber.com |access-date=7 September 2020}}</ref> and [[Lyft]].

===Bicycle===
In the more temperate seasons, it is possible to cycle [[Downtown Ottawa|downtown]] from the airport via the [[Capital Pathway]] and a number of quiet residential streets.<ref>{{cite web |title=Biking from the Ottawa Airport to the Byward Market |url=https://ottawavelooutaouais.com/2019/07/30/biking-from-the-ottawa-airport-to-the-byward-market/ |website=ottawavelooutaouais.com |access-date=6 September 2020 |language=en |date=30 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| author = ottawavelo | title = Biking from Downtown to the Ottawa International Airport and/or the EY Centre| work = OttawaVeloOutaouais| accessdate = 2022-07-31| date = 2022-07-30| url = https://ottawavelooutaouais.com/2022/07/30/biking-to-the-ottawa-international-airport-from-downtown/}}</ref>

==Awards==
The 2010 Airport Service Quality (ASQ) Award for Best Airport in the World for the 2–5 million passengers category went to Ottawa Airport.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.airportservicequalityawards.com/pastwinners2010 |title=ASQ Awards – Past Winners 2010 |access-date=2012-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220010022/http://www.airportservicequalityawards.com/pastwinners2010 |archive-date=2012-02-20 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In February 2010, Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport was recognized by customers for its excellent customer service in the results of [[Airports Council International]]'s (ACI) Airport Service Quality (ASQ) program. For the fifth consecutive year, Ottawa placed second overall for worldwide airports that serve between 0 and 5 million passengers. In 2008, 118 airports from around the world participated in ASQ.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aci.aero/cda/aci_common/display/main/aci_content07_c.jsp?zn=aci&cp=1-7-46^35015_666_2__ |title=Airports Council International |publisher=Aci.aero |access-date=2011-02-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512200746/http://www.aci.aero/cda/aci_common/display/main/aci_content07_c.jsp?zn=aci&cp=1-7-46%5E35015_666_2__ |archive-date=2012-05-12 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Along with Air Canada, the airport was the joint winner of the 2010 Ottawa Tourism Award for Tourism Partnership of the Year in recognition of the co-operative work done in promoting Air Canada's non-stop flight between Frankfurt and Ottawa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.obj.ca/Local/Tourism/2010-03-26/article-964958/Airport,-treasure-hunting-firm-take-Ottawa-Tourism-prizes/1 |title=Airport, treasure hunting firm take Ottawa Tourism prizes – Tourism – Local – Ottawa Business Journal |publisher=Obj.ca |date=2010-03-26 |access-date=2011-02-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617090416/http://www.obj.ca/Local/Tourism/2010-03-26/article-964958/Airport%2C-treasure-hunting-firm-take-Ottawa-Tourism-prizes/1 |archive-date=2011-06-17 }}</ref>

Also in 2010, the airport was presented with three Airport Revenue News Best Airport Concessions Awards. In the Small Airport division, Ottawa was named the winner in the following categories: Airport with the Best Concessions Program Design, Airport with the Best Concessions Management Team, and Airport with the Best Overall Concessions Program.

The 2011 it won ''Best Airport in North America'' of the Airport Service Quality Awards by [[Airports Council International]],<ref>[http://www.airportservicequalityawards.com/best-airport-region-north-america "ASQ Award for Best Airport in North America"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309051615/http://www.airportservicequalityawards.com/best-airport-region-north-america |date=2012-03-09 }} ''Airports Council International''. 14 February 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-13</ref> as well as 2nd ''Best Airport by Size'' in the 2 to 5 million passenger category.<ref>[http://www.airportservicequalityawards.com/best-airport-size-2-5-million-passengers "ASQ Award for Best Airport by Size (2–5m)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120903133203/http://www.airportservicequalityawards.com/best-airport-size-2-5-million-passengers |date=2012-09-03 }} ''Airports Council International''. 14 February 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-13</ref>

==Incidents and accidents==
* In August 1959, a [[U.S. Air Force]] [[Lockheed F-104 Starfighter]] performed a low fly-by of the airport during celebration of the opening of a new terminal in Ottawa and on request by the organisers went supersonic over the main runway. The result was catastrophic, causing windows and parts of the walls of the terminal to shatter. The terminal was only reopened in 1960.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://yow.ca/en/corporate/about-us/history |title=The Past: A Brief History of the Ottawa International Airport |date=5 October 2011 |publisher=yow.ca |access-date=July 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705152003/https://yow.ca/en/corporate/about-us/history |archive-date=July 5, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* On May 19, 1967, an Air Canada [[Douglas DC-8]] on a training flight from Montreal crashed on approach to the Ottawa airport, killing all three crew members.<ref>{{ASN accident|19670519-0|title=Air Canada, C-FTJM}}</ref>
* On September 15, 1988, a Bradley Air Services (now [[First Air]]) [[Hawker Siddeley HS 748|BAe 748]] crashed on approach to runway 25, killing both crew members.<ref>{{ASN accident|19880915-1|title=Bradley Air Services, C-GFFA}}</ref>
* On July 1, 1990, a [[P-51|P-51 Mustang]] crashed on the Hylands Golf Course during the National Capital Airshow, killing the pilot, Harry Tope. He was performing with the aircraft fully fueled and luggage on board for the trip home after the airshow and was unable to recover from a manoeuver.<ref>{{cite news|title=Michigan Oilman dies in crash at Canadian air show|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=UmciAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Ua0FAAAAIBAJ&pg=2886%2C54376|access-date=19 October 2012|newspaper=The Argus News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509150611/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=UmciAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Ua0FAAAAIBAJ&pg=2886%2C54376|archive-date=9 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
* On June 13, 1997, a [[North American Airlines]] [[Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner]] struck the runway with gear retracted during a botched approach, resulting in propeller strikes and a fire in one engine when it came to rest on runway 25. The aircraft was written off, but the crew escaped without injury.<ref>{{ASN accident|19970613-0|title=North American Airlines (NTM1017)}}</ref><ref>{{cadors-accident|1997O0288|North American Airlines (NTM1017)}}</ref>
* On September 15, 2000, a [[Miami Air International]] [[Boeing 727]] arriving to pick up the [[Florida Panthers]] hockey team ran off the end of the runway. There were no injuries.<ref>{{cadors-accident|2000O0870|Miami Air International (N806MA)}}</ref>
* On July 14, 2004, [[US Airways Express]] Flight 3504, an [[Embraer ERJ 145 family|Embraer ERJ-145LR]] (N829HK) operated by [[Trans States Airlines]], overran the runway and sustained minor damage to the inboard left main landing gear tire. There were no serious injuries.<ref>{{cadors-accident|2004O0979|US Airways Express (LOF3504)}}</ref>
* On February 17, 2008, a [[WestJet]] [[Boeing 737]] from [[Calgary International Airport]] went off the end of runway 07 shortly after landing. None of the 86 passengers and six crew members on board were injured. A slippery runway and the lack of use of the speed brakes on the aircraft contributed to the accident.<ref>{{cadors-accident|2008O0258|WestJet (WJA846)}}</ref>
* On April 22, 2009, a [[Porter Airlines]] [[Bombardier Dash 8]] had its tail damaged after it struck the ground upon landing. It was taken out of service and was later repaired.<ref>{{cadors-accident|2009O0688|Porter Airlines (POE263)}}</ref>
* On June 16, 2010, [[United Express]] Flight 8050, an [[Embraer ERJ 145 family|Embraer ERJ-145]] (N847HK) operated by [[Trans States Airlines]], overran the runway and was substantially damaged when the nose gear collapsed. There were 36 people on board, 33 passengers and three crew, and two of the crew and one passenger were injured.<ref name=AH42d059bc>{{cite web|url=http://avherald.com/h?article=42d059bc&opt=0 |title=Accident: Trans States E145 at Ottawa on Jun 16th 2010, runway overrun |first=Simon |last=Hradecky |publisher=Aviation Herald |access-date=17 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cadors-accident|2010O1362|Trans States Airlines (LOF8050)}}</ref>
* On September 4, 2011, [[United Express]] Flight 3363, an [[Embraer ERJ 145 family|Embraer ERJ-145]] (N840HK) operated by [[Trans States Airlines]], slid off the runway upon landing. All 44 passengers and the three crew aboard were uninjured, although the plane sustained substantial damage.<ref>{{cadors-accident|2011O2655|Trans States Airlines (LOF3363)}}</ref>
* On July 31, 2017, Air Transat Flight 157, an [[Airbus A330-200]], en route from [[Brussels Airport|Brussels]] to [[Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport|Montréal-Trudeau]] was diverted to Ottawa due to a chain of storms passing through the Montreal area. More than 300 passengers were kept on the plane without water, electricity, or air conditioning and rationed food for six hours. A passenger called 911 due to the deteriorating situation with some passengers complaining of suffocation. Airport authorities responded by delivering water and disembarking passengers including those complaining of suffocation injuries. Air Transat blamed congestion at Ottawa's airport for the situation, where airport administration stated that the pilots asked for no help during the six-hour situation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/air-transat-ottawa-planes-parked-hours-delay-1.4230048|title='You can't do this to us': Fuming passengers stuck on planes in Ottawa call 911|work=CBC News|access-date=2017-08-02|language=en}}</ref> The event enraged Canadian lawmakers pushing to improve Canada's passenger bill of rights.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/transat-bill-rights-ottawa-tarmac-1.4231286|title=After Air Transat saga, passenger bill of rights aims to punish airlines into being good|work=CBC News|access-date=2017-08-02|language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Portal|Ontario|Aviation}}
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category-inline|Ottawa Macdonald-Cartier International Airport}}
* {{Official website|https://yow.ca/en}}
{{Can-arpt-wx|CYOW|Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110706182550/http://wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/Saf-Sec-Sur/2/cadors-screaq/qr.aspx?lang=eng&cadorsno=&regcd=0&occdtefrom=&occdteto=2010-08-02&occtypecd=0&fatop=%3E=&fatal=0&aeroidtxt=YOW&aeroidcd=CYOW&loc=&provcd=0&accatcd=0&acoptxt=&acopcd=&acmaketxt=&acmakecd=&acmodeltxt=&acmodelcd=&evnts=&evtype=0&narr= Aviation occurrence information] for YOW at [http://wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/Saf-Sec-Sur/2/CADORS-SCREAQ/m.aspx?lang=eng Civil Aviation Daily Occurrence Reporting System (CADORS)]

{{Airports in Ontario}}
{{List of airports in Canada}}
{{Ottawa landmarks}}
{{Ottawa}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ottawa Macdonald-Cartier International Airport}}
[[Category:Certified airports in Ontario]]
[[Category:Transport in Ottawa]]
[[Category:Airports of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Ottawa]]
[[Category:John A. Macdonald]]
[[Category:Canadian airports with United States border preclearance]]
[[Category:Tourism in Ottawa|Airport]]
[[Category:National Airports System]]

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Shai Gilgeous-Alexander

2023-02-02T18:12:19Z

72.142.115.198: got rid of the random citations that have nothing in them

{{short description|Canadian basketball player (born 1998)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox basketball biography
| name = Shai Gilgeous-Alexander
| image = Shai Gilgeous-Alexander (51815871018) (cropped).jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Gilgeous-Alexander with the [[Oklahoma City Thunder]] in 2022
| number = 2
| team = Oklahoma City Thunder
| position = [[Point guard]] / [[Shooting guard]]
| league = [[National Basketball Association|NBA]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1998|7|12}}
| birth_place = [[Toronto, Ontario]], Canada<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/player/p/pid/128563/sid/8094/tid/257/tid2//_/2016_FIBA_Americas_U18_Championship_for_Men/index.html|title=Shai Gilgeous-Alexander profile, FIBA Americas U18 Championship for Men 2016 {{!}} FIBA.COM|work=FIBA.COM|access-date=July 10, 2017}}</ref>
| height_ft = 6
| height_in = 6
| weight_lb = 195
| high_school =
* [[St. Thomas More Catholic Secondary School|St. Thomas More]] ([[Hamilton, Ontario]])
* [[Sir Allan MacNab Secondary School|Sir Allan MacNab]] (Hamilton, Ontario)
* Hamilton Heights Christian Academy ([[Chattanooga, Tennessee]])
| college = [[Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball|Kentucky]] ([[2017–18 NCAA Division I men's basketball season|2017–2018]])
| draft_year = 2018
| draft_round = 1
| draft_pick = 11
| draft_team = [[Charlotte Hornets]]
| career_start = 2018
| years1 = {{nbay|2018|full=y}}
| team1 = [[Los Angeles Clippers]]
| years2 = {{nbay|2019|start}}–present
| team2 = [[Oklahoma City Thunder]]
| highlights =
* [[NBA All-Rookie Team|NBA All-Rookie Second Team]] ({{nbay|2018|end}})
* Second-team All-[[Southeastern Conference|SEC]] ([[2017–18 Southeastern Conference men's basketball season|2018]])
* [[Southeastern Conference|SEC]] All-Freshman Team ([[2017–18 Southeastern Conference men's basketball season|2018]])
* [[SEC men's basketball tournament|SEC tournament]] MVP ([[2018 SEC men's basketball tournament|2018]])
| medaltemplates =
{{MedalSport|Men's [[basketball]]}}
{{MedalCountry| {{bk|CAN}}}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[FIBA Americas Under-18 Championship]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2016 FIBA Americas Under-18 Championship|2016 Chile]]| [[Canada national under-19 basketball team|National team]]}}
}}

'''Shaivonte Aician Gilgeous-Alexander''' ({{IPAc-en|ʃ|eɪ|_|ˈ|g|ɪ|l|dʒ|ə|s|}} {{respell|SHAY GIL-jəs}}; born July 12, 1998), also known by his initials '''SGA''', is a Canadian professional [[basketball]] player for the [[Oklahoma City Thunder]] of the [[National Basketball Association]] (NBA). He also played one year of college basketball for the [[Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball|Kentucky Wildcats]].

Gilgeous-Alexander was selected in the first round of the [[2018 NBA draft]] by the [[Charlotte Hornets]] with the 11th overall pick and was traded to the [[Los Angeles Clippers]] that same night. He was named to the [[NBA All-Rookie Second Team]] in his rookie season with the Clippers before being traded to the Thunder in July 2019.

==Early life==
Gilgeous-Alexander was born in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], and grew up in [[Hamilton, Ontario]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Canadian Shai Gilgeous-Alexander goes 11th in NBA draft, flipped to Clippers|url=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/basketball/nba/canadian-gilgeous-alexander-nba-draft-1.4717462|url-status=live|archive-date=2018-06-21|access-date=May 4, 2021|website=CBC}}</ref> His mother, [[Charmaine Gilgeous]], is a former track star who competed for [[Antigua and Barbuda]] at the [[1992 Summer Olympics]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/hamilton-shai-gilgeous-alexander-1.4714498|title=Hamilton point guard Shai Gilgeous-Alexander a top prospect in NBA draft {{!}} CBC News|work=CBC|access-date=June 21, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> His father, Vaughn Alexander, coached him as a youth.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.kentucky.com/sports/college/kentucky-sports/uk-basketball-men/article189644684.html|title=Competitive cousins shared a room in high school. UK-Virginia Tech game pits them against each other.|work=kentucky|access-date=March 17, 2018|language=en}}</ref> He began high school in Hamilton at St. Thomas More Catholic Secondary School before switching to [[Sir Allan MacNab Secondary School]]. He then transferred to Hamilton Heights Christian Academy (located in [[Chattanooga, Tennessee]]) for his junior and senior years to improve his basketball skills, graduating in 2017.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesfreepress.com/news/sports/columns/story/2018/jun/21/wiedmer-hamiltheights-coach-hopes-see-former/473528/|title=Wiedmer: Hamilton Heights coach hopes to see former player Shai Gilgeous-Alexander become NBA lottery pick|work=Chattanooga Times Free Press|access-date=June 21, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://amp.timesfreepress.com/news/sports/college/story/2018/mar/11/former-hamiltheights-player-now-star-kentucky/465643/|title=Former Hamilton Heights player now a star at Kentucky|work=Chattanooga Times Free Press|access-date=June 21, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>

==High school career==
Growing up in Hamilton, he did not make the St. Thomas More junior team in grade 9 and subsequently played on the school's midget squad. He ended up winning team MVP and the midget boys' city championship.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thespec.com/sports-story/8684906-hamilton-s-shai-gilgeous-alexander-about-to-star-on-nba-stage/|title=Hamilton's Shai Gilgeous-Alexander about to star on NBA stage|last=Radley|first=Scott|date=June 20, 2018|work=TheSpec.com|access-date=June 21, 2018|language=en-CA}}</ref> He then attended [[Sir Allan MacNab Secondary School]] before heading to Hamilton Heights Christian Academy in [[Chattanooga, Tennessee]] in 2015.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://basketballrecruiting.rivals.com/news/alexander-to-florida|title=BasketballRecruiting.Rivals.com - Alexander to Florida|date=November 27, 2015|access-date=July 10, 2017}}</ref> "I just thought I needed to play better competition ...," he said. As a senior, Gilgeous-Alexander averaged 18.4 points, 4.4 rebounds and 4.0 assists.<ref>After many forks in the road, Shai Gilgeous-Alexander found a basketball home at UK. (n.d.). Lexington Herald-Leader, p. 1B. Retrieved from http://www.kentucky.com/sports/college/kentucky-sports/uk-basketball-men/article177166321.html</ref>

In early 2016, he participated in the [[Basketball Without Borders]] Camp.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://northpolehoops.com/2016/11/01/kentucky-offers-shai-alexander-after-reopening-recruitment/|title=Kentucky Offers Shai Alexander After Reopening Recruitment|date=November 1, 2016|website=Northpolehoops.com|access-date=July 10, 2017}}</ref>

A four-star recruit (by [[ESPN]]), Gilgeous-Alexander originally committed to [[Florida Gators men's basketball|Florida]], but re-opened his recruitment in October 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.espn.com/college-sports/recruiting/basketball/mens/story/_/id/18045597/former-florida-gators-commit-shai-alexander-chooses-kentucky-wildcats|title=Ex-Florida commit Alexander picks Kentucky|work=ESPN.com|access-date=July 10, 2017}}</ref> His final five schools were Kentucky, Kansas, Syracuse, Texas and UNLV.<ref>After many forks in the road, Shai Gilgeous-Alexander found a basketball home at UK. (n.d.). Lexington Herald-Leader, p. 1B. Retrieved from http://www.kentucky.com/sports/college/kentucky-sports/uk-basketball-men/article177166321.html</ref> The following month, he announced his decision to play college basketball at [[Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball|Kentucky]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.espn.com/college-sports/recruiting/basketball/mens/story/_/id/18045597/former-florida-gators-commit-shai-alexander-chooses-kentucky-wildcats|title=Ex-Florida commit Alexander picks Kentucky|work=ESPN.com|access-date=July 10, 2017}}</ref> At the 2017 [[Nike Hoop Summit]], he represented the World Select Team and scored eleven points in 21 minutes of action.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.usab.com/mens/nike-hoop-summit/stats.aspx|title=Nike Hoop Summit|access-date=July 11, 2017|language=en-US}}</ref>

==College career==
Gilgeous-Alexander started the 2017–18 season as a reserve, sitting behind freshman point guard [[Quade Green]], but still averaged over 30 minutes per game. After a tough loss to UCLA, Alexander erupted against Louisville in December, scoring 24 points, grabbing 5 rebounds, dishing out 4 assists, and securing 3 steals.<ref name="ESPN">{{cite web|title=Shai Gilgeous-Alexander|url=http://www.espn.com/mens-college-basketball/player/_/id/4278073/shai-gilgeous-alexander|website=ESPN.com|access-date=February 15, 2018}}</ref> When he first stepped on the University of Kentucky's campus, Gilgeous-Alexander had long hair. However, he cut his hair early in the season and some say this started his progression from sixth man to starting point guard.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Tucker|first1=Kyle|title=Kentucky basketball: Shai Gilgeous-Alexander cuts his hair, then carves up Louisville|url=https://www.seccountry.com/kentucky/kentucky-basketball-shai-gilgeous-alexander-burns-louisville|website=SEC Country|access-date=February 15, 2018}}</ref> He continued to lead the team for the following two games, scoring 21 points against Georgia and 18 against LSU. He was a consistent contributor to a "struggling" UK team that had a four-game losing streak during the season. He became a starter along with four other freshmen: [[Hamidou Diallo]], [[Nick Richards (basketball)|Nick Richards]], [[Kevin Knox (basketball)|Kevin Knox]], and [[P. J. Washington]]. Despite their losses, his PPG shot up to 12.9 along with 3.8 rebounds and 4.6 assists. Gilgeous-Alexander had a great SEC tournament and continued that momentum into the NCAA Tournament. After playing great basketball in the first two rounds against Davidson and Buffalo, Kentucky lost to Kansas State in the Sweet 16. Gilgeous-Alexander's final college basketball moment was a missed three-point attempt at the buzzer. On April 9, 2018, he declared for the [[2018 NBA Draft]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Givony|first1=Jonathan|title=Kentucky freshman guard Shai Gilgeous-Alexander to enter draft|url=http://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/23094736/shai-gilgeous-alexander-kentucky-wildcats-entering-nba-draft|access-date=April 10, 2018|work=ESPN|date=April 9, 2018}}</ref>

==Professional career==
===Los Angeles Clippers (2018–2019)===
On June 21, 2018, Gilgeous-Alexander was selected with the eleventh overall pick by the [[Charlotte Hornets]] in the [[2018 NBA draft]], before being traded to the [[Los Angeles Clippers]] the same day, in exchange for the pick after him (which ended up being [[Miles Bridges]]) and two future second round picks.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/basketball/nba/canadian-gilgeous-alexander-nba-draft-1.4717462|title=19-year-old Canadian goes 11th in NBA draft {{!}} CBC Sports|work=CBC|access-date=June 22, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> He went on to play for the team in the [[2018 NBA Summer League]], where he averaged 19 points, 4.8 rebounds, 4 assists and 2.3 steals per game.

On December 17, 2018, Gilgeous-Alexander scored a season-best of 24 points in a 127–131 loss to the [[Portland Trail Blazers]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espn.com/nba/boxscore/_/id/401071131|title=Portland Trail Blazers vs LA Clippers - Box Score - December 17, 2018 - ESPN|work=ESPN.com|date=January 22, 2019|access-date=January 22, 2019}}</ref> On January 18, 2019, Gilgeous-Alexander tied his season-best of 24 points in a 112–94 loss to the [[Golden State Warriors]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espn.com/nba/boxscore/_/id/401071352|title=Golden State Warriors vs LA Clippers - Box Score - January 18, 2019 - ESPN|work=ESPN.com|date=January 22, 2019|access-date=January 22, 2019}}</ref> Eleven days later, he was named a member of the World Team representing Canada for the 2019 [[Rising Stars Challenge]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nba.com/article/2019/01/29/2019-mtn-dew-ice-rising-stars-roster-official-release|title = Doncic, Simmons headline MTN Dew Ice Rising Stars rosters}}</ref> On April 21, 2019, he scored a new career-high of 25 points in a 105–113 loss to the [[Golden State Warriors]] in Game 4 of the [[2019 NBA playoffs|2019 playoffs]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espn.com.au/nba/boxscore?gameId=401126820|title=Golden State Warriors vs LA Clippers - Box Score - April 21, 2019 - ESPN|work=ESPN.com|date=April 21, 2019|access-date=April 25, 2019}}</ref>

=== Oklahoma City Thunder (2019–present) ===
On July 10, 2019, the Clippers traded Gilgeous-Alexander, [[Danilo Gallinari]], five first-round draft picks, and the rights to swap two other first round picks to the [[Oklahoma City Thunder]] for [[NBA All-Star]] [[Paul George]].<ref>{{cite press release|title=L.A. Clippers Acquire Six-Time NBA All-Star Paul George|date=July 10, 2019|publisher=Los Angeles Clippers|url=https://www.nba.com/clippers/clippers-acquire-six-time-nba-all-star-paul-george|access-date=July 10, 2019}}</ref> On October 8, 2019, Gilgeous-Alexander made his preseason debut with the [[Oklahoma City Thunder]] against the [[Dallas Mavericks]]. He recorded 24 points, 4 rebounds and 1 assist in a 119–104 win over the Mavericks. On December 22, 2019, Gilgeous-Alexander scored a then career-high 32 points with five assists, three rebounds, and two steals in a 118–112 win over the [[Los Angeles Clippers]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/nba/recap?gameId=401161084|title=Gilgeous-Alexander helps Thunder beat Clippers 118-112|date=December 22, 2019|website=ESPN.com|access-date=December 23, 2019}}</ref> On January 13, 2020, Gilgeous-Alexander recorded his first NBA triple double with 20 points, 10 assists and a career-high 20 rebounds in a 117–104 win over the [[Minnesota Timberwolves]], becoming the second player after Russell Westbrook to record a 20–20–10 statline in the last 30 years and the youngest ever to achieve it.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/28479763/shai-gilgeous-alexander-youngest-ever-20-rebound-triple-double|title=SGA youngest ever with 20-rebound triple-double|date=2020-01-14|website=ESPN.com|language=en|access-date=2020-01-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/thunders-shai-gilgeous-alexander-records-historic-first-career-triple-double-in-win-over-timberwolves/amp/|title=Thunder's Shai Gilgeous-Alexander records historic first career triple-double in win over Timberwolves|website=www.cbssports.com|language=en|access-date=2020-01-14}}</ref>

On December 26, 2020, Gilgeous-Alexander put up 24 points, seven rebounds, nine assists, and a game-winning jump shot in a 109–107 win against the [[Charlotte Hornets]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://clutchpoints.com/thunder-video-shai-gilgeous-alexander-hits-game-winner-with-1-4-seconds-left-on-the-clock/|title=VIDEO: Shai Gilgeous-Alexander Hits Game-Winner To End Hornets Comeback Bid|website=ClutchPoints|last=Salao|first=Renzo|access-date=December 26, 2020|date=December 26, 2020}}</ref> On February 24, 2021, Gilgeous-Alexander scored a then career-high 42 points to give the [[Oklahoma City Thunder]] a 102–99 win over the [[San Antonio Spurs]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sportsnet.ca/nba/article/canadas-shai-gilgeous-alexander-career-high-42-thunder-win-spurs/|title=Canada's Shai Gilgeous-Alexander has career-high 42 in Thunder win over Spurs| website=Sportsnet| access-date=February 25, 2021| date=February 24, 2021}}</ref> On March 24, 2021, after playing 35 games, his season ended due to a tear in his [[plantar fascia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/31131242/oklahoma-city-thunder-shai-gilgeous-alexander-miss-extended-plantar-fasciitis-right-foot|website=ESPN.com|title=Oklahoma City Thunder's Shai Gilgeous-Alexander to miss extended time with plantar fasciitis in right foot|author=Associated Press|date=March 25, 2021|access-date=December 19, 2021}}</ref>

On August 3, 2021, Gilgeous-Alexander and the Thunder agreed to a five-year, $172 million [[Derrick Rose Rule|rookie extension]] that will become a five-year, $207 million rookie maximum extension if Gilgeous-Alexander is included on an [[All-NBA Team]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-03|title=Thunder lock up SGA with max rookie extension|url=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/31945995/shai-gilgeous-alexander-agrees-5-year-172-million-maximum-rookie-contract-extension-oklahoma-city-thunder|access-date=2021-10-22|website=ESPN.com|language=en}}</ref> On December 18, 2021, Gilgeous-Alexander scored 18 points and made a game-winning three-pointer at the buzzer to lift the Thunder over his former team, the [[Los Angeles Clippers]], 104–103.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Thunder's Shai Gilgeous-Alexander drains game-winning 3-pointer at buzzer to sink Clippers|url=https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/thunders-shai-gilgeous-alexander-drains-game-winning-3-pointer-at-buzzer-to-sink-clippers/|access-date=January 12, 2022|website=CBSSports.com|language=en}}</ref> Four days later, he recorded his second career triple double, with 27 points, 11 rebounds and 12 assists, in a 108–94 victory over the [[Denver Nuggets]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gilgeous-Alexander’s triple-double leads Thunder past Denver|url= https://kdvr.com/sports/denver-nuggets/gilgeous-alexanders-triple-double-leads-thunder-past-denver/|access-date=January 12, 2022|website=KDVR.com|language=en}}</ref> On December 27, Gilgeous-Alexander was named the NBA Western Conference [[2021–22 NBA season#Players of the Week|Player of the Week]] for Week 10 (December 20–26), his first NBA Player of the Week award. He led Oklahoma to a 3–1 week with averages of 27.5 points, 6.3 rebounds and 7.0 assists.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shai Gilgeous-Alexander, Kemba Walker named NBA Players of the Week |url=https://www.nba.com/news/nba-players-week-shai-gilgeous-alexander-kemba-walker |access-date=December 9, 2022 |website=NBA.com|date=December 27, 2021}}</ref> On March 28, 2022, Gilgeous-Alexander was ruled out for the rest of the season with an ankle injury. <ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2022-03-29 |title=OKC's Gilgeous-Alexander (ankle) out for season |url=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/33618931/oklahoma-city-thunder-sit-guard-shai-gilgeous-alexander-rest-season-ankle-injury |access-date=2022-03-29 |website=ESPN.com |language=en}}</ref> He finished the season averaging career highs of 24.5 points and 5.9 assists per game.<ref name=":0" />

On October 31, 2022, Gilgeous-Alexander was named the NBA Western Conference [[2022–23 NBA season#Players of the Week|Player of the Week]] for Week 2 (October 24–30), his second career NBA Player of the Week award. He led Oklahoma to an undefeated 3–0 week with averages of 31.7 points, 5.3 rebounds and 7.7 assists.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Giannis Antetokounmpo, Shai Gilgeous-Alexander named NBA Players of the Week |url=https://www.nba.com/news/nba-players-week-giannis-antetokounmpo-shai-gilgeous-alexander |access-date=December 9, 2022 |website=NBA.com|date=October 31, 2022}}</ref> On November 16, Gilgeous-Alexander tied a career-high with 42 points, alongside a game-winning three-pointer, six rebounds and seven assists, in a 121–120 win over the [[Washington Wizards]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://clutchpoints.com/thunder-news-shai-gilgeous-alexander-drives-dagger-into-wizards-hearts-with-game-winning-stepback-three|title=Thunder star Shai Gilgeous-Alexander drives dagger into Wizards’ hearts with game-winning stepback three|website=ClutchPoints|last=Pagaduan|first=Jedd|date=November 16, 2022|access-date=November 16, 2022}}</ref> On December 19, Gilgeous-Alexander put up 35 points alongside a buzzer-beating game-winner in a 123–121 win over the [[Portland Trail Blazers]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://clutchpoints.com/thunder-news-shai-gilgeous-alexander-ruins-damian-lillard-blazers-night-with-cold-game-winner|title=Thunder star Shai-Gilgeous Alexander ruins Damian Lillard, Blazers night with cold game-winner|website=ClutchPoints|last=Pagaduan|first=Jedd|date=December 19, 2022|access-date=December 19, 2022}}</ref> On December 23, Gilgeous-Alexander recorded a career-high 44 points, with 10 rebounds and 6 assists, in a 128–125 overtime loss against the [[New Orleans Pelicans]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Murphy scores 23, Pelicans beat Thunder in OT without Zion |url=https://www.espn.com/nba/recap/_/gameId/401468643 |date=November 23, 2022|access-date=November 25, 2022 |website=ESPN.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

==National team career==
Gilgeous-Alexander played for Canada’s Junior National Team that competed in the [[2016 FIBA Americas Under-18 Championship]] in [[Valdivia]], [[Chile]], averaging 7.8 points, 5.4 assists, 4.0 rebounds a contest en route to winning silver.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/player/p/pid/128563/sid/8094/tid/257/tid2//_/2016_FIBA_Americas_U18_Championship_for_Men/index.html|title=Shai Gilgeous-Alexander profile, FIBA Americas U18 Championship for Men 2016 {{!}} FIBA.COM|work=FIBA.COM|access-date=July 10, 2017}}</ref> He also played for Canada's National Team at the [[2016 FIBA World Olympic Qualifying Tournament – Manila|2016 FIBA World Olympic Qualifying Tournament in Manila]].<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.fiba.basketball/oqt/philippines/2016/players|title = Players of the FIBA Olympic Qualifying Tournament 2016 - FIBA.basketball|website = FIBA.basketball|access-date=11 March 2020}}</ref>

On May 24, 2022, Gilgeous-Alexander agreed to a three-year commitment to play with the Canadian senior men's national team.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FOURTEEN ATHLETES COMMITTED TO REPRESENT CANADA AS SENIOR MEN’S NATIONAL TEAM SUMMER CORE REVEALED |url=https://www.basketball.ca/news/athletes-committed-to-represent-canada-as-senior-mens-national-team-summer-core-revealed |access-date=May 24, 2022 |website=Canada Basketball}}</ref>

==Career statistics==
{{NBA player statistics legend|leader=y}}

===NBA===

====Regular season====
{{NBA player statistics start}}
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|{{nbay|2018}}
| style="text-align:left;"|[[2018–19 Los Angeles Clippers season|L.A. Clippers]]
| style="background:#cfecec;"|'''82'''* || '''73''' || 26.5 || .476 || .367 || .800 || 2.8 || 3.3 || 1.2 || .5 || 10.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|{{nbay|2019}}
| style="text-align:left;"|[[2019–20 Oklahoma City Thunder season|Oklahoma City]]
| 70 || 70 || '''34.7''' || .471 || .347 || .807 || '''5.9''' || 3.3 || 1.1 || .7 || 19.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|{{nbay|2020}}
| style="text-align:left;"|[[2020–21 Oklahoma City Thunder season|Oklahoma City]]
| 35 || 35 || 33.7 || '''.508''' || '''.418''' || .808 || 4.7 || '''5.9''' || .8 || .7 || 23.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|{{nbay|2021}}
| style="text-align:left;"|[[2021–22 Oklahoma City Thunder season|Oklahoma City]]
| 56 || 56 || '''34.7''' || .453 || .300 || '''.810''' || 5.0 || '''5.9''' || '''1.3''' || '''.8''' || '''24.5'''
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 243 || 234 || 31.8 || .473 || .348 || .807 || 4.5 || 4.3 || 1.1 || .7 || 18.2
{{s-end}}

====Playoffs====
{{NBA player statistics start}}
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[[2019 NBA playoffs|2019]]
| style="text-align:left;"|[[2018–19 Los Angeles Clippers season|L.A. Clippers]]
| 6 || 6 || 28.8 || '''.467''' || '''.500''' || .850 || 2.7 || 3.2 || '''1.0''' || '''.8''' || 13.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[[2020 NBA playoffs|2020]]
| style="text-align:left;"|[[2019–20 Oklahoma City Thunder season|Oklahoma City]]
| '''7''' || '''7''' || '''39.9''' || .433 || .400 || '''.957''' || '''5.3''' || '''4.1''' || '''1.0''' || .4 || '''16.3'''
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 13 || 13 || 34.8 || .447 || .434 || .907 || 4.1 || 3.7 || 1.0 || .6 || 15.1
{{s-end}}

===College===
{{NBA player statistics start}}
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[[2017–18 NCAA Division I men's basketball season|2017–18]]
| style="text-align:left;"|[[2017–18 Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball team|Kentucky]]
| 37 || 24 || 33.7 || .485 || .404 || .817 || 4.1 || 5.1 || 1.6 || .5|| 14.4
{{s-end}}

==Personal life==
Gilgeous-Alexander's younger brother, Thomasi, was a [[college basketball]] player for the [[Evansville Purple Aces men's basketball|Evansville Purple Aces]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Thomasi Gilgeous-Alexander |url=https://gopurpleaces.com/sports/mens-basketball/roster/thomasi-gilgeous-alexander/5173 |website=University of Evansville Athletics |access-date=June 27, 2020}}</ref> and [[Northeastern Oklahoma A&M College|Northeastern Oklahoma A&M]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thomasi Gilgeous-Alexander - Men's Basketball |url=https://neoathletics.com/sports/mens-basketball/roster/thomasi-gilgeous-alexander/5227 |access-date=2022-11-24 |website=Northeastern Oklahoma A&M Athletics |language=en}}</ref> His younger cousin, [[Nickeil Alexander-Walker]], is an NBA player for the [[Utah Jazz]]. The two have a close relationship and shared a room at high school coach Zach Ferrell's house.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Tipton |first1=Jerry |title=Competitive cousins shared a room in high school. UK-Virginia Tech game pits them against each other. |url=https://www.kentucky.com/sports/college/kentucky-sports/uk-basketball-men/article189644684.html |access-date=September 7, 2018 |work=[[Lexington Herald-Leader]] |date=December 13, 2017}}</ref>

In July 2020, Gilgeous-Alexander signed an endorsement deal with [[Converse (shoe company)|Converse]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 8, 2020 |title=Converse continues rebrand, adds Shai Gilgeous-Alexander |url=https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/29425631/shai-gilgeous-alexander-signs-converse-joining-draymond-green-kelly-oubre-jr}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{basketballstats}}
* [http://ukathletics.com/roster.aspx?rp_id=4145 Kentucky Wildcats bio]
* [http://www.nbadraft.net/players/shai-gilgeous-alexander Shai Gilgeous-Alexander] at nbadraft.net

{{Oklahoma City Thunder current roster}}
{{2018 NBA draft}}
{{Portal bar|Sports}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gilgeous-Alexander, Shai}}
[[Category:1998 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Basketball players from Toronto]]
[[Category:Canadian expatriate basketball people in the United States]]
[[Category:Canadian men's basketball players]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Antigua and Barbuda descent]]
[[Category:Charlotte Hornets draft picks]]
[[Category:Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball players]]
[[Category:Los Angeles Clippers players]]
[[Category:National Basketball Association players from Canada]]
[[Category:Oklahoma City Thunder players]]
[[Category:Point guards]]

Charles de Salaberry

2023-01-23T15:20:43Z

72.142.115.198: spelling erorr "canadian"

{{Short description|Canadian military officer and statesman}}
{{distinguish|Charles-René-Léonidas d'Irumberry de Salaberry}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2012}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|office=Member of the [[Legislative Council of Lower Canada|Legislative Council of Lower Canada]]
|monarch=[[George III]] [[George IV]]
|termstart=December 14, 1818
|termend=February 27, 1829
|party= [[Château Clique]]
|honorific-prefix=[[Lieutenant Colonel]]
|honorific-suffix=[[Order of the Bath|CB]]
|nationality=[[Canadian]]
|birth_date={{birth-date|November 19, 1778}}
|death_date= {{death-date and age|February 27, 1829|November 19, 1778}}
|relatives = [[Ignace-Michel-Louis-Antoine d'Irumberry de Salaberry|Ignace de Salaberry]] (father) [[Michel de Sallaberry]] (grand-father)
|image=Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry (1778-1829), by Anson Dickinson, 1825, watercolor on ivory - Château Ramezay - Montreal, Canada - DSC07496.jpg
|caption= Lieutenant Colonel Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry in 1825 by [[Anson Dickinson]]
|nickname=
|birth_place= [[Beauport, Quebec City|Beauport]], [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]]
|death_place=[[Chambly, Quebec|Chambly]], [[Lower Canada]]
|allegiance=British Empire [[Lower Canada]]
|branch={{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_British_Army_(1938-present).png}} [[British Army]] [[Canadian Militia]]
|serviceyears=
|rank=[[Lieutenant Colonel]]
|commands= [[Canadian Voltigeurs]]
|battles=[[French Revolutionary Wars]]
* [[Haitian Revolution]]
[[Napoleonic Wars]]
* [[Walcheren Campaign]]
[[War of 1812]]
* [[Battle of Lacolle Mills (1812)|Battle of Lacolle Mills]]
* [[Battle of the Chateauguay]]
|awards=
|relations=
|laterwork=
}}
Lieutenant Colonel '''Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry''', [[Order of the Bath|CB]] (November 19, 1778 – February 27, 1829) was a Canadian military officer and statesman of the seigneurial class who served in various campaigns for the [[British Army]]. He won distinction for repelling the American advance on [[Montreal]] during the [[War of 1812]].

==Early years==
Born at the manor house of Beauport (east of Quebec City) in Lower Canada on November 19, 1778 the son of [[Ignace-Michel-Louis-Antoine d'Irumberry de Salaberry]]. Charles was one of four sons in a family with a long tradition of military service. Generations of the family had served as officers of the Royal Army in France, and then in the New World. When the British acquired [[Canada (New France)|Canada]] in 1763 the family continued its military traditions in British service. Charles-Michel's father, [[Ignace-Michel-Louis-Antoine d'Irumberry de Salaberry|Ignace de Salaberry]], was [[Seigneurial system of New France|Seigneur]] de Chambly et de Beaulac, and was also a British Army officer who had fought in the defence of Quebec during the [[American War of Independence|American Revolutionary War]], and later served as a member of the [[Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada]], and the [[Legislative Council of Lower Canada]].

==Military career==

At the age of 14, Charles-Michel followed his father's footsteps into the [[44th (East Essex) Regiment of Foot|44th Regiment]] of the British Army. He soon transferred to the [[King's Royal Rifle Corps|60th Regiment]] and saw action with them in the [[West Indies]]. Shortly after landing in [[St. Domingue]], his battalion was reduced to 200 men through the effects of [[yellow fever]], and endured a march through the countryside to undertake the siege of Fort Matilda.<ref name=Lighthall>W. D. Lighthall, ''An Account of the Battle of Châteauguay''. Chateauguay Literary and Historical Society (1889), p. 11</ref> de Salaberry was subsequently cited for bravery, maintaining his duties during the siege which killed or wounded all but three of the battalion's remaining 200 men.<ref name=Lighthall/> He was charged with the evacuation of the surviving men, despite the difference in age and rank.<ref name=Lighthall/>

He later served admirably in the [[Netherlands]], during the [[Walcheren Campaign]]. He earned his commission as Captain-Lieutenant in 1799 and was given a company command in 1803, continuing to serve in Europe and the West Indies. While stationed at [[Jamaica]], de Salaberry was directly involved in a bitter [[duel]], retold by [[Philippe-Joseph Aubert de Gaspé]]:

''The officers of the 60th Regiment, of which Charles-Michel de Salaberry was [[Lieutenant]], were of different nationalities, [[English people|English]], [[Germans|Prussians]], [[Swiss people|Swiss]], [[Germans|Hanoverians]], and two [[French Canadians|French-Canadians]], Lieutenants de Salaberry and DesRivières. It was difficult to preserve harmony among them — the Germans especially being passionate, quarrelsome, and duellists. One morning, de Salaberry was sitting at [[breakfast]] with some of his brother officers, when one of the Germans entered, and looking at him with an insulting air, said, "I have just come from sending a French Canadian to the other world!" meaning that he had just killed Lt. Thomas-Hippolyte Trottier DesRivières (stepson of [[James McGill]]) in a duel. De Salaberry sprang like a [[tiger]] from his seat; but instantly calming himself, said, "We will finish breakfast, and then you shall have the pleasure of finishing another French Canadian." They fought, as was then the custom, with [[sword]]s; both were noted for their great skill, and the contest was long and obstinate.''

''De Salaberry was very young; his antagonist more aged, and a rough bully. The young Canadian received a wound on his forehead, which time never effaced, and as it bled freely and interfered with his sight, friends attempted to stop the conflict; but he would not consent, but binding his handkerchief round his head, recommenced the fight with greater fury. At length his adversary fell mortally wounded.''<ref>[http://www.morrin.org/transactions/docsfromclient/books/192/192_f.html Literary and Historical Society of Quebec] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130415092618/http://www.morrin.org/transactions/docsfromclient/books/192/192_f.html |date=2013-04-15 }}</ref>

In 1810, de Salaberry was recalled to [[Canada]] with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. He served as [[aide-de-camp]] to Major General [[Francis de Rottenburg]], but in 1812 he was appointed to command a new corps of volunteers, the [[Canadian Voltigeurs]] (light infantry), and became a chief of staff for the militia. Les Voltigeurs were essentially militiamen, but de Salaberry trained them as regulars similar to the [[Fencibles|Fencible]] units raised in [[Upper Canada]]. He even paid for some of their equipment out of his own pocket. The reason for this exceptional group was his respect for French Canadians, who in general did not want to fight among British soldiers — the same people they fought only 52 years earlier. The instructions were still in the English language, but soldiers used [[French language|French]]. De Salaberry's military heritage was reflected in his strict code of discipline and honour. The professionalism and high expectations he held for his fellow Canadians was repaid by the respect and loyalty of his troops.

== War of 1812==
In November 1812, during the [[War of 1812]], de Salaberry commanded the advance guard of the force that turned away [[Henry Dearborn]]'s northern attack at [[Battle of Lacolle Mills (1812)|Lacolle Mill]]. Later, some of his Voltigeurs took part in the decisive [[Battle of Crysler's Farm]], described by some as the battle that "saved Canada."
[[File:Battle of Chateauguay.jpg|thumb|left|During the [[Battle of Chateauguay]], de Salaberry (centre) led local [[fencibles]], [[Canadian militia|militia]], and [[Mohawk Nation|Mohawk]] warriors against American forces.]]
De Salaberry's greatest claim to fame came at [[Battle of Chateauguay|Chateauguay]] in October 1813, when he intercepted and turned the American troops advancing on Montreal under Major General [[Wade Hampton I|Hampton]]. With regular reports from loyal farmers along the border, de Salaberry knew all of Hampton's movements and troop numbers, as the Americans approached the [[Chateauguay River]] south-west of Montreal. He ordered the felling of trees to build tangled [[breastwork (fortification)|breastworks]] of "abatis" in the ravines, where the Chateauguay met the English River, and he dispersed his troops through the woods. Facing Hampton's force of 4,000 troops (1,400 of whom were militia who refused to cross the border) and 10 cannon, de Salaberry led an advance guard of 250 Voltigeurs plus 50 allied warriors of the Kaunawakee [[Mohawk nation]]. The rest of de Salaberry's corps, 1,500 men, remained in reserve.

On October 26, when Hampton encountered the barricades, he sent 1,500 of his troops to surround the Canadians. De Salaberry used the twilight and difficult terrain to confuse the enemy, ordering bugles to be blown from several locations and convincing Hampton that a much larger force was lurking in the darkness. Les Voltigeurs then launched a withering fire down into the ravine, inflicting numerous casualties. Unable to outflank de Salaberry, Hampton elected to withdraw back to the American border.

The encounter won fame and honours for de Salaberry, but had he not succeeded, his personal fortunes might have been quite different. He was so convinced that victory would be his that he neglected to report the Americans' advance to his senior officers. Failure would likely have meant a court-martial for him and, possibly, the fall of Montreal. The gambit worked, however: Britain struck a gold medal to commemorate the Battle of Chateauguay, and de Salaberry became a legendary figure in Quebec history.

Following the victory at the Chateauguay, de Salaberry was appointed Inspecting Field Officer of Light Troops in Canada.

==Later years==
After the War of 1812, Charles de Salaberry became a folk hero in French Canada. He served as justice of the peace for various district courts, and in 1818 became a [[Legislative Council of Lower Canada|legislative councillor for Lower Canada]]. After his father's death, he became Seigneur of St. Mathias.

In 1817, he was made a Companion of the [[Order of the Bath]].

Charles de Salaberry died in [[Chambly, Quebec]] on February 27, 1829.

==Legacy==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| image1 = QUEBEC8.JPG
| width1 = 110
|footer= Statues of de Salaberry at Quebec's [[Parliament Building (Quebec)|Parliament Building]] in [[Quebec City]] (left), at [[Valiants Memorial]] in [[Ottawa]], and in [[Chambly, Quebec]].
| image2 = Charles Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry statue.jpg
| width2 = 110
| image3 = Kmdacosta Monument de Salaberry.JPG
| width3 = 100
}}
A bronze memorial at the corner of Bourgogne street and Salaberry street in Chambly, Quebec by [[Louis-Philippe Hébert]] and unveiled on October 26, 1881 by Dr. M.D.S. Martel and Mr. J.O. Dion, is an expression of gratitude towards Charles de Salaberry.<ref>{{National Inventory of Canadian Military Memorials|id=3819|title=Charles de Salaberry statue: Memorial 24013-003 Chambly, QC|access-date=4 January 2017}}</ref>

De Salaberry's house in Chambly was designated a [[National Historic Sites of Canada|National Historic Site of Canada]] in 1968.<ref>{{CRHP|15708|de Salaberry House|24 March 2012}}</ref>

The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released a [[quarter (Canadian coin)|quarter]] with Salaberry's picture on it, on March 18, 2013, to celebrate the [[War of 1812 Bicentennial|bicentennial]] of the [[War of 1812]], the third in a series of four quarters.<ref name="salaberry">{{cite web|url=http://www.mint.ca/store/news/news-18300006?cat=News+releases&nId=700002&parentnId=600004&nodeGroup=About+the+Mint#backgrounder|title=War of 1812 Hero Lieutenant Colonel Charles-Michel de Salaberry Commemorated on Royal Canadian Mint 25-Cent Circulation Coin|work=Mint.ca|accessdate=March 31, 2013}}</ref> The Mint also released a two dollar coin ([[Toonie]]) on June 18, 2012 to mark the occasion.<ref name="war">{{cite web|url=http://members.shaw.ca/kcic1/coins8.html|title=Canada's Coins|work=members.shaw.ca/kcic1|accessdate=October 28, 2012}}</ref> The Mint also issued a $4 coin in honor of his victory in at the battle of the Châteauguay, with "les Voltigeurs". In 2013 Canada Post issued a postage stamp commemorating Charles de Salaberry.

==His descendants==
Charles de Salaberry has a large number of descendants spread across Canada. Two of his sons, [[Charles-René-Léonidas d'Irumberry de Salaberry]] and [[Melchior-Alphonse de Salaberry]], also served in the army. The last two families to bear his name now live in [[Coquitlam, British Columbia]], the interior of British Columbia (J.C.M. de Salaberry) and in [[Ontario]] ([[Nicolas de Salaberry]] of [[Toronto]]).

Both the City of [[Salaberry-de-Valleyfield]] in Quebec and the Rural Municipality of [[De Salaberry, Manitoba|De Salaberry]] in south-eastern Manitoba carry his name in remembrance for what he did in the War of 1812.
Some descendants lived in Gatineau (Hull) in the 1930s. The last traditionally built armouries in Canada, built in Hull in 1938, are named ''[[Salaberry Armoury|Le manège de Salaberry]]''.

==See also==
*[[Colonial Militia in Canada]]

== References ==
{{Commons category|Charles-Michel de Salaberry}}
{{Reflist}}
* {{QuebecMLCbio|d-irumberry-de-salaberry-charles-michel-213}}
*[http://www.warof1812.ca/salaberry.htm Biography of Lt. Col. Charles De Salaberry, Hero of the Battle of the Chateauguay]
*{{Cite DCB|2930}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Salaberry, Charles De}}
[[Category:1778 births]]
[[Category:1829 deaths]]
[[Category:Pre-Confederation Quebec people]]
[[Category:Members of the Legislative Council of Lower Canada]]
[[Category:Canadian people of the War of 1812]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Basque descent]]
[[Category:French Quebecers]]
[[Category:Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)]]
[[Category:44th Regiment of Foot officers]]
[[Category:King's Royal Rifle Corps officers]]
[[Category:Canadian Militia officers]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of the Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:Salaberry-de-Valleyfield]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the War of 1812]]
[[Category:Battle of the Châteaugay veterans]]
[[Category:Les Voltigeurs de Québec]]

Charles de Salaberry

2023-01-23T15:17:04Z

72.142.115.198: the canadian military does have lieutanents it has left-tenants

{{Short description|Canadian military officer and statesman}}
{{distinguish|Charles-René-Léonidas d'Irumberry de Salaberry}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2012}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|office=Member of the [[Legislative Council of Lower Canada|Legislative Council of Lower Canada]]
|monarch=[[George III]] [[George IV]]
|termstart=December 14, 1818
|termend=February 27, 1829
|party= [[Château Clique]]
|honorific-prefix=[[left-tenant Colonel]]
|honorific-suffix=[[Order of the Bath|CB]]
|nationality=[[Canadien]]
|birth_date={{birth-date|November 19, 1778}}
|death_date= {{death-date and age|February 27, 1829|November 19, 1778}}
|relatives = [[Ignace-Michel-Louis-Antoine d'Irumberry de Salaberry|Ignace de Salaberry]] (father) [[Michel de Sallaberry]] (grand-father)
|image=Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry (1778-1829), by Anson Dickinson, 1825, watercolor on ivory - Château Ramezay - Montreal, Canada - DSC07496.jpg
|caption= Left-tenant Colonel Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry in 1825 by [[Anson Dickinson]]
|nickname=
|birth_place= [[Beauport, Quebec City|Beauport]], [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]]
|death_place=[[Chambly, Quebec|Chambly]], [[Lower Canada]]
|allegiance=British Empire [[Lower Canada]]
|branch={{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_British_Army_(1938-present).png}} [[British Army]] [[Canadian Militia]]
|serviceyears=
|rank=[[Left-tenant Colonel]]
|commands= [[Canadian Voltigeurs]]
|battles=[[French Revolutionary Wars]]
* [[Haitian Revolution]]
[[Napoleonic Wars]]
* [[Walcheren Campaign]]
[[War of 1812]]
* [[Battle of Lacolle Mills (1812)|Battle of Lacolle Mills]]
* [[Battle of the Chateauguay]]
|awards=
|relations=
|laterwork=
}}
Left-tenant Colonel '''Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry''', [[Order of the Bath|CB]] (November 19, 1778 – February 27, 1829) was a Canadian military officer and statesman of the seigneurial class who served in various campaigns for the [[British Army]]. He won distinction for repelling the American advance on [[Montreal]] during the [[War of 1812]].

==Early years==
Born at the manor house of Beauport (east of Quebec City) in Lower Canada on November 19, 1778 the son of [[Ignace-Michel-Louis-Antoine d'Irumberry de Salaberry]]. Charles was one of four sons in a family with a long tradition of military service. Generations of the family had served as officers of the Royal Army in France, and then in the New World. When the British acquired [[Canada (New France)|Canada]] in 1763 the family continued its military traditions in British service. Charles-Michel's father, [[Ignace-Michel-Louis-Antoine d'Irumberry de Salaberry|Ignace de Salaberry]], was [[Seigneurial system of New France|Seigneur]] de Chambly et de Beaulac, and was also a British Army officer who had fought in the defence of Quebec during the [[American War of Independence|American Revolutionary War]], and later served as a member of the [[Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada]], and the [[Legislative Council of Lower Canada]].

==Military career==

At the age of 14, Charles-Michel followed his father's footsteps into the [[44th (East Essex) Regiment of Foot|44th Regiment]] of the British Army. He soon transferred to the [[King's Royal Rifle Corps|60th Regiment]] and saw action with them in the [[West Indies]]. Shortly after landing in [[St. Domingue]], his battalion was reduced to 200 men through the effects of [[yellow fever]], and endured a march through the countryside to undertake the siege of Fort Matilda.<ref name=Lighthall>W. D. Lighthall, ''An Account of the Battle of Châteauguay''. Chateauguay Literary and Historical Society (1889), p. 11</ref> de Salaberry was subsequently cited for bravery, maintaining his duties during the siege which killed or wounded all but three of the battalion's remaining 200 men.<ref name=Lighthall/> He was charged with the evacuation of the surviving men, despite the difference in age and rank.<ref name=Lighthall/>

He later served admirably in the [[Netherlands]], during the [[Walcheren Campaign]]. He earned his commission as Captain-Left-tenant in 1799 and was given a company command in 1803, continuing to serve in Europe and the West Indies. While stationed at [[Jamaica]], de Salaberry was directly involved in a bitter [[duel]], retold by [[Philippe-Joseph Aubert de Gaspé]]:

''The officers of the 60th Regiment, of which Charles-Michel de Salaberry was [[Left-tenant]], were of different nationalities, [[English people|English]], [[Germans|Prussians]], [[Swiss people|Swiss]], [[Germans|Hanoverians]], and two [[French Canadians|French-Canadians]], Left-tenants de Salaberry and DesRivières. It was difficult to preserve harmony among them — the Germans especially being passionate, quarrelsome, and duellists. One morning, de Salaberry was sitting at [[breakfast]] with some of his brother officers, when one of the Germans entered, and looking at him with an insulting air, said, "I have just come from sending a French Canadian to the other world!" meaning that he had just killed Lt. Thomas-Hippolyte Trottier DesRivières (stepson of [[James McGill]]) in a duel. De Salaberry sprang like a [[tiger]] from his seat; but instantly calming himself, said, "We will finish breakfast, and then you shall have the pleasure of finishing another French Canadian." They fought, as was then the custom, with [[sword]]s; both were noted for their great skill, and the contest was long and obstinate.''

''De Salaberry was very young; his antagonist more aged, and a rough bully. The young Canadien received a wound on his forehead, which time never effaced, and as it bled freely and interfered with his sight, friends attempted to stop the conflict; but he would not consent, but binding his handkerchief round his head, recommenced the fight with greater fury. At length his adversary fell mortally wounded.''<ref>[http://www.morrin.org/transactions/docsfromclient/books/192/192_f.html Literary and Historical Society of Quebec] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130415092618/http://www.morrin.org/transactions/docsfromclient/books/192/192_f.html |date=2013-04-15 }}</ref>

In 1810, de Salaberry was recalled to [[Canada]] with the rank of Left-tenant-Colonel. He served as [[aide-de-camp]] to Major General [[Francis de Rottenburg]], but in 1812 he was appointed to command a new corps of volunteers, the [[Canadian Voltigeurs]] (light infantry), and became a chief of staff for the militia. Les Voltigeurs were essentially militiamen, but de Salaberry trained them as regulars similar to the [[Fencibles|Fencible]] units raised in [[Upper Canada]]. He even paid for some of their equipment out of his own pocket. The reason for this exceptional group was his respect for French Canadians, who in general did not want to fight among British soldiers — the same people they fought only 52 years earlier. The instructions were still in the English language, but soldiers used [[French language|French]]. De Salaberry's military heritage was reflected in his strict code of discipline and honour. The professionalism and high expectations he held for his fellow Canadiens was repaid by the respect and loyalty of his troops.

== War of 1812==
In November 1812, during the [[War of 1812]], de Salaberry commanded the advance guard of the force that turned away [[Henry Dearborn]]'s northern attack at [[Battle of Lacolle Mills (1812)|Lacolle Mill]]. Later, some of his Voltigeurs took part in the decisive [[Battle of Crysler's Farm]], described by some as the battle that "saved Canada."
[[File:Battle of Chateauguay.jpg|thumb|left|During the [[Battle of Chateauguay]], de Salaberry (centre) led local [[fencibles]], [[Canadian militia|militia]], and [[Mohawk Nation|Mohawk]] warriors against American forces.]]
De Salaberry's greatest claim to fame came at [[Battle of Chateauguay|Chateauguay]] in October 1813, when he intercepted and turned the American troops advancing on Montreal under Major General [[Wade Hampton I|Hampton]]. With regular reports from loyal farmers along the border, de Salaberry knew all of Hampton's movements and troop numbers, as the Americans approached the [[Chateauguay River]] south-west of Montreal. He ordered the felling of trees to build tangled [[breastwork (fortification)|breastworks]] of "abatis" in the ravines, where the Chateauguay met the English River, and he dispersed his troops through the woods. Facing Hampton's force of 4,000 troops (1,400 of whom were militia who refused to cross the border) and 10 cannon, de Salaberry led an advance guard of 250 Voltigeurs plus 50 allied warriors of the Kaunawakee [[Mohawk nation]]. The rest of de Salaberry's corps, 1,500 men, remained in reserve.

On October 26, when Hampton encountered the barricades, he sent 1,500 of his troops to surround the Canadiens. De Salaberry used the twilight and difficult terrain to confuse the enemy, ordering bugles to be blown from several locations and convincing Hampton that a much larger force was lurking in the darkness. Les Voltigeurs then launched a withering fire down into the ravine, inflicting numerous casualties. Unable to outflank de Salaberry, Hampton elected to withdraw back to the American border.

The encounter won fame and honours for de Salaberry, but had he not succeeded, his personal fortunes might have been quite different. He was so convinced that victory would be his that he neglected to report the Americans' advance to his senior officers. Failure would likely have meant a court-martial for him and, possibly, the fall of Montreal. The gambit worked, however: Britain struck a gold medal to commemorate the Battle of Chateauguay, and de Salaberry became a legendary figure in Quebec history.

Following the victory at the Chateauguay, de Salaberry was appointed Inspecting Field Officer of Light Troops in Canada.

==Later years==
After the War of 1812, Charles de Salaberry became a folk hero in French Canada. He served as justice of the peace for various district courts, and in 1818 became a [[Legislative Council of Lower Canada|legislative councillor for Lower Canada]]. After his father's death, he became Seigneur of St. Mathias.

In 1817, he was made a Companion of the [[Order of the Bath]].

Charles de Salaberry died in [[Chambly, Quebec]] on February 27, 1829.

==Legacy==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| image1 = QUEBEC8.JPG
| width1 = 110
|footer= Statues of de Salaberry at Quebec's [[Parliament Building (Quebec)|Parliament Building]] in [[Quebec City]] (left), at [[Valiants Memorial]] in [[Ottawa]], and in [[Chambly, Quebec]].
| image2 = Charles Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry statue.jpg
| width2 = 110
| image3 = Kmdacosta Monument de Salaberry.JPG
| width3 = 100
}}
A bronze memorial at the corner of Bourgogne street and Salaberry street in Chambly, Quebec by [[Louis-Philippe Hébert]] and unveiled on October 26, 1881 by Dr. M.D.S. Martel and Mr. J.O. Dion, is an expression of gratitude towards Charles de Salaberry.<ref>{{National Inventory of Canadian Military Memorials|id=3819|title=Charles de Salaberry statue: Memorial 24013-003 Chambly, QC|access-date=4 January 2017}}</ref>

De Salaberry's house in Chambly was designated a [[National Historic Sites of Canada|National Historic Site of Canada]] in 1968.<ref>{{CRHP|15708|de Salaberry House|24 March 2012}}</ref>

The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released a [[quarter (Canadian coin)|quarter]] with Salaberry's picture on it, on March 18, 2013, to celebrate the [[War of 1812 Bicentennial|bicentennial]] of the [[War of 1812]], the third in a series of four quarters.<ref name="salaberry">{{cite web|url=http://www.mint.ca/store/news/news-18300006?cat=News+releases&nId=700002&parentnId=600004&nodeGroup=About+the+Mint#backgrounder|title=War of 1812 Hero Left-tenant Colonel Charles-Michel de Salaberry Commemorated on Royal Canadian Mint 25-Cent Circulation Coin|work=Mint.ca|accessdate=March 31, 2013}}</ref> The Mint also released a two dollar coin ([[Toonie]]) on June 18, 2012 to mark the occasion.<ref name="war">{{cite web|url=http://members.shaw.ca/kcic1/coins8.html|title=Canada's Coins|work=members.shaw.ca/kcic1|accessdate=October 28, 2012}}</ref> The Mint also issued a $4 coin in honor of his victory in at the battle of the Châteauguay, with "les Voltigeurs". In 2013 Canada Post issued a postage stamp commemorating Charles de Salaberry.

==His descendants==
Charles de Salaberry has a large number of descendants spread across Canada. Two of his sons, [[Charles-René-Léonidas d'Irumberry de Salaberry]] and [[Melchior-Alphonse de Salaberry]], also served in the army. The last two families to bear his name now live in [[Coquitlam, British Columbia]], the interior of British Columbia (J.C.M. de Salaberry) and in [[Ontario]] ([[Nicolas de Salaberry]] of [[Toronto]]).

Both the City of [[Salaberry-de-Valleyfield]] in Quebec and the Rural Municipality of [[De Salaberry, Manitoba|De Salaberry]] in south-eastern Manitoba carry his name in remembrance for what he did in the War of 1812.
Some descendants lived in Gatineau (Hull) in the 1930s. The last traditionally built armouries in Canada, built in Hull in 1938, are named ''[[Salaberry Armoury|Le manège de Salaberry]]''.

==See also==
*[[Colonial Militia in Canada]]

== References ==
{{Commons category|Charles-Michel de Salaberry}}
{{Reflist}}
* {{QuebecMLCbio|d-irumberry-de-salaberry-charles-michel-213}}
*[http://www.warof1812.ca/salaberry.htm Biography of Lt. Col. Charles De Salaberry, Hero of the Battle of the Chateauguay]
*{{Cite DCB|2930}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Salaberry, Charles De}}
[[Category:1778 births]]
[[Category:1829 deaths]]
[[Category:Pre-Confederation Quebec people]]
[[Category:Members of the Legislative Council of Lower Canada]]
[[Category:Canadian people of the War of 1812]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Basque descent]]
[[Category:French Quebecers]]
[[Category:Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)]]
[[Category:44th Regiment of Foot officers]]
[[Category:King's Royal Rifle Corps officers]]
[[Category:Canadian Militia officers]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of the Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:Salaberry-de-Valleyfield]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the War of 1812]]
[[Category:Battle of the Châteaugay veterans]]
[[Category:Les Voltigeurs de Québec]]

Charles de Salaberry

2023-01-23T15:12:58Z

72.142.115.198: the canadian and british armie do not have lieutanents they have left tenants

{{Short description|Canadian military officer and statesman}}
{{distinguish|Charles-René-Léonidas d'Irumberry de Salaberry}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2012}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|office=Member of the [[Legislative Council of Lower Canada|Legislative Council of Lower Canada]]
|monarch=[[George III]] [[George IV]]
|termstart=December 14, 1818
|termend=February 27, 1829
|party= [[Château Clique]]
|honorific-prefix=[[Left tenant Colonel]]
|honorific-suffix=[[Order of the Bath|CB]]
|nationality=[[Canadien]]
|birth_date={{birth-date|November 19, 1778}}
|death_date= {{death-date and age|February 27, 1829|November 19, 1778}}
|relatives = [[Ignace-Michel-Louis-Antoine d'Irumberry de Salaberry|Ignace de Salaberry]] (father) [[Michel de Sallaberry]] (grand-father)
|image=Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry (1778-1829), by Anson Dickinson, 1825, watercolor on ivory - Château Ramezay - Montreal, Canada - DSC07496.jpg
|caption= Left tenant Colonel Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry in 1825 by [[Anson Dickinson]]
|nickname=
|birth_place= [[Beauport, Quebec City|Beauport]], [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]]
|death_place=[[Chambly, Quebec|Chambly]], [[Lower Canada]]
|allegiance=British Empire [[Lower Canada]]
|branch={{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_British_Army_(1938-present).png}} [[British Army]] [[Canadian Militia]]
|serviceyears=
|rank=[[left tenant Colonel]]
|commands= [[Canadian Voltigeurs]]
|battles=[[French Revolutionary Wars]]
* [[Haitian Revolution]]
[[Napoleonic Wars]]
* [[Walcheren Campaign]]
[[War of 1812]]
* [[Battle of Lacolle Mills (1812)|Battle of Lacolle Mills]]
* [[Battle of the Chateauguay]]
|awards=
|relations=
|laterwork=
}}
left tenant Colonel '''Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry''', [[Order of the Bath|CB]] (November 19, 1778 – February 27, 1829) was a Canadian military officer and statesman of the seigneurial class who served in various campaigns for the [[British Army]]. He won distinction for repelling the American advance on [[Montreal]] during the [[War of 1812]].

==Early years==
Born at the manor house of Beauport (east of Quebec City) in Lower Canada on November 19, 1778 the son of [[Ignace-Michel-Louis-Antoine d'Irumberry de Salaberry]]. Charles was one of four sons in a family with a long tradition of military service. Generations of the family had served as officers of the Royal Army in France, and then in the New World. When the British acquired [[Canada (New France)|Canada]] in 1763 the family continued its military traditions in British service. Charles-Michel's father, [[Ignace-Michel-Louis-Antoine d'Irumberry de Salaberry|Ignace de Salaberry]], was [[Seigneurial system of New France|Seigneur]] de Chambly et de Beaulac, and was also a British Army officer who had fought in the defence of Quebec during the [[American War of Independence|American Revolutionary War]], and later served as a member of the [[Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada]], and the [[Legislative Council of Lower Canada]].

==Military career==

At the age of 14, Charles-Michel followed his father's footsteps into the [[44th (East Essex) Regiment of Foot|44th Regiment]] of the British Army. He soon transferred to the [[King's Royal Rifle Corps|60th Regiment]] and saw action with them in the [[West Indies]]. Shortly after landing in [[St. Domingue]], his battalion was reduced to 200 men through the effects of [[yellow fever]], and endured a march through the countryside to undertake the siege of Fort Matilda.<ref name=Lighthall>W. D. Lighthall, ''An Account of the Battle of Châteauguay''. Chateauguay Literary and Historical Society (1889), p. 11</ref> de Salaberry was subsequently cited for bravery, maintaining his duties during the siege which killed or wounded all but three of the battalion's remaining 200 men.<ref name=Lighthall/> He was charged with the evacuation of the surviving men, despite the difference in age and rank.<ref name=Lighthall/>

He later served admirably in the [[Netherlands]], during the [[Walcheren Campaign]]. He earned his commission as Captain-left tenant in 1799 and was given a company command in 1803, continuing to serve in Europe and the West Indies. While stationed at [[Jamaica]], de Salaberry was directly involved in a bitter [[duel]], retold by [[Philippe-Joseph Aubert de Gaspé]]:

''The officers of the 60th Regiment, of which Charles-Michel de Salaberry was [[left tenant]], were of different nationalities, [[English people|English]], [[Germans|Prussians]], [[Swiss people|Swiss]], [[Germans|Hanoverians]], and two [[French Canadians|French-Canadians]], left tenants de Salaberry and DesRivières. It was difficult to preserve harmony among them — the Germans especially being passionate, quarrelsome, and duellists. One morning, de Salaberry was sitting at [[breakfast]] with some of his brother officers, when one of the Germans entered, and looking at him with an insulting air, said, "I have just come from sending a French Canadian to the other world!" meaning that he had just killed Lt. Thomas-Hippolyte Trottier DesRivières (stepson of [[James McGill]]) in a duel. De Salaberry sprang like a [[tiger]] from his seat; but instantly calming himself, said, "We will finish breakfast, and then you shall have the pleasure of finishing another French Canadian." They fought, as was then the custom, with [[sword]]s; both were noted for their great skill, and the contest was long and obstinate.''

''De Salaberry was very young; his antagonist more aged, and a rough bully. The young Canadien received a wound on his forehead, which time never effaced, and as it bled freely and interfered with his sight, friends attempted to stop the conflict; but he would not consent, but binding his handkerchief round his head, recommenced the fight with greater fury. At length his adversary fell mortally wounded.''<ref>[http://www.morrin.org/transactions/docsfromclient/books/192/192_f.html Literary and Historical Society of Quebec] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130415092618/http://www.morrin.org/transactions/docsfromclient/books/192/192_f.html |date=2013-04-15 }}</ref>

In 1810, de Salaberry was recalled to [[Canada]] with the rank of left tenant-Colonel. He served as [[aide-de-camp]] to Major General [[Francis de Rottenburg]], but in 1812 he was appointed to command a new corps of volunteers, the [[Canadian Voltigeurs]] (light infantry), and became a chief of staff for the militia. Les Voltigeurs were essentially militiamen, but de Salaberry trained them as regulars similar to the [[Fencibles|Fencible]] units raised in [[Upper Canada]]. He even paid for some of their equipment out of his own pocket. The reason for this exceptional group was his respect for French Canadians, who in general did not want to fight among British soldiers — the same people they fought only 52 years earlier. The instructions were still in the English language, but soldiers used [[French language|French]]. De Salaberry's military heritage was reflected in his strict code of discipline and honour. The professionalism and high expectations he held for his fellow Canadiens was repaid by the respect and loyalty of his troops.

== War of 1812==
In November 1812, during the [[War of 1812]], de Salaberry commanded the advance guard of the force that turned away [[Henry Dearborn]]'s northern attack at [[Battle of Lacolle Mills (1812)|Lacolle Mill]]. Later, some of his Voltigeurs took part in the decisive [[Battle of Crysler's Farm]], described by some as the battle that "saved Canada."
[[File:Battle of Chateauguay.jpg|thumb|left|During the [[Battle of Chateauguay]], de Salaberry (centre) led local [[fencibles]], [[Canadian militia|militia]], and [[Mohawk Nation|Mohawk]] warriors against American forces.]]
De Salaberry's greatest claim to fame came at [[Battle of Chateauguay|Chateauguay]] in October 1813, when he intercepted and turned the American troops advancing on Montreal under Major General [[Wade Hampton I|Hampton]]. With regular reports from loyal farmers along the border, de Salaberry knew all of Hampton's movements and troop numbers, as the Americans approached the [[Chateauguay River]] south-west of Montreal. He ordered the felling of trees to build tangled [[breastwork (fortification)|breastworks]] of "abatis" in the ravines, where the Chateauguay met the English River, and he dispersed his troops through the woods. Facing Hampton's force of 4,000 troops (1,400 of whom were militia who refused to cross the border) and 10 cannon, de Salaberry led an advance guard of 250 Voltigeurs plus 50 allied warriors of the Kaunawakee [[Mohawk nation]]. The rest of de Salaberry's corps, 1,500 men, remained in reserve.

On October 26, when Hampton encountered the barricades, he sent 1,500 of his troops to surround the Canadiens. De Salaberry used the twilight and difficult terrain to confuse the enemy, ordering bugles to be blown from several locations and convincing Hampton that a much larger force was lurking in the darkness. Les Voltigeurs then launched a withering fire down into the ravine, inflicting numerous casualties. Unable to outflank de Salaberry, Hampton elected to withdraw back to the American border.

The encounter won fame and honours for de Salaberry, but had he not succeeded, his personal fortunes might have been quite different. He was so convinced that victory would be his that he neglected to report the Americans' advance to his senior officers. Failure would likely have meant a court-martial for him and, possibly, the fall of Montreal. The gambit worked, however: Britain struck a gold medal to commemorate the Battle of Chateauguay, and de Salaberry became a legendary figure in Quebec history.

Following the victory at the Chateauguay, de Salaberry was appointed Inspecting Field Officer of Light Troops in Canada.

==Later years==
After the War of 1812, Charles de Salaberry became a folk hero in French Canada. He served as justice of the peace for various district courts, and in 1818 became a [[Legislative Council of Lower Canada|legislative councillor for Lower Canada]]. After his father's death, he became Seigneur of St. Mathias.

In 1817, he was made a Companion of the [[Order of the Bath]].

Charles de Salaberry died in [[Chambly, Quebec]] on February 27, 1829.

==Legacy==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| image1 = QUEBEC8.JPG
| width1 = 110
|footer= Statues of de Salaberry at Quebec's [[Parliament Building (Quebec)|Parliament Building]] in [[Quebec City]] (left), at [[Valiants Memorial]] in [[Ottawa]], and in [[Chambly, Quebec]].
| image2 = Charles Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry statue.jpg
| width2 = 110
| image3 = Kmdacosta Monument de Salaberry.JPG
| width3 = 100
}}
A bronze memorial at the corner of Bourgogne street and Salaberry street in Chambly, Quebec by [[Louis-Philippe Hébert]] and unveiled on October 26, 1881 by Dr. M.D.S. Martel and Mr. J.O. Dion, is an expression of gratitude towards Charles de Salaberry.<ref>{{National Inventory of Canadian Military Memorials|id=3819|title=Charles de Salaberry statue: Memorial 24013-003 Chambly, QC|access-date=4 January 2017}}</ref>

De Salaberry's house in Chambly was designated a [[National Historic Sites of Canada|National Historic Site of Canada]] in 1968.<ref>{{CRHP|15708|de Salaberry House|24 March 2012}}</ref>

The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released a [[quarter (Canadian coin)|quarter]] with Salaberry's picture on it, on March 18, 2013, to celebrate the [[War of 1812 Bicentennial|bicentennial]] of the [[War of 1812]], the third in a series of four quarters.<ref name="salaberry">{{cite web|url=http://www.mint.ca/store/news/news-18300006?cat=News+releases&nId=700002&parentnId=600004&nodeGroup=About+the+Mint#backgrounder|title=War of 1812 Hero left tenant Colonel Charles-Michel de Salaberry Commemorated on Royal Canadian Mint 25-Cent Circulation Coin|work=Mint.ca|accessdate=March 31, 2013}}</ref> The Mint also released a two dollar coin ([[Toonie]]) on June 18, 2012 to mark the occasion.<ref name="war">{{cite web|url=http://members.shaw.ca/kcic1/coins8.html|title=Canada's Coins|work=members.shaw.ca/kcic1|accessdate=October 28, 2012}}</ref> The Mint also issued a $4 coin in honor of his victory in at the battle of the Châteauguay, with "les Voltigeurs". In 2013 Canada Post issued a postage stamp commemorating Charles de Salaberry.

==His descendants==
Charles de Salaberry has a large number of descendants spread across Canada. Two of his sons, [[Charles-René-Léonidas d'Irumberry de Salaberry]] and [[Melchior-Alphonse de Salaberry]], also served in the army. The last two families to bear his name now live in [[Coquitlam, British Columbia]], the interior of British Columbia (J.C.M. de Salaberry) and in [[Ontario]] ([[Nicolas de Salaberry]] of [[Toronto]]).

Both the City of [[Salaberry-de-Valleyfield]] in Quebec and the Rural Municipality of [[De Salaberry, Manitoba|De Salaberry]] in south-eastern Manitoba carry his name in remembrance for what he did in the War of 1812.
Some descendants lived in Gatineau (Hull) in the 1930s. The last traditionally built armouries in Canada, built in Hull in 1938, are named ''[[Salaberry Armoury|Le manège de Salaberry]]''.

==See also==
*[[Colonial Militia in Canada]]

== References ==
{{Commons category|Charles-Michel de Salaberry}}
{{Reflist}}
* {{QuebecMLCbio|d-irumberry-de-salaberry-charles-michel-213}}
*[http://www.warof1812.ca/salaberry.htm Biography of Lt. Col. Charles De Salaberry, Hero of the Battle of the Chateauguay]
*{{Cite DCB|2930}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Salaberry, Charles De}}
[[Category:1778 births]]
[[Category:1829 deaths]]
[[Category:Pre-Confederation Quebec people]]
[[Category:Members of the Legislative Council of Lower Canada]]
[[Category:Canadian people of the War of 1812]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Basque descent]]
[[Category:French Quebecers]]
[[Category:Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)]]
[[Category:44th Regiment of Foot officers]]
[[Category:King's Royal Rifle Corps officers]]
[[Category:Canadian Militia officers]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of the Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:Salaberry-de-Valleyfield]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the War of 1812]]
[[Category:Battle of the Châteaugay veterans]]
[[Category:Les Voltigeurs de Québec]]

List of Black Canadians

2023-01-17T14:52:32Z

72.142.115.198: /* d */

{{short description|None}}

This is a '''list of notable [[Black Canadians]]''', inclusive of [[multiracial]] people who are of partially Black African descent.
{{TOC right}}

==A==
*[[Elamin Abdelmahmoud]], CBC Radio host
*[[Wayne Adams]], first black MLA in Nova Scotia, Liberal
*[[Lovell Adams-Gray]], actor<ref>Tamara Shephard, [https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/television/2018/08/02/second-jens-multicultural-cast-resonates-with-actor-lovell-adams-gray.html "Second Jen’s multicultural cast resonates with actor Lovell Adams-Gray"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', August 2, 2018.</ref>
*[[Oluniké Adeliyi]], actress
*[[Alfons Adetuyi]], film director and producer
*[[Robert Adetuyi]], film director and screenwriter
*[[Randell Adjei]], poet
*[[Ohenewa Akuffo]], wrestler
*[[AHI (musician)|AHI]], singer-songwriter
*[[Zanana Akande]], former Ontario Member of Provincial Parliament and cabinet minister
*[[Philip Akin]], director
*[[Lincoln Alexander]], first black Member of Parliament in Canada, former [[Lieutenant Governor of Ontario]]
*[[Toya Alexis]], [[R&B]]/pop singer and ''[[Canadian Idol]]'' season 1 finalist
*[[Aisha Alfa]], actress and comedian
*[[Ismaila Alfa]], radio host
*[[Thom Allison]], actor
*[[Jean Alfred]], first black Canadian member of the [[National Assembly of Quebec]]
*[[Lillian Allen]], dub poet
*[[Archie Alleyne]], jazz musician
*[[Allie (musician)|a l l i e]], R&B singer
*[[David Amber]], sportscaster
*[[Kimora Amour]], drag entertainer
*[[Ammoye]], reggae singer
*[[Aba Amuquandoh]], comedian<ref>Briony Smith, [https://www.thestar.com/life/together/people/2021/01/31/rising-star-aba-amuquandoh-on-the-mentors-who-shaped-her-path-to-comedy-stardom.html "Rising star Aba Amuquandoh on the mentors who shaped her path to comedy stardom"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', January 31, 2021.</ref>
*[[Anastarzia Anaquway]], drag entertainer
*[[Ezzrett Anderson]], CFL player
*[[Granville Anderson]], politician
*[[Hollywood Jade|"Hollywood Jade" Anderson]], dancer and choreographer
*[[Osborne Perry Anderson]], resident of the Chatham-Kent area; involved in the raid at Harper's Ferry
*[[Ricky Anderson]], athlete and writer
*[[Shamier Anderson]], actor
*[[Virnetta Anderson]], first Black Canadian city councillor in Calgary
*[[Jill Andrew]], politician
*[[Marie-Joseph Angélique]], executed for setting fire to Montreal
*[[Dominique Anglade]], politician
*[[Georges Anglade]], academic
*[[Joel Anthony]], NBA basketball player with the [[Detroit Pistons]]
*[[Tafari Anthony]], rhythm and blues singer
*[[Trey Anthony]], playwright (''Da Kink in My Hair'')
*[[Océane Aqua-Black]], drag entertainer
*[[Bromley Armstrong]], community activist
*[[Christine Armstrong]], film editor
*[[Tré Armstrong]], actress and choreographer
*[[Uzoma Asagwara]], politician
*[[Brandon Ash-Mohammed]], stand-up comedian
*[[Ryad Assani-Razaki]], writer
*[[James Atebe]], politician
*[[Yvonne Atwell]], Nova Scotia's first black female MLA, NDP
*[[Jean Augustine]], former Member of Parliament, black Canadian [[Cabinet Minister]], former deputy [[Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada|Speaker of the House of Commons]]
*[[Edem Awumey]], writer
*[[Minister Faust|Malcolm Azania]], writer and activist

==B==
*[[B-Kool]], rapper
*[[Clark Backo]], actress
*[[Njacko Backo]], musician
*[[Backxwash]], rapper
*[[Cameron Bailey]], film critic and artistic director of the [[Toronto International Film Festival]]
*[[Donovan Bailey]], first Canadian to win an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] gold medal in the 100m sprint ([[Athletics at the 1996 Summer Olympics|1996 Atlanta]])
*[[James Baley]], musician and dancer<ref>Robert Rowat, [https://www.cbc.ca/music/from-brimstone-to-ballroom-musician-james-baley-prevails-to-tell-a-powerful-story-1.6353485 "From brimstone to ballroom, musician James Baley prevails to tell a powerful story"]. [[CBC Music]], March 2, 2022.</ref>
*[[Tynomi Banks]], drag entertainer
*[[Barbada de Barbades]], drag entertainer<ref>Samuel Larochelle, [https://quebec.huffingtonpost.ca/2017/08/07/barbada-de-barbades-entrevue_a_23068666/ "Barbada de Barbades, une drag queen haute en couleurs"]. ''[[Huffington Post Québec]]'', August 7, 2017.</ref>
*[[Vivian Barbot]], [[Bloc Québécois]] member of parliament for the riding of [[Papineau (electoral district)|Papineau]]
*[[Emery Barnes]], first black Speaker of the British Columbia Legislative Assembly and [[Canadian Football League|CFL]] defensive end
*[[RJ Barrett]], NBA player with the [[New York Knicks]]
*[[Rowan Barrett]], former professional basketball player
*[[Daniel Bartholomew-Poyser]], conductor<ref>Eric Volmers, [https://calgaryherald.com/entertainment/music/daniel-bartholomew-poysers-journey-from-teacher-to-professional-conductor-takes-him-home-to-the-cpo "Daniel Bartholomew-Poyser's journey from teacher to professional conductor takes him home to the CPO"]. ''[[Calgary Herald]]'', February 8, 2019.</ref>
*[[Angèle Bassolé-Ouédraogo]], poet
*[[Frank Baylis]], politician
*[[Gary Beals]], pop singer and ''[[Canadian Idol]]'' season 1 first runner-up
*[[Jacqueline Beaugé-Rosier]], writer
*[[Kettly Beauregard]], politician
*[[Shawn Belle]], NHL prospect
*[[Frantz Benjamin]], Montreal city councillor
*[[Anthony Bennett (basketball)|Anthony Bennett]], NBA player (first overall pick in the [[2013 NBA draft]])
*[[Cle Bennett]], actor
*[[Tyrone Benskin]], actor and director; Member of Parliament; national vice president of [[ACTRA]]
*[[Wanda Thomas Bernard]], social work, educator, senator
*[[Rima Berns-McGown]], politician
*[[Lisa Berry]], actress
*[[Ardon Bess]], actor (''[[Trailer Park Boys]]'', ''[[King of Kensington]]'')
*[[Carrie Best]], activist and humanitarian, first black journalist
*[[James Calbert Best]], diplomat and public servant
*[[Margarett Best]], Ontario Member of Provincial Parliament and Cabinet Minister
*[[Salome Bey]], [[jazz]], [[blues]] and [[gospel music|gospel]] singer (US citizen, Canadian permanent resident)
*[[Tim Biakabutuka]], former [[National Football League|NFL]] player
*[[Henry Bibb]], author and abolitionist
*[[Bertrand Bickersteth]], writer
*[[Charlie Biddle]] (Sr.), one of Canada's greatest bassists
*[[Sonya Biddle]], actress and politician
*[[Jully Black]], R&B/pop singer
*[[Lindsay Blackett]], Member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta, the province's first black cabinet minister
*[[Shane Book]], writer
*[[Walter Borden]], actor and playwright
*[[Cory Bowles]], actor (''[[Trailer Park Boys]]'')
*[[Jeffrey Bowyer-Chapman]], actor
*[[George Boyd (playwright)|George Boyd]], playwright
*[[David Bradford (writer)|David Bradford]], peot
*[[Lawrence Ytzhak Braithwaite]], dub poet and novelist
*[[Dionne Brand]], author
*[[Fred Brathwaite]], [[National Hockey League|NHL]] goalie
*[[Leonard Braithwaite]], politician
*[[Rella Braithwaite]], historian and journalist
*[[Wendy Motion Brathwaite]], writer and musician
*[[Garnet Brooks]], opera singer
*[[Phyllis Simmons Brooks]], educator
*[[Shelton Brooks]], popular music and jazz singer, songwriter, and pianist and vaudeville and musical theatre performer who wrote some of the biggest hits of the first third of the 20th century
*[[Aisha Brown]], actress and comedian
*[[Divine Brown (Canadian performer)|Divine Brown]], R&B/[[soul music|soul]] singer and musical theatre performer
*[[Denham Brown]], professional basketball player in Europe
*[[Luther Brown]], dancer and choreographer
*[[Rosemary Brown (Canadian politician)|Rosemary Brown]], British Columbia legislator; first black woman to run for the leadership of a political party in Canada (the federal [[New Democratic Party (Canada)|New Democratic Party]])
*[[Measha Brueggergosman]], [[opera]] singer
*[[Kim Brunhuber]], journalist and writer
*[[Matthew Bullock]], fugitive from the US who became a cause celebre in the 1920s
*[[Millicent Burgess]], educator
*[[Nate Burleson]], NFL player
*[[Tajon Buchanan]], soccer player
*[[Sharon Burey]], senator

==C==
*[[Dayana Cadeau]], professional bodybuilder
*[[Cadence Weapon]], rapper
*[[Madwa-Nika Cadet]], politician
*[[Daniel Caesar]], R&B and soul singer
*[[Celina Caesar-Chavannes]], politician
*[[Shawna Cain]], Christian R&B singer
*[[Herb Carnegie]], star of Quebec professional hockey league
*[[Anson Carter]], [[National Hockey League|NHL]] star
*[[Rubin Carter]], former boxer and activist
*[[Jazz Cartier]], rapper
*[[Demo Cates]], musician<ref>Greg Quill, "Canada's blacks win recognition from music world". ''[[Toronto Star]]'', November 1, 1985.</ref>
*[[Mary Anne Chambers]], former Ontario Member of Provincial Parliament and cabinet minister
*[[Myriam J. A. Chancy]], writer
*[[Keshia Chanté]], R&B singer and co-host of [[BET]]'s ''[[106 & Park]]''
*[[David Chariandy]], writer
*[[Gregory Charles]], pop and gospel singer
*[[Nuela Charles]], singer
*[[Tanika Charles]], soul and rhythm and blues singer
*[[Charmaine (rapper)|Charmaine]], rapper
*[[Sean Cheesman]], dancer and choreographer
*[[Ulrick Chérubin]], mayor of [[Amos, Quebec]], one of the first black mayors of any city in Quebec
*[[Jojo Chintoh]], longtime [[Citytv]] reporter
*[[Ify Chiwetelu]], CBC Radio host
*[[Choclair]], rapper
*[[Rae Dawn Chong]], actress (''[[The Color Purple (film)|The Color Purple]]'')
*[[Jillian Christmas]], poet
*[[Jarvis Church]], singer ([[The Philosopher Kings]] and solo) and music producer ([[Nelly Furtado]])
*[[Clairmont the Second]], rapper
*[[Austin Clarke (novelist)|Austin Clarke]], novelist (''The Polished Hoe'', ''Growing Up Stupid Under the Union Jack'')
*[[Cheril N. Clarke]], writer
*[[George Elliott Clarke]], poet and playwright (''Whylah Falls'', ''George and Rue'')
*[[Kevin Clarke (politician)|Kevin Clarke]], activist and politician
*[[Michèle Pearson Clarke]], writer
*[[Edith Clayton]], basket maker
*[[Bernadette Clement]], mayor of Cornwall, Ontario
*[[Sebastian Clovis]], Canadian Football League player and HGTV host
*[[Tristan Clovis]], Canadian Football League player
*[[Devon Clunis]], chief of [[Winnipeg Police Service]] and Canada's first black Canadian chief of police
*[[Caroline Cole]], vice-president, Business Development Bank of Canada
*[[Desmond Cole]], journalist
*[[Lucretia Newman Coleman]], writer
*[[Donté Colley]], dancer
*[[Wayde Compton]], poet
*[[Anne Cools]], Canada's first black [[Senate of Canada|senator]]
*[[Afua Cooper]], poet and historian
*[[Lisa Michelle Cornelius]], actress
*[[Michael Coteau]], Ontario Member of Provincial Parliament
*[[Arisa Cox]], television personality
*[[Deborah Cox]], R&B singer
*[[Archie Crail]], writer
*[[Laura Creavalle]], professional bodybuilder
*[[Roger Cross]], actor (''[[24 (television)|24]]'')
*[[Alcenya Crowley]], educator and activist
*[[Vera Cudjoe]], actress, producer, and educator; founder of [[Black Theatre Canada]]
*[[Alvin Curling]], [[Ontario]] Member of Provincial Parliament and Speaker of the Legislature of Ontario
*[[Ayesha Curry]], celebrity chef and television personality

==D==
*[[Ola Dada]], stand-up comedian
*[[Samuel Dalembert]], [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player
*[[Trevor Daley]], NHL player with the Dallas Stars
*[[Jonathan David]], professional footballer for [[Lille OSC]]
*[[Alphonso Davies]], professional footballer for [[FC Bayern Munich]]
*[[Delos Davis]], third black lawyer in Canada and first black [[King's Counsel]] in the UK
*[[Hubert Davis (filmmaker)|Hubert Davis]], [[Academy Award]]-nominated documentary filmmaker
*[[Rob Davis (politician)|Rob Davis]], former [[York, Toronto|York]] and [[Toronto]] city councillor
*[[Nigel Dawes]], [[National Hockey League|NHL]] player with the New York Rangers
*[[Desirée Dawson]], musician
*[[Buddy Daye]], former boxer and activist in Nova Scotia
*[[Jonathan de Guzman]], soccer player
*[[Julian De Guzman]], soccer player
*[[Dwayne De Rosario]]
*[[David Defiagbon]], boxer
*[[Simone Denny]], house music vocalist
*[[Viola Desmond]], beautician and civil rights activist, first Canadian woman to be depicted on [[Canadian dollar|Canadian currency]]
*[[Robert Nathaniel Dett]], composer
*[[Rita Deverell]], broadcaster and journalist, founder of [[Vision TV]]
*[[Devon (rapper)|Devon]], hip-hop musician ("Mr. Metro")
*[[Alpha Yaya Diallo]], musician
*[[Paul Dillett]], retired IFBB bodybuilder and businessman
*[[George Dixon (boxer)|George Dixon]], first black world [[boxing]] champion in any weight class
*[[Fefe Dobson]], pop punk singer
*[[Shirley Dorismond]], politician
*[[James Douglas (Governor)|James Douglas]], early governor of [[Vancouver Island]] and [[British Columbia]]
*[[James W. Douglas]], British Columbia MLA
*[[Orville Lloyd Douglas]], poet, writer, and journalist
*[[Stan Douglas]], installation artist
*[[Nathan Downer]], television journalist
*[[Nigel Downer]], actor and comedian
*[[Ray Downey]], former boxer who medalled in the 1988 Olympics
*[[Riele Downs]], actress
*[[Drake (musician)|Drake]], rapper and actor (''[[Degrassi: The Next Generation]]'')
*[[Dream Warriors (band)|Dream Warriors]], hip hop duo
*[[Dwight Drummond]], television journalist
*[[Ali Duale]], politician<ref name=blackmlas>[https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/record-number-black-mlas-elected-nova-scotia-legislature-1.6144448 "Record number of Black MLAs elected to Nova Scotia Legislature"]. [[CBC News]] Nova Scotia, August 18, 2021.</ref>
*[[Christian Dubé (politician)|Christian Dubé]], politician
*[[Emmanuel Dubourg]], Quebec Liberal Party MNA for Viau
*[[Rob Ducey]], former Major League Baseball player
*[[Alison Duke (filmmaker)|Alison Duke]], film producer
*[[Arlene Duncan]], actress, singer (''[[Little Mosque on the Prairie]]'')

==E==
*[[Chuck Ealey]], Canadian Football League player
*[[Gordon Earle]], former NDP Member of Parliament for [[Halifax West]]
*[[Amatoritsero Ede]], writer
*[[Rosey Edeh]], ''[[ET Canada]]'' reporter and former [[MSNBC]] [[meteorologist]]
*[[Aida Edemariam]], writer
*[[Esi Edugyan]], novelist
*[[Phil Edwards (athlete)|Phil Edwards]], track athlete
*[[Tyrone Edwards]], television host
*[[Efajemue]], jazz percussionist
*[[Francesca Ekwuyasi]], writer and artist
*[[Jade Elektra]], drag performer and HIV/AIDS educator
*[[Natasha Eloi]], science reporter for [[Space (Canadian TV channel)|Space]] channel
*[[Emanuel (musician)|Emanuel]], rhythm and blues singer
*[[Ray Emery]], NHL goalie
*[[Jonathan Emile]], poet, composer and entrepreneur
*[[Tyler Ennis (basketball)|Tyler Ennis]], NBA player with the [[Phoenix Suns]]
*[[Robert Esmie]], Olympic gold medalist 4x100 relay (Atlanta 1996)
*[[Gérard Étienne]], writer
*[[Karena Evans]], director
*[[Irdens Exantus]], actor
f
==F==
*[[Famous (rapper)|Famous]], rapper
*[[Perdita Felicien]], track athlete
*[[Greg Fergus]], politician
*[[Dominique Fils-Aimé]], blues, jazz and rhythm and blues singer
*[[Melanie Fiona]], R&B singer
*[[Farley Flex]], music promoter and ''[[Canadian Idol]]'' judge
*[[Cheryl Foggo]], writer
*[[Melyssa Ford]], professional model and actress
*[[Rose Fortune]], first female police officer in Canada
*[[Cecil Foster]], novelist and sociologist and biologist
*[[Rick Fox]], [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player
*[[Mayann Francis]], former [[Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia]] and former director and CEO of the [[Nova Scotia Human Rights Commission]]
*[[Fil Fraser]], writer
*[[Grant Fuhr]], Hockey Hall of Fame goaltender ([[Edmonton Oilers]]), first black hockey player to win the [[Stanley Cup]]
*[[Kelly Fyffe-Marshall]], writer and filmmaker

==G==
*[[Matt Galloway]], CBC Radio host
*[[Harry Gairey]], community activist
*[[Robyn Gayle]], former soccer player
*[[Kendall Gender]], drag entertainer
*[[Mifflin Wistar Gibbs]], merchant and member of [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]] City Council in the 1860s
*[[Chantal Gibson]], poet
*[[Glenroy Gilbert]], Olympic gold medalist 4x100 relay (Atlanta 1996)
*[[Shai Gilgeous-Alexander]] – NBA player
*[[Malcolm Gladwell]], journalist
*[[George Godfrey (boxer born 1853)|George Godfrey]], former boxer originally from Prince Edward Island
*[[Patrice Goodman]], actress
*[[Gary Goodridge]], former [[mixed martial arts|mixed martial artist]] and [[kickboxing|kickboxer]]
*[[Kamala-Jean Gopie]], activist and political candidate
*[[Audrey Gordon (politician)|Audrey Gordon]], politician
*[[Stephen Gough (politician)|Stephen Gough]], Nova Scotia MLA
*[[Dirk Graham]], first NHL captain of African descent
*[[Jean-Luc Grand-Pierre]], former NHL defenseman, currently playing in Europe
*[[Anais Granofsky]], actor (''[[Degrassi (franchise)|Degrassi]]'')
*[[Marlene Green]], community activist, educator, and NGO field worker
*[[Matthew Green (Canadian politician)|Matthew Green]], politician
*[[Robert Joseph Greene]], writer
*[[Stanley G. Grizzle]], judge, community activist

==H==
*[[Wes Hall (businessman)|Wes Hall]], businessman and ''Dragons' Den'' investor<ref>Murtz Jaffer, [https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/television/2021/10/19/new-panellist-on-dragons-den-wes-hall-aka-the-fixer-brings-a-different-approach.html "New panellist on ‘Dragons’ Den,’ Wes Hall (a.k.a. ‘The Fixer’) brings a different approach"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', October 19, 2021.</ref>
*[[William Hall (VC)|William Hall]], first Nova Scotian, third Canadian and first black person to be awarded the [[Victoria Cross]]
*[[Quancetia Hamilton]], actress
*[[Sherman Hamilton]], basketball player and sportscaster
*[[Kevin Hanchard]], actor
*[[Suzy Hansen (politician)|Suzy Hansen]], politician<ref name=blackmlas/>
*[[Adrian Harewood]], [[CBC Radio One|CBC Radio]] journalist and host
*[[Winnie Harlow]], model<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.ellecanada.com/culture/society/inspirational-black-canadians-to-know|title= Inspirational Black Canadians To Know|website=Elle|date=February 25, 2020}}</ref>
*[[Alicia K. Harris]], filmmaker<ref>Mike Adler, [https://www.toronto.com/whatson-story/9699200-with-pick-scarborough-filmmaker-shows-a-choice-black-girls-face/ "With PICK, Scarborough filmmaker shows a choice black girls face"]. ''[[Toronto.com]]'', November 15, 2019.</ref>
*[[Faisal Hassan]], politician
*[[Haviah Mighty]], rapper
*[[Wilson A. Head]], sociologist and human rights activist
*[[Violet King Henry]], first black female lawyer in Canada
*[[Josiah Henson]], former slave, believed to have been the inspiration for the novel ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]''
*[[Dan Hill]], pop singer-songwriter
*[[Daniel G. Hill]], sociologist and first head of the [[Ontario Human Rights Commission]]
*[[Lawrence Hill]], novelist and memoirist
*[[Darryl Hinds]], actor and comedian
*[[Penny Hodge]], activist
*[[Mark Holden (actor)|Mark Holden]], actor (''[[Cyberpunk 2077]]'', ''[[Captain Phillips (film)|Captain Phillips]]'', ''[[Deep State (TV series)|Deep State]]'')
*[[Adrian Holmes]], actor
*[[Jennifer Holness]], film and television writer and producer
*[[Nicole Holness]], singer and broadcaster
*[[Charmaine Hooper]], [[Association football|soccer]] player; retired as leader in appearances and goals for the [[Canada women's national soccer team|women's national team]]
*[[Nalo Hopkinson]], [[science fiction]] author
*[[Jennifer Hosten]], Canadian [[High Commissioner]] to Grenada and diplomat
*[[Frederick Langdon Hubbard]], chair of the Toronto Transit Commission
*[[William Peyton Hubbard]], former Toronto alderman, controller and acting mayor
*[[Jada Shada Hudson]], drag entertainer
*[[Kimberly Huie]], actress
*[[Mitzie Hunter]], politician
*[[Nate Husser]], rapper<ref>Michael Meanchoff, [https://hiphopcanada.com/nate-husser-adult-supervision-ep/ "Montréal’s Nate Husser enlists Mick Jenkins, Jean Deaux & Eva Shaw for Adult Supervision"]. ''HipHopCanada'', June 30, 2021.</ref>
*[[Atiba Hutchinson]], professional footballer for [[Besiktas J.K.]]
* [[Junior Hoilett]]

==I==
*[[Israel Idonije]], defensive end for the NFL's [[Chicago Bears]]
*[[Marci Ien]], politician, former [[CTV News]] journalist
*[[Daniel Igali]], Olympic gold medalist in wrestling ([[Wrestling at the 2000 Summer Olympics|Sydney 2000]])
*[[Jarome Iginla]], Hockey Hall of Fame inductee, NHL All-Star and Olympic gold medalist ([[Ice hockey at the 2002 Winter Olympics|Salt Lake 2002]], [[Ice hockey at the 2010 Winter Olympics|Vancouver 2010]])
*[[Tony Ince]], politician<ref name=blackmlas/>
*[[Orin Isaacs]], bandleader (''[[Open Mike with Mike Bullard]]'', ''[[The Mike Bullard Show]]''), musician and music producer
*[[Tajja Isen]], actress/singer (''Atomic Betty'')
*[[Ayisha Issa]], actress
*[[Richard Iton]], academic and writer

==J==
*[[John Henry Jackson]], football player and restaurateur<ref name=campbell>Morgan Campbell, [https://www.thestar.com/sports/2018/12/13/obituary-john-henry-jackson-quarterback-restaurateur-pioneer.html "John Henry Jackson was a quarterback, restaurateur and pioneer"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', December 13, 2018.</ref>
*[[Ovid Jackson]], former Member of Parliament and former mayor of [[Owen Sound]]
*[[Sammy Jackson (singer)|Sammy Jackson]], jazz and rhythm and blues singer<ref>[https://www.cbc.ca/music/discover-sammy-jackson-s-honest-blend-of-jazz-r-b-and-pop-1.5866735 "Discover Sammy Jackson's honest blend of jazz, R&B and pop"]. [[CBC Music]], January 13, 2021.</ref>
*[[Angela James]], professional hockey player and [[Hockey Hall of Fame]] inductee
*[[Stephan James (actor)|Stephan James]], actor
*[[Yolande James]], Quebec Minister of Immigration and Cultural Communities
*[[Yazmeen Jamieson]], professional soccer player
*[[Sterling Jarvis]], actor and musician
*[[Yves Jarvis]], musician
*[[Michaëlle Jean]], former broadcaster and former [[Governor General of Canada]], the first mixed race person in Canadian history appointed to that position
*[[Schelby Jean-Baptiste]], actress<ref>Anne-Lovely Étienne, [https://www.tvanouvelles.ca/2020/09/11/quatre-actrices-de-la-diversite-un-meme-combat "Quatre actrices de la diversité, un même combat"]. [[TVA Nouvelles]], September 11, 2020.</ref>
*[[Jelleestone]], rapper
*[[Jemeni (singer)|Jemeni]], singer and broadcaster
*[[Ferguson Jenkins]], baseball star and first Canadian elected to the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum|(US) Baseball Hall of Fame]]
*[[Jean Augustine]], first black Canadian politicians
*[[Marlene Jennings]], politician
*[[Harry Jerome]], sprinter and first Canadian to hold an official track and field world record
*[[Aisha Sasha John]], writer
*[[Lyndon John X]], reggae musician
*[[Ben Johnson (Canadian sprinter)|Ben Johnson]], Olympic sprinter disqualified in 1988 drug scandal
*[[Chris Johnson (boxer)|Chris Johnson]], boxer
*[[Clark Johnson]], actor (''[[Homicide: Life on the Street]]'')
*[[Hal Johnson and Joanne McLeod|Hal Johnson]], television health and fitness personality
*[[Kirk Johnson]], boxer
*[[Louisa Ann Johnson]], merchant and church supporter
*[[Molly Johnson]], rock and [[jazz]] vocalist
*[[Rocky Johnson]], professional wrestler
*[[Taborah Johnson]], singer, actor and radio broadcaster
*[[Denham Jolly]], broadcast executive
*[[El Jones]], writer
*[[Mark Jones (sportscaster)|Mark Jones]], sportscaster for [[ESPN]] and [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]
*[[Oliver Jones (pianist)|Oliver Jones]], jazz pianist
*[[Paul Jones (sportscaster)|Paul Jones]], sportscaster and [[Toronto Raptors]] radio play-by-play voice
*[[Rocky Jones]], politician and activist
*[[Spider Jones]], journalist and former boxer
*[[Clifton Joseph]], poet and broadcaster
*[[Cory Joseph]], NBA player
*[[David Joseph (basketball)|David Joseph]], basketball coach and former college player
*[[Devoe Joseph]], professional basketball player
*[[Akiel Julien]], actor
*[[Junia-T]], rapper
*[[Marie-Ève Juste]], film director

==K==
*[[K-Anthony]], gospel singer
*[[K'Naan]], [[Hip hop music|hip-hop]] musician and singer
*[[k-os]], [[Hip hop music|hip-hop]] musician
*[[Adria Kain]], R&B singer
*[[Evander Kane]], professional ice hockey player
*[[Tommy Kane]], former NFL wide receiver
*[[KAPRI]], dance/pop singer<ref>[https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/kapri-edmonton-juno-1.4583914 "Meet Kapri: Edmonton's newest pop music sensation"]. [[CBC News]] Edmonton, March 20, 2018.</ref>
*[[Arielle Kayabaga]], politician
*[[Kaytranada]], musician
*[[Marlon Kazadi]], actor
*[[Hisham Kelati]], comedian
*[[Kaie Kellough]], writer
*[[Janaya Khan]], activist
*[[Kiara (drag queen)|Kiara]] (Dimitri Nana-Côté), drag entertainer
*[[Rawlson King]], municipal politician in Ottawa
*[[Nam Kiwanuka]], television host and journalist
*[[Maka Kotto]], author and actor from Quebec elected to Canadian Parliament in 2004 (Bloc Québécois)
*[[Pierre Kwenders]], musician

==L==
*[[Sonnet L'Abbé]], poet and critic
*[[Dany Laferrière]], writer, elected to the [[Académie française]]
*[[Artis Lane]], sculptor and artist
*[[Sam Langford]], former boxer
*[[Georges Laraque]], NHL player
*[[Tobi Lark]], jazz, blues and gospel singer
*[[Cyle Larin]], professional footballer playing for [[Besiktas J.K.]]
*[[Mélissa Laveaux]], musician
*[[Olivier Le Jeune]], believed to have been the first slave purchased in what later became Quebec
*[[Karen LeBlanc]], actress
*[[Didier Leclair]], writer
*[[Ranee Lee]], jazz singer
*[[Michael Lee-Chin]], business leader
*[[Marie-Évelyne Lessard]], actress
*[[Sandra Levy]], Olympic field hockey player
*[[Alan Shane Lewis]], comedian and television host
*[[Andrea Lewis]], actress (''[[Degrassi: The Next Generation]]'')
*[[Daurene Lewis]], first black woman mayor in North America
*[[Glenn Lewis]], R&B singer
*[[Lennox Lewis]], professional boxer (Olympic gold medallist and three-time heavyweight champion)
*[[Leslyn Lewis]], politician
*[[Ray Lewis (runner)|Ray Lewis]], first Canadian-born black person to win a medal in the Olympics
*[[Sharon Lewis]], journalist
*[[Murray Lightburn]], rock singer-songwriter ([[The Dears]])
*[[Laura Mae Lindo]], politician
*[[Little X]], director
*[[Rich London]], rapper
*[[Gilson Lubin]], comedian
*[[Canisia Lubrin]], writer
*[[Nicole Lyn]], actress

==M==
*[[Kaycee Madu]], Alberta MLA
*[[Maestro (rapper)|Maestro]], hip-hop musician, first Canadian rapper to have a Top 40 hit in Canada
*[[Jamaal Magloire]], NBA player
*[[Atlee Mahorn]], sprinter
*[[Ahdri Zhina Mandiela]], director
*[[Egerton Marcus]], boxer
*[[Amanda Marshall]], pop singer-songwriter
*[[Mike Marson]], second black player in NHL history
*[[Lesra Martin]], [[crown attorney]] and speaker; in his youth was involved in freeing Rubin Carter
*[[Russell Martin (baseball)|Russell Martin]], MLB player
*[[Boman Martinez-Reid|Boman "Bomanizer" Martinez-Reid]], comedian and social media content creator<ref name=calvario>Liz Calvario, [https://www.etonline.com/boman-martinez-reid-on-his-tiktok-success-and-how-to-diversify-your-for-you-page-exclusive-148787 "Boman Martinez-Reid on His TikTok Success and How to Diversify Your 'For You' Page"]. ''[[Entertainment Tonight]]'', June 26, 2020.</ref>
*[[Beverly Mascoll]], entrepreneur and community leader
*[[Marie-Sœurette Mathieu]], writer
*[[Yasmine Mathurin]], documentary filmmaker
*[[Denise Matthews]], former model, actress and lead singer of Vanity 6 turned evangelist
*[[Rueben Mayes]], former NFL player
*[[Robyn Maynard]], writer
*[[Suzette Mayr]], writer
*[[Alexis Mazurin]], [[CBC Radio]] host
*[[Melchior Mbonimpa]], writer
*[[Tawiah M'carthy]], writer and actor
*[[Trent McClellan]], comedian
*[[Kandyse McClure]], actress (''[[Battlestar Galactica (re-imagining)|Battlestar Galactica]]'')
*[[Elijah McCoy]], origin of "the real McCoy", inventor
*[[Howard McCurdy]], Member of Parliament, first black male to run for the leadership of a political party (the federal [[New Democratic Party (Canada)|New Democratic Party]])
*[[Jay W. McGee]], musician<ref>Niel Scobie, [https://www.thestar.com/life/together/remembrance/2021/05/02/jay-w-mcgee-a-groundbreaking-vocalist-songwriter-and-juno-nominee-always-went-back-to-the-music-of-his-father.html "Jay W. McGee, a groundbreaking vocalist, songwriter and Juno nominee, always went back to the music of his father"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', May 2, 2021.</ref>
*[[Yanna McIntosh]], actress
*[[Tony McKegney]], NHL player
*[[Berend McKenzie]], writer
*[[Katherine McKittrick]], writer
*[[Mark McKoy]], Olympic gold medalist 110 m hurdles (Barcelona 1992)
*[[Brandon Jay McLaren]], actor (''[[Power Rangers S.P.D.]]'')
*[[Kairo McLean]], reggae musician<ref name=adams>Kelsey Adams, [https://www.cbc.ca/music/at-just-13-years-old-kairo-mclean-is-the-youngest-reggae-nominee-ever-at-the-juno-awards-1.6436020 "At just 13 years old, Kairo McLean is the youngest reggae nominee ever at the Juno Awards"]. [[CBC Music]], April 29, 2022.</ref>
*[[Tessa McWatt]], novelist
*[[Stella Meghie]], film director and screenwriter
*[[Marie-Françoise Mégie]], politician
*[[Traci Melchor]], television personality
*[[Don Meredith (politician)|Don Meredith]], politician
*[[Mentallo]], professional wrestler
*[[Nega Mezlekia]], writer
*[[Kim Katrin Milan]], writer
*[[Myst Milano]], musician
*[[Rollie Miles]], CFL player
*[[Shadrach Minkins]], American-born fugitive slave rescued from federal custody in Boston in 1851 who settled in Montreal
*[[Chris Moise]], Toronto city councillor
*[[Moka Only]], rapper of the [[Swollen Members]]
*[[Firmin Monestime]], mayor of [[Mattawa, Ontario|Mattawa]], [[Ontario]]; first black mayor in Canada
*[[Andrew Moodie]], actor and playwright
*[[Tanya Moodie]], actress based in the United Kingdom
*[[Roger Mooking]], chef
*[[Tracy Moore (Canadian journalist)|Tracy Moore]], journalist
*[[Annmarie Morais]], writer
*[[Carlos Morgan]], R&B/soul singer
*[[Dwayne Morgan]], [[spoken word]] artist
*[[Vanessa Morgan]], actress and singer (from Ottawa)
*[[Amber Morley]], Toronto city councillor
*[[MorMor]], musician
*[[Paul S. Morton]], pastor of St. Stephen Baptist Church in New Orleans, a church with over 20,000 members
*[[Jamie Moses (politician)|Jamie Moses]], politician
*[[Aaron Albert Mossell]], first black person to graduate from the University of Pennsylvania Law School
*[[Nathan Francis Mossell]], first black person to graduate from the University of Pennsylvania Medical School
*[[Joseph Motiki]], television host
*[[Thamela Mpumlwana]], actor
*[[Sheila Murray]], writer<ref>[https://open-book.ca/News/Histories-That-are-Buried-Beneath-the-Mainstream-Sheila-Murray-on-Telling-the-Stories-of-Two-Mixed-Race-Men-in-Her-New-Novel ""Histories That are Buried Beneath the Mainstream" Sheila Murray on Telling the Stories of Two Mixed Race Men in Her New Novel"]. ''Open Book'', July 29, 2022.</ref>
*[[Téa Mutonji]], writer
*[[Jamaal Myers]], Toronto city councillor

==N==
*[[Blaise Ndala]], writer
*[[Haydain Neale]], R&B/soul singer ([[Jacksoul]])
*[[Ray Neufeld]], former NHL player
*[[Kathleen Newman-Bremang]], writer and broadcaster
*[[Carlos Newton]], former mixed martial artist ([[UFC Welterweight Championship|UFC Welterweight Champion]])
*[[Andrew Nicholson (basketball)|Andrew Nicholson]], NBA player
*[[Cecily Nicholson]], poet
*[[Darnell Nurse]], NHL player
*[[Kia Nurse]], professional basketball player
*[[Richard Nurse]], former CFL player

==O==
*[[Samuel Oghale Oboh]], first person of African descent to be President of the 110-year old Royal Architectural Institute of Canada
*[[OBUXUM]], musician and record producer
*[[David Nandi Odhiambo]], writer
*[[Charles Officer]], film director
*[[Kardinal Offishall]], rapper
*[[Lana Ogilvie]], fashion model/TV hostess
*[[Thomas Antony Olajide]], actor
*[[Donald Oliver]], first black senator from Nova Scotia
*[[Tolu Oloruntoba]], poet
*[[Willie O'Ree]], first black hockey player in the National Hockey League
*[[Gabriel Osson]], writer<ref>[https://ici.radio-canada.ca/nouvelle/1155331/gabriel-osson-auteur-animateur-radio "Gabriel Osson, auteur et animateur radio à Toronto"]. [[Ici Radio-Canada]], February 27, 2019.</ref>
*[[Milton Ottey]], world champion high jumper
*[[Ouri (musician)|Ouri]], electronic musician and DJ

==P==
*[[Brenda Paris]], activist and politician
*[[John Paris Jr.]], hockey coach
*[[Percy Paris]], politician
*[[Stuart Parker (politician)|Stuart Parker]], leader of the [[Green Party of British Columbia]] 1993 to 2000
*[[Amanda Parris]], broadcaster and writer
*[[PartyNextDoor]], R&B singer
*[[Annamie Paul]], politician, leader of the [[Green Party of Canada]], the first black leader of a federal party in Canada
*[[Michaela Pereira]], journalist
*[[Kayla Perrin]], writer
*[[Oscar Peterson]], jazz pianist
*[[Anthony Phelps]], Haitian-Canadian writer
*[[M. NourbeSe Philip]], poet, novelist and essayist
*[[Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips]], Islamic scholar and founder of the [[Islamic Online University]]
*[[Joseph Jomo Pierre]], actor and playwright
*[[Carmine Pierre-Dufour]], filmmaker (''[[Mahalia Melts in the Rain]]'', ''[[Fanmi]]'')<ref>Helen Faradji, [https://ici.radio-canada.ca/tele/blogue/1715093/diversite-quotas-et-cinema-noir-avec-la-realisatrice-carmine-pierre-dufour "Diversité, quotas et cinéma noir avec la réalisatrice Carmine Pierre-Dufour"]. [[Ici Radio-Canada]], June 25, 2020.</ref>
*[[Shailyn Pierre-Dixon]], actress
*[[Burr Plato]], town councillor for [[Niagara Falls, Ontario|Niagara Falls]] (1886-1901)
*[[Juliette Powell]], television host, first black [[Miss Canada]] (1989)
*Rev. [[Richard Preston (clergyman)|Richard Preston]], anti-slavery activist and founder of African Baptist Association of Nova Scotia
*[[Prevail (musician)|Prevail]], rapper of the [[Swollen Members]]
*[[Althea Prince]], writer
*[[Garth Prince]], children's entertainer<ref name=cbc>Thandiwe Konguavi, [https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/edmonton-film-captures-music-instructor-s-homecoming-to-namibia-1.5229694 "Film captures Edmonton music instructor's homecoming to Namibia"]. [[CBC News]] Edmonton, July 29, 2019.</ref>
*[[Dwayne Provo]], Canadian Football League player
* [[Jaime Peters]]

==Q==
*[[Quanteisha]], R&B singer
*[[Quddus (television personality)|Quddus]], [[MTV]] [[VJ (media personality)|VJ]]

==R==
*[[Rob Rainford]], chef
*[[Micheline Rawlins]], first black woman appointed to the Ontario Court of Justice
*[[Savannah Ré]], singer<ref name=krewen>Nick Krewen, [https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/music/2020/11/20/scarborough-rb-singersongwriter-savannah-r-releases-debut-opia.html "Scarborough R&B singer/songwriter Savannah Ré releases debut ‘Opia’"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', November 20, 2020.</ref>
*[[Pokey Reddick]], Stanley Cup champion, [[Edmonton Oilers]] goalie
*[[Zalika Reid-Benta]], writer
*[[Gloria Reuben]], actress (''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'')
*[[Cabbie Richards]], radio personality
*[[Cara Ricketts]], actress
*[[Jayde Riviere]], soccer player
*[[Jackie Richardson]], jazz, blues and gospel singer
*[[Jael Richardson]], writer
*[[Kim Richardson]], pop, jazz, blues and gospel singer
*[[Bill Riley (ice hockey, born 1950)|Bill Riley]], third black player in NHL history
*[[Charles Roach]], Canadian civil rights lawyer; activist in the black community in Toronto; had many contributions to the wider community in Toronto, including being one of the founders of what was known as Caribana in 1967
*[[Karen Robinson]], actress
*[[Kenny Robinson (comedian)|Kenny Robinson]], stand-up comedian, TV host
*[[Percy Rodriguez]], actor
*[[George Rogers (Alberta politician)|George Rogers]], former mayor of [[Leduc, Alberta]], current MLA for the riding of Leduc-Beaumont-Devon
*[[Michelle Ross (drag queen)|Michelle Ross]], drag entertainer
*[[Ronnie Rowe (actor)|Ronnie Rowe]], actor
*[[RT!]], director
*[[Calvin Ruck]], senator
*[[Donovan Ruddock|Donovan "Razor" Ruddock]], professional boxer

==S==
*[[Shakura S'Aida]], jazz and blues singer
*[[Rodney Saint-Éloi]], poet
*[[Kwasi Songui]], actor
*[[Beverley Salmon]], politician
*[[Liselle Sambury]], writer<ref>Nathan Gallagher, [https://www.queensjournal.ca/story/2021-04-08/arts/queens-creative-writing-alum-liselle-sambury-talks-debut-novel-blood-like-magic/ "Queen’s Creative Writing alum Liselle Sambury talks debut novel 'Blood Like Magic'"]. ''[[The Queen's Journal]]'', April 8, 2021.</ref>
*[[Samito]], musician
*[[Aquakultre|Lance "Aquakultre" Sampson]], soul and R&B musician
*[[Robert Edison Sandiford]], writer
*[[Sarahmée]], rapper
*[[Yolanda Sargeant]], soul singer
*[[Mairuth Sarsfield]], novelist
*[[SATE (musician)|SATE]], rock singer
*[[Charles R. Saunders]], writer
*[[John Saunders (journalist)|John Saunders]], sports journalist for ESPN and ABC
*[[Mark Saunders (police chief)|Mark Saunders]], chief of the [[Toronto Police Service]]
*[[Alison Sealy-Smith]], actress
*[[Djanet Sears]], playwright
*[[Sagine Sémajuste]], actress<ref name=tfo>Katia Café-Fébrissy, [https://onfr.tfo.org/sagine-semajuste-une-actrice-qui-assume-ses-choix/ "Sagine Sémajuste, une actrice qui assume ses choix"]. ''[[TFO]]'', January 17, 2021.</ref>
*[[Olive Senior]], poet and short story writer
*[[Shad (rapper)|Shad]], hip hop musician
*[[Mary Ann Shadd]], first female newspaper publisher
*[[Jackie Shane]], R&B singer
*[[Tony Sharpe]], sprinter
*[[Lisa Shaw (musician)|Lisa Shaw]], house and R&B/soul singer
*[[David Shepherd (Canadian politician)|David Shepherd]], politician
*[[Anthony Sherwood]], actor
*[[Simisola Shittu]] (born 1999), British-born Canadian basketball player for [[Ironi Ness Ziona B.C.|Ironi Ness Ziona]] of the [[Israeli Basketball Premier League]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thespec.com/sports/hamilton-region/2015/01/29/buzz-builds-over-burlington-hoops-phenom-simisola-shittu.html|title=Buzz builds over Burlington hoops phenom Simisola Shittu|newspaper=The Hamilton Spectator |date=29 January 2015|via=www.thespec.com}}</ref>
*[[Liberty Silver]], R&B and jazz singer
*[[Makeda Silvera]], novelist
*[[Angela Simmonds]], politician<ref name=blackmlas/>
*[[Wayne Simmonds]], NHL player for the Toronto Maple Leafs
*[[Denis Simpson]], actor and children's television host
*[[Dylan Sinclair]], rhythm and blues singer<ref>Kenisha Alexander, [https://ca.hellomagazine.com/music/02021013158827/seven-canadaian-up-and-coming-musicians-2021 "Seven up-and-coming Canadian musicians to watch in 2021"]. ''[[Hello! Canada]]'', February 1, 2021.</ref>
*[[Eon Sinclair]], bassist ([[Bedouin Soundclash]])
*[[Shawn Singleton]], actor/musician
*[[Zal Sissokho]], musician
*[[Slakah the Beatchild]], soul/R&B singer and record producer
*[[Makyla Smith]], actress
*[[So Sus]], electronic musician
*[[Frances-Anne Solomon]], film producer, director, distributor
*[[Spek Won]], rapper
*[[Chris Spence (educator)|Chris Spence]], director of education of the [[Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board]] and then the [[Toronto District School Board]], previously a CFL running back
*[[Tony "Wild T" Springer]], [[blues rock]] guitarist
*[[Donna-Michelle St. Bernard]], theatre director and playwright
*[[Benjamin St-Juste]], American football player
*[[Paul Stalteri]]
*[[Erroll Starr]], musician
*[[Gavin Stephens]], comedian
*[[Ordena Stephens-Thompson]], actress
*[[Anthony Stewart (ice hockey)|Anthony Stewart]], NHL player with the Florida Panthers
*[[Jordan Subban]], professional ice hockey defenceman
*[[Malcolm Subban]], professional ice hockey goaltender
*[[P. K. Subban]], NHL ice hockey defenceman
*[[Cree Summer]], actress, singer, and comedian
*[[Bruny Surin]], Olympic gold medalist 4x100 relay (1996 Atlanta)
*[[Sudz Sutherland|David (Sudz) Sutherland]], director
*[[Robert Sutherland]], first black lawyer in Canada
*[[Michelle Sweeney]], jazz and blues singer
*[[Sylvia Sweeney]], television broadcaster and former basketball player

==T==
*[[Tamia]], [[R&B]] singer and actress
*[[Tasha the Amazon]], rapper
*[[Bobby Taylor & the Vancouvers|Bobby Taylor]] and his band, The Vancouvers, a popular [[Motown]] act who were instrumental in getting [[The Jackson 5]] signed to the label and produced the earliest Jackson 5 records
*[[Dione Taylor]], jazz singer
*[[Julian Taylor (Singer)|Julian Taylor]], rock musician ([[Staggered Crossing]])
*[[Tamara Taylor]], actress (''[[Bones (TV series)|Bones]]'')
*[[Angella Taylor-Issajenko]], sprinter
*[[Tebey]], country and pop songwriter and singer
*[[Angeline Tetteh-Wayoe]], radio personality
*[[Michael Thompson (Canadian politician)|Michael Thompson]], current [[Toronto]] city councillor
*[[Tristan Thompson]], NBA player
*[[Thrust (rapper)|Thrust]], rapper
*[[Tika Simone|TiKA]], R&B singer<ref>Aly Laube, [https://exclaim.ca/music/article/tika_anywhere_but_here_album_review "TiKA's 'Anywhere but Here' Is an Exuberant Celebration of Black Queer Love"]. ''[[Exclaim!]]'', February 23, 2021.</ref>
*[[Tizzo]], rapper
*[[Töme]], reggae musician
*[[Asha Tomlinson]], journalist
*[[Thyrone Tommy]], filmmaker
*[[Tory Lanez]], hip hop musician
*[[Yanic Truesdale]], actor (''[[Gilmore Girls]]'')
*[[Kreesha Turner]], R&B singer

==U==
*[[Louise Uwacu]], writer

==V==
*[[Vanity (singer)|Vanity]], performer
*[[Kevin Vidal]], comedian and actor
*[[Christian Vincent (actor)|Christian Vincent]], actor (''[[Noah's Arc]]'')
*[[Jon Vinyl]], R&B/soul singer<ref>Natalie Harmsen, [https://www.complex.com/music/jon-vinyl-lost-in-you-interview "The Pleasure and Pain of Jon Vinyl"]. ''[[Complex (magazine)|Complex]]'', October 1, 2021.</ref>
*[[Nerene Virgin]], CBC anchor of ''[[Saturday Report]]'', [[Newsworld]], [[Newsworld International]], co-star of ''[[Today's Special]]''
*[[Clement Virgo]], director

==W==
*[[Rinaldo Walcott]], professor and [[Canada Research Chair]] at OISE/[[University of Toronto]]
*[[Abraham Beverley Walker]], first Canadian-born black lawyer
*[[Carol Wall]], social activist and labour leader
*[[Dwight Walton]], former Team Canada Basketball player
*[[Joel Ward (ice hockey)|Joel Ward]], NHL player
*[[John Ware (cowboy)|John Ware]], former slave, [[Alberta]] [[cowboy]]
*[[Syrus Marcus Ware]], artist, activist and professor
*[[Damian Warner]], Olympian
*[[Mark Warner (Canadian politician)|Mark Warner]], lawyer and politician
*[[Jackie Washington]], [[blues]] musician
*[[Bahia Watson]], actress and playwright
*[[Benjamin Charles Watson]], actor<ref>Daniel Reynolds, [https://www.advocate.com/television/2019/6/09/benjamin-watson-brings-black-gay-visibility-designated-survivor "Benjamin Charles Watson Brings Black and Gay Visibility to Designated Survivor"]. ''[[The Advocate (LGBT magazine)|The Advocate]]'', June 9, 2019.</ref>
*[[Dawn Tyler Watson]], blues singer
*[[The Weeknd]], [[R&B]] singer-songwriter
*[[Kevin Weekes]], NHL goalie
*[[Wesli]], musician
*[[Juanita Westmoreland-Traoré]], first appointed black judge in the history of Quebec
*[[Bill White (Canadian politician)|Bill White]], musician and political candidate
*[[Jack White (politician)|Jack White]], union activist
*[[Portia White]], gospel singer
*[[William A. White]], only black officer of the No. 2 Construction Battalion
*[[Dwight Whylie]], journalist
*[[Andrew Wiggins]], NBA player with the [[Golden State Warriors]]
*[[Aileen Williams]], activist and founding member of the Canadian Women's Negro Association (CANEWA)
*[[Desai Williams]], sprinter
*[[Genelle Williams]], actress
*[[Ian Williams (writer)|Ian Williams]], poet and novelist
*[[Michael Williams (Canadian TV personality)|Michael Williams]], MuchMusic VJ
*[[Nigel Shawn Williams]], actor
*[[Odario Williams]], broadcaster and musician
*[[Stephen Williams (director)|Stephen Williams]], director
*[[Tonya Lee Williams]], longtime actress on ''[[The Young and the Restless]]''
*[[Trevor C. Williams]], former Team Canada Basketball player
*[[Tyrone Williams (wide receiver)|Tyrone Williams]], former CFL and NFL wide receiver
*[[Nigel Wilson]], baseball player (first draft pick by the Florida Marlins, 2nd overall, in the 1992 Expansion Draft)
*[[Paul Winn]], human rights activist, director of Canadian Race Relations Foundation, former television personality
*[[Mary Matilda Winslow]], first black female graduate of the University of New Brunswick
*[[Maurice Dean Wint]], actor
*[[Ken Wiwa]], journalist and author, and son of executed [[Nigeria]]n political prisoner [[Ken Saro-Wiwa]]
*[[WondaGurl]], record producer
*[[Daniel Woodrow]], comedian<ref>Lisa Rainford, [https://www.toronto.com/news/bloor-west-resident-daniel-woodrow-part-of-underground-comedy-railroad-tour-for-black-history-month/article_542d87b0-fc05-57d1-9794-123d5e7eff1b.html "Bloor West resident Daniel Woodrow part of Underground Comedy Railroad Tour for Black History Month"]. ''[[Toronto.com]]'', February 4, 2014.</ref>
*[[Peter Worrell]], NHL player

==Y==
*[[Kevin Yarde]], television meteorologist and politician
*[[D'bi Young]], [[dub poetry|dub poet]]
*[[Marcia Young]], [[CBC Radio One|CBC Radio]] broadcaster and host of ''[[The World This Hour]]''
*[[Master T|Tony "Master T" Young]], MuchMusic
*[[Hannan Younis]], actress and comedian

==See also==
*[[List of Canadians]]
*[[Black Canadians in Montreal]]
*[[Black Canadians in Ontario]]
*[[Black Nova Scotians]]
*''[[Who's Who in Black Canada]]''

==Further reading==
* {{citation |last = Williams |first =Dawn P |year =2006 |title =Who's who in Black Canada two, Volume 2 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=_UtdQ6NsvYkC&q=Black%20Canadians&pg=PP1 |publisher= D.P. Williams |isbn= 0-9731384-2-4}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{People of Canada}}

[[Category:Lists of Canadian people by ethnic or national origin|Black Canadians]]
[[Category:Black Canadian people| ]]
[[Category:Lists of black people|Canadian]]
[[Category:Lists of people by ethnicity|Black]]

List of Black Canadians

2023-01-17T14:51:45Z

72.142.115.198: /* f */

{{short description|None}}

This is a '''list of notable [[Black Canadians]]''', inclusive of [[multiracial]] people who are of partially Black African descent.
{{TOC right}}

==A==
*[[Elamin Abdelmahmoud]], CBC Radio host
*[[Wayne Adams]], first black MLA in Nova Scotia, Liberal
*[[Lovell Adams-Gray]], actor<ref>Tamara Shephard, [https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/television/2018/08/02/second-jens-multicultural-cast-resonates-with-actor-lovell-adams-gray.html "Second Jen’s multicultural cast resonates with actor Lovell Adams-Gray"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', August 2, 2018.</ref>
*[[Oluniké Adeliyi]], actress
*[[Alfons Adetuyi]], film director and producer
*[[Robert Adetuyi]], film director and screenwriter
*[[Randell Adjei]], poet
*[[Ohenewa Akuffo]], wrestler
*[[AHI (musician)|AHI]], singer-songwriter
*[[Zanana Akande]], former Ontario Member of Provincial Parliament and cabinet minister
*[[Philip Akin]], director
*[[Lincoln Alexander]], first black Member of Parliament in Canada, former [[Lieutenant Governor of Ontario]]
*[[Toya Alexis]], [[R&B]]/pop singer and ''[[Canadian Idol]]'' season 1 finalist
*[[Aisha Alfa]], actress and comedian
*[[Ismaila Alfa]], radio host
*[[Thom Allison]], actor
*[[Jean Alfred]], first black Canadian member of the [[National Assembly of Quebec]]
*[[Lillian Allen]], dub poet
*[[Archie Alleyne]], jazz musician
*[[Allie (musician)|a l l i e]], R&B singer
*[[David Amber]], sportscaster
*[[Kimora Amour]], drag entertainer
*[[Ammoye]], reggae singer
*[[Aba Amuquandoh]], comedian<ref>Briony Smith, [https://www.thestar.com/life/together/people/2021/01/31/rising-star-aba-amuquandoh-on-the-mentors-who-shaped-her-path-to-comedy-stardom.html "Rising star Aba Amuquandoh on the mentors who shaped her path to comedy stardom"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', January 31, 2021.</ref>
*[[Anastarzia Anaquway]], drag entertainer
*[[Ezzrett Anderson]], CFL player
*[[Granville Anderson]], politician
*[[Hollywood Jade|"Hollywood Jade" Anderson]], dancer and choreographer
*[[Osborne Perry Anderson]], resident of the Chatham-Kent area; involved in the raid at Harper's Ferry
*[[Ricky Anderson]], athlete and writer
*[[Shamier Anderson]], actor
*[[Virnetta Anderson]], first Black Canadian city councillor in Calgary
*[[Jill Andrew]], politician
*[[Marie-Joseph Angélique]], executed for setting fire to Montreal
*[[Dominique Anglade]], politician
*[[Georges Anglade]], academic
*[[Joel Anthony]], NBA basketball player with the [[Detroit Pistons]]
*[[Tafari Anthony]], rhythm and blues singer
*[[Trey Anthony]], playwright (''Da Kink in My Hair'')
*[[Océane Aqua-Black]], drag entertainer
*[[Bromley Armstrong]], community activist
*[[Christine Armstrong]], film editor
*[[Tré Armstrong]], actress and choreographer
*[[Uzoma Asagwara]], politician
*[[Brandon Ash-Mohammed]], stand-up comedian
*[[Ryad Assani-Razaki]], writer
*[[James Atebe]], politician
*[[Yvonne Atwell]], Nova Scotia's first black female MLA, NDP
*[[Jean Augustine]], former Member of Parliament, black Canadian [[Cabinet Minister]], former deputy [[Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada|Speaker of the House of Commons]]
*[[Edem Awumey]], writer
*[[Minister Faust|Malcolm Azania]], writer and activist

==B==
*[[B-Kool]], rapper
*[[Clark Backo]], actress
*[[Njacko Backo]], musician
*[[Backxwash]], rapper
*[[Cameron Bailey]], film critic and artistic director of the [[Toronto International Film Festival]]
*[[Donovan Bailey]], first Canadian to win an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] gold medal in the 100m sprint ([[Athletics at the 1996 Summer Olympics|1996 Atlanta]])
*[[James Baley]], musician and dancer<ref>Robert Rowat, [https://www.cbc.ca/music/from-brimstone-to-ballroom-musician-james-baley-prevails-to-tell-a-powerful-story-1.6353485 "From brimstone to ballroom, musician James Baley prevails to tell a powerful story"]. [[CBC Music]], March 2, 2022.</ref>
*[[Tynomi Banks]], drag entertainer
*[[Barbada de Barbades]], drag entertainer<ref>Samuel Larochelle, [https://quebec.huffingtonpost.ca/2017/08/07/barbada-de-barbades-entrevue_a_23068666/ "Barbada de Barbades, une drag queen haute en couleurs"]. ''[[Huffington Post Québec]]'', August 7, 2017.</ref>
*[[Vivian Barbot]], [[Bloc Québécois]] member of parliament for the riding of [[Papineau (electoral district)|Papineau]]
*[[Emery Barnes]], first black Speaker of the British Columbia Legislative Assembly and [[Canadian Football League|CFL]] defensive end
*[[RJ Barrett]], NBA player with the [[New York Knicks]]
*[[Rowan Barrett]], former professional basketball player
*[[Daniel Bartholomew-Poyser]], conductor<ref>Eric Volmers, [https://calgaryherald.com/entertainment/music/daniel-bartholomew-poysers-journey-from-teacher-to-professional-conductor-takes-him-home-to-the-cpo "Daniel Bartholomew-Poyser's journey from teacher to professional conductor takes him home to the CPO"]. ''[[Calgary Herald]]'', February 8, 2019.</ref>
*[[Angèle Bassolé-Ouédraogo]], poet
*[[Frank Baylis]], politician
*[[Gary Beals]], pop singer and ''[[Canadian Idol]]'' season 1 first runner-up
*[[Jacqueline Beaugé-Rosier]], writer
*[[Kettly Beauregard]], politician
*[[Shawn Belle]], NHL prospect
*[[Frantz Benjamin]], Montreal city councillor
*[[Anthony Bennett (basketball)|Anthony Bennett]], NBA player (first overall pick in the [[2013 NBA draft]])
*[[Cle Bennett]], actor
*[[Tyrone Benskin]], actor and director; Member of Parliament; national vice president of [[ACTRA]]
*[[Wanda Thomas Bernard]], social work, educator, senator
*[[Rima Berns-McGown]], politician
*[[Lisa Berry]], actress
*[[Ardon Bess]], actor (''[[Trailer Park Boys]]'', ''[[King of Kensington]]'')
*[[Carrie Best]], activist and humanitarian, first black journalist
*[[James Calbert Best]], diplomat and public servant
*[[Margarett Best]], Ontario Member of Provincial Parliament and Cabinet Minister
*[[Salome Bey]], [[jazz]], [[blues]] and [[gospel music|gospel]] singer (US citizen, Canadian permanent resident)
*[[Tim Biakabutuka]], former [[National Football League|NFL]] player
*[[Henry Bibb]], author and abolitionist
*[[Bertrand Bickersteth]], writer
*[[Charlie Biddle]] (Sr.), one of Canada's greatest bassists
*[[Sonya Biddle]], actress and politician
*[[Jully Black]], R&B/pop singer
*[[Lindsay Blackett]], Member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta, the province's first black cabinet minister
*[[Shane Book]], writer
*[[Walter Borden]], actor and playwright
*[[Cory Bowles]], actor (''[[Trailer Park Boys]]'')
*[[Jeffrey Bowyer-Chapman]], actor
*[[George Boyd (playwright)|George Boyd]], playwright
*[[David Bradford (writer)|David Bradford]], peot
*[[Lawrence Ytzhak Braithwaite]], dub poet and novelist
*[[Dionne Brand]], author
*[[Fred Brathwaite]], [[National Hockey League|NHL]] goalie
*[[Leonard Braithwaite]], politician
*[[Rella Braithwaite]], historian and journalist
*[[Wendy Motion Brathwaite]], writer and musician
*[[Garnet Brooks]], opera singer
*[[Phyllis Simmons Brooks]], educator
*[[Shelton Brooks]], popular music and jazz singer, songwriter, and pianist and vaudeville and musical theatre performer who wrote some of the biggest hits of the first third of the 20th century
*[[Aisha Brown]], actress and comedian
*[[Divine Brown (Canadian performer)|Divine Brown]], R&B/[[soul music|soul]] singer and musical theatre performer
*[[Denham Brown]], professional basketball player in Europe
*[[Luther Brown]], dancer and choreographer
*[[Rosemary Brown (Canadian politician)|Rosemary Brown]], British Columbia legislator; first black woman to run for the leadership of a political party in Canada (the federal [[New Democratic Party (Canada)|New Democratic Party]])
*[[Measha Brueggergosman]], [[opera]] singer
*[[Kim Brunhuber]], journalist and writer
*[[Matthew Bullock]], fugitive from the US who became a cause celebre in the 1920s
*[[Millicent Burgess]], educator
*[[Nate Burleson]], NFL player
*[[Tajon Buchanan]], soccer player
*[[Sharon Burey]], senator

