Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Talk:New Right (Denmark)

2023-09-27T07:21:29Z

78.157.120.208: /* Founding and outside the Folketing */

{{WikiProjectBannerShell|1=
{{WikiProject Conservatism|class=start|importance=low}}
{{WikiProject Denmark|class=start|importance=mid}}
{{WikiProject Politics|political-parties=yes|importance=low|class=start}}
}}
{{Connected contributor|Marginataen|declared=yes|banned=yes}}
{{Annual readership|expanded=yes}}

==Name==
How should ''Nye Borgerlige'' be translated to English? I translated it to ''New Civic'', but I am sure there is a better English name for it. [[User:Kaffe42|Kaffe42]] ([[User talk:Kaffe42|talk]]) 14:59, 23 September 2016 (UTC)
:This online newspaper says "Nye Borgerlige, which roughly translates to ‘The New Right’ (a spokesperson told The Local that it did not have an official English name)": https://www.thelocal.dk/20161004/meet-denmarks-new-anti-immigration-party — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/130.225.0.251|130.225.0.251]] ([[User talk:130.225.0.251#top|talk]]) 14:57, 5 October 2016 (UTC) 
::Yeah, The New Right could also work. There isn't really an English word for the political term 'borgerlig', so until the party come up with an official English name, I think we'll stick with New Civic Party as the name. Thanks though! [[User:Kaffe42|Kaffe42]] ([[User talk:Kaffe42|talk]]) 20:08, 5 October 2016 (UTC)
:::Foreign mainstream media have started to report on the party recently, and they also use "The New Right", so I think it would be better if this was also used here. http://www.politico.eu/article/meet-denmarks-new-anti-islam-anti-immigration-anti-tax-party-nye-borgerlige-new-right-pernille-vermund/ — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/188.181.248.18|188.181.248.18]] ([[User talk:188.181.248.18#top|talk]]) 11:50, 10 February 2017 (UTC) 
::::@[[User:Kaffe42|Kaffe42]] English doesn't have ''Borgerlig'' or ''Bürgerlich'' (germ.) over Article have the same problem
bourgeoise=bürgertümlich?
*[[Fatherland League (Norway)]]: The Fatherland League's goal was a national coalition of all centre-to-right "bourgeoise" (borgerlige) and nationally minded forces [...]
*[[Free Democratic Party (Germany)]]: [...] citizens in Hamburg established the Party of Free Democrats (PFD) as a bourgeois Left Party and the first Liberal Party in the Western zones.
*[[Bourgeois Alternative]]
*[[National Democratic Party of Germany (East Germany)]]: The SED Board [...] stated that "these politically unclear people" should not vote "cadets" for the bourgeois parties [...] at the next election.
*[[Deutscher Verband]]: The Deutscher Verband was a coalition of bourgeois German speaking political parties [...]
*[[1927 Free City of Danzig parliamentary election]]: Bürgerliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft/Bourgeois Working Alliance
*[[First Marx cabinet]]: The focus was thus on a new "bourgeois" cabinet based on Zentrum, DVP, DDP and possibly DNVP.
conservative=konservativ
*[[Conservative Democratic Party of Switzerland]] (germ.: Bürgerlich..., fr.: bourgeois, it.: Borghese)
civic=staatsbürgerlich, städtisch
*[[Conservatism in Germany]]: [...] frequently referred to as belonging to a larger centre-right (bürgerlich, "civic") faction within the German party system
*Civic Alternative (see Bourgeois Alternative)
centrist=zentristisch, Mitte
*[[Centrist Democrats]] (Bürgerliche Demokraten)
or even Right=Rechte (rechts) [[User:Braganza|Braganza]] ([[User talk:Braganza|talk]]) 16:31, 18 August 2018 (UTC)

"Borgerlig" is very hard to translate into English, I'd say "Right" is probably the closest. One thing that should be noted, it's not "Det Nye Borgerlige" but just "Nye Borgerlige" which is "New Right" not "The New Right".
(Det Konservative Folkeparti on the other hand is "The Conservative People's Party") [[User:Jw2036|Jw2036]] ([[User talk:Jw2036|talk]]) 13:34, 30 December 2020 (UTC)

== Political position ==
After [[User:Vif12vf]] has removed my edit twice, I would like to avoid an edit war and seek consensus about removing "far-right" as a political position of the party. ''[[Den Store Danske Encyklopædi|Den Store Danske]]'', the most comprehensive contemporary Danish language encyclopaedia writes "The party belongs to the right side of the political spectrum" and under the Purpose and Ideology heading as having a "restrictive immigration policy".
https://denstoredanske.lex.dk/Nye_Borgerlige

The ''[[Great Norwegian Encyclopedia]]'', one of the most influential Norwegian language encyclopaedias defines it as similariry as such: "Nye Borgerlige is national-conservative and belongs to the right side of the political spectrum".
https://snl.no/Nye_Borgerlige

In his book titled ''Temaer til samfundsfag'' (Themes for Social Studies) used in Danish [[Gymnasium (Denmark)|gymnatiums]], author Kaj Pinholt Jespersen doesn’t come close to describing the party as far-right and mentions that Nye Borgerlige "in particular highlight its strict immigration policy". (page 92). isbn=978-87-7970-505-0

[[DR (broadcaster)|DR]], the largest broadcasting cooperation in Denmark does not in any way describe the party as such.
https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/webfeature/nyeborgerlige

Nationwide newspaper [[Kristeligt Dagblad]] says that the party is critical about immigration and islam.
https://www.kristeligt-dagblad.dk/politik-begyndere/overblik-partierne-i-danmark

I think it should be obvious why these are more im line with [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources]] than three foreign media news articles, two of which not having NB as its main theme and one being a breaking breaking news article from 2017. [[WP:RSBREAKING]] [[WP:CONTEXTMATTERS]]--[[User:Marginataen|Marginataen]] ([[User talk:Marginataen|talk]]) 08:13, 4 January 2023 (UTC)

More than 48 hours have now passed since my initial post without a response. If a further 48 hours pass without a response as well, I’ll consider that consent to remove the wording.--[[User:Marginataen|Marginataen]] ([[User talk:Marginataen|talk]]) 08:11, 6 January 2023 (UTC)

A further 48 hours have now passed, and the wording is removed.--[[User:Marginataen|Marginataen]] ([[User talk:Marginataen|talk]]) 11:39, 8 January 2023 (UTC)

:Hi :) I think there is something wrong about how we classify Denark Democrats as right to far-right and this as just "right-wing". If it was up to me, we'd therefore remove far-right from Denmark Democrats, and add far-right her. [https://www.kristeligt-dagblad.dk/politik-begyndere/overblik-partierne-i-danmark Kristeligt Dagblad] explains them as very critical of immigration, and they have in the past [https://nyeborgerlige.dk/nye-borgerliges-tre-ufravigelige-krav-kan-sagtens-gennemfoeres/ had 3 un-negotiable demands], which for me connects the party to the further out on a political spectrum.
:[https://www.altinget.dk/artikel/nye-borgerlige-er-blevet-kedelige-men-der-ligger-en-kaempe-mulighed-for-foedderne-af-dem Altinget] also compares them to Front National in France and Brothers of Italy, who are both far-right on wikipedia.
:I wanted to hear you thoughts about making this chance, so that we won't have edit wars.
:Hav en god dag :), [[User:Thomediter|Thomediter]] ([[User talk:Thomediter|talk]]) 11:40, 20 June 2023 (UTC)
::Several reliable Danish sources label New Right the "most right-wing party in Parliament", e.g. [[DR (broadcaster)|DR]] [https://www.dr.dk/drtv/program/vermund-og-kampen-om-hoejrefloejen_148912 here] and [[Dagbladet Information]] [https://www.information.dk/indland/2022/11/nye-borgerlige-lever-vaerste-bange-anelser here]. Information on the Denmark Democrats, which is a younger party, is more scarce, but e.g. the Danish Professor of politology Jørgen Goul Andersen places them closer to the political centre than New Right in [https://systime.dk/systimenyt/post/politiske-skillelinjer-ft-valg-2022 this article], which also depicts New Right as the right-most party in Parliament, so I agree that it seems more correct to reverse the labels of the two parties in question. --[[User:Økonom|Økonom]] ([[User talk:Økonom|talk]]) 13:07, 20 June 2023 (UTC)
:::I'm gonna take a decision already, as I don't really think there is much to debate. From my point of view it seems clear that there is a wide support for referencing the party as right-wing to far-right. This is visible due to at least [[User:Vif12vf|Vif12vf]], [[User:Økonom|Økonom]] and myself - all believing that it is the party's position.
:::In terms of sources, there is a point from [[User:Marginataen|Marginataen]] that several sources describe the party as right-wing instead of far-right. However there are also various sources, as [[User:Økonom|Økonom]] provided, which described the party as far-right. Therefore instead of classifying the party as just right-wing or just far-right, we classify it as right to far-right.
:::This supports the sources that have been provided, both the ones describing it as right and also those who does it as far-right.
:::Obviously, if this edit sparks disagreement, we can take a look at it, and start and RfC as last resort, but as it is right now, it really looks like there is support for right to far-right, and that removing far-right is mostly coming from a single editor, so I'm going with that. [[User:Thomediter|Thomediter]] ([[User talk:Thomediter|talk]]) 20:09, 21 June 2023 (UTC)

== A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion ==
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion:
* [[commons:File:Nye Borgerlige, FT-gruppe 2022.jpg|Nye Borgerlige, FT-gruppe 2022.jpg]]
Participate in the deletion discussion at the [[commons:Commons:Deletion requests/File:Nye Borgerlige, FT-gruppe 2022.jpg|nomination page]]. —[[User:Community Tech bot|Community Tech bot]] ([[User talk:Community Tech bot|talk]]) 04:08, 14 March 2023 (UTC)

==Name==
I would like to suggest the articel's name changed into "Nye Borgerlige". Several political parties do not have their names translated. For instance [[Komeito]] in Japan or [[La République En Marche !]] in France.--[[User:Marginataen|Marginataen]] ([[User talk:Marginataen|talk]]) 19:25, 17 March 2023 (UTC) I have tried to change the name but for some reason I couldn't do it without a ---[[User:Marginataen|Marginataen]] ([[User talk:Marginataen|talk]]) 19:22, 30 March 2023 (UTC)

:@[[User:Marginataen|Marginataen]] Because you didn't have administrator privileges to delete the existing page at [[Nye Borgerlige]], you couldn't complete the move. I do, and I have completed the move. —'''[[User:C.Fred|C.Fred]]''' ([[User_talk:C.Fred|talk]]) 02:16, 31 March 2023 (UTC)

== Conflict of interest ==

Almost the whole current text has been written by @[[User:Marginataen|Marginataen]], who has a conflict of interest regarding the party, cf. [[Wikipedia:Conflict_of_interest/Noticeboard#User:Marginataen]]. The COI seems mirrored in the text in various passages, e.g. in the coverage of the events during the first months of 2023 concerning the election of a new leadership and the role of Mikkel Bjørn. I suggest that the text be revised to reflect a more neutral description of the party's development and to remove the present tendency to [[WP:Recentism|recentism]], describing some events in exceeding detail. [[User:Økonom|Økonom]] ([[User talk:Økonom|talk]]) 18:28, 21 June 2023 (UTC)

:In the noticeboard Økonon references, it is quite frankly not accurate that I was ruled to have a COI. Rather, I received a six-month edit block from Mikkel Bjørn's page due to promotional editing. This, I pointed out to Økonon in the last comment on the noticeboard, whereafter administrator Bishonen archived it.
:I would very much like to discuss the content of the article, but if we cannot be equals in a civilised discussion, I don't think this can be very fruitful. I am not into speculation about his motives but must say that I do not consider Økonom a neutral part in anything that has to do with right-wing politics and wants, if I know him right, to revise," AKA delete half the article. Therefore, I would greatly appreciate it if major revisions were executed by other Wikipedians. These can, of course, be per Økonom’s suggestions :)
:On the contentual points: When writing the history heading, the entire lifespan of the party must be taken into account. In this case, we are dealing with a party that is less than eight years old. As the party did not enter Parliament before 2019, it received very limited coverage from 2015 until 2019. Therefore, the period we are working with is very much just four years. The history section should be written with that in mind. Right now, there is i.e., legitimate doubt of weather the NB will even be elected to the Folketing in the up-coming election. If it dies, a thorough deception of the events leading up to it is crucial. Likewise, if it continues for the next 100 years, much of the current article would just be reduced to a few sentences. Time will tell.
:Recognising that I was edit blocked from Mikkel Bjørn's page, everything mentioning him should be read critically and revised accordingly. This is especially true of the last two paragraphs under "2022 election and Vermund resignation". [[User:Marginataen|Marginataen]] ([[User talk:Marginataen|talk]]) 21:33, 21 June 2023 (UTC)
::Marginataen, your account of the end of the COI discussion is incorrect. You ignore the [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Conflict_of_interest/Noticeboard&diff=prev&oldid=1161137432 concluding comment] by [[User:Drmies|Drmies]], including "''Promotional editing and COI go hand in hand ...what other conclusion can we draw but that there is indeed a conflict of interest? ...if COI editing seems to happen in related articles, that block can be expanded to cover those articles as well.''"
::The problem in the present article apart from the unencyclopedic recentism is the undue weight attached to some of the information. There has been a lot of newspaper coverage of various incidents and pieces of criticism connected with the party during its whole life-time. The present text ignores most of these, but seems to expatiate on negative events following Mikkel Bjørn's leaving the party, framing the description to fit with Bjørn's point of view. The selection of news to include or exclude from the article should not be made by a close connection to one of the protagonists, so a rewrite is advised to create a more neutral article. [[User:Økonom|Økonom]] ([[User talk:Økonom|talk]]) 06:32, 23 June 2023 (UTC)

[[User:Økonom|Økonom]], as an outsider I can't really see what you're seeing; I think you need to point at some specific things. Ha, maybe {{U|Favonian}} can be of help here. I did see that you trimmed 12% fat off the article with those redundant citations: I think you can cut more--is that [[User:Marginataen|Marginataen]] who adds those? Marginataen, why? And while I have you, your attempts to avoid answering whether you have a COI or not are becoming humorous, and if specific evidence of POV editing or disruption is presented for this or other articles, you can be sure that your partial block might be extended. [[User:Drmies|Drmies]] ([[User talk:Drmies|talk]]) 14:15, 23 June 2023 (UTC)

:I have now done some revisions based on Økonom's revision of [[Mikkel Bjørn]]'s page. What do you think about the mention of Bjørn now, @[[User:Økonom|Økonom]]? I only read the bottom of the noticeboard from 13 June and didn't realise that you, [[User:Drmies|Drmies]], had added a comment on 20 June. My bad. If PE goes hand in hand with COI, I have definitely had a COI with regard to Mikkel Bjørn. I don't think anyone would say that I have done PE on this article. It was, i.e., me who added the mention of Vermund's Paki controversy as well as Lars Boje Mathiesen's leadership.
:The first four years of the party's existence were basically just a waiting game until the 2019 election happened. Apart from the 2017 local elections, really nothing happened during that period. On the contrary, during 2023, the party went through its first ever change of leadership, with the new leader being expelled just a month later. Now, Vermund is expected to once again become leader in 2023. The point is that sometimes significant events happen quite quickly, which is not simply recentism. To Økonom: Would you please give sources to thoese various incidents and pieces of criticism in order to discuss their notability? [[User:Marginataen|Marginataen]] ([[User talk:Marginataen|talk]]) 08:56, 24 June 2023 (UTC)
::{{U|Marginataen}}, first things first. "I have definitely had a COI with regard to Mikkel Bjørn", you said, and yet you have avoided that question for months: you were asked in May 2023 already, on your talk page, and only now, after being asked, after being partially blocked by {{U|Bishonen}}, after an ANI thread, you answer the question, though without disclosing it properly according to the guidelines that [[User:Økonom|Økonom]] already pointed you to in May. Honestly, I have totally run out of believe in your good faith, and if we can't trust you on a matter for which you have already been partially blocked, why should we trust you anywhere else in article space? You can answer on your user talk page. [[User:Drmies|Drmies]] ([[User talk:Drmies|talk]]) 17:02, 24 June 2023 (UTC)
:::{{U|Drmies}}, some elaboration as an answer to your request from 23 June about exemplifying my reservations to the text: The present version seems to concentrate all negative developments for the party to the section called "2023 leadership crisis", which by construction starts right after Bjørn left the party. Though the party has undoubtedly been weakened by the events of 2023, several of the mentioned problems do not specifically pertain to that period. The headline itself seems somewhat OR, I cannot find any mention of "lederskabskrise" (Danish for "leadership crisis") in Danish media in this connection, and in any event it seems wrong to include the unanimous election of Boje Mathiesen as chairman in February as part of a leadership crisis. The media started using the word crisis for the party in earnest when Boje was subsequently suddenly expelled because of financial disputes. During the headline "Later developments (March 2023–present)" the readers get the impression that a lot of members and local councillors have left the party after these events, but in fact the numbers pertain to a considerably longer time span, and media stories of laocal councillors or other active members leaving the party as well as unreliable membership countings have been available long before March, or even January ([https://ekstrabladet.dk/nyheder/politik/danskpolitik/synkende-skude-forlader-nye-borgerlige-paa-stribe/9584520 e.g. here (in Danish)]. Likewise, the expulsion of Svend Pedersen in March for derogatory remarks is correct, but it seems like undue weight to single him out, as similar expulsions have been executed by the party many times before without being mentioned specificially in the text. Pedersen, though formally an original party co-founder, is completely unknown to the general public and is not seen to have played any significant role in the party history before his expulsion. It would be more appropriate to make a general remark about membership ebbs and flows, councillor defections and the occasional expulsion of radical members somewhere else in the text, though it is natural to mention that the events of 2023 caused a renewed exit. Some of the other wordings in the text seem also dubious. "''a larger discussion about Boje moving the party line away from conservatism''" seems OR, though the line fits well with the narrative of Bjørn and his followers, and their views are reported by some media. Former leader Vermund "retracting her former pledge" seems a rather negative way of describing her change of decision regarding leaving politics in light of the changed situation. Finally, some of the sources earlier inserted do not seem to live up to RS standards, though I think this problem has been eliminated by removing an excessive number of references. --[[User:Økonom|Økonom]] ([[User talk:Økonom|talk]]) 08:29, 29 June 2023 (UTC)
::::[[User:Økonom|Økonom]], I'm really being more of an administrator than an editor here, and so I'm sort of staying away from content. I think my edits have consisted of cleaning up excessive citations but without really looking much at what the text was--I am going to leave that to the experts. Maybe you should look around for some more editors with Danish backgrounds. Also, please divide such big chunks of texts into paragraphs (you can use <nowiki>{{pb}}</nowiki> for a paragraph break)--it's hard to read. Good luck, [[User:Drmies|Drmies]] ([[User talk:Drmies|talk]]) 14:44, 29 June 2023 (UTC)

== Founding and outside the Folketing ==
{{Edit COI}}
Hello. First of all, I want to declare a personal or professional connection with this article's subject. I have on my sandbox written a revised version of the heading "Founding and outside the Folketing" that I suggest to be looked at and considered implemented into the text. Thank you. [[User:Marginataen/sandbox/NB]]
--[[User:Marginataen|Marginataen]] ([[User talk:Marginataen|talk]]) 16:05, 22 September 2023 (UTC)

:{{yo|Marginataen}} You created that page twice in ''article'' space, not in your own userspace; I have moved them to [[User:Marginataen/sandbox/NB]] and [[User:Marginataen/sandbox/NB II]]. – [[User:Dudhhr|dudhhr]] [[User talk:Dudhhr|talk]][[Special:Contribs/Dudhhr|contribs]]sheher 16:12, 22 September 2023 (UTC)
::Fixed, thanks. You may just delete II as they are identical [[User:Marginataen|Marginataen]] ([[User talk:Marginataen|talk]]) 16:21, 22 September 2023 (UTC)
:::{{ping|Marginataen}} I took a look at the requested text and compared it to the old text. I noticed a sentence was removed.
The party was founded as a reaction to the [[2015 European migrant crisis]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Winther |first=Tine Maria |date=16 July 2021 |title=Pernille Vermund om sit yngre jeg: Jeg var lidt naiv |language=Danish |work=[[Kristeligt Dagblad]] |url=https://www.kristeligt-dagblad.dk/pernille-vermund-om-sit-yngre-jeg-jeg-var-lidt-naiv |access-date=13 April 2023 |archive-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413143601/https://www.kristeligt-dagblad.dk/pernille-vermund-om-sit-yngre-jeg-jeg-var-lidt-naiv |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sindberg |first=Mathias |last2=Kristiansen |first2=Otto Lerche |date=14 March 2022 |title=Her er seks bud på, hvad vi har lært, siden flygtningene gik på motorvejen i 2015 |language=Danish |work=[[Dagbladet Information]] |url=https://www.information.dk/moti/2020/03/seks-bud-paa-laert-siden-flygtningene-gik-paa-motorvejen-2015 |access-date=13 April 2023 |archive-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413145103/https://www.information.dk/moti/2020/03/seks-bud-paa-laert-siden-flygtningene-gik-paa-motorvejen-2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
:::I translated and read the articles, and they both confirm that sentence. Is there any reason why you'd want to remove the reason for the party being founded? [[User:STEMinfo|STEMinfo]] ([[User talk:STEMinfo|talk]]) 21:06, 26 September 2023 (UTC)

Talk:New Right (Denmark)

2023-09-27T07:20:05Z

78.157.120.208: /* Founding and outside the Folketing */ Reply

Shroud of Turin

2023-09-13T17:43:14Z

78.157.120.208: British English

{{Short description|Cloth bearing the alleged image of Jesus}}
{{pp-pc1}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}{{Use British English|date=September 2023}}

{{Infobox artifact
|name = Shroud of Turin
|image = Turin shroud positive and negative displaying original color information 708 x 465 pixels 94 KB.jpg
|image_size = 230px
|image2 =
|image_caption = The Shroud of Turin: modern photo of the face, positive (left), and digitally processed image (right)
|material = Linen
|size = {{convert|4.4|x|1.1|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
|writing =
|period1 = 13th to 14th century<ref name="Radiocarbon Dating, Second Edition" />
|discovered_place =
|discovered_coords =
|discovered_date =
|discovered_by =
|location = [[Chapel of the Holy Shroud]], [[Turin]], Italy
|id =
}}
[[File:Shroudofturin.jpg|thumb |upright |Full-length image of the Turin Shroud before the [[Conservation-restoration of the Shroud of Turin#Restorations|2002 restoration]]]]


The '''Shroud of Turin''' ({{lang-it|Sindone di Torino}}), also known as the '''Holy Shroud''' (''Sacra Sindone''), is a length of [[linen]] cloth that bears a faint image of the front and back of a man. It has been venerated for centuries, especially by members of the [[Catholic Church]], as the actual [[Shroud|burial shroud]] used to wrap the body of [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]] after [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his crucifixion]], and upon which Jesus's bodily image is [[Miracle|miraculously]] imprinted. The human image on the shroud can be discerned more clearly in a black and white [[Negative (photography)|photographic negative]] than in its natural [[Sepia (color)|sepia color]], an effect discovered in 1898 by [[Secondo Pia]], who produced the first photographs of the shroud. This negative image is associated with a popular Catholic devotion to the [[Holy Face of Jesus]]. The shroud's authenticity as a [[Relic|holy relic]] has been disputed even within the Catholic Church (see below), and [[Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin|radiocarbon dating]] has shown it to be a [[Middle Ages|medieval]] artifact.

The documented history of the shroud dates back to 1354, when it was exhibited in the new [[collegiate church]] of [[Lirey]], a village in north-central France.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|80–81}} The shroud was denounced as a forgery by the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Troyes|bishop of Troyes]] in 1389.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|90–96}} It was acquired by the [[House of Savoy]] in 1453 and later deposited in a chapel in [[Chambéry]],<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|141–142, 153–154}} where it was damaged by fire in 1532.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|166}} In 1578, the Savoys moved the shroud to their new capital in [[Turin]], where it has remained ever since.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|191}} Since 1683, it has been kept in the [[Chapel of the Holy Shroud]], which was designed for that purpose by architect [[Guarino Guarini]] and which is connected to both the [[Royal Palace of Turin|royal palace]] and the [[Turin Cathedral]].<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|233}} Ownership of the shroud passed from the House of Savoy to the Catholic Church after the death of former king [[Umberto II of Italy|Umberto II]] in 1983.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|415}}

The microscopist [[Walter McCrone]] found, based on his examination of samples taken in 1978 from the surface of the shroud using [[adhesive tape]], that the image on the shroud had been painted with a dilute solution of [[ochre|red ochre]] pigment in a [[gelatin|gelatine]] medium. McCrone found that the apparent bloodstains were painted with [[vermilion]] pigment, also in a gelatine medium.<ref name="McCrone-90" /> McCrone's findings were disputed by other researchers and the nature of the image on the shroud continues to be debated.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|364–366}}

In 1988, radiocarbon dating by three different laboratories established that the shroud's linen material was produced between the years 1260 and 1390 (to a 95% [[Confidence interval|confidence level]]).<ref name="'Turin Nature" /><ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|71–72}} Defenders of the authenticity of the shroud have questioned those results, usually on the basis that the samples tested might have been contaminated or taken from a repair to the original fabric. Such fringe theories have been refuted by carbon-dating experts and others based on evidence from the shroud itself,<ref name="Radiocarbon Dating pg 167-168" /> including the medieval repair theory,<ref name="R.A. Freer-Waters, A.J.T. Jull 2010" /><ref name="freeinquiry1" /><ref name="jAsd9" /> the bio-contamination theories<ref name="Gove 1990" /> and the [[carbon monoxide]] theory.<ref name="c14.arch.ox.ac.uk"/><ref name="chemistryworld"/> Though accepted as valid by experts, the carbon-dating of the shroud continues to generate significant public debate.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-04-17 |title=Why Shroud of Turin's Secrets Continue to Elude Science |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/150417-shroud-turin-relics-jesus-catholic-church-religion-science |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=History |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Moorhead |first=Joanna |date=2022-04-17 |title=The $1m challenge: 'If the Turin Shroud is a forgery, show how it was done' |language=en-GB |work=The Observer |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/17/the-1m-challenge-if-the-turin-shroud-is-a-forgery-show-how-it-was-done |access-date=2023-08-06 |issn=0029-7712}}</ref><ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|424–445}} The nature and history of the shroud have been the subjects of extensive and long-lasting controversies in both the scholarly literature and the popular press.<ref name="kJeDs" /><ref name="Meacham 1983" /><ref name="GVf9K" /><ref name="oattp" /><ref name="kl2Oq" /> Currently, the Catholic Church neither endorses nor rejects the authenticity of the shroud as a relic of Jesus. In 2013 [[Pope Francis]] referred to it as an "[[icon]] of a man scourged and crucified".<ref name="Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin" />


{{TOC limit}}

==Description==

[[File:Secundo Pia Turinske platno 1898.jpg|thumb |180px |[[Secondo Pia]]'s 1898 negative of the image on the Shroud of Turin has an appearance suggesting a positive image. It is used as part of the devotion to the [[Holy Face of Jesus]]. Image from [[Musée de l'Élysée]], [[Lausanne]].]]

The shroud is rectangular, measuring approximately {{convert|4.4|x|1.1|m|ftin}}. The cloth is woven in a three-to-one [[herringbone (cloth)|herringbone]] [[twill]] composed of [[flax]] fibrils. Its most distinctive characteristic is the faint, brownish image of a front and back view of a naked man with his hands folded across his groin. The two views are aligned along the midplane of the body and point in opposite directions. The front and back views of the head nearly meet at the middle of the cloth.<ref name="RRd6y" />

The image in faint straw-yellow colour on the crown of the cloth fibres appears to be of a man with a beard, moustache, and shoulder-length hair parted in the middle. He is muscular and tall (various experts have measured him as from {{convert |1.70 |to |1.88 |m |ftin|disp=or |abbr=on}}).<ref name="hhsXR" /> Reddish-brown stains are found on the cloth, correlating with the wounds in the Biblical description of the crucifixion of [[Jesus]].<ref name="heller" />

The shroud was damaged in a fire in 1532 in the chapel in [[Chambéry]], France. There are some burn holes and scorched areas down both sides of the linen, caused by contact with molten silver during the fire that burned through it in places while it was folded.<ref name="F1kYz" /> Fourteen large triangular patches and eight smaller ones were sewn onto the cloth by [[Poor Clare]] nuns to repair the damage.

In May 1898, Italian photographer [[Secondo Pia]] was allowed to photograph the shroud. He took the first photograph of the shroud on 28 May 1898. In 1931, another photographer, Giuseppe Enrie, photographed the shroud and obtained results similar to Pia's.<ref name="tY4lH" /> In 1978, [[Ultraviolet photography|ultraviolet photograph]]s were taken of the shroud.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" /><ref name="opticsinfobase.org" />

==History==

{{Main |History of the Shroud of Turin}}

There are no definite historical records concerning the particular shroud currently at [[Turin Cathedral]] prior to the 14th century. A burial cloth, which some historians maintain was the Shroud, was owned by the [[Byzantine]] emperors but disappeared during the [[Sack of Constantinople]] in 1204.<ref>{{Cite book |last=de Clari |first=Robert |title=La Conquête de Constantinople |url=https://archive.org/details/laconquetedeconstantinoplelauer/page/n113/mode/2up |year=1956 |orig-date=Written 1216|editor-first=Philippe |editor-last=Lauer |publication-place=Paris |at=p. 90, lines 42–53 (section XCII) |author-link=Robert de Clari}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=de Clari |first=Robert |translator-last=Stone |translator-first=Edward N. |title=Three Old French Chronicles of the Crusades |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ngfG10ZVd44C&dq=University+of+Washington+Publications+in+the+Social+Sciences+volume+10&pg=RA1-PA232 |journal=University of Washington Publications in the Social Sciences |publisher=University of Washington |location=Seattle |chapter=The History of Them That Took Constantinople |date=27 August 2023 |publication-date=1939 |orig-date=Written 1216 |volume=10 |page=232}}</ref><ref name="Poulle 2009" /> Although there are numerous reports of Jesus's burial shroud, or an image of his head, of unknown origin, being venerated in various locations before the 14th century, there is no historical evidence that these refer to the shroud currently in Turin.<ref name="OhUvM" />
[[File:Shroud of Lirey Pilgrim Badge.jpg|thumb|upright |left |The pilgrim medallion of Lirey (before 1453)]]
Historical records seem to indicate that a shroud bearing the image of a crucified man appeared in the village of [[Lirey]], in north-central [[France]], around the years 1353 to 1357.<ref name="2vPzG" /> It was owned by a French knight, [[Geoffroi de Charny]], who died at the [[Battle of Poitiers (1356)|Battle of Poitiers]] in 1356.<ref name="Meacham 1983" /> In 1390, the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Troyes|Bishop of Troyes]], Pierre d'Arcis, who had jurisdiction over the church in Lirey, wrote a lengthy memorandum to [[Antipope Clement VII]] (recognised as Pope by the Church in France during the [[Western Schism]]), declaring that the shroud was a forgery and that a previous Bishop of Troyes, Henri de Poitiers, had identified the artist who had made it.<ref name="Poulle 2009" /><ref name="JNInquest" />

The history of the shroud from the 15th century is well recorded. In 1453, Margaret de Charny deeded the Shroud to the [[House of Savoy]]. In 1532, the shroud suffered damage from a fire in a chapel of [[Chambéry]], capital of [[Savoyard state|Savoy]], where it was stored. A drop of molten silver from the reliquary produced a symmetrically placed mark through the layers of the folded cloth. [[Poor Clare Nuns]] attempted to repair this damage with patches. In 1578, [[Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy]] ordered the cloth to be brought from Chambéry to Turin and it has remained at Turin ever since.<ref name="pUcND" />

Since the 17th century, the shroud has been displayed in the chapel built for that purpose by [[Guarino Guarini]].<ref name="wCdAY" /> Repairs were made to the shroud in 1694 by [[Sebastian Valfrè]] to improve the repairs of the Poor Clare nuns.<ref name="CVYhP" /> Further repairs were made in 1868 by [[Princess Maria Clotilde of Savoy]]. The shroud remained the property of the House of Savoy until 1983, when it was bequeathed to the [[Holy See]] according to the terms of the will of former king [[Umberto II of Italy]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Shroud of Turin Given to Vatican by Former King of Italy|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1983/04/02/shroud-of-turin-given-to-vatican-by-former-king-of-italy/b2e4a408-98d3-417b-9fcf-85ab3ea47cde|access-date=10 March 2022|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref>

The shroud was first photographed in 1898, during a public exhibition.

A fire, possibly caused by [[arson]], threatened the shroud on 11 April 1997.<ref name="bdQA8" /> In 2002, the Holy See had the shroud restored. The cloth backing and thirty patches were removed, making it possible to photograph and scan the reverse side of the cloth, which had been hidden from view. A faint part-image of the body was found on the back of the shroud in 2004.

The Shroud was placed back on public display (the 18th time in its history) in Turin from 10 April to 23 May 2010; and according to Church officials, more than 2 million visitors came to see it.<ref name="FUIsj" />

On Holy Saturday (30 March) 2013, images of the shroud were streamed on various websites as well as on television for the first time in 40 years.<ref name="Povoledo_New York Times" /><ref name="otLuf" /> Roberto Gottardo of the [[diocese of Turin]] stated that for the first time they had released high definition images of the shroud that can be used on [[tablet computer]]s and can be magnified to show details not visible to the naked eye.<ref name="Povoledo_New York Times" /> As this rare exposition took place, [[Pope Francis]] issued a carefully worded statement which urged the faithful to contemplate the shroud with awe but, like his predecessors, he "stopped firmly short of asserting its authenticity".<ref name="The Vatican Today" /><ref name="The Economist archive" />

The shroud was again placed on display in the cathedral in Turin from 19 April 2015 until 24 June 2015. There was no charge to view it, but an appointment was required.<ref name="YV7QB" />

==Conservation==
{{Main|Conservation-restoration of the Shroud of Turin}}

The shroud has undergone several [[Conservation-restoration of cultural heritage|restorations]] and several steps have been taken to preserve it to avoid further damage and contamination. It is kept under [[laminated glass|laminated]] [[bulletproof glass]] in an airtight case. The temperature- and humidity-controlled case is filled with [[argon]] (99.5%) and [[oxygen]] (0.5%) to prevent chemical changes. The shroud itself is kept on an [[aluminum]] support sliding on runners and stored flat within the case.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}}

==Religious views==

[[File:Shroud of Turin 1898 poster.jpg|thumb |A poster advertising the 1898 exhibition of the shroud in Turin. [[Secondo Pia]]'s photograph was taken a few weeks too late to be included in the poster. The image on the poster includes a painted face, not obtained from Pia's photograph.]]

The Gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]],<ref>{{Bibleref2 |Matthew |27:59–60 |NIV}}</ref> [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]],<ref>{{Bibleref2 |Mark |15:46 |NIV}}</ref> and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]<ref>{{Bibleref2 |Luke |23:53 |NIV}}</ref> state that [[Joseph of Arimathea]] wrapped the body of Jesus in a piece of linen cloth and placed it in a new tomb. The [[Gospel of John]] says he used strips of linen.<ref>{{Bibleref2 |John |19:38–40 |NIV}}</ref>

After the resurrection, the [[Gospel of John]]<ref>{{Bibleref2 |John |20:6–7 |NIV}}</ref> states: "Simon Peter came along behind him and went straight into the tomb. He saw the strips of linen lying there, as well as the cloth that had been wrapped around Jesus' head. The cloth was still lying in its place, separate from the linen." The [[Gospel of Luke]]<ref>{{Bibleref2 |Luke |24:12 |NIV}}</ref> states: "Peter, however, got up and ran to the tomb. Bending over, he saw the strips of linen lying by themselves."

In 1543, [[John Calvin]], in his book ''[[Treatise on Relics]]'', explained the reason why the Shroud cannot be genuine:<ref>[[s:An Admonition showing, the Advantages which Christendom might derive from an Inventory of Relics|An Admonition showing, the Advantages which Christendom might derive from an Inventory of Relics]]</ref>

{{blockquote|In all the places where they pretend to have the graveclothes, they show a large piece of linen by which the whole body, including the head, was covered, and, accordingly, the figure exhibited is that of an entire body. But the [[John the Evangelist|Evangelist John]] relates that Christ was buried, "as is the manner of the Jews to bury." What that manner was may be learned, not only from the Jews, by whom it is still observed, but also from their books, which explain what the ancient practice was. It was this: The body was wrapped up by itself as far as the shoulders, and then the head by itself was bound round with a napkin, tied by the four corners, into a knot. And this is expressed by the Evangelist, when he says that [[Saint Peter|Peter]] saw the linen clothes in which the body had been wrapped lying in one place, and the napkin which had been wrapped about the head lying in another. The term napkin may mean either a handkerchief employed to wipe the face, or it may mean a shawl, but never means a large piece of linen in which the whole body may be wrapped. I have, however, used the term in the sense which they improperly give to it. On the whole, either the Evangelist John must have given a false account, or every one of them must be convicted of falsehood, thus making it manifest that they have too impudently imposed on the unlearned.}}

Although pieces said to be of burial cloths of Jesus are held by at least four churches in France and three in Italy, none has gathered as much religious following as the Shroud of Turin.<ref name="L0Q74" /> The religious beliefs and practices associated with the shroud predate historical and scientific discussions and have continued in the 21st century, although the Catholic Church has never passed judgment on its authenticity.<ref name="Bkn2H" /> An example is the [[Holy Face Medal]] bearing the image from the shroud, worn by some Catholics.<ref name="h3pgG" /> Indeed, the Shroud of Turin is respected by Christians of several traditions, including Baptists, Catholics, Lutherans, Methodists, Orthodox, Pentecostals, and Presbyterians.<ref name="Dreisbach2001" /> Several Lutheran parishes have hosted replicas of the Shroud of Turin, for [[Didacticism|didactic]] and devotional purposes.<ref name="egvgm" /><ref name="YFlTO" />

===Devotions===
Although the shroud image is currently associated with Catholic devotions to the [[Holy Face of Jesus]], the devotions themselves predate [[Secondo Pia]]'s 1898 photograph. Such devotions had been established in 1844 by the Carmelite nun [[Marie of St Peter]] (based on "pre-crucifixion" images associated with the [[Veil of Veronica]]) and promoted by [[Leo Dupont]], also called the [[Apostle of the Holy Face]]. In 1851 Dupont formed the "Archconfraternity of the Holy Face" in [[Tours]], France, well before Secondo Pia took the photograph of the shroud.<ref name="2bgcC" />

===Miraculous image===
{{Further|Acheiropoieta|Veil of Veronica |Manoppello Image|Image of Edessa|Sudarium of Oviedo}}
[[File:Simon Ushakov. Spas. (Perm).jpg|thumb |200px|17th-century Russian icon of the [[Mandylion]] by [[Simon Ushakov]]]]

The religious concept of the miraculous ''[[acheiropoieta|acheiropoieton]]'' (Greek: made without hands) has a long history in Christianity, going back to at least the 6th century. Among the most prominent portable early ''acheiropoieta'' are the [[Image of Camuliana]] and the [[Mandylion]] or Image of [[Edessa]], both painted icons of Christ held in the [[Byzantine Empire]] and now generally regarded as lost or destroyed, as is the [[Hodegetria]] image of the Virgin Mary.<ref name="tgjGP" /> Other early images in Italy, all heavily and unfortunately restored, that have been revered as ''acheiropoieta'' now have relatively little following, as attention has focused on the Shroud.

===Vatican position===
In 1389, the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Troyes|bishop of Troyes]] sent a memorial to [[Antipope Clement VII]], declaring that the cloth had been "artificially painted in an ingenious way" and that "it was also proved by the artist who had painted it that it was made by human work, not miraculously produced". In 1390, Clement VII consequently issued four [[papal bulls]], with which he allowed the exposition, but ordered to "say aloud, to put an end to all fraud, that the aforementioned representation is not the true Shroud of Our Lord Jesus Christ, but a painting or panel made to represent or imitate the Shroud ".<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 April 2010|title=Gli scienziati credono nel dubbio- Torino LASTAMPA.it|url=http://www3.lastampa.it/torino/sezioni/ostensione/articolo/lstp/183962/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412234529/http://www3.lastampa.it/torino/sezioni/ostensione/articolo/lstp/183962/|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 April 2010|access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> However, in 1506, [[Pope Julius II]] reversed this position and declared the Shroud to be authentic and authorised the public veneration of it with its own mass and office.<ref name="xZDe5" />

The Vatican newspaper ''[[L'Osservatore Romano]]'' covered the story of [[Secondo Pia]]'s photograph of 28 May 1898 in its edition of 15 June 1898, but it did so with no comment and thereafter Church officials generally refrained from officially commenting on the photograph for almost half a century.

The first official modern association between the image on the Shroud and the Catholic Church was made in 1940 based on the formal request by Sister [[Maria Pierina]] De Micheli to the [[Curia (religion)|curia]] in [[Milan]] to obtain authorisation to produce a medal with the image. The authorisation was granted and the first medal with the image was offered to [[Pope Pius XII]] who approved the medal. The image was then used on what became known as the [[Holy Face Medal]] worn by many Catholics, initially as a means of protection during World War II. In 1958 Pope Pius XII approved of the image in association with the devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus, and declared its [[Feast of the Holy Winding Sheet of Christ|feast]] to be celebrated every year the day before [[Ash Wednesday]].<ref name="rWaGT" /><ref name="FSixb" /> Following the approval by Pope Pius XII, Catholic devotions to the Holy Face of Jesus have been almost exclusively associated with the image on the shroud.

In 1936, [[Pope Pius XII]] called the Shroud a "holy thing perhaps like nothing else",<ref name="Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin" /> and went on to approve of the [[Catholic devotions|devotion]] accorded to it as the [[Holy Face of Jesus]].<ref name="JNEk4" />

In 1998, [[Pope John Paul II]] called the Shroud a "distinguished [[relic]]" and "a mirror of the Gospel".<ref name="07edI" /><ref name="0JJMV" /> His successor, [[Pope Benedict XVI]], called it an "icon written with the blood of a whipped man, crowned with thorns, crucified and pierced on his right side".<ref name="Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin" /> In 2013, [[Pope Francis]] referred to it as an "icon of a man scourged and crucified".<ref name="Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin" />

Members of other [[Christian denomination]]s, such as Anglicans and Methodists, have also shown devotion to the Shroud of Turin.<ref name="Dreisbach2001" />

In 1983, the Shroud was given to the Holy See by the [[House of Savoy]].<ref name="Michael Freze 1993, p. 57" /> However, as with all relics of this kind, the [[Roman Catholic Church]] made no pronouncements on its authenticity. As with other approved [[Catholic devotions]], the matter has been left to the personal decision of the faithful, as long as the Church does not issue a future notification to the contrary. In the Church's view, whether the cloth is authentic or not has no bearing whatsoever on the validity of what Jesus taught or on the saving power of his death and resurrection.<ref name="Qhn2n" />

[[Pope John Paul II]] stated in 1998 that:<ref name="4HzMz" /> "Since it is not a matter of faith, the Church has no specific competence to pronounce on these questions. She entrusts to scientists the task of continuing to investigate, so that satisfactory answers may be found to the questions connected with this Sheet."<ref name="rCtW0" /> Pope John Paul II showed himself to be deeply moved by the image of the Shroud and arranged for public showings in 1998 and 2000. In his address at the Turin Cathedral on Sunday 24 May 1998 (the occasion of the 100th year of Secondo Pia's 28 May 1898 photograph), he said: "The Shroud is an image of God's love as well as of human sin... The imprint left by the tortured body of the Crucified One, which attests to the tremendous human capacity for causing pain and death to one's fellow man, stands as an icon of the suffering of the innocent in every age."<ref name="37HmX" />

On 30 March 2013, as part of the Easter celebrations, there was an exposition of the shroud in the Cathedral of Turin. [[Pope Francis]] recorded a video message for the occasion, in which he described the image on the shroud as "this [[Icon]] of a man", and stated that "the Man of the Shroud invites us to contemplate Jesus of Nazareth."<ref name="The Vatican Today" /><ref name="The Economist archive" /> In his carefully worded statement, Pope Francis urged the faithful to contemplate the shroud with awe, but "stopped firmly short of asserting its authenticity".<ref name="The Economist archive" />

Pope Francis went on a pilgrimage to Turin on 21 June 2015, to pray before and venerate the Holy Shroud and honuor [[John Bosco|St. John Bosco]] on the [[wikt:bicentenary|bicentenary]] of his birth.<ref name="Jy4GU" /><ref name="SeR8n" /><ref name="FUDUA" />

==Scientific analysis==

'''Sindonology''' (from the [[Greek (language)|Greek]] σινδών (''sindon''), the word used in the [[Gospel of Mark]]<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark |15:46 |NIV|15:46 }}</ref> to describe the type of the burial cloth of Jesus) is the formal study of the Shroud. The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' cites the first use of this word in 1964: "The investigation ... assumed the stature of a separate discipline and was given a name, sindonology," but also identifies the use of "sindonological" in 1950 and "sindonologist" in 1953.<ref name="oed" />

[[Secondo Pia]]'s 1898 photographs of the shroud allowed the scientific community to begin to study it. A variety of scientific theories regarding the shroud have since been proposed, based on disciplines ranging from chemistry to biology and medical forensics to optical image analysis. The scientific approaches to the study of the Shroud fall into three groups: ''material analysis'' (both chemical and historical), ''biology and medical forensics'' and ''image analysis''.

===Early studies===
The first direct examination of the shroud by a scientific team was undertaken in 1969–1973 in order to advise on preservation of the shroud and determine specific testing methods. This led to the appointment of an 11-member Turin Commission to advise on the preservation of the relic and on specific testing. Five of the commission members were scientists, and preliminary studies of samples of the fabric were conducted in 1973.<ref name="Meacham 1983" />

In 1976, physicist John P. Jackson, thermodynamicist Eric Jumper and photographer William Mottern used [[image analysis]] technologies developed in aerospace science for analysing the images of the Shroud. In 1977, these three scientists and over thirty other experts in various fields formed the [[Shroud of Turin Research Project]]. In 1978, this group, often called STURP, was given direct access to the Shroud.

Also in 1978, independently from the STURP research, Giovanni Tamburelli obtained at [[CSELT]] a 3D-elaboration from the Shroud with higher resolution than Jumper and Mottern. A second result of Tamburelli was the electronic removal from the image of the blood that apparently covers the face.<ref name="uFJFg" />

====Tests for pigments====
In October 1978, a team of scientists affiliated with STURP took 32 samples from the surface of the Shroud, using [[adhesive tape]]. Of those samples, 18 were taken from areas of the Shroud that showed a body or blood image, while 14 were taken from non-image areas. The chemical microscopist [[Walter McCrone]], a leading expert in the forensic authentication of historical documents and works of art, examined the tapes using [[polarized light microscopy|polarised light microscopy]] and other physical and chemical techniques. McCrone concluded that the Shroud's body image had been painted with a dilute pigment of red [[ochre]] (a form of [[iron oxide]]) in a [[collagen]] [[tempera]] (i.e., [[gelatin]]) medium, using a technique similar to the [[grisaille]] employed in the 14th century by [[Simone Martini]] and other European artists. McCrone also found that the "bloodstains" in the image had been highlighted with [[vermilion]] (a bright red pigment made from [[mercury sulfide]]), also in a collagen tempera medium. McCrone reported that no actual blood was present in the samples taken from the Shroud.<ref name="McCrone-90" />

Other members of STURP rejected McCrone's conclusions and concluded, based on their own examination of the Shroud and the tape samples, that the image on the Shroud could not be explained by the presence of pigments.<ref name="Meacham 1983" /> Mark Anderson, who was working for McCrone, analysed the Shroud samples.<ref name="59o0l" /> In his book Ray Rogers states that Anderson, who was McCrone's [[Raman microscope|Raman microscopy]] expert, concluded that the samples acted as organic material when he subjected them to the laser.<ref name="Rogers2008" />{{rp|61}} McCrone resigned from STURP in June 1980, after giving back all of the tape samples in his possession to Ray Rogers.<ref name="AhneJ" />{{rp|124}}

John Heller and Alan Adler examined the same samples and agreed with McCrone's result that the cloth contains iron oxide. However, they argued that the exceptional purity of the chemical and comparisons with other ancient textiles showed that, while [[Flax#Retting flax|retting flax]] absorbs iron selectively, the iron itself was not the source of the image on the shroud.<ref name="heller" />

After his analysis of the Shroud was first published in 1980, McCrone continued to argue in journal articles, public lectures, and in the book ''Judgment Day for the Shroud of Turin'' (which appeared in 1996), that the Shroud had been painted in the 14th century and that it showed no traces of actual blood.<ref name="AhneJ" /> He also argued that the members of STURP lacked relevant expertise in the chemical [[microanalysis]] of historical artworks and that their non-detection of pigment in the Shroud's image was "consistent with the sensitivity of the instruments and techniques they used."<ref name="McCrone-90" /> For his work on the Shroud, McCrone was awarded the [[American Chemical Society]]'s National Award in [[Analytical chemistry|Analytical Chemistry]] in 2000.<ref name="C&EN-2000" />

===Radiocarbon dating===
{{Main |Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin}}

After years of discussion, the [[Holy See]] permitted [[radiocarbon dating]] on portions of a swatch taken from a corner of the shroud. Independent tests in 1988 at the [[University of Oxford]], the [[University of Arizona]], and the [[ETH Zurich|Swiss Federal Institute of Technology]] concluded with 95% confidence that the shroud material dated to 1260–1390 AD.<ref name="'Turin Nature" /> This 13th- to 14th-century dating is much too recent for the shroud to have been associated with Jesus. The dating does on the other hand match the first appearance of the shroud in church history.<ref name="HST" /><ref name="XS4uZ" /> This dating is also slightly more recent than that estimated by art historian W. S. A. Dale, who postulated on artistic grounds that the shroud is an 11th-century icon made for use in worship services.<ref name="dale" />

Some proponents for the authenticity of the shroud have attempted to discount the radiocarbon dating result by claiming that the sample may represent a medieval "invisible" repair fragment rather than the image-bearing cloth.<ref name="Poulle 2009" /><ref name="Rogers 2005" /><ref name="Gove 1990" /><ref name="R.A. Freer-Waters, A.J.T. Jull 2010" /><ref name="Benford & Marino 2008" /><ref name="Riani et al. 2012" /><ref name="lwNFS" /><ref name="t7xEW" /> However, all of the hypotheses used to challenge the radiocarbon dating have been scientifically refuted,<ref name="c14.arch.ox.ac.uk" /><ref name="Radiocarbon Dating pg 167-168" /> including the medieval repair hypothesis,<ref name="R.A. Freer-Waters, A.J.T. Jull 2010" /><ref name="freeinquiry1" /> the bio-contamination hypothesis<ref name="Gove 1990" /> and the carbon monoxide hypothesis.<ref name="c14.arch.ox.ac.uk" />

In recent years, the radiocarbon dating data have been repeatedly statistically analysed, in attempts to draw some conclusions about the reliability of the C14 dating from studying the data rather than studying the shroud itself. The studies have all concluded that the data lack homogeneity, which might be due to unidentified abnormalities in the fabric tested, or to differences in the pre-testing cleaning processes used by the different laboratories. The most recent analysis (2020) concluded that the stated date range needs to be adjusted by up to 88 years in order to properly meet the requirement of "95% confidence".<ref name="Riani Atkinson Fanti Crosilla pp. 551–561" /><ref name="Casabianca Marinelli Pernagallo Torrisi pp. 1223–1231" /><ref name="Walsh Schwalbe 2020 p=102015" /><ref name="JMP Ball 2019">{{cite web | author=JMP | last2=Ball | first2=Philip | title=How old is the Turin Shroud? | website=Chemistry World | date=9 April 2019 | url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/opinion/how-old-is-the-turin-shroud/3010341.article | access-date=19 February 2020}}</ref>

===Material historical analysis===
====Historical fabrics====
[[File:Roman loom.jpg|thumb |right|A [[Roman empire|Roman]] [[loom]], c. 2nd century AD]]
In 1998, shroud researcher [[Joe Nickell]] wrote that no examples of [[Herringbone (cloth)|herringbone weave]] are known from the time of Jesus. The few samples of burial cloths that are known from the era are made using plain weave.<ref name=JNInquest/> In 2000, fragments of a burial shroud from the 1st century were discovered in a tomb near Jerusalem, believed to have belonged to a Jewish high priest or member of the aristocracy. Based on this discovery, the researchers concluded that the Turin Shroud did not originate from Jesus-era Jerusalem.<ref name=wj7l6/><ref name="9WPxH"/><ref name=hSlFY/>

===Biological and medical forensics===

====Blood stains====
There are several reddish stains on the shroud suggesting blood, but it is uncertain whether these stains were produced at the same time as the image, or afterwards.<ref name="yJKHY" /> McCrone (see [[#Painting|painting hypothesis]]) showed that these contain [[iron oxide]], and theorised that its presence was likely due to simple pigment materials used in medieval times.<ref name="0i7HH" />

Sceptics cite forensic blood tests whose results dispute the authenticity of the Shroud, and point to the possibility that the blood could belong to a person who handled the shroud, and that the apparent blood flows on the shroud are unrealistically neat.<ref name="skepdic" /><ref name="kGqWe" /><ref name="hrT78" />

====Flowers and pollen====

A study published in 2011 by [[Salvatore Lorusso]] of the [[University of Bologna]] and others subjected two photographs of the shroud to detailed modern digital image processing, one of them being a reproduction of the photographic negative taken by Giuseppe Enrie in 1931. They did not find any images of flowers or coins or anything else on either image.<ref name="academia.edu" />

In 2015, Italian researchers Barcaccia et al. published a new study in ''[[Scientific Reports]]''. They examined the human and non-human DNA found when the shroud and its backing cloth were vacuumed in 1977 and 1988. They found traces of 19 different plant [[Taxon|taxa]], including plants native to Mediterranean countries, Central Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Eastern Asia (China) and the Americas. Of the human [[mitochondrial DNA]], sequences were found belonging to [[haplogroup]]s that are typical of various ethnicities and geographic regions, including Europe, North and East Africa, the Middle East and India. A few non-plant and non-human sequences were also detected, including various birds and one ascribable to a marine worm common in the Northern Pacific Ocean, next to Canada.<ref name="Barcaccia 2015" /> After sequencing some DNA of pollen and dust found on the shroud, they confirmed that many people from many different places came in contact with the shroud. According to the scientists, "such diversity does not exclude a Medieval origin in Europe but it would be also compatible with the historic path followed by the Turin Shroud during its presumed journey from the Near East. Furthermore, the results raise the possibility of an Indian manufacture of the linen cloth."<ref name="Barcaccia 2015" />

====Anatomical forensics====
[[File:Full length negatives of the shroud of Turin.jpg|thumb|280px |Full length negatives of the shroud]]
A number of studies on the anatomical consistency of the image on the shroud and the nature of the wounds on it have been performed, following the initial study by [[Yves Delage]] in 1902.<ref name="Delage, Yves 1902" /> While Delage declared the image anatomically flawless, others have presented arguments to support both authenticity and forgery.

The analysis of a crucified Roman, discovered near Venice in 2007, shows heel wounds that are consistent with those found on [[Jehohanan]] but which are not consistent with wounds depicted on the shroud. Also, neither of the crucifixion victims known to archaeology shows evidence of wrist wounds.<ref name="a4noy" />

[[Joe Nickell]] in 1983, and [[Gregory S. Paul]] in 2010, separately state that the [[body proportions|proportions]] of the image are not realistic. Paul stated that the face and proportions of the shroud image are impossible, that the figure cannot represent that of an actual person and that the posture was inconsistent. They argued that the forehead on the shroud is too small; and that the arms are too long and of different lengths and that the distance from the eyebrows to the top of the head is non-representative. They concluded that the features can be explained if the shroud is a work of a [[Gothic art]]ist.<ref name="JNInquest" /><ref name="paul gothic fraud" /> As [[Raymond E. Brown]] noticed, a corpse in the relaxed position portrayed on the shroud could not be positioned such that its hand covers its genitals as portrayed.<ref name="Brown 2002 p. 151">{{cite book | last=Brown | first=Raymond E. | title=Biblical Exegesis and Church Doctrine | publisher=Wipf & Stock | year=2002 | isbn=978-1-59244-024-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdBKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA151 | access-date=11 September 2022 | pages=151–152 | quote=Another problem is the attention given to the covering of the genitals. In the Shroud, the man's hands are crossed on the genital area with the right hand completely covering any nudity. Wild notes that the body imaged in the Shroud is portrayed as relaxed in death, but in a relaxed position a man's joined hands will not cover his genitals if he lies on his back. Either the body has to be tilted forward and the arms stretched downward, or the elbows have to be propped up on the side and the wrists drawn together to hold the hands in place over the genital area. In the Shroud image also, the right arm is exceedingly long and the fingers of the right hand almost disproportionate, in order to allow the modest covering. Again, such a feature would be more understandable if the Shroud were an artistic production reflecting the interests of another era.}}</ref> The right arm and hand in the image appear to have been elongated to make this possible.

In 2018, an experimental Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (BPA) was performed to study the behaviour of blood flows from the wounds of a crucified person, and to compare this to the evidence on the Turin Shroud. The comparison between different tests demonstrated that the blood patterns on the forearms and on the back of the hand are not connected, and would have had to occur at different times, as a result of a very specific sequence of movements. In addition, the rivulets on the front of the image are not consistent with the lines on the lumbar area, even supposing there might have been different episodes of bleeding at different times. These inconsistencies suggest that the Turin linen was an artistic or "didactic" representation, rather than an authentic burial shroud.<ref name="7n0ha" />

===Image and text analysis===
====Image analysis====
Both art-historical [[digital image processing]] and analogue techniques have been applied to the shroud images.

In 1976, scientists used NASA imaging equipment to analyse a photograph of the shroud image and decoded the shroud image into a 3-dimensional image.<ref name="gwaF9" />
Optical physicist and former STURP member John Dee German has noted that it is not difficult to make a photograph which has 3D qualities. If the object being photographed is lit from the front, and a non-reflective "fog" of some sort exists between the camera and the object, then less light will reach and reflect back from the portions of the object that are farther from the lens, thus creating a contrast which is dependent on distance.<ref name="mJuNU" />

The front image on the shroud is {{convert|1.95|metres|ftin}} long, and is not exactly the same size as the rear image, which is {{convert|2.02|m|ftin}} long.<ref name="Fanti2010" /> Analysis of the images found them to be compatible with the shroud having been used to wrap a body {{convert|1.75|m|ftin}} long.<ref name="Fanti2010" />

The image could be compared to [[oshiguma]], the making of face-prints as an artform, in Japan. Furthermore, the subject's physical appearance corresponds to [[Icon#Byzantine Empire|Byzantine iconography]].<ref name="CYx05" /><ref name="Brown2002" />

The Shroud cloth is composed of threads of a nominal diameter of 0.15 mm, woven with fibres of linen with a diameter of about 10-20 µm.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/>

The Shroud image is a faint <ref name="Rogers" /> and superficial image caused by a translucent and discontinuous yellow discolouration of the fibres.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/> In the points where the image is present, the discolouration affects only 2 or 3 fibres on the topmost part of the threads of the cloth.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/> In each fiber, the yellow discolouration penetrates only for 200 nm in the external cell layer.<ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/>

A fiber is not necessarily coloured for all its length, but, in the parts where it is, it has the property of being coloured all around its cylindrical surface.<ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/>

Under the crossing threads of the weave, the image is not present.<ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/>

The discolouration seems caused by a kind of dehydrative oxidation process, which has discoloured and chemically altered the surfaces of certain surface fibrils.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Comprehensive examination"/>

The image of the Shroud is an areal density image, in the sense that the levels of darkness are not given by variations of the colour, which instead is approximately constant all over the image, but by a variation of the number of yellowed fibres per unit area.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/> Therefore, it can be considered a [[halftone]] image.<ref name="Rogers" /> Furthermore, there is no difference in terms of distribution of fibres colouration and maximum densities between the front and the rear of the image.<ref name="Rogers" />

While the blood images could have come from a contact mechanism, the body image could not. The mapping between body-only image densities and expected cloth–body distances is not consistent with the image having been formed by direct contact with a body, as it is present even when it does not seem possible for the cloth to be in contact with the body.<ref name="Comprehensive examination"/>

===Hypotheses on image origin===
==== Painting ====

According to [[Walter McCrone]], the technique used for producing the image on the shroud could well be the same as a medieval [[grisaille]] method described in Sir [[Charles Lock Eastlake]]'s ''Methods and Materials of Painting of the Great Schools and Masters'' (1847). Eastlake describes in the chapter "Practice of Painting Generally During the XIVth Century" a special technique of painting on linen using tempera paint, which produces images with unusual transparent features that McCrone compares to the image on the shroud.<ref name="McCrone-90" /> McCrone also argued that the current image on the shroud may be fainter than the original painting, due to the rubbing off of the ochre pigment from the tops of the exposed linen fibres over the course of several centuries of handling and exhibition of the fabric.<ref name="AhneJ" />{{rp|106}}

==== Acid pigmentation ====
In 2009, Luigi Garlaschelli, professor of [[organic chemistry]] at the [[University of Pavia]], stated that he had made a full size reproduction of the Shroud of Turin using only medieval technologies. Garlaschelli placed a linen sheet over a volunteer and then rubbed it with an acidic pigment. The shroud was then aged in an oven before being washed to remove the pigment. He then added blood stains, scorches and water stains to replicate the original.<ref name="2MV5E" /> Giulio Fanti, professor of mechanical and thermic measurements at the [[University of Padua]], commented that "the technique itself seems unable to produce an image having the most critical Turin Shroud image characteristics".<ref name="vmQhb" /><ref name="QoeJV" />

Garlaschelli's reproduction was shown in a 2010 National Geographic documentary. Garlaschelli's technique included the bas-relief approach (described below) but only for the image of the face. The resultant image was visibly similar to the Turin Shroud, though lacking the uniformity and detail of the original.<ref name="KFl7L" />

====Medieval photography====

The art historian Nicholas Allen has proposed that the image on the shroud could have been formed as early as the 13th century using techniques described in the 1011 ''[[Book of Optics]]''.<ref name="ysJIc" /><ref name="OeMaN" /><ref name="O8JRe" /><ref name="3s2vH" />
However, according to Mike Ware, a chemist and expert on the history of photography, Allen's proposal "encounters serious obstacles with regard to the technical history of the lens. Such claimants tend to draw upon the wisdom of hindsight to project a distorted historical perspective, wherein their cases rest upon a particular concatenation of procedures which is exceedingly improbable; and their 'proofs' amount only to demonstrating (none too faithfully) that it was not totally impossible." Among other difficulties, Allen's hypothesised process would have required that the subject (a corpse) be exposed in the sunlight for months.{{refn|{{cite journal|first=Mike|last= Ware|year=1997|title= On proto-photography and the Shroud of Turin |journal=History of Photography|volume=21|number=4|pages=261–269|doi= 10.1080/03087298.1997.10443848}} }}

====Dust-transfer technique====
Scientists Emily Craig and Randall Bresee have attempted to recreate the likenesses of the shroud through the dust-transfer technique, which could have been done by medieval arts. They first did a carbon-dust drawing of a Jesus-like face (using collagen dust) on a newsprint made from wood pulp (which is similar to 13th- and 14th-century paper). They next placed the drawing on a table and covered it with a piece of linen. They then pressed the linen against the newsprint by firmly rubbing with the flat side of a wooden spoon. By doing this they managed to create a reddish-brown image with a lifelike positive likeness of a person, a three-dimensional image and no sign of brush strokes.<ref name="OU1UD" />

====Bas-relief====
In 1978, Joe Nickell noted that the Shroud image had a three-dimensional quality and thought its creation may have involved a sculpture of some type. He advanced the hypothesis that a medieval rubbing technique was used to explain the image, and set out to demonstrate this. He noted that while wrapping a cloth around a sculpture with normal contours would result in a distorted image, Nickell believed that wrapping a cloth over a [[bas-relief]] might result in an image like the one seen on the shroud, as it would eliminate wraparound distortions. For his demonstration, Nickell wrapped a wet cloth around a bas-relief sculpture and allowed it to dry. He then applied powdered pigment rather than wet paint (to prevent it soaking into the threads). The pigment was applied with a dauber, similar to making a rubbing from a gravestone. The result was an image with dark regions and light regions convincingly arranged. In a photo essay in ''[[Popular Photography]]'' magazine, Nickell demonstrated this technique step-by-step.<ref name="JNInquest" /><ref name="PopPhoto" />{{NoteTag|For his pigment, Nickell first used the burial spices myrrh and aloes, but changed to red iron oxide (the pigment [[Ochre|red ocher]]) when microanalyst, [[Walter McCrone]] identified it as constituting the shroud's image; McCrone had identified the blood as red ochre and [[vermilion]] tempera paint.<ref name="JNInquest" />}} Other researchers later replicated this process.

In 2005, researcher Jacques di Costanzo constructed a bas-relief of a Jesus-like face and draped wet linen over it. After the linen dried, he dabbed it with a mixture of [[ferric oxide]] and [[gelatine]]. The result was an image similar to that of the face on the Shroud. The imprinted image turned out to be wash-resistant, impervious to temperatures of {{convert |250 |C |abbr=on}} and was undamaged by exposure to a range of harsh chemicals, including bisulphite which, without the gelatine, would normally have degraded ferric oxide to the compound ferrous oxide.<ref name="'Ingham" />

Instead of painting, it has been suggested that the bas-relief could also be heated and used to scorch an image onto the cloth. However researcher Thibault Heimburger performed some experiments with the scorching of linen, and found that a scorch mark is only produced by direct contact with the hot object—thus producing an all-or-nothing discoloration with no graduation of colour as is found in the shroud.<ref name="DCaPw" />

====Maillard reaction====
The [[Maillard reaction]] is a form of non-enzymatic browning involving an amino acid and a reducing sugar. The [[cellulose]] fibres of the shroud are coated with a thin [[carbohydrate]] layer of starch fractions, various sugars, and other impurities. The potential source for amines required for the reaction is a decomposing body,<ref name="Rogers2008" />{{rp|100}} and no signs of decomposition have been found on the Shroud. Rogers also notes that their tests revealed that there were no proteins or bodily fluids on the image areas.<ref name="Rogers2008" />{{rp|38}} Also, the image resolution and the uniform coloration of the linen resolution seem to be incompatible with a mechanism involving diffusion.<ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology" />

[[File:Replica Sábana Santa.jpg|700px |thumb |center |Replica of the Shroud of Turin, found in the [[Real Santuario del Cristo de La Laguna]] in [[Tenerife]] ([[Spain]])]]

==Fringe theories==
{{Main | Fringe theories about the Shroud of Turin}}

===Images of coins, flowers and writing===
Various people claim to have detected images of flowers on the shroud as well as coins over the eyes of the face in the image, writing and other objects.<ref name="5gKwV" /><ref name="iESyt" /><ref name="3VMNL" /><ref name="BdLho" /><ref name="CC5dG" /><ref name="nE3px" /><ref name="r6V1l" /><ref name="TimesFrale" /><ref name="FraleTeleg" /> However, a study published in 2011 by Lorusso and others subjected two photographs of the shroud to detailed modern digital image processing, one of them being a reproduction of the photographic negative taken by Giuseppe Enrie in 1931. They did not find any images of flowers or coins or writing or any other additional objects on the shroud in either photograph, they noted the faint images were "only visible by incrementing the photographic contrast" so they concluded that these signs might be linked to protuberances in the yarn and possibly also to the alteration and influence of the texture of the Enrie photographic negative during its development in 1931.<ref name="academia.edu" /> The use of coins to cover the eyes of the dead is not attested for 1st-century Palestine. The existence of the coin images is rejected by most scientists.<ref name="R2f4f" />

===Pray Codex===
An image in the medieval manuscript of the [[Pray Codex]] (c. 1192–1195) has generated a debate among some believers since 1978.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Casabianca |first=Tristan |date=September 2021 |title=The Ongoing Historical Debate About the Shroud of Turin: The Case of the Pray Codex |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/heyj.13929 |journal=The Heythrop Journal |language=en |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=789–802 |doi=10.1111/heyj.13929 |s2cid=233901673 |issn=0018-1196}}</ref> Although the Pray Codex predates the Shroud of Turin, some of the assumed features of the drawing, including the four L-shaped holes on the coffin lid, have pointed some people towards a possible attempted representation of the linen cloth. However, the image on the Pray Codex has crosses on what may be one side of the supposed shroud, an interlocking step pyramid pattern on the other, and no image of Jesus. Critics point out that it may not be a shroud at all, but rather a rectangular tombstone, as seen on other sacred images.<ref name="36naL" /> A crumpled cloth can be seen discarded on the coffin, and the text of the codex fails to mention any miraculous image on the codex shroud.<ref name=":0" />

===Radiation processes===
Some proponents for the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin have argued that the image on the shroud was created by some form of radiation emission at the "moment of resurrection".<ref name="Ruffin155" /><ref name="Jacksonet" /><ref name="EAnDx" /> However, [[STURP]] member Alan Adler has stated that this theory is not generally accepted as scientific, given that it runs counter to the laws of physics.<ref name="Ruffin155" /> Raymond Rogers also criticised the theory, saying: "It is clear that a corona discharge (plasma) in air will cause easily observable changes in a linen sample. No such effects can be observed in image fibres from the Shroud of Turin. Corona discharges and/or plasmas made no contribution to image formation."<ref name="Rogers2008" />{{rp|83}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Religion|Christianity|Catholicism|Italy}}
* [[Depiction of Jesus]]
* [[Relics associated with Jesus]]
** [[Seamless robe of Jesus|Seamless robe]]

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
{{Reflist
|refs =
<ref name="Nicolotti">{{Cite book |first=Andrea |last=Nicolotti |title=The Shroud of Turin: The History and Legends of the World's Most Famous Relic |publisher=Baylor University Press |date=2019 |isbn=978-1-4813-1147-2 |url=https://www.baylorpress.com/9781481311472/the-shroud-of-turin/ |translator=Jeffrey M. Hunt and R. A. Smith}}</ref>
<ref name="DCaPw">{{cite web |url = http://shroudofturin.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/scorch-paper-en.pdf |title=The Turin Shroud Body Image: The Scorch Hypothesis Revisited |author=Thibault Heimburger |access-date=6 June 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="OU1UD">Craig, Emily A, Bresee, Randal R, "Image Formation and the Shroud of Turin", ''Journal of Imaging Science and Technology'', Volume 34, Number 1, 1994</ref>
<ref name="O8JRe">Allen, Nicholas P. L. (1998)''The Turin Shroud and the Crystal Lens.'' Empowerment Technologies Pty. Ltd., Port Elizabeth, South Africa</ref>
<ref name="OeMaN">Allen, Nicholas P. L. (1994)''A reappraisal of late thirteenth-century responses to the Shroud of Lirey-Chambéry-Turin: encolpia of the Eucharist, vera eikon or supreme relic?'' The Southern African Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 4 (1), 62–94</ref>
<ref name="ysJIc">Allen, Nicholas P. L. (1993) "Is the Shroud of Turin the first recorded photograph?" ''The South African Journal of Art History'', 11 November, 23–32</ref>

<ref name="3s2vH">{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00043389.1995.11761214|title=Verification of the Nature and Causes of the Photo-negative Images on the Shroud of Lirey-Chambéry-Turin|first=Nicholas P. L.|last=Allen|date=1 April 1995|journal=De Arte|volume=30|issue=51|pages=21–35|via=Taylor and Francis+NEJM|doi=10.1080/00043389.1995.11761214}}</ref>
<ref name="KFl7L">{{cite web |url= http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/videos/remaking-the-shroud/ |title = Remaking the Shroud |date=22 January 2015 |website=Channel.nationalgeographic.com |access-date=6 June 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="QoeJV">{{cite journal |last1=Fanti |first1=G. |last2=Heimburger |first2=T. |year=2011 |title = Letter to the Editor Comments on 'Life-Size Reproduction of the Shroud of Turin and Its Image' by L. Garlaschelli |journal= Journal of Imaging Science and Technology|volume=55 |issue=2 |page=020102 |doi=10.2352/j.imagingsci.technol.2011.55.2.020102|hdl=11577/2485314 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name="vmQhb">Heimburger T., Fanti G., "[http://www.acheiropoietos.info/proceedings/HeimburgerWeb.pdf Scientific Comparison between the Turin Shroud and the First Handmade Whole Copy]", International Workshop on the Scientific Approach to the Acheiropoietos Images, 2010</ref>
<ref name="2MV5E">{{cite journal |last1=Garlaschelli |first1=L. |title=Life-size Reproduction of the Shroud of Turin and its Image |journal= Journal of Imaging Science and Technology|date=2010 |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=040301 |doi=10.2352/J.ImagingSci.Technol.2010.54.4.040301 }}</ref>
<ref name="AhneJ">Walter C. McCrone, ''Judgment day for the Shroud of Turin'', Amherst, NY. Prometheus Books, (1999) {{ISBN|1-57392-679-5}}</ref>
<ref name="CYx05">Raymond E. Brown. ''Biblical Exegesis and Church Doctrine'' (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1985), pp. 150–152</ref>
<ref name="mJuNU">{{cite web |url = http://www.ohioshroudconference.com/papers/p22.pdf |title = On the Visibility of the Shroud Image |author=J. Dee German |access-date=6 June 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="7n0ha">{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.13867|title=A BPA Approach to the Shroud of Turin|first1=Matteo|last1=Borrini|first2=Luigi|last2=Garlaschelli|date=10 July 2018|journal=Journal of Forensic Sciences|volume=64|issue=1|pages=137–143|doi=10.1111/1556-4029.13867|pmid=29989172|s2cid=51609986}}</ref>
<ref name="hrT78">McCrone in ''Wiener Berichte uber Naturwissenschaft in der Kunst'' 4/5, 50 1987/1988.</ref>
<ref name="kGqWe">Baden, Michael. 1980. Quoted in Reginald W. Rhein, Jr., "The Shroud of Turin: Medical examiners disagree". ''Medical World News'', 22 December, p. 50.</ref>
<ref name="0i7HH">McCrone Research, [http://mcri.org/home/section/63-64/the-shroud-of-turin Initial Examination – 1979], retrieved 16 June 2013.</ref>
<ref name="yJKHY">{{cite journal |last1=Heller |first1=John H. |last2=Adler |first2=Alan D. |title=Blood on the Shroud of Turin |journal=Applied Optics |date=15 August 1980 |volume=19 |issue=16 |pages=2742–2744 |doi=10.1364/AO.19.002742 |pmid=20234501 |bibcode=1980ApOpt..19.2742H }}</ref>
<ref name="hSlFY">{{cite journal |journal=National Geographic Daily News |title=Shroud of Turin Not Jesus', Tomb Discovery Suggests |url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/12/091216-shroud-of-turin-jesus-jerusalem-leprosy.html |access-date=22 March 2010 |date=19 December 2009}}</ref>
<ref name="9WPxH">{{cite news |title = 'Jesus-era' burial shroud found |work=BBC News |first=Bethany |last=Bell |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8415377.stm |date=16 December 2009 |access-date=16 December 2009 }}</ref>
<ref name="wj7l6">{{cite news |title=DNA of Jesus-era shrouded man in Jerusalem reveals earliest case of leprosy |work=Physorg.com |url = http://www.physorg.com/news180165623.html |date=16 December 2009 |access-date=16 December 2009 }}</ref>
<ref name="59o0l">''[[Materials Evaluation]]'', Volume 40, Issues 1–5, 1982, p.630</ref>
<ref name="McCrone-90">{{cite journal |last=McCrone |first=Walter C. |author-link=Walter McCrone |title=The Shroud of Turin: Blood or Artist's Pigment? |journal=[[Accounts of Chemical Research]] |date=1990 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=77–83 |doi=10.1021/ar00171a004 |url=http://www.mccroneinstitute.org/uploads/the_microscope__shroud_small-1422560933.pdf}}</ref>
<ref name="C&EN-2000">{{cite journal |last=McDermott |first=Kevin |title=ACS Award in Analytical Chemistry |journal=[[Chemical & Engineering News]] |date=2000-01-24 |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=60 |doi=10.1021/cen-v078n004.p055}}</ref>
<ref name="XS4uZ">"[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150417-shroud-turin-relics-jesus-catholic-church-religion-science news.nationalgeographic.com Why Shroud of Turin's Secrets Continue to Elude Science]". ''National Geographic'', 17 April 2015</ref>
<ref name="uFJFg">{{cite journal |last = Tamburelli |first=Giovanni |s2cid=17987034 |title=Some Results in the Processing of the Holy Shroud of Turin |journal=IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence |date=November 1981 |volume=PAMI-3 |issue=6 |pages=670–676 |doi=10.1109/TPAMI.1981.4767168 |pmid=21868987 }}</ref>
<ref name="FUDUA">{{cite web |url = http://ncronline.org/news/vatican/pope-will-visit-shroud-turin-commemorate-birth-st-john-bosco |title = Pope will visit Shroud of Turin, commemorate birth of St. John Bosco |website = Ncronlone.org – National Catholic Resporter |access-date=6 June 2016|date=5 November 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="SeR8n">{{cite web |url = http://www.cruxnow.com/church/2014/11/05/pope-francis-to-venerate-famed-shroud-of-turin-in-2015/ |title = Pope Francis to Venerate Famed Shroud of Turin in 2015 |access-date=6 June 2016|date=6 November 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="Jy4GU">{{cite web |url=http://www.romereports.com/2014/11/05/pope-francis-to-pray-before-the-holy-shroud-in-turin |title = Pope Francis to pray before the Holy Shroud in Turin |website=Romereports.com |access-date=6 June 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="37HmX">{{cite speech |author=Pope John Paul II |date=24 May 1998 |title=Address in Turin Cathedral |location=Turin, Italy |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/travels/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone_en.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000511022036/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/travels/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone_en.html |archive-date=11 May 2000}}</ref>
<ref name="rCtW0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/travels/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone_en.html|title=Address of John Paul II|date=24 May 1998|website=The Holy See – Vatican web site|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111021836/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/travels/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone_en.html|archive-date=11 January 2010|access-date=17 April 2020}}</ref>
<ref name="4HzMz">Francis D'Emilio article on Pope John Paul II's visit to the Shroud of Turin, ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'', 25 May 1998</ref>
<ref name="Qhn2n">Matthew Bunson, ''OSV's encyclopedia of Catholic history'', revised edition, Our Sunday Visitor, 2004, {{ISBN|1-59276-026-0}}, p. 912</ref>
<ref name="0JJMV">{{cite web|title=Pastoral Visit of His Holiness John Paul II to Vercelli and Turin, Italy, 23–24 May 1998|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/speeches/1998/may/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_19980524_sudario.html|date= 24 May 1998 |website=[[Holy See]]}}</ref>
<ref name="07edI">{{cite web |url=http://ncronline.org/blogs/ncr-today/pope-francis-and-shroud-turin |title=Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin – National Catholic Reporter |access-date=6 June 2016 |date=April 2013 }}</ref>
<ref name="JNEk4">Joan Carroll Cruz, ''Saintly Men of Modern Times'', Our Sunday Visitor, 2003, {{ISBN|1-931709-77-7}}, p. 200.</ref>
<ref name="FSixb">Joan Carroll Cruz, "Saintly Men of Modern Times", ''Our Sunday Visitor'', 2003, {{ISBN|1-931709-77-7}}</ref>
<ref name="rWaGT">Maria Rigamonti, ''Mother Maria Pierina'', Cenacle Publishing, 1999</ref>
<ref name="xZDe5">"Shroud of Turin (relic)". ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 28 December 2010</ref>
<ref name="tgjGP">{{cite journal |last1=Kitzinger |first1=Ernst |title=The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |date=1954 |volume=8 |pages=83–150 |doi=10.2307/1291064 |jstor=1291064}}</ref>
<ref name="2bgcC">Dorothy Scallan, ''The Holy Man of Tours'', TAN Books and Publishers, 2009, {{ISBN|0-89555-390-2}}</ref>
<ref name="YFlTO">{{cite web|url=http://galenagazette.com/Content/Mobile-Home/Mobile/Article/Replica-Shroud-of-Turin-on-display-at-St-Matthew/-5/-5/24669|title=Replica Shroud of Turin on display at St. Matthew|last=Dickerson|first=Hillary|date=8 April 2014|publisher=Galena Gazette|language=en|access-date=9 May 2018}}</ref>
<ref name="egvgm">{{cite news|url=https://www.thehour.com/norwalk/article/Shroud-of-Turin-replica-on-exhibit-at-St-Peter-s-8104096.php|title=Shroud of Turin replica on exhibit at St. Peter's Lutheran Church|last=Trautmann|first=Erik|date=7 October 2015|newspaper=[[The Hour (newspaper)|The Hour]]|language=en|access-date=9 May 2018}}</ref>
<ref name="h3pgG">Ann Ball, ''Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices'', Our Sunday Visitor, 2002, {{ISBN|0-87973-910-X}}, p. 239</ref>
<ref name="Bkn2H">Ann Ball, ''Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices'', Our Sunday Visitor, 2002 {{ISBN|0-87973-910-X}}, p. 533</ref>
<ref name="L0Q74">Joan Carrol Cruz, 1984 ''Relics'' {{ISBN|0-87973-701-8}}, p. 55</ref>
<ref name="YV7QB">{{cite news |title=Turin Shroud goes back on display at city's cathedral |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-32368134 |access-date=19 April 2015 |work=BBC News |date=19 April 2015}}</ref>
<ref name="otLuf">{{Cite web |date=30 March 2013 |title=Turin Shroud shown live on Italy TV |website=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-21984018 |access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref>
<ref name="FUIsj">[http://www.zenit.org/rssenglish-29146 "To see the Shroud : 2M and counting"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927020556/http://www.zenit.org/rssenglish-29146|date=27 September 2012}}. ''Zenit''. 5 May 2010</ref>
<ref name="bdQA8">{{Cite news |work=The New York Times |date=12 April 1997 |title=Shroud of Turin Saved From Fire in Cathedral |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/12/world/shroud-of-turin-saved-from-fire-in-cathedral.html}}</ref>
<ref name="CVYhP">''Architecture for the shroud: relic and ritual in Turin'' by John Beldon Scott 2003 {{ISBN|0-226-74316-0}}, p. 26.</ref>
<ref name="pUcND">See House of Savoy historian Filiberto Pingone in Filiberto Pingone, ''La Sindone dei Vangeli (Sindon Evangelica). Componimenti poetici sulla Sindone. Bolla di papa Giulio II (1506). Pellegrinaggio di S. Carlo Borromeo a Torino (1578)''. Introduzione, traduzione, note e riproduzione del testo originale a cura di Riccardo Quaglia, nuova edizione riveduta (2015), Biella 2015, {{ISBN|978-1-4452-8258-9}}</ref>
<ref name="wCdAY">John Beldon Scott, ''Architecture for the shroud: relic and ritual in Turin'', University of Chicago Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0-226-74316-0}}, p. xxi</ref>
<ref name="OhUvM">Humber, Thomas: ''The Sacred Shroud''. New York: Pocket Books, 1980. {{ISBN|0-671-41889-0}}</ref>
<ref name="2vPzG">{{Cite news |date=31 January 2005 |title=Turin shroud 'older than thought' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4210369.stm |work=BBC News}}</ref>
<ref name="36naL">G.M.Rinaldi, "Il Codice Pray", http://sindone.weebly.com/pray.html</ref>
<ref name="F1kYz">{{Cite book |first=Joan Carroll |last=Cruz |title=Relics |publisher=Our Sunday Visitor |date=1984 |isbn=978-0-87973-701-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/relics0000cruz/page/49 49] |url=https://archive.org/details/relics0000cruz/page/49}}</ref>
<ref name="tY4lH">{{cite book |title=Architecture for the shroud: relic and ritual in Turin |first=John Beldon |last=Scott |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-226-74316-5 |page=302 }}</ref>
<ref name="hhsXR">{{cite web |url = http://www.shroudofturin4journalists.com/Details/howtall.htm |title=How Tall is the Man on the Shroud? |website=ShroudOfTurnForJournalists.com |access-date=12 April 2009 }}</ref>
<ref name="RRd6y">{{cite book |title=The orphaned manuscript: a gathering of publications on the Shroud of Turin |first=Alan D. |last=Adler |year=2002 |isbn=978-88-7402-003-4 |page=103 |publisher=Effata Editrice IT }}</ref>
<ref name="kl2Oq">{{cite news|url=https://www.livescience.com/52567-shroud-of-turin-dna.html|title=Is It a Fake? DNA Testing Deepens Mystery of Shroud of Turin|work=Live Science|access-date=9 April 2018}}</ref>
<ref name="oattp">{{cite book |first=G. R. |last=Habermas |chapter=Shroud of Turin |editor-first=G. T. |editor-last=Kurian |title=The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2011 |page=2161 }}</ref>
<ref name="GVf9K">According to LLoyd A. Currie, it is "widely accepted" that "the Shroud of Turin is the single most studied artifact in human history". {{cite journal |first=Lloyd A. |last=Currie |title=The Remarkable Metrological History of Radiocarbon Dating |journal= Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology |volume=109 |year=2004 |issue=2 |page=200 |doi=10.6028/jres.109.013 |pmid=27366605 |pmc=4853109}}</ref>
<ref name="kJeDs">{{cite journal |last=Ball |first=P. |title=Material witness: Shrouded in mystery |doi=10.1038/nmat2170 |journal=Nature Materials |volume=7 |issue=5 |page=349 |year=2008 |pmid=18432204 |bibcode=2008NatMa...7..349B |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name="jAsd9">{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Ian |title=The Shroud |publisher=Random House |year=2010 |pages=130–131 |author-link=Ian Wilson (author)}}</ref>
<ref name="29DLv">{{cite web|title=Turin Shroud: full text of Pope Francis' comments|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/the-pope/9962636/Turin-Shroud-full-text-of-Pope-Francis-comments.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/the-pope/9962636/Turin-Shroud-full-text-of-Pope-Francis-comments.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=16 September 2020|website=The Telegraph|language=en-GB}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
<ref name="Rogers2008">{{cite book |last1=Rogers |first1=Raymond N. |title=A Chemist's Perspective On The Shroud of Turin |date=2008 |publisher=[[Lulu (company)|Lulu Press, Inc.]] |isbn=978-0615239286 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p-n84sc4ayYC&pg=PA83}}</ref>
<ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology">{{cite journal |last1=Fanti |first1=G. |last2=Botella |first2=J. A. |last3=Di Lazzaro |first3=P. |last4=Heimburger |first4=T. |last5=Schneider |first5=R. |last6=Svensson |first6=N. |title=Microscopic and Macroscopic Characteristics of the Shroud of Turin Image Superficiality |journal= Journal of Imaging Science and Technology |year=2010 |volume=54 |issue=4 |page=040201 |doi=10.2352/J.ImagingSci.Technol.2010.54.4.040201 }}</ref>
<ref name="'Ingham">{{cite news |first=Richard |last=Ingham |title=Turin Shroud Confirmed as Fake |date=21 June 2005 |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |url=http://www.physorg.com/news4652.html |website=Physorg.com |access-date=17 February 2008 }}</ref>
<ref name="PopPhoto">{{cite journal |last1=Nickell |first1=Joe |title=The Turin Shroud: Fake? Fact? Photograph? |journal=Popular Photography |volume=November 1979 |pages=97–147}}</ref>

<ref name="Brown2002">{{cite book|author=Raymond E. Brown|title=Biblical Exegesis and Church Doctrine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdBKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA151|year=2002|publisher=Wipf & Stock Publishers|isbn=978-1-59244-024-5|pages=150–152}}</ref>
<ref name="paul gothic fraud">{{cite web |url=http://infidels.org/kiosk/article/the-shroud-of-turin-the-great-gothic-art-fraud-because-if-its-real-the-brain-of-jesus-was-the-size-of-a-protohumans-815.html |title=The Shroud of Turin: The Great Gothic Art Fraud |last=Paul |first=Gregory S. |date=6 May 2010 |website=Secular Web Kiosk |publisher=[[Internet Infidels]] |access-date=9 May 2010 |author-link=Gregory Paul}}</ref>
<ref name="Fanti2010">{{cite journal |last1=Fanti |first1=G. |last2=Basso |first2=R. |last3=Bianchini |first3=G. |title=Turin Shroud: Compatibility Between a Digitized Body Image and a Computerized Anthropomorphous Manikin |journal= Journal of Imaging Science and Technology|date=2010 |volume=54 |issue=5 |page=050503 |doi=10.2352/J.ImagingSci.Technol.2010.54.5.050503 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name="Barcaccia 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Barcaccia |first1=Gianni |last2=Galla |first2=Giulio |last3=Achilli |first3=Alessandro |last4=Olivieri |first4=Anna |last5=Torroni |first5=Antonio |title=Uncovering the sources of DNA found on the Turin Shroud |journal=Scientific Reports |date=5 October 2015 |volume=5 |pages=14484 |doi=10.1038/srep14484 |pmid=26434580 |pmc=4593049|bibcode=2015NatSR...514484B}}</ref>
<ref name="academia.edu">[[Salvatore Lorusso]], Chiara Matteucci, Andrea Natali, Tania Chinni, Laura Solla (2011). [https://www.academia.edu/3254411/The_Shroud_of_Turin_between_history_and_science_an_ongoing_debate "The Shroud of Turin between history and science: an ongoing debate"]. [https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/view/2695 ''Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage'']. Vol 11, [[University of Bologna]].</ref>
<ref name="skepdic">{{cite web |url=http://www.skepdic.com/shroud.html |title=shroud of Turin |website=Skepdic.com |date=23 August 2000 |access-date=12 April 2009}}</ref>
<ref name="R.A. Freer-Waters, A.J.T. Jull 2010">R. A. Freer-Waters, A. J. T. Jull, "Investigating a Dated piece of the Shroud of Turin", ''Radiocarbon'' 52, 2010, pp. 1521–1527.</ref>
<ref name="Gove 1990">{{cite journal |title=Dating the Turin Shroud: An Assessment |first=H. E. |last=Gove |journal=Radiocarbon |volume=32 |issue=1 |date=1990 |pages=87–92 |url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/viewFile/1254/1259 |doi=10.1017/S0033822200039990 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name="dale">{{cite journal |last1=Dale |first1=W.S.A. |year=1987 |title=The Shroud of Turin: Relic or Icon? |doi=10.1016/0168-583X(87)90233-3 |journal=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research |volume=B29 |issue= 1–2|pages=187–192|bibcode=1987NIMPB..29..187D}} This paper is significant in that it was presented to the international radiocarbon community shortly before radiocarbon dating was performed on the shroud.</ref>
<ref name="HST">{{CathEncy |wstitle=The Holy Shroud (of Turin)}}</ref>
<ref name="'Turin Nature">{{cite journal |last1=Damon |first1=P. E. |last2=Donahue |first2=D. J. |last3=Gore |first3=B. H. |last4=Hatheway |first4=A. L. |last5=Jull |first5=A. J. T. |last6=Linick |first6=T. W. |last7=Sercel |first7=P. J. |last8=Toolin |first8=L. J. |last9=Bronk |first9=C. R.|last10=Hall|first10=E. T. |last11=Hedges |first11=R. E. M. |last12=Housley |first12=R. |last13=Law |first13=I. A. |last14=Perry |first14=C. |last15=Bonani |first15=G. |last16=Trumbore |first16=S. |author16-link=Susan Trumbore |last17=Woelfli |first17=W. |last18=Ambers |first18=J. C. |last19=Bowman |first19=S. G. E.|last20=Leese|first20=M. N. |last21=Tite |first21=M. S. |s2cid=27686437 |title=Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin |journal=Nature |date=16 February 1989 |volume=337 |issue=6208 |pages=611–615 |doi=10.1038/337611a0 |bibcode=1989Natur.337..611D |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt6x77r7m1/qt6x77r7m1.pdf?t=nus03r}}</ref>
<ref name="oed">{{cite book |title=Oxford English Dictionary |chapter-url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/180066 |access-date=24 January 2017 |chapter=Sindonology, n. |chapter-url-access=subscription}}</ref>
<ref name="Delage, Yves 1902">{{cite journal |last=Delage |first=Yves |year=1902 |title=Le Linceul de Turin |journal=Revue Scientifique |volume=22 |pages=683–687 }}</ref>
<ref name="The Economist archive">"[http://www.economist.com/node/21574664?fsrc=nlw%7Cnewe%7C4-1-2013%7C5434002%7C36502154%7C Pope Francis and the Turin Shroud: Making sense of a mystery]" (31 March 2013). ''The Economist''. Retrieved 3 April 2013</ref>
<ref name="The Vatican Today">Pope: "I join all of you gathered before the Holy Shroud". [http://www.news.va/en/news/pope-i-join-all-of-you-gathered-before-the-holy-sh ''The Vatican Today'']. Retrieved 3 April 2013</ref>
<ref name="Michael Freze 1993, p. 57">Michael Freze, 1993, ''Voices, Visions, and Apparitions'', OSV Publishing, {{ISBN|0-87973-454-X}}, p. 57</ref>
<ref name="Dreisbach2001">{{cite news|title=A theological basis for sindonology & its ecumenical implications|last=Dreisbach|first=Albert R.|year=2001|publisher=Collegamento pro Sindone|language=en|quote=Some twenty years ago this ecumenical dimension of this sacred linen became very evident to me on the night of August 16, 1983, when local judicatory leaders offered their corporate blessing to the Turin Shroud Exhibit and participated in the ''Evening Office of the Holy Shroud''. The Greek Archbishop, the Roman Catholic Archbishop, the Episcopal Bishop and the Presiding Bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Church gathered before the world's first full size, backlit transparency of the Shroud and joined clergy representing the Assemblies of God, Baptists, Lutherans, Methodists and Presbyterians in an amazing witness to ecumenical unity.}}</ref>
<ref name="Povoledo_New York Times">{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/30/world/europe/shroud-of-turin-going-on-tv-with-a-word-from-the-pope.html?_r=0 |date=29 March 2013 |title=Turin Shroud Going on TV, With Video From Pope |last=Povoledo |first=Elisabetta | newspaper = New York Times |access-date=29 March 2013 }}</ref>
<ref name="JNInquest">[[Joe Nickell]], ''Inquest on the Shroud of Turin: Latest Scientific Findings'', Prometheus Books, 1998, {{ISBN|9781573922722}}</ref>
<ref name="Poulle 2009">{{cite journal |last = Poulle |first=Emmanuel |author-link = Emmanuel Poulle |title = Les sources de l'histoire du linceul de Turin. Revue critique |journal=Revue d'Histoire Ecclésiastique |date=December 2009 |volume=104 |issue=3–4 |pages=747–782 |doi=10.1484/J.RHE.3.215 }}</ref>
<ref name="opticsinfobase.org">{{Cite journal |last=Pellicori |first = S. F. |title=Spectral properties of the Shroud of Turin |doi=10.1364/AO.19.001913 |journal=Applied Optics |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=1913–1920 |year=1980 |pmid=20221155 |bibcode=1980ApOpt..19.1913P }}</ref>
<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{Cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=V. D. |last2=Pellicori |first2=S. F. |title=Ultraviolet fluorescence photography of the Shroud of Turin |journal=Journal of Biological Photography |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=71–85 |date=July 1981 |pmid=7024245 }}</ref>
<ref name="heller">{{Cite book |first=John H. |last=Heller |title=Report on the Shroud of Turin |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |date=1983 |isbn=978-0-395-33967-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/reportonshroudof00hell}}</ref>
<ref name="Meacham 1983">{{cite journal |author-link=William Meacham |first=William |last=Meacham |title=The Authentication of the Turin Shroud, An Issue in Archeological Epistemology |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=283–311 |year=1983 |doi=10.1086/202996|jstor=2742663|s2cid=143781662 }}</ref>
<ref name="c14.arch.ox.ac.uk">{{cite web|author=Christopher Ramsey|website=[[Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit]], [[University of Oxford]]|date=March 2008|url=https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/shroud.html|title= The Shroud of Turin}}</ref>
<ref name="chemistryworld">{{cite web|title=Chemistry in the face of belief|url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/features/the-enduring-controversy-of-the-turin-shroud/6918.article |date=23 December 2013| website=Chemistry World}}</ref>
<ref name="freeinquiry1">{{Cite web |url=http://llanoestacado.org/freeinquiry/skeptic/shroud/articles/rogers-ta-response.htm |title=A Skeptical Response to ''Studies on the Radiocarbon Sample from the Shroud of Turin'' by Raymond N. Rogers |last=Schafersman |first=Steven D. |date=14 March 2005 |access-date=2 January 2016 |website=llanoestacado.org}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190316020316/http://llanoestacado.org/freeinquiry/skeptic/shroud/articles/rogers-ta-response.htm |date=16 March 2019}}</ref>
<ref name="Radiocarbon Dating pg 167-168">Radiocarbon Dating, Second Edition: An Archaeological Perspective, By R.E. Taylor, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Routledge 2016; pp. 167–168.</ref>
<ref name="Radiocarbon Dating, Second Edition">Taylor, R.E. and Bar-Yosef, Ofer. ''Radiocarbon Dating, Second Edition: An Archaeological Perspective''. Left Coast Press, 2014, p. 165.</ref>
<ref name="Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin">{{cite web |date=1 April 2013 |title = Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin |url = https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/ncr-today/pope-francis-and-shroud-turin |access-date=16 September 2020|website=National Catholic Reporter|language=en}}</ref>
<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite web|title=Shroud of Turin {{!}} History, Description, & Authenticity|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shroud-of-Turin|access-date=16 September 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="EAnDx">G. Carter, "Formation of the Image on the Shroud of Turin", ''[[American Chemical Society]] Volume on Archaeological Chemistry'', 1983</ref>
<ref name="Jacksonet">{{cite journal |last1=Jackson |first1=John P. |last2=Jumper |first2=Eric J. |last3=Ercoline |first3=William R. |title=Correlation of image intensity on the Turin Shroud with the 3-D structure of a human body shape |journal=Applied Optics |date=15 July 1984 |volume=23 |issue=14 |pages=2244 |doi=10.1364/AO.23.002244 |pmid=18212985 |bibcode=1984ApOpt..23.2244J }}</ref>
<ref name="lwNFS">Busson, P. "Sampling error?" Letter in ''Nature'', Vol. 352, 18 July 1991, p. 187.</ref>
<ref name="t7xEW">Robert Villarreal, "Analytical Results On Thread Samples Taken From The Raes Sampling Area (Corner) of the Shroud Cloth" [http://www.ohioshroudconference.com/a17.htm Abstract] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011090159/http://www.ohioshroudconference.com/a17.htm |date=11 October 2008}} (2008)</ref>
<ref name="Ruffin155">''The Shroud of Turin'' by Bernard Ruffin 1999 {{ISBN|0-87973-617-8}}, pp. 155–156</ref>
<ref name="Riani et al. 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Riani |first1=Marco |last2=Atkinson |first2=Anthony C. |last3=Fanti |first3=Giulio |last4=Crosilla |first4=Fabio |s2cid=6060870 |title=Regression analysis with partially labelled regressors: carbon dating of the Shroud of Turin |journal=[[Statistics and Computing]] |date=27 April 2012 |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=551–561 |doi=10.1007/s11222-012-9329-5 }}</ref>
<ref name="Benford & Marino 2008">{{cite journal|author1=S. Benford|author2=J. Marino|title=Discrepancies in the radiocarbon dating area of the Turin shroud|journal=Chemistry Today|volume=26|number=4|date=July–August 2008|pages=4–12|url=http://chemistry-today.teknoscienze.com/pdf/benford%20CO4-08.pdf|access-date=10 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304150614/http://chemistry-today.teknoscienze.com/pdf/benford%20CO4-08.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2012 }}</ref>
<ref name="gwaF9">Heller, John H. ''Report on the Shroud of Turin'', Houghton Mifflin, 1983. {{ISBN|0-395-33967-7}}, p. 207.</ref>
<ref name="a4noy">{{cite journal |last=Nickell |first=Joe |author-link = Joe Nickell |title=Crucifixion Evidence Debunks Turin 'Shroud' |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |date=2018 |volume=42 |issue=5 |page=7 }}</ref>
<ref name="Riani Atkinson Fanti Crosilla pp. 551–561">{{cite journal | last1=Riani | first1=Marco | last2=Atkinson | first2=Anthony C. | last3=Fanti | first3=Giulio | last4=Crosilla | first4=Fabio | s2cid=6060870 | title = Regression analysis with partially labelled regressors: carbon dating of the Shroud of Turin | journal=Statistics and Computing | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=23 | issue=4 | date=27 April 2012 | issn=0960-3174 | doi=10.1007/s11222-012-9329-5 | pages=551–561 }}</ref>
<ref name="Casabianca Marinelli Pernagallo Torrisi pp. 1223–1231">{{cite journal | last1=Casabianca | first1=T. | last2=Marinelli | first2=E. | last3=Pernagallo | first3=G. | last4=Torrisi | first4=B. | title=Radiocarbon Dating of the Turin Shroud: New Evidence from Raw Data | journal=Archaeometry | publisher=Wiley | volume=61 | issue=5 | date=22 March 2019 | issn=0003-813X | doi=10.1111/arcm.12467 | pages=1223–1231 | s2cid=134747250 | url=https://philarchive.org/rec/CASTRD-3 }}</ref>
<ref name="Walsh Schwalbe 2020 p=102015">{{cite journal | last1=Walsh | first1=Bryan | last2=Schwalbe | first2=Larry | title=An instructive inter-laboratory comparison: The 1988 radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin | journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=29 | year=2020 | issn=2352-409X | doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.102015 | page=102015 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name="Rogers 2005">{{cite journal |author-link=Raymond Rogers |last=Rogers |first = Raymond N. |title=Studies on the radiocarbon sample from the shroud of turin |journal=Thermochimica Acta |date=20 January 2005 |volume=425 |issue=1–2 |pages=189–194 |doi=10.1016/j.tca.2004.09.029 |access-date=31 July 2016 |url = http://www.shroud.it/ROGERS-3.PDF }}</ref>
<ref name="r6V1l">{{cite web |title=The 'Inscriptions' on the Shroud |website = British Society for the Turin Shroud Newsletter Nov 1999 |first=Mark |last=Guscin |url = https://www.shroud.com/pdfs/guscin2.pdf }}</ref>
<ref name="nE3px">A. Marion, A.-L. Courage, ''Nouvelles découvertes sur le suaire de Turin'', Paris, Albin Michel, 1998, {{ISBN|2-226-09231-5}}</ref>
<ref name="CC5dG">N. Balossino, ''L'immagine della Sindone, ricerca fotografica e informatica'', Editrice Elle Di Ci, 1997, {{ISBN|88-01-00798-1}}</ref>
<ref name="BdLho">F. Filas, ''The dating of the Shroud from coins of Pontius Pilate'', Cogan, Youngtown (Arizona), 1982</ref>
<ref name="3VMNL">Jackson, John P., Eric J. Jumper, Bill Mottern, and Kenneth E. Stevenson. 1977. "The three-dimensional image of Jesus' burial cloth", ''Proceedings, 1977 United States Conference of Research on The Shroud of Turin'', Holy Shroud Guild, New York, 1977, pp. 74–94.</ref>
<ref name="iESyt">{{cite news |url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/doubleissue/mysteries/shroud.htm |title=Shroud of Turin – Mysteries of History |last=Sheler |first=Jeffery L. |date=24 July 2000 |work=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |access-date=19 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183044/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/doubleissue/mysteries/shroud.htm |archive-date=3 December 2010}}</ref>
<ref name="5gKwV">{{cite news |first=Avinoam |last=Danin |title = Where Did the Shroud of Turin Originate? A Botanical Quest |work=Eretz Magazine |issue=November/December |year=1998 }}</ref>
<ref name="R2f4f">{{cite journal |title=Doubts Concerning the Coins Over the Eyes |first=Antonio |last=Lombatti |journal=British Society for the Turin Shroud Newsletter |issue=45 |year=1997 }}</ref>
<ref name="TimesFrale">{{cite news |title=Death certificate is imprinted on the Shroud of Turin, says Vatican scholar |first=Richard |last=Owen |url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article6925371.ece |newspaper=The Times |date=21 November 2009 |access-date=24 October 2010 }}</ref>
<ref name="FraleTeleg">{{Cite news |last=Squires |first=Nick |date=20 November 2009 |title=Jesus Christ's 'death certificate' found on Turin Shroud |work=The Telegraph |location=Rome |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/6617018/Jesus-Christs-death-certificate-found-on-Turin-Shroud.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091123195738/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/6617018/Jesus-Christs-death-certificate-found-on-Turin-Shroud.html |archive-date=23 November 2009}}Daily Telegraph: "Jesus Christ's 'death certificate' found on Turin Shroud" [https://web.archive.org/web/20091123195738/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/6617018/Jesus-Christs-death-certificate-found-on-Turin-Shroud.html]</ref>
<ref name="Rogers">{{cite journal | last1=Schwalbe | first1=L.A. | last2=Rogers | first2=R.N. | title= Physics and Chemistry of the Shroud of Turin, A Summary of the 1978 Investigation | journal=Analytica Chimica Acta | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=135 | pages=3–49 | year=1982 | doi=10.1016/S0003-2670(01)85263-6 |url =https://www.shroud.com/pdfs/Physics%20Chemistry%20of%20Shroud%20Schwalbe%20Rogers%201981%20OCRsm.pdf }}</ref>
<ref name="Comprehensive examination">{{cite journal | last1=Jumper | first1=Eric J. | last2=Adler | first2=Alan D. | last3=Jackson | first3=John P. | last4=Pellicori | first4=Samuel.F. | last5=Heller | first5=John H. | last6=Druzik| first6=James R. | title= A Comprehensive Examination of the Various Stains and Images on the Shroud of Turin | journal=Archaeological Chemistry III, ACS Advances in Chemistry No. 205 | publisher= J.B. Lambert | pages=447–476 | year=1984 |url =https://www.shroud.com/pdfs/Comprehensive%20Exam%20of%20Stains%20Jumper%20et%20al%201984%20OCR.pdf }}</ref>
}}

== Further reading ==
* [[Lynn Picknett|Picknett, Lynn]] and Prince, Clive: ''The Turin Shroud: In Whose Image?'', Harper-Collins, 1994 {{ISBN|0-552-14782-6}}.
* Antonacci, Mark : ''The Resurrection of the Shroud'', M. Evans & Co., New York 2000, {{ISBN|0-87131-890-3}}
* [[Brendan Whiting|Whiting, Brendan]], ''The Shroud Story'', Harbour Publishing, 2006, {{ISBN|0-646-45725-X}}
* Di Lazzaro, Paolo (ed.) : ''Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Scientific Approach to the Acheiropoietos Images'', ENEA, 2010, {{ISBN|978-88-8286-232-9}}.
* Olmi, Massimo, ''Indagine sulla croce di Cristo'', Torino 2015 {{ISBN|978-88-6737-040-5}}
* Jackson, John, ''The Shroud of Turin. A Critical Summary of Observations, Data, and Hypotheses'', CMJ Marian Publishers, 2017, {{ISBN|9780692885734}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category |Shroud of Turin}}
* [http://www.sindone.org/ Sindone.org] – official site of the custodians of the shroud in Turin
* [https://www.magiscenter.com/professor-creates-3d-image-of-christ-from-shroud-of-turin/ Professor Creates 3D Image From Shroud]
* [https://www.shroud.com/ The Shroud of Turin Website] – Shroud of Turin Education and Research Association, Inc. website
* [https://www.shroudofturin.com/ Turin Shroud Center of Colorado] – research center of John Jackson, a leading member of the STURP team
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RtklbqA1Vos Good Science, Bad Science, and the Shroud of Turin] – 2014 NYUAD Chemistry lecture on YouTube
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YWyiZtagxX8 ''Unwrapping the Shroud''] – 2009 Discovery channel documentary on YouTube
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zws3DiEVJTs ''Shroud of Turin Evidence''] – 2008 BBC documentary on YouTube
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wIUDaMatODM Barrie Schwortz interview] – EWTN interview with photographer Barrie Shwortz on YouTube

{{-}}
{{Shroud of Turin|state=expanded}}
{{Turin landmarks|state=collapsed}}

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[[Category:Shroud of Turin| ]]
[[Category:13th-century works]]
[[Category:14th-century works]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Turin]]
[[Category:Culture in Turin]]
[[Category:Linens]]

Talk:September 11 attacks

2023-09-13T14:10:36Z

78.157.120.208: Discussion about the use of the word "Islamist"

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| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/12/business/media/on-wikipedia-911-dissent-is-kept-on-the-fringe.html
| org = [[The New York Times]]

| author2 = Brian Keegan
| title2 = How 9/11 Shaped Wikipedia
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| author3 = Stephen Harrison
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* RM, September 11 attacks → September 11 terrorist attacks, '''Not moved''', 13 February 2021, [[Talk:September 11 attacks/Archive 62#Requested move 13 February 2021|Discussion]]
* RM, September 11 attacks → September 11th attacks, '''Not moved''', 14 February 2021, [[Talk:September 11 attacks/Archive 63#Requested move 14 February 2021|Discussion]]
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== Semi-protected edit request on 18 August 2023 ==

{{edit semi-protected|September 11 attacks|answered=y}}
Additional information to include: The profile of General Timmons recounts that on the morning of September 11, 2001, she was the first officer on United Airlines flight 23 preparing to take-off from New York’s JFK Airport bound for Los Angeles. The plane had already pulled away from the gate and was taxiing down the runway when the airport was shut down and the crew was ordered to secure the cockpit.

Timmons confirmed that as the pilot grabbed the crash ax, she jumped from her seat and started barricading the cockpit door. From the other side of the barricade the cabin crew relayed their concern about four young Arab men in first-class who became agitated when the take-off was cancelled, and fled from the plane when it returned to the terminal. Box cutters and Al Qaeda documents were later found in their luggage.

Timmons, the pilot, and the rest of the crew were repeatedly questioned by the FBI, though the findings were never shared. The pilot concluded that Flight 23 would have been the next plane hijacked by terrorists if the airport shutdown order had been delayed. <ref name="Ting 2011 a906">{{cite web | last=Ting | first=Jan | title=The 5th plane to be seized on 9/11, and the terrorists who got away | website=WHYY | date=May 16, 2011 | url=https://whyy.org/articles/the-5th-plane-to-be-seized-on-911-and-the-terrorists-who-got-away/ | access-date=August 25, 2023}}</ref> [[User:Jdriesen|Jdriesen]] ([[User talk:Jdriesen|talk]]) 00:01, 19 August 2023 (UTC)

[[File:Red information icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' Mainly because this isn't a proper edit request: simply pasting verbatim text from a citation is not sufficient; you need to write out what you want added to the article in your own words. Also, this topic has been discussed several times in the talk page archives, but never added to the article. Nobody ever said, "absolutely don't add this", but neither was there much support on the basis that all we have are statements from Captain Manello and First Officer Timmons which are highly speculative.

I found four other sources in case someone else stumbles on this and finds them useful.<ref name="Spencer 2008 p. 102">{{cite book | last=Spencer | first=L. | title=Touching History: The Untold Story of the Drama That Unfolded in the Skies Over America on 9/11 | publisher=Free Press | year=2008 | isbn=978-1-4165-7946-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HlFXrXcq9X4C&pg=PA102 | access-date=August 25, 2023 | page=102}}</ref><ref name="Dodds 2023 n309">{{cite web | last=Dodds | first=Io | title=Was there really a fifth 9/11 plane that never took off? | website=The Independent | date=March 25, 2023 | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/911-conspiracy-theory-twin-towers-plane-b2307565.html | access-date=August 25, 2023}}</ref><ref name="National Guard 2011 j524">{{cite web | title=In their own words: Guard members tell personal accounts of 9/11 | website=National Guard | date=August 30, 2011 | url=https://www.nationalguard.mil/News/Article-View/Article/576438/in-their-own-words-guard-members-tell-personal-accounts-of-911/ | access-date=August 25, 2023}}</ref><ref name="Group 2011 c049">{{cite web | last=Group | first=Sinclair Broadcast | title=Were there other planes on September 11? | website=WJLA | date=September 9, 2011 | url=https://wjla.com/news/nation-world/were-there-other-planes-on-september-11--66308 | access-date=August 25, 2023}}</ref> I'm also aware that there's a recent [https://www.tmz.com/2023/03/20/9-11-the-fifth-plane-suspicious-passengers-hijackers-documentary-fox/ documentary] on TMZ about this.
{{talk ref}}
[[User:Xan747|Xan747]] [[Special:Contributions/Xan747|✈️]] [[User talk:Xan747|🧑‍✈️]] 21:39, 25 August 2023 (UTC)

== No mention of controversy? ==
{{hat|"Truther" doesn't come up in a google search? What flaring nonsense. Hatting trolling. [[User:Bishonen|Bishonen]] | [[User talk:Bishonen|tålk]] 18:05, 28 August 2023 (UTC).}}
Why does this article not mention the controversy surrounding the explanation of what actually happened? This article presents one version of events only: the version supported by the US government. If you compare this to the entry on the assassination of JFK, also embroiled in controversy, very soon after the official government portrayal of what happened there is a clear paragraph about the fact that this explanation is highly controversial on the subject of who the killer was, as any honest reporting of the story of these events should have included. So why is the same type of information included here as well? I can't even believe I have to ask this question. Please explain this dishonest portrayal of what happened. If someone does not add this, I will add it![[User:RPeel|RPeel]] ([[User talk:RPeel|talk]]) 07:40, 28 August 2023 (UTC)
:The article isn't a forum for conspiracy theories, that is longstanding consensus. The JFK assassination article is plagued by all sorts of CTs, but that at least has a cultural basis. The Truther narrative has more in common with modern conspiratorial obsessions like QAnon and chemtrails, which are given no countenance on Wikipedia, and any inclusion in the main article has been soundly rejected on this talkpage. That is also why there are active contentious topics sanctions on this topic, of which I've advised you. We have stand-alone articles on the conspiracy theories - see [[9/11 conspiracy theories]]. We get annual attention of this kind in the weeks leading up to 9/11, please don't waste volunteer time, we've heard it all before. '''[[User:Acroterion|Acroterion]] [[User talk:Acroterion|(talk)]]''' 12:27, 28 August 2023 (UTC)
::Wow, your reply is stunningly arrogant. "Please don't waste our time, we've heard it all before." Who are you, anyway? If wiki is really an open document, then at the very least you need a much better reply that what you've given. Otherwise, you come off as being corrupt.
::How about offering a "forum" for accuracy and completeness? Your position is not only arrogant but ignorant. Calling something a "conspiracy theory" implies it is an inferior and inconsistent explanation for particular events, when in fact many such alternative explanations are more well thought-out and reasonable than what is pushed onto the public by official means. The government version is also, literally, a conspiracy theory: people said to have been members of Al-Qaida conspired to execute this colossal event. It is not acceptable for anyone to simply write off the worldwide, well-documented criticism with the Bush Administration's very own "conspiracy" theory on 9-11 by referring to that criticism as mere conspiracy theory. By presenting the disjointed story put forward by the US government simply as fact, with no mention of the existence of the very strong disputes of those so-called facts is not only dishonest but it leads to ignorance for younger generations who did not live through it and may not know that this government story is hotly disputed. What wiki is doing in this case is rubber-stamping the "winner's view" of history, which by definition is suspicious and corrupt. And the 9-11 conspiracy theories entry in wiki is not enough because one has to know to look for it. The fact is that on a global level, very few people outside of the USA believe the US government story that you've chosen to prop up here, and in the US, a large enough percentage of the population do not believe it either, so your completely one-sided portrayal here is a bit of a joke, in addition to being unwise in the harmful effects it can have on those unaware of the controversial nature of the story.
::As for JFK, you say "the JFK article is plagued" so is it the article that is plagued? If so, why not remove that plague? I think you mean that the understanding of the events of JFK's murder is plagued by the existence of differing explanations, again, due to the fact that the official story is inconsistent and does not accord with witness testimony and other evidence. What do you mean by "cultural basis"? Additionally, the "Truther" narrative is not something I'm familiar with nor does that expression come up in a google search. [[Special:Contributions/2A02:AA16:5780:6780:8822:669D:E628:A13A|2A02:AA16:5780:6780:8822:669D:E628:A13A]] ([[User talk:2A02:AA16:5780:6780:8822:669D:E628:A13A|talk]]) 17:34, 28 August 2023 (UTC)
:::We go by what RS say. [[User:Slatersteven|Slatersteven]] ([[User talk:Slatersteven|talk]]) 17:48, 28 August 2023 (UTC)
{{hab}}

== 343 ==

On 9/11 343 FDNY members perished. 340 of them were firefighters, 2 were paramedics, 1 was a chaplain.
the number 343 is very important and is what should be mentioned on the wiki page [[Special:Contributions/173.3.10.96|173.3.10.96]] ([[User talk:173.3.10.96|talk]]) 22:23, 28 August 2023 (UTC)

:It is extremely important that Wikipedia also recognizes all members of EMS that perished on that day. They dedicated their lives in service and that should be recognized the same as other first responders. [[Special:Contributions/173.3.10.96|173.3.10.96]] ([[User talk:173.3.10.96|talk]]) 22:28, 28 August 2023 (UTC)
::Well then add it! [[Special:Contributions/104.187.66.104|104.187.66.104]] ([[User talk:104.187.66.104|talk]]) 00:37, 13 September 2023 (UTC)

== Clarifying source of information on this entry ==

If the administrators of wiki are not willing to do what makes sense, which is to include information on the FACT that the reporting around what really happened is extremely controversial, then might I suggest at the very least that in the opening description, a link to the so-called "conspiracy" page for 9-11 is offered, such as "The facts of the events are quite controversial. More on that can be found here (link)"
Additionally, it would also be fair to begin the entire entry this way: "According to the Bush Administration,..." [[User:RPeel|RPeel]] ([[User talk:RPeel|talk]]) 11:56, 29 August 2023 (UTC)
:See [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]]. [[User:Slatersteven|Slatersteven]] ([[User talk:Slatersteven|talk]]) 12:02, 29 August 2023 (UTC)
:Also see [[9/11 Commission]], which was not "the Bush Administration," and [[WP:FRINGE]]. '''[[User:Acroterion|Acroterion]] [[User talk:Acroterion|(talk)]]''' 12:10, 29 August 2023 (UTC)

== trying to respond to Bishonen ==
{{atop|Closing per [[WP:FORUM]]. Apparently this is in reference to the hatted section above, [[Talk:September 11 attacks#No mention of controversy?]]. Nothing to do with improving the article. — [[User:HandThatFeeds|The Hand That Feeds You]]:[[User talk:HandThatFeeds|Bite]] 16:30, 29 August 2023 (UTC)}}
When I said I could not find any reference to "truther narrative" I meant that literally: I searched for 'truther narrative' but did not find that specific phrase. I did not search for "truther" alone until today. I see what that means. Fine. I had never heard that before because I am not someone who spends his time roaming the internet on such topics, and I am not an administrator at wiki who has, like you, been up and down this ladder many times before. A bit more respect to those of us "normal" users who from time to time offer a helping hand would be nice to see from you instead of your rude scorn. [[User:RPeel|RPeel]] ([[User talk:RPeel|talk]]) 12:07, 29 August 2023 (UTC)
:Do we use this term in the article? [[User:Slatersteven|Slatersteven]] ([[User talk:Slatersteven|talk]]) 12:10, 29 August 2023 (UTC)
{{abot}}

== Firefighters killed ==

the firefighters listed as killed is 343, it was 344 343 FDNY and 1 NYFP

https://www.firehero.org/fallen-firefighter/keith-m-roma/ [[Special:Contributions/50.48.132.255|50.48.132.255]] ([[User talk:50.48.132.255|talk]]) 17:16, 8 September 2023 (UTC)

== CNN reports that 2983 people passed ==

I was watching CNN 10 and the person working at the museum said that 2983 people died is that an error [[User:ChaseTOM4YT|ChaseTOM4YT]] ([[User talk:ChaseTOM4YT|talk]]) 13:56, 11 September 2023 (UTC)
:Might depend on context. [[User:Slatersteven|Slatersteven]] ([[User talk:Slatersteven|talk]]) 14:08, 11 September 2023 (UTC)
::im just confused on who to trust [[User:ChaseTOM4YT|ChaseTOM4YT]] ([[User talk:ChaseTOM4YT|talk]]) 14:11, 11 September 2023 (UTC)
:::We cant answer that, this is not a [[wp:forum]]. [[User:Slatersteven|Slatersteven]] ([[User talk:Slatersteven|talk]]) 14:15, 11 September 2023 (UTC)
:::If you want precision, say "died", not "passed". [[User:HiLo48|HiLo48]] ([[User talk:HiLo48|talk]]) 20:14, 11 September 2023 (UTC)

== Semi-protected edit request on 12 September 2023 ==

{{edit semi-protected|September 11 attacks|answered=yes}}
Add that my grandma was in New York City when this happened and that she was 45 (she was born on 11/18) and her name is Debbie Alvey (I know you're probably not gonna add this.) [[User:VinnyFarmer88930423|VinnyFarmer88930423]] ([[User talk:VinnyFarmer88930423|talk]]) 00:36, 12 September 2023 (UTC)
:You are correct. We won't add it. Simply being in New York that day is not significant. [[User:HiLo48|HiLo48]] ([[User talk:HiLo48|talk]]) 01:16, 12 September 2023 (UTC)

== [[9/11: Life Under Attack]] film ==
Yesterday I watched on Dutch television the 2021 film documentary: “[[9/11: Life Under Attack]]” [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt12922454/ see IMDB profile], with only amateur footage of the day of the attacks.I was impressed. As one of the better 9/11 documentaries, also according the references provided, I was surprised that it doesn’t have a Wikipedia page. I think this documentary deserves it to get its own page. If you don’t know the documentary; you should watch it ;). See here some references: <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.ie/entertainment/television/tv-reviews/911-life-under-attack-review-documentary-explores-the-what-ifs-of-september-11-attacks/41971037.html|title=9/11: Life Under Attack review — documentary explores the what-ifs of September 11 attacks|work=[[Irish Independent]]|date=8 September 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9965695/Documentary-shows-unseen-footage-young-couple-baby-make-decision-flee-amid-9-11-attacks.html |title=EXCLUSIVE: Harrowing unseen footage from 9/11 attacks: New doc shows moment couple with baby struggle with decision to flee or stay put as dust and debris envelops their building six blocks from Ground Zero|work=[[Daily Mail]]|date=7 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://inews.co.uk/culture/television/whats-on-tv-tonight-guide-listings-9-11-life-under-attack-documentary-itv-1185492|title=What’s on TV tonight: ITV documents how 9/11 played out for ordinary New Yorkers on the ground|work=[[i (newspaper) |i]]|date=7 September 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/osama-bin-laden-bbc-washington-world-trade-center-new-york-b1918283.html|title=9/11 anniversary: The best documentaries to watch, 20 years on|work=[[The Independent]]|date=11 September 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/16074791/unseen-9-11-footage-couple-baby-apartment/|title=NOWHERE TO RUN Harrowing unseen 9/11 footage shows terrified couple with baby frozen in fear as dust cloud swallows their apartment|work=[[The Sun]]|date=7 September 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vprogids.nl/documentaires/lees/artikelen/2023/9-11-life-under-attack-is-een-minutieus-verslag-van-de-aanslag-op-de-Twin-Towers.html|title=9/11 - Life Under Attack: Minutieus verslag van de aanslag op de Twin Towers|work=[[VPRO]]|date=4 September 2023|language=nl}}</ref> [[Special:Contributions/109.37.150.86|109.37.150.86]] ([[User talk:109.37.150.86|talk]]) 08:35, 12 September 2023 (UTC)
{{Reflist-talk}}

:Thanks for sharing this. Being Dutch, that's probably why it didn't get much notice here. Might need to find a Dutch-speaking Wikipedian to look into this & figure out what we can use to add to this article. — [[User:HandThatFeeds|The Hand That Feeds You]]:[[User talk:HandThatFeeds|Bite]] 14:25, 12 September 2023 (UTC)
::{{reply| HandThatFeeds}} thanks for your reply. Interesting you are saying that, as I assumed it was also released in other countries looking at the many reviews from the United Kingdom (of 2 years ago and previous year) and because it’s an English-language documentary of 2021. I see the origin according to IMDB is UK, USA, France and the Netherlands. But only the Netherlands as a specific release date; but two years after the original release date. [[Special:Contributions/109.37.150.86|109.37.150.86]] ([[User talk:109.37.150.86|talk]]) 18:00, 12 September 2023 (UTC)

== "Islamist" suicide terrorist attacks ==
Should the lead say, "The September 11 attacks, commonly known as 9/11, were four coordinated '''Islamist''' suicide terrorist attacks carried out by al-Qaeda against the United States on Tuesday, September 11, 2001" with or without the use of '''Islamist'''. I persoanlly think it should as it gives the reader an idea of the motive from the very first line.[[Special:Contributions/78.157.120.208|78.157.120.208]] ([[User talk:78.157.120.208|talk]]) 14:10, 13 September 2023 (UTC)

Khalid al-Mihdhar

2023-09-13T13:58:20Z

78.157.120.208:

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1975–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Khalid al-Mihdhar
| image = Khalid al-mihdhar 2.jpg
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1975|5|16|df=y}}
| birth_name = Khalid Muhammad Abdallah al-Mihdhar
| native_name = {{Lang|ar|خالد المحضار}}
| other_names =
| birth_place = [[Mecca]], Saudi Arabia
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1975|5|16|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Arlington County, Virginia]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[American Airlines Flight 77|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]]
| relatives = [[Ahmed al-Darbi]] (brother-in-law)
| known_for = [[September 11 attacks]]
| spouse = Hoda al-Hada
| children = 2 daughters
}}

'''Khalid Muhammad Abdallah al-Mihdhar''' ({{lang-ar|خالد المحضار|translit=Khālid al-Miḥḍār}}; also [[transliteration|transliterated]] as '''Almihdhar'''; 16 May 1975{{efn|There is some discrepancy over Mihdhar's date of birth. The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States observes that "Mihdhar uses May 16, 1975 as his birthdate on his ID, as well as on his U.S. visa. See [http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_App.pdf 9/11 and Terror Travel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005014508/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_App.pdf |date=2008-10-05 }}, p. 192 for ID card; see also copy of Mihdhar's visa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/SD00407.html|title=U.S.D.C. Eastern District of Virginia|website=www.vaed.uscourts.gov|access-date=2008-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090513094851/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/SD00407.html|archive-date=2009-05-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> George Tenet gave testimony that "The CIA gave Mihdhar's birthdate as May 5, 1975" ({{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/DCI_18_June_testimony_new.pdf |title=11 September 2001 Hijackers |work=Testimony by George Tenet before the Joint Inquiry into Terrorist Attacks Against the United States |date=2002-06-18 |publisher=Federation of American Scientists (FAS) |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005014507/http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/DCI_18_June_testimony_new.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-05 |url-status=live }}).}} – 11 September 2001) was a Saudi Arabian terrorist hijacker. He was one of the five [[Organizers of the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] of [[American Airlines Flight 77]], which was flown into the [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]].

Al-Mihdhar was born in Saudi Arabia. In early 1999, he traveled to [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Afghanistan]] where, as an experienced and respected [[jihad]]ist, he was selected by [[Osama bin Laden]] to participate in the attacks. Al-Mihdhar arrived in [[California]] with fellow hijacker [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] in January 2000, after traveling to [[Malaysia]] for the [[Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit]]. At this point, the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] was aware of al-Mihdhar, and he was photographed in Malaysia with another [[al-Qaeda]] member who was involved in the [[USS Cole bombing|USS ''Cole'' bombing]]. The CIA did not inform the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] when it learned that al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi had entered the United States, and al-Mihdhar was not placed on any watchlists until late August 2001.

Upon arriving in [[San Diego County, California]], al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi were to train as pilots, but spoke English poorly and did not do well with [[Flight training|flight lessons]]. In June 2000, al-Mihdhar left the United States for [[Yemen]], leaving al-Hazmi behind in San Diego. Al-Mihdhar spent some time in Afghanistan in early 2001 and returned to the United States in early July 2001. He stayed in [[New Jersey]] in July and August, before arriving in the [[Washington, D.C.]], area at the beginning of September.

On the morning of 11 September 2001, al-Mihdhar boarded American Airlines Flight 77, and assisted in the hijacking of the plane which was hijacked approximately 30 minutes after takeoff. al-Mihdhar and his team of hijackers then deliberately crashed the plane into the Pentagon, killing all 64 people aboard the flight, along with 125 on the ground.

==Background==
Al-Mihdhar was born on 16 May 1975, in [[Mecca]], [[Saudi Arabia]], to a prominent family that belonged to the [[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraysh]] tribe of Mecca.<ref name="willalOmari">Videotape of recorded will of Abdulaziz al-Omari and others</ref> Little is known about his life before the age of 20, when he and childhood friend [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] went to [[Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia and Herzegovina]] to fight with the [[Bosnian mujahideen|mujahideen]] in the [[Bosnian War]].<ref name="911-ch5">9/11 Commission Report, Chapter 5.2, pp. 153–159</ref><ref>McDermott (2005), p. 191</ref> After the war, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi went to [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Afghanistan]] where they fought alongside the [[Taliban]] against the [[United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan|Northern Alliance]],<ref name="wright">Wright (2006), p. 309</ref> and al-Qaeda would later dub al-Hazmi his "second in command".<ref name="willalOmari"/> In 1997, al-Mihdhar told his family that he was leaving to [[Chechen–Russian conflict#Chechen Wars|fight in Chechnya]],<ref>{{cite news|author=McDermott, Terry |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |title=The Plot: How Terrorists hatched a simple plan to use planes as bombs |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/specials/911/la-na-plot-1sep01.story |date=2002-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919221220/http://911readingroom.org/whole_document.php?article_id=150 |archive-date=2008-09-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref> though it is not certain that he actually went to Chechnya.<ref name="Burke">Burke (2004), p. 237</ref> The same year, both men attracted the attention of [[Saudi Intelligence]], who believed they were involved in [[arms smuggling]], and the following year they were eyed as possible collaborators in the [[1998 United States embassy bombings]] in [[East Africa]] after it emerged that [[Mohamed Rashed Daoud Al-Owhali]] had given the FBI the phone number of al-Mihdhar's father-in-law; 967-1-200578, which turned out to be a key communications hub for al-Qaeda militants, and eventually tipped off the Americans about the upcoming [[Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit]].<ref name="mayer">[[Jane Mayer|Mayer, Jane]], "The Dark Side", 2008.</ref><ref name="disclose">{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,100332,00.html |title=Saudis, US Disclose Intel Operations on Terror |publisher=FOX News |date=2003-10-16 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080413214024/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,100332,00.html |archive-date=2008-04-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the late 1990s, al-Mihdhar married Hoda al-Hada, who was the sister of a comrade from [[Yemen]], and they had two daughters.<ref name="wright"/> Through marriage, al-Mihdhar was related to a number of individuals involved with [[al-Qaeda]] in some way. Al-Mihdhar's father-in-law, [[Ahmad Mohammad Ali al-Hada]], helped facilitate al-Qaeda communications in Yemen,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9502E4DF123FF936A25751C0A9649C8B63 |title=Dead Suspect Had Links To Terrorism |date=2002-02-15 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120630050804/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9502E4DF123FF936A25751C0A9649C8B63 |archive-date=2012-06-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/63855 |title=Periscope |author=Hosenball, Mark |date=2002-02-25 |magazine=Newsweek |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120630050900/http://www.newsweek.com/id/63855 |archive-date=2012-06-30 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in late 2001, al-Mihdhar's brother-in-law, [[Ahmed al-Darbi]], was captured in [[Azerbaijan]] and sent to [[Guantanamo Bay Naval Base|Guantanamo Bay]] on charges of supporting a plot to bomb ships in the [[Strait of Hormuz]].<ref>Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, [[s:Guantanamo Detainee Charged (ISN 768)|Guantanamo Detainee Charged (ISN 768)]], December 21, 2007</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/1240/story/489066.html |title=Saudi Terror Suspect: Military Trials a 'Sham' |author=Rosenberg, Carol |date=2008-04-09 |work=Miami Herald |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20081009061543/http://www.miamiherald.com/1240/story/489066.html |archive-date=2008-10-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Selection for the attacks===
In Spring 1999, al-Qaeda founder [[Osama bin Laden]] committed to support the 9/11 attacks plot, which was largely organized by prominent al-Qaeda member [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]]. Al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi were among the first group of participants selected for the operation, along with [[Walid bin 'Attash|Tawfiq bin Attash]] and [[Abu Bara al Yemeni]], al-Qaeda members from Yemen. Al-Mihdhar, who had spent time in al-Qaeda camps in the 1990s, was known and highly regarded by Bin Laden.<ref name="Burke"/> Al-Mihdhar was so eager to participate in [[jihad]] operations in the United States that he had already obtained a one-year [[B-1 visa|B-1/B-2]] (tourist/business) multiple-entry [[United States visas|visa]] from the consulate in [[Jeddah]], Saudi Arabia, on 7 April 1999, one day after obtaining a new passport.<ref name="911-ch5"/><ref name="travel">9/11 and Terrorist Travel, pp. 9–10</ref> Al-Mihdhar listed the Los Angeles [[Sheraton Hotels and Resorts|Sheraton]] as his intended destination.<ref name="timeline">FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 40</ref>

Once selected, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi were sent to the [[Mes Aynak]] training camp in Afghanistan. In late 1999, al-Hazmi, bin Attash and al Yemeni went to [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]] to see Mohammed, who instructed them on [[Western culture]] and travel; however, al-Mihdhar did not go to Karachi, instead returning to Yemen.<ref name="911-ch5"/> He was known as ''Sinaan'' during the preparations.<ref name="willalOmari"/>

==2000==

===Malaysia summit===
[[File:KAlmihdhar.JPG|thumb|right|Khalid al-Mihdhar]]
{{main|Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit}}
The [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] was aware of al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi's involvement with al-Qaeda, having been informed by Saudi intelligence during a 1999 meeting in [[Riyadh]]. Based on information uncovered by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] in the [[1998 United States embassy bombings]] case, the [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) began tracking the communications of Hada, al-Mihdhar's father-in-law. In late 1999, the NSA informed the CIA of an upcoming meeting in [[Malaysia]], which Hada mentioned would involve "Khalid", "Nawaf", and "Salem", who was al-Hazmi's younger brother, [[Salem al-Hazmi]].<ref name="soufan"/>

On 4 January 2000, al-Mihdhar left Yemen and flew to [[Dubai]], [[United Arab Emirates]], where he spent the night. The CIA broke into his hotel room and photocopied his passport, which gave them his full name, birth information and passport number for the first time, and alerted them that he held an entry visa to the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gpoaccess.gov/serialset/creports/pdf/fullreport_errata.pdf |title=Report of the Joint Inquiry into the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |year=2002 |page=144 |access-date=2008-09-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005014507/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/serialset/creports/pdf/fullreport_errata.pdf |archive-date=October 5, 2008 }}</ref> The photocopy was sent to the CIA's [[Bin Laden Issue Station|Alec Station]], which was tracking al-Qaeda.<ref name="soufan">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/07/10/060710fa_fact_wright?currentPage=all |author=Wright, Lawrence |title=The Agent: Did the CIA Stop an FBI Detective from Preventing 9/11 |date=2006-07-10 |magazine=The New Yorker |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080717133042/http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/07/10/060710fa_fact_wright?currentPage=all |archive-date=2008-07-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 5 January 2000, al-Mihdhar traveled to [[Kuala Lumpur]], where he joined al-Hazmi, bin Attash and al-Yemeni, who were all arriving from Pakistan. [[Hamburg cell]] member [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] was also at the summit, and Mohammed possibly attended.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/knew/could/ |title=The Man Who Knew: What If... |work=Frontline |publisher=PBS |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921160152/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/knew/could/ |archive-date=2008-09-21 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="fouda">Fouda and Fielding (2003), pp. 129–130</ref> The group was in Malaysia to meet with [[Hambali]], the leader of [[Jemaah Islamiyah]], an Asian al-Qaeda affiliate. During the [[Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit]], many key details of the 9/11 attacks may have been arranged. At the time, the attacks plot had an additional component involving hijacking aircraft in Asia, as well as in the United States. Bin Attash and al-Yemeni were slated for this part of the plot. However, it was later canceled by bin Laden for being too difficult to coordinate with United States operations.<ref name="911-ch5"/>

{{quote box |width=20em |quote='[W]e've got to tell the Bureau about this. These guys clearly are bad. One of them, at least, has a multiple-entry visa to the U.S. We've got to tell the FBI.' And then [the CIA officer] said to me, 'No, it's not the FBI's case, not the FBI's jurisdiction.' |author=[[Mark Rossini]] |source="The Spy Factory"<ref name=rossini1>{{cite news | url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/military/spy-factory.html | title=The Spy Factory | publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] | author=Bamford, James | author-link=James Bamford | author2=Willis, Scott | date=February 3, 2009 | access-date=July 2, 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411200414/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/military/spy-factory.html | archive-date=2014-04-11 | url-status=live }}</ref>}}

In Malaysia, the group stayed with [[Yazid Sufaat]], a local Jemaah Islamiyah member, who provided accommodation at Hambali's request.<ref name="911-ch5"/> Both al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi were secretly photographed at the meeting by Malaysian authorities, whom the CIA had asked to provide [[surveillance]]. The Malaysians reported that al-Mihdhar spoke at length with bin Attash, and he met with [[Fahd al-Quso]] and others who were later involved in the [[USS Cole bombing|USS ''Cole'' bombing]].<ref name="soufan"/><ref name="fouda"/> After the meeting, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi traveled to [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]], on 8 January and left a week later on 15 January for the United States.<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 52</ref>

===United States entry===
[[Image:Parkwood apts.jpg|thumb|right|Parkwood Apartments complex, located in the [[Clairemont, San Diego, California|Clairemont Mesa]] section of [[San Diego]], where Mihdhar and [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] lived from February until the end of May 2000]]

On 15 January 2000, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi arrived at [[Los Angeles International Airport]] from Bangkok and were admitted as tourists for a period of six months.<ref>9/11 and Terror Travel, p. 10</ref> Immediately after entering the country, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi met [[Omar al-Bayoumi]] in an airport restaurant. Al-Bayoumi claimed he was merely being charitable in assisting the two seemingly out-of-place [[Muslim]]s with moving to San Diego, where he helped them find an apartment near his own, co-signed their lease, and gave them $1,500 to help pay their rent.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/66665 |title=The Saudi Money Trail |date=2002-12-02 |author=Iskioff, Michael and Evan Thomas |work=Newsweek |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205040852/http://www.newsweek.com/id/66665 |archive-date=2008-12-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mohammed later claimed that he suggested San Diego as their destination, based on information gleaned from a San Diego phone book that listed language and flight schools. Mohammed also recommended that the two seek assistance from the local Muslim community, since neither spoke English nor had experience with Western culture.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf |title=Outline of the 9/11 Plot, Staff Statement No. 16 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |year=2004 |page=5 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005014507/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-05 |url-status=live }}</ref>

While in San Diego, witnesses told the FBI he and al-Hazmi had a close relationship with [[Anwar Al Awlaki]], an imam who served as their spiritual advisor.<ref>[https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sandiego/access/404461061.html?dids=404461061:404461061&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Sep+11%2C+2003&author=Toby+Eckert+and+Marcus+Stern&pub=The+San+Diego+Union+-+Tribune&desc=9%2F11+investigators+baffled+FBI+cleared+3+ex-San+Diegans&pqatl=google Eckert, Toby, and Stern, Marcus, "9/11 investigators baffled FBI cleared 3 ex-San Diegans", ''The San Diego Union'', September 11, 2003, November 30, 2009]{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Authorities say the two regularly attended the [[Masjid Ar-Ribat al-Islami]] mosque al-Awlaki led in San Diego, and al-Awlaki had many closed-door meetings with them, which led investigators to believe al-Awlaki knew about the 9/11 attacks in advance.
[[File:Anwar al-Awlaki sitting on couch, lightened.jpg|thumb|160px|left|[[Anwar al-Awlaki]] in [[Yemen]], 2008]]
In early February 2000, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi rented an apartment at the Parkwood Apartments complex in the [[Clairemont, San Diego, California|Clairemont Mesa]] area of San Diego, and al-Mihdhar purchased a used 1988 [[Toyota Corolla]].<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, pp. 54–55</ref> Neighbors thought that al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi were odd because months passed without the men getting any furniture, and they slept on mattresses on the floor, yet they carried briefcases, were frequently on their mobile phones, and were occasionally picked up by a limousine.<ref name="inside911">Aust (2002), pp. 17–18</ref> Those who met al-Mihdhar in San Diego described him as "dark and brooding, with a disdain for American culture".<ref>Fouda and Fielding (2003), p. 136</ref> Neighbors also said that the pair constantly played [[flight simulator]] games.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101010924/wplot.html |title=The New Breed of Terrorist |author=McGeary, Johanna |author2=David Van Biema |work=TIME Magazine |date=2001-09-24 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930184522/http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101010924/wplot.html |archive-date=2008-09-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi took [[Flight training|flight lessons]] on 5 May 2000, at the Sorbi Flying Club in San Diego, with al-Mihdhar flying an aircraft for 42 minutes. They took additional lessons on 10 May;<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, pp. 63–64</ref> however, with poor English skills, they did not do well with flight lessons. Al-Mihdhar and Al-Hazmi raised some suspicion when they offered extra money to their flight instructor, Richard Garza, if he would train them to fly jets. Garza refused the offer but did not report them to authorities.<ref name="inside911"/> After the 9/11 attacks, Garza described the two men as "impatient students" who "wanted to learn to fly jets, specifically Boeings".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/07/terrorism.afghanistan3 |title=Saudi hijacker 'was key link to bin Laden' |work=The Observer |author=Helmore, Edward |author2=Ed Vulliamy |date=2001-10-07 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227223026/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/oct/07/terrorism.afghanistan3 |archive-date=2009-02-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Return to Yemen===
Al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi moved out of the Parkwood Apartments at the end of May 2000, and al-Mihdhar transferred registration for the Toyota Corolla to al-Hazmi.<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 67</ref> On 10 June 2000, al-Mihdhar left the United States and returned to Yemen to visit his wife, against the wishes of Mohammed who wanted him to remain in the United States to help al-Hazmi adapt.<ref>9/11 and Terror Travel, p. 11</ref><ref name="ksm">[[s:Substitution for the Testimony of KSM|Substitution for the Testimony of KSM]] at the trial of [[Zacarias Moussaoui]]</ref> Mohammed was so angered by this that he decided to remove al-Mihdhar from the 9/11 plot, but he was overruled by bin Laden. Al-Mihdhar remained part of the plot as a muscle hijacker, who would help take over the aircraft.<ref name="911-ch7-2">9/11 Commission Report, Chapter 7.2 – The Attack Looms, First Arrivals in California, pp. 215–222</ref> On 12 October 2000, the [[USS Cole (DDG-67)|USS ''Cole'']] was bombed by a small boat loaden with explosives. After the bombing, [[Prime Minister of Yemen|Yemeni Prime Minister]] [[Abdul Karim al-Iryani]] reported that al-Mihdhar had been one of the key planners of the attack and had been in the country at the time of the attacks.<ref>Smith (2005), p. 60</ref> In late 2000, al-Mihdhar was back in Saudi Arabia, staying with a cousin in Mecca.<ref name="911-ch7-2"/>

==2001==
In February 2001, al-Mihdhar returned to Afghanistan for several months, possibly entering across the [[Afghanistan–Iran border|Iranian border]] after a flight from [[Syria]].<ref name="911-ch7-3"/> FBI director [[Robert Mueller]] later stated his belief that al-Mihdhar served as the coordinator and organizer for the muscle hijackers. He was the last of the muscle hijackers to return to the United States.<ref>{{cite news |title=2 hijackers' roles in organizing 9/11 plot revealed |author=Simpson, Cam |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |date=2002-09-27}}</ref> On 10 June, he returned to Saudi Arabia for a month, where he applied to re-enter the United States through the Visa Express program, indicating that he intended to stay at a [[Marriott International|Marriott hotel]] in New York City.<ref name="911-ch7-3">9/11 Commission Report, Chapter 7.3 – The Attack Looms, Assembling the Teams, pp. 231–240</ref> On his visa application, al-Mihdhar falsely stated that he had never previously traveled to the United States.<ref>9/11 and Terror Travel, pp. 24–25</ref>

On 4 July, al-Mihdhar returned to the United States, arriving at New York City's [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]],<ref name="911-ch7-3"/> using a new passport obtained the previous month.<ref>9/11 and Terror Travel, p. 27</ref> A digital copy of one of al-Mihdhar's passports was later recovered during a search of an [[al-Qaeda safe house]] in Afghanistan, which held indicators, such as fake or altered passport stamps, that al-Mihdhar was a member of a known terrorist group.<ref>9/11 and Terror Travel, p. 42</ref> At the time when al-Mihdhar was admitted to the United States, immigration inspectors had not been trained to look for such indicators. Upon arriving, al-Mihdhar did not check into the Marriott but instead spent a night at another hotel in the city.<ref name="911-ch7-3"/>

Al-Mihdhar bought a [[Identity document forgery|fake ID]] on July 10 from All Services Plus in [[Passaic County, New Jersey]], which was in the business of selling counterfeit documents, including another ID to [[American Airlines Flight 11|Flight 11]] hijacker [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9803E0DD1E3FF93BA35750C0A9659C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |title=A Plea Deal, Then Freedom, in Terror Case Where Prosecutors Kept Evidence a Secret |author=Miller, Jonathan |date=2003-03-08 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120629111030/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9803E0DD1E3FF93BA35750C0A9659C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |archive-date=2012-06-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 1 August, al-Mihdhar and fellow Flight 77 hijacker [[Hani Hanjour]] drove to [[Virginia]] in order to obtain driver's licenses. Once they arrived, they scouted out a [[7-Eleven]] convenience store and a dollar store in [[Falls Church, Virginia|Falls Church]], and found two [[El Salvador|Salvadoran]] immigrants who, for $50 each, were willing to vouch for al-Mihdhar and Hanjour as being Virginian residents. With notarized residency forms, al-Mihdhar and Hanjour were able to obtain driver's licenses at a Virginian motor vehicle office. Flight 77 hijackers [[Salem al-Hazmi]] and [[Majed Moqed]], and [[United Airlines Flight 93]] hijacker [[Ziad Jarrah]] used the same addresses obtained from the Salvadorans to obtain Virginian driver's licenses.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps42475/80452.pdf |title=Risk to Homeland Security from Identity Fraud and Identity Theft |work=Testimony before the House Committee on the Judiciary |date=2002-06-25 |publisher=Government Printing Office |page=7 |access-date=2008-10-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012014855/http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps42475/80452.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-12 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>9/11 and Terror Travel, p. 29</ref>

In August 2001, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi made several visits to the library at [[William Paterson University]] in [[Wayne, New Jersey]], where they used computers to look up travel information and book flights.<ref>{{cite news |title=9/11 pair used state college to buy airfare |author=Cohen, Robert and Kelly Heyboer |publisher=Star-Ledger (Newark) |date=2005-04-29}}</ref> On 22 August, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi tried to purchase flight tickets from the American Airlines online ticket-merchant, but had technical difficulties and gave up.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |title=Statement of Robert S. Mueller: Joint Investigation Into September 11 |date=2002-09-26 |publisher=Federation of American Scientists (FAS) |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205025548/http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |archive-date=2008-12-05 |url-status=live }}</ref> Al-Mihdhar and Moqed were able to make flight reservations for Flight 77 on 25 August, using Moqed's credit card; however, the transaction did not fully go through because the billing address and the shipment address for the tickets did not match.<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 235</ref>

On 31 August, al-Mihdhar closed an account at [[TD Banknorth|Hudson United Bank]] in New Jersey, having opened the account when he arrived in July, and was with Hanjour when he made a withdrawal from an ATM in [[Paterson, New Jersey|Paterson]] on September 1. The next day, al-Mihdhar, Moqed and Hanjour traveled to [[Maryland]], where they stayed at budget motels in [[Laurel, Maryland|Laurel]]. Al-Mihdhar was among the muscle hijackers who worked out at a [[Gold's Gym]] in [[Greenbelt, Maryland|Greenbelt]] in early September.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://loudounextra.washingtonpost.com/news/2001/sep/19/dulles-hijackers-made-maryland-their-base/ |title=Dulles Hijackers Made Maryland Their Base |author=Masters, Brook A. |date=2001-09-19 |newspaper=The Washington Post |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5bRH6tam9?url=http://loudounextra.washingtonpost.com/news/2001/sep/19/dulles-hijackers-made-maryland-their-base/ |archive-date=2008-10-09 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="FBI Hijackers">FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 255</ref> On September 5, al-Mihdhar and Moqed went to the American Airlines ticket counter at [[Baltimore-Washington International Airport]] to pick up their tickets for Flight 77, paying $2,300 in cash.<ref name="FBI Hijackers"/>

===Intelligence leads===
Despite knowledge of his entry into the United States for over a year, al-Mihdhar was not placed on a CIA watchlist until 21 August 2001, and a note was sent on 23 August to the [[United States Department of State|Department of State]] and the [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]] (INS) suggesting that al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi be added to their watchlists. The [[Federal Aviation Administration]] (FAA) was not notified about the two men.<ref name="smith">{{cite news |title=A History of Missed Connections |author=Smith, R. Jeffrey |date=2003-07-25 |newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2003/07/25/a-history-of-missed-connections/03465f5e-f2f5-49b7-8964-3b847e0a7c5a/ |access-date=2008-09-30}}</ref> On 23 August, the CIA informed the FBI that al-Mihdhar had obtained a U.S. visa in Jeddah. The FBI headquarters received a copy of the Visa Express application from the Jeddah embassy on 24 August, showing the New York Marriott as al-Mihdhar's destination.<ref name="rolince"/>

On 28 August, the FBI New York field office requested that a criminal case be opened to determine whether al-Mihdhar was still in the United States, but the request was refused.<ref name="hill">{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092002hill.html |title=The Intelligence Community's Knowledge of the September 11 Hijackers Prior to September 11, 2001 |author=Hill, Eleanor |work=Joint Inquiry into the Events of September 11, 2001 |publisher=Federation of American Scientists (FAS) |date=2002-09-20 |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010233211/http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092002hill.html |archive-date=2008-10-10 |url-status=live }}</ref> The FBI ended up treating al-Mihdhar as an intelligence case, which meant that the FBI's criminal investigators could not work on the case, due to the barrier separating intelligence and criminal case operations. An agent in the New York office sent an e-mail to FBI headquarters saying, "Whatever has happened to this, someday someone will die, and the public will not understand why we were not more effective and throwing every resource we had at certain 'problems.'" The reply from headquarters was, "we [at headquarters] are all frustrated with this issue ... [t]hese are the rules. [[National Security Law Unit|NSLU]] does not make them up."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092002fbi.html |title=Prepared Statement of a New York Special Agent |work=Joint Inquiry into the Events of September 11, 2001 |publisher=Federation of American Scientists (FAS) |date=2002-09-20 |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014003935/http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092002fbi.html |archive-date=2008-10-14 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The FBI contacted Marriott on 30 August, requesting that they check guest records, and on 5 September, they reported that no Marriott hotels had any record of al-Mihdhar checking in.<ref name="rolince">{{cite web |url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/testimony/joint-inquiry-into-events-of-september-11-2001 |title=Testimony of Michael E. Rolince |work=Joint Inquiry into the Events of September 11, 2001 |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |date=2002-09-20 |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112151633/http://www.fbi.gov/news/testimony/joint-inquiry-into-events-of-september-11-2001 |archive-date=2011-01-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> The day before the attacks, [[Robert Fuller (FBI)|Robert Fuller]] of the New York office requested that the Los Angeles FBI office check all local [[Sheraton Hotels and Resorts|Sheraton Hotel]]s,<ref name="rolince"/> as well as [[Lufthansa]] and [[United Airlines]] bookings, because those were the two airlines al-Mihdhar had used to enter the country.<ref name="hill"/> Neither the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]]'s [[Financial Crimes Enforcement Network]] nor the FBI's Financial Review Group, which have access to credit card and other private financial records, were notified about al-Mihdhar prior to 11 September.<ref name="smith"/>

Regarding the CIA's refusal to inform the FBI about al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi, author [[Lawrence Wright]] suggests the CIA wanted to protect its turf and was concerned about giving sensitive intelligence to FBI Agent [[John P. O'Neill]], who Alec Station chief [[Michael Scheuer]] described as duplicitous. Wright also speculates that the CIA may have been protecting intelligence operations overseas, and might have been eying al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi as recruitment targets to obtain intelligence on al-Qaeda, although the CIA was not authorized to operate in the United States and might have been leaving them for Saudi intelligence to recruit.<ref name="soufan"/><ref name="wright2">Wright (2006), pp. 310–315</ref>

==September 11 attacks==
{{main|American Airlines Flight 77}}
[[Image:DM-SD-02-03886.JPEG|thumb|right|The Pentagon, minutes after American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into it]]
On 10 September 2001, al-Mihdhar and the other hijackers checked into the [[Marriott International|Marriott Residence Inn]] in [[Herndon, Virginia]], near [[Washington Dulles International Airport]].<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 284</ref> [[Saleh Ibn Abdul Rahman Hussayen]], a prominent Saudi Arabian government official, was staying at the same hotel that night, although there is no evidence that they met or knew of each other's presence.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A31402-2003Oct1?language=printer |title=Spreading Saudi Fundamentalism in U.S. |date=2003-10-02 |newspaper=The Washington Post |author=Schmidt, Susan |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224024342/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A31402-2003Oct1?language=printer |archive-date=2011-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

At 6:22 a.m. on 11 September 2001, the group checked out of the hotel and headed to Dulles airport.<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 290</ref> At 7:15 a.m., al-Mihdhar and Moqed checked in at the American Airlines ticket counter<ref name="911-ch1">9/11 Commission Report, Chapter 1.1 (2004), pp. 1–13</ref> and arrived at the passenger security checkpoint at 7:20 a.m.<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 288</ref> Both men set off the [[Metal detector#Security screening|metal detector]] and were put through secondary screening. Security video footage later released shows that Moqed was [[Security wand|wanded]], but the screener did not identify what set off the alarm, and both Moqed and al-Mihdhar were able to proceed without further hindrance.<ref name="dullesvideo">{{cite episode|url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0407/21/acd.01.html |title=New Video of 9/11 hijackers at Dulles Airport before attacks |series=Anderson Cooper 360 Degrees |network=CNN |airdate=2004-07-21 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005113444/http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0407/21/acd.01.html |archive-date=2008-10-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="staff3">{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |title=The Aviation Security System and the 9/11 Attacks – Staff Statement No. 3 |work=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |page=9 |access-date=2008-05-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528201527/http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Al-Mihdhar was also selected by the [[Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System]] (CAPPS), which involved extra screening of his luggage; however, because al-Mihdhar did not check any luggage, this had no effect.<ref name="four">{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306021319/http://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |archive-date=2008-03-06 |title=Staff Monograph on the "Four Flights and Civil Aviation Security" |date=September 2005 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |pages=27–29 |access-date=2008-08-14 |url-status=dead }}</ref> By 7:50 a.m., al-Mihdhar and the other hijackers, carrying knives and box cutters, had made it through the airport security checkpoint and boarded Flight 77 to Los Angeles. Al-Mihdhar was seated in seat 12B, next to Moqed.<ref name="911-ch1"/>

The flight was scheduled to depart from Gate D26 at 8:10 a.m. but was delayed by 10 minutes.<ref name="four"/> The last routine radio communication from the plane to [[air traffic control]] occurred at 8:50:51 a.m.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gregor |first=Joseph A. |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/ATC_%20Report_AA77.pdf |title=ATC Report American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=2001-12-21 |page=13 |access-date=2008-06-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409092934/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/ATC_%20Report_AA77.pdf |archive-date=April 9, 2008 }}</ref> At 8:54 a.m., Flight 77 deviated from its assigned flight path and began to turn south,<ref name="911-ch1"/> at which point the hijackers set the flight's [[autopilot]] setting for Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/autopilot_AA77_UA93_study.pdf |title=Study of Autopilot, Navigation Equipment, and Fuel Consumption Activity Based on United Airlines Flight 93 and American Airlines Flight 77 Digital Flight Data Recorder Information |last=O'Callaghan |first=John |author2=Bower, Daniel |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |page=6 |date=2002-02-13 |access-date=2008-06-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409092923/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/autopilot_AA77_UA93_study.pdf |archive-date=April 9, 2008 }}</ref> Passenger [[Barbara Olson]] called her husband, [[United States Solicitor General]] [[Theodore Olson|Ted Olson]] (whose 61st birthday was on that day), and reported that the plane had been hijacked.<ref name="911-ch1"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Johnson |first=Glen |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |title=Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes |work=The Boston Globe |date=November 23, 2001|access-date=2008-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216072126/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |archive-date=2008-12-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> At 9:37:45 a.m, Flight 77 crashed into the west [[facade]] of [[the Pentagon]], killing all 64 people aboard, along with 125 in the Pentagon.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/about/Documents/AAL77_fdr.pdf |title=American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=2002-01-31 |page=2 |access-date=2008-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316175021/https://www.ntsb.gov/about/Documents/AAL77_fdr.pdf |archive-date=2015-03-16 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the recovery process, remains of the five hijackers were identified through a [[process of elimination]], since their [[DNA]] did not match any from the victims, and put into the custody of the FBI.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |title=Remains Of 9 Sept. 11 Hijackers Held |date=2002-08-17 |publisher=CBS News |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930021707/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |archive-date=2008-09-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Naming the Dead – Confronting the Realities of Rapid Identification of Degraded Skeletal Remains |author=Edson, S. M. |journal=Forensic Science Review |volume=16 |issue=1 |date=January 2004 |pages=64–90 |display-authors=etal |pmid=26256813}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
After the attacks, the identification of al-Mihdhar was one of the first links suggesting that bin Laden had played a role in their organization, since al-Mihdhar had been seen at the Malaysian conference speaking to bin Laden's associates.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/piece-by-piece-the-jigsaw-of-terror-revealed-9234643.html |last=Blackhurst |first=Chris |title=Piece by piece, the jigsaw of terror revealed |work=The Independent |date=2001-09-30 |access-date=2017-09-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510152137/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/piece-by-piece-the-jigsaw-of-terror-revealed-9234643.html |archive-date=2017-05-10 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Burns, Vincent |title=Terrorism: A Documentary and Reference Guide |year=2005 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-313-33213-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780313332135/page/139 139] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780313332135/page/139 }}</ref> The FBI interrogated Quso, who was arrested following the USS ''Cole'' bombing and in custody in Yemen. Quso was able to identify al-Mihdhar, al-Hazmi and bin Attash in photos provided by the FBI, and he also knew [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], a hijacker aboard [[United Airlines Flight 175]]. From Quso, the FBI was able to establish an al-Qaeda link to the attacks.<ref>Wright (2006), pp. 362–637</ref>

On 12 September 2001, the Toyota Corolla purchased by al-Mihdhar was found in Dulles International Airport's hourly parking lot. Inside the vehicle, authorities found a letter written by [[Mohamed Atta]], a hijacker aboard [[American Airlines Flight 11]]; maps of Washington, D.C. and New York City; a cashier's check made out to a [[Phoenix, Arizona]], flight school; four drawings of a [[Boeing 757]] cockpit; a box cutter; and a page with notes and phone numbers, which contained evidence that led investigators to San Diego.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2001/sep/27/news/mn-50544 |title=Authorities' Dragnet Snags More Suspects |author=Meyer, Josh |author2=Eric Lichtblau |work=Los Angeles Times |date=2001-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520081248/http://articles.latimes.com/2001/sep/27/news/mn-50544 |archive-date=2011-05-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 19 September 2001, the [[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]] (FDIC) distributed a special alert that listed al-Mihdhar as still alive,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/inactivefinancial/2001/fil0179a.html |title=Inactive Financial Institution Letters |publisher=Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation |date=2001-09-19 |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005204707/http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/inactivefinancial/2001/fil0179a.html |archive-date=2008-10-05 |url-status=live }}</ref> and other reports began suggesting that a number of the alleged hijackers were likewise still alive. For instance, on 23 September 2001, the [[BBC News|BBC]] published an article that suggested al-Mihdhar and others named as hijackers were still at large.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/1559151.stm |work=BBC News |title=Hijack 'suspects' alive and well |date=23 September 2001|access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929150134/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/1559151.stm |archive-date=2008-09-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The German magazine ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' later investigated the BBC's claims of "living" hijackers and reported they were cases of mistaken identities.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,265160-2,00.html |author=Cziesche, Dominik |title=Panoply of the Absurd |magazine=Der Spiegel |date=2003-09-08 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015063544/http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,265160-2,00.html |archive-date=2008-10-15 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2002, Saudi Arabian officials stated that the names of the hijackers were correct and that 15 of the 19 hijackers were Saudi Arabian.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002/02/06/saudi.htm |title=Official: 15 of 19 Sept. 11 hijackers were Saudi |newspaper=USA Today |date=2002-02-06 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929205512/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002/02/06/saudi.htm |archive-date=2008-09-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2006, in response to [[9/11 conspiracy theories]] surrounding its original news story, the BBC said that confusion had arisen with the common Arabic names, and that its later reports on the hijackers superseded its original story.<ref name="hermann">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2006/10/911_conspiracy_theory_1.html |title=9/11 conspiracy theory |author=Hermann, Steve |date=2006-10-27 |work=BBC News |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927014325/http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2006/10/911_conspiracy_theory_1.html |archive-date=2008-09-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2005, [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] [[Lieutenant Colonel|Lt. Col.]] [[Anthony Shaffer (intelligence officer)|Anthony Shaffer]] and [[Member of Congress#Bicameral legislature|Congressman]] [[Curt Weldon]] alleged that the [[United States Department of Defense|Defense Department]] [[data mining]] project [[Able Danger]] identified al-Mihdhar, al-Hazmi, al-Shehri, and Atta as members of a [[Brooklyn]]-based al-Qaeda [[Clandestine cell system|cell]] in early 2000.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/09/politics/09intel.html?scp=1&sq=Four%20in%209/11%20Plot%20Are%20Called%20Tied%20to%20Qaeda%20in%20%2700&st=cse |title=Four in 9/11 Plot Are Called Tied to Qaeda in '00 |author=Jehl, Douglas |date=2005-08-09 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704220219/http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article9714.htm |archive-date=2008-07-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Shaffer largely based his allegations on the recollections of [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[Captain (naval)|Captain]] [[Scott Phillpott]],<ref name="wp-20050819">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/18/AR2005081801751.html |author=Eggen, Dan |title=Officer Says 2 Others Are Source of His Atta Claims |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=2005-08-19 |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724132004/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/18/AR2005081801751.html |archive-date=2008-07-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> who later recanted his recollection, telling investigators that he was "convinced that Atta was not on the chart that we had". Phillpott said that Shaffer was "relying on my recollection 100 percent", and the Defense Department Inspector General's report indicated that Philpott strongly supported the [[social network analysis]] techniques used in Able Danger, and might have exaggerated claims of identifying the hijackers.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/21/AR2006092101831.html |title=Hijackers Were Not Identified Before 9/11, Investigation Says |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=2006-09-22 |author=White, Josh |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106151245/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/21/AR2006092101831.html |archive-date=2012-11-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="oig">{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/agency/dod/ig-abledanger.pdf |title=Office Inspector General's Report |publisher=Department of Defense |date=2006-09-18 |access-date=2008-09-29 |pages=17–22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820035023/http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/dod/ig-abledanger.pdf |archive-date=2008-08-20 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Biography|Saudi Arabia}}
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite web |title=9/11 Commission Report |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |year=2004 |access-date=2008-09-30}}
* {{cite web |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_App.pdf |title=9/11 and Terror Travel: Appendix |year=2004 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=2008-09-30}}
* {{cite book |author=Aust, Stefan |author2=Der Spiegel Magazine |others=Schnibben, Cordt |title=Inside 9-11: What Really Happened |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|MacMillan]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-312-98748-X |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/inside911whatrea00newy }}
* {{cite book |author=Burke, Jason |title=Al-Qaeda: The True Story of Radical Islam |year=2004 |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]]| isbn=1-85043-666-5}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=[[NEFA Foundation]] |date=2008-02-04 |access-date=2008-10-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-12 }}
* {{cite book |author=Fouda, Yosri |author2=Fielding, Nick |title=Masterminds of Terror: The Truth Behind the Most Devastating Terrorist Attack the World Has Ever Seen |publisher=[[Arcade Publishing|Arcade]] |year=2003 |isbn=1-55970-708-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/mastermindsofter00fawd }}
* {{cite book |author=McDermott, Terry |title=Perfect Soldiers: The Hijackers: Who They Were, Why They Did It |year=2005 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=0-06-058469-6}}
* {{cite book |author=Smith, Paul J. |title=Terrorism and Violence in Southeast Asia: Transnational Challenges to States and Regional Stability |year=2005 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=0-7656-1433-2}}
* {{cite book |author=Wright, Lawrence |title=The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |isbn=0-375-41486-X |url=https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig }}

{{featured article}}

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Midhar, Khalid}}
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:American Airlines Flight 77]]
[[Category:Anwar al-Awlaki]]
[[Category:Bosnian mujahideen]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Mecca]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian murderers of children]]

Mohand al-Shehri

2023-09-13T13:56:29Z

78.157.120.208:

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1979–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2009}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Mohand al-Shehri
| native_name = مهند الشهري
| native_name_lang = ar
| image = Mohand al-Shehri.jpg
| image_size = 150px
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1979|5|7|df=yes}}
| birth_name = Mohand Muhammed Fayiz al-Shehri
| birth_place = [['Asir Province]], [[Saudi Arabia]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1979|8|17|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[United Airlines Flight 175|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]]
}}
'''Mohand Muhammed Fayiz al-Shehri''' ({{lang-ar|مهند الشهري}}, {{transl|ar|''Muhand ash-Shehrī''}}; also [[transliteration|transliterated]] as '''Alshehri''') (7 May 1979 – 11 September 2001) was one of five terrorist [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] aboard [[United Airlines Flight 175]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]]. Despite his name, he was not related to the brothers [[Wail al-Shehri]] or [[Waleed al-Shehri]] who were part of the team that hijacked [[American Airlines Flight 11]].

A [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]], al-Shehri was a former college student who dropped out after failing his courses. He later left his home to fight in [[Chechnya]] in 2000, but was probably diverted to [[Al-Qaeda]] training camps in [[Afghanistan]]. It was during that time that he would be chosen to take part in the attacks in America. He received a [[F visa|U.S. student visa]] in October 2000.

al-Shehri arrived in the United States in May 2001. On 11 September 2001, al-Shehri boarded [[United Airlines Flight 175]] and assisted in its hijacking so that it could be flown into the South Tower of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]].

== History ==
[[Image:MOhandsVisaApplication.jpg|thumb|left|130px|Visa Application]]

Born 1979, al-Shehri was one of five hijackers to come from the [['Asir]] province of [[Saudi Arabia]], the others being [[Ahmed al-Nami]], [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]] and [[Waleed al-Shehri|Waleed]] and [[Wail al-Shehri]], two brothers with whom he shared the same tribe, [[Bani Shehr]], although they were not related to him.

According to [[Arab News]], Mohand al-Shehri went to fight in [[Chechnya]] in early 2000, where he may have met [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]]. On 23 October, al-Shehri applied for a US [[B-1/B-2 Visa|B-1/B-2 visa]] in [[Jeddah]]. Other than an error on his school's address the application was not suspicious and he was not interviewed before being granted the visa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |title=Staff Monograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel |publisher=9/11 Commission |year=2004|format=PDF}}</ref>

Al-Ghamdi and al-Shehri flew together from [[Iran]] into [[Kuwait]] that October.<ref>9/11 Commission Report, p. 240.</ref> Three months later the pair rented a [[post office box]] in [[Delray Beach, Florida]], where someone with the same name signed up to use the public library's computers.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20020905134605/http://www.sptimes.com/2002/09/01/911/plotters.shtml "09.11.01: One Year Later."] ''St. Petersburg Times''. September 1, 2002.</ref> According to FBI director [[Robert Mueller]] and the [[9/11 Commission]], however, al-Shehri did not first enter the [[United States]] until a [[London]] or [[Dubai]] flight on May 28 with al-Ghamdi and [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]].{{citation needed|date=September 2011}}

He was one of nine hijackers to open a [[SunTrust]] bank account with a cash deposit around June 2001, and on 2 July gained a Florida State ID Card.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/OG00013.pdf|title=Hijacker True Name Usage Chart for 2001|format=PDF|access-date=2010-08-24|archive-date=2009-05-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512160457/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/OG00013.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Al-Shehri occasionally trained on simulators at the [[FlightSafety Aviation School]] in [[Vero Beach, Florida]] together with [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]] and [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]].
{{-}}

== Attacks ==
{{Main|United Airlines Flight 175}}
[[Fayez Banihammad]] purchased both his and al-Shehri's one-way first class tickets for [[United Airlines Flight 175]] online on 27 or 29 August, charging the $4,464.50 to a [[Visa Inc.|Visa card]] from [[Mustafa al Hawsawi]], listing their addresses both as a [[Mail Boxes Etc.]] in [[Delray Beach, Florida|Delray Beach]]. This was not the same postal box used by [[Hamza al-Ghamdi|Hamza]] and [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]], who purchased their tickets for the same flight a day later, with another Mailboxes Etc. postal box in Delray Beach, although both groups listed the same phone number.

On 7 September, he flew from [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]] to [[Newark, New Jersey]] with Hamza al-Ghamdi on $139.75 tickets purchased from the Mile High Travel agency in [[Lauderdale-by-the-Sea, Florida|Lauderdale-by-the-Sea]].

On 10 September 2001, he shared a room at the Milner Hotel in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] with three other terrorists: Fayez Banihammad, [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], who would pilot Flight 175 into the South Tower of the World Trade Center, and [[Satam al-Suqami]], a hijacker of [[American Airlines Flight 11|Flight 11]].

On 11 September, al-Shehri boarded Flight 175 and sat in first class seat 2B, next to Banihammad in 2A. About a half an hour into the flight, the plane was hijacked. It is believed that Banihammad and al-Shehri forcibly entered the cockpit and murdered the pilots while the al-Ghamdi brothers forced the remaining crew and passengers towards the rear of the aircraft, allowing al-Shehhi to take control of the plane. At 9:03 a.m., around 20 minutes after the hijacking began, al-Shehhi flew the plane into the South Tower of the World Trade Center between floors 77 and 85, killing all on board and killing or trapping hundreds of people inside the building. 56 minutes after the crash, at 9:59 a.m., [[Collapse of the World Trade Center|the South Tower collapsed]], killing all who were trapped and many more on the ground.

== See also ==
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]
* [[PENTTBOM]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commonscatinline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shehri, Mohand}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from 'Asir Province]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian murderers of children]]
[[Category:United Airlines Flight 175]]

Fayez Banihammad

2023-09-13T13:55:52Z

78.157.120.208: Description template

{{Short description|Emirati terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1977–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2009}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Fayez Banihammad
| native_name = فايز بني حماد
| image = FBanihammad.JPG
| image_size =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1977|3|19|df=yes}}
| birth_name = Fayez Rashid Ahmed Hassan al-Qadi Banihammad
| birth_place = [[Khor Fakkan]], [[United Arab Emirates]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1977|3|19|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[United Airlines Flight 175|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Emirati people|Emirati]]
}}

'''Fayez Rashid Ahmed Hassan al-Qadi Banihammad''' ({{lang-ar|فايز راشد احمد حسن القاضي بني حماد|translit=Fāyaz Rāshid Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Qāḍī Banī Ḥammād}}; 19 March 1977{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was an Emirati hijacker. He was one of five [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] aboard [[United Airlines Flight 175]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]].<ref>{{cite web |author=John J. Lumpkin |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/profiles/fayez_bannihammad.htm |title=Globalsecurity.org |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |date=2001-09-11 |access-date=2012-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013034557/http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/profiles/fayez_bannihammad.htm |archive-date=2011-10-13 |url-status=live }}</ref>

He was one of two Emiratis to take part in the attacks, the other being [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], who led the hijacking of Flight 175 and flew the plane into the South Tower of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]].

Born in the [[United Arab Emirates]], Banihammad left his family to pursue relief work. Using the Visa Express program, Banihammad obtained a U.S. tourist visa.

Banihammad arrived in the United States in June 2001. On 11 September 2001, Banihammad boarded [[United Airlines Flight 175]] and participated in the hijacking of the plane so it could be crashed into the South Tower of the World Trade Center.

== Early life ==
Banihammad was from [[Khor Fakkan]] in the [[United Arab Emirates]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/UA00455-2A.html|title=United States v. Zacarias Moussaoui, trial exhibit UA00455.2A|access-date=2010-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527111129/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/UA00455-2A.html|archive-date=2010-05-27|url-status=live}}</ref> and was born to Muhammad Fayez Banihammad, a school principal. Banihammad typically went by the name "Ahmad".<ref name="willalOmari">Videotape of recorded will of Abdulaziz al-Omari and others</ref>

=== 2000 ===
Banihammad told his parents, while spending time in [['Asir]], that he hoped to find work with the [[International Islamic Relief Organization]]. He only contacted his parents once after that.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.arabnews.com/Article.asp?ID=9454&ArY=2001&ArM=10&ArD=1|author=Ba-Isa, Molouk Y. and Saud Al-Towaim |title=Another Saudi 'hijacker' turns up in Tunis |date=October 1, 2001 |newspaper=Arab News |access-date=April 25, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030208094526/http://www.arabnews.com/Article.asp?ID=9454&ArY=2001&ArM=10&ArD=1 |archive-date=February 8, 2003}}</ref> He is believed to have visited the [[Philippines]] for three days from 17–20 October 2000.

Banihammad, together with [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], gained entry to the US via the Visa Express program. Upon later review of his application, it was noticed that he had not listed an occupation or reason for visit, and when asked where he would be living in the country, simply wrote ''No''. However, he still received the visa.{{cn|date=August 2021}}

=== 2001 ===
Before the pair arrived in [[Orlando, Florida]] on 27 June 2001, Banihammad had opened a bank account in the UAE to which $30,000 was deposited by unknown parties only two days before his arrival. He opened another account with [[SunTrust Banks]] in Orlando several days after his arrival, becoming one of nine hijackers to open an account with the bank.

Known as Abu Ahmad al-Imarati during the preparations,<ref name="willalOmari"/> the [[9/11 Commission]] noted: "He appears to have played a unique role among the muscle hijackers because of his work with one of the plot's financial facilitators, [[Mustafa al-Hawsawi]]." On 18 July Banihammad gave Mustafa power-of-attorney over his [[Dubai]] bank account, and Mustafa reportedly mailed him a [[Visa Inc.|VISA]] and bank card.

Possibly a licensed pilot, a man with his name was registered as having trained at the Spartan Aeronautics School in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]], although the school denies that he ever attended, indicating a possible case of mistaken identity.{{citation needed|date=September 2011}}

== Attacks ==
{{Main|United Airlines Flight 175}}
Fayez Banihammad purchased both his and [[Mohand al-Shehri]]'s one-way first class tickets for [[United Airlines Flight 175]] online on 27 or 29 August, charging the $4464.50 to a [[Visa Inc.|Visa card]] from [[Mustafa al-Hawsawi]], listing both of their addresses as a [[Mail Boxes Etc.]] in [[Delray Beach, Florida|Delray Beach]]. This was not the same postal box used by [[Hamza al-Ghamdi|Hamza]] and [[Ahmad al-Ghamdi]] who purchased their tickets for the same flight a day later with another Mailboxes Etc. postal box in Delray Beach, although both groups listed the same phone number.

Staying in the Milner Hotel in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] from September 8–10, Banihammad asked a hotel clerk to fill out the registration card for the room, citing his poor English. On 10 September 2001, he shared a room at the Milner Hotel with three other terrorists: Mohand al-Shehri, [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], who would pilot Flight 175 into the South Tower of the World Trade Center, and [[Satam al-Suqami]], a hijacker of [[American Airlines Flight 11|Flight 11]].

On 11 September, Banihammad boarded Flight 175 and sat in first class seat 2A, next to al-Shehri in 2B. The plane took off at 8:14, and within 28 minutes the five hijackers began their assault. It is believed that Banihammad and al-Shehri forcibly entered the cockpit and murdered the pilots while the al-Ghamdi brothers forced the remaining crew and passengers towards the rear of the aircraft, allowing al-Shehhi to take control of the plane. At 9:03 a.m., only 21 minutes after the hijacking began, al-Shehhi flew the plane into the South Tower of the World Trade Center between the 77th and 85th floors, obliterating all on-board instantly and killing or trapping hundreds of people inside the building. 55 minutes after the crash, at 9:58 a.m., the [[Collapse of the World Trade Center|South Tower collapsed]], killing all who were still inside the building and many more on the ground.

== Aftermath ==
After the attacks it was reported by [[ABC News]] that somebody with the same name had attended the [[Defense Language Institute#Defense Language Institute English Language Center (DLIELC)|Defense Language Institute]] at [[Lackland Air Force Base]] - a claim that may have been born of a false address Banihammad had used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://911research.wtc7.net/cache/disinfo/deceptions/abc_wtcsuspects.html |title="Who Did It?" |access-date=2006-09-08 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031206062021/http://911research.wtc7.net/cache/disinfo/deceptions/abc_wtcsuspects.html |archive-date=December 6, 2003 }} ''ABC News''. 2003.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography}}
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category-inline}}

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Banihammad, Fayez}}
[[Category:1977 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Emirati al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Emirati expatriates in the United States]]
[[Category:Emirati mass murderers]]
[[Category:Emirati murderers of children]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Khor Fakkan]]
[[Category:Suicides in New York City]]
[[Category:United Airlines Flight 175]]

Satam al-Suqami

2023-09-13T13:54:32Z

78.157.120.208: The MDY format is not used in Arabic. Changed to DMY and American English

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1976–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2009}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Satam al-Suqami
| native_name = سطام السقامي
| image = Satam_al-Suqami_-_FBI_release.jpg
| image_size = 150 x 200
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1976|6|28|df=yes}}
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]]
| education = [[King Saud University]]
| birth_place = [[Riyadh]], Saudi Arabia<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historycommons.org/events-images/a232_satam_al_suqami_2050081722-15966.jpg |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-08-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928025852/http://www.historycommons.org/events-images/a232_satam_al_suqami_2050081722-15966.jpg |archive-date=2011-09-28 }}</ref>
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1976|6|28|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[New York City|New York City, New York]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[American Airlines Flight 11|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
}}
'''Satam Muhammad Abd al-Rahman al-Suqami''' ({{lang-ar|سطَّام مُحَمَّدُ عَبْدِ اَلرَّحْمَـٰن السُّقامي|translit=Saṭām Muḥammad ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān as-Suqāmī}}; 28 June 1976{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker. He was one of five [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] of [[American Airlines Flight 11]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]] in 2001.

Al-Suqami had been a law student until he was recruited into [[al-Qaeda]] along with [[Majed Moqed]], who was one of the hijackers of [[American Airlines Flight 77]], and traveled to [[Afghanistan]] where he would be chosen to participate in the 9/11 attacks.

He arrived in the [[United States]] in April 2001. On 11 September 2001, al-Suqami boarded [[American Airlines Flight 11]] and participated in the hijacking of the plane so that it could be crashed into the North Tower of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] as part of the coordinated attacks. He is believed to have perpetrated the first fatality of the attacks in killing passenger [[Daniel Lewin]] in the process of hijacking the plane. Al-Suqami died along with everyone else on the plane on impact with the North Tower.