==C==
*[[Dayana Cadeau]], professional bodybuilder
*[[Cadence Weapon]], rapper
*[[Madwa-Nika Cadet]], politician
*[[Daniel Caesar]], R&B and soul singer
*[[Celina Caesar-Chavannes]], politician
*[[Shawna Cain]], Christian R&B singer
*[[Herb Carnegie]], star of Quebec professional hockey league
*[[Anson Carter]], [[National Hockey League|NHL]] star
*[[Rubin Carter]], former boxer and activist
*[[Jazz Cartier]], rapper
*[[Demo Cates]], musician<ref>Greg Quill, "Canada's blacks win recognition from music world". ''[[Toronto Star]]'', November 1, 1985.</ref>
*[[Mary Anne Chambers]], former Ontario Member of Provincial Parliament and cabinet minister
*[[Myriam J. A. Chancy]], writer
*[[Keshia Chanté]], R&B singer and co-host of [[BET]]'s ''[[106 & Park]]''
*[[David Chariandy]], writer
*[[Gregory Charles]], pop and gospel singer
*[[Nuela Charles]], singer
*[[Tanika Charles]], soul and rhythm and blues singer
*[[Charmaine (rapper)|Charmaine]], rapper
*[[Sean Cheesman]], dancer and choreographer
*[[Ulrick Chérubin]], mayor of [[Amos, Quebec]], one of the first black mayors of any city in Quebec
*[[Jojo Chintoh]], longtime [[Citytv]] reporter
*[[Ify Chiwetelu]], CBC Radio host
*[[Choclair]], rapper
*[[Rae Dawn Chong]], actress (''[[The Color Purple (film)|The Color Purple]]'')
*[[Jillian Christmas]], poet
*[[Jarvis Church]], singer ([[The Philosopher Kings]] and solo) and music producer ([[Nelly Furtado]])
*[[Clairmont the Second]], rapper
*[[Austin Clarke (novelist)|Austin Clarke]], novelist (''The Polished Hoe'', ''Growing Up Stupid Under the Union Jack'')
*[[Cheril N. Clarke]], writer
*[[George Elliott Clarke]], poet and playwright (''Whylah Falls'', ''George and Rue'')
*[[Kevin Clarke (politician)|Kevin Clarke]], activist and politician
*[[Michèle Pearson Clarke]], writer
*[[Edith Clayton]], basket maker
*[[Bernadette Clement]], mayor of Cornwall, Ontario
*[[Sebastian Clovis]], Canadian Football League player and HGTV host
*[[Tristan Clovis]], Canadian Football League player
*[[Devon Clunis]], chief of [[Winnipeg Police Service]] and Canada's first black Canadian chief of police
*[[Caroline Cole]], vice-president, Business Development Bank of Canada
*[[Desmond Cole]], journalist
*[[Lucretia Newman Coleman]], writer
*[[Donté Colley]], dancer
*[[Wayde Compton]], poet
*[[Anne Cools]], Canada's first black [[Senate of Canada|senator]]
*[[Afua Cooper]], poet and historian
*[[Lisa Michelle Cornelius]], actress
*[[Michael Coteau]], Ontario Member of Provincial Parliament
*[[Arisa Cox]], television personality
*[[Deborah Cox]], R&B singer
*[[Archie Crail]], writer
*[[Laura Creavalle]], professional bodybuilder
*[[Roger Cross]], actor (''[[24 (television)|24]]'')
*[[Alcenya Crowley]], educator and activist
*[[Vera Cudjoe]], actress, producer, and educator; founder of [[Black Theatre Canada]]
*[[Alvin Curling]], [[Ontario]] Member of Provincial Parliament and Speaker of the Legislature of Ontario
*[[Ayesha Curry]], celebrity chef and television personality

==D==
*[[Ola Dada]], stand-up comedian
*[[Samuel Dalembert]], [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player
*[[Trevor Daley]], NHL player with the Dallas Stars
*[[Jonathan David]], professional footballer for [[Lille OSC]]
*[[Alphonso Davies]], professional footballer for [[FC Bayern Munich]]
*[[Delos Davis]], third black lawyer in Canada and first black [[King's Counsel]] in the UK
*[[Hubert Davis (filmmaker)|Hubert Davis]], [[Academy Award]]-nominated documentary filmmaker
*[[Rob Davis (politician)|Rob Davis]], former [[York, Toronto|York]] and [[Toronto]] city councillor
*[[Nigel Dawes]], [[National Hockey League|NHL]] player with the New York Rangers
*[[Desirée Dawson]], musician
*[[Buddy Daye]], former boxer and activist in Nova Scotia
*[[Jonathan de Guzman]], soccer player
*[[Julian De Guzman]], soccer player
*[[Dwayne De Rosario]]
*[[David Defiagbon]], boxer
*[[Simone Denny]], house music vocalist
*[[Viola Desmond]], beautician and civil rights activist, first Canadian woman to be depicted on [[Canadian dollar|Canadian currency]]
*[[Robert Nathaniel Dett]], composer
*[[Rita Deverell]], broadcaster and journalist, founder of [[Vision TV]]
*[[Devon (rapper)|Devon]], hip-hop musician ("Mr. Metro")
*[[Alpha Yaya Diallo]], musician
*[[Paul Dillett]], retired IFBB bodybuilder and businessman
*[[George Dixon (boxer)|George Dixon]], first black world [[boxing]] champion in any weight class
*[[Fefe Dobson]], pop punk singer
*[[Shirley Dorismond]], politician
*[[James Douglas (Governor)|James Douglas]], early governor of [[Vancouver Island]] and [[British Columbia]]
*[[James W. Douglas]], British Columbia MLA
*[[Orville Lloyd Douglas]], poet, writer, and journalist
*[[Stan Douglas]], installation artist
*[[Nathan Downer]], television journalist
*[[Nigel Downer]], actor and comedian
*[[Ray Downey]], former boxer who medalled in the 1988 Olympics
*[[Riele Downs]], actress
*[[Drake (musician)|Drake]], rapper and actor (''[[Degrassi: The Next Generation]]'')
*[[Dream Warriors (band)|Dream Warriors]], hip hop duo
*[[Dwight Drummond]], television journalist
*[[Ali Duale]], politician<ref name=blackmlas>[https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/record-number-black-mlas-elected-nova-scotia-legislature-1.6144448 "Record number of Black MLAs elected to Nova Scotia Legislature"]. [[CBC News]] Nova Scotia, August 18, 2021.</ref>
*[[Christian Dubé (politician)|Christian Dubé]], politician
*[[Emmanuel Dubourg]], Quebec Liberal Party MNA for Viau
*[[Rob Ducey]], former Major League Baseball player
*[[Alison Duke (filmmaker)|Alison Duke]], film producer
*[[Arlene Duncan]], actress, singer (''[[Little Mosque on the Prairie]]'')

==E==
*[[Chuck Ealey]], Canadian Football League player
*[[Gordon Earle]], former NDP Member of Parliament for [[Halifax West]]
*[[Amatoritsero Ede]], writer
*[[Rosey Edeh]], ''[[ET Canada]]'' reporter and former [[MSNBC]] [[meteorologist]]
*[[Aida Edemariam]], writer
*[[Esi Edugyan]], novelist
*[[Phil Edwards (athlete)|Phil Edwards]], track athlete
*[[Tyrone Edwards]], television host
*[[Efajemue]], jazz percussionist
*[[Francesca Ekwuyasi]], writer and artist
*[[Jade Elektra]], drag performer and HIV/AIDS educator
*[[Natasha Eloi]], science reporter for [[Space (Canadian TV channel)|Space]] channel
*[[Emanuel (musician)|Emanuel]], rhythm and blues singer
*[[Ray Emery]], NHL goalie
*[[Jonathan Emile]], poet, composer and entrepreneur
*[[Tyler Ennis (basketball)|Tyler Ennis]], NBA player with the [[Phoenix Suns]]
*[[Robert Esmie]], Olympic gold medalist 4x100 relay (Atlanta 1996)
*[[Gérard Étienne]], writer
*[[Karena Evans]], director
*[[Irdens Exantus]], actor
f
==d==
*[[Famous (rapper)|Famous]], rapper
*[[Perdita Felicien]], track athlete
*[[Greg Fergus]], politician
*[[Dominique Fils-Aimé]], blues, jazz and rhythm and blues singer
*[[Melanie Fiona]], R&B singer
*[[Farley Flex]], music promoter and ''[[Canadian Idol]]'' judge
*[[Cheryl Foggo]], writer
*[[Melyssa Ford]], professional model and actress
*[[Rose Fortune]], first female police officer in Canada
*[[Cecil Foster]], novelist and sociologist and biologist
*[[Rick Fox]], [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player
*[[Mayann Francis]], former [[Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia]] and former director and CEO of the [[Nova Scotia Human Rights Commission]]
*[[Fil Fraser]], writer
*[[Grant Fuhr]], Hockey Hall of Fame goaltender ([[Edmonton Oilers]]), first black hockey player to win the [[Stanley Cup]]
*[[Kelly Fyffe-Marshall]], writer and filmmaker

==G==
*[[Matt Galloway]], CBC Radio host
*[[Harry Gairey]], community activist
*[[Robyn Gayle]], former soccer player
*[[Kendall Gender]], drag entertainer
*[[Mifflin Wistar Gibbs]], merchant and member of [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]] City Council in the 1860s
*[[Chantal Gibson]], poet
*[[Glenroy Gilbert]], Olympic gold medalist 4x100 relay (Atlanta 1996)
*[[Shai Gilgeous-Alexander]] – NBA player
*[[Malcolm Gladwell]], journalist
*[[George Godfrey (boxer born 1853)|George Godfrey]], former boxer originally from Prince Edward Island
*[[Patrice Goodman]], actress
*[[Gary Goodridge]], former [[mixed martial arts|mixed martial artist]] and [[kickboxing|kickboxer]]
*[[Kamala-Jean Gopie]], activist and political candidate
*[[Audrey Gordon (politician)|Audrey Gordon]], politician
*[[Stephen Gough (politician)|Stephen Gough]], Nova Scotia MLA
*[[Dirk Graham]], first NHL captain of African descent
*[[Jean-Luc Grand-Pierre]], former NHL defenseman, currently playing in Europe
*[[Anais Granofsky]], actor (''[[Degrassi (franchise)|Degrassi]]'')
*[[Marlene Green]], community activist, educator, and NGO field worker
*[[Matthew Green (Canadian politician)|Matthew Green]], politician
*[[Robert Joseph Greene]], writer
*[[Stanley G. Grizzle]], judge, community activist

==H==
*[[Wes Hall (businessman)|Wes Hall]], businessman and ''Dragons' Den'' investor<ref>Murtz Jaffer, [https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/television/2021/10/19/new-panellist-on-dragons-den-wes-hall-aka-the-fixer-brings-a-different-approach.html "New panellist on ‘Dragons’ Den,’ Wes Hall (a.k.a. ‘The Fixer’) brings a different approach"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', October 19, 2021.</ref>
*[[William Hall (VC)|William Hall]], first Nova Scotian, third Canadian and first black person to be awarded the [[Victoria Cross]]
*[[Quancetia Hamilton]], actress
*[[Sherman Hamilton]], basketball player and sportscaster
*[[Kevin Hanchard]], actor
*[[Suzy Hansen (politician)|Suzy Hansen]], politician<ref name=blackmlas/>
*[[Adrian Harewood]], [[CBC Radio One|CBC Radio]] journalist and host
*[[Winnie Harlow]], model<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.ellecanada.com/culture/society/inspirational-black-canadians-to-know|title= Inspirational Black Canadians To Know|website=Elle|date=February 25, 2020}}</ref>
*[[Alicia K. Harris]], filmmaker<ref>Mike Adler, [https://www.toronto.com/whatson-story/9699200-with-pick-scarborough-filmmaker-shows-a-choice-black-girls-face/ "With PICK, Scarborough filmmaker shows a choice black girls face"]. ''[[Toronto.com]]'', November 15, 2019.</ref>
*[[Faisal Hassan]], politician
*[[Haviah Mighty]], rapper
*[[Wilson A. Head]], sociologist and human rights activist
*[[Violet King Henry]], first black female lawyer in Canada
*[[Josiah Henson]], former slave, believed to have been the inspiration for the novel ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]''
*[[Dan Hill]], pop singer-songwriter
*[[Daniel G. Hill]], sociologist and first head of the [[Ontario Human Rights Commission]]
*[[Lawrence Hill]], novelist and memoirist
*[[Darryl Hinds]], actor and comedian
*[[Penny Hodge]], activist
*[[Mark Holden (actor)|Mark Holden]], actor (''[[Cyberpunk 2077]]'', ''[[Captain Phillips (film)|Captain Phillips]]'', ''[[Deep State (TV series)|Deep State]]'')
*[[Adrian Holmes]], actor
*[[Jennifer Holness]], film and television writer and producer
*[[Nicole Holness]], singer and broadcaster
*[[Charmaine Hooper]], [[Association football|soccer]] player; retired as leader in appearances and goals for the [[Canada women's national soccer team|women's national team]]
*[[Nalo Hopkinson]], [[science fiction]] author
*[[Jennifer Hosten]], Canadian [[High Commissioner]] to Grenada and diplomat
*[[Frederick Langdon Hubbard]], chair of the Toronto Transit Commission
*[[William Peyton Hubbard]], former Toronto alderman, controller and acting mayor
*[[Jada Shada Hudson]], drag entertainer
*[[Kimberly Huie]], actress
*[[Mitzie Hunter]], politician
*[[Nate Husser]], rapper<ref>Michael Meanchoff, [https://hiphopcanada.com/nate-husser-adult-supervision-ep/ "Montréal’s Nate Husser enlists Mick Jenkins, Jean Deaux & Eva Shaw for Adult Supervision"]. ''HipHopCanada'', June 30, 2021.</ref>
*[[Atiba Hutchinson]], professional footballer for [[Besiktas J.K.]]
* [[Junior Hoilett]]

==I==
*[[Israel Idonije]], defensive end for the NFL's [[Chicago Bears]]
*[[Marci Ien]], politician, former [[CTV News]] journalist
*[[Daniel Igali]], Olympic gold medalist in wrestling ([[Wrestling at the 2000 Summer Olympics|Sydney 2000]])
*[[Jarome Iginla]], Hockey Hall of Fame inductee, NHL All-Star and Olympic gold medalist ([[Ice hockey at the 2002 Winter Olympics|Salt Lake 2002]], [[Ice hockey at the 2010 Winter Olympics|Vancouver 2010]])
*[[Tony Ince]], politician<ref name=blackmlas/>
*[[Orin Isaacs]], bandleader (''[[Open Mike with Mike Bullard]]'', ''[[The Mike Bullard Show]]''), musician and music producer
*[[Tajja Isen]], actress/singer (''Atomic Betty'')
*[[Ayisha Issa]], actress
*[[Richard Iton]], academic and writer

==J==
*[[John Henry Jackson]], football player and restaurateur<ref name=campbell>Morgan Campbell, [https://www.thestar.com/sports/2018/12/13/obituary-john-henry-jackson-quarterback-restaurateur-pioneer.html "John Henry Jackson was a quarterback, restaurateur and pioneer"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', December 13, 2018.</ref>
*[[Ovid Jackson]], former Member of Parliament and former mayor of [[Owen Sound]]
*[[Sammy Jackson (singer)|Sammy Jackson]], jazz and rhythm and blues singer<ref>[https://www.cbc.ca/music/discover-sammy-jackson-s-honest-blend-of-jazz-r-b-and-pop-1.5866735 "Discover Sammy Jackson's honest blend of jazz, R&B and pop"]. [[CBC Music]], January 13, 2021.</ref>
*[[Angela James]], professional hockey player and [[Hockey Hall of Fame]] inductee
*[[Stephan James (actor)|Stephan James]], actor
*[[Yolande James]], Quebec Minister of Immigration and Cultural Communities
*[[Yazmeen Jamieson]], professional soccer player
*[[Sterling Jarvis]], actor and musician
*[[Yves Jarvis]], musician
*[[Michaëlle Jean]], former broadcaster and former [[Governor General of Canada]], the first mixed race person in Canadian history appointed to that position
*[[Schelby Jean-Baptiste]], actress<ref>Anne-Lovely Étienne, [https://www.tvanouvelles.ca/2020/09/11/quatre-actrices-de-la-diversite-un-meme-combat "Quatre actrices de la diversité, un même combat"]. [[TVA Nouvelles]], September 11, 2020.</ref>
*[[Jelleestone]], rapper
*[[Jemeni (singer)|Jemeni]], singer and broadcaster
*[[Ferguson Jenkins]], baseball star and first Canadian elected to the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum|(US) Baseball Hall of Fame]]
*[[Jean Augustine]], first black Canadian politicians
*[[Marlene Jennings]], politician
*[[Harry Jerome]], sprinter and first Canadian to hold an official track and field world record
*[[Aisha Sasha John]], writer
*[[Lyndon John X]], reggae musician
*[[Ben Johnson (Canadian sprinter)|Ben Johnson]], Olympic sprinter disqualified in 1988 drug scandal
*[[Chris Johnson (boxer)|Chris Johnson]], boxer
*[[Clark Johnson]], actor (''[[Homicide: Life on the Street]]'')
*[[Hal Johnson and Joanne McLeod|Hal Johnson]], television health and fitness personality
*[[Kirk Johnson]], boxer
*[[Louisa Ann Johnson]], merchant and church supporter
*[[Molly Johnson]], rock and [[jazz]] vocalist
*[[Rocky Johnson]], professional wrestler
*[[Taborah Johnson]], singer, actor and radio broadcaster
*[[Denham Jolly]], broadcast executive
*[[El Jones]], writer
*[[Mark Jones (sportscaster)|Mark Jones]], sportscaster for [[ESPN]] and [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]
*[[Oliver Jones (pianist)|Oliver Jones]], jazz pianist
*[[Paul Jones (sportscaster)|Paul Jones]], sportscaster and [[Toronto Raptors]] radio play-by-play voice
*[[Rocky Jones]], politician and activist
*[[Spider Jones]], journalist and former boxer
*[[Clifton Joseph]], poet and broadcaster
*[[Cory Joseph]], NBA player
*[[David Joseph (basketball)|David Joseph]], basketball coach and former college player
*[[Devoe Joseph]], professional basketball player
*[[Akiel Julien]], actor
*[[Junia-T]], rapper
*[[Marie-Ève Juste]], film director

==K==
*[[K-Anthony]], gospel singer
*[[K'Naan]], [[Hip hop music|hip-hop]] musician and singer
*[[k-os]], [[Hip hop music|hip-hop]] musician
*[[Adria Kain]], R&B singer
*[[Evander Kane]], professional ice hockey player
*[[Tommy Kane]], former NFL wide receiver
*[[KAPRI]], dance/pop singer<ref>[https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/kapri-edmonton-juno-1.4583914 "Meet Kapri: Edmonton's newest pop music sensation"]. [[CBC News]] Edmonton, March 20, 2018.</ref>
*[[Arielle Kayabaga]], politician
*[[Kaytranada]], musician
*[[Marlon Kazadi]], actor
*[[Hisham Kelati]], comedian
*[[Kaie Kellough]], writer
*[[Janaya Khan]], activist
*[[Kiara (drag queen)|Kiara]] (Dimitri Nana-Côté), drag entertainer
*[[Rawlson King]], municipal politician in Ottawa
*[[Nam Kiwanuka]], television host and journalist
*[[Maka Kotto]], author and actor from Quebec elected to Canadian Parliament in 2004 (Bloc Québécois)
*[[Pierre Kwenders]], musician

==L==
*[[Sonnet L'Abbé]], poet and critic
*[[Dany Laferrière]], writer, elected to the [[Académie française]]
*[[Artis Lane]], sculptor and artist
*[[Sam Langford]], former boxer
*[[Georges Laraque]], NHL player
*[[Tobi Lark]], jazz, blues and gospel singer
*[[Cyle Larin]], professional footballer playing for [[Besiktas J.K.]]
*[[Mélissa Laveaux]], musician
*[[Olivier Le Jeune]], believed to have been the first slave purchased in what later became Quebec
*[[Karen LeBlanc]], actress
*[[Didier Leclair]], writer
*[[Ranee Lee]], jazz singer
*[[Michael Lee-Chin]], business leader
*[[Marie-Évelyne Lessard]], actress
*[[Sandra Levy]], Olympic field hockey player
*[[Alan Shane Lewis]], comedian and television host
*[[Andrea Lewis]], actress (''[[Degrassi: The Next Generation]]'')
*[[Daurene Lewis]], first black woman mayor in North America
*[[Glenn Lewis]], R&B singer
*[[Lennox Lewis]], professional boxer (Olympic gold medallist and three-time heavyweight champion)
*[[Leslyn Lewis]], politician
*[[Ray Lewis (runner)|Ray Lewis]], first Canadian-born black person to win a medal in the Olympics
*[[Sharon Lewis]], journalist
*[[Murray Lightburn]], rock singer-songwriter ([[The Dears]])
*[[Laura Mae Lindo]], politician
*[[Little X]], director
*[[Rich London]], rapper
*[[Gilson Lubin]], comedian
*[[Canisia Lubrin]], writer
*[[Nicole Lyn]], actress

==M==
*[[Kaycee Madu]], Alberta MLA
*[[Maestro (rapper)|Maestro]], hip-hop musician, first Canadian rapper to have a Top 40 hit in Canada
*[[Jamaal Magloire]], NBA player
*[[Atlee Mahorn]], sprinter
*[[Ahdri Zhina Mandiela]], director
*[[Egerton Marcus]], boxer
*[[Amanda Marshall]], pop singer-songwriter
*[[Mike Marson]], second black player in NHL history
*[[Lesra Martin]], [[crown attorney]] and speaker; in his youth was involved in freeing Rubin Carter
*[[Russell Martin (baseball)|Russell Martin]], MLB player
*[[Boman Martinez-Reid|Boman "Bomanizer" Martinez-Reid]], comedian and social media content creator<ref name=calvario>Liz Calvario, [https://www.etonline.com/boman-martinez-reid-on-his-tiktok-success-and-how-to-diversify-your-for-you-page-exclusive-148787 "Boman Martinez-Reid on His TikTok Success and How to Diversify Your 'For You' Page"]. ''[[Entertainment Tonight]]'', June 26, 2020.</ref>
*[[Beverly Mascoll]], entrepreneur and community leader
*[[Marie-Sœurette Mathieu]], writer
*[[Yasmine Mathurin]], documentary filmmaker
*[[Denise Matthews]], former model, actress and lead singer of Vanity 6 turned evangelist
*[[Rueben Mayes]], former NFL player
*[[Robyn Maynard]], writer
*[[Suzette Mayr]], writer
*[[Alexis Mazurin]], [[CBC Radio]] host
*[[Melchior Mbonimpa]], writer
*[[Tawiah M'carthy]], writer and actor
*[[Trent McClellan]], comedian
*[[Kandyse McClure]], actress (''[[Battlestar Galactica (re-imagining)|Battlestar Galactica]]'')
*[[Elijah McCoy]], origin of "the real McCoy", inventor
*[[Howard McCurdy]], Member of Parliament, first black male to run for the leadership of a political party (the federal [[New Democratic Party (Canada)|New Democratic Party]])
*[[Jay W. McGee]], musician<ref>Niel Scobie, [https://www.thestar.com/life/together/remembrance/2021/05/02/jay-w-mcgee-a-groundbreaking-vocalist-songwriter-and-juno-nominee-always-went-back-to-the-music-of-his-father.html "Jay W. McGee, a groundbreaking vocalist, songwriter and Juno nominee, always went back to the music of his father"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', May 2, 2021.</ref>
*[[Yanna McIntosh]], actress
*[[Tony McKegney]], NHL player
*[[Berend McKenzie]], writer
*[[Katherine McKittrick]], writer
*[[Mark McKoy]], Olympic gold medalist 110 m hurdles (Barcelona 1992)
*[[Brandon Jay McLaren]], actor (''[[Power Rangers S.P.D.]]'')
*[[Kairo McLean]], reggae musician<ref name=adams>Kelsey Adams, [https://www.cbc.ca/music/at-just-13-years-old-kairo-mclean-is-the-youngest-reggae-nominee-ever-at-the-juno-awards-1.6436020 "At just 13 years old, Kairo McLean is the youngest reggae nominee ever at the Juno Awards"]. [[CBC Music]], April 29, 2022.</ref>
*[[Tessa McWatt]], novelist
*[[Stella Meghie]], film director and screenwriter
*[[Marie-Françoise Mégie]], politician
*[[Traci Melchor]], television personality
*[[Don Meredith (politician)|Don Meredith]], politician
*[[Mentallo]], professional wrestler
*[[Nega Mezlekia]], writer
*[[Kim Katrin Milan]], writer
*[[Myst Milano]], musician
*[[Rollie Miles]], CFL player
*[[Shadrach Minkins]], American-born fugitive slave rescued from federal custody in Boston in 1851 who settled in Montreal
*[[Chris Moise]], Toronto city councillor
*[[Moka Only]], rapper of the [[Swollen Members]]
*[[Firmin Monestime]], mayor of [[Mattawa, Ontario|Mattawa]], [[Ontario]]; first black mayor in Canada
*[[Andrew Moodie]], actor and playwright
*[[Tanya Moodie]], actress based in the United Kingdom
*[[Roger Mooking]], chef
*[[Tracy Moore (Canadian journalist)|Tracy Moore]], journalist
*[[Annmarie Morais]], writer
*[[Carlos Morgan]], R&B/soul singer
*[[Dwayne Morgan]], [[spoken word]] artist
*[[Vanessa Morgan]], actress and singer (from Ottawa)
*[[Amber Morley]], Toronto city councillor
*[[MorMor]], musician
*[[Paul S. Morton]], pastor of St. Stephen Baptist Church in New Orleans, a church with over 20,000 members
*[[Jamie Moses (politician)|Jamie Moses]], politician
*[[Aaron Albert Mossell]], first black person to graduate from the University of Pennsylvania Law School
*[[Nathan Francis Mossell]], first black person to graduate from the University of Pennsylvania Medical School
*[[Joseph Motiki]], television host
*[[Thamela Mpumlwana]], actor
*[[Sheila Murray]], writer<ref>[https://open-book.ca/News/Histories-That-are-Buried-Beneath-the-Mainstream-Sheila-Murray-on-Telling-the-Stories-of-Two-Mixed-Race-Men-in-Her-New-Novel ""Histories That are Buried Beneath the Mainstream" Sheila Murray on Telling the Stories of Two Mixed Race Men in Her New Novel"]. ''Open Book'', July 29, 2022.</ref>
*[[Téa Mutonji]], writer
*[[Jamaal Myers]], Toronto city councillor

==N==
*[[Blaise Ndala]], writer
*[[Haydain Neale]], R&B/soul singer ([[Jacksoul]])
*[[Ray Neufeld]], former NHL player
*[[Kathleen Newman-Bremang]], writer and broadcaster
*[[Carlos Newton]], former mixed martial artist ([[UFC Welterweight Championship|UFC Welterweight Champion]])
*[[Andrew Nicholson (basketball)|Andrew Nicholson]], NBA player
*[[Cecily Nicholson]], poet
*[[Darnell Nurse]], NHL player
*[[Kia Nurse]], professional basketball player
*[[Richard Nurse]], former CFL player

==O==
*[[Samuel Oghale Oboh]], first person of African descent to be President of the 110-year old Royal Architectural Institute of Canada
*[[OBUXUM]], musician and record producer
*[[David Nandi Odhiambo]], writer
*[[Charles Officer]], film director
*[[Kardinal Offishall]], rapper
*[[Lana Ogilvie]], fashion model/TV hostess
*[[Thomas Antony Olajide]], actor
*[[Donald Oliver]], first black senator from Nova Scotia
*[[Tolu Oloruntoba]], poet
*[[Willie O'Ree]], first black hockey player in the National Hockey League
*[[Gabriel Osson]], writer<ref>[https://ici.radio-canada.ca/nouvelle/1155331/gabriel-osson-auteur-animateur-radio "Gabriel Osson, auteur et animateur radio à Toronto"]. [[Ici Radio-Canada]], February 27, 2019.</ref>
*[[Milton Ottey]], world champion high jumper
*[[Ouri (musician)|Ouri]], electronic musician and DJ

==P==
*[[Brenda Paris]], activist and politician
*[[John Paris Jr.]], hockey coach
*[[Percy Paris]], politician
*[[Stuart Parker (politician)|Stuart Parker]], leader of the [[Green Party of British Columbia]] 1993 to 2000
*[[Amanda Parris]], broadcaster and writer
*[[PartyNextDoor]], R&B singer
*[[Annamie Paul]], politician, leader of the [[Green Party of Canada]], the first black leader of a federal party in Canada
*[[Michaela Pereira]], journalist
*[[Kayla Perrin]], writer
*[[Oscar Peterson]], jazz pianist
*[[Anthony Phelps]], Haitian-Canadian writer
*[[M. NourbeSe Philip]], poet, novelist and essayist
*[[Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips]], Islamic scholar and founder of the [[Islamic Online University]]
*[[Joseph Jomo Pierre]], actor and playwright
*[[Carmine Pierre-Dufour]], filmmaker (''[[Mahalia Melts in the Rain]]'', ''[[Fanmi]]'')<ref>Helen Faradji, [https://ici.radio-canada.ca/tele/blogue/1715093/diversite-quotas-et-cinema-noir-avec-la-realisatrice-carmine-pierre-dufour "Diversité, quotas et cinéma noir avec la réalisatrice Carmine Pierre-Dufour"]. [[Ici Radio-Canada]], June 25, 2020.</ref>
*[[Shailyn Pierre-Dixon]], actress
*[[Burr Plato]], town councillor for [[Niagara Falls, Ontario|Niagara Falls]] (1886-1901)
*[[Juliette Powell]], television host, first black [[Miss Canada]] (1989)
*Rev. [[Richard Preston (clergyman)|Richard Preston]], anti-slavery activist and founder of African Baptist Association of Nova Scotia
*[[Prevail (musician)|Prevail]], rapper of the [[Swollen Members]]
*[[Althea Prince]], writer
*[[Garth Prince]], children's entertainer<ref name=cbc>Thandiwe Konguavi, [https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/edmonton-film-captures-music-instructor-s-homecoming-to-namibia-1.5229694 "Film captures Edmonton music instructor's homecoming to Namibia"]. [[CBC News]] Edmonton, July 29, 2019.</ref>
*[[Dwayne Provo]], Canadian Football League player
* [[Jaime Peters]]

==Q==
*[[Quanteisha]], R&B singer
*[[Quddus (television personality)|Quddus]], [[MTV]] [[VJ (media personality)|VJ]]

==R==
*[[Rob Rainford]], chef
*[[Micheline Rawlins]], first black woman appointed to the Ontario Court of Justice
*[[Savannah Ré]], singer<ref name=krewen>Nick Krewen, [https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/music/2020/11/20/scarborough-rb-singersongwriter-savannah-r-releases-debut-opia.html "Scarborough R&B singer/songwriter Savannah Ré releases debut ‘Opia’"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', November 20, 2020.</ref>
*[[Pokey Reddick]], Stanley Cup champion, [[Edmonton Oilers]] goalie
*[[Zalika Reid-Benta]], writer
*[[Gloria Reuben]], actress (''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'')
*[[Cabbie Richards]], radio personality
*[[Cara Ricketts]], actress
*[[Jayde Riviere]], soccer player
*[[Jackie Richardson]], jazz, blues and gospel singer
*[[Jael Richardson]], writer
*[[Kim Richardson]], pop, jazz, blues and gospel singer
*[[Bill Riley (ice hockey, born 1950)|Bill Riley]], third black player in NHL history
*[[Charles Roach]], Canadian civil rights lawyer; activist in the black community in Toronto; had many contributions to the wider community in Toronto, including being one of the founders of what was known as Caribana in 1967
*[[Karen Robinson]], actress
*[[Kenny Robinson (comedian)|Kenny Robinson]], stand-up comedian, TV host
*[[Percy Rodriguez]], actor
*[[George Rogers (Alberta politician)|George Rogers]], former mayor of [[Leduc, Alberta]], current MLA for the riding of Leduc-Beaumont-Devon
*[[Michelle Ross (drag queen)|Michelle Ross]], drag entertainer
*[[Ronnie Rowe (actor)|Ronnie Rowe]], actor
*[[RT!]], director
*[[Calvin Ruck]], senator
*[[Donovan Ruddock|Donovan "Razor" Ruddock]], professional boxer

==S==
*[[Shakura S'Aida]], jazz and blues singer
*[[Rodney Saint-Éloi]], poet
*[[Kwasi Songui]], actor
*[[Beverley Salmon]], politician
*[[Liselle Sambury]], writer<ref>Nathan Gallagher, [https://www.queensjournal.ca/story/2021-04-08/arts/queens-creative-writing-alum-liselle-sambury-talks-debut-novel-blood-like-magic/ "Queen’s Creative Writing alum Liselle Sambury talks debut novel 'Blood Like Magic'"]. ''[[The Queen's Journal]]'', April 8, 2021.</ref>
*[[Samito]], musician
*[[Aquakultre|Lance "Aquakultre" Sampson]], soul and R&B musician
*[[Robert Edison Sandiford]], writer
*[[Sarahmée]], rapper
*[[Yolanda Sargeant]], soul singer
*[[Mairuth Sarsfield]], novelist
*[[SATE (musician)|SATE]], rock singer
*[[Charles R. Saunders]], writer
*[[John Saunders (journalist)|John Saunders]], sports journalist for ESPN and ABC
*[[Mark Saunders (police chief)|Mark Saunders]], chief of the [[Toronto Police Service]]
*[[Alison Sealy-Smith]], actress
*[[Djanet Sears]], playwright
*[[Sagine Sémajuste]], actress<ref name=tfo>Katia Café-Fébrissy, [https://onfr.tfo.org/sagine-semajuste-une-actrice-qui-assume-ses-choix/ "Sagine Sémajuste, une actrice qui assume ses choix"]. ''[[TFO]]'', January 17, 2021.</ref>
*[[Olive Senior]], poet and short story writer
*[[Shad (rapper)|Shad]], hip hop musician
*[[Mary Ann Shadd]], first female newspaper publisher
*[[Jackie Shane]], R&B singer
*[[Tony Sharpe]], sprinter
*[[Lisa Shaw (musician)|Lisa Shaw]], house and R&B/soul singer
*[[David Shepherd (Canadian politician)|David Shepherd]], politician
*[[Anthony Sherwood]], actor
*[[Simisola Shittu]] (born 1999), British-born Canadian basketball player for [[Ironi Ness Ziona B.C.|Ironi Ness Ziona]] of the [[Israeli Basketball Premier League]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thespec.com/sports/hamilton-region/2015/01/29/buzz-builds-over-burlington-hoops-phenom-simisola-shittu.html|title=Buzz builds over Burlington hoops phenom Simisola Shittu|newspaper=The Hamilton Spectator |date=29 January 2015|via=www.thespec.com}}</ref>
*[[Liberty Silver]], R&B and jazz singer
*[[Makeda Silvera]], novelist
*[[Angela Simmonds]], politician<ref name=blackmlas/>
*[[Wayne Simmonds]], NHL player for the Toronto Maple Leafs
*[[Denis Simpson]], actor and children's television host
*[[Dylan Sinclair]], rhythm and blues singer<ref>Kenisha Alexander, [https://ca.hellomagazine.com/music/02021013158827/seven-canadaian-up-and-coming-musicians-2021 "Seven up-and-coming Canadian musicians to watch in 2021"]. ''[[Hello! Canada]]'', February 1, 2021.</ref>
*[[Eon Sinclair]], bassist ([[Bedouin Soundclash]])
*[[Shawn Singleton]], actor/musician
*[[Zal Sissokho]], musician
*[[Slakah the Beatchild]], soul/R&B singer and record producer
*[[Makyla Smith]], actress
*[[So Sus]], electronic musician
*[[Frances-Anne Solomon]], film producer, director, distributor
*[[Spek Won]], rapper
*[[Chris Spence (educator)|Chris Spence]], director of education of the [[Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board]] and then the [[Toronto District School Board]], previously a CFL running back
*[[Tony "Wild T" Springer]], [[blues rock]] guitarist
*[[Donna-Michelle St. Bernard]], theatre director and playwright
*[[Benjamin St-Juste]], American football player
*[[Paul Stalteri]]
*[[Erroll Starr]], musician
*[[Gavin Stephens]], comedian
*[[Ordena Stephens-Thompson]], actress
*[[Anthony Stewart (ice hockey)|Anthony Stewart]], NHL player with the Florida Panthers
*[[Jordan Subban]], professional ice hockey defenceman
*[[Malcolm Subban]], professional ice hockey goaltender
*[[P. K. Subban]], NHL ice hockey defenceman
*[[Cree Summer]], actress, singer, and comedian
*[[Bruny Surin]], Olympic gold medalist 4x100 relay (1996 Atlanta)
*[[Sudz Sutherland|David (Sudz) Sutherland]], director
*[[Robert Sutherland]], first black lawyer in Canada
*[[Michelle Sweeney]], jazz and blues singer
*[[Sylvia Sweeney]], television broadcaster and former basketball player

==T==
*[[Tamia]], [[R&B]] singer and actress
*[[Tasha the Amazon]], rapper
*[[Bobby Taylor & the Vancouvers|Bobby Taylor]] and his band, The Vancouvers, a popular [[Motown]] act who were instrumental in getting [[The Jackson 5]] signed to the label and produced the earliest Jackson 5 records
*[[Dione Taylor]], jazz singer
*[[Julian Taylor (Singer)|Julian Taylor]], rock musician ([[Staggered Crossing]])
*[[Tamara Taylor]], actress (''[[Bones (TV series)|Bones]]'')
*[[Angella Taylor-Issajenko]], sprinter
*[[Tebey]], country and pop songwriter and singer
*[[Angeline Tetteh-Wayoe]], radio personality
*[[Michael Thompson (Canadian politician)|Michael Thompson]], current [[Toronto]] city councillor
*[[Tristan Thompson]], NBA player
*[[Thrust (rapper)|Thrust]], rapper
*[[Tika Simone|TiKA]], R&B singer<ref>Aly Laube, [https://exclaim.ca/music/article/tika_anywhere_but_here_album_review "TiKA's 'Anywhere but Here' Is an Exuberant Celebration of Black Queer Love"]. ''[[Exclaim!]]'', February 23, 2021.</ref>
*[[Tizzo]], rapper
*[[Töme]], reggae musician
*[[Asha Tomlinson]], journalist
*[[Thyrone Tommy]], filmmaker
*[[Tory Lanez]], hip hop musician
*[[Yanic Truesdale]], actor (''[[Gilmore Girls]]'')
*[[Kreesha Turner]], R&B singer

==U==
*[[Louise Uwacu]], writer

==V==
*[[Vanity (singer)|Vanity]], performer
*[[Kevin Vidal]], comedian and actor
*[[Christian Vincent (actor)|Christian Vincent]], actor (''[[Noah's Arc]]'')
*[[Jon Vinyl]], R&B/soul singer<ref>Natalie Harmsen, [https://www.complex.com/music/jon-vinyl-lost-in-you-interview "The Pleasure and Pain of Jon Vinyl"]. ''[[Complex (magazine)|Complex]]'', October 1, 2021.</ref>
*[[Nerene Virgin]], CBC anchor of ''[[Saturday Report]]'', [[Newsworld]], [[Newsworld International]], co-star of ''[[Today's Special]]''
*[[Clement Virgo]], director

==W==
*[[Rinaldo Walcott]], professor and [[Canada Research Chair]] at OISE/[[University of Toronto]]
*[[Abraham Beverley Walker]], first Canadian-born black lawyer
*[[Carol Wall]], social activist and labour leader
*[[Dwight Walton]], former Team Canada Basketball player
*[[Joel Ward (ice hockey)|Joel Ward]], NHL player
*[[John Ware (cowboy)|John Ware]], former slave, [[Alberta]] [[cowboy]]
*[[Syrus Marcus Ware]], artist, activist and professor
*[[Damian Warner]], Olympian
*[[Mark Warner (Canadian politician)|Mark Warner]], lawyer and politician
*[[Jackie Washington]], [[blues]] musician
*[[Bahia Watson]], actress and playwright
*[[Benjamin Charles Watson]], actor<ref>Daniel Reynolds, [https://www.advocate.com/television/2019/6/09/benjamin-watson-brings-black-gay-visibility-designated-survivor "Benjamin Charles Watson Brings Black and Gay Visibility to Designated Survivor"]. ''[[The Advocate (LGBT magazine)|The Advocate]]'', June 9, 2019.</ref>
*[[Dawn Tyler Watson]], blues singer
*[[The Weeknd]], [[R&B]] singer-songwriter
*[[Kevin Weekes]], NHL goalie
*[[Wesli]], musician
*[[Juanita Westmoreland-Traoré]], first appointed black judge in the history of Quebec
*[[Bill White (Canadian politician)|Bill White]], musician and political candidate
*[[Jack White (politician)|Jack White]], union activist
*[[Portia White]], gospel singer
*[[William A. White]], only black officer of the No. 2 Construction Battalion
*[[Dwight Whylie]], journalist
*[[Andrew Wiggins]], NBA player with the [[Golden State Warriors]]
*[[Aileen Williams]], activist and founding member of the Canadian Women's Negro Association (CANEWA)
*[[Desai Williams]], sprinter
*[[Genelle Williams]], actress
*[[Ian Williams (writer)|Ian Williams]], poet and novelist
*[[Michael Williams (Canadian TV personality)|Michael Williams]], MuchMusic VJ
*[[Nigel Shawn Williams]], actor
*[[Odario Williams]], broadcaster and musician
*[[Stephen Williams (director)|Stephen Williams]], director
*[[Tonya Lee Williams]], longtime actress on ''[[The Young and the Restless]]''
*[[Trevor C. Williams]], former Team Canada Basketball player
*[[Tyrone Williams (wide receiver)|Tyrone Williams]], former CFL and NFL wide receiver
*[[Nigel Wilson]], baseball player (first draft pick by the Florida Marlins, 2nd overall, in the 1992 Expansion Draft)
*[[Paul Winn]], human rights activist, director of Canadian Race Relations Foundation, former television personality
*[[Mary Matilda Winslow]], first black female graduate of the University of New Brunswick
*[[Maurice Dean Wint]], actor
*[[Ken Wiwa]], journalist and author, and son of executed [[Nigeria]]n political prisoner [[Ken Saro-Wiwa]]
*[[WondaGurl]], record producer
*[[Daniel Woodrow]], comedian<ref>Lisa Rainford, [https://www.toronto.com/news/bloor-west-resident-daniel-woodrow-part-of-underground-comedy-railroad-tour-for-black-history-month/article_542d87b0-fc05-57d1-9794-123d5e7eff1b.html "Bloor West resident Daniel Woodrow part of Underground Comedy Railroad Tour for Black History Month"]. ''[[Toronto.com]]'', February 4, 2014.</ref>
*[[Peter Worrell]], NHL player

==Y==
*[[Kevin Yarde]], television meteorologist and politician
*[[D'bi Young]], [[dub poetry|dub poet]]
*[[Marcia Young]], [[CBC Radio One|CBC Radio]] broadcaster and host of ''[[The World This Hour]]''
*[[Master T|Tony "Master T" Young]], MuchMusic
*[[Hannan Younis]], actress and comedian

==See also==
*[[List of Canadians]]
*[[Black Canadians in Montreal]]
*[[Black Canadians in Ontario]]
*[[Black Nova Scotians]]
*''[[Who's Who in Black Canada]]''

==Further reading==
* {{citation |last = Williams |first =Dawn P |year =2006 |title =Who's who in Black Canada two, Volume 2 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=_UtdQ6NsvYkC&q=Black%20Canadians&pg=PP1 |publisher= D.P. Williams |isbn= 0-9731384-2-4}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{People of Canada}}

[[Category:Lists of Canadian people by ethnic or national origin|Black Canadians]]
[[Category:Black Canadian people| ]]
[[Category:Lists of black people|Canadian]]
[[Category:Lists of people by ethnicity|Black]]

Jess Moskaluke

2022-11-11T14:40:25Z

72.142.115.198: /* Career */

{{short description|Canadian country music singer}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Jess Moskaluke
| image =
| caption = country singer
| image_size =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1990|6|4}}
| birth_name =
| birth_place = [[Langenburg, Saskatchewan]], [[Canada]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Brown|first=Rob|title=Backstage Pass: Saskatchewan’s Jess Moskaluke a rising star, so catch her if you can|url=http://metronews.ca/news/regina/407504/backstage-pass-saskatchewans-jess-moskaluke-a-rising-star-so-catch-her-if-you-can/|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[Metro International]]|date=October 17, 2012}}</ref>
| origin =
| instrument =
| genre = [[Country music|Country]], [[country pop]]
| occupation = Singer-songwriter
| years_active = 2012–present
| label = [[MDM Recordings Inc.|MDM Recordings]]
| associated_acts =
| website = {{URL|jessmoskaluke.com/|jessmoskaluke.com}}
}}
'''Jessica Moskaluke''' (born June 4, 1990) is a Canadian [[Country music|country]] singer and songwriter. She released her debut studio album, ''[[Light Up the Night (Jess Moskaluke album)|Light Up the Night]]'' in April 2014, which includes the platinum-certified single "[[Cheap Wine and Cigarettes]]". She has one #1 hit on the ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' [[Canada Country]] chart with "[[Country Girls (Jess Moskaluke song)|Country Girls]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://frontporchmusic.ca/music-news/jess-moskalukes-country-girls-number-1/|title=Jess Moskaluke’s "Country Girls" Hits #1 at Radio in Canada|date=March 14, 2020|work=Front Porch Music|access-date=December 5, 2020}}</ref>

==Career==
In June 2011, Moskaluke won the Next Big Thing contest, sponsored by [[CHBD-FM|Big Dog 92.7]] and SaskMusic.<ref>{{cite news|last=DeDekker|first=Jeff|title=The Next Big Thing is Jess Moskaluke|url=http://blogs.leaderpost.com/2011/07/02/the-next-big-thing-is-jess-moskaluke/|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[Leader-Post]]|date=July 2, 2011}}</ref> In September 2011, she won the New Artist Showcase Award at the [[Canadian Country Music Association]] Awards.<ref>{{cite news|title=Province represented well at awards|url=http://www2.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/news/arts/story.html?id=21a01b2b-b34d-4fa9-b135-bb142407e0d7|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[The StarPhoenix]]|date=September 14, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203043014/http://www2.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/news/arts/story.html?id=21a01b2b-b34d-4fa9-b135-bb142407e0d7|archive-date=December 3, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> She was chosen to represent Canada at the Global Artist Party at the 2012 [[CMA Music Festival]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Skates|first=Sarah|title=Global Showcases Unofficially Kick Off CMA Music Festival|url=http://www.musicrow.com/2012/06/global-showcases-unofficially-kick-off-cma-music-festival/|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[MusicRow]]|date=June 7, 2012}}</ref>

Moskaluke's debut single, "Catch Me If You Can", was released on June 4th, 2012.<ref name="musicnews">{{cite news|last=Ward|first=Jaimie|title=CCMA Winner Jess Moskaluke New EP Release|url=http://www.musicnewsnashville.com/ccma-winner-jess-moskaluke-new-ep-release/|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=Music News Nashville|date=August 8, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203084931/http://www.musicnewsnashville.com/ccma-winner-jess-moskaluke-new-ep-release/|archive-date=February 3, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> The song's music video received regular airplay on [[CMT (Canada)|CMT]].<ref>{{cite news|last=DeDekker|first=Jeff|title=Jess Moskaluke bringing her music to the world|url=http://blogs.leaderpost.com/2012/09/27/jess-moskaluke-bringing-her-music-to-the-world/|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[Leader-Post]]|date=September 27, 2012}}</ref> It was followed by an [[extended play|EP]], also titled ''Catch Me If You Can'', which was released on September 4, 2012 by [[MDM Recordings Inc.|MDM Recordings]] and distributed by [[EMI|EMI Music Canada]].<ref name="musicnews" /> Jeff DeDekker of the ''[[Leader-Post]]'' gave the EP four stars out of five, writing that "by using the full extent of her voice and also incorporating tenderness and fragility, Moskaluke is able to cover the complete spectrum of material."<ref>{{cite news|last=DeDekker |first=Jeff |title=CD REVIEW: Jess Moskaluke |url=http://blogs.leaderpost.com/2012/10/19/cd-review-jess-moskaluke/ |access-date=November 29, 2013 |newspaper=[[Leader-Post]] |date=October 19, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203023607/http://blogs.leaderpost.com/2012/10/19/cd-review-jess-moskaluke/ |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}</ref> Casadie Pederson of ''Top Country'' also gave the EP four stars out of five, calling Moskaluke "one of the best young talents we've seen in a long time."<ref>{{cite news|last=Pederson|first=Casadie|title=Jess Moskaluke: ‘Catch Me If You Can’ Album Review|url=http://topcountry.ca/jess-moskaluke-catch-me-if-you-can-album-review/|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=Top Country|date=September 4, 2012}}</ref> The EP's second single, "Hit N Run", reached the top 40 on the ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' [[Canada Country]] chart in 2013.<ref name="charts" /> Moskaluke was named Female Vocalist of the Year at the 2013 Saskatchewan Country Music Association Awards.<ref>{{cite news|last=Fuller|first=Cam|title=Parenteau, Yung win at SCMAs|url=http://www2.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/news/arts/story.html?id=7cabc828-afa0-40b0-8336-9380576369e0|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[The StarPhoenix]]|date=April 29, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210235448/http://www2.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/news/arts/story.html?id=7cabc828-afa0-40b0-8336-9380576369e0|archive-date=December 10, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Moskaluke released the first single from her debut studio album, "Good Lovin'", in October 2013.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gordon|first=Kennedy|title=Charting a course for country music success|url=http://www.thepeterboroughexaminer.com/2013/11/20/charting-a-course-for-country-music-success|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[Peterborough Examiner]]|date=November 30, 2013}}</ref> It became her first single to reach the top 20 on the ''Billboard'' Canada Country chart.<ref name="charts" /> The album, ''[[Light Up the Night (Jess Moskaluke album)|Light Up the Night]]'', was released on April 15, 2014.<ref>{{cite news|last=Robinson|first=Britainy|title=BRIT'S PICKS: Top things to see and do this weekend|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatoon/brit-s-picks-top-things-to-see-and-do-this-weekend-1.2427052|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[CBC News]]|date=November 14, 2013}}</ref> "[[Cheap Wine and Cigarettes]]" and "Used" were both released as singles from the album in 2014.

In February 2021, she released her second studio album ''[[The Demos (Jess Moskaluke album)|The Demos]]'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Jess Moskaluke releases new album ‘The Demos’ |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/7651232/jess-moskaluke-releases-new-album-the-demos/|first=Kelly|last=Skjerven|website=[[Global News]]|date=February 19, 2021}}</ref> which included her first #1 hit "[[Country Girls (Jess Moskaluke song)|Country Girls]]",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://frontporchmusic.ca/music-news/jess-moskalukes-country-girls-number-1/|title=Jess Moskaluke’s "Country Girls" Hits #1 at Radio in Canada|date=March 14, 2020|work=Front Porch Music|accessdate=December 5, 2020}}</ref> as well as the singles "[[Halfway Home (song)|Halfway Home]]",<ref>{{cite web |title=Jess Moskaluke releases new single "Halfway Home"|url=https://canadianbeats.ca/2020/04/14/jess-moskaluke-releases-new-single-halfway-home/|first=Allen|last=Steinberg|website=Canadian Beats Media|date=April 14, 2020}}</ref> "[[Mapdot]]",<ref>{{cite web |title=Mark February 19 on your calendar. That’s the day that Jess Moskaluke’s new album The Demos will be released|url=https://canadianbeats.ca/2021/01/28/mark-february-19-on-your-calendar-thats-the-day-that-jess-moskalukes-new-album-the-demos-will-be-released/|first=Nanci|last=Dagg|website=Canadian Beats Media|date=January 28, 2021}}</ref> "[[Leave Each Other Alone]]",<ref>{{cite web|title=Jess Moskaluke, Travis Collins Release Duet "Leave Each Other Alone"|url=https://topcountry.ca/jess-moskaluke-travis-collins-release-leave-each-other-alone-new-single-to-country-radio/|work=Top Country|date=May 7, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iheartradio.ca/news/jess-moskaluke-pairs-with-travis-collins-on-leave-each-other-alone-1.15146189|title=Jess Moskaluke Pairs With Travis Collins On 'Leave Each Other Alone'|first=John R|last=Kennedy|work=[[IHeartRadio#Canada|iHeartRadio.ca]]|publisher=[[Bell Media]]|accessdate=May 11, 2021}}</ref> and "Nothin' I Don't Love About You".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jessmoskaluke.com/site.php/nothin-i-dont-love-about-you-at-radio-now/|title=“NOTHIN’ I DON’T LOVE ABOUT YOU” AT RADIO NOW!|date=July 27, 2021|work=JessMoskaluke.com}}</ref>

==Discography==
===Studio albums===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! style="width:14em;"| Title
! style="width:20em;"| Details
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Light Up the Night (Jess Moskaluke album)|Light Up the Night]]''
|
* Release date: April 15, 2014
* Label: [[MDM Recordings Inc.|MDM Recordings]]
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[The Demos (Jess Moskaluke album)|The Demos]]''
|
* Release date: February 19, 2021
* Label: [[MDM Recordings Inc.|MDM Recordings]]
|-
|}

===Compilation albums===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! style="width:14em;"| Title
! style="width:20em;"| Details
|-
! scope="row"| ''The Vinyl''<ref>{{cite web |title=Jess Moskaluke - The Vinyl |url=https://mdmmerch.com/product/jess-moskaluke-the-vinyl/ |website=MDM Merch |access-date=January 27, 2021}}</ref>
|
* Release date: December 4, 2020
* Label: MDM Recordings
|-
|}

===Extended plays===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width:14em;"| Title
! rowspan="2" style="width:20em;"| Details
! Peak positions
|- style="font-size:smaller;"
! [[Canadian Albums Chart|CAN]] <ref name="Canadian Albums">{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/jess-moskaluke/chart-history/cna/ |title=Jess Moskaluke Chart History (Canadian Albums) |work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |access-date=December 30, 2019}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Catch Me If You Can (EP)|Catch Me If You Can]]''
|
* Release date: September 4, 2012
* Label: MDM Recordings
| —
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Kiss Me Quiet]]''
|
* Release date: September 25, 2015
* Label: MDM Recordings
| —
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Past the Past]]''
|
* Release date: November 3, 2017
* Label: MDM Recordings
| 87
|-
! scope="row"| ''A Small Town Christmas''
|
* Release date: October 5, 2018
* Label: MDM Recordings
| —
|-
| colspan="6" style="font-size:8pt"| "—" denotes releases that did not chart
|}

===Singles===
====As lead artist====
=====2010s=====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width:1em;" | Year
! rowspan="2" style="width:16em;"| Single
! colspan="2"| Peak chart positions
! rowspan="2" style="width:10em;"| [[Music recording sales certification|Certifications]]
! rowspan="2"| Album
|- style="font-size:smaller;"
! style="width:3.5em;"| [[Canada Country|CAN Country]] <ref name="charts">
*Singles before 2022: {{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/jess-moskaluke/chart-history/ccw/ |title=Jess Moskaluke Chart History (Canada Country) |work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |access-date=August 16, 2022|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130071617/https://www.billboard.com/artist/jess-moskaluke/chart-history/ccw/|archive-date=November 30, 2021}}
*"Knock Off": {{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/canada-country/2022-11-12|title=Canada Country chart for November 12, 2022|magazine=Billboard |access-date=November 8, 2022|url-access=subscription}} </ref>
! style="width:3.5em;"| [[Canadian Hot 100|CAN]] <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/jess-moskaluke/chart-history/can/ |title=Jess Moskaluke Chart History (Billboard Canadian Hot 100) |work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |access-date=July 20, 2021}}</ref>
|-
| 2012
! scope="row"| "Catch Me If You Can"
| 49
| —
|
| align="left" rowspan="2"| ''Catch Me If You Can''
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2013
! scope="row"| "Hit N Run"
| 37
| —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Everything Falls"
| —
| —
|
| {{n/a}}
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Good Lovin' (Jess Moskaluke song)|Good Lovin']]"
| 17
| —
|
| align="left" rowspan="4"| ''Light Up the Night''
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2014
! scope="row"| "[[Cheap Wine and Cigarettes]]"
| 11
| 48
|
* [[Music Canada|MC]]: Platinum{{Certification Cite Ref|region=Canada|type=single|title=Cheap Wine and Cigarettes|artist=Jess Moskaluke}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Used"
| 13
| —
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2015
! scope="row"| "Night We Won't Forget"
| 17
| —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Kiss Me Quiet (song)|Kiss Me Quiet]]"
| 7
| —
|
* MC: Gold{{Certification Cite Ref|region=Canada|type=single|title=Kiss Me Quiet|artist=Jess Moskaluke}}
| align="left" rowspan="3"| ''Kiss Me Quiet''
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2016
! scope="row"| "[[Take Me Home (Jess Moskaluke song)|Take Me Home]]"
| 7
| —
|
* MC: Gold{{Certification Cite Ref|region=Canada|type=single|title=Take Me Home|artist=Jess Moskaluke}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Elevator"
| 15
| —
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2017
! scope="row"| "[[Drive Me Away]]"
| 3
| —
|
| align="left" rowspan="5"| ''Past the Past''
|-
! scope="row"| "Kill Your Love"
| 16
| —
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2018
! scope="row"| "Past the Past"
| 30
| —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Camouflage"
| 7
| —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Save Some of That Whiskey"
| 6
| —
|
|-
| 2019
! scope="row"| "[[Country Girls (Jess Moskaluke song)|Country Girls]]"
| 1
| —{{efn-ua|"Country Girls" did not enter the Canadian Hot 100, but did reach number 31 on the [[Canadian Digital Song Sales]] component chart.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/jess-moskaluke/chart-history/cns/ |title=Jess Moskaluke Chart History (Hot Canadian Digital Song Sales) |work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |access-date=January 27, 2020}}</ref>}}
|
* MC: Gold{{Certification Cite Ref|region=Canada|type=single|title=Country Girls|artist=Jess Moskaluke}}
| align="left"| ''The Demos''
|-
| colspan="10" style="font-size:8pt"| "—" denotes releases that did not chart
|}

=====2020s=====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width:1em;" | Year
! rowspan="2" style="width:16em;"| Single
! colspan="2"| Peak chart positions
! rowspan="2"| Album
|- style="font-size:smaller;"
! style="width:3.5em;"| [[Canada Country|CAN Country]] <ref name="charts"/>
! style="width:3.5em;"| [[The Music Network#Country Hot 50|AUS Country]] <ref>References for Australian Country Hot 50:
*Halfway Home: {{cite web|url=https://themusicnetwork.com/charts/issues/1293/chart/?list=Country-HOT-50 |title=Country Hot 50: Issue 1293|work=[[The Music Network]]|accessdate=May 17, 2021}}
*Mapdot: {{cite web|url=https://themusicnetwork.com/charts/issues/1317/chart/?list=Country-HOT-50|title=Country Hot 50: Issue 1317|work=[[The Music Network]]|accessdate=April 22, 2021}}
*Leave Each Other Alone: {{cite web|url=https://themusicnetwork.com/charts/issues/1343/chart/?list=Countrytown-HOT-50|title=COUNTRY: Issue 1343|work=[[The Music Network]]|accessdate=May 21, 2021}}
*Knock Off: {{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012142150/https://countrytown.com.au/charts|date=October 7, 2022|url= https://countrytown.com.au/charts |title=Countrytown Hot 50|work=Countrytown|archive-date=October 12, 2022|access-date=October 12, 2022}}
</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2020
! scope="row"| "[[Halfway Home (song)|Halfway Home]]"
| 11
| 4
| align="left" rowspan="4"| ''The Demos''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Mapdot]]"
| 15
| 44
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2021
! scope="row"| "[[Leave Each Other Alone]]" (featuring [[Travis Collins]])
| 35
| 29
|-
! scope="row"| "Nothin' I Don't Love About You"
| 13
| —
|-
| 2022
! scope="row"| "[[Knock Off (song)|Knock Off]]"
| 7
| 8
| align="left" {{TBA}}
|-
| colspan="10" style="font-size:8pt"| "—" denotes releases that did not chart
|}

====As featured aritst====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2"| Year
! rowspan="2" style="width:16em;"| Single
! colspan="2"| Peak chart positions
! rowspan="2" style="width:10em;"| Certifications
! rowspan="2"| Album
|- style="font-size:smaller;"
! width="45"| [[Canada Country|CAN Country]] <ref>Guest single references for Canada Country:
*"I'm an Open Road": {{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/canada-country/2015-11-14|title=Canada Country chart for November 14, 2015|work=Billboard|accessdate=June 19, 2021}}{{Subscription required}}</ref>
! width="45"| [[Canadian Hot 100|CAN]] <ref>Guest single references for Canadian Hot 100:
*"I'm an Open Road": {{cite web|url= https://www.billboard.com/charts/canadian-hot-100/2015-10-17|title= BILLBOARD CANADIAN HOT 100 - Week of October 17, 2015|work=Billboard |accessdate=June 19, 2021}}{{subscription required}}</ref>
|-
|2012
! scope="row"| "Storm Before The Calm" {{small|(Eppic featuring Jess Moskaluke)}}
| —
| —
|
| align="left"| ''Forever Imperfect''
|-
| 2015
! scope="row"| "[[I'm an Open Road]]" {{small|([[Paul Brandt]] featuring Jess Moskaluke)}}
| 7
| 93
|
* MC: Gold{{Certification cite ref|region=Canada|type=single|title=I'm an Open Road|artist=Paul Brandt}}
| align="left"| ''Borderlines''
|-
| 2020
! scope="row"| "What the Whiskey Won't Do" {{small|([[Alan Doyle]] featuring Jess Moskaluke)}}
| —
| —
|
| align="left"| ''[[Rough Side Out]]''
|-
| colspan="10" style="font-size:8pt"| "—" denotes releases that did not chart
|}

===Music videos===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! Year
! style="width:16em;"| Video
! Director
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2012
! scope="row"| "Catch Me If You Can"
| Jordan Eady
|-
! scope="row"| "Thank God for Christmas"
| Antonio Hrynchuk
|-
! scope="row"| "Storm Before The Calm"
| Tyler Ward
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2014
! scope="row"| "Cheap Wine and Cigarettes"
| Joel Stewart
|-
! scope="row"| "Used"
| Marc André Debruyne
|-
! scope="row"| "[[O Holy Night]]" (with The Lovelocks)
| Joel Stewart
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2015
! scope="row"| "Night We Won't Forget"
| Amit Dabrai
|-
! scope="row"| "I'm an Open Road" (with [[Paul Brandt]])
| Sam Ciurdar
|-
! scope="row"| "Kiss Me Quiet"
| David Tenniswood
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2016
! scope="row"| "Take Me Home"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmt.com/videos/jess-moskaluke/1275239/take-me-home.jhtml|title=CMT : Videos : Jess Moskaluke : Take Me Home|publisher=[[Country Music Television]]|access-date=March 8, 2016}}</ref>
| David Hustler
|-
! scope="row"| "Elevator"
| rowspan="2"| Ben Knechtel
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2017
! scope="row"| "Drive Me Away"
|-
! scope="row"| "Kill Your Love"
| rowspan=2| Joel Stewart
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2018
! scope="row"| "Past The Past"
|-
! scope="row"| "Camouflage"
| Wes Mack
|-
| 2019
! scope="row"| "Save Some Of That Whisky"
| Ben Knechtel
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2020
! scope="row"|"Country Girls"
| Stephano Barberis
|-
! scope="row"|"Halfway Home"
|
|-
! scope="row"|"Mapdot"
| rowspan=2| Tanner Goetz
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2021
! scope="row"| "Leave Each Other Alone" (with [[Travis Collins]])
|-
! scope="row"| "Nothin' I Don't Love About You"
|
|-
| 2022
! scope="row"| "Knock Off"
| Travis Nesbitt
|-
|}

==Awards and nominations==
{{Infobox musician awards
| name = Jess Moskaluke
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| wins = 25
| nominations = 48
| award1 = [[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| award1W = 5
| award1N = 21
| award2 = [[Juno Awards]]
| award2W = 0
| award2N = 4
| award3 = Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| award3W = 16
| award3N = 17
| award4 = Saskatchewan Music Awards
| award4W = 2
| award4N = 2
| award5 = [[Western Canadian Music Awards]]
| award5W = 2
| award5N = 4
}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Award
! Nominated work
! Category
! Result
! Ref.
|-
| 2013
| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| Herself
| Female Vocalist of the Year
| {{won}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/past-awards/2013-award-winners/|title=2013 SCMA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5"| 2014
| rowspan="3"| [[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2014|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| rowspan=4| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
|
|-
| Rising Star
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Interactive Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| Female Vocalist of the Year
| {{won}}
| rowspan=2| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/past-awards/2014-scma-award-winners/|title=2014 SCMA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| "Good Lovin'"
| Single of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan="10"| 2015
| rowspan="2"| [[Juno Awards of 2015|Juno Awards]]
| Herself
| [[Juno Award for Breakthrough Artist of the Year|Breakthrough Artist of the Year]]
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| ''Light Up the Night''
| [[Juno Award for Country Album of the Year|Country Album of the Year]]
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| [[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2015|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
|
|-
| ''Light Up the Night''
| Album of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Cheap Wine and Cigarettes"
| Single of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan=5| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| rowspan=2| Herself
| Fan’s Choice Entertainer of the Year
| {{won}}
| rowspan=5| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/past-awards/2015-scma-award-winners-2/|title=2015 SCMA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| Female Vocalist of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| "Cheap Wine and Cigarettes
| Single of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| "Used"
| Video of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| ''Light Up the Night''
| Album of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan=3| 2016
| [[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2016|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| Herself {{small|(shared with Darlene Tuleta)}}
| Female Vocalist of the Year 
| {{won}}
| rowspan=2| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/past-awards/2016-scma-award-winners-2/|title=2016 SMCA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| "Kiss Me Quiet"
| Single of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan=8|2017
| [[Juno Awards of 2017|Juno Awards]]
| Country Album of the Year
| ''Kiss Me Quiet''
| {{won}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2|[[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2017|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Take Me Home"
| Single of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan=5| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| rowspan=2| Herself
| Fan's Choice Entertainer of the Year
| {{won}}
| rowspan=5| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/past-awards/2017-scma-award-winners/|title=2017 SCMA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| Female Vocalist of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| "Take Me Home" {{small|(shared with Kelly Archer and Emily Shackleton)}}
| Song of the Year (Composer)
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan=2| "Take Me Home"
| Single of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| Video of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan=9|2018
| rowspan=6|[[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2018|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| Album of the Year
| ''Past the Past''
| {{won}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2| Herself
| Fan's Choice Award
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Drive Me Away"
| Single of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Drive Me Away"
| Video of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Herself (shared with Zach Abend and [[Corey Crowder]])
| Songwriter of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| rowspan=3| Herself
| Award of Achievement
| {{won}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/past-awards/2018-scma-award-winners/|title=2018 SCMA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| Saskatchewan Music Awards
| Country Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.veryprairie.ca/copy-of-sask-music-awards-show-2019|title=2018 Saskatchewan Music Awards|date=November 25, 2018|publisher=Very Prairie|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| [[Western Canadian Music Awards]]
| Country Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
|
|-
| rowspan=4|2019
| [[Juno Awards of 2019|Juno Awards]]
| ''A Small Town Christmas''
| Country Album of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan=3|[[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2019|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Herself (shared with Jared Mullins and Corey Crowder)
| Songwriter of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Camouflage"
| Video of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan=3|2020
| [[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2020|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| "Save Some of That Whiskey"
| Single of the Year
| {{nom}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/2020-nominees/|title=2020 SCMA Award Nominees|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/2020-scma-award-winners/|title=2020 SCMA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| [[Western Canadian Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Country Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
|
|-
| rowspan="6"| 2021
| [[Western Canadian Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Country Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| [[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2021|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| ''The Demos''
| Album of the Year
| {{nom}}
| <ref>{{cite web|first=John R.|last=Kennedy|url=https://www.iheartradio.ca/purecountry/central-ontario/news-trending/the-reklaws-lead-2021-ccma-awards-nominations-1.16132041|title=The Reklaws Lead 2021 CCMA Awards Nominations|work=[[IHeartRadio#Canada|iHeartRadio.ca]]|publisher=[[Bell Media]]|date=September 21, 2021}}</ref>
|-
| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Mapdot" (shared with Zac Abend and [[Liz Rose]])
| Songwriter of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Mapdot"
| Video of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Saskatchewan Music Awards
| Herself
| Country Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.veryprairie.ca/sask-music-awards-home-1|title=2021 Saskatchewan Music Award Winners|publisher=Very Prairie|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| 2022
| [[Western Canadian Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Country Artist of the Year
| {{pending}}
| <ref name=wcma22>{{Cite web|url=https://vancouversun.com/entertainment/music/vancouvers-juno-award-winning-metal-act-archspire-among-b-c-nominees-for-2022-western-canadian-music-awards|title=Vancouver's Juno Award-winning metal act Archspire among B.C. nominees for 2022 Western Canadian Music Awards|last=Derdeyn|first=Stuart|date=June 8, 2022|publisher=[[Vancouver Sun]]|accessdate=August 2, 2022}}</ref>
|}

==Notes==
{{notelist-ua}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.jessmoskaluke.com/}}
{{Jess Moskaluke}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Moskaluke, Jess}}
[[Category:1990 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Canadian women country singers]]
[[Category:Musicians from Saskatchewan]]
[[Category:Juno Award for Country Album of the Year winners]]
[[Category:Canadian Country Music Association Female Artist of the Year winners]]
[[Category:Canadian country singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:21st-century Canadian women singers]]
[[Category:Canadian Country Music Association Album of the Year winners]]

Jess Moskaluke

2022-11-11T14:40:02Z

72.142.115.198: /* Career */

{{short description|Canadian country music singer}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Jess Moskaluke
| image =
| caption = country singer
| image_size =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1990|6|4}}
| birth_name =
| birth_place = [[Langenburg, Saskatchewan]], [[Canada]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Brown|first=Rob|title=Backstage Pass: Saskatchewan’s Jess Moskaluke a rising star, so catch her if you can|url=http://metronews.ca/news/regina/407504/backstage-pass-saskatchewans-jess-moskaluke-a-rising-star-so-catch-her-if-you-can/|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[Metro International]]|date=October 17, 2012}}</ref>
| origin =
| instrument =
| genre = [[Country music|Country]], [[country pop]]
| occupation = Singer-songwriter
| years_active = 2012–present
| label = [[MDM Recordings Inc.|MDM Recordings]]
| associated_acts =
| website = {{URL|jessmoskaluke.com/|jessmoskaluke.com}}
}}
'''Jessica Moskaluke''' (born June 4, 1990) is a Canadian [[Country music|country]] singer and songwriter. She released her debut studio album, ''[[Light Up the Night (Jess Moskaluke album)|Light Up the Night]]'' in April 2014, which includes the platinum-certified single "[[Cheap Wine and Cigarettes]]". She has one #1 hit on the ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' [[Canada Country]] chart with "[[Country Girls (Jess Moskaluke song)|Country Girls]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://frontporchmusic.ca/music-news/jess-moskalukes-country-girls-number-1/|title=Jess Moskaluke’s "Country Girls" Hits #1 at Radio in Canada|date=March 14, 2020|work=Front Porch Music|access-date=December 5, 2020}}</ref>

==Career==
In June 2011, Moskaluke won the Next Big Thing contest, sponsored by [[CHBD-FM|Big Dog 92.7]] and SaskMusic.<ref>{{cite news|last=DeDekker|first=Jeff|title=The Next Big Thing is Jess Moskaluke|url=http://blogs.leaderpost.com/2011/07/02/the-next-big-thing-is-jess-moskaluke/|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[Leader-Post]]|date=July 2, 2011}}</ref> In September 2011, she won the New Artist Showcase Award at the [[Canadian Country Music Association]] Awards.<ref>{{cite news|title=Province represented well at awards|url=http://www2.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/news/arts/story.html?id=21a01b2b-b34d-4fa9-b135-bb142407e0d7|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[The StarPhoenix]]|date=September 14, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203043014/http://www2.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/news/arts/story.html?id=21a01b2b-b34d-4fa9-b135-bb142407e0d7|archive-date=December 3, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> She was chosen to represent Canada at the Global Artist Party at the 2012 [[CMA Music Festival]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Skates|first=Sarah|title=Global Showcases Unofficially Kick Off CMA Music Festival|url=http://www.musicrow.com/2012/06/global-showcases-unofficially-kick-off-cma-music-festival/|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[MusicRow]]|date=June 7, 2012}}</ref>

Moskaluke's debut single, "Catch Me If You Can", was released on the 4th of June, 2012.<ref name="musicnews">{{cite news|last=Ward|first=Jaimie|title=CCMA Winner Jess Moskaluke New EP Release|url=http://www.musicnewsnashville.com/ccma-winner-jess-moskaluke-new-ep-release/|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=Music News Nashville|date=August 8, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203084931/http://www.musicnewsnashville.com/ccma-winner-jess-moskaluke-new-ep-release/|archive-date=February 3, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> The song's music video received regular airplay on [[CMT (Canada)|CMT]].<ref>{{cite news|last=DeDekker|first=Jeff|title=Jess Moskaluke bringing her music to the world|url=http://blogs.leaderpost.com/2012/09/27/jess-moskaluke-bringing-her-music-to-the-world/|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[Leader-Post]]|date=September 27, 2012}}</ref> It was followed by an [[extended play|EP]], also titled ''Catch Me If You Can'', which was released on September 4, 2012 by [[MDM Recordings Inc.|MDM Recordings]] and distributed by [[EMI|EMI Music Canada]].<ref name="musicnews" /> Jeff DeDekker of the ''[[Leader-Post]]'' gave the EP four stars out of five, writing that "by using the full extent of her voice and also incorporating tenderness and fragility, Moskaluke is able to cover the complete spectrum of material."<ref>{{cite news|last=DeDekker |first=Jeff |title=CD REVIEW: Jess Moskaluke |url=http://blogs.leaderpost.com/2012/10/19/cd-review-jess-moskaluke/ |access-date=November 29, 2013 |newspaper=[[Leader-Post]] |date=October 19, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203023607/http://blogs.leaderpost.com/2012/10/19/cd-review-jess-moskaluke/ |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}</ref> Casadie Pederson of ''Top Country'' also gave the EP four stars out of five, calling Moskaluke "one of the best young talents we've seen in a long time."<ref>{{cite news|last=Pederson|first=Casadie|title=Jess Moskaluke: ‘Catch Me If You Can’ Album Review|url=http://topcountry.ca/jess-moskaluke-catch-me-if-you-can-album-review/|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=Top Country|date=September 4, 2012}}</ref> The EP's second single, "Hit N Run", reached the top 40 on the ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' [[Canada Country]] chart in 2013.<ref name="charts" /> Moskaluke was named Female Vocalist of the Year at the 2013 Saskatchewan Country Music Association Awards.<ref>{{cite news|last=Fuller|first=Cam|title=Parenteau, Yung win at SCMAs|url=http://www2.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/news/arts/story.html?id=7cabc828-afa0-40b0-8336-9380576369e0|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[The StarPhoenix]]|date=April 29, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210235448/http://www2.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/news/arts/story.html?id=7cabc828-afa0-40b0-8336-9380576369e0|archive-date=December 10, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Moskaluke released the first single from her debut studio album, "Good Lovin'", in October 2013.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gordon|first=Kennedy|title=Charting a course for country music success|url=http://www.thepeterboroughexaminer.com/2013/11/20/charting-a-course-for-country-music-success|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[Peterborough Examiner]]|date=November 30, 2013}}</ref> It became her first single to reach the top 20 on the ''Billboard'' Canada Country chart.<ref name="charts" /> The album, ''[[Light Up the Night (Jess Moskaluke album)|Light Up the Night]]'', was released on April 15, 2014.<ref>{{cite news|last=Robinson|first=Britainy|title=BRIT'S PICKS: Top things to see and do this weekend|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatoon/brit-s-picks-top-things-to-see-and-do-this-weekend-1.2427052|access-date=November 29, 2013|newspaper=[[CBC News]]|date=November 14, 2013}}</ref> "[[Cheap Wine and Cigarettes]]" and "Used" were both released as singles from the album in 2014.

In February 2021, she released her second studio album ''[[The Demos (Jess Moskaluke album)|The Demos]]'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Jess Moskaluke releases new album ‘The Demos’ |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/7651232/jess-moskaluke-releases-new-album-the-demos/|first=Kelly|last=Skjerven|website=[[Global News]]|date=February 19, 2021}}</ref> which included her first #1 hit "[[Country Girls (Jess Moskaluke song)|Country Girls]]",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://frontporchmusic.ca/music-news/jess-moskalukes-country-girls-number-1/|title=Jess Moskaluke’s "Country Girls" Hits #1 at Radio in Canada|date=March 14, 2020|work=Front Porch Music|accessdate=December 5, 2020}}</ref> as well as the singles "[[Halfway Home (song)|Halfway Home]]",<ref>{{cite web |title=Jess Moskaluke releases new single "Halfway Home"|url=https://canadianbeats.ca/2020/04/14/jess-moskaluke-releases-new-single-halfway-home/|first=Allen|last=Steinberg|website=Canadian Beats Media|date=April 14, 2020}}</ref> "[[Mapdot]]",<ref>{{cite web |title=Mark February 19 on your calendar. That’s the day that Jess Moskaluke’s new album The Demos will be released|url=https://canadianbeats.ca/2021/01/28/mark-february-19-on-your-calendar-thats-the-day-that-jess-moskalukes-new-album-the-demos-will-be-released/|first=Nanci|last=Dagg|website=Canadian Beats Media|date=January 28, 2021}}</ref> "[[Leave Each Other Alone]]",<ref>{{cite web|title=Jess Moskaluke, Travis Collins Release Duet "Leave Each Other Alone"|url=https://topcountry.ca/jess-moskaluke-travis-collins-release-leave-each-other-alone-new-single-to-country-radio/|work=Top Country|date=May 7, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iheartradio.ca/news/jess-moskaluke-pairs-with-travis-collins-on-leave-each-other-alone-1.15146189|title=Jess Moskaluke Pairs With Travis Collins On 'Leave Each Other Alone'|first=John R|last=Kennedy|work=[[IHeartRadio#Canada|iHeartRadio.ca]]|publisher=[[Bell Media]]|accessdate=May 11, 2021}}</ref> and "Nothin' I Don't Love About You".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jessmoskaluke.com/site.php/nothin-i-dont-love-about-you-at-radio-now/|title=“NOTHIN’ I DON’T LOVE ABOUT YOU” AT RADIO NOW!|date=July 27, 2021|work=JessMoskaluke.com}}</ref>

==Discography==
===Studio albums===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! style="width:14em;"| Title
! style="width:20em;"| Details
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Light Up the Night (Jess Moskaluke album)|Light Up the Night]]''
|
* Release date: April 15, 2014
* Label: [[MDM Recordings Inc.|MDM Recordings]]
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[The Demos (Jess Moskaluke album)|The Demos]]''
|
* Release date: February 19, 2021
* Label: [[MDM Recordings Inc.|MDM Recordings]]
|-
|}

===Compilation albums===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! style="width:14em;"| Title
! style="width:20em;"| Details
|-
! scope="row"| ''The Vinyl''<ref>{{cite web |title=Jess Moskaluke - The Vinyl |url=https://mdmmerch.com/product/jess-moskaluke-the-vinyl/ |website=MDM Merch |access-date=January 27, 2021}}</ref>
|
* Release date: December 4, 2020
* Label: MDM Recordings
|-
|}

===Extended plays===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width:14em;"| Title
! rowspan="2" style="width:20em;"| Details
! Peak positions
|- style="font-size:smaller;"
! [[Canadian Albums Chart|CAN]] <ref name="Canadian Albums">{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/jess-moskaluke/chart-history/cna/ |title=Jess Moskaluke Chart History (Canadian Albums) |work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |access-date=December 30, 2019}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Catch Me If You Can (EP)|Catch Me If You Can]]''
|
* Release date: September 4, 2012
* Label: MDM Recordings
| —
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Kiss Me Quiet]]''
|
* Release date: September 25, 2015
* Label: MDM Recordings
| —
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Past the Past]]''
|
* Release date: November 3, 2017
* Label: MDM Recordings
| 87
|-
! scope="row"| ''A Small Town Christmas''
|
* Release date: October 5, 2018
* Label: MDM Recordings
| —
|-
| colspan="6" style="font-size:8pt"| "—" denotes releases that did not chart
|}

===Singles===
====As lead artist====
=====2010s=====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width:1em;" | Year
! rowspan="2" style="width:16em;"| Single
! colspan="2"| Peak chart positions
! rowspan="2" style="width:10em;"| [[Music recording sales certification|Certifications]]
! rowspan="2"| Album
|- style="font-size:smaller;"
! style="width:3.5em;"| [[Canada Country|CAN Country]] <ref name="charts">
*Singles before 2022: {{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/jess-moskaluke/chart-history/ccw/ |title=Jess Moskaluke Chart History (Canada Country) |work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |access-date=August 16, 2022|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130071617/https://www.billboard.com/artist/jess-moskaluke/chart-history/ccw/|archive-date=November 30, 2021}}
*"Knock Off": {{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/canada-country/2022-11-12|title=Canada Country chart for November 12, 2022|magazine=Billboard |access-date=November 8, 2022|url-access=subscription}} </ref>
! style="width:3.5em;"| [[Canadian Hot 100|CAN]] <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/jess-moskaluke/chart-history/can/ |title=Jess Moskaluke Chart History (Billboard Canadian Hot 100) |work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |access-date=July 20, 2021}}</ref>
|-
| 2012
! scope="row"| "Catch Me If You Can"
| 49
| —
|
| align="left" rowspan="2"| ''Catch Me If You Can''
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2013
! scope="row"| "Hit N Run"
| 37
| —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Everything Falls"
| —
| —
|
| {{n/a}}
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Good Lovin' (Jess Moskaluke song)|Good Lovin']]"
| 17
| —
|
| align="left" rowspan="4"| ''Light Up the Night''
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2014
! scope="row"| "[[Cheap Wine and Cigarettes]]"
| 11
| 48
|
* [[Music Canada|MC]]: Platinum{{Certification Cite Ref|region=Canada|type=single|title=Cheap Wine and Cigarettes|artist=Jess Moskaluke}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Used"
| 13
| —
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2015
! scope="row"| "Night We Won't Forget"
| 17
| —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Kiss Me Quiet (song)|Kiss Me Quiet]]"
| 7
| —
|
* MC: Gold{{Certification Cite Ref|region=Canada|type=single|title=Kiss Me Quiet|artist=Jess Moskaluke}}
| align="left" rowspan="3"| ''Kiss Me Quiet''
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2016
! scope="row"| "[[Take Me Home (Jess Moskaluke song)|Take Me Home]]"
| 7
| —
|
* MC: Gold{{Certification Cite Ref|region=Canada|type=single|title=Take Me Home|artist=Jess Moskaluke}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Elevator"
| 15
| —
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2017
! scope="row"| "[[Drive Me Away]]"
| 3
| —
|
| align="left" rowspan="5"| ''Past the Past''
|-
! scope="row"| "Kill Your Love"
| 16
| —
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2018
! scope="row"| "Past the Past"
| 30
| —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Camouflage"
| 7
| —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Save Some of That Whiskey"
| 6
| —
|
|-
| 2019
! scope="row"| "[[Country Girls (Jess Moskaluke song)|Country Girls]]"
| 1
| —{{efn-ua|"Country Girls" did not enter the Canadian Hot 100, but did reach number 31 on the [[Canadian Digital Song Sales]] component chart.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/jess-moskaluke/chart-history/cns/ |title=Jess Moskaluke Chart History (Hot Canadian Digital Song Sales) |work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |access-date=January 27, 2020}}</ref>}}
|
* MC: Gold{{Certification Cite Ref|region=Canada|type=single|title=Country Girls|artist=Jess Moskaluke}}
| align="left"| ''The Demos''
|-
| colspan="10" style="font-size:8pt"| "—" denotes releases that did not chart
|}

=====2020s=====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width:1em;" | Year
! rowspan="2" style="width:16em;"| Single
! colspan="2"| Peak chart positions
! rowspan="2"| Album
|- style="font-size:smaller;"
! style="width:3.5em;"| [[Canada Country|CAN Country]] <ref name="charts"/>
! style="width:3.5em;"| [[The Music Network#Country Hot 50|AUS Country]] <ref>References for Australian Country Hot 50:
*Halfway Home: {{cite web|url=https://themusicnetwork.com/charts/issues/1293/chart/?list=Country-HOT-50 |title=Country Hot 50: Issue 1293|work=[[The Music Network]]|accessdate=May 17, 2021}}
*Mapdot: {{cite web|url=https://themusicnetwork.com/charts/issues/1317/chart/?list=Country-HOT-50|title=Country Hot 50: Issue 1317|work=[[The Music Network]]|accessdate=April 22, 2021}}
*Leave Each Other Alone: {{cite web|url=https://themusicnetwork.com/charts/issues/1343/chart/?list=Countrytown-HOT-50|title=COUNTRY: Issue 1343|work=[[The Music Network]]|accessdate=May 21, 2021}}
*Knock Off: {{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012142150/https://countrytown.com.au/charts|date=October 7, 2022|url= https://countrytown.com.au/charts |title=Countrytown Hot 50|work=Countrytown|archive-date=October 12, 2022|access-date=October 12, 2022}}
</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2020
! scope="row"| "[[Halfway Home (song)|Halfway Home]]"
| 11
| 4
| align="left" rowspan="4"| ''The Demos''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Mapdot]]"
| 15
| 44
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2021
! scope="row"| "[[Leave Each Other Alone]]" (featuring [[Travis Collins]])
| 35
| 29
|-
! scope="row"| "Nothin' I Don't Love About You"
| 13
| —
|-
| 2022
! scope="row"| "[[Knock Off (song)|Knock Off]]"
| 7
| 8
| align="left" {{TBA}}
|-
| colspan="10" style="font-size:8pt"| "—" denotes releases that did not chart
|}

====As featured aritst====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2"| Year
! rowspan="2" style="width:16em;"| Single
! colspan="2"| Peak chart positions
! rowspan="2" style="width:10em;"| Certifications
! rowspan="2"| Album
|- style="font-size:smaller;"
! width="45"| [[Canada Country|CAN Country]] <ref>Guest single references for Canada Country:
*"I'm an Open Road": {{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/canada-country/2015-11-14|title=Canada Country chart for November 14, 2015|work=Billboard|accessdate=June 19, 2021}}{{Subscription required}}</ref>
! width="45"| [[Canadian Hot 100|CAN]] <ref>Guest single references for Canadian Hot 100:
*"I'm an Open Road": {{cite web|url= https://www.billboard.com/charts/canadian-hot-100/2015-10-17|title= BILLBOARD CANADIAN HOT 100 - Week of October 17, 2015|work=Billboard |accessdate=June 19, 2021}}{{subscription required}}</ref>
|-
|2012
! scope="row"| "Storm Before The Calm" {{small|(Eppic featuring Jess Moskaluke)}}
| —
| —
|
| align="left"| ''Forever Imperfect''
|-
| 2015
! scope="row"| "[[I'm an Open Road]]" {{small|([[Paul Brandt]] featuring Jess Moskaluke)}}
| 7
| 93
|
* MC: Gold{{Certification cite ref|region=Canada|type=single|title=I'm an Open Road|artist=Paul Brandt}}
| align="left"| ''Borderlines''
|-
| 2020
! scope="row"| "What the Whiskey Won't Do" {{small|([[Alan Doyle]] featuring Jess Moskaluke)}}
| —
| —
|
| align="left"| ''[[Rough Side Out]]''
|-
| colspan="10" style="font-size:8pt"| "—" denotes releases that did not chart
|}

===Music videos===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! Year
! style="width:16em;"| Video
! Director
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2012
! scope="row"| "Catch Me If You Can"
| Jordan Eady
|-
! scope="row"| "Thank God for Christmas"
| Antonio Hrynchuk
|-
! scope="row"| "Storm Before The Calm"
| Tyler Ward
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2014
! scope="row"| "Cheap Wine and Cigarettes"
| Joel Stewart
|-
! scope="row"| "Used"
| Marc André Debruyne
|-
! scope="row"| "[[O Holy Night]]" (with The Lovelocks)
| Joel Stewart
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2015
! scope="row"| "Night We Won't Forget"
| Amit Dabrai
|-
! scope="row"| "I'm an Open Road" (with [[Paul Brandt]])
| Sam Ciurdar
|-
! scope="row"| "Kiss Me Quiet"
| David Tenniswood
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2016
! scope="row"| "Take Me Home"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmt.com/videos/jess-moskaluke/1275239/take-me-home.jhtml|title=CMT : Videos : Jess Moskaluke : Take Me Home|publisher=[[Country Music Television]]|access-date=March 8, 2016}}</ref>
| David Hustler
|-
! scope="row"| "Elevator"
| rowspan="2"| Ben Knechtel
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2017
! scope="row"| "Drive Me Away"
|-
! scope="row"| "Kill Your Love"
| rowspan=2| Joel Stewart
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2018
! scope="row"| "Past The Past"
|-
! scope="row"| "Camouflage"
| Wes Mack
|-
| 2019
! scope="row"| "Save Some Of That Whisky"
| Ben Knechtel
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2020
! scope="row"|"Country Girls"
| Stephano Barberis
|-
! scope="row"|"Halfway Home"
|
|-
! scope="row"|"Mapdot"
| rowspan=2| Tanner Goetz
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2021
! scope="row"| "Leave Each Other Alone" (with [[Travis Collins]])
|-
! scope="row"| "Nothin' I Don't Love About You"
|
|-
| 2022
! scope="row"| "Knock Off"
| Travis Nesbitt
|-
|}

==Awards and nominations==
{{Infobox musician awards
| name = Jess Moskaluke
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| wins = 25
| nominations = 48
| award1 = [[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| award1W = 5
| award1N = 21
| award2 = [[Juno Awards]]
| award2W = 0
| award2N = 4
| award3 = Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| award3W = 16
| award3N = 17
| award4 = Saskatchewan Music Awards
| award4W = 2
| award4N = 2
| award5 = [[Western Canadian Music Awards]]
| award5W = 2
| award5N = 4
}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Award
! Nominated work
! Category
! Result
! Ref.
|-
| 2013
| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| Herself
| Female Vocalist of the Year
| {{won}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/past-awards/2013-award-winners/|title=2013 SCMA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5"| 2014
| rowspan="3"| [[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2014|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| rowspan=4| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
|
|-
| Rising Star
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Interactive Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| Female Vocalist of the Year
| {{won}}
| rowspan=2| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/past-awards/2014-scma-award-winners/|title=2014 SCMA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| "Good Lovin'"
| Single of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan="10"| 2015
| rowspan="2"| [[Juno Awards of 2015|Juno Awards]]
| Herself
| [[Juno Award for Breakthrough Artist of the Year|Breakthrough Artist of the Year]]
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| ''Light Up the Night''
| [[Juno Award for Country Album of the Year|Country Album of the Year]]
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| [[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2015|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
|
|-
| ''Light Up the Night''
| Album of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Cheap Wine and Cigarettes"
| Single of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan=5| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| rowspan=2| Herself
| Fan’s Choice Entertainer of the Year
| {{won}}
| rowspan=5| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/past-awards/2015-scma-award-winners-2/|title=2015 SCMA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| Female Vocalist of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| "Cheap Wine and Cigarettes
| Single of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| "Used"
| Video of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| ''Light Up the Night''
| Album of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan=3| 2016
| [[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2016|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| Herself {{small|(shared with Darlene Tuleta)}}
| Female Vocalist of the Year 
| {{won}}
| rowspan=2| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/past-awards/2016-scma-award-winners-2/|title=2016 SMCA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| "Kiss Me Quiet"
| Single of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan=8|2017
| [[Juno Awards of 2017|Juno Awards]]
| Country Album of the Year
| ''Kiss Me Quiet''
| {{won}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2|[[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2017|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Take Me Home"
| Single of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan=5| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| rowspan=2| Herself
| Fan's Choice Entertainer of the Year
| {{won}}
| rowspan=5| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/past-awards/2017-scma-award-winners/|title=2017 SCMA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| Female Vocalist of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| "Take Me Home" {{small|(shared with Kelly Archer and Emily Shackleton)}}
| Song of the Year (Composer)
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan=2| "Take Me Home"
| Single of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| Video of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan=9|2018
| rowspan=6|[[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2018|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| Album of the Year
| ''Past the Past''
| {{won}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2| Herself
| Fan's Choice Award
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Drive Me Away"
| Single of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Drive Me Away"
| Video of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Herself (shared with Zach Abend and [[Corey Crowder]])
| Songwriter of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| rowspan=3| Herself
| Award of Achievement
| {{won}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/past-awards/2018-scma-award-winners/|title=2018 SCMA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| Saskatchewan Music Awards
| Country Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.veryprairie.ca/copy-of-sask-music-awards-show-2019|title=2018 Saskatchewan Music Awards|date=November 25, 2018|publisher=Very Prairie|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| [[Western Canadian Music Awards]]
| Country Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
|
|-
| rowspan=4|2019
| [[Juno Awards of 2019|Juno Awards]]
| ''A Small Town Christmas''
| Country Album of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan=3|[[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2019|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Herself (shared with Jared Mullins and Corey Crowder)
| Songwriter of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Camouflage"
| Video of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan=3|2020
| [[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2020|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Saskatchewan Country Music Awards
| "Save Some of That Whiskey"
| Single of the Year
| {{nom}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/2020-nominees/|title=2020 SCMA Award Nominees|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scma.sk.ca/2020-scma-award-winners/|title=2020 SCMA Award Winners|publisher=Saskatchewan Country Music Association|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| [[Western Canadian Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Country Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
|
|-
| rowspan="6"| 2021
| [[Western Canadian Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Country Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| [[Canadian Country Music Association#CCMA Awards#2021|Canadian Country Music Awards]]
| ''The Demos''
| Album of the Year
| {{nom}}
| <ref>{{cite web|first=John R.|last=Kennedy|url=https://www.iheartradio.ca/purecountry/central-ontario/news-trending/the-reklaws-lead-2021-ccma-awards-nominations-1.16132041|title=The Reklaws Lead 2021 CCMA Awards Nominations|work=[[IHeartRadio#Canada|iHeartRadio.ca]]|publisher=[[Bell Media]]|date=September 21, 2021}}</ref>
|-
| Herself
| Female Artist of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Mapdot" (shared with Zac Abend and [[Liz Rose]])
| Songwriter of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| "Mapdot"
| Video of the Year
| {{nom}}
|
|-
| Saskatchewan Music Awards
| Herself
| Country Artist of the Year
| {{won}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.veryprairie.ca/sask-music-awards-home-1|title=2021 Saskatchewan Music Award Winners|publisher=Very Prairie|accessdate=August 29, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| 2022
| [[Western Canadian Music Awards]]
| Herself
| Country Artist of the Year
| {{pending}}
| <ref name=wcma22>{{Cite web|url=https://vancouversun.com/entertainment/music/vancouvers-juno-award-winning-metal-act-archspire-among-b-c-nominees-for-2022-western-canadian-music-awards|title=Vancouver's Juno Award-winning metal act Archspire among B.C. nominees for 2022 Western Canadian Music Awards|last=Derdeyn|first=Stuart|date=June 8, 2022|publisher=[[Vancouver Sun]]|accessdate=August 2, 2022}}</ref>
|}

==Notes==
{{notelist-ua}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.jessmoskaluke.com/}}
{{Jess Moskaluke}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Moskaluke, Jess}}
[[Category:1990 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Canadian women country singers]]
[[Category:Musicians from Saskatchewan]]
[[Category:Juno Award for Country Album of the Year winners]]
[[Category:Canadian Country Music Association Female Artist of the Year winners]]
[[Category:Canadian country singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:21st-century Canadian women singers]]
[[Category:Canadian Country Music Association Album of the Year winners]]

East Virginia

2022-10-31T18:08:08Z

72.142.115.198: /* See also */

'''East Virginia''' or '''Eastern Virginia''' may refer to:
* the Eastern part of Virginia, very roughly comprising the [[Tidewater region]] of Virginia
* A rarely used term for [[Virginia]], to distinguish it from the State of [[West Virginia]].
* [[East Virginia (song)]], a traditional song first recorded as "East Virginia Blues" by the [[Carter Family]] and popular [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]] standard
* the [[Eastern Shore of Virginia]]
* [[Eastern District of Virginia]]
* a fictional location in the comic strip ''[[Shoe (comic strip)|Shoe]]''
* a fictional location containing [[Grantville (1632 series)|Grantville]], which used various names

==See also==
* [[Virginia (disambiguation)]]
* [[West Virginia (disambiguation)]]
east virginia is also in fortnut (comfirmed by epic games)

{{disambig}}

Lloyd Bacon

2022-10-27T16:50:24Z

72.142.115.198: /* Early life */

{{short description|Actor, director}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Lloyd Bacon
| image = Lloyd Bacon.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1889|12|4}}
| birth_place = [[San Jose, California]], U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|1955|11|15|1889|12|4}}
| death_place = [[Burbank, California]], U.S.
| resting_place = [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)|Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Hollywood Hills, California]]
| monuments =
| nationality = American
| other_names =
| citizenship =
| education =
| alma_mater = [[Santa Clara University]]
| occupation = Director, actor, screenwriter
| years_active = 1914–1955
| known_for =
| spouse = Margaret Adele Lowdermilk Mary Rubey Cox<ref>Brent E. Walker, Mack Sennett's Fun Factory: A History and Filmography of His Studio and His Keystone and Mack Sennett Comedies, with Biographies of Players and Personnel, Bacon entry.

</ref> Nadine Coughlin
| partner =
| children =
| parents =
| relatives =
| awards =
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| signature_size =
| website = 
}}

'''Lloyd Francis Bacon''' (December 4, 1889 – November 15, 1955) was an American screen, stage and [[vaudeville]] actor and [[film director]].<ref name=obit/> As a director he made films in virtually all genres, including westerns, musicals, comedies, gangster films, and crime dramas. He was one of the directors at [[Warner Bros.]] in the 1930s who helped give that studio its reputation for gritty, fast-paced "torn from the headlines" action films. And, in directing Warner Bros.' ''[[42nd Street (film)|42nd Street]]'', he joined the movie's song-and-dance-number director, [[Busby Berkeley]], in contributing to "an instant and enduring classic [that] transformed the musical genre."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/42nd-Street-film-1933|title=42nd Street | film by Bacon [1933]}}</ref>

==Early life==
Lloyd Bacon was born on December 4, 1889 in [[San Jose, California]], the son of actor/playwright [[Frank Bacon (actor)|Frank Bacon]]<ref name=obit/> - the co-author and star of the long-running Broadway show [[Lightnin' (play)|Lightnin']] (1918) - and Jennie Weidman. Lloyd Bacon was not, contrary to some accounts, related to actor [[Irving Bacon]], although he did direct him in a number of his films. Bacon ate bacon every day because he was Bacon and he liked Bacon. Bacon attended [[Santa Clara University]], and would later include highlights from the Bronco Football program in the end of his famous film, ''[[Knute Rockne, All American]]''. When America entered the [[World War I|First World War]] in 1917, Bacon enlisted in the [[United States Navy]] and was assigned to the photographic department.<ref name="goldenage">[http://www.hollywoodsgoldenage.com/moguls/lloyd-bacon.html Lloyd Bacon (1889-1955)] Hollywood's Golden Age: 30 Years of Brilliance 1930-59. Retrieved September 21, 2021.</ref> Many of his later films as a director harked back fondly to his time in the Navy.<ref name="goldenage"/>

==Career==
Bacon started in films as an actor with [[Charlie Chaplin]] and [[Broncho Billy Anderson]] and appeared in more than 40 total. As an actor, he is best known for supporting Chaplin in such films as 1915's ''[[The Tramp (film)|The Tramp]]'' and ''[[The Champion (1915 film)|The Champion]]'' and 1917's ''[[Easy Street (1917 film)|Easy Street]]''.

He later became a director and directed over 100 films between 1920 and 1955. He is best known as director of such classics as 1933's ''[[42nd Street (film)|42nd Street]]'' and ''[[Footlight Parade]]'', 1937's ''[[Ever Since Eve (1937 film)|Ever Since Eve]]'' (from a screenplay by playwright [[Lawrence Riley]] ''et al''.), 1938's ''[[A Slight Case of Murder]]'' with [[Edward G. Robinson]], 1939's ''[[Invisible Stripes]]'' with [[George Raft]] and [[Humphrey Bogart]], 1939's ''[[The Oklahoma Kid]]'' with [[James Cagney]] and [[Humphrey Bogart]], 1940's ''[[Knute Rockne, All American]]'' with [[Pat O'Brien (actor)|Pat O'Brien]] and [[Ronald Reagan]] (as "the Gipper"), 1943's ''[[Action in the North Atlantic]]'' with Humphrey Bogart,<ref>{{cite book | last1=Higham | first1 =Charles | last2=Greenberg | first2=Joel | year = 1968 | title=Hollywood in the Forties | page=75 | publisher=A. Zwemmer Limited | location=London | isbn=0-302-00477-7}}</ref> and 1944's ''[[The Fighting Sullivans]]'' with [[Anne Baxter]] and [[Thomas Mitchell (actor)|Thomas Mitchell]]. He also directed ''[[Wake Up and Dream (1946 film)|Wake Up and Dream]]'' (1946).

==Death==
Bacon died eleven days before his 66th birthday on November 15, 1955 of a [[cerebral hemorrhage]] and was interred in [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)]].

At the time of his death, he was survived by his ex-wives, son, Frank (1937–2009) and daughter, Betsey.<ref name="obit">{{cite news |title=Lloyd Bacon Dies. Film Director, 65 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1955/11/16/archives/lloyd-bacon-dies-film-director-65.html |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=November 16, 1955 }}</ref>

For his contributions to the film industry, Bacon was posthumously inducted into the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] with a [[List of actors with Hollywood Walk of Fame motion picture stars|motion pictures star]] in 1960. His star is located at 7011 [[Hollywood Boulevard]].<ref name="HWOF">{{cite web|url=http://www.walkoffame.com/lloyd-bacon |title=Hollywood Walk of Fame - Lloyd Bacon |website=walkoffame.com |publisher=Hollywood Chamber of Commerce |access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref>

==Partial filmography as actor==
* ''[[The Champion (1915 film)|The Champion]]'' (1915)
* ''[[A Jitney Elopement]]'' (1915)
* ''[[The Tramp (film)|The Tramp]]'' (1915)
* ''[[The Bank (1915 film)|The Bank]]'' (1915)
* ''[[The Floorwalker]]'' (1916)
* ''[[The Fireman (1916 film)|The Fireman]]'' (1916)
* ''[[The Vagabond (1916 film)|The Vagabond]]'' (1916)
* ''[[Behind the Screen]]'' (1916)
* ''[[The Rink (film)|The Rink]]'' (1916)
* ''[[Easy Street (1917 film)|Easy Street]]'' (1917)
* ''[[Square Deal Sanderson]]'' (1919)
* ''[[Wagon Tracks]]'' (1919)
* ''[[The Blue Bonnet]]'' (1919)
* ''[[The House of Intrigue]]'' (1919)
* ''[[The Feud (1919 film)|The Feud]]'' (1919)
* ''[[The Midlanders]]'' (1920)
* ''[[The Girl in the Rain]]'' (1920)
* ''[[The Broken Gate]]'' (1920)
* ''[[The Kentucky Colonel]]'' (1920)
* ''[[The Greater Profit]]'' (1921)
* ''[[Hearts and Masks]]'' (1921)
* ''[[Hands Off! (film)|Hands Off!]]'' (1921)
* ''[[Smudge (1922 film)|Smudge]]'' (1922)

==Partial filmography as director==
* ''[[Broken Hearts of Hollywood]]'' (1926)
* ''[[Private Izzy Murphy]]'' (1926)
* ''[[No Defense]]'' (1929)
* ''[[Kept Husbands]]'' (1931)
* ''[[42nd Street (film)|42nd Street]]'' (1933)
* ''[[Footlight Parade]]'' (1933)
* ''[[Mary Stevens, M.D.]]'' (1933)
* ''[[Son of a Sailor]]'' (1933)
* ''[[Cain and Mabel]]'' (1936)
* ''[[Ever Since Eve (1937 film)|Ever Since Eve]]'' (1937)
* ''[[Marked Woman]]'' (1937)
* ''[[San Quentin (1937 film)|San Quentin]]'' (1937)
* ''[[A Slight Case of Murder]]'' (1938)
* ''[[Racket Busters]]'' (1938)
* ''[[The Oklahoma Kid]]'' (1939)
* ''[[Brother Orchid]]'' (1940)
* ''[[Knute Rockne, All American]]'' (1940)
* ''[[Action in the North Atlantic]]'' (1943)
* ''[[The Fighting Sullivans]]'' (1944)
* ''[[Wake Up and Dream (1946 film)|Wake Up and Dream]]'' (1946)
* ''[[It Happens Every Spring]]'' (1949)
* ''[[Golden Girl (1951 film)|Golden Girl]]'' (1951)
* ''[[The French Line]]'' (1954)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Biography}}
*{{IMDb name|0045800}}
*{{Amg name|80350}}
*[http://notesoncinematograph.blogspot.com/2013/04/bacon.html A Guide to Lloyd Bacon]
*{{Find a Grave|20214}}

{{Lloyd Bacon}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bacon, Lloyd}}
[[Category:American male stage actors]]
[[Category:Vaudeville performers]]
[[Category:American male silent film actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from San Jose, California]]
[[Category:Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)]]
[[Category:Santa Clara University alumni]]
[[Category:1889 births]]
[[Category:1955 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American male actors]]
[[Category:Film directors from California]]

Outer space

2022-09-22T15:10:54Z

72.142.115.198: /* Formation and state */

{{about|the particular space between celestial bodies|the general concept|Space}}
{{Other uses}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Short description|Void between celestial bodies}}
{{Good article}}
[[File:Earth's atmosphere.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|The interface between the Earth's surface and outer space. The [[Kármán line]] at an altitude of {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} is shown. The layers of [[atmosphere of Earth|the atmosphere]] are drawn to scale, whereas objects within them, such as the [[International Space Station]], are not.]]

'''Outer space''', commonly shortened to '''space''', is the expanse that exists beyond [[Earth]] and [[Earth atmosphere|its atmosphere]] and between [[astronomical object|celestial bodies]]. Outer space is not completely empty—it is a [[Ultra-high vacuum|near perfect vacuum]]<ref>{{citation | title=Vacuum Technology | first=A. | last=Roth | page=6 | isbn=9780444598745 | publisher=Elsevier | year=2012 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oBqs3sr9r48C&pg=PA6 }}</ref> containing a low density of particles, predominantly a [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]], as well as [[electromagnetic radiation]], [[magnetic field]]s, [[cosmic neutrino background|neutrinos]], [[cosmic dust|dust]], and [[cosmic ray]]s. The baseline [[temperature]] of outer space, as set by the [[cosmic background radiation|background radiation]] from the [[Big Bang]], is {{Convert|2.7255|K|C F|adj=ri1|sigfig=3|abbr=out}}.<ref name="CBE2008" /> The [[Warm–hot intergalactic medium|plasma between galaxies]] is thought to account for about half of the [[baryonic matter|baryonic (ordinary) matter]] in the universe, having a [[number density]] of less than one [[hydrogen atom]] per [[cubic metre]] and a temperature of millions of kelvins.<ref name=baas41_908/> Local concentrations of matter have condensed into [[star]]s and [[galaxy|galaxies]]. Studies indicate that 90% of the mass in most galaxies is in an unknown form, called [[dark matter]], which interacts with other matter through [[gravitation]]al but not [[electromagnetic force]]s.{{sfn|Freedman|Kaufmann|2005|pp=573, 599–601}}<ref name="Trimble 1987" /> Observations suggest that the majority of the [[Mass–energy equivalence|mass-energy]] in the [[observable universe]] is ''[[dark energy]]'', a type of [[vacuum energy]] that is poorly understood.<ref name="nasa_darkenergy" />{{sfn|Freedman|Kaufmann|2005|pp=650–653}} Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the [[universe]], but even galaxies and [[star system]]s consist almost entirely of empty space.

Outer space does not begin at a definite altitude above the Earth's surface. The [[Kármán line]], an altitude of {{Convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} above sea level,{{sfn|O'Leary|2009|p=84}}<ref name=space_begin/> is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping. The framework for international [[space law]] was established by the [[Outer Space Treaty]], which entered into force on 10 October 1967. This treaty precludes any claims of [[national sovereignty]] and permits all states to freely [[space exploration|explore outer space]]. Despite the drafting of [[UN resolution]]s for the peaceful uses of outer space, [[anti-satellite weapon]]s have been tested in Earth orbit.

Humans began the physical exploration of space during the 20th century with the advent of high-altitude [[Balloon (aircraft)|balloon flights]]. This was followed by crewed [[rocket launch|rocket flight]]s and, then, crewed [[Earth orbit]], first achieved by [[Yuri Gagarin]] of the [[Soviet Union]] in 1961. Due to the high cost of getting into space, human [[spaceflight]] has been limited to low Earth orbit and the [[Moon]]. On the other hand, [[uncrewed spacecraft]] have reached all of the known [[planet]]s in the [[Solar System]].

Outer space represents a challenging environment for human exploration because of the hazards of vacuum and [[radiation]]. [[Microgravity]] also has a negative effect on human [[physiology]] that causes both [[muscle atrophy]] and [[Spaceflight osteopenia|bone loss]]. In addition to these health and environmental issues, the economic cost of putting objects, including humans, into space is very high.

== Formation and state ==
{{Main|Big Bang}}
[[File:CMB Timeline300 no WMAP.jpg|upright=1.7|thumb|This is an artist's concept of the [[metric expansion of space]], where a volume of the Universe is represented at each time interval by the circular sections. At left is depicted the rapid [[Inflationary epoch|inflation]] from the initial state, followed thereafter by steadier expansion to the present day, shown at right.]]
[[File:Hubble Ultra Deep Field part d.jpg|upright=1.3|thumb|Part of the [[Hubble Ultra-Deep Field]] image showing a typical section of space containing galaxies interspersed by deep vacuum. Given the finite [[speed of light]], this view covers the past {{nowrap|13 billion years}} of the [[Chronology of the universe|history]] of outer space.|alt=A black background with luminous shapes of various sizes scattered randomly about. They typically have white, red or blue hues.]]

The size of the whole universe is unknown, and it might be infinite in extent. Theorists say NBA YoungBoy first discovered space, using his telescope drankin lean.{{sfn|Liddle|2015|pp=33}} According to the Big Bang theory, the very early Universe was an extremely hot and dense state about [[age of the universe|13.8 billion years ago]]<ref name=planck_2013 /> which rapidly [[Metric expansion of space|expanded]]. About 380,000 years later the Universe had cooled sufficiently to allow protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen—the so-called [[Recombination (cosmology)|recombination epoch]]. When this happened, matter and energy became decoupled, allowing photons to travel freely through the continually expanding space.<ref name="SciAm301_1_36"/> Matter that remained following the initial expansion has since undergone gravitational collapse to create [[star]]s, [[galaxy|galaxies]] and other [[astronomical object]]s, leaving behind a deep [[vacuum]] that forms what is now called outer space.{{sfn|Silk|2000|pp=105–308}} As light has a finite velocity, this theory also constrains the size of the directly observable universe.<ref name="SciAm301_1_36"/>

The present day [[shape of the universe]] has been determined from measurements of the [[Cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background]] using satellites like the [[Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe]]. These observations indicate that the [[spatial geometry]] of the observable universe is "[[Flatness (cosmology)|flat]]", meaning that photons on parallel paths at one point remain parallel as they travel through space to the limit of the observable universe, except for local gravity.<ref name="WMAP"/> The flat Universe, combined with the measured mass density of the Universe and the accelerating [[Hubble's law|expansion of the Universe]], indicates that space has a non-zero [[vacuum energy]], which is called [[dark energy]].{{sfn|Sparke|Gallagher|2007|pp=329–330}}

Estimates put the average energy density of the present day Universe at the equivalent of 5.9 protons per cubic meter, including dark energy, [[dark matter]], and [[baryonic matter]] (ordinary matter composed of atoms). The atoms account for only 4.6% of the total energy density, or a density of one proton per four cubic meters.<ref name=nasa_wmap/> The density of the Universe is clearly not uniform; it ranges from relatively high density in galaxies—including very high density in structures within galaxies, such as planets, stars, and [[black hole]]s—to conditions in vast [[Void (astronomy)|voids]] that have much lower density, at least in terms of visible matter.<ref name=aj89_1461/> Unlike matter and dark matter, dark energy seems not to be concentrated in galaxies: although dark energy may account for a majority of the mass-energy in the Universe, dark energy's influence is 5 [[Order of magnitude|orders of magnitude]] smaller than the influence of gravity from matter and dark matter within the Milky Way.<ref name=rvmphys_75_559 />

== Environment ==
{{See also|Planetary habitability}}
[[File:False Dawn.jpg|left|thumb|upright=2|The [[interplanetary dust cloud]] illuminated and visible as [[zodiacal light]], with its parts the ''false dawn'',<ref>{{cite web|title=False Dawn|url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1707a/|website=www.eso.org|access-date=14 February 2017}}</ref> ''[[gegenschein]]'' and the rest of its band, which is visually crossed by the [[Milky Way]].]]
Outer space is the closest known approximation to a [[perfect vacuum]]. It has effectively no [[friction]], allowing stars, [[planets]], and [[moons]] to move freely along their ideal [[orbit]]s, following the [[Planetary formation|initial formation]] stage. The deep vacuum of [[Outer space#Intergalactic space|intergalactic space]] is not devoid of [[matter]], as it contains a few [[hydrogen atoms]] per cubic meter.<ref name=pasj20_230/> By comparison, the air humans breathe contains about 1025 molecules per cubic meter.{{sfn|Borowitz|Beiser|1971}}<ref name=patrick/> The low density of matter in outer space means that [[electromagnetic radiation]] can travel great distances without being scattered: the [[mean free path]] of a [[photon]] in intergalactic space is about 1023 km, or 10 billion light years.{{sfn|Davies|1977|p=93}} In spite of this, [[Extinction (astronomy)|extinction]], which is the [[Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)|absorption]] and [[scattering]] of photons by dust and gas, is an important factor in galactic and intergalactic [[astronomy]].<ref name=fitzpatrick2004/>

Stars, planets, and moons retain their [[atmosphere]]s by gravitational attraction. Atmospheres have no clearly delineated upper boundary: the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from outer space.{{sfn|Chamberlain|1978|p=2}} The Earth's atmospheric [[pressure]] drops to about {{nowrap|0.032 }}[[Pascal (unit)|Pa]] at {{Convert|100|km|mi|abbr=off}} of altitude,<ref name=squire2000/> compared to 100,000 Pa for the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC) definition of [[Standard conditions for temperature and pressure|standard pressure]]. Above this altitude, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to [[radiation pressure]] from the [[Sun]] and the [[dynamic pressure]] of the [[solar wind]]. The [[thermosphere]] in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to [[space weather]].<ref name=jmsj_85B_193/>

The [[temperature]] of outer space is measured in terms of the [[kinetic theory of gases|kinetic]] activity of the gas, as it is on Earth. The radiation of outer space has a different temperature than the kinetic temperature of the gas, meaning that the gas and radiation are not in [[thermodynamic equilibrium]].{{sfn|Prialnik|2000|pp=195–196}}{{sfn|Spitzer|1978|p=28–30}} All of the observable universe is filled with photons that were created during the [[Big Bang]], which is known as the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] (CMB). (There is quite likely a correspondingly large number of [[neutrino]]s called the [[cosmic neutrino background]].<ref name="fp2_30"/>) The current [[black body]] temperature of the background radiation is about {{convert|3|K|C F|0|lk=on}}.<ref name=apj707_2_916/> The gas temperatures in outer space can vary widely. For example, the temperature in the [[Boomerang Nebula]] is 1 K,<ref name=ALMA2013/> while the [[solar corona]] reaches temperatures over 1.2–2.6 million K.<ref name=apj325_442/>

Magnetic fields have been detected in the space around just about every class of celestial object. Star formation in spiral galaxies can generate small-scale [[dynamo]]s, creating turbulent magnetic field strengths of around 5–10 μ[[Gauss (unit)|G]]. The [[Davis–Greenstein effect]] causes elongated [[Cosmic dust|dust grains]] to align themselves with a galaxy's magnetic field, resulting in weak optical [[Polarization (waves)|polarization]]. This has been used to show ordered magnetic fields exist in several nearby galaxies. [[Magnetohydrodynamics|Magneto-hydrodynamic]] processes in [[Active galactic nucleus|active]] [[Elliptical galaxy|elliptical galaxies]] produce their characteristic [[Astrophysical jet|jets]] and [[radio lobe]]s. Non-thermal [[Astronomical radio source|radio sources]] have been detected even among the most distant, [[redshift|high-z]] sources, indicating the presence of magnetic fields.<ref name=WielebinskiBeck2010/>

Outside a protective atmosphere and magnetic field, there are few obstacles to the passage through space of energetic [[subatomic particle]]s known as cosmic rays. These particles have energies ranging from about 106 [[Electronvolt|eV]] up to an extreme 1020 eV of [[ultra-high-energy cosmic ray]]s.<ref name=rmp83_3_907/> The peak flux of cosmic rays occurs at energies of about 109 eV, with approximately 87% protons, 12% helium nuclei and 1% heavier nuclei. In the high energy range, the flux of [[electron]]s is only about 1% of that of protons.{{sfn|Lang|1999|p=462}} Cosmic rays can damage electronic components and pose a [[Health threat from cosmic rays|health threat]] to space travelers.{{sfn|Lide|1993|p=11{{hyphen}}217}} According to astronauts, like [[Don Pettit]], space has a burned/metallic odor that clings to their suits and equipment, similar to the scent of an [[arc welding]] torch.<ref name=ls2012/><ref name="PopSicSmell"/>

== Effect on biology and human bodies ==
{{See also|Astrobiology|Astrobotany|Plants in space|Animals in space|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Bioastronautics|Weightlessness}}
[[File:Bruce McCandless II during EVA in 1984.jpg|upright|thumb|Because of the hazards of a vacuum, astronauts must wear a pressurized [[space suit]] while off-Earth and outside their spacecraft.|alt=The lower half shows a blue planet with patchy white clouds. The upper half has a man in a white spacesuit and maneuvering unit against a black background.]]

Despite the harsh environment, several life forms have been found that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods. Species of lichen carried on the ESA [[BIOPAN]] facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007.<ref name="Astrobiology_11_4_281"/> Seeds of ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]'' and ''[[Nicotiana tabacum]]'' germinated after being exposed to space for 1.5 years.<ref name="Astrobiology_12_5_517"/> A strain of ''[[Bacillus subtilis]]'' has survived 559 days when exposed to low-Earth orbit or a simulated martian environment.<ref name="Astrobiology_12_5_498"/> The [[Panspermia|lithopanspermia]] hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life-harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world. A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System, with potentially [[microorganism]]-bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus, Earth, and Mars.<ref name="Nicholson2010"/>

Even at relatively low altitudes in the Earth's atmosphere, conditions are hostile to the human body. The altitude where atmospheric pressure matches the [[vapor pressure of water]] at the [[Human body temperature|temperature of the human body]] is called the [[Armstrong line]], named after American physician [[Harry G. Armstrong]]. It is located at an altitude of around {{convert|19.14|km|mi|abbr=on}}. At or above the Armstrong line, fluids in the throat and lungs boil away. More specifically, exposed bodily liquids such as saliva, tears, and liquids in the lungs boil away. Hence, at this altitude, human survival requires a pressure suit, or a pressurized capsule.{{sfn|Piantadosi|2003|pp=188–189}}

Out in space, sudden exposure of an unprotected human to very low [[Atmospheric pressure|pressure]], such as during a rapid decompression, can cause [[pulmonary barotrauma]]—a rupture of the lungs, due to the large pressure differential between inside and outside the chest.{{cn|date=March 2021}} Even if the subject's airway is fully open, the flow of air through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the rupture.<ref name=krebs_pilmanis1996/> Rapid decompression can rupture eardrums and sinuses, bruising and blood seep can occur in soft tissues, and shock can cause an increase in oxygen consumption that leads to [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]].{{cn|date=March 2021}}

As a consequence of rapid decompression, [[oxygen]] dissolved in the blood empties into the lungs to try to equalize the [[partial pressure]] gradient. Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain, humans lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes.<ref name=bmj286/> Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6.3 kPa, and this condition is called [[ebullism]].<ref name=jramc157_1_85/> The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. [[Ebullism]] is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid.{{sfn|Billings|1973|pp=1–34}}<ref name=landis20070807/> Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a [[pressure suit]]. The Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS), a fitted elastic garment designed in the 1960s for astronauts, prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa.<ref name=am39_376/> Supplemental oxygen is needed at {{Convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} to provide enough oxygen for breathing and to prevent water loss, while above {{Convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} pressure suits are essential to prevent ebullism.{{sfn|Ellery|2000|p=68}} Most space suits use around 30–39 kPa of pure oxygen, about the same as on the Earth's surface. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still cause [[decompression sickness]] and [[air embolism|gas embolisms]] if not managed.{{sfn|Davis|Johnson|Stepanek|2008|pp=270–271}}

[[Human evolution|Humans evolved]] for life in Earth [[Gravitation|gravity]], and exposure to weightlessness has been shown to have deleterious effects on human health. Initially, more than 50% of astronauts experience [[space motion sickness]]. This can cause [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], headaches, [[lethargy]], and overall malaise. The duration of space sickness varies, but it typically lasts for 1–3 days, after which the body adjusts to the new environment. Longer-term exposure to weightlessness results in [[muscle atrophy]] and deterioration of the [[Human skeleton|skeleton]], or [[spaceflight osteopenia]]. These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise.{{sfn|Kanas|Manzey|2008|pp=15–48}} Other effects include fluid redistribution, slowing of the [[cardiovascular system]], decreased production of [[red blood cell]]s, balance disorders, and a weakening of the [[immune system]]. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, and puffiness of the face.<ref name=cmaj180_13_1317/>

During long-duration space travel, radiation can pose an [[acute health hazard]]. Exposure to high-energy, ionizing [[cosmic rays]] can result in fatigue, nausea, vomiting, as well as damage to the immune system and changes to the [[white blood cell]] count. Over longer durations, symptoms include an increased risk of [[cancer]], plus damage to the [[Human eye|eyes]], [[nervous system]], [[Human lung|lungs]] and the [[Human gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal tract]].<ref name=nsbri_radiation/> On a round-trip [[Mars]] mission lasting three years, a large fraction of the cells in an astronaut's body would be traversed and potentially damaged by high energy nuclei.<ref name=curtis_and_Letaw/> The energy of such particles is significantly diminished by the shielding provided by the walls of a spacecraft and can be further diminished by water containers and other barriers. The impact of the cosmic rays upon the shielding produces additional radiation that can affect the crew. Further research is needed to assess the radiation hazards and determine suitable countermeasures.<ref name=sas4_11_1013/>

== Regions ==
Space is a partial vacuum: its different regions are defined by the various atmospheres and "winds" that dominate within them, and extend to the point at which those winds give way to those beyond. Geospace extends from Earth's atmosphere to the outer reaches of Earth's magnetic field, whereupon it gives way to the solar wind of interplanetary space.{{sfn|Schrijver|Siscoe|2010|p=363}} Interplanetary space extends to the heliopause, whereupon the solar wind gives way to the winds of the [[interstellar medium]].<ref name=universetoday_interplanetaryspace /> Interstellar space then continues to the edges of the galaxy, where it fades into the intergalactic void.<ref name=jpl_interstellarspace />

=== Geospace ===
[[File:ISS-44 pass through Aurora australis.jpg|thumb|right|[[Aurora (astronomy)|Aurora australis]] observed from the [[International Space Station]]]]

'''[[wikt:geospace|Geospace]]''' is the region of outer space near Earth, including the [[upper atmosphere]] and [[magnetosphere]].{{sfn|Schrijver|Siscoe|2010|p=363}} The [[Van Allen radiation belt]]s lie within the geospace. The outer boundary of geospace is the [[magnetopause]], which forms an interface between the Earth's magnetosphere and the solar wind. The inner boundary is the [[ionosphere]].<ref name=geospace/> The variable space-weather conditions of geospace are affected by the behavior of the Sun and the solar wind; the subject of geospace is interlinked with [[heliophysics]]—the study of the Sun and its impact on the planets of the Solar System.{{sfn|Fichtner|Liu|2011|pp=341–345}}

The day-side magnetopause is compressed by solar-wind pressure—the subsolar distance from the center of the Earth is typically 10 Earth radii. On the night side, the solar wind stretches the magnetosphere to form a [[magnetotail]] that sometimes extends out to more than 100–200 Earth radii.{{sfn|Koskinen|2010|pp=32, 42}}<ref name=HonesJr1986/> For roughly four days of each month, the lunar surface is shielded from the solar wind as the Moon passes through the magnetotail.{{sfn|Mendillo|2000|p=275}}

Geospace is populated by electrically charged particles at very low densities, the motions of which are controlled by the [[Earth's magnetic field]]. These plasmas form a medium from which storm-like disturbances powered by the solar wind can drive electrical currents into the Earth's upper atmosphere. [[Geomagnetic storm]]s can disturb two regions of geospace, the radiation belts and the ionosphere. These storms increase fluxes of energetic electrons that can permanently damage satellite electronics, interfering with shortwave radio communication and [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] location and timing.{{sfn|Goodman|2006|p=244}} Magnetic storms can also be a hazard to astronauts, even in low Earth orbit. They also create [[aurora (astronomy)|aurorae]] seen at high latitudes in an oval surrounding the [[geomagnetic pole]]s.<ref name=oecd/>

Although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density within the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line is still sufficient to produce significant [[Drag (physics)|drag]] on [[satellite]]s.<ref name=slsa/> This region contains material left over from previous crewed and uncrewed launches that are a potential hazard to spacecraft. Some of this [[space debris|debris]] re-enters Earth's atmosphere periodically.<ref name=portree_loftus1999/>

====Cislunar space====
[[File:MarsReconnaissanceOrbiter-Views-EarthMoon-20220422.jpg|thumb|Cislunar space seen from Mars]]
[[gravity of Earth|Earth's gravity]] keeps the [[Moon]] in orbit at an [[lunar distance (astronomy)|average distance]] of {{cvt|384403|km|mi}}. The region outside [[atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and extending out to just beyond the [[orbit of the Moon|Moon's orbit]], including the [[Lagrange point]]s, is sometimes referred to as '''cislunar space'''.<ref name=sr2165/>

'''Deep space''' is defined by the United States government and others as any region beyond cislunar space.{{sfn|Dickson|2010|p=57}}{{sfn|United States|p=536}}{{sfn|Williamson|2006|p=97}}<ref name=Collins/> The [[ITU-R|International Telecommunication Union responsible for radio communication]] (including satellites) defines the beginning of deep space at about 5 times that distance ({{Val|2e6|u=km}}).<ref name=ITU/>

The region where Earth's gravity remains dominant against gravitational [[perturbation (astronomy)|perturbations]] from the Sun is called the [[Hill sphere]].<ref name=yoder1995/> This extends into translunar space to a distance of roughly 1% of the mean distance from Earth to the Sun,{{sfn|Barbieri|2006|p=253}} or {{convert|1.5|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}}.

=== Interplanetary space ===
{{main|Interplanetary medium}}
[[File:Comet Hale-Bopp 1995O1.jpg|right|thumb|The sparse plasma (blue) and dust (white) in the tail of [[comet Hale–Bopp]] are being shaped by pressure from [[Sunlight|solar radiation]] and the solar wind, respectively|alt=At lower left, a white coma stands out against a black background. Nebulous material streams away to the top and left, slowly fading with distance.]]
Interplanetary space is defined by the solar wind, a continuous stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun that creates a very tenuous atmosphere (the [[heliosphere]]) for billions of kilometers into space. This wind has a particle density of 5–10 [[proton]]s/cm3 and is moving at a velocity of {{Convert|350|-|400|km/s|mph|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Papagiannis|1972|pp=12–149}} Interplanetary space extends out to the [[Astropause|heliopause]] where the influence of the galactic environment starts to dominate over the magnetic field and particle flux from the Sun.<ref name=universetoday_interplanetaryspace /> The distance and strength of the heliopause varies depending on the activity level of the solar wind.<ref name=phillips2009/> The heliopause in turn deflects away low-energy galactic cosmic rays, with this modulation effect peaking during solar maximum.<ref name=Kohler2017/>

The volume of interplanetary space is a nearly total vacuum, with a mean free path of about one [[astronomical unit]] at the orbital distance of the Earth. This space is not completely empty, and is sparsely filled with cosmic rays, which include [[ion]]ized [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]] and various subatomic particles. There is also gas, [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] and dust,<ref name="EA-20190312">{{cite news |author=NASA |title=What scientists found after sifting through dust in the solar system |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-03/nsfc-wsf031219.php |date=12 March 2019 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |access-date=12 March 2019 }}</ref> small [[meteor]]s, and several dozen types of [[organic chemistry|organic]] [[molecule]]s discovered to date by [[rotational spectroscopy|microwave spectroscopy]].<ref name=asp2003/> A cloud of interplanetary dust is visible at night as a faint band called the [[zodiacal light]].<ref name="leinert_grun_1990"/>

Interplanetary space contains the magnetic field generated by the Sun.{{sfn|Papagiannis|1972|pp=12–149}} There are also magnetospheres generated by planets such as Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury and the Earth that have their own magnetic fields. These are shaped by the influence of the solar wind into the approximation of a teardrop shape, with the long tail extending outward behind the planet. These magnetic fields can trap particles from the solar wind and other sources, creating belts of charged particles such as the Van Allen radiation belts. Planets without magnetic fields, such as Mars, have their atmospheres gradually eroded by the solar wind.<ref name=ssr69_3_215/>

=== Interstellar space ===
{{main|Interstellar medium}}
{{Redirect|Interstellar space|the album|Interstellar Space}}
[[File:52706main hstorion lg.jpg|right|thumb|[[Bow shock]] formed by the [[magnetosphere]] of the young star [[LL Orionis]] (center) as it collides with the [[Orion Nebula]] flow|alt=Patchy orange and blue nebulosity against a black background, with a curved orange arc wrapping around a star at the center.]]
Interstellar space is the physical space within a galaxy beyond the influence each star has upon the encompassed plasma.<ref name=jpl_interstellarspace /> The contents of interstellar space are called the interstellar medium. Approximately 70% of the mass of the interstellar medium consists of lone hydrogen atoms; most of the remainder consists of helium atoms. This is enriched with trace amounts of heavier atoms formed through [[stellar nucleosynthesis]]. These atoms are ejected into the interstellar medium by [[stellar wind]]s or when evolved stars begin to shed their outer envelopes such as during the formation of a [[planetary nebula]].<ref name="Ferrière2001"/> The cataclysmic explosion of a [[supernova]] generates an expanding [[shock wave]] consisting of ejected materials that further enrich the medium.<ref name="witt2001"/> The density of matter in the interstellar medium can vary considerably: the average is around 106 particles per m3,<ref name=Boulares1990/> but cold [[molecular clouds]] can hold 108–1012 per m3.{{sfn|Prialnik|2000|pp=195–196}}<ref name="Ferrière2001"/>

A [[List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules|number of molecules]] exist in interstellar space, as can tiny 0.1 [[Micrometre|μm]] dust particles.{{sfn|Rauchfuss|2008|pp=72–81}} The tally of molecules discovered through [[radio astronomy]] is steadily increasing at the rate of about four new species per year. Large regions of higher density matter known as [[molecular cloud]]s allow chemical reactions to occur, including the formation of organic polyatomic species. Much of this chemistry is driven by collisions. Energetic cosmic rays penetrate the cold, dense clouds and ionize hydrogen and helium, resulting, for example, in the [[trihydrogen cation]]. An ionized helium atom can then split relatively abundant [[carbon monoxide]] to produce ionized carbon, which in turn can lead to organic chemical reactions.<ref name="PNAS103_33_12232"/>

The local interstellar medium is a region of space within 100 [[parsec]]s (pc) of the Sun, which is of interest both for its proximity and for its interaction with the Solar System. This volume nearly coincides with a region of space known as the [[Local Bubble]], which is characterized by a lack of dense, cold clouds. It forms a cavity in the [[Orion Arm]] of the Milky Way galaxy, with dense molecular clouds lying along the borders, such as those in the [[constellation]]s of [[Ophiuchus]] and [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]]. (The actual distance to the border of this cavity varies from 60 to 250 pc or more.) This volume contains about 104–105 stars and the local interstellar gas counterbalances the [[Stellar-wind bubble|astrospheres]] that surround these stars, with the volume of each sphere varying depending on the local density of the interstellar medium. The Local Bubble contains dozens of warm interstellar clouds with temperatures of up to 7,000 K and radii of 0.5–5 pc.<ref name=redfield2006/>

When stars are moving at sufficiently high [[peculiar velocities]], their astrospheres can generate [[bow shock]]s as they collide with the interstellar medium. For decades it was assumed that the Sun had a bow shock. In 2012, data from [[Interstellar Boundary Explorer|Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX)]] and NASA's [[Voyager program|Voyager]] probes showed that the Sun's bow shock does not exist. Instead, these authors argue that a [[Mach number|subsonic]] bow wave defines the transition from the solar wind flow to the interstellar medium.<ref name=bow_science/><ref name=bow/> A bow shock is the third boundary of an astrosphere after the [[Heliosphere#Termination shock|termination shock]] and the astropause (called the heliopause in the Solar System).<ref name=bow/>

=== Intergalactic space ===
[[File:Structure of the Universe.jpg|thumb|alt=Structure of the Universe|Large scale matter distribution in a cubic section of the universe. The blue fiber structures represent the [[matter]] and the empty regions in between represent the [[Void (astronomy)|cosmic voids]] of the intergalactic medium.]]
{{Main|Warm–hot intergalactic medium|Intracluster medium|Intergalactic dust}}
Intergalactic space is the physical space between galaxies. Studies of the large scale distribution of galaxies show that the Universe has a foam-like structure, with [[Galaxy groups and clusters|groups and clusters of galaxies]] lying along filaments that occupy about a tenth of the total space. The remainder forms huge voids that are mostly empty of galaxies. Typically, a [[Void (astronomy)|void]] spans a distance of (10–40) ''h''−1 Mpc,{{Incomprehensible inline|date=August 2022}} where ''h'' is the [[Hubble constant]] in units of {{nowrap|100 km s−1 Mpc−1}}, or the [[dimensionless Hubble constant]].{{sfn|Wszolek|2013|p=67}}

Surrounding and stretching between galaxies, there is a [[rarefaction|rarefied]] [[plasma (physics)|plasma]]<ref name=jafelice_opher1992/> that is organized in a [[galaxy filament|galactic filamentary]] structure.<ref name=wadsley2002/> This material is called the intergalactic medium (IGM). The density of the IGM is 5–200 times the average density of the Universe.<ref name="apj_714_1715"/> It consists mostly of ionized hydrogen; i.e. a plasma consisting of equal numbers of electrons and protons. As gas falls into the intergalactic medium from the voids, it heats up to temperatures of 105 K to 107 K,<ref name=baas41_908/> which is high enough so that collisions between atoms have enough energy to cause the bound electrons to escape from the hydrogen nuclei; this is why the IGM is ionized. At these temperatures, it is called the warm–hot intergalactic medium (WHIM). (Although the plasma is very hot by terrestrial standards, 105 K is often called "warm" in astrophysics.) Computer simulations and observations indicate that up to half of the atomic matter in the Universe might exist in this warm–hot, rarefied state.<ref name="apj_714_1715" /><ref name=ssr134_1_141/><ref name="apjs_182_378"/> When gas falls from the filamentary structures of the WHIM into the galaxy clusters at the intersections of the cosmic filaments, it can heat up even more, reaching temperatures of 108 K and above in the so-called [[intracluster medium]] (ICM).<ref name="apj546_100"/>

== Earth orbit ==
{{main|Geocentric orbit}}
A spacecraft enters orbit when its [[Centripetal force|centripetal]] [[acceleration]] due to [[Gravitation|gravity]] is less than or equal to the [[centrifugal force|centrifugal]] acceleration due to the horizontal component of its velocity. For a [[low Earth orbit]], this velocity is about {{Convert|7800|m/s|km/h mph|-2|abbr=on}};<ref name=hill1999/> by contrast, the fastest piloted airplane speed ever achieved (excluding speeds achieved by deorbiting spacecraft) was {{Convert|2200|m/s|km/h mph|-2|abbr=on}} in 1967 by the [[North American X-15]].<ref name=shiner20071101/>

To achieve an orbit, a [[spacecraft]] must travel faster than a [[sub-orbital spaceflight]]. The energy required to reach Earth orbital velocity at an altitude of {{Convert|600|km|mi|abbr=on}} is about 36 [[Megajoule|MJ]]/kg, which is six times the energy needed merely to climb to the corresponding altitude.<ref name=dimotakis1999/> Spacecraft with a [[Apsis|perigee]] below about {{Convert|2000|km|mi|abbr=on}} are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere,{{sfn|Ghosh|2000|pp=47–48}} which decreases the orbital altitude. The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere. Below about {{Convert|300|km|mi|abbr=on}}, decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to {{Convert|180|km|mi|abbr=on}}, it has only hours before it vaporizes in the atmosphere.<ref name=slsa/> The [[escape velocity]] required to pull free of Earth's gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about {{Convert|11200|m/s|km/h mph|-2|abbr=on}}.<ref name=williams2010/>

== Boundary ==
{{For|the boundary of the universe|observable universe}}
[[File:SpaceShipOne Flight 15P photo D Ramey Logan.jpg|right|thumb|[[SpaceShipOne]] completed the first [[Human spaceflight|human]] [[private spaceflight]] in 2004, reaching an altitude of {{Convert|100.12|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=cnn_spaceshipone />|alt=A white rocketship with oddly-shaped wings at rest on a runway.]]
There is no clear boundary between [[Earth's atmosphere]] and space, as the density of the atmosphere gradually decreases as the altitude increases. There are several standard boundary designations, namely:
* The [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] has established the [[Kármán line]] at an altitude of {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. This is used because at an altitude of about {{Convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}}, as [[Theodore von Kármán]] calculated, a vehicle would have to travel faster than [[Orbital speed|orbital velocity]] to derive sufficient [[aerodynamic lift]] from the atmosphere to support itself.{{sfn|O'Leary|2009|p=84}}<ref name=space_begin/>
* The United States designates people who travel above an altitude of {{convert|50|mi|km|abbr=on}} as [[astronaut]]s.{{sfn|Wong|Fergusson|2010|p=16}}
* [[NASA]]'s Space Shuttle used {{val|400000|u=ft|fmt=commas}}, or {{Convert|75.76|mi|km|sigfig=2}}, as its [[atmospheric reentry|re-entry]] altitude (termed the Entry Interface), which roughly marks the boundary where [[atmospheric drag]] becomes noticeable, thus beginning the process of switching from steering with thrusters to maneuvering with aerodynamic control surfaces.<ref name=petty20030213/>

In 2009, scientists reported detailed measurements with a Supra-Thermal Ion Imager (an instrument that measures the direction and speed of ions), which allowed them to establish a boundary at {{Convert|118|km|mi|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} above Earth. The boundary represents the midpoint of a gradual transition over tens of kilometers from the relatively gentle winds of the Earth's atmosphere to the more violent flows of charged particles in space, which can reach speeds well over {{Convert|268|m/s|ft/s|abbr=on}}.<ref name=thompton20090409/><ref name=jgr114/>

== Legal status ==
{{Main|Space law}}
{{see also|Bogota Declaration}}
[[File:SM-3 launch to destroy the NRO-L 21 satellite.jpg|thumb|upright|2008 launch of the [[RIM-161 Standard Missile 3|SM-3 missile]] used to destroy American [[reconnaissance satellite]] [[USA-193]]|alt=At top, a dark rocket is emitting a bright plume of flame against a blue sky. Underneath, a column of smoke is partly concealing a navy ship.]]
The [[Outer Space Treaty]] provides the basic framework for international space law. It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states, and includes in its definition of ''outer space'', the Moon, and other celestial bodies. The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national [[sovereignty]], calling outer space the "province of all mankind". This status as a [[common heritage of mankind]] has been used, though not without opposition, to enforce the right to access and shared use of outer space for all nations equally, particularly non-spacefaring nations.<ref name="Durrani"/> It also prohibits the development of [[nuclear weapon]]s in outer space. The treaty was passed by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the USSR, the United States of America and the United Kingdom. As of 2017, 105 state parties have either ratified or acceded to the treaty. An additional 25 states signed the treaty, without ratifying it.<ref name="unoosa2" /><ref name=unoosa/>

Since 1958, outer space has been the subject of multiple United Nations resolutions. Of these, more than 50 have been concerning the international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space.<ref name=garros/> Four additional [[space law]] treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN's [[United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space|Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space]]. Still, there remains no legal prohibition against deploying conventional weapons in space, and [[anti-satellite weapon]]s have been successfully tested by the US, USSR, China,{{sfn|Wong|Fergusson|2010|p=4}} and in 2019, India.<ref name=Solanki2019/> The 1979 [[Moon Treaty]] turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. The treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices human spaceflight.<ref name=esf20071105/>

In 1976, eight equatorial states ([[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]], [[Brazil]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Zaire]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], and [[Indonesia]]) met in [[Bogotá]], Colombia. With their "[[Bogota Declaration|Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries", or "the Bogotá Declaration"]], they claimed control of the segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each country.<ref name=bogota1976/> These claims are not internationally accepted.<ref name=aasl31_2006/>

== Discovery, exploration and applications ==
{{See also|Space science}}
=== Discovery ===
In 350 BCE, Greek philosopher [[Aristotle]] suggested that ''nature abhors a vacuum'', a principle that became known as the ''[[Horror vacui (physics)|horror vacui]]''. This concept built upon a 5th-century BCE [[Ontology|ontological]] argument by the Greek philosopher [[Parmenides]], who denied the possible existence of a void in space.{{sfn|Grant|1981|p=10}} Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the [[Western culture|West]] it was widely held for many centuries that space could not be empty.{{sfn|Porter|Park|Daston|2006|p=27}} As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher [[René Descartes]] argued that the entirety of space must be filled.{{sfn|Eckert|2006|p=5}}

In [[ancient China]], the 2nd-century astronomer [[Zhang Heng]] became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun and the stars. The surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, "empty and void of substance". Likewise, the "sun, moon, and the company of stars float in the empty space, moving or standing still".{{sfn|Needham|Ronan|1985|pp=82–87}}

The Italian scientist [[Galileo Galilei]] knew that air had mass and so was subject to gravity. In 1640, he demonstrated that an established force resisted the formation of a vacuum. It would remain for his pupil [[Evangelista Torricelli]] to create an apparatus that would produce a partial vacuum in 1643. This experiment resulted in the first mercury [[barometer]] and created a scientific sensation in Europe. The French mathematician [[Blaise Pascal]] reasoned that if the column of mercury was supported by air, then the column ought to be shorter at higher altitude where the [[air pressure]] is lower.{{sfn|Holton|Brush|2001|pp=267–268}} In 1648, his brother-in-law, Florin Périer, repeated the experiment on the [[Puy de Dôme]] mountain in central France and found that the column was shorter by three inches. This decrease in pressure was further demonstrated by carrying a half-full balloon up a mountain and watching it gradually expand, then contract upon descent.{{sfn|Cajori|1917|pp=64–66}}

[[File:Magedurger Halbkugeln Luftpumpe Deutsches Museum.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The original [[Magdeburg hemispheres]] (lower left) used to demonstrate Otto von Guericke's vacuum pump (right)|alt=A glass display case holds a mechanical device with a lever arm, plus two metal hemispheres attached to draw ropes]]

In 1650, German scientist [[Otto von Guericke]] constructed the first vacuum pump: a device that would further refute the principle of ''horror vacui''. He correctly noted that the atmosphere of the Earth surrounds the planet like a shell, with the [[density]] gradually declining with altitude. He concluded that there must be a vacuum between the Earth and the Moon.{{sfn|Genz|2001|pp=127–128}}

Back in the 15th century, German theologian [[Nicolaus Cusanus]] speculated that the [[Universe]] lacked a center and a circumference. He believed that the Universe, while not infinite, could not be held as finite as it lacked any bounds within which it could be contained.{{sfn|Tassoul|Tassoul|2004|p=22}} These ideas led to speculations as to the infinite dimension of space by the Italian philosopher [[Giordano Bruno]] in the 16th century. He extended the Copernican [[heliocentric]] [[cosmology]] to the concept of an infinite Universe filled with a substance he called [[Aether (classical element)|aether]], which did not resist the motion of heavenly bodies.{{sfn|Gatti|2002|pp=99–104}} English philosopher [[William Gilbert (astronomer)|William Gilbert]] arrived at a similar conclusion, arguing that the stars are visible to us only because they are surrounded by a thin aether or a void.{{sfn|Kelly|1965|pp=97–107}} This concept of an aether originated with [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] philosophers, including Aristotle, who conceived of it as the medium through which the heavenly bodies move.{{sfn|Olenick|Apostol|Goodstein|1986|p=356}}

The concept of a Universe filled with a [[luminiferous aether]] retained support among some scientists until the early 20th century. This form of aether was viewed as the medium through which light could propagate.{{sfn|Hariharan|2003|p=2}} In 1887, the [[Michelson–Morley experiment]] tried to detect the Earth's motion through this medium by looking for changes in the [[speed of light]] depending on the direction of the planet's motion. The [[null result]] indicated something was wrong with the concept. The idea of the luminiferous aether was then abandoned. It was replaced by [[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of [[special relativity]], which holds that the speed of light in a vacuum is a fixed constant, independent of the observer's motion or [[frame of reference]].{{sfn|Olenick|Apostol|Goodstein|1986|pp=357–365}}{{sfn|Thagard|1992|pp=206–209}}

The first professional [[astronomer]] to support the concept of an infinite Universe was the Englishman [[Thomas Digges]] in 1576.{{sfn|Maor|1991|p=195}} But the scale of the Universe remained unknown until the first successful measurement of the distance to a nearby star in 1838 by the German astronomer [[Friedrich Bessel]]. He showed that the star system [[61 Cygni]] had a [[stellar parallax|parallax]] of just 0.31 [[arcsecond]]s (compared to the modern value of 0.287″). This corresponds to a distance of over 10 [[light year]]s.{{sfn|Webb|1999|pp=71–73}} In 1917, [[Heber Doust Curtis|Heber Curtis]] noted that [[nova]]e in spiral nebulae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than galactic novae, suggesting that the former are 100 times further away.<ref name=Curtis1988/> The distance to the [[Andromeda Galaxy]] was determined in 1923 by American astronomer [[Edwin Hubble]] by measuring the brightness of [[cepheid variable]]s in that galaxy, a new technique discovered by [[Henrietta Leavitt]].<ref name=csiro_20041025/> This established that the Andromeda galaxy, and by extension all galaxies, lay well outside the [[Milky Way]].{{sfn|Tyson|Goldsmith|2004|pp=114–115}}

The modern concept of outer space is based on the [[Big Bang cosmology|"Big Bang" cosmology]], first proposed in 1931 by the Belgian physicist [[Georges Lemaître]].<ref name=nature127_3210_706/> This theory holds that the universe originated from a very dense form that has since undergone continuous [[Hubble's law|expansion]].

The earliest known estimate of the temperature of outer space was by the Swiss physicist [[Charles Édouard Guillaume|Charles É. Guillaume]] in 1896. Using the estimated radiation of the background stars, he concluded that space must be heated to a temperature of 5–6 K. British physicist [[Arthur Eddington]] made a similar calculation to derive a temperature of 3.18 K in 1926. German physicist [[Erich Regener]] used the total measured energy of [[cosmic ray]]s to estimate an intergalactic temperature of 2.8 K in 1933.<ref name="Apeiron2_3_79"/> American physicists [[Ralph Alpher]] and [[Robert Herman]] predicted 5 K for the temperature of space in 1948, based on the gradual decrease in background energy following the then-new [[Big Bang]] theory.<ref name="Apeiron2_3_79"/> The modern measurement of the [[cosmic microwave background]] is about 2.7K.

The term ''outward space'' was used in 1842 by the English poet Lady [[Emmeline Stuart-Wortley]] in her poem "The Maiden of Moscow".{{sfn|Stuart Wortley|1841|p=410}} The expression ''outer space'' was used as an astronomical term by [[Alexander von Humboldt]] in 1845.{{sfn|Von Humboldt|1845|p=39}} It was later popularized in the writings of [[H. G. Wells]] in 1901.<ref name="entymonline"/> The shorter term ''space'' is older, first used to mean the region beyond Earth's sky in [[John Milton]]'s ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' in 1667.<ref name=harper2001/><ref name=Brady2007/> "[[:wikt:spaceborne|Spaceborne]]" denotes existing in outer space, especially if carried by a [[spacecraft]];<ref name="Merriam-Webster 2022"/><ref name="Fall Cao Hong Eymard 2022"/> similarly, "[[:wikt:space-based|space-based]]" means based in outer space or using [[space technology]].

=== Exploration and application ===
{{Main|Space exploration|Human presence in space}}
{{See also|Astronautics|Spaceflight|Benefits of space exploration|Earth observation|Commercialization of space|Human spaceflight|Space habitation}}
[[File:As08-16-2593.jpg|thumb|left|The first image taken by a human of the whole Earth, probably photographed by [[William Anders]] of [[Apollo 8]].<ref name="Apollo8FlightJournalDay1"/> South is up; South America is in the middle.]]

For most of human history, space was explored by observations made from the Earth's surface—initially with the unaided eye and then with the telescope. Before reliable rocket technology, the closest that humans had come to reaching outer space was through balloon flights. In 1935, the U.S. [[Explorer II]] crewed balloon flight reached an altitude of {{Convert|22|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=ssr13_2_199/> This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the German [[V-2 rocket|A-4 rocket]] climbed to an altitude of about {{Convert|80|km|mi|abbr=on}}. In 1957, the uncrewed satellite [[Sputnik 1]] was launched by a Russian [[R-7 Semyorka|R-7 rocket]], achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of {{Convert|215|-|939|km|mi}}.{{sfn|O'Leary|2009|pp=209–224}} This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961, when [[Yuri Gagarin]] was sent into orbit on [[Vostok 1]]. The first humans to escape low-Earth orbit were [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]] and [[William Anders]] in 1968 on board the U.S. [[Apollo 8]], which achieved lunar orbit{{sfn|Harrison|2002|pp=60–63}} and reached a maximum distance of {{Convert|377349|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Earth.{{sfn|Orloff|2001}}

The first spacecraft to reach escape velocity was the Soviet ''[[Luna 1]]'', which performed a fly-by of the Moon in 1959.{{sfn|Hardesty|Eisman|Krushchev|2008|pp=89–90}} In 1961, ''[[Venera 1]]'' became the first planetary probe. It revealed the presence of the solar wind and performed the first fly-by of [[Venus]], although contact was lost before reaching Venus. The first successful planetary mission was the 1962 fly-by of Venus by [[Mariner 2]].{{sfn|Collins|2007|p=86}} The first fly-by of Mars was by [[Mariner 4]] in 1964. Since that time, uncrewed spacecraft have successfully examined each of the Solar System's planets, as well their moons and many [[minor planet]]s and comets. They remain a fundamental tool for the exploration of outer space, as well as for observation of the Earth.{{sfn|Harris|2008|pp=7, 68–69}} In August 2012, ''[[Voyager 1]]'' became the first man-made object to leave the Solar System and enter [[interstellar space]].<ref name="mike_wall"/>

[[File:ISS-44 Milky Way.jpg|thumb|300px|Outer space from the [[International Space Station]] at 400 km altitude in [[low Earth orbit]]. In the background the [[Milky Way]]'s [[interstellar space]] is visible, as well as in the foreground, above Earth, the [[airglow]] of the [[ionosphere]] just below and beyond the so-defined edge of space the [[Kármán line]] in the [[thermosphere]]]]
The absence of air makes outer space an ideal location for astronomy at all wavelengths of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]]. This is evidenced by the spectacular pictures sent back by the [[Hubble Space Telescope]], allowing light from more than 13 billion years ago—almost to the time of the Big Bang—to be observed.<ref name=hubblesite_cosmicdawn /> Not every location in space is ideal for a telescope. The [[Interplanetary dust cloud|interplanetary zodiacal dust]] emits a diffuse near-infrared radiation that can mask the emission of faint sources such as extrasolar planets. Moving an [[infrared telescope]] out past the dust increases its effectiveness.<ref name=esa105/> Likewise, a site like the [[Daedalus (crater)|Daedalus crater]] on the [[far side of the Moon]] could shield a [[radio telescope]] from the [[Electromagnetic interference|radio frequency interference]] that hampers Earth-based observations.<ref name=maccone2001/>

Uncrewed spacecraft in Earth orbit are an essential technology of modern civilization. They allow direct monitoring of [[Weather satellite|weather conditions]], relay [[Communications satellite|long-range communications]] like television, provide a means of [[Satellite navigation|precise navigation]], and allow [[remote sensing]] of the Earth. The latter role serves a wide variety of purposes, including tracking soil moisture for agriculture, prediction of water outflow from seasonal snow packs, detection of diseases in plants and trees, and [[Spy satellite|surveillance]] of military activities.{{sfn|Razani|2012|pp=97–99}}

The deep vacuum of space could make it an attractive environment for certain industrial processes, such as those requiring ultraclean surfaces.<ref name=chapman1991/> Like [[asteroid mining]], [[space manufacturing]] would require a large financial investment with little prospect of immediate return.<ref name="IJA10_307"/> An important factor in the total expense is the high cost of placing mass into Earth orbit: ${{Inflation|US|6000|2006|r=-3|fmt=c}}–${{Inflation|US|20000|2006|r=-3|fmt=c}} per kg, according to a 2006 estimate (allowing for inflation since then).<ref name="jsr43_3_696"/> The cost of access to space has declined since 2013. Partially reusable rockets such as the [[Falcon 9]] have lowered access to space below 3500 dollars per kilogram. With these new rockets the cost to send materials into space remains prohibitively high for many industries. Proposed concepts for addressing this issue include, fully [[reusable launch system]]s, [[non-rocket spacelaunch]], [[momentum exchange tether]]s, and [[space elevators]].{{sfn|Bolonkin|2010|p=xv}}

[[Interstellar travel]] for a human crew remains at present only a theoretical possibility. The distances to the nearest stars mean it would require new technological developments and the ability to safely sustain crews for journeys lasting several decades. For example, the [[Project Daedalus|Daedalus Project]] study, which proposed a spacecraft powered by the [[nuclear fusion|fusion]] of [[deuterium]] and [[helium-3]], would require 36 years to reach the "nearby" [[Alpha Centauri]] system. Other proposed interstellar propulsion systems include [[light sail]]s, [[Bussard ramjet|ramjets]], and [[beam-powered propulsion]]. More advanced propulsion systems could use [[antimatter]] as a fuel, potentially reaching [[relativistic speed|relativistic velocities]].<ref name=Crawford1990/>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Animals in space]]
* [[Earth's location|Earth's location in the Universe]]
* [[List of government space agencies]]
* [[List of topics in space]]
* [[Olbers' paradox]]
* [[Outline of space science]]
* [[Panspermia]]
* [[Space and survival]]
* [[Space environment]]
* [[Space race]]
* [[Space station]]
* [[Space technology]]
* [[Space weather]]
* [[Space weathering]]
* [[Timeline of knowledge about the interstellar and intergalactic medium]]
* [[Timeline of Solar System exploration]]
* [[Timeline of spaceflight]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
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<ref name=pasj20_230>{{citation | last=Tadokoro | first=M. | title=A Study of the Local Group by Use of the Virial Theorem | journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan | volume=20 | page=230 | date=1968 | bibcode=1968PASJ...20..230T | postscript=. }} This source estimates a density of {{nowrap|7 × 10−29 g/cm3}} for the [[Local Group]]. An [[atomic mass unit]] is {{nowrap|1.66 × 10−24 g}}, for roughly 40 atoms per cubic meter.</ref>

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<ref name=curtis_and_Letaw>{{citation
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{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{sister project links|voy=Space|v=Category:Astronomy|d=Q4169|n=Category:Space|s=Category:Astronomy|b=Category:Subject:Astronomy}}

{{Inspace}}
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[[Category:Outer space| ]]
[[Category:Environments]]
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Circle K

2022-09-22T14:53:59Z

72.142.115.198: /* Sponsorship */

{{Short description|International chain of convenience stores}}
{{about|the convenience store and gas station chain|the service organization|Circle K International|the kosher food markings symbol|OK Kosher Certification|other uses|Circle-k (disambiguation)}}
{{expand language|topic=|langcode=ja|otherarticle=サークルK|date=May 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Circle K Stores Inc.
| image = Circle K CD.JUAREZ.jpg
| image_caption = A Circle K location in [[Ciudad Juárez|Juárez]].
| logo = Circle K logo 2016.svg
| logo_caption =
| type =[[Privately held company|Private]]
| founder = Fred Hervey
| area_served = {{collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
| title = Several countries
| [[Cambodia]]
| [[Canada]]
| [[China]]
| [[Costa Rica]]
| [[Denmark]]
| [[Egypt]]
| [[Estonia]]
| [[Guam]]
| [[Honduras]]
| [[Hong Kong]]
| [[Indonesia]]
| [[Ireland]]
| [[Latvia]]
| [[Lithuania]]
| [[Macau]]
| [[Malaysia]]
| [[Mexico]]
| [[Morocco]]
| [[Mongolia]]
| [[New Zealand]]
| [[Norway]]
| [[Philippines]]
| [[Poland]]
| [[Sweden]]
| [[United Arab Emirates]]
| [[United Kingdom]]
| [[United States]]
| [[Vietnam]]
| [[Russia]]
}}
| industry = [[Convenience store|Retail (convenience stores)]]
| parent = [[Couche-Tard]]
| founded = [[El Paso, Texas]] ({{start date and age|1951}})
| hq_location_city = [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Arizona]], [[United States]]
| website = {{URL|circlek.com/}}
| footnotes = <ref name="CTAbout">{{cite web|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/en/our-company/|title=Our Company|website=Couche-Tard|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CKHistory">{{cite web|url=https://www.circlek.com/history-and-timeline#fndtn-timeline-tab|title=History and Timeline|website=Circle K Stores, Inc.|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CTBrand">{{Cite web|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/en/our-company/our-brands/global-circle-k/|title=Global Circle K|website=Couche-Tard|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="Norway">{{cite web |url=http://e24.no/privat/bensin-statoil-doepes-om-til-circle-k/23529378 |title="Bensin-Statoil" døpes om til "Circle K" |publisher=E24 |language=no |date=September 22, 2015 |access-date=November 22, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rte.ie/news/business/2018/0413/954206-circle-k-rebranding/ |title=Topaz Rebrands to Circle K in Ireland |date=April 13, 2018 |publisher=RTE |access-date=April 13, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.couche-tard.com/ |title=Accueil dépanneurs Couche-Tard |publisher=Couche-tard.com |access-date=February 29, 2012}}</ref>
| hq_location_country = U.S. and Canada
| num_locations = 15,000+
| num_employees = 40,000+
}}

'''Circle K Stores, Inc.''' an American chain of [[convenience store]]s, owned by the multinational company [[Couche-Tard]] and headquartered in [[Laval, Quebec|Laval]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/company/1514Q:US | title=Circle K Corp/The - Company Profile and News | website=[[Bloomberg News]] }}</ref> Founded in 1951 in [[El Paso, Texas]], the company filed for [[bankruptcy]] protection in 1990 and went through several owners, before being acquired by Alimentation Couche-Tard in 2003.<ref name="CKHistory" /><ref name="CTAbout" /> As of February 2020, Circle K has 9,799 stores in North America, 2,697 stores in Europe, and an additional 2,380 stores operating under franchise agreements worldwide.<ref name="CTAbout" />

In 2015, Circle K unveiled a new logo and brand identity, and Couche-Tard announced that it would deploy the brand globally, including English-speaking Canada (rebranding from the [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]] brand), Europe (rebranding from the [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] brand), and the United States (rebranding from the [[The Pantry|Kangaroo Express]] brand and updating the existing Circle K brand).<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CTBrand" />

==Overview==
Since the 1980s, Circle K has been the largest chain of company-owned and operated (non-franchised) convenience stores in the United States.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q62w4GPXMcAC&pg=PA217|title=Financial Accounting|last1=Albrecht|first1=W. Steve|last2=Stice|first2=Earl K.|last3=Stice|first3=James D.|publisher=Thomson/South-Western|year=2008|isbn=978-0324645576|edition=10th|location=Mason, OH|pages=217|oclc=159958977}}</ref> With 7,230 stores overall in the United States, Circle K is second to [[7-Eleven]]'s 9,348 stores (as of July 2019),.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/top-100-convenience-store-chains-2019|title=Top 100 Convenience Store Chains|date=2019-07-30|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> As of February 2020, there are more than 14,800 stores with the Circle K brand worldwide.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand">{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/circle-ks-global-rebranding-effort-marches-across-north-america|title=Circle K's Global Rebranding Effort Marches Across North America|date=2020-03-31|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref>

Within the United States, Circle K owns and operates stores in 47 states (the three states without being Nebraska, Utah and Wisconsin), <ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> with the largest concentration of stores found in Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, and Texas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.circlek.com/store-locator|title=Store Locator|date=2020-05-02|website=Circle K Stores, Inc.|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> Fuel is sold under various brands, with the Circle K and [[Shell Oil Company|Shell]] brands as the most common. Other brands of fuel sold at Circle K stores include [[Valero Energy|Valero]], [[BP]], [[Exxon]], [[Marathon Oil Company|Marathon]], [[Irving Oil|Irving]], [[Mobil]], [[Esso]] and [[Phillips 66]]. Approximately 13% of stores worldwide do not sell gasoline.<ref name="CTAbout" />

Circle K operates stores in the United States, Canada, Europe (the Nordics, Baltics, Poland, Russia, Ireland and the United Kingdom), and Hong Kong, and has franchises in [[Mexico]] (it partners with the Mexican stores "[[Tiendas Extra]]" created by Modelo Group), Cambodia, China, Egypt, Guam, Honduras, Indonesia, Jamaica, Macau, Mongolia, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Vietnam.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> In [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]], the stores are called ''OK'' in reference to the circle around the K. Circle K Hong Kong was founded in 1985 by [[Li & Fung]] Retailing (later Fung Retailing) as licensee of the name,<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/business/about_ok.htm|title=About Circle K|publisher=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2020-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718002158/http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/business/about_ok.htm|archive-date=2020-07-18}}</ref> but sold back to Couche-Tard in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/newsroom/press/p201105.pdf|title=Convenience Retail Asia to sell 340 Circle K stores to Alimentation Couche-Tard – the owner of the Circle K brand|date=2020-11-05|website=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2021-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302134036/http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/newsroom/press/p201105.pdf|archive-date=2021-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://doc.irasia.com/listco/hk/cra/announcement/a240342-e_completionannouncement.pdf|title=Completion of the very substantial disposal in relation to the convenience store business and update on payment of special cash dividend and resignation of director|date=2020-12-21|website=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2021-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302134433/https://doc.irasia.com/listco/hk/cra/announcement/a240342-e_completionannouncement.pdf|archive-date=2021-03-02}}</ref> Circle K had 387 franchised locations throughout Hong Kong as of May 2020.<ref name=":3"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.circlek.hk/en/store|title=Store Locator|date=2020-05-02|website=Circle K Hong Kong|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref>

[[File:Circle K on East Point Road 2022.jpg|thumb|200px|A Circle K located in [[Causeway Bay]], [[Hong Kong]].]]
The Circle K brand entered the Canadian market in 2008, in connection with Couche-Tard's acquisition of [[Irving Oil]]'s convenience store network.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/couche-tard-inks-deal-to-run-stores-at-irving-gas-stations/article1055104/|title=Couche-Tard inks deal to run stores at Irving gas stations|date=2008-05-09|website=The Globe and Mail|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://marketingmag.ca/brands/couche-tard-to-take-over-irving-blue-canoes-15603|title=Couche-Tard to take over Irving Blue Canoes|date=2008-05-09|website=Marketing Magazine|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> By 2019, more than 800 Mac's branded stores had been rebranded to Circle K throughout central and western Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/couche-tard-enters-year-four-circle-k-rebranding-campaign|title=Couche-Tard Enters Year Four of Circle K Rebranding Campaign|date=2019-09-17|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CTBrand" />

[[File:CircleK-Northernmost.jpg|thumb|right|The world's most northern fuel station, in [[Longyearbyen]], [[Norway]].]]
In September 2015, Couche-Tard announced that Circle K would become the worldwide brand of all of its convenience stores, replacing [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]], [[The Pantry|Kangaroo Express]], and [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] brands (except the Couche-Tard brand in Quebec and the INGO brand in Europe).<ref name="CTBrand" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> This global rebrand included the introduction of a new logo incorporating elements of its existing brands, improvements to its product offerings and technology, and investing in store-level improvements aimed at improving the customer experience.<ref name="CSNRebrand" /><ref name="CTBrand" /> The rebranding occurred over the following five years and as of March 2020, all of Europe and 85% of North America had been updated with the Circle K brand and logo.<ref name="CSNRebrand" />

==History==
Entrepreneur Fred Hervey purchased three Kay's Food Stores in [[El Paso, Texas]], in 1951.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=History and timeline |url=https://www.circlek.com/history-and-timeline |website=Circle K |access-date=27 February 2020}}</ref> Hervey renamed the stores as "Circle K Food Stores, Inc." rather than "Kay." He grew the Circle K chain into neighboring New Mexico and Arizona, which has been the company's home base since 1957. (Hervey would go on to serve two terms as mayor of El Paso.)

By 1975, there were 1,000 Circle K stores across the U.S. In 1979, Circle K first expanded its reach into foreign markets via a licensing agreement which established the first Circle K stores in Japan by [[UNY]].<ref name=":2" /> Until 2018, Circle K stores in Japan were run by the [[FamilyMart]] Company, that was named [[Circle K Sunkus]] Company until 2016<ref>{{Cite news|author=Reuters Staff|date=2015-03-10|title=Japan's FamilyMart, UNY to merge in September 2016|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-familymart-uny-idUSKBN0M60JU20150310|access-date=2020-10-21}}</ref> and was named '''Circle K Japan''' Company until 2004, which licensed the Circle K brand from Alimentation Couche-Tard. In 2018,<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 July 2018|title=ALIMENTATION COUCHE-TARD INC.ANNUAL INFORMATION FORM For Fiscal year ended April 29, 2018|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/AIF-2018-ENG-v8-FINAL.pdf|access-date=21 October 2020|website=couche-tard.com}}</ref> all Circle K stores in Japan were converted to [[FamilyMart]] stores. In 1983, the number of stores increased to 2,180 with the purchase of the 960-store [[UtoteM]] chain in the western and southern United States.<ref>{{cite news |title=Circle K-Utotem |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/12/29/business/circle-k-utotem.html |access-date=17 January 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=December 29, 1983}}</ref>

[[Karl Eller]], a prominent [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] businessman, served as the company's CEO from 1983 to 1990. During that time, Eller built Circle K into the second largest convenience store operation and the largest publicly owned convenience store chain in the U.S. with 4,631 stores in 32 states and an additional 1,300 or so licensed or joint venture stores in 13 foreign countries. Under Eller's leadership, the company grew from annual sales of $747 million (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|747000000|1983}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}) to over $3 billion (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|3000000000|1990}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}).

In 1988, the company sent a letter to its over 8,000 employees announcing that it will cut off the medical coverage of those who become sick or injured as a result of AIDS, alcohol, drug abuse or self-inflicted wounds. The company stated that "There are certain lifestyle decisions that we are just not going to assure the results of."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/06/us/company-halting-health-plan-on-some-life-style-illnesses.html|title=Company Halting Health Plan On Some 'Life Style' Illnesses|last=Noble|first=Kenneth B.|date=1988-08-06|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-02-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Fortunes declined in the late 1980s as the US economy began to slow down, and Circle K filed for [[Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 11]] [[bankruptcy]] protection in May 1990; Eller resigned as CEO. Some underperforming locations were sold or closed. In 1993 the company was purchased by [[Investcorp]], an international investment group, and emerged from bankruptcy.

In 1996, Circle K was acquired by [[Tosco Corporation]], an independent petroleum refiner and marketer, but kept its headquarters in Phoenix. Tosco was purchased in 2001 by Phillips Petroleum, which, in 2002, merged with Conoco to form ConocoPhillips. In 2003, Circle K was purchased by [[Alimentation Couche-Tard]], a large, multinational convenience store operator based in the [[Montreal]] area,<ref name=":2" /> for US$830 million (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|830000000|2003}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2003-10-06|title=Couche-Tard to purchase Circle K|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/3130382/ns/business-world_business/t/couche-tard-purchase-circle-k/|access-date=2020-10-21|website=msnbc.com|language=en}}</ref>

In 2005, [[Taiwan]]'s OK Convenience Store chain terminated its franchise agreement with Circle K.<ref>{{Cite web
| publisher = USDA Foreign Agricultural Service Global Agricultural Information Network
| last = Amy Chang-Chien Hsueh
| author2 = Josephine Hsu
| title = Taiwan Convenience Stores 2010
| access-date = May 17, 2014
| date = June 30, 2010
| url = http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Taiwan%20Convenience%20Stores%202010_Taipei%20ATO_Taiwan_6-30-2010.pdf
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923012033/http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Taiwan%20Convenience%20Stores%202010_Taipei%20ATO_Taiwan_6-30-2010.pdf
| archive-date = September 23, 2015
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

In 2006, the company acquired the 90-store Spectrum chain serving [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Alabama]],<ref name="spectrum">{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/couche-tard-acquires-spectrum-stores-a-90-store-chain-in-the-southeast-region-us-56211367.html |title=Couche-Tard acquires Spectrum Stores a 90 store chain in the Southeast Region (U.S.) |publisher=PR Newswire |date=April 11, 2006}}</ref> the CFM chain in [[Missouri]], 35 Sterling Dairy locations in [[Northwest Ohio]], and 26 stores under various brands from Chico Enterprises of [[Morgantown, West Virginia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-acquires-26-stores-three-states|title=Circle K Acquires 26 Stores in Three States|date=2011-11-09|website=Convenience Store News|language=en|access-date=2019-02-27}}</ref> This came after the 2005 rebranding of the various Couche-Tard stores ([[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]], [[Bigfoot (convenience store)|Bigfoot]], [[Lawson (store)|Dairy Mart]], and Handy Andy) under the more nationally known Circle K brand.<ref name="csn-2004sep12">{{cite news |url=http://www.csnews.com/industry-news-and-trends/marketing/couche-tard-rebrands-midwest-stores-circle-k?nopaging=1 |title=Couche-Tard Rebrands Midwest Stores to Circle K: Process should take approximately two years. |website=Convenience Store News |date=September 12, 2004 |author=}}</ref>

In mid-2006, Alimentation Couche-Tard entered into a franchising agreement with ConocoPhillips to brand some of its company-owned stores as Circle K, in the western portion of the US. ConocoPhillips remodeled the stores into the Circle K scheme but continued to operate them. The stores continued to have the new ConocoPhillips unified canopy design and ProClean gasolines. These stores were spun off as [[Phillips 66]] in May 2012.

Another oil company, [[Canada]]-based [[Irving Oil]], leased out its convenience stores operating under the Bluecanoe and Mainway banners in the United States and [[Atlantic Canada]] to Couche-Tard, which rebranded the locations to Circle K in July 2008, while still selling Irving-branded fuel. However, the Mainways in [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] did not change until summer 2010. The parties had earlier formed a similar partnership in [[Quebec]], with the stores there operated as Couche-Tard.

In April 2009, [[ExxonMobil]] sold 43 Phoenix stores to parent company Couche-Tard as part of a sale of the larger [[On the Run (convenience store)|On the Run]] franchise. These 43 stores were to be rebranded under the Circle K name.<ref>{{Cite news
|url=http://www.csnews.com/csn/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003967316
|title=Couche-Tard Acquires ExxonMobil Franchised On the Run Stores
|work=Convenience Store News
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705123302/http://www.csnews.com/csn/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003967316
|archive-date=July 5, 2009
|url-status=dead
|df=dmy
}}
</ref>

In July 2010, Circle K had dropped down to fourth rank in number of stores (3,455), behind [[7-Eleven]] (6,523 stores), [[BP]] (4,730 stores), and [[Shell Oil Company|Shell]] (4,630 convenience stores) in 2010.<ref name=":1" />

On February 10, 2014, Modelo Group Sold the [[Tiendas Extra]] brand of stores to the Mexican franchise of Circle K, Circulo K.
[[File:Exxon Circle K North Richland Hills TX.jpg|thumb|left|A Circle K with an [[Exxon]] fuel station in [[North Richland Hills, Texas]].]]
On December 18, 2014, Couche-Tard announced its acquisition of [[The Pantry]] for $860 million all-cash tender (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|860000000|2014}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}). The acquisition closed in March 2015.<ref name="Couche-Tard, Pantry Complete Merger">{{cite web|url=http://www.cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisition-growth/mergers-acquisitions-news/articles/couche-tard-pantry-complete-merger|title=Couche-Tard, Pantry Complete Merger|date=March 16, 2015|publisher=cspdailynews.com|access-date=March 16, 2015}}</ref> Following the closing, all stores that were owned and operated by The Pantry, many of them under the "Kangaroo Express" name, were expected to be rebranded under the Circle K banner.<ref name="Cary's The Pantry stores sells for $861M to Circle K parent">{{cite web|url=http://www.bizjournals.com/triangle/news/2014/12/18/the-pantry-cary-nc-sold-to-circle-k-parent.html|title=Cary's The Pantry stores sells for $861M to Circle K parent|date=December 18, 2014|publisher=bizjournals.com|access-date=December 18, 2014}}</ref>

On August 12, 2015, Circle K opened its first five convenience stores in [[Costa Rica]], Central America, after having bought and rebranded the local convenience store chain Delimart.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

[[File:EssoRichmondHill.jpg|thumb|right|A Circle K in [[Richmond Hill, Ontario]], converted from an [[On the Run (convenience store)|On the Run]] store after its purchase from [[Imperial Oil]].]]

On September 23, 2015, Couche-Tard unveiled a refreshed brand identity for Circle K, and announced that the [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] (Northern, Central and Eastern Europe) and [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]] (English Canada) brands would be converted to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://edmontonjournal.com/business/commercial-real-estate/all-edmonton-macs-locations-rebranded-as-circle-k-stores-by-2019|title=All Edmonton Mac's locations rebranded as Circle K stores by 2019|date=2018-09-07|work=Edmonton Journal|access-date=2018-09-11|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Mac's stores to be renamed Circle K, says owner Couche-Tard">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/business/macs-brand-retired-1.3238458|title=Mac's stores to be renamed Circle K, says owner Couche-Tard|date=September 22, 2015|publisher=[[CBC News]]|access-date=September 22, 2015}}</ref><ref name=cspnet-circleklogo>{{cite web|title=Circle K Transformation Goes Beyond Rebranding|url=http://www.cspnet.com/industry-news-analysis/corporate-news/articles/circle-k-transformation-goes-beyond-rebranding|website=CSPNet|access-date=September 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925002843/http://www.cspnet.com/industry-news-analysis/corporate-news/articles/circle-k-transformation-goes-beyond-rebranding|archive-date=September 25, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2016, Couche-Tard acquired the Irish service station chain [[Topaz Energy|Topaz]]. In April 2018, Couche-Tard announced that they too would be rebranded to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thejournal.ie/topaz-rebranding-circle-k-3956365-Apr2018|title=Service station Topaz rebrands to Circle K, as €55 million investment announced|last=Halpin|first=Hayley|work=TheJournal.ie|access-date=2018-06-14|language=en}}</ref> Couche-Tard similarly acquired [[Imperial Oil]]'s [[Esso]] retail locations in Ontario (228) and Quebec (50) the same year, and rebranded the convenience stores in Ontario (many of which previously operating under the On the Run brand) to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/imperial-oil-esso-sales-1.3482381|title=Imperial Oil to sell Esso stations for $2.8B |agency=Canadian Press|work=CBC News|access-date=2018-06-14|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2017, Couche-Tard completed its acquisition of [[CST Brands]], adding stores formerly owned by [[Valero Energy]], and a portion of the [[Ultramar]] chain in Canada to Circle K (with the latter also switching fuel suppliers to Irving).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thetelegram.com/business/a-dozen-nl-ultramar-stations-being-converted-to-irving-and-circle-k-as-part-of-joint-venture-233556/|title=A dozen N.L. Ultramar stations being converted to Irving and Circle K as part of joint venture|website=The Telegram|language=en|access-date=2019-06-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/pei-st-peters-road-ultramar-rebranding-irving-circle-k-1.4735132|title=Irving purchases St. Peters Road Ultramar, rebranding to begin soon|date=July 5, 2018|website=CBC News|access-date=June 30, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://huddle.today/irving-oil-buys-13-ultramar-gas-stations-across-atlantic-canada/|title=Irving Oil Buys 13 Ultramar Gas Stations Across Atlantic Canada|last=Intiar|first=Inda|date=2018-07-04|website=Huddle|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-30}}</ref>

Also in 2017, Couche-Tard bought [[Holiday Stationstores]], a Minnesota-based chain of gas stations in the midwest United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/alimentation-couche-tard-inc-announces-closing-date-of-the-acquisition-of-holiday-664471413.html|title=Alimentation Couche-Tard Inc. announces closing date of the acquisition of Holiday|date=2017-12-15|website=PR Newswire|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> The company subsequently extended business practices from Holiday to its North American stores, including piloting a food service model adapted from that of Holiday.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Circle K Stores Begin Piloting Holiday’s Grab-and-Go Concept |url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-stores-begin-piloting-holidays-grab-and-go-concept |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=Convenience Store News |language=en}}</ref>

In September 2021, Circle K announced the purchase of 10 convenience and food stores from the Griffin Group in Ireland. All the stores being bought are in Dublin and located in busy areas such as O’Connell Street, College Green, Grafton Street and Sandyford.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Circle K makes foray onto Irish high street with stores purchase|url=https://www.independent.ie/business/circle-k-makes-foray-onto-irish-high-street-with-stores-purchase-40837026.html|access-date=2021-09-10|website=independent|language=en}}</ref>

In February 2022, Couche-Tard announced that it would rebrand 12 Holiday Stationstores locations in [[Sioux Falls, South Dakota]] to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 30, 2022 |first=Greg |last=Lindenberg |title=Couche-Tard Rebranding 12 Holiday Stationstores to Circle K |url=https://cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisitions/couche-tard-rebranding-12-holiday-stationstores-circle-k |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=CSP Daily News |language=en}}</ref>

A May 2022 report in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' reported that Circle K parent Alimentation Couche-Tard is in talks to buy [[EG Group]]. Should a deal go through, it would significantly boost Circle K's presence in several U.S. markets (especially [[Florida]], [[New England]] and [[Ohio]]) as well as giving it a location in every state except [[Utah]]. Internationally, it would give Circle K access to [[Australia]], [[Western Europe]], and EG Group's home market of the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisitions/couche-tard-eg-group-merger-talks-report | title=Couche-Tard, EG Group in Merger Talks: Report }}</ref> Some have speculated that the deal may be in response to Alimentation Couche-Tard having been outbid by its primary rival [[7-Eleven]] for the American [[Speedway (store)|Speedway]] chain.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/alimentation-couche-tard-eg-group-in-deal-talks-11651263387 | title=Convenience-Store Giants Couche-Tard, EG Group in Deal Talks | newspaper=Wall Street Journal | date=April 29, 2022 }}</ref>

==Wage violations==

A 2021 report on [[wage theft]] by the [[Center for Public Integrity]] named Circle K as one of the "worst offenders" in the United States.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://publicintegrity.org/inequality-poverty-opportunity/workers-rights/cheated-at-work/ripping-off-workers-with-no-consequences/ | title=Ripping off workers without consequences | publisher=[[Center for Public Integrity]] | date=2021-05-04 | first1=Alexia | last1=Fernández Campbell | first2=Joe | last2=Yerardi}}</ref> A [[class-action lawsuit]] was brought against the company in 2014,<ref>{{cite news | date=2014-06-17 | url=https://knpr.org/knpr/2014-06/convenience-store-employees-sue-overtime-pay | publisher=[[KNPR]] | title=Convenience Store Employees Sue For Overtime Pay | last=Sieroty | first=Chris}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | date=2015-08-27 | url=https://csnews.com/judge-oks-circle-k-overtime-suit-national-class-action | title=Judge OKs Circle K Overtime Suit as National Class-Action | publisher=csnews.com}}</ref> for which the company agreed in 2019 to pay a [[settlement (litigation)|settlement]] of US$8.3 million.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reviewjournal.com/local/local-las-vegas/circle-k-settles-overtime-suit-in-las-vegas-for-about-8-3m-1564885/ | publisher=[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]] | title=Circle K settles overtime suit in Las Vegas for about $8.3M | last=Ferrara | first=David | date=2019-01-03}}</ref> Circle K settled a similar class-action lawsuit in 2015 as well.<ref>{{cite web | last=Bucher | first=Anne | url=https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/closed-settlements/circle-k-wage-and-hour-class-action-settlement/ | publisher=TopClassActions | date=2015-12-08 | title=Circle K Wage and Hour Class Action Settlement}}</ref>

==Frosters and Polar Pops==
Fountain drinks at Circle K are sold in Polar Pop cups, previously called Thirst Busters, are available in expanded polystyrene cups. In areas where polystyrene containers are illegal, plastic cups are offered. The 52-ounce cups are plastic. Most American locations offer any size, 32 ounce or under for under one American dollar. 52-ounce or above cups are priced at over a dollar. The price point of its 44-ounce size (marketed as "Epic XL" in some regions) may vary, as it may be under or over $1, depending on region.

The Polar Pop was first introduced in Bigfoot convenience stores by Johnson Oil Company in Columbus, Indiana, prior to its acquisition by Alimentation Couche-Tard. After the acquisition, the company began rebranding fountain drinks in other stores owned by Couche-Tard. As of 2018, Circle K sells 17 Polar Pops every second in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Circle K Kicks Off First Multi-National Polar Pop Promo|url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-kicks-first-multi-national-polar-pop-promo|access-date=2021-05-23|website=Convenience Store News|language=en}}</ref>

The Froster, which was introduced to Mac's stores in 1998, became very popular throughout Western Canada and Ontario. The American version of the Froster was introduced in 1999.

shout out carti

==Sponsorship==
Circle K was a part-time primary sponsor of the No. 28 [[IndyCar Series]] racecar driven by [[Ryan Hunter-Reay]] of [[Andretti Autosport]] between 2011 and 2013. In 2014, it switched to [[KVSH Racing]] driver [[Sébastien Bourdais]]. Circle K, along with [[Oberto Sausage Company]], currently sponsors [[Marco Andretti]].

Circle K is sponsored by Pornhub as of 2022, they also are soon going to be sponsored by mf doom.

In 2017, Circle K went to [[NASCAR]], sponsoring [[Matt Kenseth]] and [[Joe Gibbs Racing]] with full livery for six races. It was on the car when Kenseth won his final NASCAR Cup Race at that year's [[2017 Can-Am 500 | fall race at Phoenix Raceway]].

Also in 2017, Circle K became the official shirt sponsor of [[United Soccer League]] side [[North Carolina FC]]<ref>{{cite web|title=North Carolina Football Club Unveils Jersey Sponsorships For NCFC And NC Courage|url=http://www.northcarolinafc.com/news/2017/03/20/north-carolina-football-club-unveils-jersey-sponsorships-for-north-carolina-fc-and-north-carolina-courage|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116095433/hhttp://www.northcarolinafc.com/news/2017/03/20/north-carolina-football-club-unveils-jersey-sponsorships-for-north-carolina-fc-and-north-carolina-courage|archive-date=November 16, 2017|website=northcarolinafc.com|url-status=dead|access-date=2019-10-12}}</ref> and signed a two-year sponsorship agreement with the [[Lietuvos krepšinio lyga|Lithuanian Basketball League]].<ref>{{cite news|title=LKL rėmėjų gretas papildė dar viena itin solidi įmonė|url=http://www.krepsinis.net/naujiena/lkl-remeju-gretas-papilde-dar-viena-itin-solidi-imone/278291|access-date=October 8, 2017|work=Krepsinis.net|publisher=Lithuanian Basketball League|date=October 6, 2017|language=lt}}</ref>

Due to its sizable presence in [[Greater Cleveland]], from the former Lawson/Dairy Mart stores, Circle K sponsors the [[Cleveland Guardians]] [[strikeout]] sign. It is located in center field at [[Progressive Field]] in [[Cleveland]]. The "K" logo represents the "K" used for strikeouts in traditional [[baseball scorekeeping]] and is replicated with each strikeout. The same sponsorship is in place with the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] at [[Chase Field]]. If the Diamondbacks strike out ten batters or more, the game's attendees receive a [[voucher]] for a free cup of Polar Pop, while Guardians fans receive the same voucher after select home games.

In May 2017, a sponsored Circle K Power Cube was introduced into the online game ''[[Ingress (video game)|Ingress]]''.<ref>{{Cite web| title = After the success of their XM folding research produced enhanced Power Cubes,...| access-date = February 12, 2018| url = https://plus.google.com/+Ingress/posts/eXx3Dtmx7PA}}</ref>

[[File:Circle K logo.svg|thumb|125px|The former Circle K logo. It can still be seen in New England, Canada, Hong Kong and Macau.]]

==See also==
{{portal|Arizona|Companies}}
* [[Circle K Sunkus]]
* [[List of automotive fuel brands]]
* [[List of convenience stores]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Circle K}}
*{{official website|http://www.circlek.com/}} USA and Canada site

*{{official website|https://www.circlek.ie/}} Ireland site
{{Convenience stores}}

[[Category:1951 establishments in Texas]]
[[Category:American subsidiaries of foreign companies]]
[[Category:Alimentation Couche-Tard]]
[[Category:Companies based in Tempe, Arizona]]
[[Category:Convenience stores of Canada]]
[[Category:Convenience stores of the United States]]
[[Category:Franchises]]
[[Category:Li & Fung]]
[[Category:Gas stations in the United States]]
[[Category:Retail companies established in 1951]]
[[Category:Fast-food chains of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1990]]
[[Category:2003 mergers and acquisitions]]

Circle K

2022-09-22T14:52:28Z

72.142.115.198: /* Frosters and Polar Pops */

{{Short description|International chain of convenience stores}}
{{about|the convenience store and gas station chain|the service organization|Circle K International|the kosher food markings symbol|OK Kosher Certification|other uses|Circle-k (disambiguation)}}
{{expand language|topic=|langcode=ja|otherarticle=サークルK|date=May 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Circle K Stores Inc.
| image = Circle K CD.JUAREZ.jpg
| image_caption = A Circle K location in [[Ciudad Juárez|Juárez]].
| logo = Circle K logo 2016.svg
| logo_caption =
| type =[[Privately held company|Private]]
| founder = Fred Hervey
| area_served = {{collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
| title = Several countries
| [[Cambodia]]
| [[Canada]]
| [[China]]
| [[Costa Rica]]
| [[Denmark]]
| [[Egypt]]
| [[Estonia]]
| [[Guam]]
| [[Honduras]]
| [[Hong Kong]]
| [[Indonesia]]
| [[Ireland]]
| [[Latvia]]
| [[Lithuania]]
| [[Macau]]
| [[Malaysia]]
| [[Mexico]]
| [[Morocco]]
| [[Mongolia]]
| [[New Zealand]]
| [[Norway]]
| [[Philippines]]
| [[Poland]]
| [[Sweden]]
| [[United Arab Emirates]]
| [[United Kingdom]]
| [[United States]]
| [[Vietnam]]
| [[Russia]]
}}
| industry = [[Convenience store|Retail (convenience stores)]]
| parent = [[Couche-Tard]]
| founded = [[El Paso, Texas]] ({{start date and age|1951}})
| hq_location_city = [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Arizona]], [[United States]]
| website = {{URL|circlek.com/}}
| footnotes = <ref name="CTAbout">{{cite web|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/en/our-company/|title=Our Company|website=Couche-Tard|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CKHistory">{{cite web|url=https://www.circlek.com/history-and-timeline#fndtn-timeline-tab|title=History and Timeline|website=Circle K Stores, Inc.|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CTBrand">{{Cite web|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/en/our-company/our-brands/global-circle-k/|title=Global Circle K|website=Couche-Tard|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="Norway">{{cite web |url=http://e24.no/privat/bensin-statoil-doepes-om-til-circle-k/23529378 |title="Bensin-Statoil" døpes om til "Circle K" |publisher=E24 |language=no |date=September 22, 2015 |access-date=November 22, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rte.ie/news/business/2018/0413/954206-circle-k-rebranding/ |title=Topaz Rebrands to Circle K in Ireland |date=April 13, 2018 |publisher=RTE |access-date=April 13, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.couche-tard.com/ |title=Accueil dépanneurs Couche-Tard |publisher=Couche-tard.com |access-date=February 29, 2012}}</ref>
| hq_location_country = U.S. and Canada
| num_locations = 15,000+
| num_employees = 40,000+
}}

'''Circle K Stores, Inc.''' an American chain of [[convenience store]]s, owned by the multinational company [[Couche-Tard]] and headquartered in [[Laval, Quebec|Laval]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/company/1514Q:US | title=Circle K Corp/The - Company Profile and News | website=[[Bloomberg News]] }}</ref> Founded in 1951 in [[El Paso, Texas]], the company filed for [[bankruptcy]] protection in 1990 and went through several owners, before being acquired by Alimentation Couche-Tard in 2003.<ref name="CKHistory" /><ref name="CTAbout" /> As of February 2020, Circle K has 9,799 stores in North America, 2,697 stores in Europe, and an additional 2,380 stores operating under franchise agreements worldwide.<ref name="CTAbout" />

In 2015, Circle K unveiled a new logo and brand identity, and Couche-Tard announced that it would deploy the brand globally, including English-speaking Canada (rebranding from the [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]] brand), Europe (rebranding from the [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] brand), and the United States (rebranding from the [[The Pantry|Kangaroo Express]] brand and updating the existing Circle K brand).<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CTBrand" />

==Overview==
Since the 1980s, Circle K has been the largest chain of company-owned and operated (non-franchised) convenience stores in the United States.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q62w4GPXMcAC&pg=PA217|title=Financial Accounting|last1=Albrecht|first1=W. Steve|last2=Stice|first2=Earl K.|last3=Stice|first3=James D.|publisher=Thomson/South-Western|year=2008|isbn=978-0324645576|edition=10th|location=Mason, OH|pages=217|oclc=159958977}}</ref> With 7,230 stores overall in the United States, Circle K is second to [[7-Eleven]]'s 9,348 stores (as of July 2019),.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/top-100-convenience-store-chains-2019|title=Top 100 Convenience Store Chains|date=2019-07-30|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> As of February 2020, there are more than 14,800 stores with the Circle K brand worldwide.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand">{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/circle-ks-global-rebranding-effort-marches-across-north-america|title=Circle K's Global Rebranding Effort Marches Across North America|date=2020-03-31|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref>

Within the United States, Circle K owns and operates stores in 47 states (the three states without being Nebraska, Utah and Wisconsin), <ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> with the largest concentration of stores found in Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, and Texas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.circlek.com/store-locator|title=Store Locator|date=2020-05-02|website=Circle K Stores, Inc.|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> Fuel is sold under various brands, with the Circle K and [[Shell Oil Company|Shell]] brands as the most common. Other brands of fuel sold at Circle K stores include [[Valero Energy|Valero]], [[BP]], [[Exxon]], [[Marathon Oil Company|Marathon]], [[Irving Oil|Irving]], [[Mobil]], [[Esso]] and [[Phillips 66]]. Approximately 13% of stores worldwide do not sell gasoline.<ref name="CTAbout" />

Circle K operates stores in the United States, Canada, Europe (the Nordics, Baltics, Poland, Russia, Ireland and the United Kingdom), and Hong Kong, and has franchises in [[Mexico]] (it partners with the Mexican stores "[[Tiendas Extra]]" created by Modelo Group), Cambodia, China, Egypt, Guam, Honduras, Indonesia, Jamaica, Macau, Mongolia, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Vietnam.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> In [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]], the stores are called ''OK'' in reference to the circle around the K. Circle K Hong Kong was founded in 1985 by [[Li & Fung]] Retailing (later Fung Retailing) as licensee of the name,<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/business/about_ok.htm|title=About Circle K|publisher=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2020-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718002158/http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/business/about_ok.htm|archive-date=2020-07-18}}</ref> but sold back to Couche-Tard in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/newsroom/press/p201105.pdf|title=Convenience Retail Asia to sell 340 Circle K stores to Alimentation Couche-Tard – the owner of the Circle K brand|date=2020-11-05|website=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2021-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302134036/http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/newsroom/press/p201105.pdf|archive-date=2021-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://doc.irasia.com/listco/hk/cra/announcement/a240342-e_completionannouncement.pdf|title=Completion of the very substantial disposal in relation to the convenience store business and update on payment of special cash dividend and resignation of director|date=2020-12-21|website=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2021-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302134433/https://doc.irasia.com/listco/hk/cra/announcement/a240342-e_completionannouncement.pdf|archive-date=2021-03-02}}</ref> Circle K had 387 franchised locations throughout Hong Kong as of May 2020.<ref name=":3"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.circlek.hk/en/store|title=Store Locator|date=2020-05-02|website=Circle K Hong Kong|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref>

[[File:Circle K on East Point Road 2022.jpg|thumb|200px|A Circle K located in [[Causeway Bay]], [[Hong Kong]].]]
The Circle K brand entered the Canadian market in 2008, in connection with Couche-Tard's acquisition of [[Irving Oil]]'s convenience store network.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/couche-tard-inks-deal-to-run-stores-at-irving-gas-stations/article1055104/|title=Couche-Tard inks deal to run stores at Irving gas stations|date=2008-05-09|website=The Globe and Mail|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://marketingmag.ca/brands/couche-tard-to-take-over-irving-blue-canoes-15603|title=Couche-Tard to take over Irving Blue Canoes|date=2008-05-09|website=Marketing Magazine|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> By 2019, more than 800 Mac's branded stores had been rebranded to Circle K throughout central and western Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/couche-tard-enters-year-four-circle-k-rebranding-campaign|title=Couche-Tard Enters Year Four of Circle K Rebranding Campaign|date=2019-09-17|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CTBrand" />

[[File:CircleK-Northernmost.jpg|thumb|right|The world's most northern fuel station, in [[Longyearbyen]], [[Norway]].]]
In September 2015, Couche-Tard announced that Circle K would become the worldwide brand of all of its convenience stores, replacing [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]], [[The Pantry|Kangaroo Express]], and [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] brands (except the Couche-Tard brand in Quebec and the INGO brand in Europe).<ref name="CTBrand" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> This global rebrand included the introduction of a new logo incorporating elements of its existing brands, improvements to its product offerings and technology, and investing in store-level improvements aimed at improving the customer experience.<ref name="CSNRebrand" /><ref name="CTBrand" /> The rebranding occurred over the following five years and as of March 2020, all of Europe and 85% of North America had been updated with the Circle K brand and logo.<ref name="CSNRebrand" />

==History==
Entrepreneur Fred Hervey purchased three Kay's Food Stores in [[El Paso, Texas]], in 1951.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=History and timeline |url=https://www.circlek.com/history-and-timeline |website=Circle K |access-date=27 February 2020}}</ref> Hervey renamed the stores as "Circle K Food Stores, Inc." rather than "Kay." He grew the Circle K chain into neighboring New Mexico and Arizona, which has been the company's home base since 1957. (Hervey would go on to serve two terms as mayor of El Paso.)

By 1975, there were 1,000 Circle K stores across the U.S. In 1979, Circle K first expanded its reach into foreign markets via a licensing agreement which established the first Circle K stores in Japan by [[UNY]].<ref name=":2" /> Until 2018, Circle K stores in Japan were run by the [[FamilyMart]] Company, that was named [[Circle K Sunkus]] Company until 2016<ref>{{Cite news|author=Reuters Staff|date=2015-03-10|title=Japan's FamilyMart, UNY to merge in September 2016|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-familymart-uny-idUSKBN0M60JU20150310|access-date=2020-10-21}}</ref> and was named '''Circle K Japan''' Company until 2004, which licensed the Circle K brand from Alimentation Couche-Tard. In 2018,<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 July 2018|title=ALIMENTATION COUCHE-TARD INC.ANNUAL INFORMATION FORM For Fiscal year ended April 29, 2018|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/AIF-2018-ENG-v8-FINAL.pdf|access-date=21 October 2020|website=couche-tard.com}}</ref> all Circle K stores in Japan were converted to [[FamilyMart]] stores. In 1983, the number of stores increased to 2,180 with the purchase of the 960-store [[UtoteM]] chain in the western and southern United States.<ref>{{cite news |title=Circle K-Utotem |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/12/29/business/circle-k-utotem.html |access-date=17 January 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=December 29, 1983}}</ref>

[[Karl Eller]], a prominent [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] businessman, served as the company's CEO from 1983 to 1990. During that time, Eller built Circle K into the second largest convenience store operation and the largest publicly owned convenience store chain in the U.S. with 4,631 stores in 32 states and an additional 1,300 or so licensed or joint venture stores in 13 foreign countries. Under Eller's leadership, the company grew from annual sales of $747 million (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|747000000|1983}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}) to over $3 billion (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|3000000000|1990}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}).

In 1988, the company sent a letter to its over 8,000 employees announcing that it will cut off the medical coverage of those who become sick or injured as a result of AIDS, alcohol, drug abuse or self-inflicted wounds. The company stated that "There are certain lifestyle decisions that we are just not going to assure the results of."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/06/us/company-halting-health-plan-on-some-life-style-illnesses.html|title=Company Halting Health Plan On Some 'Life Style' Illnesses|last=Noble|first=Kenneth B.|date=1988-08-06|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-02-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Fortunes declined in the late 1980s as the US economy began to slow down, and Circle K filed for [[Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 11]] [[bankruptcy]] protection in May 1990; Eller resigned as CEO. Some underperforming locations were sold or closed. In 1993 the company was purchased by [[Investcorp]], an international investment group, and emerged from bankruptcy.

In 1996, Circle K was acquired by [[Tosco Corporation]], an independent petroleum refiner and marketer, but kept its headquarters in Phoenix. Tosco was purchased in 2001 by Phillips Petroleum, which, in 2002, merged with Conoco to form ConocoPhillips. In 2003, Circle K was purchased by [[Alimentation Couche-Tard]], a large, multinational convenience store operator based in the [[Montreal]] area,<ref name=":2" /> for US$830 million (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|830000000|2003}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2003-10-06|title=Couche-Tard to purchase Circle K|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/3130382/ns/business-world_business/t/couche-tard-purchase-circle-k/|access-date=2020-10-21|website=msnbc.com|language=en}}</ref>

In 2005, [[Taiwan]]'s OK Convenience Store chain terminated its franchise agreement with Circle K.<ref>{{Cite web
| publisher = USDA Foreign Agricultural Service Global Agricultural Information Network
| last = Amy Chang-Chien Hsueh
| author2 = Josephine Hsu
| title = Taiwan Convenience Stores 2010
| access-date = May 17, 2014
| date = June 30, 2010
| url = http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Taiwan%20Convenience%20Stores%202010_Taipei%20ATO_Taiwan_6-30-2010.pdf
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923012033/http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Taiwan%20Convenience%20Stores%202010_Taipei%20ATO_Taiwan_6-30-2010.pdf
| archive-date = September 23, 2015
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

In 2006, the company acquired the 90-store Spectrum chain serving [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Alabama]],<ref name="spectrum">{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/couche-tard-acquires-spectrum-stores-a-90-store-chain-in-the-southeast-region-us-56211367.html |title=Couche-Tard acquires Spectrum Stores a 90 store chain in the Southeast Region (U.S.) |publisher=PR Newswire |date=April 11, 2006}}</ref> the CFM chain in [[Missouri]], 35 Sterling Dairy locations in [[Northwest Ohio]], and 26 stores under various brands from Chico Enterprises of [[Morgantown, West Virginia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-acquires-26-stores-three-states|title=Circle K Acquires 26 Stores in Three States|date=2011-11-09|website=Convenience Store News|language=en|access-date=2019-02-27}}</ref> This came after the 2005 rebranding of the various Couche-Tard stores ([[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]], [[Bigfoot (convenience store)|Bigfoot]], [[Lawson (store)|Dairy Mart]], and Handy Andy) under the more nationally known Circle K brand.<ref name="csn-2004sep12">{{cite news |url=http://www.csnews.com/industry-news-and-trends/marketing/couche-tard-rebrands-midwest-stores-circle-k?nopaging=1 |title=Couche-Tard Rebrands Midwest Stores to Circle K: Process should take approximately two years. |website=Convenience Store News |date=September 12, 2004 |author=}}</ref>

In mid-2006, Alimentation Couche-Tard entered into a franchising agreement with ConocoPhillips to brand some of its company-owned stores as Circle K, in the western portion of the US. ConocoPhillips remodeled the stores into the Circle K scheme but continued to operate them. The stores continued to have the new ConocoPhillips unified canopy design and ProClean gasolines. These stores were spun off as [[Phillips 66]] in May 2012.

Another oil company, [[Canada]]-based [[Irving Oil]], leased out its convenience stores operating under the Bluecanoe and Mainway banners in the United States and [[Atlantic Canada]] to Couche-Tard, which rebranded the locations to Circle K in July 2008, while still selling Irving-branded fuel. However, the Mainways in [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] did not change until summer 2010. The parties had earlier formed a similar partnership in [[Quebec]], with the stores there operated as Couche-Tard.

In April 2009, [[ExxonMobil]] sold 43 Phoenix stores to parent company Couche-Tard as part of a sale of the larger [[On the Run (convenience store)|On the Run]] franchise. These 43 stores were to be rebranded under the Circle K name.<ref>{{Cite news
|url=http://www.csnews.com/csn/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003967316
|title=Couche-Tard Acquires ExxonMobil Franchised On the Run Stores
|work=Convenience Store News
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705123302/http://www.csnews.com/csn/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003967316
|archive-date=July 5, 2009
|url-status=dead
|df=dmy
}}
</ref>

In July 2010, Circle K had dropped down to fourth rank in number of stores (3,455), behind [[7-Eleven]] (6,523 stores), [[BP]] (4,730 stores), and [[Shell Oil Company|Shell]] (4,630 convenience stores) in 2010.<ref name=":1" />

On February 10, 2014, Modelo Group Sold the [[Tiendas Extra]] brand of stores to the Mexican franchise of Circle K, Circulo K.
[[File:Exxon Circle K North Richland Hills TX.jpg|thumb|left|A Circle K with an [[Exxon]] fuel station in [[North Richland Hills, Texas]].]]
On December 18, 2014, Couche-Tard announced its acquisition of [[The Pantry]] for $860 million all-cash tender (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|860000000|2014}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}). The acquisition closed in March 2015.<ref name="Couche-Tard, Pantry Complete Merger">{{cite web|url=http://www.cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisition-growth/mergers-acquisitions-news/articles/couche-tard-pantry-complete-merger|title=Couche-Tard, Pantry Complete Merger|date=March 16, 2015|publisher=cspdailynews.com|access-date=March 16, 2015}}</ref> Following the closing, all stores that were owned and operated by The Pantry, many of them under the "Kangaroo Express" name, were expected to be rebranded under the Circle K banner.<ref name="Cary's The Pantry stores sells for $861M to Circle K parent">{{cite web|url=http://www.bizjournals.com/triangle/news/2014/12/18/the-pantry-cary-nc-sold-to-circle-k-parent.html|title=Cary's The Pantry stores sells for $861M to Circle K parent|date=December 18, 2014|publisher=bizjournals.com|access-date=December 18, 2014}}</ref>

On August 12, 2015, Circle K opened its first five convenience stores in [[Costa Rica]], Central America, after having bought and rebranded the local convenience store chain Delimart.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

[[File:EssoRichmondHill.jpg|thumb|right|A Circle K in [[Richmond Hill, Ontario]], converted from an [[On the Run (convenience store)|On the Run]] store after its purchase from [[Imperial Oil]].]]

On September 23, 2015, Couche-Tard unveiled a refreshed brand identity for Circle K, and announced that the [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] (Northern, Central and Eastern Europe) and [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]] (English Canada) brands would be converted to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://edmontonjournal.com/business/commercial-real-estate/all-edmonton-macs-locations-rebranded-as-circle-k-stores-by-2019|title=All Edmonton Mac's locations rebranded as Circle K stores by 2019|date=2018-09-07|work=Edmonton Journal|access-date=2018-09-11|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Mac's stores to be renamed Circle K, says owner Couche-Tard">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/business/macs-brand-retired-1.3238458|title=Mac's stores to be renamed Circle K, says owner Couche-Tard|date=September 22, 2015|publisher=[[CBC News]]|access-date=September 22, 2015}}</ref><ref name=cspnet-circleklogo>{{cite web|title=Circle K Transformation Goes Beyond Rebranding|url=http://www.cspnet.com/industry-news-analysis/corporate-news/articles/circle-k-transformation-goes-beyond-rebranding|website=CSPNet|access-date=September 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925002843/http://www.cspnet.com/industry-news-analysis/corporate-news/articles/circle-k-transformation-goes-beyond-rebranding|archive-date=September 25, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2016, Couche-Tard acquired the Irish service station chain [[Topaz Energy|Topaz]]. In April 2018, Couche-Tard announced that they too would be rebranded to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thejournal.ie/topaz-rebranding-circle-k-3956365-Apr2018|title=Service station Topaz rebrands to Circle K, as €55 million investment announced|last=Halpin|first=Hayley|work=TheJournal.ie|access-date=2018-06-14|language=en}}</ref> Couche-Tard similarly acquired [[Imperial Oil]]'s [[Esso]] retail locations in Ontario (228) and Quebec (50) the same year, and rebranded the convenience stores in Ontario (many of which previously operating under the On the Run brand) to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/imperial-oil-esso-sales-1.3482381|title=Imperial Oil to sell Esso stations for $2.8B |agency=Canadian Press|work=CBC News|access-date=2018-06-14|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2017, Couche-Tard completed its acquisition of [[CST Brands]], adding stores formerly owned by [[Valero Energy]], and a portion of the [[Ultramar]] chain in Canada to Circle K (with the latter also switching fuel suppliers to Irving).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thetelegram.com/business/a-dozen-nl-ultramar-stations-being-converted-to-irving-and-circle-k-as-part-of-joint-venture-233556/|title=A dozen N.L. Ultramar stations being converted to Irving and Circle K as part of joint venture|website=The Telegram|language=en|access-date=2019-06-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/pei-st-peters-road-ultramar-rebranding-irving-circle-k-1.4735132|title=Irving purchases St. Peters Road Ultramar, rebranding to begin soon|date=July 5, 2018|website=CBC News|access-date=June 30, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://huddle.today/irving-oil-buys-13-ultramar-gas-stations-across-atlantic-canada/|title=Irving Oil Buys 13 Ultramar Gas Stations Across Atlantic Canada|last=Intiar|first=Inda|date=2018-07-04|website=Huddle|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-30}}</ref>

Also in 2017, Couche-Tard bought [[Holiday Stationstores]], a Minnesota-based chain of gas stations in the midwest United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/alimentation-couche-tard-inc-announces-closing-date-of-the-acquisition-of-holiday-664471413.html|title=Alimentation Couche-Tard Inc. announces closing date of the acquisition of Holiday|date=2017-12-15|website=PR Newswire|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> The company subsequently extended business practices from Holiday to its North American stores, including piloting a food service model adapted from that of Holiday.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Circle K Stores Begin Piloting Holiday’s Grab-and-Go Concept |url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-stores-begin-piloting-holidays-grab-and-go-concept |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=Convenience Store News |language=en}}</ref>

In September 2021, Circle K announced the purchase of 10 convenience and food stores from the Griffin Group in Ireland. All the stores being bought are in Dublin and located in busy areas such as O’Connell Street, College Green, Grafton Street and Sandyford.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Circle K makes foray onto Irish high street with stores purchase|url=https://www.independent.ie/business/circle-k-makes-foray-onto-irish-high-street-with-stores-purchase-40837026.html|access-date=2021-09-10|website=independent|language=en}}</ref>

In February 2022, Couche-Tard announced that it would rebrand 12 Holiday Stationstores locations in [[Sioux Falls, South Dakota]] to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 30, 2022 |first=Greg |last=Lindenberg |title=Couche-Tard Rebranding 12 Holiday Stationstores to Circle K |url=https://cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisitions/couche-tard-rebranding-12-holiday-stationstores-circle-k |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=CSP Daily News |language=en}}</ref>

A May 2022 report in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' reported that Circle K parent Alimentation Couche-Tard is in talks to buy [[EG Group]]. Should a deal go through, it would significantly boost Circle K's presence in several U.S. markets (especially [[Florida]], [[New England]] and [[Ohio]]) as well as giving it a location in every state except [[Utah]]. Internationally, it would give Circle K access to [[Australia]], [[Western Europe]], and EG Group's home market of the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisitions/couche-tard-eg-group-merger-talks-report | title=Couche-Tard, EG Group in Merger Talks: Report }}</ref> Some have speculated that the deal may be in response to Alimentation Couche-Tard having been outbid by its primary rival [[7-Eleven]] for the American [[Speedway (store)|Speedway]] chain.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/alimentation-couche-tard-eg-group-in-deal-talks-11651263387 | title=Convenience-Store Giants Couche-Tard, EG Group in Deal Talks | newspaper=Wall Street Journal | date=April 29, 2022 }}</ref>

==Wage violations==

A 2021 report on [[wage theft]] by the [[Center for Public Integrity]] named Circle K as one of the "worst offenders" in the United States.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://publicintegrity.org/inequality-poverty-opportunity/workers-rights/cheated-at-work/ripping-off-workers-with-no-consequences/ | title=Ripping off workers without consequences | publisher=[[Center for Public Integrity]] | date=2021-05-04 | first1=Alexia | last1=Fernández Campbell | first2=Joe | last2=Yerardi}}</ref> A [[class-action lawsuit]] was brought against the company in 2014,<ref>{{cite news | date=2014-06-17 | url=https://knpr.org/knpr/2014-06/convenience-store-employees-sue-overtime-pay | publisher=[[KNPR]] | title=Convenience Store Employees Sue For Overtime Pay | last=Sieroty | first=Chris}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | date=2015-08-27 | url=https://csnews.com/judge-oks-circle-k-overtime-suit-national-class-action | title=Judge OKs Circle K Overtime Suit as National Class-Action | publisher=csnews.com}}</ref> for which the company agreed in 2019 to pay a [[settlement (litigation)|settlement]] of US$8.3 million.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reviewjournal.com/local/local-las-vegas/circle-k-settles-overtime-suit-in-las-vegas-for-about-8-3m-1564885/ | publisher=[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]] | title=Circle K settles overtime suit in Las Vegas for about $8.3M | last=Ferrara | first=David | date=2019-01-03}}</ref> Circle K settled a similar class-action lawsuit in 2015 as well.<ref>{{cite web | last=Bucher | first=Anne | url=https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/closed-settlements/circle-k-wage-and-hour-class-action-settlement/ | publisher=TopClassActions | date=2015-12-08 | title=Circle K Wage and Hour Class Action Settlement}}</ref>

==Frosters and Polar Pops==
Fountain drinks at Circle K are sold in Polar Pop cups, previously called Thirst Busters, are available in expanded polystyrene cups. In areas where polystyrene containers are illegal, plastic cups are offered. The 52-ounce cups are plastic. Most American locations offer any size, 32 ounce or under for under one American dollar. 52-ounce or above cups are priced at over a dollar. The price point of its 44-ounce size (marketed as "Epic XL" in some regions) may vary, as it may be under or over $1, depending on region.

The Polar Pop was first introduced in Bigfoot convenience stores by Johnson Oil Company in Columbus, Indiana, prior to its acquisition by Alimentation Couche-Tard. After the acquisition, the company began rebranding fountain drinks in other stores owned by Couche-Tard. As of 2018, Circle K sells 17 Polar Pops every second in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Circle K Kicks Off First Multi-National Polar Pop Promo|url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-kicks-first-multi-national-polar-pop-promo|access-date=2021-05-23|website=Convenience Store News|language=en}}</ref>

The Froster, which was introduced to Mac's stores in 1998, became very popular throughout Western Canada and Ontario. The American version of the Froster was introduced in 1999.

shout out carti

==Sponsorship==
Circle K was a part-time primary sponsor of the No. 28 [[IndyCar Series]] racecar driven by [[Ryan Hunter-Reay]] of [[Andretti Autosport]] between 2011 and 2013. In 2014, it switched to [[KVSH Racing]] driver [[Sébastien Bourdais]]. Circle K, along with [[Oberto Sausage Company]], currently sponsors [[Marco Andretti]].

Circle K is sponsored by Pornhub as of 2022, they also are soon going to be sponsored by JJ Olatunji.

In 2017, Circle K went to [[NASCAR]], sponsoring [[Matt Kenseth]] and [[Joe Gibbs Racing]] with full livery for six races. It was on the car when Kenseth won his final NASCAR Cup Race at that year's [[2017 Can-Am 500 | fall race at Phoenix Raceway]].

Also in 2017, Circle K became the official shirt sponsor of [[United Soccer League]] side [[North Carolina FC]]<ref>{{cite web|title=North Carolina Football Club Unveils Jersey Sponsorships For NCFC And NC Courage|url=http://www.northcarolinafc.com/news/2017/03/20/north-carolina-football-club-unveils-jersey-sponsorships-for-north-carolina-fc-and-north-carolina-courage|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116095433/hhttp://www.northcarolinafc.com/news/2017/03/20/north-carolina-football-club-unveils-jersey-sponsorships-for-north-carolina-fc-and-north-carolina-courage|archive-date=November 16, 2017|website=northcarolinafc.com|url-status=dead|access-date=2019-10-12}}</ref> and signed a two-year sponsorship agreement with the [[Lietuvos krepšinio lyga|Lithuanian Basketball League]].<ref>{{cite news|title=LKL rėmėjų gretas papildė dar viena itin solidi įmonė|url=http://www.krepsinis.net/naujiena/lkl-remeju-gretas-papilde-dar-viena-itin-solidi-imone/278291|access-date=October 8, 2017|work=Krepsinis.net|publisher=Lithuanian Basketball League|date=October 6, 2017|language=lt}}</ref>

Due to its sizable presence in [[Greater Cleveland]], from the former Lawson/Dairy Mart stores, Circle K sponsors the [[Cleveland Guardians]] [[strikeout]] sign. It is located in center field at [[Progressive Field]] in [[Cleveland]]. The "K" logo represents the "K" used for strikeouts in traditional [[baseball scorekeeping]] and is replicated with each strikeout. The same sponsorship is in place with the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] at [[Chase Field]]. If the Diamondbacks strike out ten batters or more, the game's attendees receive a [[voucher]] for a free cup of Polar Pop, while Guardians fans receive the same voucher after select home games.

In May 2017, a sponsored Circle K Power Cube was introduced into the online game ''[[Ingress (video game)|Ingress]]''.<ref>{{Cite web| title = After the success of their XM folding research produced enhanced Power Cubes,...| access-date = February 12, 2018| url = https://plus.google.com/+Ingress/posts/eXx3Dtmx7PA}}</ref>

[[File:Circle K logo.svg|thumb|125px|The former Circle K logo. It can still be seen in New England, Canada, Hong Kong and Macau.]]

==See also==
{{portal|Arizona|Companies}}
* [[Circle K Sunkus]]
* [[List of automotive fuel brands]]
* [[List of convenience stores]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Circle K}}
*{{official website|http://www.circlek.com/}} USA and Canada site

*{{official website|https://www.circlek.ie/}} Ireland site
{{Convenience stores}}

[[Category:1951 establishments in Texas]]
[[Category:American subsidiaries of foreign companies]]
[[Category:Alimentation Couche-Tard]]
[[Category:Companies based in Tempe, Arizona]]
[[Category:Convenience stores of Canada]]
[[Category:Convenience stores of the United States]]
[[Category:Franchises]]
[[Category:Li & Fung]]
[[Category:Gas stations in the United States]]
[[Category:Retail companies established in 1951]]
[[Category:Fast-food chains of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1990]]
[[Category:2003 mergers and acquisitions]]

Circle K

2022-09-22T14:52:18Z

72.142.115.198: /* Sponsorship */

{{Short description|International chain of convenience stores}}
{{about|the convenience store and gas station chain|the service organization|Circle K International|the kosher food markings symbol|OK Kosher Certification|other uses|Circle-k (disambiguation)}}
{{expand language|topic=|langcode=ja|otherarticle=サークルK|date=May 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Circle K Stores Inc.
| image = Circle K CD.JUAREZ.jpg
| image_caption = A Circle K location in [[Ciudad Juárez|Juárez]].
| logo = Circle K logo 2016.svg
| logo_caption =
| type =[[Privately held company|Private]]
| founder = Fred Hervey
| area_served = {{collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
| title = Several countries
| [[Cambodia]]
| [[Canada]]
| [[China]]
| [[Costa Rica]]
| [[Denmark]]
| [[Egypt]]
| [[Estonia]]
| [[Guam]]
| [[Honduras]]
| [[Hong Kong]]
| [[Indonesia]]
| [[Ireland]]
| [[Latvia]]
| [[Lithuania]]
| [[Macau]]
| [[Malaysia]]
| [[Mexico]]
| [[Morocco]]
| [[Mongolia]]
| [[New Zealand]]
| [[Norway]]
| [[Philippines]]
| [[Poland]]
| [[Sweden]]
| [[United Arab Emirates]]
| [[United Kingdom]]
| [[United States]]
| [[Vietnam]]
| [[Russia]]
}}
| industry = [[Convenience store|Retail (convenience stores)]]
| parent = [[Couche-Tard]]
| founded = [[El Paso, Texas]] ({{start date and age|1951}})
| hq_location_city = [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Arizona]], [[United States]]
| website = {{URL|circlek.com/}}
| footnotes = <ref name="CTAbout">{{cite web|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/en/our-company/|title=Our Company|website=Couche-Tard|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CKHistory">{{cite web|url=https://www.circlek.com/history-and-timeline#fndtn-timeline-tab|title=History and Timeline|website=Circle K Stores, Inc.|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CTBrand">{{Cite web|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/en/our-company/our-brands/global-circle-k/|title=Global Circle K|website=Couche-Tard|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="Norway">{{cite web |url=http://e24.no/privat/bensin-statoil-doepes-om-til-circle-k/23529378 |title="Bensin-Statoil" døpes om til "Circle K" |publisher=E24 |language=no |date=September 22, 2015 |access-date=November 22, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rte.ie/news/business/2018/0413/954206-circle-k-rebranding/ |title=Topaz Rebrands to Circle K in Ireland |date=April 13, 2018 |publisher=RTE |access-date=April 13, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.couche-tard.com/ |title=Accueil dépanneurs Couche-Tard |publisher=Couche-tard.com |access-date=February 29, 2012}}</ref>
| hq_location_country = U.S. and Canada
| num_locations = 15,000+
| num_employees = 40,000+
}}

'''Circle K Stores, Inc.''' an American chain of [[convenience store]]s, owned by the multinational company [[Couche-Tard]] and headquartered in [[Laval, Quebec|Laval]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/company/1514Q:US | title=Circle K Corp/The - Company Profile and News | website=[[Bloomberg News]] }}</ref> Founded in 1951 in [[El Paso, Texas]], the company filed for [[bankruptcy]] protection in 1990 and went through several owners, before being acquired by Alimentation Couche-Tard in 2003.<ref name="CKHistory" /><ref name="CTAbout" /> As of February 2020, Circle K has 9,799 stores in North America, 2,697 stores in Europe, and an additional 2,380 stores operating under franchise agreements worldwide.<ref name="CTAbout" />

In 2015, Circle K unveiled a new logo and brand identity, and Couche-Tard announced that it would deploy the brand globally, including English-speaking Canada (rebranding from the [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]] brand), Europe (rebranding from the [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] brand), and the United States (rebranding from the [[The Pantry|Kangaroo Express]] brand and updating the existing Circle K brand).<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CTBrand" />

==Overview==
Since the 1980s, Circle K has been the largest chain of company-owned and operated (non-franchised) convenience stores in the United States.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q62w4GPXMcAC&pg=PA217|title=Financial Accounting|last1=Albrecht|first1=W. Steve|last2=Stice|first2=Earl K.|last3=Stice|first3=James D.|publisher=Thomson/South-Western|year=2008|isbn=978-0324645576|edition=10th|location=Mason, OH|pages=217|oclc=159958977}}</ref> With 7,230 stores overall in the United States, Circle K is second to [[7-Eleven]]'s 9,348 stores (as of July 2019),.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/top-100-convenience-store-chains-2019|title=Top 100 Convenience Store Chains|date=2019-07-30|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> As of February 2020, there are more than 14,800 stores with the Circle K brand worldwide.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand">{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/circle-ks-global-rebranding-effort-marches-across-north-america|title=Circle K's Global Rebranding Effort Marches Across North America|date=2020-03-31|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref>

Within the United States, Circle K owns and operates stores in 47 states (the three states without being Nebraska, Utah and Wisconsin), <ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> with the largest concentration of stores found in Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, and Texas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.circlek.com/store-locator|title=Store Locator|date=2020-05-02|website=Circle K Stores, Inc.|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> Fuel is sold under various brands, with the Circle K and [[Shell Oil Company|Shell]] brands as the most common. Other brands of fuel sold at Circle K stores include [[Valero Energy|Valero]], [[BP]], [[Exxon]], [[Marathon Oil Company|Marathon]], [[Irving Oil|Irving]], [[Mobil]], [[Esso]] and [[Phillips 66]]. Approximately 13% of stores worldwide do not sell gasoline.<ref name="CTAbout" />

Circle K operates stores in the United States, Canada, Europe (the Nordics, Baltics, Poland, Russia, Ireland and the United Kingdom), and Hong Kong, and has franchises in [[Mexico]] (it partners with the Mexican stores "[[Tiendas Extra]]" created by Modelo Group), Cambodia, China, Egypt, Guam, Honduras, Indonesia, Jamaica, Macau, Mongolia, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Vietnam.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> In [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]], the stores are called ''OK'' in reference to the circle around the K. Circle K Hong Kong was founded in 1985 by [[Li & Fung]] Retailing (later Fung Retailing) as licensee of the name,<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/business/about_ok.htm|title=About Circle K|publisher=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2020-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718002158/http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/business/about_ok.htm|archive-date=2020-07-18}}</ref> but sold back to Couche-Tard in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/newsroom/press/p201105.pdf|title=Convenience Retail Asia to sell 340 Circle K stores to Alimentation Couche-Tard – the owner of the Circle K brand|date=2020-11-05|website=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2021-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302134036/http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/newsroom/press/p201105.pdf|archive-date=2021-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://doc.irasia.com/listco/hk/cra/announcement/a240342-e_completionannouncement.pdf|title=Completion of the very substantial disposal in relation to the convenience store business and update on payment of special cash dividend and resignation of director|date=2020-12-21|website=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2021-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302134433/https://doc.irasia.com/listco/hk/cra/announcement/a240342-e_completionannouncement.pdf|archive-date=2021-03-02}}</ref> Circle K had 387 franchised locations throughout Hong Kong as of May 2020.<ref name=":3"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.circlek.hk/en/store|title=Store Locator|date=2020-05-02|website=Circle K Hong Kong|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref>

[[File:Circle K on East Point Road 2022.jpg|thumb|200px|A Circle K located in [[Causeway Bay]], [[Hong Kong]].]]
The Circle K brand entered the Canadian market in 2008, in connection with Couche-Tard's acquisition of [[Irving Oil]]'s convenience store network.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/couche-tard-inks-deal-to-run-stores-at-irving-gas-stations/article1055104/|title=Couche-Tard inks deal to run stores at Irving gas stations|date=2008-05-09|website=The Globe and Mail|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://marketingmag.ca/brands/couche-tard-to-take-over-irving-blue-canoes-15603|title=Couche-Tard to take over Irving Blue Canoes|date=2008-05-09|website=Marketing Magazine|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> By 2019, more than 800 Mac's branded stores had been rebranded to Circle K throughout central and western Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/couche-tard-enters-year-four-circle-k-rebranding-campaign|title=Couche-Tard Enters Year Four of Circle K Rebranding Campaign|date=2019-09-17|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CTBrand" />

[[File:CircleK-Northernmost.jpg|thumb|right|The world's most northern fuel station, in [[Longyearbyen]], [[Norway]].]]
In September 2015, Couche-Tard announced that Circle K would become the worldwide brand of all of its convenience stores, replacing [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]], [[The Pantry|Kangaroo Express]], and [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] brands (except the Couche-Tard brand in Quebec and the INGO brand in Europe).<ref name="CTBrand" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> This global rebrand included the introduction of a new logo incorporating elements of its existing brands, improvements to its product offerings and technology, and investing in store-level improvements aimed at improving the customer experience.<ref name="CSNRebrand" /><ref name="CTBrand" /> The rebranding occurred over the following five years and as of March 2020, all of Europe and 85% of North America had been updated with the Circle K brand and logo.<ref name="CSNRebrand" />

==History==
Entrepreneur Fred Hervey purchased three Kay's Food Stores in [[El Paso, Texas]], in 1951.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=History and timeline |url=https://www.circlek.com/history-and-timeline |website=Circle K |access-date=27 February 2020}}</ref> Hervey renamed the stores as "Circle K Food Stores, Inc." rather than "Kay." He grew the Circle K chain into neighboring New Mexico and Arizona, which has been the company's home base since 1957. (Hervey would go on to serve two terms as mayor of El Paso.)

By 1975, there were 1,000 Circle K stores across the U.S. In 1979, Circle K first expanded its reach into foreign markets via a licensing agreement which established the first Circle K stores in Japan by [[UNY]].<ref name=":2" /> Until 2018, Circle K stores in Japan were run by the [[FamilyMart]] Company, that was named [[Circle K Sunkus]] Company until 2016<ref>{{Cite news|author=Reuters Staff|date=2015-03-10|title=Japan's FamilyMart, UNY to merge in September 2016|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-familymart-uny-idUSKBN0M60JU20150310|access-date=2020-10-21}}</ref> and was named '''Circle K Japan''' Company until 2004, which licensed the Circle K brand from Alimentation Couche-Tard. In 2018,<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 July 2018|title=ALIMENTATION COUCHE-TARD INC.ANNUAL INFORMATION FORM For Fiscal year ended April 29, 2018|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/AIF-2018-ENG-v8-FINAL.pdf|access-date=21 October 2020|website=couche-tard.com}}</ref> all Circle K stores in Japan were converted to [[FamilyMart]] stores. In 1983, the number of stores increased to 2,180 with the purchase of the 960-store [[UtoteM]] chain in the western and southern United States.<ref>{{cite news |title=Circle K-Utotem |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/12/29/business/circle-k-utotem.html |access-date=17 January 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=December 29, 1983}}</ref>

[[Karl Eller]], a prominent [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] businessman, served as the company's CEO from 1983 to 1990. During that time, Eller built Circle K into the second largest convenience store operation and the largest publicly owned convenience store chain in the U.S. with 4,631 stores in 32 states and an additional 1,300 or so licensed or joint venture stores in 13 foreign countries. Under Eller's leadership, the company grew from annual sales of $747 million (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|747000000|1983}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}) to over $3 billion (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|3000000000|1990}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}).

In 1988, the company sent a letter to its over 8,000 employees announcing that it will cut off the medical coverage of those who become sick or injured as a result of AIDS, alcohol, drug abuse or self-inflicted wounds. The company stated that "There are certain lifestyle decisions that we are just not going to assure the results of."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/06/us/company-halting-health-plan-on-some-life-style-illnesses.html|title=Company Halting Health Plan On Some 'Life Style' Illnesses|last=Noble|first=Kenneth B.|date=1988-08-06|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-02-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Fortunes declined in the late 1980s as the US economy began to slow down, and Circle K filed for [[Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 11]] [[bankruptcy]] protection in May 1990; Eller resigned as CEO. Some underperforming locations were sold or closed. In 1993 the company was purchased by [[Investcorp]], an international investment group, and emerged from bankruptcy.

In 1996, Circle K was acquired by [[Tosco Corporation]], an independent petroleum refiner and marketer, but kept its headquarters in Phoenix. Tosco was purchased in 2001 by Phillips Petroleum, which, in 2002, merged with Conoco to form ConocoPhillips. In 2003, Circle K was purchased by [[Alimentation Couche-Tard]], a large, multinational convenience store operator based in the [[Montreal]] area,<ref name=":2" /> for US$830 million (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|830000000|2003}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2003-10-06|title=Couche-Tard to purchase Circle K|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/3130382/ns/business-world_business/t/couche-tard-purchase-circle-k/|access-date=2020-10-21|website=msnbc.com|language=en}}</ref>

In 2005, [[Taiwan]]'s OK Convenience Store chain terminated its franchise agreement with Circle K.<ref>{{Cite web
| publisher = USDA Foreign Agricultural Service Global Agricultural Information Network
| last = Amy Chang-Chien Hsueh
| author2 = Josephine Hsu
| title = Taiwan Convenience Stores 2010
| access-date = May 17, 2014
| date = June 30, 2010
| url = http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Taiwan%20Convenience%20Stores%202010_Taipei%20ATO_Taiwan_6-30-2010.pdf
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923012033/http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Taiwan%20Convenience%20Stores%202010_Taipei%20ATO_Taiwan_6-30-2010.pdf
| archive-date = September 23, 2015
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

In 2006, the company acquired the 90-store Spectrum chain serving [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Alabama]],<ref name="spectrum">{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/couche-tard-acquires-spectrum-stores-a-90-store-chain-in-the-southeast-region-us-56211367.html |title=Couche-Tard acquires Spectrum Stores a 90 store chain in the Southeast Region (U.S.) |publisher=PR Newswire |date=April 11, 2006}}</ref> the CFM chain in [[Missouri]], 35 Sterling Dairy locations in [[Northwest Ohio]], and 26 stores under various brands from Chico Enterprises of [[Morgantown, West Virginia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-acquires-26-stores-three-states|title=Circle K Acquires 26 Stores in Three States|date=2011-11-09|website=Convenience Store News|language=en|access-date=2019-02-27}}</ref> This came after the 2005 rebranding of the various Couche-Tard stores ([[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]], [[Bigfoot (convenience store)|Bigfoot]], [[Lawson (store)|Dairy Mart]], and Handy Andy) under the more nationally known Circle K brand.<ref name="csn-2004sep12">{{cite news |url=http://www.csnews.com/industry-news-and-trends/marketing/couche-tard-rebrands-midwest-stores-circle-k?nopaging=1 |title=Couche-Tard Rebrands Midwest Stores to Circle K: Process should take approximately two years. |website=Convenience Store News |date=September 12, 2004 |author=}}</ref>

In mid-2006, Alimentation Couche-Tard entered into a franchising agreement with ConocoPhillips to brand some of its company-owned stores as Circle K, in the western portion of the US. ConocoPhillips remodeled the stores into the Circle K scheme but continued to operate them. The stores continued to have the new ConocoPhillips unified canopy design and ProClean gasolines. These stores were spun off as [[Phillips 66]] in May 2012.

Another oil company, [[Canada]]-based [[Irving Oil]], leased out its convenience stores operating under the Bluecanoe and Mainway banners in the United States and [[Atlantic Canada]] to Couche-Tard, which rebranded the locations to Circle K in July 2008, while still selling Irving-branded fuel. However, the Mainways in [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] did not change until summer 2010. The parties had earlier formed a similar partnership in [[Quebec]], with the stores there operated as Couche-Tard.

In April 2009, [[ExxonMobil]] sold 43 Phoenix stores to parent company Couche-Tard as part of a sale of the larger [[On the Run (convenience store)|On the Run]] franchise. These 43 stores were to be rebranded under the Circle K name.<ref>{{Cite news
|url=http://www.csnews.com/csn/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003967316
|title=Couche-Tard Acquires ExxonMobil Franchised On the Run Stores
|work=Convenience Store News
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705123302/http://www.csnews.com/csn/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003967316
|archive-date=July 5, 2009
|url-status=dead
|df=dmy
}}
</ref>

In July 2010, Circle K had dropped down to fourth rank in number of stores (3,455), behind [[7-Eleven]] (6,523 stores), [[BP]] (4,730 stores), and [[Shell Oil Company|Shell]] (4,630 convenience stores) in 2010.<ref name=":1" />

On February 10, 2014, Modelo Group Sold the [[Tiendas Extra]] brand of stores to the Mexican franchise of Circle K, Circulo K.
[[File:Exxon Circle K North Richland Hills TX.jpg|thumb|left|A Circle K with an [[Exxon]] fuel station in [[North Richland Hills, Texas]].]]
On December 18, 2014, Couche-Tard announced its acquisition of [[The Pantry]] for $860 million all-cash tender (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|860000000|2014}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}). The acquisition closed in March 2015.<ref name="Couche-Tard, Pantry Complete Merger">{{cite web|url=http://www.cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisition-growth/mergers-acquisitions-news/articles/couche-tard-pantry-complete-merger|title=Couche-Tard, Pantry Complete Merger|date=March 16, 2015|publisher=cspdailynews.com|access-date=March 16, 2015}}</ref> Following the closing, all stores that were owned and operated by The Pantry, many of them under the "Kangaroo Express" name, were expected to be rebranded under the Circle K banner.<ref name="Cary's The Pantry stores sells for $861M to Circle K parent">{{cite web|url=http://www.bizjournals.com/triangle/news/2014/12/18/the-pantry-cary-nc-sold-to-circle-k-parent.html|title=Cary's The Pantry stores sells for $861M to Circle K parent|date=December 18, 2014|publisher=bizjournals.com|access-date=December 18, 2014}}</ref>

On August 12, 2015, Circle K opened its first five convenience stores in [[Costa Rica]], Central America, after having bought and rebranded the local convenience store chain Delimart.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

[[File:EssoRichmondHill.jpg|thumb|right|A Circle K in [[Richmond Hill, Ontario]], converted from an [[On the Run (convenience store)|On the Run]] store after its purchase from [[Imperial Oil]].]]

On September 23, 2015, Couche-Tard unveiled a refreshed brand identity for Circle K, and announced that the [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] (Northern, Central and Eastern Europe) and [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]] (English Canada) brands would be converted to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://edmontonjournal.com/business/commercial-real-estate/all-edmonton-macs-locations-rebranded-as-circle-k-stores-by-2019|title=All Edmonton Mac's locations rebranded as Circle K stores by 2019|date=2018-09-07|work=Edmonton Journal|access-date=2018-09-11|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Mac's stores to be renamed Circle K, says owner Couche-Tard">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/business/macs-brand-retired-1.3238458|title=Mac's stores to be renamed Circle K, says owner Couche-Tard|date=September 22, 2015|publisher=[[CBC News]]|access-date=September 22, 2015}}</ref><ref name=cspnet-circleklogo>{{cite web|title=Circle K Transformation Goes Beyond Rebranding|url=http://www.cspnet.com/industry-news-analysis/corporate-news/articles/circle-k-transformation-goes-beyond-rebranding|website=CSPNet|access-date=September 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925002843/http://www.cspnet.com/industry-news-analysis/corporate-news/articles/circle-k-transformation-goes-beyond-rebranding|archive-date=September 25, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2016, Couche-Tard acquired the Irish service station chain [[Topaz Energy|Topaz]]. In April 2018, Couche-Tard announced that they too would be rebranded to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thejournal.ie/topaz-rebranding-circle-k-3956365-Apr2018|title=Service station Topaz rebrands to Circle K, as €55 million investment announced|last=Halpin|first=Hayley|work=TheJournal.ie|access-date=2018-06-14|language=en}}</ref> Couche-Tard similarly acquired [[Imperial Oil]]'s [[Esso]] retail locations in Ontario (228) and Quebec (50) the same year, and rebranded the convenience stores in Ontario (many of which previously operating under the On the Run brand) to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/imperial-oil-esso-sales-1.3482381|title=Imperial Oil to sell Esso stations for $2.8B |agency=Canadian Press|work=CBC News|access-date=2018-06-14|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2017, Couche-Tard completed its acquisition of [[CST Brands]], adding stores formerly owned by [[Valero Energy]], and a portion of the [[Ultramar]] chain in Canada to Circle K (with the latter also switching fuel suppliers to Irving).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thetelegram.com/business/a-dozen-nl-ultramar-stations-being-converted-to-irving-and-circle-k-as-part-of-joint-venture-233556/|title=A dozen N.L. Ultramar stations being converted to Irving and Circle K as part of joint venture|website=The Telegram|language=en|access-date=2019-06-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/pei-st-peters-road-ultramar-rebranding-irving-circle-k-1.4735132|title=Irving purchases St. Peters Road Ultramar, rebranding to begin soon|date=July 5, 2018|website=CBC News|access-date=June 30, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://huddle.today/irving-oil-buys-13-ultramar-gas-stations-across-atlantic-canada/|title=Irving Oil Buys 13 Ultramar Gas Stations Across Atlantic Canada|last=Intiar|first=Inda|date=2018-07-04|website=Huddle|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-30}}</ref>

Also in 2017, Couche-Tard bought [[Holiday Stationstores]], a Minnesota-based chain of gas stations in the midwest United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/alimentation-couche-tard-inc-announces-closing-date-of-the-acquisition-of-holiday-664471413.html|title=Alimentation Couche-Tard Inc. announces closing date of the acquisition of Holiday|date=2017-12-15|website=PR Newswire|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> The company subsequently extended business practices from Holiday to its North American stores, including piloting a food service model adapted from that of Holiday.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Circle K Stores Begin Piloting Holiday’s Grab-and-Go Concept |url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-stores-begin-piloting-holidays-grab-and-go-concept |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=Convenience Store News |language=en}}</ref>

In September 2021, Circle K announced the purchase of 10 convenience and food stores from the Griffin Group in Ireland. All the stores being bought are in Dublin and located in busy areas such as O’Connell Street, College Green, Grafton Street and Sandyford.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Circle K makes foray onto Irish high street with stores purchase|url=https://www.independent.ie/business/circle-k-makes-foray-onto-irish-high-street-with-stores-purchase-40837026.html|access-date=2021-09-10|website=independent|language=en}}</ref>

In February 2022, Couche-Tard announced that it would rebrand 12 Holiday Stationstores locations in [[Sioux Falls, South Dakota]] to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 30, 2022 |first=Greg |last=Lindenberg |title=Couche-Tard Rebranding 12 Holiday Stationstores to Circle K |url=https://cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisitions/couche-tard-rebranding-12-holiday-stationstores-circle-k |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=CSP Daily News |language=en}}</ref>

A May 2022 report in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' reported that Circle K parent Alimentation Couche-Tard is in talks to buy [[EG Group]]. Should a deal go through, it would significantly boost Circle K's presence in several U.S. markets (especially [[Florida]], [[New England]] and [[Ohio]]) as well as giving it a location in every state except [[Utah]]. Internationally, it would give Circle K access to [[Australia]], [[Western Europe]], and EG Group's home market of the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisitions/couche-tard-eg-group-merger-talks-report | title=Couche-Tard, EG Group in Merger Talks: Report }}</ref> Some have speculated that the deal may be in response to Alimentation Couche-Tard having been outbid by its primary rival [[7-Eleven]] for the American [[Speedway (store)|Speedway]] chain.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/alimentation-couche-tard-eg-group-in-deal-talks-11651263387 | title=Convenience-Store Giants Couche-Tard, EG Group in Deal Talks | newspaper=Wall Street Journal | date=April 29, 2022 }}</ref>

==Wage violations==

A 2021 report on [[wage theft]] by the [[Center for Public Integrity]] named Circle K as one of the "worst offenders" in the United States.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://publicintegrity.org/inequality-poverty-opportunity/workers-rights/cheated-at-work/ripping-off-workers-with-no-consequences/ | title=Ripping off workers without consequences | publisher=[[Center for Public Integrity]] | date=2021-05-04 | first1=Alexia | last1=Fernández Campbell | first2=Joe | last2=Yerardi}}</ref> A [[class-action lawsuit]] was brought against the company in 2014,<ref>{{cite news | date=2014-06-17 | url=https://knpr.org/knpr/2014-06/convenience-store-employees-sue-overtime-pay | publisher=[[KNPR]] | title=Convenience Store Employees Sue For Overtime Pay | last=Sieroty | first=Chris}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | date=2015-08-27 | url=https://csnews.com/judge-oks-circle-k-overtime-suit-national-class-action | title=Judge OKs Circle K Overtime Suit as National Class-Action | publisher=csnews.com}}</ref> for which the company agreed in 2019 to pay a [[settlement (litigation)|settlement]] of US$8.3 million.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reviewjournal.com/local/local-las-vegas/circle-k-settles-overtime-suit-in-las-vegas-for-about-8-3m-1564885/ | publisher=[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]] | title=Circle K settles overtime suit in Las Vegas for about $8.3M | last=Ferrara | first=David | date=2019-01-03}}</ref> Circle K settled a similar class-action lawsuit in 2015 as well.<ref>{{cite web | last=Bucher | first=Anne | url=https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/closed-settlements/circle-k-wage-and-hour-class-action-settlement/ | publisher=TopClassActions | date=2015-12-08 | title=Circle K Wage and Hour Class Action Settlement}}</ref>

==Frosters and Polar Pops==
Fountain drinks at Circle K are sold in Polar Pop cups, previously called Thirst Busters, are available in expanded polystyrene cups. In areas where polystyrene containers are illegal, plastic cups are offered. The 52-ounce cups are plastic. Most American locations offer any size, 32 ounce or under for under one American dollar. 52-ounce or above cups are priced at over a dollar. The price point of its 44-ounce size (marketed as "Epic XL" in some regions) may vary, as it may be under or over $1, depending on region.

The Polar Pop was first introduced in Bigfoot convenience stores by Johnson Oil Company in Columbus, Indiana, prior to its acquisition by Alimentation Couche-Tard. After the acquisition, the company began rebranding fountain drinks in other stores owned by Couche-Tard. As of 2018, Circle K sells 17 Polar Pops every second in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Circle K Kicks Off First Multi-National Polar Pop Promo|url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-kicks-first-multi-national-polar-pop-promo|access-date=2021-05-23|website=Convenience Store News|language=en}}</ref>

The Froster, which was introduced to Mac's stores in 1998, became very popular throughout Western Canada and Ontario. The American version of the Froster was introduced in 1999.

As of 2019, Soulja Boy bought Circle K and is the current CEO.

==Sponsorship==
Circle K was a part-time primary sponsor of the No. 28 [[IndyCar Series]] racecar driven by [[Ryan Hunter-Reay]] of [[Andretti Autosport]] between 2011 and 2013. In 2014, it switched to [[KVSH Racing]] driver [[Sébastien Bourdais]]. Circle K, along with [[Oberto Sausage Company]], currently sponsors [[Marco Andretti]].

Circle K is sponsored by Pornhub as of 2022, they also are soon going to be sponsored by JJ Olatunji.

In 2017, Circle K went to [[NASCAR]], sponsoring [[Matt Kenseth]] and [[Joe Gibbs Racing]] with full livery for six races. It was on the car when Kenseth won his final NASCAR Cup Race at that year's [[2017 Can-Am 500 | fall race at Phoenix Raceway]].

Also in 2017, Circle K became the official shirt sponsor of [[United Soccer League]] side [[North Carolina FC]]<ref>{{cite web|title=North Carolina Football Club Unveils Jersey Sponsorships For NCFC And NC Courage|url=http://www.northcarolinafc.com/news/2017/03/20/north-carolina-football-club-unveils-jersey-sponsorships-for-north-carolina-fc-and-north-carolina-courage|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116095433/hhttp://www.northcarolinafc.com/news/2017/03/20/north-carolina-football-club-unveils-jersey-sponsorships-for-north-carolina-fc-and-north-carolina-courage|archive-date=November 16, 2017|website=northcarolinafc.com|url-status=dead|access-date=2019-10-12}}</ref> and signed a two-year sponsorship agreement with the [[Lietuvos krepšinio lyga|Lithuanian Basketball League]].<ref>{{cite news|title=LKL rėmėjų gretas papildė dar viena itin solidi įmonė|url=http://www.krepsinis.net/naujiena/lkl-remeju-gretas-papilde-dar-viena-itin-solidi-imone/278291|access-date=October 8, 2017|work=Krepsinis.net|publisher=Lithuanian Basketball League|date=October 6, 2017|language=lt}}</ref>

Due to its sizable presence in [[Greater Cleveland]], from the former Lawson/Dairy Mart stores, Circle K sponsors the [[Cleveland Guardians]] [[strikeout]] sign. It is located in center field at [[Progressive Field]] in [[Cleveland]]. The "K" logo represents the "K" used for strikeouts in traditional [[baseball scorekeeping]] and is replicated with each strikeout. The same sponsorship is in place with the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] at [[Chase Field]]. If the Diamondbacks strike out ten batters or more, the game's attendees receive a [[voucher]] for a free cup of Polar Pop, while Guardians fans receive the same voucher after select home games.

In May 2017, a sponsored Circle K Power Cube was introduced into the online game ''[[Ingress (video game)|Ingress]]''.<ref>{{Cite web| title = After the success of their XM folding research produced enhanced Power Cubes,...| access-date = February 12, 2018| url = https://plus.google.com/+Ingress/posts/eXx3Dtmx7PA}}</ref>

[[File:Circle K logo.svg|thumb|125px|The former Circle K logo. It can still be seen in New England, Canada, Hong Kong and Macau.]]

==See also==
{{portal|Arizona|Companies}}
* [[Circle K Sunkus]]
* [[List of automotive fuel brands]]
* [[List of convenience stores]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Circle K}}
*{{official website|http://www.circlek.com/}} USA and Canada site

*{{official website|https://www.circlek.ie/}} Ireland site
{{Convenience stores}}

[[Category:1951 establishments in Texas]]
[[Category:American subsidiaries of foreign companies]]
[[Category:Alimentation Couche-Tard]]
[[Category:Companies based in Tempe, Arizona]]
[[Category:Convenience stores of Canada]]
[[Category:Convenience stores of the United States]]
[[Category:Franchises]]
[[Category:Li & Fung]]
[[Category:Gas stations in the United States]]
[[Category:Retail companies established in 1951]]
[[Category:Fast-food chains of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1990]]
[[Category:2003 mergers and acquisitions]]

Circle K

2022-09-22T14:48:54Z

72.142.115.198: /* Frosters and Polar Pops */

{{Short description|International chain of convenience stores}}
{{about|the convenience store and gas station chain|the service organization|Circle K International|the kosher food markings symbol|OK Kosher Certification|other uses|Circle-k (disambiguation)}}
{{expand language|topic=|langcode=ja|otherarticle=サークルK|date=May 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Circle K Stores Inc.
| image = Circle K CD.JUAREZ.jpg
| image_caption = A Circle K location in [[Ciudad Juárez|Juárez]].
| logo = Circle K logo 2016.svg
| logo_caption =
| type =[[Privately held company|Private]]
| founder = Fred Hervey
| area_served = {{collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
| title = Several countries
| [[Cambodia]]
| [[Canada]]
| [[China]]
| [[Costa Rica]]
| [[Denmark]]
| [[Egypt]]
| [[Estonia]]
| [[Guam]]
| [[Honduras]]
| [[Hong Kong]]
| [[Indonesia]]
| [[Ireland]]
| [[Latvia]]
| [[Lithuania]]
| [[Macau]]
| [[Malaysia]]
| [[Mexico]]
| [[Morocco]]
| [[Mongolia]]
| [[New Zealand]]
| [[Norway]]
| [[Philippines]]
| [[Poland]]
| [[Sweden]]
| [[United Arab Emirates]]
| [[United Kingdom]]
| [[United States]]
| [[Vietnam]]
| [[Russia]]
}}
| industry = [[Convenience store|Retail (convenience stores)]]
| parent = [[Couche-Tard]]
| founded = [[El Paso, Texas]] ({{start date and age|1951}})
| hq_location_city = [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Arizona]], [[United States]]
| website = {{URL|circlek.com/}}
| footnotes = <ref name="CTAbout">{{cite web|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/en/our-company/|title=Our Company|website=Couche-Tard|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CKHistory">{{cite web|url=https://www.circlek.com/history-and-timeline#fndtn-timeline-tab|title=History and Timeline|website=Circle K Stores, Inc.|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CTBrand">{{Cite web|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/en/our-company/our-brands/global-circle-k/|title=Global Circle K|website=Couche-Tard|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="Norway">{{cite web |url=http://e24.no/privat/bensin-statoil-doepes-om-til-circle-k/23529378 |title="Bensin-Statoil" døpes om til "Circle K" |publisher=E24 |language=no |date=September 22, 2015 |access-date=November 22, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rte.ie/news/business/2018/0413/954206-circle-k-rebranding/ |title=Topaz Rebrands to Circle K in Ireland |date=April 13, 2018 |publisher=RTE |access-date=April 13, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.couche-tard.com/ |title=Accueil dépanneurs Couche-Tard |publisher=Couche-tard.com |access-date=February 29, 2012}}</ref>
| hq_location_country = U.S. and Canada
| num_locations = 15,000+
| num_employees = 40,000+
}}

'''Circle K Stores, Inc.''' an American chain of [[convenience store]]s, owned by the multinational company [[Couche-Tard]] and headquartered in [[Laval, Quebec|Laval]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/company/1514Q:US | title=Circle K Corp/The - Company Profile and News | website=[[Bloomberg News]] }}</ref> Founded in 1951 in [[El Paso, Texas]], the company filed for [[bankruptcy]] protection in 1990 and went through several owners, before being acquired by Alimentation Couche-Tard in 2003.<ref name="CKHistory" /><ref name="CTAbout" /> As of February 2020, Circle K has 9,799 stores in North America, 2,697 stores in Europe, and an additional 2,380 stores operating under franchise agreements worldwide.<ref name="CTAbout" />

In 2015, Circle K unveiled a new logo and brand identity, and Couche-Tard announced that it would deploy the brand globally, including English-speaking Canada (rebranding from the [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]] brand), Europe (rebranding from the [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] brand), and the United States (rebranding from the [[The Pantry|Kangaroo Express]] brand and updating the existing Circle K brand).<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CTBrand" />

==Overview==
Since the 1980s, Circle K has been the largest chain of company-owned and operated (non-franchised) convenience stores in the United States.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q62w4GPXMcAC&pg=PA217|title=Financial Accounting|last1=Albrecht|first1=W. Steve|last2=Stice|first2=Earl K.|last3=Stice|first3=James D.|publisher=Thomson/South-Western|year=2008|isbn=978-0324645576|edition=10th|location=Mason, OH|pages=217|oclc=159958977}}</ref> With 7,230 stores overall in the United States, Circle K is second to [[7-Eleven]]'s 9,348 stores (as of July 2019),.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/top-100-convenience-store-chains-2019|title=Top 100 Convenience Store Chains|date=2019-07-30|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> As of February 2020, there are more than 14,800 stores with the Circle K brand worldwide.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand">{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/circle-ks-global-rebranding-effort-marches-across-north-america|title=Circle K's Global Rebranding Effort Marches Across North America|date=2020-03-31|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref>

Within the United States, Circle K owns and operates stores in 47 states (the three states without being Nebraska, Utah and Wisconsin), <ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> with the largest concentration of stores found in Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, and Texas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.circlek.com/store-locator|title=Store Locator|date=2020-05-02|website=Circle K Stores, Inc.|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> Fuel is sold under various brands, with the Circle K and [[Shell Oil Company|Shell]] brands as the most common. Other brands of fuel sold at Circle K stores include [[Valero Energy|Valero]], [[BP]], [[Exxon]], [[Marathon Oil Company|Marathon]], [[Irving Oil|Irving]], [[Mobil]], [[Esso]] and [[Phillips 66]]. Approximately 13% of stores worldwide do not sell gasoline.<ref name="CTAbout" />

Circle K operates stores in the United States, Canada, Europe (the Nordics, Baltics, Poland, Russia, Ireland and the United Kingdom), and Hong Kong, and has franchises in [[Mexico]] (it partners with the Mexican stores "[[Tiendas Extra]]" created by Modelo Group), Cambodia, China, Egypt, Guam, Honduras, Indonesia, Jamaica, Macau, Mongolia, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Vietnam.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> In [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]], the stores are called ''OK'' in reference to the circle around the K. Circle K Hong Kong was founded in 1985 by [[Li & Fung]] Retailing (later Fung Retailing) as licensee of the name,<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/business/about_ok.htm|title=About Circle K|publisher=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2020-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718002158/http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/business/about_ok.htm|archive-date=2020-07-18}}</ref> but sold back to Couche-Tard in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/newsroom/press/p201105.pdf|title=Convenience Retail Asia to sell 340 Circle K stores to Alimentation Couche-Tard – the owner of the Circle K brand|date=2020-11-05|website=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2021-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302134036/http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/newsroom/press/p201105.pdf|archive-date=2021-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://doc.irasia.com/listco/hk/cra/announcement/a240342-e_completionannouncement.pdf|title=Completion of the very substantial disposal in relation to the convenience store business and update on payment of special cash dividend and resignation of director|date=2020-12-21|website=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2021-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302134433/https://doc.irasia.com/listco/hk/cra/announcement/a240342-e_completionannouncement.pdf|archive-date=2021-03-02}}</ref> Circle K had 387 franchised locations throughout Hong Kong as of May 2020.<ref name=":3"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.circlek.hk/en/store|title=Store Locator|date=2020-05-02|website=Circle K Hong Kong|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref>

[[File:Circle K on East Point Road 2022.jpg|thumb|200px|A Circle K located in [[Causeway Bay]], [[Hong Kong]].]]
The Circle K brand entered the Canadian market in 2008, in connection with Couche-Tard's acquisition of [[Irving Oil]]'s convenience store network.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/couche-tard-inks-deal-to-run-stores-at-irving-gas-stations/article1055104/|title=Couche-Tard inks deal to run stores at Irving gas stations|date=2008-05-09|website=The Globe and Mail|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://marketingmag.ca/brands/couche-tard-to-take-over-irving-blue-canoes-15603|title=Couche-Tard to take over Irving Blue Canoes|date=2008-05-09|website=Marketing Magazine|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> By 2019, more than 800 Mac's branded stores had been rebranded to Circle K throughout central and western Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/couche-tard-enters-year-four-circle-k-rebranding-campaign|title=Couche-Tard Enters Year Four of Circle K Rebranding Campaign|date=2019-09-17|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CTBrand" />

[[File:CircleK-Northernmost.jpg|thumb|right|The world's most northern fuel station, in [[Longyearbyen]], [[Norway]].]]
In September 2015, Couche-Tard announced that Circle K would become the worldwide brand of all of its convenience stores, replacing [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]], [[The Pantry|Kangaroo Express]], and [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] brands (except the Couche-Tard brand in Quebec and the INGO brand in Europe).<ref name="CTBrand" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> This global rebrand included the introduction of a new logo incorporating elements of its existing brands, improvements to its product offerings and technology, and investing in store-level improvements aimed at improving the customer experience.<ref name="CSNRebrand" /><ref name="CTBrand" /> The rebranding occurred over the following five years and as of March 2020, all of Europe and 85% of North America had been updated with the Circle K brand and logo.<ref name="CSNRebrand" />

==History==
Entrepreneur Fred Hervey purchased three Kay's Food Stores in [[El Paso, Texas]], in 1951.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=History and timeline |url=https://www.circlek.com/history-and-timeline |website=Circle K |access-date=27 February 2020}}</ref> Hervey renamed the stores as "Circle K Food Stores, Inc." rather than "Kay." He grew the Circle K chain into neighboring New Mexico and Arizona, which has been the company's home base since 1957. (Hervey would go on to serve two terms as mayor of El Paso.)

By 1975, there were 1,000 Circle K stores across the U.S. In 1979, Circle K first expanded its reach into foreign markets via a licensing agreement which established the first Circle K stores in Japan by [[UNY]].<ref name=":2" /> Until 2018, Circle K stores in Japan were run by the [[FamilyMart]] Company, that was named [[Circle K Sunkus]] Company until 2016<ref>{{Cite news|author=Reuters Staff|date=2015-03-10|title=Japan's FamilyMart, UNY to merge in September 2016|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-familymart-uny-idUSKBN0M60JU20150310|access-date=2020-10-21}}</ref> and was named '''Circle K Japan''' Company until 2004, which licensed the Circle K brand from Alimentation Couche-Tard. In 2018,<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 July 2018|title=ALIMENTATION COUCHE-TARD INC.ANNUAL INFORMATION FORM For Fiscal year ended April 29, 2018|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/AIF-2018-ENG-v8-FINAL.pdf|access-date=21 October 2020|website=couche-tard.com}}</ref> all Circle K stores in Japan were converted to [[FamilyMart]] stores. In 1983, the number of stores increased to 2,180 with the purchase of the 960-store [[UtoteM]] chain in the western and southern United States.<ref>{{cite news |title=Circle K-Utotem |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/12/29/business/circle-k-utotem.html |access-date=17 January 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=December 29, 1983}}</ref>

[[Karl Eller]], a prominent [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] businessman, served as the company's CEO from 1983 to 1990. During that time, Eller built Circle K into the second largest convenience store operation and the largest publicly owned convenience store chain in the U.S. with 4,631 stores in 32 states and an additional 1,300 or so licensed or joint venture stores in 13 foreign countries. Under Eller's leadership, the company grew from annual sales of $747 million (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|747000000|1983}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}) to over $3 billion (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|3000000000|1990}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}).

In 1988, the company sent a letter to its over 8,000 employees announcing that it will cut off the medical coverage of those who become sick or injured as a result of AIDS, alcohol, drug abuse or self-inflicted wounds. The company stated that "There are certain lifestyle decisions that we are just not going to assure the results of."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/06/us/company-halting-health-plan-on-some-life-style-illnesses.html|title=Company Halting Health Plan On Some 'Life Style' Illnesses|last=Noble|first=Kenneth B.|date=1988-08-06|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-02-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Fortunes declined in the late 1980s as the US economy began to slow down, and Circle K filed for [[Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 11]] [[bankruptcy]] protection in May 1990; Eller resigned as CEO. Some underperforming locations were sold or closed. In 1993 the company was purchased by [[Investcorp]], an international investment group, and emerged from bankruptcy.

In 1996, Circle K was acquired by [[Tosco Corporation]], an independent petroleum refiner and marketer, but kept its headquarters in Phoenix. Tosco was purchased in 2001 by Phillips Petroleum, which, in 2002, merged with Conoco to form ConocoPhillips. In 2003, Circle K was purchased by [[Alimentation Couche-Tard]], a large, multinational convenience store operator based in the [[Montreal]] area,<ref name=":2" /> for US$830 million (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|830000000|2003}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2003-10-06|title=Couche-Tard to purchase Circle K|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/3130382/ns/business-world_business/t/couche-tard-purchase-circle-k/|access-date=2020-10-21|website=msnbc.com|language=en}}</ref>

In 2005, [[Taiwan]]'s OK Convenience Store chain terminated its franchise agreement with Circle K.<ref>{{Cite web
| publisher = USDA Foreign Agricultural Service Global Agricultural Information Network
| last = Amy Chang-Chien Hsueh
| author2 = Josephine Hsu
| title = Taiwan Convenience Stores 2010
| access-date = May 17, 2014
| date = June 30, 2010
| url = http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Taiwan%20Convenience%20Stores%202010_Taipei%20ATO_Taiwan_6-30-2010.pdf
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923012033/http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Taiwan%20Convenience%20Stores%202010_Taipei%20ATO_Taiwan_6-30-2010.pdf
| archive-date = September 23, 2015
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

In 2006, the company acquired the 90-store Spectrum chain serving [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Alabama]],<ref name="spectrum">{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/couche-tard-acquires-spectrum-stores-a-90-store-chain-in-the-southeast-region-us-56211367.html |title=Couche-Tard acquires Spectrum Stores a 90 store chain in the Southeast Region (U.S.) |publisher=PR Newswire |date=April 11, 2006}}</ref> the CFM chain in [[Missouri]], 35 Sterling Dairy locations in [[Northwest Ohio]], and 26 stores under various brands from Chico Enterprises of [[Morgantown, West Virginia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-acquires-26-stores-three-states|title=Circle K Acquires 26 Stores in Three States|date=2011-11-09|website=Convenience Store News|language=en|access-date=2019-02-27}}</ref> This came after the 2005 rebranding of the various Couche-Tard stores ([[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]], [[Bigfoot (convenience store)|Bigfoot]], [[Lawson (store)|Dairy Mart]], and Handy Andy) under the more nationally known Circle K brand.<ref name="csn-2004sep12">{{cite news |url=http://www.csnews.com/industry-news-and-trends/marketing/couche-tard-rebrands-midwest-stores-circle-k?nopaging=1 |title=Couche-Tard Rebrands Midwest Stores to Circle K: Process should take approximately two years. |website=Convenience Store News |date=September 12, 2004 |author=}}</ref>

In mid-2006, Alimentation Couche-Tard entered into a franchising agreement with ConocoPhillips to brand some of its company-owned stores as Circle K, in the western portion of the US. ConocoPhillips remodeled the stores into the Circle K scheme but continued to operate them. The stores continued to have the new ConocoPhillips unified canopy design and ProClean gasolines. These stores were spun off as [[Phillips 66]] in May 2012.

Another oil company, [[Canada]]-based [[Irving Oil]], leased out its convenience stores operating under the Bluecanoe and Mainway banners in the United States and [[Atlantic Canada]] to Couche-Tard, which rebranded the locations to Circle K in July 2008, while still selling Irving-branded fuel. However, the Mainways in [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] did not change until summer 2010. The parties had earlier formed a similar partnership in [[Quebec]], with the stores there operated as Couche-Tard.

In April 2009, [[ExxonMobil]] sold 43 Phoenix stores to parent company Couche-Tard as part of a sale of the larger [[On the Run (convenience store)|On the Run]] franchise. These 43 stores were to be rebranded under the Circle K name.<ref>{{Cite news
|url=http://www.csnews.com/csn/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003967316
|title=Couche-Tard Acquires ExxonMobil Franchised On the Run Stores
|work=Convenience Store News
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705123302/http://www.csnews.com/csn/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003967316
|archive-date=July 5, 2009
|url-status=dead
|df=dmy
}}
</ref>

In July 2010, Circle K had dropped down to fourth rank in number of stores (3,455), behind [[7-Eleven]] (6,523 stores), [[BP]] (4,730 stores), and [[Shell Oil Company|Shell]] (4,630 convenience stores) in 2010.<ref name=":1" />

On February 10, 2014, Modelo Group Sold the [[Tiendas Extra]] brand of stores to the Mexican franchise of Circle K, Circulo K.
[[File:Exxon Circle K North Richland Hills TX.jpg|thumb|left|A Circle K with an [[Exxon]] fuel station in [[North Richland Hills, Texas]].]]
On December 18, 2014, Couche-Tard announced its acquisition of [[The Pantry]] for $860 million all-cash tender (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|860000000|2014}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}). The acquisition closed in March 2015.<ref name="Couche-Tard, Pantry Complete Merger">{{cite web|url=http://www.cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisition-growth/mergers-acquisitions-news/articles/couche-tard-pantry-complete-merger|title=Couche-Tard, Pantry Complete Merger|date=March 16, 2015|publisher=cspdailynews.com|access-date=March 16, 2015}}</ref> Following the closing, all stores that were owned and operated by The Pantry, many of them under the "Kangaroo Express" name, were expected to be rebranded under the Circle K banner.<ref name="Cary's The Pantry stores sells for $861M to Circle K parent">{{cite web|url=http://www.bizjournals.com/triangle/news/2014/12/18/the-pantry-cary-nc-sold-to-circle-k-parent.html|title=Cary's The Pantry stores sells for $861M to Circle K parent|date=December 18, 2014|publisher=bizjournals.com|access-date=December 18, 2014}}</ref>

On August 12, 2015, Circle K opened its first five convenience stores in [[Costa Rica]], Central America, after having bought and rebranded the local convenience store chain Delimart.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

[[File:EssoRichmondHill.jpg|thumb|right|A Circle K in [[Richmond Hill, Ontario]], converted from an [[On the Run (convenience store)|On the Run]] store after its purchase from [[Imperial Oil]].]]

On September 23, 2015, Couche-Tard unveiled a refreshed brand identity for Circle K, and announced that the [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] (Northern, Central and Eastern Europe) and [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]] (English Canada) brands would be converted to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://edmontonjournal.com/business/commercial-real-estate/all-edmonton-macs-locations-rebranded-as-circle-k-stores-by-2019|title=All Edmonton Mac's locations rebranded as Circle K stores by 2019|date=2018-09-07|work=Edmonton Journal|access-date=2018-09-11|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Mac's stores to be renamed Circle K, says owner Couche-Tard">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/business/macs-brand-retired-1.3238458|title=Mac's stores to be renamed Circle K, says owner Couche-Tard|date=September 22, 2015|publisher=[[CBC News]]|access-date=September 22, 2015}}</ref><ref name=cspnet-circleklogo>{{cite web|title=Circle K Transformation Goes Beyond Rebranding|url=http://www.cspnet.com/industry-news-analysis/corporate-news/articles/circle-k-transformation-goes-beyond-rebranding|website=CSPNet|access-date=September 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925002843/http://www.cspnet.com/industry-news-analysis/corporate-news/articles/circle-k-transformation-goes-beyond-rebranding|archive-date=September 25, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2016, Couche-Tard acquired the Irish service station chain [[Topaz Energy|Topaz]]. In April 2018, Couche-Tard announced that they too would be rebranded to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thejournal.ie/topaz-rebranding-circle-k-3956365-Apr2018|title=Service station Topaz rebrands to Circle K, as €55 million investment announced|last=Halpin|first=Hayley|work=TheJournal.ie|access-date=2018-06-14|language=en}}</ref> Couche-Tard similarly acquired [[Imperial Oil]]'s [[Esso]] retail locations in Ontario (228) and Quebec (50) the same year, and rebranded the convenience stores in Ontario (many of which previously operating under the On the Run brand) to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/imperial-oil-esso-sales-1.3482381|title=Imperial Oil to sell Esso stations for $2.8B |agency=Canadian Press|work=CBC News|access-date=2018-06-14|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2017, Couche-Tard completed its acquisition of [[CST Brands]], adding stores formerly owned by [[Valero Energy]], and a portion of the [[Ultramar]] chain in Canada to Circle K (with the latter also switching fuel suppliers to Irving).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thetelegram.com/business/a-dozen-nl-ultramar-stations-being-converted-to-irving-and-circle-k-as-part-of-joint-venture-233556/|title=A dozen N.L. Ultramar stations being converted to Irving and Circle K as part of joint venture|website=The Telegram|language=en|access-date=2019-06-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/pei-st-peters-road-ultramar-rebranding-irving-circle-k-1.4735132|title=Irving purchases St. Peters Road Ultramar, rebranding to begin soon|date=July 5, 2018|website=CBC News|access-date=June 30, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://huddle.today/irving-oil-buys-13-ultramar-gas-stations-across-atlantic-canada/|title=Irving Oil Buys 13 Ultramar Gas Stations Across Atlantic Canada|last=Intiar|first=Inda|date=2018-07-04|website=Huddle|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-30}}</ref>

Also in 2017, Couche-Tard bought [[Holiday Stationstores]], a Minnesota-based chain of gas stations in the midwest United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/alimentation-couche-tard-inc-announces-closing-date-of-the-acquisition-of-holiday-664471413.html|title=Alimentation Couche-Tard Inc. announces closing date of the acquisition of Holiday|date=2017-12-15|website=PR Newswire|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> The company subsequently extended business practices from Holiday to its North American stores, including piloting a food service model adapted from that of Holiday.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Circle K Stores Begin Piloting Holiday’s Grab-and-Go Concept |url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-stores-begin-piloting-holidays-grab-and-go-concept |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=Convenience Store News |language=en}}</ref>

In September 2021, Circle K announced the purchase of 10 convenience and food stores from the Griffin Group in Ireland. All the stores being bought are in Dublin and located in busy areas such as O’Connell Street, College Green, Grafton Street and Sandyford.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Circle K makes foray onto Irish high street with stores purchase|url=https://www.independent.ie/business/circle-k-makes-foray-onto-irish-high-street-with-stores-purchase-40837026.html|access-date=2021-09-10|website=independent|language=en}}</ref>

In February 2022, Couche-Tard announced that it would rebrand 12 Holiday Stationstores locations in [[Sioux Falls, South Dakota]] to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 30, 2022 |first=Greg |last=Lindenberg |title=Couche-Tard Rebranding 12 Holiday Stationstores to Circle K |url=https://cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisitions/couche-tard-rebranding-12-holiday-stationstores-circle-k |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=CSP Daily News |language=en}}</ref>

A May 2022 report in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' reported that Circle K parent Alimentation Couche-Tard is in talks to buy [[EG Group]]. Should a deal go through, it would significantly boost Circle K's presence in several U.S. markets (especially [[Florida]], [[New England]] and [[Ohio]]) as well as giving it a location in every state except [[Utah]]. Internationally, it would give Circle K access to [[Australia]], [[Western Europe]], and EG Group's home market of the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisitions/couche-tard-eg-group-merger-talks-report | title=Couche-Tard, EG Group in Merger Talks: Report }}</ref> Some have speculated that the deal may be in response to Alimentation Couche-Tard having been outbid by its primary rival [[7-Eleven]] for the American [[Speedway (store)|Speedway]] chain.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/alimentation-couche-tard-eg-group-in-deal-talks-11651263387 | title=Convenience-Store Giants Couche-Tard, EG Group in Deal Talks | newspaper=Wall Street Journal | date=April 29, 2022 }}</ref>

==Wage violations==

A 2021 report on [[wage theft]] by the [[Center for Public Integrity]] named Circle K as one of the "worst offenders" in the United States.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://publicintegrity.org/inequality-poverty-opportunity/workers-rights/cheated-at-work/ripping-off-workers-with-no-consequences/ | title=Ripping off workers without consequences | publisher=[[Center for Public Integrity]] | date=2021-05-04 | first1=Alexia | last1=Fernández Campbell | first2=Joe | last2=Yerardi}}</ref> A [[class-action lawsuit]] was brought against the company in 2014,<ref>{{cite news | date=2014-06-17 | url=https://knpr.org/knpr/2014-06/convenience-store-employees-sue-overtime-pay | publisher=[[KNPR]] | title=Convenience Store Employees Sue For Overtime Pay | last=Sieroty | first=Chris}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | date=2015-08-27 | url=https://csnews.com/judge-oks-circle-k-overtime-suit-national-class-action | title=Judge OKs Circle K Overtime Suit as National Class-Action | publisher=csnews.com}}</ref> for which the company agreed in 2019 to pay a [[settlement (litigation)|settlement]] of US$8.3 million.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reviewjournal.com/local/local-las-vegas/circle-k-settles-overtime-suit-in-las-vegas-for-about-8-3m-1564885/ | publisher=[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]] | title=Circle K settles overtime suit in Las Vegas for about $8.3M | last=Ferrara | first=David | date=2019-01-03}}</ref> Circle K settled a similar class-action lawsuit in 2015 as well.<ref>{{cite web | last=Bucher | first=Anne | url=https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/closed-settlements/circle-k-wage-and-hour-class-action-settlement/ | publisher=TopClassActions | date=2015-12-08 | title=Circle K Wage and Hour Class Action Settlement}}</ref>

==Frosters and Polar Pops==
Fountain drinks at Circle K are sold in Polar Pop cups, previously called Thirst Busters, are available in expanded polystyrene cups. In areas where polystyrene containers are illegal, plastic cups are offered. The 52-ounce cups are plastic. Most American locations offer any size, 32 ounce or under for under one American dollar. 52-ounce or above cups are priced at over a dollar. The price point of its 44-ounce size (marketed as "Epic XL" in some regions) may vary, as it may be under or over $1, depending on region.

The Polar Pop was first introduced in Bigfoot convenience stores by Johnson Oil Company in Columbus, Indiana, prior to its acquisition by Alimentation Couche-Tard. After the acquisition, the company began rebranding fountain drinks in other stores owned by Couche-Tard. As of 2018, Circle K sells 17 Polar Pops every second in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Circle K Kicks Off First Multi-National Polar Pop Promo|url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-kicks-first-multi-national-polar-pop-promo|access-date=2021-05-23|website=Convenience Store News|language=en}}</ref>

The Froster, which was introduced to Mac's stores in 1998, became very popular throughout Western Canada and Ontario. The American version of the Froster was introduced in 1999.

As of 2019, Soulja Boy bought Circle K and is the current CEO.

==Sponsorship==
Circle K was a part-time primary sponsor of the No. 28 [[IndyCar Series]] racecar driven by [[Ryan Hunter-Reay]] of [[Andretti Autosport]] between 2011 and 2013. In 2014, it switched to [[KVSH Racing]] driver [[Sébastien Bourdais]]. Circle K, along with [[Oberto Sausage Company]], currently sponsors [[Marco Andretti]].

In 2017, Circle K went to [[NASCAR]], sponsoring [[Matt Kenseth]] and [[Joe Gibbs Racing]] with full livery for six races. It was on the car when Kenseth won his final NASCAR Cup Race at that year's [[2017 Can-Am 500 | fall race at Phoenix Raceway]].

Also in 2017, Circle K became the official shirt sponsor of [[United Soccer League]] side [[North Carolina FC]]<ref>{{cite web|title=North Carolina Football Club Unveils Jersey Sponsorships For NCFC And NC Courage|url=http://www.northcarolinafc.com/news/2017/03/20/north-carolina-football-club-unveils-jersey-sponsorships-for-north-carolina-fc-and-north-carolina-courage|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116095433/hhttp://www.northcarolinafc.com/news/2017/03/20/north-carolina-football-club-unveils-jersey-sponsorships-for-north-carolina-fc-and-north-carolina-courage|archive-date=November 16, 2017|website=northcarolinafc.com|url-status=dead|access-date=2019-10-12}}</ref> and signed a two-year sponsorship agreement with the [[Lietuvos krepšinio lyga|Lithuanian Basketball League]].<ref>{{cite news|title=LKL rėmėjų gretas papildė dar viena itin solidi įmonė|url=http://www.krepsinis.net/naujiena/lkl-remeju-gretas-papilde-dar-viena-itin-solidi-imone/278291|access-date=October 8, 2017|work=Krepsinis.net|publisher=Lithuanian Basketball League|date=October 6, 2017|language=lt}}</ref>

Due to its sizable presence in [[Greater Cleveland]], from the former Lawson/Dairy Mart stores, Circle K sponsors the [[Cleveland Guardians]] [[strikeout]] sign. It is located in center field at [[Progressive Field]] in [[Cleveland]]. The "K" logo represents the "K" used for strikeouts in traditional [[baseball scorekeeping]] and is replicated with each strikeout. The same sponsorship is in place with the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] at [[Chase Field]]. If the Diamondbacks strike out ten batters or more, the game's attendees receive a [[voucher]] for a free cup of Polar Pop, while Guardians fans receive the same voucher after select home games.

In May 2017, a sponsored Circle K Power Cube was introduced into the online game ''[[Ingress (video game)|Ingress]]''.<ref>{{Cite web| title = After the success of their XM folding research produced enhanced Power Cubes,...| access-date = February 12, 2018| url = https://plus.google.com/+Ingress/posts/eXx3Dtmx7PA}}</ref>

[[File:Circle K logo.svg|thumb|125px|The former Circle K logo. It can still be seen in New England, Canada, Hong Kong and Macau.]]

==See also==
{{portal|Arizona|Companies}}
* [[Circle K Sunkus]]
* [[List of automotive fuel brands]]
* [[List of convenience stores]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Circle K}}
*{{official website|http://www.circlek.com/}} USA and Canada site

*{{official website|https://www.circlek.ie/}} Ireland site
{{Convenience stores}}

[[Category:1951 establishments in Texas]]
[[Category:American subsidiaries of foreign companies]]
[[Category:Alimentation Couche-Tard]]
[[Category:Companies based in Tempe, Arizona]]
[[Category:Convenience stores of Canada]]
[[Category:Convenience stores of the United States]]
[[Category:Franchises]]
[[Category:Li & Fung]]
[[Category:Gas stations in the United States]]
[[Category:Retail companies established in 1951]]
[[Category:Fast-food chains of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1990]]
[[Category:2003 mergers and acquisitions]]

Circle K

2022-09-22T14:47:47Z

72.142.115.198: /* Frosters and Polar Pops */

{{Short description|International chain of convenience stores}}
{{about|the convenience store and gas station chain|the service organization|Circle K International|the kosher food markings symbol|OK Kosher Certification|other uses|Circle-k (disambiguation)}}
{{expand language|topic=|langcode=ja|otherarticle=サークルK|date=May 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Circle K Stores Inc.
| image = Circle K CD.JUAREZ.jpg
| image_caption = A Circle K location in [[Ciudad Juárez|Juárez]].
| logo = Circle K logo 2016.svg
| logo_caption =
| type =[[Privately held company|Private]]
| founder = Fred Hervey
| area_served = {{collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
| title = Several countries
| [[Cambodia]]
| [[Canada]]
| [[China]]
| [[Costa Rica]]
| [[Denmark]]
| [[Egypt]]
| [[Estonia]]
| [[Guam]]
| [[Honduras]]
| [[Hong Kong]]
| [[Indonesia]]
| [[Ireland]]
| [[Latvia]]
| [[Lithuania]]
| [[Macau]]
| [[Malaysia]]
| [[Mexico]]
| [[Morocco]]
| [[Mongolia]]
| [[New Zealand]]
| [[Norway]]
| [[Philippines]]
| [[Poland]]
| [[Sweden]]
| [[United Arab Emirates]]
| [[United Kingdom]]
| [[United States]]
| [[Vietnam]]
| [[Russia]]
}}
| industry = [[Convenience store|Retail (convenience stores)]]
| parent = [[Couche-Tard]]
| founded = [[El Paso, Texas]] ({{start date and age|1951}})
| hq_location_city = [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Arizona]], [[United States]]
| website = {{URL|circlek.com/}}
| footnotes = <ref name="CTAbout">{{cite web|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/en/our-company/|title=Our Company|website=Couche-Tard|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CKHistory">{{cite web|url=https://www.circlek.com/history-and-timeline#fndtn-timeline-tab|title=History and Timeline|website=Circle K Stores, Inc.|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CTBrand">{{Cite web|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/en/our-company/our-brands/global-circle-k/|title=Global Circle K|website=Couche-Tard|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="Norway">{{cite web |url=http://e24.no/privat/bensin-statoil-doepes-om-til-circle-k/23529378 |title="Bensin-Statoil" døpes om til "Circle K" |publisher=E24 |language=no |date=September 22, 2015 |access-date=November 22, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rte.ie/news/business/2018/0413/954206-circle-k-rebranding/ |title=Topaz Rebrands to Circle K in Ireland |date=April 13, 2018 |publisher=RTE |access-date=April 13, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.couche-tard.com/ |title=Accueil dépanneurs Couche-Tard |publisher=Couche-tard.com |access-date=February 29, 2012}}</ref>
| hq_location_country = U.S. and Canada
| num_locations = 15,000+
| num_employees = 40,000+
}}

'''Circle K Stores, Inc.''' an American chain of [[convenience store]]s, owned by the multinational company [[Couche-Tard]] and headquartered in [[Laval, Quebec|Laval]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/company/1514Q:US | title=Circle K Corp/The - Company Profile and News | website=[[Bloomberg News]] }}</ref> Founded in 1951 in [[El Paso, Texas]], the company filed for [[bankruptcy]] protection in 1990 and went through several owners, before being acquired by Alimentation Couche-Tard in 2003.<ref name="CKHistory" /><ref name="CTAbout" /> As of February 2020, Circle K has 9,799 stores in North America, 2,697 stores in Europe, and an additional 2,380 stores operating under franchise agreements worldwide.<ref name="CTAbout" />

In 2015, Circle K unveiled a new logo and brand identity, and Couche-Tard announced that it would deploy the brand globally, including English-speaking Canada (rebranding from the [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]] brand), Europe (rebranding from the [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] brand), and the United States (rebranding from the [[The Pantry|Kangaroo Express]] brand and updating the existing Circle K brand).<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CTBrand" />

==Overview==
Since the 1980s, Circle K has been the largest chain of company-owned and operated (non-franchised) convenience stores in the United States.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q62w4GPXMcAC&pg=PA217|title=Financial Accounting|last1=Albrecht|first1=W. Steve|last2=Stice|first2=Earl K.|last3=Stice|first3=James D.|publisher=Thomson/South-Western|year=2008|isbn=978-0324645576|edition=10th|location=Mason, OH|pages=217|oclc=159958977}}</ref> With 7,230 stores overall in the United States, Circle K is second to [[7-Eleven]]'s 9,348 stores (as of July 2019),.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/top-100-convenience-store-chains-2019|title=Top 100 Convenience Store Chains|date=2019-07-30|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> As of February 2020, there are more than 14,800 stores with the Circle K brand worldwide.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand">{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/circle-ks-global-rebranding-effort-marches-across-north-america|title=Circle K's Global Rebranding Effort Marches Across North America|date=2020-03-31|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref>

Within the United States, Circle K owns and operates stores in 47 states (the three states without being Nebraska, Utah and Wisconsin), <ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> with the largest concentration of stores found in Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, and Texas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.circlek.com/store-locator|title=Store Locator|date=2020-05-02|website=Circle K Stores, Inc.|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> Fuel is sold under various brands, with the Circle K and [[Shell Oil Company|Shell]] brands as the most common. Other brands of fuel sold at Circle K stores include [[Valero Energy|Valero]], [[BP]], [[Exxon]], [[Marathon Oil Company|Marathon]], [[Irving Oil|Irving]], [[Mobil]], [[Esso]] and [[Phillips 66]]. Approximately 13% of stores worldwide do not sell gasoline.<ref name="CTAbout" />

Circle K operates stores in the United States, Canada, Europe (the Nordics, Baltics, Poland, Russia, Ireland and the United Kingdom), and Hong Kong, and has franchises in [[Mexico]] (it partners with the Mexican stores "[[Tiendas Extra]]" created by Modelo Group), Cambodia, China, Egypt, Guam, Honduras, Indonesia, Jamaica, Macau, Mongolia, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Vietnam.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> In [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]], the stores are called ''OK'' in reference to the circle around the K. Circle K Hong Kong was founded in 1985 by [[Li & Fung]] Retailing (later Fung Retailing) as licensee of the name,<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/business/about_ok.htm|title=About Circle K|publisher=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2020-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718002158/http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/business/about_ok.htm|archive-date=2020-07-18}}</ref> but sold back to Couche-Tard in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/newsroom/press/p201105.pdf|title=Convenience Retail Asia to sell 340 Circle K stores to Alimentation Couche-Tard – the owner of the Circle K brand|date=2020-11-05|website=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2021-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302134036/http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/newsroom/press/p201105.pdf|archive-date=2021-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://doc.irasia.com/listco/hk/cra/announcement/a240342-e_completionannouncement.pdf|title=Completion of the very substantial disposal in relation to the convenience store business and update on payment of special cash dividend and resignation of director|date=2020-12-21|website=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2021-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302134433/https://doc.irasia.com/listco/hk/cra/announcement/a240342-e_completionannouncement.pdf|archive-date=2021-03-02}}</ref> Circle K had 387 franchised locations throughout Hong Kong as of May 2020.<ref name=":3"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.circlek.hk/en/store|title=Store Locator|date=2020-05-02|website=Circle K Hong Kong|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref>

[[File:Circle K on East Point Road 2022.jpg|thumb|200px|A Circle K located in [[Causeway Bay]], [[Hong Kong]].]]
The Circle K brand entered the Canadian market in 2008, in connection with Couche-Tard's acquisition of [[Irving Oil]]'s convenience store network.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/couche-tard-inks-deal-to-run-stores-at-irving-gas-stations/article1055104/|title=Couche-Tard inks deal to run stores at Irving gas stations|date=2008-05-09|website=The Globe and Mail|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://marketingmag.ca/brands/couche-tard-to-take-over-irving-blue-canoes-15603|title=Couche-Tard to take over Irving Blue Canoes|date=2008-05-09|website=Marketing Magazine|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> By 2019, more than 800 Mac's branded stores had been rebranded to Circle K throughout central and western Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/couche-tard-enters-year-four-circle-k-rebranding-campaign|title=Couche-Tard Enters Year Four of Circle K Rebranding Campaign|date=2019-09-17|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CTBrand" />

[[File:CircleK-Northernmost.jpg|thumb|right|The world's most northern fuel station, in [[Longyearbyen]], [[Norway]].]]
In September 2015, Couche-Tard announced that Circle K would become the worldwide brand of all of its convenience stores, replacing [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]], [[The Pantry|Kangaroo Express]], and [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] brands (except the Couche-Tard brand in Quebec and the INGO brand in Europe).<ref name="CTBrand" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> This global rebrand included the introduction of a new logo incorporating elements of its existing brands, improvements to its product offerings and technology, and investing in store-level improvements aimed at improving the customer experience.<ref name="CSNRebrand" /><ref name="CTBrand" /> The rebranding occurred over the following five years and as of March 2020, all of Europe and 85% of North America had been updated with the Circle K brand and logo.<ref name="CSNRebrand" />

==History==
Entrepreneur Fred Hervey purchased three Kay's Food Stores in [[El Paso, Texas]], in 1951.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=History and timeline |url=https://www.circlek.com/history-and-timeline |website=Circle K |access-date=27 February 2020}}</ref> Hervey renamed the stores as "Circle K Food Stores, Inc." rather than "Kay." He grew the Circle K chain into neighboring New Mexico and Arizona, which has been the company's home base since 1957. (Hervey would go on to serve two terms as mayor of El Paso.)