==Early life==
{{Refimprove section|date=September 2009}}
A native of the [[Saudi Arabia]]n city of [[Riyadh]], al-Suqami was a law student at the [[King Saud University]]. While there he joined a (possible) former roommate named [[Majed Moqed]] in training for [[Al-Qaida]] at Khalden, a large training facility near [[Kabul]] that was run by [[Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi]]. In November 2000, the two flew into [[Iran]] from [[Bahrain]] together.{{fact|date=September 2020}}

==Career==

The [[FBI]] says al-Suqami first arrived in the United States on 23 April 2001, with a [[visa (document)|visa]] that allowed him to remain in the country until 21 May. However, at least five residents of the ''Spanish Trace Apartments'' claim to recognize the photographs of both al-Suqami and [[Salem al-Hazmi]], the younger brother of 9/11 hijacker [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]], as living in the [[San Antonio]] complex earlier in 2001. However, these residents and several others who claim to have known the hijackers, claim that the FBI photographs of al-Suqami and al-Hazmi are reversed.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://news.mysanantonio.com/story.cfm?xla=kens5&xlb=161&xlc=342530
|title=2 hijackers identified as former S.A. residents
|author=Joe Conger
|date=January 10, 2001
|publisher=mysanantonio.com
|quote=At least five sources tell KENS 5, two of the men, Satam al-Suqami and Salem al-Hazmi, lived at the Spanish Trace Apartments on the North Side earlier this year |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20030514140351/http://news.mysanantonio.com/story.cfm?xla=kens5&xlb=161&xlc=342530 |archive-date = May 14, 2003}}</ref> Other reports conflictingly suggested that al-Suqami was staying with [[Waleed al-Shehri]] in [[Hollywood, Florida]], and rented a black [[Toyota Corolla]] from [[Alamo Rent-A-Car]] agency.{{fact|date=September 2020}}

On 19 May, al-Suqami and [[Waleed al-Shehri]] took a flight from [[Fort Lauderdale]] to [[Freeport, Bahamas]] where they had reservations at the ''Princess Resort''. Lacking proper documentation however, they were stopped upon landing, and returned to Florida the same day and rented a red Kia Rio from a [[Avis Car Rental]] agency.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.faqs.org/docs/911/911Report-258.html
|title = 911 Commission Report, section 7.4 'Final Strategies and Tactics', page 241
|access-date = 2009-01-24
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090701030822/http://www.faqs.org/docs/911/911Report-258.html
|archive-date = 2009-07-01
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

He was one of nine hijackers to open a [[SunTrust Banks|SunTrust]] bank account with a cash deposit around June 2001, and on 3 July he was issued a Florida State Identification Card. Around this time, he also used his Saudi license to gain a Florida drivers' license bearing the same home address as [[Wail al-Shehri]]. (A Homing Inn in [[Boynton Beach, Florida|Boynton Beach]]). Despite this, the [[9/11 Commission]] claims that al-Suqami was the only hijacker to not have any US identification.{{citation needed|date=September 2011}}

During the summer, al-Suqami and brothers [[Wail al-Shehri|Wail]] and [[Waleed al-Shehri]] purchased one month passes to a Boynton Beach gym owned by Jim Woolard. ([[Mohamed Atta]] and [[Marwan al-Shehhi]] also reportedly trained at a gym owned by Woolard, in [[Delray Beach, Florida|Delray Beach]].)

Known as ''Azmi'' during the preparations,<ref name="willalOmari">Videotape of recorded will of Abdulaziz al-Omari and others</ref> al-Suqami was called one of the "muscle" hijackers, who were not expected to act as pilots. [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] director [[George Tenet]] later said that they "probably were told little more than that they were headed for a [[suicide mission]] inside the United States."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/10/09/eveningnews/main525012.shtml |title=Sept. 11 Hijacker Made Test Flights |publisher=[[CBS]] |date=October 9, 2002 |access-date=2004-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927002200/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/10/09/eveningnews/main525012.shtml |archive-date=2008-09-27 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==9/11 attacks and death==
{{Main|American Airlines Flight 11}}
[[File:Satam al-Suqami VISA.jpg|thumb|right|Al-Suqami's Visa recovered from crash site]]
On 10 September 2001, al-Suqami shared a room at the Milner Hotel in Boston with three of the Flight 175 hijackers, [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], [[Fayez Banihammad]], and [[Mohand al-Shehri]].

On the day of the attacks, al-Suqami checked in at the flight desk using his Saudi passport, and boarded [[American Airlines Flight 11]]. At [[Logan International Airport]], he was selected by [[Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System|CAPPS]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch1.htm |title=9/11 Commission Report (Chapter 1) |date=July 2004 |access-date=2006-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511160550/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_ch1.htm |archive-date=2008-05-11 |url-status=live }}</ref> which required his checked bags to undergo extra screening for explosives and involved no extra screening at the passenger security checkpoint.<ref name="staff">{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |title=The Aviation Security System and the 9/11 Attacks - Staff Statement No. 3 |publisher=9/11 Commission |access-date=2006-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528201527/http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-28 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[United Press International]] noted in March 2002 that an [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] memo, written the day of the attacks, claimed that al-Suqami, seated in 10B, shot passenger [[Daniel Lewin]], co-founder of [[Akamai Technologies]] and a former member of the [[Israel]]i [[Sayeret Matkal]] who was seated in 9B.<ref name="UPIstabbed">{{cite news|title=UPI hears...|publisher=United Press International|date=6 March 2002|url=http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Security-Industry/2002/03/06/UPI-hears/UPI-87441015437383/|access-date=12 September 2011}}</ref> {{citation needed span|date=August 2023|text=While based on the frantic phone call received from a stewardess of the flight, the report has been a matter of some controversy, since both the FAA and FBI have strongly denied the presence of firearms or guns smuggled aboard.}} The FAA claimed that the leaked memo was a "first draft" with incorrect information (such as timeframes), declining to release the final draft of the memo which was said to lack any reference to discharging ammunition on the flight.<ref name="UPIstabbed"/> The [[9/11 Commission]] speculated that al-Suqami stabbed Lewin so he could not prevent Atta and al-Omari, whose row was in front of his own, from hijacking the flight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch1.htm|title='We Have Some Planes'|date=July 2004|publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|access-date=2011-09-11}}</ref> In 2004, further analysis of flight attendant [[Betty Ong]]’s phone call to American Airlines reservations confirmed that al-Suqami slashed Lewin's throat; however, it is unclear whether Lewin was stabbed for attempting to intervene in the hijacking, or to frighten other passengers and crew into compliance because Lewin was seated directly in front of al-Suqami.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2001986488_planes23.html|title=Excerpt: A travel day like any other — until some passengers left their seats|date=2004-07-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119033249/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2001986488_planes23.html|archive-date=2011-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wbur.org/2011/09/08/9-11-impact-boston|title = Cambridge Co. Keeps Founder's Spirit Alive After 9/11|publisher=WBUR 90.9 Boston's [[National Public Radio]] News Station|first=Curt|last=Nickisch|date=8 September 2011|access-date=12 September 2011}}</ref>

==Passport discovery==
The passport of al-Suqami was found by a passerby in the vicinity of [[Vesey Street (Manhattan)|Vesey Street]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/17/inv.investigation.terrorism/ |title=Ashcroft says more attacks may be planned |work=[[CNN]] |date=September 18, 2001 |access-date=May 23, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100913084116/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/17/inv.investigation.terrorism/ |archive-date=2010-09-13 |url-status=live }}</ref> before the towers collapsed.<ref name="ginsburg">[[9/11 Commission]] hearings, January 26, 2004, [http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/archive/hearing7/9-11Commission_Hearing_2004-01-26.htm Opening staff statement, Susan Ginsburg] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016180355/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/archive/hearing7/9-11Commission_Hearing_2004-01-26.htm |date=2012-10-16 }}</ref> (This was mistakenly reported by many news outlets to be [[Mohamed Atta|Mohamed Atta's]] passport.){{citation needed|date=September 2011}}<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=in7bMWVkTi8|title=YouTube|work=youtube.com|access-date=2016-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118091710/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=in7bMWVkTi8|archive-date=2016-11-18|url-status=live}}</ref> A columnist for the British newspaper ''The Guardian'' expressed incredulity about the authenticity of this report,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/september11/story/0,11209,669961,00.html |title=Uncle Sam's lucky finds |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=March 19, 2002 | location=London | first=Anne | last=Karpf | access-date=May 23, 2010}}</ref> questioning whether a paper passport could survive the inferno unsinged when the [[Flight recorder|black boxes]] of the plane were never found. According to testimony before the 9/11 Commission by lead counsel Susan Ginsburg, his passport had been "manipulated in a fraudulent manner in ways that have been associated with al Qaeda."<ref name="ginsburg" /> Passports belonging to [[Ziad Jarrah]] and [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]] were found at the crash site of United Airlines Flight 93 as well as an [[airphone]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2009/09/remembering_september_11th.html#photo14 | work=The Boston Globe | title=Remembering September 11th | date=September 11, 2009 | access-date=2009-09-19 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090915173456/http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2009/09/remembering_september_11th.html#photo14 | archive-date=2009-09-15 | url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]



{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Suqami, Satam}}
[[Category:1976 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:American Airlines Flight 11]]
[[Category:King Saud University alumni]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Riyadh]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian Islamists]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]

Waleed al-Shehri

2023-09-13T13:50:04Z

78.157.120.208: MDY date format is not used in Arabic. Therefore, DMY is better

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1978–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Waleed al-Shehri
| image = Waleed alshehri pic2.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| native_name = {{nobold|{{Script/Arabic|وليد الشهري}}}}
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1978|12|20|df=yes}}
| native_name_lang = ar
| birth_name = Waleed Mohammed al-Shehri
| birth_place = [['Asir Province|ʿAsir]], Saudi Arabia
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1978|12|20|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], United States
| death_cause = [[Suicide attack]]
| relatives = [[Wail al-Shehri]] (brother)
| module = {{Infobox military person|embed=yes
| allegiance = {{flag|Al-Qaeda}}
| battles = {{unbulletedlist|[[Chechen–Russian conflict]]|[[Afghan conflict#Taliban's rise to power|Afghanistan conflict]]}}
| battles_label = Engagements
}}
| known_for = Hijacking [[American Airlines Flight 11]] during the [[September 11 attacks]]
| height = 1.70 m (5 ft 7 in)
}}
'''Waleed Mohammed al-Shehri''' ({{lang-ar|وليد الشهري|translit=Walīd ash-Shehrī'}}; 20 December 1978 – 11 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist who was involved in the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]] against the [[United States]] in 2001. He was [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|one of the five hijackers]] who took control of [[American Airlines Flight 11]], which was then flown into the North Tower of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]].

Born in [[Saudi Arabia]], al-Shehri had been a student until he accompanied his mentally ill brother to [[Medina]]. Later, he and his brother [[Wail al-Shehri|Wail]] went to [[Chechnya]], where they fought in support of a [[Chechen–Russian conflict|jihadist insurgency against Russia]]. However, they were soon redirected to [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Taliban-controlled Afghanistan]], where they were recruited to carry out the 11 September attacks. After their selection, the brothers were moved to a safehouse in [[Pakistan]] before flying out to the [[United Arab Emirates]] and starting the process to enter the United States.

In April 2001, al-Shehri [[Visa policy of the United States|arrived in the United States on a tourist visa]]. On the day of the attacks, al-Shehri, his brother, and the other hijackers took control of American Airlines Flight 11, following which [[Mohamed Atta]] flew the plane into the North Tower in a [[Suicide attack|suicidal attack]].

==Early life and education==
Al-Shehri was born in [['Asir Province|ʿAsir Province, Saudi Arabia]], on 20 December 1978.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |title=9/11 Commission Report |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |pages=231–240 |chapter=Chapter 7.3–The Attack Looms, Assembling the Teams |access-date=2010-08-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023214223/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |archive-date=2013-10-23 |url-status=live}}</ref> Growing up in a poor region of the country, near the border with [[Yemen]], he studied to become a teacher in the footsteps of [[Wail al-Shehri]], his elder brother. As his family adhered to [[Wahhabism]], a fundamentalist movement within [[Islam]], al-Shehri grew up in a very conservative household; he was [[Islam and music|forbidden to indulge in music]] and did not have any contact with [[Mahram|non-''mahram'' females]] until he was old enough for an [[Marriage in Islam|arranged marriage]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Sennott, Charles M. |date=2002-03-03 |title=Before oath to jihad, drifting and boredom |newspaper=Boston Globe |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1_side.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830042824/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1_side.shtml |archive-date=2008-08-30}}</ref> His family also did not have access to satellite television or the Internet.

Early media accounts state that al-Shehri had earned his pilot's certificate in the [[United States]], graduating from [[Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University]] in 1997.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.miami.com/herald/special/news/worldtrade/digdocs/046328.htm |title=Hijack plotters used S. Florida as a cradle for conspiracy |access-date=2006-09-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011019090410/http://www.miami.com/herald/special/news/worldtrade/digdocs/046328.htm |archive-date=October 19, 2001 }}, Miami Herald, BY ANDRES VIGLUCCI AND MANNY GARCIA, Published Saturday, September 15, 2001</ref> However, after a short investigation, Embry–Riddle was discovered to have not had any involvement in the flight training of the [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|11 September hijackers]]. One of the institution's former students shared the same name as one of the hijackers, but has not been found to have any connections to [[al-Qaeda]].<ref>{{cite news
| last = Viglucci
| first = Andres
|author2=Garcia, Manny
| title = Hijack plotters used S. Florida as a cradle for conspiracy
| newspaper = [[The Miami Herald]]
| date = September 15, 2001
| url = http://www.miami.com/herald/special/news/worldtrade/digdocs/046328.htm
| access-date = 2007-07-01
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20011019090410/http://www.miami.com/herald/special/news/worldtrade/digdocs/046328.htm
| archive-date = 2001-10-19 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|last = Ebbs
|first = George
|title = Open letter from President George Ebbs
|publisher = [[The Avion Newspaper]]
|date = October 8, 2001
|url = http://www.avionnewspaper.com/media/storage/paper798/news/2006/09/05/0/Oct-8.2001.Open.Letter.To.Students.From.Pres.George.Ebbs-2266554.shtml
|access-date = 2007-07-01
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160309012109/http://www.avionnewspaper.com/media/storage/paper798/news/2006/09/05/0/Oct-8.2001.Open.Letter.To.Students.From.Pres.George.Ebbs-2266554.shtml
|archive-date = 2016-03-09
|url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|title = Reflections of Sept. 11
|publisher = [[The Avion Newspaper]]
|date = September 2006
|url = http://www.avionnewspaper.com/sept11
|access-date = 2006-12-29
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160309012110/http://www.avionnewspaper.com/sept11
|archive-date = 2016-03-09
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

==Career==

===2000===
Waleed al-Shehri left his studies to accompany his brother's [[leave of absence]] after his brother complained of a mental symptom that had caused him grief, telling their father that he intended to seek aid from a [[Faith healing|religious healer]] in [[Medina]].

The brothers arrived at the [[Al Farouq training camp]] in [[Afghanistan]], where they met [[Ahmed al-Nami]] and [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]]. Before arriving at Al-Farouq, the four reportedly pledged themselves to [[jihad]] in Spring of 2000, in a ceremony presided over by Wail al-Shehri, who had dubbed himself ''Abu Mossaeb al-Janubi'' after one of [[Muhammad]]'s [[Sahaba|companions]].<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1_side.shtml Before oath to jihad, drifting and boredom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830042824/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1_side.shtml |date=2008-08-30 }}, Boston Globe, By Charles M. Sennott, Globe Staff, 3 March 2002</ref>

Waleed al-Shehri later served in the security forces at [[Kandahar International Airport]] with [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]]. After being selected for the operation, he trained with the other hijackers at al-Matar complex under [[Abu Turab al-Urduni]].

Al-Shehri returned to Saudi Arabia with his brother in the fall of 2000 so they could obtain clean passports and U.S. visas, which they did on 3 October and 24 October 2000, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf|title=Hijackers' Timeline|author=Federal Bureau of Investigation|publisher=NEFA Foundation|date=4 February 2008|access-date=6 October 2008|pages=93; 93|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf|archive-date=12 October 2008}}</ref>

Locals reported that he and his brother disappeared from [[Khamis Mushayt]] in the south of Saudi Arabia in December 2000.<ref name=anews01>{{cite news|last=Khashoggi|first=Jamal|title=Hijacker list raises more questions|url=http://space.crono911.net/EBook/086_ArabNews_20092001.pdf|access-date=27 June 2012|newspaper=Arab News|date=1 October 2001|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707175116/http://space.crono911.net/EBook/086_ArabNews_20092001.pdf|archive-date=7 July 2012}}</ref>

In mid-November, 2000, the 9/11 Commission believes that three of the future muscle hijackers, Wail al-Shehri, Waleed ak-Shehri, and [[Ahmed al-Nami]], all of whom had obtained their U.S. visas in late October, traveled in a group from Saudi Arabia to [[Beirut]], [[Lebanon]] and then onward to [[Iran]] where they could travel through to Afghanistan without getting their passports stamped. This probably followed their return to Saudi Arabia to get "clean" passports. An associate of a senior Hezbollah operative is thought to have been on the same flight, although this may have been a coincidence.<ref name="911-ch7-3">{{cite book|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm|title=9/11 Commission Report|publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|pages=231–240|chapter=Chapter 7.3–The Attack Looms, Assembling the Teams|access-date=2008-09-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023214223/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm|archive-date=2013-10-23|url-status=live}}</ref>

===2001===
After training, he would have moved to a [[safehouse]] in [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]] before travelling to the [[United Arab Emirates]] (UAE). From the UAE, the muscle hijackers came to the U.S. between April and June 2001. Waleed al-Shehri may have arrived in the U.S. on 23 April 2001. Some sources report that al-Shehri "at times" stayed at lead hijacker [[Mohamed Atta]]'s apartment in [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]] at some period between 1998 and 2001.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/graphics/attack/hijackers.html Four Planes, Four Coordinated Teams] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224023643/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/graphics/attack/hijackers.html |date=2011-02-24 }}, Washington Post</ref> Others place him with [[Zacarias Moussaoui]] in [[London]].

[[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] says that [[Osama bin Laden]] had given a message to Waleed al-Shehri for conveyance to [[Mohamed Atta]] earlier that spring, indicating that bin Laden preferred to attack the [[White House]] instead of the [[United States Capitol|Capitol]].{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

On 4 May 2001, he applied for and received a [[Florida]] [[driver's license]]. The next day, he filled out a change-of-address form to receive a duplicate license. Five other suspected hijackers also received duplicate Florida licenses in 2001. Some have speculated that this was to allow multiple persons to use the same identity.<ref>Lipka, Mitch. {{cite web |url=http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sfl-worldtrade-suspectprofiles.story |title=Multiple identities of hijack suspects confound FBI |access-date=2012-01-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040604015841/http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sfl-worldtrade-suspectprofiles.story |archive-date=June 4, 2004 }}. ''South Florida Sun-Sentinel''. 28 September 2001.</ref> On 19 May 2001, al-Shehri and [[Satam al-Suqami]] flew from [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]] to [[Freeport, Bahamas]], where they had reservations at the Bahamas Princess Resort where al-Shehri and al-Suqami rented two cars, a black Buick Regal and a gray Ford Taurus. The two were turned away by Bahamian officials on arrival, however, because they lacked [[Visa (document)|visas]]; they returned to Florida that same day. The [[9/11 Commission]] felt that they likely took this trip to renew al-Suqami's immigration status, as al-Suqami's legal stay in the United States ended on 21 May 2001.

He was one of nine hijackers to open a [[SunTrust Banks|SunTrust]] bank account with a cash deposit around June 2001. While living in Boynton, neighbors reported that he seemed to be an enthusiastic fan of the [[Florida Marlins]].<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2001/09/14/archive/main311329.shtml The FBI's Hijacker List] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629194344/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2001/09/14/archive/main311329.shtml |date=2006-06-29 }}, CBS News, 27 September 2001</ref>

On 16 July 2001, both Wail and Waleed were staying at a hotel in [[Salou, Spain|Salou]], [[Spain]] where they were visited by [[Mohamed Atta]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://abclocal.go.com/wabc/news/WABC_092701_njconnection.html |title=FBI Willing To 'Work' With Detainees With Terror Plot Info |access-date=2005-09-25 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030415011752/http://abclocal.go.com/wabc/news/WABC_092701_njconnection.html |archive-date=April 15, 2003 }}, Newark-AP, September 27, 2001</ref> On 30 July, al-Shehri traveled alone from Fort Lauderdale to Boston. He flew to [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] the next day, where he stayed one night before returning via [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]].

According to librarian Kathleen Hensmen, Wail and Waleed al-Shehri used the Internet access at Delray Beach Public Library in August 2001, where they may have been looking at information on [[Aerial application|crop dusting]]; they reportedly left the library with a third Middle Eastern man thought to be [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], who Hensmen said asked her for the name of a local restaurant. {{citation needed|date=November 2015}}

On 5 September 2001, Wail and Waleed al‐Shehri traveled together on Delta Air Lines Flight 2462 from [[Fort Lauderdale]] to [[Boston]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} Wail al-Shehri checked in together with Waleed at the Park Inn Hotel in [[Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts]] on 5 September 2001, staying in room 432.<ref name="remain">[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/11/september11/main521523.shtml?CMP=ILC-SearchStories Hijackers Remain Mysterious, A Window Into Their Daily Lives Leaves Dark Questions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025052043/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/11/september11/main521523.shtml?CMP=ILC-SearchStories |date=2012-10-25 }}, CBS News, 2002</ref> [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]], may have also spent a night at the Park Inn before leaving with [[Mohamed Atta]] for [[Portland, Maine]] on 10 September 2001. When they checked out, the al-Shehri brothers may have left a discarded sheet of instructions on how to fly a transcontinental jetliner in their hotel room.<ref>{{cite news |title=9/11 Reminder, Park Inn, Now Being Demolished |newspaper=The Boston Globe |date=17 February 2005|author=Noonan, Erica}}</ref>

===September 11 attacks===
{{Main|American Airlines Flight 11}}

Waleed al-Shehri, his brother [[Wail al-Shehri|Wail]], and [[Satam al-Suqami]] arrived together at [[Logan Airport]] at 06:45 on the morning of 11 September 2001, having left their Ford Focus rental car in the airport parking facility.<ref name="911-ch1">{{cite book |title=9/11 Commission Report |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch1.htm |chapter=Chapter 1.1 - "We Have Some Planes", Inside the Four Flights |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |year=2004 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511160550/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_ch1.htm |archive-date=2008-05-11 |url-status=live }}</ref> Upon check-in, Wail al-Shehri was selected by the [[Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System]] (CAPPS), as was his brother Waleed, and Flight 11 hijacker Satam al-Suqami. [[Mohamed Atta]], the pilot hijacker on Flight 11 had also been selected in Portland. Being selected by CAPPS meant that their checked baggage were subject to extra screening. As the CAPPS was only for luggage, the three hijackers did not undergo any extra scrutiny at the passenger security checkpoint.<ref name="staff">{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |title=The Aviation Security System and the 9/11 Attacks - Staff Statement No. 3 |publisher=9/11 Commission |access-date=2006-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528201527/http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-28 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

By 7:40 a.m., all five hijackers were aboard the flight, which was scheduled to depart at 7:45 a.m. Wail and Waleed al-Shehri sat together in first class in seats 2A and 2B respectively.<ref name="911-ch1"/> The aircraft taxied away from Gate 26 and departed Logan International Airport at 7:59 a.m. from runway 4R after a 14-minute delay.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |title=Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes |last=Johnson |first=Glen |date=2001-11-23 |work=Boston Globe |access-date=2008-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216072126/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |archive-date=2008-12-16 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ntsb">{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/Flight_%20Path_%20Study_AA11.pdf |title=Flight Path Study - American Airlines Flight 11 |publisher=[[National Transportation Safety Board]] |date=2002-02-19 |access-date=2008-05-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080530061803/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/Flight_%20Path_%20Study_AA11.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-30 |url-status=live }}</ref> The hijacking of Flight 11 began at approximately 08:14, which is when the pilot stopped responding to [[air traffic control]].<ref name="911-ch1"/><ref name="ntsb" /> It is suspected that the brothers stabbed two flight attendants in the hijacking.<ref name="911-ch1"/> At 08:46:40, Mohamed Atta deliberately crashed Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower (Tower 1) of the World Trade Center.<ref name="ntsb" /> The damage caused to the North Tower destroyed any means of escape from above the impact zone, trapping 1,344 people.<ref name="102Mins">{{Cite news |last=Dwyer |first=Jim |author2=Lipton, Eric |title=102 Minutes: Last Words at the Trade Center; Fighting to Live as the Towers Die |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00E6DC153BF935A15756C0A9649C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=4 |date=2002-05-26 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2008-05-23 |display-authors=etal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216112816/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00E6DC153BF935A15756C0A9649C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=4 |archive-date=2008-12-16 |url-status=live }}</ref> The North Tower [[collapse of the World Trade Center|collapsed]] at 10:28, after burning for 102 minutes.<ref name="nist-ncstar1-8-p37">{{cite web |url=http://wtc.nist.gov/NISTNCSTAR1-8.pdf |title=NIST NCSTAR 1-8 - The Emergency Response |author=Lawson, J. Randall, Robert L. Vettori |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |date=September 2005 |pages=37 |access-date=2008-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005013250/http://wtc.nist.gov/NISTNCSTAR1-8.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-05 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Aftermath==

===Reports after 9/11 attacks===
On 23 September 2001, ''[[BBC News]]'' reported that al-Shehri was "alive and well" in [[Casablanca, Morocco]], and was talking to multiple media organizations;<ref name=ed>{{cite news |first=Steve |last=Herrmann |title=The Editors: 9/11 conspiracy theory |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2006/10/911_conspiracy_theory_1.html |work=BBC News |date=27 October 2006 |access-date=8 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927014325/http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2006/10/911_conspiracy_theory_1.html |archive-date=2008-09-27 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Hijack 'suspects' alive and well |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1559151.stm |work=BBC News |date=23 September 2001 |access-date=8 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204040256/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1559151.stm |archive-date=2009-12-04 |url-status=live }}</ref> however, due to confusion over the man's identity and some editorial concerns over [[conspiracy theories]], ''BBC News'' later modified the 23 September report by inserting "A man called ... "<ref name=ed/> ''BBC News'' considers the 23 September report superseded by an 5 October 2001 report that lists Waleed as one of the alleged hijackers believed by the FBI to be responsible for the 11 September attacks.<ref name=ed/><ref>{{cite news |title=The investigation and the evidence |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1581063.stm |work=BBC News |date=5 October 2001 |access-date=8 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106014254/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1581063.stm |archive-date=2010-01-06 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Waleed and Wail were both reported to have been initially found, in error, by a Saudi newspaper editor as the sons of Ahmed Alshehri, a senior [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] diplomat stationed in [[Bombay]], [[India]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} On 16 September 2001, the diplomat Ahmed Alshehri denied that he was the father of the two hijackers. Wail claims he ''did'' attend [[Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University]] in [[Daytona Beach, Florida]]
— but was the victim of mistaken identity, since he used that training to secure his current position with a [[Morocco|Moroccan]] airline company. [[Saudi Arabia]] has confirmed his story, and suggested he was the victim of [[identity theft]].

Muhammad Ali al-Shehri, the Shehri brothers' true father, was identified prior to 17 September 2001, and told Arab News that he had not heard from his sons in 10 months prior to September 2001.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arabnews.com/Article.asp?ID=9424&ArY=2001&ArM=9&ArD=17 |title=al-Shehri says sons missing for 10 months |access-date=2017-09-14 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020929001039/http://www.arabnews.com/Article.asp?ID=9424&ArY=2001&ArM=9&ArD=17 |archive-date=September 29, 2002 }}, By Mutlaq Al-Buqami, Arab News Staff, 17 September 2001</ref> An ''ABC News'' story in March 2002 repeated this, and during a report entitled "A Saudi Apology" for ''[[Dateline NBC]]'' on 25 August 2002, ''NBC'' reporter [[John Hockenberry]] traveled to 'Asir, where he interviewed the third brother, Salah, who agreed that his two brothers were dead and claimed they had been "brainwashed".

Furthermore, another article explains that the pilot who lives in Casablanca was named Walid al-Shri (not Waleed M. al-Shehri) and that much of the ''BBC'' information regarding "alive" hijackers was incorrect according to the same sources used by ''BBC''.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,265160-2,00.html Panoply of the Absurd (2)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015063544/http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,265160-2,00.html |date=2008-10-15 }}, Spiegel Online, September 8, 2003</ref> In September 2007, a video recording of his last [[Will (law)|testament]] was released to mark the 6th anniversary of the attacks.

== See also ==
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]
* [[PENTTBOM]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
* "[http://www.lauramansfield.com/obl-091107.wmv The Will of the Martyr (as we see him) Abu Mus'ab al Shehri With a foreword by Sheikh Osama bin Laden, may Allah protect him"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070916223909/http://www.lauramansfield.com/obl-091107.wmv |date=2007-09-16 }}; this video is about 15 minutes; it requires a [[Windows Media Player]]

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shehri, Waleed}}
[[Category:1978 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:American Airlines Flight 11]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from 'Asir Province]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]

Ahmed al-Ghamdi

2023-09-13T13:42:09Z

78.157.120.208: Date format. MDY is not used in Arabic.

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1979–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ahmed al-Ghamdi
| native_name = أحمد الغامدي
| image = Ahmed al-ghamdi 3.jpg
| image_size = 150px
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1979|7|2|df=yes}}
| birth_name = Ahmed Salah Sa'id al-Ghamdi
| birth_place = [[Al-Bahah Province]], [[Saudi Arabia]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1979|7|2|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[United Airlines Flight 175|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia]]n
| relatives = [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]] (brother)
}}

'''Ahmed Salah Sa'id al-Ghamdi''' ({{lang-ar|احمد صلاح سعيد الغامدي|translit=Aḥmad Ṣalāh Saʿīd al-Ghāmdī}}; 2 July 1979{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker. He was one of five [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] of [[United Airlines Flight 175]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]].<ref>Unless otherwise sourced, statements in this article come primarily from the ''[[9/11 Commission Report]]''. [[9/11 Commission]] [[Richard Ben-Veniste|Ben-Veniste, Richard]]; [[Fred F. Fielding|Fielding, Fred F.]]; [[Jamie Gorelick|Gorelick, Jamie]]; [[Slade Gorton|Gorton, Slade]]; [[Lee H. Hamilton|Hamilton, Lee H.]]; [[Thomas Kean|Kean, Thomas]]; [[Bob Kerrey|Kerrey, Bob]]; [[John F. Lehman|Lehman, John F.]]; [[Timothy J. Roemer|Roemer, Timothy J.]]; [[James R. Thompson|Thompson, James R.]]) (2004). The ''[[9/11 Commission Report]]: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States.'' W.W. Norton & Company. {{ISBN|0-393-32671-3}}, also available [http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html |date=2010-08-07 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/security/profiles/ahmed_al-ghamdi.htm|title=Ahmed al-Ghamdi|website=www.globalsecurity.org|access-date=2019-06-17|archive-date=2019-06-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617083106/https://www.globalsecurity.org/security/profiles/ahmed_al-ghamdi.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Ahmed Al-Ghamdi was born in [[Saudi Arabia]] in 1979. He dropped out of school to fight in [[Chechnya]] and was probably sent to train in [[al-Qaeda]] camps in [[Afghanistan]] where he would be chosen by [[Osama bin Laden]] to participate in the terrorist attacks in America.

He arrived in the United States in May 2001 on a tourist visa and helped plan out how the attacks would take place. On 11 September 2001, he boarded [[United Airlines Flight 175]] and assisted in the hijacking of the plane so that lead hijacker and trained pilot [[Marwan al-Shehhi]] could take over the plane and crash it into the South Tower of the [[World Trade Center (1973-2001)|World Trade Center]], as part of the coordinated attacks.

== Early activities ==
An [[Imam]],<ref name="willalOmari">Videotape of recorded will of [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]] and others</ref> al-Ghamdi was from the [[al Bahah Province]] of [[Saudi Arabia]], a province in the south west of Saudi Arabia. It is the capital of Al Bahah Province nestled between the resorts of [[Mecca]] and [[Abha]], Al Bahah is one of the Kingdom’s prime tourist attractions. Al-Ghamdi shared the same tribal affiliation with fellow hijackers [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]], and [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]]. This group is noted as being some of the more religiously observant of the hijackers, and they are thought to have met each other some time in 1999.

Known as ''al-Jaraah al-Ghamdi'' during the preparations, the only one of the hijackers to use a variation on his own name,<ref name="willalOmari"/> al-Ghamdi quit school to [[Second Chechen War|fight]] in [[Chechnya]] against the [[Russia]]ns in 2000, and received a US Visa on 3 September of that year. In November, both he and [[Salem al-Hazmi]] flew to [[Beirut]], though on separate flights and at different times. Al-Ghamdi flew on the same flight as a senior [[Hezbollah]] operative, although the [[9/11 Commission]] could find no evidence that either knew the other. His family claims to have last seen him in December.

In March 2001, al-Ghamdi is reported to have met with a [[Jordan]]ian in [[Connecticut]] who has been charged with providing false identification to at least 50 illegal aliens. Hijackers [[Majed Moqed]], [[Hani Hanjour]], and [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] are reported to have met with him at the same time.<ref>''Associated Press'' March 6, 2002. "Four Hijackers Stayed at CT Motel"</ref><ref>
{{cite web
| last = Mitchell
| first = Derek
| author2 = Paul Thompson
| title = Mid-March 2001: Hijackers Meet with ID Forger
| work = Complete 911 Timeline
| publisher = Cooperative Research
| url = http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/context.jsp?item=a0301fairfield
| access-date = 2006-10-10
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061002005732/http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/context.jsp?item=a0301fairfield
| archive-date = 2006-10-02
| url-status = dead
}}
</ref> Inexplicably, this is more than a month before al-Ghamdi first arrived in the United States, according to the FBI and the [[9/11 Commission]].

On 2 May, al-Ghamdi moved from White Bear, Minnesota and arrived in Pensacola, Florida with fellow-hijacker Majed Moqed, on a [[F-1 visa|student visa]]. He listed the Naval Air Station in [[Pensacola, Florida]] as his permanent address on his driver's license.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} He and Moqed moved in with [[Hani Hanjour]] and [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] in [[Falls Church, Virginia]]. All four later moved into an apartment in [[Paterson, New Jersey]].

He called his parents in July 2001, but did not mention being in the United States.

== Attacks ==
{{Main|United Airlines Flight 175}}

His brother [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]] purchased Ghamdi's ticket online for [[United Airlines Flight 175]] on 29 or 30 August, after buying his own. He listed a [[Mail Boxes Etc.]] address for Ahmed al-Ghamdi.

The brothers stayed at the Charles Hotel in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]. On 8 September, they checked out of the hotel, and moved into the [[Days Inn|Days Hotel]] on Soldiers Field Road in [[Brighton, Massachusetts|Brighton]], where they remained up until the day of the attacks.<ref>[[Robert Mueller|Mueller, Robert S., III]] (09/26/02). [http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html ''Statement for the Record''], ''Joint Investigation Into September 11th: Closed Hearing''.</ref><ref>{{cite news
|last=Cullen
|first=Kevin
|author2=Anthony Shadid
|title=Hijackers may have taken Saudi identities
|publisher=[[Boston Globe]]
|date=2001-09-15
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/globe_stories/0915/Hijackers_may_have_taken_Saudi_identities+.shtml
|access-date=2006-10-10
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007013804/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/globe_stories/0915/Hijackers_may_have_taken_Saudi_identities%2B.shtml
|archive-date=7 October 2006
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

On the morning of 11 September 2001, Ahmed al-Ghamdi left the hotel with his brother, the two of them sharing a [[taxicab]] to get to [[Logan International Airport]]. There, al-Ghamdi showed his Virginia ID Card as identification, and boarded Flight 175 where he sat the furthest back of the hijackers, in seat 9D, helped to hijack it, and assisted as the plane crashed into the [[World Trade Center (1973-2001)|World Trade Center]]. The brothers pushed the passengers and crew to the back of the plane while [[Fayez Banihammad]] and [[Mohand al-Shehri]] killed the pilots Victor Saracini and Michael Horrocks allowing [[Marwan al-Shehhi]] to take control of the plane.

== See also ==
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]
* [[PENTTBOM]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html ''9/11 Commission Report'']
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1559151.stm news.bbc.co.uk]

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ghamdi, Ahmed}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Al-Bahah Province]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian expatriates in the United States]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian murderers of children]]
[[Category:United Airlines Flight 175]]

Majed Moqed

2023-09-13T13:38:53Z

78.157.120.208:

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1977–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Majed Moqed
| native_name = ماجد موقد
| image = MMoqed.JPG
| image_size = 150px
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1977|6|18|df=yes}}
| birth_place = Al-Nakhil, [[Saudi Arabia]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1977|6|18|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Arlington County, Virginia]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[American Airlines Flight 77|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]]
}}
'''Majed Moqed''' ({{lang-ar|ماجد موقد|translit=Mājad Mūqad}}; 18 June 1977{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker. He was one of five [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] of [[American Airlines Flight 77]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]] in 2001.

A [[Saudi people|Saudi]], Moqed was studying law at a university in [[Saudi Arabia]] before joining [[al-Qaeda]] in 1999 and being chosen to participate in the 9/11 attacks. He arrived in the United States in May 2001 and helped with the planning of how the attacks would be carried out.

On 11 September 2001, Moqed boarded American Airlines Flight 77 and assisted in the hijacking of the plane so that it could be crashed into [[the Pentagon]].

==Early life and activities==
Moqed was a law student from the small town of Al-Nakhil, [[Saudi Arabia]] (west of [[Medina]]), studying at [[King Fahd University]]'s Faculty of Administration and Economics. Before he dropped out, he was apparently recruited into [[al-Qaeda]] in 1999 along with friend [[Satam al-Suqami]], a hijacker of [[American Airlines Flight 11]], with whom he had earlier shared a college room.<ref>{{cite web |author=John J. Lumpkin |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/profiles/majed_moqed.htm |title=Majed Moqed |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |access-date=2012-01-06 |archive-date=2011-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928041915/http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/profiles/majed_moqed.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=July 2023}}

The two trained at [[Khalden training camp|Khalden]], a large training facility near [[Kabul]] that was run by [[Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi]]. A friend in [[Saudi Arabia]] claimed he was last seen there in 2000, before leaving to study English in the United States.<ref>[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2001/arabnews092201.html Arab News, 9/22/01]{{Dead link|date=March 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In November 2000, Moqed and al-Suqami flew into [[Iran]] from [[Bahrain]] together.

Some time late in 2000, Moqed traveled to the [[United Arab Emirates]], where he purchased [[traveler's cheques]] presumed to have been paid for by 9/11 financier [[Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi]]. Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including [[Wail al-Shehri]], [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]], [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]] and [[Ahmed al-Nami]].

Known as ''al-Ahlaf'' during the preparations,<ref name="willalOmari">Videotape of recorded will of Abdulaziz al-Omari and others</ref> Moqed then moved in with hijackers [[Salem al-Hazmi]], [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]] and [[Khalid al-Mihdhar]] in an apartment in [[Paterson, New Jersey]].

===2001===
According to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]], Moqed first arrived to the United States on 2 May 2001 with [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}

Later that year, Moqed, [[Hani Hanjour]], Hazmi and [[Ahmad al-Ghamdi]] rented a minivan and travelled to [[Fairfield, Connecticut]]. There they met a contact in the parking lot of a local convenience store who provided them with [[Identity document forgery|false ID]]s. (This was possibly Eyad Alrababah, a Jordanian charged with document fraud).

Moqed was one of the five hijackers who asked for a state identity card on 2 August 2001. On 24 August, both Mihdhar and Moqed tried to purchase flight tickets from the [[American Airlines]] online ticket-merchant, but had technical difficulties resolving their address and gave up.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |title=Statement of FBI Director Robert S. Mueller III to 9/11 Joint Intelligence Committee |publisher=Fas.org |access-date=2012-01-06}}</ref>

Employees at Advance Travel Service in [[Totowa, New Jersey]], later claimed that Moqed and Hanjour had both purchased tickets there. They claimed that Hani Hanjour spoke very little English, and Moqed did most of the speaking. Hanjour requested a seat in the front row of the airplane. Their credit card failed to authorize, and after being told the agency did not accept personal [[cheque]]s, the pair left to withdraw cash. They returned shortly afterwards and paid $1842.25 in cash.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm | work=The Boston Globe | title=Boston.com / Fighting Terrorism}}</ref> During this time, Moqed was staying in Room 343 of the ''Valencia Motel''. On 2 September, Moqed paid cash for a $30 weekly membership at [[Gold's Gym]] in [[Greenbelt, Maryland]].

Three days later he was seen on an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]] camera with [[Hani Hanjour]]. After the attacks, the manager at an [[pornography|adult video store]], ''Adult Lingerie Center'', in [[Beltsville, Maryland|Beltsville]] claimed that Moqed had been in the store three times.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Young |first=Monte R. |date=2001-09-23 |title=Tracing Trail Of Hijackers |page=43 |work=Newsday (Suffolk Edition) |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/newsday-suffolk-edition-tracing-trail/128758852/ |access-date=2023-07-24 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>

==Attacks==
{{Main|American Airlines Flight 77}}

On 11 September 2001, Moqed arrived at [[Washington Dulles International Airport]].

According to the [[9/11 Commission]] Report, Moqed set off the metal detector at the airport and was screened with a hand-wand. He passed the cursory inspection, and was able to board his flight at 7:50. He was seated in 12A, adjacent to Mihdhar who was in 12B. Moqed helped to hijack the plane and assisted [[Hani Hanjour]] in crashing the plane into [[the Pentagon]] at 9:37 a.m., killing 189 people (64 on the plane and 125 on the ground).

The flight was scheduled to depart at 08:10, but ended up departing 10 minutes late from Gate D26 at Dulles.<ref name="four">{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |title=Staff Monograph on the "Four Flights and Civil Aviation Security" |date=September 2005 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=2008-08-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306021319/http://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |archive-date=2008-03-06 }}</ref> The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to [[air traffic control]] occurred at 08:50:51.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gregor |first=Joseph A. |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/ATC_%20Report_AA77.pdf |title=ATC Report American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=2001-12-21 |access-date=2008-06-01}}</ref> At 08:54, Flight 77 began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south, and then hijackers set the flight's [[autopilot]] heading for Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/autopilot_AA77_UA93_study.pdf |title=Study of Autopilot, Navigation Equipment, and Fuel Consumption Activity Based on United Airlines Flight 93 and American Airlines Flight 77 Digital Flight Data Recorder Information |last=O’Callaghan |first=John |author2=Bower, Daniel |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=2002-02-13 |access-date=2008-06-01}}</ref> Passenger [[Barbara Olson]] called her husband, [[United States Solicitor General]] [[Theodore Olson]], and reported that the plane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives.<ref>{{cite news |last=Johnson |first=Glen |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |title=Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes |work=The Boston Globe |date=2001-11-23 |access-date=2008-06-01}}</ref> At 09:37, American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the west facade of [[the Pentagon]], killing all 64 aboard (including the hijackers), along with 125 on the ground in the Pentagon.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |title=American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=2002-01-31 |access-date=2008-06-02 |archive-date=2007-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220623/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any [[DNA]] samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |title=Remains Of 9 Sept. 11 Hijackers Held |date=2002-08-17 |publisher=CBS News |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930021707/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Edson |first=S.M. |last2=Ross |first2=J. P. |last3=Coble |first3=M. D. |last4=Parsons |first4=T. J. |last5=Barritt |first5=S. M. |date=January 2004 |title=Naming the Dead – Confronting the Realities of Rapid Identification of Degraded Skeletal Remains |url=http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div831/strbase/pub_pres/Edson2004.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Forensic Science Review |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=63–90 |pmid=26256813 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060720223532/http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div831/strbase/pub_pres/Edson2004.pdf |archive-date=2006-07-20 |access-date=2008-09-30}}</ref>

After the attacks his family told [[Arab News]] that Moqed had been a fan of sports, and enjoyed travelling. Additionally, the U.S. announced it had found a "Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Student Identity Card" bearing Moqed's name in the rubble surrounding the Pentagon. They also stated that it appeared to have been a forgery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Ch2.pdf |title=9/11 Commission Report |access-date=2012-01-06}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
* [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/photogallery/terrorism/gallery_07/photo12.html Photo gallery]



{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Moqed, Majed}}
[[Category:1977 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:American Airlines Flight 77]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian murderers of children]]
[[Category:Suicides in Virginia]]

Salem al-Hazmi

2023-09-13T13:35:54Z

78.157.120.208: Date format. DMY is not used in Arabic

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1981–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Salem al-Hazmi
| native_name = سالم الحازمي
| image = Salem al-Hazmi 2.jpg
| image_size = 150px
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1981|2|2|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Mecca]], Saudi Arabia
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1981|2|2|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Arlington County, Virginia]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[American Airlines Flight 77|Plane crash]]
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]]
| relatives = [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] (brother)
}}

'''Salem al-Hazmi''' ({{lang-ar|سالم الحازمي|translit=Sālam al-Ḥāzmī}}; 2 February 1981{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker who assisted in the hijacking of [[American Airlines Flight 77]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]]. The aircraft was deliberately crashed into [[the Pentagon]] near [[Washington, D.C.]], killing al-Hazmi and everyone else aboard the flight.

Al-Hazmi had a relatively long history with [[al-Qaeda]] before being selected for the attacks. He obtained a tourist visa through the Visa Express program and arrived in the United States in June 2001 where he would settle in [[New Jersey]] with other American 77 hijackers up until the attacks.

On 11 September 2001, al-Hazmi boarded Flight 77 alongside four accomplices, his older brother [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] included. He helped subdue the passengers and crew, allowing the team's suicide pilot [[Hani Hanjour]] to take control of the plane. Al-Hazmi had only turned 20 that same year, making him the youngest of the [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|nineteen terrorists]] to partake in the attacks.

==History==
Salem al-Hazmi was born on 2 February 1981, to Muhammad Salim al-Hazmi, a grocer, in [[Mecca]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. His father described Salem as a quarrelsome teenager who had problems with alcohol and petty theft. However, he stopped drinking and began to attend the mosque about three months before he left his family.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf |title=''The 9/11 Commission Report'' |access-date=2012-01-06}}</ref>

There are reports that he fought in [[Afghanistan]] with his brother, [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]], and other reports say the two fought together in [[Chechnya]]. Salem al-Hazmi was an [[al-Qaeda]] veteran by the time he was selected for participation in the 9/11 attacks. U.S. intelligence learned of al-Hazmi's involvement with [[al-Qaeda]] as early as 1999, but he was not placed on any watchlists.<ref>{{cite web |author=John J. Lumpkin |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/profiles/salem_al-hazmi.htm |title=Salem al-Hazmi |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |date=2004-07-22 |access-date=2012-01-06 |archive-date=2011-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928041108/http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/profiles/salem_al-hazmi.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Known as ''Bilal'' during the preparations,<ref name="willalOmari">Videotape of recorded will of Abdulaziz al-Omari and others</ref> both he and [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]] flew to [[Beirut]] in November 2000, though on separate flights.

Along with [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] and several other future hijackers, Salem al-Hazmi may have attended the [[2000 Al Qaeda Summit]] in [[Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia]]. It was there that the details of the 9/11 attacks were decided upon.
{{Clear}}

==In the United States==
According to the [[FBI]] and the [[9/11 Commission]] report, al-Hazmi first entered the United States on 29 June 2001, although there are numerous unconfirmed reports that he was living in [[San Antonio, Texas]], with fellow hijacker [[Satam al-Suqami]] much earlier.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://news.mysanantonio.com/story.cfm?xla=kens5&xlb=161&xlc=342530
|title=2 hijackers identified as former S.A. residents
|author=Joe Conger
|date=January 10, 2001
|publisher=mysanantonio.com
|quote=At least five sources tell KENS 5, two of the men, Satam M.A. Al Suqami and Salem Alhazmi, lived at the Spanish Trace Apartments on the North Side earlier this year |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20030514140351/http://news.mysanantonio.com/story.cfm?xla=kens5&xlb=161&xlc=342530 |archive-date = May 14, 2003}}</ref> Al-Hazmi used the controversial Visa Express program to gain entry into the country.

Al-Hazmi moved to [[Paterson, New Jersey]], where he lived with [[Hani Hanjour]]. Both were among the five hijackers who applied for Virginia identity cards at the [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington]] office of the [[Virginia Department of Motor Vehicles]] on 2 August 2001, although Salem al-Hazmi already held an NJ identity card.

On 27 August, brothers Nawaf and Salem al-Hazmi purchased flight tickets through [[Travelocity]].com using the former's [[Visa Inc.|Visa]] card.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |title=Statement of Robert S. Mueller: Joint Investigation Into September 11: (published September 26, 2002) |publisher=Fas.org |access-date=2012-01-06}}</ref>

With the four other Flight 77 hijackers, he worked out at a [[Gold's Gym]] in [[Greenbelt, Maryland]], from 2 to 6 September of the same year.

==Attacks==
{{Main|American Airlines Flight 77}}
On 11 September 2001, al-Hazmi boarded [[American Airlines Flight 77]]. Airport surveillance video from [[Dulles International Airport]] in [[Northern Virginia]] shows two of the five hijackers, including Salem al-Hazmi, being pulled aside to undergo additional scrutiny after setting off [[metal detectors]].<ref>[http://chronicle.augusta.com/stories/072304/nat_LA0604-2.shtml] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014025716/http://chronicle.augusta.com/stories/072304/nat_LA0604-2.shtml|date=October 14, 2008}}</ref>

The flight was scheduled to depart at 08:10, but ended up departing 10 minutes late from Gate D26 at Dulles. The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to [[air traffic control]] occurred at 08:50:51.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gregor |first=Joseph A. |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/ATC_%20Report_AA77.pdf |title=ATC Report American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=2001-12-21 |access-date=2008-06-01}}</ref> At 08:54, Flight 77 began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south, and then hijackers set the flight's [[autopilot]] heading for Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/autopilot_AA77_UA93_study.pdf |title=Study of Autopilot, Navigation Equipment, and Fuel Consumption Activity Based on United Airlines Flight 93 and American Airlines Flight 77 Digital Flight Data Recorder Information |last=O'Callaghan |first=John |author2=Bower, Daniel |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=2002-02-13 |access-date=2008-06-01}}</ref> Passenger [[Barbara Olson]] called her husband, [[United States Solicitor General]] [[Theodore Olson]], and reported that the plane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives.<ref>{{cite news |last=Johnson |first=Glen |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |title=Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes |work=The Boston Globe |date=2001-11-23 |access-date=2008-06-01}}</ref> At 09:37, American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the west facade of [[the Pentagon]], killing all 64 aboard (including the hijackers), along with 125 on the ground in the Pentagon.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |title=American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=2002-01-31 |access-date=2008-06-02 |archive-date=2007-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220623/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any [[DNA]] samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI. Forensics teams confirmed that it seemed two of the hijackers were brothers, based on their DNA similarities.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |title=Remains Of 9 Sept. 11 Hijackers Held |date=2002-08-17 |publisher=CBS News |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930021707/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div831/strbase/pub_pres/Edson2004.pdf |title=Naming the Dead - Confronting the Realities of Rapid Identification of Degraded Skeletal Remains |author=Edson, S.M.|journal=Forensic Science Review |volume=16 |date=January 2004 |access-date=2008-09-30 | issue=1|pages=63–90 |pmid=26256813 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

==Mistaken identity allegations==
Shortly after the attacks, several sources reported that Salem al-Hazmi, 26, was alive and working at a petrochemical plant in Yanbu, [[Saudi Arabia]]. He claimed that his [[passport]] had been stolen by a pickpocket in [[Cairo]] three years before, and that the pictures and details such as [[date of birth]] released to the public by the FBI were his own. He also stated that he had never visited the United States, but volunteered to fly to the U.S. to prove his innocence.<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/sep/21/afghanistan.september112
|title=False identities mislead FBI
|author=Nick Hopkins
|date=21 September 2001
|work=The Guardian
|quote=He said yesterday he had not left Saudi Arabia for two years}}</ref> On 19 September, ''Al-Sharq Al-Awsat'' published his [[photograph]] alongside Badr Al-Hazmi's, who they claimed was the actual hijacker who had stolen his identity.<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A59320-2001Sep19&notFound=true
|title=Some Hijackers' Identities Uncertain
|author1=Dan Eggen |author2=George Lardner Jr. |author3=Susan Schmidt |date=September 20, 2001
|newspaper=Washington Post
|quote=His picture was published yesterday in a Saudi newspaper, Al-Sharq Al-Awsat, alongside that of the man the Saudis believe to be the dead terrorist, Badr Alhazmi}}{{dead link|date=June 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

After some confusion and doubt [[Saudi Arabia]] admitted that in fact the names of the [[Aircraft hijacking|hijackers]] were correct. "The names that we got confirmed that," [[Nayef bin Abdul Aziz|Interior Minister Prince Nayef]] said in an interview with The Associated Press. "Their families have been notified." Nayef said the Saudi leadership was shocked to learn 15 of the hijackers were from Saudi Arabia and said it was natural that the kingdom had not noticed their involvement beforehand.<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002/02/06/saudi.htm
|title=Official: 15 of 19 Sept. 11 hijackers were Saudi
|date=February 6, 2002
|work=USA Today}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hazmi, Salem al-}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:American Airlines Flight 77]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Mecca]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian murderers of children]]

Ahmed al-Haznawi

2023-09-13T13:32:24Z

78.157.120.208: Date format and American English. MDY is not used in Arabic

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1980–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ahmed al-Haznawi
| native_name = أحمد الحزنوي
| image = Ahmed al-Haznawi.jpg
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1980|10|11||df=yes}}
| birth_name = Ahmed Ibrahim al-Haznawi al-Ghamdi
| birth_place = Hazna, [[Al-Bahah Province]], [[Saudi Arabia]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1980|10|11|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Somerset County, Pennsylvania]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[United Airlines Flight 93|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]]
}}
'''Ahmed Ibrahim al-Haznawi al-Ghamdi''' ({{lang-ar|أَحْمَدُ إِبْرَاهِيمَ ٱلْحَزْنَوِيِّ ٱلْغَاْمِدِيِّ|translit=Aḥmad Ibrāhīm al-Ḥaznāwī al-Ghāmdī}}; 11 October 1980{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker. He was one of the four [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] of [[United Airlines Flight 93]], which was crashed into a field in [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|Stonycreek Township]], Pennsylvania, following a passenger revolt, as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]].

He left his family to fight in [[Chechnya]] in 2000 but was probably sent to training camps in [[Afghanistan]]. It was there he was chosen to participate in the 9/11 attacks. He arrived in the United States in June 2001 under the direction of [[Al-Qaeda]] for terrorist attacks, on a tourist visa. Once he was in the U.S., he settled in [[Florida]] and helped plan out how the attacks would take place.

On 11 September 2001, al-Haznawi boarded [[United Airlines Flight 93]] and assisted in the hijacking of the plane so it could be crashed into either the [[United States Capitol]] or the [[White House]]. Haznawi or [[Ahmed al-Nami]] are believed to be one of the apparent hijackers to have carried the bomb. Instead, the plane crashed into a [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|field]] in [[Somerset County, Pennsylvania]], after the passengers on-board started a revolt against al-Haznawi and the other hijackers.

==Early life==
Ahmed al-Haznawi was the son of a Saudi [[imam]] from the [[Al-Bahah]] province, a province in the south west of Saudi Arabia. Al-Haznawi grew up in the village of Hazna, where his father was a cleric at the mosque in the central marketplace section of the village. Al-Haznawi belonged to a family that was part of the larger [[Ghamd]] tribe, sharing the same tribal affiliation with fellow hijackers [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]], and [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]].<ref name="bg-20020303">{{cite news |title=Driving a Wedge - Bin Laden, the US and Saudi Arabia (Part 1) |newspaper=The Boston Globe |date=2002-03-03}}</ref> He memorised the [[Quran]], giving him the title ''[[Hafiz (Quran)|hafiz]]''.<ref name="martyr">Bell, Stewart. "The Martyr's Oath", 2005.</ref>

This group is noted as being some of the more religiously observant of the hijackers, and they are thought to have met one another some time in 1999.

==Early activities==

===1999–2000===
Al-Haznawi announced he was leaving his family in 1999 to [[Second Chechen War|fight in Chechnya]], although his father forbade him.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,3604,685102,00.html | work=The Guardian | location=London | title=Chilling, defiant: the video suicide message of a September 11 killer | first=Julian | last=Borger | date=April 16, 2002 | access-date=April 23, 2010}}</ref> His father and brother, Abdul Rahman al-Haznawi, reportedly last heard from him in late 2000, after he made references to [[Afghan training camp|training in Afghanistan]].

On 12 November 2000, al-Haznawi applied for and received a two-year U.S. [[B-1/B-2 Visa|B-1/B-2
(tourist/business) visa]] in [[Jeddah, Saudi Arabia]].<ref name="visa">{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |title=Staff Monograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel |publisher=9/11 Commission |year=2004 |access-date=2009-05-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040923223220/http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |archive-date=2004-09-23 |url-status=live }}</ref>

From 27 November 2000, through 27 December that year, al-Haznawi was in [[Saudi Arabia]] for [[Ramadan]]. It is theorized that during this trip, he may have initially told [[Saeed al-Ghamdi|Saeed]] and [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]] about the operation.

Some time late in 2000, al-Haznawi traveled to the [[United Arab Emirates]], where he purchased [[traveler's cheque]]s presumed to have been paid for by [[Mustafa al-Hawsawi]]. Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including [[Majed Moqed]], [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]], [[Wail al-Shehri]] and [[Ahmed al-Nami]].

===2001===
[[File:Alhaznawi video aljazeera.jpg|thumb|left|Haznawi appeared in an [[al-Qaeda]] video, pledging to give his life to [[Martyr (politics)|martyrdom]].]]
He was one of four hijackers believed to be staying at a [[Kandahar]] [[guest house (lodging)|guest house]] in March 2001, where they were seen by [[Mohammed Jabarah]]. Jabarah remembered al-Haznawi specifically, saying that he was "very devout and could [[Hafiz (Quran)|recite the entire Koran from memory]]."<ref name="seeds">{{cite book |last=Ressa |first=Maria |title=Seeds of Terror: An Eyewitness Account of Al-Qaeda's Newest Center of Operations in Southeast Asia |date=2 December 2003 |page=[https://archive.org/details/seedsofterroreye00ress/page/165 165] |publisher=[[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]] |isbn=9780743251334 |url=https://archive.org/details/seedsofterroreye00ress |url-access=registration |access-date=2018-12-07 }}</ref>

On 8 June, he arrived in [[Miami]], Florida, with fellow hijacker [[Wail al-Shehri]]. He was one of nine hijackers to open a [[SunTrust]] bank account with a cash deposit around June 2001. He is believed to have moved in with [[Ziad Jarrah]], who got a new apartment on Bougainvilla Dr. in [[Lauderdale-by-the-Sea]], after both men gave the landlord photocopies of their German passports, which he later turned over to the FBI.<ref>{{cite news |url=//www.miami.com/herald/special/news/worldtrade/digdocs/046328.htm |newspaper=[[Miami Herald]] |title=Hijack plotters used S. Florida as a cradle for conspiracy |date=19 October 2001 |access-date=16 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011019090410/http://www.miami.com/herald/special/news/worldtrade/digdocs/046328.htm |archive-date=October 19, 2001 |first1=Andres |last1=Viglucci |first2=Manny |last2=García}}</ref>

On 25 June, Jarrah took al-Haznawi to [[Holy Cross Hospital (Fort Lauderdale)|Holy Cross Hospital]] in [[Fort Lauderdale]] on advice of his landlord. Al-Haznawi was treated by Dr. Christos Tsonas, who gave him antibiotics for a cut on his left calf. While he told staff that he had bumped into a suitcase,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2002/03/29/memo-on-florida-case-roils-anthrax-probe/2c443112-67d6-4554-9a02-a48dec8890b5/ |title=Memo on Florida Case Roils Anthrax Probe |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=March 29, 2002 |access-date=7 December 2018 |first1=Steve |last1=Fainaru |first2=Ceci |last2=Connolly |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181207103015/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2002/03/29/memo-on-florida-case-roils-anthrax-probe/2c443112-67d6-4554-9a02-a48dec8890b5/ |archive-date=2018-12-07 |url-status=live }}</ref> the media briefly reported it as a sign of [[cutaneous anthrax]] and a possible link to the [[2001 anthrax attacks]], although FBI later addressed the rumors stating that "Exhaustive testing did not support that anthrax was present anywhere the hijackers had been."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2002/US/03/23/anthrax/?related |work=[[CNN]] |title=Report raises question of anthrax, hijacker link |date=March 23, 2002 |access-date=April 23, 2010 |publisher=[[Time Warner Company]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015122327/http://www.cnn.com/2002/US/03/23/anthrax/?related |archive-date=2012-10-15 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 10 July, al-Haznawi obtained a Florida driver's license, later obtaining another copy on 7 September 2001, by filling out a change-of-address form. Five other hijackers also received duplicate Florida licenses in 2001, and others had licenses from different states. Some have speculated that this was to allow multiple persons to use the same identity.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sfl-worldtrade-suspectprofiles.story |title=Multiple identities of hijack suspects confound FBI: South Florida Sun-Sentinel |newspaper=[[Sun Sentinel]] |date=4 June 2004 |access-date=6 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040604015841/http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sfl-worldtrade-suspectprofiles.story |archive-date=June 4, 2004 |first=Mitch |last=Lipka}}</ref>

Jarrah and al-Haznawi both received their one-way tickets for United Airlines Flight 93, on 5 September.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |title=Statement of Robert S. Mueller: Joint Investigation Into September 11 |date=September 26, 2002 |work=[[Fas.org]] |access-date=6 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103193507/http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |archive-date=2012-01-03 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 7 September, all four Flight 93 hijackers flew from [[Fort Lauderdale]] to [[Newark International Airport]] aboard [[Spirit Airlines]].

==Attacks==
{{Main|United Airlines Flight 93}}
On 11 September 2001, al-Haznawi arrived at [[Newark International Airport]] to board United Airlines Flight 93. Although he was selected for additional security by [[Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System|CAPPS]] and screened, he was able to board the flight without incident, with only his checked bags requiring extra screening for explosives.<ref name="staff">{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |title=The Aviation Security System and the 9/11 Attacks - Staff Statement No. 3 |publisher=9/11 Commission |access-date=2006-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528201527/http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-28 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Due to the flight's delay, the pilot and crew were notified of the previous hijackings that day and were told to be on the alert. Within minutes, Flight 93 was hijacked as well.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/26/arts/united-93-and-the-politics-of-heroism.html | title='United 93' and the politics of heroism | newspaper=The New York Times | date=26 April 2006 | last1=Longman | first1=Jere }}</ref>

At least two of the cellphone calls made by passengers indicate that the hijackers were wearing red bandanas. The calls also indicated that one had tied a box around his torso, and claimed there was a bomb inside. Some passengers expressed doubt that the bomb was real.

Passengers on the plane heard through phone calls the fates of the other hijacked planes. A passenger uprising soon took place. Hijacker-pilot [[Ziad Jarrah]] crashed the plane into an empty [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|field]] near [[Shanksville, Pennsylvania]], in order to prevent the passengers from gaining control of the plane. The crash killed everyone on board.

==Aftermath==
After the attacks, before the release of the FBI pictures of the hijackers, ''[[Arab News]]'' reported that al-Haznawi's brother Abdul Rahman had told al-Madinah newspaper that a photograph published by local newspapers bore no resemblance to his brother.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=9490&d=1&m=10&y=2001 |title=Hanjour family denies Hani's involvement in crime |newspaper=[[Arab News]] |date=October 1, 2001 |access-date=7 December 2018 |first1=Jamal |last1=Khashoggi |author-link=Jamal Khashoggi |first2=Badr |last2=Al-Nayyef |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930163758/http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=9490&d=1&m=10&y=2001 |archive-date=30 September 2007}}</ref>

A videotape titled "The Wills of the New York and Washington Battle Martyrs" was aired on [[Al Jazeera]] on 16 April 2002. While the name beneath the speaker read ''al-Ghamdi'', the image is of al-Haznawi speaking.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> Officials suggested that the name was merely a reference to his tribal affiliation. The film was thought to have been made in March 2001. In it, he talked about his plans to bring the "bloodied message" to America. In September 2002, a similar tape made by [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]] appeared.

He has been portrayed by actors [[Omar Berdouni]] in ''[[United 93 (film)|United 93]]'', and [[Zak Santiago]] in ''[[Flight 93 (film)|Flight 93]]''.

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography}}
*[[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
* [http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/04/15/terror.tape/ Bin Laden tape with Haznawi]
{{United Airlines Flight 93}}
{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Haznawi, Ahmed}}
[[Category:1980 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths in Somerset County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Al-Bahah Province]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:United Airlines Flight 93]]

Saeed al-Ghamdi

2023-09-13T13:28:43Z

78.157.120.208: Date format and American English

{{short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1979–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2010}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Saeed al-Ghamdi
| native_name = سعيد الغامدي
| native_name_lang = aro
| image = Al-Ghamdi.jpeg
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1979|11|21|df=yes}}
| birth_name = Saeed Abd Allah Ali Sulayman al-Ghamdi
| birth_place = [[Al-Bahah Province]], [[Saudi Arabia]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2001|9|11|1979|11|21|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Somerset County, Pennsylvania]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[United Airlines Flight 93|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Saudis|Saudi]]
}}

'''Saeed Abd Allah Ali Sulayman al-Ghamdi''' ({{lang-ar|سعيد الغامدي|translit=Sa'īd al-Ghāmdī}}; 21 November 1979{{Snd}} 11 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker. He was one of four terrorist [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] of [[United Airlines Flight 93]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]].

Born in [[Saudi Arabia]], al-Ghamdi left his home to fight in Chechnya after [[dropping out]] of college, but was reported to have diverted to Afghanistan to train in an [[al-Qaeda]] camp. It was reported he was chosen by [[Osama bin Laden]] to participate in terrorist attacks in the United States and arrived in the U.S. in June 2001. During his stay in the U.S., he quietly settled in [[Florida]], planning out how the attacks would commence and training on flight simulators.<ref name="MacKinnon2006">{{cite book|first=Colin|last=MacKinnon|title=Morning Spy, Evening Spy: A Novel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xPYFNMFwX0oC|date=3 October 2006|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York City|isbn=978-1-4299-9357-9}}</ref>

On 11 September 2001, he boarded [[United Airlines Flight 93|United 93]] and assisted in the hijacking of the plane, which was diverted toward [[Washington D.C.]] under the control of lead hijacker and trained pilot [[Ziad Jarrah]] so that Jarrah could crash the plane into either the [[U.S. Capitol]] or the [[White House]], as part of the coordinated attacks. The plane instead crashed into a [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|field]] in [[Somerset County, Pennsylvania]], after the passengers attempted to retake control of the plane in an uprising.

[[File:SAlghamdi.JPG|thumb|al-Ghamdi]]

==Early life and education==
Saeed al-Ghamdi was from the [[al-Bahah Province]] of [[Saudi Arabia]], and shared the same tribal affiliation with fellow hijackers [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]], [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]], and [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]], although he was not related to either al-Ghamdi. He may have been in contact with the two al-Ghamdi's and al-Haznawi as early as 1999.<ref name="commission">{{cite report|url=http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/pdf/sec7.pdf|title=The 9/11 Commission Report|publisher=[[United States Government Printing Office]]|location=Washington DC|date=July 22, 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809032821/http://www.gpoaccess.gov//911/pdf/sec7.pdf |archive-date=August 9, 2010|pages=231–33}}</ref> This group is noted as being some of the more religiously observant of the hijackers. al-Ghamdi spent time in [[al Qasim]] province, Saudi Arabia where he transferred to college but soon dropped out and ceased contact with his family. While there he probably associated with the radical Saudi cleric named [[Sulayman al-Alwan]] as several other future hijackers had.<ref name="commission"/>

Al-Ghamdi later headed to [[Chechnya]] to participate in the conflict against the [[Russia]]ns. At this time, Chechen fighters were turning away additional foreigners, many of whom ended up in [[al-Qaeda]] camps in [[Afghanistan]] to train and await entry to Chechnya. Saeed ended up at the [[Al Farouq training camp]], where he met [[Ahmed al-Nami]], and the brothers [[Wail al-Shehri|Wail]] and [[Waleed al-Shehri]]. The four reportedly pledge themselves to [[Jihad]] in the Spring of 2000, in a ceremony presided over by Wail Al-Shehri—who had dubbed himself ''Abu Mossaeb al-Janubi'' after one of [[Muhammad]]'s companions.<ref>{{cite news|first=Charles M.|last=Sennott|url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1_side.shtml|title=Before oath to jihad, drifting and boredom|newspaper=[[Boston Globe]]|publisher=Boston Globe Partners L.P.|location=Boston, Massachusetts|date=March 3, 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830042824/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1_side.shtml |url-status=live|archive-date=August 30, 2008 }}</ref>

Saeed Al-Ghamdi was known to [[Tawfiq bin Attash]] who is thought to have convinced him to become a martyr. Al-Ghamdi was at that time working as a security guard at Kandahar airport along with [[Waleed al-Shehri]].

Some time late in 2000, al-Ghamdi traveled to the [[United Arab Emirates]], where he purchased [[traveler's cheques]] presumed to have been paid for by [[Mustafa al-Hawsawi]]. Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including [[Majed Moqed]], [[Wail al-Shehri]], [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]], [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]] and [[Ahmed al-Nami]].

On 13 November 2000, another Saeed al-Ghamdi tried to obtain a visa to enter the United States, but was declined. Although the [[9/11 Commission]] makes mention of him, there is no evidence he was associated with the hijackers.

In March 2001, al-Ghamdi was filmed in a farewell video that was later aired on [[al-Jazeera]]. In the video, many future 9/11 hijackers swear to become martyrs, although no details of the plot are revealed. al-Ghamdi referred to America as "the enemy", and is seen studying maps and flight manuals.<ref>[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/financialtimes091102.html Cooperative Research] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031121164502/http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/financialtimes091102.html |date=2003-11-21 }}</ref>

==In the United States==

On 12 June 2001, Saeed al-Ghamdi applied for and received a second two-year US [[B-1/B-2 Visa|B-1/B-2 (tourist/business) visa]] in [[Jeddah, Saudi Arabia]]. His application was submitted by a local travel agency and processed through Visa Express, a controversial US visa program in [[Saudi Arabia]] which was discontinued the following year.<ref name="visa">{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |title=Staff Monograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel |publisher=9/11 Commission |year=2004 |format=PDF |access-date=2009-05-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040923223220/http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |archive-date=2004-09-23 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Arriving in the U.S. on 27 June 2001, with [[Fayez Banihammad]], Saeed shared an apartment with Ahmed al-Nami in [[Delray Beach, Florida]]. Oddly, he listed the Naval Air Station in [[Pensacola, Florida]], as his permanent address on his driver's license. He was one of 9 hijackers to open a [[SunTrust]] bank account with a cash deposit around June 2001.

According to [[al-Jazeera]] reporter [[Yosri Fouda]]'s documentary ''Top Secret: The Road to September 11'', three weeks prior to the attacks, Saeed is believed to have used the name 'Abdul Rahman' to send a message to [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] (who was posing as a girlfriend) online, in which he wrote

{{quote|The first semester commences in three weeks. Two high schools and two universities. ... This summer will surely be hot ...19 certificates for private education and four exams. Regards to the professor. Goodbye.{{#tag:ref|This was said to be a reference to two military/governmental targets and two civilian, nineteen hijackers, four planes.|group=N}}|Saeed al-Ghamdi, August 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/09/12/alqaeda.911.claim/index.html |date=September 12, 2002 |title=Al-Jazeera offers accounts of 9/11 planning |work=Cable News Network |publisher=Time Warner |access-date=February 20, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220124318/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/09/12/alqaeda.911.claim/index.html |archive-date=February 20, 2006 }}</ref>}}

On 7 September, all four of Flight 93 hijackers flew from [[Fort Lauderdale]] to [[Newark International Airport]] aboard [[Spirit Airlines]].

==Attacks==
{{Main|United Airlines Flight 93}}
[[Image:Saeed al-GhamdiPass Visa.jpg|thumb| [[Visa (document)|Visa]] page from Saeed al-Ghamdi's [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]] passport recovered from the [[United Airlines Flight 93]] crash site]]

On the morning of 11 September 2001, al-Ghamdi boarded [[United Airlines Flight 93]] without incident. Due to the flight's delay, the pilot and crew were notified of the previous hijackings that day, and were told to be on the alert. Within minutes, Flight 93 was hijacked as well.

At least two of the cell phone calls made by passengers indicate that the hijackers were wearing red bandanas. The calls also indicated that one had tied a box around his torso, and claimed there was a bomb inside.

The flight transcript suggests that three hijackers were in the cockpit. [[Ziad Jarrah]] was identified as the pilot and is heard calling the other hijacker "Saeed",<ref>[[s:en:Flight 93 Cockpit Transcript|Flight 93 Cockpit Transcript]] at [[Wikisource]]</ref> indicating that al-Ghamdi, who also trained in flight simulators, was helping Jarrah with the controls.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flight_93_Cockpit_Transcript.djvu&page=7| title = Relevant page of Wikisource transcript where ''Saeed'' is said twice}}</ref>

Passengers on the plane heard through phone calls the fates of the other hijacked planes. A passenger uprising resulted in the plane crashing into a [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|field]] near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, killing everyone aboard.

==Mistaken identity allegations==
On 23 September 2001, before the FBI had released the pictures of the hijackers, the [[BBC]] and ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' reported that a Saudi Airlines pilot named Saeed al-Ghamdi was furious that a name on the hijacker's list released by the FBI matched his own. CNN also showed a picture of the "living" al-Ghamdi as the hijacker. The man claimed CNN likely got his picture from a Flight Safety flying school in Florida he attended.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1559151.stm |title=Hijack 'suspects' alive and well |work=[[BBC News]] |date=23 September 2001 |access-date=7 December 2018 |publisher=[[BBC]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206145946/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1559151.stm |archive-date=2018-12-06 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2001/09/23/widen23.xml |title=Revealed: the men with stolen identities |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |first=David |last=Harrison |date=23 September 2001 |access-date=7 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030119172120/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2001%2F09%2F23%2Fwiden23.xml |archive-date=2003-01-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' later investigated the claims of "living" hijackers by the BBC and discovered them to be cases of mistaken identity.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,265160,00.html |title=Panoply of the Absurd |newspaper=[[Spiegel Online]] |date=September 8, 2003 |access-date=7 December 2018 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120524210246/http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,265160,00.html |archive-date=2012-05-24 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In June 2005 the [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] government released a list (see [[al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula]]) of 36 wanted (and alive) terrorists, one of whom was Salih Saeed Al Batih al-Ghamdi. [[9/11 conspiracy theories|9/11 conspiracy theorists]] quickly confused him with the hijacker Saeed al-Ghamdi.<ref>{{cite news |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050706075447/http://aawsat.com/english/news.asp?id=613&section=1 |title=Saudi Arabia issues New list of wanted "terrorist" suspects, Asharq Al-Awsat Exclusive: Al Qaeda''s in Saudi Arabia''s new leader is a Moroccan National |newspaper=[[Asharq Al-Awsat]] |date=29 June 2005 |access-date=7 December 2018 |first=Majid |last=al Kinani |first2=Mshari |last2=Al-Zaydi |url=http://aawsat.com/english/news.asp?id=613&section=1 |archive-date=6 July 2005}}</ref>

He has been portrayed by Iraqi actor [[Lewis Alsamari]] in ''[[United 93 (film)|United 93]]'' and Shawn Ahmed in ''[[Flight 93 (2006 film)|Flight 93]]''.

<gallery>
Image:Saeeds-I94Form.jpg|Saeed's [[I-94 (form)|I-94 form]]
Image:Saeed-Customs-Declaration.jpg|Saeed's [[United States Customs Service|Customs]] declaration
File:Alghamdivisaphoto.jpg| Ghamdi's passport photo
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

{{Portal|Biography}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=N}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1559151.stm ''BBC News'']
{{United Airlines Flight 93}}
{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ghamdi, Saeed}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths in Somerset County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Al-Bahah Province]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:United Airlines Flight 93]]

Ahmed al-Nami

2023-09-13T13:25:13Z

78.157.120.208: Changed to consistent use of dmy date format as well as American English

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1977–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ahmed al-Nami
| image = Al-Nami.png
| caption = Al-Nami in May 2001
| native_name = أحمد النعمي
| native_name_lang = ar
| image_size =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1977|12|7|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [['Asir Province]], Saudi Arabia
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1977|12|7|df=yes}}
| height = 1.70 m (5 ft 7 in)
| death_place = [[Somerset County, Pennsylvania]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[United Airlines Flight 93|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]]
}}
'''Ahmed bin Abdullah al-Nami''' ({{Lang-ar|أحمد بن عبد الله النعمي|translit=Aḥmad bin ‘Abd Allāh al-Nāʿmī}}; 7 December 1977{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker. He was one of the four [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] of [[United Airlines Flight 93]], which was crashed into a field in [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|Stonycreek Township]], Pennsylvania, following a passenger revolt, as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]].

Born in [[Saudi Arabia]], al-Nami had served as a [[muezzin]] and was a college student. He left his family in 2000 to complete the [[Hajj]], but later went to [[Afghanistan]] bound for an [[al-Qaeda]] training camp where he befriended other future hijackers and would soon be chosen to participate in the attacks.

He arrived in the United States in May 2001, on a tourist visa, where he would settle in [[Florida]] up until the attacks. On 11 September 2001, al-Nami boarded United 93 and assisted in the hijacking of the plane so that it could be flown into the either the [[United States Capitol|U.S. Capitol]] or the [[White House]]. The plane instead crashed into a [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|field]] in rural [[Somerset County, Pennsylvania]] during a passenger uprising, due to the passengers receiving information from their families of the three other hijacked planes that hit the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] and [[the Pentagon]]. Al-Nami, along with [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]] are suspected to have carried the presumed bomb that was brought aboard Flight 93.

==Early life and activities==
Ahmed al-Nami, much like [[Wail al-Shehri]], [[Waleed al-Shehri]] and [[Mohand al-Shehri]], was born in the [['Asir Province]] in [[Saudi Arabia]]. Born to the [[Quraysh]] tribe of [[Saudi Arabia]],<ref name="willalOmari">Videotape of recorded will of Abdulaziz al-Omari and others</ref> al-Nami served as a [[muezzin]] at the Seqeley mosque after having reportedly become very religious sometime in early 1999. That autumn he left his family home in [[Abha]] in the summer of 2000 to complete the [[Hajj]], but never returned – instead travelling to the [[Al Farouq training camp]] in [[Afghanistan]] where he met and befriended [[Waleed al-Shehri|Waleed]] and [[Wail al-Shehri]], two brothers from [[Khamis Mushayt]] in the same province, and [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]]. The four reportedly pledged themselves to [[Jihad]] in the spring of 2000, in a ceremony presided over by Wail al-Shehri – who had dubbed himself ''Abu Mossaeb al-Janubi'' after one of [[Muhammad]]'s companions.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[Boston Globe]] |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1_side.shtml |title=Before oath to jihad, drifting and boredom |first=Charles M. |last=Sennott |date=3 March 2002 |access-date=7 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021208034606/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1_side.shtml |archive-date=8 December 2002 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Dubbed "Abu Hashim", al-Nami was considered "gentle in manner" by his colleagues, and reported that he had a dream in which he rode a [[mare]] along with [[Muhammad]], and that the prophet told him to dismount and fight his enemies to liberate his land.<ref name="willalOmari"/>

During his time at al-Farooq, there is a curious mention under [[Mushabib al-Hamlan]]'s details that al-Nami had recently had [[laser eye surgery]], an uncited fact that does not reappear.

By October he had taken a prospective hijacker [[Mushabib al-Hamlan]] from [[Afghanistan]] to Saudi Arabia where they both procured B-1/B-2 tourist/business visas on 28 October – but al-Hamlan then decided not to proceed and is thought to have returned to his family. al-Nami's visa application has since been reviewed, and while he mentioned that al-Hamlan will be travelling with him, he listed his occupation as ''student'' but failed to provide an address for his school, and listed his intended address in the United States merely as [[Los Angeles]] – in the end he never used this visa to enter the United States, and reported his [[passport]] (C115007, which showed evidence of travel to [[Afghanistan]]) as "lost", and procured a new one from [[Jeddah]] (C505363). He used the new passport to acquire a new B-1/B-2 visa in Jeddah on 23 April, again recopying his answers from previously although crossing out the lines regarding al-Hamlan and previous attempts to acquire a visa.<ref name="visa">{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Staff Monograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel |work=[[9/11 Commission]] |year=2004 |access-date=7 December 2018 |first1=Thomas R. |last1=Eldridge |first2=Susan |last2=Ginsburg |first3=Walter T. |last3=Hempel II |first4=Janice L. |last4=Kephart |first5=Kelly |last5=Moore |editor-first=Joanne M. |editor-last=Accolla |editor2-first=Alice |editor2-last=Falk |pages=233}}</ref> He was interviewed by a consular officer, who again approved his application. Records at the time only recorded past failures to procure a visa, so the officer had no way of realising that Nami had successfully received an earlier visa.

In mid-November 2000, the [[9/11 Commission]] believed that al-Nami, [[Wail al-Shehri|Wail]] and [[Waleed al-Shehri]], all of whom had obtained their U.S. visas in late October, traveled in a group from Saudi Arabia to [[Beirut]] and then onward to [[Iran]] where they could travel through to Afghanistan without getting their passports stamped. This probably followed their return to Saudi Arabia to get "clean" passports. An associate of a senior Hezbollah operative is thought to have been on the same flight, although this may have been a coincidence.<ref name="911-ch7-3">{{cite book|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm|title=9/11 Commission Report|publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|pages=231–240|chapter=Chapter 7.3–The Attack Looms, Assembling the Teams|access-date=2008-09-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023214223/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm|archive-date=2013-10-23|url-status=live}}</ref>

While in the [[United Arab Emirates]], al-Nami purchased [[Traveller's cheque|traveler's cheque]]s presumed to have been paid for by [[Mustafa al-Hawsawi]]. Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including [[Majed Moqed]], [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]], [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]] and [[Wail al-Shehri]].

===2001===

In March 2001, Ahmed al-Nami appeared in an [[al-Qaeda]] farewell video showing 13 of the "muscle hijackers" before they left their training centre in [[Kandahar]]; while he does not speak, he is seen studying maps and flight manuals.

On 23 April, al-Nami was recorded obtaining a new US visa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.faqs.org/docs/911/911Report-542.html |title=Page 542 |work=Faqs.org |access-date=May 3, 2010}}</ref>

On 28 May, al-Nami arrived in the United States from [[Dubai]] with fellow-hijackers [[Mohand al-Shehri]] and [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]]. By early June, al-Nami was living in apartment 1504 at the Delray Racquet Club condominiums with [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]] in [[Delray Beach, Florida]]. He [[telephone]]d his family in 'Asir shortly after arriving in the country.

In June, he phoned his family for the last time.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A19549-2001Sep24&notFound=true |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |title=Some Light Shed On Saudi Suspects |first1=Caryle |last1=Murphy |author-link=Caryle Murphy |first2=David B. |last2=Ottaway |date=September 25, 2001 |access-date=April 23, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224024231/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A19549-2001Sep24&notFound=true |archive-date=24 February 2011}}</ref>

He was one of 9 hijackers to open a [[SunTrust]] bank account with a cash deposit around June 2001, and on June 29 received either a Florida State Identification Card or Drivers License.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Ch2.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Ch2.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Chapter 2- Chronology |access-date=May 3, 2010 |pages=6–44 |work=[[9/11 Commission]]}}</ref>

He may have been one of three hijackers that listed the Naval Air Station in [[Pensacola, Florida]] as their permanent address on drivers' licenses, though other sources claim he listed the Delray condominium.

On 28 August, al-Nami and [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]] reportedly bothered a [[Delray Beach]] resident, Maria Siscar Simpson, to let them through her apartment to retrieve a towel that had fallen off their balcony onto hers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sptimes.com/2002/09/01/911/Florida__terror_s_lau.shtml |title=911: Florida: terror's launching pad |newspaper=[[St. Petersburg Times]] |date=1 September 2002 |access-date=May 3, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020905151317/http://www.sptimes.com/2002/09/01/911/Florida__terror_s_lau.shtml |archive-date=September 5, 2002 |first=Thomas C. |last=Tobin}}</ref>

On 5 September, al-Nami and [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]] purchased tickets for a September 7 flight to [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark]] at Mile High Travel on Commercial Boulevard—paying cash for their tickets. [[Ziad Jarrah]] and al-Haznawi also purchased tickets for the same flight from Passage Tours.

On 7 September, all four Flight 93 hijackers flew from [[Fort Lauderdale]] to [[Newark International Airport]] aboard [[Spirit Airlines]].

==Attacks==
{{Main|United Airlines Flight 93}}

On 11 September 2001, al-Nami arrived in Newark to board [[United Airlines Flight 93]] along with al-Ghamdi, al-Haznawi and Jarrah. Some reports suggest al-Haznawi was pulled aside for screening while others claim there is no record of whether any of the four were screened; the lack of [[Closed-circuit television|CCTV]] cameras at the time has compounded the problem. Nami boarded the plane between 7:39 am and 7:48 am; seated in First Class 3C, next to al-Ghamdi.

Due to the flight's routine delay, the pilot and crew were notified of the previous hijackings and were told to be on the alert, though within two minutes Jarrah had stormed the cockpit leaving the pilots dead or injured.

At least two of the cellphone calls made by passengers indicate that the hijackers were wearing red bandanas. The calls also indicated that one had tied a box around his torso, and claimed there was a bomb inside.<ref>''Flight 93: The Story, the Aftermath, and the Legacy of American Courage on 9/11'', pp 103</ref>

Passengers on the plane heard through phone calls the fates of the other hijacked planes, and organized a brief assault to retake the cockpit. Three times in a period of five seconds there were shouts of pain or distress from a hijacker outside the cockpit, suggesting that a hijacker was being attacked by the passengers.<ref>''Flight 93: The Story, the Aftermath, and the Legacy of American Courage on 9/11'', pp 103</ref> The plane crashed into the [[Pennsylvania]]n countryside and all aboard died.

==Aftermath==

He has been portrayed by British actor [[Jamie Harding]] in the 2006 film ''[[United 93 (film)|United 93]]'' and Asim Wali in the film ''[[Flight 93 (film)|Flight 93]]''.

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography}}
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The final ''9/11 Commission Report'']
{{United Airlines Flight 93}}
{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nami, Ahmed}}
[[Category:1977 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths in Somerset County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from 'Asir Province]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:United Airlines Flight 93]]

Marwan al-Shehhi

2023-09-12T23:00:39Z

78.157.120.208:

{{Short description|Emirati terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1978–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=February 2015}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Marwan al-Shehhi مروان الشحي
| spouse = Fawzeya al-Shehhi
| relatives =
| image = Marwan al-Shehhi.jpg
| image_size =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1978|5|9|df=yes}}
| birth_name = Marwan Yousef Mohamed Rashid Lekrab al-Shehhi
| birth_place = [[Ras Al Khaimah|Ras al-Khaimah]], [[United Arab Emirates]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1978|5|9|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[United Airlines Flight 175|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Bonn]] [[Technical University of Hamburg]]
| nationality = [[Emirati people|Emirati]]
}}

'''Marwan Yousef Mohamed Rashid Lekrab al-Shehhi''' ({{lang-ar|مروان يوسف محمد رشيد لكراب الشحي|translit=Marwān Yūsuf Muḥammad Rashīd Likrāb al-Shiḥḥī}}; 9 May 1978{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was an Emirati [[al-Qaeda]] terrorist who served as the hijacker-pilot of [[United Airlines Flight 175]], crashing the [[Boeing 767]] into the [[List of tenants in Two World Trade Center|South Tower]] of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]] in 2001. He was one of five [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] aboard the aircraft and one of two Emiratis to take part in the attacks, the other being [[Fayez Banihammad]], who helped him hijack the same plane.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf|title=The 9/11 Commission Report|page=162|access-date=2016-09-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019203222/https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf|archive-date=2016-10-19|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Al-Shehhi was a student from the [[United Arab Emirates]] who moved to Germany in 1996 and soon became close friends with [[Mohamed Atta]], [[Ziad Jarrah]] and [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], forming the [[Hamburg cell]]. Together, after pledging their lives to martyrdom, they became the leaders of the 11 September attacks. In late 1999, al-Shehhi, Atta, Jarrah, and bin al-Shibh traveled to terrorist training camps in [[Afghanistan]] and met with [[Osama bin Laden]] who recruited the four Hamburg cell members for the attacks in the United States. He arrived in the [[United States]] in May 2000, one month before Atta. Atta, Al-Shehhi, and Jarrah had been trained as pilots in [[Florida]] at [[Huffman Aviation]], receiving their [[Commercial Pilot Licence|commercial pilot licenses]] in December 2000 and January 2001 from the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]].

Al-Shehhi spent his time making preparations for the attack itself, such as meeting with crucial [[Planning of the September 11 attacks|planners]] abroad, assisting with the arrival of hijackers aboard the other flights, and travelling on surveillance flights determining details on how the hijacking would take place. On 9 September 2001, he traveled from [[Florida]] to [[Boston]], where he stayed at the Milner Hotel until 11 September. After boarding [[United Airlines Flight 175]] at [[Logan International Airport]], al-Shehhi and 4 other hijackers waited 30 minutes into the flight to make their attack, which then allowed al-Shehhi to take over control as pilot, and at 9:03 a.m., 17 minutes after [[Mohamed Atta]] crashed [[American Airlines Flight 11]] into the [[List of tenants in One World Trade Center|North Tower]], al-Shehhi crashed the [[Boeing 767#767-200|Boeing 767]] into the South Tower of the World Trade Center from floors 77 to 85.<ref name="ntsb">{{cite web|url=https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/foia/9_11/Flight_Path_Study_UA175.pdf|title=Flight Path Study - United Airlines Flight 175|access-date=11 September 2014|work=National Transportation Safety Board|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023122449/http://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/foia/9_11/Flight_Path_Study_UA175.pdf|archive-date=2011-10-23|url-status=live}}</ref> At 23 years of age, he was the youngest hijacker-pilot to participate in the attacks. The impact of the Boeing 767 into the South Tower was seen live on television as it happened. At 9:59 a.m., after 56 minutes of burning, the 110-story skyscraper collapsed, killing hundreds of people, including around 900 office workers and first responders.

==Early life==
{{one source|section|date=February 2015}}
Al-Shehhi was born in [[Ras al-Khaimah]], on 9 May 1978, in the [[United Arab Emirates]], to an Emirati Muslim cleric who died in 1997 and an [[Egypt]]ian mother. Described as a quiet and devout Muslim, details about al-Shehhi's life in the UAE, however, are difficult to acquire. According to an October 2001 article in ''The New York Times'', "If residents of Mr. Shehhi's hometown had heard of him before now, they were certainly not telling strangers. Four hours spent in the community yielded no address and no one -- policemen, firemen, pedestrians or local officials -- who did anything more than shrug at the mention of his name."<ref>{{Citation|title=Manasseh, "Who Did More Evil than All . . . Who Were Before Him"|work=Portrait of the Kings|pages=187–224|publisher=Augsburg Fortress Publishers|isbn=9781451469585|doi=10.2307/j.ctt9m0txn.10|year=2015}}</ref>

After graduating from high school in 1995, al-Shehhi enlisted in the [[Emirati military]] and received a half a year of basic training before he was admitted into a military scholarship program that allowed him to continue his education in Germany. Upon arriving in Germany in April 1996, al-Shehhi moved into an apartment, which he shared with three other scholarship students for two months before boarding with a local German family. Several months later, he moved into his own apartment. Those who knew him described al-Shehhi as a very religious and friendly individual who wore western clothes and sometimes rented cars for trips to Berlin, France, and the Netherlands. {{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

His teacher in Germany, Gabriele Bock, recalls him as someone who seemed to be struggling to have plans for the future while studying there.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/vita-des-attentaeters-marwan-al-shehhi-auffaellig-war-nur-seine-unauffaelligkeit-a-161098.html|title = Vita des Attentäters Marwan al-Shehhi: Auffällig war nur seine Unauffälligkeit|newspaper = Der Spiegel|date = 6 October 2001|last1 = Gebauer|first1 = Matthias}}</ref>

While in Germany, al-Shehhi enrolled in the [[University of Bonn]] after completing a German course. He left Germany in June 1997 to attend to problems at home although the university forbade him. In early 1998, al-Shehhi transferred to the [[Technical University of Hamburg]]. A poor student, al-Shehhi was directed by the Scholarship program administrators to repeat a semester of his studies back in Bonn beginning in August 1998. Al-Shehhi did not enroll back at Bonn until January 1999 and continued to struggle with his studies. By July 1999, Marwan returned to Hamburg to study shipbuilding.<ref>[http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf The 9/11 Commission Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019203222/https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |date=2016-10-19 }} p. 179</ref>

It has been reported al-Shehhi also married in 1999, holding a belated celebration in January 2000, in an arranged marriage by his half-brother with a young woman named Fawzeya. <ref>{{Cite news |last=Kessler |first=Glenn |date=2021-12-07 |title=Trump’s false claim that the 9/11 hijackers’ wives ‘knew exactly what was going to happen’ |language=en-US |work=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2015/12/06/trumps-dubious-claim-that-the-911-hijackers-wives-knew-exactly-what-was-going-to-happen/ |access-date=2023-08-10 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/fl-xpm-2001-09-23-0109230108-story.html|title = Portraits Start to Emerge of Terrorism Suspects| date=23 September 2001 }}</ref>

==Radicalization==
{{one source|section|date=February 2015}}
After moving to [[Hamburg]] in 1998, al-Shehhi helped form the [[Hamburg cell]] with Mohamed Atta and Ramzi bin al-Shibh. There, his views became more and more radical. They met three or four times a week to discuss anti-American feelings and plot possible attacks. When someone asked why he and Atta never laughed, al-Shehhi retorted, "How can you laugh when people are dying in Palestine?"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Page 179 |url=http://www.faqs.org/docs/911/911Report-179.html |access-date=2023-01-25 |website=www.faqs.org}}</ref>


On 9 October 1999, Marwan al-Shehhi was filmed at [[Said Bahaji]]'s wedding in Germany with other 9/11 hijackers including [[Ziad Jarrah]].<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2003-05-07-hijackers_x.htm "Wedding video shows Sept. 11 hijackers, plotters"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913201359/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2003-05-07-hijackers_x.htm |date=2009-09-13 }}, usatoday.com, 5 May 2003.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4e65d8432.html|title=Refworld | Still at Large Ten Years After 9/11: Said Bahaji, Mohammed Atta's Right Hand Man|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|last=Refugees|website=Refworld}}</ref>

In late 1999, al-Shehhi, Atta, Ziad Jarrah, Said Bahaji, and Ramzi bin al-Shibh decided to travel to [[Chechnya]] to fight against the [[Russia]]ns, but were convinced by [[Khalid al-Masri]] and [[Mohamedou Ould Slahi]] at the last minute to change their plans. They instead traveled to [[Afghanistan]] to meet with Osama bin Laden and trained for terrorist attacks. Immediately afterwards, Atta, al-Shehhi, and Jarrah reported their [[passport]]s stolen, possibly to erase travel visas to Afghanistan. After their training, the hijackers began to attempt to hide their radicalism. al-Shehhi shaved his beard and seemed to his old friends like he had become less religious. After the attacks, a librarian in Hamburg reported that al-Shehhi boasted to her "There will be thousands of dead. You will think of me ... You will see, in America something is going to happen. There will be many people killed."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&startpos=500#a0400boasts |others=April–May 2000: Hijacker Tells Librarian About Major Attack in US. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001222905/http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&startpos=500 |archive-date=October 1, 2006 |title=The Complete 9/11 Timeline: Cooperative Research |access-date=February 14, 2015 |work=Cooperative Research}}</ref><ref>Butler, Desmond. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE3DF173FF93AA1575BC0A9649C8B63 "Germans Issue First Indictment in the 9/11 Plot"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205054158/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE3DF173FF93AA1575BC0A9649C8B63 |date=2008-12-05 }}, nytimes.com, 29 August 2002.</ref><ref>Bernstein, Richard. [https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/10/national/10PLOT.html?ex=1091505600&en=7ca523da35ee3dad&ei=5070 "On Path to the U.S. Skies, Plot Leader Met bin Laden"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309000425/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/10/national/10PLOT.html?ex=1091505600&en=7ca523da35ee3dad&ei=5070 |date=2016-03-09 }}, nytimes.com, 10 September 2002.</ref>

Al-Shehhi returned to Germany in March 2000, and began to learn to fly airplanes. [[Ammar al-Baluchi]], one of the most important 9/11 financial organizers, bought a [[Boeing 747]] [[flight simulator]] program using al-Shehhi's credit card. Eventually they decided that German flight schools would not work for them, and they decided to train in the United States. {{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

==In the United States==

===Flight education and preparation===
[[Image:Marwansflightrecord.jpg|left|thumb|80px|Shehhi's flight record from [[Huffman Aviation|Huffman]]]]
Al-Shehhi was the first of the Hamburg group to leave for the United States. He arrived in [[Newark, New Jersey]] on 29 May 2000. Atta and Jarrah joined him the next month, and the three men began to search for flight schools. Al-Shehhi and Jarrah posed as body guards of Atta, who were also posing as a "[[Saudi Arabia]]n royal family member" while the three of them took flying lessons in [[Venice, Florida]]. They logged hundreds of hours on a [[Boeing 727]] flight simulator. They received their licenses by December 2000. Their expenses were paid for by [[Ali Abdul Aziz Ali]]. On either 26 or 27 December, Atta, Jarrah, and al-Shehhi abandoned a [[Piper Cherokee]] that had stalled on the runway of [[Miami International Airport]]. On 31 December, Atta, Jarrah and Marwan went to the Opa-Locka Airport and practiced on a [[Boeing 727]] simulator. Al-Shehhi began to take "surveillance flights" in the summer of 2001, watching the operations of flight crews and making final preparations. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Statement of Robert S. Mueller: Joint Investigation Into September 11: (published September 26, 2002)|url=https://irp.fas.org/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html|access-date=2021-09-09|website=irp.fas.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2001-09-14|title=How 'shy foreigners' learned to pilot flying-bomb Boeings|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/sep/14/september11.usa18|access-date=2021-09-09|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref>

===Travels in early 2001===
{{unreferenced section|date=February 2015}}
[[Ziad Jarrah]], Atta, and al-Shehhi, having progressed in their training, all took foreign trips during the holiday period of 2000-2001. When Atta returned to Florida, al-Shehhi left for [[Morocco]], traveling to [[Casablanca]] in mid-January 2001. al-Shehhi's family, concerned about not having heard from him, reported him missing to the UAE government. The UAE embassy in turn contacted the Hamburg police and a UAE representative tried to find him in Germany, visiting mosques and al-Shehhi's last address in Hamburg. After learning that his family was looking for him, al-Shehhi telephoned them on 20 January and said he was living and studying in Hamburg. The UAE government then told the Hamburg police they could call off the search.

Atta and al-Shehhi both encountered some difficulty reentering the United States, on 10 January and 19 January, respectively. As neither had presented a student visa, both of them had to persuade [[Immigration and Naturalization Service|INS]] inspectors that they should be admitted so that they could continue their flight training. Neither operative had any problem clearing customs. After returning to Florida from their trips, Atta and al-Shehhi visited Georgia, staying briefly in Norcross and Decatur, and renting a single-engine plane to fly with an instructor in Lawrenceville. By 19 February, Atta and al-Shehhi were in Virginia. They had rented a mailbox in Virginia Beach, cashed a check, and then promptly returned to Georgia, staying in Stone Mountain. In mid-March, [[Ziad Jarrah]] was in Georgia as well, staying in Decatur. At the end of the month, Jarrah left the United States again and visited Sengün in Germany for two weeks. In early April, Atta and al-Shehhi returned to Virginia Beach and closed the mailbox they had opened in February.

Atta and al-Shehhi returned to Virginia Beach from their travels in Georgia, making their way to a large [[Dar Al-Hijrah]] mosque, sometime in early April. They were joined there by 9/11 hijackers [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] and [[Hani Hanjour]] who had moved out of San Diego and Arizona after living in or visiting [[Abdussattar Shaikh]]'s house, where [[Khalid al-Mihdhar]] also stayed. In January, the mosque had recently hired the same [[imam]] [[Anwar al-Awlaki]] with whom Hazmi had spent time at the Rabat mosque in San Diego. He remembered Hazmi from San Diego but denied having contact with Hazmi or Hanjour in Virginia. Atta and al-Shehhi returned to Florida and moved into an apartment in Coral Springs. Atta stayed in Florida, awaiting the arrival of the first hijackers. Al-Shehhi, on the other hand, bought a ticket to Cairo and flew there from Miami on 18 April. Al-Shehhi met with Atta's father, who stated in a post-9/11 interview that al-Shehhi wanted to pick up Atta's international driver's license and some money.

Al-Shehhi returned to Miami on 2 May. That day, Atta and Jarrah were together, about 30 miles to the north, visiting a [[Department of Motor Vehicles]] office in [[Lauderdale Lakes, Florida]], to get Florida driver's licenses. In mid-July 2001, some of the hijackers and members of the Hamburg cell gathered near [[Salou, Spain]], for a period of a few days up to a couple of weeks. Since hotel records are sparse during some of that time, it is thought that they may have spent considerable time in and around safe houses related to the al-Qaeda leader in Spain, [[Imad Yarkas]]. After 9/11, Spanish investigators followed the trails backwards, and the events they uncovered were chronicled in the Spanish nationwide newspaper ''[[El País]]''. Witnesses told Spanish investigators they saw a man who resembled al-Shehhi on 17 July 2001 at the [[PortAventura Park|Universal Studios Port Aventura]] theme park next to Salou, Spain. The visitor, who was accompanied by two men, inquired about rides at the customer service counter. Witnesses indicated these companions resembled Ziad Jarrah, the later pilot on [[United Airlines Flight 93]], and Said Bahaji, a then 26-year-old German-Moroccan member of the al-Qaeda cell in Hamburg. Back in Germany, it had been Bahaji's 1999 wedding during which al-Shehhi was filmed. Other witnesses elsewhere had pointed out Bahaji from photos, as one of the men they saw in Spain. But Bahaji bore a resemblance in appearance to Atta, who was traced to the same areas in Spain via hotel and travel records.

===August 2001===
On 23 August, the [[Israel]]i [[Mossad]] reportedly gave al-Shehhi's name to the [[CIA]] as part of a list of 19 names they said were planning an attack in the near future. Only four of the names are known for certain, including al-Shehhi; Nawaf al-Hazmi, Mohamed Atta, and Khalid al-Mihdhar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/context.jsp?item=a082301mossad |others=August 23, 2001: Mossad Reportedly Gives CIA List of Terrorist Living in US; at Least Four 9/11 Hijackers Named |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930031428/http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/context.jsp?item=a082301mossad |archive-date=September 30, 2007 |title=Context of 'August 23, 2001: Mossad Reportedly Gives CIA List of Terrorist Living in US; at Least Four 9/11 Hijackers Named' |work=History Commons}}</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/europe/2294487.stm "Report details US 'intelligence failures'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303161138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/europe/2294487.stm |date=2009-03-03 }}, bbc.co.uk, 2 October 2002.</ref>

[[Image:Marwan Al-Shehhi full card.jpg|thumb|130px|Shehhi's motel registration]]
On 26 August, Marwan signed into the Panther [[Motel]] in [[Deerfield Beach, Florida]], paying US$500, saying he wanted to stay until 2 September, and listing a [[Mailboxes Etc.]] as his permanent address. His register entry indicated that he was driving a blue [[Chevrolet Malibu]], assumed to be the one rented by Atta two weeks prior, and manager Richard Surma said that he bent rules to allow Marwan to have another man as an overnight guest. On 28 August, Marwan went to the [[Miami International Airport]], accompanied by an unknown man, where he purchased his ticket for [[United Airlines Flight 175|Flight 175]].<ref>[http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html "Statement for the Record, FBI Director Robert S. Mueller III, Joint Intelligence Committee Inquiry"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103193507/http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |date=2012-01-03 }}, FAS.org, September 26, 2002.</ref> On 9 September, the motel manager, cleaning the room that al-Shehhi had vacated, found a bag containing a German/English dictionary, a [[protractor]], flight manuals and local airport listings. Another employee later reported finding a [[box cutter]]. {{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}

According to librarian Kathleen Hensmen, [[Wail al-Shehri]] and [[Waleed al-Shehri]] used Internet access at Delray Beach Public Library in August 2001, where they may have been looking at information on [[crop dusting]]. They reportedly left the library with a third middle-eastern man, thought to be Marwan al-Shehhi, whom Hensmen claimed asked her for the name of a local restaurant. Staff at [[Shuckum's Oyster Bar|Shuckum's Oyster Pub and Seafood Grill]] in [[Hollywood, Florida]] claimed they recognized both Atta and Marwan as two of the people who had been at the restaurant on either 7 or 8 September. While there are varying stories about Atta's activities, all sources indicate that al-Shehhi drank [[rum and coke]] while talking to the others. On 9 September, they flew to Boston. The next day, al-Shehhi and three of the other hijackers, [[Fayez Banihammad]], [[Mohand al-Shehri]], and [[Satam al-Suqami]], shared a room at the Milner Hotel in [[Boston]]. {{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

==September 11 attacks and death==
{{Main|United Airlines Flight 175}}

At 5:01 AM on the morning of 11 September Al-Shehhi in [[Boston]] received a phone call from [[United Airlines Flight 93|Flight 93]] hijacker pilot [[Ziad Jarrah]] in [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]]. The five minute long call would be the last time Jarrah and Al-Shehhi spoke and is believed by authorities to be the two confirming to one another that the attacks were ready to begin.<ref>{{cite book |last=McMillan |first=Tom |date=2014 |title=Flight 93: The Story, the Aftermath, and the Legacy of American Courage on 9/11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MXiFBAAAQBAJ&dq=Ziad+Jarrah+Marwan+Al+Shehhi+5:01+am+cell+phone+call&pg=PA64 |location=[[Lanham, Maryland]] |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-1442232853 |access-date=January 18, 2023 |archive-date=September 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911040828/https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Flight_93/MXiFBAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Ziad+Jarrah+Marwan+Al+Shehhi+5%3A01+am+cell+phone+call&pg=PA64&printsec=frontcover%3Dfalse |url-status=live }}{{rp|64}}</ref>

After arriving at [[Logan International Airport]] later that morning, al-Shehhi made a call to Mohamed Atta lasting from 6:52 to 6:55, who was elsewhere in the same airport as both American 11 and United 175 were to fly from Logan to [[Los Angeles International Airport]]. The call is believed to have served the same purpose as Al-Shehhi's earlier call to Jarrah.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|last=9/11 Final Report of the National Commission|title="We have some planes"|year=2004|url=https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|19}}

Between 7:23 and 7:28, the five hijackers each boarded the plane, with Al-Shehhi taking his seat in 6C.<ref name="auto"/>{{rp|21}} The plane became airborne at 8:14, only to be hijacked 28 minutes after takeoff. The terrorists gained access to the cockpit through unknown means<ref name="auto"/>{{rp|23}} and murdered both pilots, allowing Al-Shehhi to assume control of the flight.<ref name="auto"/>{{rp|25}} Shortly after the hijacking, the plane came close to [[mid-air collision|colliding]] with another aircraft in the vicinity, Delta Airlines Flight 2315.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.southcoasttoday.com/article/20020912/NEWS/309129968|title=Report: hijacked plane nearly hit flight from Bradley|date=September 12, 2002|access-date=April 18, 2019|work=SouthCoastToday.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418010256/https://www.southcoasttoday.com/article/20020912/NEWS/309129968|archive-date=April 18, 2019}}</ref> Approaching New York City, Al-Shehhi saw smoke and fire pouring southeast from the World Trade Center's North Tower after it was struck by Flight 11 at 8:46 a.m.,<ref>{{cite book |last=McMillan |first=Tom |date=2014 |title=Flight 93: The Story, the Aftermath, and the Legacy of American Courage on 9/11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MXiFBAAAQBAJ&q=The+sight+must+have+thrilled+him.+Atta+had+struck%3B+we+can+only+guess+that+it+was+a+final+motivation+for+him+to+do+the+same&pg=PA73 |location=[[Lanham, Maryland]] |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |page=73 |isbn=978-1442232853 |access-date=January 18, 2023|archive-date=September 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911145616/https://books.google.com/books?id=MXiFBAAAQBAJ&q=The+sight+must+have+thrilled+him.+Atta+had+struck%3B+we+can+only+guess+that+it+was+a+final+motivation+for+him+to+do+the+same&pg=PA73 |url-status=live }}</ref> and narrowly avoided a second mid-air collision with Midwest Express Flight 7<ref>{{cite book |title=Touching History: The Untold Story of the Drama That Unfolded in the Skies Over America on 9/11 |first=Lynn |last=Spencer |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2008 |isbn=978-1416559252 |pages=74–76 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/touchinghistoryu00spen/page/74 }}</ref> as he descended northeast toward the South Tower of the World Trade Center.

Flying at speeds of around {{cvt|590|mph|kn m/s km/h}}{{efn|Sources disagree on the exact speed of impact. NTSB study in 2002 concluded around {{cvt|515|mph|kn m/s km/h}},{{sfn|NTSB|2002b}} whereas MIT study concluded {{cvt|503|mph|kn m/s km/h}}.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kausel |first1=Eduardo |title=Speed of Aircraft |publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |url=http://web.mit.edu/civenv/wtc/PDFfiles/Chapter%20III%20Aircraft%20speed.pdf |access-date=15 August 2021 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511123620/http://web.mit.edu/civenv/wtc/PDFfiles/Chapter%20III%20Aircraft%20speed.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>}} while carrying approximately 9,100 gallons<ref name="auto1">{{cite book|last=National Institute of Standards and Technology|title=Final Reports from the NIST World Trade Center Disaster Investigation|year=2005|url=https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/NCSTAR/ncstar1-5av1.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|88}} (approximately 34,447 liters) of jet fuel, Al-Shehhi crashed the plane into the South Tower at 9:03:02 a.m.{{efn|name=Time|The exact time is disputed. The 9/11 Commission report says 9:03:11,<ref>{{cite report |title=Final Report of the 9/11 Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |date=July 22, 2004 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=March 16, 2023 |url=https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |ref={{harvid|9/11 Commission|2004a}} |archive-date=August 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816164111/https://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |url-status=live |pages=7–8}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |title=Staff Report of the 9/11 Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States |date=September 2005 |orig-date=August 26, 2004 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=March 16, 2023 |url=https://www.archives.gov/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |ref={{harvid|9/11 Commission|2004b}}|archive-date=July 12, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712075041/http://www.archives.gov/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |url-status=live |page=24}}</ref> NIST reports 9:02:59,<ref>{{cite report |title=Visual Evidence, Damage Estimates, and Timeline Analysis |author=Building and Fire Research Laboratory |work=National Institute of Standards and Technology |publisher=United States Department of Commerce |date=September 2005 |url=https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/NCSTAR/ncstar1-5av1.pdf |ref={{harvid|NISTb|2005}} |access-date=March 16, 2023|archive-date=September 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911011051/https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/NCSTAR/ncstar1-5av1.pdf |url-status=live |page=27}}</ref> some other sources report 9:03:02.<ref>{{cite news |title=Timeline for United Airlines Flight 175 |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1962517 |newspaper=NPR |date = June 17, 2004|language=en |access-date=March 16, 2023 |archive-date=August 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824221736/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1962517 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}<ref>Rinaldi, Thomas (2016), https://books.google.com/books?id=y_wlCwAAQBAJ&dq=south+tower+9:03:02+am&pg=PT80 Retrieved September 6, 2016</ref> between floors 77 and 85, instantly killing himself and everyone else aboard the flight in addition to many more inside the South Tower. More than 600 people were on the wrong side of the impact zone when the plane struck, half of whom were killed instantaneously. Thus, the estimated 300 people still alive following the impact were left stranded in the upper floors of the catastrophically damaged skyscraper, now set ablaze and rapidly filling with smoke.<ref>{{cite news|date=May 26, 2002|title=102 MINUTES: Last Words at the Trade Center; Fighting to Live as the Towers Die|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/26/nyregion/102-minutes-last-words-at-the-trade-center-fighting-to-live-as-the-towers-die.html|access-date=March 16, 2023}}</ref> Because all eyes were on the Twin Towers following the crash of Flight 11 seventeen minutes earlier, the impact of Flight 175 and the explosion that followed was seen by millions of people worldwide on live television, being filmed and photographed from numerous vantage points.<ref>{{cite news|author=Boxer|first=Sarah|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0DEED71F3EF932A2575AC0A9649C8B63|title=One Camera, Then Thousands, Indelibly Etching a Day of Loss|date=September 11, 2002|work=The New York Times|access-date=November 17, 2008|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=September 11, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911145703/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/11/us/eyewitnesses-one-camera-then-thousands-indelibly-etching-a-day-of-loss.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Although the angle at which Al-Shehhi crashed did not sever all means of escape from the impact zone, most of the people who survived the crash were unable to use the single intact stairwell before the tower fell less than an hour later.<ref>{{cite news|date=September 10, 2003|title=TWO YEARS LATER: THE 91ST FLOOR; The Line Between Life and Death, Still Indelible|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/10/us/two-years-later-the-91st-floor-the-line-between-life-and-death-still-indelible.html |access-date=December 5, 2022}}</ref>

Al-Shehhi flew the plane faster and lower into the tower than Atta did, into the eastern half of the South Tower's southern facade close to the southeast corner, causing the tower's structural integrity to be compromised far more severely than the North Tower's.<ref>{{cite news|date=February 23, 2002|title=A NATION CHALLENGED: THE TRADE CENTER CRASHES; First Tower to Fall Was Hit At Higher Speed, Study Finds|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/23/us/nation-challenged-trade-center-crashes-first-tower-fall-was-hit-higher-speed.html|url-status=live|access-date=January 18, 2023}}</ref> at 9:59 A.M. that morning,<ref name="auto1"/>{{rp|80}}<ref>{{cite book|last=9/11 Final Report of the National Commission|title=Collapse of WTC2|year=2004|url=https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|322}} the South Tower became the first tower to collapse, having stood for 55 minutes{{efn|NIST and the 9/11 Commission both give the time as 9:58:59 a.m., which is subsequently rounded to 9:59 for simplicity. If the Commission's claim that the South Tower was struck at 9:03:11 is to be believed, then it collapsed after 55 minutes and 48 seconds, not 56 minutes.}} after the plane crash.

==See also==
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist|30em}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* Thompson, Paul. ''[[The Terror Timeline]]''. ReganBooks, 2004. {{ISBN|0-06-078338-9}}
* ''The 9/11 Commission Report''. W.W. Norton & Company. {{ISBN|0-393-32671-3}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{GermanTerrorism}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shehhi, Marwan}}
[[Category:1978 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Emirati al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Emirati expatriates in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Emirati expatriates in Germany]]
[[Category:Emirati mass murderers]]
[[Category:Emirati murderers of children]]
[[Category:Emirati people of Egyptian descent]]
[[Category:Hamburg cell]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from the Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah]]
[[Category:Suicides in New York City]]
[[Category:United Airlines Flight 175]]
[[Category:University of Bonn alumni]]

Mohand al-Shehri

2023-09-12T22:56:40Z

78.157.120.208: American English and date format

{{Short description|Saudi Arabian terrorist and 9/11 perpetrator (1979–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2009}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Mohand al-Shehri
| native_name = مهند الشهري
| native_name_lang = ar
| image = Mohand al-Shehri.jpg
| image_size = 150px
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1979|5|7|df=yes}}
| birth_name = Mohand Muhammed Fayiz al-Shehri
| birth_place = [['Asir Province]], [[Saudi Arabia]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1979|8|17|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[United Airlines Flight 175|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]]
}}
'''Mohand Muhammed Fayiz al-Shehri''' ({{lang-ar|مهند الشهري}}, {{transl|ar|''Muhand ash-Shehrī''}}; also [[transliteration|transliterated]] as '''Alshehri''') (7 May 1979 – 11 September 2001) was one of five terrorist [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] aboard [[United Airlines Flight 175]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]]. Despite his name, he was not related to the brothers [[Wail al-Shehri]] or [[Waleed al-Shehri]] who were part of the team that hijacked [[American Airlines Flight 11]].

A [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]], al-Shehri was a former college student who dropped out after failing his courses. He later left his home to fight in [[Chechnya]] in 2000, but was probably diverted to [[Al-Qaeda]] training camps in [[Afghanistan]]. It was during that time that he would be chosen to take part in the attacks in America. He received a [[F visa|U.S. student visa]] in October 2000.

al-Shehri arrived in the United States in May 2001. On 11 September 2001, al-Shehri boarded [[United Airlines Flight 175]] and assisted in its hijacking so that it could be flown into the South Tower of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]].

== History ==
[[Image:MOhandsVisaApplication.jpg|thumb|left|130px|Visa Application]]

Born 1979, al-Shehri was one of five hijackers to come from the [['Asir]] province of [[Saudi Arabia]], the others being [[Ahmed al-Nami]], [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]] and [[Waleed al-Shehri|Waleed]] and [[Wail al-Shehri]], two brothers with whom he shared the same tribe, [[Bani Shehr]], although they were not related to him.

According to [[Arab News]], Mohand al-Shehri went to fight in [[Chechnya]] in early 2000, where he may have met [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]]. On 23 October, al-Shehri applied for a US [[B-1/B-2 Visa|B-1/B-2 visa]] in [[Jeddah]]. Other than an error on his school's address the application was not suspicious and he was not interviewed before being granted the visa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |title=Staff Monograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel |publisher=9/11 Commission |year=2004|format=PDF}}</ref>

Al-Ghamdi and al-Shehri flew together from [[Iran]] into [[Kuwait]] that October.<ref>9/11 Commission Report, p. 240.</ref> Three months later the pair rented a [[post office box]] in [[Delray Beach, Florida]], where someone with the same name signed up to use the public library's computers.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20020905134605/http://www.sptimes.com/2002/09/01/911/plotters.shtml "09.11.01: One Year Later."] ''St. Petersburg Times''. September 1, 2002.</ref> According to FBI director [[Robert Mueller]] and the [[9/11 Commission]], however, al-Shehri did not first enter the [[United States]] until a [[London]] or [[Dubai]] flight on May 28 with al-Ghamdi and [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]].{{citation needed|date=September 2011}}

He was one of nine hijackers to open a [[SunTrust]] bank account with a cash deposit around June 2001, and on 2 July gained a Florida State ID Card.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/OG00013.pdf|title=Hijacker True Name Usage Chart for 2001|format=PDF|access-date=2010-08-24|archive-date=2009-05-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512160457/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/OG00013.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Al-Shehri occasionally trained on simulators at the [[FlightSafety Aviation School]] in [[Vero Beach, Florida]] together with [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]] and [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]].
{{-}}

== Attacks ==
{{Main|United Airlines Flight 175}}
[[Fayez Banihammad]] purchased both his and al-Shehri's one-way first class tickets for [[United Airlines Flight 175]] online on 27 or 29 August, charging the $4,464.50 to a [[Visa Inc.|Visa card]] from [[Mustafa al Hawsawi]], listing their addresses both as a [[Mail Boxes Etc.]] in [[Delray Beach, Florida|Delray Beach]]. This was not the same postal box used by [[Hamza al-Ghamdi|Hamza]] and [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]], who purchased their tickets for the same flight a day later, with another Mailboxes Etc. postal box in Delray Beach, although both groups listed the same phone number.

On 7 September, he flew from [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]] to [[Newark, New Jersey]] with Hamza al-Ghamdi on $139.75 tickets purchased from the Mile High Travel agency in [[Lauderdale-by-the-Sea, Florida|Lauderdale-by-the-Sea]].

On 10 September 2001, he shared a room at the Milner Hotel in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] with three other terrorists: Fayez Banihammad, [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], who would pilot Flight 175 into the South Tower of the World Trade Center, and [[Satam al-Suqami]], a hijacker of [[American Airlines Flight 11|Flight 11]].

On 11 September, al-Shehri boarded Flight 175 and sat in first class seat 2B, next to Banihammad in 2A. About a half an hour into the flight, the plane was hijacked. It is believed that Banihammad and al-Shehri forcibly entered the cockpit and murdered the pilots while the al-Ghamdi brothers forced the remaining crew and passengers towards the rear of the aircraft, allowing al-Shehhi to take control of the plane. At 9:03 a.m., around 20 minutes after the hijacking began, al-Shehhi flew the plane into the South Tower of the World Trade Center between floors 77 and 85, killing all on board and killing or trapping hundreds of people inside the building. 56 minutes after the crash, at 9:59 a.m., [[Collapse of the World Trade Center|the South Tower collapsed]], killing all who were trapped and many more on the ground.

== See also ==
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]
* [[PENTTBOM]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commonscatinline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shehri, Mohand}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from 'Asir Province]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian murderers of children]]
[[Category:United Airlines Flight 175]]

Wail al-Shehri

2023-09-12T22:52:43Z

78.157.120.208:

{{short description|Perpetrator of the September 11, 2001 attacks}}
{{use mdy dates|date=February 2020}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Wail al-Shehri وائل الشهري
| image = Wail al Shehri.jpg
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1973|7|31|df=yes}}
| birth_name = Wail Mohammed al-Shehri ({{lang|ar|وائل محمد الشهري}})
| birth_place = [['Asir Province|'Asir Region]], [[Saudi Arabia]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1973|7|31|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[American Airlines Flight 11|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]]
| relatives = [[Waleed al-Shehri]] (brother)
}}
'''Wail Mohammed al-Shehri''' ({{lang-ar|وائل الشهري}}, {{transl|ar|''Wāīl ash-Shehrī''}}; also [[transliteration|transliterated]] as '''Alshehri''') (31 July 1973 – 11 September 2001) was one of five terrorist [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] of [[American Airlines Flight 11]], which was flown into the North Tower of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]] in 2001.

Wail al-Shehri was an elementary school teacher from [[Khamis Mushait]] in the [['Asir|Asir]] region of [[Saudi Arabia]]. In early 2000, he traveled to [[Medina]] to seek treatment for mental problems. He and his younger brother [[Waleed al-Shehri|Waleed]] traveled to [[Afghanistan]] in March 2000 and joined an [[Afghan training camp|Al-Qaeda training camp]]. The brothers were chosen, along with others from the same region of Saudi Arabia, to participate in the 11 September attacks. Once selected, al-Shehri returned to Saudi Arabia in October 2000 to obtain a clean passport, then returned to Afghanistan. In March 2001, he recorded his [[Will and testament|last will and testament]] on video.

Al-Shehri arrived in the United States in early June 2001, staying in [[budget motel]]s in the [[Boynton Beach, Florida|Boynton Beach]] area of south [[Florida]]. On 5 September 2001, al-Shehri traveled to [[Boston]] and checked into a motel with his brother. Six days later, al-Shehri arrived early in the morning at Boston's [[Logan International Airport]] and boarded American Airlines Flight 11. Fifteen minutes after takeoff, al-Shehri, along with his brother and three others, hijacked the airliner. They deliberately crashed it into the North Tower of the World Trade Center at 8:46 a.m.

In the aftermath of the attacks, some news reports mistakenly reported that al-Shehri was the son of a Saudi diplomat and was still alive and well. The al-Shehri family in Khamis Mushait spoke to the media, denying those early reports, saying that the al-Shehri brothers had disappeared and have not been heard from since.

== Background ==
[[Image:Abha, Saudi Arabia locator map.png|thumb|right|[[Abha]] is the capital of [[Saudi Arabia]]'s [['Asir|Asir]] province, where Wail al-Shehri was from, and Wail graduated from Abha's teacher college.]]
Wail al-Shehri and his younger brother Waleed were from [[Khamis Mushait]] in the [['Asir|Asir]] province, which is an impoverished area in southwestern [[Saudi Arabia]], along the [[Yemen]]i border.<ref name="911-ch7-3">{{cite book |title=9/11 Commission Report |chapter-url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |chapter=Chapter 7.3–The Attack Looms, Assembling the Teams |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |pages=231–240 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023214223/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |archive-date=2013-10-23 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |date=2008-02-04 |title=Hijackers' Timeline |url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-12 |access-date=2008-10-06 |publisher=NEFA ([[Nine Eleven Finding Answers Foundation]]) |pages=1}}</ref> Al-Shehri was born in Annams, and grew up in the Um Saraar neighborhood in Khamis Mushait. He had ten brothers and one sister.<ref name="murphy">{{cite news |title=Some Light Shed On Saudi Suspects Many Raised in Area of Religious Dissent |newspaper=The Washington Post |author1=Murphy, Caryle |author2=David B. Ottaway |name-list-style=amp |date=2001-09-25}}</ref> Several of al-Shehri's brothers joined the Saudi military, while his uncle may have been a major in the army and director of logistics. Al-Shehri's father, Mohammed Ali Asgley Al Shehri, worked as a car dealer. On weekends, the family often spent time together at the [[Red Sea]]. The family strictly adhered to the [[Wahhabism|Wahabi]] school of [[Islam]], which forbids many elements of modernity. As such, the al-Shehri family did not have satellite television or Internet, nor did his parents permit music or contact with girls.<ref name="sennott">{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830042824/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1_side.shtml |archive-date=2008-08-30 |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1_side.shtml |title=Before oath to jihad, drifting and boredom |author=Sennott, Charles M. |newspaper=Boston Globe |date=2002-03-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some of Wail al-Shehri's elder brothers had visited the [[United States]] and could speak English; however, he knew little English.<ref name="highway">{{cite news |title=The Highway of Death |newspaper=Sunday Times |date=2002-01-27}}</ref>

During high school and college, al-Shehri was deeply religious and attended Al-Seqley Mosque, which his family had built as the local mosque. Al-Shehri also frequented government-supported religious camps in Saudi Arabia. At this time, there were strong religious feelings in Saudi Arabia, especially in the Asir region. Many young people in the region idolized [[Osama bin Laden]], who had family ties to the area. Al-Shehri's father was a friend of Bin Laden's father, [[Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden]].<ref name="sia">{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107064223/http://www.arabiaradio.org/english/article.cfm?qid=12&sid=6 |archive-date=2007-11-07 |url=http://arabiaradio.org/english/article.cfm?qid=12&sid=6 |title=Profiles of 9/11 Saudi Hijackers Revealed |publisher=Saudi Information Agency |date=2002-09-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Ahmed al-Nami]] and [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], who were both hijackers on [[United Airlines Flight 93]], came from the same area in Saudi Arabia as the Shehri family.<ref name="sennott"/>

After graduating from [[Abha]] teachers college in 1999, Wail al-Shehri took a job as an elementary school physical education teacher at the Khamis Mushait airbase. Five months into the job, al-Shehri took leave due to mental illness and [[Depression (mood)|depression]]. Rather than conventional therapy, al-Shehri sought consultation with Muslim clerics, and hoped that a visit to [[Medina]] would help. His treatment involved verses from the [[Qur'an]] read to him by a sheikh. He traveled to Medina together with Waleed. After the 11 September attacks, others recalled seeing the al-Shehri brothers in Medina.<ref name="highway"/><ref name="buqami">{{cite news |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321171050/http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=9424&d=17&m=9&y=2001 |archive-date=2009-03-21 |author=al-Buqami, Mutlaq |url=http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=9424&d=17&m=9&y=2001 |date=2001-09-17 |newspaper=Arab News |title=Al-Shihri says sons missing for 10 months |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Afghanistan ==
Wail and Waleed al-Shehri disappeared after going to Medina, calling their father just once; in the conversation, the brothers were vague about when they would return.<ref name="burke">{{cite book |title=Al-Qaeda: The True Story of Radical Islam |author=Burke, Jason |year=2004 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |pages=247–248}}</ref> Both had expressed interest in joining the [[jihad]] in [[Chechnya]],<ref name="highway"/> though may have been diverted to [[Afghanistan]].<ref name="911-ch7-3"/><ref name="murphy"/> Before disappearing, the al-Shehri brothers went to Al-Seqley Mosque to swear an oath and commitment to jihad, as did Ahmed al-Nami and Saeed al-Ghamdi. Wail al-Shehri presided over the ceremony, dubbing himself ''Abu Mossaeb al-Janubi'' after one of [[Muhammad]]'s companions.<ref name="sennott"/>

In March 2000, he left for [[Pakistan]] with Waleed and [[Ahmed al-Nami]]; later, they went on to Afghanistan. Wail al-Shehri followed the standard path for new al-Qaeda recruits in Afghanistan, spending time in the [[Khalden training camp]] and then [[Al Farouq training camp]] near [[Kandahar]]. Details on how the non-pilot ("[[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks#Muscle hijackers|muscle]]") hijackers were chosen for the 9/11 attacks are vague, though the hijackers appear to have been selected by senior al-Qaeda leaders in 2000 from the thousands of recruits at training camps in Afghanistan. The most capable and motivated volunteers were at al-Farouq, and Saudi citizens were good candidates, since it would be easy for them to obtain visas to travel to the [[United States]].<ref name="burke"/> [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) director [[George Tenet]] later said that the muscle hijackers were probably told little about their mission in the United States.<ref>{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927002200/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/10/09/eveningnews/main525012.shtml |archive-date=2008-09-27 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/10/09/eveningnews/main525012.shtml |publisher=CBS News |title=Sept. 11 Hijacker Made Test Flights |date=2002-10-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Once al-Shehri and the other muscle hijackers completed their training in Afghanistan, they received $2,000 so they could return to Saudi Arabia to obtain new passports and visas.<ref name="911-ch7-3"/> The al-Shehri brothers may have been assisted by a relative who worked in the Saudi passport office.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |title=9/11 and Terrorist Travel |work=Staff Report |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |year=2004 |pages=33 |access-date=2008-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916110951/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-16 |url-status=live }}</ref> Wail and Waleed al-Shehri received passports on 3 October 2000, and then obtained [[United States visas]] on 24 October.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=NEFA Foundation |date=2008-02-04 |access-date=2008-10-06 |pages=93; 93 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-12 }}</ref> On his visa application, Wail al-Shehri provided vague information, stating his employer/school as "South City", and his destination as "Wasantwn". Al-Shehri indicated his occupation as "teacher", and that he would be traveling with his brother on a four-to-six month vacation, which would be paid for with al-Shehri's teacher salary. Although he would not be working while on vacation, consular officials nonetheless did not question if the al-Shehri brothers had the financial means to support themselves while in the United States.<ref>{{cite magazine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022045541/http://www.nationalreview.com/mowbray/mowbray100902.asp |archive-date=2008-10-22 |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/mowbray/mowbray100902.asp |title=Visas that Should Have Been Denied |author=Mowbray, Joel |date=2002-10-09 |magazine=National Review |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In late 2000, al-Shehri traveled to the [[United Arab Emirates]], where he purchased traveler's checks, presumed to have been paid for by [[Mustafa al-Hawsawi|Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi]]. Five other hijackers passed through the United Arab Emirates and purchased traveler's checks, including [[Majed Moqed]], [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]], [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]] and [[Ahmed al-Nami]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrFin_App.pdf |title=The Financing of the 9/11 Plot – Terrorist Financing Staff Monograph |publisher=9/11 Commission |pages=136 |year=2004 |access-date=2008-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509121909/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrFin_App.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-09 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[9/11 Commission]] believes that in mid-November 2000, three of the future muscle hijackers, including the al-Shehri brothers, traveled in a group from Saudi Arabia to [[Beirut]] and then onward to [[Iran]] where they could travel through to Afghanistan without getting their passports stamped. An associate of a senior [[Hezbollah]] operative is thought to have been on the same flight, although this may have been a coincidence.<ref name="911-ch7-3"/>

Wail al-Shehri appeared together with hijackers Ahmed al-Nami, Hamza al-Ghamdi, and [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]] on a video recorded in March 2001, and aired on [[Al Jazeera]] in September 2002. Al-Shehri was seen studying maps and flight manuals, but he did not speak in the video; it also included a segment of [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]] reading his last will and testament.<ref>{{cite news |title=Al Qaeda Tape Hints at Targets; Terrorism |author=Meyer, Josh |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=2002-09-10}}</ref> While in Afghanistan, another video was recorded that showed al-Shehri reading his last will and testament. This video was released on 7 September 2006.<ref>{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014222821/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-09-07-qaeda-tape_x.htm |archive-date=2008-10-14 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-09-07-qaeda-tape_x.htm |title=Video shows bin Laden meeting with 9/11 plotters |publisher=USA Today / AP |date=2006-09-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912140708/http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/09/07/alqaeda.911/index.html |archive-date=2008-09-12 |url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/09/07/alqaeda.911/index.html |title=Video is said to show bin Laden prepping for 9/11 attacks |date=2006-09-07 |publisher=CNN |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== United States ==
On 5 June 2001, Wail al-Shehri obtained an International Driving Permit, which was issued in [[Sharjah (city)|Sharjah]] in the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=NEFA Foundation |date=2008-02-04 |access-date=2008-10-06 |pages=153 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-12 }}</ref> Al-Shehri arrived together with fellow al-Qaeda member [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]] at [[Miami International Airport]], via [[London]], from [[Dubai]] on 8 June. Both were admitted as tourists for six months.<ref name="travel">{{cite web |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |title=9/11 and Terrorist Travel |work=Staff Report |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |year=2004 |pages=24 |access-date=2008-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916110951/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-16 |url-status=live }}</ref> Al-Shehri opened a bank account at SunTrust Bank in Florida on 18 June, with a deposit of $8,000 that came from [[American Express]] traveler's cheques purchased on 7 June in the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=NEFA Foundation |date=2008-02-04 |access-date=2008-10-06 |pages=162 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-12 }}</ref>

Al-Shehri moved into the Homing Inn, a budget motel in [[Boynton Beach, Florida|Boynton Beach]], on 21 June 2001, sharing a room with his brother Waleed, and [[Satam al-Suqami]].<ref name="zuckoff">{{cite news |title=How 10 Hijackers Hid in Plain Sight |author1=Zuckoff, Mitchell |author2=Michael Rezendes |name-list-style=amp |newspaper=Boston Globe |date=2001-09-21}}</ref> Wail al-Shehri and al-Suqami both used this hotel as their address when they received Florida state non-driver identifications on 3 July.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=NEFA Foundation |date=2008-02-04 |access-date=2008-10-06 |pages=176 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-12 }}</ref> Al-Shehri checked into the Panther Motel & Apartments, in [[Deerfield Beach, Florida|Deerfield Beach]], with his brother and al-Suqami on 2 August, staying there until August 10.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/OG00013.pdf |title=Hijackers' True Name Usage |publisher=United States District Court – Eastern District of Virginia |pages=2 |access-date=2008-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512160457/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/OG00013.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> While in Florida, al-Shehri was a member of the World Gym in Boynton Beach, where he trained with Waleed and al-Suqami.<ref>{{cite news |title=Suspects Joined Gyms in S. Florida Fitness Clubs |newspaper=South Florida Sun-Sentinel |date=September 19, 2001 |author=King, Jonathon, Vicky Agnew and Nancy Othon}}</ref> During the summer of 2001, al-Shehri regularly used computers at the Delray Beach Public Library.<ref>{{cite magazine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005213345/http://www.nationalreview.com/murdock/murdock200504250750.asp |archive-date=2008-10-05 |title=Check This Out – Libraries should be a key target of the Patriot Act |author=Murdock, Deroy |magazine=National Review |date=2005-04-25 |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/murdock/murdock200504250750.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331203051/http://washingtontimes.com/news/2005/apr/23/20050423-104813-8475r/ |archive-date=2009-03-31 |url=http://washingtontimes.com/news/2005/apr/23/20050423-104813-8475r/ |title=Terror Trove |newspaper=Washington Times |date=2005-04-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 28 August 2001, Wail and Waleed al-Shehri made reservations on [[American Airlines Flight 11]], using the [[Mail Boxes Etc.]] in Hollywood, Florida, as their address. The al-Shehri brothers contacted American Airlines on 3 September by telephone to change their first-class seat assignments for American Airlines Flight 11, selecting seats on the side of the aircraft that offered a direct view of the cockpit. Wail and Waleed al-Shehri left Florida for Boston on 5 September, traveling together on Delta Air Lines Flight 2462.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=NEFA Foundation |date=2008-02-04 |access-date=2008-10-06 |pages=249; 257 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-12 }}</ref>

Wail al-Shehri checked in together with Waleed at the Park Inn Hotel in [[Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts]], on 5 September 2001, staying in room 432.<ref name="remain">{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025052043/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/11/september11/main521523.shtml?CMP=ILC-SearchStories |archive-date=2012-10-25 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/11/september11/main521523.shtml?CMP=ILC-SearchStories |title=Hijackers Remain Mysterious, A Window Into Their Daily Lives Leaves Dark Questions |publisher=CBS News |date=2002-09-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref> While staying at the Park Inn, the brothers may have called a prostitute.<ref name="fbi278"/><ref name="noonan"/> Wail al-Shehri accompanied his brother on 9 September to the Travelex at Logan International Airport, where Waleed attempted to wire $5,000 to the United Arab Emirates. Waleed had insufficient documentation, so the brothers returned the next day to complete the transaction. [[Mustafa Muhammad Ahmad]] received the funds on 11 September at Al-Ansari Exchange in Sharjah.<ref name="fbi278">{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=NEFA Foundation |date=2008-02-04 |access-date=2008-10-06 |pages=278; 284; 292 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-12 }}</ref> Hijacker [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]] possibly spent a night at the Park Inn before leaving with [[Mohamed Atta]] for [[Portland, Maine]], on 10 September. When Wail and Waleed al-Shehri checked out on 11 September, they left a sheet of instructions for flying a jet behind in their hotel room.<ref name="noonan">{{cite news |title=9/11 Reminder, Park Inn, Now Being Demolished |newspaper=Boston Globe |date=2005-02-17 |author=Noonan, Erica}}</ref>

== Attacks ==
{{Main|American Airlines Flight 11}}
Wail al-Shehri, his brother [[Waleed al-Shehri|Waleed]], and [[Satam al-Suqami]] arrived together at Logan Airport at 06:45 on 11 September 2001.<ref name="911-ch1">{{cite book |title=9/11 Commission Report |chapter-url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch1.htm |chapter=Chapter 1.1–"We Have Some Planes", Inside the Four Flights |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |year=2004 |pages=1–13 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511160550/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_ch1.htm |archive-date=2008-05-11 |url-status=live }}</ref> Upon check-in, all three men were selected by the [[Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System]] (CAPPS) for further screening of their checked baggage. As the CAPPS was only for luggage, the three hijackers did not undergo any extra scrutiny at the passenger security checkpoint.<ref name="staff">{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |title=The Aviation Security System and the 9/11 Attacks – Staff Statement No. 3 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |year=2004 |pages=6 |access-date=2006-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528201527/http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-28 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Logan's Baggage Screeners Defended Workers Unfairly Blamed, Company Supervisor Says |date=2001-10-10 |newspaper=Boston Globe |author=Murphy, Shelley}}</ref>

By 07:40, all five hijackers were aboard the flight, which was scheduled to depart at 07:45. Wail and Waleed al-Shehri sat together in first class in seats 2A and 2B respectively.<ref name="911-ch1"/> The aircraft taxied away from Gate 26, and departed Logan International Airport at 07:59, following a 14-minute delay.<ref>{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216072126/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |archive-date=2008-12-16 |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |title=Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes |last=Johnson |first=Glen |date=2001-11-23 |newspaper=Boston Globe |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="ntsb">{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/Flight_%20Path_%20Study_AA11.pdf |title=Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 11 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=2002-02-19 |access-date=2008-05-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080530061803/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/Flight_%20Path_%20Study_AA11.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-30 |url-status=live }}</ref> Flight 11 was hijacked at approximately 08:14, which is when the pilot stopped responding to [[air traffic control]].<ref name="911-ch1"/><ref name="ntsb" /> It is suspected that the brothers stabbed two flight attendants in the hijacking.<ref name="911-ch1"/> At 08:46:40, [[Mohamed Atta]], who was flying the plane, deliberately crashed Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower (Tower 1) of the World Trade Center between floors 93 and 99.<ref name="ntsb" /> The immediate damage destroyed any means of escape from above the impact zone, trapping 1,344 people.<ref name="102Mins">{{cite news |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216112816/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00E6DC153BF935A15756C0A9649C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=4 |archive-date=2008-12-16 |last=Dwyer |first=Jim |author2=Lipton, Eric |title=102 Minutes: Last Words at the Trade Center; Fighting to Live as the Towers Die |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00E6DC153BF935A15756C0A9649C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=4 |date=2002-05-26 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2008-05-23 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead }}</ref> The North Tower [[collapse of the World Trade Center|collapsed]] at 10:28, after burning for 102 minutes.<ref name="nist-ncstar1-8-p37">{{cite web |url=http://wtc.nist.gov/NISTNCSTAR1-8.pdf |title=NIST NCSTAR 1–8 – The Emergency Response |author=Lawson, J. Randall, Robert L. Vettori |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |date=September 2005 |pages=37 |access-date=2008-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005013250/http://wtc.nist.gov/NISTNCSTAR1-8.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-05 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Aftermath ==
Waleed al-Shehri was reported to have been found alive by a [[BBC]] News article on 23 September 2001,<ref name="bbc-20010932">{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929150134/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/1559151.stm |archive-date=2008-09-29 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/1559151.stm |work=BBC News |title=Hijack 'suspects' alive and well |date=2003-09-23 |access-date=2008-09-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and other news reports in the aftermath of the 11 September attacks. Reports said that the al-Shehri brothers were the sons of a Saudi diplomat stationed in [[New Delhi]], Ahmed al-Shehri. The diplomat's son was trained as a pilot at [[Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University]] in [[Daytona Beach, Florida]], and was working as a pilot for [[Saudi Arabian Airlines]]. At the time of the attacks, he was in [[Morocco]] for a training program.<ref name="bbc-20010932"/> There were also reports that Wail al-Shehri was a trained pilot.<ref>{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081025085559/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1341136/Piecing-together-the-shadowy-lives-of-the-hijackers.html |archive-date=2008-10-25 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1341136/Piecing-together-the-shadowy-lives-of-the-hijackers.html |title=Piecing together the shadowy lives of the hijackers |date=2001-09-20 |newspaper=The Telegraph |url-status=dead }}</ref> In the aftermath of the 11 September attacks, Saudi officials suggested that Wail and Waleed al-Shehri were victims of [[identity theft]],<ref>{{cite news |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513002044/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/globe_stories/0915/Hijackers_may_have_taken_Saudi_identities+.shtml |archive-date=2008-05-13 |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/globe_stories/0915/Hijackers_may_have_taken_Saudi_identities+.shtml |title=Hijackers may have taken Saudi identities |author1=Cullen, Kevin |author2=Anthony Shadid |name-list-style=amp |date=2001-09-15 |newspaper=Boston Globe |url-status=dead }}</ref> but the diplomat's son was the victim of mistaken identity.<ref>{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080330231932/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F06EEDF1E3BF932A1575AC0A9679C8B63 |archive-date=2008-03-30 |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F06EEDF1E3BF932A1575AC0A9679C8B63 |title=Confusion Over Names Clouds Identities of Attackers on Jets |newspaper=The New York Times |author=MacFarquhar, Neil |date=2001-09-21 |access-date=2008-11-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Jamal Khashoggi]], of [[Al-Watan (Saudi Arabia)|Al-Watan]] and [[ArabNews]] in Saudi Arabia, spoke with Muhammad Ali al-Shehri in Khamis Mushait, who said his sons Wail and Waleed had been missing for months.<ref name="buqami"/> He denied reports that Wail had an aeronautics degree, as some news reports said, "My son Wail was 25 years old and had a BA in physical education from the Abha Teacher’s College. He was mentally ill and had gone to numerous clerics for assistance in overcoming this instability. He had asked the school, where he taught, for a 6-month leave to go to Madinah."<ref name="tunis">{{cite news |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005180532/http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=9454&d=1&m=10&y=2001 |archive-date=2008-10-05 |url=http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=9454&d=1&m=10&y=2001 |title=Another Saudi 'hijacker' turns up in Tunis |newspaper=Arab News |date=2001-10-01 |author1=Ba-Isa, Molouk Y. |author2=Saud Al-Towaim |name-list-style=amp |url-status=dead }}</ref> His father also told reporters that he dreaded having to believe that his sons were involved in the 11 September attacks, "If that turns out to be the truth, then I'll never, never accept it from them. I'll never forgive them for that."<ref>{{cite news |title=Killers in the cockpit: Who and why? Acts of 19 men shook civilized world to core |newspaper=The Washington Times |date=2002-09-10 |author=Murray, Frank J.}}</ref> Family members said that Wail and Waleed became very religious in the months before they disappeared, had expressed interest in going to Chechnya, and hoped for martyrdom.<ref name="tunis"/> In a report entitled "A Saudi Apology" for [[Dateline NBC]] aired on 25 August 2002, [[John Hockenberry]] traveled to Asir, where he interviewed another al-Shehri brother, Salah, who agreed that Wail and Waleed were deceased. Salah described them as not very religious, and suggested they had been brainwashed.<ref>{{cite episode |title=A Saudi Apology |series=Dateline NBC |network=NBC |airdate=2002-08-25}}</ref>

Saudi officials later stated that the names of the hijackers were in fact correct, and that 15 of the 19 hijackers were Saudi.<ref>{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929205512/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002/02/06/saudi.htm |archive-date=2008-09-29 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002/02/06/saudi.htm |title=Official: 15 of 19 Sept. 11 hijackers were Saud |publisher=USA Today / Associated Press |date=2002-02-06 |access-date=2008-09-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In response to [[9/11 conspiracy theories]] surrounding its original news story suggesting hijackers were still alive, the BBC stated in 2006 that later reports on the hijackers superseded the original story. The BBC also explained that confusion arose with the Arabic names that were common.<ref name="bbc2006">{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927014325/http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2006/10/911_conspiracy_theory_1.html |archive-date=2008-09-27 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2006/10/911_conspiracy_theory_1.html |title=9/11 conspiracy theory |author=Hermann, Steve |date=2006-10-27 |work=BBC News |access-date=2008-09-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]
* [[PENTTBOM]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline}}

{{featured article}}

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shehri, Wail}}
[[Category:1973 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:American Airlines Flight 11]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from 'Asir Province]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]

Hamza al-Ghamdi

2023-09-12T22:46:54Z

78.157.120.208: Date format set to dmy and American English

Khalid Sheikh Mohammed

2023-09-12T22:38:54Z

78.157.120.208:

{{short description|Pakistani member of al-Qaeda (born 1964)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}

{{Infobox War on Terror detainee
| name = Khalid Sheikh Mohammed
| native_name = {{lang|ps|{{nq|خالد شيخ محمد}}}}
| image =File:Khalid Shaikh Mohammed after capture.jpg
| caption = Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in 2003 after he was captured
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1965|4|14}}<ref name=NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024/>
| birth_place = [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]], [[Pakistan]] or [[Al Ahmadi, Kuwait|Al Ahmadi]], [[Kuwait]]
| date_of_arrest = 1 March 2003
| arrested_by = SHO, Rawalpindi, Westridge, Raja Saqlain
| place_of_arrest = [[Rawalpindi]], Pakistan
| arresting_authority = Team of [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]]
| citizenship = [[Pakistani nationality law|Pakistani]]
| detained_at = [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]]
| id_number = 10024
| charge = *[[Murder in United States law|First-degree murder]] (2,977 counts)
*Attacking civilians
*Attacking civilian objects
*Intentionally causing serious bodily injury
*Murder in violation of the [[law of war]]
*[[Destruction of property]] in violation of the law of war
*[[Aircraft hijacking|Hijacking or hazarding a vessel or aircraft]]
*[[Terrorism in the United States|Terrorism]]
*[[Providing material support for terrorism]]
| penalty =
| status = Detained
|Education=[[North Carolina A&T State University]] ([[BS]]) [[Punjab University]]
([[MA]]))
| relatives = [[Zahid Al-Sheikh]] (brother), [[Ramzi Yousef]] and [[Ammar al-Baluchi]] (nephews)
|children=2}}

'''Khalid Sheikh Mohammed''' (sometimes also spelled '''Shaykh''';<ref name="odni14">{{cite web|url=http://www.odni.gov/announcements/content/DetaineeBiographies.pdf|title=Detainee Biographies|publisher=[[Office of the Director of National Intelligence]]|archive-url=https://swap.stanford.edu/20091119181208/http://www.odni.gov/announcements/content/DetaineeBiographies.pdf|archive-date=November 19, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> also known by at least 50 [[pseudonym]]s;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.findlaw.com/nytimes/docs/terrorism/usksmetal20808chrgs.pdf|title=U.S. v. Khalid Shaikh Mohammed military tribunal charges|work=[[FindLaw]]|access-date=July 15, 2008}}</ref> born 14 April 1965), often known by his initials '''KSM''', is a Pan-Islamist Pakistani terrorist and the Former Head of Propaganda for [[Al-Qaeda]], held by the United States at the [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]] under [[terrorism]]-related charges. He was named as "the principal architect of the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]]" in the 2004 ''[[9/11 Commission Report]]''.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://projects.nytimes.com/guantanamo/detainees/10024-khalid-shaikh-mohammed | title=The Guantánamo Docket: Khalid Shaikh Mohammed | newspaper=[[The New York Times]] | access-date=September 10, 2010 | archive-date=July 16, 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716043406/http://projects.nytimes.com/guantanamo/detainees/10024-khalid-shaikh-mohammed | url-status=live }}</ref>

Mohammed was a member of [[Osama bin Laden|Osama bin Laden's]] Pan-Islamist terrorist organization Al-Qaeda, leading Al-Qaeda's [[propaganda]] operations from around 1999 until late 2001. Mohammed was captured on 1 March 2003, in the Pakistani city of [[Rawalpindi]] by a combined operation of the U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) and Pakistan's [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI). Immediately after his capture, Mohammad was [[Extraordinary rendition|extraordinarily rendered]] to [[CIA black sites|secret CIA prison sites]] in Afghanistan, then Poland, where he was interrogated by U.S. operatives.<ref name="newyorker.com">{{cite magazine |last1=Filkins |first1=Dexter |title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and the C.I.A. |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-cia |magazine=The New Yorker |date=December 31, 2014 |access-date=December 10, 2017 |archive-date=December 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210234843/https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-cia |url-status=live }}</ref> By December 2006, he had been transferred to [[Extrajudicial prisoners of the United States|military custody]] at [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]].

In March 2007, after significant interrogations, Mohammed confessed to masterminding the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]]; the [[Richard Reid]] shoe bombing attempt to blow up an airliner; the [[Bali nightclub bombing]] in [[Indonesia]]; the [[1993 World Trade Center bombing]]; the murder of [[Daniel Pearl]]; and various foiled attacks as well as numerous other crimes.<ref>[https://www.amazon.com/Black-Banners-Inside-Against-al-Qaeda/dp/0393079422][[Ali Soufan]] and Daniel Freedman, ''The Black Banners: The Inside Story of 9/11 and the War Against al-Qaeda'' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521031728/https://www.amazon.com/Black-Banners-Inside-Against-al-Qaeda/dp/0393079422|date=May 21, 2017}}, 2011</ref><ref name="prosecutor">[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/04/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-military-prosecutor Chris McGreal, "Khalid Sheikh Mohammed: former military prosecutor denounces trial"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221110245/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/04/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-military-prosecutor |date=February 21, 2017 }}, ''[[The Guardian]]'', May 4, 2012</ref><ref name="brown">{{cite web|date=May 20, 2014|title=Truth and torture | Comment is free|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/mar/19/truthandtorture|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714171856/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/mar/19/truthandtorture|archive-date=July 14, 2015|access-date=June 13, 2015|publisher=Theguardian.co.uk}}</ref> He was charged in February 2008 with [[war crimes]] and murder by a [[Military Commissions Act of 2006|U.S. military commission]] at Guantanamo Bay detention camp, which could carry the [[death penalty]] if convicted. In 2012, a former military prosecutor criticized the proceedings as insupportable due to confessions gained under [[torture]].<ref name="prosecutor" /> [[Boumediene v. Bush|A 2008 decision]] by the [[United States Supreme Court]] had also drawn into question the legality of the methods used to gain such admissions and the admissibility of such admissions as evidence in a criminal proceeding.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2008/08/14/why-it-was-a-great-victory/|title=Why It Was a Great Victory|last=Dworkin|first=Ronald|journal=The New York Review of Books|date=August 14, 2008|access-date=February 21, 2017|archive-date=February 22, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222054231/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2008/08/14/why-it-was-a-great-victory/|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 30 August 2019, a military judge set a [[United States v. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed|trial]] date of 11 January 2021, for Mohammed's death penalty trial.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/30/us/politics/sept-11-trial-guantanamo-bay.html|title=Trial Date for Men Charged With Plotting Sept. 11 Attacks Is Set for 2021|last=Rosenberg|first=Carol|date=August 30, 2019|work=The New York Times|access-date=August 30, 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=August 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830162004/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/30/us/politics/sept-11-trial-guantanamo-bay.html|url-status=live}}</ref> His trial was further postponed on 18 December 2020, due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name="autogeneratedmil">{{cite web |url=https://www.mc.mil/Portals/0/pdfs/KSM2/KSM%20II%20(AE788(12th%20Sup)).pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=March 10, 2021 |archive-date=January 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117040435/https://www.mc.mil/Portals/0/pdfs/KSM2/KSM%20II%20(AE788(12th%20Sup)).pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Mohammed's trial restarted on 7 September 2021.<ref name="straitstimes1">{{cite news|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/world/united-states/trial-of-accused-911-mastermind-restarts-days-before-20th-anniversary|title=Trial of accused 9/11 mastermind restarts, days before 20th anniversary|website=The Straits Times|date=September 7, 2021|access-date=September 7, 2021|archive-date=September 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907120618/https://www.straitstimes.com/world/united-states/trial-of-accused-911-mastermind-restarts-days-before-20th-anniversary|url-status=live}}</ref> However, as of 2023 his trial has been postponed again, further into 2023, with a possible plea deal that would take the death penalty off the table.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2023-01-09 |title=9/11 trial delayed again as Biden administration pushes for plea deal with terrorists |url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/justice/2023-kicks-off-911-gitmo-hearings-delayed-again |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=Washington Examiner |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Mohammed was born on 14 April 1965,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=McDermott |first1=Terry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aQY2AQAAQBAJ |title=The Hunt for KSM: Inside the Pursuit and Takedown of the Real 9/11 Mastermind, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed |last2=Meyer |first2=Josh |date=2012-03-26 |publisher=Little, Brown |isbn=978-0-316-20273-2 |language=en}}</ref> in [[Balochistan, Pakistan]] or [[Kuwait]].<ref name=NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024/><ref>{{Cite web |title=OFSI Consolidated List, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed |url=https://sanctionssearchapp.ofsi.hmtreasury.gov.uk/suspect/6994 |website=[[HM Treasury]]}}</ref><ref name=HRW>{{cite web|title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed|date=October 26, 2012|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/10/26/khalid-sheikh-mohammed|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|access-date=December 4, 2016|archive-date=March 5, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305211109/https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/10/26/khalid-sheikh-mohammed|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BBC12964158">{{cite news |date=May 5, 2012 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-12964158|title=Profile: Al-Qaeda 'kingpin'|work=BBC News |access-date=September 18, 2015 |quote=Mohammed is believed to have been born in either 1964 or 1965 in Kuwait into a family originally from the Pakistani province of Baluchistan}}</ref> His father, Shaikh Muhammad Ali Dustin al-Baluchi,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2002-12-22 |title=The Plots and Designs of Al Qaeda's Engineer |url=https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-fg-alqaeda22dec22-story.html |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/02/03/world/meast/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-fast-facts/index.html|title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Fast Facts|date=February 3, 2013|publisher=CNN|access-date=February 20, 2017|archive-date=February 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221105532/http://www.cnn.com/2013/02/03/world/meast/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-fast-facts/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> was a [[Deobandi]] imam in [[Al Ahmadi, Kuwait|Al Ahmadi]], who moved with his family from Balochistan to Kuwait in the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Wanted Women: Faith, Lies, and the War on Terror: The Lives of Ayaan Hirsi Ali and Aafia Siddiqui|last=Scroggins|first=Deborah|publisher=HarperCollins |year=2012|page=60}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite magazine |last=McDermott |first=Terry |date=2010-09-06 |title=The Mastermind |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/09/13/the-mastermind |access-date=2023-05-05 |magazine=The New Yorker |language=en-US}}</ref> His mother was Halema Mohammed.<ref name=":0" /> Mohammed was raised in Badawiya, a neighborhood of the [[Fahaheel]] suburb of [[Kuwait City]].<ref name=":3" /> Mohammed is the uncle of [[Ramzi Yousef]], who was convicted on terrorism charges for his part in the [[1993 World Trade Center bombing]], and [[Ammar al-Baluchi|Ammar Al Baluchi]], who is accused of involvement in multiple terror plots.

According to U.S. federal documents, in 1982 he had heard [[Abdul Rasul Sayyaf]]'s speech in which a call for jihad against the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]] was declared.<ref name="NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024">{{cite news|author=Margot Williams|author-link=Margot Williams|date=November 3, 2008|title=Guantanamo Docket: Khalid Shaikh Mohammed|work=The New York Times|url=https://int.nyt.com/data/documenttools/82528-isn-10024-khalid-shaikh-mohammed-jtf-gtmo/c629488fa6d90379/full.pdf|access-date=September 10, 2010|archive-date=July 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716043406/http://projects.nytimes.com/guantanamo/detainees/10024-khalid-shaikh-mohammed|url-status=live}}</ref> At age 16, he joined the [[Muslim Brotherhood]].<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Harper Paperbacks |last=Mcdermott |first=Terry |title=Perfect Soldiers: The 9/11 Hijackers: Who They Were, Why They Did It |date=August 1, 2006}}, page 111</ref> After graduating from high school in 1983, Mohammad travelled to the [[United States]] and enrolled in [[Chowan University]] in [[Murfreesboro, North Carolina]]. He later transferred to [[North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University]] and received a [[Bachelor of Science]] (BS) in [[mechanical engineering]] in 1986.<ref name=NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024 /><ref>{{cite news |author1=Susan Candiotti |author2=Maria Ressa |author3=Justine Redman |author4=Henry Schuster CNN |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2002/US/South/12/19/al.qaeda.aggie/ |title=Suspected 9/11 mastermind graduated from U.S. university |publisher=Edition.cnn.com |date=December 19, 2002 |access-date=October 6, 2010 |archive-date=January 24, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124122216/http://edition.cnn.com/2002/US/South/12/19/al.qaeda.aggie/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The following year, he went to [[Peshawar]], Pakistan,<ref name=NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024 /> where he and his brothers, including [[Zahid Al-Sheikh|Zahed]], joined the [[mujahideen]] forces engaged in the [[Soviet–Afghan War]]. He attended the Sada training camp run by Sheikh [[Abdallah Azzam]], and after that he worked for the magazine ''al-Bunyan al-Marsous'', produced by Sayyaf's rebel group, the [[Islamic Union for the Liberation of Afghanistan]]. In 1992, he received a master's degree in Islamic Culture and History through correspondence classes from [[University of the Punjab|Punjab University]] in Pakistan.<ref name=NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024 /> By 1993, Mohammad had married and moved his family to [[Qatar]], where he took a position as project engineer with the Qatari Ministry of Electricity and Water.<ref name=NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024 /> He began to travel to different countries from that time onward.

The United States 9/11 Commission Report notes that, "By his own account, KSM's animus toward the United States stemmed not from his experiences there as a student, but rather from his violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |title=The 9/11 Commission Report |publisher=9-11commission.gov |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=October 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019203222/https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> However, on August 29, 2009, ''[[The Washington Post]]'' reported from U.S. intelligence sources that Mohammed's time in the U.S. contributed to his radicalization.

<blockquote>"KSM's limited and negative experience in the United States—which included a brief jail stay because of unpaid bills—almost certainly helped propel him on his path to becoming a terrorist," according to this intelligence summary. "He stated that his contact with Americans, while minimal, confirmed his view that the United States was a debauched and racist country."<ref>[http://www.nbcnews.com/id/32605529 "9/11 planner is recast as key asset for CIA"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912094248/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna32605529 |date=September 12, 2021 }}, [[NBC News]]. accessed September 11, 2011.</ref></blockquote>

===Philippines 1994–1995===
Mohammed was in the [[Philippines]] in late 1994 and early 1995; he then identified as a [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] or a [[Qatar]]i [[plywood]] exporter and used the aliases "Abdul Majid" and "Salem Ali."<ref>{{cite news |title=Alleged Sept. 11 mastermind's nephew plotted 1993 bombing: FBI's most-wanted terrorist after bin Laden lived in luxury in Philippines with '93 plotter |work=Ottawa Citizen |agency=Associated Press |date=June 26, 2002}}</ref><ref name="guardian">{{cite news |title=Womaniser, joker, scuba diver: the other face of al-Qaida's No 3 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/03/alqaida.terrorism1 |access-date=September 12, 2006 |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=March 3, 2003 |first=Rohan |last=Gunaratna |archive-date=August 26, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826235640/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/03/alqaida.terrorism1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Qatar, avoiding arrest===
In early 1996, Mohammed returned to [[Afghanistan]] to avoid capture by U.S. authorities.<ref name="9-11commission">{{cite web|year=2007|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm|title=AL QAEDA AIMS AT THE AMERICAN HOMELAND — CH5|publisher=9-11commission|access-date=August 28, 2007|quote=In January 1996, well aware that U.S. authorities were chasing him, he left [[Qatar]] for good and fled to Afghanistan, where he renewed his relationship with Rasul Sayyaf.9|archive-date=August 16, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816215318/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In his flight from Qatar, he was sheltered by Sheikh [[Abdullah Bin Khalid Al-Thani|Abdullah Al Thani]], who was the [[Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs (Qatar)|Qatari Minister of Religious Affairs]] in 1996.<ref>[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/context.jsp?item=a96qatar] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050301232732/http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/context.jsp?item=a96qatar|date=March 1, 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Barrett |first=Wayne |url=http://www.villagevoice.com/2007-11-20/news/rudy-s-ties-to-a-terror-sheikh/ |title=Rudy's Ties to a Terror Sheikh |publisher=Villagevoice.com |date=November 20, 2007 |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=January 15, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115144716/http://www.villagevoice.com/2007-11-20/news/rudy-s-ties-to-a-terror-sheikh/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.propeller.com/viewstory/2007/11/29/olbermann-giulianis-direct-connections-to-terrorists/?url=http%3A%2F%2Fca.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D8wCTXcsB7zU&frame=true |title=Home |publisher=Propeller |date=September 25, 2010 |access-date=October 6, 2010 |archive-date=December 2, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071202212342/http://www.propeller.com/viewstory/2007/11/29/olbermann-giulianis-direct-connections-to-terrorists/?url=http%3A%2F%2Fca.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D8wCTXcsB7zU&frame=true |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2007/11/village-voice-giuliani-did-business-terrorism-supporter |title=MotherJones Blog: Village Voice: Giuliani Did Business With Terrorism Supporter |publisher=Motherjones.com |access-date=August 10, 2013 |archive-date=September 30, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930003244/http://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2007/11/village-voice-giuliani-did-business-terrorism-supporter |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://blogs.abcnews.com/theblotter/2007/11/giulianis-ties.html Marcus Baram, "Giuliani's Ties to Qatar Raise Questions for Mr. 9/ll"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201174612/http://blogs.abcnews.com/theblotter/2007/11/giulianis-ties.html |date=December 1, 2007}}, ABC News, November 29, 2007</ref>

==Alleged terrorist activities==


===Operation Bojinka===
{{Main|Bojinka plot}}
Mohammed traveled to the [[Philippines]] in 1994 to work with his nephew [[Ramzi Yousef]] on the Bojinka plot, a [[Manila]]-based plot to destroy 12 commercial airliners flying routes between the United States, [[East Asia]], and [[Southeast Asia]]. The 9/11 Commission Report says that "this marked the first time KSM took part in the actual planning of a terrorist operation."<ref name="911report">{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm|title=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|publisher=9-11commission|access-date=August 13, 2010|archive-date=August 16, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816215318/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{quote|Using airline timetables, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi Yousef devised a scheme whereby five men could, in a single day, board 12 flights—two each for three of the men, three each for the other two—assemble and deposit their bombs and exit the planes, leaving timers to ignite the bombs up to several days afterward. By the time the bombs exploded, the men would be far away and far from reasonable suspicion. The math was simple: 12 flights with at least 400 people per flight. Somewhere in the neighborhood of 5,000 deaths. It would be a day of glory for them, calamity for the Americans they supposed would fill the aircraft.<ref name="mcdermott">{{cite news|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2006/aug/11/nation/na-manila11|title=Echoes of '95 Manila Plot|access-date=September 13, 2006|work=Los Angeles Times|first=Terry|last=McDermott|date=August 11, 2006|archive-date=December 1, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201104954/http://articles.latimes.com/2006/aug/11/nation/na-manila11|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

Bojinka plans included renting or buying a [[Cessna]], packing it with explosives and crash landing it into CIA headquarters, with a backup plan to hijack the twelfth airliner in the air and use that instead. This information was reported in detail to the U.S. at the time.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

In December 1994, Yousef had engaged in a test of a bomb on [[Philippine Airlines Flight 434]] using only about ten percent of the explosives that were to be used in each of the bombs to be planted on U.S. airliners. The test resulted in the death of a Japanese national on board a flight from the Philippines to Japan. Mohammed conspired with Yousef in the plot until it was uncovered on 6 January 1995. Yousef was captured 7 February of that same year.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was indicted on terrorism charges in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York]] in January 1996 for his alleged involvement in Operation Bojinka,<ref name="mohammed">{{cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2003-03-02/world/mohammed.biog_1_ahmed-abdul-qadoos-al-qaeda-military-committee-ayman-al-zawahiri?_s=PM:asiapcf |publisher=CNN |title=Top al Qaeda operative caught in Pakistan |date=March 1, 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302073403/http://articles.cnn.com/2003-03-02/world/mohammed.biog_1_ahmed-abdul-qadoos-al-qaeda-military-committee-ayman-al-zawahiri?_s=PM%3Aasiapcf |archive-date=March 2, 2012 }}</ref> and was subsequently on 10 October 2001 listed as one of the FBI's 22 [[FBI Most Wanted Terrorists|Most Wanted Terrorists]].<ref name="List Released">{{cite news|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/10/10/inv.mostwanted.list/ |title=Most wanted terrorists list released |date=October 1, 2001 |access-date=July 18, 2008 |publisher=CNN |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080714134800/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/10/10/inv.mostwanted.list/ |archive-date=July 14, 2008 }}</ref>

===Relationship with Osama bin Laden===
By the time the [[Bojinka plot]] was discovered, Mohammed had returned to Qatar and his job as a project engineer at the country's Ministry of Electricity and Water. He traveled in 1995 to [[Sudan]], [[Yemen]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Brazil]] to visit elements of the worldwide [[jihadist]] community, although no evidence connects him to specific terrorist actions in any of those locations. On his trip to Sudan, he attempted to meet with [[Osama bin Laden]], who was at the time living there, aided by Sudanese political leader [[Hassan al-Turabi]]. After the U.S. asked the Qatari government to arrest Mohammed in January 1996, he fled to [[Afghanistan]], where he renewed his alliance with Abdul Rasul Sayyaf. Later that year, he formed a working relationship with Bin Laden, who had settled there.

Bin Laden and his colleagues relocated their operations to Afghanistan at this time. [[Mohammed Atef]], bin Laden's chief of operations and also known at the time as Abu Hafs al-Masri, arranged a meeting between bin Laden and Mohammed in [[Tora Bora]] sometime in mid-1996, in which Mohammed outlined a plan that would eventually become the quadruple hijackings in 2001.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3128802.stm|title=Suspect 'reveals 9/11 planning'|work=BBC News|date=September 22, 2003|access-date=March 15, 2007|archive-date=November 23, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123122645/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3128802.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Bin Laden urged Mohammed to become a full-fledged member of Al-Qaeda, but he continued to refuse such a commitment until around early 1999, after the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] in [[Nairobi]] and [[Dar es Salaam]].<ref name="911-ch5">{{cite book|title=9/11 Commission Report|author=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|year=2004|publisher=Government Printing Office|chapter=Chapter 5|chapter-url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm|access-date=October 21, 2004|archive-date=August 16, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816215318/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1997, Mohammed moved his family from [[Iran]] to [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]].<ref>''9/11 Commission Report'', p. 149</ref> That year, he tried unsuccessfully to join mujahideen leader [[Ibn al-Khattab]] in [[Chechnya]], another area of special interest to Mohammed. Unable to travel to Chechnya, he returned to Afghanistan. He ultimately accepted bin Laden's invitation to move to [[Kandahar]] and join al-Qaeda as a full-fledged member. Eventually, he became leader of Al-Qaeda's media committee.

===Plan for 11 September 2001 attacks===
{{main|11 September attacks}}
{{see also|Planning of the September 11 attacks}}
The first hijack plan that Mohammed presented to the leadership of Al-Qaeda called for several airplanes on both east and west coasts to be hijacked and flown into targets. His plan evolved from an earlier foiled plot known as the Bojinka plot (see above). Bin Laden rejected some potential targets suggested by Mohammed, such as the [[U.S. Bank Tower (Los Angeles)|U.S. Bank Tower]] in Los Angeles,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 |author=Wright, Lawrence |title-link=The Looming Tower |year=2006 |publisher=Knopf |page=308 |author-link=Lawrence Wright}}</ref> as he wished to simplify the attacks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lamag.com/citythinkblog/citydig-how-the-u-s-bank-tower-was-almost-targeted-on-911/|title=How the U.S. Bank Tower Was Almost Targeted on 9/11|last1=Harl|first1=Thomas|last2=er|date=September 11, 2015|website=Los Angeles Magazine|language=en-US|access-date=February 9, 2020|archive-date=February 23, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223022238/http://www.lamag.com/citythinkblog/citydig-how-the-u-s-bank-tower-was-almost-targeted-on-911/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In late 1998 or early 1999, bin Laden gave approval for Mohammed to proceed to organize the plot.<ref name="911-ch5"/> Meetings in early 1999 took place with Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, [[Osama bin Laden]], and his military chief, [[Mohammed Atef]].<ref name="911-ch5"/> Bin Laden led the plot and provided financial support.<ref name="911-ch5"/> He was also involved in selecting the participants, including choosing [[Mohamed Atta]] as the lead hijacker.<ref>{{cite book |author=Bergen, Peter |title=The Osama bin Laden I Know |title-link=The Osama bin Laden I Know |publisher=Free Press |year=2006 |page=283}}</ref> Khalid Sheikh provided operational support, such as selecting targets and helping arrange travel for the hijackers.<ref name="911-ch5"/> Atef directed the actions of the hijackers.<ref name=uoqnvz>{{cite web |last=Schone |first=Mark |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/scenes-planners-911-attacks/story?id=11610817#.Tzh5u1GRlJF |title=9/11 Perpetrators: Where Are They Now? – ABC News |publisher=Abcnews.go.com |date=September 11, 2010 |access-date=July 11, 2013 |archive-date=September 23, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923121610/https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/scenes-planners-911-attacks/story?id=11610817#.Tzh5u1GRlJF |url-status=live }}</ref>

After Atta was chosen as the leader of the mission, "he met with Bin Laden to discuss the targets: the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]], which represented the U.S. economy; [[the Pentagon]], a symbol of the U.S. military; and the [[U.S. Capitol]], the perceived source of U.S. policy in support of Israel. The [[White House]] was also on the list, as Bin Laden considered it a political symbol and wanted to attack it as well." If any pilot could not reach his intended target, he was to crash the plane.<ref>
{{cite news
|url = http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2004_rpt/staff_statement_16.pdf
|title = Outline of the 9/11 Plot Staff Statement No. 16
|publisher = [[9/11 Commission]]
|date = June 16, 2004
|url-status = live
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121011190514/http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2004_rpt/staff_statement_16.pdf
|archive-date = October 11, 2012
|access-date = March 26, 2017
|df = mdy
}}
</ref>

According to testimony by Philip Zelikow, bin Laden was motivated by a desire to punish the US for supporting Israel and wanted to move up the attack date. Mohammed argued for ensuring the teams were prepared.

<blockquote>[Bin Laden] allegedly told KSM it would be sufficient simply to down the planes and not hit specific targets. KSM stood his ground, arguing that the operation would not be successful unless the pilots were fully trained and the hijacking teams were larger.<ref name=PbsNewshour>
{{cite news
|url = https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/terrorism/jan-june04/911_06-16.html
|title = Philip Zelikow's testimony before the 9/11 Commission
|publisher = [[PBS Newshour]]
|date = June 16, 2004
|access-date = October 29, 2011
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111223175448/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/terrorism/jan-june04/911_06-16.html
|archive-date = December 23, 2011
|df = mdy
}}
</ref></blockquote>

In a 2002 interview with [[Al Jazeera]] journalist [[Yosri Fouda]], Mohammed admitted that he and [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] were involved in the "Holy Tuesday operation".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/04/alqaida.terrorism |title=We left out nuclear targets, for now |newspaper=The Guardian |date=March 3, 2003 |location=London |access-date=April 4, 2010 |archive-date=January 23, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123195032/http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0%2C3604%2C906911%2C00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ("Holy Tuesday operation" was the terrorists' code name for the 9/11 attacks, and the attacks actually did take place on a Tuesday.)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nypost.com/2003/07/10/meeting-that-spawned-911-monsters-plotted-holy-tuesday/|title=MEETING THAT SPAWNED 9/11 – MONSTERS PLOTTED 'HOLY TUESDAY'|last=Blomquist|first=Brian|date=July 10, 2003|website=New York Post|language=en|access-date=February 9, 2020|archive-date=February 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212065850/https://nypost.com/2003/07/10/meeting-that-spawned-911-monsters-plotted-holy-tuesday/|url-status=live}}</ref> KSM, however, disputes this claim via his Personal Representative: "I never stated to the Al Jazeera reporter that I was the head of the al-Qaeda military committee."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.defenselink.mil/news/transcript_ISN10024.pdf|title=Verbatim Transcript of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Hearing for ISN 10024|access-date=March 15, 2007|archive-date=March 9, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309115951/http://www.defenselink.mil/news/transcript_ISN10024.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In a April 2002 interview with Al Jazeera correspondent Yosri Fouda, KSM, and Ramzi bin al-Shibh described the preparations for 9/11 attacks and said that they first thought of "striking at a couple of nuclear facilities" in the U.S. but then "it was eventually decided to leave out nuclear targets for now."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/04/alqaida.terrorism|title=We left out nuclear targets, for now|date=March 4, 2003|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|access-date=December 12, 2016|archive-date=January 23, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123195032/http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0%2C3604%2C906911%2C00.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Daniel Pearl murder===
{{Main|Daniel Pearl}}
According to a [[CNN]] interview with intelligence expert [[Rohan Gunaratna]], "[[Daniel Pearl]] was going in search of the Al-Qaeda network that was operational in Karachi, and it was at the instruction of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed that Daniel Pearl was killed."<ref name="ressa">Ressa, Maria. {{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/01/30/reid.alqaeda/|title=Sources:Reid is al Qaeda operative.|access-date=September 15, 2006|work=CNN|date=January 29, 2003|archive-date=January 4, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104171205/http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/01/30/reid.alqaeda/|url-status=live}} ''CNN.com'', December 6, 2003.</ref> On 12 October 2006, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine reported that "KSM confessed under CIA interrogation that he personally committed the murder."<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Timothy J. |last=Burger |author2=Adam Zagorin |title=Fingering Danny Pearl's Killer |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1545441,00.html?cnn=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014173248/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1545441,00.html?cnn=yes |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 14, 2006 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |publisher=[[Time Warner]] |date=October 12, 2006 |access-date=March 15, 2007 }}</ref> On 15 March 2007, [[the Pentagon]] stated that Mohammed had confessed to the murder.<ref>{{cite news |title=Key 9/11 figure 'beheaded Pearl' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6455307.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher=BBC |date=March 15, 2007 |access-date=March 15, 2007 |archive-date=March 17, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317194333/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6455307.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The statement quoted Mohammed as saying, "I decapitated with my blessed right hand the head of the American [[Jews|Jew]], Daniel Pearl, in the city of [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]]. For those who would like to confirm, there are pictures of me on the Internet holding his head."<ref>{{cite news |title=Al-Qaida No. 3 says he planned 9/11, other plots |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/17617986 |agency=Associated Press |publisher=[[NBC News]] |date=March 15, 2007 |access-date=March 15, 2007 |archive-date=August 5, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150805011630/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/17617986/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This confession was gained under torture, and Mohammed listed many other crimes at the same time.<ref name="brown"/><ref name="prosecutor"/>

According to an investigative report published in January 2011 by [[Georgetown University]], the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] used [[vein matching]] to determine that the perpetrator in the video of the killing of Pearl was most likely Mohammed, notably through identifying a "bulging vein" running across his hand.<ref name="Wired-20110120-implicate">{{cite magazine|last=Ackerman|first=Spencer|url=https://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2011/01/qaeda-killers-veins-implicate-him-in-journos-murder/|title=Qaeda Killer's Veins Implicate Him In Journo's Murder|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|date=January 20, 2011|access-date=January 21, 2011|archive-date=January 21, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110121234130/http://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2011/01/qaeda-killers-veins-implicate-him-in-journos-murder/|url-status=live}}</ref> Concerned that the confession obtained through [[waterboarding]] would not hold up in court, federal officials used this forensic evidence to bolster their case.<ref name="ABC-20110120-murder">{{cite news|last=Blackburn|first=Bradley|url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/report-justice-served-murder-daniel-pearl/story?id=12721909|title=Report Says Justice Not Served in Murder of Daniel Pearl, Wall Street Journal Reporter|publisher=[[ABC News]]|date=January 20, 2011|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-date=January 23, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123061103/http://abcnews.go.com/US/report-justice-served-murder-daniel-pearl/story?id=12721909|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Capture, interrogation, and torture==
{{See also|Enhanced interrogation techniques|waterboarding|black site}}
[[File:Khalid Shaikh Mohammed after capture.jpg|thumb|alt=Bedraggled man with heavy chest hair and tousled hair wearing a white T-shirt|Mohammed after his capture in Pakistan on 1 March 2003. His beard is shaven to confirm his identity.]]
On 11 September 2002, members of Pakistani [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI) claimed to have killed or captured Sheikh Mohammed during a raid in [[Karachi]] that resulted in bin al-Shibh's capture. This Pakistani claim was false.<ref>{{cite news|first=Syed Saleem|last=Shahzad|title=A chilling inheritance of terror|newspaper=Asia Times|date=October 30, 2002|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/DJ30Df01.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021030191230/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/DJ30Df01.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=October 30, 2002 }}</ref>

Mohammed was captured in [[Rawalpindi]], [[Pakistan]] (about 20 km southwest of Islamabad), on 1 March 2003, by the Pakistani ISI, possibly in a joint action with the CIA's [[Special Activities Division]] paramilitary operatives<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/22/washington/22ksm.html|title=Inside a 9/11 Mastermind's Interrogation|date=June 22, 2008|last=Shane|first=Scott|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=February 22, 2017|archive-date=April 2, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402075657/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/22/washington/22ksm.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and officers of the American [[Diplomatic Security Service]]. He has been in U.S. custody since that time.

Initially, Mohammed was held in the CIA's [[Salt Pit]] (''Cobalt'') prison in [[Afghanistan]]. After just a "few minutes" of questioning at ''Cobalt'', he was subject to "[[enhanced interrogation techniques]]". He was slapped, grabbed in the face, placed in [[stress positions]], placed in standing [[sleep deprivation]], doused with water, and subjected to [[Murphy drip|rectal rehydration]] multiple times, without a determination of medical need.<ref>{{cite news|date=December 9, 2014|title=Inside the CIA's Sadistic Dungeon|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/12/09/inside-a-cia-dungeon.html#|work=[[The Daily Beast]]|access-date=December 20, 2014|last1=Mak|first1=Tim|archive-date=February 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203002707/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/12/09/inside-a-cia-dungeon.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

During 2003, Mohammad was held at a secret CIA prison, or [[black site]], in [[Poland]], where the CIA [[waterboarding|waterboarded]] him 183 times.<ref name="newyorker.com"/> He was then transferred to another secret CIA prison in [[Romania]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-23269437|title=BBC News – Khalid Sheikh Mohammed 'asked to design' vacuum cleaner|work=[[BBC]]|access-date=July 11, 2013|archive-date=July 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130711124817/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-23269437|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Ksmchart.jpg|thumb|upright|Mugshot of Mohammed shortly after being transferred to the Guantanamo Bay detention camp in September 2006. The photo was taken from a cell-assignment chart at the covert high-security Camp 7, and was obtained by reporters of ''[[McClatchy]]DC''.]]
In September 2006, the U.S. government announced it had moved Mohammed from a secret CIA prison (or [[black site]]) to the military custody at the [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5321606.stm |title=Americas | Bush admits to CIA secret prisons |publisher=News.bbc.co.uk |date=September 7, 2006 |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=November 12, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112113913/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5321606.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Red Cross]], [[Human Rights Watch]] and Mohammed consider that the harsh interrogation techniques, including [[waterboarding]], which he received from U.S. agents amount to [[torture]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/042809_redcross.pdf|title=Red Cross report; page 37|date=February 14, 2007|access-date=October 6, 2010|publisher=Fox News|archive-date=October 12, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012042305/http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/042809_redcross.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Randall|last=Mikkelsen|title=CIA says used waterboarding on three suspects|date=February 5, 2008|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSN05191813|access-date=November 18, 2009|archive-date=June 10, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610014007/http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSN05191813|url-status=live}}</ref> Mohammad was also subject to [[sleep deprivation]] for a period of {{frac|7|1|2}} days, during much of which he was forced to stand.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2014/dec/09/cia-torture-report-worst-findings-waterboard-rectal |title=Rectal rehydration and broken limbs: the grisliest findings in the CIA torture report | US news |work=Theguardian.com |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=June 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611073742/http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2014/dec/09/cia-torture-report-worst-findings-waterboard-rectal |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to later reports, Mohammed initially told American interrogators he would not answer any questions until he was provided with a lawyer, which was refused. He claims to have been kept naked for more than a month during his isolation and interrogations, and said he was "questioned by an unusual number of female handlers".<ref name='MayerPg273'>{{cite book|last=Mayer|first=Jane|author-link=Jane Mayer|title=The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned Into a War on American Ideals|publisher=Random House, Inc.|year=2009|page=273|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8-y8v99TCIC&pg=PA273|isbn=9780307456298|access-date=February 26, 2018|archive-date=March 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316145132/https://books.google.com/books?id=w8-y8v99TCIC&pg=PA273|url-status=live}}</ref>

A CIA document reveals that [[Jane Harman]] (D-CA) and [[Porter Goss]] (R-FL) of the [[House Intelligence Committee]] were briefed on 13 July 2004, by the CIA [[Deputy Director for Operations]] [[James Pavitt]], General Counsel Scott Muller, and [[CIA Inspector General]] [[John L. Helgerson]] on the status of the interrogation process of Mohammed. By this date, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed had been subjected to 183 applications of waterboarding.<ref name="bradbury1">{{cite web|last=Bradbury|first=Steven|title=Memorandum from Steven Bradbury for John A. Rizzo, Senior Deputy General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, Re: Application of the United States Obligations Under Article 16 of the Convention Against Torture to Certain Techniques that May Be Used in the Interrogation of High Value al Qaeda Detainees|url=http://ccrjustice.org/files/05-30-2005_bradbury_40pg_OLC%20torture%20memos.pdf|publisher=Center for Constitutional Rights Online Archive|access-date=November 5, 2013|archive-date=April 18, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418195841/http://ccrjustice.org/files/05-30-2005_bradbury_40pg_OLC%20torture%20memos.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The document states:

{{quote|... the CIA was seeking renewed policy approval from the NSC Principals to continue using the [[enhanced interrogation techniques]].<ref name="bradbury1"/>}}

A U.S. official has clarified that the "183" number represents the number of times water was poured onto Mohammed's face—not the number of times the CIA waterboarded him. According to a 2007 Red Cross report, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was subjected a total of "five sessions of ill-treatment."