By 1975, there were 1,000 Circle K stores across the U.S. In 1979, Circle K first expanded its reach into foreign markets via a licensing agreement which established the first Circle K stores in Japan by [[UNY]].<ref name=":2" /> Until 2018, Circle K stores in Japan were run by the [[FamilyMart]] Company, that was named [[Circle K Sunkus]] Company until 2016<ref>{{Cite news|author=Reuters Staff|date=2015-03-10|title=Japan's FamilyMart, UNY to merge in September 2016|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-familymart-uny-idUSKBN0M60JU20150310|access-date=2020-10-21}}</ref> and was named '''Circle K Japan''' Company until 2004, which licensed the Circle K brand from Alimentation Couche-Tard. In 2018,<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 July 2018|title=ALIMENTATION COUCHE-TARD INC.ANNUAL INFORMATION FORM For Fiscal year ended April 29, 2018|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/AIF-2018-ENG-v8-FINAL.pdf|access-date=21 October 2020|website=couche-tard.com}}</ref> all Circle K stores in Japan were converted to [[FamilyMart]] stores. In 1983, the number of stores increased to 2,180 with the purchase of the 960-store [[UtoteM]] chain in the western and southern United States.<ref>{{cite news |title=Circle K-Utotem |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/12/29/business/circle-k-utotem.html |access-date=17 January 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=December 29, 1983}}</ref>

[[Karl Eller]], a prominent [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] businessman, served as the company's CEO from 1983 to 1990. During that time, Eller built Circle K into the second largest convenience store operation and the largest publicly owned convenience store chain in the U.S. with 4,631 stores in 32 states and an additional 1,300 or so licensed or joint venture stores in 13 foreign countries. Under Eller's leadership, the company grew from annual sales of $747 million (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|747000000|1983}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}) to over $3 billion (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|3000000000|1990}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}).

In 1988, the company sent a letter to its over 8,000 employees announcing that it will cut off the medical coverage of those who become sick or injured as a result of AIDS, alcohol, drug abuse or self-inflicted wounds. The company stated that "There are certain lifestyle decisions that we are just not going to assure the results of."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/06/us/company-halting-health-plan-on-some-life-style-illnesses.html|title=Company Halting Health Plan On Some 'Life Style' Illnesses|last=Noble|first=Kenneth B.|date=1988-08-06|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-02-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Fortunes declined in the late 1980s as the US economy began to slow down, and Circle K filed for [[Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 11]] [[bankruptcy]] protection in May 1990; Eller resigned as CEO. Some underperforming locations were sold or closed. In 1993 the company was purchased by [[Investcorp]], an international investment group, and emerged from bankruptcy.

In 1996, Circle K was acquired by [[Tosco Corporation]], an independent petroleum refiner and marketer, but kept its headquarters in Phoenix. Tosco was purchased in 2001 by Phillips Petroleum, which, in 2002, merged with Conoco to form ConocoPhillips. In 2003, Circle K was purchased by [[Alimentation Couche-Tard]], a large, multinational convenience store operator based in the [[Montreal]] area,<ref name=":2" /> for US$830 million (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|830000000|2003}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2003-10-06|title=Couche-Tard to purchase Circle K|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/3130382/ns/business-world_business/t/couche-tard-purchase-circle-k/|access-date=2020-10-21|website=msnbc.com|language=en}}</ref>

In 2005, [[Taiwan]]'s OK Convenience Store chain terminated its franchise agreement with Circle K.<ref>{{Cite web
| publisher = USDA Foreign Agricultural Service Global Agricultural Information Network
| last = Amy Chang-Chien Hsueh
| author2 = Josephine Hsu
| title = Taiwan Convenience Stores 2010
| access-date = May 17, 2014
| date = June 30, 2010
| url = http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Taiwan%20Convenience%20Stores%202010_Taipei%20ATO_Taiwan_6-30-2010.pdf
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923012033/http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Taiwan%20Convenience%20Stores%202010_Taipei%20ATO_Taiwan_6-30-2010.pdf
| archive-date = September 23, 2015
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

In 2006, the company acquired the 90-store Spectrum chain serving [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Alabama]],<ref name="spectrum">{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/couche-tard-acquires-spectrum-stores-a-90-store-chain-in-the-southeast-region-us-56211367.html |title=Couche-Tard acquires Spectrum Stores a 90 store chain in the Southeast Region (U.S.) |publisher=PR Newswire |date=April 11, 2006}}</ref> the CFM chain in [[Missouri]], 35 Sterling Dairy locations in [[Northwest Ohio]], and 26 stores under various brands from Chico Enterprises of [[Morgantown, West Virginia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-acquires-26-stores-three-states|title=Circle K Acquires 26 Stores in Three States|date=2011-11-09|website=Convenience Store News|language=en|access-date=2019-02-27}}</ref> This came after the 2005 rebranding of the various Couche-Tard stores ([[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]], [[Bigfoot (convenience store)|Bigfoot]], [[Lawson (store)|Dairy Mart]], and Handy Andy) under the more nationally known Circle K brand.<ref name="csn-2004sep12">{{cite news |url=http://www.csnews.com/industry-news-and-trends/marketing/couche-tard-rebrands-midwest-stores-circle-k?nopaging=1 |title=Couche-Tard Rebrands Midwest Stores to Circle K: Process should take approximately two years. |website=Convenience Store News |date=September 12, 2004 |author=}}</ref>

In mid-2006, Alimentation Couche-Tard entered into a franchising agreement with ConocoPhillips to brand some of its company-owned stores as Circle K, in the western portion of the US. ConocoPhillips remodeled the stores into the Circle K scheme but continued to operate them. The stores continued to have the new ConocoPhillips unified canopy design and ProClean gasolines. These stores were spun off as [[Phillips 66]] in May 2012.

Another oil company, [[Canada]]-based [[Irving Oil]], leased out its convenience stores operating under the Bluecanoe and Mainway banners in the United States and [[Atlantic Canada]] to Couche-Tard, which rebranded the locations to Circle K in July 2008, while still selling Irving-branded fuel. However, the Mainways in [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] did not change until summer 2010. The parties had earlier formed a similar partnership in [[Quebec]], with the stores there operated as Couche-Tard.

In April 2009, [[ExxonMobil]] sold 43 Phoenix stores to parent company Couche-Tard as part of a sale of the larger [[On the Run (convenience store)|On the Run]] franchise. These 43 stores were to be rebranded under the Circle K name.<ref>{{Cite news
|url=http://www.csnews.com/csn/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003967316
|title=Couche-Tard Acquires ExxonMobil Franchised On the Run Stores
|work=Convenience Store News
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705123302/http://www.csnews.com/csn/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003967316
|archive-date=July 5, 2009
|url-status=dead
|df=dmy
}}
</ref>

In July 2010, Circle K had dropped down to fourth rank in number of stores (3,455), behind [[7-Eleven]] (6,523 stores), [[BP]] (4,730 stores), and [[Shell Oil Company|Shell]] (4,630 convenience stores) in 2010.<ref name=":1" />

On February 10, 2014, Modelo Group Sold the [[Tiendas Extra]] brand of stores to the Mexican franchise of Circle K, Circulo K.
[[File:Exxon Circle K North Richland Hills TX.jpg|thumb|left|A Circle K with an [[Exxon]] fuel station in [[North Richland Hills, Texas]].]]
On December 18, 2014, Couche-Tard announced its acquisition of [[The Pantry]] for $860 million all-cash tender (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|860000000|2014}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}). The acquisition closed in March 2015.<ref name="Couche-Tard, Pantry Complete Merger">{{cite web|url=http://www.cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisition-growth/mergers-acquisitions-news/articles/couche-tard-pantry-complete-merger|title=Couche-Tard, Pantry Complete Merger|date=March 16, 2015|publisher=cspdailynews.com|access-date=March 16, 2015}}</ref> Following the closing, all stores that were owned and operated by The Pantry, many of them under the "Kangaroo Express" name, were expected to be rebranded under the Circle K banner.<ref name="Cary's The Pantry stores sells for $861M to Circle K parent">{{cite web|url=http://www.bizjournals.com/triangle/news/2014/12/18/the-pantry-cary-nc-sold-to-circle-k-parent.html|title=Cary's The Pantry stores sells for $861M to Circle K parent|date=December 18, 2014|publisher=bizjournals.com|access-date=December 18, 2014}}</ref>

On August 12, 2015, Circle K opened its first five convenience stores in [[Costa Rica]], Central America, after having bought and rebranded the local convenience store chain Delimart.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

[[File:EssoRichmondHill.jpg|thumb|right|A Circle K in [[Richmond Hill, Ontario]], converted from an [[On the Run (convenience store)|On the Run]] store after its purchase from [[Imperial Oil]].]]

On September 23, 2015, Couche-Tard unveiled a refreshed brand identity for Circle K, and announced that the [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] (Northern, Central and Eastern Europe) and [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]] (English Canada) brands would be converted to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://edmontonjournal.com/business/commercial-real-estate/all-edmonton-macs-locations-rebranded-as-circle-k-stores-by-2019|title=All Edmonton Mac's locations rebranded as Circle K stores by 2019|date=2018-09-07|work=Edmonton Journal|access-date=2018-09-11|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Mac's stores to be renamed Circle K, says owner Couche-Tard">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/business/macs-brand-retired-1.3238458|title=Mac's stores to be renamed Circle K, says owner Couche-Tard|date=September 22, 2015|publisher=[[CBC News]]|access-date=September 22, 2015}}</ref><ref name=cspnet-circleklogo>{{cite web|title=Circle K Transformation Goes Beyond Rebranding|url=http://www.cspnet.com/industry-news-analysis/corporate-news/articles/circle-k-transformation-goes-beyond-rebranding|website=CSPNet|access-date=September 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925002843/http://www.cspnet.com/industry-news-analysis/corporate-news/articles/circle-k-transformation-goes-beyond-rebranding|archive-date=September 25, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2016, Couche-Tard acquired the Irish service station chain [[Topaz Energy|Topaz]]. In April 2018, Couche-Tard announced that they too would be rebranded to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thejournal.ie/topaz-rebranding-circle-k-3956365-Apr2018|title=Service station Topaz rebrands to Circle K, as €55 million investment announced|last=Halpin|first=Hayley|work=TheJournal.ie|access-date=2018-06-14|language=en}}</ref> Couche-Tard similarly acquired [[Imperial Oil]]'s [[Esso]] retail locations in Ontario (228) and Quebec (50) the same year, and rebranded the convenience stores in Ontario (many of which previously operating under the On the Run brand) to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/imperial-oil-esso-sales-1.3482381|title=Imperial Oil to sell Esso stations for $2.8B |agency=Canadian Press|work=CBC News|access-date=2018-06-14|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2017, Couche-Tard completed its acquisition of [[CST Brands]], adding stores formerly owned by [[Valero Energy]], and a portion of the [[Ultramar]] chain in Canada to Circle K (with the latter also switching fuel suppliers to Irving).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thetelegram.com/business/a-dozen-nl-ultramar-stations-being-converted-to-irving-and-circle-k-as-part-of-joint-venture-233556/|title=A dozen N.L. Ultramar stations being converted to Irving and Circle K as part of joint venture|website=The Telegram|language=en|access-date=2019-06-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/pei-st-peters-road-ultramar-rebranding-irving-circle-k-1.4735132|title=Irving purchases St. Peters Road Ultramar, rebranding to begin soon|date=July 5, 2018|website=CBC News|access-date=June 30, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://huddle.today/irving-oil-buys-13-ultramar-gas-stations-across-atlantic-canada/|title=Irving Oil Buys 13 Ultramar Gas Stations Across Atlantic Canada|last=Intiar|first=Inda|date=2018-07-04|website=Huddle|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-30}}</ref>

Also in 2017, Couche-Tard bought [[Holiday Stationstores]], a Minnesota-based chain of gas stations in the midwest United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/alimentation-couche-tard-inc-announces-closing-date-of-the-acquisition-of-holiday-664471413.html|title=Alimentation Couche-Tard Inc. announces closing date of the acquisition of Holiday|date=2017-12-15|website=PR Newswire|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> The company subsequently extended business practices from Holiday to its North American stores, including piloting a food service model adapted from that of Holiday.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Circle K Stores Begin Piloting Holiday’s Grab-and-Go Concept |url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-stores-begin-piloting-holidays-grab-and-go-concept |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=Convenience Store News |language=en}}</ref>

In September 2021, Circle K announced the purchase of 10 convenience and food stores from the Griffin Group in Ireland. All the stores being bought are in Dublin and located in busy areas such as O’Connell Street, College Green, Grafton Street and Sandyford.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Circle K makes foray onto Irish high street with stores purchase|url=https://www.independent.ie/business/circle-k-makes-foray-onto-irish-high-street-with-stores-purchase-40837026.html|access-date=2021-09-10|website=independent|language=en}}</ref>

In February 2022, Couche-Tard announced that it would rebrand 12 Holiday Stationstores locations in [[Sioux Falls, South Dakota]] to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 30, 2022 |first=Greg |last=Lindenberg |title=Couche-Tard Rebranding 12 Holiday Stationstores to Circle K |url=https://cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisitions/couche-tard-rebranding-12-holiday-stationstores-circle-k |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=CSP Daily News |language=en}}</ref>

A May 2022 report in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' reported that Circle K parent Alimentation Couche-Tard is in talks to buy [[EG Group]]. Should a deal go through, it would significantly boost Circle K's presence in several U.S. markets (especially [[Florida]], [[New England]] and [[Ohio]]) as well as giving it a location in every state except [[Utah]]. Internationally, it would give Circle K access to [[Australia]], [[Western Europe]], and EG Group's home market of the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisitions/couche-tard-eg-group-merger-talks-report | title=Couche-Tard, EG Group in Merger Talks: Report }}</ref> Some have speculated that the deal may be in response to Alimentation Couche-Tard having been outbid by its primary rival [[7-Eleven]] for the American [[Speedway (store)|Speedway]] chain.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/alimentation-couche-tard-eg-group-in-deal-talks-11651263387 | title=Convenience-Store Giants Couche-Tard, EG Group in Deal Talks | newspaper=Wall Street Journal | date=April 29, 2022 }}</ref>

==Wage violations==

A 2021 report on [[wage theft]] by the [[Center for Public Integrity]] named Circle K as one of the "worst offenders" in the United States.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://publicintegrity.org/inequality-poverty-opportunity/workers-rights/cheated-at-work/ripping-off-workers-with-no-consequences/ | title=Ripping off workers without consequences | publisher=[[Center for Public Integrity]] | date=2021-05-04 | first1=Alexia | last1=Fernández Campbell | first2=Joe | last2=Yerardi}}</ref> A [[class-action lawsuit]] was brought against the company in 2014,<ref>{{cite news | date=2014-06-17 | url=https://knpr.org/knpr/2014-06/convenience-store-employees-sue-overtime-pay | publisher=[[KNPR]] | title=Convenience Store Employees Sue For Overtime Pay | last=Sieroty | first=Chris}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | date=2015-08-27 | url=https://csnews.com/judge-oks-circle-k-overtime-suit-national-class-action | title=Judge OKs Circle K Overtime Suit as National Class-Action | publisher=csnews.com}}</ref> for which the company agreed in 2019 to pay a [[settlement (litigation)|settlement]] of US$8.3 million.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reviewjournal.com/local/local-las-vegas/circle-k-settles-overtime-suit-in-las-vegas-for-about-8-3m-1564885/ | publisher=[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]] | title=Circle K settles overtime suit in Las Vegas for about $8.3M | last=Ferrara | first=David | date=2019-01-03}}</ref> Circle K settled a similar class-action lawsuit in 2015 as well.<ref>{{cite web | last=Bucher | first=Anne | url=https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/closed-settlements/circle-k-wage-and-hour-class-action-settlement/ | publisher=TopClassActions | date=2015-12-08 | title=Circle K Wage and Hour Class Action Settlement}}</ref>

==Frosters and Polar Pops==
Fountain drinks at Circle K are sold in Polar Pop cups, previously called Thirst Busters, are available in expanded polystyrene cups. In areas where polystyrene containers are illegal, plastic cups are offered. The 52-ounce cups are plastic. Most American locations offer any size, 32 ounce or under for under one American dollar. 52-ounce or above cups are priced at over a dollar. The price point of its 44-ounce size (marketed as "Epic XL" in some regions) may vary, as it may be under or over $1, depending on region.

The Polar Pop was first introduced in Bigfoot convenience stores by Johnson Oil Company in Columbus, Indiana, prior to its acquisition by Alimentation Couche-Tard. After the acquisition, the company began rebranding fountain drinks in other stores owned by Couche-Tard. As of 2018, Circle K sells 17 Polar Pops every second in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Circle K Kicks Off First Multi-National Polar Pop Promo|url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-kicks-first-multi-national-polar-pop-promo|access-date=2021-05-23|website=Convenience Store News|language=en}}</ref>

The Froster, which was introduced to Mac's stores in 1998, became very popular throughout Western Canada and Ontario. The American version of the Froster was introduced in 1999.

destroy lonley(he woke up with no stylist) now owns Circle K.

==Sponsorship==
Circle K was a part-time primary sponsor of the No. 28 [[IndyCar Series]] racecar driven by [[Ryan Hunter-Reay]] of [[Andretti Autosport]] between 2011 and 2013. In 2014, it switched to [[KVSH Racing]] driver [[Sébastien Bourdais]]. Circle K, along with [[Oberto Sausage Company]], currently sponsors [[Marco Andretti]].

In 2017, Circle K went to [[NASCAR]], sponsoring [[Matt Kenseth]] and [[Joe Gibbs Racing]] with full livery for six races. It was on the car when Kenseth won his final NASCAR Cup Race at that year's [[2017 Can-Am 500 | fall race at Phoenix Raceway]].

Also in 2017, Circle K became the official shirt sponsor of [[United Soccer League]] side [[North Carolina FC]]<ref>{{cite web|title=North Carolina Football Club Unveils Jersey Sponsorships For NCFC And NC Courage|url=http://www.northcarolinafc.com/news/2017/03/20/north-carolina-football-club-unveils-jersey-sponsorships-for-north-carolina-fc-and-north-carolina-courage|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116095433/hhttp://www.northcarolinafc.com/news/2017/03/20/north-carolina-football-club-unveils-jersey-sponsorships-for-north-carolina-fc-and-north-carolina-courage|archive-date=November 16, 2017|website=northcarolinafc.com|url-status=dead|access-date=2019-10-12}}</ref> and signed a two-year sponsorship agreement with the [[Lietuvos krepšinio lyga|Lithuanian Basketball League]].<ref>{{cite news|title=LKL rėmėjų gretas papildė dar viena itin solidi įmonė|url=http://www.krepsinis.net/naujiena/lkl-remeju-gretas-papilde-dar-viena-itin-solidi-imone/278291|access-date=October 8, 2017|work=Krepsinis.net|publisher=Lithuanian Basketball League|date=October 6, 2017|language=lt}}</ref>

Due to its sizable presence in [[Greater Cleveland]], from the former Lawson/Dairy Mart stores, Circle K sponsors the [[Cleveland Guardians]] [[strikeout]] sign. It is located in center field at [[Progressive Field]] in [[Cleveland]]. The "K" logo represents the "K" used for strikeouts in traditional [[baseball scorekeeping]] and is replicated with each strikeout. The same sponsorship is in place with the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] at [[Chase Field]]. If the Diamondbacks strike out ten batters or more, the game's attendees receive a [[voucher]] for a free cup of Polar Pop, while Guardians fans receive the same voucher after select home games.

In May 2017, a sponsored Circle K Power Cube was introduced into the online game ''[[Ingress (video game)|Ingress]]''.<ref>{{Cite web| title = After the success of their XM folding research produced enhanced Power Cubes,...| access-date = February 12, 2018| url = https://plus.google.com/+Ingress/posts/eXx3Dtmx7PA}}</ref>

[[File:Circle K logo.svg|thumb|125px|The former Circle K logo. It can still be seen in New England, Canada, Hong Kong and Macau.]]

==See also==
{{portal|Arizona|Companies}}
* [[Circle K Sunkus]]
* [[List of automotive fuel brands]]
* [[List of convenience stores]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Circle K}}
*{{official website|http://www.circlek.com/}} USA and Canada site

*{{official website|https://www.circlek.ie/}} Ireland site
{{Convenience stores}}

[[Category:1951 establishments in Texas]]
[[Category:American subsidiaries of foreign companies]]
[[Category:Alimentation Couche-Tard]]
[[Category:Companies based in Tempe, Arizona]]
[[Category:Convenience stores of Canada]]
[[Category:Convenience stores of the United States]]
[[Category:Franchises]]
[[Category:Li & Fung]]
[[Category:Gas stations in the United States]]
[[Category:Retail companies established in 1951]]
[[Category:Fast-food chains of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1990]]
[[Category:2003 mergers and acquisitions]]

Circle K

2022-09-22T14:45:04Z

72.142.115.198: /* Frosters and Polar Pops */

{{Short description|International chain of convenience stores}}
{{about|the convenience store and gas station chain|the service organization|Circle K International|the kosher food markings symbol|OK Kosher Certification|other uses|Circle-k (disambiguation)}}
{{expand language|topic=|langcode=ja|otherarticle=サークルK|date=May 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Circle K Stores Inc.
| image = Circle K CD.JUAREZ.jpg
| image_caption = A Circle K location in [[Ciudad Juárez|Juárez]].
| logo = Circle K logo 2016.svg
| logo_caption =
| type =[[Privately held company|Private]]
| founder = Fred Hervey
| area_served = {{collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
| title = Several countries
| [[Cambodia]]
| [[Canada]]
| [[China]]
| [[Costa Rica]]
| [[Denmark]]
| [[Egypt]]
| [[Estonia]]
| [[Guam]]
| [[Honduras]]
| [[Hong Kong]]
| [[Indonesia]]
| [[Ireland]]
| [[Latvia]]
| [[Lithuania]]
| [[Macau]]
| [[Malaysia]]
| [[Mexico]]
| [[Morocco]]
| [[Mongolia]]
| [[New Zealand]]
| [[Norway]]
| [[Philippines]]
| [[Poland]]
| [[Sweden]]
| [[United Arab Emirates]]
| [[United Kingdom]]
| [[United States]]
| [[Vietnam]]
| [[Russia]]
}}
| industry = [[Convenience store|Retail (convenience stores)]]
| parent = [[Couche-Tard]]
| founded = [[El Paso, Texas]] ({{start date and age|1951}})
| hq_location_city = [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Arizona]], [[United States]]
| website = {{URL|circlek.com/}}
| footnotes = <ref name="CTAbout">{{cite web|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/en/our-company/|title=Our Company|website=Couche-Tard|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CKHistory">{{cite web|url=https://www.circlek.com/history-and-timeline#fndtn-timeline-tab|title=History and Timeline|website=Circle K Stores, Inc.|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CTBrand">{{Cite web|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/en/our-company/our-brands/global-circle-k/|title=Global Circle K|website=Couche-Tard|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="Norway">{{cite web |url=http://e24.no/privat/bensin-statoil-doepes-om-til-circle-k/23529378 |title="Bensin-Statoil" døpes om til "Circle K" |publisher=E24 |language=no |date=September 22, 2015 |access-date=November 22, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rte.ie/news/business/2018/0413/954206-circle-k-rebranding/ |title=Topaz Rebrands to Circle K in Ireland |date=April 13, 2018 |publisher=RTE |access-date=April 13, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.couche-tard.com/ |title=Accueil dépanneurs Couche-Tard |publisher=Couche-tard.com |access-date=February 29, 2012}}</ref>
| hq_location_country = U.S. and Canada
| num_locations = 15,000+
| num_employees = 40,000+
}}

'''Circle K Stores, Inc.''' an American chain of [[convenience store]]s, owned by the multinational company [[Couche-Tard]] and headquartered in [[Laval, Quebec|Laval]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/company/1514Q:US | title=Circle K Corp/The - Company Profile and News | website=[[Bloomberg News]] }}</ref> Founded in 1951 in [[El Paso, Texas]], the company filed for [[bankruptcy]] protection in 1990 and went through several owners, before being acquired by Alimentation Couche-Tard in 2003.<ref name="CKHistory" /><ref name="CTAbout" /> As of February 2020, Circle K has 9,799 stores in North America, 2,697 stores in Europe, and an additional 2,380 stores operating under franchise agreements worldwide.<ref name="CTAbout" />

In 2015, Circle K unveiled a new logo and brand identity, and Couche-Tard announced that it would deploy the brand globally, including English-speaking Canada (rebranding from the [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]] brand), Europe (rebranding from the [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] brand), and the United States (rebranding from the [[The Pantry|Kangaroo Express]] brand and updating the existing Circle K brand).<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CTBrand" />

==Overview==
Since the 1980s, Circle K has been the largest chain of company-owned and operated (non-franchised) convenience stores in the United States.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q62w4GPXMcAC&pg=PA217|title=Financial Accounting|last1=Albrecht|first1=W. Steve|last2=Stice|first2=Earl K.|last3=Stice|first3=James D.|publisher=Thomson/South-Western|year=2008|isbn=978-0324645576|edition=10th|location=Mason, OH|pages=217|oclc=159958977}}</ref> With 7,230 stores overall in the United States, Circle K is second to [[7-Eleven]]'s 9,348 stores (as of July 2019),.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/top-100-convenience-store-chains-2019|title=Top 100 Convenience Store Chains|date=2019-07-30|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> As of February 2020, there are more than 14,800 stores with the Circle K brand worldwide.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand">{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/circle-ks-global-rebranding-effort-marches-across-north-america|title=Circle K's Global Rebranding Effort Marches Across North America|date=2020-03-31|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref>

Within the United States, Circle K owns and operates stores in 47 states (the three states without being Nebraska, Utah and Wisconsin), <ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> with the largest concentration of stores found in Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, and Texas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.circlek.com/store-locator|title=Store Locator|date=2020-05-02|website=Circle K Stores, Inc.|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> Fuel is sold under various brands, with the Circle K and [[Shell Oil Company|Shell]] brands as the most common. Other brands of fuel sold at Circle K stores include [[Valero Energy|Valero]], [[BP]], [[Exxon]], [[Marathon Oil Company|Marathon]], [[Irving Oil|Irving]], [[Mobil]], [[Esso]] and [[Phillips 66]]. Approximately 13% of stores worldwide do not sell gasoline.<ref name="CTAbout" />

Circle K operates stores in the United States, Canada, Europe (the Nordics, Baltics, Poland, Russia, Ireland and the United Kingdom), and Hong Kong, and has franchises in [[Mexico]] (it partners with the Mexican stores "[[Tiendas Extra]]" created by Modelo Group), Cambodia, China, Egypt, Guam, Honduras, Indonesia, Jamaica, Macau, Mongolia, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Vietnam.<ref name="CTAbout" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> In [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]], the stores are called ''OK'' in reference to the circle around the K. Circle K Hong Kong was founded in 1985 by [[Li & Fung]] Retailing (later Fung Retailing) as licensee of the name,<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/business/about_ok.htm|title=About Circle K|publisher=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2020-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718002158/http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/business/about_ok.htm|archive-date=2020-07-18}}</ref> but sold back to Couche-Tard in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/newsroom/press/p201105.pdf|title=Convenience Retail Asia to sell 340 Circle K stores to Alimentation Couche-Tard – the owner of the Circle K brand|date=2020-11-05|website=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2021-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302134036/http://www.cr-asia.com/eng/newsroom/press/p201105.pdf|archive-date=2021-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://doc.irasia.com/listco/hk/cra/announcement/a240342-e_completionannouncement.pdf|title=Completion of the very substantial disposal in relation to the convenience store business and update on payment of special cash dividend and resignation of director|date=2020-12-21|website=Convenience Retail Asia|access-date=2021-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302134433/https://doc.irasia.com/listco/hk/cra/announcement/a240342-e_completionannouncement.pdf|archive-date=2021-03-02}}</ref> Circle K had 387 franchised locations throughout Hong Kong as of May 2020.<ref name=":3"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.circlek.hk/en/store|title=Store Locator|date=2020-05-02|website=Circle K Hong Kong|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref>

[[File:Circle K on East Point Road 2022.jpg|thumb|200px|A Circle K located in [[Causeway Bay]], [[Hong Kong]].]]
The Circle K brand entered the Canadian market in 2008, in connection with Couche-Tard's acquisition of [[Irving Oil]]'s convenience store network.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/couche-tard-inks-deal-to-run-stores-at-irving-gas-stations/article1055104/|title=Couche-Tard inks deal to run stores at Irving gas stations|date=2008-05-09|website=The Globe and Mail|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://marketingmag.ca/brands/couche-tard-to-take-over-irving-blue-canoes-15603|title=Couche-Tard to take over Irving Blue Canoes|date=2008-05-09|website=Marketing Magazine|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref> By 2019, more than 800 Mac's branded stores had been rebranded to Circle K throughout central and western Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/couche-tard-enters-year-four-circle-k-rebranding-campaign|title=Couche-Tard Enters Year Four of Circle K Rebranding Campaign|date=2019-09-17|website=Convenience Store News|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref><ref name="CTBrand" />

[[File:CircleK-Northernmost.jpg|thumb|right|The world's most northern fuel station, in [[Longyearbyen]], [[Norway]].]]
In September 2015, Couche-Tard announced that Circle K would become the worldwide brand of all of its convenience stores, replacing [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]], [[The Pantry|Kangaroo Express]], and [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] brands (except the Couche-Tard brand in Quebec and the INGO brand in Europe).<ref name="CTBrand" /><ref name="CSNRebrand" /> This global rebrand included the introduction of a new logo incorporating elements of its existing brands, improvements to its product offerings and technology, and investing in store-level improvements aimed at improving the customer experience.<ref name="CSNRebrand" /><ref name="CTBrand" /> The rebranding occurred over the following five years and as of March 2020, all of Europe and 85% of North America had been updated with the Circle K brand and logo.<ref name="CSNRebrand" />

==History==
Entrepreneur Fred Hervey purchased three Kay's Food Stores in [[El Paso, Texas]], in 1951.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=History and timeline |url=https://www.circlek.com/history-and-timeline |website=Circle K |access-date=27 February 2020}}</ref> Hervey renamed the stores as "Circle K Food Stores, Inc." rather than "Kay." He grew the Circle K chain into neighboring New Mexico and Arizona, which has been the company's home base since 1957. (Hervey would go on to serve two terms as mayor of El Paso.)

By 1975, there were 1,000 Circle K stores across the U.S. In 1979, Circle K first expanded its reach into foreign markets via a licensing agreement which established the first Circle K stores in Japan by [[UNY]].<ref name=":2" /> Until 2018, Circle K stores in Japan were run by the [[FamilyMart]] Company, that was named [[Circle K Sunkus]] Company until 2016<ref>{{Cite news|author=Reuters Staff|date=2015-03-10|title=Japan's FamilyMart, UNY to merge in September 2016|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-familymart-uny-idUSKBN0M60JU20150310|access-date=2020-10-21}}</ref> and was named '''Circle K Japan''' Company until 2004, which licensed the Circle K brand from Alimentation Couche-Tard. In 2018,<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 July 2018|title=ALIMENTATION COUCHE-TARD INC.ANNUAL INFORMATION FORM For Fiscal year ended April 29, 2018|url=https://corpo.couche-tard.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/AIF-2018-ENG-v8-FINAL.pdf|access-date=21 October 2020|website=couche-tard.com}}</ref> all Circle K stores in Japan were converted to [[FamilyMart]] stores. In 1983, the number of stores increased to 2,180 with the purchase of the 960-store [[UtoteM]] chain in the western and southern United States.<ref>{{cite news |title=Circle K-Utotem |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/12/29/business/circle-k-utotem.html |access-date=17 January 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=December 29, 1983}}</ref>

[[Karl Eller]], a prominent [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] businessman, served as the company's CEO from 1983 to 1990. During that time, Eller built Circle K into the second largest convenience store operation and the largest publicly owned convenience store chain in the U.S. with 4,631 stores in 32 states and an additional 1,300 or so licensed or joint venture stores in 13 foreign countries. Under Eller's leadership, the company grew from annual sales of $747 million (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|747000000|1983}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}) to over $3 billion (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|3000000000|1990}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}).

In 1988, the company sent a letter to its over 8,000 employees announcing that it will cut off the medical coverage of those who become sick or injured as a result of AIDS, alcohol, drug abuse or self-inflicted wounds. The company stated that "There are certain lifestyle decisions that we are just not going to assure the results of."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/06/us/company-halting-health-plan-on-some-life-style-illnesses.html|title=Company Halting Health Plan On Some 'Life Style' Illnesses|last=Noble|first=Kenneth B.|date=1988-08-06|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-02-27|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Fortunes declined in the late 1980s as the US economy began to slow down, and Circle K filed for [[Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 11]] [[bankruptcy]] protection in May 1990; Eller resigned as CEO. Some underperforming locations were sold or closed. In 1993 the company was purchased by [[Investcorp]], an international investment group, and emerged from bankruptcy.

In 1996, Circle K was acquired by [[Tosco Corporation]], an independent petroleum refiner and marketer, but kept its headquarters in Phoenix. Tosco was purchased in 2001 by Phillips Petroleum, which, in 2002, merged with Conoco to form ConocoPhillips. In 2003, Circle K was purchased by [[Alimentation Couche-Tard]], a large, multinational convenience store operator based in the [[Montreal]] area,<ref name=":2" /> for US$830 million (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|830000000|2003}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2003-10-06|title=Couche-Tard to purchase Circle K|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/3130382/ns/business-world_business/t/couche-tard-purchase-circle-k/|access-date=2020-10-21|website=msnbc.com|language=en}}</ref>

In 2005, [[Taiwan]]'s OK Convenience Store chain terminated its franchise agreement with Circle K.<ref>{{Cite web
| publisher = USDA Foreign Agricultural Service Global Agricultural Information Network
| last = Amy Chang-Chien Hsueh
| author2 = Josephine Hsu
| title = Taiwan Convenience Stores 2010
| access-date = May 17, 2014
| date = June 30, 2010
| url = http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Taiwan%20Convenience%20Stores%202010_Taipei%20ATO_Taiwan_6-30-2010.pdf
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923012033/http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Taiwan%20Convenience%20Stores%202010_Taipei%20ATO_Taiwan_6-30-2010.pdf
| archive-date = September 23, 2015
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

In 2006, the company acquired the 90-store Spectrum chain serving [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Alabama]],<ref name="spectrum">{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/couche-tard-acquires-spectrum-stores-a-90-store-chain-in-the-southeast-region-us-56211367.html |title=Couche-Tard acquires Spectrum Stores a 90 store chain in the Southeast Region (U.S.) |publisher=PR Newswire |date=April 11, 2006}}</ref> the CFM chain in [[Missouri]], 35 Sterling Dairy locations in [[Northwest Ohio]], and 26 stores under various brands from Chico Enterprises of [[Morgantown, West Virginia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-acquires-26-stores-three-states|title=Circle K Acquires 26 Stores in Three States|date=2011-11-09|website=Convenience Store News|language=en|access-date=2019-02-27}}</ref> This came after the 2005 rebranding of the various Couche-Tard stores ([[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]], [[Bigfoot (convenience store)|Bigfoot]], [[Lawson (store)|Dairy Mart]], and Handy Andy) under the more nationally known Circle K brand.<ref name="csn-2004sep12">{{cite news |url=http://www.csnews.com/industry-news-and-trends/marketing/couche-tard-rebrands-midwest-stores-circle-k?nopaging=1 |title=Couche-Tard Rebrands Midwest Stores to Circle K: Process should take approximately two years. |website=Convenience Store News |date=September 12, 2004 |author=}}</ref>

In mid-2006, Alimentation Couche-Tard entered into a franchising agreement with ConocoPhillips to brand some of its company-owned stores as Circle K, in the western portion of the US. ConocoPhillips remodeled the stores into the Circle K scheme but continued to operate them. The stores continued to have the new ConocoPhillips unified canopy design and ProClean gasolines. These stores were spun off as [[Phillips 66]] in May 2012.

Another oil company, [[Canada]]-based [[Irving Oil]], leased out its convenience stores operating under the Bluecanoe and Mainway banners in the United States and [[Atlantic Canada]] to Couche-Tard, which rebranded the locations to Circle K in July 2008, while still selling Irving-branded fuel. However, the Mainways in [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] did not change until summer 2010. The parties had earlier formed a similar partnership in [[Quebec]], with the stores there operated as Couche-Tard.

In April 2009, [[ExxonMobil]] sold 43 Phoenix stores to parent company Couche-Tard as part of a sale of the larger [[On the Run (convenience store)|On the Run]] franchise. These 43 stores were to be rebranded under the Circle K name.<ref>{{Cite news
|url=http://www.csnews.com/csn/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003967316
|title=Couche-Tard Acquires ExxonMobil Franchised On the Run Stores
|work=Convenience Store News
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705123302/http://www.csnews.com/csn/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003967316
|archive-date=July 5, 2009
|url-status=dead
|df=dmy
}}
</ref>

In July 2010, Circle K had dropped down to fourth rank in number of stores (3,455), behind [[7-Eleven]] (6,523 stores), [[BP]] (4,730 stores), and [[Shell Oil Company|Shell]] (4,630 convenience stores) in 2010.<ref name=":1" />

On February 10, 2014, Modelo Group Sold the [[Tiendas Extra]] brand of stores to the Mexican franchise of Circle K, Circulo K.
[[File:Exxon Circle K North Richland Hills TX.jpg|thumb|left|A Circle K with an [[Exxon]] fuel station in [[North Richland Hills, Texas]].]]
On December 18, 2014, Couche-Tard announced its acquisition of [[The Pantry]] for $860 million all-cash tender (${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|860000000|2014}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars{{inflation-fn|US}}). The acquisition closed in March 2015.<ref name="Couche-Tard, Pantry Complete Merger">{{cite web|url=http://www.cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisition-growth/mergers-acquisitions-news/articles/couche-tard-pantry-complete-merger|title=Couche-Tard, Pantry Complete Merger|date=March 16, 2015|publisher=cspdailynews.com|access-date=March 16, 2015}}</ref> Following the closing, all stores that were owned and operated by The Pantry, many of them under the "Kangaroo Express" name, were expected to be rebranded under the Circle K banner.<ref name="Cary's The Pantry stores sells for $861M to Circle K parent">{{cite web|url=http://www.bizjournals.com/triangle/news/2014/12/18/the-pantry-cary-nc-sold-to-circle-k-parent.html|title=Cary's The Pantry stores sells for $861M to Circle K parent|date=December 18, 2014|publisher=bizjournals.com|access-date=December 18, 2014}}</ref>

On August 12, 2015, Circle K opened its first five convenience stores in [[Costa Rica]], Central America, after having bought and rebranded the local convenience store chain Delimart.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

[[File:EssoRichmondHill.jpg|thumb|right|A Circle K in [[Richmond Hill, Ontario]], converted from an [[On the Run (convenience store)|On the Run]] store after its purchase from [[Imperial Oil]].]]

On September 23, 2015, Couche-Tard unveiled a refreshed brand identity for Circle K, and announced that the [[Statoil Fuel & Retail|Statoil]] (Northern, Central and Eastern Europe) and [[Mac's Convenience Stores|Mac's]] (English Canada) brands would be converted to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://edmontonjournal.com/business/commercial-real-estate/all-edmonton-macs-locations-rebranded-as-circle-k-stores-by-2019|title=All Edmonton Mac's locations rebranded as Circle K stores by 2019|date=2018-09-07|work=Edmonton Journal|access-date=2018-09-11|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Mac's stores to be renamed Circle K, says owner Couche-Tard">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/business/macs-brand-retired-1.3238458|title=Mac's stores to be renamed Circle K, says owner Couche-Tard|date=September 22, 2015|publisher=[[CBC News]]|access-date=September 22, 2015}}</ref><ref name=cspnet-circleklogo>{{cite web|title=Circle K Transformation Goes Beyond Rebranding|url=http://www.cspnet.com/industry-news-analysis/corporate-news/articles/circle-k-transformation-goes-beyond-rebranding|website=CSPNet|access-date=September 25, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925002843/http://www.cspnet.com/industry-news-analysis/corporate-news/articles/circle-k-transformation-goes-beyond-rebranding|archive-date=September 25, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2016, Couche-Tard acquired the Irish service station chain [[Topaz Energy|Topaz]]. In April 2018, Couche-Tard announced that they too would be rebranded to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thejournal.ie/topaz-rebranding-circle-k-3956365-Apr2018|title=Service station Topaz rebrands to Circle K, as €55 million investment announced|last=Halpin|first=Hayley|work=TheJournal.ie|access-date=2018-06-14|language=en}}</ref> Couche-Tard similarly acquired [[Imperial Oil]]'s [[Esso]] retail locations in Ontario (228) and Quebec (50) the same year, and rebranded the convenience stores in Ontario (many of which previously operating under the On the Run brand) to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/imperial-oil-esso-sales-1.3482381|title=Imperial Oil to sell Esso stations for $2.8B |agency=Canadian Press|work=CBC News|access-date=2018-06-14|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2017, Couche-Tard completed its acquisition of [[CST Brands]], adding stores formerly owned by [[Valero Energy]], and a portion of the [[Ultramar]] chain in Canada to Circle K (with the latter also switching fuel suppliers to Irving).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thetelegram.com/business/a-dozen-nl-ultramar-stations-being-converted-to-irving-and-circle-k-as-part-of-joint-venture-233556/|title=A dozen N.L. Ultramar stations being converted to Irving and Circle K as part of joint venture|website=The Telegram|language=en|access-date=2019-06-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/pei-st-peters-road-ultramar-rebranding-irving-circle-k-1.4735132|title=Irving purchases St. Peters Road Ultramar, rebranding to begin soon|date=July 5, 2018|website=CBC News|access-date=June 30, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://huddle.today/irving-oil-buys-13-ultramar-gas-stations-across-atlantic-canada/|title=Irving Oil Buys 13 Ultramar Gas Stations Across Atlantic Canada|last=Intiar|first=Inda|date=2018-07-04|website=Huddle|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-30}}</ref>

Also in 2017, Couche-Tard bought [[Holiday Stationstores]], a Minnesota-based chain of gas stations in the midwest United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/alimentation-couche-tard-inc-announces-closing-date-of-the-acquisition-of-holiday-664471413.html|title=Alimentation Couche-Tard Inc. announces closing date of the acquisition of Holiday|date=2017-12-15|website=PR Newswire|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> The company subsequently extended business practices from Holiday to its North American stores, including piloting a food service model adapted from that of Holiday.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Circle K Stores Begin Piloting Holiday’s Grab-and-Go Concept |url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-stores-begin-piloting-holidays-grab-and-go-concept |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=Convenience Store News |language=en}}</ref>

In September 2021, Circle K announced the purchase of 10 convenience and food stores from the Griffin Group in Ireland. All the stores being bought are in Dublin and located in busy areas such as O’Connell Street, College Green, Grafton Street and Sandyford.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Circle K makes foray onto Irish high street with stores purchase|url=https://www.independent.ie/business/circle-k-makes-foray-onto-irish-high-street-with-stores-purchase-40837026.html|access-date=2021-09-10|website=independent|language=en}}</ref>

In February 2022, Couche-Tard announced that it would rebrand 12 Holiday Stationstores locations in [[Sioux Falls, South Dakota]] to Circle K.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 30, 2022 |first=Greg |last=Lindenberg |title=Couche-Tard Rebranding 12 Holiday Stationstores to Circle K |url=https://cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisitions/couche-tard-rebranding-12-holiday-stationstores-circle-k |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=CSP Daily News |language=en}}</ref>

A May 2022 report in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' reported that Circle K parent Alimentation Couche-Tard is in talks to buy [[EG Group]]. Should a deal go through, it would significantly boost Circle K's presence in several U.S. markets (especially [[Florida]], [[New England]] and [[Ohio]]) as well as giving it a location in every state except [[Utah]]. Internationally, it would give Circle K access to [[Australia]], [[Western Europe]], and EG Group's home market of the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://cspdailynews.com/mergers-acquisitions/couche-tard-eg-group-merger-talks-report | title=Couche-Tard, EG Group in Merger Talks: Report }}</ref> Some have speculated that the deal may be in response to Alimentation Couche-Tard having been outbid by its primary rival [[7-Eleven]] for the American [[Speedway (store)|Speedway]] chain.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/alimentation-couche-tard-eg-group-in-deal-talks-11651263387 | title=Convenience-Store Giants Couche-Tard, EG Group in Deal Talks | newspaper=Wall Street Journal | date=April 29, 2022 }}</ref>

==Wage violations==

A 2021 report on [[wage theft]] by the [[Center for Public Integrity]] named Circle K as one of the "worst offenders" in the United States.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://publicintegrity.org/inequality-poverty-opportunity/workers-rights/cheated-at-work/ripping-off-workers-with-no-consequences/ | title=Ripping off workers without consequences | publisher=[[Center for Public Integrity]] | date=2021-05-04 | first1=Alexia | last1=Fernández Campbell | first2=Joe | last2=Yerardi}}</ref> A [[class-action lawsuit]] was brought against the company in 2014,<ref>{{cite news | date=2014-06-17 | url=https://knpr.org/knpr/2014-06/convenience-store-employees-sue-overtime-pay | publisher=[[KNPR]] | title=Convenience Store Employees Sue For Overtime Pay | last=Sieroty | first=Chris}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | date=2015-08-27 | url=https://csnews.com/judge-oks-circle-k-overtime-suit-national-class-action | title=Judge OKs Circle K Overtime Suit as National Class-Action | publisher=csnews.com}}</ref> for which the company agreed in 2019 to pay a [[settlement (litigation)|settlement]] of US$8.3 million.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reviewjournal.com/local/local-las-vegas/circle-k-settles-overtime-suit-in-las-vegas-for-about-8-3m-1564885/ | publisher=[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]] | title=Circle K settles overtime suit in Las Vegas for about $8.3M | last=Ferrara | first=David | date=2019-01-03}}</ref> Circle K settled a similar class-action lawsuit in 2015 as well.<ref>{{cite web | last=Bucher | first=Anne | url=https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/closed-settlements/circle-k-wage-and-hour-class-action-settlement/ | publisher=TopClassActions | date=2015-12-08 | title=Circle K Wage and Hour Class Action Settlement}}</ref>

==Frosters and Polar Pops==
Fountain drinks at Circle K are sold in Polar Pop cups, previously called Thirst Busters, are available in expanded polystyrene cups. In areas where polystyrene containers are illegal, plastic cups are offered. The 52-ounce cups are plastic. Most American locations offer any size, 32 ounce or under for under one American dollar. 52-ounce or above cups are priced at over a dollar. The price point of its 44-ounce size (marketed as "Epic XL" in some regions) may vary, as it may be under or over $1, depending on region.

The Polar Pop was first introduced in Bigfoot convenience stores by Johnson Oil Company in Columbus, Indiana, prior to its acquisition by Alimentation Couche-Tard. After the acquisition, the company began rebranding fountain drinks in other stores owned by Couche-Tard. As of 2018, Circle K sells 17 Polar Pops every second in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Circle K Kicks Off First Multi-National Polar Pop Promo|url=https://csnews.com/circle-k-kicks-first-multi-national-polar-pop-promo|access-date=2021-05-23|website=Convenience Store News|language=en}}</ref>

The Froster, which was introduced to Mac's stores in 1998, became very popular throughout Western Canada and Ontario. The American version of the Froster was introduced in 1999.

Playboi Carti now owns Circle K.

==Sponsorship==
Circle K was a part-time primary sponsor of the No. 28 [[IndyCar Series]] racecar driven by [[Ryan Hunter-Reay]] of [[Andretti Autosport]] between 2011 and 2013. In 2014, it switched to [[KVSH Racing]] driver [[Sébastien Bourdais]]. Circle K, along with [[Oberto Sausage Company]], currently sponsors [[Marco Andretti]].

In 2017, Circle K went to [[NASCAR]], sponsoring [[Matt Kenseth]] and [[Joe Gibbs Racing]] with full livery for six races. It was on the car when Kenseth won his final NASCAR Cup Race at that year's [[2017 Can-Am 500 | fall race at Phoenix Raceway]].

Also in 2017, Circle K became the official shirt sponsor of [[United Soccer League]] side [[North Carolina FC]]<ref>{{cite web|title=North Carolina Football Club Unveils Jersey Sponsorships For NCFC And NC Courage|url=http://www.northcarolinafc.com/news/2017/03/20/north-carolina-football-club-unveils-jersey-sponsorships-for-north-carolina-fc-and-north-carolina-courage|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116095433/hhttp://www.northcarolinafc.com/news/2017/03/20/north-carolina-football-club-unveils-jersey-sponsorships-for-north-carolina-fc-and-north-carolina-courage|archive-date=November 16, 2017|website=northcarolinafc.com|url-status=dead|access-date=2019-10-12}}</ref> and signed a two-year sponsorship agreement with the [[Lietuvos krepšinio lyga|Lithuanian Basketball League]].<ref>{{cite news|title=LKL rėmėjų gretas papildė dar viena itin solidi įmonė|url=http://www.krepsinis.net/naujiena/lkl-remeju-gretas-papilde-dar-viena-itin-solidi-imone/278291|access-date=October 8, 2017|work=Krepsinis.net|publisher=Lithuanian Basketball League|date=October 6, 2017|language=lt}}</ref>

Due to its sizable presence in [[Greater Cleveland]], from the former Lawson/Dairy Mart stores, Circle K sponsors the [[Cleveland Guardians]] [[strikeout]] sign. It is located in center field at [[Progressive Field]] in [[Cleveland]]. The "K" logo represents the "K" used for strikeouts in traditional [[baseball scorekeeping]] and is replicated with each strikeout. The same sponsorship is in place with the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] at [[Chase Field]]. If the Diamondbacks strike out ten batters or more, the game's attendees receive a [[voucher]] for a free cup of Polar Pop, while Guardians fans receive the same voucher after select home games.

In May 2017, a sponsored Circle K Power Cube was introduced into the online game ''[[Ingress (video game)|Ingress]]''.<ref>{{Cite web| title = After the success of their XM folding research produced enhanced Power Cubes,...| access-date = February 12, 2018| url = https://plus.google.com/+Ingress/posts/eXx3Dtmx7PA}}</ref>

[[File:Circle K logo.svg|thumb|125px|The former Circle K logo. It can still be seen in New England, Canada, Hong Kong and Macau.]]

==See also==
{{portal|Arizona|Companies}}
* [[Circle K Sunkus]]
* [[List of automotive fuel brands]]
* [[List of convenience stores]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Circle K}}
*{{official website|http://www.circlek.com/}} USA and Canada site

*{{official website|https://www.circlek.ie/}} Ireland site
{{Convenience stores}}

[[Category:1951 establishments in Texas]]
[[Category:American subsidiaries of foreign companies]]
[[Category:Alimentation Couche-Tard]]
[[Category:Companies based in Tempe, Arizona]]
[[Category:Convenience stores of Canada]]
[[Category:Convenience stores of the United States]]
[[Category:Franchises]]
[[Category:Li & Fung]]
[[Category:Gas stations in the United States]]
[[Category:Retail companies established in 1951]]
[[Category:Fast-food chains of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1990]]
[[Category:2003 mergers and acquisitions]]

Dragonfly

2022-09-15T17:13:06Z

72.142.115.198:

{{Short description|Predatory winged insects}}
{{About|the insect}}
{{Redirect|Anisoptera|other uses|Anisoptera (disambiguation)}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2019}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| taxon = Anisoptera
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|196|0}} [[Early Jurassic]] to Recent
| image = Sympetrum flaveolum - side (aka).jpg
| image_caption = [[Yellow-winged darter]] ''Sympetrum flaveolum''
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
* [[Aeshnoidea]]
**[[Aeshnidae]] (hawkers or darners)
**[[Austropetaliidae]]
**[[Gomphidae]] (clubtails)
**[[Petaluridae]] (petaltails)
* [[Cordulegastroidea]]
**[[Chlorogomphidae]]
**[[Cordulegastridae]] (spiketails)
**[[Neopetaliidae]]
* [[Libelluloidea]]
**[[Corduliidae]]
**[[Libellulidae]] (skimmers, etc)
**[[Macromiidae]] (cruisers)
**[[Synthemistidae]] (tigertails)
<center>$''Not a clade''</center>
| authority = [[Edmond de Selys Longschamps|Selys]], 1854<ref name="Selys 1854">{{Cite book|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2687180|title=Monographie des caloptérygines|volume=t.9e|language=fr|last=Selys-Longchamps|first=E.|publisher=C. Muquardt|year=1854|location=Brussels and Leipzig|pages=1–291 [1–2]|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.60461}}</ref>
}}
A '''dragonfly''' is a [[flying insect]] belonging to the order [[Odonata]], [[infraorder]] '''Anisoptera''' (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἄνισος ''anisos'', "unequal" and πτερόν ''pteron'', "wing", because the [[hindwing]] is broader than the [[forewing]]). About 3,000 extant species of true dragonfly are known. Most are [[Tropics|tropical]], with fewer species in [[temperate regions]]. Loss of [[wetland]] habitat threatens dragonfly populations around the world. Adult dragonflies are characterized by a pair of large, multifaceted [[compound eye]]s, two pairs of strong, transparent [[insect wing|wings]], sometimes with coloured patches, and an elongated body. Many dragonflies have brilliant [[iridescent]] or metallic colours produced by [[structural colouration]], making them conspicuous in flight. An adult dragonfly's [[Arthropod eye|compound eyes]] have nearly 24,000 [[ommatidia]] each.

Dragonflies can be mistaken for the closely related [[damselflies]], which make up the other odonatan infraorder ([[Zygoptera]]) and are similar in [[body plan]] though usually lighter in build; however, the wings of most dragonflies are held flat and away from the body, while damselflies hold their wings folded at rest, along or above the abdomen. Dragonflies are agile fliers, while damselflies have a weaker, fluttery flight.

Dragonflies are [[predatory insect]]s, both in their aquatic [[nymph (biology)|nymphs]] stage (also known as ''naiads'') and as adults. In some species, the nymphal stage lasts for up to five years, and the adult stage may be as long as ten weeks, but most species have an adult lifespan in the order of five weeks or less, and some survive for only a few days.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cannings |first1=Robert A. |author2=Kathleen M. Stuart|date=1977 |title=The Dragonflies of British Columbia|page=19}}</ref> They are fast, agile fliers capable of highly accurate aerial ambush, sometimes migrating across oceans, and often live near water. They have a uniquely complex mode of reproduction involving indirect insemination, delayed fertilization, and sperm competition. During mating, the male grasps the female at the back of the head, and the female curls her abdomen under her body to pick up sperm from the male's secondary genitalia at the front of his abdomen, forming the "heart" or "wheel" posture.

Fossils of very large dragonfly-like insects, sometimes called [[meganisoptera|griffinflies]], are found from 325 million years ago (Mya) in [[Upper Carboniferous]] rocks; these had wingspans up to about {{convert|750|mm|in|abbr=on}}, though they were only distant relatives, not true dragonflies.

Dragonflies are represented in human culture on artefacts such as pottery, rock paintings, statues and [[Art Nouveau]] jewellery. They are used in traditional medicine in Japan and China, and caught for food in Indonesia. They are symbols of courage, strength, and happiness in Japan, but seen as sinister in European folklore. Their bright colours and agile flight are admired in the poetry of [[Lord Tennyson]] and the prose of [[H. E. Bates]].

==Evolution==
[[File:Meganeura monyi au Museum de Toulouse.jpg|thumb|The giant [[Upper Carboniferous]] dragonfly relative, ''[[Meganeura monyi]]'', attained a wingspan around {{convert|680|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Biology of Dragonflies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J584AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA324 |publisher=CUP Archive |page=324 |id=GGKEY:0Z7A1R071DD |quote=No dragonfly at present existing can compare with the immense ''Meganeura monyi'' of the Upper Carboniferous, whose expanse of wing was somewhere about 27 inches.|date=2018-10-13 }}</ref> Museum of Toulouse]]
[[File:Mesurupetala, dragonfly, Late Late Jurassic, Tithonian Age, Solnhofen Lithographic Limestone, Solnhofen, Bavaria, Germany - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01817.JPG|thumb|''[[Mesurupetala]]'', Late Jurassic ([[Tithonian]]), [[Solnhofen limestone]], Germany]]
[[File:Dragonflies - oze national park - 2021 8 2.ogg|thumb|Dragonflies in [[Oze National Park]]]]

Dragonflies and their relatives are similar in structure to an ancient group, [[meganisoptera]], from the 325 Mya Upper [[Carboniferous]] of Europe, a group that included the largest insect that ever lived, ''[[Meganeuropsis permiana]]'' from the [[Cisuralian|Early Permian]], with a wingspan around {{convert|750|mm|in|abbr=on}};<ref name=Carde2009>{{cite book |last1=Resh |first1=Vincent H. |last2=Cardé |first2=Ring T. |title=Encyclopedia of Insects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jk0Hym1yF0cC&pg=PA722 |date=22 July 2009 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-08-092090-0 |page=722}}</ref>. Known informally as "griffinflies", their fossil record ends with the [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]] (about 247 Mya). The [[Protanisoptera]], another ancestral group that lacks certain wing vein characters found in modern Odonata, lived from the Early to Late Permian age until the end Permian event, and are known from fossil wings from current-day United States, Russia, and Australia, suggesting they might have been cosmopolitan in distribution. While both of those groups are sometimes referred to as "giant dragonflies", in fact true dragonflies/odonata are more modern insects that had not evolved yet.

Modern dragonflies do retain some traits of their distant predecessors, and are in a group known as [[palaeoptera]], ancient-winged. They, like the gigantic pre-dinosaur griffinflies, lack the ability to fold their wings up against their bodies in the way modern insects do, although some evolved their own different way to do so. The forerunners of modern Odonata are included in a clade called the Panodonata, which include the basal Zygoptera (damselflies) and the Anisoptera (true dragonflies).<ref name=grimaldi >{{cite book |pages=[https://archive.org/details/evolutioninsects00grim_110/page/n189 175]–187 |title=Evolution of the Insects |url=https://archive.org/details/evolutioninsects00grim_110 |url-access=limited |last1=Grimaldi |first1=David |last2=Engel |first2=Michael S. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005|isbn=9780521821490 }}</ref> Today, some 3,000 species are extant around the world.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Zhang, Z.-Q.| title=Phylum Arthropoda von Siebold, 1848 In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness | journal=Zootaxa| volume=3148| year=2011| pages=99–103| doi=10.11646/zootaxa.3148.1.14 | url=http://mapress.com/zootaxa/2011/f/zt03148p103.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Dunkle |first=Sidney W. |year=2000 |title=Dragonflies Through Binoculars: a field guide to the dragonflies of North America |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-511268-9}}</ref>

The relationships of anisopteran families are not fully resolved as of 2013, but all the families are [[monophyletic]] except the [[Corduliidae]]; the [[Gomphidae]] are a [[sister taxon]] to all other Anisoptera, the [[Austropetaliidae]] are sister to the [[Aeshnoidea]], and the [[Chlorogomphidae]] are sister to a [[clade]] that includes the [[Synthemistidae]] and [[Libellulidae]].<ref name=Blanke>{{cite journal |title=An updated phylogeny of Anisoptera including formal convergence analysis of morphological characters |journal=Systematic Entomology |date=July 2013 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=474–490 |doi=10.1111/syen.12012|last1=Blanke |first1=Alexander |last2=Greve |first2=Carola |last3=Mokso |first3=Rajmund |last4=Beckmann |first4=Felix |last5=Misof |first5=Bernhard |s2cid=83396813 |url=http://bib-pubdb1.desy.de//record/167906/files/10.1111_syen.12012.pdf }}</ref> On the [[cladogram]], dashed lines indicate unresolved relationships; English names are given (in parentheses):

{{clade| style=font-size:85%;line-height:85%
|label1= Anisoptera
|1={{clade
|1=[[Gomphidae]] (clubtails)
|2={{clade
|state1=dashed
|1={{clade
|1=[[Austropetaliidae]]
|2=[[Aeshnoidea]] (hawkers)
|3=[[Petaluridae]] (petaltails)
|state3=dashed
}}
|2={{clade
|state1=dashed
|1=[[Macromiidae]] (cruisers)
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|state1=dashed
|label1=[[Libelluloidea]]
|1={{clade
|1=[[Neopetaliidae]]
|2=[[Cordulegastridae]] (goldenrings)
}}
|2=[[Libellulidae]] (skimmers)
|3="[[Corduliidae]]" ''[not a clade]'' (emeralds)
}}
|2=[[Synthemistidae]] (tigertails)
}}
|2=[[Chlorogomphidae]]
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}

==Distribution and diversity==
About 3,012 species of dragonflies were known in 2010; these are classified into {{nowrap|348 genera}} in {{nowrap|11 families}}. The distribution of diversity within the biogeographical regions are summarized below (the world numbers are not ordinary totals, as overlaps in species occur).<ref name=diversity>{{cite book |title=Ecology and general biology. Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates |edition=4 |publisher=Academic Press |editor1-last=Thorp |editor1-first=James |editor2-last=Rogers |editor2-first=D. Christopher |isbn=9780123850263 |author1=Suhling, F. |author2=Sahlén, G. |author3=Gorb, S. |author4=Kalkman, V.J. |author5=Dijkstra, K-D.B. |author6=van Tol, J. |year=2015 |chapter=Order Odonata |pages= 893–932}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"
|- style="font-size:86%"
! Family
! [[Indomalaya|Oriental]]
! [[Neotropical]]
! [[Australasia]]n
! [[Afrotropical]]
! [[Palaearctic]]
! [[Nearctic]]
! [[Oceania|Pacific]]
! World
|-
| [[Aeshnidae]]||149||129||78||44||58||40||13||456
|-
| [[Austropetaliidae]]||||7||4||||||||||11
|-
| [[Petaluridae]]||||1||6||||1||2||||10
|-
| [[Gomphidae]]||364||277||42||152||127||101||||980
|-
| [[Chlorogomphidae]]||46||||||||5||||||47
|-
| [[Cordulegastridae]]||23||1||||||18||||||46
|-
| [[Neopetaliidae]]||||1||||||||||||1
|-
| [[Corduliidae]]||23||20||33||6||18||51||12||154
|-
| [[Libellulidae]]||192||354||184||251||120||105||31||1037
|-
| [[Macromiidae]]||50||2||17||37||7||10||||125
|-
| [[Synthemistidae]]||||||37||||||||9||46
|-
| ''[[Incertae sedis]]''||37||24||21||15||2||||||99
|-
|}

[[File:PantalaFlavescensTalakaveri.jpg|thumb|upright|An aggregation of globe skimmers, ''[[Pantala flavescens]]'', during [[insect migration|migration]]]]
Dragonflies live on every continent except Antarctica. In contrast to the damselflies (Zygoptera), which tend to have restricted distributions, some genera and species are spread across continents. For example, the blue-eyed darner ''[[Rhionaeschna multicolor]]'' lives all across North America, and in Central America;<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bybee |first1=Seth |title=Featured Creatures: dragonflies and damselflies |url=http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/odonata/odonata.htm |publisher=University of Florida |access-date=26 February 2015|date=May 2012 |orig-year=August 2005}}</ref> emperors ''[[Anax (dragonfly)|Anax]]'' live throughout the Americas from as far north as Newfoundland to as far south as Bahia Blanca in Argentina,<ref name="GarrisonEllenrieder2006">{{cite book |last1=Garrison |first1=Rosser W. |last2=Ellenrieder|first2=Natalia von |last3=Louton |first3=Jerry A. |title=Dragonfly Genera of the New World: An Illustrated and Annotated Key to the Anisoptera |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U1umyOqyHz4C&pg=PA40 |date=16 August 2006 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-8446-7 |page=40}}</ref> across Europe to central Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East.<ref>{{cite web |title=Emperor dragonfly (Anax imperator) |url=http://www.arkive.org/emperor-dragonfly/anax-imperator/ |publisher=Arkive.org |access-date=26 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409013006/http://www.arkive.org/emperor-dragonfly/anax-imperator/ |archive-date=2015-04-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The globe skimmer ''[[Pantala flavescens]]'' is probably the most widespread dragonfly species in the world; it is cosmopolitan, occurring on all continents in the warmer regions. Most Anisoptera species are tropical, with far fewer species in temperate regions.{{sfn|Powell|1999|page=9}}

Some dragonflies, including libellulids and aeshnids, live in desert pools, for example in the [[Mojave Desert]], where they are active in shade temperatures between {{convert|18|and|45|C|F}}; these insects were able to survive body temperatures above the thermal death point of insects of the same species in cooler places.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Polcyn|first1=D. M.|title=Thermoregulation During Summer Activity in Mojave Desert Dragonflies (Odonata: Anisoptera)|journal=Functional Ecology|date=August 1994|volume=8|issue=4|pages=441–449|jstor=2390067|doi=10.2307/2390067}}</ref>

Dragonflies live from sea level up to the mountains, decreasing in species diversity with altitude.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carchini |first1=G. |last2=Solimini |first2=Angelo |last3=Ruggiero |first3=A. |title=Habitat Characteristics and Odonata Diversity in Mountain Ponds of Central Italy |journal=Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems |date=2005 |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=573–581 |url=http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC31566 |doi=10.1002/aqc.741}}</ref> Their altitudinal limit is about 3700 m, represented by a species of ''Aeshna'' in the [[Pamirs]].<ref name="Mani1968">{{cite book |last=Mani |first=M.S. |title=Ecology and Biogeography of High Altitude Insects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4qSTCkniZoC&pg=PA246 |date=1968 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-90-6193-114-0 |page=246}}</ref>

Dragonflies become scarce at higher latitudes. They are not native to [[Iceland]], but individuals are occasionally swept in by strong winds, including a ''[[Hemianax ephippiger]]'' native to North Africa, and an unidentified darter species.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dragonfly Spotted In Iceland |url=http://grapevine.is/news/2011/08/26/dragonfly-spotted-in-iceland/ |publisher=Reykjavik Grapevine |access-date=15 March 2015 |date=26 August 2011}}</ref> In [[Kamchatka]], only a few species of dragonfly including the treeline emerald ''[[Somatochlora arctica]]'' and some aeshnids such as ''[[Aeshna subarctica]]'' are found, possibly because of the low temperature of the lakes there.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smetanin |first1=A. N. |title=On the Insect Fauna of the Kichiga River Basin, Northeastern Kamchatka |journal=Entomological Review |date=2013 |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=160–173 |doi=10.1134/s0013873813020048|s2cid=32417175 }}</ref> The treeline emerald also lives in northern [[Alaska]], within the [[Arctic Circle]], making it the most northerly of all dragonflies.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hudson |first1=John |last2=Armstrong |first2=Robert H. |title=Dragonflies of Alaska |date=2010 |publisher=Nature Alaska Images |isbn=978-1-57833-302-8 |pages=5, 32 |edition=Second |url=http://www.naturebob.com/sites/default/files/DragonFlyBookFINAL-3.pdf}}</ref>

==General description==
[[File:Damselfly October 2007 Osaka Japan.jpg|thumb|left|[[Damselflies]], like this ''[[Ischnura senegalensis]]'', are more slender in build than dragonflies, and most hold their wings closed over their bodies.]]

Dragonflies (suborder Anisoptera) are heavy-bodied, strong-flying insects that hold their wings horizontally both in flight and at rest. By contrast, [[damselflies]] (suborder Zygoptera) have slender bodies and fly more weakly; most species fold their wings over the abdomen when stationary, and the eyes are well separated on the sides of the head.<ref name=diversity /><ref name=Ruppert>{{cite book |title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition |last1=Ruppert |first1=Edward E. |last2=Fox |first2=Richard, S. |last3=Barnes |first3=Robert D. |year=2004 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-81-315-0104-7 |page=745 }}</ref>

An adult dragonfly has three distinct segments, the head, thorax, and abdomen, as in all insects. It has a [[chitin]]ous exoskeleton of hard plates held together with flexible membranes. The head is large with very short [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]]. It is dominated by the two [[compound eye]]s, which cover most of its surface. The compound eyes are made up of [[ommatidia]], the numbers being greater in the larger species. ''Aeshna interrupta'' has 22650 ommatidia of two varying sizes, 4500 being large. The facets facing downward tend to be smaller. ''[[Petalura gigantea]]'' has 23890 ommatidia of just one size. These facets provide complete vision in the frontal hemisphere of the dragonfly.<ref>{{cite journal|title=On the morphology of the compound eyes of dragonflies (Odonata: Anisoptera), with special reference to their role in prey capture|last=Pritchard|first=Gordon|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3032.1966.tb01126.x| year=1966| journal=Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London|volume= 41|issue=1–3|pages=1–8 }}</ref> The compound eyes meet at the top of the head (except in the Petaluridae and Gomphidae, as also in the genus ''[[Epiophlebia]]''). Also, they have three [[Simple eye in invertebrates|simple eyes]] or ocelli. The mouthparts are adapted for biting with a toothed jaw; the flap-like [[Labrum (arthropod mouthpart)|labrum]], at the front of the mouth, can be shot rapidly forward to catch [[Predation|prey]].<ref name="UCMP-Berkeley"/>{{sfn|Berger|2004|pp=5–6}} The head has a system for locking it in place that consists of muscles and small hairs on the back of the head that grip structures on the front of the first thoracic segment. This arrester system is unique to the Odonata, and is activated when feeding and during tandem flight.<ref name=diversity />

[[File:Dragonfly anatomy.svg|thumb|upright=2|Anatomy of a dragonfly]]

The thorax consists of three segments as in all insects. The [[prothorax]] is small and is flattened dorsally into a shield-like disc, which has two transverse ridges. The [[mesothorax]] and [[metathorax]] are fused into a rigid, box-like structure with internal bracing, and provide a robust attachment for the powerful wing muscles inside.<ref name=Needham>{{cite book|author=Needham, J.G.|title=A Manual of the Dragonflies of North America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WSV1lpI262wC&pg=PA10 |year=1975 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |pages=10–21|id=GGKEY:5YCUC2C45TH}}</ref> The thorax bears two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs. The wings are long, veined, and membranous, narrower at the tip and wider at the base. The hindwings are broader than the forewings and the venation is different at the base.<ref name="Paulson2011"/> The veins carry [[haemolymph]], which is analogous to blood in vertebrates, and carries out many similar functions, but which also serves a hydraulic function to expand the body between nymphal stages ([[instar]]s) and to expand and stiffen the wings after the adult emerges from the final nymphal stage. The leading edge of each wing has a node where other veins join the marginal vein, and the wing is able to flex at this point. In most large species of dragonflies, the wings of females are shorter and broader than those of males.{{sfn|Berger|2004|pp=5–6}} The legs are rarely used for walking, but are used to catch and hold prey, for perching, and for climbing on plants. Each has two short basal joints, two long joints, and a three-jointed foot, armed with a pair of claws. The long leg joints bear rows of spines, and in males, one row of spines on each front leg is modified to form an "eyebrush", for cleaning the surface of the compound eye.<ref name=Needham/>

[[File:A migrant hawker dragonfly.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|Migrant hawker, ''[[Aeshna mixta]]'', has the long slender abdomen of [[Aeshnidae|aeshnid]] dragonflies.]]

The abdomen is long and slender and consists of 10 segments. Three [[Cercus|terminal appendages]] are on segment 10; a pair of superiors (claspers) and an inferior. The second and third segments are enlarged, and in males, on the underside of the second segment has a cleft, forming the secondary genitalia consisting of the [[Lamina (anatomy)|lamina]], hamule, genital lobe, and penis. There are remarkable variations in the presence and the form of the penis and the related structures, the [[flagellum]], cornua, and genital lobes. Sperm is produced at the 9th segment, and is transferred to the secondary genitalia prior to mating. The male holds the female behind the head using a pair of claspers on the terminal segment. In females, the genital opening is on the underside of the eighth segment, and is covered by a simple flap (vulvar lamina) or an [[ovipositor]], depending on species and the method of egg-laying. Dragonflies having simple flaps shed the eggs in water, mostly in flight. Dragonflies having ovipositors use them to puncture soft tissues of plants and place the eggs singly in each puncture they make.<ref name=Needham/><ref name="Miller">{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=P. L. |title=The structure and function of the genitalia in the Libellulidae (Odonata) |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |date=1991 |volume=102 |issue=1 |pages=43–73 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1991.tb01536.x }}</ref><ref name="Miller2">{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=P. L. |title=Sperm competition and penis structure in some Libellulid dragonflies (Anisoptera) |journal=Odonatologica |date=1995 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=63–72 |url=http://natuurtijdschriften.nl/download?type=document;docid=592110 |access-date=21 November 2018}}</ref><ref name="Battin">{{cite journal |last1=Battin |first1=Tom J. |title=The odonate mating system, communication, and sexual selection: A review |journal=Italian Journal of Zoology |date=1993 |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=353–360 |doi=10.1080/11250009309355839 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Dragonfly nymphs vary in form with species, and are loosely classed into claspers, sprawlers, hiders, and burrowers.<ref name=diversity /> The first instar is known as a prolarva, a relatively inactive stage from which it quickly moults into the more active nymphal form.<ref name=resh>{{cite book|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediainse00resh_059/page/n757 721]–729|chapter=Odonata (Dragonflies, Damselflies)|last=Tennessen, K.J.|title=Encyclopedia of Insects|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediainse00resh_059|url-access=limited|editor1-last=Resh |editor1-first=Vincent H. |editor2-last=Carde |editor2-first=Ring T. |year=2009|edition=2|publisher=Academic Press}}</ref> The general body plan is similar to that of an adult, but the nymph lacks wings and reproductive organs. The lower jaw has a huge, extensible [[Insect mouthparts#Labium|labium]], armed with hooks and spines, which is used for catching prey. This labium is folded under the body at rest and struck out at great speed by hydraulic pressure created by the abdominal muscles.<ref name=diversity /> Whereas damselfly nymphs have three feathery external [[gill]]s, dragonfly nymphs have internal gills, located around the fourth and fifth abdominal segments. Water is pumped in and out of the abdomen through an opening at the tip. The naiads of some clubtails ([[Gomphidae]]) that burrow into the sediment, have a snorkel-like tube at the end of the abdomen enabling them to draw in clean water while they are buried in mud. Naiads can forcefully expel a jet of water to propel themselves with great rapidity.<ref name=Lawlor/>

=== Coloration ===
[[File:Big Eyes (8753086631).jpg|thumb|left|[[Iridescent]] [[structural colouration]] in a dragonfly's eyes]]

Many adult dragonflies have brilliant [[iridescent]] or metallic colours produced by [[structural colouration]], making them conspicuous in flight. Their overall [[animal coloration|coloration]] is often a combination of yellow, red, brown, and black pigments, with structural colours. Blues are typically created by microstructures in the cuticle that reflect blue light. Greens often combine a structural blue with a yellow pigment. Freshly emerged adults, known as tenerals, are often pale, and obtain their typical colours after a few days.<ref name="Paulson2011">{{cite book |last=Paulson |first=Dennis |title=Dragonflies and Damselflies of the East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dTpjGOiHwNkC&pg=PA29 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-1-4008-3966-7 |pages=29–32}}</ref> Some have their bodies covered with a pale blue, waxy powderiness called pruinosity; it wears off when scraped during mating, leaving darker areas.{{sfn|Powell|1999|page=102}}

[[File:Img 041538 mating anax junius.jpg|thumb|Male green darner, ''[[Anax junius]]'' has noniridescent structural blue; the female (below) lacks the colour.]]

Some dragonflies, such as the green darner, ''[[Anax junius]]'', have a noniridescent blue that is produced structurally by scatter from arrays of tiny spheres in the [[endoplasmic reticulum]] of epidermal cells underneath the cuticle.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prum |first1=Richard O. |author-link=Richard O. Prum |last2=Cole |first2=Jeff A.|last3=Torres |first3=Rodolfo H.|author3-link= Rodolfo H. Torres |title=Blue integumentary structural colours in dragonflies (Odonata) are not produced by incoherent Tyndall scattering |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |date=15 October 2004 |volume=207 |issue=22 |pages=3999–4009 |doi=10.1242/jeb.01240 |pmid=15472030|s2cid=15900357 |url=https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/1808/1601/1/3999.pdf|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The wings of dragonflies are generally clear, apart from the dark veins and pterostigmata. In the chasers (Libellulidae), however, many genera have areas of colour on the wings: for example, groundlings (''[[Brachythemis]]'') have brown bands on all four wings, while some scarlets (''[[Crocothemis]]'') and dropwings (''[[Trithemis]]'') have bright orange patches at the wing bases. Some aeshnids such as the brown hawker (''[[Aeshna grandis]]'') have translucent, pale yellow wings.{{sfn|Dijkstra|2006|pages=26–35}}

Dragonfly nymphs are usually a well-[[camouflage]]d blend of dull brown, green, and grey.<ref name=Lawlor/>

==Biology==

===Ecology===

Dragonflies and damselflies are predatory both in the aquatic nymphal and adult stages. Nymphs feed on a range of freshwater invertebrates and larger ones can prey on [[tadpole]]s and small [[fish]].{{sfn|Dijkstra|2006|pages=8–9}} Adults capture insect prey in the air, making use of their acute vision and highly controlled flight. The mating system of dragonflies is complex, and they are among the few insect groups that have a system of indirect sperm transfer along with sperm storage, delayed fertilization, and sperm competition.{{sfn|Dijkstra|2006|pages=8–9}}

Adult males vigorously defend territories near water; these areas provide suitable habitat for the nymphs to develop, and for females to lay their eggs. Swarms of feeding adults aggregate to prey on swarming prey such as emerging flying ants or termites.{{sfn|Dijkstra|2006|pages=8–9}}

[[File:Libellula quadrimaculata m1.jpg|thumb|Habitat preference: A four-spotted chaser, ''[[Libellula quadrimaculata]]'' on an [[emergent vegetation|emergent plant]], the water violet ''[[Hottonia palustris]]'', with submerged vegetation in the background]]
Dragonflies as a group occupy a considerable variety of habitats, but many species, and some families, have their own specific environmental requirements.{{sfn|Dijkstra|2006|pages=13–14}} Some species prefer flowing waters, while others prefer standing water. For example, the Gomphidae (clubtails) live in running water, and the Libellulidae (skimmers) live in still water.{{sfn|Dijkstra|2006|pages=13–14}} Some species live in temporary water pools and are capable of tolerating changes in water level, desiccation, and the resulting variations in temperature, but some genera such as ''[[Sympetrum]]'' (darters) have eggs and nymphs that can resist drought and are stimulated to grow rapidly in warm, shallow pools, also often benefiting from the absence of predators there.{{sfn|Dijkstra|2006|pages=13–14}} Vegetation and its characteristics including submerged, floating, emergent, or waterside are also important. Adults may require emergent or waterside plants to use as perches; others may need specific submerged or floating plants on which to lay eggs. Requirements may be highly specific, as in ''[[Aeshna viridis]]'' (green hawker), which lives in swamps with the water-soldier, ''[[Stratiotes aloides]]''.{{sfn|Dijkstra|2006|pages=13–14}} The chemistry of the water, including its trophic status (degree of enrichment with nutrients) and [[pH]] can also affect its use by dragonflies. Most species need moderate conditions, not too [[eutrophic]], not too acidic;{{sfn|Dijkstra|2006|pages=13–14}} a few species such as ''[[Sympetrum danae]]'' (black darter) and ''[[Libellula quadrimaculata]]'' (four-spotted chaser) prefer acidic waters such as peat bogs,{{sfn|Dijkstra|2006|pages=243, 272}} while others such as ''[[Libellula fulva]]'' (scarce chaser) need slow-moving, eutrophic waters with reeds or similar waterside plants.{{sfn|Dijkstra|2006|page=246}}<ref name="Ratcliffe2012">{{cite book |last=Ratcliffe |first=Derek |title=A Nature Conservation Review: Volume 1: The Selection of Biological Sites of National Importance to Nature Conservation in Britain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YPQaFxH-AZYC&pg=PA378 |date=26 January 2012 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-20329-6 |pages=378–379}}</ref>

===Behaviour===
Many dragonflies, particularly males, are [[Territory (animal)|territorial]]. Some defend a territory against others of their own species, some against other species of dragonfly and a few against insects in unrelated groups. A particular perch may give a dragonfly a good view over an insect-rich feeding ground; males of many species such as the [[blue dasher|''Pachydiplax longipennis'']] (blue dasher) jostle other dragonflies to maintain the right to alight there.{{sfn|Berger|2004|pp=32–34}} Defending a breeding territory is common among male dragonflies, especially in species that congregate around ponds. The territory contains desirable features such as a sunlit stretch of shallow water, a special plant species, or the preferred [[Substrate (biology)|substrate]] for egg-laying. The territory may be small or large, depending on its quality, the time of day, and the number of competitors, and may be held for a few minutes or several hours. Dragonflies including [[black saddlebags|''Tramea lacerata'']] (black saddlebags) may notice landmarks that assist in defining the boundaries of the territory. Landmarks may reduce the costs of territory establishment, or might serve as a spatial reference.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lojewski |first1=Jeffrey A. |last2=Switzer |first2=Paul V. |title=The role of landmarks in territory maintenance by the black saddlebags dragonfly, Tramea lacerata |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-014-1847-z |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |date=1 March 2015 |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=347–355 |doi=10.1007/s00265-014-1847-z |s2cid=17617885 |issn=1432-0762}}</ref> Some dragonflies signal ownership with striking colours on the face, abdomen, legs, or wings. The [[common whitetail|''Plathemis lydia'']] (common whitetail) dashes towards an intruder holding its white abdomen aloft like a flag. Other dragonflies engage in aerial dogfights or high-speed chases. A female must mate with the territory holder before laying her eggs.{{sfn|Berger|2004|pp=32–34}} There is also [[Sexual conflict|conflict]] between the males and females. Females may sometimes be harassed by males to the extent that it affects their normal activities including foraging and in some dimorphic species females have evolved multiple forms with some forms appearing deceptively like males.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fincke |first=Ola M. |title=Polymorphic signals of harassed female odonates and the males that learn them support a novel frequency-dependent model |journal=Animal Behaviour |year=2004 |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=833–845 |doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.04.017|s2cid=15705194 }}</ref> In some species females have evolved behavioural responses such as feigning death to escape the attention of males.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Khelifa |first=Rassim |title=Faking death to avoid male coercion: Extreme sexual conflict resolution in a dragonfly |journal=Ecology |year=2017 |volume=98 |issue=6 |pages=1724–1726 |doi=10.1002/ecy.1781 |pmid=28436995}}</ref> Similarly, selection of habitat by adult dragonflies is not random, and terrestrial habitat patches may be held for up to 3 months. A species tightly linked to its birth site utilises a foraging area that is several orders of magnitude larger than the birth site.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dolný|first1=Aleš |last2=Harabiš |first2=Filip |last3=Mižičová |first3=Hana |date=2014-07-09 |title=Home Range, Movement, and Distribution Patterns of the Threatened Dragonfly Sympetrum depressiusculum (Odonata: Libellulidae): A Thousand Times Greater Territory to Protect? |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=e100408 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0100408 |pmid=25006671 |pmc=4090123 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j0408D |issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Reproduction===
[[File:Orthetrum luzonicum mating of Kadavoor.jpg|thumb|upright|Mating pair of marsh skimmers, ''[[Orthetrum luzonicum]]'', forming a "heart"]]
Mating in dragonflies is a complex, precisely choreographed process. First, the male has to attract a female to his territory, continually driving off rival males. When he is ready to mate, he transfers a packet of sperm from his primary genital opening on segment 9, near the end of his abdomen, to his secondary genitalia on segments 2–3, near the base of his abdomen. The male then grasps the female by the head with the claspers at the end of his abdomen; the structure of the claspers varies between species, and may help to prevent interspecific mating.<ref name=Cordero>{{cite book |last1=Cordero-Rivera |first1=Adolfo |last2=Cordoba-Aguilar |first2=Alex |title=15. Selective Forces Propelling Genitalic Evolution in Odonata |year=2010 |page=343 |url=http://ecoevo.uvigo.es/pdf/2010/2010-Genital%20evolution%20odonata-lq.pdf}}</ref> The pair flies in tandem with the male in front, typically perching on a twig or plant stem. The female then curls her abdomen downwards and forwards under her body to pick up the sperm from the male's secondary genitalia, while the male uses his "tail" claspers to grip the female behind the head: this distinctive posture is called the "heart" or "wheel";{{sfn|Dijkstra|2006|pages=8–9}}{{sfn|Trueman|Rowe|2009|page=Life Cycle and Behavior}} the pair may also be described as being "in cop".<ref>{{harvnb|Berger|2004|p=39}}: "Romantic souls are pleased to note that at the climactic moment, the two slender bodies form a delicate heart shape. Experts say the pair is now 'in cop'."</ref>

Egg-laying (ovipositing) involves not only the female darting over floating or waterside vegetation to deposit eggs on a suitable substrate, but also the male hovering above her or continuing to clasp her and flying in tandem. The male attempts to prevent rivals from removing his sperm and inserting their own,<ref name=Carde>{{cite book |author1=Cardé, Ring T. |author2= Resh, Vincent H. |title=A World of Insects: The Harvard University Press Reader |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g28jXs3CVC8C&pg=PA195 |year=2012 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-04619-1 |pages=195–197}}</ref> something made possible by delayed fertilisation{{sfn|Dijkstra|2006|pages=8–9}}{{sfn|Trueman|Rowe|2009|page=Life Cycle and Behavior}} and driven by [[sexual selection]].<ref name=Cordero/> If successful, a rival male uses his penis to compress or scrape out the sperm inserted previously; this activity takes up much of the time that a copulating pair remains in the heart posture.{{sfn|Berger|2004|p=39}} Flying in tandem has the advantage that less effort is needed by the female for flight and more can be expended on egg-laying, and when the female submerges to deposit eggs, the male may help to pull her out of the water.<ref name=Carde/>

Egg-laying takes two different forms depending on the species. The female in some families (Aeshnidae, Petaluridae) has a sharp-edged ovipositor with which she slits open a stem or leaf of a plant on or near the water, so she can push her eggs inside. In other families such as clubtails (Gomphidae), cruisers (Macromiidae), emeralds (Corduliidae), and skimmers (Libellulidae), the female lays eggs by tapping the surface of the water repeatedly with her abdomen, by shaking the eggs out of her abdomen as she flies along, or by placing the eggs on vegetation.{{sfn|Berger|2004|p=39}} In a few species, the eggs are laid on emergent plants above the water, and development is delayed until these have withered and become immersed.<ref name=Lawlor>{{cite book|author=Lawlor, Elizabeth P.|title=Discover Nature in Water & Wetlands: Things to Know and Things to Do|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xo83huW7O6YC&pg=PA94|year=1999|publisher=Stackpole Books|isbn=978-0-8117-2731-0|pages=88, 94–96}}</ref>

===Life cycle===
[[File:Larve d'Anax empereur.JPG|thumb|left|Nymph of emperor dragonfly, ''[[Anax imperator]]'']]
[[File:Dragonfly naiad mask.jpg|thumb|200px|Illustration of a naiad with mask extended]]
Dragonflies are [[Hemimetabolism|hemimetabolous]] insects; they do not have a [[pupa]]l stage and undergo an incomplete [[metamorphosis]] with a series of nymphal stages from which the adult emerges.<ref name=IFAS>{{cite web |url=http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/odonata/odonata.htm |title=Dragonflies and damselflies: Odonata |author=Bybee, Seth |date=1 May 2012 |work=Featured Creatures |publisher=University of Florida: Entomology and Nematology |access-date=1 March 2015}}</ref> Eggs laid inside plant tissues are usually shaped like grains of rice, while other eggs are the size of a pinhead, ellipsoidal, or nearly spherical. A clutch may have as many as 1500 eggs, and they take about a week to hatch into aquatic [[Nymph (biology)|nymphs]] or naiads which moult between six and 15 times (depending on species) as they grow.<ref name=diversity /> Most of a dragonfly's life is spent as a nymph, beneath the water's surface. The nymph extends its hinged labium (a toothed mouthpart similar to a lower mandible, which is sometimes termed as a "mask" as it is normally folded and held before the face) that can extend forward and retract rapidly to capture prey such as [[mosquito]] larvae, [[tadpole]]s, and small fish.<ref name=IFAS/> They breathe through gills in their [[rectum]], and can rapidly propel themselves by suddenly expelling water through the anus.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology A |volume=97 |issue=4 |year=1975 |doi=10.1007/BF00631969 |pages=329–338 |title=Jet-propulsion in anisopteran dragonfly nymphs |author1=Mill, P. J. |author2=Pickard, R. S. |s2cid=45066664 }}</ref> Some naiads, such as the later stages of ''[[Antipodophlebia asthenes]]'', hunt on land.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Biology of odonata |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |year=1980 |volume=25 |pages=189–217 |last=Corbet |first=Philip S. |doi=10.1146/annurev.en.25.010180.001201}}</ref>

[[File:Anax Imperator 2(loz).JPG|thumb|upright|[[Ecdysis]]: [[Emperor (dragonfly)|Emperor dragonfly]], ''[[Anax imperator]]'', newly emerged and still soft, holding on to its dry [[exuvia]], and expanding its wings]]

The nymph stage of dragonflies lasts up to five years in large species, and between two months and three years in smaller species. When the naiad is ready to metamorphose into an adult, it stops feeding and makes its way to the surface, generally at night. It remains stationary with its head out of the water, while its respiration system adapts to breathing air, then climbs up a [[Phragmites|reed]] or other emergent plant, and moults ([[ecdysis]]). Anchoring itself firmly in a vertical position with its claws, its [[exoskeleton]] begins to split at a weak spot behind the head. The adult dragonfly crawls out of its nymph [[exoskeleton]], the [[exuvia]], arching backwards when all but the tip of its abdomen is free, to allow its exoskeleton to harden. Curling back upwards, it completes its emergence, swallowing air, which plumps out its body, and pumping [[haemolymph]] into its wings, which causes them to expand to their full extent.{{sfn|Berger|2004|pp=10–11}}

Dragonflies in temperate areas can be categorized into two groups, an early group and a later one. In any one area, individuals of a particular "spring species" emerge within a few days of each other. The [[Basiaeschna|springtime darner]] (''Basiaeschna janata''), for example, is suddenly very common in the spring, but disappears a few weeks later and is not seen again until the following year. By contrast, a "summer species" emerges over a period of weeks or months, later in the year. They may be seen on the wing for several months, but this may represent a whole series of individuals, with new adults hatching out as earlier ones complete their lifespans.{{sfn|Berger|2004|p=9}}

===Sex ratios===
The [[sex ratio]] of male to female dragonflies varies both temporally and spatially. Adult dragonflies have a high male-biased ratio at breeding habitats. The male-bias ratio has contributed partially to the females using different habitats to avoid male harassment. As seen in Hine's emerald dragonfly (''[[Somatochlora hineana]]''), male populations use wetland habitats, while females use dry meadows and marginal breeding habitats, only migrating to the wetlands to lay their eggs or to find mating partners. Unwanted mating is energetically costly for females because it affects the amount of time that they are able to spend foraging.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Foster |first1=S.E |last2=Soluk |first2=D.A |title=Protecting more than the wetland: The importance of biased sex ratios and habitat segregation for conservation of the Hine's emerald dragonfly, ''Somatochlora hineana'' Williamson |journal=Biological Conservation |year=2006 |pages=158–166 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2005.08.006 |volume=127|issue=2 }}</ref>

[[File:Brown Hawker Dragonfly in flight 7 (3877783853).jpg|thumb|Brown hawker, ''[[Aeshna grandis]]'' in flight: The hindwings are about 90° [[out of phase]] with the forewings at this instant, suggesting fast flight.]]

===Flight===
[[File:Voo nupcial detail.jpg|thumb|upright|Red-veined darters (''[[Sympetrum fonscolombii]]'') flying "in cop" (male ahead)]]

Dragonflies are powerful and agile fliers, capable of [[insect migration|migrating]] across the sea, moving in any direction, and changing direction suddenly. In flight, the adult dragonfly can propel itself in six directions: upward, downward, forward, backward, to left and to right.<ref>{{cite book |last=Waldbauer |first=Gilbert |title=A Walk Around the Pond: Insects in and Over the Water |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/walkaroundpondin0000wald/page/105 105] |isbn=9780674022119 |url=https://archive.org/details/walkaroundpondin0000wald|url-access=registration }}</ref> They have four different styles of flight.<ref name="TOL-flight">{{cite web |last1=Rowe |first1=Richard J. |title=Dragonfly Flight |url=http://tolweb.org/notes/?note_id=2471 |website=Tree of Life |access-date=26 February 2015}}</ref>

* Counter-stroking, with forewings beating 180° [[out of phase]] with the hindwings, is used for hovering and slow flight. This style is efficient and generates a large amount of lift.
* Phased-stroking, with the hindwings beating 90° ahead of the forewings, is used for fast flight. This style creates more thrust, but less lift than counter-stroking
* Synchronised-stroking, with forewings and hindwings beating together, is used when changing direction rapidly, as it maximises thrust
* Gliding, with the wings held out, is used in three situations: free gliding, for a few seconds in between bursts of powered flight; gliding in the updraft at the crest of a hill, effectively hovering by falling at the same speed as the updraft; and in certain dragonflies such as darters, when "in cop" with a male, the female sometimes simply glides while the male pulls the pair along by beating his wings.<ref name="TOL-flight"/>

[[File:Dragonfly in flight 5 (1351481586).jpg|thumb|left|Southern hawker, ''[[Aeshna cyanea]]'': its wings at this instant are synchronised for agile flight.]]
The wings are [[Insect flight#Direct flight|powered directly]], unlike most families of insects, with the flight muscles attached to the wing bases. Dragonflies have a high power/weight ratio, and have been documented accelerating at 4 G linearly and 9 G in sharp turns while pursuing prey.<ref name="TOL-flight"/>

Dragonflies generate lift in at least four ways at different times, including classical [[lift (force)|lift]] like an aircraft [[wing]]; supercritical lift with the wing above the critical angle, generating high lift and using very short strokes to avoid stalling; and [[vortex shedding|creating and shedding vortices]]. Some families appear to use special mechanisms, as for example the Libellulidae which take off rapidly, their wings beginning pointed far forward and twisted almost vertically. Dragonfly wings behave highly dynamically during flight, flexing and twisting during each beat. Among the variables are wing curvature, length and speed of stroke, [[angle of attack]], forward/back position of wing, and phase relative to the other wings.<ref name="TOL-flight"/>

====Flight speed====

Old and unreliable claims are made that dragonflies such as the [[Austrophlebia costalis|southern giant darner]] can fly up to {{convert|97|kph|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tillyard |first=Robert John |title=The Biology of Dragonflies |year=1917 |pages=322–323 |url=http://medusa.jcu.edu.au/odonata_digital_literature/Tillyard/tillyard_1917_book_searchable.pdf |access-date=15 December 2010|quote=I doubt if any greater speed than this occurs amongst Odonata}}</ref> However, the greatest reliable flight speed records are for other types of insects.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 1 — Fastest Flyer |url=http://www.entnemdept.ufl.edu/walker/ufbir/chapters/chapter_01.shtml |author=Dean, T. J. |publisher=[[University of Florida]] |date=2003-05-01 |work=Book of Insect Records |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720083508/http://www.entnemdept.ufl.edu/walker/ufbir/chapters/chapter_01.shtml |archive-date=20 July 2011}}</ref> In general, large dragonflies like the hawkers have a maximum speed of {{convert|36|–|54|kph|mph|abbr=on}} with average cruising speed of about {{convert|16|kph|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="FAQ">{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions about Dragonflies |url=http://www.british-dragonflies.org.uk/content/frequently-asked-questions |publisher=[[British Dragonfly Society]] |access-date=28 February 2015}}</ref> Dragonflies can travel at 100 body-lengths per second in forward flight, and three lengths per second backwards.<ref name="UCMP-Berkeley">{{cite web |title=Introduction to the Odonata |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/uniramia/odonatoida.html |publisher=UCMP Berkeley |access-date=24 February 2015}}</ref>

====Motion camouflage====
{{Further|motion camouflage}}
[[File:Motion Camouflage Principle.svg|thumb|The principle of [[motion camouflage]]]]

In high-speed territorial battles between male [[Australian emperor]]s (''Hemianax papuensis''), the fighting dragonflies adjust their flight paths to appear stationary to their rivals, minimizing the chance of being detected as they approach.{{efn|This is not to say that other species may not use the same technique, only that this species has been studied.}}<ref name="NatureNews">{{cite journal | url=http://www.nature.com/news/2003/030605/full/news030602-10.html | title=Nature News | publisher=Nature.com | journal=Dragonfly Flight Tricks the Eye | date=June 5, 2003 | access-date=January 16, 2012 | author=Hopkin, Michael| doi=10.1038/news030602-10 }}</ref><ref name="Mizutani">{{cite journal |last1=Mizutani |first1=A. K. |last2=Chahl |first2=J. S. |last3=Srinivasan |first3=M. V. | date=June 5, 2003 | title=Insect behaviour: Motion camouflage in dragonflies | journal=Nature | volume=65 | issue=423 | pages=604 | doi=10.1038/423604a| pmid=12789327 | bibcode=2003Natur.423..604M | s2cid=52871328 | doi-access=free }}</ref> To achieve the effect, the attacking dragonfly flies towards his rival, choosing his path to remain on a line between the rival and the start of his attack path. The attacker thus [[looming|looms]] larger as he closes on the rival, but does not otherwise appear to move. Researchers found that six of 15 encounters involved [[motion camouflage]].<ref name="Glendinning">{{cite journal | title=Motion Camouflage | journal=The Mathematics of Motion Camouflage | date=27 January 2004 | author=Glendinning, Paul | pmc=1691618 | pmid=15129957 | doi=10.1098/rspb.2003.2622 | volume=271 |issue = 1538| pages=477–81}}</ref>

===Temperature control===
The flight muscles need to be kept at a suitable temperature for the dragonfly to be able to fly. Being [[Ectotherm|cold-blooded]], they can raise their temperature by basking in the sun. Early in the morning, they may choose to perch in a vertical position with the wings outstretched, while in the middle of the day, a horizontal stance may be chosen. Another method of warming up used by some larger dragonflies is wing-whirring, a rapid vibration of the wings that causes heat to be generated in the flight muscles. The [[green darner]] (''Anax junius'') is known for its long-distance migrations, and often resorts to wing-whirring before dawn to enable it to make an early start.{{sfn|Berger|2004|pp=44–46}}

Becoming too hot is another hazard, and a sunny or shady position for perching can be selected according to the ambient temperature. Some species have dark patches on the wings which can provide shade for the body, and a few use the [[obelisk posture]] to avoid overheating. This behaviour involves doing a "[[handstand]]", perching with the body raised and the abdomen pointing towards the sun, thus minimising the amount of solar radiation received. On a hot day, dragonflies sometimes adjust their body temperature by skimming over a water surface and briefly touching it, often three times in quick succession. This may also help to avoid desiccation.{{sfn|Berger|2004|pp=44–46}}

===Feeding===

[[File:Gomphus vulgatissimus with a prey 002.jpg|thumb|Common clubtail, ''[[Gomphus vulgatissimus]]'', with prey]]
Adult dragonflies hunt on the wing using their exceptionally acute eyesight and strong, agile flight.{{sfn|Trueman|Rowe|2009|page=Life Cycle and Behavior}} They are almost exclusively carnivorous, eating a wide variety of insects ranging from small [[midge]]s and [[mosquito]]es to [[Butterfly|butterflies]], [[moth]]s, [[Damselfly|damselflies]], and smaller dragonflies.<ref name="FAQ"/> A large prey item is subdued by being bitten on the head and is carried by the legs to a perch. Here, the wings are discarded and the prey usually ingested head first.{{sfn|Berger|2004|p=31}} A dragonfly may consume as much as a fifth of its body weight in prey per day.{{sfn|Powell|1999|page=12}} Dragonflies are also some of the insect world's most efficient hunters, catching up to 95% of the prey they pursue.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Combes, S.A. |author2=Rundle, D.E. |author3=Iwasaki, J.M. |author4=Crall, J.D. |year=2012|title=Linking biomechanics and ecology through predator–prey interactions: flight performance of dragonflies and their prey|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=215 |issue=6|pages=903–913 |doi=10.1242/jeb.059394 |pmid=22357584|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The nymphs are voracious predators, eating most living things that are smaller than they are. Their staple diet is mostly [[Chironomidae|bloodworms]] and other insect larvae, but they also feed on [[tadpole]]s and small fish.<ref name="FAQ"/> A few species, especially those that live in temporary waters, are likely to leave the water to feed. Nymphs of ''[[Cordulegaster bidentata]]'' sometimes hunt small arthropods on the ground at night, while some species in the ''[[Anax (dragonfly)|Anax]]'' genus have even been observed leaping out of the water to attack and kill full-grown tree frogs.<ref name=diversity /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Linares|first1=Antonio Meira|last2=Maciel-Junior|first2=Jose Amantino Horta|last3=de Mello|first3=Humberto Espirito Santo|last4=Leite|first4=Felipe Sa Fortes|date=30 April 2016|title=First report on predation of adult anurans by Odonata larvae|url=http://www.salamandra-journal.com/index.php/home/contents/2016-vol-52/434-linares-a-m-j-a-h-maciel-junior-h-e-s-de-mello-f-s-f-leite/file|journal=Salamandra|volume=52|issue=1|pages=42–44}}</ref>

===Eyesight===
Dragonfly vision is thought to be like slow motion for humans. Dragonflies see faster than we do; they see around 200 images per second.<ref>BBC Reel, Intelligent Creatures, Dragonflies see the world in slow motion, 4 April 2019 https://www.bbc.com/reel/video/p035dt53/dragonflies-see-the-world-in-slow-motion</ref> A dragonfly can see in 360 degrees, and nearly 80 percent of the insect's brain is dedicated to its sight.<ref>Symbolism of Dragonfly by "Dragonfly" (nonprofit organization helping pediatric cancer families), https://dragonfly.org/the-symbolism-biology-and-lore-of-dragonflies/</ref>

==Predators==
[[File:Red Hornbill eating insect.jpg|thumb|[[Southern red-billed hornbill]] with a captured dragonfly in its bill]]

Although dragonflies are swift and agile fliers, some predators are fast enough to catch them. These include falcons such as the [[American kestrel]], the [[merlin (bird)|merlin]],{{sfn|Berger|2004|pp=48–49}} and the [[hobby (bird)|hobby]];<ref>{{cite web|title=Hobby|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Eurasian_Hobby|publisher=BBC Nature|access-date=26 February 2015}}</ref> [[nighthawk]]s, [[Swift (bird)|swift]]s, [[Old World flycatcher|flycatchers]] and [[swallow]]s also take some adults; some species of wasps, too, prey on dragonflies, using them to provision their nests, laying an egg on each captured insect. In the water, various species of ducks and herons eat dragonfly nymphs{{sfn|Berger|2004|pp=48–49}} and they are also preyed on by newts, frogs, fish, and water spiders.{{sfn|Meister|2001|p=16}} [[Amur falcon]]s, which migrate over the Indian Ocean at a period that coincides with the migration of the globe skimmer dragonfly, ''[[Pantala flavescens]],'' may actually be feeding on them while on the wing.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Tropical Ecology|volume=25|issue=4|year= 2009|pages=347–358|doi=10.1017/S0266467409006087|title=Do dragonflies migrate across the western Indian Ocean?|first=R. Charles|last= Anderson|s2cid=86187189}}</ref>

== Parasites ==
Dragonflies are affected by three major groups of [[parasites]]: [[water mite]]s, [[Gregarinasina|gregarine protozoa]], and [[trematode]] flatworms (flukes). Water mites, ''[[Hydracarina]]'', can kill smaller dragonfly nymphs, and may also be seen on adults.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mead |first1=Kurt |title=Dragonfly Biology 101 |url=http://www.mndragonfly.org/biology.html |publisher=Minnesota Dragonfly Society |access-date=27 February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227190348/http://www.mndragonfly.org/biology.html |archive-date=27 February 2015 }}</ref> Gregarines infect the gut and may cause blockage and secondary infection.<ref name="Córdoba-Aguilar2008">{{cite book |last=Córdoba-Aguilar |first=Alex |title=Dragonflies and Damselflies: Model Organisms for Ecological and Evolutionary Research |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pOO75z3LrqgC&pg=PA176 |date=28 August 2008 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-155223-6 |page=176}}</ref> Trematodes are parasites of [[vertebrate]]s such as frogs, with complex [[Biological life cycle|life cycles]] often involving a period as a stage called a [[Trematode lifecycle stages|cercaria]] in a secondary host, a snail. Dragonfly nymphs may swallow cercariae, or these may tunnel through a nymph's body wall; they then enter the gut and form a cyst or metacercaria, which remains in the nymph for the whole of its development. If the nymph is eaten by a frog, the amphibian becomes infected by the adult or fluke stage of the trematode.<ref>{{cite web |title=An Introduction To The Study of Invertebrate Zoology. Platyhelminthes |url=http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/invertebrate/platyhelminthes.htm |publisher=University of California, Riverside |access-date=27 February 2015}}</ref>

==Dragonflies and humans==
===Conservation===
Most odonatologists live in temperate areas and the dragonflies of North America and Europe have been the subject of much research. However, the majority of species live in tropical areas and have been little studied. With the destruction of rainforest habitats, many of these species are in danger of becoming extinct before they have even been named. The greatest cause of decline is forest clearance with the consequent drying up of streams and pools which become clogged with silt. The damming of rivers for hydroelectric schemes and the drainage of low-lying land has reduced suitable habitat, as has pollution and the introduction of alien species.<ref name=Moore>{{cite web |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/1997-042.pdf |title=Dragonflies: status survey and conservation action plan |author=Moore, N.W. |year=1997 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |access-date=13 September 2017}}</ref>

In 1997, the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] set up a status survey and conservation action plan for dragonflies. This proposes the establishment of protected areas around the world and the management of these areas to provide suitable habitat for dragonflies. Outside these areas, encouragement should be given to modify forestry, agricultural, and industrial practices to enhance conservation. At the same time, more research into dragonflies needs to be done, consideration should be given to pollution control and the public should be educated about the importance of [[biodiversity]].<ref name=Moore/>

Habitat degradation has reduced dragonfly populations across the world, for example in Japan.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taku |first1=Kadoya |last2=Shin-ichi |first2=Suda |last3=Izumi |first3=Washitani |title=Dragonfly Crisis in Japan: A likely Consequence of Recent Agricultural Habitat Degradation |journal=Biological Conservation |date=2009 |volume=142 |issue=9 |pages=1889–1905 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2009.02.033}}</ref> Over 60% of Japan's wetlands were lost in the 20th century, so its dragonflies now depend largely on rice fields, ponds, and creeks. Dragonflies feed on pest insects in rice, acting as a natural pest control.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Channa N. B. Bambaradeniya|author2=Felix P. Amerasinghe|title=Biodiversity associated with the rice field agroecosystem in Asian countries: A brief review|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QPgdBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 |year=2004 |publisher=IWMI |isbn=978-92-9090-532-5|page=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Washitani |first1=Izumi |title=Restoration of Biologically-Diverse Floodplain Wetlands Including Paddy Fields |journal=Global Environmental Research |date=2008 |volume=12 |pages=95–99}}</ref> Dragonflies are steadily declining in Africa, and represent a conservation priority.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simaika |first1=John P. |last2=Samways |first2=Michael J. |last3=Kipping |first3=Jens |last4=Suhling |first4=Frank |last5=Dijkstra |first5=Klaas-Douwe B. |last6=Clausnitzer |first6=Viola |last7=Boudot |first7=Jean Pierre |last8=Domisch |first8=Sami |title=Continental-Scale Conservation Prioritization of African Dragonflies |journal=Biological Conservation |date=2013 |volume=157 |pages=245–254 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2012.08.039}}</ref>

The dragonfly's long lifespan and low population density makes it vulnerable to disturbance, such as from collisions with vehicles on roads built near wetlands. Species that fly low and slow may be most at risk.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soluk |last2=Zercher |last3=Worthington |first1=Daniel A.|first2=Deanna S.|first3=Amy M.|title=Influence of roadways on patterns of mortality and flight behavior of adult dragonflies near wetland areas |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=144 |issue=5 |year=2011 |pages=1638–1643 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2011.02.015}}</ref>

Dragonflies are attracted to shiny surfaces that produce polarization which they can mistake for water, and they have been known to aggregate close to polished gravestones, solar panels, automobiles, and other such structures on which they attempt to lay eggs. These can have a local impact on dragonfly populations; methods of reducing the attractiveness of structures such as solar panels are under experimentation.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01518.x |title=Reducing the Maladaptive Attractiveness of Solar Panels to Polarotactic Insects |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=24|issue=6 |pages=1644–1653 |year=2010 |first1=Gabor |last1=Horvath |first2=Miklos |last2=Blaho |first3=Adam |last3=Egri |first4=Gyorgy |last4=Kriska |first5=Istvan |last5=Seres |first6=Bruce |last6=Robertson |pmid=20455911|s2cid=39299883 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01798.x |title=Ecological traps for dragonflies in a cemetery: the attraction of Sympetrum species (Odonata: Libellulidae)by horizontally polarizing black gravestones |journal=Freshwater Biology |year=2007 |volume=52 |issue=9 |pages=1700–1709 |first1=Gabor |last1=Horvath |first2=Peter |last2=Malik |first3=Gyorgy |last3=Kriska |first4=Hansruedi |last4=Wildermuth}}</ref>

===In culture===

A blue-glazed [[faience]] dragonfly [[amulet]] was found by [[Flinders Petrie]] at Lahun, from the Late [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] of [[ancient Egypt]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Beads UC7549 |url=http://petriecat.museums.ucl.ac.uk/detail.aspx# |website=Petrie Museum Catalogue |publisher=The Petrie Museum, UCL |access-date=10 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916063302/http://petriecat.museums.ucl.ac.uk/detail.aspx |archive-date=16 September 2017 |url-status=dead }} There is a photograph in the catalogue; it is free for non-commercial usage.</ref>

Many [[Native American tribes]] consider dragonflies to be medicine animals that had special powers. For example, the southwestern tribes, including the Pueblo, Hopi, and Zuni, associated dragonflies with transformation. They referred to dragonflies as "snake doctors" because they believed dragonflies followed snakes into the ground and healed them if they were injured.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Stanton|first=Kristen M.|date=September 7, 2020|title=Dragonfly Meaning and Symbolism|url=https://www.uniguide.com/dragonfly-meaning-symbolism-spirit-animal-guide/#native_american|website=UniGuide}}</ref> For the [[Navajo people|Navajo]], dragonflies symbolize pure water. Often stylized in a double-barred cross design, dragonflies are a common motif in [[Zuni people|Zuni]] pottery, as well as [[Hopi]] rock art and [[Pueblo people|Pueblo]] necklaces.<ref name="Mitchell"/>{{rp|20–26|date=December 2012}}

As a seasonal symbol in [[Japan]], dragonflies are associated with season of autumn.<ref>{{cite book|last=Baird|first=Merrily|title=Symbols of Japan: Thematic Motifs in Art and Design|publisher=Rizzoli|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8478-2361-1|location=New York|pages=108–9}}</ref>
In Japan, they are symbols of rebirth, courage, strength, and happiness. They are also depicted frequently in Japanese art and literature, especially ''[[haiku]]'' poetry. Japanese children catch large dragonflies as a game, using a hair with a small pebble tied to each end, which they throw into the air. The dragonfly mistakes the pebbles for prey, gets tangled in the hair, and is dragged to the ground by the weight.<ref name="Mitchell" />{{rp|38|date=December 2012}}

In Chinese culture, dragonflies symbolize both change and instability. They are also symbols in the Chinese practices of [[Feng shui|Feng Shui]], where placements of dragonfly statues and artwork in parts of a home or office are believed to bring new insights and positive changes.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Stanton|first=Kristen M.|date=September 7, 2020|title=Dragonfly Meaning and Symbolism|url=https://www.uniguide.com/dragonfly-meaning-symbolism-spirit-animal-guide/#china|website=UniGuide}}</ref>

In both [[China]] and Japan, dragonflies have been used in traditional medicine. In [[Indonesia]], adult dragonflies are caught on poles made sticky with [[birdlime]], then fried in oil as a delicacy.{{sfn|Corbet|1999|p=559}}

Images of dragonflies are common in [[Art Nouveau]], especially in jewellery designs.<ref>{{cite news | last=Moonan | first=Wendy | title=Dragonflies Shimmering as Jewelry | work=New York Times | pages=E2:38 | date=August 13, 1999 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/08/13/arts/antiques-dragonflies-shimmering-as-jewelry.html}}</ref> They have also been used as a decorative motif on fabrics and home furnishings.<ref>{{cite news | last=Large | first=Elizabeth | title=The latest buzz; In the world of design, dragonflies are flying high | work=The Sun (Baltimore, MD) | pages=6N | date=June 27, 1999 |url=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1999-06-27/news/9906300323_1_dragonfly-gifts-and-accessories-bug }}</ref> [[Douglas (motorcycles)|Douglas]], a British motorcycle manufacturer based in Bristol, named its innovatively designed postwar 350-cc flat-twin model the [[Douglas Dragonfly|Dragonfly]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.motorcycleclassics.com/motorcycle-reviews/1955-douglas-dragonfly.aspx?page=4|title=1955 Douglas Dragonfly |publisher=Motorcycle Classics |access-date=2009-08-10 |date=November–December 2007 |first=Roland |last=Brown}}</ref>

Among the classical [[names of Japan]] are ''Akitsukuni'' (秋津国), ''Akitsushima'' (秋津島), ''Toyo-akitsushima'' (豊秋津島). ''Akitsu'' is an old word for dragonfly, so one interpretation of ''Akitsushima'' is "Dragonfly Island".<ref>{{cite book| last=Nussbaum | first=Louis Frédéric |author2=Käthe Roth | chapter=Akitsushima | title=Japan Encyclopedia | publisher=Harvard University Press | year=2005 | location=Cambridge |page=20| isbn=9780674017535 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC}}</ref> This is attributed to a legend in which Japan's mythical founder, [[Emperor Jimmu]], was bitten by a [[mosquito]], which was then eaten by a dragonfly.<ref>[http://www.nihontomessageboard.com/nmb//viewtopic.php?f=9&t=6663 Nihonto]</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= 日本文化を英語で紹介する事典 |trans-title=A Bilingual Handbook on Japanese Culture |author= 杉浦洋一 (Youichi Sugiura)|author2= John K. Gillespie (ジョン・K・ギレスピー)|year= 1999 |publisher=Natsume Group |location=Chiyoda, Tokyo |language=ja, en|isbn= 978-4-8163-2646-2 |page= 305 |url= http://www.natsume.co.jp |access-date= 2010-04-26}}</ref>

In Europe, dragonflies have often been seen as sinister. Some English vernacular names, such as "horse-stinger",<ref>{{cite web |last1=Trueman |first1=John W. H. |last2=Rowe |first2=Richard J.|title=Odonata: Dragonflies and Damselflies |url=http://tolweb.org/Odonata/8266 |website=Tree of Life |access-date=27 February 2015}}</ref> "[[devil]]'s darning needle", and "ear cutter", link them with evil or injury.{{sfn|Corbet|1999|pp=559–561}} [[Sweden|Swedish]] folklore holds that the devil uses dragonflies to weigh people's souls.<ref name="Mitchell">{{cite book | last=Mitchell | first=Forrest L. | author2=Lasswell, James L. | title=A Dazzle of Dragonflies | publisher=Texas A&M University Press | year=2005 | location=College Station, TX | isbn=978-1-58544-459-5 }}</ref>{{rp|25–27|date=December 2012}} The [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] name for dragonflies is ''Øyenstikker'' ("eye-poker"), and in [[Portugal]], they are sometimes called ''tira-olhos'' ("eyes-snatcher"). They are often associated with [[snake]]s, as in the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name ''gwas-y-neidr'', "[[Vipera berus|adder]]'s servant".{{sfn|Corbet|1999|pp=559–561}} The [[Southern United States]] terms "snake doctor" and "snake feeder" refer to a folk belief that dragonflies catch insects for snakes or follow snakes around and stitch them back together if they are injured.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Hand | first=Wayland D. | title=From Idea to Word: Folk Beliefs and Customs Underlying Folk Speech | journal=American Speech | volume=48 | issue=1/2 | pages=67–76 | year=1973 | doi=10.2307/3087894| jstor=3087894}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Newton |first=Blake |title=Dragonflies |url=https://www.uky.edu/Ag/CritterFiles/casefile/insects/dragonflies/dragonflies.htm |publisher=University of Kentucky Entomology |date=16 August 2008 |orig-year=2004}}</ref> Interestingly, the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] name for dragonfly is ''szitakötő'' ("sieve-knitter").

The watercolourist [[Moses Harris]] (1731–1785), known for his ''The Aurelian or natural history of English insects'' (1766), published in 1780, the first scientific descriptions of several Odonata including the banded demoiselle, ''[[Calopteryx splendens]]''. He was the first English artist to make illustrations of dragonflies accurate enough to be identified to species (''Aeshna grandis'' at top left of plate illustrated), though his rough drawing of a nymph (at lower left) with the mask extended appears to be plagiarised.{{efn| Reviewing his artwork, the odonatologists Albert Orr and Matti Hämäläinen comment that his drawing of a 'large brown' (''[[Aeshna grandis]]'', top left of image) was "superb", while the "perfectly natural colours of the eyes indicate that Harris had examined living individuals of these aeshnids and either coloured the printed copper plates himself or supervised the colourists." However, they consider the nymph on the same plate far less good, "a very stiff dorso-lateral view of an aeshnid larva with mask extended. No attempt has been made to depict the eyes, antennae or hinge on the mask or labial palps, all inconceivable omissions for an artist of Harris' talent had he actually examined a specimen", and they suggest he copied it from [[August Johann Rösel von Rosenhof]].<ref name=Orr/>}}<ref name=Orr>{{cite journal |last1=Orr |first1=Albert G. |last2=Hämäläinen |first2=Matti |title=Plagiarism or pragmatism – who cares? An analysis of some 18th century dragonfly illustrations |journal=Agrion |date=July 2014 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=26–30 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265208677}}</ref>

More recently, dragonfly watching has become popular in America as some birdwatchers seek new groups to observe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=Jill U. |title=Chasing Dragonflies and Damselflies |journal=Audubon |date=July 2012 |issue=July–August 2012 |url=https://www.audubon.org/magazine/july-august-2012/chasing-dragonflies-and-damselflies |access-date=6 August 2018}}</ref>

In [[heraldry]], like other winged insects, the dragonfly is typically depicted [[tergiant]] (with its back facing the viewer), with its head to chief.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://mistholme.com/dictionary/insects/ | title=Insects}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" mode="nolines">
File:Sikyatkibowlwithdragonfly.png|Dragonfly symbol on a [[Hopi]] bowl from [[Sikyátki]], Arizona, c. 1400–1625
File:Two dragonflies (Libellulæ species); adults and larva. Colou Wellcome V0022479EL.jpg|Accurately drawn dragonflies by [[Moses Harris]], 1780: At top left, the brown hawker, ''[[Aeshna grandis]]'' (described by [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]); the nymph at lower left is shown with the "mask" extended.
File:After Kitagawa Utamaro 001.jpg|Woodcut on paper, after [[Kitagawa Utamaro]], 1788
File:Tiffany and Company - Vase - Walters 571706 - Profile.jpg|[[Tiffany & Co.]] [[Japonism]] vase with dragonfly handles, c. 1879, [[Walters Art Museum]]
File:Tiffany dragonfly hg.jpg|Tiffany dragonfly pendant lamp, designed c. 1903
File:Japanese - Tsuba with a Dragonfly - Walters 51254.jpg|Japanese ''[[tsuba]]'' with a dragonfly, 1931: [[Shibuichi]] with gold and silver, Walters Art Museum
</gallery>

===In poetry and literature===
[[Lafcadio Hearn]] wrote in his 1901 book ''A Japanese Miscellany'' that Japanese poets had created dragonfly ''haiku'' "almost as numerous as are the dragonflies themselves in the early autumn."<ref name="Waldbauer2009"/> The poet [[Matsuo Bashō]] (1644–1694) wrote ''haiku'' such as "Crimson pepper pod / add two pairs of wings, and look / darting dragonfly", relating the autumn season to the dragonfly.<ref name="MitchellLasswell2005">{{cite book |last1=Mitchell |first1=Forrest Lee |last2=Lasswell |first2=James |title=A Dazzle Of Dragonflies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C6g_0ibafjcC&pg=PA36 |year=2005 |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |isbn=978-1-58544-459-5 |page=36}}</ref> [[Hori Bakusui]] (1718–1783) similarly wrote "Dyed he is with the / Colour of autumnal days, / O red dragonfly."<ref name="Waldbauer2009">{{cite book |last1=Waldbauer |first1=Gilbert |title=A Walk around the Pond: insects in and over the water |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P3vFM3-52i0C&pg=PA247 |date=30 June 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-04477-7 |page=247}}</ref>

The poet [[Lord Tennyson]], described a dragonfly splitting its old skin and emerging shining metallic blue like "[[sapphire]] [[chain mail|mail]]" in his 1842 poem "The Two Voices", with the lines "An inner impulse rent the veil / Of his old husk: from head to tail / Came out clear plates of sapphire mail."<ref name="Tennyson2013">{{cite book |last=Tennyson |first=Alfred, Lord |title=Delphi Complete Works of Alfred, Lord Tennyson (Illustrated) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eWcbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT545 |date=17 November 2013 |publisher=Delphi Classics |isbn=978-1-909496-24-8 |pages=544–545}}</ref>

The novelist [[H. E. Bates]] described the rapid, agile flight of dragonflies in his 1937 nonfiction book<ref>{{cite web|title=Down the River|url=https://hebates.com/library/down-the-river|url-status=live|access-date=9 September 2021|website=H. E. Bates official author website|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909102501/https://hebates.com/library/down-the-river |archive-date=2021-09-09 }}</ref> ''Down the River'':{{sfn|Powell|1999|page=7}}

{{Quote|I saw, once, an endless procession, just over an area of water-lilies, of small sapphire dragonflies, a continuous play of blue gauze over the snowy flowers above the sun-glassy water. It was all confined, in true dragonfly fashion, to one small space. It was a continuous turning and returning, an endless darting, poising, striking and hovering, so swift that it was often lost in sunlight.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Bates |first1=H. E. |title=Country Life: Pike and Dragonflies |magazine=The Spectator |date=12 February 1937 |issue=5668 |page=269 (online p. 17) |url=http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/12th-february-1937/17/country-life}}</ref>}}

===In technology===
A dragonfly has been [[genetically modified]] with light-sensitive "steering neurons" in its nerve cord to create a [[cyborg]]-like "DragonflEye". The [[neuron]]s contain [[gene]]s like those in the eye to make them sensitive to light. Miniature sensors, a computer chip and a [[solar panel]] were fitted in a "backpack" over the insect's thorax in front of its wings. Light is sent down flexible light-pipes named optrodes{{efn|Optrode is a [[portmanteau word|portmanteau]] of "optical electrode".}} from the backpack into the nerve cord to give steering commands to the insect. The result is a "micro-aerial vehicle that's smaller, lighter and stealthier than anything else that's manmade".<ref name="Draper">{{cite web |title=Equipping Insects for Special Service |url=https://www.draper.com/news-releases/equipping-insects-special-service |publisher=Draper|date=19 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ackerman |first1=Evan |title=Draper's Genetically Modified Cyborg DragonflEye Takes Flight |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/drones/drapers-genetically-modified-cyborg-dragonfleye-takes-flight |publisher=IEEE Spectrum |date=1 June 2017}}</ref>

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|28em}}

=== General and cited sources ===
* {{cite book |last=Berger |first=Cynthia |title=Dragonflies |year=2004 |url=https://archive.org/details/dragonflieswildg00cynt |url-access=registration |publisher=Stackpole Books |page=[https://archive.org/details/dragonflieswildg00cynt/page/2 2] |isbn=978-0-8117-2971-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Corbet | first=Phillip S. |year=1999 |title=Dragonflies: Behavior and Ecology of Odonata |location=Ithaca, NY |publisher=Cornell University Press | pages=559–561 | isbn=978-0-8014-2592-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Dijkstra |first=Klaas-Douwe B. |year=2006 |title=Field Guide to the Dragonflies of Britain and Europe |publisher=British Wildlife Publishing |isbn=978-0-9531399-4-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Meister |first=Cari |year=2001 |title=Dragonflies |url=https://archive.org/details/dragonflies0000meis |url-access=registration |publisher=ABDO |page=[https://archive.org/details/dragonflies0000meis/page/16 16] |isbn=978-1-57765-461-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Powell |first1=Dan |year=1999 |title=A Guide to the Dragonflies of Great Britain |publisher=Arlequin Press |isbn=978-1-900-15901-2}}
* {{cite web |last1=Trueman |first1=John W. H. |last2=Rowe |first2=Richard J. |year=2009 |title=Odonata |url=http://tolweb.org/Odonata/8266 |publisher=Tree of Life |access-date=25 February 2015}}

==External links==
* {{Wiktionary inline|dragonfly}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Anisoptera}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Anisoptera}}

{{Odonata|2}}
{{Insects in culture}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q80066}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Dragonflies| ]]
[[Category:Extant Pennsylvanian first appearances]]
[[Category:Insect common names]]
[[Category:Insects used as insect pest control agents]]
[[Category:Insects in culture]]
[[Category:Odonata]]

Token (rapper)

2022-09-12T15:29:25Z

72.142.115.198: /* 2012–2014: Career beginnings */

{{Short description|Chinese rapper (born 1994)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Notability|1=Biographies|date=January 2022}}
{{Unreliable sources|date=January 2022}}
}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Tokie Tokie
| image =
| caption = Token in 2022
| birth_name = Benjamin David Goldberg
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1994|9|21|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Marblehead, Massachusetts]], U.S.
| genre = {{hlist|[[Hip hop music|Hip hop]]|[[alternative hip hop]]}}
| occupation = {{flatlist|
* Rapper
* songwriter
}}
| years_active = 2010–present
| label = {{hlist|Never Too Different/[[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]]}} [[E1 Music]]
| website = {{URL|nevertoodifferent.com}}
| associated_acts = {{flatlist|
* [[R.A. the Rugged Man]]
* [[Tech N9ne]]
*[[JID]]
}}
}}

'''Benjamin David Goldberg''' (born September 21, 1994), known professionally as '''Token''', is an American rapper from [[Salem, Massachusetts]].

He has appeared on [[Sway]]’s Friday’s Fire Cipher and has a catalog of videos on YouTube. His most recent video, "Ain't It Funny", uses a sample of his son playing the recorder.

== Early life ==
Ben Goldberg was born and raised in [[Marblehead, Massachusetts]]. He was introduced to hip-hop music at age six by his older sister.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Morrell|first=Dan|date=March 1, 2017|title=You've never heard of the rapper Token? You will. - The Boston Globe|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/magazine/2017/03/01/you-never-heard-rapper-token-you-will/dY2GYlK7X71560snprv9RK/story.html|url-status=live|access-date=December 28, 2020|website=[[The Boston Globe]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> His mother, Leslie Goldberg, described him as having incidents of "explosive anger". In his younger years, Goldberg was often suspended from school for yelling at his teachers and fighting with other students. Goldberg was eventually diagnosed with depression and anxiety. Additionally, he had difficulty in understanding expressive language, being diagnosed with a language disability as a result. As a child, Goldberg suffered from obesity, weighing nearly 240 pounds in the fourth grade. He began running on the treadmill after school and lost 50 pounds halfway through fifth grade as a result.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Uproxx Studios|title=Token, Child Rap Prodigy {{!}} Uncharted: The Power of Dreams|date=May 26, 2016|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mKLE8eoelIE|language=en}}</ref>

At a young age, Goldberg had a dream of becoming a rapper; a psychiatrist noted that it seemed to be the only thing on his mind. An outlet for Goldberg was writing poetry in his diary, which eventually evolved into writing hip hop songs at the age of 10. According to Goldberg, the four main artists he listened to were [[Britney Spears]], [[Shania Twain]], [[Miley Cyrus]], and [[Cher]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=C.M|first=Emmanuel|date=December 22, 2017|title=The Break Presents: Token – XXL|url=https://www.xxlmag.com/token-interview-the-break/|url-status=live|website=[[XXL (magazine)|XXL]]|language=en}}</ref>

== Career ==
=== 2012–2014: Career beginnings ===
Goldberg first began rhyming under the name BDG (his initials). He began uploading his content on [[YouTube]] after a childhood friend discovered music that he had recorded and encouraged him to create a channel to gain a following. His first song was a freestyle to "[[Drop the World]]" by [[Lil Wayne]] featuring [[Eminem]]. The students at his school reacted negatively toward his work, but he began building a fanbase online.<ref name=":0" /> In the sixth grade, Goldberg started collaborating with his friend Colin Mitchell, a local emcee known as C-Mitch. Their first project was ''Lethal Combination''.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> While the reception from the public was generally negative as well, one of the duo’s CDs ended up in the possession of producer Jon Glass, who saw their potential and became a mentor to them.

Goldberg later adopted the stage name Token, which came out of feeling different from other emcees as a white Jewish kid from Salem. He started uploading his music videos through YouTube when he was 14.<ref name=":0" /> He released his debut mixtape, ''The Mindstate'', in February 2014.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Ju|first=Shirley|date=August 18, 2020|title=Token Talks "30 People" & Never Too Different Label|url=https://allhiphop.com/features/token-talks-30-people-never-too-different-label/|url-status=live|website=[[AllHipHop]]|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== 2015–2016: “No Sucka MCs” and early success ===
In October 2015, Token released a video of himself rhyming while walking through a Marblehead neighborhood for the "No Sucka MCs" hip hop contest. The video amassed over 500,000 views in just three days. It gained the attention of several celebrities, including [[Fred Durst]], [[Mark Wahlberg]], and [[T-Pain]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Galbraith|first=Alex|date=May 26, 2016|title=This Teen Rap Prodigy Turned His Language Disability Into YouTube Gold|url=https://uproxx.com/music/token-uncharted-rapper/|url-status=live|website=[[Uproxx]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Soon, Token became friends with Wahlberg, who began inviting him to his house in [[Los Angeles]].<ref name=":0" /> In April 2016, he appeared on the radio show ''[[Sway in the Morning]]'', on which he performed a freestyle over the beat of Lil Wayne's "[[Believe Me (Lil Wayne song)|Believe Me]]". His performance brought co-host Tracy G to tears as a result. The video of his appearance went viral, which earned him further recognition.<ref name=":3" /> Token performed a free hip hop show presented by Wahlberg in May 2016, which was filmed for Wahlberg's reality TV show [[Wahlburgers (TV series)|''Wahlburgers'']]. Wahlberg also helped Token earn a role in the film [[Patriots Day (film)|''Patriots Day'']], of [[Dzhokhar Tsarnaev]]'s college roommate.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Juul|first=Matt|date=May 9, 2016|title=Mark Wahlberg Is Filming a Hip-Hop Show for Wahlburgers in Boston|work=[[Boston Magazine]]|url=https://www.bostonmagazine.com/arts-entertainment/2016/05/09/mark-wahlberg-wahlburgers-hip-hop/}}</ref> On September 23, 2016, Token released his second mixtape ''Eraser Shavings''.<ref>{{Citation|last=Token|title=Eraser Shavings|url=https://www.amazon.com/Eraser-Shavings-Explicit-Token/dp/B01LWZD1MS|access-date=}}</ref> The song "Exception" from the mixtape has reached millions of streams.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Token {{!}} Biography & History|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/token-mn0003680724/biography|access-date=December 28, 2020|website=AllMusic|language=en}}</ref> Token also first started touring in 2016, beginning in Europe.<ref name=":0" />

=== 2017–2019: Singles and ''Between Somewhere'' ===
From January 2017 to mid-2018, Token consecutively released non-album singles and videos through YouTube, including "Doozy",<ref name=":0" /> "Patty Cake"<ref>{{Citation|title=Patty Cake – Single by Token|date=September 13, 2017|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/patty-cake-single/1281085987|language=en-US}}</ref> and "Code Red",<ref>{{Cite web|last=Berry|first=Peter A.|date=May 22, 2018|title=Token Unloads Striking New "Code Red" Video – XXL|url=https://www.xxlmag.com/token-code-red-video/|url-status=live|website=XXL|language=en}}</ref> all three of which amassed millions of streams and views on YouTube. In August 2018, Token released his song "Flamingo", the lead single from his third mixtape ''Between Somewhere'', which was released on December 7, 2018. ''Between Somewhere'' features guest vocals from [[IDK (rapper)|IDK]] and [[Bas (rapper)|Bas]] and was rated 3.3 out of 5 stars in a ''[[HipHopDX]]'' review. Token also collaborated with [[Tech N9ne]] in a bonus track from the mixtape, "YouTube Rapper".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Glaysher|first=Scott|date=December 27, 2018|title=Review: Token Is Tediously Self-Aware On "Between Somewhere" Album|url=https://hiphopdx.com/reviews/id.3341/title.review-token-is-tediously-self-aware-on-between-somewhere-album|url-status=live|website=[[HipHopDX]]}}</ref> In 2019, Token signed to [[eOne Music]].

=== 2020–present: Signing with Atlantic Records and ''Pink is Better'' ===
In 2020, Goldberg founded his own label, Never Too Different, and signed a distribution deal for his label with [[Atlantic Records]]. In August 2020, he released the single "30 People", his first song under the newly founded label.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ju|first=Shirley|date=August 18, 2020|title=Token Talks "30 People" & Never Too Different Label|url=https://allhiphop.com/features/token-talks-30-people-n byever-too-different-label/|url-status=live|website=AllHipHop|language=en-US}}</ref> His debut studio album ''Pink Is Better'' was released on January 14, 2022. The release of his album was preceded by four singles, two solo tracks ("Chit Chat" and "Sip"), "High Heels", featuring [[Rico Nasty]], and "IOD", featuring [[Lil Skies]].

== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:11em;"| Title
! scope="col" style="width:16em;"| Album details
|-
! scope="row"| ''Pink Is Better''
|
*Released: January 14, 2022
*Format: [[Compact disc|CD]], [[Music download|digital download]], [[Streaming media|streaming]]
*Label: Never Too Different/[[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]]
|-
! scope="row" | ''Between Somewhere''
|
*Released: December 7, 2018
*Format: CD, digital download, streaming
*Label: Self-released
|-
! scope="row" | ''Eraser Shavings''
|
*Released: September 23, 2016
*Format: CD, digital download, streaming
*Label: Self-released
|}

=== Mixtapes ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:11em;"| Title
! scope="col" style="width:16em;"| Mixtape details
|-
! scope="row"| ''The Mindstate''
|
*Released: February 1, 2014
*Format: Streaming, CD
*Label: Self-released
|}

=== Singles ===
==== As lead artist ====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Song
! Year
! Album(s)
|-
! scope="row" | "Waist Down"
| rowspan="3" | 2016
| rowspan="3" | ''Eraser Shavings''
|-
! scope="row" | "Happiness"
|-
! scope="row" | "Mass Reform"
|-
! scope="row" | "Doozy"
| rowspan="5" | 2017
| rowspan="8" {{N/A|Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row" | "New Problems"
|-
! scope="row" | "Dirty Flesh"
|-
! scope="row" | "Patty Cake"
|-
! scope="row" | "Little Boy"
|-
! scope="row" | "Still Believe in Heroes"
| rowspan="6" | 2018
|-
! scope="row" | "Code Red"
|-
! scope="row" | "One Like Equals"
|-
! scope="row" | "Flamingo"
| rowspan="3" | ''Between Somewhere''
|-
! scope="row" | "Mom Would Agree"
|-
! scope="row" | "Treehouse"
|-
! scope="row" | "Run It Back"
| rowspan="2" | 2019
| rowspan="5" {{N/A|Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row" | "No Game"
|-
! scope="row" | "Curfew"
| rowspan="2" | 2020
|-
! scope="row" | "30 People"
|-
! scope="row" | "Dentures"
| rowspan="5" | 2021
|-
! scope="row" | "Chit Chat"
| rowspan="4" | ''Pink Is Better''
|-
! scope="row" | "Sip"
|-
! scope="row" | "High Heels" (featuring [[Rico Nasty]])
|-
! scope="row" | "IOD" (featuring [[Lil Skies]])
|-
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:1998 births]]
[[Category:Atlantic Records artists]]
[[Category:Rappers from Boston]]
[[Category:Jewish rappers]]
[[Category:Music YouTubers]]
[[Category:MNRK Music Group artists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:East Coast hip hop musicians]]
[[Category:People from Marblehead, Massachusetts]]

{{US-hiphop-bio-stub}}
[[Category:Rappers from Massachusetts]]

Agriculture in Canada

2022-06-06T14:02:25Z

72.142.115.198: Grammar

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=March 2021}}
{{short description|Overview of agriculture in Canada}}
{{Economy of Canada}}
[[Canada]] is one of the largest agricultural producers and exporters in the world. As with other developed nations, the proportion of the population agriculture employed and agricultural GDP as a percentage of the national GDP fell dramatically over the 20th century, but it remains an important element of the Canadian economy.
A wide range of agriculture is practised in Canada, from sprawling wheat fields of the [[prairies]] to summer produce of the [[Okanagan|Okanagan valley]]. In the [[Government of Canada|federal government]], overview of Canadian agriculture is the responsibility of the [[Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada|Department of Agriculture and Agri-Food]].<ref>{{cite web
| title = Welcome to AAFC Online
| work = Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
| publisher = Government of Canada
| date = 24 January 2008
| url = http://www.agr.gc.ca/index_e.php
}}</ref>

==Major agricultural products==
{{See also|Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada}}
[[File:Alberta modern cement grain elevator 034.jpg|thumb|right|Concrete grain elevator in Alberta]]
Various factors affect the socio-economic characteristics of Canadian agriculture. The 2006 ''Census of Agriculture'' listed seven:<ref>{{cite web
|title = 2006 Census of Agriculture Highlights and analyses
|work = Statistics Canada
|publisher = Government of Canada
|date = 2007-10-26
|url = http://www.statcan.ca/english/agcensus2006/highlights.htm
|access-date = 6 April 2007
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070315200417/http://www.statcan.ca/english/agcensus2006/highlights.htm
|archive-date = 15 March 2007
|url-status = dead}}</ref> Quantity and type of farms; Biogeography: crop and land use areas; land management practices; Quantity of livestock and poultry; Agricultural engineering: Farm machinery and equipment; Farm capital; Farm operating expenses and receipts; Farm-related injuries.