"The water was poured 183 times – there were 183 pours," the official explained, adding that "each pour was a matter of seconds."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/042809_redcross.pdf |title=ICRC Report on the Treatment of Fourteen 'High Value Detainees' in CIA Custody |date=February 2007 |publisher=Foxnews.com |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924150229/http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/042809_redcross.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 12 October 2004, [[Human Rights Watch]] reported that 11 suspects, including Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, had "[[Ghost detainee|disappeared]]" to a semi-secret prison in [[Jordan]], and may have been tortured there under the direction of the CIA.<ref name=Hrw>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/usa/us1004/7.htm|title=Eleven Detainees in Undisclosed Locations|work=[[Human Rights Watch]]|date=October 2004|access-date=December 4, 2016|archive-date=November 26, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126100651/http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/usa/us1004/7.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Hrw2>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/press/2001/11/TortureQandA.htm|title=The Legal Prohibition Against Torture|work=Human Rights Watch|date=June 1, 2004|access-date=December 4, 2016|archive-date=February 22, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222064450/http://www.hrw.org/press/2001/11/TortureQandA.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> At the time, Jordanian and American officials denied those allegations.<ref name=rediff>{{cite web|url=http://us.rediff.com/news/2004/oct/18ghost.htm|title=Al Qaeda men in 'ghost prison'|work=[[rediff.com]]|date=October 18, 2004|access-date=October 20, 2004|archive-date=November 18, 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041118212506/http://us.rediff.com/news/2004/oct/18ghost.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Bbc041014>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3742428.stm|title=Jordan denies 'secret US prison'|work=[[BBC]]|date=October 14, 2004|access-date=June 17, 2005|archive-date=September 20, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050920103921/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3742428.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Jurist>{{cite web|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2005/03/gonzales-insists-us-did-not-send.php |title=Gonzales insists US did not send prisoners abroad to be tortured |work=[[The Jurist]] |first=Bernard |last=Hibbitts |date=March 7, 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050903203054/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2005/03/gonzales-insists-us-did-not-send.php |archive-date=September 3, 2005 }}</ref>

On 5 February 2008, the CIA Director [[Michael Hayden (general)|Michael Hayden]] told a Senate committee that his agents had used [[waterboarding]] on Khalid Sheikh Mohammed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2008/02/cia-chief-confirms-use-of-waterboarding.php |title=CIA chief confirms use of waterboarding on 3 terror detainees |publisher=University of Pittsburgh School of Law |access-date=May 13, 2008 |last=Price |first=Caitlin |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081004115855/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2008/02/cia-chief-confirms-use-of-waterboarding.php |archive-date=October 4, 2008 }}</ref> A 2005 U.S. Justice Department memo released in April 2009 stated that Mohammed had undergone waterboarding 183 times in March 2003.<ref>{{cite news|last=Shane|first=Scott|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/world/20detain.html|title=Waterboarding Used 266 Times On 2 Suspects|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 20, 2009|page=1|access-date=February 22, 2017|archive-date=April 22, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422033555/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/world/20detain.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In October 2006, Mohammed described his mistreatment and torture in detention, including the waterboarding, to a representative of the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]]. Mohammed said that he had provided a lot of false information, which he had supposed the interrogators wanted to hear, in order to stop the mistreatment.<ref name="nybooks.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.nybooks.com/icrc-report.pdf|title=ICRC Report on the Treatment of Fourteen "High Value Detainees" in CIA Custody|date=February 14, 2007|access-date=October 6, 2010|archive-date=April 19, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419152929/http://www.nybooks.com/icrc-report.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 2006 interview with the Red Cross, Mohammed claimed to have been waterboarded in five different sessions during the first month of interrogation in his third place of detention.<ref name="nybooks.com"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/042809_redcross.pdf|title=ICRC Report on the Treatment of Fourteen "High Value Detainees" in CIA Custody|publisher=Fox News|page=35|date=February 2007|access-date=November 18, 2009|archive-date=May 9, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090509063356/http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/042809_redcross.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> While the Justice Department memos did not explain exactly what the numbers represented, a U.S. official with knowledge of the interrogation programs explained the 183 figure represented the number of times water was applied to the detainee's face during the waterboarding sessions, rather than separate sessions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/04/28/despite-reports-khalid-sheikh-mohammed-waterboarded-times/|title=Despite Reports, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Was Not Waterboarded 183 Times|publisher=FOXNews.com|date=April 7, 2010|access-date=August 13, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224025359/http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/04/28/despite-reports-khalid-sheikh-mohammed-waterboarded-times/|archive-date=February 24, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In March 2007, after four years in captivity, including six months of detention and alleged torture at [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp|Guantanamo Bay]], Khalid Sheikh Mohammed—as it was claimed by a [[Combatant Status Review Tribunal]] Hearing<ref name="BBC_Transcript">{{cite news|date=March 10, 2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/15_03_07_mohammed_transcript.pdf|title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed confession transcript|publisher=www.defenselink.mil|access-date=August 28, 2007|archive-date=September 27, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927022146/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/15_03_07_mohammed_transcript.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> in Guantanamo Bay—confessed to masterminding the 11 September attacks, the [[Richard Reid (shoe bomber)|Richard Reid]] shoe bombing attempt to blow up an airliner over the Atlantic Ocean, the [[2002 Bali bombing|Bali nightclub bombing]] in [[Indonesia]], the [[World Trade Center bombing|1993 World Trade Center bombing]] and various foiled attacks.<ref name="CNN">{{cite news|title=Transcript: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed confesses 9/11 role|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/03/14/guantanamo.mohammed/index.html|publisher=CNN|date=March 14, 2007|access-date=March 14, 2007|archive-date=March 15, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315095035/http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/03/14/guantanamo.mohammed/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> "I was responsible for the 9/11 operation from A to Z," Khalid Sheikh Mohammed said in a statement read Saturday during a Combatant Status Review Tribunal at the [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/BA2B7119-DF1D-427E-857E-5C44E3479F2A.htm |title=September 11 mastermind 'confesses' |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=March 15, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071207235804/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/BA2B7119-DF1D-427E-857E-5C44E3479F2A.htm |archive-date=December 7, 2007 }}</ref>

According to the "unclassified summary of evidence" presented during the CSRT hearing, a computer hard drive seized during the capture of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed contained the following:
* information about the four airplanes hijacked on 11 September 2001, including code names, airline company, flight number, target, pilot name and background information, and names of the hijackers
* photographs of 19 individuals identified as the 11 September 2001 hijackers
* a document that listed the pilot license fees for Mohammad Atta and biographies for some of the 11 September 2001 hijackers
* images of passports and an image of [[Mohamed Atta|Mohammad Atta]]
* transcripts of chat sessions belonging to at least one of 11 September 2001 hijackers
* three letters from Osama bin Laden
* spreadsheets that describe financial assistance to families of known al-Qaeda members
* a letter to the United Arab Emirates threatening attack if their government continued to help the United States
* a document that summarized operational procedures and training requirements of an al-Qaeda cell
* a list of killed and wounded al-Qaeda militants.

At the hearing, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed said the computer belonged not to him, but to [[Mustafa Ahmad al-Hawsawi]], arrested together with him.<ref>[[wikisource:Verbatim Transcript of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Hearing for ISN 10024]]</ref>

In June 2008, a ''[[New York Times]]'' article, citing unnamed CIA officers, claimed that Mohammed had been held in a [[black site]] or secret facility in [[Poland]] near [[Szczytno-Szymany International Airport|Szymany Airport]], about 100 miles north of [[Warsaw]]. There he was interrogated under waterboarding before he began to "cooperate."<ref>{{cite news|first=Scott|last=Shane|title=Inside a 9/11 Mastermind's Interrogation|date=June 22, 2008|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/22/washington/22ksm.html?pagewanted=4|page=4|access-date=November 18, 2009|archive-date=April 18, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418124913/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/22/washington/22ksm.html?pagewanted=4|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2009, Mohammed described his actions and motivations in a document publicly released and known as ''The Islamic Response to the Government's Nine Accusations.''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://relearnhistory.com/content/2009-March-09-Islamic-Response-Government-s-Nine-Accusations|title=The Islamic Response to the Government's Nine Accusations|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715171740/http://relearnhistory.com/content/2009-March-09-Islamic-Response-Government-s-Nine-Accusations|archive-date=July 15, 2011|access-date=November 13, 2019}}</ref>

In April 2011, the British newspaper, ''[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]'' said it received [[Guantanamo Bay files leak|leaked documents]] regarding the [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp|Guantanamo Bay]] interrogations of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed. The documents cited Mohammed as saying that, if [[Osama bin Laden]] is captured or killed by the [[Coalition of the Willing]], an al-Qaeda [[sleeper cell]] would detonate a "weapon of mass destruction" in a "secret location" in Europe, and promised it would be "a nuclear hellstorm".<ref name=TheDailyTelegraph2011-04-25>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8471907/WikiLeaks-Guantanamo-Bay-terrorist-secrets-revealed.html |title=WikiLeaks: Guantanamo Bay terrorist secrets revealed |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=April 25, 2011 |quote=A senior al-Qaeda commander claimed that the terrorist group has hidden a nuclear bomb in Europe which will be detonated if Bin-Laden is ever caught or assassinated. The US authorities uncovered numerous attempts by al-Qaeda to obtain nuclear materials and feared that terrorists have already bought uranium. Sheikh Mohammed told interrogators that [[al-Qaeda]] would unleash a 'nuclear hellstorm'. |author1=Christopher Hope |author2=Robert Winnett |author3=Holly Watt |author4=Heidi Blake |location=London |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120701204117/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8471907/WikiLeaks-Guantanamo-Bay-terrorist-secrets-revealed.html |archive-date=July 1, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="WikileaksIsn10024">{{cite news|url=http://media.mcclatchydc.com/smedia/2011/04/27/19/us9ku-010024dp.source.prod_affiliate.91.pdf|title=Combatant Status Review Tribunal Input and Recommendation for Continued Detention Under DoD Control (CD) for Guantanamo Detainee, ISN: US9KU-010024DP (S)|publisher=[[JTF-GTMO]]|date=April 15, 2008|author=Mark H. Buzby|author-link=Mark H. Buzby|access-date=October 29, 2011|archive-date=April 25, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425103624/http://media.mcclatchydc.com/smedia/2011/04/27/19/us9ku-010024dp.source.prod_affiliate.91.pdf|url-status=live}}
{{commons-inline|FIle:ISN 10024, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's Guantanamo detainee assessment.pdf}}</ref><ref>[http://www.nuclearheadlines.com/wikileaks-reveals-al-qaeda-thug-khalid-shaikh-mohammed-vowed-nuclear/] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614211901/http://www.nuclearheadlines.com/wikileaks-reveals-al-qaeda-thug-khalid-shaikh-mohammed-vowed-nuclear/|date=June 14, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url = http://www.news.com.au/breaking-news/nuclear-hellstorm-if-bin-laden-caught-911-mastermind/story-e6frfku0-1226044724298
|work = News.au
|title = 'Nuclear hellstorm' if bin Laden caught – 9/11 mastermind
|date = April 25, 2011
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110902163726/http://www.news.com.au/breaking-news/nuclear-hellstorm-if-bin-laden-caught-911-mastermind/story-e6frfku0-1226044724298
|archive-date = September 2, 2011
|df = mdy
}}</ref><ref>[https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20110425/wl_mideast_afp/usattacksguantanamowikileakssheikh_20110425184242] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501061504/http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20110425/wl_mideast_afp/usattacksguantanamowikileakssheikh_20110425184242|date=May 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://newstabulous.com/al-qaeda-hid-bomb-in-europe-wikileaks-releases-secret-files/9722/ |title=Al-Qaeda hid bomb in Europe: WikiLeaks releases secret files |publisher=Newstabulous |date=April 25, 2011 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110507031820/http://newstabulous.com/al-qaeda-hid-bomb-in-europe-wikileaks-releases-secret-files/9722/ |archive-date=May 7, 2011 }}</ref>

===Report that interrogators abused his children===
{{wikisource|Letter from Ali Khan, Majid Khan's father}}

[[Ali Khan (activist)|Ali Khan]], the father of [[Majid Khan (detainee)|Majid Khan]], another one of the 14 "high-value detainees," released an unsubstaniated affidavit on 16 April 2006, that reported that interrogators subjected Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's children, aged 6 and 8 years old, to abusive interrogation.<ref name=AssociatePress20070417>{{cite news|url=http://apnews.myway.com/article/20070416/D8OI0AF00.html|title=Father of Pakistani Alleges U.S. Torture|date=April 16, 2007|first=Michael|last=Melia|agency=Associated Press|access-date=April 18, 2007}}{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref><ref name=TheJurist20070417>{{cite news|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2007/04/guantanamo-detainees-father-says-son.php |date=April 17, 2007 |title=Guantanamo detainee's father says son tortured in secret CIA prison |first=Natalie |last=Hrubos |publisher=[[The Jurist]] |access-date=April 18, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080130040946/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2007/04/guantanamo-detainees-father-says-son.php |archive-date=January 30, 2008 }}</ref><ref name=AliKhansAffidavit20070416>{{cite web|url=http://ccrjustice.org/files/Ali%20Khan_Father%20of%20Majid%20Khan_Statement%20from%20CSRT.pdf|title=Statement of Ali Khan|date=December 2011|publisher=[[Center for Constitutional Rights]]|author=Ali Khan|access-date=June 19, 2009|author-link=Ali Khan (activist)|archive-date=June 19, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619220634/http://ccrjustice.org/files/Ali%20Khan_Father%20of%20Majid%20Khan_Statement%20from%20CSRT.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Khan's affidavit quoted another of his sons, Mohammed Khan:{{cn|date=September 2021}}

{{quote|The Pakistani guards told my son that the boys were kept in a separate area upstairs, and were denied food and water by other guards. They were also mentally tortured by having ants or other creatures put on their legs to scare them and get them to say where their father was hiding.}}

===Transfer to Guantanamo and hearing before his Combatant Status Review Tribunal===
On 6 September 2006, American President [[George W. Bush]] confirmed, for the first time, that the [[CIA]] had held "high-value detainees" for interrogation in secret prisons around the world.<ref>{{cite news|first=Don|last=Gonyea|author-link=Don Gonyea|title=Bush Concedes CIA Ran Secret Prisons Abroad|date=September 6, 2006|publisher=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5776968|access-date=February 22, 2010|archive-date=January 27, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127072309/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5776968|url-status=live}}</ref> He also announced that fourteen senior captives, including Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, were being transferred from CIA custody, to military custody, at [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]] and that these fourteen captives could now expect to face charges before Guantanamo military commissions.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/06/washington/06bush_transcript.html|title=President Bush's Speech on Terrorism|publisher=The New York|date=September 6, 2006|access-date=May 24, 2020|archive-date=May 18, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518155608/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/06/washington/06bush_transcript.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In a 29 September 2006, speech, Bush stated:

{{quote|Once captured, Abu Zubaydah, Ramzi bin al Shibh, and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed were taken into custody of the Central Intelligence Agency. The questioning of these and other suspected terrorists provided information that helped us protect the American people. They helped us break up a cell of Southeast Asian terrorist operatives that had been groomed for attacks inside the United States. They helped us disrupt an Al-Qaeda operation to develop anthrax for terrorist attacks. They helped us stop a planned strike on a U.S. Marine camp in Djibouti, and to prevent a planned attack on the U.S. Consulate in Karachi, and to foil a plot to hijack passenger planes and to fly them into Heathrow Airport and London's Canary Wharf.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/09/20060929-3.html|title=President Bush Discusses Global War on Terror|date=September 29, 2006|publisher=The White House|access-date=March 11, 2012|archive-date=December 30, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171230172804/https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/09/20060929-3.html|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

In March 2007, Mohammed testified before a closed-door hearing in Guantanamo Bay. According to transcripts of the hearing released by the Pentagon, he said, "I was responsible for the 9/11 operation, from A to Z." The transcripts also show him confessing to:

* Organizing the [[World Trade Center bombing|1993 World Trade Center bombing]]
* The [[Bali nightclub bombings]]
* Richard Reid's attempted shoe bombing
* Planning the attacks on [[Heathrow Airport]] and [[Clock Tower, Palace of Westminster|Big Ben clock tower]] in London
* Daniel Pearl's murder in 2002
* Planned [[assassination]] attempts on [[Pope John Paul II]], [[Pervez Musharraf]] and [[Bill Clinton]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Key 9/11 suspect confesses guilt|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6452573.stm|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=BBC|date=March 15, 2007|access-date=March 15, 2007|archive-date=January 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107190517/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6452573.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{quote|Because war, for sure, there will be victims. When I said I'm not happy that three thousand been killed in America. I feel sorry even. ... Killing is prohibited in all what you call the People of the Book, Jews, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. You know the Ten Commandments very well. The Ten Commandments are shared between all of us. We all are serving one God.|Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, before his tribunal<ref name="ReferenceA">[[s:Verbatim Transcript of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Hearing for ISN 10024|CSRT for Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], March 10, 2007.</ref>}}

On 15 March 2007, [[BBC News]] reported that "Transcripts of his testimony were translated from Arabic and edited by the U.S. Department of Defense to remove sensitive intelligence material before release. It appeared, from a judge's question, that Khalid Sheikh Mohammed had made allegations of torture in US custody." In the Defense Department transcript, Mohammed said his statement was not made under [[duress]] but Mohammed and human rights advocates have alleged that he was tortured. CIA officials have previously told [[ABC News]] that "Mohammed lasted the longest under waterboarding, two and a half minutes, before beginning to talk."<ref name=Abc>[https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/Investigation/story?id=1322866 CIA's Harsh Interrogation Techniques Described: Sources Say Agency's Tactics Lead to Questionable Confessions, Sometimes to Death] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406152719/https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/Investigation/story?id=1322866 |date=April 6, 2019 }}, ABC News, November 18, 2005</ref> Legal experts say this could taint all his statements. Forensic psychiatrist [[Michael Welner]], M.D., an expert in false confessions, observed from the testimony transcript that his concerns about his family may have been far more influential in soliciting Mohammed's cooperation than any earlier reported mistreatment.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/Health/story?id=2955471&page=1|title=ABC News: Expert Looks Beyond Mohammed's Confessions|publisher=Abc News|date=March 15, 2007|access-date=October 6, 2010|archive-date=April 13, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110413181430/http://abcnews.go.com/International/Health/story?id=2955471&page=1|url-status=live}}</ref>

One CIA official cautioned that "many of Mohammed's claims during interrogation were 'white noise' designed to send the U.S. on wild goose chases or to get him through the day's interrogation session." For example, according to [[Mike Rogers (Michigan politician)|Mike Rogers]], a former FBI agent and the top [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] on the terrorism panel of the [[House Intelligence Committee]], he admitted responsibility for the Bali nightclub bombing, but his involvement "could have been as small as arranging a safe house for travel. It could have been arranging finance." Mohammed also made the admission that he was "responsible for the 1993 World Trade Center Operation," which killed six and injured more than 1,000 when a bomb was detonated in an underground garage, Mohammed did not plan the attack, but he may have supported it. [[Michael Welner]] noted that by offering legitimate information to interrogators, Mohammed had secured the leverage to provide misinformation as well.<ref>{{cite news|title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's own words provide glimpse into the mind of a terrorist |url=http://www.wsvn.com/news/articles/world/BO46072/ |publisher=WSVN |agency=Associated Press |date=March 16, 2007 |access-date=March 11, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825162537/http://www.wsvn.com/news/articles/world/BO46072/ |archive-date=August 25, 2012 }}</ref>

In an article discussing the reliability of Khalid's confession and the motive for giving misinformation under torture, [[Ali Soufan]], a former FBI special agent with considerable experience interrogating al-Qaeda operatives, pointed out that:

{{quote|When they are in pain, people will say anything to get the pain to stop. Most of the time, they will lie, make up anything to make you stop hurting them. That means the information you're getting is useless.}}

His words are echoed by the U.S. Army Training Manual's section on interrogation, which suggests that:

{{quote|[T]he use of force is a poor technique, as it ... can induce the source to say whatever he thinks the interrogator wants to hear.}}

As an example of this the article discloses that although the [[Presidency of George W. Bush|George W. Bush administration]] made claims that the water-boarding (simulated drowning) of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed produced vital information that allowed them to break up a plot to attack the [[U.S. Bank Tower]] (formerly Library Tower and First Interstate Bank World Center) in Los Angeles in 2002, this has been proven to be untrue. In 2002 Sheikh Mohammed was busy evading capture in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/the-lay-scientist/2010/nov/04/2|title=Does torture work?|work=The Guardian|date=November 4, 2010|access-date=June 15, 2011|location=London|first=Martin|last=Robbins|archive-date=February 11, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140211092118/http://www.theguardian.com/science/the-lay-scientist/2010/nov/04/2|url-status=live}}</ref> Likewise the claim by former George W Bush Attorney General [[Michael Mukasey]] and former CIA [[director of the National Clandestine Service]], Jose Rodriguez, that the torture of Khalid Mohammed produced the most significant lead in finding Osama bin Laden, has also been shown to be false. According to U.S. Senator [[John McCain]], "The trail to bin Laden did not begin with a disclosure from Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who was waterboarded 183 times ... not only did the use of 'enhanced interrogation techniques' on Khalid Sheikh Mohammed not provide us with key leads on bin Laden's courier, Abu Ahmed; it actually produced false and misleading information."<ref>{{cite web|first=Ken|last=Dilanian|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2011/may/12/news/la-pn-mccain-bin-laden-20110512|title=John McCain: Abusive interrogation didn't yield trail to Osama bin Laden|work=Los Angeles Times|date=May 12, 2011|access-date=July 11, 2013|archive-date=March 9, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309013228/http://articles.latimes.com/2011/may/12/news/la-pn-mccain-bin-laden-20110512|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/43007276|title=McCain says torture did not lead to bin Laden|publisher=NBC News|date=December 5, 2011|access-date=July 11, 2013|archive-date=September 12, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912094248/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna43007276|url-status=live}}</ref>

====List of confessions====
Mohammed has made at least 31 confessions:<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6452789.stm |title=Americas | Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's '31 plots' |publisher=News.bbc.co.uk |date=March 15, 2007 |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=December 17, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217133205/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6452789.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The [[1993 World Trade Center bombing|February 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center]] in New York City
* The [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]] on the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]], [[the Pentagon]], and the [[United States Capitol]] using four hijacked commercial airliners
* A failed "shoe bomber" operation
* The October 2002 attack in [[Kuwait]]
*The beheading of ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' reporter [[Daniel Pearl]]
* The [[2002 Bali bombings]], Pady's and Sari's club bombings in Bali, Indonesia
* A plan for a "second wave" of attacks on major U.S. landmarks after the 9/11 attacks, including the [[Library Tower]] in Los Angeles, the [[Willis Tower]] (formerly Sears Tower) in Chicago, the [[Empire State Building]] in New York City, and what has been reported as the Plaza Bank Building in [[Seattle]], although there is no Plaza Bank Building; there is a [[Safeco Plaza (Seattle)|Safeco Plaza]] and [[Columbia Center]], the city's tallest skyscraper
* Plots to attack oil tankers and U.S. naval ships in the [[Straits of Hormuz]], the [[Straits of Gibraltar]] and in [[Singapore]]
* A plan to blow up the [[Panama Canal]]
* Plans to assassinate [[Jimmy Carter]]
* A plot to blow up suspension bridges in New York City
* A plan to destroy the [[Sears Tower]] in Chicago with burning fuel trucks
* Plans to destroy [[London Heathrow Airport]], [[Canary Wharf]] and [[Big Ben]] in London
* A planned attack on many nightclubs in [[Thailand]]
* A plot targeting the [[New York Stock Exchange]] and other U.S. financial targets
* A plan to destroy buildings in [[Eilat]], [[Israel]]
* Plans to destroy U.S. embassies in Indonesia, Australia and Japan in 2002
* Plots to destroy [[Israel]]i embassies in [[India]], [[Azerbaijan]], the [[Philippines]] and [[Australia]]
* Surveying and financing an attack on an [[Israel]]i [[El-Al]] flight from [[Bangkok]]
* Sending several "mujahideen" into Israel to survey "strategic targets" with the intention of attacking them
* The [[2002 Mombasa attacks|November 2002 suicide bombing]] of a hotel in [[Mombasa]], Kenya, and failed attempt to shoot down an [[Israel]]i passenger jet leaving [[Mombasa Airport]]
* Plans to attack U.S. targets in South Korea
* Providing financial support for a plan to attack U.S., British and [[Jewish]] targets in [[Turkey]]
* Surveillance of U.S. nuclear power plants in order to attack them
* A plot to attack [[NATO]]'s headquarters in Europe
* Planning and surveillance in a 1995 plan (the "Bojinka plot") to bomb 12 American passenger jets
* The planned assassination attempt against then-U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]] during a mid-1990s trip to the [[Philippines]]
* "Shared responsibility" for a [[Oplan Bojinka|plot to kill]] [[Pope]] [[John Paul II]]
* Plans to assassinate Pakistani President [[Pervez Musharraf]]
* An attempt to attack a U.S. oil company in [[Sumatra]], Indonesia, "owned by the Jewish former [U.S.] [[Secretary of State]] [[Henry Kissinger]]"

After Mohammed arrived at Guantanamo, a team of FBI and military interrogators tried to elicit from him the same confessions that the CIA had obtained about the 9/11 plot, but by using only legal means of interrogation. By 2008, the Bush Administration believed that this so-called "Clean Team" had compiled sufficient evidence to charge Mohammed and the others with capital murder.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://newyorker.com/reporting/2010/02/15/100215fa_fact_mayer|title=The Trial.Eric Holder and the battle over Khalid Sheikh Mohammed|magazine=[[The New Yorker]]|date=February 16, 2010|author=Jane Mayer|author-link=Jane Mayer|access-date=December 11, 2019|archive-date=July 7, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707053937/http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/02/15/100215fa_fact_mayer|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] announced on 9 August 2007, that all fourteen of the "high-value detainees" who had been transferred to Guantanamo from the CIA's [[black site]]s, had been officially classified as "enemy combatants".<ref name=Time20070809>
{{cite magazine
|url = http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1651680,00.html
|title = Pentagon: 14 Guantanamo Suspects Are Now Combatants
|date = August 9, 2007
|magazine = [[Time magazine]]
|author = Lolita C. Baldur
|access-date = October 26, 2016
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121019144816/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1651680,00.html
|archive-date = October 19, 2012
|url-status = dead
|df = mdy-all
}}
[https://web.archive.org/web/20201104104008/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4176/is_20070324/ai_n18757735 mirror]
</ref> Although judges [[Peter Brownback]] and [[Keith J. Allred]] had ruled two months earlier that only "''illegal'' enemy combatants" could face military commissions, the Department of Defense waived the qualifier and said that all fourteen men could now face charges before [[Guantanamo military commission]]s.<ref name=DoDKhadrChargesDismissed20070604>{{cite news
| url=http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=46281
| title=Charges Dismissed Against Canadian at Guantanamo
| author=Sergeant Sara Wood
| publisher=[[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]
| date=June 4, 2007
| access-date=June 7, 2007
| archive-date=March 16, 2008
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316011729/http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=46281
| url-status=live
}}</ref><ref name=DoDHamdanChargesDismissed20070604>{{cite news
| url=http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=46288
| title=Judge Dismisses Charges Against Second Guantanamo Detainee
| author=Sergeant Sara Wood
| publisher=[[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]
| date=June 4, 2007
| access-date=June 7, 2007
| archive-date=June 13, 2007
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613110225/http://www.defenselink.mil//news/newsarticle.aspx?id=46288
| url-status=live
}}</ref>

====Confession used in Sheikh Omar's defense====
On 19 March 2007, [[Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh]]'s lawyers cited Mohammed's confession in defense of their client.<ref name=TheJurist070319>{{cite news|publisher=[[The Jurist]] |url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2007/03/militant-convicted-of-pearl-lling-to.php |title=Militant convicted of Pearl killing to rely on KSM Guantanamo confession on appeal |date=March 19, 2007 |access-date=March 20, 2007 }}{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name=Reuters070319>{{cite news|url=http://today.reuters.com/news/articlenews.aspx?type=domesticNews&storyID=2007-03-19T104004Z_01_ISL185_RTRUKOC_0_US-PAKISTAN-PEARL.xml&pageNumber=1&imageid=&cap=&sz=13&WTModLoc=NewsArt-C1-ArticlePage1 |title=Pearl murder convict to appeal after confession |work=Reuters |date=March 19, 2007 |access-date=March 20, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402021114/http://today.reuters.com/news/articlenews.aspx?type=domesticNews |archive-date=April 2, 2007 }}</ref>

Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh, also known as Sheikh Omar, was [[capital punishment|sentenced to death]] in a Pakistani court for the murder of Daniel Pearl. Omar's lawyers recently announced that they planned to use Mohammed's confession in an appeal. They had always acknowledged that Omar played a role in Pearl's murder, but argue that Mohammed was the actual murderer.

==Prosecution in France==
In 2009, the French government decided to try Khalid Sheikh Mohammed ''[[trial in absentia|in absentia]]'' on terrorism charges with respect to the [[Ghriba synagogue bombing]] on the [[Tunis]]ian island of [[Djerba]] in 2002, which killed 14 German tourists, five Tunisians and two French nationals. They intended to charge him along with the captured German national [[Christian Ganczarski]] and Tunisian Walid Nawar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5h7KDqZLMV7eCw9v9p68QHjoesfNQ |title=France tries trio over Djerba synagogue bombing |date=January 4, 2009 |access-date=July 22, 2012}}</ref> French judges later decided to separate Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's case from those of Ganczarski and Nawar and try him separately at a later date.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.expatica.com/nl/news/local_news/Al-Qaeda-militant-found-guilty-for-Tunisian-synagogue-attack-_49356.html |title=Michel Moutot. Al Qaeda militant found guilty for Tunisian synagogue attack |publisher=Expatica.com |access-date=July 22, 2012 |archive-date=July 5, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120705035126/http://www.expatica.com/nl/news/local_news/Al-Qaeda-militant-found-guilty-for-Tunisian-synagogue-attack-_49356.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Trial for role in 9/11 attacks ==
{{main|United States v. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed}}
On 11 February 2008, the [[United States Department of Defense]] charged Mohammed, [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], [[Mustafa Ahmad al-Hawsawi]], [[Ali Abd al-Aziz Ali]] and [[Walid Bin Attash]] for the 11 September 2001 attacks under the [[Guantanamo military commission|military commission]] system, as established under the [[Military Commissions Act of 2006]]. They have reportedly been charged with the murder of almost 3,000 people, terrorism and [[providing material support for terrorism]] and plane hijacking; as well as attacking civilian objects, intentionally causing serious bodily injury and destruction of property in violation of the law of war. The charges against them list 169 overt acts allegedly committed by the defendants in furtherance of the 11 September events.<ref name=Charged>{{cite web|url=http://www.defense.gov/news/commissionsCo-conspirators.html |title=U.S. Department of Defense – Military Commissions |publisher=Defense.gov |access-date=October 6, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101109025708/http://www.defense.gov/news/commissionsCo-conspirators.html |archive-date=November 9, 2010 }}</ref>

The charges include 2,973 individual counts of murder—one for each person killed in the 9/11 attacks.<ref name="bbc6jun08">{{cite news|title=Guantanamo 9/11 suspects on trial|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7437164.stm|work=BBC News|date=June 6, 2008|access-date=December 8, 2008|archive-date=February 16, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216052225/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7437164.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> The prosecution is seeking the [[death penalty]], which would require the unanimous agreement of the commission judges.<ref name=Charged/>

[[Human rights]] groups, including [[Amnesty International]], [[Human Rights Watch]] and the [[Center for Constitutional Rights]], and U.S. military defense lawyers have criticised the military commissions for lacking due process for a fair trial. Critics generally argue for the trials to be held in a [[United States district court|federal district court]], with defendants treated as criminal suspects, or by [[court-martial]] as a prisoner under the [[Geneva Conventions]], which prohibit civilian trials for prisoners of war.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usmilitary.about.com/library/milinfo/genevacon/blart-84.htm|title=Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Article 84)|publisher=Usmilitary.about.com|date=June 19, 2010|access-date=October 6, 2010|archive-date=June 25, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625010805/http://usmilitary.about.com/library/milinfo/genevacon/blart-84.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Mohammed could face the death penalty under any of these systems.

The case is progressing through the legal system. In August 2019 the trial date was tentatively set for 11 January 2021, by Judge W. Shane Cohen,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nytimes.com/topic/person/khalid-shaikh-mohammed|title=Khalid Shaikh Mohammed (Guantánamo 9/11 Attacks Trial)|date=May 2, 2019|work=The New York Times|access-date=May 14, 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=April 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422213606/https://www.nytimes.com/topic/person/khalid-shaikh-mohammed|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/02/us/politics/9-11-judge-guantanamo.html|title=Military Judge in Trial of Sept. 11 Suspects Will Step Aside|last=Rosenberg|first=Carol|date=May 2, 2019|work=The New York Times|access-date=May 14, 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=May 14, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514015958/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/02/us/politics/9-11-judge-guantanamo.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/khalid-sheikh-mohammed|title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=May 14, 2019|archive-date=May 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528083540/https://www.theguardian.com/world/khalid-sheikh-mohammed|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/feb/02/why-cant-we-get-this-over-911-hearings-drag-on-guantanamo|title='Why can't we get this over?': 9/11 hearings drag on at Guantánamo|last=Borger|first=Julian|date=February 2, 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=May 14, 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=May 13, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513011326/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/feb/02/why-cant-we-get-this-over-911-hearings-drag-on-guantanamo|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/08/30/755983643/trial-date-set-for-khalid-sheikh-mohammed-4-others-charged-in-9-11-attacks|work=NPR|access-date=August 30, 2019|last1=Romo|first1=Vanessa|last2=Pfeiffer|first2=Sasha|last3=Myre|first3=Greg|title=Trial Date Set For Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, 4 Others Charged In 9/11 Attacks|date=August 30, 2019|archive-date=August 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830202901/https://www.npr.org/2019/08/30/755983643/trial-date-set-for-khalid-sheikh-mohammed-4-others-charged-in-9-11-attacks|url-status=live}}</ref> but this date was postponed on 18 December 2020, due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name="autogeneratedmil"/> Mohammed's trial restarted on 7 September 2021.<ref name="straitstimes1"/> The trial has been delayed further into 2023, with more delays expected. It has been reported that the Biden Administration is considering a plea deal that would eliminate the death penalty.<ref name=":1" />

== Legal rulings affecting him ==
In ''[[Boumediene v. Bush]]'' (2008), the [[United States Supreme Court]] ruled that detainees had the right of access to US federal courts to petition under ''[[habeas corpus]]'' to challenge their detentions, and that the [[Detainee Treatment Act of 2005]] and the [[Military Commissions Act of 2006]] were flawed. A revised [[Military Commissions Act of 2009|Military Commissions Act]] was passed by Congress in 2009 to address court concerns.

Mohammed, in a letter submitted to the court on 26 July 2019, communicated the willingness to help the 9/11 attack victims and their families in their lawsuit against Saudi Arabia. The mastermind is said to have demanded the elimination of his death sentence in the exchange for his cooperation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/alleged-9-11-mastermind-open-to-helping-victims-lawsuit-if-he-isnt-executed-11564426390|title=Alleged 9/11 Mastermind Open to Helping Victims' Lawsuit if U.S. Spares Him Death Penalty|access-date=July 29, 2019|website=Wall Street Journal|date=July 29, 2019|archive-date=July 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729210949/https://www.wsj.com/articles/alleged-9-11-mastermind-open-to-helping-victims-lawsuit-if-he-isnt-executed-11564426390|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 16 August 2023, the Pentagon and the FBI told families of the victims of the 11 September terrorist attacks that none of the alleged organizers of the attacks would face the death penalty as part of ongoing plea agreement considerations.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kickmeyer |first1=Ellen |last2=Peltz |first2=Jennifer |title=Plea negotiations could mean no 9/11 defendants face the death penalty, the US tells families |url=https://apnews.com/article/guantanamo-911-defendants-76fab68b1faa1a7e1634b10951258710 |website=Associated Press |date=August 16, 2023 |access-date=17 August 2023}}</ref>

== Release of new images ==
On 9 September 2009, photographs of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and [[Ammar al Baluchi]] were published on the Internet and widely in US and international media.<ref name="photos">{{cite news|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/news/breaking-news/story/1224587.html |title=Guantánamo photos of accused 9/11 mastermind posted on Web |date=September 10, 2009 |author=Carol Rosenberg |newspaper=[[The Miami Herald]] |access-date=September 10, 2009 |author-link=Carol Rosenberg }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref name=NYTimesTheLede2009-09-09>
{{cite news
| url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/09/09/photographs-of-khalid-shaikh-mohammed-at-guantanamo-appear-online/?hp
| title=Photographs of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed at Guantánamo Appear Online
| date=September 9, 2009
| first=Robert| last=Mackey
| newspaper=The New York Times
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912081144/http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/09/09/photographs-of-khalid-shaikh-mohammed-at-guantanamo-appear-online/?hp
| archive-date=September 12, 2009
| url-status=live
| access-date=September 10, 2009
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8248355.stm
| title=Photos of '9/11 plotter' hit web
| date=September 10, 2009
| work=BBC News
| access-date=September 10, 2009
| archive-date=September 12, 2009
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912012202/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8248355.stm
| url-status=live
}}</ref> Camp authorities have strict controls over the taking and distribution of images of the Guantanamo captives. Journalists and [[VIP]]s visiting Guantanamo are not allowed to take any pictures that show the captives' faces. Journalists may see "[[high value detainees|high value]]" captives such as Khalid Sheikh Mohammed only when they are in the court room, where cameras are not allowed. But, on 9 September 2009, independent counter-terrorism researchers found new images of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and his nephew Ammar al Baluchi on "jihadist websites". According to [[Carol Rosenberg]], writing in ''[[The Miami Herald]]'': "The pictures were taken in July, said [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] spokesman Bernard Barrett, under an agreement with prison camp staff that lets Red Cross delegates photograph detainees and send photos to family members."<ref name="photos"/>

In November 2014, a Turkish manufacturer of over-the-counter [[Chemical depilatory|hair removal cream]] was found to be using an image of a disheveled Mohammed in adverts for their product.<ref name=Hurriyet2014-11-04/><ref name=NYDailyNews2014-11-05/>

==Manifesto==
In January 2014, a 36-page "nonviolence manifesto" written by KSM was declassified and released by the US government. The title is "Khalid Sheikh Mohammad's Statement to the Crusaders of the Military Commissions in Guantanamo."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.huffingtonpost.com/documents/1004897-khalid-sheikh-mohammads-statement |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140117135215/http://data.huffingtonpost.com/documents/1004897-khalid-sheikh-mohammads-statement |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 17, 2014 |title=The Huffington Post |publisher=Data.huffingtonpost.com |access-date=June 13, 2015 }}</ref> The document outlines 3 parts, but appears to be just the first section, describing "the path to happiness." The subject writes to his captors and appears interested in converting his wider audience to Islam. The notes contain eight books with three Western authors and penciled initials with the date 31 October 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://transparentpolicy.org/2014/01/ksm-releases-lengthy-nonviolence-manifesto/ |title=KSM Releases Lengthy 'Nonviolence' Manifesto, Shows Nothing Has Changed - TransparentPolicy.orgTransparentPolicy.org |publisher=Transparentpolicy.org |date=January 17, 2014 |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017040556/http://transparentpolicy.org/2014/01/ksm-releases-lengthy-nonviolence-manifesto/ |archive-date=October 17, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Khalid Sheikh Mohammad and Sulaiman Abu Ghaith==
Khalid Sheikh Mohammad has participated as a witness in the trials of two alleged al-Qaeda members, [[Zacarias Moussaoui]] and [[Salim Hamdan]]. ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' reporter Richard Serrano wrote:

"In 2006, his interrogation summaries were read aloud in the capital murder trial of Zacarias Moussaoui, the so-called 20th hijacker, and Moussaoui was spared the death penalty. Two years later, different Mohammed statements were read in a military commission trial, or tribunal, that led to the release from Guantanamo Bay of Osama bin Laden's chauffeur, Salim Hamdan."<ref name="articles.latimes.com">{{cite news |first=Richard A.|last=Serrano |url=https://articles.latimes.com/2014/feb/12/nation/la-na-ksm-witness-20140213 |title=Khalid Shaikh Mohammed offers to testify in New York federal trial|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=February 12, 2014 |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=February 22, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222234351/http://articles.latimes.com/2014/feb/12/nation/la-na-ksm-witness-20140213 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Stanly Cohen, an attorney for [[Sulaiman Abu Ghaith]], requested to interview Mohammad, who they described as "the most qualified person alive" to assist in Abu Gaith's defense. Mohammad, through his attorney David Nevin, agreed to be interviewed, but only "in the absence of government personnel whether physically present or by listening or recording remotely."<ref name="articles.latimes.com"/>

Mohammed instead drafted a 14-page statement response to 451 interrogatories submitted by Cohen.<ref>{{cite web|last=Klasfeld|first=Adam|title=KSM Would Have Been a Dud in al-Qaida Case|url=http://www.courthousenews.com/2014/04/22/67243.htm|publisher=Courthouse News Services|access-date=May 8, 2014|archive-date=May 8, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508224008/http://www.courthousenews.com/2014/04/22/67243.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In the response, Mohammad called Abu Ghaith, a "pious man" and "spellbinding speaker" who, to the best of his knowledge, did not play any military role in al-Qaeda operations and had no military training. Mohammed argued that Western foreign policy has been hypocritical in that it allowed for the rise of the Mujahideen in the Soviet War, but that Western media has since branded the Mujahideen "terrorists" or "foreign fighters". He further claimed that the Taliban's strict Islamic rule had restored security to Afghanistan in the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|last=Worthington|first=Andy|title=From Guantánamo, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's Declaration in the New York Trial of Sulaiman Abu Ghaith|url=http://www.andyworthington.co.uk/2014/03/18/from-guantanamo-khalid-sheikh-mohammeds-declaration-in-the-new-york-trial-of-sulaiman-abu-ghaith/|publisher=Author|access-date=May 8, 2014|archive-date=May 8, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508223533/http://www.andyworthington.co.uk/2014/03/18/from-guantanamo-khalid-sheikh-mohammeds-declaration-in-the-new-york-trial-of-sulaiman-abu-ghaith/|url-status=live}}</ref> U.S. District Judge [[Lewis A. Kaplan]] ruled that neither Mohammad's statement nor testimony were relevant to Abu Ghaith's trial, and thus inadmissible.<ref>{{cite news|last=Jakobsson|first=Lena|title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed won't testify at bin Laden relative's trial, judge rules|url=http://www.cnn.com/2014/03/18/us/osama-bin-laden-relative-trial/|publisher=CNN|access-date=May 8, 2014|archive-date=May 8, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508223052/http://www.cnn.com/2014/03/18/us/osama-bin-laden-relative-trial/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Mohammed is fluent in [[Baloch language|Balochi]], [[Urdu]], [[Arabic]], and [[English language|English]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Prisoners : Ghost: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed |url=http://old.cageprisoners.com/prisoners.php?id=1371 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309051526/http://old.cageprisoners.com/prisoners.php?id=1371 |archive-date=March 9, 2013 |access-date=February 23, 2012 |work=[[Cageprisoners]]}}</ref> He has two sons, aged seven and eight at the time of his arrest in 2002.<ref name=":2" />

==See also==
* [[Shaker Aamer]]
* [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=

<ref name=Hurriyet2014-11-04>{{cite news
|url = http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/Default.aspx?NewsCatID=341&nID=73868&pageID=238
|title = Al-Qaeda mastermind featured for 'hairs, not terrorism' in cosmetic ad: Turkish company
|newspaper = [[Hurriyet Daily News]]
|date = November 4, 2014
|location = [[Istanbul]]
|access-date = November 24, 2014
|quote = Yıldız said the company had discovered the image on İnci Sözlük, a Turkish online social community website that can be described as Turkey's answer to 4chan.org. "Several popular caps [humorously captioned images] were produced with his photo. Most were related to insomnia," he added.
|archive-date = November 23, 2014
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141123180738/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/Default.aspx?pageID=238&nID=73868&NewsCatID=341
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

<ref name=NYDailyNews2014-11-05>{{cite news
|url = http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/al-qaida-leader-turkish-hair-removal-ad-article-1.1999838
|title = Former Al Qaeda leader used in Turkish hair-removal spray ad
|newspaper = [[New York Daily News]]
|date = November 5, 2014
|access-date = November 24, 2014
|quote = Turkey-based Epila featured a picture in its ad of the infamous former Al Qaeda leader Khalid Sheikh Mohammed shortly after he was captured in 2003 — and the best part is that a spokesman for the cosmetics company said in a statement, "We didn't know that he was a terrorist."
|archive-date = December 7, 2014
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141207052137/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/al-qaida-leader-turkish-hair-removal-ad-article-1.1999838
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

}}{{CIAPrisons}}
{{HighValue}}
{{Al-Qaeda}}
{{AmericanTerrorism|state=collapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mohammed, Khalid Sheikh}}
[[Category:1960s births]]
[[Category:Al-Qaeda leaders]]
[[Category:Chowan University alumni]]
[[Category:Detainees of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp]]
[[Category:FBI Most Wanted Terrorists]]
[[Category:Interrogations]]
[[Category:Islamist mass murderers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:North Carolina A&T State University alumni]]
[[Category:Pakistani al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Pakistani engineers]]
[[Category:Pakistani exiles]]
[[Category:Pakistani extrajudicial prisoners of the United States]]
[[Category:Pakistani mass murderers]]
[[Category:Pakistani Muslims]]
[[Category:People associated with the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People subject to extraordinary rendition by the United States]]
[[Category:University of the Punjab alumni]]

Nawaf al-Hazmi

2023-09-12T22:37:35Z

78.157.120.208: Date format set to DMY

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Nawaf al-Hazmi
| native_name = نواف الحازمي
| image = Nawaf al-Hazmi.jpg
| image_size =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1976|8|9}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/SD00405.html |title=United States v. Zacarias Moussaoui, trial exhibit #SD00405 |access-date=2006-12-14 |archive-date=2018-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202052858/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/SD00405.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Mecca]], Saudi Arabia
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1976|8|9|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Arlington County, Virginia]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[American Airlines Flight 77|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]]
| relatives = [[Salem al-Hazmi]] (brother)
}}
'''Nawaf Muhammed Salin al-Hazmi''' ({{lang-ar|نواف الحازمي|translit=Nawāf al-Ḥāzmī}})<ref name="fifty">''[[9/11 Commission Report]]'', [[9/11 Commission]], p. 166</ref> (9 August 1976 – 11 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker. He was one of five [[Organizers of the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] of [[American Airlines Flight 77]], which they crashed into the [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]].

Al-Hazmi and a long-time friend, [[Khalid al-Mihdhar]], left their homes in Saudi Arabia in 1995 to fight for Muslims in the [[Bosnian War]]. Al-Hazmi later traveled to [[Afghanistan]] to fight with the [[Taliban]] against the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]]. He returned to Saudi Arabia in early 1999.

Already long-time affiliates of [[al-Qaeda]] with extensive fighting experience, al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar were chosen by [[Osama bin Laden]] for an ambitious terrorist plot to pilot commercial airliners into designated targets in the United States. Al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar both obtained [[B-1/B-2 Visa|US tourist visas]] in April 1999. Al-Hazmi trained in an al-Qaeda training camp in the fall of 1999 and traveled to [[Malaysia]] for the [[Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit|2000 Al-Qaeda Summit]].

Al-Hazmi arrived in [[Los Angeles]], California, from [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]], on 15 January 2000, alongside al-Mihdhar. The two settled in [[San Diego]], staying at the Parkwood Apartments until May 2000. While in San Diego, they attended its mosque, led by [[Anwar al-Awlaki]]. The two took flying lessons in San Diego, but due to their poor English skills they did not perform well during their flight lessons and their flight instructor regarded them as suspicious.

Al-Mihdhar left al-Hazmi in California for Yemen in June 2000. Al-Hazmi stayed in California until he met up with [[Hani Hanjour]] in December 2000, and they both traveled to [[Phoenix, Arizona]]. They later moved to [[Falls Church, Virginia]], in April 2001, where the rest of the hijackers began to join them. Al-Hazmi met frequently with [[Mohamed Atta]], the ringleader of the attacks, during the summer of 2001.

The [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] reportedly received al-Hazmi's name on a list of 19 persons suspected of planning an attack in the near future. Al-Hazmi was one of the four names on the list who were known for certain. A search for al-Hazmi and other suspected terrorists commenced, but they were not located until after the attacks.

On 10 September 2001, al-Hazmi, al-Mihdhar, and Hanjour checked into a hotel in [[Herndon, Virginia]]. The next morning, al-Hazmi and four other terrorists, including al-Hazmi's younger brother, [[Salem al-Hazmi]], boarded [[American Airlines Flight 77]] at [[Dulles International Airport]] and hijacked the plane so that Hanjour could pilot and crash the plane into the Pentagon as part of the 11 September attacks. The crash killed all 64 passengers aboard the aircraft and 125 in the Pentagon. Following the attacks, al-Hazmi's participation was initially dismissed as that of a "muscle hijacker", but he was later revealed to have played a larger role in the operational planning than previously believed.<ref name="lats">[http://articles.latimes.com/2002/sep/27/nation/na-intel27 "Document links al Qaeda paymaster, 9/11 plotter"], ''[[Los Angeles Times]],'' 27 September 2002</ref>

==Early life and activities==
{{Disputed|date=February 2011}}

Nawaf al-Hazmi was born in [[Mecca]] in [[Saudi Arabia]] to Muhammad Salim al-Hazmi, a grocer. He traveled to [[Afghanistan]] as a teenager in 1993. [[CNN]]'s preliminary report following the attacks claimed that an unnamed acquaintance relayed '"He told me once that his father had tried to kill him when he was a child. He never told me why, but he had a long knife scar on his forearm", and claimed that his older brother was a police chief in [[Jizan]].

In 1995, he and his childhood friend, [[Khalid al-Mihdhar]], joined a group that went to fight alongside Bosnian Muslims in the [[Bosnian War]].<ref name="911-ch5">{{cite book |title=''9/11 Commission Report'' |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm |chapter=Chapter 5.2 – The "Planes Operation" |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=September 30, 2008}}</ref> Afterwards, Nawaf al-Hazmi returned to Afghanistan along with his brother Salem, and al-Mihdhar. In Afghanistan, they fought alongside the [[Taliban]] against the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]], and joined up with [[al-Qaeda]]. Al-Hazmi returned to Saudi Arabia in early 1999.<ref name="Atkins2011">{{cite book|author=Stephen E Atkins|title=The 9/11 Encyclopedia: Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PDDIgWRN_HQC|date=2 June 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-921-9}}</ref>

==Selected for the 9/11 plot==
[[Osama bin Laden]] held al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar in high respect, with their experience fighting during the 1990s in Bosnia and elsewhere. Al-Qaeda later referred to al-Hazmi as al-Mihdhar's "Second-in-command".<ref name="willalOmari">Videotape of recorded will of Abdulaziz al-Omari and others</ref> When bin Laden committed to the "planes operation" plot in spring 1999, he personally selected al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar to be involved in the plot as pilot hijackers. In addition to al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar, two Yemenis were selected for a southeast Asia component of the plot, which was later scrapped for being too difficult to coordinate with the operations in the United States. Known as ''Rabi'ah al-Makki'' during the preparations,<ref name="willalOmari"/> al-Hazmi had been so eager to participate in operations within the [[United States]], he already had a US visa when bin Laden selected him.<ref name="911-ch5"/> Al-Hazmi obtained a [[B-1/B-2 Visa|B-1/B-2 tourist visa]] on 3 April 1999, from the US consulate in [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]], using a new passport he acquired a few weeks earlier. Al-Hazmi's passport did have indicators of [[al-Qaeda]] association, but immigration inspectors were not trained to look for those.<ref name="travel">{{cite web |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |title=9/11 and Terrorist Travel |work=Staff Report |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |year=2004 |access-date=September 26, 2008}}</ref>

In the autumn of 1999, these four attended the [[Mes Aynak]] training camp in [[Afghanistan]], which provided advanced training. Al-Hazmi went with the two Yemenis, [[Tawfiq bin Attash]] (Khallad) and [[Abu Bara al Yemeni]], to [[Karachi, Pakistan]], where [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], the plot's coordinator, instructed him on western culture, travel, as well as taught some basic English phrases. Al-Mihdhar did not go with him to Karachi, but instead left for Yemen. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed then sent al-Hazmi and the other men to Malaysia for a meeting. Before leaving for Malaysia, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed doctored al-Hazmi's Saudi passport in order to conceal his travel to Pakistan and Afghanistan, and make it appear that al-Hazmi had come to Malaysia from Saudi Arabia via [[Dubai]].<ref name="911-ch5"/>

After the attacks, the [[Associated Press]] would re-publish a "bizarre" story by the ''[[Cody Enterprise]]'' that quoted witnesses stating that al-Hazmi entered the United States during the autumn of 1999, crossing along the Canada–US border as one of two men delivering skylights to the local [[High school (North America)|high school]] in [[Cody, Wyoming]]. Leaving the city 45 minutes later with the remaining cardboard boxes, the men allegedly asked "how to get to [[Florida]]".<ref name="hotel"/><ref>[http://s3.amazonaws.com/911timeline/2001/ap102301.html One Sept. 11 Terrorist in Cody Two Years Ago], The Associated Press, October 23, 2001</ref>

===Malaysia summit===
{{Main|Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit}}
Based on information uncovered by the FBI in the [[1998 United States embassy bombings]] case, the [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) began tracking the communications of al-Mihdhar's father-in-law, Ahmad Muhammad Ali al-Hada, who was facilitating al-Qaeda communications, in 1999. Authorities also became aware of al-Hazmi, as a friend and associate of al-Mihdhar. Saudi Intelligence was also aware that Hazmi was associated with al-Qaeda, and associated with the 1998 African embassy bombings and attempts to smuggle arms into the kingdom in 1997. He also said that he revealed this to the CIA, saying "What we told them was these people were on our watch list from previous activities of al-Qaeda" The CIA strongly denies having received any such warning.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2003/10/18/saudis/index_np.html |title=Did the Saudis Know About 9/11? |work=Salon.com |date=October 18, 2003 |access-date=September 30, 2008}}</ref>

{{quote box |quote='[W]e've got to tell the Bureau about this. These guys clearly are bad. One of them, at least, has a multiple-entry visa to the U.S. We've got to tell the FBI.' And then [the CIA officer] said to me, 'No, it's not the FBI's case, not the FBI's jurisdiction.' |author=[[Mark Rossini]], "The Spy Factory"<ref name=rossini1>{{cite news | url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/military/spy-factory.html | title=The Spy Factory | publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] | author=Bamford, James | author-link=James Bamford | author2=Willis, Scott | date=February 3, 2009 | access-date=July 2, 2013}}</ref>}}

In late 1999, the NSA informed the CIA of an upcoming meeting in [[Malaysia]], which al-Hada mentioned would involve "Khalid", "Nawaf", and "Salem".<ref name="soufan">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/07/10/060710fa_fact_wright?currentPage=all |author=Wright, Lawrence |title=Did the CIA Stop an FBI Detective from Preventing 9/11 |date=July 10, 2006 |magazine=The New Yorker |access-date=September 30, 2008}}</ref> On January 5, al-Hazmi arrived in [[Kuala Lumpur]], where he met up with al-Mihdhar, bin Attash, and Abu Bara. The group was in Malaysia to meet with [[Hambali]] for the [[2000 Al Qaeda Summit]], during which key details of the attacks may have been arranged. At this time, there was an East Asia component to the September 11 attacks plot, but bin Laden later canceled it for being too difficult to coordinate with operations in the United States.<ref name="911-ch5"/> [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] was also at the summit, and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed possibly attended the summit.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/knew/could/ |title=The Man Who Knew – What If...|work=Frontline |publisher=PBS |access-date=September 29, 2008}}</ref><ref name="fouda">{{cite book |author=Fouda, Yosri and Nick Fielding |title=Masterminds of Terror |publisher=Arcade Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=1-55970-708-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mastermindsofter00fawd/page/129 129–130] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/mastermindsofter00fawd/page/129 }}</ref> In Malaysia, the group stayed with [[Yazid Sufaat]], a local member of [[Jemaah Islamiyah]], who provided accommodations at request of Hambali.<ref name="911-ch5"/> Both al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi were secretly photographed at the meeting by Malaysian authorities, who provided surveillance at the request of the CIA. Malaysian authorities reported that al-Mihdhar spoke at length with [[Tawfiq bin Attash]], one of the Yemenis, and others who were later involved in the [[USS Cole bombing]].<ref name="soufan"/> Al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar also met with [[Fahd al-Quso]], who was later involved in the USS Cole bombing.<ref name="fouda"/> After the meeting, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi traveled to [[Bangkok]] in [[Thailand]] on 8 January, and left a week later on 15 January to travel to the United States.<ref name="timeline"/>

==In the United States==

===Enters the United States with Mihdhar===
[[Image:Parkwood apts.jpg|thumb|right|Between February and May 2000, Mihdhar and Nawaf al-Hazmi lived at the Parkwood Apartments complex in [[Clairemont, San Diego, California|Clairemont Mesa]], [[San Diego]].]]
On 15 January 2000, al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar arrived together at [[Los Angeles International Airport]] from Bangkok, and were admitted for a six-month period.<ref name="travel"/> Immediately after entering the country, al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar met [[Omar al-Bayoumi]] in an airport restaurant. Al-Bayoumi claims he was merely being charitable in helping the two seemingly out-of-place Muslims to move to [[San Diego]] where he helped them find an apartment near his own, co-signed their lease, and gave them $1,500 to help pay their rent.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/66665 |title=The Saudi Money Trail |date=December 2, 2002 |author=Iskioff, Michael and Evan Thomas |magazine=Newsweek}}</ref> FBI documents declassified in 2022 demonstrate that al-Bayoumi was an agent of Saudi intelligence, with the FBI concluding that there was a "50/50 chance" that he (and thus the Saudi government) had foreknowledge of the attacks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://eu.northjersey.com/story/news/columnists/mike-kelly/2022/03/13/sept-11-fbi-links-saudi-arabia-spy-attacks/9442454002/|title="Exclusive: New FBI documents link Saudi spy in California to 9/11 attacks - Mike Kelly"}}</ref>

In the beginning of February 2000, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi rented an apartment at the Parkwood Apartments, a 175-unit complex in the [[Clairemont, San Diego, California|Clairemont Mesa]] section of San Diego, near the Balboa Drive Mosque. In February, al-Mihdhar purchased a used 1988 [[Toyota Corolla]].<ref name="timeline">{{cite web |url=http://www.911myths.com/index.php/Image:Hijackers_Timeline_OCR.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=9/11 Myths |date=February 4, 2008 |access-date=August 1, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080803015816/http://www.911myths.com/index.php/Image%3AHijackers_Timeline_OCR.pdf |archive-date=August 3, 2008 }}</ref> While living at the Parkwood Apartments, neighbors thought that al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi were odd. Months passed without them getting any furniture for the apartment. Instead, the men slept on mattresses on the floor, yet they carried briefcases, were frequently on their mobile phones, and were occasionally picked up by a limousine.<ref name="inside911">{{cite book |title=Inside 9-11 |author=Aust, Stefan and Der Spiegel |publisher=MacMillan |year=2002 |pages=17–18}}</ref> After the attacks, their neighbors told the media that the pair constantly played flight simulator games.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101010924/wplot.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010916122249/http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101010924/wplot.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 16, 2001 |title=The New Breed of Terrorist |author=McGeary, Johanna and David Van Biema |magazine=TIME Magazine |date=September 24, 2001}}</ref> Authorities say the two regularly attended the Masjid Ar-Ribat al-Islami mosque that [[Anwar Al-Awlaki]] led as the imam in San Diego, having many closed-door meetings with the imam,<ref name="Eckert" /> although Al-Awlaki told authorities their conversations were trivial in nature.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB529-Anwar-al-Awlaki-File/documents/5c)%20FBI%20302%20from%20Sept.%2019,%202001%20interview%20with%20Awlaki%20and%20lawyer.pdf |title=FBI Interview Transcript with Anwar Al-Awlaki |last=Federal Bureau of Investigation |date=September 21, 2001 |website= |publisher=National Security Archive |access-date=September 6, 2022 |quote=he could not remember any specific conversation with AL-HAZMI, most of them were usually trivial in nature.}}></ref> While in San Diego, witnesses told the FBI he and al-Mindhar had a close relationship with [[Anwar Al-Awlaki]].<ref name="Eckert">{{cite news |url=http://legacy.utsandiego.com/news/nation/terror/20030911-9999_1n11terror.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130627191831/http://legacy.utsandiego.com/news/nation/terror/20030911-9999_1n11terror.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 27, 2013 |last1=Eckert |first1=Toby |last2=Stern |first2=Marcus |title=9/11 investigators baffled FBI cleared 3 ex-San Diegans |work=San Diego Union-Tribune |date=September 11, 2003 |access-date=August 3, 2015 }}</ref> Al-Hazmi got a part-time job through the mosque at a nearby car wash.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-483004.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924194929/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-483004.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |last1=Goldstein |first1=Amy |last2=Booth |first2=William |title=Hijackers Found Welcome Mat on West Coast; San Diego Islamic Community Unwittingly Aided 2 Who Crashed Into Pentagon |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |date=December 29, 2001 |access-date=August 3, 2015 |via=[[HighBeam]]|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
[[File:Anwar al-Awlaki sitting on couch, lightened.jpg|left|thumb|[[Anwar al-Awlaki]] in [[Yemen]], 2008]]

On 4 April 2000, al-Hazmi took a one-hour introductory flight lesson at the National Air College in San Diego. Both al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi took flight lessons in May 2000 at the Sorbi Flying Club, located at Montgomery Field in San Diego. On 5 May, al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar took a lesson for one hour, and additional lessons on 10 May at the Sorbi Flying Club, with al-Hazmi flying an aircraft for 30 minutes.<ref name="timeline"/> However, their English skills were very poor, and they did not do well with flight lessons.<ref name="inside911"/> The first day that they showed up, they told instructors that they wanted to learn how to fly Boeings.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.10news.com/news/964031/detail.html |title=San Diego Man Arrested For Funding Hijackers |publisher=10 News (San Diego) |date=September 18, 2001 |access-date=October 2, 2008}}</ref> Al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi raised some suspicion when they offered extra money to their flight instructor, Richard Garza, if he would train them to fly jets. Suspicious of the two men, Garza refused the offer but did not report them to authorities.<ref name="inside911"/> Garza described the two men as "impatient students" who "wanted to learn to fly jets, specifically Boeings."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/07/terrorism.afghanistan3 |title=Saudi hijacker 'was key link to bin Laden' |newspaper=The Observer |author=Helmore, Edward and Ed Vulliamy |date=October 7, 2001 |location=London}}</ref>

Adel Rafeea received a [[wire transfer]] of $5,000, on 18 April, from [[Ali Abdul Aziz Ali (Guantanamo captive 10018)|Ali Abdul Aziz Ali]] in the [[UAE]], which he later claimed was money al-Hazmi had asked him to accept on his behalf.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |title=Statement for The Record FBI Director Robert S. Mueller III Joint Intelligence Committee Inquiry |publisher=Federation of American Scientists (FAS) |date=September 26, 2002 |access-date=October 2, 2008}}</ref>

At the end of May 2000, al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar moved out of Parkwood Apartments, and moved to nearby [[Lemon Grove, California]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} At this time, al-Mihdhar transferred his vehicle's registration to al-Hazmi,{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} and he left San Diego on 10 June 2000. Al-Mihdhar returned to Yemen, which angered Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who did not want al-Hazmi to be left alone in California.

On 12 July 2000, al-Hazmi filed for an extension of his visa, which was due to expire. His visa was extended until January 2001, though al-Hazmi never filed any further requests to extend it beyond that.<ref name="travel" />

In September, al-Hamzi and al-Mihdhar both moved into the house of [[FBI]] [[informant]] [[Abdussattar Shaikh]], although he did not report the pair as suspicious.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nctimes.com/articles/2003/07/25/news/top_stories/7_25_035_34_23.txt |title=Report: San Diego represented best chance to foil Sept. 11 plot : North County Times – Californian |publisher=Nctimes.com |date=July 25, 2003|access-date=October 28, 2008}}</ref> Al-Mihdhar is believed to have left the apartment in early October, less than two weeks before the [[USS Cole Bombing]]. Al-Hazmi continued living with Shaikh until December.

[[Hani Hanjour]] arrived in San Diego in early December 2000, where he joined al-Hazmi, but on December 10 they were seen leaving their Mount Vernon address. The two men traveled to [[Phoenix, Arizona]], where Hanjour could take refresher flight training classes. On 12 December, they arrived at [[Mesa, Arizona]]. On 22 December, Hanjour and al-Hazmi signed a lease for an apartment in the Indian Springs Village complex in Mesa, moving in on 9 January.<ref name="timeline"/>

===2001===

In March, al-Hazmi received a shipment of VHS videos including videos about Boeing 747 and 777 flight decks and "how an airline captain should look and act" and later a road atlas, map of New York City and a World aeronautical chart.

On 30 March, al-Hazmi notified his utility company that he might be moving to another state or Saudi Arabia. He and Hanjour moved out before the apartment rental expired at the end of the month on their way to Virginia. Two days later on 1 April 2001, [[Oklahoma]] police officer C. L. Parkins pulled al-Hazmi over for [[speeding]] in their Corolla along with an additional citation for failing to use a seatbelt together totaling $138. A routine inspection of his California [[drivers license]] turned up no warrants or alerts, although his name was known to both the NSA and the CIA as a suspected terrorist.<ref name="badintel">{{cite web|author=AlterNet / By |url=http://www.alternet.org/story/68268/ |title=Bad Intelligence: America's History of Bungled Spying |publisher=Alternet.org |date=2007-11-19 |access-date=2012-01-06}}</ref>

Anwar al-Awlaki had already headed east and served as Imam at the [[Dar al-Hijrah]] [[mosque]] in the [[Washington Metropolitan Area|metropolitan Washington, DC area]] starting in January 2001.<ref>[http://www.cageprisoners.com/campaigns.php?id=412 Imam Anwar Al Awlaki – A Leader in Need] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402074940/http://www.cageprisoners.com/campaigns.php?id=412 |date=2007-04-02 }}; Cageprisoners.com, November 8, 2006, accessed June 7, 2007</ref> Shortly after this, his sermons were attended by three of the 9/11 hijackers (the new one being Hanjour).<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/6521758/Fort-Hood-shooting-Texas-army-killer-linked-to-September-11-terrorists.html Sherwell, Philip, and Spillius, Alex, "Fort Hood shooting: Texas army killer linked to September 11 terrorists; Major Nidal Malik Hasan worshiped at a mosque led by a radical imam said to be a "spiritual adviser" to three of the hijackers who attacked America on Sept 11, 2001,"] ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'', November 7, 2009, accessed November 12, 2009</ref><ref name="cha ">{{cite news|url=http://legacy.signonsandiego.com/news/nation/terror/20030725-9999_1n25report.html|last=Thornton|first=Kelly|date=July 25, 2003|title=Chance to Foil 9/11 Plot Lost Here, Report Finds|newspaper=[[San Diego Union Tribune]]|access-date=May 10, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224023651/http://legacy.signonsandiego.com/news/nation/terror/20030725-9999_1n25report.html|archive-date=February 24, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

By 3 April, he was likely with companion Hani Hanjour when he was recorded at an ATM in [[Front Royal, Virginia]], arriving in [[Falls Church, Virginia]], by April 4. They met a man believed to be a Jordanian named Eyad Alrababah at a 7-11 that day. The [[9/11 Commission]] wrote that al-Hazmi and Hanjour met Alrababah at the Dar al Hijra mosque who was computer technician who had moved from West Paterson, New Jersey and was there to ask imam Anwar al-Awlaki about finding a job. He helped the pair rent an apartment in Alexandria where they moved in.<ref>{{cite web |author=Spencer Ackerman |url=http://washingtonindependent.com/81582/are-anwar-al-awlakis-ties-to-911-strong-enough-for-the-government-to-kill-him |title=Are Anwar al-Awlaki's Ties to 9/11 Strong Enough for the Government to Kill Him? By Spencer Ackerman | 04.07.10 |publisher=Washingtonindependent.com |date=2010-04-07 |access-date=2012-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131222105906/https://washingtonindependent.com/81582/are-anwar-al-awlakis-ties-to-911-strong-enough-for-the-government-to-kill-him |archive-date=2013-12-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The 9/11 Commission concluded that two of the hijackers "reportedly respected al-Awlaki as a religious figure".<ref name=rec>{{cite news|url=http://www.kansascity.com/451/story/1585957.html |title=Is imam a terror recruiter or just an incendiary preacher? |last=Allam |first=Hannah |date=November 22, 2009 |work=[[Kansas City Star]] |access-date=November 23, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091124003856/http://www.kansascity.com/451/story/1585957.html |archive-date=November 24, 2009 }}</ref> Police found his telephone number in the contacts of [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] (the "20th hijacker") when they searched his Hamburg apartment while investigating the 9/11 attacks.<ref name="wanted">{{cite web|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/u-s-imam-wanted-in-yemen-over-al-qaeda-suspicions-1.453376 |title=U.S. imam wanted in Yemen over al Qaeda suspicions |last1=Al-Haj|first1=Ahmed |last2=Abu-Nasr |first2=Donna |agency=Associated Press |date=November 11, 2009 |access-date=August 3, 2015}}</ref><ref name="inf">{{cite news| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw1mHo6zjKwC&q=aulaqi&pg=PT351|last=Sperry |first=Paul E. |year=2005|title= Infiltration: how Muslim spies and subversives have penetrated Washington|work= Thomas Nelson Inc.| isbn= 9781595550033|access-date= December 1, 2009}}</ref>

On 1 May 2001, al-Hazmi reported to police that a men tried to take his wallet outside his [[Fairfax, Virginia]], residence, but before the county officer left, al-Hazmi signed a "statement of release" indicating he did not want the incident investigated.

On 2 May, two other hijackers, [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]] and [[Majed Moqed]], arrived in Virginia and moved in with them.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/13120483/FBI-Summary-about-Alleged-Flight-77-Hijacker-Majed-Moqed |title=Scribd.com |publisher=Scribd.com |access-date=2012-01-06}}</ref> On 8 May, Alrababah suggested that al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar move with him to Fairfield, Connecticut, and helped all four hijackers move to a hotel there. They called area flight schools and after a few days Alrababah drove the four to Paterson, New Jersey, to show them around. Some FBI agents suspected that al-Awlaki gave Alrababah the job of helping al-Hazmi and Hanjour. Alrababah was later arrested as a witness convicted after 9/11 in a fraudulent driver's license scheme and deported to Jordan.

On 21 May, al-Hazmi moved in with Hanjour into an apartment in Paterson New Jersey. Mohamed Atta was living in the same city at another location.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/13120414/-FBI-Summary-about-Alleged-Flight-77-Hijacker-Hani-Hanjour |title=FBI Summary Hani Hanjour |publisher=Scribd.com |access-date=2012-01-06}}</ref>

On 30 June, al-Hazmi's car was involved in a minor traffic accident on the east-bound [[George Washington Bridge]].<ref name="badintel"/> On 25 June 2001, al-Hazmi obtained a drivers' license in [[Florida]], providing an address in [[Delray Beach, Florida]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sptimes.com/News/091601/State/Hijackers_got_state_I.shtml |author=Bousquet, Steve |title=Hijackers got state IDs legally |newspaper=St. Petersburg Times |date=September 16, 2001 |access-date=October 2, 2008}}</ref> and he obtained a USA ID card on 10 July. On 2 August, al-Hazmi also obtained a Virginia drivers' license, and made a request for it to be reissued on 7 September.<ref name="travel"/>

On 20 July, al-Hazmi and fellow hijacker [[Hani Hanjour]] flew to the [[Montgomery County Airpark]] in Maryland from on a practice flight from [[Fairfield Township, Essex County, New Jersey|Fairfield, New Jersey]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycommons.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&the_alleged_9%2F11_hijackers=haniHanjour|title=Complete 911 Timeline: Hani Hanjour|work=History Commons|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830015453/http://www.historycommons.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&the_alleged_9%2F11_hijackers=haniHanjour|archive-date=2017-08-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf|title=Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|date=2004|page=242|access-date=October 1, 2017}}</ref>

Al-Hazmi, along with at least five other future hijackers, traveled to [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]], at least six times in the summer of 2001. They reportedly drank alcohol, gambled, and paid strippers to perform lap dances for them.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2001/10/04/MN102970.DTL |title=Agents of terror leave their mark on Sin City / Las Vegas workers recall the men they can't forget |publisher=Sfgate.com |author=Kevin Fagan, Chronicle Staff Writer |date=October 4, 2001 |access-date=October 28, 2008}}</ref>

Throughout the summer, al-Hazmi met with leader [[Mohamed Atta]] to discuss the status of the operation of a monthly basis.<ref name="lats"/>

On 23 August, [[Israel]]i [[Mossad]] reportedly gave his name to the [[CIA]] as part of a list of 19 names they said were planning an attack in the near future. Only four of the names are known for certain – Al-Hazmi, Atta, al-Shehri and al-Mihdhar, but again, the connection was not made with previous contacts by local law enforcement.<ref name="failures">[[BBC]], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/europe/2294487.stm Report details US intelligence failures], October 2, 2002</ref> On the same day, he was added to an [[Immigration and Naturalization Service|INS]] watch list, together with al-Mihdhar to prevent entry into the US.

An internal review after 9/11 found that "everything was done [to find them] that could have been done." However, the search does not appear to have been particularly aggressive. A national motor vehicle index was reportedly checked, but al-Hazmi's speeding ticket was not detected for some reason. The FBI did not search credit card databases, bank account databases, or car registration, all of which would have produced positive results. Al-Hazmi was even listed in the 2000–2001 San Diego phone book, but this too was not searched until after the attacks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sfl-worldtrade-suspectprofiles.story |title= Multiple identities of hijack suspects confound FBI: South Florida Sun-Sentinel|website=www.sun-sentinel.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050310010142/http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sfl-worldtrade-suspectprofiles.story |archive-date=March 10, 2005}}</ref>
He had not been placed on terrorist watch lists, nor did the CIA or NSA alert the FBI, Customs and Immigration, or local police and enforcement agencies.<ref name="badintel"/>

On 27 August, brothers Nawaf and Salem Al-Hazmi purchased flight tickets through [[Travelocity]].com using Nawaf's [[Visa Inc.|Visa]] card.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |title=Statement of Robert S. Mueller: Joint Investigation Into September 11: (published September 26, 2002) |publisher=Fas.org |access-date=October 28, 2008}}</ref>

On 1 September, Nawaf Al-Hazmi registered Room #7 at the Pin-Del Motel in [[Laurel, Maryland]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2002/sep/10/20020910-085104-1364r/|title=Killers in the Cockpit: Who and Why?|access-date=March 20, 2017|newspaper=The Washington Times|date=September 10, 2002}}</ref> On the registration, he listed his driver's license number as 3402142-D, and gave a New York hotel as his permanent residence. [[Ziad Jarrah]] had checked into the hotel on 27 August.<ref>[http://www.newsday.com/ny-usprob212376908sep21.story] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041204231418/http://www.newsday.com/ny-usprob212376908sep21.story|date=December 4, 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/timeline.html |title=CBC the fifth estate – The Pilot – Timeline |publisher=Cbc.ca |access-date=October 28, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608225146/http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/timeline.html |archive-date=June 8, 2008 }}</ref>

Al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar purchased their 9/11 plane tickets online using a credit card with their real names. This raised no red flags, since the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] had not been informed that the two were on a terrorist watchlist.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.webcom.com/hrin/magazine/la-watchlist.html |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011125191717/http://www.webcom.com/hrin/magazine/la-watchlist.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 25, 2001 |title='Watch List' Didn't Get to Airline |publisher=Webcom.com |access-date=October 28, 2008 }}</ref>

==Attacks==
{{Main|American Airlines Flight 77}}
[[File:Nawaf and Salem airport.gif|thumb|Nawaf and [[Salem al-Hazmi|Salem]] at [[Dulles International Airport]] on 11 September 2001]]
On 10 September 2001, the day before the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]], [[Hani Hanjour|Hanjour]], [[Khalid al-Mihdhar|al-Mihdhar]], and al-Hazmi checked into the [[Marriott International|Marriott Residence Inn]] in [[Herndon, Virginia]], where [[Saleh Ibn Abdul Rahman Hussayen]], a prominent Saudi government official, was staying – although no evidence was ever uncovered that they had met, or knew of each other's presence.<ref>{{cite news |last= Schmidt |first= Susan |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A31402-2003Oct1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516094503/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A31402-2003Oct1|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 16, 2008|title=Spreading Saudi Fundamentalism in U.S.: Network of Wahhabi Mosques, Schools, Web Sites Probed by FBI|publisher=Washington Post, Page A01|date=October 2, 2003 |access-date=December 23, 2009}}</ref>

On 11 September, al-Hazmi boarded American Airlines Flight 77. The flight was scheduled to depart at 08:10 but ended up departing 10 minutes late from Gate D26 at Dulles.<ref name="four">{{cite web |url=https://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |title=Staff Monograph on the "Four Flights and Civil Aviation Security" |date=September 2005 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=August 14, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306021319/http://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |archive-date=March 6, 2008 }}</ref> The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to [[air traffic control]] occurred at 08:50:51.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gregor |first=Joseph A. |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/foia/9_11/ATC_Report_AA77.pdf|title=ATC Report American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=December 21, 2001 |access-date=August 13, 2011}}</ref> At 08:54, the hijackers sent pilots Charles Burlingame and David Charlesbois to the back of the plane. Flight 77 began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south.<ref name="911-ch1"/> The hijackers then set the flight's [[autopilot]] in the direction of Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/autopilot_AA77_UA93_study.pdf |title=Study of Autopilot, Navigation Equipment, and Fuel Consumption Activity Based on United Airlines Flight 93 and American Airlines Flight 77 Digital Flight Data Recorder Information |last=O'Callaghan |first=John |author2=Bower, Daniel |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=February 13, 2002 |access-date=June 1, 2008}}</ref> Passenger [[Barbara Olson]] called her husband, [[United States Solicitor General]] [[Theodore Olson]], and reported that the plane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives.<ref name="911-ch1">{{cite book |title=''9/11 Commission Report'' |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch1.htm |chapter=Chapter 1.1 – "We Have Some Planes", Inside the Four Flights |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |year=2004 |access-date=September 30, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Johnson |first=Glen |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |title=Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes |work=The Boston Globe |date=November 23, 2001 |access-date=June 1, 2008}}</ref> At 09:37, American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the west facade of [[the Pentagon]], killing all 64 aboard (including the hijackers) along with 125 in the Pentagon.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |title=American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=January 31, 2002 |access-date=June 2, 2008 |archive-date=September 26, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220623/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Aftermath==
Nawaf al-Hazmi's 1988 blue [[Toyota Corolla]] was found on the next day in Dulles International Airport's hourly parking lot. Inside the vehicle, authorities found a letter written by [[Mohamed Atta]], maps of [[Washington, D.C.]] and [[New York City]], a cashier's check made out to a Phoenix flight school, four drawings of a Boeing 757 cockpit, a [[box cutter]], and a page with notes and phone numbers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Authorities' Dragnet Snags More Suspects |author=Lichtblau, Eric |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=September 27, 2001}}</ref>

In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any [[DNA]] samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI. Forensics teams confirmed that it seemed two of the hijackers were brothers, based on their DNA similarities.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |title=Remains Of 9 Sept. 11 Hijackers Held |date=August 17, 2002 |work=CBS News |access-date=September 30, 2008 |archive-date=September 30, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930021707/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div831/strbase/pub_pres/Edson2004.pdf |title=Naming the Dead – Confronting the Realities of Rapid Identification of Degraded Skeletal Remains |author=Edson, S.M. |journal=Forensic Science Review |volume=16 |date=January 2004 |access-date=September 30, 2008 |issue=1 |pages=63–90 |pmid=26256813 |display-authors=etal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060720223532/http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div831/strbase/pub_pres/Edson2004.pdf |archive-date=July 20, 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Several weeks after the attacks, a Las Vegas [[Days Inn]] employee went to the FBI and stated that she recognized al-Hazmi's photographs from the media as being a man she had met at the hotel, who had asked for details on hotels near [[Los Angeles]]. She admitted that he never gave his name.<ref name="hotel">[http://www.reviewjournal.com/lvrj_home/2001/Oct-26-Fri-2001/news/17309944.html Ex-hotel worker says she conversed with hijacker], Las Vegas Review-Journal, By GLENN PUIT and J.M. KALIL, Friday, October 26, 2001</ref>

==Timeline in America==
Late in 2005, Army Lt. Col. Kevin Shaffer and Congressman [[Curt Weldon]] alleged that the Defense Department data mining project [[Able Danger]] had kept Nawaf al-Hazmi, [[Khalid al-Mihdhar]], [[Mohamed Atta]] and [[Marwan al-Shehhi]] all under surveillance as [[al-Qaeda]] agents.
*15 January 2000: al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar arrive in Los Angeles from Bangkok, Thailand.
*February 2000: al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar move to San Diego.
*Autumn 2000: al-Hamzi works at a gas station while living in San Diego.
*March 2001: Nawaf al-Hazmi and [[Hani Hanjour]] move from Phoenix to Falls Church, Virginia.
*Mid-March 2001: Nawaf al-Hazmi, [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]], [[Majed Moqed]], and Hani Hanjour stay for four days in the Fairfield Motor Inn, [[Fairfield, Connecticut]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CTPB&p_theme=ctpb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=1052C59352641E4D&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM | work=Connecticut Post | title=Lessons from 9-11: Towns, residents become more vigilant | date=September 17, 2004}}</ref> They meet with Eyad Alrababah, a Palestinian who may have provided false identification documents.

==See also==
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The final ''9/11 Commission Report'']

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hazmi, Nawaf Al-}}
[[Category:1976 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:American Airlines Flight 77]]
[[Category:Anwar al-Awlaki]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Mecca]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian murderers of children]]

Abdulaziz al-Omari

2023-09-12T22:30:16Z

78.157.120.208: Date format and American English

{{Short description|Saudi 9/11 terrorist (1979–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Abdulaziz al-Omari عبد العزيز العُمري
| image = Abdulaziz_al-Omari.png
| image_size =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1979|5|28|df=yes}}
| birth_name = Abdulaziz al-Omari
| birth_place = [[Al Makhwah]], [[Al-Baha]], [[Saudi Arabia]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1979|5|28|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[American Airlines Flight 11|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]]
}}

'''Abdulaziz al-Omari''' ({{lang-ar|عبد العزيز العُمري}}, {{transl|ar|''ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-ʿUmarī''}}, also [[transliteration|transliterated]] as '''Alomari''' or '''al-Umari'''; 28 May 1979<ref>{{cite web |author=John J. Lumpkin |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/profiles/abdul_aziz_al_omari.htm |title=Abdul Aziz al Omari |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |access-date=2012-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118061734/http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/profiles/abdul_aziz_al_omari.htm |archive-date=2012-01-18 |url-status=live }}</ref> – 11 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist who was one of five [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] of [[American Airlines Flight 11]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]] in 2001. Prior to the terrorist attack, al-Omari was an [[airport security]] guard and [[imam]].

Al-Omari arrived in the [[United States]] in June 2001, on a tourist visa, obtained through the [[Visa policy of the United States|Visa Express]] program. On 11 September 2001, al-Omari boarded [[American Airlines Flight 11]] and assisted in the hijacking of the plane, which was crashed into the North Tower of the [[World Trade Center (1973-2001)|World Trade Center]], as part of the coordinated attacks.

==Early life and education==

Little is known about al-Omari's life, and it is unclear whether some information refers to Omari or another person by that name. He had used the birth date 28 May 1979.

It is alleged al-Omari graduated with honors from high school, attained a degree from [[Imam Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University]], was married and had a daughter briefly before the attacks.<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2015/12/06/trumps-dubious-claim-that-the-911-hijackers-wives-knew-exactly-what-was-going-to-happen/| title = Trump's false claim that the 9/11 hijackers' wives 'knew exactly what was going to happen' - The Washington Post| newspaper = [[The Washington Post]]}}</ref>

==Career==
Al-Omari is alleged to have often served as an [[Imam (Sunni Islam)|imam]] at his mosque in Saudi Arabia and is believed by American authorities{{who|date=September 2011}} to have been a student of Saudi cleric [[Sulaiman Al-Alwan]], whose mosque is located in [[Al-Qassim Province]].

According to [[Walid bin Attash]], al-Omari was one of a group of future hijackers who provided security at [[Kandahar]] airport after their basic training at an al-Qaeda camp. During the [[Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit|2000 Al Qaeda Summit]] in [[Kuala Lumpur]], American authorities state that immigration records show that a person named Abdulaziz al-Omari was visiting the country, although they say they are not sure that this was the same person.{{fact|date=June 2018}}

In the autumn of 2001, after the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]], [[al Jazeera]] television broadcast a tape they claim was made by al-Omari. The speaker made a farewell suicide video. In it he read, "I am writing this with my full conscience and I am writing this in expectation of the end, which is near. . . God praise everybody who trained and helped me, namely the leader Sheikh [[Osama bin Laden]]."<ref name="Unger2004">{{cite book|last1=Unger|first1=Craig|author-link=Craig Unger|title=House of Bush, House of Saud|date=19 March 2004|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9780743266239|page=230|url=http://www.simonandschuster.com/books/House-of-Bush-House-of-Saud/Craig-Unger/9780743266239|access-date=10 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160810193434/http://www.simonandschuster.com/books/House-of-Bush-House-of-Saud/Craig-Unger/9780743266239|archive-date=10 August 2016}}</ref>

According to [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] director [[Robert Mueller]] and the [[9/11 Commission]], al-Omari entered the United States through a [[Dubai]] flight on 29 June 2001, with [[Salem al-Hazmi]], landing in [[New York City|New York]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |title=Statement of Robert S. Mueller: Joint Investigation Into September 11: (published September 26, 2002) |publisher=Fas.org |access-date=2012-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103193507/http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |archive-date=2012-01-03 |url-status=live }}</ref> He had used the controversial Visa Express program to gain entry. He apparently stayed with several other hijackers in [[Paterson, New Jersey]], before moving to his own place at 4032 57th Terrace, [[Vero Beach, Florida]]. On his rental agreement form for that house, al-Omari gave two license-plates authorized to park in his space, one of which was registered to Atta.<ref name=PATERSON>[http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/resources/documents/fbiaffidavit11.htm FBI Affidavit: Page 11] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070318141730/http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/resources/documents/fbiaffidavit11.htm |date=2007-03-18 }} ABC</ref>

Al-Omari obtained a fake United States ID card from All Services Plus in [[Passaic County, New Jersey]], which was in the business of selling fake documents, including another to [[Khalid al-Mihdhar]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/08/nyregion/a-plea-deal-then-freedom-in-terror-case-where-prosecutors-kept-evidence-a-secret.html?pagewanted=all |title=A Plea Deal, Then Freedom, in Terror Case Where Prosecutors Kept Evidence a Secret |author=Miller, Jonathan |date=2003-03-08 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612165109/https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/08/nyregion/a-plea-deal-then-freedom-in-terror-case-where-prosecutors-kept-evidence-a-secret.html?pagewanted=all |archive-date=2018-06-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> He was married and had a daughter.

==September 11 attacks==
[[File:Abdulaziz_Alomari_in_ATM.jpg|thumb|Abdulaziz al-Omari photographed with Atta by an ATM security camera in South Portland, Maine at 8:41 p.m. on 10 September 2001]]
[[Image:Atta in airport.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Atta (blue shirt) and Omari at [[Portland International Jetport]] on 9/11]]
{{Main|American Airlines Flight 11}}
On 10 September 2001, [[Mohamed Atta]] picked up al-Omari from the Milner Hotel in [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], and the two drove [[Mohamed Atta's Nissan|their rented Nissan car]] to a [[Choice Hotels|Comfort Inn]] in [[Portland, Maine|South Portland, Maine]], where they spent the night in room 232. It was initially reported that Adnan and Ameer Bukhari were the two hijackers who had rented and driven the car.<ref name=REPORTED>{{cite news |url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200109/13/eng20010913_80131.html |title=Two Brothers among Hijackers: CNN Report |date=13 September 2001 |newspaper=[[People's Daily Online]] |access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref>

In the early hours of 11 September, they boarded a commuter flight back to Boston to connect to [[American Airlines Flight 11]]. American 11 was hijacked 15 minutes after the flight departed by al-Omari and four other hijackers, which allowed trained pilot Mohamed Atta to crash the Boeing 767 into the North Tower of the World Trade Center as part of an attack that killed thousands of people.