Early in the 21st century, Canadian agronomists were aware of 48 "primary grain, vegetable and fruit crops", based on surface area and value.<ref name=ch12>[http://www5.agr.gc.ca/resources/prod/doc/env/naharp-pnarsa/pdf/chap12_e.pdf agr.gc.ca: "Chapter 12. Integrated Pest Management"], in ''Environmental Sustainability of Canadian Agriculture: Agri-Environmental Indicator Report Series—Report #2''</ref> In 2007, the [[Canadian Federation of Agriculture]] broke down into five primary "production sectors" Canadian agriculture according to cash receipts:<ref name=production>{{cite web
|last=Canadian Federation of Agriculture
|title=CFA – Canadian Federation of Agriculture – Commodities
|year=2007
|url=http://www.cfa-fca.ca/pages/index.php?main_id=25
|access-date=6 April 2007
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070410090347/http://www.cfa-fca.ca/pages/index.php?main_id=25
|archive-date=10 April 2007
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
#grains and oilseeds:<ref>wheat, durum, oats, barley, rye, flax seed, canola, soybeans, rice, and corn</ref> 34%
#red meats – livestock:<ref>beef cattle, hogs, veal, and lamb</ref> 24%
#dairy: 12%
#[[horticulture]]: 9%
#poultry and eggs: 8%

In 2018, Canada was the world's largest producer of [[rapeseed]] (20.3 million tonnes), dry [[pea]] (3.5 million tonnes) and [[lentil]] (2 million tons), the 2nd largest producer of [[oats]] in the world (3.4 million tons), the 6th largest world producer of [[wheat]] (31.7 million tons) and [[barley]] (8.3 million tons), the 7th largest world producer of [[soy]] (7.2 million tons), the 10th largest world producer of [[maize]] (13.8 million tons) and the 12th largest world producer of [[potato]] (5.7 million tonnes). In the same year, the country also produced 688 thousand tons of [[flax]], 505 thousand tons of [[sugar beet]] (which is used to produce sugar), 497 thousand tons of [[tomato]], 424 thousand tons of [[apple]], 354 thousand tons of [[carrots]], 341 thousand tons of [[beans]], 311 thousand tons of [[chickpeas]], 236 thousand tons of [[rye]], 240 thousand tons of [[onion]], 219 thousand tons of [[cabbage]], 195 thousand tons of [[cranberry]], 164 thousand tons of [[blueberry]], 173 thousand tons of [[mustard seed]], 138 thousand tons of [[mushroom]] and [[truffle]], 120 thousand tons of [[grape]], in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.<ref>[http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/ Canada production in 2018, by FAO]</ref>

===Grains and oilseeds===
{{See also|Canadian Grain Commission|Canadian Wheat Board}}
[[File:Wheat close-up.JPG|thumb|Wheat head close up view]]
In 1925, Saskatchewan produced over half of the wheat in the Dominion of Canada, threshing in excess of 240,000,000 [[bushel]]s (6,500,000 [[metric ton]]s) of wheat.<ref name=saskwheat>{{cite web
| last =Adamson
| first =J
| title =1926 Highway Map: Province of Saskatchewan
| url =http://www.rootsweb.com/~canmaps/1926/v.html
| access-date =29 November 2006
}}</ref> [[Rapeseed]], [[alfalfa]], [[barley]], [[canola]], [[flax]], [[rye]], and [[oats]] are other popularly grown grain crops.

Wheat is a staple crop from Canada. To help homesteaders attain an abundance harvest in a foreshortened growing season, varieties of wheat were developed at the beginning of the twentieth century. Red Fife was the first strain; it was a wheat which could be seeded in the fall and sprout in the early spring. Red Fife ripened nearly two weeks sooner and was a harder wheat than other spring wheats. Dr. C. Saunders, experimented further with Red Fife, and developed Mini Wheats, which was resistant to rust and came to maturity within 100 days. Some other types of wheat grown are [[durum]], [[spelt]], and [[winter wheat]].<ref name=wheat>{{cite book
|last=Symko
|first=Stephan
|others=Minister of Public Works, Government Services Canada
|title=From a single seed Tracing the Marquis wheat success story in Canada to its roots in the poop
|work=Cat. No. A22-197/1999E-IN
|isbn=978-0-662-28145-0
|publisher=Research Branch Agriculture and Agri Food Canada
|date=27 August 2003
|url=http://res2.agr.ca/publications/marquis/page09_e.htm
|access-date=10 April 2007
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051104080107/http://res2.agr.ca/publications/marquis/page09_e.htm
|archive-date=4 November 2005
}}</ref> In recent years, Canadian farmers have also begun to grow rice.

The [[Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration]] (PFRA) was established in 1935 to provide Federal financial assistance in regard to the global economical crisis. The PFRA provides farmers with land and water resources such as irrigation, soil drifting conservation and small farm water development. The [[Farm Credit Canada|Farm credit]] program has established the Canadian Farm Loan Act to provide stock bonds and farm improvement loans.<ref name="YearBook"/>

===Livestock===
[[File:Wfa017.jpg|thumb|right|Prize bull]]

115,000 cattle roamed the southern prairies by 1900.
Livestock can include the raising of cows, also commonly called cattle. Recently domestication of the [[American Bison|buffalo]]<ref name=bison>{{cite web|last=Torsten|first =Bernhardt|title =Canadian Biodiversity: Wood bison|work =Wood bison|publisher =Redpath Museum, McGill University|url=http://biology.mcgill.ca/undergra/c465a/biodiver/2001/wood-bison/wood-bison.htm|access-date =10 April 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060818213007/http://www.biology.mcgill.ca/undergra/c465a/biodiver/2001/wood-bison/wood-bison.htm| archive-date = 18 August 2006}}</ref> and [[elk]]<ref name=elk>{{cite web|last=Thorleifson|first=Ian|title=Elk on a beef farm|publisher=Deerfarmer|date=24 July 2003|url=http://www.deer-library.com/artman/publish/article_40.shtml|access-date=10 April 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070405010023/http://www.deer-library.com/artman/publish/article_40.shtml|archive-date=5 April 2007|url-status=dead
}}</ref> has initiated a new food industry. Sheep have been raised for both wool and meat.<ref name=sheep>{{cite web|title =Canadian Sheep Breeders' Association|publisher=2007 BC Sheep Federation|date=29 January 2007|url=http://www.bcsheepfed.com/}}</ref> Bovine or pig barns have been a part of livestock culture.<ref name=pig>{{cite web|last=Blair|first=R.|title =Pig Farming|work=2007 Historica Foundation of Canada|publisher =[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/pig-farming/|access-date =10 April 2007 }}</ref> Scientists have been making forward steps in swine research giving rise to [[intensive pig farming]]. The [[domestication]] of various farm animals meant that corresponding industries such as [[feedlot]]s, [[animal husbandry]] and [[meat processing]] have also been studied, and developed. Two corporations (Cargill Foods and Brazil-based multinational JBS) control 80 percent of beef processing, and four retailers capture 72 percent of retail sales.<ref>{{cite web|last=Roberts|first=Wayne|date=1 December 2019|title=McDonald's and Harvey's now serve 'sustainable beef'— but what exactly does that mean?|url=https://www.thestar.com/amp/business/opinion/2019/12/01/mcdonalds-and-harveys-are-now-serving-sustainable-beef-but-what-exactly-does-that-mean.html|url-status=live|website=[[Toronto Star]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202065936/https://www.thestar.com/amp/business/opinion/2019/12/01/mcdonalds-and-harveys-are-now-serving-sustainable-beef-but-what-exactly-does-that-mean.html |archive-date=2 December 2019 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float: right"
|+'''Total Canadian Farm Animals Slaughtered in 2018'''
! Type
! 2018
|-
| Cattle<ref name="Cattle and calves, farm and meat pr">{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210012501|title=Cattle and calves, farm and meat production}}</ref>
| 3,230,200
|-
| Calves<ref name="Cattle and calves, farm and meat pr"/>
| 234,300
|-
| Pigs<ref name="Hogs, sheep and lambs, farm and mea">{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210012601|title=Hogs, sheep and lambs, farm and meat production}}</ref>
| 21,561,500
|-
| Sheep and lambs<ref name="Hogs, sheep and lambs, farm and mea"/>
| 704,000
|-
| Chickens<ref name="Production, disposition and farm va">{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210011701|title=Production, disposition and farm value of poultry meat (x 1,000)}}</ref>
| 775,196,000
|-
| Turkeys<ref name="Production, disposition and farm va"/>
| 20,243,000
|}

From 1921 to 2011, farming operations have become more intensive and specialized. The total number of animal farms in Canada went from 8.1 per 100 inhabitants to 0.6 per 100 inhabitants. During this period, the number of Canadian pigs rose from 3,324,291 to 12,679,104, while the number of pig farms dropped from 452,935 to 7,371.<ref name="www150.statcan.gc.ca">{{cite web|last=Brisson|first=Yan|title=The changing face of the Canadian hog industry|url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/96-325-x/2014001/article/14027-eng.htm|url-status=live|website=[[Statistics Canada]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921121207/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/96-325-x/2014001/article/14027-eng.htm |archive-date=21 September 2018 }}</ref> In 2011, the hog industry was the fourth largest in Canada, after canola, dairy products and cattle, with cash receipts of $3.9 billion.<ref name="www150.statcan.gc.ca"/> The size of farms had also increased substantially, with the national average rising to 1,720 hogs per operation in 2011.<ref name="www150.statcan.gc.ca"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float: right"
|+'''Canadian Livestock, 1951 to 2016 (from Statistics Canada<ref name="Selected livestock and poultry, his">{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=3210015501 |title= Selected livestock and poultry, historical data}}</ref>)'''
! Type
! Unit of Measure
! 1951
! 2016
|-
| rowspan="3" | Cattle and calves
| Number of cattle farms
| 452,480
| 75,307
|-
| Number of animals
| 8,370,991
| 12,530,730
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 17
| 166
|-
| rowspan="3" | Pigs
| Number of pig farms
| 364,068
| 8,402
|-
| Number of animals
| 4,915,987
| 14,091,503
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 14
| 1,677
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Horses
| Number of horse farms
| 451,647
| 39,164
|-
| Number of animals
| 1,306,634
| 291,561
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 3
| 7
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Sheep and lambs
| Number of sheep farms
| 62,566
| 9,390
|-
| Number of animals
| 1,478,737
| 1,054,260
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 24
| 112
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Chickens
| Number of chicken farms
| 427,317
| 23,910
|-
| Number of animals
| 64,615,025
| 145,519,566
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 151
| 6,086
|}

===Dairy farming===
{{Main|Dairy farming in Canada|supply management (Canada)}}
Like poultry, dairy farming in Canada is restricted under the system of [[supply management (Canada)|supply management]]. In 2016 there were approximately 17,840 dairy cattle and milk production farm operators in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210002001|title=Table: 32-10-0020-01 Number of farm operators classified by farm type and country of birth|website=Statistics Canada}}</ref>

===Horticulture===
{{See also|Floriculture in Canada}}
[[File:Wfa011b.jpg|thumb|right|Vegetable displays]]
Horticulture crops, which includes nursery, flowers and fruits, became easier to grow with the development of plant [[hardiness zone]]s.<ref name=hardiness>{{cite web
|last=Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
|title=National Land and Water Information Service Plant Hardiness Zones in Canada
|url=http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/nsdb/climate/hardiness/intro.html
|access-date=28 November 2006
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002024216/http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/nsdb/climate/hardiness/intro.html
|archive-date=2 October 2006
}}</ref>
Apples, pears, [[plum]]s and [[prune (fruit)|prunes]], [[peach]]es, [[apricot]]s, [[cherry|cherries]], [[strawberries]], [[raspberry|raspberries]], [[loganberry|loganberries]] and fruit orchards are numerous and reach commercial size in the [[Annapolis Valley]] of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, [[Niagara Peninsula]] and [[Norfolk County, Ontario|Norfolk County]] of Ontario and [[Okanagan Valley]]<ref name=okanagan>{{cite web
|last = Sage Internet Solutions.
|title = Okanagan Valley, British Columbia, Canada
|publisher = Shangaan Webservices Inc.
|date = 2006
|url = http://www.okanaganbritishcolumbia.com/
|access-date = 10 April 2007
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070321015533/http://www.okanaganbritishcolumbia.com/
|archive-date = 21 March 2007
|url-status = dead}}</ref> of [[British Columbia]].

[[Hazelnut]]s are harvested in Eastern Canada and British Columbia.<ref name=nut>{{cite web
| title =Canadian Biodiversity: Species: Plants: European hazel or hazelnut
| work =Canadian Biodiversity Web Site
| publisher =Redpath Museum, McGill University
| url =http://canadianbiodiversity.mcgill.ca/english/species/plants/plantpages/cor_ave.htm
| access-date =10 April 2007
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070424142057/http://canadianbiodiversity.mcgill.ca/english/species/plants/plantpages/cor_ave.htm
| archive-date =24 April 2007
| url-status =dead
}}</ref> [[Maple syrup]] and maple sugar, maple butter, and maple taffy are products of Quebec along the [[St. Lawrence River]]. The main market for Canadian maple syrup and sugar is the United States.<ref name=maple>{{cite web
|author1=New Media|author2=Digital Archives
| title =Canadian maple syrup – A Taste of Canada: Our Homegrown Cuisine – CBC Archives
| publisher =[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]
| date =25 June 2004
| url =http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-69-1371-8371/life_society/canadian_food/clip4
}}</ref> Potatoes are an abundant harvest of the [[Maritimes|Maritime provinces]].<ref name=potato>{{cite web
|author=Web Site Advantage
| title =PEI Potatoes! Prince Edward Island Potato Board – Why PEI Potatoes ...
| publisher =PEI Potato Board
| date =8 July 2003
| url =http://www.peipotato.org/why_pei.asp
| access-date =10 April 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061213000213/http://www.peipotato.org/why_pei.asp| archive-date = 13 December 2006}}</ref> [[Sugar beet]]s and beet root sugar are harvested in Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and Alberta.<ref name=special>{{cite web
| title =Special Crops
| work =Canada's Sugar Beet Industry
| publisher =Government of Canada, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, special Crops
| date =8 April 2007
| url =http://www.agr.gc.ca/misb/spec/index_e.php?s1=bet&page=intro
| access-date =10 April 2007
| archive-date =27 April 2005
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20050427014948/http://www.agr.gc.ca/misb/spec/index_e.php?s1=bet&page=intro
| url-status =dead
}}</ref>

====Viticulture====
{{main|Canadian wine}}
[[File:Black Real Deal (4997566988).jpg|thumb|[[Grapevine]]s at [[Inniskillin]], a winery in the Niagara region of Ontario]]
[[Viticulture]] refers to the growing of grapes for the production of wine. Ontario, and British Columbia are the two largest wine-growing regions in Canada, although grapes are also grown in other regions of Canada, including Quebec, and the Maritimes.<ref>{{cite web
|title = The Atlas of Canada – Grape Area in Production, 2001
|publisher = Natural Resources Canada
|date = 2 September 2004
|url = http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/economic/agriculture/agriculture2001/grapes
|access-date = 10 April 2007
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070430222343/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/economic/agriculture/agriculture2001/grapes
|archive-date = 30 April 2007
|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|title=The Atlas of Canada – Grape Area in Production, 2001
|work=Home » Explore Our Maps » Economy » Agriculture » Agriculture at a Glance, 2001
|publisher=Natural Resources Canada
|url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/economic/agriculture/agriculture2001/
|access-date=28 November 2006
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207030708/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/economic/agriculture/agriculture2001
|archive-date=7 December 2006
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epicwineries.com|title=EPIC Wineries}}</ref> In 2015, Canada produced 56.2 million litres of wine.<ref name=Que>{{cite web|title=The Wine Market in the Province of Quebec|url=https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/canada-wine-market-province-quebec|publisher=USDA Foreign Agricultural Service|last=Lupescu|first=Mihai|date=7 April 2017}}</ref> Approximately 62 per cent of all wines produced that year originated from Ontario, while wineries from British Columbia constituted 33 per cent of that years wine production.<ref name=Que/> Canada is the largest producer of [[ice wine]], producing more ice wine than all other countries combined.<ref name=BCW/>

In 2015, there were 548 wineries spread across {{convert|12150|ha|acre}}. More than half of Canada's vineyard acreage is situated in Ontario, with 150 vineyards spread across {{convert|6900|ha|acres}}.<ref name=BCW>{{cite web|title=Market Analysis Report: A Global Export Market Overview for British Columbia's Wine Industry|url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/statistics/exports/global_export_market_bcwine_industry.pdf|publisher=Government of British Columbia|year=2012}}</ref><ref name=Ont>{{cite web|url=https://www.winecountryontario.ca/sites/default/files/attachments/canada_postcard_english_2015_-_2up_for_web_0.pdf|title=Canada on the World Map|publisher=Wine Marketing Association of Ontario|year=2015|access-date=8 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616014030/http://www.winecountryontario.ca/sites/default/files/attachments/canada_postcard_english_2015_-_2up_for_web_0.pdf|archive-date=16 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> British Columbia holds 240 wineries, spread throughout {{convert|4152|ha|acre}}.<ref name=Ont/> There are 138 wineries in Quebec, which manage {{convert|808|ha|acre}} of vineyards in the province.<ref name=Ont/> Nova Scotia holds 20 wineries, which manages {{convert|290|ha|acre}} of vineyards in the province.<ref name=Ont/>

===Poultry and eggs===
{{See also|National Farm Products Council|supply management (Canada)}}

[[Fowl]], poultry, [[egg (food)|eggs]], chickens, [[geese]], [[duck]]s and [[turkeys]] are part of a system of [[supply management (Canada)|supply management]]. Under supply management, production is limited, prices are raised, and competition is severely curtailed, raising profits for farmers through artificially high prices for poultry and eggs paid by consumers.<ref name="MHF">{{cite journal|last=Hall Findlay|first=Martha|author-link=Martha Hall Findlay|author2=Margarita Gres|date=June 2012|title=SUPPLY MANAGEMENT: PROBLEMS, POLITICS – AND POSSIBILITIES|url=http://www.policyschool.ucalgary.ca/sites/default/files/research/m-hall-findlay-supply-mgnt-final.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=The School of Public Policy SPP Research Papers|publisher=[[University of Calgary#School of Public Policy|University of Calgary School of Public Policy]]|volume=5|issue=19|pages=1–33|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021001458/http://www.policyschool.ucalgary.ca/sites/default/files/research/m-hall-findlay-supply-mgnt-final.pdf|archive-date=21 October 2013|access-date=19 October 2013}}</ref> There are around 3,000 poultry farmers and 1,000 egg farmers in Canada.<ref name=poultry>{{cite journal
| title =Poultry Marketplace – Poultry at a glance
| journal =Agriculture and Agrifood Canada
| publisher =Government of Canada
| url =http://www.agr.gc.ca/poultry-volaille/glpl_eng.htm
| access-date =28 November 2008
| archive-date =17 October 2013
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20131017062844/http://www.agr.gc.ca/poultry-volaille/glpl_eng.htm
| url-status =dead
}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+'''Canadian Egg Production, 1920 to 2018 (from Statistics Canada<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=3210011901#timeframe |title= Production and disposition of eggs, annual}}</ref>)'''
! Unit of Measure
! 1920
! 2018
|-
| Number of laying chickens
| 14,229,000
| 32,668,000
|-
| Total eggs laid
| 1,345,776,000
| 9,601,752,000
|-
| Eggs laid per chicken
| 96
| 294
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+'''Canadian Poultry, 1976 to 2016 (from Statistics Canada<ref name="Selected livestock and poultry, his"/>)'''
! Type
! Unit of Measure
! 1976
! 2016
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Chickens
| Number of chicken farms
| 99,128
| 23,910
|-
| Number of animals
| 87,071,513
| 145,519,566
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 878
| 6,086
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Turkeys
| Number of turkey farms
| 13,810
| 2,690
|-
| Number of animals
| 8,828,549
| 8,423,900
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 639
| 3,132
|}

===Aquaculture===
{{Main|Aquaculture in Canada}}

191,259 tonnes of aquatic life were killed in Canadian aquaculture systems in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210010701 |title=Aquaculture, production and value}}</ref> The total aquaculture production was worth 1.43 billion dollars.

===Fur===
{{Further|Fur farming}}

Mink and foxes are farmed in Canada for their fur. The total value of mink pelts produced in 2018 was 44 million dollars.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=3210011501 |title= Number and value of mink pelts produced, by colour type (Canada) }}</ref> This value included pelts taken from animals that died and spring peltings.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=assembleDESurv&DECId=1200020&RepClass=570&Id=1232353&DFId=1200031 |title= Annual Fur Farm Survey - Mink and Fox }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+'''Canadian Fur Farming, 1981 to 2006 (from Statistics Canada<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=3210011601 |title= Supply and disposition of mink and fox on fur farms }}</ref>)'''
! Type
! Unit of Measure
! 1981
! 2006
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Mink
| Number of mink farms
| 561
| 221
|-
| Number of animals
| 1,765,184
| 1,903,918
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 3,146
| 8,615
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Foxes
| Number of fox farms
| 341
| 106
|-
| Number of animals
| 29,980
| 12,409
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 88
| 117
|}

===Other===
In recent years farmers have been producing alternative crops which are economically viable, and amongst these are [[organic farming|organic farm]] crops. [[Hemp]] and wool from sheep are the main areas of fibre production of Canada. [[Wool]] production was on average 16,022,000 pounds (7,267 t) in the 1930s and 9,835,000 pounds (4,461 t) in 1949..<ref name="Year">{{cite book | title=The Canada Year Book 1951 The Official Statistical Annual of the Resources, History, Institutions, and Social and Economic Conditions of Canada | publisher=King's Printer and Controller of Stationery | year=1951 |editor=Cloutier, Edmond | isbn=978-0-7715-8268-4 }}</ref> Fibre [[flax]] from flaxseed has been exported to the United Kingdom. Crop growers may supplement their income with [[beeswax]] and [[honey]] and learn [[beekeeping]]. Enterprising land owners have had success growing as well as packaging and marketing the [[sunflower seed]]. Crops are not only for human consumption but also for animal consumption, which opens a new market such as canary seed. [[Cuniculture]], or rabbit farming, is another livestock enterprise. [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] is an important crop in some areas, making up 5% of British Columbia's GDP. According to [[BC Business Magazine]], the crop is worth $7.5 billion to the province annually, and gives employment to 250,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bcmarijuanaparty.com/index.php?n=BCMPBlog.2008-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707215625/http://www.bcmarijuanaparty.com/index.php?n=BCMPBlog.2008-05-17 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-07-07 |title=Overgrow the government! |publisher=bcmarijuanaparty.com |access-date=2013-08-25 }}</ref>

===Number of farms by Province/Territory===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:50%; font-size:95%;"
|-
!Province/Territory<ref name="Agriculture census">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/agriculture/|title=Agriculture census|date=5 August 2004|publisher=CBC|access-date=7 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124055640/http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/agriculture/|archive-date=24 January 2009}}</ref>
!Number of Farms (2001 data)<ref name="Agriculture census"/>
|-
|Alberta || 53,653
|-
|British Columbia || 20,290
|-
|Manitoba || 21,071
|-
|New Brunswick || 3,034
|-
|Newfoundland and Labrador || 643
|-
|Nova Scotia || 3,923
|-
|Ontario || 59,729
|-
|Prince Edward Island || 1,845
|-
|Quebec || 32,139
|-
|Saskatchewan || 50,598
|-
|Northwest Territories || 30
|-
|Nunavut || 0
|-
|Yukon || 170
|}

==Canadian agricultural government departments==
The Department of Agriculture set out in the [[British North America Act of 1867]] (BNA) states each province may have jurisdiction over agricultural concerns, as well as the Dominion Government may also make law in regard to agriculture. Newfoundland agricultural affairs were dealt with by the Agricultural Division of the Department of Natural Resources at Confederation.<ref name="Year"/>

The BNA states that the federal Government has sole authority in coastal and inland fishery matters. Provinces have rights over non-tidal waters and fishing practices there only.<ref name="Year"/>

{|class="wikitable" style="margin-left:20px;"
|+'''Canadian agricultural government departments'''
!align=left|Department
|Function
|-
|[[Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada]]
|Responsible for policies governing agriculture production, farming income, research and [[New product development|development]], inspection, and the regulation of animals and plants. Headed by the [[Minister of Agriculture (Canada)]].
|-
|[[Canadian Dairy Commission]]
|Responsible for providing dairy producers a fair return for labour and investment and provide consumers with high quality [[dairy product]]s.
|-
|[[Canadian Food Inspection Agency]]
|CFIA consolidates the delivery of all federal food, animal and [[plant health]] inspection programs.
|-
|[[Canadian Grain Commission]]
|Responsible for the [[cereal|grain]] industry. Headed by the [[Minister of Agriculture and Agri-Food (Canada)|Minister of Agriculture and Agri-food]]
|-
|[[Canadian Wheat Board]]
|
|-
|[[Fisheries and Oceans Canada]]
|Responsibility for the conservation and sustainable use of Canada's fisheries resources.
|-
|[[National Farm Products Council]]
|Responsible for promoting efficient and competitive agriculture in Canada and oversees the Canadian Egg Marketing Agency, Canadian Turkey Marketing Agency, Chicken Farmers of Canada and Canada Hatching Egg Producers.
|}

==Agricultural economy==
{{See also|Crow Rate|Western Economic Diversification Canada}}
Canadian farms, [[fisheries]] and [[ranches]] produce a wide variety of crops, livestock, food, [[fodder|feed]], [[fibre]], [[fuel]] and other goods by the systematic raising of plants and animals which are dependent upon the geography of the province. In 2001 farms numbered only 246,923 at a size of {{convert|676|acre|km2}} as the production of food and fibre for human or livestock sustenance has evolved into intensive and industrial practices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/020515/td020515.htm |author=Statistics Canada |author-link=Statistics Canada |title=2001 Census of Agriculture – Canadian farm operations in the 21st century |access-date=8 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020015620/http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/020515/td020515.htm |archive-date=20 October 2006 }}</ref><ref name="FarmingCanada"/> As of 2002, wheat constituted the largest crop area at 12.6%. Canadian farmers received a record $36.3 billion in 2001 from livestock, crop sales and program payments.<ref name=economy>{{cite web|last=Statistics Canada |first=The Canada e-Book |title=The Economy Statistics Canada |date=26 August 2004 |url=http://www43.statcan.ca/03/03b/03b_002_e.htm |access-date=7 April 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221012137/http://www43.statcan.ca/03/03b/03b_002_e.htm |archive-date=21 December 2007 }}</ref> In 2001, the accrued net income of farm operators from farm production amounted to 1,633 million dollars, which amounts to 0.147% of Canada's gross domestic product at market prices which is 1,108,200 million dollars.<ref name="FarmingCanada"/> [[Fisheries]] are also playing an important role while [[forestry]] plays a secondary role. Canada's evolution has abandoned [[subsistence economy|subsistence techniques]] and now sees a mere 3% of Canada's population employed as a mechanized industrial farmer who are able feed the rest of the nation's population of 30,689.0 thousand people (2001) as well as export to foreign markets.<ref>{{cite web
|last = Statistics Canada
|first = The Canada e-Book
|title = The Population Statistics Canada
|url = http://142.206.72.67/02/02a/02a_000_e.htm#t01
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20030805102536/http://142.206.72.67/02/02a/02a_000_e.htm#t01
|url-status = dead
|archive-date = 5 August 2003
|access-date = 7 April 2007
}}</ref> (Canada's estimated population was 32,777,300 on 1 January 2007).<ref>{{cite web
|title = The Daily, Thursday, March 29, 2007. Canada's population estimates
|url = http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/070329/d070329b.htm
|access-date = 7 April 2007
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070428121644/http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/070329/d070329b.htm
|archive-date = 28 April 2007
|url-status = dead}}</ref>

==Trade==
The marketing and economic movement of Canada's various agriculture commodities has been a challenge. Domestic trade encompasses providing goods within Canada provincially and inter-provincial. Support agencies and services such as storage, railways, warehouses, stores, banking institutions all affect domestic trade. Trade of wheat from the Canada's prairies was monitored by the [[Canadian Wheat Board]] (CWB) prior to the privatization and sale of the CWB to foreign interests in 2015. Canada's depression of 1882–1897 brought a low of 64¼ cents per bushel ($24/t) as of 1893. This era during Laurier's administration saw thousands of homesteads cancelled. Wheat prices soared during World War I. In 1928, Canada exported high quantities of wheat, flour, and goods. The [[Great Depression in Canada|depression]] took its toll on Canada as [[Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years|exports]] sunk to approximately 40% of their 1928 amount. European markets stopped needing to import Canadian wheat as they started growing their own varieties, and then World War II events put a blockade on trade to European markets. Canada became more of an industrial entity during the time of this industrial revolution, and less of an agricultural nation. Following World War II the United Kingdom entered into contract for a large amount of agricultural commodities such as bacon, cheese, wheat, oats and barley. After the United Kingdom, the United States is Canada's largest external trade partner. Between 1943 and 1953, the average export of Canadian wheat was 347,200,000 bushels (9,449,000 t).<ref name="A Historical Atlas of Canada">{{cite book | title=A Historical Atlas of Canada | publisher=Thomas Nelson and Sons (Canada) Ltd. | year=1959 | editor=Kerr, D.G.G. }}</ref> The three-year International Wheat Agreement of 1955, which really lasted 6 years, included exports of wheat or flour to 28 of 44 importing countries including Germany, Japan, [[Belgium]], UK, and the [[Netherlands]].<ref name="YearBook">{{cite book | title=Canada 1956 The Official Handbook of Present Conditions and Recent Progress | publisher=Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery, Ottawa. | year=1956 | editor=Cloutier, Edmond }}</ref><ref name="A Historical Atlas of Canada"/>

==Agribusiness==
[[Agribusiness]] are activities of food and fibre production and processing which are not part of the farm operation. This would include the production of farm equipment and fertilizers to aid farm production.<ref name="Micro">{{cite encyclopedia
| title =agribusiness
| encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Britannica Micropaedia
| volume = 1
| pages = 153–154
| publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.
| location = Chicago
| year = 1985
}}</ref> Agribusiness also includes the firms that purchase the raw goods from the farm for further processing. The meat packing industry, flour mill, and canning industry would be included in the agribusiness sector processing farm products.<ref name="Canadian">{{cite encyclopedia
| last =Moncrieff
| first = P.M.
| title =Agribusiness
| encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Britannica
| volume = 1 A-For
| pages = 17
| publisher = Hurtig Publishers
| location = Edmonton
| year = 1985
}}</ref>
A recent growth area in agribusiness is the advent of organized farmland investment funds operating on the model of direct land ownership with rental back to farmers as operators.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.farmlandinvestmentpartnership.com |title=Agcapita Farmland Investment Partnership |publisher=Farmlandinvestmentpartnership.com |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref>

==Industry categories==
According to Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, these are the classifications of Canadian Agriculture Industries.

{|class="wikitable" style="margin-left:20px;"
|+'''Canadian Agriculture Industries'''
!align=left|Industry
|Mainstay
|-
|[[Brewing]] industry
| Comprises two large national beer producing companies: [[Labatt|Labatt Breweries of Canada]] and [[Molson Brewery|Molson Coors Canada]]<ref>{{cite web
|title=Brewing Industry
|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/brewing-industry/
|access-date=13 January 2008
|url-status=live
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020035749/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0000980
|archive-date=20 October 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Buckwheat]] industry
|Buckwheat flour is used for pancake mixes and pasta. Buckwheat is exported mainly to Japan. The majority of this specialty crop is grown in [[Manitoba]]<ref>{{cite web
|title = BUCKWHEAT PRODUCTION IN CANADA Market Report
|url = https://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/crops/specialcrops/pdf/bib03s01.pdf
|access-date = 13 January 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080227125417/http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/crops/specialcrops/pdf/bib03s01.pdf
|archive-date = 27 February 2008
|url-status = dead}}</ref>
|-
|[[Canary seed]] industry
|In 2005, Canada produced 77% of the world canary seed production. Saskatchewan soils were conducive to bird seed production.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Canary Seed > Pulses and Special Crops > Producers
|url=http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?issn=1174582426353&lang=e
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805181424/http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?issn=1174582426353&lang=e
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=5 August 2011
|access-date=13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Confectionery and [[chewing gum]] industry
|Sugar and cocoa are imported for this industry which has foreign owned firms operating in Canada. Various candies amounting to $1.48 billion were shipped in 1997.<ref>{{cite web
|last=Barratt
|first=Robert F.
|title=Confectionery Industry
|url=http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?issn=1174582426353&lang=e
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805181424/http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?issn=1174582426353&lang=e
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=5 August 2011
|access-date=13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Dairy industry]]
|In the Canadian agri-food economy the dairy industry is the third largest.<ref>{{cite web
|last=Werry, Marlene
|title=A Snapshot of the Canadian Dairy Industry
|url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/dairy/facts/snapshot.htm
|access-date=13 January 2008
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090925024649/http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/dairy/facts/snapshot.htm
|archive-date=25 September 2009
}}</ref>
|-
|Dairy genetics industry
|The Canadian Record of Performance R.O.P. program discovers dairy cattle of high producing milk capacities. Cattle qualities are monitored by the Canadian Dairy Herd Improvement milk producing agency.(Canadian DHI).<ref>{{cite web
|title=A Snapshot of the Canadian Dairy Industry
|url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/dairy/facts/snapshot.htm
|access-date=13 January 2008
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090925024649/http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/dairy/facts/snapshot.htm
|archive-date=25 September 2009
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Distillery]] industry
|Canadian whisky made from rye and corn is the main aspect of this Canadian industry. The distillery industry also includes production of whisky, rum, vodka, gin, liqueurs, spirit coolers and basic ethyl alcohol.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Canadian Distillery Industry > Agri-Industries |url=http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?issn=1171995761751&lang=e |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805181424/http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?issn=1171995761751&lang=e |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 August 2011 |access-date=13 January 2008 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Egg (food)|Egg]] industry
|Evolved into an automated industry producing table eggs, enzymes, [[breaker eggs]], processed foods, and supporting pullet producers, egg laying chicken (layers) producers and graders.<ref>{{cite web|title=Poultry Marketplace |url=http://www.agr.gc.ca/poultry/preg-proe_e.htm |access-date=13 January 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050419032418/http://www.agr.gc.ca/poultry/preg-proe_e.htm |archive-date=19 April 2005 }}</ref>
|-
|Fish and seafood industry
|This industry produces CDN $5 billion a year. The world's fourth-largest exporter of fish is Canada, from the Atlantic fishery, Pacific fishery and aquaculture sector.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Canada's Fish and Seafood Industry
|url=http://atn-riae.agr.ca/seafood/industry-e.htm
|access-date=13 January 2008
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221034440/http://atn-riae.agr.ca/seafood/industry-e.htm
|archive-date=21 December 2007
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Fodder|Forage]] industry
|This industry comprises feed for livestock, cattle, sheep and horses. Hay is the main forage crop, supplemented by alfalfa, cereals, peas and corn. Besides domestic markets, exports from Canada arrive at Pacific Rim Countries.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Forage
| url =http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/A27-18-14-7E.pdf
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Fruit industry
|Tree fruit grower crops consist of apples, pears, peaches, plums, apricots, nectarines, and sweet cherry, followed by wine grape areas. The industry supports fresh, canned, frozen and preserved fruits as well as food production.<ref name="barratt2007">{{cite web
|last=Barratt
|first=Robert
| title =Fruit Growers News
| year =2007
| url =http://www.fruitgrowersnews.com/pages/2003/issue03_11/03_11_BCfruit.html
| access-date =13 January 2008
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071010054236/http://www.fruitgrowersnews.com/pages/2003/issue03_11/03_11_BCfruit.html| archive-date = 10 October 2007}}</ref><ref name="barratt1">{{cite journal
|last=Barratt
|first=Robert
| title =Fruit and Vegetable Industry
|work= The Canadian Encyclopedia
|publisher=Historica Foundation of Canada.
| year =2007
| url =http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/fruit-and-vegetable-industry/
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Grains and oilseeds industry
|Wheat, barley and oats are Canada's grain exports. Canola, soybean and flaxseed are the main oilseed exports.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Canada's |journal=Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |date=23 May 2006 |url=http://www.strategis.gc.ca/canadian_industry_statistics/cis.nsf/IDE/cis3112gdpe.html |access-date=13 January 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051206041924/http://strategis.gc.ca/canadian_industry_statistics/cis.nsf/IDE/cis3112gdpe.html |archive-date=6 December 2005 }}</ref>
|-
|Grain-based products industry
|Grain and oilseed production supports flour milling, malt manufacturing, starch, vegetable fat and oil manufacturing as well as breakfast cereal manufacturing<ref>{{cite journal|title=GDP – NAICS 3112 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Grain and Oilseed Milling |journal=Industry Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |date=23 May 2006 |url=http://www.strategis.gc.ca/canadian_industry_statistics/cis.nsf/IDE/cis3112gdpe.html |access-date=13 January 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051206041924/http://strategis.gc.ca/canadian_industry_statistics/cis.nsf/IDE/cis3112gdpe.html |archive-date=6 December 2005 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Hemp]] industry
|Spin off industries from Hemp production include aromatherapy, commercial oil paints, cosmetics, edible oil, garments and accessories, hemp meal and flour, [[snack food]]s, shampoo and conditioners, and moisturizers.<ref>{{cite web
| title =Industrial Hemp Production in Canada
| work =Alberta Agriculture and food
| url =http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/econ9631
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Honey]] industry
|Beeswax produces cosmetics, ointments, candles and household waxes. A diet supplement is made from bee pollen. Propolis and royal jelly is used in cosmetics, creams, lotions, tonics and lip balms. Honey is a sweetener for domestic use or commercial food production.<ref>{{cite web
| title =Commercial Honey Industry
| url =http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex2743
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Industrial agriculture (animals)]]
|[[Factory farming]], [[Intensive pig farming]], [[Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture]], and [[shrimp farm]]ing are various forms of industrial agriculture which aims at [[mass production]]
|-
|[[Industrial agriculture]]
|Includes [[innovation]] in agricultural machinery and farming methods, [[genetic engineering|genetic technology]], techniques for achieving [[economies of scale]] in production, the creation of new markets for consumption, the application of patent protection to genetic information, and [[Globalization|global trade]]
|-
|[[Maple syrup]] industry
|Maple syrup can be used to make maple sugar, maple butter, maple taffy as well as a sweetener.<ref>{{cite journal
|title=The Maple Syrup Industry in Ontario: Answers to Commonly Asked ...
|journal=Government of Ontario
|publisher=Queen's Printer for Ontario
|year=2007
|url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/maple.htm
|access-date=13 January 2008
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809072614/http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/maple.htm
|archive-date=9 August 2007
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Mustard seed]] industry
|Yellow mustard is the highest export, closely followed by brown and oriental mustards. 2007 saw an increase in mustard seed prices.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Food Industry News. Canada Mustard-Seed Price Rises Sharply on Lower Output (DJ)
|date=18 January 2008
|url=http://www.flex-news-food.com/pages/11747/Canada/Ingredients/canada_mustard_seed_price_rises_sharply_lower_output_dj.html
|access-date=13 January 2008
}}{{dead link|date=January 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
|-
|[[organic farming|Organic]] industry
|Operational certification and standards are challenges for the growing organic farming industry. Organic farming with biodynamics and without synthetic chemicals provides the consumer a holistic plant and animal food choice.<ref>{{cite journal
| title =Organic Farming in Canada: An Overview (PRB 00-29E)
|journal= Parliamentary Research Branch
|publisher=Government of Canada
| date =24 October 2002
| url =http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/BP/prb0029-e.htm
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Potato industry
|Potato Innovation Network (PIN) 2020 was initiated in 2006 to support development of new markets, and new uses for potatoes in market diversification.<ref>{{cite journal
| title =Canada Potato News – Agriculture Industry Today News release AAFC HELPS LAUNCH POTATO INNOVATION NETWORK
|journal= Parliamentary Research Branch
|publisher=Government of Canada
| date =21 July 2006
| url =http://www.agr.gc.ca/cb/index_e.php?s1=n&s2=2006&page=n60721
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Poultry industry
|Avian Influenza ("Bird Flu") is the latest concern in the poultry industry however disease precautions are in place if this strain arrives in Canada.<ref>{{cite web
| title =Poultry Industry Council (PIC)
|publisher= Poultry Industry Council of Canada
|year=2006
| url =http://www.poultryindustrycouncil.ca/
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Processed fruit and vegetable industry
|Processing of fruits and vegetables includes consumer products of canned, cider, frozen, jams, jellies and marmalades, pickles, sauces, soups, vegetable and fruit juices and vinegar.<ref name="barratt1"/>
|-
|[[Pulse (legume)|Pulse]] industry
|Beans, chickpeas, faba beans, and lentils comprise the pulse industry. Peas soup, and baked beans are large production processes from pulse growth. The world's largest pulse exporter is Canada.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Pulse Industry
|url = http://www.saskpulse.com/industry/index.php
|access-date = 13 January 2008
|publisher = Saskatchewan Pulse Growers
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071214144149/http://www.saskpulse.com/industry/index.php
|archive-date = 14 December 2007
|url-status = dead}}</ref>
|-
|[[Red meat]] industry
|This is Canada's fourth major manufacturing industry. Cattle, calves, hogs, sheep, lambs, venison, bison are all domesticated for red meat export and domestic consumption.<ref>{{cite journal
| title = All about Canada's red meat industry
|journal= Agriculture and Agri Food Canada
|publisher=Government of Canada
| url =http://www4.agr.gc.ca/resources/prod/doc/pdf/factsheet06.pdf
| access-date =13 January 2008
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080227125418/http://www4.agr.gc.ca/resources/prod/doc/pdf/factsheet06.pdf| archive-date= 27 February 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref>
|-
|[[Seed]] industry
|Seed growers, field inspectors, registered seed establishments, seed trial plots, and seed retailers are the mainstays of seed production.<ref>{{cite web
| title =The Seed Industry –
| url =http://www.seedquest.com/hosting/germination/sharingthemessage/seed_industry.pdf
| access-date =13 January 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080227125418/http://www.seedquest.com/hosting/germination/sharingthemessage/seed_industry.pdf |archive-date = 27 February 2008}}</ref>
|-
|Snack food industry
|Cereal grains, cornmeal, nuts, oils, potatoes, and seeds are the major ingredients of snack foods such as potato chips, mixed nuts, peanut butter, pork rinds, and seed snacks.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Canada's
|url = http://atn-riae.agr.ca/supply/factsheets/3320_e.pdf
|access-date = 13 January 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080227125418/http://atn-riae.agr.ca/supply/factsheets/3320_e.pdf
|archive-date = 27 February 2008
|url-status = dead}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sunflower seed]] industry
|About 80 per cent sunflowers grown in Canada are sold as roasted snack sunflower seeds or without the shell for baking. The main consumer is domestic. Birdfeed and sunflower vegetable oils are smaller markets which are being developed.<ref>{{cite web
| title =National Sunflower Association of Canada Inc.
| url =http://www.canadasunflower.com/research-statistics.html
| access-date =13 January 2008
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071221000941/http://www.canadasunflower.com/research-statistics.html| archive-date = 21 December 2007}}</ref>
|-
|Vegetable industry
|The edible portion of a plant is a vegetable. Vegetables can be marketed fresh or as part of the processed fruit and vegetable industry. The greenhouse vegetable industry supports the field vegetable farmer.<ref>{{cite web
| title =Agriculture, Fisheries and Aquaculture: Vegetable Industry
| url =http://www.gov.pe.ca/af/agweb/index.php3?number=79744
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Wine industry
|Canadian vintners producing wines with unique aromas, aging characteristics and flavours bring in international awards. The grape hybrid from the native Canadian species bred with wine producing grapes results in a grape for a shorter, cooler growing season, and a quality not found elsewhere.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Wines of Canada – Modern History
|url=http://www.canadianvintners.com/woc/modernhistory.html
|access-date=13 January 2008
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206125139/http://www.canadianvintners.com/woc/modernhistory.html
|archive-date=6 February 2008
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
|}

==Agricultural science==
[[Agricultural science]] began developing new styles of farming and strains of wheat and crops so that farming could become a successful venture. Farming methods were developed at places such as [[Indian Head, Saskatchewan#Dominion Experimental Farm|Dominion Experimental Farm]],<ref name=IHEF>
{{cite web
| last =Smith
| first =Allan E.
| title =The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan Agriculture Canada Research Stations
| work =Western Economic Diversification Canada and the Government of Saskatchewan.
| publisher =CANADIAN PLAINS RESEARCH CENTRE, UNIVERSITY OF REGINA
| url =http://esask.uregina.ca/entry/agriculture_canada_research_stations.html
| access-date =11 April 2007
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070501212112/http://esask.uregina.ca/entry/agriculture_canada_research_stations.html
| archive-date =1 May 2007
| url-status =dead}}
</ref> Rosthern Experimental Station,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
| last =JONES
| first =STEPHEN MORGAN
| title = Research Stations, Agricultural
| encyclopedia =The Canadian Encyclopedia
| url =http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/agricultural-research-stations/
| access-date =11 April 2007 }}</ref> and Bell Farm.<ref name=Bell>{{cite web
| last =Hawkes
| first = John
| title =Saskatchewan Gen Web Project – SASKATCHEWAN AND ITS PEOPLE by JOHN HAWKES
| work =Bell Farm
| publisher = Julia Adamson Rootsweb.com
| date =15 June 2005
| url =http://www.rootsweb.com/~cansk/SaskatchewanAndItsPeople/Volume2/index.html
| access-date =11 April 2007 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070514085645/http://www.rootsweb.com/~cansk/SaskatchewanAndItsPeople/Volume2/index.html| archive-date= 14 May 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref> From 1914 to 1922, the [[Better Farming Train (Saskatchewan)|Better Farming Train]] travelled around rural of [[Saskatchewan]] areas educating pioneer farmers.<ref name=farmtrain>{{cite web
| last =Hawkes
| first =John
| title =SASKATCHEWAN AND ITS PEOPLE
| publisher = Saskatchewan Gen Web Project Vol I 1924
| date =15 June 2005
| url =http://www.rootsweb.com/~cansk/SaskatchewanAndItsPeople/VolumeII/index.html
| access-date =11 April 2007 }}</ref>
The 1901 census showed 511,100 farms and the number of farms peaked in 1941 at a record 732,800 farms.<ref name="FarmingCanada">{{cite web
|title=Farming in Canada
|work=The Economy > Primary industries
|publisher=Statistics Canada
|date=26 August 2004
|url=http://www43.statcan.ca/03/03b/03b_002_e.htm
|access-date=29 January 2008
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219211817/http://www43.statcan.ca/03/03b/03b_002_e.htm
|archive-date=19 February 2008
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> The [[industrial revolution]] modernised the farming industry as mechanized vehicles replaced the oxen ploughed land or the horse-drawn cart. Farms became much larger, and mechanized evolving towards [[industrial agriculture]].

==Production==
{{See also|List of countries by GDP sector composition}}
Farming activities were very labour-intensive before the industrial revolution and the advent of [[tractor]]s, [[combine harvester|combines]], [[baler]]s, etc. From the late 19th century to the mid-20th century, a great percentage of the Canadian labour force was engaged in high labour, smaller farming practices. After mechanization, scientific advancement, improved marketing practices farms became more efficient, larger and less labour-intensive. The labour population was freed up and went to industry, government, transportation, trade and finance.<ref name=statis>{{cite web
|last=Valley
|first=Brandon
|title=Tables by subject Agriculture Statistics Canada
|work=Statistics Canada
|url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/ind01/l2_920.htm
|access-date=28 November 2006
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061201075650/http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/ind01/l2_920.htm
|archive-date=1 December 2006
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> Agriculture, stock raising and horticulture employed one-fourth of the Canadian population according to the 1951 census as well as providing products for exports and Canadian manufacturing concerns.<ref name="Year"/>

==Farm equipment==
[[File:Farm. Tractor - Farm, Ville LaSalle BAnQ P48S1P08968.jpg|thumb|A [[cultivator]] pulled by a [[tractor]] in [[Montreal]] in 1943]]
The [[James Oliver (inventor)|Oliver Chilled Plow]], which could cut through the prairie sod, was in use by 1896. [[Binder (material)|Binder]]s which could cut and tie grain for the harvest season and [[grain elevators]] for storage were introduced in the late 19th century as well.<ref name=binder>{{cite web|authors=McCormick Reaper Centennial Source Material (International Harvester Company: Chicago) 1931. Virginia Agricultural Experimental Station |title=Grain Harvesting |date=30 November 2006 |url=http://www.vaes.vt.edu/steeles/mccormick/harvest.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212083359/http://www.vaes.vt.edu/steeles/mccormick/harvest.html |archive-date=12 December 2009 }}</ref> [[Plough|Plows]], [[tractors]], spreaders, [[combine harvester|combines]] to name a few are some mechanized implements for the grain crop or horticultural farmer which are labour saving devices. Many Canadian museums such as [[Reynolds-Alberta Museum]] will showcase the evolution and variety of [[Agricultural machinery|farm machinery]].

[[File:CombineWheat0654.jpg|thumb|Harvest of Wheat via combine]]

==Challenges==

The depression and drought of the [[Dirty Thirties]] was devastating. This drought resulted in a mass exodus of population from the prairies, as well as new agricultural practices such as [[soil conservation]], and [[crop rotation]].<ref>{{cite web
| title =Drought Watch web site
| publisher =Government of Canada, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration
| date =3 February 2002
| url =http://www.agr.gc.ca/pfra/drought/index_e.htm
| access-date =28 November 2006 }}</ref>

The use of [[soil conservation]] practices such as [[crop rotation]], cover crops, and windbreaks was expanded following the drought experiences of the dirty thirties. Literally layers and layers of topsoil would be blowing away during this time. [[Bow River]] Irrigation Project, [[Red Deer River]] Project and the St. Mary Irrigation project of Alberta, were a few of the major projects undertaken by the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act (P.F.R.A.) resulting in reservoirs, and distribution systems.<ref name="Year"/> A current project is [[Liming (soil)|soil liming]] at the Land Resource Research Institute.<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Turner
| first = R.C.
| title = A Study of Lime Potential
| journal = Soil Science
| page = 14
| year = 1965
| volume = 100
| issue = 1
| doi = 10.1097/00010694-196507000-00003
| bibcode = 1965SoilS.100...14T
| s2cid = 96539912
| url = https://scholar.google.ca/scholar?q=info:VT442wAXDoAJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&lr=&output=viewport&shm=1&pg=1
}}</ref><ref>

{{cite web
| title =One Hundred Harvests Research Branch Agriculture Canada 1886–1986
| work = Historical series / Agriculture Canada – Série historique / Agriculture Canada
| publisher = Government of Canada
| url = http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/205/301/ic/cdc/agrican/pubweb/hs27cover.asp
| access-date =22 December 2008}} Note this link loads slowly

</ref>
Wheat diseases such as wheat bunt and [[stinking smut]] can be successfully treated with a fungicide.
Disease of plants and animals can break an agricultural producer. [[Tuberculosis]] in animals was an early threat, and cattle needed to be tested, and areas accredited in 1956. The newer disease such as [[chronic wasting disease]] or [[transmissible spongiform encephalopathy]] (TSE) affects both elk and deer. Elk and deer raising is a pioneer field of domestication, has had a setback with this disease.<ref name=wasting>{{cite web
|last1=Chronic Wasting Disease Alliance
|last2=Pyron Technologies, Inc.
|title=Chronic Wasting Disease
|url=http://www.cwd-info.org/index.php/fuseaction/about.main
|access-date=28 November 2006
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061216100726/http://www.cwd-info.org/index.php/fuseaction/about.main
|archive-date=16 December 2006
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> [[Mad cow disease]] in cattle<ref name=maow>{{cite web| url=http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/heasan/disemala/bseesb/bseesbindexe.shtml| title= Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy BSE in North America |author = Canadian Food Inspection Agency| access-date=28 November 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061116080652/http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/heasan/disemala/bseesb/bseesbindexe.shtml |archive-date = 16 November 2006}}</ref> and [[scrapie]] of sheep<ref name=scrapie>{{cite web
| title = Animal Health Scrapies Manual of Procedures Module 1 and 2
| work = Canadian Food Inspection Agency
| publisher = Government of Canada
| url = http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/heasan/man/scrtre/scrtre-1-2e.shtml
| access-date =28 November 2006 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060907145751/http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/heasan/man/scrtre/scrtre-1-2e.shtml| archive-date = 7 September 2006}}</ref> are monitored by the [[Canadian Food Inspection Agency]]. The poultry sector was plagued by Pullorum disease, and by controlling the flock via poultry husbandry, this disease has been brought under control.

Plants whose traits can be modified to survive a disease or insect have made inroads into Canadian agricultural practices. Cereal [[rust (fungus)|rusts]] which can destroy the majority of areas seeded to wheat, was controlled in 1938 by breeding strains which were rust-resistant. This strain was successful until around 1950, when again a new variety of rust broke out, and again a new species of wheat called Selkirk was developed which was rust resistant.<ref name=modify>{{cite web
| title =Genetically modified crops: steady growth in Ontario and Quebec
| work =Statistics Canada
| date =6 December 2002
| url =http://www.statcan.ca/bsolc/english/bsolc?catno=21-004-X20021126389
| access-date =28 November 2006
}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Biotechnology]] is the center of new research and regulations affecting agriculture this century.<ref name="biotech">{{cite web | url=http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/sci/biotech/gen/terexpe.shtml | title=Biotechnology? Modern Biotechnology? GM? GMO? GE? PNTs? What do these terms mean? | publisher=Canadian Food Inspection Agency | access-date=28 November 2006 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061018203632/http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/sci/biotech/gen/terexpe.shtml | archive-date=18 October 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|author1=Small, Ernest |pages=15–52 |editor=J. Janick |title=Perspectives on new crops and new uses |publisher=ASHS Press |place=Alexandria, VA.
| chapter =New crops for Canadian agriculture| year =1999
| url =http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/v4-015a.html
| access-date =29 November 2006 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061127071145/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/v4-015a.html| archive-date= 27 November 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref>

==Developmental and educational institutions==
To increase the viability of agriculture as an economic lifestyle several improvements have been made by various nationwide educational facilities. Inroads and innovations have been made in the diverse fields of [[agricultural science]], [[agricultural engineering]], [[agricultural soil science]], [[Sustainable agriculture]], [[Agricultural productivity]], [[agronomy]], [[biodiversity]], [[bioengineering]], [[irrigation]] and swine research for example. Canadian universities conducting agricultural research include McGill University, Dalhousie University,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dal.ca/faculty/agriculture.html|title=Faculty of Agriculture|website=Dalhousie University|access-date=23 March 2018}}</ref> Université Laval, Université de Montréal, University of Alberta, University of British Columbia, University of Calgary, University of Guelph, University of Manitoba, University of Saskatchewan and University of Prince Edward Island. The Ontario Agricultural College is located at the University of Guelph and the Western College of Veterinary Medicine is located at the University of Saskatchewan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfavm.ca/15426.html |title=Our members: CFVAM |publisher=Cfavm.ca |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref> The Atlantic Veterinary College is located at the University of P.E.I.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avc.upei.ca/ |title=AVC News and Events | Atlantic Veterinary College | University of Prince Edward Island |publisher=Avc.upei.ca |date=2009-01-22 |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref> and there are also faculties of veterinary medicine at the University of Calgary<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vet.ucalgary.ca |title=Vet home page | Faculty of Veterinary Medicine | University of Calgary |publisher=Vet.ucalgary.ca |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref> and Université de Montréal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medvet.umontreal.ca/index.html |title=Université de Montréal - Faculté de médecine vétérinaire |publisher=Medvet.umontreal.ca |date=2013-04-25 |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref> [[BC Agriculture in the Classroom Foundation]] operates in the province of [[British Columbia]].

{|class="wikitable" style="margin-left:20px;"
|+'''Examples of some Canadian developmental and educational institutions'''
!align=left|Institution
|Research Programme
|-
|Animal Embryo Biotechnology Laboratory
|AEBL researches artificial insemination, embryo biotechnology to improve genetic breeding requirements.
|-
|[[Central Experimental Farm]]
|Scientific research for improvement in agricultural methods and crops. Features the [[Canada Agriculture Museum]], [[Dominion Arboretum]], and [[Ornamental Gardens]].
|-
|Cool Climate Oenology and Viticulture Institute
|CCOVI provides research to enable the growing grapes and production of wine in cooler climates.
|-
|[[Devonian Botanical Garden]]
|Emphasis on alpine and cold-hardy plants along with [[wetland]] ecology, biology of [[microfungus|microfungi]], horticulture, and [[phenology]] research.
|-
|[[Fisheries Centre]]
|Research of aquatic ecosystems and collaboration with Maritime communities, government, and NGOs
|-
|[[List of botanical gardens in Canada]]
|
|-
|[[Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Centre]]
|NAFC is a part of the Canadian research facility of the Science, Oceans and Environment (SOE) branch and Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) provides marine and aquatic research and conservation.<ref name=NAFC>{{cite web
| title =Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Centre (NAFC)
| work=Eastern Research Institutes
| url =http://www.aquatic.uoguelph.ca/Human/Research/Webresearchinst/East/NorthwestAFC/nafc.htm
| access-date =14 January 2008
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071226031129/http://www.aquatic.uoguelph.ca/Human/Research/Webresearchinst/East/NorthwestAFC/nafc.htm| archive-date= 26 December 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref>
|-
|[[Dalhousie Agricultural Campus]]
|Field and animal husbandry studies, aquaculture, international food business
|-
|[[Ontario Horticultural Association]]
|Regional horticultural associations promote education about horticulture.
|-
|[[Ontario Agriculture College]]
|Education, research and service in agriculture, food, environmental sciences and rural community development.
|-
|[[University of Saskatchewan Agriculture & Bioresources College]]
|Agricultural and [[bioresource engineering]], economics, agronomy, animal Science, environmental science, food and applied microbiological sciences, large animal clinical sciences, plant sciences, and soil science
|-
|[[University of Saskatchewan|Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization]]
|The VIDO facility develops DNA-enhanced immunization vaccines for both humans and animals.
|-
|[[Artificial Insemination Centre of Quebec]]
|Cattle artificial insemination and breeding centre with a focus on improving Quebec's milk producing and beef herds.
|}

==Agricultural Museums==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Canada Agriculture Museum]]
* [[Manitoba Agricultural Museum]]
* [[Ross Farm Museum]]
* [[Central Experimental Farm]]
* [[Ontario Agricultural Museum]]
* [[Saskatchewan Western Development Museum]]
{{colend}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Canada}}
* [[History of agriculture in Canada]]
* [[Canadian Census of Agriculture]]
* [[Canadian Agricultural Safety Association]]
* [[Pesticides in Canada]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book | title=Canadian Oxford School Atlas | publisher=The Bryant Press Limited | year=1977 |editor1=Pleva, E.G. |editor2=Inch, Spencer | isbn=978-0-19-540240-7 }}
* {{cite book | title=From Sea unto Sea | publisher=Doubleday & Company, Inc. | year=1959 |editor=Hardy, W.G. }}
* {{cite book | title=The Unknown Country | publisher=Longmans, Green & Co., Toronto | year=1945 |editor=Hutchison, Bruce }}
* {{cite book | title=The Macmillan School Atlas | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780771582691 | url-access=registration | publisher=Gage Educational Publishing Company A Division of Canada Publishing Corporation | year=1982 |editor=Daly, Ronald C.| isbn=978-0-7715-8268-4 }}
* {{cite book | title=The Canada Year Book 1951 The Official Statistical Annual of the Resources, History, Institutions, and Social and Economic Conditions of Canada | publisher=King's Printer and Controller of Stationery | year=1951 |editor=Cloutier, Edmond | isbn=978-0-7715-8268-4 }}
* {{cite book | title=Canada 1956 The Official Handbook of Present Conditions and Recent Progress | publisher=Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery, Ottawa. | year=1956 | editor=Cloutier, Edmond }}
* {{cite book | title=A Historical Atlas of Canada | publisher=Thomas Nelson and Sons (Canada) Ltd. | year=1959 | editor=Kerr, D.G.G. }}
* {{cite book | title=Our Canada | publisher=The Copp Clark Publishing Co, Limited | year=1949 | editor=Dorland, Arthur G. }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
* [http://www.agr.gc.ca/ Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada / Agriculture et Agroalimentaire]
* [http://gov.bc.ca/agriculture Agriculture - Province of B.C.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070812055143/http://www.agriculture.technomuses.ca/ Canada Agriculture Museum]
* [http://www.soiltosky.ca/ Soil to Sky: Careers in Canadian Agriculture in Food]
* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20171229182905/http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/agriculture/index.aspx The Archives of Ontario Celebrates Our Agricultural Past]'', online exhibit on Archives of Ontario website

{{Canada topics}}
{{North America topic|Agriculture in}}
{{Canada topic|Agriculture in}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Agriculture In Canada}}
[[Category:Agriculture in Canada| ]]

Agriculture in Canada

2022-06-06T14:01:54Z

72.142.115.198: Error in grammar

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=March 2021}}
{{short description|Overview of agriculture in Canada}}
{{Economy of Canad}}
[[Canada]] is one of the largest agricultural producers and exporters in the world. As with other developed nations, the proportion of the population agriculture employed and agricultural GDP as a percentage of the national GDP fell dramatically over the 20th century, but it remains an important element of the Canadian economy.
A wide range of agriculture is practised in Canada, from sprawling wheat fields of the [[prairies]] to summer produce of the [[Okanagan|Okanagan valley]]. In the [[Government of Canada|federal government]], overview of Canadian agriculture is the responsibility of the [[Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada|Department of Agriculture and Agri-Food]].<ref>{{cite web
| title = Welcome to AAFC Online
| work = Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
| publisher = Government of Canada
| date = 24 January 2008
| url = http://www.agr.gc.ca/index_e.php
}}</ref>

==Major agricultural products==
{{See also|Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada}}
[[File:Alberta modern cement grain elevator 034.jpg|thumb|right|Concrete grain elevator in Alberta]]
Various factors affect the socio-economic characteristics of Canadian agriculture. The 2006 ''Census of Agriculture'' listed seven:<ref>{{cite web
|title = 2006 Census of Agriculture Highlights and analyses
|work = Statistics Canada
|publisher = Government of Canada
|date = 2007-10-26
|url = http://www.statcan.ca/english/agcensus2006/highlights.htm
|access-date = 6 April 2007
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070315200417/http://www.statcan.ca/english/agcensus2006/highlights.htm
|archive-date = 15 March 2007
|url-status = dead}}</ref> Quantity and type of farms; Biogeography: crop and land use areas; land management practices; Quantity of livestock and poultry; Agricultural engineering: Farm machinery and equipment; Farm capital; Farm operating expenses and receipts; Farm-related injuries.

Early in the 21st century, Canadian agronomists were aware of 48 "primary grain, vegetable and fruit crops", based on surface area and value.<ref name=ch12>[http://www5.agr.gc.ca/resources/prod/doc/env/naharp-pnarsa/pdf/chap12_e.pdf agr.gc.ca: "Chapter 12. Integrated Pest Management"], in ''Environmental Sustainability of Canadian Agriculture: Agri-Environmental Indicator Report Series—Report #2''</ref> In 2007, the [[Canadian Federation of Agriculture]] broke down into five primary "production sectors" Canadian agriculture according to cash receipts:<ref name=production>{{cite web
|last=Canadian Federation of Agriculture
|title=CFA – Canadian Federation of Agriculture – Commodities
|year=2007
|url=http://www.cfa-fca.ca/pages/index.php?main_id=25
|access-date=6 April 2007
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070410090347/http://www.cfa-fca.ca/pages/index.php?main_id=25
|archive-date=10 April 2007
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
#grains and oilseeds:<ref>wheat, durum, oats, barley, rye, flax seed, canola, soybeans, rice, and corn</ref> 34%
#red meats – livestock:<ref>beef cattle, hogs, veal, and lamb</ref> 24%
#dairy: 12%
#[[horticulture]]: 9%
#poultry and eggs: 8%

In 2018, Canada was the world's largest producer of [[rapeseed]] (20.3 million tonnes), dry [[pea]] (3.5 million tonnes) and [[lentil]] (2 million tons), the 2nd largest producer of [[oats]] in the world (3.4 million tons), the 6th largest world producer of [[wheat]] (31.7 million tons) and [[barley]] (8.3 million tons), the 7th largest world producer of [[soy]] (7.2 million tons), the 10th largest world producer of [[maize]] (13.8 million tons) and the 12th largest world producer of [[potato]] (5.7 million tonnes). In the same year, the country also produced 688 thousand tons of [[flax]], 505 thousand tons of [[sugar beet]] (which is used to produce sugar), 497 thousand tons of [[tomato]], 424 thousand tons of [[apple]], 354 thousand tons of [[carrots]], 341 thousand tons of [[beans]], 311 thousand tons of [[chickpeas]], 236 thousand tons of [[rye]], 240 thousand tons of [[onion]], 219 thousand tons of [[cabbage]], 195 thousand tons of [[cranberry]], 164 thousand tons of [[blueberry]], 173 thousand tons of [[mustard seed]], 138 thousand tons of [[mushroom]] and [[truffle]], 120 thousand tons of [[grape]], in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.<ref>[http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/ Canada production in 2018, by FAO]</ref>

===Grains and oilseeds===
{{See also|Canadian Grain Commission|Canadian Wheat Board}}
[[File:Wheat close-up.JPG|thumb|Wheat head close up view]]
In 1925, Saskatchewan produced over half of the wheat in the Dominion of Canada, threshing in excess of 240,000,000 [[bushel]]s (6,500,000 [[metric ton]]s) of wheat.<ref name=saskwheat>{{cite web
| last =Adamson
| first =J
| title =1926 Highway Map: Province of Saskatchewan
| url =http://www.rootsweb.com/~canmaps/1926/v.html
| access-date =29 November 2006
}}</ref> [[Rapeseed]], [[alfalfa]], [[barley]], [[canola]], [[flax]], [[rye]], and [[oats]] are other popularly grown grain crops.

Wheat is a staple crop from Canada. To help homesteaders attain an abundance harvest in a foreshortened growing season, varieties of wheat were developed at the beginning of the twentieth century. Red Fife was the first strain; it was a wheat which could be seeded in the fall and sprout in the early spring. Red Fife ripened nearly two weeks sooner and was a harder wheat than other spring wheats. Dr. C. Saunders, experimented further with Red Fife, and developed Mini Wheats, which was resistant to rust and came to maturity within 100 days. Some other types of wheat grown are [[durum]], [[spelt]], and [[winter wheat]].<ref name=wheat>{{cite book
|last=Symko
|first=Stephan
|others=Minister of Public Works, Government Services Canada
|title=From a single seed Tracing the Marquis wheat success story in Canada to its roots in the poop
|work=Cat. No. A22-197/1999E-IN
|isbn=978-0-662-28145-0
|publisher=Research Branch Agriculture and Agri Food Canada
|date=27 August 2003
|url=http://res2.agr.ca/publications/marquis/page09_e.htm
|access-date=10 April 2007
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051104080107/http://res2.agr.ca/publications/marquis/page09_e.htm
|archive-date=4 November 2005
}}</ref> In recent years, Canadian farmers have also begun to grow rice.

The [[Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration]] (PFRA) was established in 1935 to provide Federal financial assistance in regard to the global economical crisis. The PFRA provides farmers with land and water resources such as irrigation, soil drifting conservation and small farm water development. The [[Farm Credit Canada|Farm credit]] program has established the Canadian Farm Loan Act to provide stock bonds and farm improvement loans.<ref name="YearBook"/>

===Livestock===
[[File:Wfa017.jpg|thumb|right|Prize bull]]

115,000 cattle roamed the southern prairies by 1900.
Livestock can include the raising of cows, also commonly called cattle. Recently domestication of the [[American Bison|buffalo]]<ref name=bison>{{cite web|last=Torsten|first =Bernhardt|title =Canadian Biodiversity: Wood bison|work =Wood bison|publisher =Redpath Museum, McGill University|url=http://biology.mcgill.ca/undergra/c465a/biodiver/2001/wood-bison/wood-bison.htm|access-date =10 April 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060818213007/http://www.biology.mcgill.ca/undergra/c465a/biodiver/2001/wood-bison/wood-bison.htm| archive-date = 18 August 2006}}</ref> and [[elk]]<ref name=elk>{{cite web|last=Thorleifson|first=Ian|title=Elk on a beef farm|publisher=Deerfarmer|date=24 July 2003|url=http://www.deer-library.com/artman/publish/article_40.shtml|access-date=10 April 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070405010023/http://www.deer-library.com/artman/publish/article_40.shtml|archive-date=5 April 2007|url-status=dead
}}</ref> has initiated a new food industry. Sheep have been raised for both wool and meat.<ref name=sheep>{{cite web|title =Canadian Sheep Breeders' Association|publisher=2007 BC Sheep Federation|date=29 January 2007|url=http://www.bcsheepfed.com/}}</ref> Bovine or pig barns have been a part of livestock culture.<ref name=pig>{{cite web|last=Blair|first=R.|title =Pig Farming|work=2007 Historica Foundation of Canada|publisher =[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/pig-farming/|access-date =10 April 2007 }}</ref> Scientists have been making forward steps in swine research giving rise to [[intensive pig farming]]. The [[domestication]] of various farm animals meant that corresponding industries such as [[feedlot]]s, [[animal husbandry]] and [[meat processing]] have also been studied, and developed. Two corporations (Cargill Foods and Brazil-based multinational JBS) control 80 percent of beef processing, and four retailers capture 72 percent of retail sales.<ref>{{cite web|last=Roberts|first=Wayne|date=1 December 2019|title=McDonald's and Harvey's now serve 'sustainable beef'— but what exactly does that mean?|url=https://www.thestar.com/amp/business/opinion/2019/12/01/mcdonalds-and-harveys-are-now-serving-sustainable-beef-but-what-exactly-does-that-mean.html|url-status=live|website=[[Toronto Star]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202065936/https://www.thestar.com/amp/business/opinion/2019/12/01/mcdonalds-and-harveys-are-now-serving-sustainable-beef-but-what-exactly-does-that-mean.html |archive-date=2 December 2019 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float: right"
|+'''Total Canadian Farm Animals Slaughtered in 2018'''
! Type
! 2018
|-
| Cattle<ref name="Cattle and calves, farm and meat pr">{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210012501|title=Cattle and calves, farm and meat production}}</ref>
| 3,230,200
|-
| Calves<ref name="Cattle and calves, farm and meat pr"/>
| 234,300
|-
| Pigs<ref name="Hogs, sheep and lambs, farm and mea">{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210012601|title=Hogs, sheep and lambs, farm and meat production}}</ref>
| 21,561,500
|-
| Sheep and lambs<ref name="Hogs, sheep and lambs, farm and mea"/>
| 704,000
|-
| Chickens<ref name="Production, disposition and farm va">{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210011701|title=Production, disposition and farm value of poultry meat (x 1,000)}}</ref>
| 775,196,000
|-
| Turkeys<ref name="Production, disposition and farm va"/>
| 20,243,000
|}

From 1921 to 2011, farming operations have become more intensive and specialized. The total number of animal farms in Canada went from 8.1 per 100 inhabitants to 0.6 per 100 inhabitants. During this period, the number of Canadian pigs rose from 3,324,291 to 12,679,104, while the number of pig farms dropped from 452,935 to 7,371.<ref name="www150.statcan.gc.ca">{{cite web|last=Brisson|first=Yan|title=The changing face of the Canadian hog industry|url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/96-325-x/2014001/article/14027-eng.htm|url-status=live|website=[[Statistics Canada]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921121207/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/96-325-x/2014001/article/14027-eng.htm |archive-date=21 September 2018 }}</ref> In 2011, the hog industry was the fourth largest in Canada, after canola, dairy products and cattle, with cash receipts of $3.9 billion.<ref name="www150.statcan.gc.ca"/> The size of farms had also increased substantially, with the national average rising to 1,720 hogs per operation in 2011.<ref name="www150.statcan.gc.ca"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float: right"
|+'''Canadian Livestock, 1951 to 2016 (from Statistics Canada<ref name="Selected livestock and poultry, his">{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=3210015501 |title= Selected livestock and poultry, historical data}}</ref>)'''
! Type
! Unit of Measure
! 1951
! 2016
|-
| rowspan="3" | Cattle and calves
| Number of cattle farms
| 452,480
| 75,307
|-
| Number of animals
| 8,370,991
| 12,530,730
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 17
| 166
|-
| rowspan="3" | Pigs
| Number of pig farms
| 364,068
| 8,402
|-
| Number of animals
| 4,915,987
| 14,091,503
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 14
| 1,677
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Horses
| Number of horse farms
| 451,647
| 39,164
|-
| Number of animals
| 1,306,634
| 291,561
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 3
| 7
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Sheep and lambs
| Number of sheep farms
| 62,566
| 9,390
|-
| Number of animals
| 1,478,737
| 1,054,260
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 24
| 112
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Chickens
| Number of chicken farms
| 427,317
| 23,910
|-
| Number of animals
| 64,615,025
| 145,519,566
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 151
| 6,086
|}

===Dairy farming===
{{Main|Dairy farming in Canada|supply management (Canada)}}
Like poultry, dairy farming in Canada is restricted under the system of [[supply management (Canada)|supply management]]. In 2016 there were approximately 17,840 dairy cattle and milk production farm operators in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210002001|title=Table: 32-10-0020-01 Number of farm operators classified by farm type and country of birth|website=Statistics Canada}}</ref>

===Horticulture===
{{See also|Floriculture in Canada}}
[[File:Wfa011b.jpg|thumb|right|Vegetable displays]]
Horticulture crops, which includes nursery, flowers and fruits, became easier to grow with the development of plant [[hardiness zone]]s.<ref name=hardiness>{{cite web
|last=Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
|title=National Land and Water Information Service Plant Hardiness Zones in Canada
|url=http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/nsdb/climate/hardiness/intro.html
|access-date=28 November 2006
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002024216/http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/nsdb/climate/hardiness/intro.html
|archive-date=2 October 2006
}}</ref>
Apples, pears, [[plum]]s and [[prune (fruit)|prunes]], [[peach]]es, [[apricot]]s, [[cherry|cherries]], [[strawberries]], [[raspberry|raspberries]], [[loganberry|loganberries]] and fruit orchards are numerous and reach commercial size in the [[Annapolis Valley]] of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, [[Niagara Peninsula]] and [[Norfolk County, Ontario|Norfolk County]] of Ontario and [[Okanagan Valley]]<ref name=okanagan>{{cite web
|last = Sage Internet Solutions.
|title = Okanagan Valley, British Columbia, Canada
|publisher = Shangaan Webservices Inc.
|date = 2006
|url = http://www.okanaganbritishcolumbia.com/
|access-date = 10 April 2007
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070321015533/http://www.okanaganbritishcolumbia.com/
|archive-date = 21 March 2007
|url-status = dead}}</ref> of [[British Columbia]].

[[Hazelnut]]s are harvested in Eastern Canada and British Columbia.<ref name=nut>{{cite web
| title =Canadian Biodiversity: Species: Plants: European hazel or hazelnut
| work =Canadian Biodiversity Web Site
| publisher =Redpath Museum, McGill University
| url =http://canadianbiodiversity.mcgill.ca/english/species/plants/plantpages/cor_ave.htm
| access-date =10 April 2007
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070424142057/http://canadianbiodiversity.mcgill.ca/english/species/plants/plantpages/cor_ave.htm
| archive-date =24 April 2007
| url-status =dead
}}</ref> [[Maple syrup]] and maple sugar, maple butter, and maple taffy are products of Quebec along the [[St. Lawrence River]]. The main market for Canadian maple syrup and sugar is the United States.<ref name=maple>{{cite web
|author1=New Media|author2=Digital Archives
| title =Canadian maple syrup – A Taste of Canada: Our Homegrown Cuisine – CBC Archives
| publisher =[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]
| date =25 June 2004
| url =http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-69-1371-8371/life_society/canadian_food/clip4
}}</ref> Potatoes are an abundant harvest of the [[Maritimes|Maritime provinces]].<ref name=potato>{{cite web
|author=Web Site Advantage
| title =PEI Potatoes! Prince Edward Island Potato Board – Why PEI Potatoes ...
| publisher =PEI Potato Board
| date =8 July 2003
| url =http://www.peipotato.org/why_pei.asp
| access-date =10 April 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061213000213/http://www.peipotato.org/why_pei.asp| archive-date = 13 December 2006}}</ref> [[Sugar beet]]s and beet root sugar are harvested in Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and Alberta.<ref name=special>{{cite web
| title =Special Crops
| work =Canada's Sugar Beet Industry
| publisher =Government of Canada, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, special Crops
| date =8 April 2007
| url =http://www.agr.gc.ca/misb/spec/index_e.php?s1=bet&page=intro
| access-date =10 April 2007
| archive-date =27 April 2005
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20050427014948/http://www.agr.gc.ca/misb/spec/index_e.php?s1=bet&page=intro
| url-status =dead
}}</ref>

====Viticulture====
{{main|Canadian wine}}
[[File:Black Real Deal (4997566988).jpg|thumb|[[Grapevine]]s at [[Inniskillin]], a winery in the Niagara region of Ontario]]
[[Viticulture]] refers to the growing of grapes for the production of wine. Ontario, and British Columbia are the two largest wine-growing regions in Canada, although grapes are also grown in other regions of Canada, including Quebec, and the Maritimes.<ref>{{cite web
|title = The Atlas of Canada – Grape Area in Production, 2001
|publisher = Natural Resources Canada
|date = 2 September 2004
|url = http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/economic/agriculture/agriculture2001/grapes
|access-date = 10 April 2007
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070430222343/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/economic/agriculture/agriculture2001/grapes
|archive-date = 30 April 2007
|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|title=The Atlas of Canada – Grape Area in Production, 2001
|work=Home » Explore Our Maps » Economy » Agriculture » Agriculture at a Glance, 2001
|publisher=Natural Resources Canada
|url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/economic/agriculture/agriculture2001/
|access-date=28 November 2006
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207030708/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/economic/agriculture/agriculture2001
|archive-date=7 December 2006
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epicwineries.com|title=EPIC Wineries}}</ref> In 2015, Canada produced 56.2 million litres of wine.<ref name=Que>{{cite web|title=The Wine Market in the Province of Quebec|url=https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/canada-wine-market-province-quebec|publisher=USDA Foreign Agricultural Service|last=Lupescu|first=Mihai|date=7 April 2017}}</ref> Approximately 62 per cent of all wines produced that year originated from Ontario, while wineries from British Columbia constituted 33 per cent of that years wine production.<ref name=Que/> Canada is the largest producer of [[ice wine]], producing more ice wine than all other countries combined.<ref name=BCW/>

In 2015, there were 548 wineries spread across {{convert|12150|ha|acre}}. More than half of Canada's vineyard acreage is situated in Ontario, with 150 vineyards spread across {{convert|6900|ha|acres}}.<ref name=BCW>{{cite web|title=Market Analysis Report: A Global Export Market Overview for British Columbia's Wine Industry|url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/statistics/exports/global_export_market_bcwine_industry.pdf|publisher=Government of British Columbia|year=2012}}</ref><ref name=Ont>{{cite web|url=https://www.winecountryontario.ca/sites/default/files/attachments/canada_postcard_english_2015_-_2up_for_web_0.pdf|title=Canada on the World Map|publisher=Wine Marketing Association of Ontario|year=2015|access-date=8 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616014030/http://www.winecountryontario.ca/sites/default/files/attachments/canada_postcard_english_2015_-_2up_for_web_0.pdf|archive-date=16 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> British Columbia holds 240 wineries, spread throughout {{convert|4152|ha|acre}}.<ref name=Ont/> There are 138 wineries in Quebec, which manage {{convert|808|ha|acre}} of vineyards in the province.<ref name=Ont/> Nova Scotia holds 20 wineries, which manages {{convert|290|ha|acre}} of vineyards in the province.<ref name=Ont/>

===Poultry and eggs===
{{See also|National Farm Products Council|supply management (Canada)}}

[[Fowl]], poultry, [[egg (food)|eggs]], chickens, [[geese]], [[duck]]s and [[turkeys]] are part of a system of [[supply management (Canada)|supply management]]. Under supply management, production is limited, prices are raised, and competition is severely curtailed, raising profits for farmers through artificially high prices for poultry and eggs paid by consumers.<ref name="MHF">{{cite journal|last=Hall Findlay|first=Martha|author-link=Martha Hall Findlay|author2=Margarita Gres|date=June 2012|title=SUPPLY MANAGEMENT: PROBLEMS, POLITICS – AND POSSIBILITIES|url=http://www.policyschool.ucalgary.ca/sites/default/files/research/m-hall-findlay-supply-mgnt-final.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=The School of Public Policy SPP Research Papers|publisher=[[University of Calgary#School of Public Policy|University of Calgary School of Public Policy]]|volume=5|issue=19|pages=1–33|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021001458/http://www.policyschool.ucalgary.ca/sites/default/files/research/m-hall-findlay-supply-mgnt-final.pdf|archive-date=21 October 2013|access-date=19 October 2013}}</ref> There are around 3,000 poultry farmers and 1,000 egg farmers in Canada.<ref name=poultry>{{cite journal
| title =Poultry Marketplace – Poultry at a glance
| journal =Agriculture and Agrifood Canada
| publisher =Government of Canada
| url =http://www.agr.gc.ca/poultry-volaille/glpl_eng.htm
| access-date =28 November 2008
| archive-date =17 October 2013
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20131017062844/http://www.agr.gc.ca/poultry-volaille/glpl_eng.htm
| url-status =dead
}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+'''Canadian Egg Production, 1920 to 2018 (from Statistics Canada<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=3210011901#timeframe |title= Production and disposition of eggs, annual}}</ref>)'''
! Unit of Measure
! 1920
! 2018
|-
| Number of laying chickens
| 14,229,000
| 32,668,000
|-
| Total eggs laid
| 1,345,776,000
| 9,601,752,000
|-
| Eggs laid per chicken
| 96
| 294
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+'''Canadian Poultry, 1976 to 2016 (from Statistics Canada<ref name="Selected livestock and poultry, his"/>)'''
! Type
! Unit of Measure
! 1976
! 2016
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Chickens
| Number of chicken farms
| 99,128
| 23,910
|-
| Number of animals
| 87,071,513
| 145,519,566
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 878
| 6,086
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Turkeys
| Number of turkey farms
| 13,810
| 2,690
|-
| Number of animals
| 8,828,549
| 8,423,900
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 639
| 3,132
|}

===Aquaculture===
{{Main|Aquaculture in Canada}}

191,259 tonnes of aquatic life were killed in Canadian aquaculture systems in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210010701 |title=Aquaculture, production and value}}</ref> The total aquaculture production was worth 1.43 billion dollars.

===Fur===
{{Further|Fur farming}}

Mink and foxes are farmed in Canada for their fur. The total value of mink pelts produced in 2018 was 44 million dollars.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=3210011501 |title= Number and value of mink pelts produced, by colour type (Canada) }}</ref> This value included pelts taken from animals that died and spring peltings.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=assembleDESurv&DECId=1200020&RepClass=570&Id=1232353&DFId=1200031 |title= Annual Fur Farm Survey - Mink and Fox }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+'''Canadian Fur Farming, 1981 to 2006 (from Statistics Canada<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=3210011601 |title= Supply and disposition of mink and fox on fur farms }}</ref>)'''
! Type
! Unit of Measure
! 1981
! 2006
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Mink
| Number of mink farms
| 561
| 221
|-
| Number of animals
| 1,765,184
| 1,903,918
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 3,146
| 8,615
|-
| rowspan = "3" | Foxes
| Number of fox farms
| 341
| 106
|-
| Number of animals
| 29,980
| 12,409
|-
| Average number of animals per farm
| 88
| 117
|}

===Other===
In recent years farmers have been producing alternative crops which are economically viable, and amongst these are [[organic farming|organic farm]] crops. [[Hemp]] and wool from sheep are the main areas of fibre production of Canada. [[Wool]] production was on average 16,022,000 pounds (7,267 t) in the 1930s and 9,835,000 pounds (4,461 t) in 1949..<ref name="Year">{{cite book | title=The Canada Year Book 1951 The Official Statistical Annual of the Resources, History, Institutions, and Social and Economic Conditions of Canada | publisher=King's Printer and Controller of Stationery | year=1951 |editor=Cloutier, Edmond | isbn=978-0-7715-8268-4 }}</ref> Fibre [[flax]] from flaxseed has been exported to the United Kingdom. Crop growers may supplement their income with [[beeswax]] and [[honey]] and learn [[beekeeping]]. Enterprising land owners have had success growing as well as packaging and marketing the [[sunflower seed]]. Crops are not only for human consumption but also for animal consumption, which opens a new market such as canary seed. [[Cuniculture]], or rabbit farming, is another livestock enterprise. [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] is an important crop in some areas, making up 5% of British Columbia's GDP. According to [[BC Business Magazine]], the crop is worth $7.5 billion to the province annually, and gives employment to 250,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bcmarijuanaparty.com/index.php?n=BCMPBlog.2008-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707215625/http://www.bcmarijuanaparty.com/index.php?n=BCMPBlog.2008-05-17 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-07-07 |title=Overgrow the government! |publisher=bcmarijuanaparty.com |access-date=2013-08-25 }}</ref>

===Number of farms by Province/Territory===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:50%; font-size:95%;"
|-
!Province/Territory<ref name="Agriculture census">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/agriculture/|title=Agriculture census|date=5 August 2004|publisher=CBC|access-date=7 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124055640/http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/agriculture/|archive-date=24 January 2009}}</ref>
!Number of Farms (2001 data)<ref name="Agriculture census"/>
|-
|Alberta || 53,653
|-
|British Columbia || 20,290
|-
|Manitoba || 21,071
|-
|New Brunswick || 3,034
|-
|Newfoundland and Labrador || 643
|-
|Nova Scotia || 3,923
|-
|Ontario || 59,729
|-
|Prince Edward Island || 1,845
|-
|Quebec || 32,139
|-
|Saskatchewan || 50,598
|-
|Northwest Territories || 30
|-
|Nunavut || 0
|-
|Yukon || 170
|}

==Canadian agricultural government departments==
The Department of Agriculture set out in the [[British North America Act of 1867]] (BNA) states each province may have jurisdiction over agricultural concerns, as well as the Dominion Government may also make law in regard to agriculture. Newfoundland agricultural affairs were dealt with by the Agricultural Division of the Department of Natural Resources at Confederation.<ref name="Year"/>

The BNA states that the federal Government has sole authority in coastal and inland fishery matters. Provinces have rights over non-tidal waters and fishing practices there only.<ref name="Year"/>

{|class="wikitable" style="margin-left:20px;"
|+'''Canadian agricultural government departments'''
!align=left|Department
|Function
|-
|[[Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada]]
|Responsible for policies governing agriculture production, farming income, research and [[New product development|development]], inspection, and the regulation of animals and plants. Headed by the [[Minister of Agriculture (Canada)]].
|-
|[[Canadian Dairy Commission]]
|Responsible for providing dairy producers a fair return for labour and investment and provide consumers with high quality [[dairy product]]s.
|-
|[[Canadian Food Inspection Agency]]
|CFIA consolidates the delivery of all federal food, animal and [[plant health]] inspection programs.
|-
|[[Canadian Grain Commission]]
|Responsible for the [[cereal|grain]] industry. Headed by the [[Minister of Agriculture and Agri-Food (Canada)|Minister of Agriculture and Agri-food]]
|-
|[[Canadian Wheat Board]]
|
|-
|[[Fisheries and Oceans Canada]]
|Responsibility for the conservation and sustainable use of Canada's fisheries resources.
|-
|[[National Farm Products Council]]
|Responsible for promoting efficient and competitive agriculture in Canada and oversees the Canadian Egg Marketing Agency, Canadian Turkey Marketing Agency, Chicken Farmers of Canada and Canada Hatching Egg Producers.
|}

==Agricultural economy==
{{See also|Crow Rate|Western Economic Diversification Canada}}
Canadian farms, [[fisheries]] and [[ranches]] produce a wide variety of crops, livestock, food, [[fodder|feed]], [[fibre]], [[fuel]] and other goods by the systematic raising of plants and animals which are dependent upon the geography of the province. In 2001 farms numbered only 246,923 at a size of {{convert|676|acre|km2}} as the production of food and fibre for human or livestock sustenance has evolved into intensive and industrial practices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/020515/td020515.htm |author=Statistics Canada |author-link=Statistics Canada |title=2001 Census of Agriculture – Canadian farm operations in the 21st century |access-date=8 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020015620/http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/020515/td020515.htm |archive-date=20 October 2006 }}</ref><ref name="FarmingCanada"/> As of 2002, wheat constituted the largest crop area at 12.6%. Canadian farmers received a record $36.3 billion in 2001 from livestock, crop sales and program payments.<ref name=economy>{{cite web|last=Statistics Canada |first=The Canada e-Book |title=The Economy Statistics Canada |date=26 August 2004 |url=http://www43.statcan.ca/03/03b/03b_002_e.htm |access-date=7 April 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221012137/http://www43.statcan.ca/03/03b/03b_002_e.htm |archive-date=21 December 2007 }}</ref> In 2001, the accrued net income of farm operators from farm production amounted to 1,633 million dollars, which amounts to 0.147% of Canada's gross domestic product at market prices which is 1,108,200 million dollars.<ref name="FarmingCanada"/> [[Fisheries]] are also playing an important role while [[forestry]] plays a secondary role. Canada's evolution has abandoned [[subsistence economy|subsistence techniques]] and now sees a mere 3% of Canada's population employed as a mechanized industrial farmer who are able feed the rest of the nation's population of 30,689.0 thousand people (2001) as well as export to foreign markets.<ref>{{cite web
|last = Statistics Canada
|first = The Canada e-Book
|title = The Population Statistics Canada
|url = http://142.206.72.67/02/02a/02a_000_e.htm#t01
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20030805102536/http://142.206.72.67/02/02a/02a_000_e.htm#t01
|url-status = dead
|archive-date = 5 August 2003
|access-date = 7 April 2007
}}</ref> (Canada's estimated population was 32,777,300 on 1 January 2007).<ref>{{cite web
|title = The Daily, Thursday, March 29, 2007. Canada's population estimates
|url = http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/070329/d070329b.htm
|access-date = 7 April 2007
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070428121644/http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/070329/d070329b.htm
|archive-date = 28 April 2007
|url-status = dead}}</ref>

==Trade==
The marketing and economic movement of Canada's various agriculture commodities has been a challenge. Domestic trade encompasses providing goods within Canada provincially and inter-provincial. Support agencies and services such as storage, railways, warehouses, stores, banking institutions all affect domestic trade. Trade of wheat from the Canada's prairies was monitored by the [[Canadian Wheat Board]] (CWB) prior to the privatization and sale of the CWB to foreign interests in 2015. Canada's depression of 1882–1897 brought a low of 64¼ cents per bushel ($24/t) as of 1893. This era during Laurier's administration saw thousands of homesteads cancelled. Wheat prices soared during World War I. In 1928, Canada exported high quantities of wheat, flour, and goods. The [[Great Depression in Canada|depression]] took its toll on Canada as [[Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years|exports]] sunk to approximately 40% of their 1928 amount. European markets stopped needing to import Canadian wheat as they started growing their own varieties, and then World War II events put a blockade on trade to European markets. Canada became more of an industrial entity during the time of this industrial revolution, and less of an agricultural nation. Following World War II the United Kingdom entered into contract for a large amount of agricultural commodities such as bacon, cheese, wheat, oats and barley. After the United Kingdom, the United States is Canada's largest external trade partner. Between 1943 and 1953, the average export of Canadian wheat was 347,200,000 bushels (9,449,000 t).<ref name="A Historical Atlas of Canada">{{cite book | title=A Historical Atlas of Canada | publisher=Thomas Nelson and Sons (Canada) Ltd. | year=1959 | editor=Kerr, D.G.G. }}</ref> The three-year International Wheat Agreement of 1955, which really lasted 6 years, included exports of wheat or flour to 28 of 44 importing countries including Germany, Japan, [[Belgium]], UK, and the [[Netherlands]].<ref name="YearBook">{{cite book | title=Canada 1956 The Official Handbook of Present Conditions and Recent Progress | publisher=Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery, Ottawa. | year=1956 | editor=Cloutier, Edmond }}</ref><ref name="A Historical Atlas of Canada"/>

==Agribusiness==
[[Agribusiness]] are activities of food and fibre production and processing which are not part of the farm operation. This would include the production of farm equipment and fertilizers to aid farm production.<ref name="Micro">{{cite encyclopedia
| title =agribusiness
| encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Britannica Micropaedia
| volume = 1
| pages = 153–154
| publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.
| location = Chicago
| year = 1985
}}</ref> Agribusiness also includes the firms that purchase the raw goods from the farm for further processing. The meat packing industry, flour mill, and canning industry would be included in the agribusiness sector processing farm products.<ref name="Canadian">{{cite encyclopedia
| last =Moncrieff
| first = P.M.
| title =Agribusiness
| encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Britannica
| volume = 1 A-For
| pages = 17
| publisher = Hurtig Publishers
| location = Edmonton
| year = 1985
}}</ref>
A recent growth area in agribusiness is the advent of organized farmland investment funds operating on the model of direct land ownership with rental back to farmers as operators.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.farmlandinvestmentpartnership.com |title=Agcapita Farmland Investment Partnership |publisher=Farmlandinvestmentpartnership.com |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref>

==Industry categories==
According to Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, these are the classifications of Canadian Agriculture Industries.

{|class="wikitable" style="margin-left:20px;"
|+'''Canadian Agriculture Industries'''
!align=left|Industry
|Mainstay
|-
|[[Brewing]] industry
| Comprises two large national beer producing companies: [[Labatt|Labatt Breweries of Canada]] and [[Molson Brewery|Molson Coors Canada]]<ref>{{cite web
|title=Brewing Industry
|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/brewing-industry/
|access-date=13 January 2008
|url-status=live
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020035749/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0000980
|archive-date=20 October 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Buckwheat]] industry
|Buckwheat flour is used for pancake mixes and pasta. Buckwheat is exported mainly to Japan. The majority of this specialty crop is grown in [[Manitoba]]<ref>{{cite web
|title = BUCKWHEAT PRODUCTION IN CANADA Market Report
|url = https://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/crops/specialcrops/pdf/bib03s01.pdf
|access-date = 13 January 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080227125417/http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/crops/specialcrops/pdf/bib03s01.pdf
|archive-date = 27 February 2008
|url-status = dead}}</ref>
|-
|[[Canary seed]] industry
|In 2005, Canada produced 77% of the world canary seed production. Saskatchewan soils were conducive to bird seed production.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Canary Seed > Pulses and Special Crops > Producers
|url=http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?issn=1174582426353&lang=e
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805181424/http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?issn=1174582426353&lang=e
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=5 August 2011
|access-date=13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Confectionery and [[chewing gum]] industry
|Sugar and cocoa are imported for this industry which has foreign owned firms operating in Canada. Various candies amounting to $1.48 billion were shipped in 1997.<ref>{{cite web
|last=Barratt
|first=Robert F.
|title=Confectionery Industry
|url=http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?issn=1174582426353&lang=e
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805181424/http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?issn=1174582426353&lang=e
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=5 August 2011
|access-date=13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Dairy industry]]
|In the Canadian agri-food economy the dairy industry is the third largest.<ref>{{cite web
|last=Werry, Marlene
|title=A Snapshot of the Canadian Dairy Industry
|url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/dairy/facts/snapshot.htm
|access-date=13 January 2008
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090925024649/http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/dairy/facts/snapshot.htm
|archive-date=25 September 2009
}}</ref>
|-
|Dairy genetics industry
|The Canadian Record of Performance R.O.P. program discovers dairy cattle of high producing milk capacities. Cattle qualities are monitored by the Canadian Dairy Herd Improvement milk producing agency.(Canadian DHI).<ref>{{cite web
|title=A Snapshot of the Canadian Dairy Industry
|url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/dairy/facts/snapshot.htm
|access-date=13 January 2008
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090925024649/http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/dairy/facts/snapshot.htm
|archive-date=25 September 2009
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Distillery]] industry
|Canadian whisky made from rye and corn is the main aspect of this Canadian industry. The distillery industry also includes production of whisky, rum, vodka, gin, liqueurs, spirit coolers and basic ethyl alcohol.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Canadian Distillery Industry > Agri-Industries |url=http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?issn=1171995761751&lang=e |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805181424/http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?issn=1171995761751&lang=e |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 August 2011 |access-date=13 January 2008 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Egg (food)|Egg]] industry
|Evolved into an automated industry producing table eggs, enzymes, [[breaker eggs]], processed foods, and supporting pullet producers, egg laying chicken (layers) producers and graders.<ref>{{cite web|title=Poultry Marketplace |url=http://www.agr.gc.ca/poultry/preg-proe_e.htm |access-date=13 January 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050419032418/http://www.agr.gc.ca/poultry/preg-proe_e.htm |archive-date=19 April 2005 }}</ref>
|-
|Fish and seafood industry
|This industry produces CDN $5 billion a year. The world's fourth-largest exporter of fish is Canada, from the Atlantic fishery, Pacific fishery and aquaculture sector.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Canada's Fish and Seafood Industry
|url=http://atn-riae.agr.ca/seafood/industry-e.htm
|access-date=13 January 2008
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221034440/http://atn-riae.agr.ca/seafood/industry-e.htm
|archive-date=21 December 2007
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Fodder|Forage]] industry
|This industry comprises feed for livestock, cattle, sheep and horses. Hay is the main forage crop, supplemented by alfalfa, cereals, peas and corn. Besides domestic markets, exports from Canada arrive at Pacific Rim Countries.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Forage
| url =http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/A27-18-14-7E.pdf
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Fruit industry
|Tree fruit grower crops consist of apples, pears, peaches, plums, apricots, nectarines, and sweet cherry, followed by wine grape areas. The industry supports fresh, canned, frozen and preserved fruits as well as food production.<ref name="barratt2007">{{cite web
|last=Barratt
|first=Robert
| title =Fruit Growers News
| year =2007
| url =http://www.fruitgrowersnews.com/pages/2003/issue03_11/03_11_BCfruit.html
| access-date =13 January 2008
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071010054236/http://www.fruitgrowersnews.com/pages/2003/issue03_11/03_11_BCfruit.html| archive-date = 10 October 2007}}</ref><ref name="barratt1">{{cite journal
|last=Barratt
|first=Robert
| title =Fruit and Vegetable Industry
|work= The Canadian Encyclopedia
|publisher=Historica Foundation of Canada.
| year =2007
| url =http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/fruit-and-vegetable-industry/
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Grains and oilseeds industry
|Wheat, barley and oats are Canada's grain exports. Canola, soybean and flaxseed are the main oilseed exports.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Canada's |journal=Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |date=23 May 2006 |url=http://www.strategis.gc.ca/canadian_industry_statistics/cis.nsf/IDE/cis3112gdpe.html |access-date=13 January 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051206041924/http://strategis.gc.ca/canadian_industry_statistics/cis.nsf/IDE/cis3112gdpe.html |archive-date=6 December 2005 }}</ref>
|-
|Grain-based products industry
|Grain and oilseed production supports flour milling, malt manufacturing, starch, vegetable fat and oil manufacturing as well as breakfast cereal manufacturing<ref>{{cite journal|title=GDP – NAICS 3112 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Grain and Oilseed Milling |journal=Industry Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |date=23 May 2006 |url=http://www.strategis.gc.ca/canadian_industry_statistics/cis.nsf/IDE/cis3112gdpe.html |access-date=13 January 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051206041924/http://strategis.gc.ca/canadian_industry_statistics/cis.nsf/IDE/cis3112gdpe.html |archive-date=6 December 2005 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Hemp]] industry
|Spin off industries from Hemp production include aromatherapy, commercial oil paints, cosmetics, edible oil, garments and accessories, hemp meal and flour, [[snack food]]s, shampoo and conditioners, and moisturizers.<ref>{{cite web
| title =Industrial Hemp Production in Canada
| work =Alberta Agriculture and food
| url =http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/econ9631
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Honey]] industry
|Beeswax produces cosmetics, ointments, candles and household waxes. A diet supplement is made from bee pollen. Propolis and royal jelly is used in cosmetics, creams, lotions, tonics and lip balms. Honey is a sweetener for domestic use or commercial food production.<ref>{{cite web
| title =Commercial Honey Industry
| url =http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex2743
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Industrial agriculture (animals)]]
|[[Factory farming]], [[Intensive pig farming]], [[Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture]], and [[shrimp farm]]ing are various forms of industrial agriculture which aims at [[mass production]]
|-
|[[Industrial agriculture]]
|Includes [[innovation]] in agricultural machinery and farming methods, [[genetic engineering|genetic technology]], techniques for achieving [[economies of scale]] in production, the creation of new markets for consumption, the application of patent protection to genetic information, and [[Globalization|global trade]]
|-
|[[Maple syrup]] industry
|Maple syrup can be used to make maple sugar, maple butter, maple taffy as well as a sweetener.<ref>{{cite journal
|title=The Maple Syrup Industry in Ontario: Answers to Commonly Asked ...
|journal=Government of Ontario
|publisher=Queen's Printer for Ontario
|year=2007
|url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/maple.htm
|access-date=13 January 2008
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809072614/http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/maple.htm
|archive-date=9 August 2007
}}</ref>
|-
|[[Mustard seed]] industry
|Yellow mustard is the highest export, closely followed by brown and oriental mustards. 2007 saw an increase in mustard seed prices.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Food Industry News. Canada Mustard-Seed Price Rises Sharply on Lower Output (DJ)
|date=18 January 2008
|url=http://www.flex-news-food.com/pages/11747/Canada/Ingredients/canada_mustard_seed_price_rises_sharply_lower_output_dj.html
|access-date=13 January 2008
}}{{dead link|date=January 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
|-
|[[organic farming|Organic]] industry
|Operational certification and standards are challenges for the growing organic farming industry. Organic farming with biodynamics and without synthetic chemicals provides the consumer a holistic plant and animal food choice.<ref>{{cite journal
| title =Organic Farming in Canada: An Overview (PRB 00-29E)
|journal= Parliamentary Research Branch
|publisher=Government of Canada
| date =24 October 2002
| url =http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/BP/prb0029-e.htm
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Potato industry
|Potato Innovation Network (PIN) 2020 was initiated in 2006 to support development of new markets, and new uses for potatoes in market diversification.<ref>{{cite journal
| title =Canada Potato News – Agriculture Industry Today News release AAFC HELPS LAUNCH POTATO INNOVATION NETWORK
|journal= Parliamentary Research Branch
|publisher=Government of Canada
| date =21 July 2006
| url =http://www.agr.gc.ca/cb/index_e.php?s1=n&s2=2006&page=n60721
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Poultry industry
|Avian Influenza ("Bird Flu") is the latest concern in the poultry industry however disease precautions are in place if this strain arrives in Canada.<ref>{{cite web
| title =Poultry Industry Council (PIC)
|publisher= Poultry Industry Council of Canada
|year=2006
| url =http://www.poultryindustrycouncil.ca/
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Processed fruit and vegetable industry
|Processing of fruits and vegetables includes consumer products of canned, cider, frozen, jams, jellies and marmalades, pickles, sauces, soups, vegetable and fruit juices and vinegar.<ref name="barratt1"/>
|-
|[[Pulse (legume)|Pulse]] industry
|Beans, chickpeas, faba beans, and lentils comprise the pulse industry. Peas soup, and baked beans are large production processes from pulse growth. The world's largest pulse exporter is Canada.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Pulse Industry
|url = http://www.saskpulse.com/industry/index.php
|access-date = 13 January 2008
|publisher = Saskatchewan Pulse Growers
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071214144149/http://www.saskpulse.com/industry/index.php
|archive-date = 14 December 2007
|url-status = dead}}</ref>
|-
|[[Red meat]] industry
|This is Canada's fourth major manufacturing industry. Cattle, calves, hogs, sheep, lambs, venison, bison are all domesticated for red meat export and domestic consumption.<ref>{{cite journal
| title = All about Canada's red meat industry
|journal= Agriculture and Agri Food Canada
|publisher=Government of Canada
| url =http://www4.agr.gc.ca/resources/prod/doc/pdf/factsheet06.pdf
| access-date =13 January 2008
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080227125418/http://www4.agr.gc.ca/resources/prod/doc/pdf/factsheet06.pdf| archive-date= 27 February 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref>
|-
|[[Seed]] industry
|Seed growers, field inspectors, registered seed establishments, seed trial plots, and seed retailers are the mainstays of seed production.<ref>{{cite web
| title =The Seed Industry –
| url =http://www.seedquest.com/hosting/germination/sharingthemessage/seed_industry.pdf
| access-date =13 January 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080227125418/http://www.seedquest.com/hosting/germination/sharingthemessage/seed_industry.pdf |archive-date = 27 February 2008}}</ref>
|-
|Snack food industry
|Cereal grains, cornmeal, nuts, oils, potatoes, and seeds are the major ingredients of snack foods such as potato chips, mixed nuts, peanut butter, pork rinds, and seed snacks.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Canada's
|url = http://atn-riae.agr.ca/supply/factsheets/3320_e.pdf
|access-date = 13 January 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080227125418/http://atn-riae.agr.ca/supply/factsheets/3320_e.pdf
|archive-date = 27 February 2008
|url-status = dead}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sunflower seed]] industry
|About 80 per cent sunflowers grown in Canada are sold as roasted snack sunflower seeds or without the shell for baking. The main consumer is domestic. Birdfeed and sunflower vegetable oils are smaller markets which are being developed.<ref>{{cite web
| title =National Sunflower Association of Canada Inc.
| url =http://www.canadasunflower.com/research-statistics.html
| access-date =13 January 2008
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071221000941/http://www.canadasunflower.com/research-statistics.html| archive-date = 21 December 2007}}</ref>
|-
|Vegetable industry
|The edible portion of a plant is a vegetable. Vegetables can be marketed fresh or as part of the processed fruit and vegetable industry. The greenhouse vegetable industry supports the field vegetable farmer.<ref>{{cite web
| title =Agriculture, Fisheries and Aquaculture: Vegetable Industry
| url =http://www.gov.pe.ca/af/agweb/index.php3?number=79744
| access-date =13 January 2008
}}</ref>
|-
|Wine industry
|Canadian vintners producing wines with unique aromas, aging characteristics and flavours bring in international awards. The grape hybrid from the native Canadian species bred with wine producing grapes results in a grape for a shorter, cooler growing season, and a quality not found elsewhere.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Wines of Canada – Modern History
|url=http://www.canadianvintners.com/woc/modernhistory.html
|access-date=13 January 2008
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206125139/http://www.canadianvintners.com/woc/modernhistory.html
|archive-date=6 February 2008
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
|}

==Agricultural science==
[[Agricultural science]] began developing new styles of farming and strains of wheat and crops so that farming could become a successful venture. Farming methods were developed at places such as [[Indian Head, Saskatchewan#Dominion Experimental Farm|Dominion Experimental Farm]],<ref name=IHEF>
{{cite web
| last =Smith
| first =Allan E.
| title =The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan Agriculture Canada Research Stations
| work =Western Economic Diversification Canada and the Government of Saskatchewan.
| publisher =CANADIAN PLAINS RESEARCH CENTRE, UNIVERSITY OF REGINA
| url =http://esask.uregina.ca/entry/agriculture_canada_research_stations.html
| access-date =11 April 2007
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070501212112/http://esask.uregina.ca/entry/agriculture_canada_research_stations.html
| archive-date =1 May 2007
| url-status =dead}}
</ref> Rosthern Experimental Station,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
| last =JONES
| first =STEPHEN MORGAN
| title = Research Stations, Agricultural
| encyclopedia =The Canadian Encyclopedia
| url =http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/agricultural-research-stations/
| access-date =11 April 2007 }}</ref> and Bell Farm.<ref name=Bell>{{cite web
| last =Hawkes
| first = John
| title =Saskatchewan Gen Web Project – SASKATCHEWAN AND ITS PEOPLE by JOHN HAWKES
| work =Bell Farm
| publisher = Julia Adamson Rootsweb.com
| date =15 June 2005
| url =http://www.rootsweb.com/~cansk/SaskatchewanAndItsPeople/Volume2/index.html
| access-date =11 April 2007 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070514085645/http://www.rootsweb.com/~cansk/SaskatchewanAndItsPeople/Volume2/index.html| archive-date= 14 May 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref> From 1914 to 1922, the [[Better Farming Train (Saskatchewan)|Better Farming Train]] travelled around rural of [[Saskatchewan]] areas educating pioneer farmers.<ref name=farmtrain>{{cite web
| last =Hawkes
| first =John
| title =SASKATCHEWAN AND ITS PEOPLE
| publisher = Saskatchewan Gen Web Project Vol I 1924
| date =15 June 2005
| url =http://www.rootsweb.com/~cansk/SaskatchewanAndItsPeople/VolumeII/index.html
| access-date =11 April 2007 }}</ref>
The 1901 census showed 511,100 farms and the number of farms peaked in 1941 at a record 732,800 farms.<ref name="FarmingCanada">{{cite web
|title=Farming in Canada
|work=The Economy > Primary industries
|publisher=Statistics Canada
|date=26 August 2004
|url=http://www43.statcan.ca/03/03b/03b_002_e.htm
|access-date=29 January 2008
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219211817/http://www43.statcan.ca/03/03b/03b_002_e.htm
|archive-date=19 February 2008
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> The [[industrial revolution]] modernised the farming industry as mechanized vehicles replaced the oxen ploughed land or the horse-drawn cart. Farms became much larger, and mechanized evolving towards [[industrial agriculture]].

==Production==
{{See also|List of countries by GDP sector composition}}
Farming activities were very labour-intensive before the industrial revolution and the advent of [[tractor]]s, [[combine harvester|combines]], [[baler]]s, etc. From the late 19th century to the mid-20th century, a great percentage of the Canadian labour force was engaged in high labour, smaller farming practices. After mechanization, scientific advancement, improved marketing practices farms became more efficient, larger and less labour-intensive. The labour population was freed up and went to industry, government, transportation, trade and finance.<ref name=statis>{{cite web
|last=Valley
|first=Brandon
|title=Tables by subject Agriculture Statistics Canada
|work=Statistics Canada
|url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/ind01/l2_920.htm
|access-date=28 November 2006
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061201075650/http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/ind01/l2_920.htm
|archive-date=1 December 2006
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> Agriculture, stock raising and horticulture employed one-fourth of the Canadian population according to the 1951 census as well as providing products for exports and Canadian manufacturing concerns.<ref name="Year"/>

==Farm equipment==
[[File:Farm. Tractor - Farm, Ville LaSalle BAnQ P48S1P08968.jpg|thumb|A [[cultivator]] pulled by a [[tractor]] in [[Montreal]] in 1943]]
The [[James Oliver (inventor)|Oliver Chilled Plow]], which could cut through the prairie sod, was in use by 1896. [[Binder (material)|Binder]]s which could cut and tie grain for the harvest season and [[grain elevators]] for storage were introduced in the late 19th century as well.<ref name=binder>{{cite web|authors=McCormick Reaper Centennial Source Material (International Harvester Company: Chicago) 1931. Virginia Agricultural Experimental Station |title=Grain Harvesting |date=30 November 2006 |url=http://www.vaes.vt.edu/steeles/mccormick/harvest.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212083359/http://www.vaes.vt.edu/steeles/mccormick/harvest.html |archive-date=12 December 2009 }}</ref> [[Plough|Plows]], [[tractors]], spreaders, [[combine harvester|combines]] to name a few are some mechanized implements for the grain crop or horticultural farmer which are labour saving devices. Many Canadian museums such as [[Reynolds-Alberta Museum]] will showcase the evolution and variety of [[Agricultural machinery|farm machinery]].

[[File:CombineWheat0654.jpg|thumb|Harvest of Wheat via combine]]

==Challenges==

The depression and drought of the [[Dirty Thirties]] was devastating. This drought resulted in a mass exodus of population from the prairies, as well as new agricultural practices such as [[soil conservation]], and [[crop rotation]].<ref>{{cite web
| title =Drought Watch web site
| publisher =Government of Canada, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration
| date =3 February 2002
| url =http://www.agr.gc.ca/pfra/drought/index_e.htm
| access-date =28 November 2006 }}</ref>

The use of [[soil conservation]] practices such as [[crop rotation]], cover crops, and windbreaks was expanded following the drought experiences of the dirty thirties. Literally layers and layers of topsoil would be blowing away during this time. [[Bow River]] Irrigation Project, [[Red Deer River]] Project and the St. Mary Irrigation project of Alberta, were a few of the major projects undertaken by the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act (P.F.R.A.) resulting in reservoirs, and distribution systems.<ref name="Year"/> A current project is [[Liming (soil)|soil liming]] at the Land Resource Research Institute.<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Turner
| first = R.C.
| title = A Study of Lime Potential
| journal = Soil Science
| page = 14
| year = 1965
| volume = 100
| issue = 1
| doi = 10.1097/00010694-196507000-00003
| bibcode = 1965SoilS.100...14T
| s2cid = 96539912
| url = https://scholar.google.ca/scholar?q=info:VT442wAXDoAJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&lr=&output=viewport&shm=1&pg=1
}}</ref><ref>

{{cite web
| title =One Hundred Harvests Research Branch Agriculture Canada 1886–1986
| work = Historical series / Agriculture Canada – Série historique / Agriculture Canada
| publisher = Government of Canada
| url = http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/205/301/ic/cdc/agrican/pubweb/hs27cover.asp
| access-date =22 December 2008}} Note this link loads slowly

</ref>
Wheat diseases such as wheat bunt and [[stinking smut]] can be successfully treated with a fungicide.
Disease of plants and animals can break an agricultural producer. [[Tuberculosis]] in animals was an early threat, and cattle needed to be tested, and areas accredited in 1956. The newer disease such as [[chronic wasting disease]] or [[transmissible spongiform encephalopathy]] (TSE) affects both elk and deer. Elk and deer raising is a pioneer field of domestication, has had a setback with this disease.<ref name=wasting>{{cite web
|last1=Chronic Wasting Disease Alliance
|last2=Pyron Technologies, Inc.
|title=Chronic Wasting Disease
|url=http://www.cwd-info.org/index.php/fuseaction/about.main
|access-date=28 November 2006
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061216100726/http://www.cwd-info.org/index.php/fuseaction/about.main
|archive-date=16 December 2006
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> [[Mad cow disease]] in cattle<ref name=maow>{{cite web| url=http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/heasan/disemala/bseesb/bseesbindexe.shtml| title= Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy BSE in North America |author = Canadian Food Inspection Agency| access-date=28 November 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061116080652/http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/heasan/disemala/bseesb/bseesbindexe.shtml |archive-date = 16 November 2006}}</ref> and [[scrapie]] of sheep<ref name=scrapie>{{cite web
| title = Animal Health Scrapies Manual of Procedures Module 1 and 2
| work = Canadian Food Inspection Agency
| publisher = Government of Canada
| url = http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/heasan/man/scrtre/scrtre-1-2e.shtml
| access-date =28 November 2006 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060907145751/http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/heasan/man/scrtre/scrtre-1-2e.shtml| archive-date = 7 September 2006}}</ref> are monitored by the [[Canadian Food Inspection Agency]]. The poultry sector was plagued by Pullorum disease, and by controlling the flock via poultry husbandry, this disease has been brought under control.

Plants whose traits can be modified to survive a disease or insect have made inroads into Canadian agricultural practices. Cereal [[rust (fungus)|rusts]] which can destroy the majority of areas seeded to wheat, was controlled in 1938 by breeding strains which were rust-resistant. This strain was successful until around 1950, when again a new variety of rust broke out, and again a new species of wheat called Selkirk was developed which was rust resistant.<ref name=modify>{{cite web
| title =Genetically modified crops: steady growth in Ontario and Quebec
| work =Statistics Canada
| date =6 December 2002
| url =http://www.statcan.ca/bsolc/english/bsolc?catno=21-004-X20021126389
| access-date =28 November 2006
}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Biotechnology]] is the center of new research and regulations affecting agriculture this century.<ref name="biotech">{{cite web | url=http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/sci/biotech/gen/terexpe.shtml | title=Biotechnology? Modern Biotechnology? GM? GMO? GE? PNTs? What do these terms mean? | publisher=Canadian Food Inspection Agency | access-date=28 November 2006 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061018203632/http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/sci/biotech/gen/terexpe.shtml | archive-date=18 October 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|author1=Small, Ernest |pages=15–52 |editor=J. Janick |title=Perspectives on new crops and new uses |publisher=ASHS Press |place=Alexandria, VA.
| chapter =New crops for Canadian agriculture| year =1999
| url =http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/v4-015a.html
| access-date =29 November 2006 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061127071145/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/v4-015a.html| archive-date= 27 November 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref>

==Developmental and educational institutions==
To increase the viability of agriculture as an economic lifestyle several improvements have been made by various nationwide educational facilities. Inroads and innovations have been made in the diverse fields of [[agricultural science]], [[agricultural engineering]], [[agricultural soil science]], [[Sustainable agriculture]], [[Agricultural productivity]], [[agronomy]], [[biodiversity]], [[bioengineering]], [[irrigation]] and swine research for example. Canadian universities conducting agricultural research include McGill University, Dalhousie University,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dal.ca/faculty/agriculture.html|title=Faculty of Agriculture|website=Dalhousie University|access-date=23 March 2018}}</ref> Université Laval, Université de Montréal, University of Alberta, University of British Columbia, University of Calgary, University of Guelph, University of Manitoba, University of Saskatchewan and University of Prince Edward Island. The Ontario Agricultural College is located at the University of Guelph and the Western College of Veterinary Medicine is located at the University of Saskatchewan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfavm.ca/15426.html |title=Our members: CFVAM |publisher=Cfavm.ca |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref> The Atlantic Veterinary College is located at the University of P.E.I.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avc.upei.ca/ |title=AVC News and Events | Atlantic Veterinary College | University of Prince Edward Island |publisher=Avc.upei.ca |date=2009-01-22 |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref> and there are also faculties of veterinary medicine at the University of Calgary<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vet.ucalgary.ca |title=Vet home page | Faculty of Veterinary Medicine | University of Calgary |publisher=Vet.ucalgary.ca |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref> and Université de Montréal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medvet.umontreal.ca/index.html |title=Université de Montréal - Faculté de médecine vétérinaire |publisher=Medvet.umontreal.ca |date=2013-04-25 |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref> [[BC Agriculture in the Classroom Foundation]] operates in the province of [[British Columbia]].

{|class="wikitable" style="margin-left:20px;"
|+'''Examples of some Canadian developmental and educational institutions'''
!align=left|Institution
|Research Programme
|-
|Animal Embryo Biotechnology Laboratory
|AEBL researches artificial insemination, embryo biotechnology to improve genetic breeding requirements.
|-
|[[Central Experimental Farm]]
|Scientific research for improvement in agricultural methods and crops. Features the [[Canada Agriculture Museum]], [[Dominion Arboretum]], and [[Ornamental Gardens]].
|-
|Cool Climate Oenology and Viticulture Institute
|CCOVI provides research to enable the growing grapes and production of wine in cooler climates.
|-
|[[Devonian Botanical Garden]]
|Emphasis on alpine and cold-hardy plants along with [[wetland]] ecology, biology of [[microfungus|microfungi]], horticulture, and [[phenology]] research.
|-
|[[Fisheries Centre]]
|Research of aquatic ecosystems and collaboration with Maritime communities, government, and NGOs
|-
|[[List of botanical gardens in Canada]]
|
|-
|[[Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Centre]]
|NAFC is a part of the Canadian research facility of the Science, Oceans and Environment (SOE) branch and Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) provides marine and aquatic research and conservation.<ref name=NAFC>{{cite web
| title =Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Centre (NAFC)
| work=Eastern Research Institutes
| url =http://www.aquatic.uoguelph.ca/Human/Research/Webresearchinst/East/NorthwestAFC/nafc.htm
| access-date =14 January 2008
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071226031129/http://www.aquatic.uoguelph.ca/Human/Research/Webresearchinst/East/NorthwestAFC/nafc.htm| archive-date= 26 December 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref>
|-
|[[Dalhousie Agricultural Campus]]
|Field and animal husbandry studies, aquaculture, international food business
|-
|[[Ontario Horticultural Association]]
|Regional horticultural associations promote education about horticulture.
|-
|[[Ontario Agriculture College]]
|Education, research and service in agriculture, food, environmental sciences and rural community development.
|-
|[[University of Saskatchewan Agriculture & Bioresources College]]
|Agricultural and [[bioresource engineering]], economics, agronomy, animal Science, environmental science, food and applied microbiological sciences, large animal clinical sciences, plant sciences, and soil science
|-
|[[University of Saskatchewan|Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization]]
|The VIDO facility develops DNA-enhanced immunization vaccines for both humans and animals.
|-
|[[Artificial Insemination Centre of Quebec]]
|Cattle artificial insemination and breeding centre with a focus on improving Quebec's milk producing and beef herds.
|}

==Agricultural Museums==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Canada Agriculture Museum]]
* [[Manitoba Agricultural Museum]]
* [[Ross Farm Museum]]
* [[Central Experimental Farm]]
* [[Ontario Agricultural Museum]]
* [[Saskatchewan Western Development Museum]]
{{colend}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Canada}}
* [[History of agriculture in Canada]]
* [[Canadian Census of Agriculture]]
* [[Canadian Agricultural Safety Association]]
* [[Pesticides in Canada]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book | title=Canadian Oxford School Atlas | publisher=The Bryant Press Limited | year=1977 |editor1=Pleva, E.G. |editor2=Inch, Spencer | isbn=978-0-19-540240-7 }}
* {{cite book | title=From Sea unto Sea | publisher=Doubleday & Company, Inc. | year=1959 |editor=Hardy, W.G. }}
* {{cite book | title=The Unknown Country | publisher=Longmans, Green & Co., Toronto | year=1945 |editor=Hutchison, Bruce }}
* {{cite book | title=The Macmillan School Atlas | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780771582691 | url-access=registration | publisher=Gage Educational Publishing Company A Division of Canada Publishing Corporation | year=1982 |editor=Daly, Ronald C.| isbn=978-0-7715-8268-4 }}
* {{cite book | title=The Canada Year Book 1951 The Official Statistical Annual of the Resources, History, Institutions, and Social and Economic Conditions of Canada | publisher=King's Printer and Controller of Stationery | year=1951 |editor=Cloutier, Edmond | isbn=978-0-7715-8268-4 }}
* {{cite book | title=Canada 1956 The Official Handbook of Present Conditions and Recent Progress | publisher=Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery, Ottawa. | year=1956 | editor=Cloutier, Edmond }}
* {{cite book | title=A Historical Atlas of Canada | publisher=Thomas Nelson and Sons (Canada) Ltd. | year=1959 | editor=Kerr, D.G.G. }}
* {{cite book | title=Our Canada | publisher=The Copp Clark Publishing Co, Limited | year=1949 | editor=Dorland, Arthur G. }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
* [http://www.agr.gc.ca/ Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada / Agriculture et Agroalimentaire]
* [http://gov.bc.ca/agriculture Agriculture - Province of B.C.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070812055143/http://www.agriculture.technomuses.ca/ Canada Agriculture Museum]
* [http://www.soiltosky.ca/ Soil to Sky: Careers in Canadian Agriculture in Food]
* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20171229182905/http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/agriculture/index.aspx The Archives of Ontario Celebrates Our Agricultural Past]'', online exhibit on Archives of Ontario website

{{Canada topics}}
{{North America topic|Agriculture in}}
{{Canada topic|Agriculture in}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Agriculture In Canada}}
[[Category:Agriculture in Canada| ]]

Foie gras

2022-05-19T17:16:30Z

72.142.115.198:

{{Short description|French culinary dish}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Foie gras
| image = Foie gras en cocotte.jpg
| image_size = width 5000px length 50000px

| caption = Foie gras with mustard seeds and green beans in duck ''[[Au jus|jus]]''
| alternate_name =
| country = Canada
| region = ([[Yukon]], [[Toronto]])
| creator = John Cena
| course =
| type = Whole, [[mousse]], [[parfait]], or [[Spread (food)|spread]]
| served =
| main_ingredient = [[Liver (food)|Liver]] of a [[Domestic duck|duck]] or [[Domestic goose|goose]]
| variations =
| calories =
| other =
}}

[[Image:Mulard (1).jpg|thumb|right|260px|A [[Mulard]] duck, the hybrid used most frequently for foie gras production]]
'''Foie gras''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|audio=En-us-foie gras.ogg|ˌ|f|w|ɑː|ˈ|ɡ|r|ɑː}}, {{IPA-fr|fwa ɡʁɑ|lang}}; {{langnf||French|[[wikt:gras#Noun_6|fat]] liver}}) is a [[Specialty foods|specialty food]] product made of the [[liver]] of a [[Domestic duck|duck]] or [[Domestic goose|goose]]. According to French law,<ref>French rural code [http://legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do;jsessionid=943EF0198AA70E691D551179EB5E5A83.tpdjo05v_3?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006584967&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006071367&dateTexte=20091223 Code rural – Article L654-27-1]: "{{lang|fr|On entend par foie gras, le foie d'un canard ou d'une oie spécialement engraissé par gavage.}}" ("'Foie gras' is understood to mean the liver of a duck or a goose that has been especially fattened by gavage").</ref> foie gras is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by [[gavage]] (force feeding).

Foie gras is a popular and well-known [[delicacy]] in [[French cuisine]]. Its flavour is described as rich, buttery, and delicate, unlike that of an ordinary duck or goose liver. Foie gras is sold whole or is prepared into [[mousse]], [[parfait]], or [[pâté]], and may also be served as an accompaniment to another food item, such as steak. French law states that "Foie gras belongs to the protected cultural and gastronomical heritage of France."<ref>French rural code [https://archive.today/20120903131017/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnArticleDeCode?commun=&code=CRURALNL.rcv&art=L654-27-1 L654-27-1]</ref>

The technique of gavage dates as far back as [[25th century BC|2500 BC]], when the [[ancient Egyptians]] began keeping birds for food and deliberately fattened the birds through force-feeding.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/domesticated_animals.htm|title=Ancient Egypt: Farmed and domesticated animals|access-date=10 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216063505/http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/domesticated_animals.htm|archive-date=16 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though there are producers and markets worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and China.<ref name="npr.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11118706|title=A Global Taste Test of Foie Gras and Truffles}}</ref>

[[Foie gras controversy|Gavage-based foie gras production is controversial]], due mainly to the animal welfare concerns about force-feeding, intensive housing and husbandry, and enlarging the liver to 10 times its usual volume. A number of countries and jurisdictions have laws against force-feeding, as well as the production, import, or sale of foie gras. Even where it is legal, a number of retailers decline to stock it.

==History==
[[Image:Egyptiangeesefeeding.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[bas relief]] depiction of overfeeding geese]]

===Ancient times===
As early as 2500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned that many birds could be fattened through forced overfeeding and began this practice. Whether they particularly sought the fattened livers of birds as a delicacy remains undetermined.<ref name="McGee_1">{{Harv|McGee|2004|p=167}}: "''Foie gras is the "fat liver" of force-fed geese and ducks. It has been made and appreciated since Roman times and probably long before; the force-feeding of geese is clearly represented in Egyptian art from 2500 BC.''"</ref><ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1">{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=425}}.</ref> In the [[necropolis]] of [[Saqqara]], in the tomb of [[Mereruka]], an important royal official, there is a [[bas relief]] scene wherein workers grasp geese around the necks in order to push food down their throats. At the side stand tables piled with more food pellets, and a flask for moistening the feed before giving it to the geese.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1" /><ref name="Ginor_1">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=2}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200104/living.with.the.animals.htm|title=Saudi Aramco World : Living With the Animals|access-date=29 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061229125957/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200104/living.with.the.animals.htm|archive-date=29 December 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The practice of goose fattening spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean.<ref name="Alford_1">{{Harv|Alford|2001|p=36}}.</ref> The earliest reference to fattened geese is from the 5th century BC Greek poet [[Cratinus]], who wrote of geese-fatteners, yet Egypt maintained its reputation as the source for fattened geese. When the [[Sparta]]n king [[Agesilaus]] visited Egypt in 361 BC, he noted Egyptian farmers fattened geese and calves.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1" /><ref name="Ginor_2">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=3}}.</ref>

It was not until the Roman period, however, that foie gras is mentioned as a distinct food, which the Romans named ''iecur ficatum'';<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sagar|first1=Khan|title=About the history of foie gras|url=https://www.foiegrasgourmet.com/en/the-foie-gras-history|access-date=27 February 2017|work=foiegrasgourmet.com|publisher=Foie Gras Gourmet|date=12 February 2015|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ginor_3">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=4}}.</ref><ref name="Giacosa_1">{{Harv|Giacosa|1994|p=13}}.</ref> ''iecur'' means [[liver]]<ref name="Langslow_1">{{Harv|Langslow|2000|p=153}}: "''A second instance of the restriction of the sense of a Latin anatomical term to animals is ''iecur'' 'the liver' in Theodorus and Cassius. In both, the human liver is always ''hepar'', while ''iecur'' is used of an animal (...)''"</ref> and ''ficatum'' derives from ''[[ficus]]'', meaning fig in [[Latin]].<ref>"Ficus,i" (...) Derivés: (...) ''ficatum'' n. (sc. iecur): d'abord terme de cuisine "foie garni de figues", cf. Hor., S. 2, 8, 88, ''ficis pastum iecur anseris albae'', calque du gr. συκωτόν de même sens, puis, dans le langage populaire, simplement "foie" (...) et passé avec ce sens dans les langues romanes, où ficatum a remplacé ''iecur''. A. Ernout, A. Meillet, ''Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue latine'', Éd. Klincksieck, Paris 1979.</ref> The emperor [[Elagabalus]] fed his dogs on foie gras during the four years of his reign.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_5">{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=426}}.</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] (1st century AD) credits his contemporary, Roman gastronome [[Marcus Gavius Apicius]], with feeding dried figs to geese in order to enlarge their livers:

{{Quote
|
"Apicius made the discovery, that we may employ the same artificial method of increasing the size of the liver of the sow, as of that of the goose; it consists in cramming them with dried figs, and when they are fat enough, they are drenched with wine mixed with honey and immediately killed."
|
Pliny the Elder, ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', Book VIII. Chapter 77<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin//ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+8.77 Pliny the Elder, ''The Natural History''] (eds. [[John Bostock (physician)|John Bostock]], [[Henry Thomas Riley]]). {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050213035835/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ |date=13 February 2005 }} For the original Latin text, see here [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/8*.html]. The Latin text (ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff) of Perseus Digital Library places the corresponding text in a wrong chapter. URL accessed 30 December 2006.</ref>
}}

Hence, the term ''iecur ficatum'', fig-stuffed liver; feeding figs to enlarge a goose's liver may derive from Hellenistic Alexandria, since much of [[Roman luxury cuisine]] was of Greek inspiration.<ref name="Faas_1">{{Harv|Faas|2002|p=19}}</ref> ''Ficatum'' was closely associated with animal liver and it became the [[Root (linguistics)|root word]] for "liver"<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Yakov |last1=Malkiel |author-link=Yakov Malkiel |year=1944 |title=The Etymology of Portuguese Iguaria |journal=Language |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=108–30 |jstor=410151 |doi=10.2307/410151}}</ref> in each of these languages: ''foie'' in French,<ref name="Walter_1">{{Harv|Walter|2006|p=40}}: "''(...) for example, why it is not the word JECUR (a Latin word taken from the Greek) which has come down to us with the meaning of 'liver', but the Romance word ''ficato'', which has become the French ''foie''. The word ''ficato'' is formed on the Latin word FICUS 'fig', and would appear to have nothing to do with the 'liver' other than the Greeks, followed by the Romans, fattened their geese with figs to obtain particularly fleshy and tasty livers. The FICATUM JECUR or 'fig-fattened goose liver', which was very much sought after, must have become such a common expression that it was shortened to FICATUM (just as the modern French say ''frites'' as an abbreviation of ''pommes de terre frites''). To begin with, the word FICATUM probably designated only edible animal livers, with its meaning then being extended to include the human organ.''"</ref> ''hígado'' in Spanish, ''fígado'' in Portuguese, ''fegato'' in Italian, ''fetge'' in Catalan and Occitan and ''ficat'' in Romanian, all meaning "liver"; this etymology has been explained in different manners.<ref name="Littré_1">{{Harv|Littré|1863|p=137}}: "''Feûte n'est pas mieux fait que ''foie''; seulement, il conserve le ''t'' du Latin; car on sait que ''foie'' vient de ''ficatum'' (foie d'une oie nourrie de figues, et, de là, foie en général). ''Foie'' en français, ''feûte'' en wallon, ''fetge'' en provençal, ''fégato'' en italien, ''hígado'' en espagnol, ''fígado'' en portugais, témoignent que la bouche romane déplaça l'accent du mot Latin, et, au lieu de ''ficátum'', qui est la prononciation régulière, dit, par anomalie, ''fícatum'' avec l'accent sur l'antépénultième.''"</ref><ref>[http://www.etimo.it/?term=fegato&find=Cerca Dizionario etimologico online: fégato].</ref>

===Postclassical Europe===
After the fall of the Roman empire, goose liver temporarily vanished from European cuisine. Some claim that Gallic farmers preserved the foie gras tradition until the rest of Europe rediscovered it centuries later, but the medieval French peasant's food animals were mainly pig and sheep.<ref name="Ginor_5">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=8}}.</ref> Others claim that the tradition was preserved by the Jews, who learned the method of enlarging a goose's liver during the Roman colonisation of [[Judea]]<ref name="Ginor_6">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=9}}.</ref> or earlier from Egyptians.<ref name="Davidson_1">{{Harv|Davidson|1999|p=311}}: "''The enlarged liver has been counted a delicacy since classical times, when the force-feeding of the birds was practised in classical Rome. It is commonly said that the practice dates back even further, to ancient Egypt, and that knowledge of it was possibly acquired by the Jews during their period of 'bondage' there and transmitted by them to the classical civilizations.''"</ref> The Jews carried this culinary knowledge as they migrated farther north and west to Europe.<ref name="Ginor_6"/>

The Judaic dietary law, [[Kashrut]], forbade [[lard]] as a cooking medium, and butter, too, was proscribed as an alternative since Kashrut also prohibited mixing meat and dairy products.<ref name="Alford_1" /> Jewish cuisine used [[olive oil]] in the Mediterranean, and [[sesame oil]] in [[Babylonia]], but neither cooking medium was readily available in Western and Central Europe, so poultry fat (known in Yiddish as ''[[schmaltz]]''), which could be abundantly produced by overfeeding geese, was substituted in their stead.<ref name="Ginor_6" /><ref name="Alford_2">{{Harv|Alford|2001|p=37}}.</ref><ref name="momentmag.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.momentmag.com/foie-gras-indelicate-delicacy/|title=Foie Gras: The Indelicate Delicacy|author=Eileen Lavine|work=Moment Magazine|date=2013-11-18}}</ref> The delicate taste of the goose's liver was soon appreciated; [[Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof]] of [[Kassel]] wrote in 1562 that the Jews raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some [[Rabbi]]s were concerned that eating forcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions. Some rabbis contended that it is not a forbidden food ([[treyf]]) as none of its limbs are damaged and the geese did not feel any pain in their throats from the process.<ref name="momentmag.com" /> This matter remained a debated topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste for goose liver declined in the 19th century.<ref name="Ginor_6" /> Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, is that even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before being considered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that; however, as liver is regarded as "(almost) wholly blood", broiling is the only way of kashering. Properly broiling a foie gras while preserving its delicate taste is difficult, and therefore rarely practised. Even so, there are restaurants in Israel that offer grilled goose foie gras. Foie gras also bears resemblance to the Jewish food staple, chopped liver.<ref name="momentmag.com"/>

[[Image:Scappi.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Bartolomeo Scappi]]
Appreciation of fattened goose liver spread to gastronomes outside the Jewish community, who could buy in the local Jewish [[ghetto]] of their cities. In 1570, [[Bartolomeo Scappi]], chef de cuisine to [[Pope Pius V]], published his cookbook ''Opera'', wherein he writes that "the liver of [a] domestic goose raised by the Jews is of extreme size and weighs [between] two and three pounds".<ref name="Ginor_7">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=11}}.</ref> In 1581, [[Marx Rumpolt]] of [[Mainz]], chef to several German nobles, published the massive cookbook ''Ein Neu Kochbuch'', describing that the Jews of [[Bohemia]] produced livers weighing more than three pounds; he lists recipes for it—including one for goose liver [[mousse]].<ref name="Ginor_7"/><ref name="Toussaint-Samat_6">{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=427}}.</ref> János Keszei, chef to the court of [[Michael I Apafi|Michael Apafi]], the prince of [[Transylvania]], included foie gras recipes in his 1680 cookbook ''A New Book About Cooking'', instructing cooks to "envelop the goose liver in a calf's thin skin, bake it and prepare [a] green or [a] brown sauce to accompany it. I used goose liver fattened by Bohemian Jews, its weight was more than three pounds. You may also prepare a mush of it."