==Mistaken identity allegations==
Controversy over the identity of al-Omari erupted shortly after the attacks. At first, the FBI had named [[Abdul Rahman al-Omari]], a pilot for [[Saudi Arabian Airlines]], as the pilot of Flight 11.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1000934272326780760 |title=Media Mistook Four Saudi Pilots For Hijackers in U.S. Attacks |first1=Chad |last1=Terhune |first2=Will |last2=Pinkston |first3=Douglas A. |last3=Blackmon |author3-link=Douglas A. Blackmon |date=20 September 2010 |access-date=21 April 2019 |newspaper=[[WSJ]] |publisher=[[Dow Jones & Company, Inc.]]}}</ref> It was quickly shown that this person was still alive, and the FBI issued an apology.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0109/21/tpt.00.html |title=America's New War: Tracking the Terrorists |date=21 September 2001 |access-date=21 April 2019 |work=[[CNN]] |publisher=[[Time Warner Company]] |first=Susan |last=Candiotti |author-link=Susan Candiotti}}</ref> It was also quickly determined that [[Mohamed Atta]] was the pilot among the hijackers. The FBI then named Abdulaziz al-Omari as a hijacker.

A man with the same name as those given by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] turned up alive in [[Saudi Arabia]], saying that he had studied at the [[University of Denver]] and his [[passport]] was stolen there in 1995. The name, origin, birth date, and occupation were released by the FBI, but the picture was not of him. "I couldn't believe it when the FBI put me on their list", he said. "They gave my name and my date of birth, but I am not a suicide bomber. I am here. I am alive. I have no idea how to fly a plane. I had nothing to do with this."<ref name=NOFLY>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F2071FF63D5F0C758DDDA00894D9404482 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |first=Kevin |last=Sack |author-link=Kevin Sack |title=AFTER THE ATTACKS: MISSED CUES; Saudi May Have Been Suspected in Error, Officials Say |date=16 September 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051219082529/https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F2071FF63D5F0C758DDDA00894D9404482 |archive-date=19 December 2005 |page=7 |access-date=4 February 2017 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Suicide hijacker' is an airline pilot alive and well in Jeddah |last=Fisk |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Fisk |url=http://news.independent.co.uk/world/middle_east/story.jsp?story=94438 |date=24 June 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040624055254/http://news.independent.co.uk/world/middle_east/story.jsp?story=94438 |archive-date=24 June 2004 |access-date=21 April 2019 |newspaper=[[Independent (newspaper)|Independent]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1559151.stm |title=Middle East | Hijack 'suspects' alive and well |work=[[BBC News]] |date=23 September 2001 |access-date=6 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150730151931/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1559151.stm |archive-date=30 July 2015 |publisher=[[BBC]] |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060215202606/http://www.portal.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2001%2F09%2F23%2Fwiden23.xml portal.telegraph.co.uk] (Article which reports that the Saudi Arabian Airlines pilot named Omari was not involved with the terrorist attacks)

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Omari, Abduraziz}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:American Airlines Flight 11]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Al-Bahah Province]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]

Fayez Banihammad

2023-09-12T22:25:53Z

78.157.120.208: DMY format for dates

{{Short description|Emirati terrorist and 9/11 hijacker}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2009}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Fayez Banihammad
| native_name = فايز بني حماد
| image = FBanihammad.JPG
| image_size =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1977|3|19|df=yes}}
| birth_name = Fayez Rashid Ahmed Hassan al-Qadi Banihammad
| birth_place = [[Khor Fakkan]], [[United Arab Emirates]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1977|3|19|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[United Airlines Flight 175|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Emirati people|Emirati]]
}}

'''Fayez Rashid Ahmed Hassan al-Qadi Banihammad''' ({{lang-ar|فايز راشد احمد حسن القاضي بني حماد|translit=Fāyaz Rāshid Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Qāḍī Banī Ḥammād}}; 19 March 1977{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was an Emirati hijacker. He was one of five [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] aboard [[United Airlines Flight 175]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]].<ref>{{cite web |author=John J. Lumpkin |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/profiles/fayez_bannihammad.htm |title=Globalsecurity.org |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |date=2001-09-11 |access-date=2012-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013034557/http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/profiles/fayez_bannihammad.htm |archive-date=2011-10-13 |url-status=live }}</ref>

He was one of two Emiratis to take part in the attacks, the other being [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], who led the hijacking of Flight 175 and flew the plane into the South Tower of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]].

Born in the [[United Arab Emirates]], Banihammad left his family to pursue relief work. Using the Visa Express program, Banihammad obtained a U.S. tourist visa.

Banihammad arrived in the United States in June 2001. On 11 September 2001, Banihammad boarded [[United Airlines Flight 175]] and participated in the hijacking of the plane so it could be crashed into the South Tower of the World Trade Center.

== Early life ==
Banihammad was from [[Khor Fakkan]] in the [[United Arab Emirates]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/UA00455-2A.html|title=United States v. Zacarias Moussaoui, trial exhibit UA00455.2A|access-date=2010-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527111129/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/UA00455-2A.html|archive-date=2010-05-27|url-status=live}}</ref> and was born to Muhammad Fayez Banihammad, a school principal. Banihammad typically went by the name "Ahmad".<ref name="willalOmari">Videotape of recorded will of Abdulaziz al-Omari and others</ref>

=== 2000 ===
Banihammad told his parents, while spending time in [['Asir]], that he hoped to find work with the [[International Islamic Relief Organization]]. He only contacted his parents once after that.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.arabnews.com/Article.asp?ID=9454&ArY=2001&ArM=10&ArD=1|author=Ba-Isa, Molouk Y. and Saud Al-Towaim |title=Another Saudi 'hijacker' turns up in Tunis |date=October 1, 2001 |newspaper=Arab News |access-date=April 25, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030208094526/http://www.arabnews.com/Article.asp?ID=9454&ArY=2001&ArM=10&ArD=1 |archive-date=February 8, 2003}}</ref> He is believed to have visited the [[Philippines]] for three days from 17–20 October 2000.

Banihammad, together with [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], gained entry to the US via the Visa Express program. Upon later review of his application, it was noticed that he had not listed an occupation or reason for visit, and when asked where he would be living in the country, simply wrote ''No''. However, he still received the visa.{{cn|date=August 2021}}

=== 2001 ===
Before the pair arrived in [[Orlando, Florida]] on 27 June 2001, Banihammad had opened a bank account in the UAE to which $30,000 was deposited by unknown parties only two days before his arrival. He opened another account with [[SunTrust Banks]] in Orlando several days after his arrival, becoming one of nine hijackers to open an account with the bank.

Known as Abu Ahmad al-Imarati during the preparations,<ref name="willalOmari"/> the [[9/11 Commission]] noted: "He appears to have played a unique role among the muscle hijackers because of his work with one of the plot's financial facilitators, [[Mustafa al-Hawsawi]]." On 18 July Banihammad gave Mustafa power-of-attorney over his [[Dubai]] bank account, and Mustafa reportedly mailed him a [[Visa Inc.|VISA]] and bank card.

Possibly a licensed pilot, a man with his name was registered as having trained at the Spartan Aeronautics School in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]], although the school denies that he ever attended, indicating a possible case of mistaken identity.{{citation needed|date=September 2011}}

== Attacks ==
{{Main|United Airlines Flight 175}}
Fayez Banihammad purchased both his and [[Mohand al-Shehri]]'s one-way first class tickets for [[United Airlines Flight 175]] online on 27 or 29 August, charging the $4464.50 to a [[Visa Inc.|Visa card]] from [[Mustafa al-Hawsawi]], listing both of their addresses as a [[Mail Boxes Etc.]] in [[Delray Beach, Florida|Delray Beach]]. This was not the same postal box used by [[Hamza al-Ghamdi|Hamza]] and [[Ahmad al-Ghamdi]] who purchased their tickets for the same flight a day later with another Mailboxes Etc. postal box in Delray Beach, although both groups listed the same phone number.

Staying in the Milner Hotel in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] from September 8–10, Banihammad asked a hotel clerk to fill out the registration card for the room, citing his poor English. On 10 September 2001, he shared a room at the Milner Hotel with three other terrorists: Mohand al-Shehri, [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], who would pilot Flight 175 into the South Tower of the World Trade Center, and [[Satam al-Suqami]], a hijacker of [[American Airlines Flight 11|Flight 11]].

On 11 September, Banihammad boarded Flight 175 and sat in first class seat 2A, next to al-Shehri in 2B. The plane took off at 8:14, and within 28 minutes the five hijackers began their assault. It is believed that Banihammad and al-Shehri forcibly entered the cockpit and murdered the pilots while the al-Ghamdi brothers forced the remaining crew and passengers towards the rear of the aircraft, allowing al-Shehhi to take control of the plane. At 9:03 a.m., only 21 minutes after the hijacking began, al-Shehhi flew the plane into the South Tower of the World Trade Center between the 77th and 85th floors, obliterating all on-board instantly and killing or trapping hundreds of people inside the building. 55 minutes after the crash, at 9:58 a.m., the [[Collapse of the World Trade Center|South Tower collapsed]], killing all who were still inside the building and many more on the ground.

== Aftermath ==
After the attacks it was reported by [[ABC News]] that somebody with the same name had attended the [[Defense Language Institute#Defense Language Institute English Language Center (DLIELC)|Defense Language Institute]] at [[Lackland Air Force Base]] - a claim that may have been born of a false address Banihammad had used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://911research.wtc7.net/cache/disinfo/deceptions/abc_wtcsuspects.html |title="Who Did It?" |access-date=2006-09-08 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031206062021/http://911research.wtc7.net/cache/disinfo/deceptions/abc_wtcsuspects.html |archive-date=December 6, 2003 }} ''ABC News''. 2003.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography}}
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category-inline}}

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Banihammad, Fayez}}
[[Category:1977 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Emirati al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Emirati expatriates in the United States]]
[[Category:Emirati mass murderers]]
[[Category:Emirati murderers of children]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Khor Fakkan]]
[[Category:Suicides in New York City]]
[[Category:United Airlines Flight 175]]

Hani Hanjour

2023-09-12T22:22:17Z

78.157.120.208:

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1972–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Hani Hanjour
| native_name = هاني حنجور
| native_name_lang = ara
| image = HHanjour0.JPG
| image_size =
| caption = Undated photo of Hanjour
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1972|8|30|df=yes}}
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]]
| education = [[University of Arizona]]
| alma_mater = University of Arizona
| birth_name = Hani Salih Hasan Hanjour
| birth_place = [[Taif]], Saudi Arabia
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2001|9|11|1972|8|30|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Arlington County, Virginia]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[American Airlines Flight 77|Plane crash]], [[Suicide attack|suicide]]
| known_for = Hijacker-pilot of [[American Airlines Flight 77]] (as part of the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]])
}}
'''Hani Salih Hasan Hanjour''' ({{lang-ar|هاني صالح حسن حنجور|translit=Hānī Ṣāliḥ Ḥasan Ḥanjūr}}; 30 August 1972{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker. He served as the [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijacker-pilot]] of [[American Airlines Flight 77]], crashing the plane into [[the Pentagon]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]] in 2001.

Hanjour first went to the United States in 1991, enrolling at the [[University of Arizona]], where he studied English for a few months before returning to [[Saudi Arabia]] early the next year. He returned to the United States in 1996, studying English in [[California]] before he began taking flying lessons in [[Florida]] and then [[Arizona]].<ref>{{cite report |title=9/11 Commission Report|date=July 22, 2004 |publisher=9/11 Commission|access-date=August 15, 2021 |url=https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |ref={{harvid|9/11 Commission|2004a}} |archive-date=August 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816164111/https://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |url-status=live |pages=}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> He received his commercial pilot certificate in 1999, and went back to his native [[Saudi Arabia]] to find a job as a commercial pilot. Hanjour applied to civil aviation school in [[Jeddah]], but was turned down. Hanjour left his family in late 1999, telling them that he would be traveling to the [[United Arab Emirates]] to find work. According to [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], [[Osama bin Laden]] or [[Mohammed Atef]] identified Hanjour at an [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Afghanistan]] training camp as a trained pilot and selected him to participate in the 11 September attacks.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}

Hanjour arrived in the United States again in December 2000. He joined up with [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] in [[San Diego]]. They immediately left for Arizona, where Hanjour engaged in refresher pilot training. In April 2001, they relocated to [[Falls Church, Virginia]] and then [[Paterson, New Jersey]] in late May where Hanjour took additional flight training.

Hanjour returned to the [[Washington metropolitan area|Washington, D.C., metropolitan area]] on 2 September 2001, checking into a motel in [[Laurel, Maryland]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Clemetson |first1=Lynette |title=VIGILANCE AND MEMORY: SOME MOMENTS -- Laurel, Md.; Where Hijacker Stayed, Remorse |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/12/us/vigilance-and-memory-some-moments-laurel-md-where-hijacker-stayed-remorse.html |access-date=12 September 2019 |work=The New York Times |date=12 September 2002}}</ref> On 11 September, Hanjour boarded [[American Airlines Flight 77]], took control of the aircraft after his team of hijackers helped subdue the pilots, passengers, and crew, and flew the plane into the Pentagon as part of the 11 September attacks. The crash killed all 64 passengers on board the aircraft and 125 people in the Pentagon.

While in Florida and Arizona, Hanjour befriended and trained with [[Rayed Mohammed Abdullah Ali]], a fellow Saudi who emigrated to [[Manawatū-Whanganui]] in 2006 to train as a pilot. He was deported from his [[Palmerston North]] home after his links to Hanjour were exposed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rayed Ali - student, pilot, mystery man |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/rayed-ali-student-pilot-mystery-man/Y5B3KHENPOHSCBMTDFDP7HMGVM/ |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=NZ Herald |language=en-NZ}}</ref>{{Relevance inline|paragraph|date=September 2022|discuss=Fifth lead paragraph |reason=This fifth lead paragraph seems quite trivial to the lead section. It is covered in the body.}}

==Early life and education==
Hanjour was one of seven children,<ref name="goldstein">{{cite news |title=Hanjour a Study in Paradox, Suspect's Brother: 'We Thought He Liked the USA' |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=October 15, 2001 |last=Goldstein |first=Amy |author2=Lena H. Sun |author3=George Lardner Jr. |page=A01}}</ref> born to a food-supply businessman in [[Ta'if]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. During his youth, Hanjour wanted to drop out of school to become a [[flight attendant]], although his brother Abdulrahman discouraged this route, and tried to help him focus on his studies.<ref name="goldstein"/>

According to his eldest brother, Hanjour traveled to Afghanistan in the late 1980s as a teenager to participate in the conflict against the Soviet Union. The Soviets had already withdrawn by the time he arrived in the country and he instead worked for a [[relief agency]].<ref name="911-ch7">{{cite book |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |title=9/11 Commission Report|chapter=Chapter 7 – The Attack Looms |publisher=9/11 Commission|year=2004 |access-date=September 1, 2010}}</ref>

==Career==
===Early 1990s===
Hanjour was the first to arrive in the United States, much earlier than other hijackers. He first came to the United States in 1991 to study English at the [[University of Arizona]]'s Center for English as a Second Language. Hanjour's eldest brother Abdulrahman helped him apply to the eight-week program, and found a room in [[Tucson, Arizona]], for Hanjour near the Islamic Center of Tucson. Hanjour arrived for the English language program on 3 October 1991, and stayed until early February 1992, when he returned to Saudi Arabia. Hanjour shared a three-bedroom home on the corner of 4th Avenue and 4th Street owned and managed by a father-son team, who made a living renovating and renting rooms to international students and devoting their energies to spreading a born-again Christian influence; Bob, the oldest son, lived in this house and rented the room directly to Hanjour. Hanjour was a model housemate; he was extremely respectful of others, apolitical in his points of view, enjoyed his Turkish coffee, and appeared as a nonchalant happy-go-lucky teenager with very weak English-speaking skills. Hanjour claimed that he was interested in being an airplane mechanic and claimed that such a position was considered highly in Saudi Arabia. Hanjour participated in morning, noon, and evening prayers at the local mosque. As early as Hanjour moved into this house, he was under the constant watch of two "uncles" who would pick him up for the weekends so that he would spend time with them within their circle, thereby minimizing his contact with his American housemates and friends from the university. In December 1991 Hanjour informed Bob that he missed Saudi Arabia and would be leaving the United States due to homesickness.<ref name="mueller">{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |title=Statement for the Record - FBI Director Robert S. Mueller III |work=Joint Intelligence Committee Inquiry |publisher=Federation of American Scientists (FAS) |date=September 26, 2002 |access-date=September 1, 2010}}</ref> Hanjour was the only hijacker to visit the United States prior to any intentions for a large-scale attack and was not linked to the [[Hamburg cell]] in Germany, which composed of the 3 hijackers who were taking flight lessons to be come pilots. He was the first to receive a license out of the 3 other men, most likely due to arriving to the U.S. prior to preparations for the attacks.

Over the next five years, Hanjour remained in Saudi Arabia, helping the family manage a lemon and date farm near Ta'if.<ref name="goldstein"/> His family often reminded Hanjour that he was getting past the age where he ought to get married and start a family, but Hanjour insisted he wanted to settle down more. While in Saudi Arabia, Hanjour applied for a job with [[Saudi Arabian Airlines]], but was turned down due to poor grades. The airline told Hanjour they would consider him if he obtained a commercial pilot's license in the United States.<ref name="fainaru"/>

===1996===
In April 1996, Hanjour returned to the United States, staying with family friends, Susan and Adnan Khalil, in [[Miramar, Florida]], for a month before heading to [[Oakland, California]], to study English and attend flight school.<ref name="chen">{{cite news |title=Man Traveled Across U.S. In His Quest to Be a Pilot|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F03EFDF153BF93BA2575AC0A9679C8B63 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=September 18, 2001 |access-date=September 1, 2010 |last=Chen |first=David W.}}</ref><ref group="notes">Hanjour obtained a visa in March 1996, and arrived in the United States on April 2, 1996. {{cite web |year=2004 |title=Staff Monograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |access-date=September 1, 2010 |publisher=9/11 Commission}}</ref> Hanjour was admitted to the [[Sierra Academy of Aeronautics]], but before beginning flight training, the academy arranged for Hanjour to take intensive English courses at ESL Language Center in Oakland. The flight school also arranged for Hanjour to stay with a host family, with whom he moved in on 20 May 1996.<ref name="chen"/><ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline</ref> Hanjour completed the English program in August, and in early September 1996, he attended a single day of ground school courses at the [[Sierra Academy of Aeronautics]] before withdrawing, citing financial worries about the $35,000 cost.

Hanjour left Oakland in September and moved to [[Phoenix, Arizona]], paying $4,800 for lessons at CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management in [[Scottsdale, Arizona|Scottsdale]]. Receiving poor marks, Hanjour dropped out of flight school,<ref name="goldstein"/> and returned to Saudi Arabia at the end of November 1996.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=[[Nine Eleven Finding Answers Foundation|NEFA Foundation]] |date=February 4, 2008 |access-date=October 6, 2008 |page=12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=October 12, 2008 }}</ref>

===Late 1990s===
Hanjour re-entered the United States on 15 November 1997,<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=[[Nine Eleven Finding Answers Foundation|NEFA Foundation]] |date=February 4, 2008 |access-date=October 6, 2008 |page=14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=October 12, 2008 }}</ref> taking additional English courses in Florida, then returning to [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]], where he shared an apartment with Bandar al-Hazmi.<ref name="fainaru">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/08/13/AR2007081300752.html |title=Mysterious Trip to Flight 77 Cockpit; Suicide Pilot's Conversion to Radical Islam Remains Obscure |last=Fainaru |first=Steve |author2=Alia Ibrahim |date=September 10, 2002 |newspaper=The Washington Post |pages=A17 |access-date=September 2, 2010}}</ref>

After arriving in Florida on November 1997, Hanjour met a man Rayed Mohammed Abdullah Ali, a mutual friend through Bandar al-Hazmi. Al-Hamzi had suggested that Ali train to be a pilot in Florida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Rayed Ali - student, pilot, mystery man |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/rayed-ali-student-pilot-mystery-man/Y5B3KHENPOHSCBMTDFDP7HMGVM/ |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=NZ Herald |language=en-NZ}}</ref> Hanjour and Ali subsequently trained together both in Florida and Arizona, and became friends. Ali was a leader at the Islamic Cultural Centre in Phoenix where, the [[FBI]] says, he "reportedly gave extremist speeches at the mosque".<ref>{{cite web |date=June 10, 2006 |title=Pilot with 9/11 links found in NZ |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=1&ObjectID=10385963 |accessdate=2006-11-16 |publisher=New Zealand Herald}}</ref> This, however, was disputed by a mosque staff member, who told the [[The New Zealand Herald|New Zealand Herald]] in June 2006 that Ali "was never a leader for the mosque and he never gave speeches at the mosque".<ref name=":0" />

The ''[[9/11 Commission Report]]'' reported that Abdullah attended the same Phoenix flight school as Hanjour and records show the pair used a flight simulator together on 23 June 2001.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rayed Ali - student, pilot, mystery man |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/rayed-ali-student-pilot-mystery-man/Y5B3KHENPOHSCBMTDFDP7HMGVM/ |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=NZ Herald |language=en-NZ}}</ref> Ali later emigrated to New Zealand, where he settled in Auckland and then in [[Palmerston North]] to train as a pilot. He was identified as a friend and colleague of Hanjour in July 2006, less than six months after he first arrived in New Zealand. Immigration Minister [[David Cunliffe]] said that Ali "was directly associated with persons responsible for the terrorist attacks in the United States on Sept. 11, 2001".<ref>{{cite web |date=June 10, 2006 |title=Pilot with 9/11 links found in NZ |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=1&ObjectID=10385963 |accessdate=2006-11-16 |publisher=New Zealand Herald}}</ref>

In December, he resumed training at CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management for a few weeks, before pursuing training at Arizona Aviation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=[[Nine Eleven Finding Answers Foundation|NEFA Foundation]] |date=February 4, 2008 |access-date=October 6, 2008 |page=15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=October 12, 2008 }}</ref> Bandar al-Hazmi and Hanjour stayed in Arizona, continued taking flight lessons at Arizona Aviation throughout 1998 and early 1999. After moving out of Bandar's place in March, Hanjour lived in several apartments in [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Mesa, Arizona|Mesa]] and Phoenix.<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 16—41</ref> In February, financial records showed that Hanjour had taken a trip to [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]].<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 18</ref> In addition to flight training at Arizona Aviation, Hanjour enrolled in [[flight simulator]] classes at the Sawyer School of Aviation where he made only three or four visits.<ref name="goldstein" /> [[Lotfi Raissi]] would begin taking lessons at the same school a month after Hanjour quit, part of what piqued the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]]'s interest in Raissi.

An FBI informant named [[Aukai Collins]] claims he told the FBI about Hanjour's activities during 1998, giving them Hanjour's name and phone number, and warning them that more and more foreign-born Muslims seem to be taking flying lessons. The FBI admits it paid Collins to monitor the Islamic and [[Arab]] communities in Phoenix at the time, but denies Collins told them anything about Hanjour.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/ap052402.html |title=FBI Told of Hanjour Three Years Before Sept. 11, Self-Proclaimed Informant Says |access-date=2004-07-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040202113607/http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/ap052402.html |archive-date=February 2, 2004 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/foxnews052402.html |title=Interview with Aukai Collins |access-date=2004-07-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040106111713/http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/foxnews052402.html |archive-date=January 6, 2004 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

Hanjour gained his [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] commercial pilot certificate in April 1999, getting a "satisfactory" rating from the examiner.<ref>{{cite news |title=For Agent in Phoenix, the Cause of Many Frustrations Extended to His Own Office |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10711FC3C5B0C7A8DDDAF0894DA404482 |date=June 19, 2002 |work=The New York Times | first1=Jim | last1=Yardley | first2=Jo | last2=Thomas | access-date=May 4, 2010}}</ref> Hanjour's bank records indicate that he travelled to [[Ontario, Canada]], in March 1999 for an unknown reason.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html|title=STATEMENT FOR THE RECORD {{!}} FBI DIRECTOR ROBERT S. MUELLER III {{!}} JOINT INTELLIGENCE COMMITTEE INQUIRY |date=September 25, 2002|website=Federation of American Scientists |access-date=November 7, 2018}}</ref>

He traveled to Saudi Arabia to get a job working with [[Saudi Arabian Airlines]] as a commercial pilot but was rejected by a civil aviation school in [[Jeddah]]. His brother, Yasser, relayed that Hanjour, frustrated, "turned his attention toward religious texts and cassette tapes of militant Islamic preachers."<ref>{{cite news |title=Why bin Laden plot relied on Saudi hijackers |first=Charles M. |last=Sennott |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1.shtml |newspaper=The Boston Globe}}</ref> He told his family in late 1999 he was heading to the [[United Arab Emirates]] to find work. However, it is likely that he headed to [[al-Qaeda]] training camps in Afghanistan. He was known by al-Qaeda as Urwa al-Taa'ifi.

===2000===
In May 2000, a third person accompanied Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar to Sorbi's Flying Club where he waited on the ground as they took a flight lesson. It has been theorized this may have been Hanjour.

In September Hanjour again sent his $110 registration to the ELS Language Center, which leased space on [[Holy Names College]] campus in [[Oakland, California]], to continue his English studies. He also applied for another U.S. student visa. Although he was accepted, after the attacks, it would be reported that his visa application was 'suspicious'. Granted an [[F-1 visa|F-1 student visa]] in [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]], September 2000, he failed to reveal that he had previously traveled to the U.S. He never turned up for classes at the ELS Language Center, and when the school contacted its Saudi representative, he reported that he could not find Hanjour either.

On 5 December, Hanjour opened a [[CitiBank]] account in [[Deira, Dubai]]. On 8 December, Hanjour was recorded flying into the [[Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport]], and is thought to have met with [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] in [[San Diego]] shortly thereafter.

===2001===
Hanjour came back to San Diego in December 2000, frequently visiting [[Abdussattar Shaikh]]'s house, which was shared with Nawaf al-Hazmi and [[Khalid Almihdhar|Khalid al-Mihdhar]]. During this time Hanjour may have visited the [[San Diego Zoo]] in February, as a security guard recalls having to page his name to reclaim a lost briefcase containing cash and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] documents and later recognized his photograph. Shortly afterwards, the three hijackers moved out of Shaikh's house to [[Falls Church, Virginia]].
[[File:Hani Hanjour.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A photograph of Hanjour, released by the FBI.]]

The ELS Language Center at Oakland University said Hanjour reached a level of proficiency sufficient to "survive very well in the English language". However, in January 2001, Arizona JetTech flight school managers reported him to the FAA at least five times because his English was inadequate for the commercial pilot certificate he had already obtained. It took him five hours to complete an oral exam meant to last just two hours, said Peggy Chevrette. Hanjour failed UA English classes with a 0.26 GPA and a JetTech manager said "He could not fly at all." The certificate was a requirement for him to join the Saudi Arabian pilot's academy.<ref>{{cite news|title=A Trainee Noted for Incompetence|work=[[The New York Times]]|date= May 4, 2002|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/04/us/a-trainee-noted-for-incompetence.html}}</ref> His FAA certificate had become invalid late in 1999 when he failed to take a mandatory medical examination. In February, Hanjour began advanced simulator training in [[Mesa, Arizona]].

He and Hazmi moved out of Mesa at the end of March, and they were in [[Falls Church, Virginia]], by 4 April. Falls Church was the location of the [[Dar al-Hijrah]] [[mosque]] in the [[Washington, D.C., metropolitan area]]. [[Anwar Al-Awlaki]] was the recently appointed new Imam whom Hazmi had met with in San Diego.<ref>[http://www.cageprisoners.com/campaigns.php?id=412 Imam Anwar Al Awlaki - A Leader in Need] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402074940/http://www.cageprisoners.com/campaigns.php?id=412 |date=April 2, 2007 }}; Cageprisoners.com, November 8, 2006, accessed June 7, 2007</ref><ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/6521758/Fort-Hood-shooting-Texas-army-killer-linked-to-September-11-terrorists.html Sherwell, Philip, and Spillius, Alex, "Fort Hood shooting: Texas army killer linked to September 11 terrorists; Major Nidal Malik Hasan worshipped at a mosque led by a radical imam said to be a "spiritual adviser" to three of the hijackers who attacked America on Sept 11, 2001,"] ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'', November 7, 2009, accessed November 12, 2009</ref>

At the mosque, Hanjour and Hazmi soon met Eyad Alrababah, a Jordanian who later pleaded guilty to document fraud and was deported. They had told him that they were looking for an apartment to rent, and he found a friend who rented them an apartment in Alexandria where they stayed. On 4 April 2001, Hanjour asked to forward his utility deposits to 3159 Row Street, Falls Church, Virginia, which was the same address as the mosque.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/13120414/FBI-Summary-about-Alleged-Flight-77-Hijacker-Hani-Hanjour|title=FBI Summary about Alleged Flight 77 Hijacker Hani Hanjour - Aviation|website=Scribd}}</ref>

When police raided the Hamburg apartment of [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] (the "20th hijacker") while investigating the 9/11 attacks, Awlaki's telephone number was found among bin al-Shibh's personal contact information.<ref name="wanted">[http://www.sfexaminer.com/world/69739347.html Al-Haj, Ahmed, and Abu-Nasr, Donna, "US imam who communicated with Fort Hood suspect wanted in Yemen on terror suspicions,"]{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[Associated Press]], November 11, 2009, accessed November 12, 2009{{dead link|date=October 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

On 2 May 2001, two new roommates joined them in Virginia: [[Majed Moqed]] and [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]], both of whom had just flown into the United States from the Middle East.

Alrababah later suggested they all go together to look at apartments in [[Fairfield, Connecticut]]. On May 8, Alrababah, Hanjour, Hazmi, Moqed and Ghamdi traveled to Fairfield to look for housing. While there, they also called several local flight schools. They then travelled briefly to Paterson to look at that area as well. Rababah has contended that, after this trip, he never saw any of the men again.<ref name="911-ch7"/>

Sometime at the end of May 2001, Hanjour rented a one-bedroom apartment in [[Paterson, New Jersey]]. He lived there with at least one roommate and was visited by several other hijackers, including [[Mohamed Atta]]. During his time in [[New Jersey]], he and Hazmi rented three different cars including a sedan in June that Hanjour cosigned with the alias "Hani Saleh Hassan". He later made his last phone call to his family back in Saudi Arabia, during which he claimed to be phoning from a payphone in the [[United Arab Emirates]], where he was supposedly still working.

Hanjour, along with at least five other future hijackers, is thought to have traveled to Las Vegas several times in mid-2001, where they reportedly drank alcohol, gambled, and visited [[lap dances|lap dancing clubs]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2001/10/04/MN102970.DTL | title=Agents of terror leave their mark on Sin City / Las Vegas workers recall the men they can't forget | first=Kevin | last=Fagan | date=October 4, 2001 | work=The San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref>

On 20 July, Hanjour flew to the [[Montgomery County Airpark]] in Maryland from New Jersey on a practice flight with fellow hijacker [[Nawaf Alhazmi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycommons.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&the_alleged_9%2F11_hijackers=haniHanjour|title=Complete 911 Timeline: Hani Hanjour|work=History Commons|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830015453/http://www.historycommons.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&the_alleged_9%2F11_hijackers=haniHanjour|archive-date=August 30, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://%7b%7bcite/|title=9/11 Commission Report|date=2004|page=242|access-date=October 1, 2017|archive-date=September 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912055527/http://%7b%7bcite/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On 1 August, Hanjour and Almihdhar returned to Falls Church to obtain fraudulent documentation at a [[7-Eleven]] convenience store where an illegal side business operated for such a service. There they met [[Luis Martinez-Flores]], himself also an [[illegal immigrant]], who agreed to help them for a $100 fee. They drove together to a [[Department of Motor Vehicles|DMV]] office at a mall in nearby [[Springfield, Virginia]], where Martinez-Flores gave them a false address in Falls Church to use, and signed legal forms attesting that they lived there. Hanjour and Almihdhar were then granted state identity cards. (Martinez-Flores was later sentenced to 21 months in prison for aiding them, and giving false testimony to police).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050514171209/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200112/ai_n9017145 "Hijackers' helper faces two years max"], Timothy P. Carney, ''[[Human Events]]'', December 24, 2001</ref> On that same day, Hanjour was stopped by police for driving a [[Toyota Corolla]] {{convert|55|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} in a {{convert|30|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} zone in [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington, Virginia]], for which he paid a $70 fine.

Employees at Advance Travel Service in [[Totowa, New Jersey]] later claimed that Moqed and Hanjour had both purchased tickets there. They claimed that Hanjour spoke very little English, and Moqed did most of the speaking. Hanjour requested a seat in the front row of the airplane. Their credit card failed to authorize, and after being told the agency did not accept personal checks, the pair left to withdraw cash. They returned shortly afterwards and paid the $1,842.25 total in cash.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.boston.com/section/news|title=The latest Boston, local and national news|last=john-waller|date=January 11, 2016|website=Boston.com}}</ref>

Hanjour began making cross-country flights in August to test security, and tried to rent a plane from [[Freeway Airport]] in Maryland; though he was declined after exhibiting difficulty controlling and landing a single-engine [[Cessna 172]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.newsday.com/ny-usflight232380680sep23.story |title=Tracing Trail Of Hijackers |access-date=March 27, 2010 |last=Frank |first=Thomas |date=September 23, 2001 |newspaper=Newsday |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020405020924/http://www.newsday.com/ny-usflight232380680sep23.story |archive-date=April 5, 2002 }}</ref> He moved out of his New Jersey apartment on September 1, and was photographed four days later using an [[Automatic teller machine|ATM]] with fellow hijacker [[Majed Moqed]] in [[Laurel, Maryland]], where all five Flight 77 hijackers had purchased a 1-week membership in a local [[Gold's Gym]]. There, Hanjour claimed that his first name translated as ''warrior'' when a gym employee asked if there was an English translation of their Arabic names. (''Hani'' actually translates as "contented.")

On 10 September 2001, Hanjour, Mihdhar, and Hazmi checked into the Marriott Residence Inn in [[Herndon, Virginia]] where [[Saleh Ibn Abdul Rahman Hussayen]], a prominent Saudi government official, was staying. No evidence was ever uncovered that they had met, or knew of each other's presence.<ref>{{cite news|last=Schmidt|first=Susan|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A31402-2003Oct1|title=Spreading Saudi Fundamentalism in U.S.: Network of Wahhabi Mosques, Schools, Web Sites Probed by FBI|publisher=The Washington Post, Page A01|date=October 2, 2003|access-date=December 23, 2009|archive-date=May 16, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516094503/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A31402-2003Oct1|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====9/11 attacks====
{{Main|American Airlines Flight 77}}
At 7:35 a.m. on 11 September 2001, Hanjour arrived at the passenger security checkpoint at [[Washington Dulles International Airport]], {{convert|26|miles|km}} west of [[Washington, D.C.]], en route to board [[American Airlines Flight 77]].<ref name="911-notes">{{cite book |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Notes.htm |author=9/11 Commission|chapter=Notes |year=2004 |title=9/11 Commission Report|publisher=9/11 Commission|access-date=May 30, 2008 |isbn=1-59248-996-6}}</ref>

Some earlier reports stated he may not have had a ticket or appeared on any manifest,<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/graphics/attack/hijackers.html | newspaper=The Washington Post | title=Four Planes, Four Coordinated Teams | date=September 20, 2001 | access-date=May 4, 2010}}</ref> however he was documented by the [[9/11 Commission]] as having been assigned to seat 1B in first class,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch1.htm | title = We Have Some Planes | access-date = June 7, 2010 | year = 2004 | work =9/11 Commission Report| publisher = [[9/11 Commission]]}}</ref> and reported to have bought a single first-class ticket from Advance Travel Service in Totowa.<ref>{{cite news | first = Glen | last = Johnson | title = Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes | date = November 23, 2001 | url = http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm | work = Boston Globe | access-date = June 7, 2010}}</ref> In the security tape footage released in 2004, Hanjour appears to walk through the metal detector without setting it off, which likely means that agents at the terminal were not looking at any warning signal that indicated if he had weapons. With this, it allowed Hanjour to board Flight 77 without any authorization.<ref>{{cite news |title=Video shows 9/11 hijackers stopped by airport screeners |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/video-shows-9-11-hijackers-stopped-by-airport-screeners-1.473604 |access-date=25 October 2022 |work=CBC |publisher=CBC |date=July 21, 2004}}</ref>

The flight was scheduled to depart at 8:10, but ended up departing 10 minutes late from Gate D26 at Dulles.<ref name="four">{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |title=Staff Monograph on the "Four Flights and Civil Aviation Security" |date=September 2005 |publisher=9/11 Commission|access-date=August 14, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306021319/http://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |archive-date=March 6, 2008 }}</ref> The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to [[air traffic control]] occurred at 08:50:51.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gregor |first=Joseph A. |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/ATC_%20Report_AA77.pdf |title=ATC Report American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=December 21, 2001 |access-date=June 1, 2008}}</ref> At 08:54, Flight 77 began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south,<ref name="911-ch1"/> and then hijackers set the flight's [[autopilot]] heading for Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/autopilot_AA77_UA93_study.pdf |title=Study of Autopilot, Navigation Equipment, and Fuel Consumption Activity Based on United Airlines Flight 93 and American Airlines Flight 77 Digital Flight Data Recorder Information |last=O'Callaghan |first=John |author2=Bower, Daniel |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=February 13, 2002 |access-date=June 1, 2008}}</ref> Passenger [[Barbara Olson]] called her husband, [[United States Solicitor General]] [[Theodore Olson|Ted Olson]], and reported that the plane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives. Using the flight intercom, Hanjour announced the flight was hijacked.<ref name="911-ch1">{{cite book |title=''9/11 Commission Report'' |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf |publisher=9/11 Commission|year=2004 |pages=1–13 |chapter=Chapter 1 |access-date=September 30, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Johnson |first=Glen |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |title=Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes |work=The Boston Globe |date=November 23, 2001 |access-date=June 1, 2008}}</ref> As Flight 77 was 5 miles (8.0 km) west-southwest of the Pentagon, it made a 330-degree turn. At the end of the turn, it was descending through 2,200 feet (670 m), pointed toward the Pentagon and downtown Washington. Hanjour advanced the throttles to maximum power and dove towards the Pentagon at a speed of over {{convert|530|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. At 09:37:46, Hanjour crashed the [[Boeing 757]] into the west façade of [[the Pentagon]], killing all 64 aboard along with 125 on the ground in the Pentagon.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |title=American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=January 31, 2002 |access-date=June 2, 2008 |archive-date=September 26, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220623/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> While level above the ground and seconds from the crash, the airplane's wings knocked over light poles and its right engine smashed into a power generator, creating a smoke trail seconds before smashing into the Pentagon. In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any [[DNA]] samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |title=Remains Of 9 Sept. 11 Hijackers Held |date=August 17, 2002 |work=CBS News |access-date=September 30, 2008 |archive-date=September 30, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930021707/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div831/strbase/pub_pres/Edson2004.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060720223532/http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div831/strbase/pub_pres/Edson2004.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2006-07-20 |title=Naming the Dead - Confronting the Realities of Rapid Identification of Degraded Skeletal Remains |author=Edson, S.M. |journal=Forensic Science Review |volume=16 |date=January 2004 |access-date=September 30, 2008 |issue=1 |pages=63–90 |pmid=26256813 |display-authors=etal }}</ref>

===Family denial===
After the 11 September attacks, Hanjour's family in Saudi Arabia vehemently stated that they could not, and would not, believe he had been involved as one of the hijacker pilots, and also stated that he had phoned them just eight hours prior to the hijackings and his voice did not sound strange or unusual at all.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arabview.com/article.asp?artID=98 |title=Hijacker list raises more questions |date=June 16, 2003 |access-date=January 6, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030616131506/http://arabview.com/article.asp?artID=98 |archive-date=June 16, 2003 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Rayed Mohammed Abdullah Ali]]
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=notes}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category-inline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The ''9/11 Commission Report'']
* [http://www.nbcnews.com/id/5485376 NBC video showing Hanjour with a correct profile]
* [http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/NT00211.html Moussaoui trial exhibit video showing Hanjour with a correct profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512123011/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/NT00211.html |date=May 12, 2009 }}
* [http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm Hanjour Ticket Purchase]

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hanjour, Hani}}
[[Category:1972 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:American Airlines Flight 77]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian murderers of children]]
[[Category:University of Arizona alumni]]

Hani Hanjour

2023-09-12T22:21:29Z

78.157.120.208:

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1972–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Hani Hanjour
| native_name = هاني حنجور
| native_name_lang = ara
| image = HHanjour0.JPG
| image_size =
| caption = Undated photo of Hanjour
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1972|8|30|df=yes}}
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]]
| education = [[University of Arizona]]
| alma_mater = University of Arizona
| birth_name = Hani Salih Hasan Hanjour
| birth_place = [[Taif]], Saudi Arabia
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2001|9|11|1972|8|30|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Arlington County, Virginia]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[American Airlines Flight 77|Plane crash]], [[Suicide attack|suicide]]
| known_for = Hijacker-pilot of [[American Airlines Flight 77]] (as part of the [[September 11 attacks]])
}}
'''Hani Salih Hasan Hanjour''' ({{lang-ar|هاني صالح حسن حنجور|translit=Hānī Ṣāliḥ Ḥasan Ḥanjūr}}; 30 August 1972{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker. He served as the [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijacker-pilot]] of [[American Airlines Flight 77]], crashing the plane into [[the Pentagon]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]] in 2001.

Hanjour first went to the United States in 1991, enrolling at the [[University of Arizona]], where he studied English for a few months before returning to [[Saudi Arabia]] early the next year. He returned to the United States in 1996, studying English in [[California]] before he began taking flying lessons in [[Florida]] and then [[Arizona]].<ref>{{cite report |title=9/11 Commission Report|date=July 22, 2004 |publisher=9/11 Commission|access-date=August 15, 2021 |url=https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |ref={{harvid|9/11 Commission|2004a}} |archive-date=August 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816164111/https://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |url-status=live |pages=}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> He received his commercial pilot certificate in 1999, and went back to his native [[Saudi Arabia]] to find a job as a commercial pilot. Hanjour applied to civil aviation school in [[Jeddah]], but was turned down. Hanjour left his family in late 1999, telling them that he would be traveling to the [[United Arab Emirates]] to find work. According to [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], [[Osama bin Laden]] or [[Mohammed Atef]] identified Hanjour at an [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Afghanistan]] training camp as a trained pilot and selected him to participate in the 11 September attacks.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}

Hanjour arrived in the United States again in December 2000. He joined up with [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] in [[San Diego]]. They immediately left for Arizona, where Hanjour engaged in refresher pilot training. In April 2001, they relocated to [[Falls Church, Virginia]] and then [[Paterson, New Jersey]] in late May where Hanjour took additional flight training.

Hanjour returned to the [[Washington metropolitan area|Washington, D.C., metropolitan area]] on 2 September 2001, checking into a motel in [[Laurel, Maryland]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Clemetson |first1=Lynette |title=VIGILANCE AND MEMORY: SOME MOMENTS -- Laurel, Md.; Where Hijacker Stayed, Remorse |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/12/us/vigilance-and-memory-some-moments-laurel-md-where-hijacker-stayed-remorse.html |access-date=12 September 2019 |work=The New York Times |date=12 September 2002}}</ref> On 11 September, Hanjour boarded [[American Airlines Flight 77]], took control of the aircraft after his team of hijackers helped subdue the pilots, passengers, and crew, and flew the plane into the Pentagon as part of the 11 September attacks. The crash killed all 64 passengers on board the aircraft and 125 people in the Pentagon.

While in Florida and Arizona, Hanjour befriended and trained with [[Rayed Mohammed Abdullah Ali]], a fellow Saudi who emigrated to [[Manawatū-Whanganui]] in 2006 to train as a pilot. He was deported from his [[Palmerston North]] home after his links to Hanjour were exposed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rayed Ali - student, pilot, mystery man |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/rayed-ali-student-pilot-mystery-man/Y5B3KHENPOHSCBMTDFDP7HMGVM/ |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=NZ Herald |language=en-NZ}}</ref>{{Relevance inline|paragraph|date=September 2022|discuss=Fifth lead paragraph |reason=This fifth lead paragraph seems quite trivial to the lead section. It is covered in the body.}}

==Early life and education==
Hanjour was one of seven children,<ref name="goldstein">{{cite news |title=Hanjour a Study in Paradox, Suspect's Brother: 'We Thought He Liked the USA' |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=October 15, 2001 |last=Goldstein |first=Amy |author2=Lena H. Sun |author3=George Lardner Jr. |page=A01}}</ref> born to a food-supply businessman in [[Ta'if]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. During his youth, Hanjour wanted to drop out of school to become a [[flight attendant]], although his brother Abdulrahman discouraged this route, and tried to help him focus on his studies.<ref name="goldstein"/>

According to his eldest brother, Hanjour traveled to Afghanistan in the late 1980s as a teenager to participate in the conflict against the Soviet Union. The Soviets had already withdrawn by the time he arrived in the country and he instead worked for a [[relief agency]].<ref name="911-ch7">{{cite book |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |title=9/11 Commission Report|chapter=Chapter 7 – The Attack Looms |publisher=9/11 Commission|year=2004 |access-date=September 1, 2010}}</ref>

==Career==
===Early 1990s===
Hanjour was the first to arrive in the United States, much earlier than other hijackers. He first came to the United States in 1991 to study English at the [[University of Arizona]]'s Center for English as a Second Language. Hanjour's eldest brother Abdulrahman helped him apply to the eight-week program, and found a room in [[Tucson, Arizona]], for Hanjour near the Islamic Center of Tucson. Hanjour arrived for the English language program on 3 October 1991, and stayed until early February 1992, when he returned to Saudi Arabia. Hanjour shared a three-bedroom home on the corner of 4th Avenue and 4th Street owned and managed by a father-son team, who made a living renovating and renting rooms to international students and devoting their energies to spreading a born-again Christian influence; Bob, the oldest son, lived in this house and rented the room directly to Hanjour. Hanjour was a model housemate; he was extremely respectful of others, apolitical in his points of view, enjoyed his Turkish coffee, and appeared as a nonchalant happy-go-lucky teenager with very weak English-speaking skills. Hanjour claimed that he was interested in being an airplane mechanic and claimed that such a position was considered highly in Saudi Arabia. Hanjour participated in morning, noon, and evening prayers at the local mosque. As early as Hanjour moved into this house, he was under the constant watch of two "uncles" who would pick him up for the weekends so that he would spend time with them within their circle, thereby minimizing his contact with his American housemates and friends from the university. In December 1991 Hanjour informed Bob that he missed Saudi Arabia and would be leaving the United States due to homesickness.<ref name="mueller">{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |title=Statement for the Record - FBI Director Robert S. Mueller III |work=Joint Intelligence Committee Inquiry |publisher=Federation of American Scientists (FAS) |date=September 26, 2002 |access-date=September 1, 2010}}</ref> Hanjour was the only hijacker to visit the United States prior to any intentions for a large-scale attack and was not linked to the [[Hamburg cell]] in Germany, which composed of the 3 hijackers who were taking flight lessons to be come pilots. He was the first to receive a license out of the 3 other men, most likely due to arriving to the U.S. prior to preparations for the attacks.

Over the next five years, Hanjour remained in Saudi Arabia, helping the family manage a lemon and date farm near Ta'if.<ref name="goldstein"/> His family often reminded Hanjour that he was getting past the age where he ought to get married and start a family, but Hanjour insisted he wanted to settle down more. While in Saudi Arabia, Hanjour applied for a job with [[Saudi Arabian Airlines]], but was turned down due to poor grades. The airline told Hanjour they would consider him if he obtained a commercial pilot's license in the United States.<ref name="fainaru"/>

===1996===
In April 1996, Hanjour returned to the United States, staying with family friends, Susan and Adnan Khalil, in [[Miramar, Florida]], for a month before heading to [[Oakland, California]], to study English and attend flight school.<ref name="chen">{{cite news |title=Man Traveled Across U.S. In His Quest to Be a Pilot|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F03EFDF153BF93BA2575AC0A9679C8B63 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=September 18, 2001 |access-date=September 1, 2010 |last=Chen |first=David W.}}</ref><ref group="notes">Hanjour obtained a visa in March 1996, and arrived in the United States on April 2, 1996. {{cite web |year=2004 |title=Staff Monograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |access-date=September 1, 2010 |publisher=9/11 Commission}}</ref> Hanjour was admitted to the [[Sierra Academy of Aeronautics]], but before beginning flight training, the academy arranged for Hanjour to take intensive English courses at ESL Language Center in Oakland. The flight school also arranged for Hanjour to stay with a host family, with whom he moved in on 20 May 1996.<ref name="chen"/><ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline</ref> Hanjour completed the English program in August, and in early September 1996, he attended a single day of ground school courses at the [[Sierra Academy of Aeronautics]] before withdrawing, citing financial worries about the $35,000 cost.

Hanjour left Oakland in September and moved to [[Phoenix, Arizona]], paying $4,800 for lessons at CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management in [[Scottsdale, Arizona|Scottsdale]]. Receiving poor marks, Hanjour dropped out of flight school,<ref name="goldstein"/> and returned to Saudi Arabia at the end of November 1996.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=[[Nine Eleven Finding Answers Foundation|NEFA Foundation]] |date=February 4, 2008 |access-date=October 6, 2008 |page=12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=October 12, 2008 }}</ref>

===Late 1990s===
Hanjour re-entered the United States on 15 November 1997,<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=[[Nine Eleven Finding Answers Foundation|NEFA Foundation]] |date=February 4, 2008 |access-date=October 6, 2008 |page=14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=October 12, 2008 }}</ref> taking additional English courses in Florida, then returning to [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]], where he shared an apartment with Bandar al-Hazmi.<ref name="fainaru">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/08/13/AR2007081300752.html |title=Mysterious Trip to Flight 77 Cockpit; Suicide Pilot's Conversion to Radical Islam Remains Obscure |last=Fainaru |first=Steve |author2=Alia Ibrahim |date=September 10, 2002 |newspaper=The Washington Post |pages=A17 |access-date=September 2, 2010}}</ref>

After arriving in Florida on November 1997, Hanjour met a man Rayed Mohammed Abdullah Ali, a mutual friend through Bandar al-Hazmi. Al-Hamzi had suggested that Ali train to be a pilot in Florida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Rayed Ali - student, pilot, mystery man |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/rayed-ali-student-pilot-mystery-man/Y5B3KHENPOHSCBMTDFDP7HMGVM/ |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=NZ Herald |language=en-NZ}}</ref> Hanjour and Ali subsequently trained together both in Florida and Arizona, and became friends. Ali was a leader at the Islamic Cultural Centre in Phoenix where, the [[FBI]] says, he "reportedly gave extremist speeches at the mosque".<ref>{{cite web |date=June 10, 2006 |title=Pilot with 9/11 links found in NZ |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=1&ObjectID=10385963 |accessdate=2006-11-16 |publisher=New Zealand Herald}}</ref> This, however, was disputed by a mosque staff member, who told the [[The New Zealand Herald|New Zealand Herald]] in June 2006 that Ali "was never a leader for the mosque and he never gave speeches at the mosque".<ref name=":0" />

The ''[[9/11 Commission Report]]'' reported that Abdullah attended the same Phoenix flight school as Hanjour and records show the pair used a flight simulator together on 23 June 2001.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rayed Ali - student, pilot, mystery man |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/rayed-ali-student-pilot-mystery-man/Y5B3KHENPOHSCBMTDFDP7HMGVM/ |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=NZ Herald |language=en-NZ}}</ref> Ali later emigrated to New Zealand, where he settled in Auckland and then in [[Palmerston North]] to train as a pilot. He was identified as a friend and colleague of Hanjour in July 2006, less than six months after he first arrived in New Zealand. Immigration Minister [[David Cunliffe]] said that Ali "was directly associated with persons responsible for the terrorist attacks in the United States on Sept. 11, 2001".<ref>{{cite web |date=June 10, 2006 |title=Pilot with 9/11 links found in NZ |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=1&ObjectID=10385963 |accessdate=2006-11-16 |publisher=New Zealand Herald}}</ref>

In December, he resumed training at CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management for a few weeks, before pursuing training at Arizona Aviation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=[[Nine Eleven Finding Answers Foundation|NEFA Foundation]] |date=February 4, 2008 |access-date=October 6, 2008 |page=15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=October 12, 2008 }}</ref> Bandar al-Hazmi and Hanjour stayed in Arizona, continued taking flight lessons at Arizona Aviation throughout 1998 and early 1999. After moving out of Bandar's place in March, Hanjour lived in several apartments in [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Mesa, Arizona|Mesa]] and Phoenix.<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 16—41</ref> In February, financial records showed that Hanjour had taken a trip to [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]].<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 18</ref> In addition to flight training at Arizona Aviation, Hanjour enrolled in [[flight simulator]] classes at the Sawyer School of Aviation where he made only three or four visits.<ref name="goldstein" /> [[Lotfi Raissi]] would begin taking lessons at the same school a month after Hanjour quit, part of what piqued the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]]'s interest in Raissi.

An FBI informant named [[Aukai Collins]] claims he told the FBI about Hanjour's activities during 1998, giving them Hanjour's name and phone number, and warning them that more and more foreign-born Muslims seem to be taking flying lessons. The FBI admits it paid Collins to monitor the Islamic and [[Arab]] communities in Phoenix at the time, but denies Collins told them anything about Hanjour.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/ap052402.html |title=FBI Told of Hanjour Three Years Before Sept. 11, Self-Proclaimed Informant Says |access-date=2004-07-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040202113607/http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/ap052402.html |archive-date=February 2, 2004 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/foxnews052402.html |title=Interview with Aukai Collins |access-date=2004-07-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040106111713/http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/foxnews052402.html |archive-date=January 6, 2004 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

Hanjour gained his [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] commercial pilot certificate in April 1999, getting a "satisfactory" rating from the examiner.<ref>{{cite news |title=For Agent in Phoenix, the Cause of Many Frustrations Extended to His Own Office |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10711FC3C5B0C7A8DDDAF0894DA404482 |date=June 19, 2002 |work=The New York Times | first1=Jim | last1=Yardley | first2=Jo | last2=Thomas | access-date=May 4, 2010}}</ref> Hanjour's bank records indicate that he travelled to [[Ontario, Canada]], in March 1999 for an unknown reason.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html|title=STATEMENT FOR THE RECORD {{!}} FBI DIRECTOR ROBERT S. MUELLER III {{!}} JOINT INTELLIGENCE COMMITTEE INQUIRY |date=September 25, 2002|website=Federation of American Scientists |access-date=November 7, 2018}}</ref>

He traveled to Saudi Arabia to get a job working with [[Saudi Arabian Airlines]] as a commercial pilot but was rejected by a civil aviation school in [[Jeddah]]. His brother, Yasser, relayed that Hanjour, frustrated, "turned his attention toward religious texts and cassette tapes of militant Islamic preachers."<ref>{{cite news |title=Why bin Laden plot relied on Saudi hijackers |first=Charles M. |last=Sennott |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1.shtml |newspaper=The Boston Globe}}</ref> He told his family in late 1999 he was heading to the [[United Arab Emirates]] to find work. However, it is likely that he headed to [[al-Qaeda]] training camps in Afghanistan. He was known by al-Qaeda as Urwa al-Taa'ifi.

===2000===
In May 2000, a third person accompanied Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar to Sorbi's Flying Club where he waited on the ground as they took a flight lesson. It has been theorized this may have been Hanjour.

In September Hanjour again sent his $110 registration to the ELS Language Center, which leased space on [[Holy Names College]] campus in [[Oakland, California]], to continue his English studies. He also applied for another U.S. student visa. Although he was accepted, after the attacks, it would be reported that his visa application was 'suspicious'. Granted an [[F-1 visa|F-1 student visa]] in [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]], September 2000, he failed to reveal that he had previously traveled to the U.S. He never turned up for classes at the ELS Language Center, and when the school contacted its Saudi representative, he reported that he could not find Hanjour either.

On 5 December, Hanjour opened a [[CitiBank]] account in [[Deira, Dubai]]. On 8 December, Hanjour was recorded flying into the [[Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport]], and is thought to have met with [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] in [[San Diego]] shortly thereafter.

===2001===
Hanjour came back to San Diego in December 2000, frequently visiting [[Abdussattar Shaikh]]'s house, which was shared with Nawaf al-Hazmi and [[Khalid Almihdhar|Khalid al-Mihdhar]]. During this time Hanjour may have visited the [[San Diego Zoo]] in February, as a security guard recalls having to page his name to reclaim a lost briefcase containing cash and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] documents and later recognized his photograph. Shortly afterwards, the three hijackers moved out of Shaikh's house to [[Falls Church, Virginia]].
[[File:Hani Hanjour.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A photograph of Hanjour, released by the FBI.]]

The ELS Language Center at Oakland University said Hanjour reached a level of proficiency sufficient to "survive very well in the English language". However, in January 2001, Arizona JetTech flight school managers reported him to the FAA at least five times because his English was inadequate for the commercial pilot certificate he had already obtained. It took him five hours to complete an oral exam meant to last just two hours, said Peggy Chevrette. Hanjour failed UA English classes with a 0.26 GPA and a JetTech manager said "He could not fly at all." The certificate was a requirement for him to join the Saudi Arabian pilot's academy.<ref>{{cite news|title=A Trainee Noted for Incompetence|work=[[The New York Times]]|date= May 4, 2002|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/04/us/a-trainee-noted-for-incompetence.html}}</ref> His FAA certificate had become invalid late in 1999 when he failed to take a mandatory medical examination. In February, Hanjour began advanced simulator training in [[Mesa, Arizona]].

He and Hazmi moved out of Mesa at the end of March, and they were in [[Falls Church, Virginia]], by 4 April. Falls Church was the location of the [[Dar al-Hijrah]] [[mosque]] in the [[Washington, D.C., metropolitan area]]. [[Anwar Al-Awlaki]] was the recently appointed new Imam whom Hazmi had met with in San Diego.<ref>[http://www.cageprisoners.com/campaigns.php?id=412 Imam Anwar Al Awlaki - A Leader in Need] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402074940/http://www.cageprisoners.com/campaigns.php?id=412 |date=April 2, 2007 }}; Cageprisoners.com, November 8, 2006, accessed June 7, 2007</ref><ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/6521758/Fort-Hood-shooting-Texas-army-killer-linked-to-September-11-terrorists.html Sherwell, Philip, and Spillius, Alex, "Fort Hood shooting: Texas army killer linked to September 11 terrorists; Major Nidal Malik Hasan worshipped at a mosque led by a radical imam said to be a "spiritual adviser" to three of the hijackers who attacked America on Sept 11, 2001,"] ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'', November 7, 2009, accessed November 12, 2009</ref>

At the mosque, Hanjour and Hazmi soon met Eyad Alrababah, a Jordanian who later pleaded guilty to document fraud and was deported. They had told him that they were looking for an apartment to rent, and he found a friend who rented them an apartment in Alexandria where they stayed. On 4 April 2001, Hanjour asked to forward his utility deposits to 3159 Row Street, Falls Church, Virginia, which was the same address as the mosque.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/13120414/FBI-Summary-about-Alleged-Flight-77-Hijacker-Hani-Hanjour|title=FBI Summary about Alleged Flight 77 Hijacker Hani Hanjour - Aviation|website=Scribd}}</ref>

When police raided the Hamburg apartment of [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] (the "20th hijacker") while investigating the 9/11 attacks, Awlaki's telephone number was found among bin al-Shibh's personal contact information.<ref name="wanted">[http://www.sfexaminer.com/world/69739347.html Al-Haj, Ahmed, and Abu-Nasr, Donna, "US imam who communicated with Fort Hood suspect wanted in Yemen on terror suspicions,"]{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[Associated Press]], November 11, 2009, accessed November 12, 2009{{dead link|date=October 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

On 2 May 2001, two new roommates joined them in Virginia: [[Majed Moqed]] and [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]], both of whom had just flown into the United States from the Middle East.

Alrababah later suggested they all go together to look at apartments in [[Fairfield, Connecticut]]. On May 8, Alrababah, Hanjour, Hazmi, Moqed and Ghamdi traveled to Fairfield to look for housing. While there, they also called several local flight schools. They then travelled briefly to Paterson to look at that area as well. Rababah has contended that, after this trip, he never saw any of the men again.<ref name="911-ch7"/>

Sometime at the end of May 2001, Hanjour rented a one-bedroom apartment in [[Paterson, New Jersey]]. He lived there with at least one roommate and was visited by several other hijackers, including [[Mohamed Atta]]. During his time in [[New Jersey]], he and Hazmi rented three different cars including a sedan in June that Hanjour cosigned with the alias "Hani Saleh Hassan". He later made his last phone call to his family back in Saudi Arabia, during which he claimed to be phoning from a payphone in the [[United Arab Emirates]], where he was supposedly still working.

Hanjour, along with at least five other future hijackers, is thought to have traveled to Las Vegas several times in mid-2001, where they reportedly drank alcohol, gambled, and visited [[lap dances|lap dancing clubs]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2001/10/04/MN102970.DTL | title=Agents of terror leave their mark on Sin City / Las Vegas workers recall the men they can't forget | first=Kevin | last=Fagan | date=October 4, 2001 | work=The San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref>

On 20 July, Hanjour flew to the [[Montgomery County Airpark]] in Maryland from New Jersey on a practice flight with fellow hijacker [[Nawaf Alhazmi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycommons.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&the_alleged_9%2F11_hijackers=haniHanjour|title=Complete 911 Timeline: Hani Hanjour|work=History Commons|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830015453/http://www.historycommons.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&the_alleged_9%2F11_hijackers=haniHanjour|archive-date=August 30, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://%7b%7bcite/|title=9/11 Commission Report|date=2004|page=242|access-date=October 1, 2017|archive-date=September 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912055527/http://%7b%7bcite/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On 1 August, Hanjour and Almihdhar returned to Falls Church to obtain fraudulent documentation at a [[7-Eleven]] convenience store where an illegal side business operated for such a service. There they met [[Luis Martinez-Flores]], himself also an [[illegal immigrant]], who agreed to help them for a $100 fee. They drove together to a [[Department of Motor Vehicles|DMV]] office at a mall in nearby [[Springfield, Virginia]], where Martinez-Flores gave them a false address in Falls Church to use, and signed legal forms attesting that they lived there. Hanjour and Almihdhar were then granted state identity cards. (Martinez-Flores was later sentenced to 21 months in prison for aiding them, and giving false testimony to police).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050514171209/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200112/ai_n9017145 "Hijackers' helper faces two years max"], Timothy P. Carney, ''[[Human Events]]'', December 24, 2001</ref> On that same day, Hanjour was stopped by police for driving a [[Toyota Corolla]] {{convert|55|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} in a {{convert|30|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} zone in [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington, Virginia]], for which he paid a $70 fine.

Employees at Advance Travel Service in [[Totowa, New Jersey]] later claimed that Moqed and Hanjour had both purchased tickets there. They claimed that Hanjour spoke very little English, and Moqed did most of the speaking. Hanjour requested a seat in the front row of the airplane. Their credit card failed to authorize, and after being told the agency did not accept personal checks, the pair left to withdraw cash. They returned shortly afterwards and paid the $1,842.25 total in cash.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.boston.com/section/news|title=The latest Boston, local and national news|last=john-waller|date=January 11, 2016|website=Boston.com}}</ref>

Hanjour began making cross-country flights in August to test security, and tried to rent a plane from [[Freeway Airport]] in Maryland; though he was declined after exhibiting difficulty controlling and landing a single-engine [[Cessna 172]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.newsday.com/ny-usflight232380680sep23.story |title=Tracing Trail Of Hijackers |access-date=March 27, 2010 |last=Frank |first=Thomas |date=September 23, 2001 |newspaper=Newsday |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020405020924/http://www.newsday.com/ny-usflight232380680sep23.story |archive-date=April 5, 2002 }}</ref> He moved out of his New Jersey apartment on September 1, and was photographed four days later using an [[Automatic teller machine|ATM]] with fellow hijacker [[Majed Moqed]] in [[Laurel, Maryland]], where all five Flight 77 hijackers had purchased a 1-week membership in a local [[Gold's Gym]]. There, Hanjour claimed that his first name translated as ''warrior'' when a gym employee asked if there was an English translation of their Arabic names. (''Hani'' actually translates as "contented.")

On 10 September 2001, Hanjour, Mihdhar, and Hazmi checked into the Marriott Residence Inn in [[Herndon, Virginia]] where [[Saleh Ibn Abdul Rahman Hussayen]], a prominent Saudi government official, was staying. No evidence was ever uncovered that they had met, or knew of each other's presence.<ref>{{cite news|last=Schmidt|first=Susan|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A31402-2003Oct1|title=Spreading Saudi Fundamentalism in U.S.: Network of Wahhabi Mosques, Schools, Web Sites Probed by FBI|publisher=The Washington Post, Page A01|date=October 2, 2003|access-date=December 23, 2009|archive-date=May 16, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516094503/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A31402-2003Oct1|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====9/11 attacks====
{{Main|American Airlines Flight 77}}
At 7:35 a.m. on 11 September 2001, Hanjour arrived at the passenger security checkpoint at [[Washington Dulles International Airport]], {{convert|26|miles|km}} west of [[Washington, D.C.]], en route to board [[American Airlines Flight 77]].<ref name="911-notes">{{cite book |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Notes.htm |author=9/11 Commission|chapter=Notes |year=2004 |title=9/11 Commission Report|publisher=9/11 Commission|access-date=May 30, 2008 |isbn=1-59248-996-6}}</ref>

Some earlier reports stated he may not have had a ticket or appeared on any manifest,<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/graphics/attack/hijackers.html | newspaper=The Washington Post | title=Four Planes, Four Coordinated Teams | date=September 20, 2001 | access-date=May 4, 2010}}</ref> however he was documented by the [[9/11 Commission]] as having been assigned to seat 1B in first class,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch1.htm | title = We Have Some Planes | access-date = June 7, 2010 | year = 2004 | work =9/11 Commission Report| publisher = [[9/11 Commission]]}}</ref> and reported to have bought a single first-class ticket from Advance Travel Service in Totowa.<ref>{{cite news | first = Glen | last = Johnson | title = Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes | date = November 23, 2001 | url = http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm | work = Boston Globe | access-date = June 7, 2010}}</ref> In the security tape footage released in 2004, Hanjour appears to walk through the metal detector without setting it off, which likely means that agents at the terminal were not looking at any warning signal that indicated if he had weapons. With this, it allowed Hanjour to board Flight 77 without any authorization.<ref>{{cite news |title=Video shows 9/11 hijackers stopped by airport screeners |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/video-shows-9-11-hijackers-stopped-by-airport-screeners-1.473604 |access-date=25 October 2022 |work=CBC |publisher=CBC |date=July 21, 2004}}</ref>

The flight was scheduled to depart at 8:10, but ended up departing 10 minutes late from Gate D26 at Dulles.<ref name="four">{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |title=Staff Monograph on the "Four Flights and Civil Aviation Security" |date=September 2005 |publisher=9/11 Commission|access-date=August 14, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306021319/http://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |archive-date=March 6, 2008 }}</ref> The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to [[air traffic control]] occurred at 08:50:51.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gregor |first=Joseph A. |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/ATC_%20Report_AA77.pdf |title=ATC Report American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=December 21, 2001 |access-date=June 1, 2008}}</ref> At 08:54, Flight 77 began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south,<ref name="911-ch1"/> and then hijackers set the flight's [[autopilot]] heading for Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/autopilot_AA77_UA93_study.pdf |title=Study of Autopilot, Navigation Equipment, and Fuel Consumption Activity Based on United Airlines Flight 93 and American Airlines Flight 77 Digital Flight Data Recorder Information |last=O'Callaghan |first=John |author2=Bower, Daniel |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=February 13, 2002 |access-date=June 1, 2008}}</ref> Passenger [[Barbara Olson]] called her husband, [[United States Solicitor General]] [[Theodore Olson|Ted Olson]], and reported that the plane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives. Using the flight intercom, Hanjour announced the flight was hijacked.<ref name="911-ch1">{{cite book |title=''9/11 Commission Report'' |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf |publisher=9/11 Commission|year=2004 |pages=1–13 |chapter=Chapter 1 |access-date=September 30, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Johnson |first=Glen |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |title=Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes |work=The Boston Globe |date=November 23, 2001 |access-date=June 1, 2008}}</ref> As Flight 77 was 5 miles (8.0 km) west-southwest of the Pentagon, it made a 330-degree turn. At the end of the turn, it was descending through 2,200 feet (670 m), pointed toward the Pentagon and downtown Washington. Hanjour advanced the throttles to maximum power and dove towards the Pentagon at a speed of over {{convert|530|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. At 09:37:46, Hanjour crashed the [[Boeing 757]] into the west façade of [[the Pentagon]], killing all 64 aboard along with 125 on the ground in the Pentagon.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |title=American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=January 31, 2002 |access-date=June 2, 2008 |archive-date=September 26, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220623/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> While level above the ground and seconds from the crash, the airplane's wings knocked over light poles and its right engine smashed into a power generator, creating a smoke trail seconds before smashing into the Pentagon. In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any [[DNA]] samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |title=Remains Of 9 Sept. 11 Hijackers Held |date=August 17, 2002 |work=CBS News |access-date=September 30, 2008 |archive-date=September 30, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930021707/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div831/strbase/pub_pres/Edson2004.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060720223532/http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div831/strbase/pub_pres/Edson2004.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2006-07-20 |title=Naming the Dead - Confronting the Realities of Rapid Identification of Degraded Skeletal Remains |author=Edson, S.M. |journal=Forensic Science Review |volume=16 |date=January 2004 |access-date=September 30, 2008 |issue=1 |pages=63–90 |pmid=26256813 |display-authors=etal }}</ref>

===Family denial===
After the 11 September attacks, Hanjour's family in Saudi Arabia vehemently stated that they could not, and would not, believe he had been involved as one of the hijacker pilots, and also stated that he had phoned them just eight hours prior to the hijackings and his voice did not sound strange or unusual at all.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arabview.com/article.asp?artID=98 |title=Hijacker list raises more questions |date=June 16, 2003 |access-date=January 6, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030616131506/http://arabview.com/article.asp?artID=98 |archive-date=June 16, 2003 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Rayed Mohammed Abdullah Ali]]
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=notes}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category-inline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The ''9/11 Commission Report'']
* [http://www.nbcnews.com/id/5485376 NBC video showing Hanjour with a correct profile]
* [http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/NT00211.html Moussaoui trial exhibit video showing Hanjour with a correct profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512123011/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/NT00211.html |date=May 12, 2009 }}
* [http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm Hanjour Ticket Purchase]

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hanjour, Hani}}
[[Category:1972 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:American Airlines Flight 77]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian murderers of children]]
[[Category:University of Arizona alumni]]

Hani Hanjour

2023-09-12T22:21:07Z

78.157.120.208: DMY date format

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1972–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Hani Hanjour
| native_name = هاني حنجور
| native_name_lang = ara
| image = HHanjour0.JPG
| image_size =
| caption = Undated photo of Hanjour
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1972|8|30|df=yes}}
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]]
| education = [[University of Arizona]]
| alma_mater = University of Arizona
| birth_name = Hani Salih Hasan Hanjour
| birth_place = [[Taif]], Saudi Arabia
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2001|9|11|1972|8|30|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Arlington County, Virginia]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[American Airlines Flight 77|Plane crash]], [[Suicide attack|suicide]]
| known_for = Hijacker-pilot of [[American Airlines Flight 77]] (as part of the [[September 11 attacks]])
}}
'''Hani Salih Hasan Hanjour''' ({{lang-ar|هاني صالح حسن حنجور|translit=Hānī Ṣāliḥ Ḥasan Ḥanjūr}}; 30 August 1972{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker. He served as the [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijacker-pilot]] of [[American Airlines Flight 77]], crashing the plane into [[the Pentagon]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]] in 2001.

Hanjour first went to the United States in 1991, enrolling at the [[University of Arizona]], where he studied English for a few months before returning to [[Saudi Arabia]] early the next year. He returned to the United States in 1996, studying English in [[California]] before he began taking flying lessons in [[Florida]] and then [[Arizona]].<ref>{{cite report |title=9/11 Commission Report|date=July 22, 2004 |publisher=9/11 Commission|access-date=August 15, 2021 |url=https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |ref={{harvid|9/11 Commission|2004a}} |archive-date=August 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816164111/https://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |url-status=live |pages=}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> He received his commercial pilot certificate in 1999, and went back to his native [[Saudi Arabia]] to find a job as a commercial pilot. Hanjour applied to civil aviation school in [[Jeddah]], but was turned down. Hanjour left his family in late 1999, telling them that he would be traveling to the [[United Arab Emirates]] to find work. According to [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], [[Osama bin Laden]] or [[Mohammed Atef]] identified Hanjour at an [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Afghanistan]] training camp as a trained pilot and selected him to participate in the September 11 attacks.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}

Hanjour arrived in the United States again in December 2000. He joined up with [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] in [[San Diego]]. They immediately left for Arizona, where Hanjour engaged in refresher pilot training. In April 2001, they relocated to [[Falls Church, Virginia]] and then [[Paterson, New Jersey]] in late May where Hanjour took additional flight training.

Hanjour returned to the [[Washington metropolitan area|Washington, D.C., metropolitan area]] on 2 September 2001, checking into a motel in [[Laurel, Maryland]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Clemetson |first1=Lynette |title=VIGILANCE AND MEMORY: SOME MOMENTS -- Laurel, Md.; Where Hijacker Stayed, Remorse |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/12/us/vigilance-and-memory-some-moments-laurel-md-where-hijacker-stayed-remorse.html |access-date=12 September 2019 |work=The New York Times |date=12 September 2002}}</ref> On 11 September, Hanjour boarded [[American Airlines Flight 77]], took control of the aircraft after his team of hijackers helped subdue the pilots, passengers, and crew, and flew the plane into the Pentagon as part of the 11 September attacks. The crash killed all 64 passengers on board the aircraft and 125 people in the Pentagon.

While in Florida and Arizona, Hanjour befriended and trained with [[Rayed Mohammed Abdullah Ali]], a fellow Saudi who emigrated to [[Manawatū-Whanganui]] in 2006 to train as a pilot. He was deported from his [[Palmerston North]] home after his links to Hanjour were exposed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rayed Ali - student, pilot, mystery man |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/rayed-ali-student-pilot-mystery-man/Y5B3KHENPOHSCBMTDFDP7HMGVM/ |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=NZ Herald |language=en-NZ}}</ref>{{Relevance inline|paragraph|date=September 2022|discuss=Fifth lead paragraph |reason=This fifth lead paragraph seems quite trivial to the lead section. It is covered in the body.}}

==Early life and education==
Hanjour was one of seven children,<ref name="goldstein">{{cite news |title=Hanjour a Study in Paradox, Suspect's Brother: 'We Thought He Liked the USA' |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=October 15, 2001 |last=Goldstein |first=Amy |author2=Lena H. Sun |author3=George Lardner Jr. |page=A01}}</ref> born to a food-supply businessman in [[Ta'if]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. During his youth, Hanjour wanted to drop out of school to become a [[flight attendant]], although his brother Abdulrahman discouraged this route, and tried to help him focus on his studies.<ref name="goldstein"/>

According to his eldest brother, Hanjour traveled to Afghanistan in the late 1980s as a teenager to participate in the conflict against the Soviet Union. The Soviets had already withdrawn by the time he arrived in the country and he instead worked for a [[relief agency]].<ref name="911-ch7">{{cite book |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |title=9/11 Commission Report|chapter=Chapter 7 – The Attack Looms |publisher=9/11 Commission|year=2004 |access-date=September 1, 2010}}</ref>

==Career==
===Early 1990s===
Hanjour was the first to arrive in the United States, much earlier than other hijackers. He first came to the United States in 1991 to study English at the [[University of Arizona]]'s Center for English as a Second Language. Hanjour's eldest brother Abdulrahman helped him apply to the eight-week program, and found a room in [[Tucson, Arizona]], for Hanjour near the Islamic Center of Tucson. Hanjour arrived for the English language program on 3 October 1991, and stayed until early February 1992, when he returned to Saudi Arabia. Hanjour shared a three-bedroom home on the corner of 4th Avenue and 4th Street owned and managed by a father-son team, who made a living renovating and renting rooms to international students and devoting their energies to spreading a born-again Christian influence; Bob, the oldest son, lived in this house and rented the room directly to Hanjour. Hanjour was a model housemate; he was extremely respectful of others, apolitical in his points of view, enjoyed his Turkish coffee, and appeared as a nonchalant happy-go-lucky teenager with very weak English-speaking skills. Hanjour claimed that he was interested in being an airplane mechanic and claimed that such a position was considered highly in Saudi Arabia. Hanjour participated in morning, noon, and evening prayers at the local mosque. As early as Hanjour moved into this house, he was under the constant watch of two "uncles" who would pick him up for the weekends so that he would spend time with them within their circle, thereby minimizing his contact with his American housemates and friends from the university. In December 1991 Hanjour informed Bob that he missed Saudi Arabia and would be leaving the United States due to homesickness.<ref name="mueller">{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |title=Statement for the Record - FBI Director Robert S. Mueller III |work=Joint Intelligence Committee Inquiry |publisher=Federation of American Scientists (FAS) |date=September 26, 2002 |access-date=September 1, 2010}}</ref> Hanjour was the only hijacker to visit the United States prior to any intentions for a large-scale attack and was not linked to the [[Hamburg cell]] in Germany, which composed of the 3 hijackers who were taking flight lessons to be come pilots. He was the first to receive a license out of the 3 other men, most likely due to arriving to the U.S. prior to preparations for the attacks.

Over the next five years, Hanjour remained in Saudi Arabia, helping the family manage a lemon and date farm near Ta'if.<ref name="goldstein"/> His family often reminded Hanjour that he was getting past the age where he ought to get married and start a family, but Hanjour insisted he wanted to settle down more. While in Saudi Arabia, Hanjour applied for a job with [[Saudi Arabian Airlines]], but was turned down due to poor grades. The airline told Hanjour they would consider him if he obtained a commercial pilot's license in the United States.<ref name="fainaru"/>

===1996===
In April 1996, Hanjour returned to the United States, staying with family friends, Susan and Adnan Khalil, in [[Miramar, Florida]], for a month before heading to [[Oakland, California]], to study English and attend flight school.<ref name="chen">{{cite news |title=Man Traveled Across U.S. In His Quest to Be a Pilot|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F03EFDF153BF93BA2575AC0A9679C8B63 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=September 18, 2001 |access-date=September 1, 2010 |last=Chen |first=David W.}}</ref><ref group="notes">Hanjour obtained a visa in March 1996, and arrived in the United States on April 2, 1996. {{cite web |year=2004 |title=Staff Monograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |access-date=September 1, 2010 |publisher=9/11 Commission}}</ref> Hanjour was admitted to the [[Sierra Academy of Aeronautics]], but before beginning flight training, the academy arranged for Hanjour to take intensive English courses at ESL Language Center in Oakland. The flight school also arranged for Hanjour to stay with a host family, with whom he moved in on 20 May 1996.<ref name="chen"/><ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline</ref> Hanjour completed the English program in August, and in early September 1996, he attended a single day of ground school courses at the [[Sierra Academy of Aeronautics]] before withdrawing, citing financial worries about the $35,000 cost.

Hanjour left Oakland in September and moved to [[Phoenix, Arizona]], paying $4,800 for lessons at CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management in [[Scottsdale, Arizona|Scottsdale]]. Receiving poor marks, Hanjour dropped out of flight school,<ref name="goldstein"/> and returned to Saudi Arabia at the end of November 1996.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=[[Nine Eleven Finding Answers Foundation|NEFA Foundation]] |date=February 4, 2008 |access-date=October 6, 2008 |page=12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=October 12, 2008 }}</ref>

===Late 1990s===
Hanjour re-entered the United States on 15 November 1997,<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=[[Nine Eleven Finding Answers Foundation|NEFA Foundation]] |date=February 4, 2008 |access-date=October 6, 2008 |page=14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=October 12, 2008 }}</ref> taking additional English courses in Florida, then returning to [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]], where he shared an apartment with Bandar al-Hazmi.<ref name="fainaru">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/08/13/AR2007081300752.html |title=Mysterious Trip to Flight 77 Cockpit; Suicide Pilot's Conversion to Radical Islam Remains Obscure |last=Fainaru |first=Steve |author2=Alia Ibrahim |date=September 10, 2002 |newspaper=The Washington Post |pages=A17 |access-date=September 2, 2010}}</ref>

After arriving in Florida on November 1997, Hanjour met a man Rayed Mohammed Abdullah Ali, a mutual friend through Bandar al-Hazmi. Al-Hamzi had suggested that Ali train to be a pilot in Florida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Rayed Ali - student, pilot, mystery man |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/rayed-ali-student-pilot-mystery-man/Y5B3KHENPOHSCBMTDFDP7HMGVM/ |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=NZ Herald |language=en-NZ}}</ref> Hanjour and Ali subsequently trained together both in Florida and Arizona, and became friends. Ali was a leader at the Islamic Cultural Centre in Phoenix where, the [[FBI]] says, he "reportedly gave extremist speeches at the mosque".<ref>{{cite web |date=June 10, 2006 |title=Pilot with 9/11 links found in NZ |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=1&ObjectID=10385963 |accessdate=2006-11-16 |publisher=New Zealand Herald}}</ref> This, however, was disputed by a mosque staff member, who told the [[The New Zealand Herald|New Zealand Herald]] in June 2006 that Ali "was never a leader for the mosque and he never gave speeches at the mosque".<ref name=":0" />

The ''[[9/11 Commission Report]]'' reported that Abdullah attended the same Phoenix flight school as Hanjour and records show the pair used a flight simulator together on 23 June 2001.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rayed Ali - student, pilot, mystery man |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/rayed-ali-student-pilot-mystery-man/Y5B3KHENPOHSCBMTDFDP7HMGVM/ |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=NZ Herald |language=en-NZ}}</ref> Ali later emigrated to New Zealand, where he settled in Auckland and then in [[Palmerston North]] to train as a pilot. He was identified as a friend and colleague of Hanjour in July 2006, less than six months after he first arrived in New Zealand. Immigration Minister [[David Cunliffe]] said that Ali "was directly associated with persons responsible for the terrorist attacks in the United States on Sept. 11, 2001".<ref>{{cite web |date=June 10, 2006 |title=Pilot with 9/11 links found in NZ |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=1&ObjectID=10385963 |accessdate=2006-11-16 |publisher=New Zealand Herald}}</ref>

In December, he resumed training at CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management for a few weeks, before pursuing training at Arizona Aviation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=[[Nine Eleven Finding Answers Foundation|NEFA Foundation]] |date=February 4, 2008 |access-date=October 6, 2008 |page=15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=October 12, 2008 }}</ref> Bandar al-Hazmi and Hanjour stayed in Arizona, continued taking flight lessons at Arizona Aviation throughout 1998 and early 1999. After moving out of Bandar's place in March, Hanjour lived in several apartments in [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Mesa, Arizona|Mesa]] and Phoenix.<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 16—41</ref> In February, financial records showed that Hanjour had taken a trip to [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]].<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 18</ref> In addition to flight training at Arizona Aviation, Hanjour enrolled in [[flight simulator]] classes at the Sawyer School of Aviation where he made only three or four visits.<ref name="goldstein" /> [[Lotfi Raissi]] would begin taking lessons at the same school a month after Hanjour quit, part of what piqued the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]]'s interest in Raissi.

An FBI informant named [[Aukai Collins]] claims he told the FBI about Hanjour's activities during 1998, giving them Hanjour's name and phone number, and warning them that more and more foreign-born Muslims seem to be taking flying lessons. The FBI admits it paid Collins to monitor the Islamic and [[Arab]] communities in Phoenix at the time, but denies Collins told them anything about Hanjour.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/ap052402.html |title=FBI Told of Hanjour Three Years Before Sept. 11, Self-Proclaimed Informant Says |access-date=2004-07-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040202113607/http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/ap052402.html |archive-date=February 2, 2004 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/foxnews052402.html |title=Interview with Aukai Collins |access-date=2004-07-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040106111713/http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/foxnews052402.html |archive-date=January 6, 2004 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

Hanjour gained his [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] commercial pilot certificate in April 1999, getting a "satisfactory" rating from the examiner.<ref>{{cite news |title=For Agent in Phoenix, the Cause of Many Frustrations Extended to His Own Office |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10711FC3C5B0C7A8DDDAF0894DA404482 |date=June 19, 2002 |work=The New York Times | first1=Jim | last1=Yardley | first2=Jo | last2=Thomas | access-date=May 4, 2010}}</ref> Hanjour's bank records indicate that he travelled to [[Ontario, Canada]], in March 1999 for an unknown reason.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html|title=STATEMENT FOR THE RECORD {{!}} FBI DIRECTOR ROBERT S. MUELLER III {{!}} JOINT INTELLIGENCE COMMITTEE INQUIRY |date=September 25, 2002|website=Federation of American Scientists |access-date=November 7, 2018}}</ref>

He traveled to Saudi Arabia to get a job working with [[Saudi Arabian Airlines]] as a commercial pilot but was rejected by a civil aviation school in [[Jeddah]]. His brother, Yasser, relayed that Hanjour, frustrated, "turned his attention toward religious texts and cassette tapes of militant Islamic preachers."<ref>{{cite news |title=Why bin Laden plot relied on Saudi hijackers |first=Charles M. |last=Sennott |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1.shtml |newspaper=The Boston Globe}}</ref> He told his family in late 1999 he was heading to the [[United Arab Emirates]] to find work. However, it is likely that he headed to [[al-Qaeda]] training camps in Afghanistan. He was known by al-Qaeda as Urwa al-Taa'ifi.

===2000===
In May 2000, a third person accompanied Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar to Sorbi's Flying Club where he waited on the ground as they took a flight lesson. It has been theorized this may have been Hanjour.

In September Hanjour again sent his $110 registration to the ELS Language Center, which leased space on [[Holy Names College]] campus in [[Oakland, California]], to continue his English studies. He also applied for another U.S. student visa. Although he was accepted, after the attacks, it would be reported that his visa application was 'suspicious'. Granted an [[F-1 visa|F-1 student visa]] in [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]], September 2000, he failed to reveal that he had previously traveled to the U.S. He never turned up for classes at the ELS Language Center, and when the school contacted its Saudi representative, he reported that he could not find Hanjour either.

On 5 December, Hanjour opened a [[CitiBank]] account in [[Deira, Dubai]]. On 8 December, Hanjour was recorded flying into the [[Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport]], and is thought to have met with [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] in [[San Diego]] shortly thereafter.

===2001===
Hanjour came back to San Diego in December 2000, frequently visiting [[Abdussattar Shaikh]]'s house, which was shared with Nawaf al-Hazmi and [[Khalid Almihdhar|Khalid al-Mihdhar]]. During this time Hanjour may have visited the [[San Diego Zoo]] in February, as a security guard recalls having to page his name to reclaim a lost briefcase containing cash and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] documents and later recognized his photograph. Shortly afterwards, the three hijackers moved out of Shaikh's house to [[Falls Church, Virginia]].
[[File:Hani Hanjour.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A photograph of Hanjour, released by the FBI.]]

The ELS Language Center at Oakland University said Hanjour reached a level of proficiency sufficient to "survive very well in the English language". However, in January 2001, Arizona JetTech flight school managers reported him to the FAA at least five times because his English was inadequate for the commercial pilot certificate he had already obtained. It took him five hours to complete an oral exam meant to last just two hours, said Peggy Chevrette. Hanjour failed UA English classes with a 0.26 GPA and a JetTech manager said "He could not fly at all." The certificate was a requirement for him to join the Saudi Arabian pilot's academy.<ref>{{cite news|title=A Trainee Noted for Incompetence|work=[[The New York Times]]|date= May 4, 2002|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/04/us/a-trainee-noted-for-incompetence.html}}</ref> His FAA certificate had become invalid late in 1999 when he failed to take a mandatory medical examination. In February, Hanjour began advanced simulator training in [[Mesa, Arizona]].

He and Hazmi moved out of Mesa at the end of March, and they were in [[Falls Church, Virginia]], by 4 April. Falls Church was the location of the [[Dar al-Hijrah]] [[mosque]] in the [[Washington, D.C., metropolitan area]]. [[Anwar Al-Awlaki]] was the recently appointed new Imam whom Hazmi had met with in San Diego.<ref>[http://www.cageprisoners.com/campaigns.php?id=412 Imam Anwar Al Awlaki - A Leader in Need] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402074940/http://www.cageprisoners.com/campaigns.php?id=412 |date=April 2, 2007 }}; Cageprisoners.com, November 8, 2006, accessed June 7, 2007</ref><ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/6521758/Fort-Hood-shooting-Texas-army-killer-linked-to-September-11-terrorists.html Sherwell, Philip, and Spillius, Alex, "Fort Hood shooting: Texas army killer linked to September 11 terrorists; Major Nidal Malik Hasan worshipped at a mosque led by a radical imam said to be a "spiritual adviser" to three of the hijackers who attacked America on Sept 11, 2001,"] ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'', November 7, 2009, accessed November 12, 2009</ref>

At the mosque, Hanjour and Hazmi soon met Eyad Alrababah, a Jordanian who later pleaded guilty to document fraud and was deported. They had told him that they were looking for an apartment to rent, and he found a friend who rented them an apartment in Alexandria where they stayed. On 4 April 2001, Hanjour asked to forward his utility deposits to 3159 Row Street, Falls Church, Virginia, which was the same address as the mosque.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/13120414/FBI-Summary-about-Alleged-Flight-77-Hijacker-Hani-Hanjour|title=FBI Summary about Alleged Flight 77 Hijacker Hani Hanjour - Aviation|website=Scribd}}</ref>

When police raided the Hamburg apartment of [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] (the "20th hijacker") while investigating the 9/11 attacks, Awlaki's telephone number was found among bin al-Shibh's personal contact information.<ref name="wanted">[http://www.sfexaminer.com/world/69739347.html Al-Haj, Ahmed, and Abu-Nasr, Donna, "US imam who communicated with Fort Hood suspect wanted in Yemen on terror suspicions,"]{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[Associated Press]], November 11, 2009, accessed November 12, 2009{{dead link|date=October 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

On 2 May 2001, two new roommates joined them in Virginia: [[Majed Moqed]] and [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]], both of whom had just flown into the United States from the Middle East.

Alrababah later suggested they all go together to look at apartments in [[Fairfield, Connecticut]]. On May 8, Alrababah, Hanjour, Hazmi, Moqed and Ghamdi traveled to Fairfield to look for housing. While there, they also called several local flight schools. They then travelled briefly to Paterson to look at that area as well. Rababah has contended that, after this trip, he never saw any of the men again.<ref name="911-ch7"/>

Sometime at the end of May 2001, Hanjour rented a one-bedroom apartment in [[Paterson, New Jersey]]. He lived there with at least one roommate and was visited by several other hijackers, including [[Mohamed Atta]]. During his time in [[New Jersey]], he and Hazmi rented three different cars including a sedan in June that Hanjour cosigned with the alias "Hani Saleh Hassan". He later made his last phone call to his family back in Saudi Arabia, during which he claimed to be phoning from a payphone in the [[United Arab Emirates]], where he was supposedly still working.