==Production and sales==
{{Update|section|reason=Figures are not up to date, table is very dated by now|date=March 2019}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|-
! Country
! Production (tons, 2005)
! % of total (2005)
! Production (tons, 2014)
! % of total (2014)<ref name="Viva" />
|-
| France
| 18,450<ref name=xinhua>{{cite news | title = China to boost foie gras production | url = http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-04/11/content_4409586.htm | date = 11 April 2006 | access-date = 12 March 2007 | publisher = Xinhua online | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070602122944/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-04/11/content_4409586.htm | archive-date = 2 June 2007}}</ref>
| 78.5%
| 19,608<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/766863/production-liver-fat-volume-world/|title=Foie gras: world production by country 2014 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2019-05-02}}</ref>
| 74.3%
|-
| Hungary
| 1,920<ref name=xinhua/>
| 8.2%
|2,590<ref name=":0" />
| 10.2%
|-
| Bulgaria
| 1,500<ref name=xinhua/>
| 6.4%
|2,600<ref name=":0" />
| 10.2%
|-
| United States
| 340 (2003)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.starchefs.com/features/food_debates/foie_gras/index.shtml|title=Foie Gras Food Debate on StarChefs}}</ref>
| 1.4%
|250<ref name=":0" />
| 0.9%
|-
| Canada
| 200 (2005)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mapaq.gouv.qc.ca/NR/rdonlyres/A8B635A2-01C6-40B1-8CE3-B628A2C17F2F/5950/Bioclips13n18.pdf |title=Bio Clips: L'actualité bioalimentaire |publisher=[[Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Quebec)]] ({{lang|fr|italics=no|direction des études économiques et d'appui aux filières)}}|access-date=2008-02-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228004632/http://www.mapaq.gouv.qc.ca/NR/rdonlyres/A8B635A2-01C6-40B1-8CE3-B628A2C17F2F/5950/Bioclips13n18.pdf |archive-date=28 February 2008}}</ref>
| 0.9%
|200<ref name=":0" />
| 0.8%
|-
| China
| 150<ref name=xinhua/>
| 0.6%
|500<ref name=":0" />
| 0.6%
|-
| Others
| 940
| 4.0%
|648<ref name=":0" />
|1.9%
|-
! Total
! 23,500<ref name=xinhua/>
! 100%
!26,396<ref name=":0" />
!100%
|}

In the 21st century, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced and consumed in several other countries worldwide, particularly in some other European nations, the United States, and China.<ref name="npr.org"/> Approximately 30,000 people work in the French foie gras industry, with 90% of them residing in the Périgord ([[Dordogne]]), [[Aquitaine]] in the southwest, and [[Alsace]] in the east.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Edworthy|first=Niall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E1KjDQAAQBAJ&q=30%2C000+people+work+in+the+French+foie+gras+industry&pg=PT123|title=The Curious Bird Lover's Handbook|date=2017-03-23|publisher=Transworld|isbn=978-1-4735-4399-7|language=en}}</ref> The European Union recognizes the foie gras produced according to traditional farming methods (''label rouge'') in southwestern France with a [[protected geographical indication]].{{Cn|date=August 2021}}

Hungary is the world's second-largest foie gras (''libamáj'') producer and the largest exporter. France is the principal market for Hungarian foie gras – mainly exported raw. Approximately 30,000 Hungarian goose farmers are dependent on the foie gras industry.<ref name="Hungary">{{cite web|url=http://www.cee-foodindustry.com/news/ng.asp?id=49055-hungary-facing-foie|title=Food Ingredients & Food Science – Additives, Flavours, Starch|work=FoodNavigator.com}}</ref> French food companies spice, process, and cook the foie gras so it may be sold as a French product in its domestic and export markets.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3346185.stm |work=BBC News | title=Hungary foie gras farms under threat | date=12 January 2004 | access-date=2 May 2010 | first=Nick | last=Thorpe}}</ref>

===2005===
In 2005, France produced 18,450 tonnes of foie gras (78.5% of the world's estimated total production of 23,500 tonnes), of which 96% was duck liver and 4% goose liver. Total French consumption of foie gras in this year was 19,000 tonnes.<ref name=xinhua/> In 2005, Hungary, the world's second-largest foie gras producer, exported 1,920 tonnes<ref name="Hungary" /> and Bulgaria produced 1,500 tons of foie gras.<ref name=xinhua/>

The demand for foie gras in the Far East is such that China has become a sizeable producer.<ref>{{cite web |title=Foie Gras |url=http://www.esdaw.eu/foie-gras.html |website=European Society of Dog and Animal Welfare |access-date=17 October 2018}}</ref> Madagascar is a small but rapidly growing producer of high quality foie gras.<ref>Rakotomalala, M. [http://www.lexpressmada.com/elevage-madagascar/43302-la-filiere-foie-gras-se-porte-bien.html Élevage – La filière foie gras se porte bien] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928041904/http://www.lexpressmada.com/elevage-madagascar/43302-la-filiere-foie-gras-se-porte-bien.html |date=28 September 2013 }}. Express de Madagascar. No. 5632. 15 May 2013.</ref>

===2011===
In 2011 in Bulgaria (which started production in 1960), 5 million mule ducks were raised for foie gras on 800 farms, making Bulgaria the second-largest producer in Europe.<ref name="Marinova">{{cite journal|author1=Marinova‐Petkova, A.|author2=Georgiev, G.|author3=Petkov, T.|author4=Darnell, D.|author5=Franks, J.|author6=Kayali, G.|author7=McKenzie, P.|year=2016|title=Influenza surveillance on 'foie gras' duck farms in Bulgaria, 2008–2012|journal=[[Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses]]|volume=10|issue=2|pages=98–108|doi=10.1111/irv.12368|pmid=26663739|pmc=4746559}}</ref>

===2012===
In 2012, France produced approximately 19,000 tonnes of foie gras, representing 75% of the world's production in that year. This required the force-feeding of around 38 million ducks and geese.<ref name="Guardian2012">{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|title=Foie gras: French farmers defend 'tradition' after ban in California|author=Willsher, K.|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/aug/05/french-foie-gras-farmers-fight-ban|date=5 August 2012|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref> World production in 2015 is estimated as 27,000 tonnes.<ref name="VIVA2014">{{cite web|title=Torture in a tin: Viva! foie-gras fact sheet|url=http://www.viva.org.uk/resources/campaign-materials/fact-sheets/torture-tin-viva-foie-gras-fact-sheet|access-date=28 May 2015|date=2015-07-21}}</ref>

===2014–2015===
In 2014, the whole of the EU produced approximately 25,000 tonnes of foie gras – 23,000 tonnes of duck foie gras and 2,000 tonnes of goose foie gras.<ref name="EU2014">{{cite web|title=The foie gras sector in a few figures|publisher=Euro Foie Gras|url=http://www.eurofoiegras.com/en/page/figures_p135/|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref> The same year, France was producing 72% of world foie gras production, of which 97% was from ducks.<ref name="Francois">{{cite journal |pmid=24976256 |doi=10.1021/jf5006963 |journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]] |date=2014 |volume=62 |issue=29 |pages=7140–7150 |title=Mule duck 'foie gras' show different metabolic states according to their quality phenotypes by using a proteomic approach. Comparison of 2 statistical methods|last1=François|first1=Y. |last2=Marie-Etancelin|first2=C. |last3=Vignal|first3=A.|last4=Viala|first4=D. |last5=Davail|first5=S. |last6=Molette|first6=C.}}</ref>

In 2014, France produced 19,608 tons of foie gras (74.3% of the world's estimated total production).<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Foie Gras with Hawthorn.jpeg|thumb|Foie gras served with hawthorn puree at a restaurant in [[Beijing]]]]

In 2015, it was reported that in France, sales of foie gras may be waning and an OpinionWay poll found that 47% of the French population supported a ban on force-feeding.<ref name="Telegraph 2015">{{cite news|newspaper=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11363488/First-foie-gras-trial-under-way-in-France.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11363488/First-foie-gras-trial-under-way-in-France.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=First foie gras trial under way in France|author=Samuel, H.|year=2015|access-date=28 May 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Huffington2015">{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/mimi-bekhechi/foie-gras-cruelty-charges-long-overdue_b_6955232.html|work=The Huffington Post|year=2015|title=Cruelty charges long overdue for foie gras farmers|author=Bekhechi, M.|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref>

===2015–2016===
{{Update section|date=July 2019}}
In 2016, it was reported that France produces an estimated 75% of the world's foie gras and southwestern France produces approximately 70% of that total. In 2016, it can retail for upwards of $65 a pound.<ref name="Houck">{{cite news|title=France places temporary ban on foie gras production|author=Houck, B.|date=12 May 2016|access-date=23 July 2016|publisher=Eater|url=http://www.eater.com/2016/5/12/11662702/france-ban-foie-gras-production-bird-flu}}</ref>

In late 2015, there were several outbreaks of the highly contagious [[Influenza A virus subtype H5N1|H5N1 bird flu]] in France, which escalated during 2016. This led to Algeria, China, Egypt, Japan, Morocco, South Korea, Thailand and Tunisia banning French poultry exports, including foie gras, and France to initiate increased bio-security protocols which will cost an estimated 220 million euros. One of these measures was the halting of production in southwestern France from early April, 2016 for an anticipated period of three months to reduce the spread of the virus. Exports of foie gras from France are expected to decrease from 4,560 tonnes in 2015 to 3,160 tonnes in 2016.<ref name="Houck" /><ref name="Samuel">{{cite news|author=Samuel, H.|date=29 June 2016|access-date=23 July 2016|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/29/french-foie-gras-faces-soaring-prices-at-christmas-in-wake-of-bi/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/29/french-foie-gras-faces-soaring-prices-at-christmas-in-wake-of-bi/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=French foie gras faces soaring prices at Christmas in wake of bird flu scare|newspaper=The Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Rousseau">{{cite news|title=Fear in France as bird flu spreads|author=Rousseau, O.|url=http://www.globalmeatnews.com/Safety-Legislation/Fear-in-France-as-bird-flu-spreads|access-date=23 July 2016|date= 10 December 2015|publisher=GlobalMeat news.com}}</ref>

In the United States, the largest producer is Hudson Valley Foie Gras, which uses approximately 350,000 ducks each year.<ref name="DeSoucey2016" />

==Forms==
{{More citations needed|section|date=August 2021}}
[[File:Foie gras DSC00180.jpg|thumb|An entire foie gras (ready for cooking in a [[Terrine (cookware)|terrine]])]]
[[Image:Moulard Duck Foie Gras with Pickled Pear.jpg|thumb|A Moulard duck foie gras torchon with pickled pear]]
In France, foie gras exists in different, legally defined presentations, ordered by expense:<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/texteconsolide/ADHQG.htm Decree 93-999 August 9, 1993] defining legal categories and terms for foie gras in France</ref>

* {{lang|fr|foie gras entier}} ("whole foie gras"), made of one or two whole liver lobes; either {{lang|fr|cuit}} ("cooked"), {{lang|fr|mi-cuit}} ("semi-cooked"), or {{lang|fr|frais}} ("fresh");
* {{lang|fr|foie gras}}, made of pieces of livers reassembled together;
* {{lang|fr|bloc de foie gras}}, a fully cooked, moulded block composed of 98% or more foie gras; if termed {{lang|fr|avec morceaux}} ("with pieces"), it must contain at least 50% foie gras pieces for goose, and 30% for duck.

Additionally, there is {{lang|fr|pâté de foie gras}}, {{lang|fr|mousse de foie gras}} (either must contain 50% or more foie gras), {{lang|fr|parfait de foie gras}} (must contain 75% or more foie gras), and other preparations (no legal obligation established).

Fully cooked preparations are generally sold in either glass containers or metal cans for long-term preservation. Whole, fresh foie gras is usually unavailable in France outside the Christmas period, except in some producers' markets in the producing regions. Frozen whole foie gras sometimes is sold in French supermarkets.

Whole foie gras is readily available from gourmet retailers in Canada, the United States, Hungary, Argentina and regions with a sizeable market for the product. In US, raw foie gras is classified as Grade A, B or C. Grade A is typically the highest in fat and especially suited for low-temperature preparation, because the veins are relatively few and the resulting terrine will be more aesthetically appealing because it displays little blood. Grade B is accepted for higher temperature preparation, because the higher proportion of protein gives the liver more structure after being seared. Grade C livers are generally reserved for making sauces as well as other preparations where a higher proportion of blood-filled veins will not impair the appearance of the dish.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

==Production methods==
===Species, breeds and sex used===

====Geese====
Traditionally, foie gras was produced from special breeds of geese. However, by 2004, geese accounted for less than 10% of the total global foie gras production<ref name="Guémené">{{cite journal|title=The past, present and future of force-feeding and 'foie gras' production|author1=Guémené D. |author2=Guy, G.|journal=World's Poultry Science Journal|volume=60|issue=2|year=2004|pages=210–222|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=601276&fileId=S0043933904000194|doi=10.1079/wps200414}}</ref> and by 2014 only 5% of total French production.<ref name="CIFOG">{{cite web|title=Foie gras production|url=http://foiegras-factsandtruth.com/breeding/palmipeds|year=2014|publisher=CIFOG|access-date=27 May 2015}}</ref> Goose breeds used in modern foie gras production are primarily the grey Landes goose (''Anser anser'')<ref name="CIFOG" /> and the [[Toulouse goose]].<ref name="Ravo">{{cite news| url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802E0DB1639F937A1575AC0A96E958260 | work=The New York Times | title=A Cornucopia of Native Foie Gras; Partners' Efforts Produce Menu Delicacy in Abundance | first=Nick | last=Ravo | date=24 September 1998 | access-date=2 May 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.patrimoine-biologique.midipyrenees.fr/fiche.asp?FK_cat_animal=1&page=2 Toulouse Goose] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111194101/http://www.patrimoine-biologique.midipyrenees.fr/fiche.asp?FK_cat_animal=1&page=2 |date=11 November 2007 }} Pyrenees Biological Academy (in French)</ref>{{Better source needed|date=February 2015}}

In 2016, Hungary was producing 80% of the world's goose foie gras; however, production rates are likely to drop in 2017 due to outbreaks of bird flu.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hungary's foie gras industry down with flu as millions of birds die|agency=Reuters|author=Than, K.|date=25 January 2017|access-date=26 January 2017|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/hungarys-foie-gras-industry-down-flu-millions-birds-141848197.html}}</ref>

====Ducks====
In 2014, ducks accounted for 95% of foie gras production.<ref name="CIFOG" /> The breeds primarily used are the [[Muscovy duck]] (''Cairina moschata'')<ref name="CIFOG" /> (also called the Barbary duck) and the hybrid cross of a male Muscovy duck and a female [[American Pekin duck|Pekin duck]] (''Anas platyrhynchos domestica'') called the [[Mulard]] duck.<ref name="CIFOG" /> This hybrid is sterile and is therefore sometimes referred to as a "mule" duck. Mulards are estimated to account for about 35% of all foie gras consumed in the US.<ref name="Skippon" /> About 95% of duck foie gras production from France comes from force-fed Mulards, and the remaining 5% from the Muscovy duck.<ref name="Marie" />

After hatching, the Mulard ducklings are sexed. Males put on more weight than females, so the females are [[Chick culling|slaughtered]].

===Physiological basis===
[[File:28-gavage-foie-gras-cages-individuelles-France-2012.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Individual cages are used in some farms producing foie gras.]]
The basis of foie gras production is the ability that some [[waterfowl]] have to expand their esophagus and to gain weight, particularly in the liver,{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} in preparation for migration.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=EU Report }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}, section 4</ref> Wild geese may consume 300 grams of protein and another 800 grams of grasses per day. Farmed geese allowed to graze on carrots adapt to eating 100 grams of protein, but may consume up to 2500 grams of the carrots per day. The increasing amount of feed given prior to force-feeding and during the force-feeding itself cause expansion of the lower part of the esophagus.<ref name="Skippon" />

====Pre-feeding phase====
The pre-force feeding phase consists of three stages.<ref name="CIFOG" />
*The first stage ("start-up") lasts from 1 to 28 days of age (0–4 weeks). During this stage, the young birds are housed in large, indoor groups (e.g. 2,100<ref name="Marie" />), usually on straw.
*The second stage ("growth") lasts from 28 to 63 days of age (4–9 weeks). The birds are moved outside to feed on grasses ''ad libitum''. The birds are given additional feed, but access to this is limited by time. This stage aims to take advantage of the natural dilation capacity of the esophagus of some wildfowl.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=EU Report }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}} EU Scientific Report, p19</ref>
*The third stage ("pre-fattening") lasts from 63 to 90 days of age (9–13 weeks). The birds are brought inside for gradually longer periods while introduced to a high starch diet. This is a feeding transition where the food is distributed by meals, first in restricted amount and time and thereafter greatly increased.

====Feeding phase====
The next production phase, which the French call {{lang|fr|gavage}} or {{lang|fr|finition d'engraissement}}, or "completion of fattening", involves forced daily ingestion of controlled amounts of feed for 12 to 15 days with ducks and for 15 to 18 days with geese. During this phase, ducks are usually fed twice daily while geese are fed up to three times daily. To facilitate handling of ducks during gavage, these birds are typically housed throughout this phase in individual cages or small group pens.

Typical foie gras production involves force-feeding birds more food than they would eat in the wild, and much more than they would voluntarily eat domestically.<ref>"[https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/safety/docs/sci-com_scah_out17_en.pdf Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese]", p. 29</ref>

[[File:Foie gras - gavage in Rocamadour, France.jpg|thumb|Modern {{lang|fr|gavage}} feeding process]]
In modern production, the bird is typically fed a controlled amount of feed, depending on the stage of the fattening process, the bird's weight, and the amount of feed the bird last ingested.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tours.inra.fr/sra/internet/images/equipes/comportement/foiefras/Diapositive4.jpg|title=tours.inra.fr|access-date=24 September 2017}}</ref> At the start of production, a bird might be fed a dry weight of {{convert|250|g|0}} of food per day and up to {{convert|1000|g}} (in dry weight) by the end of the process. The actual amount of food force-fed is much greater, because the birds are fed a mash with a composition of about 53% dry and 47% liquid (by weight). This is the equivalent to around 1,900 grams per day in total mass.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00071660120088489 |title=Force-feeding procedure and physiological indicators of stress in male mule ducks |year=2001 |last1=Guémené |first1=D. |last2=Guy |first2=G. |last3=Noirault |first3=J. |last4=Garreau-Mills |first4=M. |last5=Gouraud |first5=P. |last6=Faure |first6=J. M. |journal=British Poultry Science |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=650–657 |pmid=11811918 |s2cid=9966682 }}</ref>

The feed is administered using a funnel fitted with a long tube (20–30 cm long), which forces the feed into the bird's esophagus. If an [[auger (drill)|auger]] is used, the feeding takes about 45 to 60 seconds, however, modern systems usually use a tube fed by a pneumatic pump with an operation time of 2 to 3 seconds per duck. During feeding, efforts are made to avoid damaging the bird's esophagus, which could cause injury or death, although researchers have found evidence of inflammation of the walls of the proventriculus after the first session of force-feeding.<ref>Serviere, J, Bernadet, MD and Guy, G. 2003. "Is nociception a sensory component associated to force-feeding? Neurophysiological approach in the mule duck". 2nd World Waterfowl Conference. Alexandria, Egypt</ref> There is also indication of inflammation of the esophagus in the later stages of fattening.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.avma.org/reference/backgrounders/foie_gras_bgnd.asp|title=Foie Gras Production Backgrounder|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425174224/http://www.avma.org/reference/backgrounders/foie_gras_bgnd.asp|archive-date=25 April 2009}}</ref> Several studies have also demonstrated that mortality rates can be significantly elevated during the gavage period.<ref name="EU Report">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf|title=Animal welfare - Food Safety - European Commission}}</ref><ref>Koehl, PF and Chinzi, D. 1996. "Les resultats technico-economiques des ateliers de palmidpedes a foie gras de 1987 a 1994". 2eme journees de la recherche sur les palmipedes a foie gras. 75.</ref><ref>Chinzi, D and Koehl, PF. 1998. "Caracteristiques desateliers d'elevage et de gavage de canards et mulards. Relations avec les performances et techniques et economiques". Proceedings des 3eme journees de la recherche sur les palmipedes a foie gras. 107.</ref>

The feed, usually corn boiled with fat (to facilitate ingestion), deposits large amounts of fat in the liver, thereby producing the buttery consistency sought by some [[Epicure (gourmet)|gastronome]]s.

Ducks reared for foie gras are typically slaughtered at 100 days of age and geese at 112 days.<ref name="Viva" /> At this time, the bird's liver is 6 to 10 times its ordinary size.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=EU Report }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}, p60</ref> Storage of fat in the liver produces [[steatosis]] of the liver cells.

===Alternative production===
Fattened liver can be produced by alternative methods without gavage, and this is often referred to either as "fatty goose liver" or as foie gras (outside France), though it does not conform to the French legal definition. This method involves timing the slaughter to coincide with the winter migration, when livers are naturally fattened.<ref name="Sousa">{{cite web|url=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/markets/europe/article1265675.ece|title=Login}}</ref>

The winner of the Coup de Coeur award at the [[SIAL Paris|Salon International d'Alimentation]], SIAL 2006, [[Patería de Sousa]] produces fattened livers without force-feeding.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ted.com/talks/dan_barber_s_surprising_foie_gras_parable.html |title= Dan Barber: A foie gras parable |last= Barber |first= Dan |author-link= Dan Barber |date=November 2008 |publisher= [[TED (conference)|TED]] |format= video of a talk |access-date= 2014-01-14 |quote= I love [foie gras].}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/jan/14/can-foie-gras-ever-be-ethical|title = Can foie gras ever be ethical? |date=14 January 2015 |newspaper = The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date= 2006-10-16 |title= El Salón Internacional de la Alimentación de París, SIAL 2006, reconoce a la empresa extremeña 'La Patería de Sousa' |trans-title=The International Food Exposition in Paris, SIAL 2006, recognizes the Extremadura company "La Patería de Sousa" |url= http://www.regiondigital.com/modulos/mod_periodico/pub/mostrar_noticia.php?id=47071 |url-status= dead |department= Economia |newspaper= Extremadura Press |language= es |location= [[Badajoz]], Spain |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071128130319/http://www.regiondigital.com/modulos/mod_periodico/pub/mostrar_noticia.php?id=47071 |archive-date= 2007-11-28 |access-date= 2014-01-16 |quote= La entidad ha recibido el Premio "Coups de Coeur", en la categoría de Foie Gras, tras presentar a concurso su especialidad, única en el mundo, Foie Gras de Ganso Ibérico de alimentación ecológica y no forzada. [The company has been awarded the "Coups de Coeur" award in the Foie Gras category, after entering into the competition its specialty, unique in the world, of Foie Gras from Iberian geese that eat organic food and are not force-fed.]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.stopgavage.com/en/node/39 |title= Foie gras sans gavage au salon de l'alimentation |date= December 2006 |website= Stop Gavage |publisher= L214 |location= [[Marignane]], France |language= fr}}</ref> This has only recently been produced commercially, and is a very small fraction of the market.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

Producers outside France do not always force-feed birds to produce fattened livers considered to be foie gras, instead allowing them to eat freely, termed ''ad libitum''. Interest in alternative production methods has grown recently due to [[foie gras controversy|ethical concerns]] in gavage-based foie gras production. Such livers are alternatively termed fatty goose liver, ethical foie gras, or humane foie gras. The British supermarket chain [[Waitrose]] also provides a version of ethical foie gras which it calls (and has been trademarked) ''faux gras''.<ref>{{cite news|author=Morris|first=Sophie|date=13 January 2012|title=IS IT EVER OK TO EAT FOIE GRAS?|work=[[The Independent]]|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/it-ever-ok-eat-foie-gras-6289019.html|access-date=28 December 2020}}</ref> This is not to be confused with the American product by the same name, produced by Regal Vegan, which has the US trademark for ''faux gras'', and is actually a vegan, nut-based spread.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.regalvegan.com/site/products/faux-gras/|title=FAUX GRAS™ « the Regal Vegan}}</ref>

The term ''ethical foie gras'' or ''humane foie gras'' is also used for gavage-based foie gras production that is more concerned with the animal's welfare (using rubber hoses rather than steel pipes for feeding). Others have expressed skepticism at these claims of humane treatment,<ref>{{cite news |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/25/dining/25foie.html |title=Foie Gras Makers Struggle to Please Critics and Chefs |first=Juliet |last=Glass |date=25 April 2007}}</ref> as earlier attempts to produce fattened livers without gavage have not produced satisfactory results.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/themes/animal-welfare/news-detail/en/c/20463/ |title=Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese |year=1998 |chapter=Alternative Methods of Production |page=57 |author=Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}</ref>

A more humane version of foie gras was pioneered in the Spanish region of [[Extremadura]], whereby the bird is tricked into preparing for migration rather than force-fed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/18/the-farmer-who-makes-ethical-foie-gras|title=The farmer who makes 'ethical' foie gras|journal=The Guardian|first=Dan|last=Barber|date=18 January 2015}}</ref>

More radical approaches have been studied. A duck or goose with a [[Ventromedial nucleus|ventromedian hypothalamic]] (VMH) lesion will tend not to feel satiated after eating, and will therefore eat more than a non-lesioned animal. By producing such lesions surgically, it is possible to increase the bird's food consumption when permitted to eat ''ad libitum'', by a factor of more than two.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1051/rnd:19800413 |title=Effect of induced hypothalamic hyperphagia and forced-feeding on organ weight and tissular development in Landes geese |year=1980 |last1=Felix |first1=Bernadette |last2=Auffray |first2=P. |last3=Marcilloux |first3=J. C. |last4=Royer |first4=L. |journal=Reproduction, Nutrition, Development |volume=20 |issue=3A |pages=709–17 |pmid=6961479 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00897676/document |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Currently, one of the few producers in the world of patented and certified goose- and ducklivers without force-feeding but up to the same standards as the traditional foie gras is the German company Foie Royale.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foodlog.nl/artikel/high-tech-foie-gras-maakt-dwangvoederen-overbodig/|title=High-tech foie gras maakt dwangvoederen overbodig|website=Foodlog|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref> The products of Foie Royale are being used by several [[Michelin star|Michelin star chefs]] throughout the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dierenwelzijnscheck.nl/horecawijzer/bolenius|title=Bolenius|website=DierenwelzijnsCheck|language=nl|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref> Foie Royale developed a process together with the [[German Institute of Food Technologies]] (DIL) to get the same result as the traditional Foie Gras, but without the force-feeding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.volkskrant.nl/gs-be99c7ef|title=Nagemaakte foie gras smelt net zo goed op de tong|last=Dinther|first=Mac van|date=2018-12-20|website=de Volkskrant|language=nl-NL|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref>

Human obesity and microbiome studies led French researchers at a startup company called Aviwell to use probiotic preparations to produce fatty livers in geese over 6 months without forced feeding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://modernfarmer.com/2019/11/this-french-startup-wants-to-be-the-future-of-foie-gras/|title=This French startup wants to be the future of foie gras|first=Lindsay|last=Campbell|date=2019-11-18|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref>

==Preparations==
[[Image:Foie-gras.jpg|thumb|Foie gras with shallots and figs]]
Generally, French preparations of foie gras are made over low heat, as fat melts faster from the traditional goose foie gras than the duck foie gras produced in most other parts of the world. American and other New World preparations, typically employing duck foie gras, have more recipes and dish preparations for serving foie gras hot, rather than cool or cold.

In Hungary, goose foie gras traditionally is fried in goose fat, which is then poured over the foie gras and left to cool; it is also eaten warm, after being fried or roasted, with some chefs smoking the foie gras over a cherry wood fire.

In other parts of the world foie gras is served in dishes such as foie gras [[sushi]] rolls, in various forms of pasta or alongside [[steak tartare]] or atop a [[steak]] as a garnish.

===Cold preparations===
Traditional low-heat cooking methods result in [[Terrine (food)|terrine]]s, ''[[pâté]]s'', [[parfait]]s, [[foam (culinary)|foam]]s and [[mousse]]s of foie gras, often flavored with [[tuber (genus)|truffle]], mushrooms or [[brandy]] such as [[cognac]] or [[Armagnac (drink)|armagnac]]. These slow-cooked forms of ''foie gras'' are cooled and served at or below room temperature.

In a very traditional form of terrine, ''au torchon'' ("in a towel"), a whole lobe of foie is molded, wrapped in a towel and slow-cooked in a ''[[bain-marie]]''. For added flavor (from the [[Maillard reaction]]), the liver may be seared briefly over a fire of [[grape vine]] clippings (''sarments'') before slow-cooking in a bain-marie; afterwards, it is pressed served cold, in slices.

Raw foie gras is also cured in salt ("''cru au sel''"), served slightly chilled.<ref name="Au Pied de Cochon">Au Pied de Cochon. Menu. Montreal. 15 June. 2006.</ref>

===Strasbourg pie===
A pastry containing fatty goose liver and other ingredients is known as the "[[Strasbourg|Strasburg]] pie" since Strasbourg was a major producer of foie gras.<ref>''The New Encyclopædia'', ed. Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck and Frank Moore. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1903): Vol. XIII, 778.</ref>

The Strasburg pie is mentioned in [[William Makepeace Thackeray]]'s novel ''Vanity Fair'' as being popular with the diplomatic corps.<ref>William Makepeace Thackeray, ''Vanity Fair'', Ch. 9.</ref>

[[T.S. Eliot]]'s poem "The Ad-Dressing of Cats", part of ''[[Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats]]'' and also the last song in its musical adaptation ''[[Cats (musical)|Cats]]'', contains the line "And you might now and then supply/Some caviar or Strasbourg pie".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Webber |first1=Andrew Lloyd |title=Cats : the songs from the musical |date=30 June 1981 |publisher=Faber Music |isbn=978-0881882001 |page=109 }}</ref>

Capt. Aubrey and Dr. Maturin enjoy a "Strasburg pie" in [[Patrick O'Brian]]'s 1988 Napoleonic sea adventure ''[[The Letter of Marque]].''<ref>O'Brian, Patrick, ''The Letter of Marque'' (Collins 1988), p. 189 https://books.google.com/books?id=au_T3vsNPIcC&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=aubrey+maturin+letter+marque+strasbourg+pie&source=bl&ots=x5oLRJfEjI&sig=ACfU3U2mEYmadvnFM3RFYdUTW-C6yPCneA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjg7-W6rvzpAhU2RzABHYrcDHkQ6AEwAXoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=aubrey%20maturin%20letter%20marque%20strasbourg%20pie&f=false</ref>

===Hot preparations===
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Pâté de foie gras, canned | kJ=1933 | fat=43.84 g | carbs=4.67 g | fiber=0.0 g | protein=11.40 g | niacin_mg=2.51 | thiamin_mg=0.088 | riboflavin_mg=0.299 | vitA_ug=1001 | sodium_mg=697 | right=1}}
Given the increased internationalization of cuisines and food supply, ''foie gras'' is increasingly found in hot preparations not only in the United States, but in France and elsewhere. Duck foie gras ("''foie gras de canard''") has slightly lower fat content and is generally more suitable in texture to cooking at high temperature than is goose foie gras ("''foie gras d'oie''"), but chefs have been able to cook goose ''foie gras'' employing similar techniques developed for duck, albeit with more care.

Raw foie gras can be roasted, sauteed, pan-seared (''poêlé'') or (with care and attention), grilled. As foie gras has high fat content, contact with heat needs to be brief and therefore at high temperature, lest it burn or melt. Optimal structural integrity for searing requires the foie gras to be cut to a thickness between 15 and 25 mm (½ – 1 inch), resulting in a rare, uncooked center. Some chefs prefer not to devein the foie gras, as the veins can help preserve the integrity of the fatty liver. It is increasingly common to sear the ''foie gras'' on one side only, leaving the other side uncooked. Practitioners of [[molecular gastronomy]] such as [[Heston Blumenthal]] of [[The Fat Duck]] restaurant first flash-freeze foie gras in [[liquid nitrogen]] as part of the preparation process.<ref name=cryo>{{cite news
|newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]
|first=Louise
|last=Schwartzkoff
|date=2 February 2010
|title=Books – The Fat Duck Cookbook by Heston Blumenthal
|type=Book review
|url=http://www.liquidnitrogen.com.au/liquid-nitrogen-articles/2010/2/2/books/}}</ref>

Hot foie gras requires minimal spices; typically black pepper, paprika (in Hungary) and salt. Chefs have used [[fleur de sel]] as a gourmet seasoning for hot foie gras to add an "important textural accent" with its crunch.<ref name=sel>''Nation's Restaurant News'', 2004.</ref>

===Consumption===
Foie gras is regarded as a gourmet luxury dish.<ref>Serventi 1993, ''cover text''.</ref> In France, it is mainly consumed on special occasions, such as Christmas or New Year's Eve ''[[réveillon]]'' dinners, though the recent increased availability of foie gras has made it a less exceptional dish.<ref name="telegraph.co.uk">{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/3308864/The-goose-is-getting-fat.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/3308864/The-goose-is-getting-fat.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | work=The Daily Telegraph | location=London | title=The goose is getting fat Politically incorrect it may be, but foie gras is storming British menus. Anwer Bati reports | date=1 November 2003 | access-date=2 May 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In some areas of France ''foie gras'' is eaten year-round.

Duck foie gras is the slightly cheaper<ref name="telegraph.co.uk"/> and, since a change of production methods in the 1950s to battery, by far the most common kind, particularly in the US. The taste of duck foie gras is often referred to as musky with a subtle bitterness. Goose foie gras is noted for being less gamey and smoother, with a more delicate flavor.<ref>''... goose liver is more delicate and less gamey tasting that its duck equivalent'' '''France: World Food By Stephen Fallon, Michael Rothschild {{ISBN|1-86450-021-2}}, {{ISBN|978-1-86450-021-9}} page 49'''</ref>

==Animal welfare==
{{World laws on foie gras production}}
[[Image:Mulard duck being force fed corn in order to fatten its liver for foie gras production.jpg|thumb|250px|Gavage feeding]]
Gavage-based foie gras production is [[Foie gras controversy|controversial]] due to the animal welfare consequences of the force-feeding procedure, intensive housing and husbandry, an enlarged liver and the potential for being detrimental to human health. Some countries find foie gras to be "morally objectionable".<ref name="DeSoucey">{{cite journal|doi=10.1177/0003122410372226|journal=American Sociological Review|year=2010|volume=75|issue=3|pages=432–455|title=Gastronationalism food traditions and authenticity politics in the European Union|author=DeSoucey, M.|s2cid=29005152}}</ref>{{which|date=January 2016}} One EU committee report noted that up to 1998, there was only a small number of scientific studies on the welfare of birds used for foie gras production; however, the Committee found sufficient evidence to conclude that "force-feeding, as currently practised, is detrimental to the welfare of the birds".<ref name="EU" /> The industry repeatedly faces accusations of torture and cruelty.<ref name="DeSoucey2016">{{cite book|author=DeSoucey, M.|year=2016|title=Contested Tastes: Foie Gras and the Politics of Food|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref>

===Suitability of breeds and species===
The production of foie gras occurs on the argument that migrating wildfowl seasonally eat such that their liver naturally enlarges. However, the bird used predominantly in foie gras production is a hybrid of a male Muscovy duck and a female Pekin duck. It has been noted that the Muscovy duck is non-migratory,<ref name="Hoffmann, 1992a">{{cite journal|author=Hoffmann, E.|year=1992|title=A natural history of Cairina moschata, the wild Muscovy duck.|journal= 9th International Symposium of Waterfowl|pages=217–219}}</ref> and both the Pekin and the mulard hybrid cannot fly.<ref name="Hoffmann, 1992b">{{cite journal|author=Hoffmann, E.|year=1992|title=Hybrid progeny from Muscovy and domestic ducks|journal= 9th International Symposium of Waterfowl|pages=64–66}}</ref> Domestic ducks (including the Pekin) are derived from the [[mallard]] duck, which is sometimes migratory and sometimes not. Therefore, although the domestic goose might well be adapted to store food before migration, it is less likely that the Mulard hybrid duck has the same potential.<ref name="EU" />

===Force-feeding procedure===

====Fear====
Geese and ducks show [[avoidance behaviour]] (indicating aversion) toward the person who feeds them and the feeding procedure.<ref name="EU" /><ref name="AVMA" /> Although an EU committee in 1998 reported seeing this aversion, they noted that at the time, there was no "conclusive" scientific evidence on the aversive nature of force-feeding.<ref name="EU">{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=Report of the EU Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese }} {{small|(277 KB)}}</ref> The AVMA (Animal Welfare Division) when considering foie gras production stated "The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems to be more prone than its parent breeds to fear of people".<ref name="AVMA" />

====Injury====
An EU committee in 1998<ref name="EU"/> reported that there was usually clear evidence of tissue damage in the esophagus of birds which had been gavage fed, although one 1972 study cited by the report observed no alteration of the esophageal tissue. More recent scientific studies have shown that the esophagus of birds can be injured or inflamed by gavage feeding.<ref name="Skippon" /><ref name="AVMA" /><ref name="Kozák">{{cite journal|title=Foie gras production: pros and cons in the light of animal protection.|
author=Kozák, J.|journal=Journal of Animal Welfare, Ethology and Housing Systems|year=2011|volume=7|issue=3|pages=200–209}}</ref><ref name="Servière">{{cite journal|title=Neurogenic inflammation in the upper digestive tract of the mule duck: effect of a chemical algogen and force-feeding|journal=British Poultry Science|volume=52|issue=6|year=2011|doi=10.1080/00071668.2011.640660|pmid=22221246|authors=Servière, J., Carriere, M., Duvaux-Ponter, C. Guy, G. and Roussel, S.|pages=792–799|s2cid=41132302|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01000594/file/51557_20120320104312631_1.pdf}}</ref>

====Stress====
After measuring a range of physiological parameters in male Mulard ducks, it was concluded in one study that the acute stress caused by force feeding is similar at the beginning and end of the commercial production of foie gras.<ref name="Flaments">{{cite journal|journal=British Poultry Science|volume=53|issue=4|year=2012|title=Corticosterone, cortisol, triglycerides, aspartate aminotransferase and uric acid plasma concentrations during foie gras production in male mule ducks (Anas platyrhynchos × Cairina moschata)|doi=10.1080/00071668.2012.711468|pmid=23130574|author=Flamenta, A., Delleura, V., Poulipoulisa, A. and Marliera, D.|pages=408–413|s2cid=22716210}}</ref> A similar study on Muscovy ducks found that gavage feeding was related to an increase in panting behaviour and serum corticosterone levels, indicating increased stress attributable to this feeding method.<ref name="Mohammed">{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Advanced Veterinary Research|volume=4|issue=4|year=2014|title=Force feeding as a stress factor on Muscovy ducks|author=Mohammed, A.A.A., Abdel-Rahman, M. and Darwish, M.H.A.}}</ref>

===Housing and husbandry===
In France, at the end of 2015, individual cages were prohibited to improve animal welfare. They were to be replaced by cages housing 4 to 5 birds.<ref name="Marie" />

====Behavioural restriction====
During the force-feeding period, the birds are kept in individual cages, with wire or plastic mesh floors, or sometimes in small groups on slatted floors. Individual caging restricts movements and behaviours by preventing the birds from standing erect, turning around, or flapping their wings. Birds cannot carry out other natural waterfowl behaviours, such as bathing and swimming.<ref name="Skippon"/> Furthermore, ducks and geese are social animals and individual cages prevent such interactions.<ref name="EU" />

During the force feeding period, when the birds are not being fed, they are sometimes kept in near-darkness; this prevents normal investigatory behaviour and results in poor welfare.<ref name="EU" />

====Injury====
Lesions can occur on the [[sternum]] of the birds due to [[necrosis]] of the skin. This is observed more frequently in birds reared in cages rather than on the floor. The prevalence is higher in Mulard ducks (40–70%) compared to under 6% in Muscovy ducks. This is due to the larger pectoralis profundus major and minor muscles in Muscovy ducks compared to Mulards.<ref name="EU" /> The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems more prone to developing lesions in the area of the sternum when kept in small cages, and to bone breakage during transport and slaughter.<ref name="AVMA" />

Where ducks are fattened in group pens, it has been suggested that the increased effort required to capture and restrain ducks in pens might cause them to experience more stress during force feeding. Injuries and fatalities during transport and slaughter occur in all types of poultry production, however, fattened ducks are more susceptible to conditions such as heat stress.

===Enlarged liver===
Foie gras production results in the bird's liver being swollen. In some species of ducks, liver size changes seasonally, increasing by as much as 30% to 50%, with more pronounced changes in females. However, foie gras production enlarges the livers up to 10 times (or 1,000%) their normal size.<ref name="Skippon" /><ref name="AVMA" /> This impairs liver function due to the obstruction of blood flow and expands the abdomen, making it difficult for the birds to breathe.<ref name="AVMA">{{cite web|url=https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/LiteratureReviews/Pages/Foie-Gras-Production-Backgrounder.aspx#references|title=Welfare Implications of Foie Gras Production|year=2014|publisher=American Veterinary Medical Association|access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref> Death occurs if the force-feeding is continued.<ref name="Viva">{{cite web|url=http://www.viva.org.uk/sites/default/files/2014_mini_foiegras_factsheet_1.pdf|title=Torture in a tin: Viva! foie-gras fact sheet|publisher=Viva!|year=2014|access-date=14 February 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214203009/http://www.viva.org.uk/sites/default/files/2014_mini_foiegras_factsheet_1.pdf|archive-date=14 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="EU" />

===Mortality rates===
The mortality rate in force-fed birds varies from 2% to 4%, compared with approximately 0.2% in age-matched, non-force-fed drakes.<ref name="Skippon">{{cite journal|title=The animal health and welfare consequences of foie gras production.|author=Skippon, W.|journal=Canadian Veterinary Journal|year=2013|volume=54|issue=4|pages=403–404|pmc=3595949|pmid=24082171}}</ref> Mortality rates do not differ between the force-feeding period and the previous rearing phase, with both being approximately 2.5%.<ref name="Marie">{{cite web|title=Genetics and selection of ducks in France|author=Marie-Etancelin, C., Chapuis, H., Brun, J.M., Larzul, C., Mialon-Richard, M.M. and Rouvier, R.|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267324850|access-date=25 May 2015}}</ref>

==Controversy==
{{Further|Foie gras controversy}}
The controversial nature of foie gras production was identified in a paper that juxtaposed the views of "foie gras production as the apotheosis of murderous meat production, and those who consider it to be a co-production between humans and animals".<ref name="Heath">{{cite journal|title=The naturecultures of foie gras: techniques of the body and a contested ethics of care.|author1=Heath, D. |author2=Meneley, A|journal=Food, Culture and Society|volume=13|issue=3|year=2010|pages=421–452|doi=10.2752/175174410x12699432701024|s2cid=152347835 }}</ref>

Animal rights and welfare advocates such as Animal Equality <ref>{{Cite web |title=Ban Foie Gras |url=https://animalequality.org.uk/act/ban-force-feeding |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Animal Equality UK |language=en-GB}}</ref>, [[PETA]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goveg.com/feat/foie/|title=How to Go Vegan}}</ref> [[Vegetarians' International Voice for Animals|Viva!]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.viva.org.uk/campaigns/foiegras/index.html|title=Viva! – Vegetarians International Voice for Animals|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130119003317/http://www.viva.org.uk/campaigns/foiegras/index.html|archive-date=19 January 2013}}</ref> and [[the Humane Society of the United States]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsus.org/farm/camp/ffa/foie_gras.html|title=Foie Gras|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622145557/http://www.hsus.org/farm/camp/ffa/foie_gras.html|archive-date=22 June 2007}}</ref> contend that foie gras production methods, and force-feeding in particular, constitute cruel and inhumane treatment of animals.

An [[Ipsos MORI]] poll found that 63% of the UK population would like to see a complete ban on the sale of foie gras in the UK.<ref name="Milne">{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/emma-milne/foie-gras-ban_b_2048704.html|work=The Huffington Post|title=Sixty-three per cent of the British public wants foie gras banned|author=Milne, E.|year=2012|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref>

In 2011 and 2012, Animal Equality conducted investigations inside four foie gras farms in France and five in Spain, exposing the cruelty of force-feeding<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ban Foie Gras |url=https://animalequality.org.uk/act/ban-force-feeding |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Animal Equality UK |language=en-GB}}</ref>. The footage collected reveals ducks covered in blood with broken and torn beaks, birds kept in small metal cages with no room to turn around, and ducks and geese desperately struggling to avoid force-feeding.

In April–May 2013, an investigator from [[Mercy for Animals]] recorded undercover video at [[Hudson Valley Foie Gras|Hudson Valley Foie Gras farm]] in New York state. The video showed workers forcefully pushing tubes down ducks' throats. One worker said of the force-feeding process: "Sometimes the duck doesn't get up and it dies. There have been times that 20 ducks were killed." Hudson Valley operations manager Marcus Henley replied that the farm's mortality statistics are not above average for the poultry industry.<ref name=Tepper2013>{{cite news|last=Tepper|first=Rachel|title=Undercover Foie Gras Footage Shot at Hudson Valley Foie Gras Alleges Cruel Practices (VIDEO)|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/12/undercover-foie-gras-video-hudson-valley_n_3429492.html|access-date=3 April 2014|newspaper=Huffington Post|date=12 June 2013}}</ref> Because Hudson Valley provides foie gras to Amazon.com, Mercy for Animals began a campaign urging Amazon to stop selling foie gras, a move that has already been made by [[Costco]], [[Safeway Inc.|Safeway]], and [[Target Corporation|Target]].<ref name=Zara2013>{{cite news|last=Zara|first=Christopher|title=Amazon Urged To Ban Foie Gras: Animal-Rights Group Calls Retailer A Lame Duck Over Controversial Food|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/amazon-urged-ban-foie-gras-animal-rights-group-calls-retailer-lame-duck-over-controversial-food|access-date=3 April 2014|newspaper=International Business Times|date=12 June 2013}}</ref>

In November 2013, the ''[[Daily Mirror]]'' published a report based on the video they obtained depicting cruelty towards ducks in a farm owned by French firm Ernest Soulard, which is a supplier to celebrity chef [[Gordon Ramsay]]'s restaurants. The restaurant chain suspended purchasing from the supplier following the exposé.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/video-cruelty-chef-gordon-ramsays-2688593|title=VIDEO: Cruelty of chef Gordon Ramsay's foie gras supplier exposed in shocking footage|author=Andy Lines|date=8 November 2013|work=mirror}}</ref>

=== Animal research ===
The process of force-feeding can make animals sick by stressing the liver. If the stress is prolonged, excess protein may build up and clump together as amyloids, consumption of which has been found to induce [[amyloidosis]] in laboratory mice. It has been hypothesized this may be a route of transmission in humans too and so be a risk for people with inflammatory complaints such as [[rheumatoid arthritis]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2010.08.004|title=Prion-like aggregates: Infectious agents in human disease|year=2010|last1=Westermark|first1=Gunilla T.|last2=Westermark|first2=Per|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine|volume=16|issue=11|pages=501–7|pmid=20870462 |type=Review |quote=AA amyloidosis can theoretically be transmitted to humans by the same route; thus, such food might constitute a hazard for individuals with chronic inflammatory disorders such as RA.}}</ref>

=== Legislation and bans ===
{{Further|Foie gras controversy#Statutory and voluntary bans}}
A number of countries and regions have laws against force-feeding or the sale or importation of foie gras, and even where it is legal some retailers have ceased to sell it.<ref name="AmazonUKban">{{cite web|publisher=The Bugle|url=http://issuu.com/thebugle/docs/nov_2013/10|date=November 2013|title=Amazon bans foie gras|access-date=13 March 2015 |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref name="FortnumMason">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/18/fortnum-mason-foie-gras-protest|title=Fortnum and Mason faces celebrity battle over its sale of 'cruel' foie gras |journal=The Guardian |date=18 December 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015|last1=Doward |first1=Jamie |last2=Owen |first2=Jemima }}</ref><ref name="harveynichols">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6930411.stm|title=Harvey Nichols bans 'cruel' pate|publisher=BBC|date=3 August 2007|access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref>

In 2017, foie gras production was banned in [[Brussels]], a largely symbolic measure because of the small number of producers within the city limits. Belgium is one of a number of countries that continues to produce foie gras legally.<ref name="Feedblix">{{cite web|title=Foie Gras production banned in Brussels|url=http://feedblix.com/foie-gras-production-banned-brussels/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321052928/http://feedblix.com/foie-gras-production-banned-brussels/|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 March 2017|access-date=26 March 2017|publisher=Feedblix|date=20 March 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Food}}
* [[Shen Zhu]] – the fattening of pigs in manner similar to gavage
* [[Delicacy#Delicacies|List of delicacies]]
* [[List of duck dishes]]
* [[Ortolan bunting]]
* [[Specialty foods]]
* [[Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease]], with homologous pathophysiologic aspects

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
;Books
{{Refbegin}}
*''Larousse Gastronomique'', by Prosper Montagne (Ed.), Clarkson Potter, 2001. {{ISBN|0-609-60971-8}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Alford
| first=Katherine
| title=Caviar, Truffles, and Foie Gras
| publisher=Chronicle Books
| year=2001
| isbn=978-0-8118-2791-1
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Bett
| first=Henry
| title=Wanderings Among Words
| publisher=Kessinger Publishing
| year=2003
| isbn=978-0-7661-7792-5
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Davidson
| first=Alan
| title=The Oxford Companion to Food
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| year=1999
| isbn=978-0-19-211579-9
| url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00davi_0
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Faas
| first=Patrick
| title=Around the Table of the Romans: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome
| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan
| year=2002
| isbn=978-0-312-23958-9
| url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312239589
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Giacosa
| first=Ilaria Gozzini
| title=A Taste of Ancient Rome
| publisher=University of Chicago Press
| year=1994
| isbn=978-0-226-29032-4
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Ginor
| first=Michael A.
| title=Foie Gras: A Passion
| publisher=John Wiley & Sons
| year=1999
| isbn=978-0-471-29318-7
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Langslow
| first=David R.
| title=Medical Latin in the Roman Empire
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| year=2000
| isbn=978-0-19-815279-8
}}.
* {{Cite journal
| last=Littré
| first=Maximilien Paul Emile
| title=Histoire de la langue française: Études sur les origines, l'étymologie, la grammaire
| publisher=Didier
| year=1863
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=McGee
| first=Harold
| title=On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen
| publisher=Scribner
| year=2004
| isbn=978-0-684-80001-1
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Serventi
| first=Silvano
| title=La grande histoire du foie gras
| publisher=Flammarion
| year=1993
| isbn=978-2-08-200542-5
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Toussaint-Samat
| first=Maguelonne
| title=History of Food
| publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional
| year=1994
| isbn=978-0-631-19497-2
| url-access=registration
| url=https://archive.org/details/historyoffood0000tous
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Walter
| first=Henriette
| title=French Inside Out: The French Language Past and Present
| publisher=Routledge
| year=2006
| isbn=978-0-415-07670-8
| url-access=registration
| url=https://archive.org/details/frenchinsideoutw0000walt
}}.

;Articles
* {{cite journal
|first=Florence
|last=Fabricant
|title=Peppering with salt: chefs find favor with gourmet versions of common seasoning
|journal=Nation's Restaurant News
|year=2004
|volume=38
|issue=9
|page=36}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/video-cruelty-chef-gordon-ramsays-2688593 Video of foie gras production.]

===Scientific studies===
* Report of the EU Scientific {{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}

===Alternatives===
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6301715.stm Foie Gras without force-feeding]
* [http://news.scotsman.com/uk.cfm?id=1883412007 Faux Gras – "Foie Gras Without The Cruelty"]
* [https://www.aviwell.fr/en/discovery/ Foie Gras history and using microbiome manipulation without forced feeding]
* [http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/dan_barber_s_surprising_foie_gras_parable.html Chef Dan Barber tells the story of a small farm in Spain that has found a humane way to produce foie gras]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090813080505/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1915601,00.html Can Ethical Foie Gras Happen in America?] TIME, 12 August 2009

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Foie Gras}}
[[Category:Foie gras| ]]
[[Category:Cruelty to animals]]
[[Category:Force-feeding]]
[[Category:French cuisine]]
[[Category:Liver (food)]]
[[Category:Occitan cuisine]]
[[Category:Offal]]
[[Category:Poultry dishes]]
[[Category:Spreads (food)]]

Foie gras

2022-05-19T17:15:35Z

72.142.115.198:

{{Short description|French culinary dish}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Foie gras
| image = Foie gras en cocotte.jpg
| image_size = width 5000px length 5000px

| caption = Foie gras with mustard seeds and green beans in duck ''[[Au jus|jus]]''
| alternate_name =
| country = Canada
| region = ([[Yukon]], [[Toronto]])
| creator = John Cena
| course =
| type = Whole, [[mousse]], [[parfait]], or [[Spread (food)|spread]]
| served =
| main_ingredient = [[Liver (food)|Liver]] of a [[Domestic duck|duck]] or [[Domestic goose|goose]]
| variations =
| calories =
| other =
}}

[[Image:Mulard (1).jpg|thumb|right|260px|A [[Mulard]] duck, the hybrid used most frequently for foie gras production]]
'''Foie gras''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|audio=En-us-foie gras.ogg|ˌ|f|w|ɑː|ˈ|ɡ|r|ɑː}}, {{IPA-fr|fwa ɡʁɑ|lang}}; {{langnf||French|[[wikt:gras#Noun_6|fat]] liver}}) is a [[Specialty foods|specialty food]] product made of the [[liver]] of a [[Domestic duck|duck]] or [[Domestic goose|goose]]. According to French law,<ref>French rural code [http://legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do;jsessionid=943EF0198AA70E691D551179EB5E5A83.tpdjo05v_3?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006584967&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006071367&dateTexte=20091223 Code rural – Article L654-27-1]: "{{lang|fr|On entend par foie gras, le foie d'un canard ou d'une oie spécialement engraissé par gavage.}}" ("'Foie gras' is understood to mean the liver of a duck or a goose that has been especially fattened by gavage").</ref> foie gras is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by [[gavage]] (force feeding).

Foie gras is a popular and well-known [[delicacy]] in [[French cuisine]]. Its flavour is described as rich, buttery, and delicate, unlike that of an ordinary duck or goose liver. Foie gras is sold whole or is prepared into [[mousse]], [[parfait]], or [[pâté]], and may also be served as an accompaniment to another food item, such as steak. French law states that "Foie gras belongs to the protected cultural and gastronomical heritage of France."<ref>French rural code [https://archive.today/20120903131017/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnArticleDeCode?commun=&code=CRURALNL.rcv&art=L654-27-1 L654-27-1]</ref>

The technique of gavage dates as far back as [[25th century BC|2500 BC]], when the [[ancient Egyptians]] began keeping birds for food and deliberately fattened the birds through force-feeding.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/domesticated_animals.htm|title=Ancient Egypt: Farmed and domesticated animals|access-date=10 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216063505/http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/domesticated_animals.htm|archive-date=16 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though there are producers and markets worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and China.<ref name="npr.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11118706|title=A Global Taste Test of Foie Gras and Truffles}}</ref>

[[Foie gras controversy|Gavage-based foie gras production is controversial]], due mainly to the animal welfare concerns about force-feeding, intensive housing and husbandry, and enlarging the liver to 10 times its usual volume. A number of countries and jurisdictions have laws against force-feeding, as well as the production, import, or sale of foie gras. Even where it is legal, a number of retailers decline to stock it.

==History==
[[Image:Egyptiangeesefeeding.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[bas relief]] depiction of overfeeding geese]]

===Ancient times===
As early as 2500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned that many birds could be fattened through forced overfeeding and began this practice. Whether they particularly sought the fattened livers of birds as a delicacy remains undetermined.<ref name="McGee_1">{{Harv|McGee|2004|p=167}}: "''Foie gras is the "fat liver" of force-fed geese and ducks. It has been made and appreciated since Roman times and probably long before; the force-feeding of geese is clearly represented in Egyptian art from 2500 BC.''"</ref><ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1">{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=425}}.</ref> In the [[necropolis]] of [[Saqqara]], in the tomb of [[Mereruka]], an important royal official, there is a [[bas relief]] scene wherein workers grasp geese around the necks in order to push food down their throats. At the side stand tables piled with more food pellets, and a flask for moistening the feed before giving it to the geese.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1" /><ref name="Ginor_1">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=2}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200104/living.with.the.animals.htm|title=Saudi Aramco World : Living With the Animals|access-date=29 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061229125957/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200104/living.with.the.animals.htm|archive-date=29 December 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The practice of goose fattening spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean.<ref name="Alford_1">{{Harv|Alford|2001|p=36}}.</ref> The earliest reference to fattened geese is from the 5th century BC Greek poet [[Cratinus]], who wrote of geese-fatteners, yet Egypt maintained its reputation as the source for fattened geese. When the [[Sparta]]n king [[Agesilaus]] visited Egypt in 361 BC, he noted Egyptian farmers fattened geese and calves.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1" /><ref name="Ginor_2">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=3}}.</ref>

It was not until the Roman period, however, that foie gras is mentioned as a distinct food, which the Romans named ''iecur ficatum'';<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sagar|first1=Khan|title=About the history of foie gras|url=https://www.foiegrasgourmet.com/en/the-foie-gras-history|access-date=27 February 2017|work=foiegrasgourmet.com|publisher=Foie Gras Gourmet|date=12 February 2015|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ginor_3">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=4}}.</ref><ref name="Giacosa_1">{{Harv|Giacosa|1994|p=13}}.</ref> ''iecur'' means [[liver]]<ref name="Langslow_1">{{Harv|Langslow|2000|p=153}}: "''A second instance of the restriction of the sense of a Latin anatomical term to animals is ''iecur'' 'the liver' in Theodorus and Cassius. In both, the human liver is always ''hepar'', while ''iecur'' is used of an animal (...)''"</ref> and ''ficatum'' derives from ''[[ficus]]'', meaning fig in [[Latin]].<ref>"Ficus,i" (...) Derivés: (...) ''ficatum'' n. (sc. iecur): d'abord terme de cuisine "foie garni de figues", cf. Hor., S. 2, 8, 88, ''ficis pastum iecur anseris albae'', calque du gr. συκωτόν de même sens, puis, dans le langage populaire, simplement "foie" (...) et passé avec ce sens dans les langues romanes, où ficatum a remplacé ''iecur''. A. Ernout, A. Meillet, ''Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue latine'', Éd. Klincksieck, Paris 1979.</ref> The emperor [[Elagabalus]] fed his dogs on foie gras during the four years of his reign.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_5">{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=426}}.</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] (1st century AD) credits his contemporary, Roman gastronome [[Marcus Gavius Apicius]], with feeding dried figs to geese in order to enlarge their livers:

{{Quote
|
"Apicius made the discovery, that we may employ the same artificial method of increasing the size of the liver of the sow, as of that of the goose; it consists in cramming them with dried figs, and when they are fat enough, they are drenched with wine mixed with honey and immediately killed."
|
Pliny the Elder, ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', Book VIII. Chapter 77<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin//ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+8.77 Pliny the Elder, ''The Natural History''] (eds. [[John Bostock (physician)|John Bostock]], [[Henry Thomas Riley]]). {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050213035835/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ |date=13 February 2005 }} For the original Latin text, see here [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/8*.html]. The Latin text (ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff) of Perseus Digital Library places the corresponding text in a wrong chapter. URL accessed 30 December 2006.</ref>
}}

Hence, the term ''iecur ficatum'', fig-stuffed liver; feeding figs to enlarge a goose's liver may derive from Hellenistic Alexandria, since much of [[Roman luxury cuisine]] was of Greek inspiration.<ref name="Faas_1">{{Harv|Faas|2002|p=19}}</ref> ''Ficatum'' was closely associated with animal liver and it became the [[Root (linguistics)|root word]] for "liver"<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Yakov |last1=Malkiel |author-link=Yakov Malkiel |year=1944 |title=The Etymology of Portuguese Iguaria |journal=Language |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=108–30 |jstor=410151 |doi=10.2307/410151}}</ref> in each of these languages: ''foie'' in French,<ref name="Walter_1">{{Harv|Walter|2006|p=40}}: "''(...) for example, why it is not the word JECUR (a Latin word taken from the Greek) which has come down to us with the meaning of 'liver', but the Romance word ''ficato'', which has become the French ''foie''. The word ''ficato'' is formed on the Latin word FICUS 'fig', and would appear to have nothing to do with the 'liver' other than the Greeks, followed by the Romans, fattened their geese with figs to obtain particularly fleshy and tasty livers. The FICATUM JECUR or 'fig-fattened goose liver', which was very much sought after, must have become such a common expression that it was shortened to FICATUM (just as the modern French say ''frites'' as an abbreviation of ''pommes de terre frites''). To begin with, the word FICATUM probably designated only edible animal livers, with its meaning then being extended to include the human organ.''"</ref> ''hígado'' in Spanish, ''fígado'' in Portuguese, ''fegato'' in Italian, ''fetge'' in Catalan and Occitan and ''ficat'' in Romanian, all meaning "liver"; this etymology has been explained in different manners.<ref name="Littré_1">{{Harv|Littré|1863|p=137}}: "''Feûte n'est pas mieux fait que ''foie''; seulement, il conserve le ''t'' du Latin; car on sait que ''foie'' vient de ''ficatum'' (foie d'une oie nourrie de figues, et, de là, foie en général). ''Foie'' en français, ''feûte'' en wallon, ''fetge'' en provençal, ''fégato'' en italien, ''hígado'' en espagnol, ''fígado'' en portugais, témoignent que la bouche romane déplaça l'accent du mot Latin, et, au lieu de ''ficátum'', qui est la prononciation régulière, dit, par anomalie, ''fícatum'' avec l'accent sur l'antépénultième.''"</ref><ref>[http://www.etimo.it/?term=fegato&find=Cerca Dizionario etimologico online: fégato].</ref>

===Postclassical Europe===
After the fall of the Roman empire, goose liver temporarily vanished from European cuisine. Some claim that Gallic farmers preserved the foie gras tradition until the rest of Europe rediscovered it centuries later, but the medieval French peasant's food animals were mainly pig and sheep.<ref name="Ginor_5">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=8}}.</ref> Others claim that the tradition was preserved by the Jews, who learned the method of enlarging a goose's liver during the Roman colonisation of [[Judea]]<ref name="Ginor_6">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=9}}.</ref> or earlier from Egyptians.<ref name="Davidson_1">{{Harv|Davidson|1999|p=311}}: "''The enlarged liver has been counted a delicacy since classical times, when the force-feeding of the birds was practised in classical Rome. It is commonly said that the practice dates back even further, to ancient Egypt, and that knowledge of it was possibly acquired by the Jews during their period of 'bondage' there and transmitted by them to the classical civilizations.''"</ref> The Jews carried this culinary knowledge as they migrated farther north and west to Europe.<ref name="Ginor_6"/>

The Judaic dietary law, [[Kashrut]], forbade [[lard]] as a cooking medium, and butter, too, was proscribed as an alternative since Kashrut also prohibited mixing meat and dairy products.<ref name="Alford_1" /> Jewish cuisine used [[olive oil]] in the Mediterranean, and [[sesame oil]] in [[Babylonia]], but neither cooking medium was readily available in Western and Central Europe, so poultry fat (known in Yiddish as ''[[schmaltz]]''), which could be abundantly produced by overfeeding geese, was substituted in their stead.<ref name="Ginor_6" /><ref name="Alford_2">{{Harv|Alford|2001|p=37}}.</ref><ref name="momentmag.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.momentmag.com/foie-gras-indelicate-delicacy/|title=Foie Gras: The Indelicate Delicacy|author=Eileen Lavine|work=Moment Magazine|date=2013-11-18}}</ref> The delicate taste of the goose's liver was soon appreciated; [[Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof]] of [[Kassel]] wrote in 1562 that the Jews raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some [[Rabbi]]s were concerned that eating forcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions. Some rabbis contended that it is not a forbidden food ([[treyf]]) as none of its limbs are damaged and the geese did not feel any pain in their throats from the process.<ref name="momentmag.com" /> This matter remained a debated topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste for goose liver declined in the 19th century.<ref name="Ginor_6" /> Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, is that even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before being considered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that; however, as liver is regarded as "(almost) wholly blood", broiling is the only way of kashering. Properly broiling a foie gras while preserving its delicate taste is difficult, and therefore rarely practised. Even so, there are restaurants in Israel that offer grilled goose foie gras. Foie gras also bears resemblance to the Jewish food staple, chopped liver.<ref name="momentmag.com"/>

[[Image:Scappi.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Bartolomeo Scappi]]
Appreciation of fattened goose liver spread to gastronomes outside the Jewish community, who could buy in the local Jewish [[ghetto]] of their cities. In 1570, [[Bartolomeo Scappi]], chef de cuisine to [[Pope Pius V]], published his cookbook ''Opera'', wherein he writes that "the liver of [a] domestic goose raised by the Jews is of extreme size and weighs [between] two and three pounds".<ref name="Ginor_7">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=11}}.</ref> In 1581, [[Marx Rumpolt]] of [[Mainz]], chef to several German nobles, published the massive cookbook ''Ein Neu Kochbuch'', describing that the Jews of [[Bohemia]] produced livers weighing more than three pounds; he lists recipes for it—including one for goose liver [[mousse]].<ref name="Ginor_7"/><ref name="Toussaint-Samat_6">{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=427}}.</ref> János Keszei, chef to the court of [[Michael I Apafi|Michael Apafi]], the prince of [[Transylvania]], included foie gras recipes in his 1680 cookbook ''A New Book About Cooking'', instructing cooks to "envelop the goose liver in a calf's thin skin, bake it and prepare [a] green or [a] brown sauce to accompany it. I used goose liver fattened by Bohemian Jews, its weight was more than three pounds. You may also prepare a mush of it."

==Production and sales==
{{Update|section|reason=Figures are not up to date, table is very dated by now|date=March 2019}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|-
! Country
! Production (tons, 2005)
! % of total (2005)
! Production (tons, 2014)
! % of total (2014)<ref name="Viva" />
|-
| France
| 18,450<ref name=xinhua>{{cite news | title = China to boost foie gras production | url = http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-04/11/content_4409586.htm | date = 11 April 2006 | access-date = 12 March 2007 | publisher = Xinhua online | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070602122944/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-04/11/content_4409586.htm | archive-date = 2 June 2007}}</ref>
| 78.5%
| 19,608<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/766863/production-liver-fat-volume-world/|title=Foie gras: world production by country 2014 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2019-05-02}}</ref>
| 74.3%
|-
| Hungary
| 1,920<ref name=xinhua/>
| 8.2%
|2,590<ref name=":0" />
| 10.2%
|-
| Bulgaria
| 1,500<ref name=xinhua/>
| 6.4%
|2,600<ref name=":0" />
| 10.2%
|-
| United States
| 340 (2003)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.starchefs.com/features/food_debates/foie_gras/index.shtml|title=Foie Gras Food Debate on StarChefs}}</ref>
| 1.4%
|250<ref name=":0" />
| 0.9%
|-
| Canada
| 200 (2005)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mapaq.gouv.qc.ca/NR/rdonlyres/A8B635A2-01C6-40B1-8CE3-B628A2C17F2F/5950/Bioclips13n18.pdf |title=Bio Clips: L'actualité bioalimentaire |publisher=[[Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Quebec)]] ({{lang|fr|italics=no|direction des études économiques et d'appui aux filières)}}|access-date=2008-02-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228004632/http://www.mapaq.gouv.qc.ca/NR/rdonlyres/A8B635A2-01C6-40B1-8CE3-B628A2C17F2F/5950/Bioclips13n18.pdf |archive-date=28 February 2008}}</ref>
| 0.9%
|200<ref name=":0" />
| 0.8%
|-
| China
| 150<ref name=xinhua/>
| 0.6%
|500<ref name=":0" />
| 0.6%
|-
| Others
| 940
| 4.0%
|648<ref name=":0" />
|1.9%
|-
! Total
! 23,500<ref name=xinhua/>
! 100%
!26,396<ref name=":0" />
!100%
|}

In the 21st century, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced and consumed in several other countries worldwide, particularly in some other European nations, the United States, and China.<ref name="npr.org"/> Approximately 30,000 people work in the French foie gras industry, with 90% of them residing in the Périgord ([[Dordogne]]), [[Aquitaine]] in the southwest, and [[Alsace]] in the east.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Edworthy|first=Niall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E1KjDQAAQBAJ&q=30%2C000+people+work+in+the+French+foie+gras+industry&pg=PT123|title=The Curious Bird Lover's Handbook|date=2017-03-23|publisher=Transworld|isbn=978-1-4735-4399-7|language=en}}</ref> The European Union recognizes the foie gras produced according to traditional farming methods (''label rouge'') in southwestern France with a [[protected geographical indication]].{{Cn|date=August 2021}}

Hungary is the world's second-largest foie gras (''libamáj'') producer and the largest exporter. France is the principal market for Hungarian foie gras – mainly exported raw. Approximately 30,000 Hungarian goose farmers are dependent on the foie gras industry.<ref name="Hungary">{{cite web|url=http://www.cee-foodindustry.com/news/ng.asp?id=49055-hungary-facing-foie|title=Food Ingredients & Food Science – Additives, Flavours, Starch|work=FoodNavigator.com}}</ref> French food companies spice, process, and cook the foie gras so it may be sold as a French product in its domestic and export markets.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3346185.stm |work=BBC News | title=Hungary foie gras farms under threat | date=12 January 2004 | access-date=2 May 2010 | first=Nick | last=Thorpe}}</ref>

===2005===
In 2005, France produced 18,450 tonnes of foie gras (78.5% of the world's estimated total production of 23,500 tonnes), of which 96% was duck liver and 4% goose liver. Total French consumption of foie gras in this year was 19,000 tonnes.<ref name=xinhua/> In 2005, Hungary, the world's second-largest foie gras producer, exported 1,920 tonnes<ref name="Hungary" /> and Bulgaria produced 1,500 tons of foie gras.<ref name=xinhua/>

The demand for foie gras in the Far East is such that China has become a sizeable producer.<ref>{{cite web |title=Foie Gras |url=http://www.esdaw.eu/foie-gras.html |website=European Society of Dog and Animal Welfare |access-date=17 October 2018}}</ref> Madagascar is a small but rapidly growing producer of high quality foie gras.<ref>Rakotomalala, M. [http://www.lexpressmada.com/elevage-madagascar/43302-la-filiere-foie-gras-se-porte-bien.html Élevage – La filière foie gras se porte bien] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928041904/http://www.lexpressmada.com/elevage-madagascar/43302-la-filiere-foie-gras-se-porte-bien.html |date=28 September 2013 }}. Express de Madagascar. No. 5632. 15 May 2013.</ref>

===2011===
In 2011 in Bulgaria (which started production in 1960), 5 million mule ducks were raised for foie gras on 800 farms, making Bulgaria the second-largest producer in Europe.<ref name="Marinova">{{cite journal|author1=Marinova‐Petkova, A.|author2=Georgiev, G.|author3=Petkov, T.|author4=Darnell, D.|author5=Franks, J.|author6=Kayali, G.|author7=McKenzie, P.|year=2016|title=Influenza surveillance on 'foie gras' duck farms in Bulgaria, 2008–2012|journal=[[Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses]]|volume=10|issue=2|pages=98–108|doi=10.1111/irv.12368|pmid=26663739|pmc=4746559}}</ref>

===2012===
In 2012, France produced approximately 19,000 tonnes of foie gras, representing 75% of the world's production in that year. This required the force-feeding of around 38 million ducks and geese.<ref name="Guardian2012">{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|title=Foie gras: French farmers defend 'tradition' after ban in California|author=Willsher, K.|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/aug/05/french-foie-gras-farmers-fight-ban|date=5 August 2012|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref> World production in 2015 is estimated as 27,000 tonnes.<ref name="VIVA2014">{{cite web|title=Torture in a tin: Viva! foie-gras fact sheet|url=http://www.viva.org.uk/resources/campaign-materials/fact-sheets/torture-tin-viva-foie-gras-fact-sheet|access-date=28 May 2015|date=2015-07-21}}</ref>

===2014–2015===
In 2014, the whole of the EU produced approximately 25,000 tonnes of foie gras – 23,000 tonnes of duck foie gras and 2,000 tonnes of goose foie gras.<ref name="EU2014">{{cite web|title=The foie gras sector in a few figures|publisher=Euro Foie Gras|url=http://www.eurofoiegras.com/en/page/figures_p135/|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref> The same year, France was producing 72% of world foie gras production, of which 97% was from ducks.<ref name="Francois">{{cite journal |pmid=24976256 |doi=10.1021/jf5006963 |journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]] |date=2014 |volume=62 |issue=29 |pages=7140–7150 |title=Mule duck 'foie gras' show different metabolic states according to their quality phenotypes by using a proteomic approach. Comparison of 2 statistical methods|last1=François|first1=Y. |last2=Marie-Etancelin|first2=C. |last3=Vignal|first3=A.|last4=Viala|first4=D. |last5=Davail|first5=S. |last6=Molette|first6=C.}}</ref>

In 2014, France produced 19,608 tons of foie gras (74.3% of the world's estimated total production).<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Foie Gras with Hawthorn.jpeg|thumb|Foie gras served with hawthorn puree at a restaurant in [[Beijing]]]]

In 2015, it was reported that in France, sales of foie gras may be waning and an OpinionWay poll found that 47% of the French population supported a ban on force-feeding.<ref name="Telegraph 2015">{{cite news|newspaper=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11363488/First-foie-gras-trial-under-way-in-France.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11363488/First-foie-gras-trial-under-way-in-France.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=First foie gras trial under way in France|author=Samuel, H.|year=2015|access-date=28 May 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Huffington2015">{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/mimi-bekhechi/foie-gras-cruelty-charges-long-overdue_b_6955232.html|work=The Huffington Post|year=2015|title=Cruelty charges long overdue for foie gras farmers|author=Bekhechi, M.|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref>

===2015–2016===
{{Update section|date=July 2019}}
In 2016, it was reported that France produces an estimated 75% of the world's foie gras and southwestern France produces approximately 70% of that total. In 2016, it can retail for upwards of $65 a pound.<ref name="Houck">{{cite news|title=France places temporary ban on foie gras production|author=Houck, B.|date=12 May 2016|access-date=23 July 2016|publisher=Eater|url=http://www.eater.com/2016/5/12/11662702/france-ban-foie-gras-production-bird-flu}}</ref>

In late 2015, there were several outbreaks of the highly contagious [[Influenza A virus subtype H5N1|H5N1 bird flu]] in France, which escalated during 2016. This led to Algeria, China, Egypt, Japan, Morocco, South Korea, Thailand and Tunisia banning French poultry exports, including foie gras, and France to initiate increased bio-security protocols which will cost an estimated 220 million euros. One of these measures was the halting of production in southwestern France from early April, 2016 for an anticipated period of three months to reduce the spread of the virus. Exports of foie gras from France are expected to decrease from 4,560 tonnes in 2015 to 3,160 tonnes in 2016.<ref name="Houck" /><ref name="Samuel">{{cite news|author=Samuel, H.|date=29 June 2016|access-date=23 July 2016|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/29/french-foie-gras-faces-soaring-prices-at-christmas-in-wake-of-bi/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/29/french-foie-gras-faces-soaring-prices-at-christmas-in-wake-of-bi/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=French foie gras faces soaring prices at Christmas in wake of bird flu scare|newspaper=The Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Rousseau">{{cite news|title=Fear in France as bird flu spreads|author=Rousseau, O.|url=http://www.globalmeatnews.com/Safety-Legislation/Fear-in-France-as-bird-flu-spreads|access-date=23 July 2016|date= 10 December 2015|publisher=GlobalMeat news.com}}</ref>

In the United States, the largest producer is Hudson Valley Foie Gras, which uses approximately 350,000 ducks each year.<ref name="DeSoucey2016" />

==Forms==
{{More citations needed|section|date=August 2021}}
[[File:Foie gras DSC00180.jpg|thumb|An entire foie gras (ready for cooking in a [[Terrine (cookware)|terrine]])]]
[[Image:Moulard Duck Foie Gras with Pickled Pear.jpg|thumb|A Moulard duck foie gras torchon with pickled pear]]
In France, foie gras exists in different, legally defined presentations, ordered by expense:<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/texteconsolide/ADHQG.htm Decree 93-999 August 9, 1993] defining legal categories and terms for foie gras in France</ref>

* {{lang|fr|foie gras entier}} ("whole foie gras"), made of one or two whole liver lobes; either {{lang|fr|cuit}} ("cooked"), {{lang|fr|mi-cuit}} ("semi-cooked"), or {{lang|fr|frais}} ("fresh");
* {{lang|fr|foie gras}}, made of pieces of livers reassembled together;
* {{lang|fr|bloc de foie gras}}, a fully cooked, moulded block composed of 98% or more foie gras; if termed {{lang|fr|avec morceaux}} ("with pieces"), it must contain at least 50% foie gras pieces for goose, and 30% for duck.

Additionally, there is {{lang|fr|pâté de foie gras}}, {{lang|fr|mousse de foie gras}} (either must contain 50% or more foie gras), {{lang|fr|parfait de foie gras}} (must contain 75% or more foie gras), and other preparations (no legal obligation established).

Fully cooked preparations are generally sold in either glass containers or metal cans for long-term preservation. Whole, fresh foie gras is usually unavailable in France outside the Christmas period, except in some producers' markets in the producing regions. Frozen whole foie gras sometimes is sold in French supermarkets.

Whole foie gras is readily available from gourmet retailers in Canada, the United States, Hungary, Argentina and regions with a sizeable market for the product. In US, raw foie gras is classified as Grade A, B or C. Grade A is typically the highest in fat and especially suited for low-temperature preparation, because the veins are relatively few and the resulting terrine will be more aesthetically appealing because it displays little blood. Grade B is accepted for higher temperature preparation, because the higher proportion of protein gives the liver more structure after being seared. Grade C livers are generally reserved for making sauces as well as other preparations where a higher proportion of blood-filled veins will not impair the appearance of the dish.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

==Production methods==
===Species, breeds and sex used===

====Geese====
Traditionally, foie gras was produced from special breeds of geese. However, by 2004, geese accounted for less than 10% of the total global foie gras production<ref name="Guémené">{{cite journal|title=The past, present and future of force-feeding and 'foie gras' production|author1=Guémené D. |author2=Guy, G.|journal=World's Poultry Science Journal|volume=60|issue=2|year=2004|pages=210–222|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=601276&fileId=S0043933904000194|doi=10.1079/wps200414}}</ref> and by 2014 only 5% of total French production.<ref name="CIFOG">{{cite web|title=Foie gras production|url=http://foiegras-factsandtruth.com/breeding/palmipeds|year=2014|publisher=CIFOG|access-date=27 May 2015}}</ref> Goose breeds used in modern foie gras production are primarily the grey Landes goose (''Anser anser'')<ref name="CIFOG" /> and the [[Toulouse goose]].<ref name="Ravo">{{cite news| url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802E0DB1639F937A1575AC0A96E958260 | work=The New York Times | title=A Cornucopia of Native Foie Gras; Partners' Efforts Produce Menu Delicacy in Abundance | first=Nick | last=Ravo | date=24 September 1998 | access-date=2 May 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.patrimoine-biologique.midipyrenees.fr/fiche.asp?FK_cat_animal=1&page=2 Toulouse Goose] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111194101/http://www.patrimoine-biologique.midipyrenees.fr/fiche.asp?FK_cat_animal=1&page=2 |date=11 November 2007 }} Pyrenees Biological Academy (in French)</ref>{{Better source needed|date=February 2015}}

In 2016, Hungary was producing 80% of the world's goose foie gras; however, production rates are likely to drop in 2017 due to outbreaks of bird flu.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hungary's foie gras industry down with flu as millions of birds die|agency=Reuters|author=Than, K.|date=25 January 2017|access-date=26 January 2017|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/hungarys-foie-gras-industry-down-flu-millions-birds-141848197.html}}</ref>

====Ducks====
In 2014, ducks accounted for 95% of foie gras production.<ref name="CIFOG" /> The breeds primarily used are the [[Muscovy duck]] (''Cairina moschata'')<ref name="CIFOG" /> (also called the Barbary duck) and the hybrid cross of a male Muscovy duck and a female [[American Pekin duck|Pekin duck]] (''Anas platyrhynchos domestica'') called the [[Mulard]] duck.<ref name="CIFOG" /> This hybrid is sterile and is therefore sometimes referred to as a "mule" duck. Mulards are estimated to account for about 35% of all foie gras consumed in the US.<ref name="Skippon" /> About 95% of duck foie gras production from France comes from force-fed Mulards, and the remaining 5% from the Muscovy duck.<ref name="Marie" />

After hatching, the Mulard ducklings are sexed. Males put on more weight than females, so the females are [[Chick culling|slaughtered]].

===Physiological basis===
[[File:28-gavage-foie-gras-cages-individuelles-France-2012.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Individual cages are used in some farms producing foie gras.]]
The basis of foie gras production is the ability that some [[waterfowl]] have to expand their esophagus and to gain weight, particularly in the liver,{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} in preparation for migration.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=EU Report }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}, section 4</ref> Wild geese may consume 300 grams of protein and another 800 grams of grasses per day. Farmed geese allowed to graze on carrots adapt to eating 100 grams of protein, but may consume up to 2500 grams of the carrots per day. The increasing amount of feed given prior to force-feeding and during the force-feeding itself cause expansion of the lower part of the esophagus.<ref name="Skippon" />

====Pre-feeding phase====
The pre-force feeding phase consists of three stages.<ref name="CIFOG" />
*The first stage ("start-up") lasts from 1 to 28 days of age (0–4 weeks). During this stage, the young birds are housed in large, indoor groups (e.g. 2,100<ref name="Marie" />), usually on straw.
*The second stage ("growth") lasts from 28 to 63 days of age (4–9 weeks). The birds are moved outside to feed on grasses ''ad libitum''. The birds are given additional feed, but access to this is limited by time. This stage aims to take advantage of the natural dilation capacity of the esophagus of some wildfowl.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=EU Report }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}} EU Scientific Report, p19</ref>
*The third stage ("pre-fattening") lasts from 63 to 90 days of age (9–13 weeks). The birds are brought inside for gradually longer periods while introduced to a high starch diet. This is a feeding transition where the food is distributed by meals, first in restricted amount and time and thereafter greatly increased.

====Feeding phase====
The next production phase, which the French call {{lang|fr|gavage}} or {{lang|fr|finition d'engraissement}}, or "completion of fattening", involves forced daily ingestion of controlled amounts of feed for 12 to 15 days with ducks and for 15 to 18 days with geese. During this phase, ducks are usually fed twice daily while geese are fed up to three times daily. To facilitate handling of ducks during gavage, these birds are typically housed throughout this phase in individual cages or small group pens.

Typical foie gras production involves force-feeding birds more food than they would eat in the wild, and much more than they would voluntarily eat domestically.<ref>"[https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/safety/docs/sci-com_scah_out17_en.pdf Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese]", p. 29</ref>

[[File:Foie gras - gavage in Rocamadour, France.jpg|thumb|Modern {{lang|fr|gavage}} feeding process]]
In modern production, the bird is typically fed a controlled amount of feed, depending on the stage of the fattening process, the bird's weight, and the amount of feed the bird last ingested.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tours.inra.fr/sra/internet/images/equipes/comportement/foiefras/Diapositive4.jpg|title=tours.inra.fr|access-date=24 September 2017}}</ref> At the start of production, a bird might be fed a dry weight of {{convert|250|g|0}} of food per day and up to {{convert|1000|g}} (in dry weight) by the end of the process. The actual amount of food force-fed is much greater, because the birds are fed a mash with a composition of about 53% dry and 47% liquid (by weight). This is the equivalent to around 1,900 grams per day in total mass.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00071660120088489 |title=Force-feeding procedure and physiological indicators of stress in male mule ducks |year=2001 |last1=Guémené |first1=D. |last2=Guy |first2=G. |last3=Noirault |first3=J. |last4=Garreau-Mills |first4=M. |last5=Gouraud |first5=P. |last6=Faure |first6=J. M. |journal=British Poultry Science |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=650–657 |pmid=11811918 |s2cid=9966682 }}</ref>

The feed is administered using a funnel fitted with a long tube (20–30 cm long), which forces the feed into the bird's esophagus. If an [[auger (drill)|auger]] is used, the feeding takes about 45 to 60 seconds, however, modern systems usually use a tube fed by a pneumatic pump with an operation time of 2 to 3 seconds per duck. During feeding, efforts are made to avoid damaging the bird's esophagus, which could cause injury or death, although researchers have found evidence of inflammation of the walls of the proventriculus after the first session of force-feeding.<ref>Serviere, J, Bernadet, MD and Guy, G. 2003. "Is nociception a sensory component associated to force-feeding? Neurophysiological approach in the mule duck". 2nd World Waterfowl Conference. Alexandria, Egypt</ref> There is also indication of inflammation of the esophagus in the later stages of fattening.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.avma.org/reference/backgrounders/foie_gras_bgnd.asp|title=Foie Gras Production Backgrounder|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425174224/http://www.avma.org/reference/backgrounders/foie_gras_bgnd.asp|archive-date=25 April 2009}}</ref> Several studies have also demonstrated that mortality rates can be significantly elevated during the gavage period.<ref name="EU Report">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf|title=Animal welfare - Food Safety - European Commission}}</ref><ref>Koehl, PF and Chinzi, D. 1996. "Les resultats technico-economiques des ateliers de palmidpedes a foie gras de 1987 a 1994". 2eme journees de la recherche sur les palmipedes a foie gras. 75.</ref><ref>Chinzi, D and Koehl, PF. 1998. "Caracteristiques desateliers d'elevage et de gavage de canards et mulards. Relations avec les performances et techniques et economiques". Proceedings des 3eme journees de la recherche sur les palmipedes a foie gras. 107.</ref>

The feed, usually corn boiled with fat (to facilitate ingestion), deposits large amounts of fat in the liver, thereby producing the buttery consistency sought by some [[Epicure (gourmet)|gastronome]]s.

Ducks reared for foie gras are typically slaughtered at 100 days of age and geese at 112 days.<ref name="Viva" /> At this time, the bird's liver is 6 to 10 times its ordinary size.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=EU Report }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}, p60</ref> Storage of fat in the liver produces [[steatosis]] of the liver cells.

===Alternative production===
Fattened liver can be produced by alternative methods without gavage, and this is often referred to either as "fatty goose liver" or as foie gras (outside France), though it does not conform to the French legal definition. This method involves timing the slaughter to coincide with the winter migration, when livers are naturally fattened.<ref name="Sousa">{{cite web|url=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/markets/europe/article1265675.ece|title=Login}}</ref>

The winner of the Coup de Coeur award at the [[SIAL Paris|Salon International d'Alimentation]], SIAL 2006, [[Patería de Sousa]] produces fattened livers without force-feeding.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ted.com/talks/dan_barber_s_surprising_foie_gras_parable.html |title= Dan Barber: A foie gras parable |last= Barber |first= Dan |author-link= Dan Barber |date=November 2008 |publisher= [[TED (conference)|TED]] |format= video of a talk |access-date= 2014-01-14 |quote= I love [foie gras].}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/jan/14/can-foie-gras-ever-be-ethical|title = Can foie gras ever be ethical? |date=14 January 2015 |newspaper = The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date= 2006-10-16 |title= El Salón Internacional de la Alimentación de París, SIAL 2006, reconoce a la empresa extremeña 'La Patería de Sousa' |trans-title=The International Food Exposition in Paris, SIAL 2006, recognizes the Extremadura company "La Patería de Sousa" |url= http://www.regiondigital.com/modulos/mod_periodico/pub/mostrar_noticia.php?id=47071 |url-status= dead |department= Economia |newspaper= Extremadura Press |language= es |location= [[Badajoz]], Spain |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071128130319/http://www.regiondigital.com/modulos/mod_periodico/pub/mostrar_noticia.php?id=47071 |archive-date= 2007-11-28 |access-date= 2014-01-16 |quote= La entidad ha recibido el Premio "Coups de Coeur", en la categoría de Foie Gras, tras presentar a concurso su especialidad, única en el mundo, Foie Gras de Ganso Ibérico de alimentación ecológica y no forzada. [The company has been awarded the "Coups de Coeur" award in the Foie Gras category, after entering into the competition its specialty, unique in the world, of Foie Gras from Iberian geese that eat organic food and are not force-fed.]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.stopgavage.com/en/node/39 |title= Foie gras sans gavage au salon de l'alimentation |date= December 2006 |website= Stop Gavage |publisher= L214 |location= [[Marignane]], France |language= fr}}</ref> This has only recently been produced commercially, and is a very small fraction of the market.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

Producers outside France do not always force-feed birds to produce fattened livers considered to be foie gras, instead allowing them to eat freely, termed ''ad libitum''. Interest in alternative production methods has grown recently due to [[foie gras controversy|ethical concerns]] in gavage-based foie gras production. Such livers are alternatively termed fatty goose liver, ethical foie gras, or humane foie gras. The British supermarket chain [[Waitrose]] also provides a version of ethical foie gras which it calls (and has been trademarked) ''faux gras''.<ref>{{cite news|author=Morris|first=Sophie|date=13 January 2012|title=IS IT EVER OK TO EAT FOIE GRAS?|work=[[The Independent]]|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/it-ever-ok-eat-foie-gras-6289019.html|access-date=28 December 2020}}</ref> This is not to be confused with the American product by the same name, produced by Regal Vegan, which has the US trademark for ''faux gras'', and is actually a vegan, nut-based spread.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.regalvegan.com/site/products/faux-gras/|title=FAUX GRAS™ « the Regal Vegan}}</ref>

The term ''ethical foie gras'' or ''humane foie gras'' is also used for gavage-based foie gras production that is more concerned with the animal's welfare (using rubber hoses rather than steel pipes for feeding). Others have expressed skepticism at these claims of humane treatment,<ref>{{cite news |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/25/dining/25foie.html |title=Foie Gras Makers Struggle to Please Critics and Chefs |first=Juliet |last=Glass |date=25 April 2007}}</ref> as earlier attempts to produce fattened livers without gavage have not produced satisfactory results.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/themes/animal-welfare/news-detail/en/c/20463/ |title=Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese |year=1998 |chapter=Alternative Methods of Production |page=57 |author=Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}</ref>

A more humane version of foie gras was pioneered in the Spanish region of [[Extremadura]], whereby the bird is tricked into preparing for migration rather than force-fed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/18/the-farmer-who-makes-ethical-foie-gras|title=The farmer who makes 'ethical' foie gras|journal=The Guardian|first=Dan|last=Barber|date=18 January 2015}}</ref>

More radical approaches have been studied. A duck or goose with a [[Ventromedial nucleus|ventromedian hypothalamic]] (VMH) lesion will tend not to feel satiated after eating, and will therefore eat more than a non-lesioned animal. By producing such lesions surgically, it is possible to increase the bird's food consumption when permitted to eat ''ad libitum'', by a factor of more than two.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1051/rnd:19800413 |title=Effect of induced hypothalamic hyperphagia and forced-feeding on organ weight and tissular development in Landes geese |year=1980 |last1=Felix |first1=Bernadette |last2=Auffray |first2=P. |last3=Marcilloux |first3=J. C. |last4=Royer |first4=L. |journal=Reproduction, Nutrition, Development |volume=20 |issue=3A |pages=709–17 |pmid=6961479 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00897676/document |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Currently, one of the few producers in the world of patented and certified goose- and ducklivers without force-feeding but up to the same standards as the traditional foie gras is the German company Foie Royale.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foodlog.nl/artikel/high-tech-foie-gras-maakt-dwangvoederen-overbodig/|title=High-tech foie gras maakt dwangvoederen overbodig|website=Foodlog|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref> The products of Foie Royale are being used by several [[Michelin star|Michelin star chefs]] throughout the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dierenwelzijnscheck.nl/horecawijzer/bolenius|title=Bolenius|website=DierenwelzijnsCheck|language=nl|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref> Foie Royale developed a process together with the [[German Institute of Food Technologies]] (DIL) to get the same result as the traditional Foie Gras, but without the force-feeding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.volkskrant.nl/gs-be99c7ef|title=Nagemaakte foie gras smelt net zo goed op de tong|last=Dinther|first=Mac van|date=2018-12-20|website=de Volkskrant|language=nl-NL|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref>

Human obesity and microbiome studies led French researchers at a startup company called Aviwell to use probiotic preparations to produce fatty livers in geese over 6 months without forced feeding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://modernfarmer.com/2019/11/this-french-startup-wants-to-be-the-future-of-foie-gras/|title=This French startup wants to be the future of foie gras|first=Lindsay|last=Campbell|date=2019-11-18|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref>

==Preparations==
[[Image:Foie-gras.jpg|thumb|Foie gras with shallots and figs]]
Generally, French preparations of foie gras are made over low heat, as fat melts faster from the traditional goose foie gras than the duck foie gras produced in most other parts of the world. American and other New World preparations, typically employing duck foie gras, have more recipes and dish preparations for serving foie gras hot, rather than cool or cold.

In Hungary, goose foie gras traditionally is fried in goose fat, which is then poured over the foie gras and left to cool; it is also eaten warm, after being fried or roasted, with some chefs smoking the foie gras over a cherry wood fire.

In other parts of the world foie gras is served in dishes such as foie gras [[sushi]] rolls, in various forms of pasta or alongside [[steak tartare]] or atop a [[steak]] as a garnish.

===Cold preparations===
Traditional low-heat cooking methods result in [[Terrine (food)|terrine]]s, ''[[pâté]]s'', [[parfait]]s, [[foam (culinary)|foam]]s and [[mousse]]s of foie gras, often flavored with [[tuber (genus)|truffle]], mushrooms or [[brandy]] such as [[cognac]] or [[Armagnac (drink)|armagnac]]. These slow-cooked forms of ''foie gras'' are cooled and served at or below room temperature.

In a very traditional form of terrine, ''au torchon'' ("in a towel"), a whole lobe of foie is molded, wrapped in a towel and slow-cooked in a ''[[bain-marie]]''. For added flavor (from the [[Maillard reaction]]), the liver may be seared briefly over a fire of [[grape vine]] clippings (''sarments'') before slow-cooking in a bain-marie; afterwards, it is pressed served cold, in slices.

Raw foie gras is also cured in salt ("''cru au sel''"), served slightly chilled.<ref name="Au Pied de Cochon">Au Pied de Cochon. Menu. Montreal. 15 June. 2006.</ref>

===Strasbourg pie===
A pastry containing fatty goose liver and other ingredients is known as the "[[Strasbourg|Strasburg]] pie" since Strasbourg was a major producer of foie gras.<ref>''The New Encyclopædia'', ed. Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck and Frank Moore. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1903): Vol. XIII, 778.</ref>

The Strasburg pie is mentioned in [[William Makepeace Thackeray]]'s novel ''Vanity Fair'' as being popular with the diplomatic corps.<ref>William Makepeace Thackeray, ''Vanity Fair'', Ch. 9.</ref>

[[T.S. Eliot]]'s poem "The Ad-Dressing of Cats", part of ''[[Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats]]'' and also the last song in its musical adaptation ''[[Cats (musical)|Cats]]'', contains the line "And you might now and then supply/Some caviar or Strasbourg pie".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Webber |first1=Andrew Lloyd |title=Cats : the songs from the musical |date=30 June 1981 |publisher=Faber Music |isbn=978-0881882001 |page=109 }}</ref>

Capt. Aubrey and Dr. Maturin enjoy a "Strasburg pie" in [[Patrick O'Brian]]'s 1988 Napoleonic sea adventure ''[[The Letter of Marque]].''<ref>O'Brian, Patrick, ''The Letter of Marque'' (Collins 1988), p. 189 https://books.google.com/books?id=au_T3vsNPIcC&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=aubrey+maturin+letter+marque+strasbourg+pie&source=bl&ots=x5oLRJfEjI&sig=ACfU3U2mEYmadvnFM3RFYdUTW-C6yPCneA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjg7-W6rvzpAhU2RzABHYrcDHkQ6AEwAXoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=aubrey%20maturin%20letter%20marque%20strasbourg%20pie&f=false</ref>

===Hot preparations===
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Pâté de foie gras, canned | kJ=1933 | fat=43.84 g | carbs=4.67 g | fiber=0.0 g | protein=11.40 g | niacin_mg=2.51 | thiamin_mg=0.088 | riboflavin_mg=0.299 | vitA_ug=1001 | sodium_mg=697 | right=1}}
Given the increased internationalization of cuisines and food supply, ''foie gras'' is increasingly found in hot preparations not only in the United States, but in France and elsewhere. Duck foie gras ("''foie gras de canard''") has slightly lower fat content and is generally more suitable in texture to cooking at high temperature than is goose foie gras ("''foie gras d'oie''"), but chefs have been able to cook goose ''foie gras'' employing similar techniques developed for duck, albeit with more care.

Raw foie gras can be roasted, sauteed, pan-seared (''poêlé'') or (with care and attention), grilled. As foie gras has high fat content, contact with heat needs to be brief and therefore at high temperature, lest it burn or melt. Optimal structural integrity for searing requires the foie gras to be cut to a thickness between 15 and 25 mm (½ – 1 inch), resulting in a rare, uncooked center. Some chefs prefer not to devein the foie gras, as the veins can help preserve the integrity of the fatty liver. It is increasingly common to sear the ''foie gras'' on one side only, leaving the other side uncooked. Practitioners of [[molecular gastronomy]] such as [[Heston Blumenthal]] of [[The Fat Duck]] restaurant first flash-freeze foie gras in [[liquid nitrogen]] as part of the preparation process.<ref name=cryo>{{cite news
|newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]
|first=Louise
|last=Schwartzkoff
|date=2 February 2010
|title=Books – The Fat Duck Cookbook by Heston Blumenthal
|type=Book review
|url=http://www.liquidnitrogen.com.au/liquid-nitrogen-articles/2010/2/2/books/}}</ref>

Hot foie gras requires minimal spices; typically black pepper, paprika (in Hungary) and salt. Chefs have used [[fleur de sel]] as a gourmet seasoning for hot foie gras to add an "important textural accent" with its crunch.<ref name=sel>''Nation's Restaurant News'', 2004.</ref>

===Consumption===
Foie gras is regarded as a gourmet luxury dish.<ref>Serventi 1993, ''cover text''.</ref> In France, it is mainly consumed on special occasions, such as Christmas or New Year's Eve ''[[réveillon]]'' dinners, though the recent increased availability of foie gras has made it a less exceptional dish.<ref name="telegraph.co.uk">{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/3308864/The-goose-is-getting-fat.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/3308864/The-goose-is-getting-fat.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | work=The Daily Telegraph | location=London | title=The goose is getting fat Politically incorrect it may be, but foie gras is storming British menus. Anwer Bati reports | date=1 November 2003 | access-date=2 May 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In some areas of France ''foie gras'' is eaten year-round.

Duck foie gras is the slightly cheaper<ref name="telegraph.co.uk"/> and, since a change of production methods in the 1950s to battery, by far the most common kind, particularly in the US. The taste of duck foie gras is often referred to as musky with a subtle bitterness. Goose foie gras is noted for being less gamey and smoother, with a more delicate flavor.<ref>''... goose liver is more delicate and less gamey tasting that its duck equivalent'' '''France: World Food By Stephen Fallon, Michael Rothschild {{ISBN|1-86450-021-2}}, {{ISBN|978-1-86450-021-9}} page 49'''</ref>

==Animal welfare==
{{World laws on foie gras production}}
[[Image:Mulard duck being force fed corn in order to fatten its liver for foie gras production.jpg|thumb|250px|Gavage feeding]]
Gavage-based foie gras production is [[Foie gras controversy|controversial]] due to the animal welfare consequences of the force-feeding procedure, intensive housing and husbandry, an enlarged liver and the potential for being detrimental to human health. Some countries find foie gras to be "morally objectionable".<ref name="DeSoucey">{{cite journal|doi=10.1177/0003122410372226|journal=American Sociological Review|year=2010|volume=75|issue=3|pages=432–455|title=Gastronationalism food traditions and authenticity politics in the European Union|author=DeSoucey, M.|s2cid=29005152}}</ref>{{which|date=January 2016}} One EU committee report noted that up to 1998, there was only a small number of scientific studies on the welfare of birds used for foie gras production; however, the Committee found sufficient evidence to conclude that "force-feeding, as currently practised, is detrimental to the welfare of the birds".<ref name="EU" /> The industry repeatedly faces accusations of torture and cruelty.<ref name="DeSoucey2016">{{cite book|author=DeSoucey, M.|year=2016|title=Contested Tastes: Foie Gras and the Politics of Food|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref>

===Suitability of breeds and species===
The production of foie gras occurs on the argument that migrating wildfowl seasonally eat such that their liver naturally enlarges. However, the bird used predominantly in foie gras production is a hybrid of a male Muscovy duck and a female Pekin duck. It has been noted that the Muscovy duck is non-migratory,<ref name="Hoffmann, 1992a">{{cite journal|author=Hoffmann, E.|year=1992|title=A natural history of Cairina moschata, the wild Muscovy duck.|journal= 9th International Symposium of Waterfowl|pages=217–219}}</ref> and both the Pekin and the mulard hybrid cannot fly.<ref name="Hoffmann, 1992b">{{cite journal|author=Hoffmann, E.|year=1992|title=Hybrid progeny from Muscovy and domestic ducks|journal= 9th International Symposium of Waterfowl|pages=64–66}}</ref> Domestic ducks (including the Pekin) are derived from the [[mallard]] duck, which is sometimes migratory and sometimes not. Therefore, although the domestic goose might well be adapted to store food before migration, it is less likely that the Mulard hybrid duck has the same potential.<ref name="EU" />

===Force-feeding procedure===

====Fear====
Geese and ducks show [[avoidance behaviour]] (indicating aversion) toward the person who feeds them and the feeding procedure.<ref name="EU" /><ref name="AVMA" /> Although an EU committee in 1998 reported seeing this aversion, they noted that at the time, there was no "conclusive" scientific evidence on the aversive nature of force-feeding.<ref name="EU">{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=Report of the EU Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese }} {{small|(277 KB)}}</ref> The AVMA (Animal Welfare Division) when considering foie gras production stated "The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems to be more prone than its parent breeds to fear of people".<ref name="AVMA" />

====Injury====
An EU committee in 1998<ref name="EU"/> reported that there was usually clear evidence of tissue damage in the esophagus of birds which had been gavage fed, although one 1972 study cited by the report observed no alteration of the esophageal tissue. More recent scientific studies have shown that the esophagus of birds can be injured or inflamed by gavage feeding.<ref name="Skippon" /><ref name="AVMA" /><ref name="Kozák">{{cite journal|title=Foie gras production: pros and cons in the light of animal protection.|
author=Kozák, J.|journal=Journal of Animal Welfare, Ethology and Housing Systems|year=2011|volume=7|issue=3|pages=200–209}}</ref><ref name="Servière">{{cite journal|title=Neurogenic inflammation in the upper digestive tract of the mule duck: effect of a chemical algogen and force-feeding|journal=British Poultry Science|volume=52|issue=6|year=2011|doi=10.1080/00071668.2011.640660|pmid=22221246|authors=Servière, J., Carriere, M., Duvaux-Ponter, C. Guy, G. and Roussel, S.|pages=792–799|s2cid=41132302|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01000594/file/51557_20120320104312631_1.pdf}}</ref>

====Stress====
After measuring a range of physiological parameters in male Mulard ducks, it was concluded in one study that the acute stress caused by force feeding is similar at the beginning and end of the commercial production of foie gras.<ref name="Flaments">{{cite journal|journal=British Poultry Science|volume=53|issue=4|year=2012|title=Corticosterone, cortisol, triglycerides, aspartate aminotransferase and uric acid plasma concentrations during foie gras production in male mule ducks (Anas platyrhynchos × Cairina moschata)|doi=10.1080/00071668.2012.711468|pmid=23130574|author=Flamenta, A., Delleura, V., Poulipoulisa, A. and Marliera, D.|pages=408–413|s2cid=22716210}}</ref> A similar study on Muscovy ducks found that gavage feeding was related to an increase in panting behaviour and serum corticosterone levels, indicating increased stress attributable to this feeding method.<ref name="Mohammed">{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Advanced Veterinary Research|volume=4|issue=4|year=2014|title=Force feeding as a stress factor on Muscovy ducks|author=Mohammed, A.A.A., Abdel-Rahman, M. and Darwish, M.H.A.}}</ref>

===Housing and husbandry===
In France, at the end of 2015, individual cages were prohibited to improve animal welfare. They were to be replaced by cages housing 4 to 5 birds.<ref name="Marie" />

====Behavioural restriction====
During the force-feeding period, the birds are kept in individual cages, with wire or plastic mesh floors, or sometimes in small groups on slatted floors. Individual caging restricts movements and behaviours by preventing the birds from standing erect, turning around, or flapping their wings. Birds cannot carry out other natural waterfowl behaviours, such as bathing and swimming.<ref name="Skippon"/> Furthermore, ducks and geese are social animals and individual cages prevent such interactions.<ref name="EU" />

During the force feeding period, when the birds are not being fed, they are sometimes kept in near-darkness; this prevents normal investigatory behaviour and results in poor welfare.<ref name="EU" />

====Injury====
Lesions can occur on the [[sternum]] of the birds due to [[necrosis]] of the skin. This is observed more frequently in birds reared in cages rather than on the floor. The prevalence is higher in Mulard ducks (40–70%) compared to under 6% in Muscovy ducks. This is due to the larger pectoralis profundus major and minor muscles in Muscovy ducks compared to Mulards.<ref name="EU" /> The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems more prone to developing lesions in the area of the sternum when kept in small cages, and to bone breakage during transport and slaughter.<ref name="AVMA" />

Where ducks are fattened in group pens, it has been suggested that the increased effort required to capture and restrain ducks in pens might cause them to experience more stress during force feeding. Injuries and fatalities during transport and slaughter occur in all types of poultry production, however, fattened ducks are more susceptible to conditions such as heat stress.

===Enlarged liver===
Foie gras production results in the bird's liver being swollen. In some species of ducks, liver size changes seasonally, increasing by as much as 30% to 50%, with more pronounced changes in females. However, foie gras production enlarges the livers up to 10 times (or 1,000%) their normal size.<ref name="Skippon" /><ref name="AVMA" /> This impairs liver function due to the obstruction of blood flow and expands the abdomen, making it difficult for the birds to breathe.<ref name="AVMA">{{cite web|url=https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/LiteratureReviews/Pages/Foie-Gras-Production-Backgrounder.aspx#references|title=Welfare Implications of Foie Gras Production|year=2014|publisher=American Veterinary Medical Association|access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref> Death occurs if the force-feeding is continued.<ref name="Viva">{{cite web|url=http://www.viva.org.uk/sites/default/files/2014_mini_foiegras_factsheet_1.pdf|title=Torture in a tin: Viva! foie-gras fact sheet|publisher=Viva!|year=2014|access-date=14 February 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214203009/http://www.viva.org.uk/sites/default/files/2014_mini_foiegras_factsheet_1.pdf|archive-date=14 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="EU" />

===Mortality rates===
The mortality rate in force-fed birds varies from 2% to 4%, compared with approximately 0.2% in age-matched, non-force-fed drakes.<ref name="Skippon">{{cite journal|title=The animal health and welfare consequences of foie gras production.|author=Skippon, W.|journal=Canadian Veterinary Journal|year=2013|volume=54|issue=4|pages=403–404|pmc=3595949|pmid=24082171}}</ref> Mortality rates do not differ between the force-feeding period and the previous rearing phase, with both being approximately 2.5%.<ref name="Marie">{{cite web|title=Genetics and selection of ducks in France|author=Marie-Etancelin, C., Chapuis, H., Brun, J.M., Larzul, C., Mialon-Richard, M.M. and Rouvier, R.|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267324850|access-date=25 May 2015}}</ref>

==Controversy==
{{Further|Foie gras controversy}}
The controversial nature of foie gras production was identified in a paper that juxtaposed the views of "foie gras production as the apotheosis of murderous meat production, and those who consider it to be a co-production between humans and animals".<ref name="Heath">{{cite journal|title=The naturecultures of foie gras: techniques of the body and a contested ethics of care.|author1=Heath, D. |author2=Meneley, A|journal=Food, Culture and Society|volume=13|issue=3|year=2010|pages=421–452|doi=10.2752/175174410x12699432701024|s2cid=152347835 }}</ref>

Animal rights and welfare advocates such as Animal Equality <ref>{{Cite web |title=Ban Foie Gras |url=https://animalequality.org.uk/act/ban-force-feeding |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Animal Equality UK |language=en-GB}}</ref>, [[PETA]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goveg.com/feat/foie/|title=How to Go Vegan}}</ref> [[Vegetarians' International Voice for Animals|Viva!]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.viva.org.uk/campaigns/foiegras/index.html|title=Viva! – Vegetarians International Voice for Animals|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130119003317/http://www.viva.org.uk/campaigns/foiegras/index.html|archive-date=19 January 2013}}</ref> and [[the Humane Society of the United States]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsus.org/farm/camp/ffa/foie_gras.html|title=Foie Gras|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622145557/http://www.hsus.org/farm/camp/ffa/foie_gras.html|archive-date=22 June 2007}}</ref> contend that foie gras production methods, and force-feeding in particular, constitute cruel and inhumane treatment of animals.

An [[Ipsos MORI]] poll found that 63% of the UK population would like to see a complete ban on the sale of foie gras in the UK.<ref name="Milne">{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/emma-milne/foie-gras-ban_b_2048704.html|work=The Huffington Post|title=Sixty-three per cent of the British public wants foie gras banned|author=Milne, E.|year=2012|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref>

In 2011 and 2012, Animal Equality conducted investigations inside four foie gras farms in France and five in Spain, exposing the cruelty of force-feeding<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ban Foie Gras |url=https://animalequality.org.uk/act/ban-force-feeding |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Animal Equality UK |language=en-GB}}</ref>. The footage collected reveals ducks covered in blood with broken and torn beaks, birds kept in small metal cages with no room to turn around, and ducks and geese desperately struggling to avoid force-feeding.

In April–May 2013, an investigator from [[Mercy for Animals]] recorded undercover video at [[Hudson Valley Foie Gras|Hudson Valley Foie Gras farm]] in New York state. The video showed workers forcefully pushing tubes down ducks' throats. One worker said of the force-feeding process: "Sometimes the duck doesn't get up and it dies. There have been times that 20 ducks were killed." Hudson Valley operations manager Marcus Henley replied that the farm's mortality statistics are not above average for the poultry industry.<ref name=Tepper2013>{{cite news|last=Tepper|first=Rachel|title=Undercover Foie Gras Footage Shot at Hudson Valley Foie Gras Alleges Cruel Practices (VIDEO)|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/12/undercover-foie-gras-video-hudson-valley_n_3429492.html|access-date=3 April 2014|newspaper=Huffington Post|date=12 June 2013}}</ref> Because Hudson Valley provides foie gras to Amazon.com, Mercy for Animals began a campaign urging Amazon to stop selling foie gras, a move that has already been made by [[Costco]], [[Safeway Inc.|Safeway]], and [[Target Corporation|Target]].<ref name=Zara2013>{{cite news|last=Zara|first=Christopher|title=Amazon Urged To Ban Foie Gras: Animal-Rights Group Calls Retailer A Lame Duck Over Controversial Food|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/amazon-urged-ban-foie-gras-animal-rights-group-calls-retailer-lame-duck-over-controversial-food|access-date=3 April 2014|newspaper=International Business Times|date=12 June 2013}}</ref>

In November 2013, the ''[[Daily Mirror]]'' published a report based on the video they obtained depicting cruelty towards ducks in a farm owned by French firm Ernest Soulard, which is a supplier to celebrity chef [[Gordon Ramsay]]'s restaurants. The restaurant chain suspended purchasing from the supplier following the exposé.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/video-cruelty-chef-gordon-ramsays-2688593|title=VIDEO: Cruelty of chef Gordon Ramsay's foie gras supplier exposed in shocking footage|author=Andy Lines|date=8 November 2013|work=mirror}}</ref>

=== Animal research ===
The process of force-feeding can make animals sick by stressing the liver. If the stress is prolonged, excess protein may build up and clump together as amyloids, consumption of which has been found to induce [[amyloidosis]] in laboratory mice. It has been hypothesized this may be a route of transmission in humans too and so be a risk for people with inflammatory complaints such as [[rheumatoid arthritis]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2010.08.004|title=Prion-like aggregates: Infectious agents in human disease|year=2010|last1=Westermark|first1=Gunilla T.|last2=Westermark|first2=Per|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine|volume=16|issue=11|pages=501–7|pmid=20870462 |type=Review |quote=AA amyloidosis can theoretically be transmitted to humans by the same route; thus, such food might constitute a hazard for individuals with chronic inflammatory disorders such as RA.}}</ref>

=== Legislation and bans ===
{{Further|Foie gras controversy#Statutory and voluntary bans}}
A number of countries and regions have laws against force-feeding or the sale or importation of foie gras, and even where it is legal some retailers have ceased to sell it.<ref name="AmazonUKban">{{cite web|publisher=The Bugle|url=http://issuu.com/thebugle/docs/nov_2013/10|date=November 2013|title=Amazon bans foie gras|access-date=13 March 2015 |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref name="FortnumMason">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/18/fortnum-mason-foie-gras-protest|title=Fortnum and Mason faces celebrity battle over its sale of 'cruel' foie gras |journal=The Guardian |date=18 December 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015|last1=Doward |first1=Jamie |last2=Owen |first2=Jemima }}</ref><ref name="harveynichols">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6930411.stm|title=Harvey Nichols bans 'cruel' pate|publisher=BBC|date=3 August 2007|access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref>

In 2017, foie gras production was banned in [[Brussels]], a largely symbolic measure because of the small number of producers within the city limits. Belgium is one of a number of countries that continues to produce foie gras legally.<ref name="Feedblix">{{cite web|title=Foie Gras production banned in Brussels|url=http://feedblix.com/foie-gras-production-banned-brussels/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321052928/http://feedblix.com/foie-gras-production-banned-brussels/|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 March 2017|access-date=26 March 2017|publisher=Feedblix|date=20 March 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Food}}
* [[Shen Zhu]] – the fattening of pigs in manner similar to gavage
* [[Delicacy#Delicacies|List of delicacies]]
* [[List of duck dishes]]
* [[Ortolan bunting]]
* [[Specialty foods]]
* [[Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease]], with homologous pathophysiologic aspects

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
;Books
{{Refbegin}}
*''Larousse Gastronomique'', by Prosper Montagne (Ed.), Clarkson Potter, 2001. {{ISBN|0-609-60971-8}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Alford
| first=Katherine
| title=Caviar, Truffles, and Foie Gras
| publisher=Chronicle Books
| year=2001
| isbn=978-0-8118-2791-1
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Bett
| first=Henry
| title=Wanderings Among Words
| publisher=Kessinger Publishing
| year=2003
| isbn=978-0-7661-7792-5
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Davidson
| first=Alan
| title=The Oxford Companion to Food
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| year=1999
| isbn=978-0-19-211579-9
| url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00davi_0
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Faas
| first=Patrick
| title=Around the Table of the Romans: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome
| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan
| year=2002
| isbn=978-0-312-23958-9
| url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312239589
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Giacosa
| first=Ilaria Gozzini
| title=A Taste of Ancient Rome
| publisher=University of Chicago Press
| year=1994
| isbn=978-0-226-29032-4
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Ginor
| first=Michael A.
| title=Foie Gras: A Passion
| publisher=John Wiley & Sons
| year=1999
| isbn=978-0-471-29318-7
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Langslow
| first=David R.
| title=Medical Latin in the Roman Empire
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| year=2000
| isbn=978-0-19-815279-8
}}.
* {{Cite journal
| last=Littré
| first=Maximilien Paul Emile
| title=Histoire de la langue française: Études sur les origines, l'étymologie, la grammaire
| publisher=Didier
| year=1863
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=McGee
| first=Harold
| title=On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen
| publisher=Scribner
| year=2004
| isbn=978-0-684-80001-1
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Serventi
| first=Silvano
| title=La grande histoire du foie gras
| publisher=Flammarion
| year=1993
| isbn=978-2-08-200542-5
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Toussaint-Samat
| first=Maguelonne
| title=History of Food
| publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional
| year=1994
| isbn=978-0-631-19497-2
| url-access=registration
| url=https://archive.org/details/historyoffood0000tous
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Walter
| first=Henriette
| title=French Inside Out: The French Language Past and Present
| publisher=Routledge
| year=2006
| isbn=978-0-415-07670-8
| url-access=registration
| url=https://archive.org/details/frenchinsideoutw0000walt
}}.

;Articles
* {{cite journal
|first=Florence
|last=Fabricant
|title=Peppering with salt: chefs find favor with gourmet versions of common seasoning
|journal=Nation's Restaurant News
|year=2004
|volume=38
|issue=9
|page=36}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/video-cruelty-chef-gordon-ramsays-2688593 Video of foie gras production.]

===Scientific studies===
* Report of the EU Scientific {{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}

===Alternatives===
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6301715.stm Foie Gras without force-feeding]
* [http://news.scotsman.com/uk.cfm?id=1883412007 Faux Gras – "Foie Gras Without The Cruelty"]
* [https://www.aviwell.fr/en/discovery/ Foie Gras history and using microbiome manipulation without forced feeding]
* [http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/dan_barber_s_surprising_foie_gras_parable.html Chef Dan Barber tells the story of a small farm in Spain that has found a humane way to produce foie gras]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090813080505/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1915601,00.html Can Ethical Foie Gras Happen in America?] TIME, 12 August 2009

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Foie Gras}}
[[Category:Foie gras| ]]
[[Category:Cruelty to animals]]
[[Category:Force-feeding]]
[[Category:French cuisine]]
[[Category:Liver (food)]]
[[Category:Occitan cuisine]]
[[Category:Offal]]
[[Category:Poultry dishes]]
[[Category:Spreads (food)]]

Foie gras

2022-05-19T17:13:32Z

72.142.115.198:

{{Short description|French culinary dish}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Foie gras
| image = Foie gras en cocotte.jpg
| image_size = 5000px
| caption = Foie gras with mustard seeds and green beans in duck ''[[Au jus|jus]]''
| alternate_name =
| country = Canada
| region = ([[Yukon]], [[Toronto]])
| creator = John Cena
| course =
| type = Whole, [[mousse]], [[parfait]], or [[Spread (food)|spread]]
| served =
| main_ingredient = [[Liver (food)|Liver]] of a [[Domestic duck|duck]] or [[Domestic goose|goose]]
| variations =
| calories =
| other =
}}

[[Image:Mulard (1).jpg|thumb|right|260px|A [[Mulard]] duck, the hybrid used most frequently for foie gras production]]
'''Foie gras''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|audio=En-us-foie gras.ogg|ˌ|f|w|ɑː|ˈ|ɡ|r|ɑː}}, {{IPA-fr|fwa ɡʁɑ|lang}}; {{langnf||French|[[wikt:gras#Noun_6|fat]] liver}}) is a [[Specialty foods|specialty food]] product made of the [[liver]] of a [[Domestic duck|duck]] or [[Domestic goose|goose]]. According to French law,<ref>French rural code [http://legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do;jsessionid=943EF0198AA70E691D551179EB5E5A83.tpdjo05v_3?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006584967&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006071367&dateTexte=20091223 Code rural – Article L654-27-1]: "{{lang|fr|On entend par foie gras, le foie d'un canard ou d'une oie spécialement engraissé par gavage.}}" ("'Foie gras' is understood to mean the liver of a duck or a goose that has been especially fattened by gavage").</ref> foie gras is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by [[gavage]] (force feeding).

Foie gras is a popular and well-known [[delicacy]] in [[French cuisine]]. Its flavour is described as rich, buttery, and delicate, unlike that of an ordinary duck or goose liver. Foie gras is sold whole or is prepared into [[mousse]], [[parfait]], or [[pâté]], and may also be served as an accompaniment to another food item, such as steak. French law states that "Foie gras belongs to the protected cultural and gastronomical heritage of France."<ref>French rural code [https://archive.today/20120903131017/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnArticleDeCode?commun=&code=CRURALNL.rcv&art=L654-27-1 L654-27-1]</ref>

The technique of gavage dates as far back as [[25th century BC|2500 BC]], when the [[ancient Egyptians]] began keeping birds for food and deliberately fattened the birds through force-feeding.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/domesticated_animals.htm|title=Ancient Egypt: Farmed and domesticated animals|access-date=10 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216063505/http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/domesticated_animals.htm|archive-date=16 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though there are producers and markets worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and China.<ref name="npr.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11118706|title=A Global Taste Test of Foie Gras and Truffles}}</ref>

[[Foie gras controversy|Gavage-based foie gras production is controversial]], due mainly to the animal welfare concerns about force-feeding, intensive housing and husbandry, and enlarging the liver to 10 times its usual volume. A number of countries and jurisdictions have laws against force-feeding, as well as the production, import, or sale of foie gras. Even where it is legal, a number of retailers decline to stock it.

==History==
[[Image:Egyptiangeesefeeding.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[bas relief]] depiction of overfeeding geese]]

===Ancient times===
As early as 2500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned that many birds could be fattened through forced overfeeding and began this practice. Whether they particularly sought the fattened livers of birds as a delicacy remains undetermined.<ref name="McGee_1">{{Harv|McGee|2004|p=167}}: "''Foie gras is the "fat liver" of force-fed geese and ducks. It has been made and appreciated since Roman times and probably long before; the force-feeding of geese is clearly represented in Egyptian art from 2500 BC.''"</ref><ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1">{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=425}}.</ref> In the [[necropolis]] of [[Saqqara]], in the tomb of [[Mereruka]], an important royal official, there is a [[bas relief]] scene wherein workers grasp geese around the necks in order to push food down their throats. At the side stand tables piled with more food pellets, and a flask for moistening the feed before giving it to the geese.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1" /><ref name="Ginor_1">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=2}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200104/living.with.the.animals.htm|title=Saudi Aramco World : Living With the Animals|access-date=29 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061229125957/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200104/living.with.the.animals.htm|archive-date=29 December 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The practice of goose fattening spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean.<ref name="Alford_1">{{Harv|Alford|2001|p=36}}.</ref> The earliest reference to fattened geese is from the 5th century BC Greek poet [[Cratinus]], who wrote of geese-fatteners, yet Egypt maintained its reputation as the source for fattened geese. When the [[Sparta]]n king [[Agesilaus]] visited Egypt in 361 BC, he noted Egyptian farmers fattened geese and calves.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1" /><ref name="Ginor_2">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=3}}.</ref>

It was not until the Roman period, however, that foie gras is mentioned as a distinct food, which the Romans named ''iecur ficatum'';<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sagar|first1=Khan|title=About the history of foie gras|url=https://www.foiegrasgourmet.com/en/the-foie-gras-history|access-date=27 February 2017|work=foiegrasgourmet.com|publisher=Foie Gras Gourmet|date=12 February 2015|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ginor_3">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=4}}.</ref><ref name="Giacosa_1">{{Harv|Giacosa|1994|p=13}}.</ref> ''iecur'' means [[liver]]<ref name="Langslow_1">{{Harv|Langslow|2000|p=153}}: "''A second instance of the restriction of the sense of a Latin anatomical term to animals is ''iecur'' 'the liver' in Theodorus and Cassius. In both, the human liver is always ''hepar'', while ''iecur'' is used of an animal (...)''"</ref> and ''ficatum'' derives from ''[[ficus]]'', meaning fig in [[Latin]].<ref>"Ficus,i" (...) Derivés: (...) ''ficatum'' n. (sc. iecur): d'abord terme de cuisine "foie garni de figues", cf. Hor., S. 2, 8, 88, ''ficis pastum iecur anseris albae'', calque du gr. συκωτόν de même sens, puis, dans le langage populaire, simplement "foie" (...) et passé avec ce sens dans les langues romanes, où ficatum a remplacé ''iecur''. A. Ernout, A. Meillet, ''Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue latine'', Éd. Klincksieck, Paris 1979.</ref> The emperor [[Elagabalus]] fed his dogs on foie gras during the four years of his reign.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_5">{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=426}}.</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] (1st century AD) credits his contemporary, Roman gastronome [[Marcus Gavius Apicius]], with feeding dried figs to geese in order to enlarge their livers:

{{Quote
|
"Apicius made the discovery, that we may employ the same artificial method of increasing the size of the liver of the sow, as of that of the goose; it consists in cramming them with dried figs, and when they are fat enough, they are drenched with wine mixed with honey and immediately killed."
|
Pliny the Elder, ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', Book VIII. Chapter 77<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin//ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+8.77 Pliny the Elder, ''The Natural History''] (eds. [[John Bostock (physician)|John Bostock]], [[Henry Thomas Riley]]). {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050213035835/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ |date=13 February 2005 }} For the original Latin text, see here [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/8*.html]. The Latin text (ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff) of Perseus Digital Library places the corresponding text in a wrong chapter. URL accessed 30 December 2006.</ref>
}}

Hence, the term ''iecur ficatum'', fig-stuffed liver; feeding figs to enlarge a goose's liver may derive from Hellenistic Alexandria, since much of [[Roman luxury cuisine]] was of Greek inspiration.<ref name="Faas_1">{{Harv|Faas|2002|p=19}}</ref> ''Ficatum'' was closely associated with animal liver and it became the [[Root (linguistics)|root word]] for "liver"<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Yakov |last1=Malkiel |author-link=Yakov Malkiel |year=1944 |title=The Etymology of Portuguese Iguaria |journal=Language |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=108–30 |jstor=410151 |doi=10.2307/410151}}</ref> in each of these languages: ''foie'' in French,<ref name="Walter_1">{{Harv|Walter|2006|p=40}}: "''(...) for example, why it is not the word JECUR (a Latin word taken from the Greek) which has come down to us with the meaning of 'liver', but the Romance word ''ficato'', which has become the French ''foie''. The word ''ficato'' is formed on the Latin word FICUS 'fig', and would appear to have nothing to do with the 'liver' other than the Greeks, followed by the Romans, fattened their geese with figs to obtain particularly fleshy and tasty livers. The FICATUM JECUR or 'fig-fattened goose liver', which was very much sought after, must have become such a common expression that it was shortened to FICATUM (just as the modern French say ''frites'' as an abbreviation of ''pommes de terre frites''). To begin with, the word FICATUM probably designated only edible animal livers, with its meaning then being extended to include the human organ.''"</ref> ''hígado'' in Spanish, ''fígado'' in Portuguese, ''fegato'' in Italian, ''fetge'' in Catalan and Occitan and ''ficat'' in Romanian, all meaning "liver"; this etymology has been explained in different manners.<ref name="Littré_1">{{Harv|Littré|1863|p=137}}: "''Feûte n'est pas mieux fait que ''foie''; seulement, il conserve le ''t'' du Latin; car on sait que ''foie'' vient de ''ficatum'' (foie d'une oie nourrie de figues, et, de là, foie en général). ''Foie'' en français, ''feûte'' en wallon, ''fetge'' en provençal, ''fégato'' en italien, ''hígado'' en espagnol, ''fígado'' en portugais, témoignent que la bouche romane déplaça l'accent du mot Latin, et, au lieu de ''ficátum'', qui est la prononciation régulière, dit, par anomalie, ''fícatum'' avec l'accent sur l'antépénultième.''"</ref><ref>[http://www.etimo.it/?term=fegato&find=Cerca Dizionario etimologico online: fégato].</ref>

===Postclassical Europe===
After the fall of the Roman empire, goose liver temporarily vanished from European cuisine. Some claim that Gallic farmers preserved the foie gras tradition until the rest of Europe rediscovered it centuries later, but the medieval French peasant's food animals were mainly pig and sheep.<ref name="Ginor_5">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=8}}.</ref> Others claim that the tradition was preserved by the Jews, who learned the method of enlarging a goose's liver during the Roman colonisation of [[Judea]]<ref name="Ginor_6">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=9}}.</ref> or earlier from Egyptians.<ref name="Davidson_1">{{Harv|Davidson|1999|p=311}}: "''The enlarged liver has been counted a delicacy since classical times, when the force-feeding of the birds was practised in classical Rome. It is commonly said that the practice dates back even further, to ancient Egypt, and that knowledge of it was possibly acquired by the Jews during their period of 'bondage' there and transmitted by them to the classical civilizations.''"</ref> The Jews carried this culinary knowledge as they migrated farther north and west to Europe.<ref name="Ginor_6"/>

The Judaic dietary law, [[Kashrut]], forbade [[lard]] as a cooking medium, and butter, too, was proscribed as an alternative since Kashrut also prohibited mixing meat and dairy products.<ref name="Alford_1" /> Jewish cuisine used [[olive oil]] in the Mediterranean, and [[sesame oil]] in [[Babylonia]], but neither cooking medium was readily available in Western and Central Europe, so poultry fat (known in Yiddish as ''[[schmaltz]]''), which could be abundantly produced by overfeeding geese, was substituted in their stead.<ref name="Ginor_6" /><ref name="Alford_2">{{Harv|Alford|2001|p=37}}.</ref><ref name="momentmag.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.momentmag.com/foie-gras-indelicate-delicacy/|title=Foie Gras: The Indelicate Delicacy|author=Eileen Lavine|work=Moment Magazine|date=2013-11-18}}</ref> The delicate taste of the goose's liver was soon appreciated; [[Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof]] of [[Kassel]] wrote in 1562 that the Jews raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some [[Rabbi]]s were concerned that eating forcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions. Some rabbis contended that it is not a forbidden food ([[treyf]]) as none of its limbs are damaged and the geese did not feel any pain in their throats from the process.<ref name="momentmag.com" /> This matter remained a debated topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste for goose liver declined in the 19th century.<ref name="Ginor_6" /> Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, is that even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before being considered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that; however, as liver is regarded as "(almost) wholly blood", broiling is the only way of kashering. Properly broiling a foie gras while preserving its delicate taste is difficult, and therefore rarely practised. Even so, there are restaurants in Israel that offer grilled goose foie gras. Foie gras also bears resemblance to the Jewish food staple, chopped liver.<ref name="momentmag.com"/>

[[Image:Scappi.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Bartolomeo Scappi]]
Appreciation of fattened goose liver spread to gastronomes outside the Jewish community, who could buy in the local Jewish [[ghetto]] of their cities. In 1570, [[Bartolomeo Scappi]], chef de cuisine to [[Pope Pius V]], published his cookbook ''Opera'', wherein he writes that "the liver of [a] domestic goose raised by the Jews is of extreme size and weighs [between] two and three pounds".<ref name="Ginor_7">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=11}}.</ref> In 1581, [[Marx Rumpolt]] of [[Mainz]], chef to several German nobles, published the massive cookbook ''Ein Neu Kochbuch'', describing that the Jews of [[Bohemia]] produced livers weighing more than three pounds; he lists recipes for it—including one for goose liver [[mousse]].<ref name="Ginor_7"/><ref name="Toussaint-Samat_6">{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=427}}.</ref> János Keszei, chef to the court of [[Michael I Apafi|Michael Apafi]], the prince of [[Transylvania]], included foie gras recipes in his 1680 cookbook ''A New Book About Cooking'', instructing cooks to "envelop the goose liver in a calf's thin skin, bake it and prepare [a] green or [a] brown sauce to accompany it. I used goose liver fattened by Bohemian Jews, its weight was more than three pounds. You may also prepare a mush of it."

==Production and sales==
{{Update|section|reason=Figures are not up to date, table is very dated by now|date=March 2019}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|-
! Country
! Production (tons, 2005)
! % of total (2005)
! Production (tons, 2014)
! % of total (2014)<ref name="Viva" />
|-
| France
| 18,450<ref name=xinhua>{{cite news | title = China to boost foie gras production | url = http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-04/11/content_4409586.htm | date = 11 April 2006 | access-date = 12 March 2007 | publisher = Xinhua online | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070602122944/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-04/11/content_4409586.htm | archive-date = 2 June 2007}}</ref>
| 78.5%
| 19,608<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/766863/production-liver-fat-volume-world/|title=Foie gras: world production by country 2014 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2019-05-02}}</ref>
| 74.3%
|-
| Hungary
| 1,920<ref name=xinhua/>
| 8.2%
|2,590<ref name=":0" />
| 10.2%
|-
| Bulgaria
| 1,500<ref name=xinhua/>
| 6.4%
|2,600<ref name=":0" />
| 10.2%
|-
| United States
| 340 (2003)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.starchefs.com/features/food_debates/foie_gras/index.shtml|title=Foie Gras Food Debate on StarChefs}}</ref>
| 1.4%
|250<ref name=":0" />
| 0.9%
|-
| Canada
| 200 (2005)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mapaq.gouv.qc.ca/NR/rdonlyres/A8B635A2-01C6-40B1-8CE3-B628A2C17F2F/5950/Bioclips13n18.pdf |title=Bio Clips: L'actualité bioalimentaire |publisher=[[Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Quebec)]] ({{lang|fr|italics=no|direction des études économiques et d'appui aux filières)}}|access-date=2008-02-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228004632/http://www.mapaq.gouv.qc.ca/NR/rdonlyres/A8B635A2-01C6-40B1-8CE3-B628A2C17F2F/5950/Bioclips13n18.pdf |archive-date=28 February 2008}}</ref>
| 0.9%
|200<ref name=":0" />
| 0.8%
|-
| China
| 150<ref name=xinhua/>
| 0.6%
|500<ref name=":0" />
| 0.6%
|-
| Others
| 940
| 4.0%
|648<ref name=":0" />
|1.9%
|-
! Total
! 23,500<ref name=xinhua/>
! 100%
!26,396<ref name=":0" />
!100%
|}

In the 21st century, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced and consumed in several other countries worldwide, particularly in some other European nations, the United States, and China.<ref name="npr.org"/> Approximately 30,000 people work in the French foie gras industry, with 90% of them residing in the Périgord ([[Dordogne]]), [[Aquitaine]] in the southwest, and [[Alsace]] in the east.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Edworthy|first=Niall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E1KjDQAAQBAJ&q=30%2C000+people+work+in+the+French+foie+gras+industry&pg=PT123|title=The Curious Bird Lover's Handbook|date=2017-03-23|publisher=Transworld|isbn=978-1-4735-4399-7|language=en}}</ref> The European Union recognizes the foie gras produced according to traditional farming methods (''label rouge'') in southwestern France with a [[protected geographical indication]].{{Cn|date=August 2021}}

Hungary is the world's second-largest foie gras (''libamáj'') producer and the largest exporter. France is the principal market for Hungarian foie gras – mainly exported raw. Approximately 30,000 Hungarian goose farmers are dependent on the foie gras industry.<ref name="Hungary">{{cite web|url=http://www.cee-foodindustry.com/news/ng.asp?id=49055-hungary-facing-foie|title=Food Ingredients & Food Science – Additives, Flavours, Starch|work=FoodNavigator.com}}</ref> French food companies spice, process, and cook the foie gras so it may be sold as a French product in its domestic and export markets.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3346185.stm |work=BBC News | title=Hungary foie gras farms under threat | date=12 January 2004 | access-date=2 May 2010 | first=Nick | last=Thorpe}}</ref>

===2005===
In 2005, France produced 18,450 tonnes of foie gras (78.5% of the world's estimated total production of 23,500 tonnes), of which 96% was duck liver and 4% goose liver. Total French consumption of foie gras in this year was 19,000 tonnes.<ref name=xinhua/> In 2005, Hungary, the world's second-largest foie gras producer, exported 1,920 tonnes<ref name="Hungary" /> and Bulgaria produced 1,500 tons of foie gras.<ref name=xinhua/>

The demand for foie gras in the Far East is such that China has become a sizeable producer.<ref>{{cite web |title=Foie Gras |url=http://www.esdaw.eu/foie-gras.html |website=European Society of Dog and Animal Welfare |access-date=17 October 2018}}</ref> Madagascar is a small but rapidly growing producer of high quality foie gras.<ref>Rakotomalala, M. [http://www.lexpressmada.com/elevage-madagascar/43302-la-filiere-foie-gras-se-porte-bien.html Élevage – La filière foie gras se porte bien] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928041904/http://www.lexpressmada.com/elevage-madagascar/43302-la-filiere-foie-gras-se-porte-bien.html |date=28 September 2013 }}. Express de Madagascar. No. 5632. 15 May 2013.</ref>

===2011===
In 2011 in Bulgaria (which started production in 1960), 5 million mule ducks were raised for foie gras on 800 farms, making Bulgaria the second-largest producer in Europe.<ref name="Marinova">{{cite journal|author1=Marinova‐Petkova, A.|author2=Georgiev, G.|author3=Petkov, T.|author4=Darnell, D.|author5=Franks, J.|author6=Kayali, G.|author7=McKenzie, P.|year=2016|title=Influenza surveillance on 'foie gras' duck farms in Bulgaria, 2008–2012|journal=[[Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses]]|volume=10|issue=2|pages=98–108|doi=10.1111/irv.12368|pmid=26663739|pmc=4746559}}</ref>

===2012===
In 2012, France produced approximately 19,000 tonnes of foie gras, representing 75% of the world's production in that year. This required the force-feeding of around 38 million ducks and geese.<ref name="Guardian2012">{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|title=Foie gras: French farmers defend 'tradition' after ban in California|author=Willsher, K.|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/aug/05/french-foie-gras-farmers-fight-ban|date=5 August 2012|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref> World production in 2015 is estimated as 27,000 tonnes.<ref name="VIVA2014">{{cite web|title=Torture in a tin: Viva! foie-gras fact sheet|url=http://www.viva.org.uk/resources/campaign-materials/fact-sheets/torture-tin-viva-foie-gras-fact-sheet|access-date=28 May 2015|date=2015-07-21}}</ref>

===2014–2015===
In 2014, the whole of the EU produced approximately 25,000 tonnes of foie gras – 23,000 tonnes of duck foie gras and 2,000 tonnes of goose foie gras.<ref name="EU2014">{{cite web|title=The foie gras sector in a few figures|publisher=Euro Foie Gras|url=http://www.eurofoiegras.com/en/page/figures_p135/|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref> The same year, France was producing 72% of world foie gras production, of which 97% was from ducks.<ref name="Francois">{{cite journal |pmid=24976256 |doi=10.1021/jf5006963 |journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]] |date=2014 |volume=62 |issue=29 |pages=7140–7150 |title=Mule duck 'foie gras' show different metabolic states according to their quality phenotypes by using a proteomic approach. Comparison of 2 statistical methods|last1=François|first1=Y. |last2=Marie-Etancelin|first2=C. |last3=Vignal|first3=A.|last4=Viala|first4=D. |last5=Davail|first5=S. |last6=Molette|first6=C.}}</ref>

In 2014, France produced 19,608 tons of foie gras (74.3% of the world's estimated total production).<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Foie Gras with Hawthorn.jpeg|thumb|Foie gras served with hawthorn puree at a restaurant in [[Beijing]]]]

In 2015, it was reported that in France, sales of foie gras may be waning and an OpinionWay poll found that 47% of the French population supported a ban on force-feeding.<ref name="Telegraph 2015">{{cite news|newspaper=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11363488/First-foie-gras-trial-under-way-in-France.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11363488/First-foie-gras-trial-under-way-in-France.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=First foie gras trial under way in France|author=Samuel, H.|year=2015|access-date=28 May 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Huffington2015">{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/mimi-bekhechi/foie-gras-cruelty-charges-long-overdue_b_6955232.html|work=The Huffington Post|year=2015|title=Cruelty charges long overdue for foie gras farmers|author=Bekhechi, M.|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref>

===2015–2016===
{{Update section|date=July 2019}}
In 2016, it was reported that France produces an estimated 75% of the world's foie gras and southwestern France produces approximately 70% of that total. In 2016, it can retail for upwards of $65 a pound.<ref name="Houck">{{cite news|title=France places temporary ban on foie gras production|author=Houck, B.|date=12 May 2016|access-date=23 July 2016|publisher=Eater|url=http://www.eater.com/2016/5/12/11662702/france-ban-foie-gras-production-bird-flu}}</ref>

In late 2015, there were several outbreaks of the highly contagious [[Influenza A virus subtype H5N1|H5N1 bird flu]] in France, which escalated during 2016. This led to Algeria, China, Egypt, Japan, Morocco, South Korea, Thailand and Tunisia banning French poultry exports, including foie gras, and France to initiate increased bio-security protocols which will cost an estimated 220 million euros. One of these measures was the halting of production in southwestern France from early April, 2016 for an anticipated period of three months to reduce the spread of the virus. Exports of foie gras from France are expected to decrease from 4,560 tonnes in 2015 to 3,160 tonnes in 2016.<ref name="Houck" /><ref name="Samuel">{{cite news|author=Samuel, H.|date=29 June 2016|access-date=23 July 2016|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/29/french-foie-gras-faces-soaring-prices-at-christmas-in-wake-of-bi/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/29/french-foie-gras-faces-soaring-prices-at-christmas-in-wake-of-bi/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=French foie gras faces soaring prices at Christmas in wake of bird flu scare|newspaper=The Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Rousseau">{{cite news|title=Fear in France as bird flu spreads|author=Rousseau, O.|url=http://www.globalmeatnews.com/Safety-Legislation/Fear-in-France-as-bird-flu-spreads|access-date=23 July 2016|date= 10 December 2015|publisher=GlobalMeat news.com}}</ref>

In the United States, the largest producer is Hudson Valley Foie Gras, which uses approximately 350,000 ducks each year.<ref name="DeSoucey2016" />

==Forms==
{{More citations needed|section|date=August 2021}}
[[File:Foie gras DSC00180.jpg|thumb|An entire foie gras (ready for cooking in a [[Terrine (cookware)|terrine]])]]
[[Image:Moulard Duck Foie Gras with Pickled Pear.jpg|thumb|A Moulard duck foie gras torchon with pickled pear]]
In France, foie gras exists in different, legally defined presentations, ordered by expense:<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/texteconsolide/ADHQG.htm Decree 93-999 August 9, 1993] defining legal categories and terms for foie gras in France</ref>

* {{lang|fr|foie gras entier}} ("whole foie gras"), made of one or two whole liver lobes; either {{lang|fr|cuit}} ("cooked"), {{lang|fr|mi-cuit}} ("semi-cooked"), or {{lang|fr|frais}} ("fresh");
* {{lang|fr|foie gras}}, made of pieces of livers reassembled together;
* {{lang|fr|bloc de foie gras}}, a fully cooked, moulded block composed of 98% or more foie gras; if termed {{lang|fr|avec morceaux}} ("with pieces"), it must contain at least 50% foie gras pieces for goose, and 30% for duck.

Additionally, there is {{lang|fr|pâté de foie gras}}, {{lang|fr|mousse de foie gras}} (either must contain 50% or more foie gras), {{lang|fr|parfait de foie gras}} (must contain 75% or more foie gras), and other preparations (no legal obligation established).

Fully cooked preparations are generally sold in either glass containers or metal cans for long-term preservation. Whole, fresh foie gras is usually unavailable in France outside the Christmas period, except in some producers' markets in the producing regions. Frozen whole foie gras sometimes is sold in French supermarkets.

Whole foie gras is readily available from gourmet retailers in Canada, the United States, Hungary, Argentina and regions with a sizeable market for the product. In US, raw foie gras is classified as Grade A, B or C. Grade A is typically the highest in fat and especially suited for low-temperature preparation, because the veins are relatively few and the resulting terrine will be more aesthetically appealing because it displays little blood. Grade B is accepted for higher temperature preparation, because the higher proportion of protein gives the liver more structure after being seared. Grade C livers are generally reserved for making sauces as well as other preparations where a higher proportion of blood-filled veins will not impair the appearance of the dish.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

==Production methods==
===Species, breeds and sex used===

====Geese====
Traditionally, foie gras was produced from special breeds of geese. However, by 2004, geese accounted for less than 10% of the total global foie gras production<ref name="Guémené">{{cite journal|title=The past, present and future of force-feeding and 'foie gras' production|author1=Guémené D. |author2=Guy, G.|journal=World's Poultry Science Journal|volume=60|issue=2|year=2004|pages=210–222|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=601276&fileId=S0043933904000194|doi=10.1079/wps200414}}</ref> and by 2014 only 5% of total French production.<ref name="CIFOG">{{cite web|title=Foie gras production|url=http://foiegras-factsandtruth.com/breeding/palmipeds|year=2014|publisher=CIFOG|access-date=27 May 2015}}</ref> Goose breeds used in modern foie gras production are primarily the grey Landes goose (''Anser anser'')<ref name="CIFOG" /> and the [[Toulouse goose]].<ref name="Ravo">{{cite news| url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802E0DB1639F937A1575AC0A96E958260 | work=The New York Times | title=A Cornucopia of Native Foie Gras; Partners' Efforts Produce Menu Delicacy in Abundance | first=Nick | last=Ravo | date=24 September 1998 | access-date=2 May 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.patrimoine-biologique.midipyrenees.fr/fiche.asp?FK_cat_animal=1&page=2 Toulouse Goose] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111194101/http://www.patrimoine-biologique.midipyrenees.fr/fiche.asp?FK_cat_animal=1&page=2 |date=11 November 2007 }} Pyrenees Biological Academy (in French)</ref>{{Better source needed|date=February 2015}}

In 2016, Hungary was producing 80% of the world's goose foie gras; however, production rates are likely to drop in 2017 due to outbreaks of bird flu.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hungary's foie gras industry down with flu as millions of birds die|agency=Reuters|author=Than, K.|date=25 January 2017|access-date=26 January 2017|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/hungarys-foie-gras-industry-down-flu-millions-birds-141848197.html}}</ref>

====Ducks====
In 2014, ducks accounted for 95% of foie gras production.<ref name="CIFOG" /> The breeds primarily used are the [[Muscovy duck]] (''Cairina moschata'')<ref name="CIFOG" /> (also called the Barbary duck) and the hybrid cross of a male Muscovy duck and a female [[American Pekin duck|Pekin duck]] (''Anas platyrhynchos domestica'') called the [[Mulard]] duck.<ref name="CIFOG" /> This hybrid is sterile and is therefore sometimes referred to as a "mule" duck. Mulards are estimated to account for about 35% of all foie gras consumed in the US.<ref name="Skippon" /> About 95% of duck foie gras production from France comes from force-fed Mulards, and the remaining 5% from the Muscovy duck.<ref name="Marie" />

After hatching, the Mulard ducklings are sexed. Males put on more weight than females, so the females are [[Chick culling|slaughtered]].

===Physiological basis===
[[File:28-gavage-foie-gras-cages-individuelles-France-2012.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Individual cages are used in some farms producing foie gras.]]
The basis of foie gras production is the ability that some [[waterfowl]] have to expand their esophagus and to gain weight, particularly in the liver,{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} in preparation for migration.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=EU Report }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}, section 4</ref> Wild geese may consume 300 grams of protein and another 800 grams of grasses per day. Farmed geese allowed to graze on carrots adapt to eating 100 grams of protein, but may consume up to 2500 grams of the carrots per day. The increasing amount of feed given prior to force-feeding and during the force-feeding itself cause expansion of the lower part of the esophagus.<ref name="Skippon" />

====Pre-feeding phase====
The pre-force feeding phase consists of three stages.<ref name="CIFOG" />
*The first stage ("start-up") lasts from 1 to 28 days of age (0–4 weeks). During this stage, the young birds are housed in large, indoor groups (e.g. 2,100<ref name="Marie" />), usually on straw.
*The second stage ("growth") lasts from 28 to 63 days of age (4–9 weeks). The birds are moved outside to feed on grasses ''ad libitum''. The birds are given additional feed, but access to this is limited by time. This stage aims to take advantage of the natural dilation capacity of the esophagus of some wildfowl.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=EU Report }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}} EU Scientific Report, p19</ref>
*The third stage ("pre-fattening") lasts from 63 to 90 days of age (9–13 weeks). The birds are brought inside for gradually longer periods while introduced to a high starch diet. This is a feeding transition where the food is distributed by meals, first in restricted amount and time and thereafter greatly increased.

====Feeding phase====
The next production phase, which the French call {{lang|fr|gavage}} or {{lang|fr|finition d'engraissement}}, or "completion of fattening", involves forced daily ingestion of controlled amounts of feed for 12 to 15 days with ducks and for 15 to 18 days with geese. During this phase, ducks are usually fed twice daily while geese are fed up to three times daily. To facilitate handling of ducks during gavage, these birds are typically housed throughout this phase in individual cages or small group pens.

Typical foie gras production involves force-feeding birds more food than they would eat in the wild, and much more than they would voluntarily eat domestically.<ref>"[https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/safety/docs/sci-com_scah_out17_en.pdf Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese]", p. 29</ref>

[[File:Foie gras - gavage in Rocamadour, France.jpg|thumb|Modern {{lang|fr|gavage}} feeding process]]
In modern production, the bird is typically fed a controlled amount of feed, depending on the stage of the fattening process, the bird's weight, and the amount of feed the bird last ingested.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tours.inra.fr/sra/internet/images/equipes/comportement/foiefras/Diapositive4.jpg|title=tours.inra.fr|access-date=24 September 2017}}</ref> At the start of production, a bird might be fed a dry weight of {{convert|250|g|0}} of food per day and up to {{convert|1000|g}} (in dry weight) by the end of the process. The actual amount of food force-fed is much greater, because the birds are fed a mash with a composition of about 53% dry and 47% liquid (by weight). This is the equivalent to around 1,900 grams per day in total mass.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00071660120088489 |title=Force-feeding procedure and physiological indicators of stress in male mule ducks |year=2001 |last1=Guémené |first1=D. |last2=Guy |first2=G. |last3=Noirault |first3=J. |last4=Garreau-Mills |first4=M. |last5=Gouraud |first5=P. |last6=Faure |first6=J. M. |journal=British Poultry Science |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=650–657 |pmid=11811918 |s2cid=9966682 }}</ref>

The feed is administered using a funnel fitted with a long tube (20–30 cm long), which forces the feed into the bird's esophagus. If an [[auger (drill)|auger]] is used, the feeding takes about 45 to 60 seconds, however, modern systems usually use a tube fed by a pneumatic pump with an operation time of 2 to 3 seconds per duck. During feeding, efforts are made to avoid damaging the bird's esophagus, which could cause injury or death, although researchers have found evidence of inflammation of the walls of the proventriculus after the first session of force-feeding.<ref>Serviere, J, Bernadet, MD and Guy, G. 2003. "Is nociception a sensory component associated to force-feeding? Neurophysiological approach in the mule duck". 2nd World Waterfowl Conference. Alexandria, Egypt</ref> There is also indication of inflammation of the esophagus in the later stages of fattening.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.avma.org/reference/backgrounders/foie_gras_bgnd.asp|title=Foie Gras Production Backgrounder|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425174224/http://www.avma.org/reference/backgrounders/foie_gras_bgnd.asp|archive-date=25 April 2009}}</ref> Several studies have also demonstrated that mortality rates can be significantly elevated during the gavage period.<ref name="EU Report">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf|title=Animal welfare - Food Safety - European Commission}}</ref><ref>Koehl, PF and Chinzi, D. 1996. "Les resultats technico-economiques des ateliers de palmidpedes a foie gras de 1987 a 1994". 2eme journees de la recherche sur les palmipedes a foie gras. 75.</ref><ref>Chinzi, D and Koehl, PF. 1998. "Caracteristiques desateliers d'elevage et de gavage de canards et mulards. Relations avec les performances et techniques et economiques". Proceedings des 3eme journees de la recherche sur les palmipedes a foie gras. 107.</ref>

The feed, usually corn boiled with fat (to facilitate ingestion), deposits large amounts of fat in the liver, thereby producing the buttery consistency sought by some [[Epicure (gourmet)|gastronome]]s.

Ducks reared for foie gras are typically slaughtered at 100 days of age and geese at 112 days.<ref name="Viva" /> At this time, the bird's liver is 6 to 10 times its ordinary size.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=EU Report }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}, p60</ref> Storage of fat in the liver produces [[steatosis]] of the liver cells.

===Alternative production===
Fattened liver can be produced by alternative methods without gavage, and this is often referred to either as "fatty goose liver" or as foie gras (outside France), though it does not conform to the French legal definition. This method involves timing the slaughter to coincide with the winter migration, when livers are naturally fattened.<ref name="Sousa">{{cite web|url=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/markets/europe/article1265675.ece|title=Login}}</ref>

The winner of the Coup de Coeur award at the [[SIAL Paris|Salon International d'Alimentation]], SIAL 2006, [[Patería de Sousa]] produces fattened livers without force-feeding.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ted.com/talks/dan_barber_s_surprising_foie_gras_parable.html |title= Dan Barber: A foie gras parable |last= Barber |first= Dan |author-link= Dan Barber |date=November 2008 |publisher= [[TED (conference)|TED]] |format= video of a talk |access-date= 2014-01-14 |quote= I love [foie gras].}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/jan/14/can-foie-gras-ever-be-ethical|title = Can foie gras ever be ethical? |date=14 January 2015 |newspaper = The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date= 2006-10-16 |title= El Salón Internacional de la Alimentación de París, SIAL 2006, reconoce a la empresa extremeña 'La Patería de Sousa' |trans-title=The International Food Exposition in Paris, SIAL 2006, recognizes the Extremadura company "La Patería de Sousa" |url= http://www.regiondigital.com/modulos/mod_periodico/pub/mostrar_noticia.php?id=47071 |url-status= dead |department= Economia |newspaper= Extremadura Press |language= es |location= [[Badajoz]], Spain |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071128130319/http://www.regiondigital.com/modulos/mod_periodico/pub/mostrar_noticia.php?id=47071 |archive-date= 2007-11-28 |access-date= 2014-01-16 |quote= La entidad ha recibido el Premio "Coups de Coeur", en la categoría de Foie Gras, tras presentar a concurso su especialidad, única en el mundo, Foie Gras de Ganso Ibérico de alimentación ecológica y no forzada. [The company has been awarded the "Coups de Coeur" award in the Foie Gras category, after entering into the competition its specialty, unique in the world, of Foie Gras from Iberian geese that eat organic food and are not force-fed.]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.stopgavage.com/en/node/39 |title= Foie gras sans gavage au salon de l'alimentation |date= December 2006 |website= Stop Gavage |publisher= L214 |location= [[Marignane]], France |language= fr}}</ref> This has only recently been produced commercially, and is a very small fraction of the market.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

Producers outside France do not always force-feed birds to produce fattened livers considered to be foie gras, instead allowing them to eat freely, termed ''ad libitum''. Interest in alternative production methods has grown recently due to [[foie gras controversy|ethical concerns]] in gavage-based foie gras production. Such livers are alternatively termed fatty goose liver, ethical foie gras, or humane foie gras. The British supermarket chain [[Waitrose]] also provides a version of ethical foie gras which it calls (and has been trademarked) ''faux gras''.<ref>{{cite news|author=Morris|first=Sophie|date=13 January 2012|title=IS IT EVER OK TO EAT FOIE GRAS?|work=[[The Independent]]|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/it-ever-ok-eat-foie-gras-6289019.html|access-date=28 December 2020}}</ref> This is not to be confused with the American product by the same name, produced by Regal Vegan, which has the US trademark for ''faux gras'', and is actually a vegan, nut-based spread.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.regalvegan.com/site/products/faux-gras/|title=FAUX GRAS™ « the Regal Vegan}}</ref>

The term ''ethical foie gras'' or ''humane foie gras'' is also used for gavage-based foie gras production that is more concerned with the animal's welfare (using rubber hoses rather than steel pipes for feeding). Others have expressed skepticism at these claims of humane treatment,<ref>{{cite news |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/25/dining/25foie.html |title=Foie Gras Makers Struggle to Please Critics and Chefs |first=Juliet |last=Glass |date=25 April 2007}}</ref> as earlier attempts to produce fattened livers without gavage have not produced satisfactory results.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/themes/animal-welfare/news-detail/en/c/20463/ |title=Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese |year=1998 |chapter=Alternative Methods of Production |page=57 |author=Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}</ref>

A more humane version of foie gras was pioneered in the Spanish region of [[Extremadura]], whereby the bird is tricked into preparing for migration rather than force-fed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/18/the-farmer-who-makes-ethical-foie-gras|title=The farmer who makes 'ethical' foie gras|journal=The Guardian|first=Dan|last=Barber|date=18 January 2015}}</ref>

More radical approaches have been studied. A duck or goose with a [[Ventromedial nucleus|ventromedian hypothalamic]] (VMH) lesion will tend not to feel satiated after eating, and will therefore eat more than a non-lesioned animal. By producing such lesions surgically, it is possible to increase the bird's food consumption when permitted to eat ''ad libitum'', by a factor of more than two.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1051/rnd:19800413 |title=Effect of induced hypothalamic hyperphagia and forced-feeding on organ weight and tissular development in Landes geese |year=1980 |last1=Felix |first1=Bernadette |last2=Auffray |first2=P. |last3=Marcilloux |first3=J. C. |last4=Royer |first4=L. |journal=Reproduction, Nutrition, Development |volume=20 |issue=3A |pages=709–17 |pmid=6961479 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00897676/document |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Currently, one of the few producers in the world of patented and certified goose- and ducklivers without force-feeding but up to the same standards as the traditional foie gras is the German company Foie Royale.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foodlog.nl/artikel/high-tech-foie-gras-maakt-dwangvoederen-overbodig/|title=High-tech foie gras maakt dwangvoederen overbodig|website=Foodlog|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref> The products of Foie Royale are being used by several [[Michelin star|Michelin star chefs]] throughout the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dierenwelzijnscheck.nl/horecawijzer/bolenius|title=Bolenius|website=DierenwelzijnsCheck|language=nl|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref> Foie Royale developed a process together with the [[German Institute of Food Technologies]] (DIL) to get the same result as the traditional Foie Gras, but without the force-feeding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.volkskrant.nl/gs-be99c7ef|title=Nagemaakte foie gras smelt net zo goed op de tong|last=Dinther|first=Mac van|date=2018-12-20|website=de Volkskrant|language=nl-NL|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref>

Human obesity and microbiome studies led French researchers at a startup company called Aviwell to use probiotic preparations to produce fatty livers in geese over 6 months without forced feeding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://modernfarmer.com/2019/11/this-french-startup-wants-to-be-the-future-of-foie-gras/|title=This French startup wants to be the future of foie gras|first=Lindsay|last=Campbell|date=2019-11-18|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref>

==Preparations==
[[Image:Foie-gras.jpg|thumb|Foie gras with shallots and figs]]
Generally, French preparations of foie gras are made over low heat, as fat melts faster from the traditional goose foie gras than the duck foie gras produced in most other parts of the world. American and other New World preparations, typically employing duck foie gras, have more recipes and dish preparations for serving foie gras hot, rather than cool or cold.

In Hungary, goose foie gras traditionally is fried in goose fat, which is then poured over the foie gras and left to cool; it is also eaten warm, after being fried or roasted, with some chefs smoking the foie gras over a cherry wood fire.

In other parts of the world foie gras is served in dishes such as foie gras [[sushi]] rolls, in various forms of pasta or alongside [[steak tartare]] or atop a [[steak]] as a garnish.

===Cold preparations===
Traditional low-heat cooking methods result in [[Terrine (food)|terrine]]s, ''[[pâté]]s'', [[parfait]]s, [[foam (culinary)|foam]]s and [[mousse]]s of foie gras, often flavored with [[tuber (genus)|truffle]], mushrooms or [[brandy]] such as [[cognac]] or [[Armagnac (drink)|armagnac]]. These slow-cooked forms of ''foie gras'' are cooled and served at or below room temperature.

In a very traditional form of terrine, ''au torchon'' ("in a towel"), a whole lobe of foie is molded, wrapped in a towel and slow-cooked in a ''[[bain-marie]]''. For added flavor (from the [[Maillard reaction]]), the liver may be seared briefly over a fire of [[grape vine]] clippings (''sarments'') before slow-cooking in a bain-marie; afterwards, it is pressed served cold, in slices.

Raw foie gras is also cured in salt ("''cru au sel''"), served slightly chilled.<ref name="Au Pied de Cochon">Au Pied de Cochon. Menu. Montreal. 15 June. 2006.</ref>

===Strasbourg pie===
A pastry containing fatty goose liver and other ingredients is known as the "[[Strasbourg|Strasburg]] pie" since Strasbourg was a major producer of foie gras.<ref>''The New Encyclopædia'', ed. Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck and Frank Moore. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1903): Vol. XIII, 778.</ref>

The Strasburg pie is mentioned in [[William Makepeace Thackeray]]'s novel ''Vanity Fair'' as being popular with the diplomatic corps.<ref>William Makepeace Thackeray, ''Vanity Fair'', Ch. 9.</ref>

[[T.S. Eliot]]'s poem "The Ad-Dressing of Cats", part of ''[[Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats]]'' and also the last song in its musical adaptation ''[[Cats (musical)|Cats]]'', contains the line "And you might now and then supply/Some caviar or Strasbourg pie".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Webber |first1=Andrew Lloyd |title=Cats : the songs from the musical |date=30 June 1981 |publisher=Faber Music |isbn=978-0881882001 |page=109 }}</ref>

Capt. Aubrey and Dr. Maturin enjoy a "Strasburg pie" in [[Patrick O'Brian]]'s 1988 Napoleonic sea adventure ''[[The Letter of Marque]].''<ref>O'Brian, Patrick, ''The Letter of Marque'' (Collins 1988), p. 189 https://books.google.com/books?id=au_T3vsNPIcC&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=aubrey+maturin+letter+marque+strasbourg+pie&source=bl&ots=x5oLRJfEjI&sig=ACfU3U2mEYmadvnFM3RFYdUTW-C6yPCneA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjg7-W6rvzpAhU2RzABHYrcDHkQ6AEwAXoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=aubrey%20maturin%20letter%20marque%20strasbourg%20pie&f=false</ref>

===Hot preparations===
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Pâté de foie gras, canned | kJ=1933 | fat=43.84 g | carbs=4.67 g | fiber=0.0 g | protein=11.40 g | niacin_mg=2.51 | thiamin_mg=0.088 | riboflavin_mg=0.299 | vitA_ug=1001 | sodium_mg=697 | right=1}}
Given the increased internationalization of cuisines and food supply, ''foie gras'' is increasingly found in hot preparations not only in the United States, but in France and elsewhere. Duck foie gras ("''foie gras de canard''") has slightly lower fat content and is generally more suitable in texture to cooking at high temperature than is goose foie gras ("''foie gras d'oie''"), but chefs have been able to cook goose ''foie gras'' employing similar techniques developed for duck, albeit with more care.

Raw foie gras can be roasted, sauteed, pan-seared (''poêlé'') or (with care and attention), grilled. As foie gras has high fat content, contact with heat needs to be brief and therefore at high temperature, lest it burn or melt. Optimal structural integrity for searing requires the foie gras to be cut to a thickness between 15 and 25 mm (½ – 1 inch), resulting in a rare, uncooked center. Some chefs prefer not to devein the foie gras, as the veins can help preserve the integrity of the fatty liver. It is increasingly common to sear the ''foie gras'' on one side only, leaving the other side uncooked. Practitioners of [[molecular gastronomy]] such as [[Heston Blumenthal]] of [[The Fat Duck]] restaurant first flash-freeze foie gras in [[liquid nitrogen]] as part of the preparation process.<ref name=cryo>{{cite news
|newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]
|first=Louise
|last=Schwartzkoff
|date=2 February 2010
|title=Books – The Fat Duck Cookbook by Heston Blumenthal
|type=Book review
|url=http://www.liquidnitrogen.com.au/liquid-nitrogen-articles/2010/2/2/books/}}</ref>

Hot foie gras requires minimal spices; typically black pepper, paprika (in Hungary) and salt. Chefs have used [[fleur de sel]] as a gourmet seasoning for hot foie gras to add an "important textural accent" with its crunch.<ref name=sel>''Nation's Restaurant News'', 2004.</ref>

===Consumption===
Foie gras is regarded as a gourmet luxury dish.<ref>Serventi 1993, ''cover text''.</ref> In France, it is mainly consumed on special occasions, such as Christmas or New Year's Eve ''[[réveillon]]'' dinners, though the recent increased availability of foie gras has made it a less exceptional dish.<ref name="telegraph.co.uk">{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/3308864/The-goose-is-getting-fat.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/3308864/The-goose-is-getting-fat.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | work=The Daily Telegraph | location=London | title=The goose is getting fat Politically incorrect it may be, but foie gras is storming British menus. Anwer Bati reports | date=1 November 2003 | access-date=2 May 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In some areas of France ''foie gras'' is eaten year-round.

Duck foie gras is the slightly cheaper<ref name="telegraph.co.uk"/> and, since a change of production methods in the 1950s to battery, by far the most common kind, particularly in the US. The taste of duck foie gras is often referred to as musky with a subtle bitterness. Goose foie gras is noted for being less gamey and smoother, with a more delicate flavor.<ref>''... goose liver is more delicate and less gamey tasting that its duck equivalent'' '''France: World Food By Stephen Fallon, Michael Rothschild {{ISBN|1-86450-021-2}}, {{ISBN|978-1-86450-021-9}} page 49'''</ref>

==Animal welfare==
{{World laws on foie gras production}}
[[Image:Mulard duck being force fed corn in order to fatten its liver for foie gras production.jpg|thumb|250px|Gavage feeding]]
Gavage-based foie gras production is [[Foie gras controversy|controversial]] due to the animal welfare consequences of the force-feeding procedure, intensive housing and husbandry, an enlarged liver and the potential for being detrimental to human health. Some countries find foie gras to be "morally objectionable".<ref name="DeSoucey">{{cite journal|doi=10.1177/0003122410372226|journal=American Sociological Review|year=2010|volume=75|issue=3|pages=432–455|title=Gastronationalism food traditions and authenticity politics in the European Union|author=DeSoucey, M.|s2cid=29005152}}</ref>{{which|date=January 2016}} One EU committee report noted that up to 1998, there was only a small number of scientific studies on the welfare of birds used for foie gras production; however, the Committee found sufficient evidence to conclude that "force-feeding, as currently practised, is detrimental to the welfare of the birds".<ref name="EU" /> The industry repeatedly faces accusations of torture and cruelty.<ref name="DeSoucey2016">{{cite book|author=DeSoucey, M.|year=2016|title=Contested Tastes: Foie Gras and the Politics of Food|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref>

===Suitability of breeds and species===
The production of foie gras occurs on the argument that migrating wildfowl seasonally eat such that their liver naturally enlarges. However, the bird used predominantly in foie gras production is a hybrid of a male Muscovy duck and a female Pekin duck. It has been noted that the Muscovy duck is non-migratory,<ref name="Hoffmann, 1992a">{{cite journal|author=Hoffmann, E.|year=1992|title=A natural history of Cairina moschata, the wild Muscovy duck.|journal= 9th International Symposium of Waterfowl|pages=217–219}}</ref> and both the Pekin and the mulard hybrid cannot fly.<ref name="Hoffmann, 1992b">{{cite journal|author=Hoffmann, E.|year=1992|title=Hybrid progeny from Muscovy and domestic ducks|journal= 9th International Symposium of Waterfowl|pages=64–66}}</ref> Domestic ducks (including the Pekin) are derived from the [[mallard]] duck, which is sometimes migratory and sometimes not. Therefore, although the domestic goose might well be adapted to store food before migration, it is less likely that the Mulard hybrid duck has the same potential.<ref name="EU" />

===Force-feeding procedure===

====Fear====
Geese and ducks show [[avoidance behaviour]] (indicating aversion) toward the person who feeds them and the feeding procedure.<ref name="EU" /><ref name="AVMA" /> Although an EU committee in 1998 reported seeing this aversion, they noted that at the time, there was no "conclusive" scientific evidence on the aversive nature of force-feeding.<ref name="EU">{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=Report of the EU Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese }} {{small|(277 KB)}}</ref> The AVMA (Animal Welfare Division) when considering foie gras production stated "The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems to be more prone than its parent breeds to fear of people".<ref name="AVMA" />

====Injury====
An EU committee in 1998<ref name="EU"/> reported that there was usually clear evidence of tissue damage in the esophagus of birds which had been gavage fed, although one 1972 study cited by the report observed no alteration of the esophageal tissue. More recent scientific studies have shown that the esophagus of birds can be injured or inflamed by gavage feeding.<ref name="Skippon" /><ref name="AVMA" /><ref name="Kozák">{{cite journal|title=Foie gras production: pros and cons in the light of animal protection.|
author=Kozák, J.|journal=Journal of Animal Welfare, Ethology and Housing Systems|year=2011|volume=7|issue=3|pages=200–209}}</ref><ref name="Servière">{{cite journal|title=Neurogenic inflammation in the upper digestive tract of the mule duck: effect of a chemical algogen and force-feeding|journal=British Poultry Science|volume=52|issue=6|year=2011|doi=10.1080/00071668.2011.640660|pmid=22221246|authors=Servière, J., Carriere, M., Duvaux-Ponter, C. Guy, G. and Roussel, S.|pages=792–799|s2cid=41132302|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01000594/file/51557_20120320104312631_1.pdf}}</ref>

====Stress====
After measuring a range of physiological parameters in male Mulard ducks, it was concluded in one study that the acute stress caused by force feeding is similar at the beginning and end of the commercial production of foie gras.<ref name="Flaments">{{cite journal|journal=British Poultry Science|volume=53|issue=4|year=2012|title=Corticosterone, cortisol, triglycerides, aspartate aminotransferase and uric acid plasma concentrations during foie gras production in male mule ducks (Anas platyrhynchos × Cairina moschata)|doi=10.1080/00071668.2012.711468|pmid=23130574|author=Flamenta, A., Delleura, V., Poulipoulisa, A. and Marliera, D.|pages=408–413|s2cid=22716210}}</ref> A similar study on Muscovy ducks found that gavage feeding was related to an increase in panting behaviour and serum corticosterone levels, indicating increased stress attributable to this feeding method.<ref name="Mohammed">{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Advanced Veterinary Research|volume=4|issue=4|year=2014|title=Force feeding as a stress factor on Muscovy ducks|author=Mohammed, A.A.A., Abdel-Rahman, M. and Darwish, M.H.A.}}</ref>

===Housing and husbandry===
In France, at the end of 2015, individual cages were prohibited to improve animal welfare. They were to be replaced by cages housing 4 to 5 birds.<ref name="Marie" />

====Behavioural restriction====
During the force-feeding period, the birds are kept in individual cages, with wire or plastic mesh floors, or sometimes in small groups on slatted floors. Individual caging restricts movements and behaviours by preventing the birds from standing erect, turning around, or flapping their wings. Birds cannot carry out other natural waterfowl behaviours, such as bathing and swimming.<ref name="Skippon"/> Furthermore, ducks and geese are social animals and individual cages prevent such interactions.<ref name="EU" />

During the force feeding period, when the birds are not being fed, they are sometimes kept in near-darkness; this prevents normal investigatory behaviour and results in poor welfare.<ref name="EU" />

====Injury====
Lesions can occur on the [[sternum]] of the birds due to [[necrosis]] of the skin. This is observed more frequently in birds reared in cages rather than on the floor. The prevalence is higher in Mulard ducks (40–70%) compared to under 6% in Muscovy ducks. This is due to the larger pectoralis profundus major and minor muscles in Muscovy ducks compared to Mulards.<ref name="EU" /> The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems more prone to developing lesions in the area of the sternum when kept in small cages, and to bone breakage during transport and slaughter.<ref name="AVMA" />

Where ducks are fattened in group pens, it has been suggested that the increased effort required to capture and restrain ducks in pens might cause them to experience more stress during force feeding. Injuries and fatalities during transport and slaughter occur in all types of poultry production, however, fattened ducks are more susceptible to conditions such as heat stress.

===Enlarged liver===
Foie gras production results in the bird's liver being swollen. In some species of ducks, liver size changes seasonally, increasing by as much as 30% to 50%, with more pronounced changes in females. However, foie gras production enlarges the livers up to 10 times (or 1,000%) their normal size.<ref name="Skippon" /><ref name="AVMA" /> This impairs liver function due to the obstruction of blood flow and expands the abdomen, making it difficult for the birds to breathe.<ref name="AVMA">{{cite web|url=https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/LiteratureReviews/Pages/Foie-Gras-Production-Backgrounder.aspx#references|title=Welfare Implications of Foie Gras Production|year=2014|publisher=American Veterinary Medical Association|access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref> Death occurs if the force-feeding is continued.<ref name="Viva">{{cite web|url=http://www.viva.org.uk/sites/default/files/2014_mini_foiegras_factsheet_1.pdf|title=Torture in a tin: Viva! foie-gras fact sheet|publisher=Viva!|year=2014|access-date=14 February 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214203009/http://www.viva.org.uk/sites/default/files/2014_mini_foiegras_factsheet_1.pdf|archive-date=14 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="EU" />

===Mortality rates===
The mortality rate in force-fed birds varies from 2% to 4%, compared with approximately 0.2% in age-matched, non-force-fed drakes.<ref name="Skippon">{{cite journal|title=The animal health and welfare consequences of foie gras production.|author=Skippon, W.|journal=Canadian Veterinary Journal|year=2013|volume=54|issue=4|pages=403–404|pmc=3595949|pmid=24082171}}</ref> Mortality rates do not differ between the force-feeding period and the previous rearing phase, with both being approximately 2.5%.<ref name="Marie">{{cite web|title=Genetics and selection of ducks in France|author=Marie-Etancelin, C., Chapuis, H., Brun, J.M., Larzul, C., Mialon-Richard, M.M. and Rouvier, R.|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267324850|access-date=25 May 2015}}</ref>

==Controversy==
{{Further|Foie gras controversy}}
The controversial nature of foie gras production was identified in a paper that juxtaposed the views of "foie gras production as the apotheosis of murderous meat production, and those who consider it to be a co-production between humans and animals".<ref name="Heath">{{cite journal|title=The naturecultures of foie gras: techniques of the body and a contested ethics of care.|author1=Heath, D. |author2=Meneley, A|journal=Food, Culture and Society|volume=13|issue=3|year=2010|pages=421–452|doi=10.2752/175174410x12699432701024|s2cid=152347835 }}</ref>

Animal rights and welfare advocates such as Animal Equality <ref>{{Cite web |title=Ban Foie Gras |url=https://animalequality.org.uk/act/ban-force-feeding |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Animal Equality UK |language=en-GB}}</ref>, [[PETA]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goveg.com/feat/foie/|title=How to Go Vegan}}</ref> [[Vegetarians' International Voice for Animals|Viva!]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.viva.org.uk/campaigns/foiegras/index.html|title=Viva! – Vegetarians International Voice for Animals|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130119003317/http://www.viva.org.uk/campaigns/foiegras/index.html|archive-date=19 January 2013}}</ref> and [[the Humane Society of the United States]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsus.org/farm/camp/ffa/foie_gras.html|title=Foie Gras|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622145557/http://www.hsus.org/farm/camp/ffa/foie_gras.html|archive-date=22 June 2007}}</ref> contend that foie gras production methods, and force-feeding in particular, constitute cruel and inhumane treatment of animals.

An [[Ipsos MORI]] poll found that 63% of the UK population would like to see a complete ban on the sale of foie gras in the UK.<ref name="Milne">{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/emma-milne/foie-gras-ban_b_2048704.html|work=The Huffington Post|title=Sixty-three per cent of the British public wants foie gras banned|author=Milne, E.|year=2012|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref>

In 2011 and 2012, Animal Equality conducted investigations inside four foie gras farms in France and five in Spain, exposing the cruelty of force-feeding<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ban Foie Gras |url=https://animalequality.org.uk/act/ban-force-feeding |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Animal Equality UK |language=en-GB}}</ref>. The footage collected reveals ducks covered in blood with broken and torn beaks, birds kept in small metal cages with no room to turn around, and ducks and geese desperately struggling to avoid force-feeding.

In April–May 2013, an investigator from [[Mercy for Animals]] recorded undercover video at [[Hudson Valley Foie Gras|Hudson Valley Foie Gras farm]] in New York state. The video showed workers forcefully pushing tubes down ducks' throats. One worker said of the force-feeding process: "Sometimes the duck doesn't get up and it dies. There have been times that 20 ducks were killed." Hudson Valley operations manager Marcus Henley replied that the farm's mortality statistics are not above average for the poultry industry.<ref name=Tepper2013>{{cite news|last=Tepper|first=Rachel|title=Undercover Foie Gras Footage Shot at Hudson Valley Foie Gras Alleges Cruel Practices (VIDEO)|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/12/undercover-foie-gras-video-hudson-valley_n_3429492.html|access-date=3 April 2014|newspaper=Huffington Post|date=12 June 2013}}</ref> Because Hudson Valley provides foie gras to Amazon.com, Mercy for Animals began a campaign urging Amazon to stop selling foie gras, a move that has already been made by [[Costco]], [[Safeway Inc.|Safeway]], and [[Target Corporation|Target]].<ref name=Zara2013>{{cite news|last=Zara|first=Christopher|title=Amazon Urged To Ban Foie Gras: Animal-Rights Group Calls Retailer A Lame Duck Over Controversial Food|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/amazon-urged-ban-foie-gras-animal-rights-group-calls-retailer-lame-duck-over-controversial-food|access-date=3 April 2014|newspaper=International Business Times|date=12 June 2013}}</ref>

In November 2013, the ''[[Daily Mirror]]'' published a report based on the video they obtained depicting cruelty towards ducks in a farm owned by French firm Ernest Soulard, which is a supplier to celebrity chef [[Gordon Ramsay]]'s restaurants. The restaurant chain suspended purchasing from the supplier following the exposé.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/video-cruelty-chef-gordon-ramsays-2688593|title=VIDEO: Cruelty of chef Gordon Ramsay's foie gras supplier exposed in shocking footage|author=Andy Lines|date=8 November 2013|work=mirror}}</ref>

=== Animal research ===
The process of force-feeding can make animals sick by stressing the liver. If the stress is prolonged, excess protein may build up and clump together as amyloids, consumption of which has been found to induce [[amyloidosis]] in laboratory mice. It has been hypothesized this may be a route of transmission in humans too and so be a risk for people with inflammatory complaints such as [[rheumatoid arthritis]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2010.08.004|title=Prion-like aggregates: Infectious agents in human disease|year=2010|last1=Westermark|first1=Gunilla T.|last2=Westermark|first2=Per|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine|volume=16|issue=11|pages=501–7|pmid=20870462 |type=Review |quote=AA amyloidosis can theoretically be transmitted to humans by the same route; thus, such food might constitute a hazard for individuals with chronic inflammatory disorders such as RA.}}</ref>

=== Legislation and bans ===
{{Further|Foie gras controversy#Statutory and voluntary bans}}
A number of countries and regions have laws against force-feeding or the sale or importation of foie gras, and even where it is legal some retailers have ceased to sell it.<ref name="AmazonUKban">{{cite web|publisher=The Bugle|url=http://issuu.com/thebugle/docs/nov_2013/10|date=November 2013|title=Amazon bans foie gras|access-date=13 March 2015 |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref name="FortnumMason">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/18/fortnum-mason-foie-gras-protest|title=Fortnum and Mason faces celebrity battle over its sale of 'cruel' foie gras |journal=The Guardian |date=18 December 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015|last1=Doward |first1=Jamie |last2=Owen |first2=Jemima }}</ref><ref name="harveynichols">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6930411.stm|title=Harvey Nichols bans 'cruel' pate|publisher=BBC|date=3 August 2007|access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref>

In 2017, foie gras production was banned in [[Brussels]], a largely symbolic measure because of the small number of producers within the city limits. Belgium is one of a number of countries that continues to produce foie gras legally.<ref name="Feedblix">{{cite web|title=Foie Gras production banned in Brussels|url=http://feedblix.com/foie-gras-production-banned-brussels/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321052928/http://feedblix.com/foie-gras-production-banned-brussels/|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 March 2017|access-date=26 March 2017|publisher=Feedblix|date=20 March 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Food}}
* [[Shen Zhu]] – the fattening of pigs in manner similar to gavage
* [[Delicacy#Delicacies|List of delicacies]]
* [[List of duck dishes]]
* [[Ortolan bunting]]
* [[Specialty foods]]
* [[Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease]], with homologous pathophysiologic aspects

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
;Books
{{Refbegin}}
*''Larousse Gastronomique'', by Prosper Montagne (Ed.), Clarkson Potter, 2001. {{ISBN|0-609-60971-8}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Alford
| first=Katherine
| title=Caviar, Truffles, and Foie Gras
| publisher=Chronicle Books
| year=2001
| isbn=978-0-8118-2791-1
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Bett
| first=Henry
| title=Wanderings Among Words
| publisher=Kessinger Publishing
| year=2003
| isbn=978-0-7661-7792-5
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Davidson
| first=Alan
| title=The Oxford Companion to Food
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| year=1999
| isbn=978-0-19-211579-9
| url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00davi_0
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Faas
| first=Patrick
| title=Around the Table of the Romans: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome
| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan
| year=2002
| isbn=978-0-312-23958-9
| url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312239589
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Giacosa
| first=Ilaria Gozzini
| title=A Taste of Ancient Rome
| publisher=University of Chicago Press
| year=1994
| isbn=978-0-226-29032-4
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Ginor
| first=Michael A.
| title=Foie Gras: A Passion
| publisher=John Wiley & Sons
| year=1999
| isbn=978-0-471-29318-7
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Langslow
| first=David R.
| title=Medical Latin in the Roman Empire
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| year=2000
| isbn=978-0-19-815279-8
}}.
* {{Cite journal
| last=Littré
| first=Maximilien Paul Emile
| title=Histoire de la langue française: Études sur les origines, l'étymologie, la grammaire
| publisher=Didier
| year=1863
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=McGee
| first=Harold
| title=On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen
| publisher=Scribner
| year=2004
| isbn=978-0-684-80001-1
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Serventi
| first=Silvano
| title=La grande histoire du foie gras
| publisher=Flammarion
| year=1993
| isbn=978-2-08-200542-5
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Toussaint-Samat
| first=Maguelonne
| title=History of Food
| publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional
| year=1994
| isbn=978-0-631-19497-2
| url-access=registration
| url=https://archive.org/details/historyoffood0000tous
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Walter
| first=Henriette
| title=French Inside Out: The French Language Past and Present
| publisher=Routledge
| year=2006
| isbn=978-0-415-07670-8
| url-access=registration
| url=https://archive.org/details/frenchinsideoutw0000walt
}}.

;Articles
* {{cite journal
|first=Florence
|last=Fabricant
|title=Peppering with salt: chefs find favor with gourmet versions of common seasoning
|journal=Nation's Restaurant News
|year=2004
|volume=38
|issue=9
|page=36}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/video-cruelty-chef-gordon-ramsays-2688593 Video of foie gras production.]

===Scientific studies===
* Report of the EU Scientific {{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}

===Alternatives===
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6301715.stm Foie Gras without force-feeding]
* [http://news.scotsman.com/uk.cfm?id=1883412007 Faux Gras – "Foie Gras Without The Cruelty"]
* [https://www.aviwell.fr/en/discovery/ Foie Gras history and using microbiome manipulation without forced feeding]
* [http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/dan_barber_s_surprising_foie_gras_parable.html Chef Dan Barber tells the story of a small farm in Spain that has found a humane way to produce foie gras]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090813080505/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1915601,00.html Can Ethical Foie Gras Happen in America?] TIME, 12 August 2009

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Foie Gras}}
[[Category:Foie gras| ]]
[[Category:Cruelty to animals]]
[[Category:Force-feeding]]
[[Category:French cuisine]]
[[Category:Liver (food)]]
[[Category:Occitan cuisine]]
[[Category:Offal]]
[[Category:Poultry dishes]]
[[Category:Spreads (food)]]

Foie gras

2022-05-19T17:08:12Z

72.142.115.198:

{{Short description|French culinary dish}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Foie gras
| image = Foie gras en cocotte.jpg
| image_size = 500px
| caption = Foie gras with mustard seeds and green beans in duck ''[[Au jus|jus]]''
| alternate_name =
| country = Canada
| region = ([[Yukon]], [[Toronto]])
| creator = John Cena
| course =
| type = Whole, [[mousse]], [[parfait]], or [[Spread (food)|spread]]
| served =
| main_ingredient = [[Liver (food)|Liver]] of a [[Domestic duck|duck]] or [[Domestic goose|goose]]
| variations =
| calories =
| other =
}}

[[Image:Mulard (1).jpg|thumb|right|260px|A [[Mulard]] duck, the hybrid used most frequently for foie gras production]]
'''Foie gras''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|audio=En-us-foie gras.ogg|ˌ|f|w|ɑː|ˈ|ɡ|r|ɑː}}, {{IPA-fr|fwa ɡʁɑ|lang}}; {{langnf||French|[[wikt:gras#Noun_6|fat]] liver}}) is a [[Specialty foods|specialty food]] product made of the [[liver]] of a [[Domestic duck|duck]] or [[Domestic goose|goose]]. According to French law,<ref>French rural code [http://legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do;jsessionid=943EF0198AA70E691D551179EB5E5A83.tpdjo05v_3?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006584967&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006071367&dateTexte=20091223 Code rural – Article L654-27-1]: "{{lang|fr|On entend par foie gras, le foie d'un canard ou d'une oie spécialement engraissé par gavage.}}" ("'Foie gras' is understood to mean the liver of a duck or a goose that has been especially fattened by gavage").</ref> foie gras is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by [[gavage]] (force feeding).

Foie gras is a popular and well-known [[delicacy]] in [[French cuisine]]. Its flavour is described as rich, buttery, and delicate, unlike that of an ordinary duck or goose liver. Foie gras is sold whole or is prepared into [[mousse]], [[parfait]], or [[pâté]], and may also be served as an accompaniment to another food item, such as steak. French law states that "Foie gras belongs to the protected cultural and gastronomical heritage of France."<ref>French rural code [https://archive.today/20120903131017/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnArticleDeCode?commun=&code=CRURALNL.rcv&art=L654-27-1 L654-27-1]</ref>

The technique of gavage dates as far back as [[25th century BC|2500 BC]], when the [[ancient Egyptians]] began keeping birds for food and deliberately fattened the birds through force-feeding.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/domesticated_animals.htm|title=Ancient Egypt: Farmed and domesticated animals|access-date=10 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216063505/http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/domesticated_animals.htm|archive-date=16 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though there are producers and markets worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and China.<ref name="npr.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11118706|title=A Global Taste Test of Foie Gras and Truffles}}</ref>

[[Foie gras controversy|Gavage-based foie gras production is controversial]], due mainly to the animal welfare concerns about force-feeding, intensive housing and husbandry, and enlarging the liver to 10 times its usual volume. A number of countries and jurisdictions have laws against force-feeding, as well as the production, import, or sale of foie gras. Even where it is legal, a number of retailers decline to stock it.

==History==
[[Image:Egyptiangeesefeeding.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[bas relief]] depiction of overfeeding geese]]

===Ancient times===
As early as 2500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned that many birds could be fattened through forced overfeeding and began this practice. Whether they particularly sought the fattened livers of birds as a delicacy remains undetermined.<ref name="McGee_1">{{Harv|McGee|2004|p=167}}: "''Foie gras is the "fat liver" of force-fed geese and ducks. It has been made and appreciated since Roman times and probably long before; the force-feeding of geese is clearly represented in Egyptian art from 2500 BC.''"</ref><ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1">{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=425}}.</ref> In the [[necropolis]] of [[Saqqara]], in the tomb of [[Mereruka]], an important royal official, there is a [[bas relief]] scene wherein workers grasp geese around the necks in order to push food down their throats. At the side stand tables piled with more food pellets, and a flask for moistening the feed before giving it to the geese.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1" /><ref name="Ginor_1">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=2}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200104/living.with.the.animals.htm|title=Saudi Aramco World : Living With the Animals|access-date=29 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061229125957/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200104/living.with.the.animals.htm|archive-date=29 December 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The practice of goose fattening spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean.<ref name="Alford_1">{{Harv|Alford|2001|p=36}}.</ref> The earliest reference to fattened geese is from the 5th century BC Greek poet [[Cratinus]], who wrote of geese-fatteners, yet Egypt maintained its reputation as the source for fattened geese. When the [[Sparta]]n king [[Agesilaus]] visited Egypt in 361 BC, he noted Egyptian farmers fattened geese and calves.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1" /><ref name="Ginor_2">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=3}}.</ref>

It was not until the Roman period, however, that foie gras is mentioned as a distinct food, which the Romans named ''iecur ficatum'';<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sagar|first1=Khan|title=About the history of foie gras|url=https://www.foiegrasgourmet.com/en/the-foie-gras-history|access-date=27 February 2017|work=foiegrasgourmet.com|publisher=Foie Gras Gourmet|date=12 February 2015|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ginor_3">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=4}}.</ref><ref name="Giacosa_1">{{Harv|Giacosa|1994|p=13}}.</ref> ''iecur'' means [[liver]]<ref name="Langslow_1">{{Harv|Langslow|2000|p=153}}: "''A second instance of the restriction of the sense of a Latin anatomical term to animals is ''iecur'' 'the liver' in Theodorus and Cassius. In both, the human liver is always ''hepar'', while ''iecur'' is used of an animal (...)''"</ref> and ''ficatum'' derives from ''[[ficus]]'', meaning fig in [[Latin]].<ref>"Ficus,i" (...) Derivés: (...) ''ficatum'' n. (sc. iecur): d'abord terme de cuisine "foie garni de figues", cf. Hor., S. 2, 8, 88, ''ficis pastum iecur anseris albae'', calque du gr. συκωτόν de même sens, puis, dans le langage populaire, simplement "foie" (...) et passé avec ce sens dans les langues romanes, où ficatum a remplacé ''iecur''. A. Ernout, A. Meillet, ''Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue latine'', Éd. Klincksieck, Paris 1979.</ref> The emperor [[Elagabalus]] fed his dogs on foie gras during the four years of his reign.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_5">{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=426}}.</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] (1st century AD) credits his contemporary, Roman gastronome [[Marcus Gavius Apicius]], with feeding dried figs to geese in order to enlarge their livers:

{{Quote
|
"Apicius made the discovery, that we may employ the same artificial method of increasing the size of the liver of the sow, as of that of the goose; it consists in cramming them with dried figs, and when they are fat enough, they are drenched with wine mixed with honey and immediately killed."
|
Pliny the Elder, ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', Book VIII. Chapter 77<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin//ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+8.77 Pliny the Elder, ''The Natural History''] (eds. [[John Bostock (physician)|John Bostock]], [[Henry Thomas Riley]]). {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050213035835/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ |date=13 February 2005 }} For the original Latin text, see here [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/8*.html]. The Latin text (ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff) of Perseus Digital Library places the corresponding text in a wrong chapter. URL accessed 30 December 2006.</ref>
}}

Hence, the term ''iecur ficatum'', fig-stuffed liver; feeding figs to enlarge a goose's liver may derive from Hellenistic Alexandria, since much of [[Roman luxury cuisine]] was of Greek inspiration.<ref name="Faas_1">{{Harv|Faas|2002|p=19}}</ref> ''Ficatum'' was closely associated with animal liver and it became the [[Root (linguistics)|root word]] for "liver"<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Yakov |last1=Malkiel |author-link=Yakov Malkiel |year=1944 |title=The Etymology of Portuguese Iguaria |journal=Language |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=108–30 |jstor=410151 |doi=10.2307/410151}}</ref> in each of these languages: ''foie'' in French,<ref name="Walter_1">{{Harv|Walter|2006|p=40}}: "''(...) for example, why it is not the word JECUR (a Latin word taken from the Greek) which has come down to us with the meaning of 'liver', but the Romance word ''ficato'', which has become the French ''foie''. The word ''ficato'' is formed on the Latin word FICUS 'fig', and would appear to have nothing to do with the 'liver' other than the Greeks, followed by the Romans, fattened their geese with figs to obtain particularly fleshy and tasty livers. The FICATUM JECUR or 'fig-fattened goose liver', which was very much sought after, must have become such a common expression that it was shortened to FICATUM (just as the modern French say ''frites'' as an abbreviation of ''pommes de terre frites''). To begin with, the word FICATUM probably designated only edible animal livers, with its meaning then being extended to include the human organ.''"</ref> ''hígado'' in Spanish, ''fígado'' in Portuguese, ''fegato'' in Italian, ''fetge'' in Catalan and Occitan and ''ficat'' in Romanian, all meaning "liver"; this etymology has been explained in different manners.<ref name="Littré_1">{{Harv|Littré|1863|p=137}}: "''Feûte n'est pas mieux fait que ''foie''; seulement, il conserve le ''t'' du Latin; car on sait que ''foie'' vient de ''ficatum'' (foie d'une oie nourrie de figues, et, de là, foie en général). ''Foie'' en français, ''feûte'' en wallon, ''fetge'' en provençal, ''fégato'' en italien, ''hígado'' en espagnol, ''fígado'' en portugais, témoignent que la bouche romane déplaça l'accent du mot Latin, et, au lieu de ''ficátum'', qui est la prononciation régulière, dit, par anomalie, ''fícatum'' avec l'accent sur l'antépénultième.''"</ref><ref>[http://www.etimo.it/?term=fegato&find=Cerca Dizionario etimologico online: fégato].</ref>

===Postclassical Europe===
After the fall of the Roman empire, goose liver temporarily vanished from European cuisine. Some claim that Gallic farmers preserved the foie gras tradition until the rest of Europe rediscovered it centuries later, but the medieval French peasant's food animals were mainly pig and sheep.<ref name="Ginor_5">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=8}}.</ref> Others claim that the tradition was preserved by the Jews, who learned the method of enlarging a goose's liver during the Roman colonisation of [[Judea]]<ref name="Ginor_6">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=9}}.</ref> or earlier from Egyptians.<ref name="Davidson_1">{{Harv|Davidson|1999|p=311}}: "''The enlarged liver has been counted a delicacy since classical times, when the force-feeding of the birds was practised in classical Rome. It is commonly said that the practice dates back even further, to ancient Egypt, and that knowledge of it was possibly acquired by the Jews during their period of 'bondage' there and transmitted by them to the classical civilizations.''"</ref> The Jews carried this culinary knowledge as they migrated farther north and west to Europe.<ref name="Ginor_6"/>

The Judaic dietary law, [[Kashrut]], forbade [[lard]] as a cooking medium, and butter, too, was proscribed as an alternative since Kashrut also prohibited mixing meat and dairy products.<ref name="Alford_1" /> Jewish cuisine used [[olive oil]] in the Mediterranean, and [[sesame oil]] in [[Babylonia]], but neither cooking medium was readily available in Western and Central Europe, so poultry fat (known in Yiddish as ''[[schmaltz]]''), which could be abundantly produced by overfeeding geese, was substituted in their stead.<ref name="Ginor_6" /><ref name="Alford_2">{{Harv|Alford|2001|p=37}}.</ref><ref name="momentmag.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.momentmag.com/foie-gras-indelicate-delicacy/|title=Foie Gras: The Indelicate Delicacy|author=Eileen Lavine|work=Moment Magazine|date=2013-11-18}}</ref> The delicate taste of the goose's liver was soon appreciated; [[Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof]] of [[Kassel]] wrote in 1562 that the Jews raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some [[Rabbi]]s were concerned that eating forcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions. Some rabbis contended that it is not a forbidden food ([[treyf]]) as none of its limbs are damaged and the geese did not feel any pain in their throats from the process.<ref name="momentmag.com" /> This matter remained a debated topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste for goose liver declined in the 19th century.<ref name="Ginor_6" /> Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, is that even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before being considered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that; however, as liver is regarded as "(almost) wholly blood", broiling is the only way of kashering. Properly broiling a foie gras while preserving its delicate taste is difficult, and therefore rarely practised. Even so, there are restaurants in Israel that offer grilled goose foie gras. Foie gras also bears resemblance to the Jewish food staple, chopped liver.<ref name="momentmag.com"/>

[[Image:Scappi.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Bartolomeo Scappi]]
Appreciation of fattened goose liver spread to gastronomes outside the Jewish community, who could buy in the local Jewish [[ghetto]] of their cities. In 1570, [[Bartolomeo Scappi]], chef de cuisine to [[Pope Pius V]], published his cookbook ''Opera'', wherein he writes that "the liver of [a] domestic goose raised by the Jews is of extreme size and weighs [between] two and three pounds".<ref name="Ginor_7">{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=11}}.</ref> In 1581, [[Marx Rumpolt]] of [[Mainz]], chef to several German nobles, published the massive cookbook ''Ein Neu Kochbuch'', describing that the Jews of [[Bohemia]] produced livers weighing more than three pounds; he lists recipes for it—including one for goose liver [[mousse]].<ref name="Ginor_7"/><ref name="Toussaint-Samat_6">{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=427}}.</ref> János Keszei, chef to the court of [[Michael I Apafi|Michael Apafi]], the prince of [[Transylvania]], included foie gras recipes in his 1680 cookbook ''A New Book About Cooking'', instructing cooks to "envelop the goose liver in a calf's thin skin, bake it and prepare [a] green or [a] brown sauce to accompany it. I used goose liver fattened by Bohemian Jews, its weight was more than three pounds. You may also prepare a mush of it."

==Production and sales==
{{Update|section|reason=Figures are not up to date, table is very dated by now|date=March 2019}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|-
! Country
! Production (tons, 2005)
! % of total (2005)
! Production (tons, 2014)
! % of total (2014)<ref name="Viva" />
|-
| France
| 18,450<ref name=xinhua>{{cite news | title = China to boost foie gras production | url = http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-04/11/content_4409586.htm | date = 11 April 2006 | access-date = 12 March 2007 | publisher = Xinhua online | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070602122944/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-04/11/content_4409586.htm | archive-date = 2 June 2007}}</ref>
| 78.5%
| 19,608<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/766863/production-liver-fat-volume-world/|title=Foie gras: world production by country 2014 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2019-05-02}}</ref>
| 74.3%
|-
| Hungary
| 1,920<ref name=xinhua/>
| 8.2%
|2,590<ref name=":0" />
| 10.2%
|-
| Bulgaria
| 1,500<ref name=xinhua/>
| 6.4%
|2,600<ref name=":0" />
| 10.2%
|-
| United States
| 340 (2003)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.starchefs.com/features/food_debates/foie_gras/index.shtml|title=Foie Gras Food Debate on StarChefs}}</ref>
| 1.4%
|250<ref name=":0" />
| 0.9%
|-
| Canada
| 200 (2005)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mapaq.gouv.qc.ca/NR/rdonlyres/A8B635A2-01C6-40B1-8CE3-B628A2C17F2F/5950/Bioclips13n18.pdf |title=Bio Clips: L'actualité bioalimentaire |publisher=[[Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Quebec)]] ({{lang|fr|italics=no|direction des études économiques et d'appui aux filières)}}|access-date=2008-02-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228004632/http://www.mapaq.gouv.qc.ca/NR/rdonlyres/A8B635A2-01C6-40B1-8CE3-B628A2C17F2F/5950/Bioclips13n18.pdf |archive-date=28 February 2008}}</ref>
| 0.9%
|200<ref name=":0" />
| 0.8%
|-
| China
| 150<ref name=xinhua/>
| 0.6%
|500<ref name=":0" />
| 0.6%
|-
| Others
| 940
| 4.0%
|648<ref name=":0" />
|1.9%
|-
! Total
! 23,500<ref name=xinhua/>
! 100%
!26,396<ref name=":0" />
!100%
|}

In the 21st century, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced and consumed in several other countries worldwide, particularly in some other European nations, the United States, and China.<ref name="npr.org"/> Approximately 30,000 people work in the French foie gras industry, with 90% of them residing in the Périgord ([[Dordogne]]), [[Aquitaine]] in the southwest, and [[Alsace]] in the east.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Edworthy|first=Niall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E1KjDQAAQBAJ&q=30%2C000+people+work+in+the+French+foie+gras+industry&pg=PT123|title=The Curious Bird Lover's Handbook|date=2017-03-23|publisher=Transworld|isbn=978-1-4735-4399-7|language=en}}</ref> The European Union recognizes the foie gras produced according to traditional farming methods (''label rouge'') in southwestern France with a [[protected geographical indication]].{{Cn|date=August 2021}}

Hungary is the world's second-largest foie gras (''libamáj'') producer and the largest exporter. France is the principal market for Hungarian foie gras – mainly exported raw. Approximately 30,000 Hungarian goose farmers are dependent on the foie gras industry.<ref name="Hungary">{{cite web|url=http://www.cee-foodindustry.com/news/ng.asp?id=49055-hungary-facing-foie|title=Food Ingredients & Food Science – Additives, Flavours, Starch|work=FoodNavigator.com}}</ref> French food companies spice, process, and cook the foie gras so it may be sold as a French product in its domestic and export markets.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3346185.stm |work=BBC News | title=Hungary foie gras farms under threat | date=12 January 2004 | access-date=2 May 2010 | first=Nick | last=Thorpe}}</ref>

===2005===
In 2005, France produced 18,450 tonnes of foie gras (78.5% of the world's estimated total production of 23,500 tonnes), of which 96% was duck liver and 4% goose liver. Total French consumption of foie gras in this year was 19,000 tonnes.<ref name=xinhua/> In 2005, Hungary, the world's second-largest foie gras producer, exported 1,920 tonnes<ref name="Hungary" /> and Bulgaria produced 1,500 tons of foie gras.<ref name=xinhua/>

The demand for foie gras in the Far East is such that China has become a sizeable producer.<ref>{{cite web |title=Foie Gras |url=http://www.esdaw.eu/foie-gras.html |website=European Society of Dog and Animal Welfare |access-date=17 October 2018}}</ref> Madagascar is a small but rapidly growing producer of high quality foie gras.<ref>Rakotomalala, M. [http://www.lexpressmada.com/elevage-madagascar/43302-la-filiere-foie-gras-se-porte-bien.html Élevage – La filière foie gras se porte bien] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928041904/http://www.lexpressmada.com/elevage-madagascar/43302-la-filiere-foie-gras-se-porte-bien.html |date=28 September 2013 }}. Express de Madagascar. No. 5632. 15 May 2013.</ref>

===2011===
In 2011 in Bulgaria (which started production in 1960), 5 million mule ducks were raised for foie gras on 800 farms, making Bulgaria the second-largest producer in Europe.<ref name="Marinova">{{cite journal|author1=Marinova‐Petkova, A.|author2=Georgiev, G.|author3=Petkov, T.|author4=Darnell, D.|author5=Franks, J.|author6=Kayali, G.|author7=McKenzie, P.|year=2016|title=Influenza surveillance on 'foie gras' duck farms in Bulgaria, 2008–2012|journal=[[Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses]]|volume=10|issue=2|pages=98–108|doi=10.1111/irv.12368|pmid=26663739|pmc=4746559}}</ref>

===2012===
In 2012, France produced approximately 19,000 tonnes of foie gras, representing 75% of the world's production in that year. This required the force-feeding of around 38 million ducks and geese.<ref name="Guardian2012">{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|title=Foie gras: French farmers defend 'tradition' after ban in California|author=Willsher, K.|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/aug/05/french-foie-gras-farmers-fight-ban|date=5 August 2012|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref> World production in 2015 is estimated as 27,000 tonnes.<ref name="VIVA2014">{{cite web|title=Torture in a tin: Viva! foie-gras fact sheet|url=http://www.viva.org.uk/resources/campaign-materials/fact-sheets/torture-tin-viva-foie-gras-fact-sheet|access-date=28 May 2015|date=2015-07-21}}</ref>

===2014–2015===
In 2014, the whole of the EU produced approximately 25,000 tonnes of foie gras – 23,000 tonnes of duck foie gras and 2,000 tonnes of goose foie gras.<ref name="EU2014">{{cite web|title=The foie gras sector in a few figures|publisher=Euro Foie Gras|url=http://www.eurofoiegras.com/en/page/figures_p135/|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref> The same year, France was producing 72% of world foie gras production, of which 97% was from ducks.<ref name="Francois">{{cite journal |pmid=24976256 |doi=10.1021/jf5006963 |journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]] |date=2014 |volume=62 |issue=29 |pages=7140–7150 |title=Mule duck 'foie gras' show different metabolic states according to their quality phenotypes by using a proteomic approach. Comparison of 2 statistical methods|last1=François|first1=Y. |last2=Marie-Etancelin|first2=C. |last3=Vignal|first3=A.|last4=Viala|first4=D. |last5=Davail|first5=S. |last6=Molette|first6=C.}}</ref>

In 2014, France produced 19,608 tons of foie gras (74.3% of the world's estimated total production).<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Foie Gras with Hawthorn.jpeg|thumb|Foie gras served with hawthorn puree at a restaurant in [[Beijing]]]]

In 2015, it was reported that in France, sales of foie gras may be waning and an OpinionWay poll found that 47% of the French population supported a ban on force-feeding.<ref name="Telegraph 2015">{{cite news|newspaper=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11363488/First-foie-gras-trial-under-way-in-France.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11363488/First-foie-gras-trial-under-way-in-France.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=First foie gras trial under way in France|author=Samuel, H.|year=2015|access-date=28 May 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Huffington2015">{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/mimi-bekhechi/foie-gras-cruelty-charges-long-overdue_b_6955232.html|work=The Huffington Post|year=2015|title=Cruelty charges long overdue for foie gras farmers|author=Bekhechi, M.|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref>

===2015–2016===
{{Update section|date=July 2019}}
In 2016, it was reported that France produces an estimated 75% of the world's foie gras and southwestern France produces approximately 70% of that total. In 2016, it can retail for upwards of $65 a pound.<ref name="Houck">{{cite news|title=France places temporary ban on foie gras production|author=Houck, B.|date=12 May 2016|access-date=23 July 2016|publisher=Eater|url=http://www.eater.com/2016/5/12/11662702/france-ban-foie-gras-production-bird-flu}}</ref>

In late 2015, there were several outbreaks of the highly contagious [[Influenza A virus subtype H5N1|H5N1 bird flu]] in France, which escalated during 2016. This led to Algeria, China, Egypt, Japan, Morocco, South Korea, Thailand and Tunisia banning French poultry exports, including foie gras, and France to initiate increased bio-security protocols which will cost an estimated 220 million euros. One of these measures was the halting of production in southwestern France from early April, 2016 for an anticipated period of three months to reduce the spread of the virus. Exports of foie gras from France are expected to decrease from 4,560 tonnes in 2015 to 3,160 tonnes in 2016.<ref name="Houck" /><ref name="Samuel">{{cite news|author=Samuel, H.|date=29 June 2016|access-date=23 July 2016|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/29/french-foie-gras-faces-soaring-prices-at-christmas-in-wake-of-bi/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/29/french-foie-gras-faces-soaring-prices-at-christmas-in-wake-of-bi/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=French foie gras faces soaring prices at Christmas in wake of bird flu scare|newspaper=The Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Rousseau">{{cite news|title=Fear in France as bird flu spreads|author=Rousseau, O.|url=http://www.globalmeatnews.com/Safety-Legislation/Fear-in-France-as-bird-flu-spreads|access-date=23 July 2016|date= 10 December 2015|publisher=GlobalMeat news.com}}</ref>

In the United States, the largest producer is Hudson Valley Foie Gras, which uses approximately 350,000 ducks each year.<ref name="DeSoucey2016" />

==Forms==
{{More citations needed|section|date=August 2021}}
[[File:Foie gras DSC00180.jpg|thumb|An entire foie gras (ready for cooking in a [[Terrine (cookware)|terrine]])]]
[[Image:Moulard Duck Foie Gras with Pickled Pear.jpg|thumb|A Moulard duck foie gras torchon with pickled pear]]
In France, foie gras exists in different, legally defined presentations, ordered by expense:<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/texteconsolide/ADHQG.htm Decree 93-999 August 9, 1993] defining legal categories and terms for foie gras in France</ref>

* {{lang|fr|foie gras entier}} ("whole foie gras"), made of one or two whole liver lobes; either {{lang|fr|cuit}} ("cooked"), {{lang|fr|mi-cuit}} ("semi-cooked"), or {{lang|fr|frais}} ("fresh");
* {{lang|fr|foie gras}}, made of pieces of livers reassembled together;
* {{lang|fr|bloc de foie gras}}, a fully cooked, moulded block composed of 98% or more foie gras; if termed {{lang|fr|avec morceaux}} ("with pieces"), it must contain at least 50% foie gras pieces for goose, and 30% for duck.

Additionally, there is {{lang|fr|pâté de foie gras}}, {{lang|fr|mousse de foie gras}} (either must contain 50% or more foie gras), {{lang|fr|parfait de foie gras}} (must contain 75% or more foie gras), and other preparations (no legal obligation established).

Fully cooked preparations are generally sold in either glass containers or metal cans for long-term preservation. Whole, fresh foie gras is usually unavailable in France outside the Christmas period, except in some producers' markets in the producing regions. Frozen whole foie gras sometimes is sold in French supermarkets.

Whole foie gras is readily available from gourmet retailers in Canada, the United States, Hungary, Argentina and regions with a sizeable market for the product. In US, raw foie gras is classified as Grade A, B or C. Grade A is typically the highest in fat and especially suited for low-temperature preparation, because the veins are relatively few and the resulting terrine will be more aesthetically appealing because it displays little blood. Grade B is accepted for higher temperature preparation, because the higher proportion of protein gives the liver more structure after being seared. Grade C livers are generally reserved for making sauces as well as other preparations where a higher proportion of blood-filled veins will not impair the appearance of the dish.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

==Production methods==
===Species, breeds and sex used===

====Geese====
Traditionally, foie gras was produced from special breeds of geese. However, by 2004, geese accounted for less than 10% of the total global foie gras production<ref name="Guémené">{{cite journal|title=The past, present and future of force-feeding and 'foie gras' production|author1=Guémené D. |author2=Guy, G.|journal=World's Poultry Science Journal|volume=60|issue=2|year=2004|pages=210–222|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=601276&fileId=S0043933904000194|doi=10.1079/wps200414}}</ref> and by 2014 only 5% of total French production.<ref name="CIFOG">{{cite web|title=Foie gras production|url=http://foiegras-factsandtruth.com/breeding/palmipeds|year=2014|publisher=CIFOG|access-date=27 May 2015}}</ref> Goose breeds used in modern foie gras production are primarily the grey Landes goose (''Anser anser'')<ref name="CIFOG" /> and the [[Toulouse goose]].<ref name="Ravo">{{cite news| url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802E0DB1639F937A1575AC0A96E958260 | work=The New York Times | title=A Cornucopia of Native Foie Gras; Partners' Efforts Produce Menu Delicacy in Abundance | first=Nick | last=Ravo | date=24 September 1998 | access-date=2 May 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.patrimoine-biologique.midipyrenees.fr/fiche.asp?FK_cat_animal=1&page=2 Toulouse Goose] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111194101/http://www.patrimoine-biologique.midipyrenees.fr/fiche.asp?FK_cat_animal=1&page=2 |date=11 November 2007 }} Pyrenees Biological Academy (in French)</ref>{{Better source needed|date=February 2015}}

In 2016, Hungary was producing 80% of the world's goose foie gras; however, production rates are likely to drop in 2017 due to outbreaks of bird flu.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hungary's foie gras industry down with flu as millions of birds die|agency=Reuters|author=Than, K.|date=25 January 2017|access-date=26 January 2017|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/hungarys-foie-gras-industry-down-flu-millions-birds-141848197.html}}</ref>

====Ducks====
In 2014, ducks accounted for 95% of foie gras production.<ref name="CIFOG" /> The breeds primarily used are the [[Muscovy duck]] (''Cairina moschata'')<ref name="CIFOG" /> (also called the Barbary duck) and the hybrid cross of a male Muscovy duck and a female [[American Pekin duck|Pekin duck]] (''Anas platyrhynchos domestica'') called the [[Mulard]] duck.<ref name="CIFOG" /> This hybrid is sterile and is therefore sometimes referred to as a "mule" duck. Mulards are estimated to account for about 35% of all foie gras consumed in the US.<ref name="Skippon" /> About 95% of duck foie gras production from France comes from force-fed Mulards, and the remaining 5% from the Muscovy duck.<ref name="Marie" />

After hatching, the Mulard ducklings are sexed. Males put on more weight than females, so the females are [[Chick culling|slaughtered]].

===Physiological basis===
[[File:28-gavage-foie-gras-cages-individuelles-France-2012.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Individual cages are used in some farms producing foie gras.]]
The basis of foie gras production is the ability that some [[waterfowl]] have to expand their esophagus and to gain weight, particularly in the liver,{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} in preparation for migration.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=EU Report }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}, section 4</ref> Wild geese may consume 300 grams of protein and another 800 grams of grasses per day. Farmed geese allowed to graze on carrots adapt to eating 100 grams of protein, but may consume up to 2500 grams of the carrots per day. The increasing amount of feed given prior to force-feeding and during the force-feeding itself cause expansion of the lower part of the esophagus.<ref name="Skippon" />

====Pre-feeding phase====
The pre-force feeding phase consists of three stages.<ref name="CIFOG" />
*The first stage ("start-up") lasts from 1 to 28 days of age (0–4 weeks). During this stage, the young birds are housed in large, indoor groups (e.g. 2,100<ref name="Marie" />), usually on straw.
*The second stage ("growth") lasts from 28 to 63 days of age (4–9 weeks). The birds are moved outside to feed on grasses ''ad libitum''. The birds are given additional feed, but access to this is limited by time. This stage aims to take advantage of the natural dilation capacity of the esophagus of some wildfowl.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=EU Report }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}} EU Scientific Report, p19</ref>
*The third stage ("pre-fattening") lasts from 63 to 90 days of age (9–13 weeks). The birds are brought inside for gradually longer periods while introduced to a high starch diet. This is a feeding transition where the food is distributed by meals, first in restricted amount and time and thereafter greatly increased.

====Feeding phase====
The next production phase, which the French call {{lang|fr|gavage}} or {{lang|fr|finition d'engraissement}}, or "completion of fattening", involves forced daily ingestion of controlled amounts of feed for 12 to 15 days with ducks and for 15 to 18 days with geese. During this phase, ducks are usually fed twice daily while geese are fed up to three times daily. To facilitate handling of ducks during gavage, these birds are typically housed throughout this phase in individual cages or small group pens.

Typical foie gras production involves force-feeding birds more food than they would eat in the wild, and much more than they would voluntarily eat domestically.<ref>"[https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/safety/docs/sci-com_scah_out17_en.pdf Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese]", p. 29</ref>

[[File:Foie gras - gavage in Rocamadour, France.jpg|thumb|Modern {{lang|fr|gavage}} feeding process]]
In modern production, the bird is typically fed a controlled amount of feed, depending on the stage of the fattening process, the bird's weight, and the amount of feed the bird last ingested.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tours.inra.fr/sra/internet/images/equipes/comportement/foiefras/Diapositive4.jpg|title=tours.inra.fr|access-date=24 September 2017}}</ref> At the start of production, a bird might be fed a dry weight of {{convert|250|g|0}} of food per day and up to {{convert|1000|g}} (in dry weight) by the end of the process. The actual amount of food force-fed is much greater, because the birds are fed a mash with a composition of about 53% dry and 47% liquid (by weight). This is the equivalent to around 1,900 grams per day in total mass.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00071660120088489 |title=Force-feeding procedure and physiological indicators of stress in male mule ducks |year=2001 |last1=Guémené |first1=D. |last2=Guy |first2=G. |last3=Noirault |first3=J. |last4=Garreau-Mills |first4=M. |last5=Gouraud |first5=P. |last6=Faure |first6=J. M. |journal=British Poultry Science |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=650–657 |pmid=11811918 |s2cid=9966682 }}</ref>

The feed is administered using a funnel fitted with a long tube (20–30 cm long), which forces the feed into the bird's esophagus. If an [[auger (drill)|auger]] is used, the feeding takes about 45 to 60 seconds, however, modern systems usually use a tube fed by a pneumatic pump with an operation time of 2 to 3 seconds per duck. During feeding, efforts are made to avoid damaging the bird's esophagus, which could cause injury or death, although researchers have found evidence of inflammation of the walls of the proventriculus after the first session of force-feeding.<ref>Serviere, J, Bernadet, MD and Guy, G. 2003. "Is nociception a sensory component associated to force-feeding? Neurophysiological approach in the mule duck". 2nd World Waterfowl Conference. Alexandria, Egypt</ref> There is also indication of inflammation of the esophagus in the later stages of fattening.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.avma.org/reference/backgrounders/foie_gras_bgnd.asp|title=Foie Gras Production Backgrounder|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425174224/http://www.avma.org/reference/backgrounders/foie_gras_bgnd.asp|archive-date=25 April 2009}}</ref> Several studies have also demonstrated that mortality rates can be significantly elevated during the gavage period.<ref name="EU Report">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf|title=Animal welfare - Food Safety - European Commission}}</ref><ref>Koehl, PF and Chinzi, D. 1996. "Les resultats technico-economiques des ateliers de palmidpedes a foie gras de 1987 a 1994". 2eme journees de la recherche sur les palmipedes a foie gras. 75.</ref><ref>Chinzi, D and Koehl, PF. 1998. "Caracteristiques desateliers d'elevage et de gavage de canards et mulards. Relations avec les performances et techniques et economiques". Proceedings des 3eme journees de la recherche sur les palmipedes a foie gras. 107.</ref>

The feed, usually corn boiled with fat (to facilitate ingestion), deposits large amounts of fat in the liver, thereby producing the buttery consistency sought by some [[Epicure (gourmet)|gastronome]]s.

Ducks reared for foie gras are typically slaughtered at 100 days of age and geese at 112 days.<ref name="Viva" /> At this time, the bird's liver is 6 to 10 times its ordinary size.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=EU Report }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}, p60</ref> Storage of fat in the liver produces [[steatosis]] of the liver cells.

===Alternative production===
Fattened liver can be produced by alternative methods without gavage, and this is often referred to either as "fatty goose liver" or as foie gras (outside France), though it does not conform to the French legal definition. This method involves timing the slaughter to coincide with the winter migration, when livers are naturally fattened.<ref name="Sousa">{{cite web|url=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/markets/europe/article1265675.ece|title=Login}}</ref>

The winner of the Coup de Coeur award at the [[SIAL Paris|Salon International d'Alimentation]], SIAL 2006, [[Patería de Sousa]] produces fattened livers without force-feeding.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ted.com/talks/dan_barber_s_surprising_foie_gras_parable.html |title= Dan Barber: A foie gras parable |last= Barber |first= Dan |author-link= Dan Barber |date=November 2008 |publisher= [[TED (conference)|TED]] |format= video of a talk |access-date= 2014-01-14 |quote= I love [foie gras].}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/jan/14/can-foie-gras-ever-be-ethical|title = Can foie gras ever be ethical? |date=14 January 2015 |newspaper = The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date= 2006-10-16 |title= El Salón Internacional de la Alimentación de París, SIAL 2006, reconoce a la empresa extremeña 'La Patería de Sousa' |trans-title=The International Food Exposition in Paris, SIAL 2006, recognizes the Extremadura company "La Patería de Sousa" |url= http://www.regiondigital.com/modulos/mod_periodico/pub/mostrar_noticia.php?id=47071 |url-status= dead |department= Economia |newspaper= Extremadura Press |language= es |location= [[Badajoz]], Spain |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071128130319/http://www.regiondigital.com/modulos/mod_periodico/pub/mostrar_noticia.php?id=47071 |archive-date= 2007-11-28 |access-date= 2014-01-16 |quote= La entidad ha recibido el Premio "Coups de Coeur", en la categoría de Foie Gras, tras presentar a concurso su especialidad, única en el mundo, Foie Gras de Ganso Ibérico de alimentación ecológica y no forzada. [The company has been awarded the "Coups de Coeur" award in the Foie Gras category, after entering into the competition its specialty, unique in the world, of Foie Gras from Iberian geese that eat organic food and are not force-fed.]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.stopgavage.com/en/node/39 |title= Foie gras sans gavage au salon de l'alimentation |date= December 2006 |website= Stop Gavage |publisher= L214 |location= [[Marignane]], France |language= fr}}</ref> This has only recently been produced commercially, and is a very small fraction of the market.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

Producers outside France do not always force-feed birds to produce fattened livers considered to be foie gras, instead allowing them to eat freely, termed ''ad libitum''. Interest in alternative production methods has grown recently due to [[foie gras controversy|ethical concerns]] in gavage-based foie gras production. Such livers are alternatively termed fatty goose liver, ethical foie gras, or humane foie gras. The British supermarket chain [[Waitrose]] also provides a version of ethical foie gras which it calls (and has been trademarked) ''faux gras''.<ref>{{cite news|author=Morris|first=Sophie|date=13 January 2012|title=IS IT EVER OK TO EAT FOIE GRAS?|work=[[The Independent]]|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/it-ever-ok-eat-foie-gras-6289019.html|access-date=28 December 2020}}</ref> This is not to be confused with the American product by the same name, produced by Regal Vegan, which has the US trademark for ''faux gras'', and is actually a vegan, nut-based spread.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.regalvegan.com/site/products/faux-gras/|title=FAUX GRAS™ « the Regal Vegan}}</ref>

The term ''ethical foie gras'' or ''humane foie gras'' is also used for gavage-based foie gras production that is more concerned with the animal's welfare (using rubber hoses rather than steel pipes for feeding). Others have expressed skepticism at these claims of humane treatment,<ref>{{cite news |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/25/dining/25foie.html |title=Foie Gras Makers Struggle to Please Critics and Chefs |first=Juliet |last=Glass |date=25 April 2007}}</ref> as earlier attempts to produce fattened livers without gavage have not produced satisfactory results.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/themes/animal-welfare/news-detail/en/c/20463/ |title=Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese |year=1998 |chapter=Alternative Methods of Production |page=57 |author=Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}</ref>

A more humane version of foie gras was pioneered in the Spanish region of [[Extremadura]], whereby the bird is tricked into preparing for migration rather than force-fed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/18/the-farmer-who-makes-ethical-foie-gras|title=The farmer who makes 'ethical' foie gras|journal=The Guardian|first=Dan|last=Barber|date=18 January 2015}}</ref>

More radical approaches have been studied. A duck or goose with a [[Ventromedial nucleus|ventromedian hypothalamic]] (VMH) lesion will tend not to feel satiated after eating, and will therefore eat more than a non-lesioned animal. By producing such lesions surgically, it is possible to increase the bird's food consumption when permitted to eat ''ad libitum'', by a factor of more than two.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1051/rnd:19800413 |title=Effect of induced hypothalamic hyperphagia and forced-feeding on organ weight and tissular development in Landes geese |year=1980 |last1=Felix |first1=Bernadette |last2=Auffray |first2=P. |last3=Marcilloux |first3=J. C. |last4=Royer |first4=L. |journal=Reproduction, Nutrition, Development |volume=20 |issue=3A |pages=709–17 |pmid=6961479 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00897676/document |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Currently, one of the few producers in the world of patented and certified goose- and ducklivers without force-feeding but up to the same standards as the traditional foie gras is the German company Foie Royale.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foodlog.nl/artikel/high-tech-foie-gras-maakt-dwangvoederen-overbodig/|title=High-tech foie gras maakt dwangvoederen overbodig|website=Foodlog|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref> The products of Foie Royale are being used by several [[Michelin star|Michelin star chefs]] throughout the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dierenwelzijnscheck.nl/horecawijzer/bolenius|title=Bolenius|website=DierenwelzijnsCheck|language=nl|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref> Foie Royale developed a process together with the [[German Institute of Food Technologies]] (DIL) to get the same result as the traditional Foie Gras, but without the force-feeding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.volkskrant.nl/gs-be99c7ef|title=Nagemaakte foie gras smelt net zo goed op de tong|last=Dinther|first=Mac van|date=2018-12-20|website=de Volkskrant|language=nl-NL|access-date=2019-09-21}}</ref>

Human obesity and microbiome studies led French researchers at a startup company called Aviwell to use probiotic preparations to produce fatty livers in geese over 6 months without forced feeding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://modernfarmer.com/2019/11/this-french-startup-wants-to-be-the-future-of-foie-gras/|title=This French startup wants to be the future of foie gras|first=Lindsay|last=Campbell|date=2019-11-18|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref>

==Preparations==
[[Image:Foie-gras.jpg|thumb|Foie gras with shallots and figs]]
Generally, French preparations of foie gras are made over low heat, as fat melts faster from the traditional goose foie gras than the duck foie gras produced in most other parts of the world. American and other New World preparations, typically employing duck foie gras, have more recipes and dish preparations for serving foie gras hot, rather than cool or cold.

In Hungary, goose foie gras traditionally is fried in goose fat, which is then poured over the foie gras and left to cool; it is also eaten warm, after being fried or roasted, with some chefs smoking the foie gras over a cherry wood fire.

In other parts of the world foie gras is served in dishes such as foie gras [[sushi]] rolls, in various forms of pasta or alongside [[steak tartare]] or atop a [[steak]] as a garnish.

===Cold preparations===
Traditional low-heat cooking methods result in [[Terrine (food)|terrine]]s, ''[[pâté]]s'', [[parfait]]s, [[foam (culinary)|foam]]s and [[mousse]]s of foie gras, often flavored with [[tuber (genus)|truffle]], mushrooms or [[brandy]] such as [[cognac]] or [[Armagnac (drink)|armagnac]]. These slow-cooked forms of ''foie gras'' are cooled and served at or below room temperature.

In a very traditional form of terrine, ''au torchon'' ("in a towel"), a whole lobe of foie is molded, wrapped in a towel and slow-cooked in a ''[[bain-marie]]''. For added flavor (from the [[Maillard reaction]]), the liver may be seared briefly over a fire of [[grape vine]] clippings (''sarments'') before slow-cooking in a bain-marie; afterwards, it is pressed served cold, in slices.

Raw foie gras is also cured in salt ("''cru au sel''"), served slightly chilled.<ref name="Au Pied de Cochon">Au Pied de Cochon. Menu. Montreal. 15 June. 2006.</ref>

===Strasbourg pie===
A pastry containing fatty goose liver and other ingredients is known as the "[[Strasbourg|Strasburg]] pie" since Strasbourg was a major producer of foie gras.<ref>''The New Encyclopædia'', ed. Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck and Frank Moore. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1903): Vol. XIII, 778.</ref>

The Strasburg pie is mentioned in [[William Makepeace Thackeray]]'s novel ''Vanity Fair'' as being popular with the diplomatic corps.<ref>William Makepeace Thackeray, ''Vanity Fair'', Ch. 9.</ref>

[[T.S. Eliot]]'s poem "The Ad-Dressing of Cats", part of ''[[Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats]]'' and also the last song in its musical adaptation ''[[Cats (musical)|Cats]]'', contains the line "And you might now and then supply/Some caviar or Strasbourg pie".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Webber |first1=Andrew Lloyd |title=Cats : the songs from the musical |date=30 June 1981 |publisher=Faber Music |isbn=978-0881882001 |page=109 }}</ref>

Capt. Aubrey and Dr. Maturin enjoy a "Strasburg pie" in [[Patrick O'Brian]]'s 1988 Napoleonic sea adventure ''[[The Letter of Marque]].''<ref>O'Brian, Patrick, ''The Letter of Marque'' (Collins 1988), p. 189 https://books.google.com/books?id=au_T3vsNPIcC&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=aubrey+maturin+letter+marque+strasbourg+pie&source=bl&ots=x5oLRJfEjI&sig=ACfU3U2mEYmadvnFM3RFYdUTW-C6yPCneA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjg7-W6rvzpAhU2RzABHYrcDHkQ6AEwAXoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=aubrey%20maturin%20letter%20marque%20strasbourg%20pie&f=false</ref>

===Hot preparations===
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Pâté de foie gras, canned | kJ=1933 | fat=43.84 g | carbs=4.67 g | fiber=0.0 g | protein=11.40 g | niacin_mg=2.51 | thiamin_mg=0.088 | riboflavin_mg=0.299 | vitA_ug=1001 | sodium_mg=697 | right=1}}
Given the increased internationalization of cuisines and food supply, ''foie gras'' is increasingly found in hot preparations not only in the United States, but in France and elsewhere. Duck foie gras ("''foie gras de canard''") has slightly lower fat content and is generally more suitable in texture to cooking at high temperature than is goose foie gras ("''foie gras d'oie''"), but chefs have been able to cook goose ''foie gras'' employing similar techniques developed for duck, albeit with more care.

Raw foie gras can be roasted, sauteed, pan-seared (''poêlé'') or (with care and attention), grilled. As foie gras has high fat content, contact with heat needs to be brief and therefore at high temperature, lest it burn or melt. Optimal structural integrity for searing requires the foie gras to be cut to a thickness between 15 and 25 mm (½ – 1 inch), resulting in a rare, uncooked center. Some chefs prefer not to devein the foie gras, as the veins can help preserve the integrity of the fatty liver. It is increasingly common to sear the ''foie gras'' on one side only, leaving the other side uncooked. Practitioners of [[molecular gastronomy]] such as [[Heston Blumenthal]] of [[The Fat Duck]] restaurant first flash-freeze foie gras in [[liquid nitrogen]] as part of the preparation process.<ref name=cryo>{{cite news
|newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]
|first=Louise
|last=Schwartzkoff
|date=2 February 2010
|title=Books – The Fat Duck Cookbook by Heston Blumenthal
|type=Book review
|url=http://www.liquidnitrogen.com.au/liquid-nitrogen-articles/2010/2/2/books/}}</ref>

Hot foie gras requires minimal spices; typically black pepper, paprika (in Hungary) and salt. Chefs have used [[fleur de sel]] as a gourmet seasoning for hot foie gras to add an "important textural accent" with its crunch.<ref name=sel>''Nation's Restaurant News'', 2004.</ref>

===Consumption===
Foie gras is regarded as a gourmet luxury dish.<ref>Serventi 1993, ''cover text''.</ref> In France, it is mainly consumed on special occasions, such as Christmas or New Year's Eve ''[[réveillon]]'' dinners, though the recent increased availability of foie gras has made it a less exceptional dish.<ref name="telegraph.co.uk">{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/3308864/The-goose-is-getting-fat.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/3308864/The-goose-is-getting-fat.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | work=The Daily Telegraph | location=London | title=The goose is getting fat Politically incorrect it may be, but foie gras is storming British menus. Anwer Bati reports | date=1 November 2003 | access-date=2 May 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In some areas of France ''foie gras'' is eaten year-round.

Duck foie gras is the slightly cheaper<ref name="telegraph.co.uk"/> and, since a change of production methods in the 1950s to battery, by far the most common kind, particularly in the US. The taste of duck foie gras is often referred to as musky with a subtle bitterness. Goose foie gras is noted for being less gamey and smoother, with a more delicate flavor.<ref>''... goose liver is more delicate and less gamey tasting that its duck equivalent'' '''France: World Food By Stephen Fallon, Michael Rothschild {{ISBN|1-86450-021-2}}, {{ISBN|978-1-86450-021-9}} page 49'''</ref>

==Animal welfare==
{{World laws on foie gras production}}
[[Image:Mulard duck being force fed corn in order to fatten its liver for foie gras production.jpg|thumb|250px|Gavage feeding]]
Gavage-based foie gras production is [[Foie gras controversy|controversial]] due to the animal welfare consequences of the force-feeding procedure, intensive housing and husbandry, an enlarged liver and the potential for being detrimental to human health. Some countries find foie gras to be "morally objectionable".<ref name="DeSoucey">{{cite journal|doi=10.1177/0003122410372226|journal=American Sociological Review|year=2010|volume=75|issue=3|pages=432–455|title=Gastronationalism food traditions and authenticity politics in the European Union|author=DeSoucey, M.|s2cid=29005152}}</ref>{{which|date=January 2016}} One EU committee report noted that up to 1998, there was only a small number of scientific studies on the welfare of birds used for foie gras production; however, the Committee found sufficient evidence to conclude that "force-feeding, as currently practised, is detrimental to the welfare of the birds".<ref name="EU" /> The industry repeatedly faces accusations of torture and cruelty.<ref name="DeSoucey2016">{{cite book|author=DeSoucey, M.|year=2016|title=Contested Tastes: Foie Gras and the Politics of Food|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref>

===Suitability of breeds and species===
The production of foie gras occurs on the argument that migrating wildfowl seasonally eat such that their liver naturally enlarges. However, the bird used predominantly in foie gras production is a hybrid of a male Muscovy duck and a female Pekin duck. It has been noted that the Muscovy duck is non-migratory,<ref name="Hoffmann, 1992a">{{cite journal|author=Hoffmann, E.|year=1992|title=A natural history of Cairina moschata, the wild Muscovy duck.|journal= 9th International Symposium of Waterfowl|pages=217–219}}</ref> and both the Pekin and the mulard hybrid cannot fly.<ref name="Hoffmann, 1992b">{{cite journal|author=Hoffmann, E.|year=1992|title=Hybrid progeny from Muscovy and domestic ducks|journal= 9th International Symposium of Waterfowl|pages=64–66}}</ref> Domestic ducks (including the Pekin) are derived from the [[mallard]] duck, which is sometimes migratory and sometimes not. Therefore, although the domestic goose might well be adapted to store food before migration, it is less likely that the Mulard hybrid duck has the same potential.<ref name="EU" />

===Force-feeding procedure===

====Fear====
Geese and ducks show [[avoidance behaviour]] (indicating aversion) toward the person who feeds them and the feeding procedure.<ref name="EU" /><ref name="AVMA" /> Although an EU committee in 1998 reported seeing this aversion, they noted that at the time, there was no "conclusive" scientific evidence on the aversive nature of force-feeding.<ref name="EU">{{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=Report of the EU Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese }} {{small|(277 KB)}}</ref> The AVMA (Animal Welfare Division) when considering foie gras production stated "The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems to be more prone than its parent breeds to fear of people".<ref name="AVMA" />

====Injury====
An EU committee in 1998<ref name="EU"/> reported that there was usually clear evidence of tissue damage in the esophagus of birds which had been gavage fed, although one 1972 study cited by the report observed no alteration of the esophageal tissue. More recent scientific studies have shown that the esophagus of birds can be injured or inflamed by gavage feeding.<ref name="Skippon" /><ref name="AVMA" /><ref name="Kozák">{{cite journal|title=Foie gras production: pros and cons in the light of animal protection.|
author=Kozák, J.|journal=Journal of Animal Welfare, Ethology and Housing Systems|year=2011|volume=7|issue=3|pages=200–209}}</ref><ref name="Servière">{{cite journal|title=Neurogenic inflammation in the upper digestive tract of the mule duck: effect of a chemical algogen and force-feeding|journal=British Poultry Science|volume=52|issue=6|year=2011|doi=10.1080/00071668.2011.640660|pmid=22221246|authors=Servière, J., Carriere, M., Duvaux-Ponter, C. Guy, G. and Roussel, S.|pages=792–799|s2cid=41132302|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01000594/file/51557_20120320104312631_1.pdf}}</ref>

====Stress====
After measuring a range of physiological parameters in male Mulard ducks, it was concluded in one study that the acute stress caused by force feeding is similar at the beginning and end of the commercial production of foie gras.<ref name="Flaments">{{cite journal|journal=British Poultry Science|volume=53|issue=4|year=2012|title=Corticosterone, cortisol, triglycerides, aspartate aminotransferase and uric acid plasma concentrations during foie gras production in male mule ducks (Anas platyrhynchos × Cairina moschata)|doi=10.1080/00071668.2012.711468|pmid=23130574|author=Flamenta, A., Delleura, V., Poulipoulisa, A. and Marliera, D.|pages=408–413|s2cid=22716210}}</ref> A similar study on Muscovy ducks found that gavage feeding was related to an increase in panting behaviour and serum corticosterone levels, indicating increased stress attributable to this feeding method.<ref name="Mohammed">{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Advanced Veterinary Research|volume=4|issue=4|year=2014|title=Force feeding as a stress factor on Muscovy ducks|author=Mohammed, A.A.A., Abdel-Rahman, M. and Darwish, M.H.A.}}</ref>

===Housing and husbandry===
In France, at the end of 2015, individual cages were prohibited to improve animal welfare. They were to be replaced by cages housing 4 to 5 birds.<ref name="Marie" />

====Behavioural restriction====
During the force-feeding period, the birds are kept in individual cages, with wire or plastic mesh floors, or sometimes in small groups on slatted floors. Individual caging restricts movements and behaviours by preventing the birds from standing erect, turning around, or flapping their wings. Birds cannot carry out other natural waterfowl behaviours, such as bathing and swimming.<ref name="Skippon"/> Furthermore, ducks and geese are social animals and individual cages prevent such interactions.<ref name="EU" />

During the force feeding period, when the birds are not being fed, they are sometimes kept in near-darkness; this prevents normal investigatory behaviour and results in poor welfare.<ref name="EU" />

====Injury====
Lesions can occur on the [[sternum]] of the birds due to [[necrosis]] of the skin. This is observed more frequently in birds reared in cages rather than on the floor. The prevalence is higher in Mulard ducks (40–70%) compared to under 6% in Muscovy ducks. This is due to the larger pectoralis profundus major and minor muscles in Muscovy ducks compared to Mulards.<ref name="EU" /> The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems more prone to developing lesions in the area of the sternum when kept in small cages, and to bone breakage during transport and slaughter.<ref name="AVMA" />

Where ducks are fattened in group pens, it has been suggested that the increased effort required to capture and restrain ducks in pens might cause them to experience more stress during force feeding. Injuries and fatalities during transport and slaughter occur in all types of poultry production, however, fattened ducks are more susceptible to conditions such as heat stress.

===Enlarged liver===
Foie gras production results in the bird's liver being swollen. In some species of ducks, liver size changes seasonally, increasing by as much as 30% to 50%, with more pronounced changes in females. However, foie gras production enlarges the livers up to 10 times (or 1,000%) their normal size.<ref name="Skippon" /><ref name="AVMA" /> This impairs liver function due to the obstruction of blood flow and expands the abdomen, making it difficult for the birds to breathe.<ref name="AVMA">{{cite web|url=https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/LiteratureReviews/Pages/Foie-Gras-Production-Backgrounder.aspx#references|title=Welfare Implications of Foie Gras Production|year=2014|publisher=American Veterinary Medical Association|access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref> Death occurs if the force-feeding is continued.<ref name="Viva">{{cite web|url=http://www.viva.org.uk/sites/default/files/2014_mini_foiegras_factsheet_1.pdf|title=Torture in a tin: Viva! foie-gras fact sheet|publisher=Viva!|year=2014|access-date=14 February 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214203009/http://www.viva.org.uk/sites/default/files/2014_mini_foiegras_factsheet_1.pdf|archive-date=14 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="EU" />

===Mortality rates===
The mortality rate in force-fed birds varies from 2% to 4%, compared with approximately 0.2% in age-matched, non-force-fed drakes.<ref name="Skippon">{{cite journal|title=The animal health and welfare consequences of foie gras production.|author=Skippon, W.|journal=Canadian Veterinary Journal|year=2013|volume=54|issue=4|pages=403–404|pmc=3595949|pmid=24082171}}</ref> Mortality rates do not differ between the force-feeding period and the previous rearing phase, with both being approximately 2.5%.<ref name="Marie">{{cite web|title=Genetics and selection of ducks in France|author=Marie-Etancelin, C., Chapuis, H., Brun, J.M., Larzul, C., Mialon-Richard, M.M. and Rouvier, R.|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267324850|access-date=25 May 2015}}</ref>

==Controversy==
{{Further|Foie gras controversy}}
The controversial nature of foie gras production was identified in a paper that juxtaposed the views of "foie gras production as the apotheosis of murderous meat production, and those who consider it to be a co-production between humans and animals".<ref name="Heath">{{cite journal|title=The naturecultures of foie gras: techniques of the body and a contested ethics of care.|author1=Heath, D. |author2=Meneley, A|journal=Food, Culture and Society|volume=13|issue=3|year=2010|pages=421–452|doi=10.2752/175174410x12699432701024|s2cid=152347835 }}</ref>

Animal rights and welfare advocates such as Animal Equality <ref>{{Cite web |title=Ban Foie Gras |url=https://animalequality.org.uk/act/ban-force-feeding |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Animal Equality UK |language=en-GB}}</ref>, [[PETA]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goveg.com/feat/foie/|title=How to Go Vegan}}</ref> [[Vegetarians' International Voice for Animals|Viva!]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.viva.org.uk/campaigns/foiegras/index.html|title=Viva! – Vegetarians International Voice for Animals|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130119003317/http://www.viva.org.uk/campaigns/foiegras/index.html|archive-date=19 January 2013}}</ref> and [[the Humane Society of the United States]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsus.org/farm/camp/ffa/foie_gras.html|title=Foie Gras|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622145557/http://www.hsus.org/farm/camp/ffa/foie_gras.html|archive-date=22 June 2007}}</ref> contend that foie gras production methods, and force-feeding in particular, constitute cruel and inhumane treatment of animals.

An [[Ipsos MORI]] poll found that 63% of the UK population would like to see a complete ban on the sale of foie gras in the UK.<ref name="Milne">{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/emma-milne/foie-gras-ban_b_2048704.html|work=The Huffington Post|title=Sixty-three per cent of the British public wants foie gras banned|author=Milne, E.|year=2012|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref>

In 2011 and 2012, Animal Equality conducted investigations inside four foie gras farms in France and five in Spain, exposing the cruelty of force-feeding<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ban Foie Gras |url=https://animalequality.org.uk/act/ban-force-feeding |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Animal Equality UK |language=en-GB}}</ref>. The footage collected reveals ducks covered in blood with broken and torn beaks, birds kept in small metal cages with no room to turn around, and ducks and geese desperately struggling to avoid force-feeding.

In April–May 2013, an investigator from [[Mercy for Animals]] recorded undercover video at [[Hudson Valley Foie Gras|Hudson Valley Foie Gras farm]] in New York state. The video showed workers forcefully pushing tubes down ducks' throats. One worker said of the force-feeding process: "Sometimes the duck doesn't get up and it dies. There have been times that 20 ducks were killed." Hudson Valley operations manager Marcus Henley replied that the farm's mortality statistics are not above average for the poultry industry.<ref name=Tepper2013>{{cite news|last=Tepper|first=Rachel|title=Undercover Foie Gras Footage Shot at Hudson Valley Foie Gras Alleges Cruel Practices (VIDEO)|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/12/undercover-foie-gras-video-hudson-valley_n_3429492.html|access-date=3 April 2014|newspaper=Huffington Post|date=12 June 2013}}</ref> Because Hudson Valley provides foie gras to Amazon.com, Mercy for Animals began a campaign urging Amazon to stop selling foie gras, a move that has already been made by [[Costco]], [[Safeway Inc.|Safeway]], and [[Target Corporation|Target]].<ref name=Zara2013>{{cite news|last=Zara|first=Christopher|title=Amazon Urged To Ban Foie Gras: Animal-Rights Group Calls Retailer A Lame Duck Over Controversial Food|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/amazon-urged-ban-foie-gras-animal-rights-group-calls-retailer-lame-duck-over-controversial-food|access-date=3 April 2014|newspaper=International Business Times|date=12 June 2013}}</ref>

In November 2013, the ''[[Daily Mirror]]'' published a report based on the video they obtained depicting cruelty towards ducks in a farm owned by French firm Ernest Soulard, which is a supplier to celebrity chef [[Gordon Ramsay]]'s restaurants. The restaurant chain suspended purchasing from the supplier following the exposé.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/video-cruelty-chef-gordon-ramsays-2688593|title=VIDEO: Cruelty of chef Gordon Ramsay's foie gras supplier exposed in shocking footage|author=Andy Lines|date=8 November 2013|work=mirror}}</ref>

=== Animal research ===
The process of force-feeding can make animals sick by stressing the liver. If the stress is prolonged, excess protein may build up and clump together as amyloids, consumption of which has been found to induce [[amyloidosis]] in laboratory mice. It has been hypothesized this may be a route of transmission in humans too and so be a risk for people with inflammatory complaints such as [[rheumatoid arthritis]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2010.08.004|title=Prion-like aggregates: Infectious agents in human disease|year=2010|last1=Westermark|first1=Gunilla T.|last2=Westermark|first2=Per|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine|volume=16|issue=11|pages=501–7|pmid=20870462 |type=Review |quote=AA amyloidosis can theoretically be transmitted to humans by the same route; thus, such food might constitute a hazard for individuals with chronic inflammatory disorders such as RA.}}</ref>

=== Legislation and bans ===
{{Further|Foie gras controversy#Statutory and voluntary bans}}
A number of countries and regions have laws against force-feeding or the sale or importation of foie gras, and even where it is legal some retailers have ceased to sell it.<ref name="AmazonUKban">{{cite web|publisher=The Bugle|url=http://issuu.com/thebugle/docs/nov_2013/10|date=November 2013|title=Amazon bans foie gras|access-date=13 March 2015 |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref name="FortnumMason">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/18/fortnum-mason-foie-gras-protest|title=Fortnum and Mason faces celebrity battle over its sale of 'cruel' foie gras |journal=The Guardian |date=18 December 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015|last1=Doward |first1=Jamie |last2=Owen |first2=Jemima }}</ref><ref name="harveynichols">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6930411.stm|title=Harvey Nichols bans 'cruel' pate|publisher=BBC|date=3 August 2007|access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref>

In 2017, foie gras production was banned in [[Brussels]], a largely symbolic measure because of the small number of producers within the city limits. Belgium is one of a number of countries that continues to produce foie gras legally.<ref name="Feedblix">{{cite web|title=Foie Gras production banned in Brussels|url=http://feedblix.com/foie-gras-production-banned-brussels/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321052928/http://feedblix.com/foie-gras-production-banned-brussels/|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 March 2017|access-date=26 March 2017|publisher=Feedblix|date=20 March 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Food}}
* [[Shen Zhu]] – the fattening of pigs in manner similar to gavage
* [[Delicacy#Delicacies|List of delicacies]]
* [[List of duck dishes]]
* [[Ortolan bunting]]
* [[Specialty foods]]
* [[Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease]], with homologous pathophysiologic aspects

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
;Books
{{Refbegin}}
*''Larousse Gastronomique'', by Prosper Montagne (Ed.), Clarkson Potter, 2001. {{ISBN|0-609-60971-8}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Alford
| first=Katherine
| title=Caviar, Truffles, and Foie Gras
| publisher=Chronicle Books
| year=2001
| isbn=978-0-8118-2791-1
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Bett
| first=Henry
| title=Wanderings Among Words
| publisher=Kessinger Publishing
| year=2003
| isbn=978-0-7661-7792-5
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Davidson
| first=Alan
| title=The Oxford Companion to Food
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| year=1999
| isbn=978-0-19-211579-9
| url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00davi_0
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Faas
| first=Patrick
| title=Around the Table of the Romans: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome
| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan
| year=2002
| isbn=978-0-312-23958-9
| url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312239589
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Giacosa
| first=Ilaria Gozzini
| title=A Taste of Ancient Rome
| publisher=University of Chicago Press
| year=1994
| isbn=978-0-226-29032-4
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Ginor
| first=Michael A.
| title=Foie Gras: A Passion
| publisher=John Wiley & Sons
| year=1999
| isbn=978-0-471-29318-7
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Langslow
| first=David R.
| title=Medical Latin in the Roman Empire
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| year=2000
| isbn=978-0-19-815279-8
}}.
* {{Cite journal
| last=Littré
| first=Maximilien Paul Emile
| title=Histoire de la langue française: Études sur les origines, l'étymologie, la grammaire
| publisher=Didier
| year=1863
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=McGee
| first=Harold
| title=On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen
| publisher=Scribner
| year=2004
| isbn=978-0-684-80001-1
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Serventi
| first=Silvano
| title=La grande histoire du foie gras
| publisher=Flammarion
| year=1993
| isbn=978-2-08-200542-5
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Toussaint-Samat
| first=Maguelonne
| title=History of Food
| publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional
| year=1994
| isbn=978-0-631-19497-2
| url-access=registration
| url=https://archive.org/details/historyoffood0000tous
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=Walter
| first=Henriette
| title=French Inside Out: The French Language Past and Present
| publisher=Routledge
| year=2006
| isbn=978-0-415-07670-8
| url-access=registration
| url=https://archive.org/details/frenchinsideoutw0000walt
}}.

;Articles
* {{cite journal
|first=Florence
|last=Fabricant
|title=Peppering with salt: chefs find favor with gourmet versions of common seasoning
|journal=Nation's Restaurant News
|year=2004
|volume=38
|issue=9
|page=36}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/video-cruelty-chef-gordon-ramsays-2688593 Video of foie gras production.]

===Scientific studies===
* Report of the EU Scientific {{cite web|url= http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/out17_en.pdf |title=Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese }} {{small|(277 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}

===Alternatives===
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6301715.stm Foie Gras without force-feeding]
* [http://news.scotsman.com/uk.cfm?id=1883412007 Faux Gras – "Foie Gras Without The Cruelty"]
* [https://www.aviwell.fr/en/discovery/ Foie Gras history and using microbiome manipulation without forced feeding]
* [http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/dan_barber_s_surprising_foie_gras_parable.html Chef Dan Barber tells the story of a small farm in Spain that has found a humane way to produce foie gras]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090813080505/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1915601,00.html Can Ethical Foie Gras Happen in America?] TIME, 12 August 2009

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Foie Gras}}
[[Category:Foie gras| ]]
[[Category:Cruelty to animals]]
[[Category:Force-feeding]]
[[Category:French cuisine]]
[[Category:Liver (food)]]
[[Category:Occitan cuisine]]
[[Category:Offal]]
[[Category:Poultry dishes]]
[[Category:Spreads (food)]]

Wildfire

2022-05-11T18:30:03Z

72.142.115.198:

{{Short description|Uncontrolled rapid oxidation of flammable vegetation in rural countryside or wilderness areas}}
{{About|wildfire|and|Wildfire (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
[[File:The Rim Fire in the Stanislaus National Forest near in California began on Aug. 17, 2013-0004.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The [[Rim Fire]] burned more than {{convert|250,000|acres|km2}} of [[forest]] near [[Yosemite National Park]], in 2013]]
{{Pollution sidebar}}forest fires do not existate=2006-07-18|title=The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentration|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=103|issue=29|pages=10861–10865|doi=10.1073/pnas.0604090103|issn=0027-8424|pmc=1544139|pmid=16832054|bibcode=2006PNAS..10310861S|doi-access=free}}</ref> The occurrence of wildfires throughout the history of terrestrial life invites conjecture that fire must have had pronounced evolutionary effects on most ecosystems' flora and fauna.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Bowman|first1=David M. J. S.|last2=Balch|first2=Jennifer K.|author-link2=Jennifer Balch|last3=Artaxo|first3=Paulo|last4=Bond|first4=William J.|last5=Carlson|first5=Jean M.|last6=Cochrane|first6=Mark A.|last7=D’Antonio|first7=Carla M.|last8=DeFries|first8=Ruth S.|last9=Doyle|first9=John C.|date=2009-04-24|title=Fire in the Earth System|journal=Science|language=en|volume=324|issue=5926|pages=481–484|doi=10.1126/science.1163886|issn=0036-8075|pmid=19390038|bibcode=2009Sci...324..481B|s2cid=22389421}}</ref> Earth's carbon-rich vegetation, seasonally dry climates, atmospheric [[oxygen]], and widespread lightning and volcanic ignitions create good conditions for fires.<ref name=":0" />

Wildfires are often classified by characteristics like cause of ignition, physical properties, combustible material present, and the effect of weather on the fire.<ref name="UToronto">{{cite journal|last=Flannigan|first=M.D.|author2=B.D. Amiro|author3=K.A. Logan|author4=B.J. Stocks|author5=B.M. Wotton|name-list-style=amp|date=2005|title=Forest Fires and Climate Change in the 21st century|url=https://www.firelab.utoronto.ca/pubs/2005_flannigan_wotton_etal.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change|volume=11|issue=4|pages=847–859|doi=10.1007/s11027-005-9020-7|s2cid=2757472|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325095123/https://www.firelab.utoronto.ca/pubs/2005_flannigan_wotton_etal.pdf|archive-date=25 March 2009|access-date=26 June 2009}}</ref> Wildfire behavior and severity result from a combination of factors such as available fuels, physical setting, and weather.<ref>Graham, ''et al.'', 12, 36</ref><ref>''National Wildfire Coordinating Group Communicator's Guide For Wildland Fire Management'', 4–6.</ref><ref name="FireBehavior">{{cite web|url=http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/410-2/appendixB.pdf|title=National Wildfire Coordinating Group Fireline Handbook, Appendix B: Fire Behavior|date=April 2006|publisher=National Wildfire Coordinating Group|access-date=11 December 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217125737/http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/410-2/appendixB.pdf|archive-date=17 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trigo|first1=Ricardo M.|last2=Provenzale|first2=Antonello|last3=Llasat|first3=Maria Carmen|last4=AghaKouchak|first4=Amir|last5=Hardenberg|first5=Jost von|last6=Turco|first6=Marco|date=2017-03-06|title=On the key role of droughts in the dynamics of summer fires in Mediterranean Europe|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=81|doi=10.1038/s41598-017-00116-9|issn=2045-2322|pmc=5427854|pmid=28250442|bibcode=2017NatSR...7...81T}}</ref> Climatic cycles that include wet periods that create substantial fuels and then are followed by drought and heat often proceed severe wildfires. <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Westerling|first1=A. L.|last2=Hidalgo|first2=H. G.|last3=Cayan|first3=D. R.|last4=Swetnam|first4=T. W.|date=2006-08-18|title=Warming and Earlier Spring Increase Western U.S. Forest Wildfire Activity|journal=Science|language=en|volume=313|issue=5789|pages=940–943|doi=10.1126/science.1128834|issn=0036-8075|pmid=16825536|bibcode=2006Sci...313..940W|doi-access=free}}</ref> These cycles are made worse by [[extreme weather]] caused by [[climate change]].<ref name=":16">{{cite book |last1=Parmesan |first1=Camille |title=Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability |last2=Morecroft |first2=Mike |last3=Trisurat |first3=Yongyut |publisher=[[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] |series=Contribution of Working Group II to the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report|Sixth Assessment Report]] of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |location= |chapter=Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and their Services |display-authors=etal |chapter-url=https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg2/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter02.pdf}}</ref>

Wildfires can cause damage to property and human life, although naturally occurring wildfires<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Heidari |first1=Hadi |last2=Arabi |first2=Mazdak |last3=Warziniack |first3=Travis |date=August 2021 |title=Effects of Climate Change on Natural-Caused Fire Activity in Western U.S. National Forests |journal=Atmosphere |language=en |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=981 |bibcode=2021Atmos..12..981H |doi=10.3390/atmos12080981 |doi-access=free}}</ref> may have beneficial effects on native vegetation, animals, and ecosystems that have evolved with fire.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=The Ecological Importance of Mixed-Severity Fires – ScienceDirect |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780128027493 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101205343/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780128027493 |archive-date=1 January 2017 |access-date=2016-08-22 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Hutto |first=Richard L. |date=2008-12-01 |title=The Ecological Importance of Severe Wildfires: Some Like It Hot |url=https://scholarworks.umt.edu/biosci_pubs/279 |journal=Ecological Applications |language=en |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=1827–1834 |doi=10.1890/08-0895.1 |issn=1939-5582 |pmid=19263880}}</ref> High-severity wildfire creates [[complex early seral forest]] habitat (also called "snag forest habitat"), which often has higher species richness and diversity than an unburned old forest. Many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction.<ref name="NOVA">{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fire/plants.html|title=How Plants Use Fire (And Are Used By It)|publisher=NOVA online|author=Stephen J. Pyne|access-date=30 June 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090808123751/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fire/plants.html|archive-date=8 August 2009}}</ref> Wildfires in ecosystems where wildfire is uncommon or where non-native vegetation has encroached may have strongly negative [[ecology|ecological]] effects.<ref name="UToronto" /> Similarly, human societies can be severely impacted by fires, including direct health impacts of smoke, destruction of property, especially in [[Wildland–urban interface|wildland–urban interfaces]], economic and [[Ecosystem service|ecosystem services]] losses, and contamination of water and soil.<ref name=":16" />

Wildfires are among the most common forms of [[natural disaster]] in some regions, including [[Siberia]], [[California]], and [[Australia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lao.ca.gov/Publications/Report/3918|title=Main Types of Disasters and Associated Trends|website=lao.ca.gov|date=January 10, 2019|publisher=[[Legislative Analyst's Office]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/siberian-wildfires-cause-record-pollution-send-smoke-us-180975275/|title=The Far-Reaching Consequences of Siberia's Climate-Change-Driven Wildfires|first=Theresa|last=Machemer|date=July 9, 2020|website=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/community-safety/bushfire|title=Bushfire|first= Government Geoscience|last=Australia|date=25 July 2017|website=www.ga.gov.au}}</ref> Areas with [[Mediterranean climate]]s or in the [[taiga]] biome are particularly susceptible. At a global level, human practices have made wildfires worse than naturally would happen, with a doubling in land area burned by wildfires when compared to natural levels.<ref name=":16" /> Humans have contributed to major factors to increased wildfires, increased heat and dry periods due to [[climate change]] and other more direct human activities, such as [[land-use change]] and [[wildfire suppression]].<ref name=":16" /> This increase in fires, creates a negative feedback loop releasing [[Carbon sequestration|naturally sequestered carbon]] back into the atmosphere, creating further [[Climate change|global warming]].<ref name=":16" />

Aggressive [[wildfire suppression]] aimed at minimizing fire and ending [[Native American use of fire in ecosystems|traditional land management methods]] practiced by indigenous peoples has contributed to accumulation of fuel loads, increasing the risk of large, catastrophic fires, especially in certain colonial contexts like the United States.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Busenberg |first1=George |title=Wildfire Management in the United States: The Evolution of a Policy Failure |journal=Review of Policy Research |date=2004 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=145–156 |doi=10.1111/j.1541-1338.2004.00066.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parisien |first1=Marc-André |last2=Barber |first2=Quinn E. |last3=Hirsch |first3=Kelvin G. |last4=Stockdale |first4=Christopher A. |last5=Erni |first5=Sandy |last6=Wang |first6=Xianli |last7=Arseneault |first7=Dominique |last8=Parks |first8=Sean A. |title=Fire deficit increases wildfire risk for many communities in the Canadian boreal forest |journal=Nature Communications |date=2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=2121 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-15961-y |pmid=32358496 |pmc=7195457 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.2121P |language=en |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marlon |first1=J. R. |last2=Bartlein |first2=P. J. |last3=Gavin |first3=D. G. |last4=Long |first4=C. J. |last5=Anderson |first5=R. S. |last6=Briles |first6=C. E. |last7=Brown |first7=K. J. |last8=Colombaroli |first8=D. |last9=Hallett |first9=D. J. |last10=Power |first10=M. J. |last11=Scharf |first11=E. A. |last12=Walsh |first12=M. K. |title=Long-term perspective on wildfires in the western USA |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=2012 |volume=109 |issue=9 |pages=E535–E543 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1112839109|pmid=22334650 |pmc=3295264 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parks |first1=Sean A. |last2=Miller |first2=Carol |last3=Parisien |first3=Marc-André |last4=Holsinger |first4=Lisa M. |last5=Dobrowski |first5=Solomon Z. |last6=Abatzoglou |first6=John |title=Wildland fire deficit and surplus in the western United States, 1984–2012 |journal=Ecosphere |date=2015 |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=art275 |doi=10.1890/ES15-00294.1|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kolden |first1=Crystal A. |title=We're Not Doing Enough Prescribed Fire in the Western United States to Mitigate Wildfire Risk |journal=Fire |date=2019 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=30 |doi=10.3390/fire2020030|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ingalsbee |first1=Timothy |title=Ecological fire use for ecological fire management: Managing large wildfires by design |journal=In: Keane, Robert E.; Jolly, Matt; Parsons, Russell; Riley, Karin. Proceedings of the Large Wildland Fires Conference; May 19–23, 2014; Missoula, MT. Proc. RMRS-P-73. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. P. 120-127. |date=2015 |volume=73 |pages=120–127 |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/all/49434 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haugo |first1=Ryan D. |last2=Kellogg |first2=Bryce S. |last3=Cansler |first3=C. Alina |last4=Kolden |first4=Crystal A. |last5=Kemp |first5=Kerry B. |last6=Robertson |first6=James C. |last7=Metlen |first7=Kerry L. |last8=Vaillant |first8=Nicole M. |last9=Restaino |first9=Christina M. |title=The missing fire: quantifying human exclusion of wildfire in Pacific Northwest forests, USA |journal=Ecosphere |date=2019 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e02702 |doi=10.1002/ecs2.2702|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schultz |first1=Courtney A. |last2=Thompson |first2=Matthew P. |last3=McCaffrey |first3=Sarah M. |title=Forest Service fire management and the elusiveness of change |journal=Fire Ecology |date=2019 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=13–|doi=10.1186/s42408-019-0028-x|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pyne |first1=S. J. |title=Fire in Ecosystems of Boreal Eurasia |date=1996 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-015-8737-2 |pages=21–44 |language=en |chapter=Wild Hearth A Prolegomenon to the Cultural Fire History of Northern Eurasia}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|title=Colonization, Fire Suppression, and Indigenous Resurgence in the Face of Climate Change|url=https://www.yesmagazine.org/environment/2019/10/22/fire-climate-change-indigenous-colonization|access-date=2021-02-19|website=YES! Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Norgaard|first1=Kari Marie|last2=Worl|first2=Sara|title=What western states can learn from Native American wildfire management strategies|url=http://theconversation.com/what-western-states-can-learn-from-native-american-wildfire-management-strategies-120731|access-date=2021-02-19|website=The Conversation|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kimmerer|first1=R. W.|last2=Lake|first2=F. K.|date=2001-11-01|title=The Role of Indigenous Burning in Land Management|url=https://academic.oup.com/jof/article/99/11/36/4614303|journal=Journal of Forestry|language=en|volume=99|issue=11|pages=36–41|doi=10.1093/jof/99.11.36|doi-broken-date=28 February 2022|issn=0022-1201}}</ref> Modern [[forest management]] taking an ecological perspective engages in [[controlled burn]]s to mitigate this risk and promote natural forest life cycles.{{TOC limit|3}}

== Ignition ==
The initial ignition of a fire is usually evaluated for natural or human causes. {{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Forecasting South American Fires.ogv
| width1 = 300
| alt1 =
| caption1 = Forecasting South American fires.
| image2 = UC Irvine scientist James Randerson discusses new research linking ocean temperatures and fire seasons severity.ogv
| width2 = 300
| alt2 =
| caption2 = UC Irvine scientist James Randerson discusses new research linking ocean temperatures and fire-season severity.
}}

=== Natural ===
Leading natural causes of wildfires include:<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/docs/wfprevnttrat.pdf | title = Wildfire Prevention Strategies | publisher = National Wildfire Coordinating Group | page = 17 | date = March 1998 | access-date = 3 December 2008 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081209105351/http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/docs/wfprevnttrat.pdf | archive-date = 9 December 2008 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="Scott2000">{{cite journal | doi =10.1016/S0031-0182(00)00192-9 | title = The Pre-Quaternary history of fire | date = 2000 | author = Scott, A | journal = Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology | volume = 164 | issue = 1–4 | pages = 281–329 | bibcode =2000PPP...164..281S }}</ref>
* [[dry climate]]
* [[lightning]]
* [[climate variability]]
* [[volcanic eruption]]

=== Human activity ===
In [[middle latitudes]], the most common human causes of wildfires are equipment generating sparks (chainsaws, grinders, mowers, etc.), [[overhead power line]]s, and [[arson]].<ref>{{cite web
| url =https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/environment/story/2020-01-05/human-caused-ignitions-spark-california-worst-wildfires
| title =Human-caused ignitions spark California's worst wildfires but get little state focus
| last =Boxall
| first =Bettina
| date =5 January 2020
| website =San Diego Union-Tribune
| access-date =25 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Wildfire, forest fire, grass fire|work=SpringerReference|year=2011|publisher=Springer-Verlag|doi=10.1007/springerreference_29801}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Zhihua|last2=Yang|first2=Jian|last3=Chang|first3=Yu|last4=Weisberg|first4=Peter J.|last5=He|first5=Hong S.|date=June 2012|title=Spatial patterns and drivers of fire occurrence and its future trend under climate change in a boreal forest of Northeast China|journal=Global Change Biology|language=en|volume=18|issue=6|pages=2041–2056|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02649.x|issn=1354-1013|bibcode=2012GCBio..18.2041L|s2cid=26410408}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=de Rigo|first1=Daniele|last2=Libertà|first2=Giorgio|last3=Houston Durrant|first3=Tracy|last4=Artés Vivancos|first4=Tomàs|last5=San-Miguel-Ayanz|first5=Jesús|title=Forest fire danger extremes in Europe under climate change: variability and uncertainty|page=71|date=2017|publisher=Publication Office of the European Union|location=Luxembourg|isbn=978-92-79-77046-3|doi=10.2760/13180}}</ref><ref name="Krock">{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fire/world.html|title=The World on Fire|last=Krock|first=Lexi|date=June 2002|publisher=NOVA online – Public Broadcasting System (PBS)|access-date=13 July 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027041902/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fire/world.html|archive-date=27 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Balch|first1=Jennifer K.|last2=Bradley|first2=Bethany A.|last3=Abatzoglou|first3=John T.|last4=Nagy|first4=R. Chelsea|last5=Fusco|first5=Emily J.|last6=Mahood|first6=Adam L.|date=2017|title=Human-started wildfires expand the fire niche across the United States|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=114|issue=11|pages=2946–2951|doi=10.1073/pnas.1617394114|pmid=28242690|issn=1091-6490|pmc=5358354|bibcode=2017PNAS..114.2946B|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the [[tropics]], farmers often practice the [[slash-and-burn]] method of clearing fields during the [[dry season]]. When thousands of farmers do this simultaneously, much of a continent can appear from orbit to be one vast blaze.<ref>{{cite web
| url =https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/goddard/2018/agricultural-fires-seem-to-engulf-central-africa
| title =Agricultural Fires Seem to Engulf Central Africa
| date =26 June 2020
| website =NASA
| access-date =21 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{YouTube|s1R8KdhRrDA|"Wildfires in Africa, 2021, April to December"}}</ref>

[[Coal seam fire]]s burn in the thousands around the world, such as those in [[Burning Mountain]], New South Wales; [[Centralia, Pennsylvania|Centralia]], Pennsylvania; and several [[Coal power in China#Coal mine fires|coal-sustained fires in China]]. They can also flare up unexpectedly and ignite nearby flammable material.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Krajick|first=Kevin|date=May 2005|title=Fire in the hole|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/10013541.html|journal=Smithsonian Magazine|access-date=30 July 2009}}</ref>

== Spread ==
[[File:Wildfire near Cedar Fort, Utah.jpg|thumb|alt=Flat expanse of brown grasses and some green trees with black and some gray smoke and visible flames in the distance.|A surface fire in the western desert of [[Utah]], United States]]
[[File:Forest fire aftermath.jpg|thumb|alt=Mountainous region with blackened soil and trees due to a recent fire.|Charred landscape following a crown fire in the [[Cascade Range|North Cascades]], United States]]
[[File:Priske 24.03.2019.jpg|thumb|Forest fires visible from a distance in [[Dajti National Park]], [[Tirana]], [[Albania]]]]

The spread of wildfires varies based on the flammable material present, its vertical arrangement and moisture content, and weather conditions.<ref name="Graham, et al., iv">Graham, ''et al''., iv.</ref> Fuel arrangement and density is governed in part by [[topography]], as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight and water for plant growth. Overall, fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows:
* '''Ground''' fires are fed by subterranean roots, [[forest floor|duff]] and other buried [[organic matter]]. This fuel type is especially susceptible to ignition due to ''spotting'' {{See below|[[#Spotting|below]]}}. Ground fires typically burn by smoldering, and can burn slowly for days to months, such as [[Peat#Peat Fires|peat fires]] in [[Kalimantan]] and Eastern [[Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]], which resulted from a [[Mega Rice Project (Kalimantan)|riceland creation project]] that unintentionally drained and dried the peat.<ref>Graham, ''et al''., 9, 13</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4208564.stm | title = Asian peat fires add to warming | publisher = British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) News | last = Rincon | first = Paul | date = 9 March 2005 | access-date = 9 December 2008 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081219064000/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4208564.stm | archive-date = 19 December 2008 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/bogs-peatlands-fire-climate-change|title=When bogs burn, the environment takes a hit|last=Hamers|first=Laurel|date=2019-07-29|website=Science News|language=en|access-date=2019-08-15}}</ref>
* '''Crawling''' or '''surface''' fires are fueled by low-lying vegetation on the [[forest floor]] such as leaf and timber litter, debris, grass, and low-lying shrubbery.<ref>Graham, ''et al'' ., iv, 10, 14</ref> This kind of fire often burns at a relatively lower temperature than crown fires (less than {{convert|400|C|F}}) and may spread at slow rate, though steep slopes and wind can accelerate the rate of spread.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Fire on earth : an introduction|last=C.|first=Scott, Andrew|others=Bowman, D. M. J. S., Bond, William J., 1948–, Pyne, Stephen J., 1949–, Alexander, Martin E.|isbn=978-1-119-95357-9|location=Chichester, West Sussex|oclc=854761793|date = 28 January 2014}}</ref>
* '''Ladder''' fires consume material between low-level vegetation and tree canopies, such as small trees, downed logs, and [[vine]]s. [[Kudzu]], [[Old World climbing fern]], and other [[invasive plant]]s that scale trees may also encourage ladder fires.<ref name="FireInitiative">{{cite web | url = http://www.tncfire.org/crosscutting_fandi.htm | title = Global Fire Initiative: Fire and Invasives | publisher = The Nature Conservancy | access-date = 3 December 2008 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090412054533/http://www.tncfire.org/crosscutting_fandi.htm | archive-date = 12 April 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>
* '''Crown''', '''canopy''', or '''aerial''' fires burn suspended material at the canopy level, such as tall trees, vines, and mosses. The ignition of a crown fire, termed ''crowning'', is dependent on the density of the suspended material, canopy height, canopy continuity, sufficient surface and ladder fires, vegetation moisture content, and weather conditions during the blaze.<ref>Graham, ''et al''., iv, 8, 11, 15.</ref> Stand-replacing fires lit by humans can spread into the [[Amazon rain forest]], damaging ecosystems not particularly suited for heat or arid conditions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://e360.yale.edu/content/feature.msp?id=2010|title=Global Commodities Boom Fuels New Assault on Amazon|last=Butler|first=Rhett|publisher=Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies|access-date=9 July 2009|date=19 June 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411124535/http://e360.yale.edu/content/feature.msp?id=2010|archive-date=11 April 2009}}</ref>

In monsoonal areas of north Australia, surface fires can spread, including across intended firebreaks, by burning or smoldering pieces of wood or burning tufts of grass carried intentionally by large flying birds accustomed to catch prey flushed out by wildfires. Species involved in this activity are the black kite (''[[Milvus migrans]]''), whistling kite (''[[Haliastur sphenurus]]''), and brown falcon (''[[Falco berigora]]''). Local [[Aboriginal Australians|Aborigines]] have known of this behavior for a long time, including in their [[mythology]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.2993/0278-0771-37.4.700 | volume=37 | title=Intentional Fire-Spreading by "Firehawk" Raptors in Northern Australia | year=2017 | journal=Journal of Ethnobiology | page=700 | last1 = Bonta | first1 = Mark | last2 = Gosford | first2 = Robert | last3 = Eussen | first3 = Dick | last4 = Ferguson | first4 = Nathan | last5 = Loveless | first5 = Erana | last6 = Witwer | first6 = Maxwell| issue=4 | s2cid=90806420 }}</ref>

== Physical properties ==
{{anchor|Physical properties}}
[[File:Northwest Crown Fire Experiment.png|thumb|right|Experimental fire in [[Canada]]|alt=A line of trees completely engulfed in flames. Towers with instrumentation are seen just beyond the fire's reach.]]
{{See also|Combustion|Fire control|Extreme weather|Firestorm}}
[[File:Comtrasts.jpg|thumb|A dirt road acted as a fire barrier in [[South Africa]]. The effects of the barrier can clearly be seen on the unburnt (left) and burnt (right) sides of the road.]]
Wildfires occur when all the necessary elements of a fire triforce come together in a susceptible area: an ignition source is brought into contact with a combustible material such as [[vegetation]] that is subjected to enough heat and has an adequate supply of oxygen from the ambient air. A high moisture content usually prevents ignition and slows propagation, because higher temperatures are needed to evaporate any water in the material and heat the material to its [[fire point]].<ref name = FireBehavior /><ref name="NIFC">{{cite web|url=http://www.nifc.gov/preved/comm_guide/wildfire/fire_4.html|title=The Science of Wildland fire|publisher=National Interagency Fire Center|access-date=21 November 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081105175208/http://www.nifc.gov/preved/comm_guide/wildfire/fire_4.html|archive-date=5 November 2008}}</ref> Dense forests usually provide more shade, resulting in lower ambient temperatures and greater [[humidity]], and are therefore less susceptible to wildfires.<ref name="Graham, et al., 12">Graham, ''et al''., 12.</ref> Less dense material such as grasses and leaves are easier to ignite because they contain less water than denser material such as branches and trunks.<ref name="ReferenceA">''National Wildfire Coordinating Group Communicator's Guide For Wildland Fire Management'', 3.</ref> Plants continuously lose water by [[evapotranspiration]], but water loss is usually balanced by water absorbed from the soil, humidity, or rain.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.nbcnews.com/id/27148069 | title = Ashes cover areas hit by Southern Calif. fires | agency = Associated Press | publisher = NBC News | date = 15 November 2008 | access-date = 4 December 2008 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> When this balance is not maintained, plants dry out and are therefore more flammable, often as a consequence of droughts.<ref name=Structure>{{cite web | url = http://www.fs.fed.us/projects/hfi/2003/november/documents/forest-structure-wildfire.pdf | title = Influence of Forest Structure on Wildfire Behavior and the Severity of Its Effects | date = November 2003 | publisher = US Forest Service | access-date = 19 November 2008 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081217125731/http://www.fs.fed.us/projects/hfi/2003/november/documents/forest-structure-wildfire.pdf | archive-date = 17 December 2008 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fema.gov/hazard/wildfire/wf_prepare.shtm | title = Prepare for a Wildfire | publisher = Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) | access-date = 1 December 2008 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081029025706/https://www.fema.gov/hazard/wildfire/wf_prepare.shtm | archive-date = 29 October 2008 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

A wildfire ''front'' is the portion sustaining continuous flaming combustion, where unburned material meets active flames, or the [[smolder]]ing transition between unburned and burned material.<ref>''Glossary of Wildland Fire Terminology'', 74.</ref> As the front approaches, the fire heats both the surrounding air and woody material through [[convection]] and [[thermal radiation]]. First, wood is dried as water is vaporized at a temperature of {{convert|100|C|F}}. Next, the [[pyrolysis]] of wood at {{convert|230|C|F|sigfig=2}} releases flammable gases. Finally, wood can smolder at {{convert|380|C|F|sigfig=2}} or, when heated sufficiently, ignite at {{convert|590|C|F|sigfig=1}}.<ref>de Sousa Costa and Sandberg, 229–230.</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://web.mit.edu/2.009/www/experiments/deathray/10_ArchimedesResult.html | title = Archimedes Death Ray: Idea Feasibility Testing | date = October 2005 | publisher = Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) | access-date = 1 February 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090207164348/http://web.mit.edu/2.009/www/experiments/deathray/10_ArchimedesResult.html | archive-date = 7 February 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Even before the flames of a wildfire arrive at a particular location, [[heat transfer]] from the wildfire front warms the air to {{convert|800|C|F|sigfig=3}}, which pre-heats and dries flammable materials, causing materials to ignite faster and allowing the fire to spread faster.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref name=FireScars>{{cite web | url = http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMNJMV4QWD_Protecting_0.html | title = Satellites are tracing Europe's forest fire scars | publisher = European Space Agency | date = 27 July 2004 | access-date = 12 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081110172926/http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMNJMV4QWD_Protecting_0.html | archive-date = 10 November 2008 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> High-temperature and long-duration surface wildfires may encourage [[flashover]] or ''torching'': the drying of [[canopy (ecology)|tree canopies]] and their subsequent ignition from below.<ref>Graham, ''et al''., 10–11.</ref>

{{anchor|Spot|Spotting|Spot fire}} Wildfires have a rapid ''forward rate of spread'' (FROS) when burning through dense uninterrupted fuels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flash.org/resources/files/WildfireBrochure.pdf|title=Protecting Your Home From Wildfire Damage|publisher=Florida Alliance for Safe Homes (FLASH)|access-date=3 March 2010|page=5|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719000918/http://www.flash.org/resources/files/WildfireBrochure.pdf|archive-date=19 July 2011}}</ref> They can move as fast as {{convert|10.8|km/h|mph}} in forests and {{convert|22|km/h|mph}} in grasslands.<ref>Billing, 5–6</ref> Wildfires can advance tangential to the main front to form a ''flanking'' front, or burn in the opposite direction of the main front by ''backing''.<ref>Graham, ''et al''., 12</ref> They may also spread by ''jumping'' or ''spotting'' as winds and vertical [[convection]] columns carry ''firebrands'' (hot wood embers) and other burning materials through the air over roads, rivers, and other barriers that may otherwise act as [[firebreak]]s.<ref name=underfire>{{cite magazine | url = http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/07/fire-season/shea-text.html | title = Under Fire | last = Shea | first = Neil | magazine = National Geographic | date = July 2008 | access-date = 8 December 2008 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090215065522/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/07/fire-season/shea-text.html | archive-date = 15 February 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>Graham, ''et al''., 16.</ref> Torching and fires in tree canopies encourage spotting, and dry ground fuels around a wildfire are especially vulnerable to ignition from firebrands.<ref>Graham, ''et al''., 9, 16.</ref> Spotting can create '''spot fires''' as hot embers and firebrands ignite fuels downwind from the fire. In [[bushfires in Australia|Australian bushfires]], spot fires are known to occur as far as {{convert|20|km|0}} from the fire front.<ref name=Kilmore-East>{{cite book
|title = Volume 1: The Kilmore East Fire
|work = 2009 Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission
|publisher = Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission, Australia
|date = July 2010
|url = http://www.royalcommission.vic.gov.au/commission-reports/final-report/volume-1/chapters/the-kilmore-east-fire
|isbn = 978-0-9807408-2-0
|access-date = 26 October 2013
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131029190327/http://www.royalcommission.vic.gov.au/commission-reports/final-report/volume-1/chapters/the-kilmore-east-fire
|archive-date = 29 October 2013
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref>

The incidence of large, uncontained wildfires in [[North America]] has increased in recent years, significantly impacting both [[Urban area|urban]] and agriculturally-focused areas. The physical damage and health pressures left in the wake of uncontrolled fires has especially devastated farm and [[ranch]] operators in affected areas, prompting concern from the community of [[Health care|healthcare]] providers and advocates servicing this specialized occupational population.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Corrieri|first1=Michael L.|last2=Roy|first2=Natalie C.|last3=Rose-Davison|first3=Knesha N.|last4=Roy|first4=Chad J.|date=2019-04-03|title=Wildfire Associated Health Risks Impacting Farmers and Ranchers|journal=Journal of Agromedicine|volume=24|issue=2|pages=129–132|doi=10.1080/1059924X.2019.1581494|issn=1059-924X|pmid=30806175|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Especially large wildfires may affect air currents in their immediate vicinities by the [[stack effect]]: air rises as it is heated, and large wildfires create powerful [[updraft]]s that will [[advection|draw in]] new, cooler air from surrounding areas in [[thermal column]]s.<ref>''National Wildfire Coordinating Group Communicator's Guide For Wildland Fire Management'', 4.</ref> Great vertical differences in temperature and humidity encourage [[pyrocumulus cloud]]s, strong winds, and [[fire whirl]]s with the force of tornadoes at speeds of more than {{convert|80|km/h|mph|sigfig=1}}.<ref>Graham, ''et al''., 16–17.</ref><ref>Olson, ''et al.'', 2</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/newshelt72.pdf | title = The New Generation Fire Shelter | page = 19 | publisher = National Wildfire Coordinating Group | date = March 2003 | access-date = 16 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090116133450/http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/newshelt72.pdf | archive-date = 16 January 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Rapid rates of spread, prolific crowning or spotting, the presence of fire whirls, and strong convection columns signify extreme conditions.<ref>''Glossary of Wildland Fire Terminology'', 69.</ref>

The thermal heat from a wildfire can cause significant [[weathering]] of rocks and boulders. Heat can rapidly expand a boulder and [[thermal shock]] can occur, which may cause an object's structure to fail.