Hanjour, along with at least five other future hijackers, is thought to have traveled to Las Vegas several times in mid-2001, where they reportedly drank alcohol, gambled, and visited [[lap dances|lap dancing clubs]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2001/10/04/MN102970.DTL | title=Agents of terror leave their mark on Sin City / Las Vegas workers recall the men they can't forget | first=Kevin | last=Fagan | date=October 4, 2001 | work=The San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref>

On 20 July, Hanjour flew to the [[Montgomery County Airpark]] in Maryland from New Jersey on a practice flight with fellow hijacker [[Nawaf Alhazmi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycommons.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&the_alleged_9%2F11_hijackers=haniHanjour|title=Complete 911 Timeline: Hani Hanjour|work=History Commons|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830015453/http://www.historycommons.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&the_alleged_9%2F11_hijackers=haniHanjour|archive-date=August 30, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://%7b%7bcite/|title=9/11 Commission Report|date=2004|page=242|access-date=October 1, 2017|archive-date=September 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912055527/http://%7b%7bcite/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On 1 August, Hanjour and Almihdhar returned to Falls Church to obtain fraudulent documentation at a [[7-Eleven]] convenience store where an illegal side business operated for such a service. There they met [[Luis Martinez-Flores]], himself also an [[illegal immigrant]], who agreed to help them for a $100 fee. They drove together to a [[Department of Motor Vehicles|DMV]] office at a mall in nearby [[Springfield, Virginia]], where Martinez-Flores gave them a false address in Falls Church to use, and signed legal forms attesting that they lived there. Hanjour and Almihdhar were then granted state identity cards. (Martinez-Flores was later sentenced to 21 months in prison for aiding them, and giving false testimony to police).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050514171209/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200112/ai_n9017145 "Hijackers' helper faces two years max"], Timothy P. Carney, ''[[Human Events]]'', December 24, 2001</ref> On that same day, Hanjour was stopped by police for driving a [[Toyota Corolla]] {{convert|55|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} in a {{convert|30|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} zone in [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington, Virginia]], for which he paid a $70 fine.

Employees at Advance Travel Service in [[Totowa, New Jersey]] later claimed that Moqed and Hanjour had both purchased tickets there. They claimed that Hanjour spoke very little English, and Moqed did most of the speaking. Hanjour requested a seat in the front row of the airplane. Their credit card failed to authorize, and after being told the agency did not accept personal checks, the pair left to withdraw cash. They returned shortly afterwards and paid the $1,842.25 total in cash.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.boston.com/section/news|title=The latest Boston, local and national news|last=john-waller|date=January 11, 2016|website=Boston.com}}</ref>

Hanjour began making cross-country flights in August to test security, and tried to rent a plane from [[Freeway Airport]] in Maryland; though he was declined after exhibiting difficulty controlling and landing a single-engine [[Cessna 172]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.newsday.com/ny-usflight232380680sep23.story |title=Tracing Trail Of Hijackers |access-date=March 27, 2010 |last=Frank |first=Thomas |date=September 23, 2001 |newspaper=Newsday |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020405020924/http://www.newsday.com/ny-usflight232380680sep23.story |archive-date=April 5, 2002 }}</ref> He moved out of his New Jersey apartment on September 1, and was photographed four days later using an [[Automatic teller machine|ATM]] with fellow hijacker [[Majed Moqed]] in [[Laurel, Maryland]], where all five Flight 77 hijackers had purchased a 1-week membership in a local [[Gold's Gym]]. There, Hanjour claimed that his first name translated as ''warrior'' when a gym employee asked if there was an English translation of their Arabic names. (''Hani'' actually translates as "contented.")

On 10 September 2001, Hanjour, Mihdhar, and Hazmi checked into the Marriott Residence Inn in [[Herndon, Virginia]] where [[Saleh Ibn Abdul Rahman Hussayen]], a prominent Saudi government official, was staying. No evidence was ever uncovered that they had met, or knew of each other's presence.<ref>{{cite news|last=Schmidt|first=Susan|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A31402-2003Oct1|title=Spreading Saudi Fundamentalism in U.S.: Network of Wahhabi Mosques, Schools, Web Sites Probed by FBI|publisher=The Washington Post, Page A01|date=October 2, 2003|access-date=December 23, 2009|archive-date=May 16, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516094503/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A31402-2003Oct1|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====9/11 attacks====
{{Main|American Airlines Flight 77}}
At 7:35 a.m. on 11 September 2001, Hanjour arrived at the passenger security checkpoint at [[Washington Dulles International Airport]], {{convert|26|miles|km}} west of [[Washington, D.C.]], en route to board [[American Airlines Flight 77]].<ref name="911-notes">{{cite book |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Notes.htm |author=9/11 Commission|chapter=Notes |year=2004 |title=9/11 Commission Report|publisher=9/11 Commission|access-date=May 30, 2008 |isbn=1-59248-996-6}}</ref>

Some earlier reports stated he may not have had a ticket or appeared on any manifest,<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/graphics/attack/hijackers.html | newspaper=The Washington Post | title=Four Planes, Four Coordinated Teams | date=September 20, 2001 | access-date=May 4, 2010}}</ref> however he was documented by the [[9/11 Commission]] as having been assigned to seat 1B in first class,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch1.htm | title = We Have Some Planes | access-date = June 7, 2010 | year = 2004 | work =9/11 Commission Report| publisher = [[9/11 Commission]]}}</ref> and reported to have bought a single first-class ticket from Advance Travel Service in Totowa.<ref>{{cite news | first = Glen | last = Johnson | title = Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes | date = November 23, 2001 | url = http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm | work = Boston Globe | access-date = June 7, 2010}}</ref> In the security tape footage released in 2004, Hanjour appears to walk through the metal detector without setting it off, which likely means that agents at the terminal were not looking at any warning signal that indicated if he had weapons. With this, it allowed Hanjour to board Flight 77 without any authorization.<ref>{{cite news |title=Video shows 9/11 hijackers stopped by airport screeners |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/video-shows-9-11-hijackers-stopped-by-airport-screeners-1.473604 |access-date=25 October 2022 |work=CBC |publisher=CBC |date=July 21, 2004}}</ref>

The flight was scheduled to depart at 8:10, but ended up departing 10 minutes late from Gate D26 at Dulles.<ref name="four">{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |title=Staff Monograph on the "Four Flights and Civil Aviation Security" |date=September 2005 |publisher=9/11 Commission|access-date=August 14, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306021319/http://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |archive-date=March 6, 2008 }}</ref> The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to [[air traffic control]] occurred at 08:50:51.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gregor |first=Joseph A. |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/ATC_%20Report_AA77.pdf |title=ATC Report American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=December 21, 2001 |access-date=June 1, 2008}}</ref> At 08:54, Flight 77 began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south,<ref name="911-ch1"/> and then hijackers set the flight's [[autopilot]] heading for Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/autopilot_AA77_UA93_study.pdf |title=Study of Autopilot, Navigation Equipment, and Fuel Consumption Activity Based on United Airlines Flight 93 and American Airlines Flight 77 Digital Flight Data Recorder Information |last=O'Callaghan |first=John |author2=Bower, Daniel |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=February 13, 2002 |access-date=June 1, 2008}}</ref> Passenger [[Barbara Olson]] called her husband, [[United States Solicitor General]] [[Theodore Olson|Ted Olson]], and reported that the plane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives. Using the flight intercom, Hanjour announced the flight was hijacked.<ref name="911-ch1">{{cite book |title=''9/11 Commission Report'' |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf |publisher=9/11 Commission|year=2004 |pages=1–13 |chapter=Chapter 1 |access-date=September 30, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Johnson |first=Glen |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |title=Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes |work=The Boston Globe |date=November 23, 2001 |access-date=June 1, 2008}}</ref> As Flight 77 was 5 miles (8.0 km) west-southwest of the Pentagon, it made a 330-degree turn. At the end of the turn, it was descending through 2,200 feet (670 m), pointed toward the Pentagon and downtown Washington. Hanjour advanced the throttles to maximum power and dove towards the Pentagon at a speed of over {{convert|530|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. At 09:37:46, Hanjour crashed the [[Boeing 757]] into the west façade of [[the Pentagon]], killing all 64 aboard along with 125 on the ground in the Pentagon.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |title=American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=January 31, 2002 |access-date=June 2, 2008 |archive-date=September 26, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220623/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/AAL77_fdr.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> While level above the ground and seconds from the crash, the airplane's wings knocked over light poles and its right engine smashed into a power generator, creating a smoke trail seconds before smashing into the Pentagon. In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any [[DNA]] samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |title=Remains Of 9 Sept. 11 Hijackers Held |date=August 17, 2002 |work=CBS News |access-date=September 30, 2008 |archive-date=September 30, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930021707/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div831/strbase/pub_pres/Edson2004.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060720223532/http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div831/strbase/pub_pres/Edson2004.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2006-07-20 |title=Naming the Dead - Confronting the Realities of Rapid Identification of Degraded Skeletal Remains |author=Edson, S.M. |journal=Forensic Science Review |volume=16 |date=January 2004 |access-date=September 30, 2008 |issue=1 |pages=63–90 |pmid=26256813 |display-authors=etal }}</ref>

===Family denial===
After the 11 September attacks, Hanjour's family in Saudi Arabia vehemently stated that they could not, and would not, believe he had been involved as one of the hijacker pilots, and also stated that he had phoned them just eight hours prior to the hijackings and his voice did not sound strange or unusual at all.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arabview.com/article.asp?artID=98 |title=Hijacker list raises more questions |date=June 16, 2003 |access-date=January 6, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030616131506/http://arabview.com/article.asp?artID=98 |archive-date=June 16, 2003 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Rayed Mohammed Abdullah Ali]]
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=notes}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category-inline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The ''9/11 Commission Report'']
* [http://www.nbcnews.com/id/5485376 NBC video showing Hanjour with a correct profile]
* [http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/NT00211.html Moussaoui trial exhibit video showing Hanjour with a correct profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512123011/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/NT00211.html |date=May 12, 2009 }}
* [http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm Hanjour Ticket Purchase]

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hanjour, Hani}}
[[Category:1972 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:American Airlines Flight 77]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian murderers of children]]
[[Category:University of Arizona alumni]]

Ziad Jarrah

2023-09-12T22:13:23Z

78.157.120.208:

{{Short description|Lebanese terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1975–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}

{{Family name hatnote|Samir|Jarrah|lang=Lebanese}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ziad Jarrah
| image = Ziad Jarrah, 2001.jpg
| caption = Jarrah in May 2001
| native_name = زياد جراح
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1975|5|11|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Beirut]], Lebanon
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1975|5|11|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[Suicide attack]] by [[United Airlines Flight 93|plane crash]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Greifswald]] [[Hamburg University of Applied Sciences]]
| relatives = [[Ali al-Jarrah]] (cousin)
| partner = Aysel Şengün (girlfriend)
}}
'''Ziad Samir Jarrah''' ({{lang-ar|زياد سمير جراح|translit=Ziyād Samīr Jarrāḥ}}; 11 May 1975{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was a Lebanese terrorist hijacker. He was one of the four [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] of [[United Airlines Flight 93]], which was crashed into a field in a [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|rural area near Shanksville, Pennsylvania]], following a passenger revolt, as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]].{{Efn|Unless otherwise sourced, statements in this article come primarily from the ''[[9/11 Commission Report]]''.<ref>[[9/11 Commission|National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States]] ([[Richard Ben-Veniste|Ben-Veniste, Richard]]; [[Fred F. Fielding|Fielding, Fred F.]]; [[Jamie Gorelick|Gorelick, Jamie]]; [[Slade Gorton|Gorton, Slade]]; [[Lee H. Hamilton|Hamilton, Lee H.]]; [[Thomas Kean|Kean, Thomas]]; [[Bob Kerrey|Kerrey, Bob]]; [[John Lehman|Lehman, John F.]]; [[Timothy J. Roemer|Roemer, Timothy J.]]; [[James R. Thompson|Thompson, James R.]]) (2004). ''The [[9/11 Commission Report]]: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States.'' W.W. Norton & Company. {{ISBN|0-393-32671-3}}, also available [http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html online] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html |date=August 7, 2010 }}</ref> Where there is substantial disagreement with the report about significant facts in Jarrah's life, this is mentioned explicitly.}}

After a wealthy and [[Secularism|secularist]] upbringing, Jarrah moved to Germany in 1996. He became involved in the planning of the 9/11 attacks while attending [[Hamburg University of Applied Sciences]] (HAW) in the late 1990s, meeting [[Mohamed Atta]], [[Marwan al-Shehhi]] and [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], forming what is now known as the [[Hamburg cell]]. Jarrah was recruited by [[Osama bin Laden]] for the attacks in 1999. Unique among the hijackers, he was close to his family and girlfriend. He was reportedly the only hijacker who had any significant apprehensions about carrying out the attacks. His family and friends continue to deny his association with the attacks.

Jarrah arrived in the United States in June 2000. He trained at [[Huffman Aviation]] together with Atta and Al-Shehhi with their flight instructor [[Rudi Dekkers]] from June 2000 to January 2001, after relocating to Florida from New Jersey. On 7 September 2001, Jarrah flew from [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]] to [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]]. Four days later, he boarded [[United Airlines Flight 93]], and was believed to have taken over as the pilot of the [[aircraft]] along with his team of hijackers, which included [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Ahmed al-Nami]] and [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]], who together made an attempt to crash the plane into either the [[United States Capitol]] or the [[White House]], which was thwarted when the passengers revolted against the hijackers.{{Efn|Various sources have speculated that the [[White House]] was the target of Flight 93; the ''9/11 Commission Report'', based on information derived from the interrogations of [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], confidently asserts that it was, in fact, the Capitol Building that was targeted. Additionally, before he was captured, Sheikh Mohammed, along with bin al-Shibh, told an Al Jazeera reporter (who was taken blindfolded to his hideout) back in 2002 that the fourth target was in fact the Capitol Building.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2244146.stm|title=Al-Qaeda 'plotted nuclear attacks'|publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation|work=BBC News|date=September 8, 2002|access-date=October 9, 2010}}</ref>}}

== Early life and education ==
Ziad Jarrah was born on 11 May 1975 in [[Beirut]], [[Lebanon]] to a wealthy family. He was brought up in a prominent quarter of the city, Tariq al-Jidida, and received his primary and secondary education from schools in that area. His parents were nominally [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Muslim]], although they lived a [[secularism|secular]] lifestyle. In his childhood, he had always wanted to fly planes, but his family discouraged this. "I stopped him from being a pilot," his father Samir told the ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' a week after the attacks. "I only have one son and I was afraid that he would crash."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walker |first1=Marcus |title=A Student's Dreams Or a Terrorist's Plot? |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1000774372551721800 |access-date=November 28, 2018 |newspaper=[[Wall Street Journal]] |publisher=[[Dow Jones & Company]]|location=New York City|date=September 18, 2001}}</ref>

From 1995 to 1996, while Jarrah was still living in [[Yemen]], according to his family, somebody of the same name rented an apartment in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York City|New York]]. The landlords claimed it was the same Jarrah as in the FBI photographs.<ref name="BostonGlobe">{{cite news|url=http://boston.com/dailyglobe2/268/nation/Hijack_suspect_lived_a_life_or_a_lie+.shtml |title=Hijack Suspect Lived a Life, or a Lie |last=Neuffer |first=Elizabeth |newspaper=[[The Boston Globe]] |publisher=Boston Globe Partners L.P.|location=Boston, Massachusetts|date=October 25, 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010925140413/http://boston.com/dailyglobe2/268/nation/Hijack_suspect_lived_a_life_or_a_lie%2B.shtml |archive-date=September 25, 2001 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the spring of 1996, Jarrah moved to [[Germany]] with his cousin, Salim. They were there to take a [[Academic certificate|certificate]] course in [[German language|German]] at the [[University of Greifswald]], which was required of foreigners studying in Germany who do not speak the language. While sharing an apartment with his cousin, he reportedly attended [[disco]]s and beach parties, and his attendance at the [[mosque]] fell off. He met Aysel Şengün, a [[Germany|German]]-born woman of [[Turkey|Turkish]] ancestry studying [[dentistry]], and the two became good friends. They dated on and off for the remainder of his life and lived together briefly, which vexed his more religious friends.<ref>{{cite book|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2004|page=163|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/20/books/review/20book.html|last1=Kakutani|first1=Michiko}}</ref>

In September 1997, Jarrah left Greifswald and instead began studying [[aerospace engineering]] at the [[Fachhochschule]] ([[Vocational university|University of Applied Sciences]]) in [[Hamburg]], while working at a [[Volkswagen]] paint shop in nearby [[Wolfsburg]]. While in Hamburg, he rented an apartment from Rosemarie Canel, who would paint a portrait of him that he would bring back as a gift for his mother that December.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/story.html|title=The Story of Ziad Jarrah|website=[[CBC News]]|date=October 10, 2001|access-date=September 13, 2006}}</ref>

The [[9/11 Commission Report]] states that Jarrah was a member of the [[Hamburg cell]], along with [[Mohamed Atta]] and the others. He did not live with any of the others, however, and can be confirmed to have met with any of them in Hamburg only on a single occasion: that of [[Said Bahaji]]'s wedding at the al-Quds Mosque in October 1999.<ref name="cnn">{{cite news|first=Mike|last=Boettcher|url=http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/05/07/hamburg.wedding/|title=Video shows inside look at al Qaeda cell, authorities say|website=[[CNN]]|publisher=[[Turner Broadcasting Systems]]|location=Atlanta, Georgia|date=May 7, 2003|access-date=February 25, 2019}}</ref>

== Training in Afghanistan ==
In late 1999, Jarrah, [[Mohamed Atta]], [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], [[Said Bahaji]], and [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] decided to travel to [[Chechnya]] to fight [[Russia]]n soldiers in the [[Second Chechen War#1999–2000 Russian offensive|Second Chechen War]]. [[Khalid al-Masri]] and [[Mohamedou Ould Slahi]] convinced them at the last minute to travel instead to [[Afghanistan]] to meet with [[Osama bin Laden]] and train for terrorist attacks.<ref>{{cite book|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|url=https://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm|date=2004|pages=165–166}}</ref> Jarrah was given the ''{{transliteration|ar|[[Kunya (Arabic)|kunya]]}}'' (teknonym) {{Transliteration|ar|Abū Ṭāriq}} ("father of Tariq") likely in honor of [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]], the commander who led the [[Muslim conquest of Spain]].{{Sfn|Ruthven|2004|p=301}}

They were told they were on a highly secret mission and were instructed to return to Germany after the operation and enroll in flight school.{{Efn|This account, in the ''9/11 Commission Report'', is provided solely from the testimony of captured [[al-Qaeda]] member [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]].}} In October 1999, Jarrah was filmed at [[Said Bahaji]]'s wedding with other 9/11 hijackers, including al-Shehhi.<ref name="cnn" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2003-05-07-hijackers_x.htm|title=Wedding video shows Sept. 11 hijackers, plotters|agency=Associated Press|date=May 7, 2003|newspaper=[[USA Today]]|publisher=[[Gannett Company]]|location=Mclean, Virginia}}</ref>

In 2006, a video surfaced showing Jarrah, still bearded, reading his will in January 2000 along with [[Mohamed Atta]].<ref name=TimesOnlineVideo /> Not long after this, Jarrah shaved his beard and began to act in a more secular way, according to Şengün. Many of the future hijackers attempted to hide their radicalism and blend in with the population. To hide his travels to Afghanistan (which may have concerned security officials at international airports) Jarrah reported his [[passport]] stolen in February 2000 and received a blank duplicate, just as hijackers Atta and Shehhi had done the previous month.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/network/personal/cron.html|title=Personal Stories: Chronology of the Sept. 11 Terror Plot|website=[[PBS]]|date=September 11, 2018|access-date=February 25, 2019}}</ref>

Jarrah dropped out of the [[Fachhochschule]] and began looking at flight schools. He claimed that this was to fulfill his childhood dream of being a pilot. After looking in several countries, he decided that none of the flight schools in Europe were adequate. On the advice of a childhood friend, he prepared to move to the United States.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

== In the United States ==
[[File:Jarrah-2000-Flying-Florida.jpg|right|thumb|Jarrah flying in [[Florida]], December 2000]]
Jarrah apparently entered the United States on seven separate occasions, more than any other hijacker. On 25 May 2000, he applied for and received a five-year US [[B-1/B-2 Visa|B-1/B-2
(tourist/business) visa]] in Berlin. On 27 June 2000, he went to the US for the first time, arriving at [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark International Airport]]. He then traveled to [[Florida]] together with al-Shehhi and [[Mohamed Atta|Atta]], where the three men enrolled full-time at [[Huffman Aviation]], in [[Venice, Florida|Venice]]. Jarrah did not apply for a change in his status, from a tourist visa to a student visa, thus violating his immigration status.<ref name="travel">{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf|title=Staff Monograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel|publisher=9/11 Commission|year=2004}}</ref>

Jarrah was enrolled in flight school for six months, from June 2000 to 15 January 2001. At the flight school, many of his classmates remember him fondly, describing him as kind and trustworthy, and remember him drinking beer occasionally.<ref>[http://www.faqs.org/docs/911/911Report-180.html 9-11 Report]. p. 163. Retrieved on September 19, 2006.</ref> Jarrah was unique among the hijackers in that he did not live with any other hijackers, but rather lived with a German student named Thorsten Biermann. Biermann did not observe Jarrah acting particularly religiously or overtly politically. Jarrah occasionally flew back to Germany to visit Aysel Şengün, his Turkish-German girlfriend, and called or e-mailed her nearly every day.

Rudi Dekkers, a [[Dutch people|Dutchman]] and the flight instructor of Huffman Aviation (which is now out of business), was interviewed after the attacks in 2001 by authorities. According to Dekkers, both Jarrah and al-Shehhi were good students, unlike Atta, who misbehaved and refused to follow instructions. Dekkers told Atta that he was going to kick him out of the school if his behavior did not change, and as a response, Atta's behavior began to improve. Dekkers also said that he went with al-Shehhi and Jarrah to a bar in [[Sarasota, Florida]] named Shamrock Pub after one of their flight lessons. At the bar, they talked to Dekkers about their plans after getting their pilot licenses, and Jarrah said to Dekkers "I got a job lined up and we are planning to become pilots."

Jarrah had obtained his license to fly small aircraft in August 2000, and began training to fly large jets later that year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|date=2004}} p. 224</ref> He flew to Beirut to visit his family, and then to Germany to visit his girlfriend, Şengün. He brought her back to the United States for a ten-day visit, and she even attended a flight school session with him. In late January 2001, he again flew to Beirut to visit his father, who was ill, and then to Germany to visit his girlfriend. He returned to the United States once again in late February. His behavior was markedly different from the other hijackers, who broke off all familial and romantic relations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|date=2004}} p. 227</ref>

On his way back to the US, he passed through the [[United Arab Emirates]], according to that country's officials, where he was initially reported as having been interviewed by authorities on 30 January 2001, at the request of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]].<ref name="MacVicar">{{cite news|first1=Sheiula|last1=MacVicar|first2=Caroline|last2=Faraj|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/08/01/cia.hijacker/index.html|title=September 11 hijacker questioned in January 2001|website=[[CNN]]|publisher=[[Turner Broadcasting Systems]]|location=Atlanta, Georgia|date=August 1, 2002|access-date=September 8, 2006|archive-date=September 15, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100915124350/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/08/01/cia.hijacker/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> He allegedly admitted to having been to Afghanistan and [[Pakistan]],<ref name="MacVicar" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Hijacker held, freed before Sept. 11 attack|last=Crewdson|first=John|newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune]]|publisher=[[Tribune Publishing]]|location=Chicago, Illinois|date=December 13, 2001}}</ref> although the CIA has since denied the claim and the [[9/11 Commission Report]] does not mention it. The Florida flight school where Jarrah had been studying also said he was in school there until 15 January 2001.<ref>{{cite book|last=Longman|first=Jere|title=Among the Heroes|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|location=New York City|date=2002|isbn=0-7432-3098-1|pages=101–102}}</ref>

On 6 May, Jarrah registered for a two-month membership at the US1 Fitness Center, a gym in [[Dania Beach, Florida]]—he would later renew his membership for two more months, and eventually had lessons in close-quarters combat.<ref>{{cite news|title=Officials Told of 'Major Assault' Plans|url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-092001probe.story|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010923042516/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-092001probe.story|archive-date=September 23, 2001|last=Serrano|first=Richard A.|author2=John-thor Dahlburg |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|url-status=dead|date=September 20, 2001}}</ref><ref name="Forty lives">{{cite news|title=Flight 93: Forty lives, one destiny |url=http://www.post-gazette.com/headlines/20011028flt93mainstoryp7.asp |last=Roddy |first=Dennis B. |author-link=Dennis Roddy |publisher=PG Publishing |newspaper=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]] |location=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|date=October 28, 2001 |access-date=November 2, 2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011102012349/http://www.post-gazette.com/headlines/20011028flt93mainstoryp7.asp |archive-date=November 2, 2001 }}</ref> It is believed that sometime in that month, [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]], who arrived on June 8, moved in with Jarrah. Jarrah rented a new apartment in [[Lauderdale-by-the-Sea, Florida|Lauderdale-by-the-Sea]] after both men gave the landlord photocopies of their German passports, which he later turned over to the FBI.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Andres|last1=Viglucci|first2=Manny|last2=Garcia |title=Hijack plotters used S. Florida as a cradle for conspiracy|url=http://www.miami.com/herald/special/news/worldtrade/digdocs/046328.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010916000118/http://www.miami.com/herald/special/news/worldtrade/digdocs/046328.htm|archive-date=September 16, 2001|date=September 15, 2001|newspaper=[[The Miami Herald]]|access-date=September 8, 2006}}</ref>

On 25 June, Jarrah took Haznawi to Holy Cross Hospital in [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida]], on the advice of his landlord. Haznawi was treated by Dr. Christos Tsonas, who gave him antibiotics for a cut on his left calf. While he told staff that he had bumped into a suitcase,<ref>{{cite news|last=Fainaru|first=Steve|author2=Ceci Connolly |url=http://www.ph.ucla.edu/EPI/bioter/memoroilsanthraxprobe.html|title=Memo on Florida Case Roils Anthrax Probe |date=March 29, 2002|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=September 8, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610221325/http://www.ph.ucla.edu/EPI/bioter/memoroilsanthraxprobe.html|url-status=live|archive-date=June 10, 2011}}</ref> the media briefly reported it as a sign of [[anthrax|cutaneous anthrax]], hoping to show a link to the [[2001 anthrax attacks]], although the FBI later addressed the rumors, stating that "exhaustive testing did not support that anthrax was present anywhere the hijackers had been."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2002/US/03/23/anthrax/|title=Report raises question of anthrax, hijacker link|date=March 23, 2002|work=[[CNN]]|access-date=September 8, 2006}}</ref>

In mid-July 2001, some of the hijackers and members of the Hamburg cell gathered near [[Salou]], [[Spain]], for a period of a few days up to a couple of weeks. There seemed to be tension between Jarrah and Atta about the plot in its late stages. Atta had complained to [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] about his difficulty in getting through to Jarrah and his fear that Jarrah might withdraw from the plot completely. On 25 July, Jarrah flew to Germany on a one-way ticket and again met with his girlfriend, the last time she saw him (though they would talk by telephone at least once more). Later, he met with bin al-Shibh who convinced Jarrah to go through with the operation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|date=2004|page=246}}</ref> Jarrah arrived back in the United States on 5 August, though other sources indicate that he took his pilot's test on 2August, having missed his sister's wedding to do so.<ref name="CJW Friends">{{cite news|last=Williams|first=Carol J.|title=Friends of terror suspect say allegations make no sense|url=http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sns-worldtrade-jarrah-lat.story|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020203214236/http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sns-worldtrade-jarrah-lat.story|archive-date=February 3, 2002|date=October 23, 2001|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=September 8, 2006}}</ref> On 27 August, he checked into the Pin-Del Motel in [[Laurel, Maryland]], only a mile away from the Valencia Motel, where four other hijackers were staying.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/timeline.html |title=Life of a 9/11 Hijacker |publisher=CBC News |date=October 10, 2001 |format=photos|access-date=January 23, 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050123023057/http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/timeline.html |archive-date=January 23, 2005 }}</ref> On 7 September 2001, all four of the Flight 93 hijackers flew from [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]] to [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark International Airport]] aboard [[Spirit Airlines]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Statement for the Record, FBI Director Robert S. Mueller III|url=https://fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html|publisher=Joint Intelligence Committee Inquiry|access-date=September 13, 2006}}</ref>

In the early morning hours of 9 September 2001, Jarrah was pulled over for speeding in [[Maryland]] and received a ticket.<ref>{{cite book|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|date=2004|page=253}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.911myths.com/images/7/74/Ziad_Jarrah_Traffic_Stop.rm|title=Video of Ziad Jarrah traffic stop|date=September 9, 2001|access-date=April 26, 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071220094253/http://911myths.com/images/7/74/Ziad_Jarrah_Traffic_Stop.rm|archive-date=December 20, 2007}}</ref> Jarrah phoned his parents later that day, mentioning that he had received the money order they had sent five days earlier.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web | title=The Pilot – Story of Zaid Samir Jarrah | website=CBC the fifth estate | date=January 19, 2005 | url=http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/story.html | access-date=November 17, 2021}}</ref> He told them he intended to see them on 22 September for his cousin's wedding.<ref name="autogenerated1" />

On 10 September, Jarrah spent his final evening writing a letter to Şengün, with whom he had made marriage plans. This letter is widely interpreted as a [[suicide note]]. The letter did not reach Şengün; she had entered witness protection shortly after the attacks and her apartment was unattended. The letter was returned to the United States by the German postal service, where it was discovered and delivered to the FBI.<ref>{{cite news|last=Williams|first=Carol J.|title=Love Letter Written by Suspected Hijacker Reportedly Surfaces|url=http://ktla.trb.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-111801letter.story|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040604014007/http://ktla.trb.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-111801letter.story|archive-date=June 4, 2004|date=November 18, 2001|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=September 8, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/note.html |title=Final Note to Aysel from Jarrah |publisher=CBC News |date=January 19, 2005 |access-date=February 24, 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050224110404/http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/note.html |archive-date=February 24, 2005 }}</ref> The note contained the phrases "I did what I had to" and "It is a great honour and you will see the result, and everyone will be celebrating."<ref>{{cite news|first=Kate|last=Connolly|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/nov/18/terrorism.september111|title='I did what I had to,' says suicide pilot's last letter|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|location=London|date=November 18, 2001|access-date=February 25, 2019}}</ref>

According to one source, Jarrah had set up a large mock [[cockpit]] made of cardboard boxes in his apartment just before the attacks.<ref name="Forty lives" />

== 9/11 attacks ==
[[File:Ziad Jarrah Passport Photo.jpg|thumb|160px|Charred passport found among the wreckage of [[United Airlines Flight 93|Flight 93]]]]
{{listen | help = no | filename = Ziad1.ogg | title = Jarrah – 09:31:57 | description = First announcement made by Ziad Jarrah. | format = Ogg | filename2 = Ziad2.ogg | title2 = Jarrah – 09:39:11 | description2 = Second announcement made by Ziad Jarrah. | format2 = Ogg}}
{{Main|United Airlines Flight 93}}

At 5:01 AM on 11 September 2001, Jarrah in [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]] placed a phone call to [[United Airlines Flight 175]] hijacker pilot [[Marwan al-Shehhi]] in [[Boston]]; the pair spoke for less than a minute, likely to confirm that the plan for the attacks was ready to proceed.<ref name="Mitchell">{{cite book |last=McMillan |first=Tom |date=2014 |title=Flight 93: The Story, the Aftermath, and the Legacy of American Courage on 9/11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MXiFBAAAQBAJ&dq=Ziad+Jarrah+Marwan+Al+Shehhi+5:01+am+cell+phone+call&pg=PA64 |location=[[Lanham, Maryland]] |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-1442232853 |access-date=June 11, 2021 |archive-date=September 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911040828/https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Flight_93/MXiFBAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Ziad+Jarrah+Marwan+Al+Shehhi+5%3A01+am+cell+phone+call&pg=PA64&printsec=frontcover%3Dfalse |url-status=live }}{{rp|64}}</ref> While Jarrah made a similar call to [[American Airlines Flight 11]] hijacker pilot [[Mohamed Atta]], this did not occur between Jarrah and [[American Airlines Flight 77]] hijacker pilot [[Hani Hanjour]].<ref>"9/11 Commission Report" (PDF). p. 18. Retrieved May 19, 2023.</ref><ref>"9/11 Commission Report" (PDF). p. 50. Retrieved May 19, 2023</ref> Later that morning, Jarrah, [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Ahmed al-Nami]] and [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]] boarded [[United Airlines Flight 93]] from [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark International Airport]] at gate A17 without incident, and sat in first-class seats near the cockpit. Before boarding, Jarrah called his girlfriend Aysel Şengün from a public telephone at the airport, repeating the words "I love you" over and over.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Vasagar|first1=Jeevan|title=9/11 hijacker made last 'I love you' call|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/20/september11.usa|access-date=March 6, 2017|date=November 20, 2002}}</ref> Due to a delay, the plane took off at 8:42, four minutes before [[American Airlines Flight 11]] crashed into the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]]. The pilot and crew were notified of the first two hijackings that day, and were told to be on alert. Within minutes, around 9:28{{nbsp}}a.m., Flight 93 was hijacked as well. The [[9/11 Commission]] stated that Jarrah was the pilot.<ref>{{cite news |date=July 23, 2004 |title=Flight 93 Hijacker:'Shall We Finish it Off?' |publisher=CNN |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2004/US/07/22/911.flight.93/index.html |access-date=July 30, 2021}}</ref>

The voice of a pilot was heard by [[air traffic control]] telling passengers to remain seated. Jarrah announcing, "Ladies and gentlemen: here the captain. Please sit down, keep remaining seating. We have a bomb on board. So sit."<ref>{{cite news |last=Hirschkorn |first=Phil |title=On tape, passengers heard trying to retake cockpit |url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/04/12/moussaoui.trial/ |date=April 12, 2006 |publisher=CNN |access-date=June 23, 2008}}</ref> At 9:39 a.m., the pilot announced over the radio, "This is the captain. Would like you all to remain seated. There is a bomb on board and we are going back to the airport, and to have our demands, so please remain quiet."<ref>{{cite book|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|date=2004|page=29}}</ref>

At least two of the cellphone calls made by passengers indicate that all the hijackers they saw were wearing red bandanas, and indicated that one of the men, believed to be either al-Haznawi or al-Nami, had a box tied around his torso, and claimed there was a bomb inside. Passengers on the plane had learned the fates of the other hijacked planes through telephone calls; some decided to act, fearing their plane, too, would be used as a missile. A passenger uprising foiled the terrorists' plans, but failed to save the plane. Jarrah and the other hijackers were attacked.<ref> https://www.newsweek.com/passengers-defeated-well-trained-hijacker-assigned-flight-93-1618911 </ref> According to the August 8, 2003, analysis of the plane's [[Flight data recorder|cockpit recording]] by the [[United States]] investigators, a group of passengers tried to break into the cockpit. To knock them off balance, Jarrah rolled the plane to the left and right. When this failed, he then pitched the nose forward and back. Jarrah stabilized the plane at 10:00:03.<ref name="Chap1">{{cite book |chapter='We Have Some Planes' |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch1.htm |year=2004 |title=9/11 Commission Report |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=May 30, 2008}}</ref> Five seconds later, he asked, "Is that it? Shall we finish it off?" Another hijacker responded, "No. Not yet. When they all come, we finish it off."<ref name="Trans93">{{cite web|url=http://i.a.cnn.net/cnn/2006/images/04/12/flight93.transcript.pdf |title=United Airlines Flight No.93 Cockpit Voice Recorder Transcript |access-date=July 4, 2009 |date=April 12, 2006 |publisher=CNN |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208160527/http://i.a.cnn.net/cnn/2006/images/04/12/flight93.transcript.pdf |archive-date=December 8, 2013 }}</ref> The voice recorder recorded the sound of the passengers using the food cart as a battering ram against the cockpit door.<ref name="Chap1" /> Jarrah ceased the violent maneuvers at 10:01:00 and recited the ''[[takbir]]'' (an Islamic prayer) several times. He then asked another hijacker, "Is that it? I mean, shall we put it down?" The other hijacker responded, "Yes, put it in it, and pull it down." The passengers continued their assault and at 10:02:17, a male passenger said, "Turn it up!" A second later, a hijacker said, "Pull it down! Pull it down!"<ref name="Chap1" /> At 10:02:33, Jarrah made a desperate plea in [[Arabic]], screaming "Hey! Hey! Give it to me! Give it to me! Give it to me! Give it to me! Give it to me! Give it to me! Give it to me! Give it to me!", possibly referring to the plane's yoke.<ref>''Flight 93: The Story, the Aftermath, and the Legacy of American Courage on 9/11'', pp 104–105</ref> The plane crashed just [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|outside]] of [[Shanksville, Pennsylvania]], at 10:03:11, 125 miles (200 km) from Washington, D.C. All aboard died instantly. The [[National Transportation Safety Board]] reported that the flight impacted at {{cvt|563|mph|km/h m/s kn}}.

After 11 September, Jarrah's girlfriend, Şengün, filed a missing person report in [[Bochum]]. Jarrah became a suspect as FBI agents found a "Ziad Jarrahi" in the flight manifest (the additional ''i'' at the end a possible misspelling).<ref name="BostonGlobe" />

== Mistaken identity claims ==

There have been claims that Jarrah was not a hijacker but rather an innocent passenger or that he was not present on the plane and his identity was stolen. It has been pointed out that his behavior deviated from the profile presented by the other hijackers and that the passengers reported three and not four hijackers. However, the October 2006 emergence of a video shot on 18 January 2000, showing Jarrah recording his will alongside [[Mohamed Atta]] has cast heavy doubt on such claims.<ref name="TimesOnlineVideo" />

Shortly after the 11 September attacks, family and friends claimed that Jarrah did not exhibit the same "smoldering political resentments" or "cultural conservatism" as Mohamed Atta and the other hijackers. Although his family was Sunni Muslim, Jarrah was not raised with a background of religious conviction and did not hold to an obviously conservative lifestyle. Personnel at the flight school Jarrah attended described him as "a normal person". Jarrah called his family two days, and his girlfriend Aysel Şengün three hours, before boarding United Airlines Flight 93; Şengün described the conversation as "pleasant" and "normal". She also claimed that he never mentioned any names of the other hijackers.<ref name="CJW Friends" /> In his call two days before the attack, Jarrah told his family he would be coming home for a cousin's wedding. "It makes no sense," his uncle Jamal claimed. "He said he had even bought a new suit for the occasion." Jarrah's family in [[Lebanon]] claimed in September 2001 that he was an innocent passenger on the plane.<ref name="BostonGlobe" /> His uncle, Jamal Jarrah, is currently a deputy in the [[Lebanese parliament]] and was appointed minister on 18 December 2016, and a member of the [[Future Movement]], a pro-Saudi Arabian political party led by [[Saad Hariri]]. On 2 January 2012, in a televised interview on Future TV, [[Member of parliament|MP]]{{nbsp}}Jarrah denied his nephew's involvement in the 9/11 attacks, alluding to a conspiracy.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}

On 23 October 2001, [[John Ashcroft]] claimed that Jarrah had shared a Hamburg apartment with [[Mohamed Atta]] and [[Marwan al-Shehhi]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A39318-2001Oct23&notFound=true |title=German Fugitives Sought in Attack Investigation |last=Eggen |first=Dan |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=October 23, 2001 |access-date=September 8, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224023639/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A39318-2001Oct23&notFound=true |archive-date=February 24, 2011 }}</ref> though [[Germany|German]] authorities that same day told the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' that they had no evidence that any of Jarrah's three apartments in Hamburg had been connected with the other hijackers. One high-ranking German police official stated, "The only information we have connecting the three Hamburg suspects is the FBI's assertion that there is a connection."<ref name="CJW Friends" /> In October 2006, however, a video surfaced showing Atta and Jarrah together in Afghanistan, clearly connecting Jarrah to the members of the Hamburg cell.<ref name="TimesOnlineVideo" />

The [[9/11 Commission]] concluded without qualification that Jarrah was a hijacker on the plane when it crashed in Shanksville, Pennsylvania.<ref>{{cite book|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|date=2004|page=14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Friends of terror suspect say allegations make no sense |url=http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sns-worldtrade-jarrah-lat.story |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020203214236/http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sns-worldtrade-jarrah-lat.story |archive-date=February 3, 2002}}</ref>

In October 2006, an [[al-Qaeda]] video was released showing Jarrah and Mohamed Atta recording their wills in January 2000 in [[Osama bin Laden]]'s [[Tarnak Farms]] base near [[Kandahar]], Afghanistan.<ref name="TimesOnlineVideo">{{cite news|title=Watch the video: Osama Bin Laden's HQ|work=The Times|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2089-2382919,00.html|date=October 1, 2006|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004072035/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2089-2382919,00.html|archive-date=October 4, 2006}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
* Jarrah is the central character in the film ''[[The Hamburg Cell (film)|The Hamburg Cell]]'' (2004), in which he is portrayed by Lebanese actor Karim Saleh.<ref name="lat" /> The film focuses on Jarrah's indoctrination to extremism, the formation of the [[Hamburg cell|radical Muslims group of the same name]], and the preparations for the 9/11 attacks.
* Television film ''[[The Flight That Fought Back]]'' (2005) portrays the passenger uprising inside the hijacked United Airlines 93, with Iranian-American actor [[Pej Vahdat]] portraying Jarrah.
* Iranian-American actor [[Dominic Rains]] portrayed Jarrah in the television film ''[[Flight 93 (2006 film)|Flight 93]]'' (2006), which focuses on the hijacking of United Airlines 93.<ref>{{cite web |date=June 8, 2015 |title=Dominic Rains Actors | Soaps.com |url=https://soaps.sheknows.com/general-hospital/actors/dominic-rains/ |publisher=Soaps.sheknows.com |accessdate=November 17, 2021}}</ref>
* Jarrah is portrayed by Egyptian-British actor [[Khalid Abdalla]] in the award-winning film ''[[United 93 (film)|United 93]]'' (2006), also featuring the hijacking of United Airlines 93, and the authorities' attempts to save the four hijacked planes during 9/11.<ref name="lat">{{cite web|date=April 26, 2006|title=Do they really want the part?|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-apr-26-et-terrorist26-story.html|access-date=November 17, 2021|website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref>
* The 2021 German-French film ''[[:de:Die Welt wird eine andere sein|Copilot]]'' ([[German language|German title]]: ''Die Welt Wird Eine Andere Sein,'' [[Literal translation|Lit. trans.]] ''The World Will Be Different'') is based on Jarrah's relationship with Aysel Sengün, prior to the events of 11 September 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.modernfilms.com/copilot|title = Copilot}}</ref> Portrayed by Lebanese actor Roger Azar, Jarrah is renamed as Saeed Awaad to distance the film from being a docudrama. It was an official Panorama entry at the [[71st Berlin International Film Festival]], and was theatrically released on the 20th anniversary of the 9/11 attacks.

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Sisterlinks|s=no|v=no|b=no|wikt=no}}
* {{cite book|last=Baer|first=Robert|title=See No Evil: The True Story of a Ground Soldier in the CIA's War on Terrorism|year=2002|publisher=Three Rivers Press|location=New York}}
* {{cite book|last=Ruthven|first=Malise|title=A Fury for God: The Islamist Attack on America|year=2004|publisher=Granta|isbn=9781862075733}}
* {{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Bert|title=Face Fear, Create Courage|year=2013|publisher=Dog Ear Publishing|location=Indianapolis, Ind.}}
* {{cite web|url=http://hsgac.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Hearings.Hearing&Hearing_ID=4192bcd4-5412-432f-8619-703e09e0ce88|title=Building an Agile Intelligence Community to Fight Terrorism and Emerging Threats|last=Collins|first=Susan M.|date=September 8, 2004|publisher=Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs|access-date=January 3, 2005}}
* {{cite press release|title=The FBI releases 19 photographs of individuals believed to be the hijackers of the four airliners that crashed on September 11, 01 |author=FBI National Press Office |work=Federal Bureau of Investigation |location=Washington, D.C. |date=September 27, 2001 |url=https://www.fbi.gov/pressrel/pressrel01/092701hjpic.htm |access-date=October 1, 2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011001123059/http://www.fbi.gov/pressrel/pressrel01/092701hjpic.htm |archive-date=October 1, 2001 }}
* {{cite web|url=http://notablecases.vaed.uscourts.gov/1:01-cr-00455/docs/67545/0.pdf|title=Government's submission regarding relevance of cockpit voice recorders|publisher=United States district court for the eastern district of Virginia|date=September 13, 2002|access-date=January 23, 2004|archive-date=May 31, 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040531064708/http://notablecases.vaed.uscourts.gov/1:01-cr-00455/docs/67545/0.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/20/books/review/20book.html?_r=0|title=Ordinary but for the Evil They Wrought|last=Kakutani|first=Michiko|work=The New York Times|date=May 20, 2005|access-date=February 17, 2005}}
* {{cite book|last=McDermott|first=Terry|title=Perfect Soldiers: The Hijackers: Who They Were, Why They Did It|url=https://archive.org/details/perfectsoldiersh00mcde|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-058469-6}}

{{United Airlines Flight 93}}
{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{GermanTerrorism}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jarrah, Ziad}}
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths in Somerset County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Hamburg cell]]
[[Category:Hamburg University of Applied Sciences alumni]]
[[Category:Lebanese al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Lebanese Islamists]]
[[Category:Lebanese mass murderers]]
[[Category:Lebanese Sunni Muslims]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Beirut]]
[[Category:Salafi jihadists]]
[[Category:United Airlines Flight 93]]
[[Category:University of Greifswald alumni]]

Ziad Jarrah

2023-09-12T22:12:51Z

78.157.120.208: Consistent use of dmy

{{Short description|Lebanese terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1975–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}

{{Family name hatnote|Samir|Jarrah|lang=Lebanese}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ziad Jarrah
| image = Ziad Jarrah, 2001.jpg
| caption = Jarrah in May 2001
| native_name = زياد جراح
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1975|5|11|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Beirut]], Lebanon
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1975|5|11|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[Suicide attack]] by [[United Airlines Flight 93|plane crash]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Greifswald]] [[Hamburg University of Applied Sciences]]
| relatives = [[Ali al-Jarrah]] (cousin)
| partner = Aysel Şengün (girlfriend)
}}
'''Ziad Samir Jarrah''' ({{lang-ar|زياد سمير جراح|translit=Ziyād Samīr Jarrāḥ}}; 11 May 1975{{Snd}}11 September 2001) was a Lebanese terrorist hijacker. He was one of the four [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] of [[United Airlines Flight 93]], which was crashed into a field in a [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|rural area near Shanksville, Pennsylvania]], following a passenger revolt, as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]].{{Efn|Unless otherwise sourced, statements in this article come primarily from the ''[[9/11 Commission Report]]''.<ref>[[9/11 Commission|National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States]] ([[Richard Ben-Veniste|Ben-Veniste, Richard]]; [[Fred F. Fielding|Fielding, Fred F.]]; [[Jamie Gorelick|Gorelick, Jamie]]; [[Slade Gorton|Gorton, Slade]]; [[Lee H. Hamilton|Hamilton, Lee H.]]; [[Thomas Kean|Kean, Thomas]]; [[Bob Kerrey|Kerrey, Bob]]; [[John Lehman|Lehman, John F.]]; [[Timothy J. Roemer|Roemer, Timothy J.]]; [[James R. Thompson|Thompson, James R.]]) (2004). ''The [[9/11 Commission Report]]: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States.'' W.W. Norton & Company. {{ISBN|0-393-32671-3}}, also available [http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html online] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204647/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html |date=August 7, 2010 }}</ref> Where there is substantial disagreement with the report about significant facts in Jarrah's life, this is mentioned explicitly.}}

After a wealthy and [[Secularism|secularist]] upbringing, Jarrah moved to Germany in 1996. He became involved in the planning of the 9/11 attacks while attending [[Hamburg University of Applied Sciences]] (HAW) in the late 1990s, meeting [[Mohamed Atta]], [[Marwan al-Shehhi]] and [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], forming what is now known as the [[Hamburg cell]]. Jarrah was recruited by [[Osama bin Laden]] for the attacks in 1999. Unique among the hijackers, he was close to his family and girlfriend. He was reportedly the only hijacker who had any significant apprehensions about carrying out the attacks. His family and friends continue to deny his association with the attacks.

Jarrah arrived in the United States in June 2000. He trained at [[Huffman Aviation]] together with Atta and Al-Shehhi with their flight instructor [[Rudi Dekkers]] from June 2000 to January 2001, after relocating to Florida from New Jersey. On 7 September 2001, Jarrah flew from [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]] to [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]]. Four days later, he boarded [[United Airlines Flight 93]], and was believed to have taken over as the pilot of the [[aircraft]] along with his team of hijackers, which included [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Ahmed al-Nami]] and [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]], who together made an attempt to crash the plane into either the [[United States Capitol]] or the [[White House]], which was thwarted when the passengers revolted against the hijackers.{{Efn|Various sources have speculated that the [[White House]] was the target of Flight 93; the ''9/11 Commission Report'', based on information derived from the interrogations of [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], confidently asserts that it was, in fact, the Capitol Building that was targeted. Additionally, before he was captured, Sheikh Mohammed, along with bin al-Shibh, told an Al Jazeera reporter (who was taken blindfolded to his hideout) back in 2002 that the fourth target was in fact the Capitol Building.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2244146.stm|title=Al-Qaeda 'plotted nuclear attacks'|publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation|work=BBC News|date=September 8, 2002|access-date=October 9, 2010}}</ref>}}

== Early life and education ==
Ziad Jarrah was born on 11 May 1975 in [[Beirut]], [[Lebanon]] to a wealthy family. He was brought up in a prominent quarter of the city, Tariq al-Jidida, and received his primary and secondary education from schools in that area. His parents were nominally [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Muslim]], although they lived a [[secularism|secular]] lifestyle. In his childhood, he had always wanted to fly planes, but his family discouraged this. "I stopped him from being a pilot," his father Samir told the ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' a week after the attacks. "I only have one son and I was afraid that he would crash."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walker |first1=Marcus |title=A Student's Dreams Or a Terrorist's Plot? |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1000774372551721800 |access-date=November 28, 2018 |newspaper=[[Wall Street Journal]] |publisher=[[Dow Jones & Company]]|location=New York City|date=September 18, 2001}}</ref>

From 1995 to 1996, while Jarrah was still living in [[Yemen]], according to his family, somebody of the same name rented an apartment in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York City|New York]]. The landlords claimed it was the same Jarrah as in the FBI photographs.<ref name="BostonGlobe">{{cite news|url=http://boston.com/dailyglobe2/268/nation/Hijack_suspect_lived_a_life_or_a_lie+.shtml |title=Hijack Suspect Lived a Life, or a Lie |last=Neuffer |first=Elizabeth |newspaper=[[The Boston Globe]] |publisher=Boston Globe Partners L.P.|location=Boston, Massachusetts|date=October 25, 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010925140413/http://boston.com/dailyglobe2/268/nation/Hijack_suspect_lived_a_life_or_a_lie%2B.shtml |archive-date=September 25, 2001 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the spring of 1996, Jarrah moved to [[Germany]] with his cousin, Salim. They were there to take a [[Academic certificate|certificate]] course in [[German language|German]] at the [[University of Greifswald]], which was required of foreigners studying in Germany who do not speak the language. While sharing an apartment with his cousin, he reportedly attended [[disco]]s and beach parties, and his attendance at the [[mosque]] fell off. He met Aysel Şengün, a [[Germany|German]]-born woman of [[Turkey|Turkish]] ancestry studying [[dentistry]], and the two became good friends. They dated on and off for the remainder of his life and lived together briefly, which vexed his more religious friends.<ref>{{cite book|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2004|page=163|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/20/books/review/20book.html|last1=Kakutani|first1=Michiko}}</ref>

In September 1997, Jarrah left Greifswald and instead began studying [[aerospace engineering]] at the [[Fachhochschule]] ([[Vocational university|University of Applied Sciences]]) in [[Hamburg]], while working at a [[Volkswagen]] paint shop in nearby [[Wolfsburg]]. While in Hamburg, he rented an apartment from Rosemarie Canel, who would paint a portrait of him that he would bring back as a gift for his mother that December.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/story.html|title=The Story of Ziad Jarrah|website=[[CBC News]]|date=October 10, 2001|access-date=September 13, 2006}}</ref>

The [[9/11 Commission Report]] states that Jarrah was a member of the [[Hamburg cell]], along with [[Mohamed Atta]] and the others. He did not live with any of the others, however, and can be confirmed to have met with any of them in Hamburg only on a single occasion: that of [[Said Bahaji]]'s wedding at the al-Quds Mosque in October 1999.<ref name="cnn">{{cite news|first=Mike|last=Boettcher|url=http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/05/07/hamburg.wedding/|title=Video shows inside look at al Qaeda cell, authorities say|website=[[CNN]]|publisher=[[Turner Broadcasting Systems]]|location=Atlanta, Georgia|date=May 7, 2003|access-date=February 25, 2019}}</ref>

== Training in Afghanistan ==
In late 1999, Jarrah, [[Mohamed Atta]], [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], [[Said Bahaji]], and [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] decided to travel to [[Chechnya]] to fight [[Russia]]n soldiers in the [[Second Chechen War#1999–2000 Russian offensive|Second Chechen War]]. [[Khalid al-Masri]] and [[Mohamedou Ould Slahi]] convinced them at the last minute to travel instead to [[Afghanistan]] to meet with [[Osama bin Laden]] and train for terrorist attacks.<ref>{{cite book|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|url=https://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm|date=2004|pages=165–166}}</ref> Jarrah was given the ''{{transliteration|ar|[[Kunya (Arabic)|kunya]]}}'' (teknonym) {{Transliteration|ar|Abū Ṭāriq}} ("father of Tariq") likely in honor of [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]], the commander who led the [[Muslim conquest of Spain]].{{Sfn|Ruthven|2004|p=301}}

They were told they were on a highly secret mission and were instructed to return to Germany after the operation and enroll in flight school.{{Efn|This account, in the ''9/11 Commission Report'', is provided solely from the testimony of captured [[al-Qaeda]] member [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]].}} In October 1999, Jarrah was filmed at [[Said Bahaji]]'s wedding with other 9/11 hijackers, including al-Shehhi.<ref name="cnn" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2003-05-07-hijackers_x.htm|title=Wedding video shows Sept. 11 hijackers, plotters|agency=Associated Press|date=May 7, 2003|newspaper=[[USA Today]]|publisher=[[Gannett Company]]|location=Mclean, Virginia}}</ref>

In 2006, a video surfaced showing Jarrah, still bearded, reading his will in January 2000 along with [[Mohamed Atta]].<ref name=TimesOnlineVideo /> Not long after this, Jarrah shaved his beard and began to act in a more secular way, according to Şengün. Many of the future hijackers attempted to hide their radicalism and blend in with the population. To hide his travels to Afghanistan (which may have concerned security officials at international airports) Jarrah reported his [[passport]] stolen in February 2000 and received a blank duplicate, just as hijackers Atta and Shehhi had done the previous month.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/network/personal/cron.html|title=Personal Stories: Chronology of the Sept. 11 Terror Plot|website=[[PBS]]|date=September 11, 2018|access-date=February 25, 2019}}</ref>

Jarrah dropped out of the [[Fachhochschule]] and began looking at flight schools. He claimed that this was to fulfill his childhood dream of being a pilot. After looking in several countries, he decided that none of the flight schools in Europe were adequate. On the advice of a childhood friend, he prepared to move to the United States.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

== In the United States ==
[[File:Jarrah-2000-Flying-Florida.jpg|right|thumb|Jarrah flying in [[Florida]], December 2000]]
Jarrah apparently entered the United States on seven separate occasions, more than any other hijacker. On 25 May 2000, he applied for and received a five-year US [[B-1/B-2 Visa|B-1/B-2
(tourist/business) visa]] in Berlin. On 27 June 2000, he went to the US for the first time, arriving at [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark International Airport]]. He then traveled to [[Florida]] together with al-Shehhi and [[Mohamed Atta|Atta]], where the three men enrolled full-time at [[Huffman Aviation]], in [[Venice, Florida|Venice]]. Jarrah did not apply for a change in his status, from a tourist visa to a student visa, thus violating his immigration status.<ref name="travel">{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf|title=Staff Monograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel|publisher=9/11 Commission|year=2004}}</ref>

Jarrah was enrolled in flight school for six months, from June 2000 to 15 January 2001. At the flight school, many of his classmates remember him fondly, describing him as kind and trustworthy, and remember him drinking beer occasionally.<ref>[http://www.faqs.org/docs/911/911Report-180.html 9-11 Report]. p. 163. Retrieved on September 19, 2006.</ref> Jarrah was unique among the hijackers in that he did not live with any other hijackers, but rather lived with a German student named Thorsten Biermann. Biermann did not observe Jarrah acting particularly religiously or overtly politically. Jarrah occasionally flew back to Germany to visit Aysel Şengün, his Turkish-German girlfriend, and called or e-mailed her nearly every day.

Rudi Dekkers, a [[Dutch people|Dutchman]] and the flight instructor of Huffman Aviation (which is now out of business), was interviewed after the attacks in 2001 by authorities. According to Dekkers, both Jarrah and al-Shehhi were good students, unlike Atta, who misbehaved and refused to follow instructions. Dekkers told Atta that he was going to kick him out of the school if his behavior did not change, and as a response, Atta's behavior began to improve. Dekkers also said that he went with al-Shehhi and Jarrah to a bar in [[Sarasota, Florida]] named Shamrock Pub after one of their flight lessons. At the bar, they talked to Dekkers about their plans after getting their pilot licenses, and Jarrah said to Dekkers "I got a job lined up and we are planning to become pilots."

Jarrah had obtained his license to fly small aircraft in August 2000, and began training to fly large jets later that year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|date=2004}} p. 224</ref> He flew to Beirut to visit his family, and then to Germany to visit his girlfriend, Şengün. He brought her back to the United States for a ten-day visit, and she even attended a flight school session with him. In late January 2001, he again flew to Beirut to visit his father, who was ill, and then to Germany to visit his girlfriend. He returned to the United States once again in late February. His behavior was markedly different from the other hijackers, who broke off all familial and romantic relations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|date=2004}} p. 227</ref>

On his way back to the US, he passed through the [[United Arab Emirates]], according to that country's officials, where he was initially reported as having been interviewed by authorities on 30 January 2001, at the request of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]].<ref name="MacVicar">{{cite news|first1=Sheiula|last1=MacVicar|first2=Caroline|last2=Faraj|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/08/01/cia.hijacker/index.html|title=September 11 hijacker questioned in January 2001|website=[[CNN]]|publisher=[[Turner Broadcasting Systems]]|location=Atlanta, Georgia|date=August 1, 2002|access-date=September 8, 2006|archive-date=September 15, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100915124350/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/08/01/cia.hijacker/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> He allegedly admitted to having been to Afghanistan and [[Pakistan]],<ref name="MacVicar" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Hijacker held, freed before Sept. 11 attack|last=Crewdson|first=John|newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune]]|publisher=[[Tribune Publishing]]|location=Chicago, Illinois|date=December 13, 2001}}</ref> although the CIA has since denied the claim and the [[9/11 Commission Report]] does not mention it. The Florida flight school where Jarrah had been studying also said he was in school there until 15 January 2001.<ref>{{cite book|last=Longman|first=Jere|title=Among the Heroes|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|location=New York City|date=2002|isbn=0-7432-3098-1|pages=101–102}}</ref>

On 6 May, Jarrah registered for a two-month membership at the US1 Fitness Center, a gym in [[Dania Beach, Florida]]—he would later renew his membership for two more months, and eventually had lessons in close-quarters combat.<ref>{{cite news|title=Officials Told of 'Major Assault' Plans|url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-092001probe.story|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010923042516/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-092001probe.story|archive-date=September 23, 2001|last=Serrano|first=Richard A.|author2=John-thor Dahlburg |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|url-status=dead|date=September 20, 2001}}</ref><ref name="Forty lives">{{cite news|title=Flight 93: Forty lives, one destiny |url=http://www.post-gazette.com/headlines/20011028flt93mainstoryp7.asp |last=Roddy |first=Dennis B. |author-link=Dennis Roddy |publisher=PG Publishing |newspaper=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]] |location=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|date=October 28, 2001 |access-date=November 2, 2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011102012349/http://www.post-gazette.com/headlines/20011028flt93mainstoryp7.asp |archive-date=November 2, 2001 }}</ref> It is believed that sometime in that month, [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]], who arrived on June 8, moved in with Jarrah. Jarrah rented a new apartment in [[Lauderdale-by-the-Sea, Florida|Lauderdale-by-the-Sea]] after both men gave the landlord photocopies of their German passports, which he later turned over to the FBI.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Andres|last1=Viglucci|first2=Manny|last2=Garcia |title=Hijack plotters used S. Florida as a cradle for conspiracy|url=http://www.miami.com/herald/special/news/worldtrade/digdocs/046328.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010916000118/http://www.miami.com/herald/special/news/worldtrade/digdocs/046328.htm|archive-date=September 16, 2001|date=September 15, 2001|newspaper=[[The Miami Herald]]|access-date=September 8, 2006}}</ref>

On 25 June, Jarrah took Haznawi to Holy Cross Hospital in [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida]], on the advice of his landlord. Haznawi was treated by Dr. Christos Tsonas, who gave him antibiotics for a cut on his left calf. While he told staff that he had bumped into a suitcase,<ref>{{cite news|last=Fainaru|first=Steve|author2=Ceci Connolly |url=http://www.ph.ucla.edu/EPI/bioter/memoroilsanthraxprobe.html|title=Memo on Florida Case Roils Anthrax Probe |date=March 29, 2002|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=September 8, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610221325/http://www.ph.ucla.edu/EPI/bioter/memoroilsanthraxprobe.html|url-status=live|archive-date=June 10, 2011}}</ref> the media briefly reported it as a sign of [[anthrax|cutaneous anthrax]], hoping to show a link to the [[2001 anthrax attacks]], although the FBI later addressed the rumors, stating that "exhaustive testing did not support that anthrax was present anywhere the hijackers had been."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2002/US/03/23/anthrax/|title=Report raises question of anthrax, hijacker link|date=March 23, 2002|work=[[CNN]]|access-date=September 8, 2006}}</ref>

In mid-July 2001, some of the hijackers and members of the Hamburg cell gathered near [[Salou]], [[Spain]], for a period of a few days up to a couple of weeks. There seemed to be tension between Jarrah and Atta about the plot in its late stages. Atta had complained to [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] about his difficulty in getting through to Jarrah and his fear that Jarrah might withdraw from the plot completely. On 25 July, Jarrah flew to Germany on a one-way ticket and again met with his girlfriend, the last time she saw him (though they would talk by telephone at least once more). Later, he met with bin al-Shibh who convinced Jarrah to go through with the operation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|date=2004|page=246}}</ref> Jarrah arrived back in the United States on 5 August, though other sources indicate that he took his pilot's test on 2August, having missed his sister's wedding to do so.<ref name="CJW Friends">{{cite news|last=Williams|first=Carol J.|title=Friends of terror suspect say allegations make no sense|url=http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sns-worldtrade-jarrah-lat.story|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020203214236/http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sns-worldtrade-jarrah-lat.story|archive-date=February 3, 2002|date=October 23, 2001|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=September 8, 2006}}</ref> On 27 August, he checked into the Pin-Del Motel in [[Laurel, Maryland]], only a mile away from the Valencia Motel, where four other hijackers were staying.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/timeline.html |title=Life of a 9/11 Hijacker |publisher=CBC News |date=October 10, 2001 |format=photos|access-date=January 23, 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050123023057/http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/timeline.html |archive-date=January 23, 2005 }}</ref> On 7 September 2001, all four of the Flight 93 hijackers flew from [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]] to [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark International Airport]] aboard [[Spirit Airlines]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Statement for the Record, FBI Director Robert S. Mueller III|url=https://fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html|publisher=Joint Intelligence Committee Inquiry|access-date=September 13, 2006}}</ref>

In the early morning hours of 9 September 2001, Jarrah was pulled over for speeding in [[Maryland]] and received a ticket.<ref>{{cite book|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|date=2004|page=253}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.911myths.com/images/7/74/Ziad_Jarrah_Traffic_Stop.rm|title=Video of Ziad Jarrah traffic stop|date=September 9, 2001|access-date=April 26, 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071220094253/http://911myths.com/images/7/74/Ziad_Jarrah_Traffic_Stop.rm|archive-date=December 20, 2007}}</ref> Jarrah phoned his parents later that day, mentioning that he had received the money order they had sent five days earlier.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web | title=The Pilot – Story of Zaid Samir Jarrah | website=CBC the fifth estate | date=January 19, 2005 | url=http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/story.html | access-date=November 17, 2021}}</ref> He told them he intended to see them on September 22 for his cousin's wedding.<ref name="autogenerated1" />

On 10 September, Jarrah spent his final evening writing a letter to Şengün, with whom he had made marriage plans. This letter is widely interpreted as a [[suicide note]]. The letter did not reach Şengün; she had entered witness protection shortly after the attacks and her apartment was unattended. The letter was returned to the United States by the German postal service, where it was discovered and delivered to the FBI.<ref>{{cite news|last=Williams|first=Carol J.|title=Love Letter Written by Suspected Hijacker Reportedly Surfaces|url=http://ktla.trb.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-111801letter.story|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040604014007/http://ktla.trb.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-111801letter.story|archive-date=June 4, 2004|date=November 18, 2001|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=September 8, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/note.html |title=Final Note to Aysel from Jarrah |publisher=CBC News |date=January 19, 2005 |access-date=February 24, 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050224110404/http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/thepilot/note.html |archive-date=February 24, 2005 }}</ref> The note contained the phrases "I did what I had to" and "It is a great honour and you will see the result, and everyone will be celebrating."<ref>{{cite news|first=Kate|last=Connolly|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/nov/18/terrorism.september111|title='I did what I had to,' says suicide pilot's last letter|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|location=London|date=November 18, 2001|access-date=February 25, 2019}}</ref>

According to one source, Jarrah had set up a large mock [[cockpit]] made of cardboard boxes in his apartment just before the attacks.<ref name="Forty lives" />

== 9/11 attacks ==
[[File:Ziad Jarrah Passport Photo.jpg|thumb|160px|Charred passport found among the wreckage of [[United Airlines Flight 93|Flight 93]]]]
{{listen | help = no | filename = Ziad1.ogg | title = Jarrah – 09:31:57 | description = First announcement made by Ziad Jarrah. | format = Ogg | filename2 = Ziad2.ogg | title2 = Jarrah – 09:39:11 | description2 = Second announcement made by Ziad Jarrah. | format2 = Ogg}}
{{Main|United Airlines Flight 93}}

At 5:01 AM on 11 September 2001, Jarrah in [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]] placed a phone call to [[United Airlines Flight 175]] hijacker pilot [[Marwan al-Shehhi]] in [[Boston]]; the pair spoke for less than a minute, likely to confirm that the plan for the attacks was ready to proceed.<ref name="Mitchell">{{cite book |last=McMillan |first=Tom |date=2014 |title=Flight 93: The Story, the Aftermath, and the Legacy of American Courage on 9/11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MXiFBAAAQBAJ&dq=Ziad+Jarrah+Marwan+Al+Shehhi+5:01+am+cell+phone+call&pg=PA64 |location=[[Lanham, Maryland]] |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-1442232853 |access-date=June 11, 2021 |archive-date=September 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911040828/https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Flight_93/MXiFBAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Ziad+Jarrah+Marwan+Al+Shehhi+5%3A01+am+cell+phone+call&pg=PA64&printsec=frontcover%3Dfalse |url-status=live }}{{rp|64}}</ref> While Jarrah made a similar call to [[American Airlines Flight 11]] hijacker pilot [[Mohamed Atta]], this did not occur between Jarrah and [[American Airlines Flight 77]] hijacker pilot [[Hani Hanjour]].<ref>"9/11 Commission Report" (PDF). p. 18. Retrieved May 19, 2023.</ref><ref>"9/11 Commission Report" (PDF). p. 50. Retrieved May 19, 2023</ref> Later that morning, Jarrah, [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Ahmed al-Nami]] and [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]] boarded [[United Airlines Flight 93]] from [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark International Airport]] at gate A17 without incident, and sat in first-class seats near the cockpit. Before boarding, Jarrah called his girlfriend Aysel Şengün from a public telephone at the airport, repeating the words "I love you" over and over.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Vasagar|first1=Jeevan|title=9/11 hijacker made last 'I love you' call|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/20/september11.usa|access-date=March 6, 2017|date=November 20, 2002}}</ref> Due to a delay, the plane took off at 8:42, four minutes before [[American Airlines Flight 11]] crashed into the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]]. The pilot and crew were notified of the first two hijackings that day, and were told to be on alert. Within minutes, around 9:28{{nbsp}}a.m., Flight 93 was hijacked as well. The [[9/11 Commission]] stated that Jarrah was the pilot.<ref>{{cite news |date=July 23, 2004 |title=Flight 93 Hijacker:'Shall We Finish it Off?' |publisher=CNN |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2004/US/07/22/911.flight.93/index.html |access-date=July 30, 2021}}</ref>

The voice of a pilot was heard by [[air traffic control]] telling passengers to remain seated. Jarrah announcing, "Ladies and gentlemen: here the captain. Please sit down, keep remaining seating. We have a bomb on board. So sit."<ref>{{cite news |last=Hirschkorn |first=Phil |title=On tape, passengers heard trying to retake cockpit |url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/04/12/moussaoui.trial/ |date=April 12, 2006 |publisher=CNN |access-date=June 23, 2008}}</ref> At 9:39 a.m., the pilot announced over the radio, "This is the captain. Would like you all to remain seated. There is a bomb on board and we are going back to the airport, and to have our demands, so please remain quiet."<ref>{{cite book|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|date=2004|page=29}}</ref>

At least two of the cellphone calls made by passengers indicate that all the hijackers they saw were wearing red bandanas, and indicated that one of the men, believed to be either al-Haznawi or al-Nami, had a box tied around his torso, and claimed there was a bomb inside. Passengers on the plane had learned the fates of the other hijacked planes through telephone calls; some decided to act, fearing their plane, too, would be used as a missile. A passenger uprising foiled the terrorists' plans, but failed to save the plane. Jarrah and the other hijackers were attacked.<ref> https://www.newsweek.com/passengers-defeated-well-trained-hijacker-assigned-flight-93-1618911 </ref> According to the August 8, 2003, analysis of the plane's [[Flight data recorder|cockpit recording]] by the [[United States]] investigators, a group of passengers tried to break into the cockpit. To knock them off balance, Jarrah rolled the plane to the left and right. When this failed, he then pitched the nose forward and back. Jarrah stabilized the plane at 10:00:03.<ref name="Chap1">{{cite book |chapter='We Have Some Planes' |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch1.htm |year=2004 |title=9/11 Commission Report |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=May 30, 2008}}</ref> Five seconds later, he asked, "Is that it? Shall we finish it off?" Another hijacker responded, "No. Not yet. When they all come, we finish it off."<ref name="Trans93">{{cite web|url=http://i.a.cnn.net/cnn/2006/images/04/12/flight93.transcript.pdf |title=United Airlines Flight No.93 Cockpit Voice Recorder Transcript |access-date=July 4, 2009 |date=April 12, 2006 |publisher=CNN |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208160527/http://i.a.cnn.net/cnn/2006/images/04/12/flight93.transcript.pdf |archive-date=December 8, 2013 }}</ref> The voice recorder recorded the sound of the passengers using the food cart as a battering ram against the cockpit door.<ref name="Chap1" /> Jarrah ceased the violent maneuvers at 10:01:00 and recited the ''[[takbir]]'' (an Islamic prayer) several times. He then asked another hijacker, "Is that it? I mean, shall we put it down?" The other hijacker responded, "Yes, put it in it, and pull it down." The passengers continued their assault and at 10:02:17, a male passenger said, "Turn it up!" A second later, a hijacker said, "Pull it down! Pull it down!"<ref name="Chap1" /> At 10:02:33, Jarrah made a desperate plea in [[Arabic]], screaming "Hey! Hey! Give it to me! Give it to me! Give it to me! Give it to me! Give it to me! Give it to me! Give it to me! Give it to me!", possibly referring to the plane's yoke.<ref>''Flight 93: The Story, the Aftermath, and the Legacy of American Courage on 9/11'', pp 104–105</ref> The plane crashed just [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|outside]] of [[Shanksville, Pennsylvania]], at 10:03:11, 125 miles (200 km) from Washington, D.C. All aboard died instantly. The [[National Transportation Safety Board]] reported that the flight impacted at {{cvt|563|mph|km/h m/s kn}}.

After 11 September, Jarrah's girlfriend, Şengün, filed a missing person report in [[Bochum]]. Jarrah became a suspect as FBI agents found a "Ziad Jarrahi" in the flight manifest (the additional ''i'' at the end a possible misspelling).<ref name="BostonGlobe" />

== Mistaken identity claims ==

There have been claims that Jarrah was not a hijacker but rather an innocent passenger or that he was not present on the plane and his identity was stolen. It has been pointed out that his behavior deviated from the profile presented by the other hijackers and that the passengers reported three and not four hijackers. However, the October 2006 emergence of a video shot on 18 January 2000, showing Jarrah recording his will alongside [[Mohamed Atta]] has cast heavy doubt on such claims.<ref name="TimesOnlineVideo" />

Shortly after the 11 September attacks, family and friends claimed that Jarrah did not exhibit the same "smoldering political resentments" or "cultural conservatism" as Mohamed Atta and the other hijackers. Although his family was Sunni Muslim, Jarrah was not raised with a background of religious conviction and did not hold to an obviously conservative lifestyle. Personnel at the flight school Jarrah attended described him as "a normal person". Jarrah called his family two days, and his girlfriend Aysel Şengün three hours, before boarding United Airlines Flight 93; Şengün described the conversation as "pleasant" and "normal". She also claimed that he never mentioned any names of the other hijackers.<ref name="CJW Friends" /> In his call two days before the attack, Jarrah told his family he would be coming home for a cousin's wedding. "It makes no sense," his uncle Jamal claimed. "He said he had even bought a new suit for the occasion." Jarrah's family in [[Lebanon]] claimed in September 2001 that he was an innocent passenger on the plane.<ref name="BostonGlobe" /> His uncle, Jamal Jarrah, is currently a deputy in the [[Lebanese parliament]] and was appointed minister on 18 December 2016, and a member of the [[Future Movement]], a pro-Saudi Arabian political party led by [[Saad Hariri]]. On 2 January 2012, in a televised interview on Future TV, [[Member of parliament|MP]]{{nbsp}}Jarrah denied his nephew's involvement in the 9/11 attacks, alluding to a conspiracy.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}

On 23 October 2001, [[John Ashcroft]] claimed that Jarrah had shared a Hamburg apartment with [[Mohamed Atta]] and [[Marwan al-Shehhi]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A39318-2001Oct23&notFound=true |title=German Fugitives Sought in Attack Investigation |last=Eggen |first=Dan |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=October 23, 2001 |access-date=September 8, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224023639/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A39318-2001Oct23&notFound=true |archive-date=February 24, 2011 }}</ref> though [[Germany|German]] authorities that same day told the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' that they had no evidence that any of Jarrah's three apartments in Hamburg had been connected with the other hijackers. One high-ranking German police official stated, "The only information we have connecting the three Hamburg suspects is the FBI's assertion that there is a connection."<ref name="CJW Friends" /> In October 2006, however, a video surfaced showing Atta and Jarrah together in Afghanistan, clearly connecting Jarrah to the members of the Hamburg cell.<ref name="TimesOnlineVideo" />

The [[9/11 Commission]] concluded without qualification that Jarrah was a hijacker on the plane when it crashed in Shanksville, Pennsylvania.<ref>{{cite book|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|date=2004|page=14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Friends of terror suspect say allegations make no sense |url=http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sns-worldtrade-jarrah-lat.story |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020203214236/http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sns-worldtrade-jarrah-lat.story |archive-date=February 3, 2002}}</ref>

In October 2006, an [[al-Qaeda]] video was released showing Jarrah and Mohamed Atta recording their wills in January 2000 in [[Osama bin Laden]]'s [[Tarnak Farms]] base near [[Kandahar]], Afghanistan.<ref name="TimesOnlineVideo">{{cite news|title=Watch the video: Osama Bin Laden's HQ|work=The Times|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2089-2382919,00.html|date=October 1, 2006|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004072035/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2089-2382919,00.html|archive-date=October 4, 2006}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
* Jarrah is the central character in the film ''[[The Hamburg Cell (film)|The Hamburg Cell]]'' (2004), in which he is portrayed by Lebanese actor Karim Saleh.<ref name="lat" /> The film focuses on Jarrah's indoctrination to extremism, the formation of the [[Hamburg cell|radical Muslims group of the same name]], and the preparations for the 9/11 attacks.
* Television film ''[[The Flight That Fought Back]]'' (2005) portrays the passenger uprising inside the hijacked United Airlines 93, with Iranian-American actor [[Pej Vahdat]] portraying Jarrah.
* Iranian-American actor [[Dominic Rains]] portrayed Jarrah in the television film ''[[Flight 93 (2006 film)|Flight 93]]'' (2006), which focuses on the hijacking of United Airlines 93.<ref>{{cite web |date=June 8, 2015 |title=Dominic Rains Actors | Soaps.com |url=https://soaps.sheknows.com/general-hospital/actors/dominic-rains/ |publisher=Soaps.sheknows.com |accessdate=November 17, 2021}}</ref>
* Jarrah is portrayed by Egyptian-British actor [[Khalid Abdalla]] in the award-winning film ''[[United 93 (film)|United 93]]'' (2006), also featuring the hijacking of United Airlines 93, and the authorities' attempts to save the four hijacked planes during 9/11.<ref name="lat">{{cite web|date=April 26, 2006|title=Do they really want the part?|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-apr-26-et-terrorist26-story.html|access-date=November 17, 2021|website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref>
* The 2021 German-French film ''[[:de:Die Welt wird eine andere sein|Copilot]]'' ([[German language|German title]]: ''Die Welt Wird Eine Andere Sein,'' [[Literal translation|Lit. trans.]] ''The World Will Be Different'') is based on Jarrah's relationship with Aysel Sengün, prior to the events of 11 September 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.modernfilms.com/copilot|title = Copilot}}</ref> Portrayed by Lebanese actor Roger Azar, Jarrah is renamed as Saeed Awaad to distance the film from being a docudrama. It was an official Panorama entry at the [[71st Berlin International Film Festival]], and was theatrically released on the 20th anniversary of the 9/11 attacks.

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Sisterlinks|s=no|v=no|b=no|wikt=no}}
* {{cite book|last=Baer|first=Robert|title=See No Evil: The True Story of a Ground Soldier in the CIA's War on Terrorism|year=2002|publisher=Three Rivers Press|location=New York}}
* {{cite book|last=Ruthven|first=Malise|title=A Fury for God: The Islamist Attack on America|year=2004|publisher=Granta|isbn=9781862075733}}
* {{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Bert|title=Face Fear, Create Courage|year=2013|publisher=Dog Ear Publishing|location=Indianapolis, Ind.}}
* {{cite web|url=http://hsgac.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Hearings.Hearing&Hearing_ID=4192bcd4-5412-432f-8619-703e09e0ce88|title=Building an Agile Intelligence Community to Fight Terrorism and Emerging Threats|last=Collins|first=Susan M.|date=September 8, 2004|publisher=Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs|access-date=January 3, 2005}}
* {{cite press release|title=The FBI releases 19 photographs of individuals believed to be the hijackers of the four airliners that crashed on September 11, 01 |author=FBI National Press Office |work=Federal Bureau of Investigation |location=Washington, D.C. |date=September 27, 2001 |url=https://www.fbi.gov/pressrel/pressrel01/092701hjpic.htm |access-date=October 1, 2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011001123059/http://www.fbi.gov/pressrel/pressrel01/092701hjpic.htm |archive-date=October 1, 2001 }}
* {{cite web|url=http://notablecases.vaed.uscourts.gov/1:01-cr-00455/docs/67545/0.pdf|title=Government's submission regarding relevance of cockpit voice recorders|publisher=United States district court for the eastern district of Virginia|date=September 13, 2002|access-date=January 23, 2004|archive-date=May 31, 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040531064708/http://notablecases.vaed.uscourts.gov/1:01-cr-00455/docs/67545/0.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/20/books/review/20book.html?_r=0|title=Ordinary but for the Evil They Wrought|last=Kakutani|first=Michiko|work=The New York Times|date=May 20, 2005|access-date=February 17, 2005}}
* {{cite book|last=McDermott|first=Terry|title=Perfect Soldiers: The Hijackers: Who They Were, Why They Did It|url=https://archive.org/details/perfectsoldiersh00mcde|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-058469-6}}

{{United Airlines Flight 93}}
{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{GermanTerrorism}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jarrah, Ziad}}
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths in Somerset County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Hamburg cell]]
[[Category:Hamburg University of Applied Sciences alumni]]
[[Category:Lebanese al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Lebanese Islamists]]
[[Category:Lebanese mass murderers]]
[[Category:Lebanese Sunni Muslims]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Beirut]]
[[Category:Salafi jihadists]]
[[Category:United Airlines Flight 93]]
[[Category:University of Greifswald alumni]]

Zacarias Moussaoui

2023-09-12T22:06:41Z

78.157.120.208:

{{Short description|French Al-Qaeda member imprisoned in the US}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{overly detailed|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox criminal
| name = Zacarias Moussaoui
| native_name = {{lang|ar|زكريا موسوي}}
| image = Zacarias Moussaoui.jpg
| image_upright = yes
| image_size = 200px
| alt = Mug shot of Moussaoui
| caption = Mug shot of Moussaoui
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1968|05|30|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Saint-Jean-de-Luz]], [[France]]
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| other_names = Abu Khaled al-Sahrawi
| alma_mater = [[London South Bank University|South Bank University]]
| conviction_penalty = 6 consecutive life sentences without the possibility of parole
| conviction_status =
| allegiance = [[Al-Qaeda]]
| motive = [[Islamic extremism]]
| conviction = {{bulleted list |[[Conspiracy]] to Commit Acts of Terrorism Transcending National Boundaries ([[Title 18 of the United States Code|18 U.S.C.]] §§ 2332b(a)(2) & (c)) (Count One)|Conspiracy to Commit [[Aircraft hijacking|Aircraft Piracy]] (49 U.S.C. §§ 46502(a)(1)(A) and (a)(2)(B))
(Count Two)|Conspiracy to Destroy Aircraft (18 U.S.C. §§ 32(a)(7) & 34)
(Count Three)|Conspiracy to Use [[Weapons of Mass Destruction]]
(18 U.S.C. § 2332a(a)) (Count Four)|Conspiracy to Murder United States Employees (18 U.S.C. §§ 1114 & 1117) (Count Five)|Conspiracy to Destroy Property (18 U.S.C. §§ 844(f), (i), (n)) (Count Six)}}
| trial = Trials related to the September 11 attacks
| trial_start = {{start date|2006|03|06}}
| trial_end = {{end date|2006|05|03}}
| capture_status = In custody
| country = [[United States]]
| apprehended = {{end date|2001|08|16}}
| imprisoned = [[ADX Florence]]<ref name="BOP"/>
| footnotes = [https://www.justice.gov/archives/ag/indictment-zacarias-moussaoui Charging Indictment] can be accessed here. Moussaoui filed an [https://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/united-states-v-zacarias-moussaoui-101cr00455 appeal] on May 12, 2006 which was denied in 2010.<ref>{{cite court|litigants= U.S. v. Moussaoui|vol= 591|reporter= F.3d|opinion= 263|court= United States Court of Appeals (4th Circuit)|date= 04 January 2010|url= https://case-law.vlex.com/vid/u-s-v-moussaoui-889961804}}</ref>
}}

'''Zacarias Moussaoui''' ({{lang-ar|زكريا موسوي}}, ''{{transl|ar|DIN|Zakariyyā Mūsawī}}''; born 30 May 1968) is a French member of [[al-Qaeda]] who pleaded guilty in [[U.S. federal court]] to conspiring to kill citizens of the [[United States]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]]. He is serving life imprisonment without the possibility of parole at the [[ADX Florence|Federal ADX]] [[Supermax prison]] in [[Florence, Colorado]]. Moussaoui is the only person ever convicted in U.S. court in connection with the 11 September attacks.<ref>{{cite news |first=Matthew |last=Barakat|title=Moussaoui trial revisited on the eve of Sept. 11 anniversary |url=https://apnews.com/article/trials-virginia-zacarias-moussaoui-74b69d513feba71b150f3c76faf1aa29 |work=AP |date=2021-09-09|access-date=2021-10-26}}</ref>

==Overview==
On 16 August 2001, Moussaoui was arrested in Minnesota by the FBI and charged with an immigration violation. He aroused suspicion while taking flight training courses in [[Eagan, Minnesota]].

On 11 December 2001, Moussaoui was indicted by a federal grand jury in [[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia]] on six felony charges: conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism transcending national boundaries, conspiracy to commit aircraft piracy, conspiracy to destroy aircraft, conspiracy to use weapons of mass destruction, conspiracy to murder United States employees, and conspiracy to destroy property.

Moussaoui was alleged by federal prosecutors to have been a replacement for the "first" [[20th hijacker]], possibly [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]]. Bin al-Shibh and [[Zakariyah Essabar]] were denied [[visa (document)|visas]]. However, prosecutors in Moussaoui's drawn-out trial in the US had difficulty directly connecting him to the 19 participants.

Moussaoui's trial was seen in some circles as a barometer of the ability and willingness of the United States to give a fair hearing to terrorism suspects. Others objected to the degree to which the court and especially Judge [[Leonie Brinkema]] tolerated the bizarre and threatening courtroom behavior of Moussaoui.<ref name="NYTimes2006-02-14" /> Moussaoui expressed contempt for the trial and court by introducing [[legal motion]]s deriding Judge Brinkema, surprised onlookers by electing to represent himself in court, and rankled [[United States federal government|federal]] prosecutors by requesting the presence of captured [[al-Qaeda]] members as witnesses in his case.

During the trial, Moussaoui initially stated that he was not involved in the 11 September attacks, but that he was planning an attack of his own. Some al-Qaeda members reportedly corroborated Moussaoui's statement to an extent, saying that he was involved in a plot other than 11 September, but prosecutors believed that his story had no merit. On 3 April 2006, Moussaoui was found to be eligible for the [[Capital punishment in the United States|death penalty]]. Before leaving the courtroom, he was reported to have shouted, "You will never get my blood. God curse you all!"<ref>Hirschkorn, Phil. [http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/04/03/moussaoui.verdict Moussaoui eligible for death penalty.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304032847/http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/04/03/moussaoui.verdict |date=March 4, 2016}} ''[[CNN]]'' (2006-04-05)</ref>

On 3 May 2006, a jury decided against the death penalty for Moussaoui. The next day, he was sentenced to life in prison without parole. As he was led out of the courtroom, Moussaoui clapped his hands and said, "America, you lost ... I won."<ref name="Sniffen" /> Judge Brinkema responded by telling him that he would "die with a whimper" and "never get a chance to speak again".<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4972184.stm Judge hits back in Moussaoui spat.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220074000/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4972184.stm |date=February 20, 2009}} ''BBC News'' (2006-04-04).</ref> Three jurors decided Moussaoui had only limited knowledge of the 11 September plot, and three described his role in the attacks as minor, if he had any role at all.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/04/us/04moussaoui.html|title=Moussaoui Given Life Term by Jury Over Link to 9/11|first=Neil A.|last=Lewis|newspaper=The New York Times |date=May 4, 2006}}</ref>

Moussaoui is currently incarcerated in the ADX Florence, Colorado.<ref name="Withdraw" />

==Personal history==

===Childhood===
Aicha el-Wafi, Moussaoui's mother, was 14 when she was married to a man that she did not previously know,<ref>The Independent, 8 September 2011, '' 'I Love My Son More Than Ever..' The 9/11 Terrorist's Mother Who Won't Give Up'' p, 26-27 {{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/i-love-my-son-more-than-ever-911-terrorists-mother-who-wont-give-up-2350965.html |title='I love my son more than ever' 9/11 terrorist's mother who won't give up | Europe | News | the Independent |website=[[Independent.co.uk]] |access-date=2011-08-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095336/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/i-love-my-son-more-than-ever-911-terrorists-mother-who-wont-give-up-2350965.html |archive-date=2016-03-04}}</ref> in Morocco.<ref>Kennedy, Helen. [http://www.nydailynews.com/front/story/399576p-338493c.html Terrorist's mom gets hug.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060523055930/http://www.nydailynews.com/front/story/399576p-338493c.html |date=May 23, 2006}} ''New York Daily News'' (2006-03-14).</ref> Five years later, Moussaoui's parents moved to France, where he was born. After enduring [[domestic violence]], his mother left his father Omar while her four children were still young.<ref name="DOMESTIC" /> She raised her children on a cleaner's wages. There was no religious education within the family. Witnesses testified at Moussaui's trial that, as first-generation immigrants from [[Morocco]], the family frequently faced [[racism]] in their new country.<ref name="Sniffen" /> From 1982, Moussaoui, his brother and sisters, were brought up in a [[bungalow]] on the edge of the town of [[Narbonne]]. His mother has said that she believes two 'wounding' incidents in his French adolescence contributed to the formation of an extremist sensibility: the first the day that his school careers adviser pushed him towards minor, technical studies, with "the clear implication that he was only an Arab and would need nothing more," and the second the day that the father of his teenage sweetheart warned him off because he was an Arab. "Don't think that you will ever get your feet under my table," the man said. "<ref>The Independent, 8 September 2011</ref>

According to his brother, Abd Samad Moussaoui, Zacarias loved to play [[team handball|handball]]:<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/apr/19/shopping.september11 My Brother Zac.] ''The Guardian Unlimited'' (2003-04-18).</ref>

<blockquote>For Zacarias [his brother wrote in ''the Guardian''], handball quickly became more than a sport—it was his passion. He was brilliant. Everyone recognized it—his trainers, his team-mates, even his opponents. For Zacarias, the future was all mapped out. He would study and play sports.</blockquote>

===Militant training===
Moussaoui has been known by other names, reportedly including '''Abu Khaled al Sahrawi''' and '''Shaquil''' while he was in Oklahoma.<ref name="Oklahoma" /> He holds a [[master's degree]] in [[International Business]] from [[London South Bank University|South Bank University]] in London, having enrolled in 1993 and graduated in 1995.<ref>Woodward, Will. [https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2001/oct/06/september11.usa1 Hijack suspect was South Bank student.] ''The Guardian'' (2001-10-06).</ref> He attended, amongst others, the [[Brixton Mosque]],<ref name="isim" /> where he may have met [[Richard Reid (shoe bomber)|Richard Reid]], the future shoe bomber.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/1731568.stm |title=Who is Richard Reid? |publisher=BBC News |access-date=2010-01-16|date=28 December 2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/27/world/a-nation-challenged-the-convert-shoe-bomb-suspect-fell-in-with-extremists.html?pagewanted=all | title = A Nation challenged-the convert; Shoe-Bomb Suspect Fell in With Extremists | newspaper = [[New York Times]] | access-date = 2010-01-16 | author = [[Warren Hoge|Hoge, Warren]] | date= December 27, 2001 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140509001705/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/27/world/a-nation-challenged-the-convert-shoe-bomb-suspect-fell-in-with-extremists.html?pagewanted=all | archive-date = 2014-05-09 | url-status = live}}</ref> He was proselytised by groups such as [[al-Muhajiroun]] ("the Emigrants"), who leafleted people attending moderate mosques such as that in Brixton.<ref name="isim" /> It is possible that he had connections with members of the [[Finsbury Park mosque]], where the extremist [[Abu Hamza al-Masri]] taught.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

French authorities began monitoring Moussaoui in 1996 when they observed him with Islamic extremists in London. In 1998, he attended the [[Khalden training camp]] in Afghanistan, allegedly returning the next year as well. In September 2000, he visited [[Malaysia]] and stayed in a condominium owned by [[Yazid Sufaat]] who, in October 2000, signed letters identifying Moussaoui as a representative of his company. Two of the 11 September hijackers lived in the same condominium in January 2000. [[Jemaah Islamiah]] leader [[Riduan Ismauddin]] sent Sufaat to provide Moussaoui with {{USD|35,000}} and travel documents in Malaysia in October.