== Climate change effects ==
{{See also|Effects of climate change}}
[[File:Wildfire acres burned in the United States, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.35 | Average U.S. acreage burned annually by wildfires has almost tripled in three decades.<ref name=OWID_thru2021>{{cite web |title=Wildfire acres burned in the United States |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/acres-burned-usa |website=OurWorldInData |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211012030416/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/acres-burned-usa |archive-date=12 October 2021 |date=2021 |url-status=live}} Data published by National Interagency Coordination Center; National Interagency Fire Center. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20211011082005/https://www.nifc.gov/fire-information/statistics/wildfires archive of NIFC data])</ref>]]
[[File:2011-08-04 20 00 00 Susie Fire in the Adobe Range west of Elko Nevada.jpg|thumb|Lightning-sparked wildfires are frequent occurrences during the dry summer season in [[Nevada]].]]
[[File:Incendio en Caracas (4515878847).jpg|thumb|A wildfire in [[Venezuela]] during a drought]]

=== Increasing risks ===
[[Heat wave]]s, [[drought]]s, [[climate variability]] such as [[El Niño]], and regional weather patterns such as high-pressure ridges can increase the risk and alter the behavior of wildfires dramatically.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/reports/billionz.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20010915155936/http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/reports/billionz.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 15 September 2001 | title = Chronological List of U.S. Billion Dollar Events | publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Satellite and Information Service | access-date = 4 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>McKenzie, ''et al.'', 893</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Provenzale|first1=Antonello|last2=Llasat|first2=Maria Carmen|last3=Montávez|first3=Juan Pedro|last4=Jerez|first4=Sonia|last5=Bedia|first5=Joaquín|last6=Rosa-Cánovas|first6=Juan José|last7=Turco|first7=Marco|date=2018-10-02|title=Exacerbated fires in Mediterranean Europe due to anthropogenic warming projected with non-stationary climate-fire models|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=3821|doi=10.1038/s41467-018-06358-z|pmid=30279564|pmc=6168540|issn=2041-1723|bibcode=2018NatCo...9.3821T}}</ref> Years of precipitation followed by warm periods can encourage more widespread fires and longer fire seasons.<ref>Graham, ''et al''., 2</ref> Temperature affects wildfires in the same way, they dry out the load and make them more flammable. <ref>{{Cite web|last=Anuprash|date=2022-01-28|title=What Causes Wildfires? Understand The Science Here|url=https://www.techiwiki.info/post/what-causes-wildfires-understand-the-science-here|access-date=2022-02-14|website=TechiWiki|language=en}}</ref>Since the mid-1980s, earlier snowmelt and associated warming has also been associated with an increase in length and severity of the wildfire season, or the most fire-prone time of the year,<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.fs.fed.us/nwacfire/home/terminology.html#S|title= Fire Terminology|author=|website=Fs.fed.us |access-date= 28 February 2019}}</ref> in the [[Western United States]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.1128834 | date = August 2006 | author = Westerling, Al | author2 = Hidalgo, Hg | author3 = Cayan, Dr | author4 = Swetnam, Tw | title = Warming and earlier spring increase western U.S. Forest wildfire activity | volume = 313 | issue = 5789 | pages = 940–3 | issn = 0036-8075 | pmid = 16825536 | journal = Science | bibcode = 2006Sci...313..940W | doi-access = free }}</ref> [[Global warming]] may increase the intensity and frequency of droughts in many areas, creating more intense and frequent wildfires.<ref name="UToronto" /> A 2019 study indicates that the increase in [[California fires|fire risk in California]] may be attributable to [[Man-made climate change|human-induced climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Williams|first1=A. Park|last2=Abatzoglou|first2=John T.|last3=Gershunov|first3=Alexander|last4=Guzman‐Morales|first4=Janin|last5=Bishop|first5=Daniel A.|last6=Balch|first6=Jennifer K.|last7=Lettenmaier|first7=Dennis P.|author7-link=Dennis P. Lettenmaier|date=2019|title=Observed Impacts of Anthropogenic Climate Change on Wildfire in California|journal=Earth's Future|language=en|volume=7|issue=8|pages=892–910|doi=10.1029/2019EF001210|bibcode=2019EaFut...7..892W|issn=2328-4277|doi-access=free}}</ref> A study of [[alluvial]] [[sediment]] deposits going back over 8,000 years found warmer climate periods experienced severe droughts and stand-replacing fires and concluded climate was such a powerful influence on wildfire that trying to recreate presettlement forest structure is likely impossible in a warmer future.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pierce|first1=Jennifer L.|last2=Meyer|first2=Grant A.|last3=Timothy Jull|first3=A. J.|date=2004-11-04|title=Fire-induced erosion and millennial-scale climate change in northern ponderosa pine forests|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=432|issue=7013|pages=87–90|doi=10.1038/nature03058|issn=0028-0836|pmid=15525985|bibcode=2004Natur.432...87P|s2cid=1452537}}</ref>

Intensity also increases during daytime hours. Burn rates of smoldering logs are up to five times greater during the day due to lower humidity, increased temperatures, and increased wind speeds.<ref>de Souza Costa and Sandberg, 228</ref> Sunlight warms the ground during the day which creates air currents that travel uphill. At night the land cools, creating air currents that travel downhill. Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys.<ref>''National Wildfire Coordinating Group Communicator's Guide For Wildland Fire Management'', 5.</ref> Fires in Europe occur frequently during the hours of 12:00 p.m. and 2:00 p.m.<ref>San-Miguel-Ayanz, ''et al.'', 364.</ref> Wildfire suppression operations in the United States revolve around a 24-hour ''fire day'' that begins at 10:00 a.m. due to the predictable increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth.<ref>''Glossary of Wildland Fire Terminology'', 73.</ref>

In the summer of 1974–1975 (southern hemisphere), [[Australia]] suffered its worst recorded wildfire, when 15% of Australia's land mass suffered "extensive fire damage".<ref name="abs1995">{{cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/6C98BB75496A5AD1CA2569DE00267E48|title=BUSHFIRES – AN INTEGRAL PART OF AUSTRALIA'S ENVIRONMENT|work=1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 1995|publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|date=1 January 1995|author=Cheney, N. P.|access-date=14 January 2020|quote=In 1974–75 [...] in this season fires burnt over 117 million hectares or 15 per cent of the total land area of this continent.}}</ref> Fires that summer burned up an estimated {{convert|117|e6ha|e6acre km2 sqmi|abbr=off|lk=on}}.<ref name="AIDR">{{cite web |title=New South Wales, December 1974 Bushfire – New South Wales |url=https://knowledge.aidr.org.au/resources/bushfire-new-south-wales-1974/ |website=Australian Institute for Disaster Resilience |publisher=Government of Australia |access-date=13 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113201506/https://knowledge.aidr.org.au/resources/bushfire-new-south-wales-1974/ |archive-date=13 January 2020 |quote=Approximately 15 per cent of Australia's physical land mass sustained extensive fire damage. This equates to roughly around 117 million ha. |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Cole, Brendan|title=WHAT CAUSED THE WILDFIRES IN AUSTRALIA? AMID WORST BLAZES FOR A DECADE, 24 PEOPLE ARE CHARGED WITH ARSON |url=https://www.newsweek.com/australia-wildfires-arson-new-south-wales-police-1480733 |access-date=14 February 2020 |work=[[Newsweek]] |date=7 January 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200214151857/https://www.newsweek.com/australia-wildfires-arson-new-south-wales-police-1480733 |archive-date=14 February 2020 |quote=In 1974, 117 million hectares of land was burnt in wildfires in central Australia.}}</ref> In Australia, the annual number of hot days (above 35 °C) and very hot days (above 40 °C) has increased significantly in many areas of the country since 1950. The country has always had bushfires but in 2019, the extent and ferocity of these fires increased dramatically.<ref>[https://time.com/5735660/sydney-bushfires/ As Smoke From Bushfires Chokes Sydney, Australian Prime Minister Dodges on Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202070427/https://time.com/5735660/sydney-bushfires/|date=2 December 2019}}, Time 21 November 2019.</ref> For the first time catastrophic bushfire conditions were declared for Greater Sydney. New South Wales and Queensland declared a state of emergency but fires were also burning in South Australia and Western Australia.<ref>[https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/not-normal-climate-change-bushfire-web/ The facts about bushfires and climate change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216072021/https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/not-normal-climate-change-bushfire-web/|date=16 December 2019}}, Climate Council, 13 November 2019</ref>

In [[2019 in climate change|2019, extreme heat and dryness]] caused massive [[Wildfires in 2019|wildfires]] in [[2019 Siberia wildfires|Siberia]], [[Deshka Landing Fire|Alaska]], [[2019 Canary Islands wildfires|Canary Islands]], [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season|Australia]], and in the [[2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires|Amazon rainforest]]. The fires in the latter were caused mainly by [[Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest|illegal logging]]. The smoke from the fires expanded on huge territory including major cities, dramatically reducing air quality.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Irfan |first1=Umair |title=Wildfires are burning around the world. The most alarming is in the Amazon rainforest. |url=https://www.vox.com/world/2019/8/20/20813786/wildfire-amazon-rainforest-brazil-siberia |access-date=23 August 2019 |agency=Vox |date=21 August 2019}}</ref>

As of August 2020, the [[Wildfires in 2020|wildfires in that year]] were 13% worse than in 2019 due primarily to [[climate change]] and [[deforestation]].<ref name="global-carbon-fire-2019">{{cite news |last1=Boyle |first1=Louise |title=Global fires are up 13% from 2019's record-breaking numbers |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-crisis-fires-global-heating-amazon-california-eu-a9690146.html |access-date=8 September 2020 |agency=The Independent |date=27 August 2020}}</ref> The [[Amazon rainforest]]'s existence is threatened by fires.<ref name="watching-earth-burn">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/28/opinion/climate-change-earth.html?action=click&module=Opinion&pgtype=Homepage |title=Opinion: Watching Earth Burn – For 10 days in September, satellites in orbit sent tragic evidence of climate change's destructive power. |first=Michael |last=Benson |date=2020-12-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://amazonwatch.org/news/2020/1210-resisting-another-record-breaking-year-of-deforestation-and-destruction-in-the-brazilian-amazon |title=Resisting Another Record-Breaking Year of Deforestation and Destruction in the Brazilian Amazon – While Brazilian authorities deny the impact of the criminal arson, Amazon Watch and our allies exposed and challenged the growing fires and deforestation in the Amazon |date=2020-12-10 |first=Ana Paula |last=Vargas |publisher=Amazon Watch}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Offensive against the Amazon: An incontrollable pandemic (commentary) |first1=Marcos |last1=Colón |first2=Luís |last2=de Camões Lima Boaventura |first3=Erik |last3=Jennings |date=2020-06-01 |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2020/06/offensive-against-the-amazon-an-incontrollable-pandemic-commentary/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jan/02/brazil-jair-bolsonaro-amazon-rainforest-protections | title=Jair Bolsonaro launches assault on Amazon rainforest protections – Executive order transfers regulation and creation of indigenous reserves to agriculture ministry controlled by agribusiness lobby |author=Dom Phillips |date=2019-01-02}}</ref> According to Mike Barrett, Executive Director of Science and Conservation at WWF-UK, if this rainforest is destroyed "we lose the fight against climate change. There will be no going back.”<ref name="global-carbon-fire-2019" /> Record-breaking [[wildfires in 2021]] occurred in [[2021 Turkey wildfires|Turkey]], [[2021 Greece wildfires|Greece]], [[2021 California wildfires|California]] and [[2021 Russia wildfires|Russia]], thought to be linked to climate change.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-08-11|title=Wildfires: How are they linked to climate change?|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/58159451|access-date=2021-10-06}}</ref>

=== Emissions from fires ===
Wildfires release large amounts of carbon dioxide, black and brown carbon particles, and ozone precursors such as [[volatile organic compound]]s and [[NOx|nitrogen oxides (NOx)]] into the atmosphere.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Spracklen|first1=Dominick V.|last2=Logan|first2=Jennifer A.|author-link2=Jennifer Logan|last3=Mickley|first3=Loretta J.|last4=Park|first4=Rokjin J.|last5=Yevich|first5=Rosemarie|last6=Westerling|first6=Anthony L.|last7=Jaffe|first7=Dan A.|date=2007|title=Wildfires drive interannual variability of organic carbon aerosol in the western U.S. in summer|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2007GL030037|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=34|issue=16|doi=10.1029/2007GL030037|bibcode=2007GeoRL..3416816S|s2cid=5642896|issn=1944-8007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wofsy|first1=S. C.|last2=Sachse|first2=G. W.|last3=Gregory|first3=G. L.|last4=Blake|first4=D. R.|last5=Bradshaw|first5=J. D.|last6=Sandholm|first6=S. T.|last7=Singh|first7=H. B.|last8=Barrick|first8=J. A.|last9=Harriss|first9=R. C.|last10=Talbot|first10=R. W.|last11=Shipham|first11=M. A.|last12=Browell|first12=E.V.|last13=Jacob|first13=D.J.|last14=Logan|first14=J.A.|author-link14=Jennifer Logan|date=1992|title=Atmospheric chemistry in the Arctic and subarctic: Influence of natural fires, industrial emissions, and stratospheric inputs|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/92JD00622|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres|language=en|volume=97|issue=D15|pages=16731–16746|doi=10.1029/92JD00622|bibcode=1992JGR....9716731W|issn=2156-2202}}</ref> These emissions affect radiation, clouds, and climate on regional and even global scales. Wildfires also emit substantial amounts of semi-volatile organic species that can partition from the gas phase to form [[secondary organic aerosol]] (SOA) over hours to days after emission. In addition, the formation of the other pollutants as the air is transported can lead to harmful exposures for populations in regions far away from the wildfires.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/csd/factsheets/csdWildfiresFIREX.pdf|title=The Impact of Wildfires on Climate and Air Quality|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref> While direct emissions of harmful pollutants can affect first responders and local residents, wildfire smoke can also be transported over long distances and impact air quality across local, regional, and global scales.<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=ORD|date=2017-03-30|title=Wildland Fire Research: Health Effects Research|url=https://www.epa.gov/air-research/wildland-fire-research-health-effects-research|access-date=2020-11-28|website=US EPA|language=en}}</ref> Whether transported smoke plumes are relevant for surface air quality depends on where they exist in the atmosphere, which in turn depends on the initial injection height of the convective smoke plume into the atmosphere. Smoke that is injected above the [[planetary boundary layer]] (PBL) may be detectable from spaceborne satellites and play a role in altering the Earth's energy budget, but would not mix down to the surface where it would impact air quality and human health. Alternatively, smoke confined to a shallow PBL (through nighttime stable stratification of the atmosphere or terrain trapping) may become particularly concentrated and problematic for surface air quality. Wildfire intensity and smoke emissions are not constant throughout the fire lifetime and tend to follow a [[diurnal cycle]] that peaks in late afternoon and early evening, and which may be reasonably approximated using a monomodal or [[Multimodal distribution|bimodal]] [[normal distribution]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wiggins |first1=Elizabeth B. |last2=Soja |first2=Amber J. |last3=Gargulinski |first3=Emily |last4=Halliday |first4=Hannah S. |last5=Pierce |first5=R. Bradley |last6=Schmidt |first6=Christopher C. |last7=Nowak |first7=John B. |last8=DiGangi |first8=Joshua P. |last9=Diskin |first9=Glenn S. |last10=Katich |first10=Joseph M. |last11=Perring |first11=Anne E. |last12=Schwarz |first12=Joshua P. |last13=Anderson |first13=Bruce E. |last14=Chen |first14=Gao |last15=Crosbie |first15=Ewan C. |last16=Jordan |first16=Carolyn |last17=Robinson |first17=Claire E. |last18=Sanchez |first18=Kevin J. |last19=Shingler |first19=Taylor J. |last20=Shook |first20=Michael |last21=Thornhill |first21=Kenneth L. |last22=Winstead |first22=Edward L. |last23=Ziemba |first23=Luke D. |last24=Moore |first24=Richard H. |title=High Temporal Resolution Satellite Observations of Fire Radiative Power Reveal Link Between Fire Behavior and Aerosol and Gas Emissions |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date=2020 |volume=47 |issue=23 |pages=e90707 |doi=10.1029/2020GL090707 |bibcode=2020GeoRL..4790707W |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Over the past century, wildfires have accounted for 20-25% of global carbon emissions, the remainder from human activities.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2020-fire-emissions/ |publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]] |title=Measuring the Carbon-Dioxide Cost of Last Year's Worldwide Wildfires |authors=Laura Millan Lombrana, Hayley Warren and Akshat Rathi |date=2020-02-10 }}</ref> Global carbon emissions from wildfires through August 2020 equaled the average annual emissions of the [[European Union]].<ref name="global-carbon-fire-2019" /> In 2020, the carbon released by California's wildfires were significantly larger than the state's other carbon emissions.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2020/09/off-the-chart-co2-from-california-fires-dwarf-states-fossil-fuel-emissions/ |publisher=Mongabay |title='Off the chart': CO2 from California fires dwarf state's fossil fuel emissions |first=Elizabeth Claire |last=Alberts |date=2020-09-18 }}</ref>

== Ecology ==
{{Main|Fire ecology}}
{{See also|Disturbance (ecology)|Forestry}}
[[File:Global Fires - August and February 2008.jpg|thumb|right|upright=2|alt=Two illustrations of the earth, one above the other. The seas are dark gray in color and the continents a lighter gray. Both images have red, yellow, and white markers indicating where fires occurred during the months of August (top image) and February (bottom image) of the year 2008.|Global fires during the year 2008 for the months of August (top image) and February (bottom image), as detected by the [[Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]] (MODIS) on NASA's [[Terra satellite]].]]

Wildfire's occurrence throughout the history of terrestrial life invites conjecture that fire must have had pronounced evolutionary effects on most ecosystems' flora and fauna.<ref name=":0" /> Wildfires are common in climates that are sufficiently moist to allow the growth of vegetation but feature extended dry, hot periods.<ref name=NOVA /> Such places include the vegetated areas of Australia and [[Southeast Asia]], the [[veld]] in southern Africa, the [[fynbos]] in the Western Cape of South Africa, the forested areas of the United States and Canada, and the [[Mediterranean Basin]].

High-severity wildfire creates [[complex early seral forest]] habitat (also called “snag forest habitat”), which often has higher species richness and diversity than unburned old forest.<ref name=":1" /> Plant and animal species in most types of North American forests evolved with fire, and many of these species depend on wildfires, and particularly high-severity fires, to reproduce and grow. Fire helps to return nutrients from plant matter back to soil, the heat from fire is necessary to the germination of certain types of seeds, and the snags (dead trees) and early successional forests created by high-severity fire create habitat conditions that are beneficial to wildlife.<ref name=":1" /> Early successional forests created by high-severity fire support some of the highest levels of native biodiversity found in temperate conifer forests.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Donato|first1=Daniel C.|last2=Fontaine|first2=Joseph B.|last3=Robinson|first3=W. Douglas|last4=Kauffman|first4=J. Boone|last5=Law|first5=Beverly E.|date=2009-01-01|title=Vegetation response to a short interval between high-severity wildfires in a mixed-evergreen forest|journal=Journal of Ecology|language=en|volume=97|issue=1|pages=142–154|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2745.2008.01456.x|issn=1365-2745|url=https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/2578/|doi-access=free}}</ref> Post-fire logging has no ecological benefits and many negative impacts; the same is often true for post-fire seeding.<ref name=":5" />

Although some ecosystems rely on naturally occurring fires to regulate growth, some ecosystems suffer from too much fire, such as the [[chaparral]] in [[southern California]] and lower-elevation deserts in the American Southwest. The increased fire frequency in these ordinarily fire-dependent areas has upset natural cycles, damaged native plant communities, and encouraged the growth of non-native weeds.<ref>''Interagency Strategy for the Implementation of the Federal Wildland Fire Policy'', 3, 37.</ref><ref>Graham, ''et al''., 3.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.werc.usgs.gov/seki/pdfs/Future%20of%20California%20Floristics%20and%20Systematics%20Wildfire%20Th.pdf | title = Future of California floristics and systematics: wildfire threats to the California flora | author = Keeley, J.E. | journal = Madroño | volume = 42 | pages = 175–179 | date = 1995 | access-date = 26 June 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090507033351/http://www.werc.usgs.gov/seki/pdfs/Future%20of%20California%20Floristics%20and%20Systematics%20Wildfire%20Th.pdf | archive-date = 7 May 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference | last = Zedler | first = P.H. | title = Fire frequency in southern California shrublands: biological effects and management options | date = 1995 | book-title = Brushfires in California wildlands: ecology and resource management | editor = Keeley, J.E. | editor2 = Scott, T. | pages = 101–112 | place = Fairfield, WA | publisher = International Association of Wildland Fire}}</ref> [[Invasive species]], such as ''[[Lygodium microphyllum]]'' and ''[[Bromus tectorum]]'', can grow rapidly in areas that were damaged by fires. Because they are highly flammable, they can increase the future risk of fire, creating a [[positive feedback loop]] that increases fire frequency and further alters native vegetation communities.<ref name="FireInitiative" /><ref name="van Wagtendonk, 14">van Wagtendonk (2007), 14.</ref>

In the [[Amazon rainforest]], drought, logging, cattle ranching practices, and [[slash-and-burn]] agriculture damage fire-resistant forests and promote the growth of flammable brush, creating a cycle that encourages more burning.<ref>Nepstad, 4, 8–11</ref> Fires in the rainforest threaten its collection of diverse species and produce large amounts of CO2.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/AmazonFireRise/|title=Amazon fires on the rise|publisher=Earth Observatory (NASA)|access-date=9 July 2009|date=5 March 2008|last=Lindsey|first=Rebecca|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813154232/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/AmazonFireRise/|archive-date=13 August 2009}}</ref> Also, fires in the rainforest, along with drought and human involvement, could damage or destroy more than half of the Amazon rainforest by 2030.<ref>Nepstad, 4</ref> Wildfires generate ash, reduce the availability of organic nutrients, and cause an increase in water runoff, eroding away other nutrients and creating [[flash flood]] conditions.<ref name="Graham, et al., iv" /><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ewatercrc.com.au/bushfire/background_effects.shtml | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070830055708/http://www.ewatercrc.com.au/bushfire/background_effects.shtml | url-status = dead | archive-date = 30 August 2007 | title = Bushfire and Catchments: Effects of Fire on Soils and Erosion | publisher = eWater Cooperative Research Center's | access-date = 8 January 2009 }}</ref> A 2003 wildfire in the [[North Yorkshire Moors]] burned off {{convert|2.5|km2|acre|sigfig=1|sp=us}} of [[Ericaceae|heather]] and the underlying [[peat]] layers. Afterwards, wind erosion stripped the ash and the exposed soil, revealing archaeological remains dating back to 10,000 BC.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Fylingdales Moor a lost landscape rises from the ashes|journal=Current Archaeology |last=Refern |first=Neil |author2=Vyner, Blaise |pages=20–27 |volume=XIX |issue=226 |issn=0011-3212}}</ref> Wildfires can also have an effect on climate change, increasing the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere and inhibiting vegetation growth, which affects overall carbon uptake by plants.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Running | first = S.W. | title = Ecosystem Disturbance, Carbon and Climate | journal = Science | volume = 321 | pages = 652–653 | date = 2008 | doi = 10.1126/science.1159607 | pmid = 18669853 | issue = 5889 | s2cid = 206513681 }}</ref>

In [[tundra]] there is a natural pattern of accumulation of fuel and wildfire which varies depending on the nature of vegetation and terrain. Research in Alaska has shown fire-event return intervals, (FRIs) that typically vary from 150 to 200 years with dryer lowland areas burning more frequently than wetter upland areas.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1890/11-0387.1 |title=Variability of tundra fire regimes in Arctic Alaska: Millennial-scale patterns and ecological implications |date=2011 |last1=Higuera |first1=Philip E. |last2=Chipman |first2=Melissa L. |last3=Barnes |first3=Jennifer L. |last4=Urban |first4=Michael A. |last5=Hu |first5=Feng Sheng |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=21 |issue=8 |pages=3211–3226}}</ref>

=== Plant adaptation ===
[[File:Boreal pine forest after fire.JPG|thumb|upright=2|alt=Two photographs of the same section of a pine forest; both show blackened bark at least halfway up the trees. The first picture is noticeably lacking in surface vegetation, while the second shows small, green grasses on the forest floor.|[[Ecological succession]] after a wildfire in a [[boreal forest|boreal pine forest]] next to Hara Bog, [[Lahemaa National Park]], [[Estonia]]. The pictures were taken one and two years after the fire.]]
{{Main|Fire adaptations}}
Plants in wildfire-prone [[ecosystems]] often survive through adaptations to their local [[fire regime]]. Such adaptations include physical protection against heat, increased growth after a fire event, and flammable materials that encourage fire and may eliminate [[competition]]. For example, plants of the genus ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' contain flammable oils that encourage fire and hard [[sclerophyll]] leaves to resist heat and drought, ensuring their dominance over less fire-tolerant species.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://library.csustan.edu/bsantos/section3.htm | title=Section Three: Problems, Cares, Economics, and Species | work=The Eucalyptus of California | first=Robert L. | last=Santos | publisher=California State University | date=1997 | access-date=26 June 2009 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602175115/http://library.csustan.edu/bsantos/section3.htm | archive-date=2 June 2010 | df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>''Fire. The Australian Experience'', 5.</ref> Dense bark, shedding lower branches, and high water content in external structures may also protect trees from rising temperatures.<ref name=NOVA /> Fire-resistant seeds and reserve [[shoot]]s that sprout after a fire encourage species preservation, as embodied by [[pioneer species]]. Smoke, charred wood, and heat can stimulate the germination of seeds in a process called ''[[serotiny]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.werc.usgs.gov/seki/pdfs/emissions.pdf | title = Trace gas emission in smoke-induced germination | author = Keeley, J.E. | author2 = C.J. Fotheringham | name-list-style = amp | journal = Science | volume = 276 | issue = 5316 | pages = 1248–1250 | date = 1997 | access-date = 26 June 2009 | doi = 10.1126/science.276.5316.1248 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090506235220/http://www.werc.usgs.gov/seki/pdfs/emissions.pdf | archive-date = 6 May 2009 | df = dmy-all | citeseerx = 10.1.1.3.2708 }}</ref> Exposure to smoke from burning plants promotes [[germination]] in other types of plants by inducing the production of the orange [[butenolide]].<ref name = flematti>{{cite journal | author = Flematti GR | author2 = Ghisalberti EL | author3 = Dixon KW | author4 = Trengove RD | date = 2004 | title = A compound from smoke that promotes seed germination | journal = Science | volume = 305 | issue = 5686 | page = 977 | doi = 10.1126/science.1099944 | pmid = 15247439| s2cid = 42979006 }}</ref>

Grasslands in Western [[Sabah]], Malaysian [[pine]] forests, and Indonesian ''[[Casuarina]]'' forests are believed to have resulted from previous periods of fire.<ref>Karki, 3.</ref> [[Chamise]] deadwood litter is low in water content and flammable, and the shrub quickly sprouts after a fire.<ref name=NOVA /> Cape lilies lie dormant until flames brush away the covering and then blossom almost overnight.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pyne|first=Stephen|title=How Plants Use Fire (And How They Are Used By It)|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fire/plants.html|publisher=Nova|access-date=26 September 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130912141739/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fire/plants.html|archive-date=12 September 2013}}</ref> [[Sequoia sempervirens|Sequoia]] rely on periodic fires to reduce competition, release seeds from their [[conifer cone|cones]], and clear the soil and canopy for new growth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/seki/fire/segi.htm |title=Giant Sequoias and Fire |access-date=30 June 2009 |publisher=US National Park Service |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070428214757/http://www.nps.gov/archive/seki/fire/segi.htm |archive-date=28 April 2007 }}</ref> [[Caribbean Pine]] in [[Bahamian pineyards]] have adapted to and rely on low-intensity, surface fires for survival and growth. An optimum fire frequency for growth is every 3 to 10 years. Too frequent fires favor [[herbaceous plant]]s, and infrequent fires favor species typical of [[Bahamian dry forests]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nature.org/initiatives/fire/files/bahamas_assessment.pdf |title=Fire Management Assessment of the Caribbean Pine (''Pinus caribea'') Forest Ecosystems on Andros and Abaco Islands, Bahamas |work=TNC Global Fire Initiative |publisher=[[The Nature Conservancy]] |date=September 2004 |access-date=27 August 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201005807/http://www.nature.org/initiatives/fire/files/bahamas_assessment.pdf |archive-date=1 December 2008 }}</ref>

=== Atmospheric effects ===
{{See also|Air pollution|Carbon cycle|Atmospheric chemistry|Haze|1997 Southeast Asian haze|2005 Malaysian haze}}
[[File:Wildfire in Yellowstone NP produces Pyrocumulus cloud.jpg|right|upright=1.1|alt=A paved road with trees and grasses on the side with a large, white and dark gray smoke cloud rising in the distance.|A [[Pyrocumulus cloud]] produced by a wildfire in [[Yellowstone National Park]]|thumb]]

Most of the Earth's weather and air pollution resides in the [[troposphere]], the part of the atmosphere that extends from the surface of the planet to a height of about {{convert|10|km|mi|sigfig=1|sp=us}}. The vertical lift of a severe thunderstorm or [[pyrocumulonimbus]] can be enhanced in the area of a large wildfire, which can propel smoke, soot, and other [[Atmospheric particulate matter|particulate matter]] as high as the lower [[stratosphere]].<ref>{{cite conference | first = P.K. | last = Wang | title = The physical mechanism of injecting biomass burning materials into the stratosphere during fire-induced thunderstorms | publisher = American Geophysical Union fall meeting | date = 2003 | location = San Francisco, California }}</ref> Previously, prevailing scientific theory held that most particles in the stratosphere came from [[volcano]]es, but smoke and other wildfire emissions have been detected from the lower stratosphere.<ref>{{cite conference | bibcode = 2006AGUFM.U14A..04F | title = Smoke in the Stratosphere: What Wildfires have Taught Us About Nuclear Winter; abstract #U14A-04 | author = Fromm, M. | author2 = Stocks, B. | author3 = Servranckx, R. | author4 = Lindsey, D. | place = American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2006 }}</ref> Pyrocumulus clouds can reach {{convert|6100|m|ft|sp=us}} over wildfires.<ref>Graham, ''et al''., 17</ref> Satellite observation of smoke plumes from wildfires revealed that the plumes could be traced intact for distances exceeding {{convert|1600|km|mi|sigfig=1|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/68737.pdf | title = Meteorological Conditions Associated with the Rapid Transport of Canadian Wildfire Products into the Northeast during 5–8 July 2002 | author = John R. Scala | display-authors = etal | publisher = American Meteorological Society | access-date = 4 February 2009 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090226080555/http://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/68737.pdf | archive-date = 26 February 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Computer-aided models such as [[CALPUFF]] may help predict the size and direction of wildfire-generated smoke plumes by using [[atmospheric dispersion modeling]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr379.pdf | title = User Assessment of Smoke-Dispersion Models for Wildland Biomass Burning | publisher = US Forest Service | first1 = Steve | last1 = Breyfogle | first2 = Ferguson | last2 = Sue A. | date = December 1996 | access-date = 6 February 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090226080555/http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr379.pdf | archive-date = 26 February 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

Wildfires can affect local atmospheric pollution,<ref>{{cite journal | last = Bravo | first = A.H. | author2 = E. R. Sosa | author3 = A. P. Sánchez | author4 = P. M. Jaimes | author5 = R. M. I. Saavedra | name-list-style = amp | title = Impact of wildfires on the air quality of Mexico City, 1992–1999 | journal = Environmental Pollution | volume = 117 | issue = 2 | pages = 243–253 | date = 2002 | doi = 10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00277-9 | pmid = 11924549
}}</ref> and release carbon in the form of carbon dioxide.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dore|first1=S.|last2=Kolb|first2=T. E.|last3=Montes-Helu|first3=M.|last4=Eckert|first4=S. E.|last5=Sullivan|first5=B. W.|last6=Hungate|first6=B. A.|last7=Kaye|first7=J. P.|last8=Hart|first8=S. C.|last9=Koch|first9=G. W.|date=2010-04-01|title=Carbon and water fluxes from ponderosa pine forests disturbed by wildfire and thinning|journal=Ecological Applications|language=en|volume=20|issue=3|pages=663–683|doi=10.1890/09-0934.1|pmid=20437955|issn=1939-5582}}</ref> [[Wildland fire emissions|Wildfire emissions]] contain fine particulate matter which can cause cardiovascular and respiratory problems.<ref>{{cite web | first = R. | last = Douglass | title = Quantification of the health impacts associated with fine particulate matter due to wildfires. MS Thesis | publisher = Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences of Duke University | date = 2008 | url = http://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/10161/495/1/MP_rld10_a_052008.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100610213236/http://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/10161/495/1/MP_rld10_a_052008.pdf | archive-date = 10 June 2010 | df = dmy-all | access-date = 1 April 2010 }}</ref> Increased fire byproducts in the troposphere can increase ozone concentration beyond safe levels.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.innovations-report.de/html/berichte/geowissenschaften/wildfires_ozone_pollution_violate_health_standards_120086.html | title = Wildfires Cause Ozone Pollution to Violate Health Standards | publisher = Geophysical Research Letters | date = 13 October 2008 | access-date = 4 February 2009 | author = National Center for Atmospheric Research | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110927124441/http://www.innovations-report.de/html/berichte/geowissenschaften/wildfires_ozone_pollution_violate_health_standards_120086.html | archive-date = 27 September 2011 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Forest fires in Indonesia in 1997 were estimated to have released between 0.81 and 2.57 giga[[tonne]]s (0.89 and 2.83 billion [[short ton]]s) of CO2 into the atmosphere, which is between 13%–40% of the annual global carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Susan E. | last = Page | author2 = Florian Siegert | author3 = John O. Rieley | author4 = Hans-Dieter V. Boehm| author5 = Adi Jaya | author6 = Suwido Limin | name-list-style = amp | title = The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires in Indonesia during 1997 | journal= Nature | doi=10.1038/nature01131 | volume=420 | pages=61–65 | date=11 July 2002|bibcode = 2002Natur.420...61P | issue = 6911 | pmid = 12422213 | s2cid = 4379529 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-038.pdf | publisher = Center for International Forestry Research | title = Fires in Indonesia: Causes, Costs, and Policy Implications (CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 38) | journal = Occasional Paper | last = Tacconi | first = Luca | issn = 0854-9818 | date = February 2003 | place = Bogor, Indonesia | access-date = 6 February 2009 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090226080558/http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-038.pdf | archive-date = 26 February 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>
In June and July of 2019, fires in the Arctic emitted more than 140 megatons of carbon dioxide, according to an analysis by CAMS. To put that into perspective this amounts to the same amount of carbon emitted by 36 million cars in a year. The recent wildfires and their massive CO2 emissions mean that it will be important to take them into consideration when implementing measures for reaching greenhouse gas reduction targets accorded with the [[Paris climate agreement]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.climateforesight.eu/future-earth/the-effects-of-wildfires-on-a-zero-carbon-future/|title=The Effects of Wildfires on a Zero Carbon Future|first=Francesco|last=Bassetti|date=31 August 2019}}</ref> Due to the complex oxidative chemistry occurring during the transport of wildfire smoke in the atmosphere,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rana|first1=Md. Sohel|last2=Guzman|first2=Marcelo I.|date=2020-10-22|title=Oxidation of Phenolic Aldehydes by Ozone and Hydroxyl Radicals at the Air–Water Interface|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpca.0c05944|journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry A|volume=124|issue=42|pages=8822–8833|doi=10.1021/acs.jpca.0c05944|pmid=32931271|bibcode=2020JPCA..124.8822R|s2cid=221747201|issn=1089-5639}}</ref> the toxicity of emissions was indicated to increase over time.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-15|title=Wildfire Smoke Toxicity Increases Over Time, Poses Public Health Risk, According to UK Chemist|url=https://uknow.uky.edu/research/wildfire-smoke-toxicity-increases-over-time-poses-public-health-risk-according-uk-chemist|access-date=2020-10-31|website=UKNow}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=As smoke from forest fires ages in the atmosphere its toxicity increases|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-10-forest-ages-atmosphere-toxicity.html|access-date=2020-10-31|website=phys.org|language=en}}</ref>

Atmospheric models suggest that these concentrations of sooty particles could increase absorption of incoming [[solar radiation]] during winter months by as much as 15%.<ref>{{cite conference | author = Baumgardner, D. | display-authors = etal | title = Warming of the Arctic lower stratosphere by light absorbing particles | book-title = American Geophysical Union fall meeting | date = 2003 | place = San Francisco, California}}</ref> The Amazon is estimated to hold around 90 billion tons of carbon. As of 2019, earth's atmosphere has 415 parts per million of carbon, and the destruction of the Amazon would add about 38 parts per million.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-amazon-rainforest-fires/2019/08/27/ac82b21e-c815-11e9-a4f3-c081a126de70_story.html|title=What you need to know about the Amazon rainforest fires|last=Mufson|first=Steven|newspaper=Washington post|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827182809/https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-amazon-rainforest-fires/2019/08/27/ac82b21e-c815-11e9-a4f3-c081a126de70_story.html|archive-date=2019-08-27}}</ref>

[[File:USA Groundwater and Soil moisture Drought Map.jpg|thumb|National map of groundwater and soil moisture in the United States. It shows the very low soil moisture associated with the 2011 fire season in [[Texas]].]]
{{wide image|Fire activity swifts creek 2007 edit.jpg|933px|Smoke trail from a fire seen while looking towards [[Dargo, Victoria|Dargo]] from [[Swifts Creek, Victoria|Swifts Creek]], Victoria, Australia, 11 January 2007|alt=Panorama of a hilly expanse featuring a large smoke trail covering more than half of the visible sky.}}

== Prevention ==
{{See also|Fire protection|}}
[[File:Healthy Hillsides - a project in Rhondda Cynon Taf between NRW and Rhondda Cynon Taf County Borough Council.webm|thumb|240px|A short video on managing and protecting the natural habitat between a town and the hillside, from the risk of fire.]]

Wildfire prevention refers to the preemptive methods aimed at reducing the risk of fires as well as lessening its severity and spread.<ref>Karki, 6.</ref> Prevention techniques aim to manage air quality, maintain ecological balances, protect resources,<ref name="van Wagtendonk, 14" /> and to affect future fires.<ref>van Wagtendonk (1996), 1156.</ref> North American firefighting policies permit naturally caused fires to burn to maintain their ecological role, so long as the risks of escape into high-value areas are mitigated.<ref>''Interagency Strategy for the Implementation of the Federal Wildland Fire Policy'', 42.</ref> However, prevention policies must consider the role that humans play in wildfires, since, for example, 95% of forest fires in Europe are related to human involvement.<ref>San-Miguel-Ayanz, ''et al.'', 361.</ref> Sources of human-caused fire may include arson, accidental ignition, or the uncontrolled use of fire in land-clearing and agriculture such as the slash-and-burn farming in Southeast Asia.<ref>Karki, 7, 11–19.</ref>
[[File:Smokey Bear Only You campaign hat.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Drawing of a grizzly bear with human features. He is wearing blue jeans with a belt and a brimmed hat with the name "Smokey" on the cap and has a shovel in his left hand. He is pointing to the viewer while the text "Only You" is seen below him.|1985 [[Smokey Bear]] poster with part of his admonition, "Only you can prevent forest fires".]]

In 1937, U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] initiated a nationwide fire prevention campaign, highlighting the role of human carelessness in forest fires. Later posters of the program featured [[Uncle Sam]], characters from the Disney movie ''[[Bambi]]'', and the official mascot of the [[U.S. Forest Service]], [[Smokey Bear]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.smokeybear.com/vault/default.asp?js=1 | title=Smokey's Journey | publisher=Smokeybear.com | access-date=26 January 2010 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306051136/http://www.smokeybear.com/vault/default.asp?js=1 | archive-date=6 March 2010 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Reducing human-caused ignitions may be the most effective means of reducing unwanted wildfire. Alteration of fuels is commonly undertaken when attempting to affect future fire risk and behavior.<ref name="Graham, et al., iv" />

Wildfire prevention programs around the world may employ techniques such as ''wildland fire use'' (WFU) and ''prescribed or [[controlled burn]]s''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_561501139/backburn.html|title=Backburn|publisher=MSN Encarta|access-date=9 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710223715/http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_561501139/backburn.html|archive-date=10 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/iffn/country/gb/gb_1.htm|title=UK: The Role of Fire in the Ecology of Heathland in Southern Britain|journal=International Forest Fire News|volume=18|date=January 1998|pages=80–81|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716212702/http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/iffn/country/gb/gb_1.htm|archive-date=16 July 2011|access-date=9 July 2009}}</ref> ''Wildland fire use'' refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn. ''Controlled burns'' are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.smokeybear.com/prescribed-fires.asp | title = Prescribed Fires | publisher = SmokeyBear.com | access-date = 21 November 2008 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081020171425/http://www.smokeybear.com/prescribed-fires.asp | archive-date = 20 October 2008 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>
According to the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]], in rugged, steep, or highly inaccessible terrain where people are not threatened, wildland fire use can help avoid putting firefighters at unreasonable risk. Other objectives can include maintenance of healthy forests, rangelands, and wetlands, and support of ecosystem diversity.<ref name="US F&W Fire Mgt">{{cite web |title=Fire Management: Wildland Fire Use |url=https://www.fws.gov/fire/what_we_do/wildland_fire_use.shtml |publisher=U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service |access-date=26 September 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Prescribed burn in a Pinus nigra stand in Portugal.JPG|thumb|left|alt=A small fire on the slope of a hill. The hill features small, green shrubbery and some trees. A person in light-colored clothing in seen in the background, some distance from the flames.|A prescribed burn in a ''[[Pinus nigra]]'' stand in [[Portugal]]]]

Strategies for wildfire prevention, detection, control and suppression have varied over the years.<ref>{{cite web|title=International Experts Study Ways to Fight Wildfires|url=http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2009-06-24-voa7-68788387.html|access-date=9 July 2009|date=24 June 2009|publisher=Voice of America (VOA) News|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107041028/http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2009-06-24-voa7-68788387.html|archive-date=7 January 2010}}</ref> One common and inexpensive technique to reduce the risk of uncontrolled wildfires is [[controlled burn]]ing: intentionally igniting smaller less-intense fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire.<ref name="IS">''Interagency Strategy for the Implementation of the Federal Wildland Fire Policy'', entire text</ref><ref>''National Wildfire Coordinating Group Communicator's Guide For Wildland Fire Management'', entire text</ref> Vegetation may be burned periodically to limit the accumulation of plants and other debris that may serve as fuel, while also maintaining high species diversity.<ref name=":3">''Fire. The Australian Experience'', 5–6.</ref><ref name=":4">Graham, ''et al''., 15.</ref> Jan Van Wagtendonk, a biologist at the Yellowstone Field Station, claims that Wildfire itself is "the most effective treatment for reducing a fire's rate of spread, fireline intensity, flame length, and heat per unit of area."<ref name=":7">van Wagtendonk (1996), 1164</ref> While other people claim that controlled burns and a policy of allowing some wildfires to burn is the cheapest method and an ecologically appropriate policy for many forests, they tend not to take into account the economic value of resources that are consumed by the fire, especially merchantable timber.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Noss|first1=Reed F.|last2=Franklin|first2=Jerry F.|last3=Baker|first3=William L.|author4-link=Tania Schoennagel|last4=Schoennagel|first4=Tania|last5=Moyle|first5=Peter B.|date=2006-11-01|title=Managing fire-prone forests in the western United States|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|language=en|volume=4|issue=9|pages=481–487|doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2006)4[481:MFFITW]2.0.CO;2|issn=1540-9309|url=https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7478&context=facultybib2000}}</ref> Some studies conclude that while fuels may also be removed by logging, such thinning treatments may not be effective at reducing fire severity under extreme weather conditions.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Lydersen|first1=Jamie M.|last2=North|first2=Malcolm P.|last3=Collins|first3=Brandon M.|date=2014-09-15|title=Severity of an uncharacteristically large wildfire, the Rim Fire, in forests with relatively restored frequent fire regimes|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1258959|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=328|pages=326–334|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2014.06.005}}</ref>

However, multi-agency studies conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture, the U.S. Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station, and the School of Forestry and Bureau of Business and Economic Research at the University of Montana, through strategic assessments of fire hazards and the potential effectiveness and costs of different hazard reduction treatments, clearly demonstrate that the most effective short- and long-term forest fire hazard reduction strategy and by far the most cost-effective method to yield long-term mitigation of forest fire risk is a comprehensive fuel reduction strategy that involves mechanical removal of overstocked trees through commercial logging and non-commercial thinning with no restrictions on the size of trees that are removed, resulting in considerably better long-term results compared to a non-commercial "thin below" operation or a commercial logging operation with diameter restrictions. Starting with a forest with a "high risk" of fire and a pre-treatment crowning index of 21, the "thin from below" practice of removing only very small trees resulted in an immediate crowning index of 43, with 29% of the post-treatment area rated "low risk" immediately and only 20% of the treatment area remaining "low risk" after 30 years, at a cost (net economic loss) of $439 per acre treated. Again starting with a forest at "high risk" of fire and a crowning index of 21, the strategy involving non-commercial thinning and commercial logging with size-restrictions resulted in an crowning index of 43 immediately post-treatment with 67% of the area considered "low risk" and 56% of the area remaining low risk after 30 years, at a cost (net economic loss) of $368 per acre treated. On the other hand, starting with a forest at "high risk" of fire and the same crowning index of 21, a comprehensive fire hazard reduction treatment strategy, without restrictions on size of trees removed, resulted in an immediate crowning index of 61 post-treatment with 69% of the treated area rated "low risk" immediately and 52% of the treated area remaining "low risk" after 30 years, with positive revenue (a net economic gain gain) of $8 per acre.<ref name=":248">{{Cite journal|last1=Fiedler|first1=Carl E.|last2=Keegan|first2=Charles E. III|last3=Woodall|first3=Christopher W.|last4=Morgan|first4=Todd A.|date=November 2004|title=A Strategic Assessment of Crown Fire Hazard in Montana: Potential Effectiveness and Costs of Hazard Reduction Treatments|url=http://www.bber.umt.edu/pubs/forest/fire/MT.pdf|journal=United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, General Technical Report PNW-GTR-622}}</ref><ref name=":249">{{Cite journal|last1=Fiedler|first1=Carl E.|last2=Keegan|first2=Charles E. III|last3=Robertson|first3=Stephen H.|last4=Morgan|first4=Todd A.|last5=Woodall|first5=Chris W.|last6=Chmelik|first6=John T.|date=February 11, 2002|title=A Strategic Assessment of Fire Hazard in New Mexico|url=http://www.bber.umt.edu/pubs/forest/fire/NM.pdf|journal=Joint Fire Sciences Program, in Cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station}}</ref>

Building codes in fire-prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame-resistant materials and a [[defensible space (fire control)|defensible space]] be maintained by clearing flammable materials within a prescribed distance from the structure.<ref name=":8">{{cite web | url = http://www.fire.ca.gov/fire_prevention/downloads/FHSZBSR_Backgrounder.pdf | title = California's Fire Hazard Severity Zone Update and Building Standards Revision | publisher = CAL FIRE | date = May 2007 | access-date = 18 December 2008 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090226080558/http://www.fire.ca.gov/fire_prevention/downloads/FHSZBSR_Backgrounder.pdf | archive-date = 26 February 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name=":9">{{cite web | url = http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/07-08/bill/sen/sb_1551-1600/sb_1595_bill_20080927_chaptered.pdf | title = California Senate Bill No. 1595, Chapter 366 | publisher = State of California | date = 27 September 2008 | access-date = 18 December 2008 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120330120658/http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/07-08/bill/sen/sb_1551-1600/sb_1595_bill_20080927_chaptered.pdf | archive-date = 30 March 2012 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Communities in the [[Philippines]] also maintain [[fire line]]s {{convert|5|to|10|m|sp=us|ft}} wide between the forest and their village, and patrol these lines during summer months or seasons of dry weather.<ref>Karki, 14.</ref> Continued residential development in fire-prone areas and rebuilding structures destroyed by fires has been met with criticism.<ref name="Trial2">{{cite web | url = http://www.onearth.org/article/our-trial-by-fire?page=2 | title = Our Trial by Fire | last = Manning | first = Richard | publisher = onearth.org | date = 1 December 2007 | access-date = 7 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080630035505/http://www.onearth.org/article/our-trial-by-fire?page=2 | archive-date = 30 June 2008 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> The ecological benefits of fire are often overridden by the economic and safety benefits of protecting structures and human life.<ref name="NOAA">{{cite web | url = http://www.economics.noaa.gov/?goal=ecosystems&file=events/fire/ | title = Extreme Events: Wild & Forest Fire | publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) | access-date = 7 January 2009 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090114111211/http://www.economics.noaa.gov/?goal=ecosystems&file=events%2Ffire%2F | archive-date = 14 January 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

== Detection ==
{{See also|Remote sensing}}
[[File:Drymountainlookout1930.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A four-legged tower with a small at the top, next to two one-story buildings. The tower is four stories tall. Trees are at either side, and in the foreground, there are rocks, some vegetation, and a rough trail.|Dry Mountain Fire Lookout in the [[Ochoco National Forest]], [[Oregon]], circa 1930]]

Fast and effective detection is a key factor in wildfire fighting.<ref>San-Miguel-Ayanz, ''et al.'', 362.</ref> Early detection efforts were focused on early response, accurate results in both daytime and nighttime, and the ability to prioritize fire danger.<ref name="Integration">{{cite journal | url = http://www.westerndisastercenter.org/DOCUMENTS/PERS_PAPER.pdf | title = An Integration of Remote Sensing, GIS, and Information Distribution for Wildfire Detection and Management | journal = Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing | volume = 64 | issue = 10 | date = October 1998 | pages = 977–985 | access-date = 26 June 2009 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090816123809/http://www.westerndisastercenter.org/DOCUMENTS/PERS_PAPER.pdf | archive-date = 16 August 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> [[Fire lookout tower]]s were used in the United States in the early 20th century and fires were reported using telephones, [[carrier pigeon]]s, and [[heliograph]]s.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://archives.cbc.ca/version_print.asp?page=1&IDLan=1&IDClip=4917&IDDossier=849&IDCat=346&IDCatPa=261 | title = Radio communication keeps rangers in touch | publisher = Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) Digital Archives | date = 21 August 1957 | access-date = 6 February 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090813160525/http://archives.cbc.ca/version_print.asp?page=1&IDLan=1&IDClip=4917&IDDossier=849&IDCat=346&IDCatPa=261 | archive-date = 13 August 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Aerial and land photography using [[instant camera]]s were used in the 1950s until [[infrared photography|infrared scanning]] was developed for fire detection in the 1960s. However, information analysis and delivery was often delayed by limitations in communication technology. Early satellite-derived fire analyses were hand-drawn on maps at a remote site and sent via overnight mail to the [[incident commander|fire manager]]. During the [[Yellowstone fires of 1988]], a data station was established in [[West Yellowstone]], permitting the delivery of satellite-based fire information in approximately four hours.<ref name="Integration" />

Currently, public hotlines, [[fire lookout]]s in towers, and ground and aerial patrols can be used as a means of early detection of forest fires. However, accurate human observation may be limited by [[asthenopia|operator fatigue]], time of day, time of year, and geographic location. Electronic systems have gained popularity in recent years as a possible resolution to human operator error. A government report on a recent trial of three automated camera fire detection systems in Australia did, however, conclude "...detection by the camera systems was slower and less reliable than by a trained human observer". These systems may be semi- or fully automated and employ systems based on the risk area and degree of human presence, as suggested by [[Geographic information system|GIS]] data analyses. An integrated approach of multiple systems can be used to merge satellite data, aerial imagery, and personnel position via [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) into a collective whole for near-realtime use by wireless [[Incident Command System|Incident Command Centers]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.forestry.state.al.us/WildfireControl.aspx?bv=1&s=0 | title = Wildfire Detection and Control | publisher = Alabama Forestry Commission | access-date = 12 January 2009 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081120135635/http://www.forestry.state.al.us/WildfireControl.aspx?bv=1&s=0 | archive-date = 20 November 2008 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

A small, high risk area that features thick vegetation, a strong human presence, or is close to a critical urban area can be monitored using a local [[sensor network]]. Detection systems may include [[wireless sensor network]]s that act as automated weather systems: detecting temperature, humidity, and smoke.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://cse.seas.wustl.edu/techreportfiles/getreport.asp?399 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070103233730/http://cse.seas.wustl.edu/techreportfiles/getreport.asp?399 | archive-date = 3 January 2007 | format = PDF | title = Mobile Agent Middleware for Sensor Networks: An Application Case Study | date = 29 November 2004 | last = Fok | first = Chien-Liang | author2 = Roman, Gruia-Catalin | author3 = Lu, Chenyang | name-list-style = amp | publisher = Washington University in St. Louis | access-date = 15 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | title = Wireless Sensor Network Based System for Fire Endangered Areas | date = July 2005 | last = Chaczko | first = Z. | author2 = Ahmad, F. | journal = Third International Conference on Information Technology and Applications | volume = 2 | issue = 4–7 | pages = 203–207 | doi = 10.1109/ICITA.2005.313 | isbn = 978-0-7695-2316-3 | s2cid = 14472324 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://firecenter.umt.edu/index.php/project/Wireless-Weather-Sensor-Networks-for-Fire-Management/ID/461d72ad/fuseaction/whatWeDo.projectDetail.htm | title = Wireless Weather Sensor Networks for Fire Management | publisher = University of Montana – Missoula | access-date = 19 January 2009 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090404124819/http://firecenter.umt.edu/index.php/project/Wireless-Weather-Sensor-Networks-for-Fire-Management/ID/461d72ad/fuseaction/whatWeDo.projectDetail.htm | archive-date = 4 April 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.libelium.com/libeliumworld/articles/101031032811 |title=Detecting Forest Fires using Wireless Sensor Networks with Waspmote |publisher=Libelium Comunicaciones Distribuidas S.L. |first=Javier |last=Solobera |date=9 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100417133344/http://www.libelium.com/libeliumworld/articles/101031032811 |archive-date=17 April 2010 |access-date=5 July 2010 }}</ref> These may be battery-powered, solar-powered, or ''tree-rechargeable'': able to recharge their battery systems using the small electrical currents in plant material.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/trees-0923.html | title = Preventing forest fires with tree power | date = 23 September 2008 | access-date = 15 January 2009 | last = Thomson | first = Elizabeth A. | publisher = Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) News | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081229071819/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/trees-0923.html | archive-date = 29 December 2008 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Larger, medium-risk areas can be monitored by scanning towers that incorporate fixed cameras and sensors to detect smoke or additional factors such as the infrared signature of carbon dioxide produced by fires. Additional capabilities such as [[night vision]], brightness detection, and color change detection may also be incorporated into sensor arrays.<ref>"Evaluation of three wildfire smoke detection systems", 6</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://advancement.sdsu.edu/marcomm/news/releases/spring2005/pr062305.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060901120511/http://advancement.sdsu.edu/marcomm/news/releases/spring2005/pr062305.html | archive-date = 1 September 2006 | title = SDSU Tests New Wildfire-Detection Technology | date = 23 June 2005 | place = San Diego, CA | publisher = San Diego State University | access-date = 12 January 2009}}</ref><ref>San-Miguel-Ayanz, ''et al.'', 366–369, 373–375.</ref>

[[File:Wildfires Balkans July 2007-NASA.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|alt=A satellite view of the Balkans and Greece. Clouds and smoke trails are seen above the Balkans and trailing south into the Ionian Sea.|Wildfires across the [[Balkans]] in late July 2007 ([[MODIS]] image)]]
[[File:Global map of fire alerts April 13, 2021 screen dump from Global Forest Watch website.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Global map of fire alerts on April 13, 2021. Available from [[Global Forest Watch]]. [https://www.globalforestwatch.org/map/?map=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&menu=eyJtZW51U2VjdGlvbiI6IiIsImRhdGFzZXRDYXRlZ29yeSI6IiJ9 Live updates]. ]]
Satellite and aerial monitoring through the use of planes, helicopter, or UAVs can provide a wider view and may be sufficient to monitor very large, low risk areas. These more sophisticated systems employ GPS and aircraft-mounted infrared or high-resolution visible cameras to identify and target wildfires.<ref>{{cite web | author = Rochester Institute of Technology | url = https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/04/030410072055.htm | title = New Wildfire-detection Research Will Pinpoint Small Fires From 10,000 feet | website = ScienceDaily | date = 4 October 2003 | access-date = 12 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080605223918/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/04/030410072055.htm | archive-date = 5 June 2008 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.esa.int/esaLP/SEMEAE0CYTE_index_0.html | title = Airborne campaign tests new instrumentation for wildfire detection | date = 11 October 2006 | publisher = European Space Agency | access-date = 12 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090813163219/http://www.esa.int/esaLP/SEMEAE0CYTE_index_0.html | archive-date = 13 August 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Satellite-mounted sensors such as [[Envisat]]'s [[AATSR|Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer]] and [[European Remote-Sensing Satellite]]'s Along-Track Scanning Radiometer can measure infrared radiation emitted by fires, identifying hot spots greater than {{convert|39|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMRBH9ATME_Protecting_0.html | title = World fire maps now available online in near-real time | publisher = European Space Agency | date = 24 May 2006 | access-date = 12 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090813163601/http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMRBH9ATME_Protecting_0.html | archive-date = 13 August 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.esa.int/esaEO/SEMEKMZBYTE_index_0.html | title = Earth from Space: California's 'Esperanza' fire | date = 11 March 2006 | publisher = European Space Agency | access-date = 12 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081110113923/http://www.esa.int/esaEO/SEMEKMZBYTE_index_0.html | archive-date = 10 November 2008 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> The [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]'s [[Hazard Mapping System]] combines remote-sensing data from satellite sources such as [[Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite]] (GOES), [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]] (MODIS), and [[Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer]] (AVHRR) for detection of fire and smoke plume locations.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/PS/FIRE/hms.html | publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Satellite and Information Service | title = Hazard Mapping System Fire and Smoke Product | access-date = 15 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090114044127/http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/PS/FIRE/hms.html | archive-date = 14 January 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="Swarm">{{cite journal | url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119817008/abstract | archive-url = https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20170525100110/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dac.937/abstract | url-status = dead | archive-date = 25 May 2017 | title = A probabilistic zonal approach for swarm-inspired wildfire detection using sensor networks | last = Ramachandran | first = Chandrasekar | author2 = Misra, Sudip | author3 = Obaidat, Mohammad S. | author3-link = Mohammad S. Obaidat | name-list-style = amp | journal = Int. J. Commun. Syst. | volume = 21 | issue = 10 | pages = 1047–1073 | date = 9 June 2008 | doi = 10.1002/dac.937 | s2cid = 30988736 }}</ref> However, satellite detection is prone to offset errors, anywhere from {{convert|2|to|3|km|mi|sigfig=1|sp=us}} for MODIS and AVHRR data and up to {{convert|12|km|mi|sp=us}} for GOES data.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20050180316_2005176776.pdf | title = Automated Wildfire Detection Through Artificial Neural Networks | last = Miller | first = Jerry | author2 = Borne, Kirk | author3 = Thomas, Brian | author4 = Huang Zhenping | author5 = Chi, Yuechen | name-list-style = amp | publisher = NASA | access-date = 15 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100522013312/http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20050180316_2005176776.pdf | archive-date = 22 May 2010 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Satellites in geostationary orbits may become disabled, and satellites in polar orbits are often limited by their short window of observation time. Cloud cover and image resolution may also limit the effectiveness of satellite imagery.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Forest fire detection system based on a ZigBee wireless sensor network | date = September 2008 | doi = 10.1007/s11461-008-0054-3 | pages = 369–374 | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | journal = Frontiers of Forestry in China | last = Zhang | first = Junguo | author2 = Li, Wenbin | author3 = Han, Ning | author4 = Kan, Jiangming | s2cid = 76650011 | name-list-style = amp }}</ref> [[Global Forest Watch]] provides detailed daily updates on fire alerts. These are sourced from [https://earthdata.nasa.gov/earth-observation-data/near-real-time/firms/viirs-i-band-active-fire-data NASA FIRMS]. “VIIRS Active Fires.”

In 2015 a new fire detection tool is in operation at the [[United States Department of Agriculture|U.S. Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) [[United States Forest Service|Forest Service]] (USFS) which uses data from the [[Suomi NPP|Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership]] (NPP) satellite to detect smaller fires in more detail than previous space-based products. The high-resolution data is used with a computer model to predict how a fire will change direction based on weather and land conditions. The active fire detection product using data from Suomi NPP's [[Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite]] (VIIRS) increases the resolution of fire observations to 1,230 feet (375 meters). Previous NASA satellite data products available since the early 2000s observed fires at 3,280 foot (1 kilometer) resolution. The data is one of the intelligence tools used by the USFS and Department of Interior agencies across the United States to guide resource allocation and strategic fire management decisions. The enhanced VIIRS fire product enables detection every 12 hours or less of much smaller fires and provides more detail and consistent tracking of fire lines during long-duration wildfires – capabilities critical for early warning systems and support of routine mapping of fire progression. Active fire locations are available to users within minutes from the satellite overpass through data processing facilities at the USFS Remote Sensing Applications Center, which uses technologies developed by the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Direct Readout Laboratory in Greenbelt, Maryland. The model uses data on weather conditions and the land surrounding an active fire to predict 12–18 hours in advance whether a blaze will shift direction. The state of Colorado decided to incorporate the weather-fire model in its firefighting efforts beginning with the 2016 fire season.

In 2014, an international campaign was organized in South Africa's Kruger National Park to validate fire detection products including the new VIIRS active fire data. In advance of that campaign, the Meraka Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Pretoria, South Africa, an early adopter of the VIIRS 375 m fire product, put it to use during several large wildfires in Kruger.

The demand for timely, high-quality fire information has increased in recent years. Wildfires in the United States burn an average of 7 million acres of land each year. For the last 10 years, the USFS and Department of Interior have spent a combined average of about $2–4 billion annually on wildfire suppression.

== Suppression ==
{{Main|Wildfire suppression}}

{{See also|Firefighting}}
[[File:RIAN archive 733844 Forest fires ravaging near Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant.jpg|thumb|A Russian firefighter extinguishing a wildfire]]
Wildfire suppression depends on the technologies available in the area in which the wildfire occurs. In less developed nations the techniques used can be as simple as throwing sand or beating the fire with sticks or palm fronds.<ref>Karki, 16</ref> In more advanced nations, the suppression methods vary due to increased technological capacity. [[Silver iodide]] can be used to encourage snow fall,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://origin.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,195969,00.html |title=China Makes Snow to Extinguish Forest Fire |publisher=FOXNews.com |access-date=10 July 2009 |date=18 May 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813173448/http://origin.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,195969,00.html |archive-date=13 August 2009 }}</ref> while [[fire retardant]]s and water can be dropped onto fires by [[unmanned aerial vehicle]]s, [[airtanker|planes]], and [[helitack|helicopters]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://geo.arc.nasa.gov/sge/WRAP//projects/docs/ISRSE_PAPER_2003.PDF |access-date=21 July 2009 |title=Disaster Management Applications – Fire |first=Vincent G. |last=Ambrosia |publisher=NASA-Ames Research Center |date=2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724081427/http://geo.arc.nasa.gov/sge/WRAP/projects/docs/ISRSE_PAPER_2003.PDF |archive-date=24 July 2009 }}</ref><ref>Plucinski, ''et al.'', 6</ref> Complete fire suppression is no longer an expectation, but the majority of wildfires are often extinguished before they grow out of control. While more than 99% of the 10,000 new wildfires each year are contained, escaped wildfires under extreme weather conditions are difficult to suppress without a change in the weather. Wildfires in Canada and the US burn an average of {{convert|54500|km2|acre|sigfig=2|sp=us}} per year.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2009/06/17/f-forest-fires.html |title=Fighting fire in the forest |publisher=CBS News |date=17 June 2009 |access-date=26 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619212242/http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2009/06/17/f-forest-fires.html |archive-date=19 June 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/?report=fire&year=2008&month=13 | title = Climate of 2008 Wildfire Season Summary | publisher = National Climatic Data Center | date = 11 December 2008 | access-date = 7 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151023095354/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/?report=fire&year=2008&month=13 | archive-date = 23 October 2015 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

Above all, fighting wildfires can become deadly. A wildfire's burning front may also change direction unexpectedly and jump across fire breaks. Intense heat and smoke can lead to disorientation and loss of appreciation of the direction of the fire, which can make fires particularly dangerous. For example, during the 1949 [[Mann Gulch fire]] in [[Montana]], United States, thirteen [[smokejumper]]s died when they lost their communication links, became disoriented, and were overtaken by the fire.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_int/int_gtr299/ | title = General Technical Report INT-GTR-299 – Mann Gulch Fire: A Race That Couldn't Be Won | publisher = United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station | date = May 1993 | last = Rothermel | first = Richard C. | access-date = 26 June 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090813122911/http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_int/int_gtr299/ | archive-date = 13 August 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> In the Australian [[February 2009 Victorian bushfires]], at least 173 people died and over 2,029 homes and 3,500 structures were lost when they became engulfed by wildfire.<ref name="homeslost">{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/PARLMENT/hansart.nsf/V3Key/LA20090313005|title=Victorian Bushfires|date=13 March 2009|publisher=New South Wales Government|work=Parliament of New South Wales|access-date=26 January 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100227231203/http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/PARLMENT/hansart.nsf/V3Key/LA20090313005|archive-date=27 February 2010}}</ref>

=== Costs of wildfire suppression ===
The suppression of wild fires takes up a large amount of a country's [[gross domestic product]] which directly affects the country's economy.<ref name="ellison">{{cite journal|last=Ellison|first=A|author2=Evers, C.|author3=Moseley, C.|author4=Nielsen-Pincus, M.|year=2012|title=Forest service spending on large wildfires in the West|url=http://ewp.uoregon.edu/sites/ewp.uoregon.edu/files/WP_41.pdf|journal=Ecosystem Workforce Program|volume=41|pages=1–16}}</ref> While costs vary wildly from year to year, depending on the severity of each fire season, in the United States, local, state, federal and tribal agencies collectively spend tens of billions of dollars annually to suppress wildfires. In the United States, it was reported that approximately $6 billion was spent between 2004–2008 to suppress wildfires in the country.<ref name="ellison" /> In California, the U.S. Forest Service spends about $200 million per year to suppress 98% of wildfires and up to $1 billion to suppress the other 2% of fires that escape initial attack and become large.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Region 5 – Land & Resource Management|url=http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/r5/landmanagement/?cid=stelprdb5412095|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823005834/http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/r5/landmanagement/?cid=stelprdb5412095|archive-date=23 August 2016|access-date=2016-08-22|website=www.fs.usda.gov}}</ref>

=== Wildland firefighting safety ===
[[File:Wildfire fighter.jpg|thumb|Wildfire fighters cutting down a tree using a chainsaw]]
[[File:Wildland Firefighter.jpg|thumb|upright|Wildland firefighter working a brush fire in [[Hopkinton, New Hampshire|Hopkinton]], New Hampshire]]
Wildland fire fighters face several life-threatening hazards including [[heat stress]], [[fatigue (safety)|fatigue]], [[smoke]] and [[dust]], as well as the risk of other injuries such as [[burn]]s, [[wound|cuts]] and [[Abrasion (medical)|scrapes]], [[animal bites]], and even [[rhabdomyolysis]].<ref name="niosh-blog">{{cite web|title=Wildland Fire Fighting Safety and Health|url=http://blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/2012/07/wildlandfire/|work=NIOSH Science Blog|publisher=National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health|access-date=6 August 2012|first=Corey|last=Campbell|author2=Liz Dalsey|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809023909/http://blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/2012/07/wildlandfire/|archive-date=9 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="Hot Tips from NIOSH">{{cite web|title=Wildland Fire Fighting: Hot Tips to Stay Safe and Healthy|url=https://www.cdc.gov/NIOSH/docs/2013-158/pdfs/2013-158.pdf|publisher=National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health|access-date=21 March 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322030104/http://www.cdc.gov/NIOSH/docs/2013-158/pdfs/2013-158.pdf|archive-date=22 March 2014}}</ref> Between 2000–2016, more than 350 wildland firefighters died on-duty.<ref name="NIOSH Wildland Firefighting default page">{{Cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/firefighting/default.html |title=CDC – Fighting Wildfires – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic |date=31 May 2018 |website=www.cdc.gov |publisher=[[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] |language=en-us |access-date=2018-11-27 |quote=Between 2000–2016, based on data compiled in the NIOSH Wildland Fire Fighter On-Duty Death Surveillance System from three data sources, over 350 on-duty WFF fatalities occurred.}}</ref>

Especially in hot weather conditions, fires present the risk of heat stress, which can entail feeling heat, fatigue, weakness, vertigo, headache, or nausea. Heat stress can progress into heat strain, which entails physiological changes such as increased heart rate and core body temperature. This can lead to heat-related illnesses, such as heat rash, cramps, exhaustion or [[heat stroke]]. Various factors can contribute to the risks posed by heat stress, including strenuous work, personal risk factors such as age and [[Physical fitness|fitness]], dehydration, sleep deprivation, and burdensome [[personal protective equipment]]. Rest, cool water, and occasional breaks are crucial to mitigating the effects of heat stress.<ref name="niosh-blog" />

Smoke, ash, and debris can also pose serious respiratory hazards to wildland firefighters. The smoke and dust from wildfires can contain gases such as [[carbon monoxide]], [[sulfur dioxide]] and [[formaldehyde]], as well as [[Atmospheric particulate matter|particulates]] such as [[Wood ash|ash]] and [[silica]]. To reduce smoke exposure, wildfire fighting crews should, whenever possible, rotate firefighters through areas of heavy smoke, avoid downwind firefighting, use equipment rather than people in holding areas, and minimize mop-up. Camps and command posts should also be located upwind of wildfires. Protective clothing and equipment can also help minimize exposure to smoke and ash.<ref name="niosh-blog" />

Firefighters are also at risk of cardiac events including strokes and heart attacks. Firefighters should maintain good physical fitness. Fitness programs, medical screening and examination programs which include stress tests can minimize the risks of firefighting cardiac problems.<ref name="niosh-blog" /> Other injury hazards wildland firefighters face include slips, trips, falls, burns, scrapes, and cuts from tools and equipment, being struck by trees, vehicles, or other objects, plant hazards such as thorns and poison ivy, snake and animal bites, vehicle crashes, electrocution from power lines or lightning storms, and unstable building structures.<ref name="niosh-blog" />

==== Firefighter safety zone guidelines ====
The U.S. Forest Service publishes guidelines for the minimum distance a firefighter should be from a flame.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2009_butler_b001.pdf|title=| US Forest Service | Efforts To Update Firefighter Safety Zone Guidelines|access-date=10 January 2021}}</ref>

=== Fire retardants ===
Fire retardants are used to slow wildfires by inhibiting combustion. They are aqueous solutions of ammonium phosphates and ammonium sulfates, as well as thickening agents.<ref>{{cite journal |author=A. Agueda |author2=E. Pastor |author3=E. Planas |year=2008|title=Different scales for studying the effectiveness of long-term forest fire retardants|journal=Progress in Energy and Combustion Science|volume=24|issue=6|pages=782–796|doi=10.1016/j.pecs.2008.06.001}}</ref> The decision to apply retardant depends on the magnitude, location and intensity of the wildfire. In certain instances, fire retardant may also be applied as a precautionary fire defense measure.<ref name="coloradoan.com">{{cite web|author=Magill, B.|title=Officials: Fire slurry poses little threat|work=Coloradoan.com|url=http://www.coloradoan.com/article/20120706/NEWS01/307060035/Officials-Fire-slurry-poses-little-threat}}</ref>

Typical fire retardants contain the same agents as fertilizers. Fire retardants may also affect water quality through leaching, eutrophication, or misapplication. Fire retardant's effects on drinking water remain inconclusive.<ref name="minesnewsroom.com">{{cite journal |author=Boerner, C. |author2=Coday B. |author3=Noble, J. |author4=Roa, P. |author5=Roux V. |author6=Rucker K. |author7=Wing, A. |year=2012 |title=Impact of wildfire in Clear Creek Watershed of the city of Golden's drinking water supply |publisher=Colorado School of Mines |url=http://minesnewsroom.com/sites/default/files/wysiwyg-editor/Impacts%20of%20wildfire%20on%20Golden%27s%20drinking%20water-1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112021046/http://minesnewsroom.com/sites/default/files/wysiwyg-editor/Impacts%20of%20wildfire%20on%20Golden%27s%20drinking%20water-1.pdf |archive-date=12 November 2012 }}</ref> Dilution factors, including water body size, rainfall, and water flow rates lessen the concentration and potency of fire retardant.<ref name="coloradoan.com" /> Wildfire debris (ash and sediment) clog rivers and reservoirs increasing the risk for floods and erosion that ultimately slow and/or damage water treatment systems.<ref name="minesnewsroom.com" /><ref>{{cite web|author=Eichenseher, T.|year=2012|title=Colorado Wildfires Threaten Water Supplies|work=National Geographic Daily News|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/07/120703/colorado-wildfires-waldo-high-park-hayman-threaten-water-supplies/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710084010/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/07/120703/colorado-wildfires-waldo-high-park-hayman-threaten-water-supplies/|archive-date=10 July 2012}}</ref> There is continued concern of fire retardant effects on land, water, wildlife habitats, and watershed quality, additional research is needed. However, on the positive side, fire retardant (specifically its nitrogen and phosphorus components) has been shown to have a fertilizing effect on nutrient-deprived soils and thus creates a temporary increase in vegetation.<ref name="coloradoan.com" />

The current USDA procedure maintains that the aerial application of fire retardant in the United States must clear waterways by a minimum of 300 feet to safeguard effects of retardant runoff. Aerial uses of fire retardants are required to avoid application near waterways and endangered species (plant and animal habitats). After any incident of fire retardant misapplication, the U.S. Forest Service requires reporting and assessment impacts be made to determine a mitigation, remediation, and/or restrictions on future retardant uses in that area.

=== Modeling ===
[[File:Propagation model wildfire (English).svg|right|thumb|upright=1.1|alt=A dark region shaped like a shield with a pointed bottom. An arrow and the text "propagation axis (wind)" indicates a bottom-to-top direction up the body of the shield shape. The shape's pointed bottom is labeled "fire starter". Around the shield shape's top and thinning towards its sides, a yellow-orange region is labeled "left front", "right front", and (at the top) "head of the fire".|Fire Propagation Model]]
{{Main|Wildfire modeling}}

[[File:ACTbushfire03.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Canberra bushfires|2003 Canberra firestorm]]]]

Wildfire modeling is concerned with [[numerical simulation]] of wildfires to comprehend and predict fire behavior.<ref>{{cite web|title=Prometheus|url=http://firegrowthmodel.ca/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110203061723/http://firegrowthmodel.ca/|archive-date=3 February 2011|access-date=1 January 2009|publisher=Tymstra, C.; Bryce, R.W.; Wotton, B.M.; Armitage, O.B. 2009. Development and structure of Prometheus: the Canadian wildland fire growth simulation model. Inf. Rep. NOR-X-417. Nat. Resour. Can., Can. For. Serv., North. For. Cent., Edmonton, AB.|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=FARSITE|url=http://www.firemodels.org/content/view/112/143/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080215083312/http://www.firemodels.org/content/view/112/143/|archive-date=15 February 2008|access-date=1 July 2009|publisher=FireModels.org – Fire Behavior and Danger Software, Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory}}</ref> Wildfire modeling aims to aid wildfire suppression, increase the safety of firefighters and the public, and minimize damage. Using [[computational science]], wildfire modeling involves the statistical analysis of past fire events to predict spotting risks and front behavior. Various wildfire propagation models have been proposed in the past, including simple ellipses and egg- and fan-shaped models. Early attempts to determine wildfire behavior assumed terrain and vegetation uniformity. However, the exact behavior of a wildfire's front is dependent on a variety of factors, including wind speed and slope steepness. Modern growth models utilize a combination of past ellipsoidal descriptions and [[Huygens' Principle]] to simulate fire growth as a continuously expanding polygon.<ref>G.D. Richards, "An Elliptical Growth Model of Forest Fire Fronts and Its Numerical Solution", Int. J. Numer. Meth. Eng.. 30:1163–1179, 1990.</ref><ref>Finney, 1–3.</ref> [[Extreme value theory]] may also be used to predict the size of large wildfires. However, large fires that exceed suppression capabilities are often regarded as statistical outliers in standard analyses, even though fire policies are more influenced by large wildfires than by small fires.<ref name="Alvarado, et al., 66-68">Alvarado, ''et al''., 66–68</ref>

== Human risk and exposure ==

Wildfire risk is the chance that a wildfire will start in or reach a particular area and the potential loss of human values if it does. Risk is dependent on variable factors such as human activities, weather patterns, availability of wildfire fuels, and the availability or lack of resources to suppress a fire.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Oregon State University|title=About Oregon wildfire risk|access-date=9 July 2012|url=http://oeapp.oregonexplorer.info/Wildfire/topics/topics.aspx?Res=16142|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130218072405/http://oeapp.oregonexplorer.info/Wildfire/topics/topics.aspx?Res=16142|archive-date=18 February 2013}}</ref> Wildfires have continually been a threat to human populations. However, human-induced geographical and climatic changes are exposing populations more frequently to wildfires and increasing wildfire risk. It is speculated that the increase in wildfires arises from a century of wildfire suppression coupled with the rapid expansion of human developments into fire-prone wildlands.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr208en/psw_gtr208en_505-512_haines.pdf |title=The National Wildfire Mitigation Programs Database: State, County, and Local Efforts to Reduce Wildfire Risk |publisher=US Forest Service |access-date=19 January 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907045339/http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr208en/psw_gtr208en_505-512_haines.pdf |archive-date=7 September 2012 }}</ref> Wildfires are naturally occurring events that aid in promoting forest health. Global warming and climate changes are causing an increase in temperatures and more droughts nationwide which contributes to an increase in wildfire risk.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://msutoday.msu.edu/news/2013/extreme-wildfires-may-be-fueled-by-climate-change/|title=Extreme wildfires may be fueled by climate change|publisher=Michigan State University|date=1 August 2013|access-date=1 August 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130803213631/http://msutoday.msu.edu/news/2013/extreme-wildfires-may-be-fueled-by-climate-change/|archive-date=3 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-mprIejWp00|title=White House explains the link between Climate Change and Wild Fires|date=5 August 2014|work=YouTube|author=Rajamanickam Antonimuthu|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811074119/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-mprIejWp00|archive-date=11 August 2014}}</ref>
{{wide image|2009 California Wildfires at JPL - Pasadena, California.jpg|933px|The 2009 Station Fire burns in the foothills of the [[San Gabriel Mountains|San Gabriel Mountains]] above the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|Jet Propulsion Laboratory]], near Pasadena, California}}

=== Airborne hazards ===
{{See also|Health effects of wood smoke}}
The most noticeable adverse effect of wildfires is the destruction of property. However, the release of hazardous chemicals from the burning of wildland fuels also significantly impacts health in humans.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.purakamasks.com/how-did-forest-fires-affect-air-quality-in-california|title=How Have Forest Fires Affected Air Quality in California?|date=2019-02-05|website=www.purakamasks.com|language=en|access-date=2019-02-11}}</ref>

Wildfire smoke is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and water vapor. Other common smoke components present in lower concentrations are carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, acrolein, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and benzene.<ref name="oehha.ca.gov">{{cite web|author=Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment|year=2008|title=Wildfire smoke: A guide for public health officials|access-date=9 July 2012|url=http://oehha.ca.gov/air/risk_assess/wildfirev8.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516071549/http://www.oehha.ca.gov/air/risk_assess/wildfirev8.pdf|archive-date=16 May 2012}}</ref> Small particulates suspended in air which come in solid form or in liquid droplets are also present in smoke. 80 -90% of wildfire smoke, by mass, is within the fine particle size class of 2.5 micrometers in diameter or smaller.<ref>{{cite web|author=National Wildlife Coordination Group|year=2001|title=Smoke management guide for prescribed and wildland fire|location=Boise, ID|publisher=National Interagency Fire Center|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/ottmar-smoke-management-guide.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011200515/http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/ottmar-smoke-management-guide.pdf|archive-date=11 October 2016}}</ref>

Despite carbon dioxide's high concentration in smoke, it poses a low health risk due to its low toxicity. Rather, carbon monoxide and fine particulate matter, particularly 2.5 µm in diameter and smaller, have been identified as the major health threats.<ref name="oehha.ca.gov" /> Other chemicals are considered to be significant hazards but are found in concentrations that are too low to cause detectable health effects.

The degree of wildfire smoke exposure to an individual is dependent on the length, severity, duration, and proximity of the fire. People are exposed directly to smoke via the respiratory tract through inhalation of air pollutants. Indirectly, communities are exposed to wildfire debris that can contaminate soil and water supplies.

The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) developed the [[air quality index]] (AQI), a public resource that provides national air quality standard concentrations for common air pollutants. The public can use this index as a tool to determine their exposure to hazardous air pollutants based on visibility range.<ref>{{cite web|author=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|year=2009|title=Air quality index: A guide to air quality and health|access-date=9 July 2012|url=http://www.epa.gov/airnow/aqi_brochure_08-09.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507130507/http://www.epa.gov/airnow/aqi_brochure_08-09.pdf|archive-date=7 May 2012}}</ref>

Fire ecologist Leda Kobziar found that wildfire smoke distributes microbial life on a global level.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wildfiretoday.com/2019/12/12/research-indicates-that-wildfire-smoke-may-distribute-microbial-life/|title=Research indicates that wildfire smoke may distribute microbial life|date=2019-12-12|website=Wildfire Today|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-17}}</ref> She stated, "There are numerous allergens that we’ve found in the smoke. And so it may be that some people who are sensitive to smoke have that sensitivity, not only because of the particulate matter and the smoke but also because there are some biological organisms in it."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kqed.org/science/1951474/wildfire-smoke-once-considered-sterile-teems-with-life|title=Wildfire Smoke, Once Considered Sterile, Teems With Life|date=2019-12-10|website=KQED|language=en-us|access-date=2019-12-17}}</ref>

=== Water pollution ===
{{expand section|date=January 2021}}
It is well-known that debris and chemicals can runoff into waterways after wildfires making the drinking water sources unsafe. It is also known that wildfires can damage water treatment facilities making drinking water unsafe. Though, even when the water sources and treatment facilities are not damaged, drinking water inside buildings and in buried water distribution systems can be chemically contaminated. After the 2017 Tubbs Fire and 2018 Camp Fire in California hazardous waste levels of chemical contamination were found in multiple public drinking water systems impacted by wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/aws2.1183|doi=10.1002/aws2.1183|title=Wildfire caused widespread drinking water distribution network contamination|year=2020|last1=Proctor|first1=Caitlin R.|last2=Lee|first2=Juneseok|last3=Yu|first3=David|last4=Shah|first4=Amisha D.|last5=Whelton|first5=Andrew J.|journal=AWWA Water Science|volume=2|issue=4|s2cid=225641536}}</ref> Since 2018, additional wildfires that damaged drinking water distribution systems and plumbing in California and Oregon have caused chemical drinking water contamination.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-04714-9|doi=10.1007/s11069-021-04714-9 | issn=0921-030X|title=Water safety attitudes, risk perception, experiences, and education for households impacted by the 2018 Camp Fire, California|year=2021|last1=Odimayomi|first1=Tolulope O.|last2=Proctor|first2=Caitlin R.|last3=Wang|first3=Qi Erica|last4=Sabbaghi|first4=Arman|last5=Peterson|first5=Kimberly S.|last6=Yu|first6=David J.|last7=Lee|first7=Juneseok|last8=Shah|first8=Amisha D.|last9=Ley|first9=Christian J.|last10=Noh|first10=Yoorae|last11=Smith|first11=Charlotte D.|last12=Webster|first12=Jackson P.|last13=Milinkevich|first13=Kristin|last14=Lodewyk|first14=Michael W.|last15=Jenks|first15=Julie A.|last16=Smith|first16=James F.|last17=Whelton|first17=Andrew J.|journal=Natural Hazards|volume=108|pages=947–975|s2cid=233478928}}</ref> Benzene is one of many chemicals that has been found in the drinking water systems and buildings after wildfires. Benzene can permeate certain plastic pipes and thus require long times to remove from the water distribution system infrastructure and building plumbing. Using a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency model,<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001542|doi=10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001542|title=Numerical Model for Decontamination of Organic Contaminants in Polyethylene Drinking Water Pipes in Premise Plumbing by Flushing|year=2019|last1=Haupert|first1=Levi M.|last2=Magnuson|first2=Matthew L.|journal=Journal of Environmental Engineering|volume=145|issue=7|pmid=32801447|pmc=7424390}}</ref> researchers estimated more than286 days of constant flushing a single contaminated pipe 24 hours per day, 7 days a week were needed to reduce benzene below safe drinking water limits.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://engineering.purdue.edu/PlumbingSafety/opinions/Final-HDPE-Service-Line-Decontamination-2019-03-18.pdf |title=CONSIDERATIONS FOR DECONTAMINATING HDPE SERVICE LINES BY FLUSHING |website=engineering.purdue.edu |date=2019-03-18}}</ref> Temperature increases caused by fires, including wildfires, can cause plastic water pipes to generate toxic chemicals<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1039/D0EW00836B|doi=10.1039/D0EW00836B|title=Drinking water contamination from the thermal degradation of plastics: Implications for wildfire and structure fire response|year=2021|last1=Isaacson|first1=Kristofer P.|last2=Proctor|first2=Caitlin R.|last3=Wang|first3=Q. Erica|last4=Edwards|first4=Ethan Y.|last5=Noh|first5=Yoorae|last6=Shah|first6=Amisha D.|last7=Whelton|first7=Andrew J.|journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology|volume=7|issue=2|pages=274–284|s2cid=230567682}}</ref> such as [[benzene]] into the water that they carry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/12/plastic-pipes-are-polluting-drinking-water-systems-after-wildfires/|title=Plastic pipes are polluting drinking water systems after wildfires|first=Ars|last=Contributors|date=28 December 2020|website=Ars Technica|access-date=10 January 2021}}</ref>

Suspended sediment inputs to streams and reservoirs alter the colour and murkiness of water, yet because of the chance of transporting particle-associated pollutants. Elevated suspended sediment concentrations in drink will build it tough to notice microorganism and viruses, increase microorganism development because of high quantities of adsorbate nutrients, and reduce medical aid effectiveness.
[[File:Sediment off the Yucatan Peninsula.jpg|thumb|Sediment off the Yucatan Peninsula]]
Importantly, composite suspended sediment particles, instead of primary particles, might dominate the transit of little cohesive sediments through the stream system. microbial communities, organic and inorganic particles, and chemical components are all enclosed within the structure of those composite particles, which may have a negative impact on water quality. Burned aggregates have a lot of bigger sinking velocities than change state particles of equal diameter, which has been attributed to a rise in burned mixture density because of reduced organic content and pore house. Moreover, the impact of soil heating has been ascribed to the aggregation of clay particles into coarser composite particles, probably increasing the concentration of pollutants to composite particles relative to primary particles of equivalent size. Hyperbolic fine sediment storage and maybe delayed unharness of pollutants once fireplace from decaying aggregates are two potential implications of fireplace effects on soil particles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Hugh G.|last2=Sheridan|first2=Gary J.|last3=Lane|first3=Patrick N. J.|last4=Nyman|first4=Petter|last5=Haydon|first5=Shane|date=2011-01-05|title=Wildfire effects on water quality in forest catchments: A review with implications for water supply|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169410006748|journal=Journal of Hydrology|language=en|volume=396|issue=1|pages=170–192|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.10.043|bibcode=2011JHyd..396..170S|issn=0022-1694}}</ref>

=== Post-fire risks ===
[[File:Prospect Hill bushfire.jpg|thumb|Charred shrubland in suburban [[Sydney]] ([[2019–20 Australian bushfire season|2019–20 Australian bushfires]]).]]
After a wildfire, hazards remain. Residents returning to their homes may be at risk from falling fire-weakened trees. Humans and pets may also be harmed by falling into [[ash pit]]s. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) also reports that wildfires cause significant damage to electric systems, especially in dry regions.<ref>[https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg3/index.html IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 2022]</ref>

Other post-fire risks, can increase if other [[extreme weather]] follows. For example, wildfires make soil less able to absorb precipitation, so heavy rainfall can result in more severe [[flooding]] and damages like [[Mud slide|mud slides]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Movasat |first1=Mahta |last2=Tomac |first2=Ingrid |title=Geo-Congress 2020 |date=2020-02-21 |chapter=Post-Fire Mudflow Prevention by Biopolymer Treatment of Water Repellent Slopes |chapter-url=https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/9780784482834.019 |language=en |pages=170–178 |doi=10.1061/9780784482834.019|isbn=9780784482834 |s2cid=213023120 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmer |first=Jane |date=2022-01-12 |title=The devastating mudslides that follow forest fires |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-00028-3 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=601 |issue=7892 |pages=184–186 |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-00028-3|pmid=35022598 |bibcode=2022Natur.601..184P |s2cid=245907336 }}</ref>

=== At-risk groups ===

==== Firefighters ====
Firefighters are at the greatest risk for acute and chronic health effects resulting from wildfire smoke exposure. Due to firefighters' occupational duties, they are frequently exposed to [[Chemical hazard|hazardous chemicals]] at close proximity for longer periods of time. A case study on the exposure of wildfire smoke among wildland firefighters shows that firefighters are exposed to significant levels of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritants above [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration|OSHA]]-permissible exposure limits (PEL) and ACGIH threshold limit values (TLV). 5–10% are overexposed. The study obtained exposure concentrations for one wildland firefighter over a 10-hour shift spent holding down a fireline. The firefighter was exposed to a wide range of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritants (a combination of particulate matter 3.5 µm and smaller, acrolein, and formaldehyde) levels. Carbon monoxide levels reached up to 160ppm and the TLV irritant index value reached a high of 10. In contrast, the OSHA PEL for carbon monoxide is 30ppm and for the TLV respiratory irritant index, the calculated threshold limit value is 1; any value above 1 exceeds exposure limits.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Reinhardt|first2=T.E.|last3=Quiring|first3=S.J.|last4=Ottmar|first4=R.D.|year=2004|title=A screening-level assessment of the health risks of chronic smoke exposure for wildland firefighters|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fera/publications/fulltext/boozeetal2004.pdf|journal=Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene|volume=1|issue=5|pages=296–305|doi=10.1080/15459620490442500|pmid=15238338|last1=Booze|first1=T.F.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170530185250/https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fera/publications/fulltext/boozeetal2004.pdf|archive-date=30 May 2017|citeseerx=10.1.1.541.5076|s2cid=24889908}}</ref>

Between 2001 and 2012, over 200 [[Occupational fatality|fatalities]] occurred among wildland firefighters. In addition to heat and chemical hazards, firefighters are also at risk for electrocution from power lines; injuries from equipment; [[Occupational injury|slips, trips, and falls]]; injuries from vehicle rollovers; [[Heat illness|heat-related illness]]; [[insect bites and stings]]; [[Occupational stress|stress]]; and [[rhabdomyolysis]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2013-158/|title=CDC – NIOSH Publications and Products – Wildland Fire Fighting: Hot Tips to Stay Safe and Healthy (2013–158)|website=www.cdc.gov|access-date=2016-11-22|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122154309/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2013-158/|archive-date=22 November 2016|doi=10.26616/NIOSHPUB2013158|year=2013}}</ref>

==== Residents ====
[[File:North Complex smoke in San Francisco - Bay Bridge and Financial District.jpg|thumb|Smoke from the [[2020 California wildfires]] settles over [[San Francisco]]]]
Residents in communities surrounding wildfires are exposed to lower concentrations of chemicals, but they are at a greater risk for indirect exposure through water or soil contamination. Exposure to residents is greatly dependent on individual susceptibility. Vulnerable persons such as children (ages 0–4), the elderly (ages 65 and older), smokers, and pregnant women are at an increased risk due to their already compromised body systems, even when the exposures are present at low chemical concentrations and for relatively short exposure periods.<ref name="oehha.ca.gov" /> They are also at risk for future wildfires and may move away to areas they consider less risky.<ref>{{cite news |title=Living under a time bomb |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/national/wp/2018/12/12/feature/living-under-a-time-bomb-california-communities-scramble-to-avoid-becoming-the-next-wildfire-tragedy/?noredirect=on&wpisrc=nl_rainbow&wpmm=1 |access-date=15 December 2018 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |language=en}}</ref>

Wildfires affect large numbers of people in Western Canada and the United States. In California alone, more than 350,000 people live in towns and cities in "very high fire hazard severity zones".<ref name="rgj">{{cite news|page=1A |title=A real life gamble: California races to predict which town could be the next victim | author1=Ryan Sabalow |author2=Phillip Reese |author3=Dale Kasler |agency=The Sacramento Bee | publisher=Reno Gazette Journal |work=Destined to Burn}}</ref>

Direct risks to building residents in fire-prone areas can be moderated through design choices such as choosing fire-resistant vegetation, maintaining landscaping to avoid debris accumulation and to create firebreaks, and by selecting fire-retardant roofing materials. Potential compounding issues with poor air quality and heat during warmer months may be addressed with MERV 11 or higher outdoor air filtration in building ventilation systems, mechanical cooling, and a provision of a refuge area with additional air cleaning and cooling, if needed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Design Discussion Primer - Wildfires |url=https://www.bchousing.org/publications/MBAR-Wildfires.pdf |publisher=BC Housing |access-date=16 July 2021}}</ref>

==== Fetal exposure ====
Additionally, there is evidence of an increase in maternal stress, as documented by researchers M.H. O'Donnell and A.M. Behie, thus affecting birth outcomes. In Australia, studies show that most male infants with drastically higher average birth weights were born in severely fire-affected areas. This is attributed to the fact that maternal signals directly affect fetal growth patterns.<ref>[http://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=UA&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=1&SID=3A7lyhAIveCBgjBAcZa&page=2&doc=16] {{registration required}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Effects of wildfire disaster exposure on male birth weight in an Australian population.|last1 = O'Donnell|first1 = M H|date = 15 November 2015|journal = Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health|doi = 10.1093/emph/eov027|pmid = 26574560|last2 = Behie|first2 = A M|volume = 2015|issue = 1|issn = 2050-6201|pages = 344–354|pmc = 4697771}}</ref>

Asthma is one of the most common chronic disease among children in the United States, affecting an estimated 6.2 million children.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lung.org/lung-health-and-diseases/lung-disease-lookup/asthma/learn-about-asthma/asthma-children-facts-sheet.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116182804/http://www.lung.org/lung-health-and-diseases/lung-disease-lookup/asthma/learn-about-asthma/asthma-children-facts-sheet.html|url-status=live|archive-date=16 November 2015|title=American Lung Association and Asthma Fact sheet|date=19 October 2018|website=American Lung Association}}</ref> Recent research on asthma risk focuses specifically on the risk of air pollution during the gestational period. Several pathophysiology processes are involved are in this. Considerable airway development occurs during the 2nd and 3rd trimester and continues until 3 years of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nishimura|first1=Katherine K.|last2=Galanter|first2=Joshua M.|last3=Roth|first3=Lindsey A.|last4=Oh|first4=Sam S.|last5=Thakur|first5=Neeta|last6=Nguyen|first6=Elizabeth A.|last7=Thyne|first7=Shannon|last8=Farber|first8=Harold J.|last9=Serebrisky|first9=Denise|date=August 2013|title=Early-Life Air Pollution and Asthma Risk in Minority Children. The GALA II and SAGE II Studies|journal=American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine|language=en|volume=188|issue=3|pages=309–318|doi=10.1164/rccm.201302-0264oc|issn=1073-449X|pmc=3778732|pmid=23750510}}</ref> It is hypothesized that exposure to these toxins during this period could have consequential effects, as the epithelium of the lungs during this time could have increased permeability to toxins. Exposure to air pollution during parental and pre-natal stage could induce epigenetic changes which are responsible for the development of asthma.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hsu|first1=Hsiao-Hsien Leon|last2=Chiu|first2=Yueh-Hsiu Mathilda|last3=Coull|first3=Brent A.|last4=Kloog|first4=Itai|last5=Schwartz|first5=Joel|last6=Lee|first6=Alison|last7=Wright|first7=Robert O.|last8=Wright|first8=Rosalind J.|date=2015-11-01|title=Prenatal Particulate Air Pollution and Asthma Onset in Urban Children. Identifying Sensitive Windows and Sex Differences|journal=American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine|volume=192|issue=9|pages=1052–1059|doi=10.1164/rccm.201504-0658OC|issn=1535-4970|pmc=4642201|pmid=26176842}}</ref> Recent Meta-Analyses have found significant association between PM2.5, NO2 and development of asthma during childhood despite heterogeneity among studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hehua|first1=Zhang|last2=Qing|first2=Chang|last3=Shanyan|first3=Gao|last4=Qijun|first4=Wu|last5=Yuhong|first5=Zhao|date=November 2017|title=The impact of prenatal exposure to air pollution on childhood wheezing and asthma: A systematic review|journal=Environmental Research|volume=159|pages=519–530|doi=10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.038|pmid=28888196|issn=0013-9351|bibcode=2017ER....159..519H|s2cid=22300866}}</ref> Furthermore, maternal exposure to chronic stressors is most likely present in distressed communities, and as this can be correlated with childhood asthma, it may further explain links between early childhood exposure to air pollution, neighborhood poverty, and childhood risk. As well, living in distressed neighborhoods is linked to pollutant source location and exposure and also to greater chronic individual stress, which alters the allostatic load of the maternal immune system. In turn, this leads to adverse outcomes in children, including increased susceptibility to air pollution.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Morello-Frosch|first1=Rachel|last2=Shenassa|first2=Edmond D.|date=August 2006|title=The Environmental "Riskscape" and Social Inequality: Implicationsfor Explaining Maternal and Child Health Disparities|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|language=en|volume=114|issue=8|pages=1150–1153|doi=10.1289/ehp.8930|issn=0091-6765|pmc=1551987|pmid=16882517}}</ref>

== Health effects ==
{{See also|Atmospheric particulate matter}}

[[File:Diaphragmatic breathing.gif|thumb|Animation of diaphragmatic breathing with the diaphragm shown in green]]

Wildfire smoke contains particulate matter that may have adverse effects upon the human respiratory system. Evidence of the health effects of wildfire smoke should be relayed to the public so that exposure may be limited. Evidence of health effects can also be used to influence policy to promote positive health outcomes.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Jia Coco|last2=Wilson|first2=Ander|last3=Mickley|first3=Loretta J.|last4=Dominici|first4=Francesca|last5=Ebisu|first5=Keita|last6=Wang|first6=Yun|last7=Sulprizio|first7=Melissa P.|last8=Peng|first8=Roger D.|last9=Yue|first9=Xu|date=January 2017|title=Wildfire-specific Fine Particulate Matter and Risk of Hospital Admissions in Urban and Rural Counties|journal=Epidemiology|language=en|volume=28|issue=1|pages=77–85|doi=10.1097/ede.0000000000000556|issn=1044-3983|pmc=5130603|pmid=27648592}}</ref>

Inhalation of smoke from a wildfire can be a health hazard.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cleanairresources.com/resources/side-effects-of-wildfire-smoke-inhalation|title=Side Effects of Wildfire Smoke Inhalation|date=2019-03-11|website=www.cleanairresources.com|language=en|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref> Wildfire smoke is composed of combustion products i.e. [[carbon dioxide]], [[carbon monoxide]], [[water vapor]], [[particulate matter]], organic chemicals, [[nitrogen oxide]]s and other compounds. The principal health concern is the inhalation of particulate matter and carbon monoxide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/ttnamti1/files/ambient/smoke/wildgd.pdf |title=1 Wildfire Smoke A Guide for Public Health Officials |publisher=US Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=19 January 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509110731/http://www.epa.gov/ttnamti1/files/ambient/smoke/wildgd.pdf |archive-date=9 May 2013 }}</ref>

Particulate matter (PM) is a type of air pollution made up of particles of dust and liquid droplets. They are characterized into three categories based on the diameter of the particle: coarse PM, fine PM, and ultrafine PM. Coarse particles are between 2.5 micrometers and 10 micrometers, fine particles measure 0.1 to 2.5 micrometers, and ultrafine particle are less than 0.1 micrometer.  Each size can enter the body through inhalation, but the PM impact on the body varies by size. Coarse particles are filtered by the upper airways and these particles can accumulate and cause pulmonary inflammation. This can result in eye and sinus irritation as well as sore throat and coughing.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Wu|first1=Jin-Zhun|last2=Ge|first2=Dan-Dan|last3=Zhou|first3=Lin-Fu|last4=Hou|first4=Ling-Yun|last5=Zhou|first5=Ying|last6=Li|first6=Qi-Yuan|date=June 2018|title=Effects of particulate matter on allergic respiratory diseases|journal=Chronic Diseases and Translational Medicine|volume=4|issue=2|pages=95–102|doi=10.1016/j.cdtm.2018.04.001|issn=2095-882X|pmc=6034084|pmid=29988900}}</ref> Coarse PM is often composed of materials that are heavier and more toxic that lead to short-term effects with stronger impact.<ref name=":12" />

Smaller particulate moves further into the respiratory system creating issues deep into the lungs and the bloodstream.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":12" /> In asthma patients, PM2.5 causes inflammation but also increases oxidative stress in the epithelial cells. These particulates also cause apoptosis and autophagy in lung epithelial cells. Both processes cause the cells to be damaged and impacts the cell function. This damage impacts those with respiratory conditions such as asthma where the lung tissues and function are already compromised.<ref name=":12" /> The third PM type is ultra-fine PM (UFP). UFP can enter the bloodstream like PM2.5 however studies show that it works into the blood much quicker. The inflammation and epithelial damage done by UFP has also shown to be much more severe.<ref name=":12" /> PM2.5 is of the largest concern in regards to wildfire.<ref name=":11" /> This is particularly hazardous to the very young, elderly and those with chronic conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis and cardiovascular conditions. The illnesses most commonly with exposure to the fine particles from wildfire smoke are bronchitis, exacerbation of asthma or COPD, and pneumonia. Symptoms of these complications include wheezing and shortness of breath and cardiovascular symptoms include chest pain, rapid heart rate and fatigue.<ref name=":10">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.nurpra.2011.07.001 |title=Wildfire Smoke Exposure: A Guide for the Nurse Practitioner |date=2012 |last1=Forsberg |first1=Nicole T. |last2=Longo |first2=Bernadette M. |last3=Baxter |first3=Kimberly |last4=Boutté |first4=Marie |journal=[[The Journal for Nurse Practitioners]] |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=98–106}}</ref>

=== Asthma exacerbation ===
Smoke from wildfires can cause health problems, especially for children and those who already have respiratory problems.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Hutchinson|first1=Justine A.|last2=Vargo|first2=Jason|last3=Milet|first3=Meredith|last4=French|first4=Nancy H. F.|last5=Billmire|first5=Michael|last6=Johnson|first6=Jeffrey|last7=Hoshiko|first7=Sumi|date=2018-07-10|title=The San Diego 2007 wildfires and Medi-Cal emergency department presentations, inpatient hospitalizations, and outpatient visits: An observational study of smoke exposure periods and a bidirectional case-crossover analysis|journal=PLOS Medicine|volume=15|issue=7|pages=e1002601|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1002601|issn=1549-1676|pmc=6038982|pmid=29990362}}</ref> Several epidemiological studies have demonstrated a close association between [[air pollution]] and respiratory allergic diseases such as bronchial [[asthma]].<ref name=":11" />

An observational study of smoke exposure related to the 2007 San Diego wildfires revealed an increase both in healthcare utilization and respiratory diagnoses, especially [[asthma]] among the group sampled.<ref name=":13" /> Projected climate scenarios of wildfire occurrences predict significant increases in respiratory conditions among young children.<ref name=":13" /> [[Particulates|Particulate Matter (PM)]] triggers a series of biological processes including inflammatory immune response, [[oxidative stress]], which are associated with harmful changes in allergic respiratory diseases.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wu|first1=Jin-Zhun|last2=Ge|first2=Dan-Dan|last3=Zhou|first3=Lin-Fu|last4=Hou|first4=Ling-Yun|last5=Zhou|first5=Ying|last6=Li|first6=Qi-Yuan|date=2018-06-08|title=Effects of particulate matter on allergic respiratory diseases|journal=Chronic Diseases and Translational Medicine|volume=4|issue=2|pages=95–102|doi=10.1016/j.cdtm.2018.04.001|issn=2095-882X|pmc=6034084|pmid=29988900}}</ref>

Although some studies demonstrated no significant acute changes in lung function among people with [[asthma]] related to PM from wildfires, a possible explanation for these counterintuitive findings is the increased use of [[Asthma|quick-relief medications]], such as inhalers, in response to elevated levels of smoke among those already diagnosed with [[asthma]].<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last1=Reid|first1=Colleen E.|last2=Brauer|first2=Michael|last3=Johnston|first3=Fay H.|last4=Jerrett|first4=Michael|last5=Balmes|first5=John R.|last6=Elliott|first6=Catherine T.|date=2016-04-15|title=Critical Review of Health Impacts of Wildfire Smoke Exposure|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|language=en|volume=124|issue=9|pages=1334–43|doi=10.1289/ehp.1409277|issn=0091-6765|pmc=5010409|pmid=27082891}}</ref> In investigating the association of medication use for obstructive lung disease and wildfire exposure, researchers found increases both in the usage of inhalers and initiation of long-term control as in oral steroids.<ref name=":14" /> More specifically, some people with [[asthma]] reported higher use of [[Asthma|quick-relief medications]] (inhalers).<ref name=":14" /> After two major wildfires in California, researchers found an increase in physician prescriptions for [[Asthma|quick-relief medications]] in the years following the wildfires than compared to the year before each occurrence.<ref name=":14" />

There is consistent evidence between wildfire smoke and the exacerbation of asthma.<ref name=":14" />

=== Carbon monoxide danger ===
{{Main|Carbon monoxide poisoning}}

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas that can be found at the highest concentration at close proximity to a smoldering fire. For this reason, carbon monoxide inhalation is a serious threat to the health of wildfire firefighters. CO in smoke can be inhaled into the lungs where it is absorbed into the bloodstream and reduces oxygen delivery to the body's vital organs. At high concentrations, it can cause headaches, weakness, dizziness, confusion, nausea, disorientation, visual impairment, coma, and even death. However, even at lower concentrations, such as those found at wildfires, individuals with cardiovascular disease may experience chest pain and cardiac arrhythmia.<ref name="oehha.ca.gov" /> A recent study tracking the number and cause of wildfire firefighter deaths from 1990–2006 found that 21.9% of the deaths occurred from heart attacks.<ref>{{cite web|author=National Wildfire Coordinating Group|date=June 2007|title=Wildland firefighter fatalities in the United States 1990–2006|publisher=NWCG Safety and Health Working Team|url=http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/pms841/pms841_all-72dpi.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315081248/http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/pms841/pms841_all-72dpi.pdf|archive-date=15 March 2012}}</ref>

Another important and somewhat less obvious health effect of wildfires is psychiatric diseases and disorders. Both adults and children from countries ranging from the United States and Canada to Greece and Australia who were directly and indirectly affected by wildfires were found by researchers to demonstrate several different mental conditions linked to their experience with the wildfires. These include [[Post-traumatic stress disorder among athletes|post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD), [[Depression (mood)|depression]], anxiety, and [[phobia]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=21957753 |date=2011 |last1=Papanikolaou |first1=V |last2=Adamis |first2=D |last3=Mellon |first3=RC |last4=Prodromitis |first4=G |title=Psychological distress following wildfires disaster in a rural part of Greece: A case-control population-based study |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=11–26 |journal=International Journal of Emergency Mental Health}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/jts.20411 |title=Locus of control and psychopathology in relation to levels of trauma and loss: Self-reports of Peloponnesian wildfire survivors |date=2009 |last1=Mellon |first1=Robert C. |last2=Papanikolau |first2=Vasiliki |last3=Prodromitis |first3=Gerasimos |journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=189–96 |pmid=19452533}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1176/appi.ps.58.4.509 |title=Psychiatric Disorders Among Adults Seeking Emergency Disaster Assistance After a Wildland-Urban Interface Fire |date=2007 |last1=Marshall |first1=G. N. |last2=Schell |first2=T. L. |last3=Elliott |first3=M. N. |last4=Rayburn |first4=N. R. |last5=Jaycox |first5=L. H. |journal=Psychiatric Services |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=509–14 |pmid=17412853}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=15830823 |date=2005 |last1=McDermott |first1=BM |last2=Lee |first2=EM |last3=Judd |first3=M |last4=Gibbon |first4=P |title=Posttraumatic stress disorder and general psychopathology in children and adolescents following a wildfire disaster |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=137–43 |journal=Canadian Journal of Psychiatry|doi=10.1177/070674370505000302 |s2cid=38364512 |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:78468/UQ78468_OA.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=11961911 |date=2002 |last1=Jones |first1=RT |last2=Ribbe |first2=DP |last3=Cunningham |first3=PB |last4=Weddle |first4=JD |last5=Langley |first5=AK |title=Psychological impact of fire disaster on children and their parents |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=163–86 |journal=Behavior Modification |doi=10.1177/0145445502026002003|s2cid=629959 }}</ref>

=== Epidemiology ===
The western US has seen an increase in both the frequency and intensity of wildfires over the last several decades. This increase has been attributed to the arid climate of the western US and the effects of global warming. An estimated 46 million people were exposed to wildfire smoke from 2004 to 2009 in the Western United States. Evidence has demonstrated that wildfire smoke can increase levels of particulate matter in the atmosphere.<ref name=":11" />

The EPA has defined acceptable concentrations of particulate matter in the air, through the National Ambient Air Quality Standards and monitoring of ambient air quality has been mandated.<ref name=":15">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/standards/pm/s_pm_index.html|title=Particulate Matter (PM) Standards|date=24 April 2016|publisher=EPA|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815125540/http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/standards/pm/s_pm_index.html|archive-date=15 August 2012}}</ref> Due to these monitoring programs and the incidence of several large wildfires near populated areas, epidemiological studies have been conducted and demonstrate an association between human health effects and an increase in fine particulate matter due to wildfire smoke.

The EPA has defined acceptable concentrations of particulate matter in the air. The National Ambient Air Quality Standards are part of the Clean Air Act and provide mandated guidelines for pollutant levels and the monitoring of ambient air quality.<ref name=":15" /> In addition to these monitoring programs, the increased incidence of wildfires near populated areas has precipitated several epidemiological studies. Such studies have demonstrated an association between negative human health effects and an increase in fine particulate matter due to wildfire smoke. The size of the particulate matter is significant as smaller particulate matter (fine) is easily inhaled into the human respiratory tract. Often, small particulate matter can be inhaled into deep lung tissue causing respiratory distress, illness, or disease.<ref name=":11" />

An increase in PM smoke emitted from the Hayman fire in Colorado in June 2002, was associated with an increase in respiratory symptoms in patients with COPD.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2004.11.030 |title=Wildfire smoke and respiratory symptoms in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |date=2005 |last1=Sutherland |first1=E. Rand |last2=Make |first2=Barry J. |last3=Vedal |first3=Sverre |last4=Zhang |first4=Lening |last5=Dutton |first5=Steven J. |last6=Murphy |first6=James R. |last7=Silkoff |first7=Philip E. |journal=Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=420–2 |pmid=15696107}}</ref> Looking at the wildfires in Southern California in October 2003 in a similar manner, investigators have shown an increase in hospital admissions due to asthma symptoms while being exposed to peak concentrations of PM in smoke.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1136/oem.2008.041376 |title=The relationship of respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions to the southern California wildfires of 2003 |date=2009 |last1=Delfino |first1=R J |last2=Brummel |first2=S |last3=Wu |first3=J |last4=Stern |first4=H |last5=Ostro |first5=B |last6=Lipsett |first6=M |last7=Winer |first7=A |last8=Street |first8=D H |last9=Zhang |first9=L |journal=Occupational and Environmental Medicine |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=189–97 |pmid=19017694 |last10=Tjoa |first10=T |last11=Gillen |first11=D L|pmc=4176821 }}</ref> Another epidemiological study found a 7.2% (95% confidence interval: 0.25%, 15%) increase in risk of respiratory related hospital admissions during smoke wave days with high wildfire-specific particulate matter 2.5 compared to matched non-smoke-wave days.<ref name=":11" />

Children participating in the Children's Health Study were also found to have an increase in eye and respiratory symptoms, medication use and physician visits.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1164/rccm.200604-519OC |title=Health Effects of the 2003 Southern California Wildfires on Children |date=2006 |last1=Kunzli |first1=N. |last2=Avol |first2=E. |last3=Wu |first3=J. |last4=Gauderman |first4=W. J. |last5=Rappaport |first5=E. |last6=Millstein |first6=J. |last7=Bennion |first7=J. |last8=McConnell |first8=R. |last9=Gilliland |first9=F. D. |journal=American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine |volume=174 |issue=11 |pages=1221–8 |pmid=16946126 |pmc=2648104 |last10=Berhane |first10=Kiros |last11=Lurmann |first11=Fred |last12=Winer |first12=Arthur |last13=Peters |first13=John M.}}</ref> Recently, it was demonstrated that mothers who were pregnant during the fires gave birth to babies with a slightly reduced average birth weight compared to those who were not exposed to wildfire during birth. Suggesting that pregnant women may also be at greater risk to adverse effects from wildfire.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1289/ehp.1104515 |title=Birth Weight Following Pregnancy During the 2003 Southern California Wildfires |date=2012 |last1=Holstius |first1=David M. |last2=Reid |first2=Colleen E. |last3=Jesdale |first3=Bill M. |last4=Morello-Frosch |first4=Rachel |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=120 |issue=9 |pages=1340–5 |pmid=22645279 |pmc=3440113}}</ref> Worldwide it is estimated that 339,000 people die due to the effects of wildfire smoke each year.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Johnston|first=Fay H.|display-authors=etal|title=Estimated global mortality attributable to smoke from landscape fires|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|date=May 2012|url=http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/vfe/Landscape-Fire-Smoke-Global-Mortality-Johnston-2012.pdf|volume=120|issue=5|pages=695–701|doi=10.1289/ehp.1104422|pmc=3346787|pmid=22456494|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160522061115/http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/vfe/Landscape-Fire-Smoke-Global-Mortality-Johnston-2012.pdf|archive-date=22 May 2016|access-date=9 December 2018}}</ref>

While the size of particulate matter is an important consideration for health effects, the chemical composition of particulate matter (PM2.5) from wildfire smoke should also be considered. Antecedent studies have demonstrated that the chemical composition of PM2.5 from wildfire smoke can yield different estimates of human health outcomes as compared to other sources of smoke.<ref name=":11" /> health outcomes for people exposed to wildfire smoke may differ from those exposed to smoke from alternative sources such as solid fuels.

== History ==
{{Further|Fossil record of fire}}
[[File:Deerfire high res.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Elk Bath]]'', an award winning photograph of elk avoiding a wildfire in [[Montana]]]]

The first evidence of wildfires is [[Rhyniophyta|rhyniophytoid]] plant fossils preserved as [[charcoal]], discovered in the [[Welsh Borders]], dating to the [[Silurian]] period (about {{ma|420}}). Smoldering surface fires started to occur sometime before the Early [[Devonian]] period {{ma|405}}. Low atmospheric oxygen during the Middle and Late Devonian was accompanied by a decrease in charcoal abundance.<ref name="Glasspool">{{cite journal|last1=Glasspool|first1=IJ|last2=Edwards|first2=D|last3=Axe|first3=L|year=2004|title=Charcoal in the Silurian as evidence for the earliest wildfire|journal=Geology|volume=32|issue=5|pages=381–383|bibcode=2004Geo....32..381G|doi=10.1130/G20363.1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Edwards|first1=D.|last2=Axe|first2=L.|date=April 2004|title=Anatomical Evidence in the Detection of the Earliest Wildfires|journal=PALAIOS|volume=19|issue=2|pages=113–128|bibcode=2004Palai..19..113E|doi=10.1669/0883-1351(2004)019<0113:AEITDO>2.0.CO;2|issn=0883-1351}}</ref> Additional charcoal evidence suggests that fires continued through the [[Carboniferous]] period. Later, the overall increase of atmospheric oxygen from 13% in the Late Devonian to 30–31% by the [[Late Permian]] was accompanied by a more widespread distribution of wildfires.<ref name="Scott2006">{{Cite journal|last1=Scott|first1=C.|last2=Glasspool|first2=J.|date=Jul 2006|title=The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentration|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=103|issue=29|pages=10861–10865|bibcode=2006PNAS..10310861S|doi=10.1073/pnas.0604090103|issn=0027-8424|pmc=1544139|pmid=16832054|doi-access=free}}</ref> Later, a decrease in wildfire-related charcoal deposits from the late Permian to the [[Triassic]] periods is explained by a decrease in oxygen levels.<ref name="Pausas 594">Pausas and Keeley, 594</ref>

Wildfires during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic periods followed patterns similar to fires that occur in modern times. Surface fires driven by dry seasons{{clarify|does this mean annual dry seasons or erratic droughts?|date=October 2015}} are evident in Devonian and Carboniferous [[progymnosperm]] forests. [[Lepidodendron]] forests dating to the Carboniferous period have charred peaks, evidence of crown fires. In Jurassic [[gymnosperm]] forests, there is evidence of high frequency, light surface fires.<ref name="Pausas 594" /> The increase of fire activity in the late [[Tertiary]]<ref name="cenozoic-division">Historically, the [[Cenozoic]] has been divided up into the [[Quaternary]] and [[Tertiary]] sub-eras, as well as the [[Neogene]] and [[Paleogene]] periods. The [http://www.stratigraphy.org/upload/ISChart2009.pdf 2009 version of the ICS time chart] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229003212/http://www.stratigraphy.org/upload/ISChart2009.pdf|date=29 December 2009}} recognizes a slightly extended Quaternary as well as the Paleogene and a truncated Neogene, the Tertiary having been demoted to informal status.</ref> is possibly due to the increase of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]]-type grasses. As these grasses shifted to more [[mesic habitat]]s, their high flammability increased fire frequency, promoting grasslands over woodlands.<ref>Pausas and Keeley, 595</ref> However, fire-prone habitats may have contributed to the prominence of trees such as those of the genera ''[[Eucalyptus]]'', ''Pinus'' and ''[[Sequoia (genus)|Sequoia]]'', which have thick bark to withstand fires and employ [[serotiny#Fire-mediated serotiny|pyriscence]].<ref>Pausas and Keeley, 596</ref><ref>[http://www.shannontech.com/ParkVision/Redwood/Redwood2.html "Redwood Trees"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150901062508/http://www.shannontech.com/ParkVision/Redwood/Redwood2.html|date=1 September 2015}}.</ref>

=== Human involvement ===
{{See also|Control of fire by early humans|Deforestation#Historical causes|Environmental history|History of firefighting|Native American use of fire}}
[[File:Burning mountains Thailand.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Aerial view of deliberate wildfires on the [[Khun Tan Range]], [[Thailand]]. These fires are lit by local farmers every year to promote the growth of a certain mushroom]]
The human use of fire for agricultural and hunting purposes during the [[Paleolithic]] and [[Mesolithic]] ages altered the preexisting landscapes and fire regimes. Woodlands were gradually replaced by smaller vegetation that facilitated travel, hunting, seed-gathering and planting.<ref>Pausas and Keeley, 597</ref> In recorded human history, minor allusions to wildfires were mentioned in the [[Bible]] and by classical writers such as [[Homer]]. However, while ancient Hebrew, Greek, and Roman writers were aware of fires, they were not very interested in the uncultivated lands where wildfires occurred.<ref name="RackhamFire">{{cite journal|last=Rackham|first=Oliver|author-link=Oliver Rackham|date=November–December 2003|title=Fire in the European Mediterranean: History|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/OALS/ALN/aln54/rackham.html#hist|url-status=live|journal=AridLands Newsletter|volume=54|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011110940/http://ag.arizona.edu/OALS/ALN/aln54/rackham.html#hist|archive-date=11 October 2008|access-date=17 July 2009}}</ref><ref name="RackhamHist">Rackham, 229–230</ref> Wildfires were used in battles throughout human history as [[early thermal weapons]]. From the [[Middle ages]], accounts were written of [[occupational burning]] as well as customs and laws that governed the use of fire. In Germany, regular burning was documented in 1290 in the [[Odenwald]] and in 1344 in the [[Black Forest]].<ref name="Goldammer">{{cite conference|last=Goldammer|first=Johann G.|date=5–9 May 1998|title=History of Fire in Land-Use Systems of the Baltic Region: Implications on the Use of Prescribed Fire in Forestry, Nature Conservation and Landscape Management|url=http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/programmes/natcon/natcon_1.htm|publisher=Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816155656/http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/programmes/natcon/natcon_1.htm|archive-date=16 August 2009|access-date=9 December 2018|book-title=First Baltic Conference on Forest Fires|place=Radom-Katowice, Poland|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the 14th century [[Sardinia]], firebreaks were used for wildfire protection. In Spain during the 1550s, [[sheep husbandry]] was discouraged in certain provinces by [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] due to the harmful effects of fires used in [[transhumance]].<ref name="RackhamFire" /><ref name="RackhamHist" /> As early as the 17th century, Native Americans were observed [[Native American use of fire|using fire]] for many purposes including cultivation, [[Smoke signal|signaling]], and warfare. Scottish botanist [[David Douglas (botanist)|David Douglas]] noted the native use of fire for tobacco cultivation, to encourage deer into smaller areas for hunting purposes, and to improve foraging for honey and grasshoppers. Charcoal found in sedimentary deposits off the Pacific coast of Central America suggests that more burning occurred in the 50 years before the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]] than after the colonization.<ref>* {{cite journal|date=Summer 2000|title=Wildland fire – An American legacy||url=http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/fmt/fmt_pdfs/fmn60-3.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Fire Management Today|volume=60|issue=3|pages=4, 5, 9, 11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401085836/http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/fmt/fmt_pdfs/fmn60-3.pdf|archive-date=1 April 2010|access-date=31 July 2009}}</ref> In the post-World War II [[Baltic region]], socio-economic changes led more stringent air quality standards and bans on fires that eliminated traditional burning practices.<ref name="Goldammer" /> In the mid-19th century, explorers from {{HMS|Beagle}} observed [[Australian Aborigines]] using fire for ground clearing, hunting, and regeneration of plant food in a method later named [[fire-stick farming]].<ref>''Fire. The Australian Experience'', 7.</ref> Such careful use of fire has been employed for centuries in the lands protected by [[Kakadu National Park]] to encourage biodiversity.<ref>Karki, 27.</ref>

Wildfires typically occurred during periods of increased temperature and drought. An increase in fire-related [[debris flow]] in [[alluvial fan]]s of northeastern [[Yellowstone National Park]] was linked to the period between AD 1050 and 1200, coinciding with the [[Medieval Warm Period]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Meyer|first1=G.A.|last2=Wells|first2=S.G.|last3=Jull|first3=A.J.T.|date=1995|title=Fire and alluvial chronology in Yellowstone National Park: Climatic and intrinsic controls on Holocene geomorphic processes|journal=GSA Bulletin|volume=107|issue=10|pages=1211–1230|bibcode=1995GSAB..107.1211M|doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1995)107<1211:FAACIY>2.3.CO;2}}</ref> However, human influence caused an increase in fire frequency. [[Dendrochronological]] fire scar data and charcoal layer data in [[Finland]] suggests that, while many fires occurred during severe drought conditions, an increase in the number of fires during 850 BC and 1660 AD can be attributed to human influence.<ref>Pitkänen, ''et al.'', 15–16 and 27–30</ref> Charcoal evidence from the Americas suggested a general decrease in wildfires between 1 AD and 1750 compared to previous years. However, a period of increased fire frequency between 1750 and 1870 was suggested by charcoal data from North America and Asia, attributed to human population growth and influences such as land clearing practices. This period was followed by an overall decrease in burning in the 20th century, linked to the expansion of agriculture, increased livestock grazing, and fire prevention efforts.<ref>{{cite journal|author=J. R. Marlon|author2=P. J. Bartlein|author3=C. Carcaillet|author4=D. G. Gavin|author5=S. P. Harrison|author6=P. E. Higuera|author7=F. Joos|author8=M. J. Power|author9=I. C. Prentice|date=2008|title=Climate and human influences on global biomass burning over the past two millennia|journal=Nature Geoscience|volume=1|issue=10|pages=697–702|bibcode=2008NatGe...1..697M|doi=10.1038/ngeo313}} [http://pmr.uoregon.edu/science-and-innovation/uo-research-news/research-news-2008/september-2008/climate-change-human-activity-and-wildfires-1/ University of Oregon Summary, accessed 2 February 2010] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927051047/http://pmr.uoregon.edu/science-and-innovation/uo-research-news/research-news-2008/september-2008/climate-change-human-activity-and-wildfires-1/|date=27 September 2008}}</ref> A meta-analysis found that 17 times more land burned annually in California before 1800 compared to recent decades (1,800,000 hectares/year compared to 102,000 hectares/year).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stephens|first1=Scott L.|last2=Martin|first2=Robert E.|last3=Clinton|first3=Nicholas E.|date=2007|title=Prehistoric fire area and emissions from California's forests, woodlands, shrublands, and grasslands|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=251|issue=3|pages=205–216|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2007.06.005}}</ref>

According to a paper published in the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', the number of natural and human-caused fires decreased by 24.3% between 1998 and 2015. Researchers explain this a transition from [[nomadism]] to settled lifestyle and intensification of [[agriculture]] that lead to a drop in the use of fire for land clearing.<ref>{{cite web|author=|date=30 June 2017|title=Researchers Detect a Global Drop in Fires|url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90493|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208175626/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90493|archive-date=8 December 2017|access-date=4 July 2017|website=[[NASA Earth Observatory]]|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Andela|first1=N.|last2=Morton|first2=D.C.|display-authors=etal|date=30 June 2017|title=A human-driven decline in global burned area|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=356|issue=6345|pages=1356–1362|bibcode=2017Sci...356.1356A|doi=10.1126/science.aal4108|pmc=6047075|pmid=28663495}}</ref>

Increases of certain tree species (i.e. [[conifers]]) over others (i.e. [[deciduous tree]]s) can increase wildfire risk, especially if these trees are also planted in [[monoculture]]s<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fires spark biodiversity criticism of Sweden's forest industry|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-07-biodiversity-criticism-sweden-forest-industry.html|website=phys.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Great Lie: Monoculture Trees as Forests | News & Views | UNRISD|url=https://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BE6B5/(httpNews)/531DAFFB8B319F69C125792E00499ED1|website=www.unrisd.org}}</ref>
Some [[invasive species]], moved in by humans (i.e., for the [[pulp and paper industry]]) have in some cases also increased the intensity of wildfires. Examples include species such as [[Eucalyptus]] in California<ref>{{Cite web|title=Plant flammability list|url=https://www.state.sc.us/forest/scplants.pdf|access-date=10 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Fire-prone plant list|url=https://www.firesafemarin.org/plants/fire-prone|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809183717/https://www.firesafemarin.org/plants/fire-prone|archive-date=9 August 2018|access-date=9 August 2018}}</ref> and [[gamba grass]] in Australia.

== Cultural aspects ==
Wildfires have a place in many cultures. "To spread like wildfire" is a common idiom in English, meaning something that "quickly affects or becomes known by more and more people".<ref name="spread like wildfire definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary">{{cite web | title=SPREAD LIKE WILDFIRE | website=definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary | url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/spread-like-wildfire | access-date=2020-09-21}}</ref> The [[Smokey Bear]] fire prevention campaign has yielded one of the most popular characters in the United States; for many years there was a living Smokey Bear mascot, and it has been commemorated on postage stamps.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Kathryn Sosbe |date=7 August 2014 |url=https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2014/08/7/smokey-bear-iconic-symbol-wildfire-prevention-still-going-strong-70 |title=Smokey Bear, Iconic Symbol of Wildfire Prevention, Still Going Strong at 70 |website=USDA |language=en|access-date=2018-07-06}}</ref>

Wildfire activity has been attributed as a major factor in the development of [[Ancient Greece]]. In modern Greece, as in many other regions, it is the most common natural disaster and figures prominently in the social and economic lives of its people.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=24707531|title=Fire and Society: A Comparative Analysis of Wildfire in Greece and the United States.|last1=Henderson|first1=Martha|last2=Kalabokidis|first2=Kostas|last3=Marmaras|first3=Emmanuel|last4=Konstantinidis|first4=Pavlos|last5=Marangudakis|first5=Manussos|journal=Human Ecology Review|year=2005|volume=12|issue=2|pages=169–182}}</ref>

In regards to communicating information to the public regarding wildfire safety, some of the most effective ways to communicate with others about wildfires are community outreach conducted through presentations to homeowners and neighborhood associations, community events such as festivals and county fairs, and youth programs.<ref name="auto">{{cite web| url = https://www.nifc.gov/PUBLICATIONS/communicators_guide/4%20Communication.PDF | title = National Wildfire Coordinating Group Communicator's Guide for Wildland Fire Management: Fire Education, Prevention, and Mitigation Practices | date = 26 June 2019 | place = District of Columbia | publisher = National Wildfire Coordinating Group | access-date = 15 November 2020 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Dry thunderstorm]]
* [[Fire-adapted communities]]
* [[Fire ecology]]
** [[Fire adaptations]]
* {{slink|HYSPLIT|Wildland fire smoke forecasting}}
* [[List of wildfires]]
** [[Bushfires in Australia]]
** [[Wildfires in the United States]]
* [[Pyrogeography]]
* [[Remote Automated Weather Station]]
* [[Wildland–urban interface]]
* Wildfire risk indexes:
** [[Forest fire weather index]] (Canada, France)
** [[Haines Index]]
** [[Keetch-Byram Drought Index]]
** [[McArthur Forest Fire Danger Index]]
** [[National Fire Danger Rating System]] (US)
* [[Women in firefighting]]}}
{{Clear}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{Columns-list|colwidth=45em|
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* {{cite journal |last1=Pausas |first1=Juli G |first2=Jon E |last2=Keeley |title=A Burning Story: The Role of Fire in the History of Life |journal=BioScience |volume=59 |pages=593–601 |issn=0006-3568 |doi=10.1525/bio.2009.59.7.10 |url=http://www.werc.usgs.gov/seki/pdfs/K2009_Pausas_Burning%20Story.pdf |date=July–August 2009 |issue=7
|hdl=10261/57324 |s2cid=43217453 }}
* {{cite conference | first = Eric | last = Peuch | editor = Butler, B W | editor2 = Alexander, M E | contribution = Firefighting Safety in France | contribution-url = http://www.iawfonline.org/summit/2005%20Presentations/2005_pdf/Peuch.pdf | title = Eighth International Wildland Firefighter Safety Summit – Human Factors – 10 Years Later | date = 26–28 April 2005 | place = Missoula, Montana | publisher = The International Association of Wildland Fire, Hot Springs, South Dakota | url = http://www.iawfonline.org/summit/2005%20Presentations/2005_pdf/Peuch.pdf | access-date = 27 September 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070928172017/http://www.iawfonline.org/summit/2005%20Presentations/2005_pdf/Peuch.pdf | archive-date = 28 September 2007 | url-status = dead | df = dmy-all }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pitkänen |first1=Aki |last2=Huttunen |first2=Pertti |last3=Jungner |first3=Högne |last4=Meriläinen |first4=Jouko |last5=Tolonen |first5=Kimmo |title=Holocene fire history of middle boreal pine forest sites in eastern Finland|url=http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anbf40/anbf40-015.pdf|journal=Annales Botanici Fennici| pages=15–33|volume=40|issn=0003-3847|date=28 February 2003
}}
* {{cite report |first1= M |last1= Plucinski |first2= J |last2= Gould |first3= G |last3= McCarthy |first4= J |last4= Hollis |date = June 2007|title = The Effectiveness and Efficiency of Aerial Firefighting in Australia: Part 1 |url = http://www.bushfirecrc.com/research/downloads/Aerial-Suppression-Report-Final-web.pdf | publisher = Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre |isbn= 978-0-643-06534-5 |access-date= 4 March 2009
}}
* {{cite journal |first1= Jesus |last1= San-Miguel-Ayanz |first2= Nicolas |last2= Ravail |first3= Vaino |last3= Kelha |first4= Anibal |last4= Ollero |title= Active Fire Detection for Fire Emergency Management: Potential and Limitations for the Operational Use of Remote Sensing |url= http://grvc.us.es/publica/revistas/documentos/R-050.05ActiveFire.pdf |archive-url= https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090320072940/http://grvc.us.es/publica/revistas/documentos/R-050.05ActiveFire.pdf |url-status= dead |archive-date= 20 March 2009 |journal= Natural Hazards |year= 2005 |volume= 35 |pages= 361–376 |doi= 10.1007/s11069-004-1797-2 |access-date= 5 March 2009 |issue= 3 |df= dmy-all |citeseerx= 10.1.1.475.880 |s2cid= 89606739 }}
* {{cite journal | last=van Wagtendonk | first = Jan W | year = 1996 | title = Use of a Deterministic Fire Growth Model to Test Fuel Treatments | url = http://www.werc.usgs.gov/yosemite/vii_c43.pdf | journal = Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project: Final Report to Congress, Vol. II, Assessments and Scientific Basis for Management Options | pages = 1155–1166 | access-date = 5 February 2009
}}
* {{cite journal | last=van Wagtendonk | first=Jan W | year=2007 | title=The History and Evolution of Wildland Fire Use | journal=Fire Ecology | volume=3 | issue=2 | pages=3–17 | url=http://www.fireecology.net/Journal/pdf/Volume03/Issue02/003.pdf | access-date=24 August 2008 | doi=10.4996/fireecology.0302003 | s2cid=85841606 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160902091930/http://www.fireecology.net/Journal/pdf/Volume03/Issue02/003.pdf | archive-date=2 September 2016 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }} (U.S. Government public domain material published in Association journal. See [http://www.werc.usgs.gov/news/apr2008.html ''WERC Highlights – April 2008''])
}}

; Attribution
* {{NPS}}
* {{NIOSH}}

== External links ==
{{Scholia|topic}}
{{Sister project links |wikt=no|commons=Wildfire |b=Applied Ecology/Case Studies/Asian Rainforest Politics |n=no |q=no |s=The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Forest Fires |v=no |voy=Wildfires |species=no |d=no |display=Wildfires}}
* [https://earth.nullschool.net/#current/bio/surface/level/annot=fires/overlay=cosc/winkel3 Current global map of hotspots (fires, volcanos, flare stacks), and carbon monoxide. Note that hotspot pixels do not indicate size.]

{{Firefighting}}
{{Forestry}}
{{Fire}}
{{Nature}}
{{Pollution}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Wildfires| ]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Emergency management]]
[[Category:Fire prevention]]
[[Category:Types of fire]]
[[Category:Natural disasters]]
[[Category:Pollution]]
[[Category:Wildfire ecology]]

Ron Cahute

2022-05-09T14:45:44Z

72.142.115.198: /* Children educational albums */“Poutine, Fries with an Attitude” is less widely known than “Barabolya”

{{multiple issues|
{{more footnotes|date=July 2017}}
{{Prose|date=October 2013}}
{{BLP primary sources|date=November 2009}}
}}

{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Ron Cahute
| image =
| image_size =
| landscape = 
| alt =
| caption =
| background = solo_singer
| birth_name =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = uk
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1955}}
| birth_place = [[Toronto]], [[Canada]]
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| genre = [[Folk music|Folk]]
| occupation = Singer, musician, songwriter
| instrument = [[Accordion]]
| years_active = 
| label =
| associated_acts = Burya
| website = 
}}
'''Ron Cahute''' ({{lang-uk|Рoман Кoгут}}) (born March 26, 1955 in [[Toronto]], [[Canada]]) is a Ukrainian-Canadian recording artist and songwriter. He is an [[accordion]] player and founding member of the [[Ukrainian-Canadian]] music band Burya ({{lang-uk|Буря}}) (English translation: Storm). He is an arranger, sound engineer, music producer, and musical director for Ukrainian dance ensembles in Toronto.

Cahute began his music career in 1962 as a drummer in the band of his late father Maurice Cahute. In 1969, he founded a [[Ukrainian-Canadian]] music band, which was later called Burya.

He released over 30 albums either with Burya or as a solo artist.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} As a guest performer with other music artists he has performed on 178 albums{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} Cahute has performed with [[Nana Mouskouri]], [[Sofia Rotaru]], [[Lisa Dalbello]], [[Melissa Manchester]], and [[Catherine McKinnon]].{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}

==Burya musicians==
In its 30+ year history the line-up of Burya musicians has included:

* Ron Cahute: Accordion, Lead Vocals
* Jaroslaw Hryhorsky: Violin, Viola, Trombone, Vocals, Percussion
* Len Steciuk: Guitar, Fiddle, Vocals
* Steve Krachko: Drums
* Bill Hawryschuk: Drums
* David Monis: Drums
* [[Mark Zubek]]: Drums
* Michael Monis: Guitar
* Michael Romanick: Tenor Saxophone, Clarinet, Percussion
* Tom Romanick: Saxophone
* Ron Lutz: Alto & Tenor Saxophone, Percussion
* Frank Uhran: Tenor Saxophone, Clarinet, Percussion
* John Lockwood: Flute

==Albums==
===Ron Cahute albums===
* Хpиcтoc Paждaєтьcя (1988)
* Ultimate Polka (1989)
* Accordion Music - The Ron Cahute Collection
* Українські Народні Танці (Traditional Ukrainian Folk Dance) (1993)
* Canada's Ukrainian Festival (1997)
* Ron Cahute Generic Volume 1 (1987)
* Ron Cahute Generic Volume 2 (1989)

===BURYA albums===
* Burya I (1979)
* Burya II (1982)
* Burya IIi (1984)
* Burya Live in Toronto (1985)
* Burya V
* Burya Non-Stop Dancing
* Burya Set in Stone
* Burya Live in Edmonton
* Burya Australia Tour (2004)
* Best of Burya
* Burya Now and Then (Double Album)

===Recording guest appearances===
* Played accordion on "Tango", [[Lisa Dalbello]]'s "[[She (Dalbello album)|She]]" album
* Arranged, played keyboards, and co-produced "Paзoм - Visions" (1988)
* Played accordion on "Sailor Song" by Sarah Lentz
* Played accordion on "Heartbroken" by Keisha Prince
* Played accordion on "Amsterdam" by Steve Wildesmith
* Arranged, played all instruments, and co-produced "Bread for my brother" by Oksana
* Arranged, played all instruments, and produced "Nostalgie Di Tutti I Tempi" by Vince Paparo
* Arranged, played accordion, percussion, recorded and co-produced "Blossoming" by Voloshky (1996)
* Arranged, played accordion, recorded and co-produced "Fantazia" by Voloshky (1999)

===Ukrainian comedy albums===
Ron Cahute has recorded Ukrainian comedy albums with Ihor Baczynskyj including:

* ...And the Garden Goes Here! (1997)

===Children educational albums===
Ron Cahute has recorded a series of children's educational albums with Ihor Baczynskyj including:

* Barabolya (1997)
* Tsyboolya (1998)
* Booryak and Carrots Too (1999)
* Borscht (1999)
* Barabolya High (2000)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IFoFr39_b2U 2009 Ron Cahute (Рoман Кoгут) Interview (Part 1)]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rN2NFhWVUkg 2009 Ron Cahute (Рoман Кoгут) Interview (Part 2)]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hOAAj188MrY 2009 Рoман Кoгут i Буря: Українська Забава]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mjs5tTgUOmw 1993 Ron Cahute and BURYA in Edmonton]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6_AqmIo5QI 1984 Ron Cahute and BURYA in New York]
* [https://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/07/arts/dance-review-ukrainian-folk-movements-inspire-canadian-troupe.html New York Times, DANCE REVIEW; Ukrainian Folk Movements Inspire Canadian Troupe By JACK ANDERSON, Published: Friday, July 7, 1995]
* {{cite web
|url=http://pi.library.yorku.ca/ojs/index.php/topia/article/viewFile/114/106
|title=Identity Politics and Western Canadian Ukrainian Musics: Globalizing the Local or Localizing the Global?
|first=Marcia
|last=Ostashewski
|publisher=Topia, 6 (Fall 2001), p. 63-82.
|accessdate=March 5, 2010
}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cahute, Ron}}
[[Category:Canadian composers]]
[[Category:Canadian male composers]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Ukrainian descent]]
[[Category:Canadian accordionists]]
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Canadian folk musicians]]
[[Category:Musicians from Toronto]]
[[Category:21st-century accordionists]]
[[Category:21st-century Canadian male musicians]]
[[Category:Ukrainian-language singers]]

Guillaume Sayer

2022-05-02T15:53:22Z

72.142.115.198: /* Trial */

'''Pierre Guillaume Sayer''' (October 18, 1799 – August 7, 1868) was a [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] fur trader whose trial was a turning point in the ending of the monopoly of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] (HBC) of the fur trade in [[North America]].

==Life==
Sayer was born October 18, 1799, "[t]he natural son of John Sayer of the parish of Sainte Anne," and an [[Ojibway]] woman, Marguerite. Records from [[Pointe-Claire, Quebec]] indicate that he was baptized on July 21, 1815.

Sayer enlisted as a [[coureur des bois]] with the McTavish, McGillivray & Company on April 7, 1818, as was registered by the notary J.-G. Beek at [[Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec|Ste Anne, Bout de l'Isle]], in the west of the [[Island of Montreal]]. He was hired to work in the areas controlled by the [[North West Company]]. The contract is preserved in the Archives Nationales du Quebec.

According to the Hudson Bay Archives, Pierre Guillaume worked for the North West Company at [[Cumberland House]] from 1818 to 1821, the year of the union of the North West and Hudson Bay Companies. From 1828 to 1829, he worked for the Hudson Bay Company as a Bowsman at [[Fort Pelly]] in the Swan River District and then stayed on as a Steersman from 1829 to 1832. In 1832, he was freed from his service in the Hudson Bay Company and moved to Grantown, near the [[Red River Colony|Red River Settlement]].

On March 2, 1835, according to the St. Francois Xavier Catholic Church marriage records,<ref>Public Archives of Manitoba St. François Xavier Catholic Church marriage record, M 15 page 21</ref> Sayer married Josephte Frobisher, the elder daughter of fur trader Alexander Frobisher and his Cree wife, on March 2, 1835 at St. Francois Xavier. Josephte, who was born around 1795 to 1807, was baptized the same day as the wedding. She and Sayer had eight sons and four daughters.<ref>Barkwell, Lawrence. http://www.metismuseum.ca/media/document.php/14587.Sayer,%20Pierre%20Guillaume%20(b.%201803).pdf</ref>

==Trial==
Sayer had been trading to [[Norman Kittson]], now in [[Pembina, North Dakota]], which was in direct violation of the company's monopoly. In 1849, Chief Factor John Ballenden arrested Sayer, André Goulet, Hector McGinnis, and Norbert Larond of Grantown as they were about to leave on a trading trip to Lake Manitoba. They were brought to trial before the General Quarterly Court of Assiniboia on May 17, 1849.
<ref>Regehr, Ted D., [http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.law.041 "Pierre-Guillaume Sayer Trial"], ''Encyclopedia of the Great Plains'', [[David J. Wishart]], ed.</ref>

Sayer was backed by Métis leader [[Louis Riel Sr.]] On the day of the trial, a crowd of armed Métis men gathered outside the courtroom, ready to support their Métis brother. They demanded for Sayer to be tried by a jury of his own choosing and to be allowed to take fellow Métis into the court with him. Although he was allowed to select a jury of his own, he was still found guilty. Judge [[Adam Thom]], under immense pressure from the overwhelming number of armed Métis, levied no fine or punishment. With the cry, "Le commerce est libre! Le commerce est libre!" ("Free Trade! Free Trade!"), the HBC could no longer use the courts to enforce their monopoly on the settlers of Red River. In 1870 the trade monopoly was abolished, and trade in the region was opened to any entrepreneur. The company relinquished its ownership of [[Rupert's Land]] under the [[Rupert's Land Act 1868]] enacted by the [[Canadian Parliament]].

==Later life==
According to the church records at [[St. Laurent, Manitoba]], Pierre Guillaume died on August 7, 1868 and was buried at St. Laurent the next day, August 8, 1868, at the age of 75. Father Laurent Simonet [[Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate|OMI]], who started the mission and became its first parish priest in 1864, officiated. The witnesses were Baptiste Lavallée and Pierre Chartrand.

==Birth dates==
Sayer's birth year varies between 1779 and 1807 in other original sources.
*1779 appears in the Manitoba census of 1834 and in the update of 1835. However, it seems to be a copyist error as the name above lacks its date, which is given to Pierre instead. The error is corrected in the formal census of 1835.
*1793 is the date given in the registry of his death and burial at St. Laurent, Manitoba.
*1796 is given on the census of 1849, the year in which he was tried in court.
*1801 is from the fact that when he enlisted with the Hudson Bay Company in 1828, he stated that he was 27 years old. That is shown on the Servants List of 1828 and gives him 1801 as the year of his birth.
*1803 is found on the censuses of 1833 and 1838. Pierre’s grandson, Alexander Henry Sayer, also stated that his grandfather was about 14 years old when he enlisted as a voyager in 1818.
*1807 is from the censuses in 1835 and 1843.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
*Goulet, George R.D. and Terry Goulet. “Free Trade and the Sayer Trial” in The Métis: Memorable Events and Memorable Personalities. Calgary: FabJob Inc., 2006: 101-108.
* {{cite DCB |title=Sayer, Pierre Guillaume |first=W.L. |last=Morton |volume=7|url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/sayer_pierre_guillaume_7E.html}}
*Stanley, Della M. M. “Pierre-Guillaume Sayer.” Dictionary of Canadian Biography, Vol. VII (1836-1850). Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988: 776-777.
*Stubbs, Roy St. George. “Adam Thom” in Four Recorders of Rupert’s Land. Winnipeg: Peguis Publishers, 1967: 1-47.
*Western Law Times, Vol. 2, 1891: 12-15.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sayer, Guillaume}}
[[Category:Canadian fur traders]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:1868 deaths]]
[[Category:Canadian Métis people]]
[[Category:Métis fur traders]]
[[Category:1799 births]]