===Flight training===
From 26 Februaryto 29 May 2001, Moussaoui attended flight training courses at [[University_of_Oklahoma|University of Oklahoma Flight School]] in [[Norman, Oklahoma|Norman]], Oklahoma. Despite 57 hours of flying lessons, he failed and left without ever having flown solo. This school was also visited by [[Mohamed Atta]] and [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], who piloted planes into the north and south towers of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]]

During his time in Norman, Moussaoui had a roommate named Hussein al-Attas. On 11 August 2001, Hussein al-Attas drove Moussaoui to Minnesota from Oklahoma.<ref name="paradise" /> Hussein al-Attas said that he and Moussaoui planned to take a trip to New York City in late August/early September 2001. In 2002, al-Attas admitted that he lied to the FBI to conceal Moussaoui's name, lied to the inquisitive FBI to conceal Moussaoui's extremist jihadi and anti-American beliefs, lied to conceal his own tendencies, lied to conceal that Moussaoui had been trying to convince him to become more active in the jihad or struggle, and lied to conceal the names of other Middle Easterners who were taking flight lessons in Oklahoma.<ref name="Oklahoma" />

Moussaoui allegedly received US$14,000 in wire transfers from bin al-Shibh, originating from [[Düsseldorf]] and [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]], in early August. This money could have helped him pay for flight training about two weeks later at Pan-Am International Flight Academy in [[Eagan, Minnesota|Eagan]], Minnesota. On August 13, Moussaoui paid US$6,800 with US$100 bills to receive training in a [[747-400]] [[flight simulator|simulator]]. The simulator that [[Pan Am International Flight Academy|Pan-Am]] uses is operated by Northwest Aerospace Training Corporation (NATCO), a training facility affiliated with [[Northwest Airlines]]. Moussaoui was reportedly considered as a replacement for [[Ziad Jarrah]], who at one point threatened to withdraw from the scheme because of tensions amongst the plotters.<ref>{{cite news |first=Dan |last=Eggen |title=Questions Linger on Moussaoui's Role in 9/11 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A10300-2005Apr22.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=2005-04-23 |access-date=2008-05-03}}</ref> Plans to include Moussaoui were never completed because the al-Qaeda hierarchy allegedly had doubts about his reliability.

Clarence Prevost, the flight instructor assigned to Moussaoui, began to have suspicions about his student. His behavior largely resembled that of other seemingly wealthy men who had come to the center in the past to receive jumbo jet training despite the fact that they would likely never use it, but some characteristics were unusual. Prevost said later that in pre-simulator instruction, Moussaoui would ask questions that had the right [[jargon]] but were otherwise nonsensical. Moussaoui read through the 747 training manuals, but had a lack of understanding of the plane's systems. Prevost was confused as to why Moussaoui would seek simulator time if he lacked basic plane knowledge. After some convincing, his supervisors contacted the [[FBI]], who came to meet with him. (Despite later reports, Moussaoui did not skip the training for takeoff and landing).<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/01/24/moussaoui.reward/index.html?eref=rss_topstories Flight instructor gets $5 million for catching terror suspect] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043117/http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/01/24/moussaoui.reward/index.html?eref=rss_topstories |date=March 4, 2016}} ''CNN'' (2008-01-25)</ref>

===Capture===
{{Wikisource|FBI eMails concerning Moussaoui}}
On 16 August 2001, Moussaoui was arrested by Harry Samit of the [[FBI]] and [[Immigration and Naturalization Service|INS]] agents in [[Minnesota]] and charged with an immigration violation.<ref name="StatementOfFacts"/> Materials itemized when he was arrested included a laptop computer, two knives, flight manuals pertaining to Boeing's 747 aircraft, a flight simulator computer program, fighting gloves and shin guards, and a computer disk with information about [[crop dusting]].<ref name="StatementOfFacts" />

Some agents worried that his flight training had violent intentions, so the Minnesota bureau tried to get permission (sending over 70 emails in a week) to search his laptop, but they were turned down.<ref name="damning"/> FBI agent [[Coleen Rowley]] made an explicit request for permission to search Moussaoui's personal rooms. This request was first denied by her superior, Deputy General Counsel Marion "Spike" Bowman, and later rejected based upon [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act|FISA]] regulations (amended after 9/11 by the [[USA Patriot Act]]). Several further search attempts similarly failed.

[[Ahmed Ressam]], the captured [[al-Qaeda]] Millennium Bomber, was at the time sharing information with the US authorities, in an effort to gain leniency in his sentencing. One person whom he was not asked about until after 9/11, but whom he was able to identify when asked as having trained with him at al-Qaeda's [[Khalden Camp]] in Afghanistan, was Moussaoui.<ref name="a911" /> The [[9/11 Commission Report]] opined that had Ressam been asked about Moussaoui, he would have broken the FBI's logjam.<ref name="a911" /> Had that happened, the Report opined, the U.S. might conceivably have disrupted or derailed the 9/11 attacks altogether.<ref name="a911" />

==Court proceedings==
On 11 December 2001, Moussaoui was [[indictment|indicted]] by a federal [[grand jury]] in [[United States District Court]] for the [[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia|Eastern District of Virginia]] on six felony charges: conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism transcending national boundaries, conspiracy to commit aircraft piracy, conspiracy to destroy aircraft, conspiracy to use weapons of mass destruction, conspiracy to murder United States employees, and conspiracy to destroy property.<ref>[http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/moussaouiindictment.htm UNITED STATES OF AMERICA v. ZACARIAS MOUSSAOUI - Indictment.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715180259/http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/moussaouiindictment.htm |date=July 15, 2009}} United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia Alexandria Division, United States Department of Justice, December 2001. Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref> The indictment of Zacarias Moussaoui named as unindicted co-conspirators Ramzi Bin al-Shibh and Mustafa al-Hawsawi, among others, for their role in the attack "to murder thousands of innocent people in [[New York (state)|New York]], [[Virginia]] and [[Pennsylvania]]".

On 2 January 2002, Moussaoui refused to enter any plea to the charges and so Judge Leonie Brinkema entered pleas of not guilty. A hearing was held on 22 April 2002, to determine his right to self-representation, for by then Moussaoui had declined the assistance of his court-appointed attorneys, and asked to defend himself. At another hearing on 13 June 2002, Brinkema deemed him competent to defend himself and allowed the case to move forward. However, Moussaoui later requested the occasional assistance of attorneys to help him with technical issues.

Moussaoui admitted his involvement with al-Qaeda, but claimed he was not involved in the 9/11 attacks. Rather, he claimed that he was preparing for a separate attack. [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] had earlier told investigators that Moussaoui met with him prior to 11 September, but that he, Mohammed, chose not to use him. No evidence directly linking Moussaoui to the 9/11 attacks has yet been released.

The trial highlighted a tension in the United States between the [[judicial branch|judiciary]] and [[national security]]. Moussaoui made requests for access to confidential documents and the right to call captive al-Qaeda members as witnesses, notably bin al-Shibh, Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, and [[Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi]]. Both requests were claimed by prosecutors to be potential threats to national security. Brinkema denied the motion to access confidential documents, although Moussaoui was permitted to use several al-Qaeda prisoners as witnesses.

Brinkema put the death penalty "off limits" on 2 October 2003, in reply to government defiance of her order to provide access to Moussaoui's witnesses. The [[Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals]] reversed the Brinkema ruling, holding that the U.S. government could use summaries of interviews/interrogations of these witnesses. On 21 March 2005, the [[United States Supreme Court]], without comment, declined to hear Moussaoui's pre-trial [[appeal]] of the Fourth Circuit's decision, returning the case to Brinkema.

On 22 April 2005, in one of the court sessions near the end of that phase of the proceedings, Moussaoui surprised the court by unexpectedly pleading guilty to all charges, while at the same time denying having any intention to produce a massacre like 9/11. He said that it was not his conspiracy, and that he intended to free Sheikh [[Omar Abdel-Rahman]]. According to Moussaoui, his master plan was to hijack a [[Boeing]] [[747-400]], since the plane is one of a few that could reach [[Afghanistan]] from the U.S. without any intermediate stops.

On 6 February 2006, Moussaoui shouted "I am al-Qaeda. They do not represent me; they are Americans," referring to his attorneys while being escorted from the courtroom in front of 120 potential [[jury|jurors]].<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/02/06/moussaoui.trial/index.html Moussaoui: 'I am al Qaeda'.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227001616/http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/02/06/moussaoui.trial/index.html |date=December 27, 2016}} ''CNN'' (2006-02-06).</ref>

In March 2006, during the Moussaoui trial, several premises made headlines, including FBI agents stating that the bureau was aware, years before the attacks in 2001, that al-Qaeda planned to use planes to destroy important buildings,<ref>Barakat, Matthew. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2006/03/08/national/a090713S88.DTL Moussaoui Jury Watches Video Testimony.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216234158/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2006%2F03%2F08%2Fnational%2Fa090713S88.DTL |date=February 16, 2007}} ''Associated Press'' (2006-03-08).</ref> and Brinkema's decision to consider dismissal of the death penalty. However, days later, under significant media attention, Brinkema decided not to dismiss the case, and instead ruled that witnesses could not testify and the government would be allowed to continue to seek the death sentence against him.<ref>[http://www.thebostonchannel.com/consumer/8001206/detail.html Government Can Seek Death Penalty In 9/11 Case.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222052034/http://www.thebostonchannel.com/consumer/8001206/detail.html |date=February 22, 2012}} ''TheBostonChannel.com'' (2006-03-14).</ref>

On 27 March 2006, Moussaoui testified that he and "shoe bomber" Richard Reid had planned to crash a hijacked airplane into the [[White House]] in the 11 September attacks. No direct connection between Moussaoui and Reid had ever before been alleged, and this testimony contradicted earlier testimony by Moussaoui that he had been intended for an operation after 11 September. When asked why he had previously lied, he stated that "You're allowed to lie for jihad. You're allowed any technique to defeat your enemy."<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4850988.stm Moussaoui lies 'let 9/11 happen'.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314041855/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4850988.stm |date=March 14, 2007}} ''[[BBC News]]'' (2006-03-27.)</ref><ref>Hirschkorn, Phil. [http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/03/27/moussaoui/index.html Moussaoui: White House was my 9/11 target.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506031004/http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/03/27/moussaoui/index.html |date=May 6, 2016}} ''[[CNN]]'' (2006-03-27.)</ref> There has been commentary in the mainstream media that Moussaoui's preference to die as an identified 9/11 plotter rather than receive a life sentence as a member of an unrealized scheme throws doubt on his self-admitted connection to 9/11.<ref name="Slate2006-04-03" /><ref>Serrano, Richard A. [https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/1014178801.html?dids=1014178801:1014178801&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Apr+3%2C+2006&author=Richard+A.+Serrano&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&edition=&startpage=A.1&desc=The+Nation In Court, Two 20th Hijackers Stand Up.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019085003/https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/1014178801.html?dids=1014178801%3A1014178801&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS%3AFT&type=current&date=Apr%203%2C%202006&author=Richard%20A.%20Serrano&pub=Los%20Angeles%20Times&edition=&startpage=A.1&desc=The%20Nation |date=October 19, 2012}} ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' (2006-04-03.)</ref><ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/03/27/ap/national/mainD8GK7DEG0.shtml Moussaoui Says He Was to Hijack 5th Plane.] {{webarchive |url=https://archive.today/2007.11.23-051552/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/03/27/ap/national/mainD8GK7DEG0.shtml |date=November 23, 2007}} [[Associated Press]] (2006-03-27.)</ref>

===Court statements===
Moussaoui refused legal representation for years; he entered confusing, insulting, and parallel court pleadings. His pleadings, statements, and behavior included the following:

'''2 January 2002:''' Moussaoui stated, "In the name of [[Allah]], I do not have anything to plea, and I enter no plea."<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/nashdef1.html United States of America v. Zacarias Moussaoui, Memorandum of Law Regarding Defendant's Motion to Proceed ''pro se'' and Status of Counsel.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002205420/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/nashdef1.html |date=October 2, 2009}} ''The Smoking Gun.'' Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref>

'''22 April 2002:''' Moussaoui tried to fire his court-appointed lawyers. Judge Brinkema took the request under advisement; on 13 June 2002, she ordered that he had the right to defend himself, and a search began for a Muslim lawyer.<ref name=sgun>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/moussaoui1.html Court transcript.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002205438/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/moussaoui1.html |date=October 2, 2009}} ''The Smoking Gun.'' Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref> Moussaoui cited several [[Surah|surahs]] of the [[Qur'an]]—including Al-i-imran 3:118, Al-anfal 8:36, Al-anfal 8:45, Al-i-Imran 3:175 and Al-An-am 6:162—to the judge as justification for firing his lawyers, proof of the government's and judge's corruption, confirmation of his innocence, and assurance that he was taking the best possible course of defense.<ref name=sgun/> He then prayed to Allah for the return of [[Al-Andalus]] ([[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) and the deliverance of [[Ceuta]], [[Melilla]], [[India]] and [[Kashmir]] to the Muslims.<ref name=sgun/> He also prayed for the destruction of several nations—including [[Israel]] (and the Jewish people as a whole), [[Russia]], [[Canada]], [[UK]], [[Australia]], and the U.S.—and for the liberation of [[State of Palestine|Palestine]], [[Chechnya]], and [[Afghanistan]].<ref name=sgun/> The Court ordered a psychiatric evaluation in response.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5243788 Timeline: The Case Against Zacarias Moussaoui] NPR. May 3, 2006.</ref>

'''7 June 2002:''' A court-appointed psychiatrist declared Moussaoui sufficiently competent for trial.<ref>[http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/moussaoui/usmouss72502grspr11.pdf Government's response to Standby Counsel] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309015826/http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/moussaoui/usmouss72502grspr11.pdf |date=March 9, 2016}} at FindLaw.com. Retrieved on 2007-06-17.</ref>

'''11 June 2002:''' Moussaoui filed a motion, titled ''Motion for pre-contempt of Leonie Brinkema order to declare Zacarias Moussaoui crazy'', which insisted on his competence to stand trial.<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/morezac2.html Court notes.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060208014317/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/morezac2.html |date=February 8, 2006}} ''The Smoking Gun.'' Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref> In it, he said he had tried "to get the help of the European Court of Justice and Parliaments". He then offered a psychological analysis of Judge Brinkema:

<blockquote>
Mental Status Enumeration: Axis 1; Acute symptoms of Islamophobia with complex of gender inferiority.
 
Diagnostic Impressions: Legal pathological killer instinct with egoboasting dementia to become supreme.
 
Conclusion and Recommendations: Immediate psychiatric hospitalization to specialist unit (propose unit UBL treatment center ... )</blockquote>

'''18 July 2002:''' Moussaoui entered a guilty plea, stating, "I have knowledge and I participated in al-Qaeda. I am a member of al-Qaeda ... I pledge [[bay'at|bayat]] to [[Osama bin Laden]]."<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/zacplea3.html Court transcript.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107203730/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/zacplea3.html |date=November 7, 2005}} The Smoking Gun. Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref> The Court rejected the guilty plea as unconsidered and ordered Moussaoui to rethink his plea.

'''24 July 2002:''' Moussaoui's roommate from Oklahoma flight school, 24-year-old Hussein al-Attas, pleaded guilty to seven counts of [[making false statements]], including the following:

<blockquote>The truth is that on several occasions, during the short time I knew him (Moussaoui) had expressed a general desire to participate in jihad, so my statement to the contrary was false ... When the agents asked if I (also) knew his real name, I lied and said I did not.<ref name="Oklahoma" /></blockquote>

Al-Attas stated that he told the FBI he was going to Pakistan to seek medical assistance for a sick relative in Saudi Arabia, but admitted, "The real reason was (Moussaoui) had convinced me to go to speak to Islamic scholars and others who hold the belief that Islamic religion favors participation in jihad."{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}

Furthermore, al-Attas admitted to lying about his plans to go with Moussaoui to New York City in late August, 2001. He also confessed that he lied about some of Moussaoui's classmates at an Oklahoma flight school.<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/07/25/attack/main516353.shtml Moussaoui Roommate Pleads Guilty.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102184446/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/07/25/attack/main516353.shtml |date=November 2, 2012}} ''CBS News'' (2002-07-22).</ref>

'''28 July 2002:''' Moussaoui pleaded guilty to four of six counts of conspiracy. He denied charges of conspiracy to murder United States employees and destroy property.

<blockquote>Today, I truthfully will enter on some of the charges, not all, a plea of guilty ... It should not be misunderstood that I endorse the entire indictment. There is enough factual basis for me to plead guilty in a truthful manner.<ref>[http://www.courttv.com/trials/moussaoui/072502_ap.html Moussaoui tries to plead guilty to four charges; then withdraws.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031084408/http://www.courttv.com/trials/moussaoui/072502_ap.html |date=October 31, 2006}} Court TV News (2002-07-25).</ref></blockquote>

The Court rejected the guilty plea as too informal and reappointed his counsel. Moussaoui's response to this order to work with court-appointed counsel was, "It is most disgusting."

'''22 April 2003:''' Moussaoui filed a pleading with the header shown below. In the pleading, Judge Brinkema is referred to as "Death Judge Leonie".

<blockquote>
In the Name of Allah; Censured by the United Sodom of America
 
4/19/2003; Case No. 01455A; 17 S 1423 
Slave of Allah, Zacharias Moussaoui vs. 
Slave of Satan, John Ashcroft<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/zmoulist1.html Court notes.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002205404/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/zmoulist1.html |date=October 2, 2009}} ''The Smoking Gun.'' Retrieved on 2007-06-17.</ref></blockquote>

'''18 July 2003:''' Moussaoui filed two pleadings. The first was titled ''Wanted for WTC Bankruptcy'' and offered an accounting of "WTC profit and loss" of "Loss: 3000 sons of evil. Profit: 19 slaves of Allah." That document had the following header:

<blockquote>
In the Name of Allah; Censured by the United Satan of America 
Slave of Allah, Zacharias Moussaoui vs. 
Slave of Satan, Bush and Ashcroft<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/mouunseal1.html Court notes.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117205745/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/mouunseal1.html |date=January 17, 2010}} ''The Smoking Gun.'' Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref></blockquote>

The second pleading was titled ''No Pig Man Role in Moussaoui Deliverance Scenario'' and stated "To be seen in all God Fearing '''W'''orld '''T'''heatre '''C'''inema. Deadline for 3000+ hotseat tickets (please contact '''U'''nited '''B'''ooking '''L'''imited)."

'''21 March 2006:''' In response to al-Atta's testimony, Moussaoui commented, "God Bless Mohammed Atta."<ref name="paradise" />

'''6 May 2006:''' In an [[affidavit]] filed by his attorneys after the trial, Moussaoui stated,<ref name="Withdraw" />

{{quote|
10. During the plea colloquy I made it clear to the Court that I did not have knowledge of and was not a member of the plot to hijack and crash planes into buildings in 11 September 2001 but that I was part of another Al-Qaeda plot which was to occur after 11 September 2001.

11. My court appointed attorneys kept telling me that I should not testify and I thought that they would prevent me from testifying, so I decided to ask the government to let me testify as their witness.

12. It is my recollection that when the judge addressed the jury before my trial began, she informed the jury that I was part of the 11 September plot which further confirmed my distrust of the American justice system and further convinced me to testify since I was going to be given death for the 11 September plot anyway.

13. I decided to testify that I had knowledge of and was a member of the plot to hijack planes and crash them into buildings on 11 September 2001, even though I knew that was a complete fabrication.

14. I have never met Mohammed Atta and, while I may have seen a few of the other hijackers at the guesthouse, I never knew them or anything about their operation.

15. As I stated during my plea colloquy, I was in the United States as a member of Al-Qaeda but was involved in a separate operation ...

18. Because I now see that it is possible that I can receive a fair trial even with Americans as jurors and that I can have the opportunity to prove that I did not have any knowledge of and was not a member of the plot to hijack planes and crash them into buildings on 11 September 2001, I wish to withdraw my guilty plea and ask the Court for a new trial to prove my innocence of the 11 September plot.}}

Additional case filings are posted online.<ref>[http://news.findlaw.com/legalnews/us/terrorism/cases/index.html#moussaoui Convicted al Qaeda Terrorist Facing Death Penalty Sentencing Trial.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060504174546/http://news.findlaw.com/legalnews/us/terrorism/cases/index.html#moussaoui |date=May 4, 2006}} FindLaw Legal News: Special Coverage: War on Terror: Cases. Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref>

===Trial and sentencing===
Moussaoui, charged with conspiring to hijack planes and crash them into the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, was in jail in Minnesota when the Sept. 11 attacks unfolded. In seeking a death sentence, prosecutors were required to prove that he "intentionally participated in an act ... and the victim died as a direct result of the act". Moussaoui admitted he knew about the attacks and did nothing to stop them.{{fact|date=April 2023}}

Having entered a guilty plea, Moussaoui was eligible for the [[death penalty]]. Germany said it would not release evidence against Moussaoui unless the U.S. promised not to seek death as punishment. On 27 April, 2005, French Justice Minister [[Dominique Perben]] said, "When France gave elements of information about Mr Moussaoui to the American justice, I obtained a written engagement of the United States not to use these elements to require or execute the death penalty."<ref>{{in lang|fr}} Kacem, Abdel. [http://fides.ifrance.com/fides/html/mousaou1.html Le deal de la France avec Washington.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713222914/http://fides.ifrance.com/fides/html/mousaou1.html |date=July 13, 2006}} ''Fidès Journal'' (Nov 29, 2002)</ref>

On 14 March 2006, Brinkema ruled that the prosecution could continue to seek the death penalty against Moussaoui, but could not use key witnesses coached by government lawyer [[Carla Martin]]. On 3 April 2006, the jury in his case decided that Moussaoui was eligible for the death penalty.{{fact|date=April 2023}}

At Moussaoui's sentencing trial, FBI agent Greg Jones testified that, prior to the attacks, he urged his supervisor, Michael Maltbie, "to prevent Zacarias Moussaoui from flying a plane into the World Trade Center". Maltbie had refused to act on 70 requests from another agent, Harry Samit, to obtain a warrant to search Moussaoui's computer.<ref name="damning" />

On 3 May 2006, the jury reached a verdict: that Moussaoui be sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole. Moussaoui was sentenced to six consecutive life terms on 4 May,<ref>[http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12615601 Moussaoui formally sentenced, still defiant.] NBC News (May 4, 2006).</ref> as Judge Brinkema expressed her belief that the sentence was an appropriate one, inasmuch as it would deprive Moussaoui of "[[martyr]]dom in a great big bang of glory" and of the "chance to speak again", after Moussaoui entered the courtroom proclaiming his victory and asserting that the United States would "never get Osama bin Laden". As he was leaving the courtroom, Moussaoui said, "America, you lost and I won," and clapped his hands twice. In fact, a single juror had saved Moussaoui from {{nowrap|death{{tsp}}{{mdash}}}}{{tsp}}the foreman of the 12-person federal jury told ''The Washington Post'' that the panel voted 11–1, 10–2 and 10–2 in favor of the death penalty on the three charges for which Moussaoui was eligible for execution.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080516064603/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/11/AR2006051101884.html One Juror Between Terrorist And Death]. ''Washington Post'' (May 12, 2006).</ref> A unanimous vote on any one of the three terrorism charges was required to return a death sentence.

On 8 May 2006, Moussaoui filed papers with the federal court in Alexandria, Virginia requesting to withdraw his guilty plea, stating that his earlier claim of participation in the 11 September plot was a "complete fabrication". He said that he was "extremely surprised" that he was not sentenced to death. "I now see that it is possible that I can receive a fair trial even with Americans as jurors," he said.<ref>Asseo, Laurie. [https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&sid=aM4lKxRGuqBQ Moussaoui Seeks to Withdraw Guilty Plea in Sept. 11 Attacks.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626151249/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&sid=aM4lKxRGuqBQ |date=June 26, 2009}} Bloomberg (May 8, 2006).</ref> However, federal sentencing rules forbid pleas to be withdrawn after a sentence has already been executed, and Moussaoui had already waived his rights to [[appeal]].

On 13 May 2006, Moussaoui was moved from his holding cell in [[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria]], [[Virginia]], and transported via [[Justice Prisoner and Alien Transportation System|JPATS]] to the supermax [[ADX Florence|United States Penitentiary Administrative Maximum Facility]], located near [[Florence, Colorado|Florence]], [[Colorado]].<ref>{{cite web|date=May 13, 2006 |url=http://www.usmarshals.gov/news/chron/2006/051306a.htm |title=U.S. Marshals Deliver Zacarias Moussaoui to "ADMAX" Prison |publisher=[U.S. Marshals] |access-date=Feb 4, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109061851/http://www.usmarshals.gov/news/chron/2006/051306a.htm |archive-date=January 9, 2009}}</ref> The facility—considered the most secure federal penitentiary—is called the "[[Alcatraz]] of the [[Rocky Mountains|Rockies]]".<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12636492/ "Moussaoui headed for 'Alcatraz of the Rockies'"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104083810/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12636492/ |date=November 4, 2012}}, [[MSNBC]].com (May 5, 2006)</ref> He has the [[Federal Bureau of Prisons]] number 51427-054.<ref name="BOP" />

On 31 July 2006, the 1,202 exhibits presented during the case of ''United States v. Zacarias Moussaoui'' were posted online, marking the first time the exhibits of a criminal case in U.S. courts were so published.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/ |title=United States v. Zacarias Moussaoui Criminal, No. 01-455-A Trial Exhibits |publisher=United States District Court Eastern District of Virginia |access-date=2010-04-17 |archive-date=2008-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516063610/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 20 November 2007, Judge Brinkema publicly stated that the US government had provided incorrect information about evidence in the Moussaoui trial and that due to those actions, she was considering ordering a new trial in a related terrorism case, that of Ali al-Timimi, a Virginia Muslim cleric. Brinkema said that she could no longer trust the CIA and other government agencies on how they represent classified evidence in cases regarding terrorism after Moussaoui case prosecutors admitted that the CIA had assured her that no videotapes or audiotapes existed of interrogations of certain high-profile terrorism detainees, but later, in a letter made public 13 November, two such videotapes and one audio tape were made known.<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://www.jurist.org/news/2007/11/us-judge-mulls-new-terror-trial-for/
| title = US judge mulls new terror trial for Muslim cleric after Moussaoui evidence revelations
| author = Mike Rosen-Molina
| date = November 21, 2007
| website = JURIST Legal News & Research Services}}</ref> According to his testimony, the citizen had training in accounting and organized the Al Qaeda's finances.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.documentcloud.org/documents/1569256/2927-5-moussaoui-transcript-1.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234500/https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.documentcloud.org/documents/1569256/2927-5-moussaoui-transcript-1.pdf|title=Exhibit "5" to the Affirmation of Sean P. Carter Transmitting Evidence in Support of Plaintiffs' Memorandum of Law in Opposition to the Motion to Dismiss of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Saudi High Commission for Relief of Bosnia & Herzegovina|archivedate=March 3, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.documentcloud.org/documents/1569257/2927-6-moussaoui-transcript-2.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050406/https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.documentcloud.org/documents/1569257/2927-6-moussaoui-transcript-2.pdf|title=Exhibit "6" to the Affirmation of Sean P. Carter Transmitting Evidence in Support of Plaintiffs' Memorandum of Law in Opposition to the Motion to Dismiss of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Saudi High Commission for Relief of Bosnia & Herzegovina|archivedate=March 4, 2016}}</ref>

===Osama bin Laden's alleged response===
On 23 May 2006, an audio recording attributed to [[Osama bin Laden]] said in translation that Moussaoui "had no connection at all with 11 Septembe... I am the one in charge of the 19 brothers and I never assigned brother Zacarias to be with them in that mission ... Since Zacarias Moussaoui was still learning to fly, he wasn't number 20 in the group, as your government claimed". The voice alleged to be bin Laden also suggested that Moussaoui's confession was "void" as it was a result of pressures applied during his incarceration.<ref>[http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12938808/ Bin Laden tape: Bin Laden: Moussaoui Not Linked to 9/11.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033800/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12938808/ |date=March 4, 2016}} ''Associated Press'' (2006-05-24)</ref><ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,196682,00.html Bin Laden: Moussaoui Wasn't Sept. 11 Conspirator.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218011634/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0%2C2933%2C196682%2C00.html |date=February 18, 2013}} ''Fox News'' (2006-05-24).</ref>

===Civil action 2015===
Civil action is being taken by relatives of 9/11 victims, insurers and others against the [[Saudi Arabia]]n government. In the course of this Zacarias Moussaoui has stated on oath and wrote to Judge [[George B. Daniels]] that Saudi royal family members helped finance the 11 September attacks and al-Qaeda. Prince [[Turki bin Faisal Al Saud]], Prince [[Bandar Bin Sultan]] and Prince [[Al-Waleed bin Talal]], of the Saudi royal family were specifically mentioned as Al-Qaeda donors—but the project's major patron was Prince [[Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud]], who in January 2015 became Saudi Arabia's king.<ref name="NYTimes2015-02-04" /> Moussaoui's testimony provides new details of the extent and nature of that support in the pre-9/11 period. Judge Leonie M. Brinkema declared "Moussaoui is completely competent", called him "an extremely intelligent man" and added: "He has actually a better understanding of the legal system than some lawyers I've seen in court".<ref name="NYTimes2015-02-03" />

The former senators [[Bob Graham]] of Florida and [[Bob Kerrey]] of Nebraska and the former Navy secretary [[John Lehman]] believed the Saudi role in the 9/11 plot had never been adequately examined and they demanded the release of 28 pages of the [[Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001|congressional report]] that explored Saudi connections.<ref name="NYTimes2015-02-04b" /> Both the administrations of [[George W. Bush]] and [[Barack Obama]] had refused to declassify the 28 pages on grounds of "national security", but as Graham argued, the opposite was true; the real "threat to national security is non-disclosure": The Saudis know what they did and the U.S. knows what they did, and when the U.S. government takes a position of passivity, or actively shuts down inquiry, that sends a message to the Saudis. "They have continued, maybe accelerated their support for the most extreme form of Islam known as [[Wahhabism]]" he stated, arguing that both [[al Qaeda]] and [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] are "a creation of Saudi Arabia". On 7 January 2015, Graham, [[United States House of Representatives|Congressmen]] [[Walter B. Jones, Jr.|Walter Jones]] and [[Stephen F. Lynch]], and members of the 9/11 families including Terry Strada, national co-chair of the ″9/11 Families and Survivors United for Justice Against Terrorism″, held a press conference on Capitol Hill announcing the reintroduction of the resolution calling for the declassification of the 28 pages. Graham said that those pages "point a very strong finger at Saudi Arabia as the principal financier" of the 9/11 hijackers: "This may seem stale to some but it's as current as the headlines we see today," referring to the [[Charlie Hebdo shooting|terrorist attack]] on a satirical newspaper [[Charlie Hebdo]] in [[Paris]].<ref>Jason Burke: [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/04/zacarias-moussaoui-al-qaida-backed-by-saudi-arabia "Zacarias Moussaoui says al-Qaida was backed by Saudi Arabia. But can he be believed?"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912082636/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/04/zacarias-moussaoui-al-qaida-backed-by-saudi-arabia |date=September 12, 2016}}. ''The Guardian'', February 4, 2015</ref><ref>Eleanor Clift: [http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/01/12/the-missing-pages-of-the-9-11-report.html "The Missing Pages of the 9/11 Report"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214012845/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/01/12/the-missing-pages-of-the-9-11-report.html |date=December 14, 2016}}, ''The Daily Beast'', January 12, 2015</ref> In 2016 a partially redacted form of the [[The 28 pages|pages]] were declassified by the Obama administration.<ref>{{Cite web|author1=Jim Sciutto|author2= Ryan Browne|author3=Deirdre Walsh|date=2016-07-15|title=Congress releases secret '28 pages' on alleged Saudi 9/11 ties |url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/07/15/politics/congress-releases-28-pages-saudis-9-11/index.html|access-date=2021-06-26|website=CNN|language=en}}</ref>

==Reward==
On 24 January 2008, Clarence Prevost, the flight instructor who led authorities to Moussaoui, received a $5 million reward from the U.S. government. The payment was questioned by agent [[Coleen Rowley]] and Senators [[Amy Klobuchar]] and [[Norm Coleman]], among others, on the basis that two other flight instructors had made the initial calls to the FBI.<ref>[http://www.newsweek.com/id/106275 Dialing For Dollars] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625221004/http://www.newsweek.com/id/106275 |date=June 25, 2009}}, ''[[Newsweek]]'', Jan 30, 2008</ref>

==See also==
* [[Nick Berg]]
* [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], believed to be a principal architect of the 11 September plot
* [[Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh]]
* [[Richard Reid (shoe bomber)|Richard Reid]]
* [[Mohamed Atta]], Lead hijacker of 9/11 terrorists, died in the attacks
* [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], roommate of Atta, imprisoned under similar conditions as [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] (believed to be in [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp|Guantanamo Bay]])
* [[Trials related to the September 11 attacks|Trials related to the 11 September attacks]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|1=2|refs=
<ref name="NYTimes2015-02-04">{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/05/world/middleeast/pre-9-11-ties-haunt-saudis-as-new-accusations-surface.html | title = Pre-9/11 Ties Haunt Saudis as New Accusations Surface | work = [[The New York Times]] | author = Ben Hubard and [[Scott Shane]] | date = 2015-02-04 | page = A10 | location = [[Riyadh]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150208043843/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/05/world/middleeast/pre-9-11-ties-haunt-saudis-as-new-accusations-surface.html | archive-date = 2015-02-08 | access-date = 2015-02-20 | url-status = live | quote = Yet Saudi Arabia continues to be haunted by what some suspect was a tacit alliance with Al Qaeda in the years before the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Those suspicions burst out in the open again this week with the disclosure of a prison deposition of a former Qaeda operative, Zacarias Moussaoui, who claimed that more than a dozen prominent Saudi figures were donors to the terror group and that a Saudi diplomat in Washington discussed with him a plot to shoot down Air Force One.}}</ref>
<ref name="NYTimes2015-02-04b">{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/05/us/claims-against-saudis-cast-new-light-on-secret-pages-of-9-11-report.html | title = Claims Against Saudis Cast New Light on Secret Pages of 9/11 Report | work = [[The New York Times]] | author = [[Carl Hulse]] | date = 2015-02-04 | page = A10 | location = [[Washington DC]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150208043842/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/05/us/claims-against-saudis-cast-new-light-on-secret-pages-of-9-11-report.html | archive-date = 2015-02-08 | access-date = 2015-02-20 | url-status = live | quote = Now new claims by Zacarias Moussaoui, a convicted former member of Al Qaeda, that he had high-level contact with officials of the Saudi government in the prelude to Sept. 11 have brought renewed attention to the inquiry's withheld findings, which lawmakers and relatives of those killed in the attacks have tried unsuccessfully to declassify.}}</ref>
<ref name="NYTimes2015-02-03">{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/04/us/zacarias-moussaoui-calls-saudi-princes-patrons-of-al-qaeda.html | title = Moussaoui Calls Saudi Princes Patrons of Al Qaeda | work = [[The New York Times]] | author = [[Scott Shane]] | date = 2015-02-03 | page = A1 | location = [[Washington DC]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150208043940/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/04/us/zacarias-moussaoui-calls-saudi-princes-patrons-of-al-qaeda.html | archive-date = 2015-02-08 | access-date = 2015-02-20 | url-status = live | quote = The Qaeda member, Zacarias Moussaoui, wrote last year to Judge George B. Daniels of United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, who is presiding over a lawsuit filed against Saudi Arabia by relatives of those killed in the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. He said he wanted to testify in the case, and after lengthy negotiations with Justice Department officials and the federal Bureau of Prisons, a team of lawyers was permitted to enter the prison and question him for two days last October.}}</ref>
<ref name="Slate2006-04-03">{{cite news | url = http://www.slate.com/id/2139185/ | title = When You Wish Upon a Scar: Zacarias Moussai finally makes his dream come true | publisher = [[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] | author-link = Dahlia Lithwick | last = Lithwick | first = Dahlia | date = 2006-04-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110511174914/http://www.slate.com/id/2139185/ | archive-date = 2011-05-11 | access-date = 2015-02-20 | url-status = live | quote = When it looked like little Moussaoui was too small to play the outsized role the prosecutors had scripted for him, he simply grew himself to fit into it. Moussaoui's lies don't appear to have actually advanced the conspiracy of 9/11, but they have certainly forwarded the conspiracy to put him to death as a perpetrator of 9/11.}}</ref>
<ref name="DOMESTIC">{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/09/magazine/09MOUSSAOUI.html | title = Everybody Has a Mother | publisher = [[The New York Times Magazine]] | author-link = Susan Dominus | first = Susan | last = Dominus | date = 2003-02-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110512201312/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/09/magazine/09MOUSSAOUI.html | archive-date = 2011-05-12 | access-date = 2015-02-20 | url-status = live | quote = He's not referring to Zacarias, who is being held in isolation in Virginia, charged with conspiracy in the Sept. 11 attacks. The waiter is talking about her other son, Abd-Samad Moussaoui, author of ''Zacarias, My Brother: The Making of a Terrorist,'' an account of his younger brother's life until 1995, when Zacarias was 27, after which the two fell permanently out of touch.}}</ref>
<ref name="NYTimes2006-02-14">{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/14/national/14cnd-mouss.html?ex=1297573200&en=74e0ad4419ce7d57&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss | title = Moussaoui Is Banned from Courtroom | work = [[New York Times]] | author-link = David Stout | first = David | last = Stout | date = 2006-02-14 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110512201308/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/14/national/14cnd-mouss.html?ex=1297573200&en=74e0ad4419ce7d57&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss | archive-date = 2011-05-12 | access-date = 2015-02-20 | url-status = live | quote = The confessed Al Qaeda plotter Zacarias Moussaoui berated the judge today and was banned from the courtroom during the jury-selection process that will determine whether he lives or dies.}}</ref>
<ref name="BOP">"[http://www.bop.gov/iloc2/InmateFinderServlet?Transaction=IDSearch&needingMoreList=false&IDType=IRN&IDNumber=51427-054&x=27&y=30 Zacarias Moussaoui] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914151957/http://www.bop.gov/iloc2/InmateFinderServlet?Transaction=IDSearch&needingMoreList=false&IDType=IRN&IDNumber=51427-054&x=27&y=30 |date=September 14, 2012}}." [[Federal Bureau of Prisons]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref>
<ref name="Sniffen">Sniffen, Michael J. 'America, you lost -- I won': Moussaoui sentenced to life in prison. ''[[Chicago Sun Times]]'' (2006-05-04). Available at [https://web.archive.org/web/20070218193409/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20060504/ai_n16344678 findarticles.com.] Retrieved on 2007-01-03</ref>
<ref name="Withdraw">[http://files.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/moussaoui/mouss50806mot.pdf The United States of America v. Zacarias Moussaoui: Defendant's Motion to Withdraw Guilty Plea (PDF).] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309015420/http://files.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/moussaoui/mouss50806mot.pdf |date=March 9, 2016}} The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, May 2006, available at [[FindLaw.com]]. Also available at [http://notablecases.vaed.uscourts.gov/1:01-cr-00455/docs/72453/0.pdf uscourts.gov (PDF).] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060517032048/http://notablecases.vaed.uscourts.gov/1%3A01-cr-00455/docs/72453/0.pdf |date=May 17, 2006}} Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref>
<ref name="Oklahoma">Hirschkorn, Phil and Deborah Feyerick. [http://archives.cnn.com/2002/LAW/07/22/moussaoui.witness/index.html Friend of Moussaoui pleads guilty to making false statements.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061030054337/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/LAW/07/22/moussaoui.witness/index.html |date=October 30, 2006}} ''CNN'' (2002-07-22).</ref>
<ref name="isim">[https://web.archive.org/web/20210912102013/http://www.isim.nl/files/review_21/review_21-18.pdf "The Religious Trajectories of the Moussaoui Family", Katherine Donahue, ISIM Review 21 (Spring 2008), p. 18, accessed 11 January 2001]</ref>
<ref name="paradise">Hirschkorn, Phil. [http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/03/21/moussaoui.trial/index.html Roommate: Moussaoui saw jihad as way to paradise.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180409/http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/03/21/moussaoui.trial/index.html |date=March 3, 2016}} ''CNN'' (2006-03-21).</ref>
<ref name="StatementOfFacts">{{cite web |year=2007|url = http://i.a.cnn.net/cnn/2005/images/04/22/moussaoui.statement.pdf|title = UNITED STATES OF AMERICA vs ZACARIAS MOUSSAOUI — Criminal No. 01-455-A|publisher = [[CNN News]]| access-date = 2007-09-09}}</ref>
<ref name="a911">{{cite book|last= National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States |title=The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2004|isbn=0-393-06041-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNqdmUnqTJUC&q=ressam&pg=PA501|access-date=February 28, 2010}}</ref>
<ref name="damning">Markon, Jerry and Timothy Dwyer. [http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/damning-evidence-highlights-fbi-bungles/2006/03/21/1142703358754.html Damning evidence highlights FBI bungles.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309143632/http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/damning-evidence-highlights-fbi-bungles/2006/03/21/1142703358754.html |date=March 9, 2016}} ''The Sydney Morning Herald'' (March 22, 2006).</ref>
}}

==References==
* Moussaoui, Abd Samad. ''Zacarias My Brother'' ({{ISBN|1-58322-585-4}}).
* [https://www.theguardian.com/september11/story/0,11209,1468558,00.html Moussaoui pleads guilty to role in 9/11 attacks.] ''[[Guardian Unlimited]]''/[[Associated Press]] (April 22, 2005).
* [http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12615601 "Moussaoui formally sentenced, still defiant"]. Associated Press, [[MSNBC]].com.
* [http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2006/04/20084915222203521.html "Moussaoui scorns 9/11 victims"] Al Jazeera (April 14, 2006)]
* Novak, Viveca. [https://web.archive.org/web/20050305053612/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101031027-524419,00.html "How the Moussaoui Case Crumbled"] ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' (October 27, 2003).
* [http://notablecases.vaed.uscourts.gov/1:01-cr-00455/docs/72321/0.pdf Special Verdict Form for Phase II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221150929/http://notablecases.vaed.uscourts.gov/1:01-cr-00455/docs/72321/0.pdf |date=2007-02-21 }} Official jury ballot (PDF)
* [http://edition.cnn.com/interactive/us/0207/moussoui.timeline/frameset.exclude.html Timeline: The Zacarias Moussaoui Case.] [[CNN]].com.
* Donahue, Katherine C. 2007. ''Slave of Allah: Zacarias Moussaoui vs. The USA''. London: Pluto Press. ({{ISBN|978-0-7453-2619-1}})

==External links==
{{Wikinews|Zacarias Moussaoui to serve life in prison}}
{{Wikisource index|Zacarias Moussaoui}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100529010145/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/moussaoui/moussaouihome.html Trial of Zacarias Moussaoui]
* [http://www.rcfp.org/moussaoui/Case documents from The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071227185116/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,193661,00.html Looking for Trouble] (''Time'' magazine)



{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{FrenchTerrorism}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}
{{Al-Muhajiroun}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Moussaoui, Zacarias}}
[[Category:1968 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century French criminals]]
[[Category:People from Saint-Jean-de-Luz]]
[[Category:French Islamists]]
[[Category:French people of Moroccan descent]]
[[Category:Alumni of London South Bank University]]
[[Category:Inmates of ADX Florence]]
[[Category:French al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:People convicted on terrorism charges]]
[[Category:People imprisoned on charges of terrorism]]
[[Category:French prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment]]
[[Category:Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by the United States federal government]]
[[Category:French people imprisoned abroad]]
[[Category:People associated with the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:American people of Moroccan descent]]

Zacarias Moussaoui

2023-09-12T22:04:42Z

78.157.120.208: The mdy format for date is not used in Frensh nor Arabic. Changed to dmy format

{{Short description|French Al-Qaeda member imprisoned in the US}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{overly detailed|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox criminal
| name = Zacarias Moussaoui
| native_name = {{lang|ar|زكريا موسوي}}
| image = Zacarias Moussaoui.jpg
| image_upright = yes
| image_size = 200px
| alt = Mug shot of Moussaoui
| caption = Mug shot of Moussaoui
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1968|05|30|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Saint-Jean-de-Luz]], [[France]]
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| other_names = Abu Khaled al-Sahrawi
| alma_mater = [[London South Bank University|South Bank University]]
| conviction_penalty = 6 consecutive life sentences without the possibility of parole
| conviction_status =
| allegiance = [[Al-Qaeda]]
| motive = [[Islamic extremism]]
| conviction = {{bulleted list |[[Conspiracy]] to Commit Acts of Terrorism Transcending National Boundaries ([[Title 18 of the United States Code|18 U.S.C.]] §§ 2332b(a)(2) & (c)) (Count One)|Conspiracy to Commit [[Aircraft hijacking|Aircraft Piracy]] (49 U.S.C. §§ 46502(a)(1)(A) and (a)(2)(B))
(Count Two)|Conspiracy to Destroy Aircraft (18 U.S.C. §§ 32(a)(7) & 34)
(Count Three)|Conspiracy to Use [[Weapons of Mass Destruction]]
(18 U.S.C. § 2332a(a)) (Count Four)|Conspiracy to Murder United States Employees (18 U.S.C. §§ 1114 & 1117) (Count Five)|Conspiracy to Destroy Property (18 U.S.C. §§ 844(f), (i), (n)) (Count Six)}}
| trial = Trials related to the September 11 attacks
| trial_start = {{start date|2006|03|06}}
| trial_end = {{end date|2006|05|03}}
| capture_status = In custody
| country = [[United States]]
| apprehended = {{end date|2001|08|16}}
| imprisoned = [[ADX Florence]]<ref name="BOP"/>
| footnotes = [https://www.justice.gov/archives/ag/indictment-zacarias-moussaoui Charging Indictment] can be accessed here. Moussaoui filed an [https://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/united-states-v-zacarias-moussaoui-101cr00455 appeal] on May 12, 2006 which was denied in 2010.<ref>{{cite court|litigants= U.S. v. Moussaoui|vol= 591|reporter= F.3d|opinion= 263|court= United States Court of Appeals (4th Circuit)|date= 04 January 2010|url= https://case-law.vlex.com/vid/u-s-v-moussaoui-889961804}}</ref>
}}

'''Zacarias Moussaoui''' ({{lang-ar|زكريا موسوي}}, ''{{transl|ar|DIN|Zakariyyā Mūsawī}}''; born 30 May 1968) is a French member of [[al-Qaeda]] who pleaded guilty in [[U.S. federal court]] to conspiring to kill citizens of the [[United States]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]]. He is serving life imprisonment without the possibility of parole at the [[ADX Florence|Federal ADX]] [[Supermax prison]] in [[Florence, Colorado]]. Moussaoui is the only person ever convicted in U.S. court in connection with the 11 September attacks.<ref>{{cite news |first=Matthew |last=Barakat|title=Moussaoui trial revisited on the eve of Sept. 11 anniversary |url=https://apnews.com/article/trials-virginia-zacarias-moussaoui-74b69d513feba71b150f3c76faf1aa29 |work=AP |date=2021-09-09|access-date=2021-10-26}}</ref>

==Overview==
On 16 August 2001, Moussaoui was arrested in Minnesota by the FBI and charged with an immigration violation. He aroused suspicion while taking flight training courses in [[Eagan, Minnesota]].

On 11 December 2001, Moussaoui was indicted by a federal grand jury in [[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia]] on six felony charges: conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism transcending national boundaries, conspiracy to commit aircraft piracy, conspiracy to destroy aircraft, conspiracy to use weapons of mass destruction, conspiracy to murder United States employees, and conspiracy to destroy property.

Moussaoui was alleged by federal prosecutors to have been a replacement for the "first" [[20th hijacker]], possibly [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]]. Bin al-Shibh and [[Zakariyah Essabar]] were denied [[visa (document)|visas]]. However, prosecutors in Moussaoui's drawn-out trial in the US had difficulty directly connecting him to the 19 participants.

Moussaoui's trial was seen in some circles as a barometer of the ability and willingness of the United States to give a fair hearing to terrorism suspects. Others objected to the degree to which the court and especially Judge [[Leonie Brinkema]] tolerated the bizarre and threatening courtroom behavior of Moussaoui.<ref name="NYTimes2006-02-14" /> Moussaoui expressed contempt for the trial and court by introducing [[legal motion]]s deriding Judge Brinkema, surprised onlookers by electing to represent himself in court, and rankled [[United States federal government|federal]] prosecutors by requesting the presence of captured [[al-Qaeda]] members as witnesses in his case.

During the trial, Moussaoui initially stated that he was not involved in the 11 September attacks, but that he was planning an attack of his own. Some al-Qaeda members reportedly corroborated Moussaoui's statement to an extent, saying that he was involved in a plot other than September 11, but prosecutors believed that his story had no merit. On 3 April 2006, Moussaoui was found to be eligible for the [[Capital punishment in the United States|death penalty]]. Before leaving the courtroom, he was reported to have shouted, "You will never get my blood. God curse you all!"<ref>Hirschkorn, Phil. [http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/04/03/moussaoui.verdict Moussaoui eligible for death penalty.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304032847/http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/04/03/moussaoui.verdict |date=March 4, 2016}} ''[[CNN]]'' (2006-04-05)</ref>

On 3 May 2006, a jury decided against the death penalty for Moussaoui. The next day, he was sentenced to life in prison without parole. As he was led out of the courtroom, Moussaoui clapped his hands and said, "America, you lost ... I won."<ref name="Sniffen" /> Judge Brinkema responded by telling him that he would "die with a whimper" and "never get a chance to speak again".<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4972184.stm Judge hits back in Moussaoui spat.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220074000/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4972184.stm |date=February 20, 2009}} ''BBC News'' (2006-04-04).</ref> Three jurors decided Moussaoui had only limited knowledge of the September 11 plot, and three described his role in the attacks as minor, if he had any role at all.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/04/us/04moussaoui.html|title=Moussaoui Given Life Term by Jury Over Link to 9/11|first=Neil A.|last=Lewis|newspaper=The New York Times |date=May 4, 2006}}</ref>

Moussaoui is currently incarcerated in the ADX Florence, Colorado.<ref name="Withdraw" />

==Personal history==

===Childhood===
Aicha el-Wafi, Moussaoui's mother, was 14 when she was married to a man that she did not previously know,<ref>The Independent, 8 September 2011, '' 'I Love My Son More Than Ever..' The 9/11 Terrorist's Mother Who Won't Give Up'' p, 26-27 {{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/i-love-my-son-more-than-ever-911-terrorists-mother-who-wont-give-up-2350965.html |title='I love my son more than ever' 9/11 terrorist's mother who won't give up | Europe | News | the Independent |website=[[Independent.co.uk]] |access-date=2011-08-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095336/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/i-love-my-son-more-than-ever-911-terrorists-mother-who-wont-give-up-2350965.html |archive-date=2016-03-04}}</ref> in Morocco.<ref>Kennedy, Helen. [http://www.nydailynews.com/front/story/399576p-338493c.html Terrorist's mom gets hug.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060523055930/http://www.nydailynews.com/front/story/399576p-338493c.html |date=May 23, 2006}} ''New York Daily News'' (2006-03-14).</ref> Five years later, Moussaoui's parents moved to France, where he was born. After enduring [[domestic violence]], his mother left his father Omar while her four children were still young.<ref name="DOMESTIC" /> She raised her children on a cleaner's wages. There was no religious education within the family. Witnesses testified at Moussaui's trial that, as first-generation immigrants from [[Morocco]], the family frequently faced [[racism]] in their new country.<ref name="Sniffen" /> From 1982, Moussaoui, his brother and sisters, were brought up in a [[bungalow]] on the edge of the town of [[Narbonne]]. His mother has said that she believes two 'wounding' incidents in his French adolescence contributed to the formation of an extremist sensibility: the first the day that his school careers adviser pushed him towards minor, technical studies, with "the clear implication that he was only an Arab and would need nothing more," and the second the day that the father of his teenage sweetheart warned him off because he was an Arab. "Don't think that you will ever get your feet under my table," the man said. "<ref>The Independent, 8 September 2011</ref>

According to his brother, Abd Samad Moussaoui, Zacarias loved to play [[team handball|handball]]:<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/apr/19/shopping.september11 My Brother Zac.] ''The Guardian Unlimited'' (2003-04-18).</ref>

<blockquote>For Zacarias [his brother wrote in ''the Guardian''], handball quickly became more than a sport—it was his passion. He was brilliant. Everyone recognized it—his trainers, his team-mates, even his opponents. For Zacarias, the future was all mapped out. He would study and play sports.</blockquote>

===Militant training===
Moussaoui has been known by other names, reportedly including '''Abu Khaled al Sahrawi''' and '''Shaquil''' while he was in Oklahoma.<ref name="Oklahoma" /> He holds a [[master's degree]] in [[International Business]] from [[London South Bank University|South Bank University]] in London, having enrolled in 1993 and graduated in 1995.<ref>Woodward, Will. [https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2001/oct/06/september11.usa1 Hijack suspect was South Bank student.] ''The Guardian'' (2001-10-06).</ref> He attended, amongst others, the [[Brixton Mosque]],<ref name="isim" /> where he may have met [[Richard Reid (shoe bomber)|Richard Reid]], the future shoe bomber.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/1731568.stm |title=Who is Richard Reid? |publisher=BBC News |access-date=2010-01-16|date=28 December 2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/27/world/a-nation-challenged-the-convert-shoe-bomb-suspect-fell-in-with-extremists.html?pagewanted=all | title = A Nation challenged-the convert; Shoe-Bomb Suspect Fell in With Extremists | newspaper = [[New York Times]] | access-date = 2010-01-16 | author = [[Warren Hoge|Hoge, Warren]] | date= December 27, 2001 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140509001705/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/27/world/a-nation-challenged-the-convert-shoe-bomb-suspect-fell-in-with-extremists.html?pagewanted=all | archive-date = 2014-05-09 | url-status = live}}</ref> He was proselytised by groups such as [[al-Muhajiroun]] ("the Emigrants"), who leafleted people attending moderate mosques such as that in Brixton.<ref name="isim" /> It is possible that he had connections with members of the [[Finsbury Park mosque]], where the extremist [[Abu Hamza al-Masri]] taught.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

French authorities began monitoring Moussaoui in 1996 when they observed him with Islamic extremists in London. In 1998, he attended the [[Khalden training camp]] in Afghanistan, allegedly returning the next year as well. In September 2000, he visited [[Malaysia]] and stayed in a condominium owned by [[Yazid Sufaat]] who, in October 2000, signed letters identifying Moussaoui as a representative of his company. Two of the September 11 hijackers lived in the same condominium in January 2000. [[Jemaah Islamiah]] leader [[Riduan Ismauddin]] sent Sufaat to provide Moussaoui with {{USD|35,000}} and travel documents in Malaysia in October.

===Flight training===
From 26 Februaryto 29 May 2001, Moussaoui attended flight training courses at [[University_of_Oklahoma|University of Oklahoma Flight School]] in [[Norman, Oklahoma|Norman]], Oklahoma. Despite 57 hours of flying lessons, he failed and left without ever having flown solo. This school was also visited by [[Mohamed Atta]] and [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], who piloted planes into the north and south towers of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]]

During his time in Norman, Moussaoui had a roommate named Hussein al-Attas. On 11 August 2001, Hussein al-Attas drove Moussaoui to Minnesota from Oklahoma.<ref name="paradise" /> Hussein al-Attas said that he and Moussaoui planned to take a trip to New York City in late August/early September 2001. In 2002, al-Attas admitted that he lied to the FBI to conceal Moussaoui's name, lied to the inquisitive FBI to conceal Moussaoui's extremist jihadi and anti-American beliefs, lied to conceal his own tendencies, lied to conceal that Moussaoui had been trying to convince him to become more active in the jihad or struggle, and lied to conceal the names of other Middle Easterners who were taking flight lessons in Oklahoma.<ref name="Oklahoma" />

Moussaoui allegedly received US$14,000 in wire transfers from bin al-Shibh, originating from [[Düsseldorf]] and [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]], in early August. This money could have helped him pay for flight training about two weeks later at Pan-Am International Flight Academy in [[Eagan, Minnesota|Eagan]], Minnesota. On August 13, Moussaoui paid US$6,800 with US$100 bills to receive training in a [[747-400]] [[flight simulator|simulator]]. The simulator that [[Pan Am International Flight Academy|Pan-Am]] uses is operated by Northwest Aerospace Training Corporation (NATCO), a training facility affiliated with [[Northwest Airlines]]. Moussaoui was reportedly considered as a replacement for [[Ziad Jarrah]], who at one point threatened to withdraw from the scheme because of tensions amongst the plotters.<ref>{{cite news |first=Dan |last=Eggen |title=Questions Linger on Moussaoui's Role in 9/11 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A10300-2005Apr22.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=2005-04-23 |access-date=2008-05-03}}</ref> Plans to include Moussaoui were never completed because the al-Qaeda hierarchy allegedly had doubts about his reliability.

Clarence Prevost, the flight instructor assigned to Moussaoui, began to have suspicions about his student. His behavior largely resembled that of other seemingly wealthy men who had come to the center in the past to receive jumbo jet training despite the fact that they would likely never use it, but some characteristics were unusual. Prevost said later that in pre-simulator instruction, Moussaoui would ask questions that had the right [[jargon]] but were otherwise nonsensical. Moussaoui read through the 747 training manuals, but had a lack of understanding of the plane's systems. Prevost was confused as to why Moussaoui would seek simulator time if he lacked basic plane knowledge. After some convincing, his supervisors contacted the [[FBI]], who came to meet with him. (Despite later reports, Moussaoui did not skip the training for takeoff and landing).<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/01/24/moussaoui.reward/index.html?eref=rss_topstories Flight instructor gets $5 million for catching terror suspect] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043117/http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/01/24/moussaoui.reward/index.html?eref=rss_topstories |date=March 4, 2016}} ''CNN'' (2008-01-25)</ref>

===Capture===
{{Wikisource|FBI eMails concerning Moussaoui}}
On 16 August 2001, Moussaoui was arrested by Harry Samit of the [[FBI]] and [[Immigration and Naturalization Service|INS]] agents in [[Minnesota]] and charged with an immigration violation.<ref name="StatementOfFacts"/> Materials itemized when he was arrested included a laptop computer, two knives, flight manuals pertaining to Boeing's 747 aircraft, a flight simulator computer program, fighting gloves and shin guards, and a computer disk with information about [[crop dusting]].<ref name="StatementOfFacts" />

Some agents worried that his flight training had violent intentions, so the Minnesota bureau tried to get permission (sending over 70 emails in a week) to search his laptop, but they were turned down.<ref name="damning"/> FBI agent [[Coleen Rowley]] made an explicit request for permission to search Moussaoui's personal rooms. This request was first denied by her superior, Deputy General Counsel Marion "Spike" Bowman, and later rejected based upon [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act|FISA]] regulations (amended after 9/11 by the [[USA Patriot Act]]). Several further search attempts similarly failed.

[[Ahmed Ressam]], the captured [[al-Qaeda]] Millennium Bomber, was at the time sharing information with the US authorities, in an effort to gain leniency in his sentencing. One person whom he was not asked about until after 9/11, but whom he was able to identify when asked as having trained with him at al-Qaeda's [[Khalden Camp]] in Afghanistan, was Moussaoui.<ref name="a911" /> The [[9/11 Commission Report]] opined that had Ressam been asked about Moussaoui, he would have broken the FBI's logjam.<ref name="a911" /> Had that happened, the Report opined, the U.S. might conceivably have disrupted or derailed the [[September 11 attacks]] altogether.<ref name="a911" />

==Court proceedings==
On 11 December 2001, Moussaoui was [[indictment|indicted]] by a federal [[grand jury]] in [[United States District Court]] for the [[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia|Eastern District of Virginia]] on six felony charges: conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism transcending national boundaries, conspiracy to commit aircraft piracy, conspiracy to destroy aircraft, conspiracy to use weapons of mass destruction, conspiracy to murder United States employees, and conspiracy to destroy property.<ref>[http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/moussaouiindictment.htm UNITED STATES OF AMERICA v. ZACARIAS MOUSSAOUI - Indictment.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715180259/http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/moussaouiindictment.htm |date=July 15, 2009}} United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia Alexandria Division, United States Department of Justice, December 2001. Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref> The indictment of Zacarias Moussaoui named as unindicted co-conspirators Ramzi Bin al-Shibh and Mustafa al-Hawsawi, among others, for their role in the attack "to murder thousands of innocent people in [[New York (state)|New York]], [[Virginia]] and [[Pennsylvania]]".

On 2 January 2002, Moussaoui refused to enter any plea to the charges and so Judge Leonie Brinkema entered pleas of not guilty. A hearing was held on 22 April 2002, to determine his right to self-representation, for by then Moussaoui had declined the assistance of his court-appointed attorneys, and asked to defend himself. At another hearing on 13 June 2002, Brinkema deemed him competent to defend himself and allowed the case to move forward. However, Moussaoui later requested the occasional assistance of attorneys to help him with technical issues.

Moussaoui admitted his involvement with al-Qaeda, but claimed he was not involved in the 9/11 attacks. Rather, he claimed that he was preparing for a separate attack. [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] had earlier told investigators that Moussaoui met with him prior to 11 September, but that he, Mohammed, chose not to use him. No evidence directly linking Moussaoui to the 9/11 attacks has yet been released.

The trial highlighted a tension in the United States between the [[judicial branch|judiciary]] and [[national security]]. Moussaoui made requests for access to confidential documents and the right to call captive al-Qaeda members as witnesses, notably bin al-Shibh, Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, and [[Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi]]. Both requests were claimed by prosecutors to be potential threats to national security. Brinkema denied the motion to access confidential documents, although Moussaoui was permitted to use several al-Qaeda prisoners as witnesses.

Brinkema put the death penalty "off limits" on 2 October 2003, in reply to government defiance of her order to provide access to Moussaoui's witnesses. The [[Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals]] reversed the Brinkema ruling, holding that the U.S. government could use summaries of interviews/interrogations of these witnesses. On 21 March 2005, the [[United States Supreme Court]], without comment, declined to hear Moussaoui's pre-trial [[appeal]] of the Fourth Circuit's decision, returning the case to Brinkema.

On 22 April 2005, in one of the court sessions near the end of that phase of the proceedings, Moussaoui surprised the court by unexpectedly pleading guilty to all charges, while at the same time denying having any intention to produce a massacre like 9/11. He said that it was not his conspiracy, and that he intended to free Sheikh [[Omar Abdel-Rahman]]. According to Moussaoui, his master plan was to hijack a [[Boeing]] [[747-400]], since the plane is one of a few that could reach [[Afghanistan]] from the U.S. without any intermediate stops.

On 6 February 2006, Moussaoui shouted "I am al-Qaeda. They do not represent me; they are Americans," referring to his attorneys while being escorted from the courtroom in front of 120 potential [[jury|jurors]].<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/02/06/moussaoui.trial/index.html Moussaoui: 'I am al Qaeda'.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227001616/http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/02/06/moussaoui.trial/index.html |date=December 27, 2016}} ''CNN'' (2006-02-06).</ref>

In March 2006, during the Moussaoui trial, several premises made headlines, including FBI agents stating that the bureau was aware, years before the attacks in 2001, that al-Qaeda planned to use planes to destroy important buildings,<ref>Barakat, Matthew. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2006/03/08/national/a090713S88.DTL Moussaoui Jury Watches Video Testimony.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216234158/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2006%2F03%2F08%2Fnational%2Fa090713S88.DTL |date=February 16, 2007}} ''Associated Press'' (2006-03-08).</ref> and Brinkema's decision to consider dismissal of the death penalty. However, days later, under significant media attention, Brinkema decided not to dismiss the case, and instead ruled that witnesses could not testify and the government would be allowed to continue to seek the death sentence against him.<ref>[http://www.thebostonchannel.com/consumer/8001206/detail.html Government Can Seek Death Penalty In 9/11 Case.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222052034/http://www.thebostonchannel.com/consumer/8001206/detail.html |date=February 22, 2012}} ''TheBostonChannel.com'' (2006-03-14).</ref>

On 27 March 2006, Moussaoui testified that he and "shoe bomber" Richard Reid had planned to crash a hijacked airplane into the [[White House]] in the 11 September attacks. No direct connection between Moussaoui and Reid had ever before been alleged, and this testimony contradicted earlier testimony by Moussaoui that he had been intended for an operation after 11 September. When asked why he had previously lied, he stated that "You're allowed to lie for jihad. You're allowed any technique to defeat your enemy."<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4850988.stm Moussaoui lies 'let 9/11 happen'.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314041855/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4850988.stm |date=March 14, 2007}} ''[[BBC News]]'' (2006-03-27.)</ref><ref>Hirschkorn, Phil. [http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/03/27/moussaoui/index.html Moussaoui: White House was my 9/11 target.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506031004/http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/03/27/moussaoui/index.html |date=May 6, 2016}} ''[[CNN]]'' (2006-03-27.)</ref> There has been commentary in the mainstream media that Moussaoui's preference to die as an identified 9/11 plotter rather than receive a life sentence as a member of an unrealized scheme throws doubt on his self-admitted connection to 9/11.<ref name="Slate2006-04-03" /><ref>Serrano, Richard A. [https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/1014178801.html?dids=1014178801:1014178801&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Apr+3%2C+2006&author=Richard+A.+Serrano&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&edition=&startpage=A.1&desc=The+Nation In Court, Two 20th Hijackers Stand Up.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019085003/https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/1014178801.html?dids=1014178801%3A1014178801&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS%3AFT&type=current&date=Apr%203%2C%202006&author=Richard%20A.%20Serrano&pub=Los%20Angeles%20Times&edition=&startpage=A.1&desc=The%20Nation |date=October 19, 2012}} ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' (2006-04-03.)</ref><ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/03/27/ap/national/mainD8GK7DEG0.shtml Moussaoui Says He Was to Hijack 5th Plane.] {{webarchive |url=https://archive.today/2007.11.23-051552/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/03/27/ap/national/mainD8GK7DEG0.shtml |date=November 23, 2007}} [[Associated Press]] (2006-03-27.)</ref>

===Court statements===
Moussaoui refused legal representation for years; he entered confusing, insulting, and parallel court pleadings. His pleadings, statements, and behavior included the following:

'''2 January 2002:''' Moussaoui stated, "In the name of [[Allah]], I do not have anything to plea, and I enter no plea."<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/nashdef1.html United States of America v. Zacarias Moussaoui, Memorandum of Law Regarding Defendant's Motion to Proceed ''pro se'' and Status of Counsel.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002205420/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/nashdef1.html |date=October 2, 2009}} ''The Smoking Gun.'' Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref>

'''22 April 2002:''' Moussaoui tried to fire his court-appointed lawyers. Judge Brinkema took the request under advisement; on 13 June 2002, she ordered that he had the right to defend himself, and a search began for a Muslim lawyer.<ref name=sgun>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/moussaoui1.html Court transcript.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002205438/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/moussaoui1.html |date=October 2, 2009}} ''The Smoking Gun.'' Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref> Moussaoui cited several [[Surah|surahs]] of the [[Qur'an]]—including Al-i-imran 3:118, Al-anfal 8:36, Al-anfal 8:45, Al-i-Imran 3:175 and Al-An-am 6:162—to the judge as justification for firing his lawyers, proof of the government's and judge's corruption, confirmation of his innocence, and assurance that he was taking the best possible course of defense.<ref name=sgun/> He then prayed to Allah for the return of [[Al-Andalus]] ([[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) and the deliverance of [[Ceuta]], [[Melilla]], [[India]] and [[Kashmir]] to the Muslims.<ref name=sgun/> He also prayed for the destruction of several nations—including [[Israel]] (and the Jewish people as a whole), [[Russia]], [[Canada]], [[UK]], [[Australia]], and the U.S.—and for the liberation of [[State of Palestine|Palestine]], [[Chechnya]], and [[Afghanistan]].<ref name=sgun/> The Court ordered a psychiatric evaluation in response.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5243788 Timeline: The Case Against Zacarias Moussaoui] NPR. May 3, 2006.</ref>

'''7 June 2002:''' A court-appointed psychiatrist declared Moussaoui sufficiently competent for trial.<ref>[http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/moussaoui/usmouss72502grspr11.pdf Government's response to Standby Counsel] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309015826/http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/moussaoui/usmouss72502grspr11.pdf |date=March 9, 2016}} at FindLaw.com. Retrieved on 2007-06-17.</ref>

'''11 June 2002:''' Moussaoui filed a motion, titled ''Motion for pre-contempt of Leonie Brinkema order to declare Zacarias Moussaoui crazy'', which insisted on his competence to stand trial.<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/morezac2.html Court notes.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060208014317/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/morezac2.html |date=February 8, 2006}} ''The Smoking Gun.'' Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref> In it, he said he had tried "to get the help of the European Court of Justice and Parliaments". He then offered a psychological analysis of Judge Brinkema:

<blockquote>
Mental Status Enumeration: Axis 1; Acute symptoms of Islamophobia with complex of gender inferiority.
 
Diagnostic Impressions: Legal pathological killer instinct with egoboasting dementia to become supreme.
 
Conclusion and Recommendations: Immediate psychiatric hospitalization to specialist unit (propose unit UBL treatment center ... )</blockquote>

'''18 July 2002:''' Moussaoui entered a guilty plea, stating, "I have knowledge and I participated in al-Qaeda. I am a member of al-Qaeda ... I pledge [[bay'at|bayat]] to [[Osama bin Laden]]."<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/zacplea3.html Court transcript.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107203730/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/zacplea3.html |date=November 7, 2005}} The Smoking Gun. Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref> The Court rejected the guilty plea as unconsidered and ordered Moussaoui to rethink his plea.

'''24 July 2002:''' Moussaoui's roommate from Oklahoma flight school, 24-year-old Hussein al-Attas, pleaded guilty to seven counts of [[making false statements]], including the following:

<blockquote>The truth is that on several occasions, during the short time I knew him (Moussaoui) had expressed a general desire to participate in jihad, so my statement to the contrary was false ... When the agents asked if I (also) knew his real name, I lied and said I did not.<ref name="Oklahoma" /></blockquote>

Al-Attas stated that he told the FBI he was going to Pakistan to seek medical assistance for a sick relative in Saudi Arabia, but admitted, "The real reason was (Moussaoui) had convinced me to go to speak to Islamic scholars and others who hold the belief that Islamic religion favors participation in jihad."{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}

Furthermore, al-Attas admitted to lying about his plans to go with Moussaoui to New York City in late August, 2001. He also confessed that he lied about some of Moussaoui's classmates at an Oklahoma flight school.<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/07/25/attack/main516353.shtml Moussaoui Roommate Pleads Guilty.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102184446/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/07/25/attack/main516353.shtml |date=November 2, 2012}} ''CBS News'' (2002-07-22).</ref>

'''28 July 2002:''' Moussaoui pleaded guilty to four of six counts of conspiracy. He denied charges of conspiracy to murder United States employees and destroy property.

<blockquote>Today, I truthfully will enter on some of the charges, not all, a plea of guilty ... It should not be misunderstood that I endorse the entire indictment. There is enough factual basis for me to plead guilty in a truthful manner.<ref>[http://www.courttv.com/trials/moussaoui/072502_ap.html Moussaoui tries to plead guilty to four charges; then withdraws.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031084408/http://www.courttv.com/trials/moussaoui/072502_ap.html |date=October 31, 2006}} Court TV News (2002-07-25).</ref></blockquote>

The Court rejected the guilty plea as too informal and reappointed his counsel. Moussaoui's response to this order to work with court-appointed counsel was, "It is most disgusting."

'''22 April 2003:''' Moussaoui filed a pleading with the header shown below. In the pleading, Judge Brinkema is referred to as "Death Judge Leonie".

<blockquote>
In the Name of Allah; Censured by the United Sodom of America
 
4/19/2003; Case No. 01455A; 17 S 1423 
Slave of Allah, Zacharias Moussaoui vs. 
Slave of Satan, John Ashcroft<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/zmoulist1.html Court notes.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002205404/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/zmoulist1.html |date=October 2, 2009}} ''The Smoking Gun.'' Retrieved on 2007-06-17.</ref></blockquote>

'''18 July 2003:''' Moussaoui filed two pleadings. The first was titled ''Wanted for WTC Bankruptcy'' and offered an accounting of "WTC profit and loss" of "Loss: 3000 sons of evil. Profit: 19 slaves of Allah." That document had the following header:

<blockquote>
In the Name of Allah; Censured by the United Satan of America 
Slave of Allah, Zacharias Moussaoui vs. 
Slave of Satan, Bush and Ashcroft<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/mouunseal1.html Court notes.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117205745/http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/mouunseal1.html |date=January 17, 2010}} ''The Smoking Gun.'' Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref></blockquote>

The second pleading was titled ''No Pig Man Role in Moussaoui Deliverance Scenario'' and stated "To be seen in all God Fearing '''W'''orld '''T'''heatre '''C'''inema. Deadline for 3000+ hotseat tickets (please contact '''U'''nited '''B'''ooking '''L'''imited)."

'''21 March 2006:''' In response to al-Atta's testimony, Moussaoui commented, "God Bless Mohammed Atta."<ref name="paradise" />

'''6 May 2006:''' In an [[affidavit]] filed by his attorneys after the trial, Moussaoui stated,<ref name="Withdraw" />

{{quote|
10. During the plea colloquy I made it clear to the Court that I did not have knowledge of and was not a member of the plot to hijack and crash planes into buildings in 11 September 2001 but that I was part of another Al-Qaeda plot which was to occur after 11 September 2001.

11. My court appointed attorneys kept telling me that I should not testify and I thought that they would prevent me from testifying, so I decided to ask the government to let me testify as their witness.

12. It is my recollection that when the judge addressed the jury before my trial began, she informed the jury that I was part of the 11 September plot which further confirmed my distrust of the American justice system and further convinced me to testify since I was going to be given death for the 11 September plot anyway.

13. I decided to testify that I had knowledge of and was a member of the plot to hijack planes and crash them into buildings on 11 September 2001, even though I knew that was a complete fabrication.

14. I have never met Mohammed Atta and, while I may have seen a few of the other hijackers at the guesthouse, I never knew them or anything about their operation.

15. As I stated during my plea colloquy, I was in the United States as a member of Al-Qaeda but was involved in a separate operation ...

18. Because I now see that it is possible that I can receive a fair trial even with Americans as jurors and that I can have the opportunity to prove that I did not have any knowledge of and was not a member of the plot to hijack planes and crash them into buildings on 11 September 2001, I wish to withdraw my guilty plea and ask the Court for a new trial to prove my innocence of the 11 September plot.}}

Additional case filings are posted online.<ref>[http://news.findlaw.com/legalnews/us/terrorism/cases/index.html#moussaoui Convicted al Qaeda Terrorist Facing Death Penalty Sentencing Trial.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060504174546/http://news.findlaw.com/legalnews/us/terrorism/cases/index.html#moussaoui |date=May 4, 2006}} FindLaw Legal News: Special Coverage: War on Terror: Cases. Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref>

===Trial and sentencing===
Moussaoui, charged with conspiring to hijack planes and crash them into the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, was in jail in Minnesota when the Sept. 11 attacks unfolded. In seeking a death sentence, prosecutors were required to prove that he "intentionally participated in an act ... and the victim died as a direct result of the act". Moussaoui admitted he knew about the attacks and did nothing to stop them.{{fact|date=April 2023}}

Having entered a guilty plea, Moussaoui was eligible for the [[death penalty]]. Germany said it would not release evidence against Moussaoui unless the U.S. promised not to seek death as punishment. On 27 April, 2005, French Justice Minister [[Dominique Perben]] said, "When France gave elements of information about Mr Moussaoui to the American justice, I obtained a written engagement of the United States not to use these elements to require or execute the death penalty."<ref>{{in lang|fr}} Kacem, Abdel. [http://fides.ifrance.com/fides/html/mousaou1.html Le deal de la France avec Washington.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713222914/http://fides.ifrance.com/fides/html/mousaou1.html |date=July 13, 2006}} ''Fidès Journal'' (Nov 29, 2002)</ref>

On 14 March 2006, Brinkema ruled that the prosecution could continue to seek the death penalty against Moussaoui, but could not use key witnesses coached by government lawyer [[Carla Martin]]. On 3 April 2006, the jury in his case decided that Moussaoui was eligible for the death penalty.{{fact|date=April 2023}}

At Moussaoui's sentencing trial, FBI agent Greg Jones testified that, prior to the attacks, he urged his supervisor, Michael Maltbie, "to prevent Zacarias Moussaoui from flying a plane into the World Trade Center". Maltbie had refused to act on 70 requests from another agent, Harry Samit, to obtain a warrant to search Moussaoui's computer.<ref name="damning" />

On 3 May 2006, the jury reached a verdict: that Moussaoui be sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole. Moussaoui was sentenced to six consecutive life terms on 4 May,<ref>[http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12615601 Moussaoui formally sentenced, still defiant.] NBC News (May 4, 2006).</ref> as Judge Brinkema expressed her belief that the sentence was an appropriate one, inasmuch as it would deprive Moussaoui of "[[martyr]]dom in a great big bang of glory" and of the "chance to speak again", after Moussaoui entered the courtroom proclaiming his victory and asserting that the United States would "never get Osama bin Laden". As he was leaving the courtroom, Moussaoui said, "America, you lost and I won," and clapped his hands twice. In fact, a single juror had saved Moussaoui from {{nowrap|death{{tsp}}{{mdash}}}}{{tsp}}the foreman of the 12-person federal jury told ''The Washington Post'' that the panel voted 11–1, 10–2 and 10–2 in favor of the death penalty on the three charges for which Moussaoui was eligible for execution.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080516064603/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/11/AR2006051101884.html One Juror Between Terrorist And Death]. ''Washington Post'' (May 12, 2006).</ref> A unanimous vote on any one of the three terrorism charges was required to return a death sentence.

On 8 May 2006, Moussaoui filed papers with the federal court in Alexandria, Virginia requesting to withdraw his guilty plea, stating that his earlier claim of participation in the 11 September plot was a "complete fabrication". He said that he was "extremely surprised" that he was not sentenced to death. "I now see that it is possible that I can receive a fair trial even with Americans as jurors," he said.<ref>Asseo, Laurie. [https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&sid=aM4lKxRGuqBQ Moussaoui Seeks to Withdraw Guilty Plea in Sept. 11 Attacks.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626151249/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&sid=aM4lKxRGuqBQ |date=June 26, 2009}} Bloomberg (May 8, 2006).</ref> However, federal sentencing rules forbid pleas to be withdrawn after a sentence has already been executed, and Moussaoui had already waived his rights to [[appeal]].

On 13 May 2006, Moussaoui was moved from his holding cell in [[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria]], [[Virginia]], and transported via [[Justice Prisoner and Alien Transportation System|JPATS]] to the supermax [[ADX Florence|United States Penitentiary Administrative Maximum Facility]], located near [[Florence, Colorado|Florence]], [[Colorado]].<ref>{{cite web|date=May 13, 2006 |url=http://www.usmarshals.gov/news/chron/2006/051306a.htm |title=U.S. Marshals Deliver Zacarias Moussaoui to "ADMAX" Prison |publisher=[U.S. Marshals] |access-date=Feb 4, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109061851/http://www.usmarshals.gov/news/chron/2006/051306a.htm |archive-date=January 9, 2009}}</ref> The facility—considered the most secure federal penitentiary—is called the "[[Alcatraz]] of the [[Rocky Mountains|Rockies]]".<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12636492/ "Moussaoui headed for 'Alcatraz of the Rockies'"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104083810/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12636492/ |date=November 4, 2012}}, [[MSNBC]].com (May 5, 2006)</ref> He has the [[Federal Bureau of Prisons]] number 51427-054.<ref name="BOP" />

On 31 July 2006, the 1,202 exhibits presented during the case of ''United States v. Zacarias Moussaoui'' were posted online, marking the first time the exhibits of a criminal case in U.S. courts were so published.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/ |title=United States v. Zacarias Moussaoui Criminal, No. 01-455-A Trial Exhibits |publisher=United States District Court Eastern District of Virginia |access-date=2010-04-17 |archive-date=2008-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516063610/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 20 November 2007, Judge Brinkema publicly stated that the US government had provided incorrect information about evidence in the Moussaoui trial and that due to those actions, she was considering ordering a new trial in a related terrorism case, that of Ali al-Timimi, a Virginia Muslim cleric. Brinkema said that she could no longer trust the CIA and other government agencies on how they represent classified evidence in cases regarding terrorism after Moussaoui case prosecutors admitted that the CIA had assured her that no videotapes or audiotapes existed of interrogations of certain high-profile terrorism detainees, but later, in a letter made public 13 November, two such videotapes and one audio tape were made known.<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://www.jurist.org/news/2007/11/us-judge-mulls-new-terror-trial-for/
| title = US judge mulls new terror trial for Muslim cleric after Moussaoui evidence revelations
| author = Mike Rosen-Molina
| date = November 21, 2007
| website = JURIST Legal News & Research Services}}</ref> According to his testimony, the citizen had training in accounting and organized the Al Qaeda's finances.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.documentcloud.org/documents/1569256/2927-5-moussaoui-transcript-1.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234500/https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.documentcloud.org/documents/1569256/2927-5-moussaoui-transcript-1.pdf|title=Exhibit "5" to the Affirmation of Sean P. Carter Transmitting Evidence in Support of Plaintiffs' Memorandum of Law in Opposition to the Motion to Dismiss of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Saudi High Commission for Relief of Bosnia & Herzegovina|archivedate=March 3, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.documentcloud.org/documents/1569257/2927-6-moussaoui-transcript-2.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050406/https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.documentcloud.org/documents/1569257/2927-6-moussaoui-transcript-2.pdf|title=Exhibit "6" to the Affirmation of Sean P. Carter Transmitting Evidence in Support of Plaintiffs' Memorandum of Law in Opposition to the Motion to Dismiss of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Saudi High Commission for Relief of Bosnia & Herzegovina|archivedate=March 4, 2016}}</ref>

===Osama bin Laden's alleged response===
On 23 May 2006, an audio recording attributed to [[Osama bin Laden]] said in translation that Moussaoui "had no connection at all with 11 Septembe... I am the one in charge of the 19 brothers and I never assigned brother Zacarias to be with them in that mission ... Since Zacarias Moussaoui was still learning to fly, he wasn't number 20 in the group, as your government claimed". The voice alleged to be bin Laden also suggested that Moussaoui's confession was "void" as it was a result of pressures applied during his incarceration.<ref>[http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12938808/ Bin Laden tape: Bin Laden: Moussaoui Not Linked to 9/11.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033800/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12938808/ |date=March 4, 2016}} ''Associated Press'' (2006-05-24)</ref><ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,196682,00.html Bin Laden: Moussaoui Wasn't Sept. 11 Conspirator.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218011634/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0%2C2933%2C196682%2C00.html |date=February 18, 2013}} ''Fox News'' (2006-05-24).</ref>

===Civil action 2015===
Civil action is being taken by relatives of 9/11 victims, insurers and others against the [[Saudi Arabia]]n government. In the course of this Zacarias Moussaoui has stated on oath and wrote to Judge [[George B. Daniels]] that Saudi royal family members helped finance the September 11 attacks and al-Qaeda. Prince [[Turki bin Faisal Al Saud]], Prince [[Bandar Bin Sultan]] and Prince [[Al-Waleed bin Talal]], of the Saudi royal family were specifically mentioned as Al-Qaeda donors—but the project's major patron was Prince [[Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud]], who in January 2015 became Saudi Arabia's king.<ref name="NYTimes2015-02-04" /> Moussaoui's testimony provides new details of the extent and nature of that support in the pre-9/11 period. Judge Leonie M. Brinkema declared "Moussaoui is completely competent", called him "an extremely intelligent man" and added: "He has actually a better understanding of the legal system than some lawyers I've seen in court".<ref name="NYTimes2015-02-03" />

The former senators [[Bob Graham]] of Florida and [[Bob Kerrey]] of Nebraska and the former Navy secretary [[John Lehman]] believed the Saudi role in the 9/11 plot had never been adequately examined and they demanded the release of 28 pages of the [[Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001|congressional report]] that explored Saudi connections.<ref name="NYTimes2015-02-04b" /> Both the administrations of [[George W. Bush]] and [[Barack Obama]] had refused to declassify the 28 pages on grounds of "national security", but as Graham argued, the opposite was true; the real "threat to national security is non-disclosure": The Saudis know what they did and the U.S. knows what they did, and when the U.S. government takes a position of passivity, or actively shuts down inquiry, that sends a message to the Saudis. "They have continued, maybe accelerated their support for the most extreme form of Islam known as [[Wahhabism]]" he stated, arguing that both [[al Qaeda]] and [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] are "a creation of Saudi Arabia". On 7 January 2015, Graham, [[United States House of Representatives|Congressmen]] [[Walter B. Jones, Jr.|Walter Jones]] and [[Stephen F. Lynch]], and members of the 9/11 families including Terry Strada, national co-chair of the ″9/11 Families and Survivors United for Justice Against Terrorism″, held a press conference on Capitol Hill announcing the reintroduction of the resolution calling for the declassification of the 28 pages. Graham said that those pages "point a very strong finger at Saudi Arabia as the principal financier" of the 9/11 hijackers: "This may seem stale to some but it's as current as the headlines we see today," referring to the [[Charlie Hebdo shooting|terrorist attack]] on a satirical newspaper [[Charlie Hebdo]] in [[Paris]].<ref>Jason Burke: [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/04/zacarias-moussaoui-al-qaida-backed-by-saudi-arabia "Zacarias Moussaoui says al-Qaida was backed by Saudi Arabia. But can he be believed?"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912082636/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/04/zacarias-moussaoui-al-qaida-backed-by-saudi-arabia |date=September 12, 2016}}. ''The Guardian'', February 4, 2015</ref><ref>Eleanor Clift: [http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/01/12/the-missing-pages-of-the-9-11-report.html "The Missing Pages of the 9/11 Report"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214012845/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/01/12/the-missing-pages-of-the-9-11-report.html |date=December 14, 2016}}, ''The Daily Beast'', January 12, 2015</ref> In 2016 a partially redacted form of the [[The 28 pages|pages]] were declassified by the Obama administration.<ref>{{Cite web|author1=Jim Sciutto|author2= Ryan Browne|author3=Deirdre Walsh|date=2016-07-15|title=Congress releases secret '28 pages' on alleged Saudi 9/11 ties |url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/07/15/politics/congress-releases-28-pages-saudis-9-11/index.html|access-date=2021-06-26|website=CNN|language=en}}</ref>

==Reward==
On 24 January 2008, Clarence Prevost, the flight instructor who led authorities to Moussaoui, received a $5 million reward from the U.S. government. The payment was questioned by agent [[Coleen Rowley]] and Senators [[Amy Klobuchar]] and [[Norm Coleman]], among others, on the basis that two other flight instructors had made the initial calls to the FBI.<ref>[http://www.newsweek.com/id/106275 Dialing For Dollars] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625221004/http://www.newsweek.com/id/106275 |date=June 25, 2009}}, ''[[Newsweek]]'', Jan 30, 2008</ref>

==See also==
* [[Nick Berg]]
* [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], believed to be a principal architect of the 11 September plot
* [[Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh]]
* [[Richard Reid (shoe bomber)|Richard Reid]]
* [[Mohamed Atta]], Lead hijacker of 9/11 terrorists, died in the attacks
* [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], roommate of Atta, imprisoned under similar conditions as [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] (believed to be in [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp|Guantanamo Bay]])
* [[Trials related to the September 11 attacks|Trials related to the 11 September attacks]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|1=2|refs=
<ref name="NYTimes2015-02-04">{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/05/world/middleeast/pre-9-11-ties-haunt-saudis-as-new-accusations-surface.html | title = Pre-9/11 Ties Haunt Saudis as New Accusations Surface | work = [[The New York Times]] | author = Ben Hubard and [[Scott Shane]] | date = 2015-02-04 | page = A10 | location = [[Riyadh]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150208043843/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/05/world/middleeast/pre-9-11-ties-haunt-saudis-as-new-accusations-surface.html | archive-date = 2015-02-08 | access-date = 2015-02-20 | url-status = live | quote = Yet Saudi Arabia continues to be haunted by what some suspect was a tacit alliance with Al Qaeda in the years before the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Those suspicions burst out in the open again this week with the disclosure of a prison deposition of a former Qaeda operative, Zacarias Moussaoui, who claimed that more than a dozen prominent Saudi figures were donors to the terror group and that a Saudi diplomat in Washington discussed with him a plot to shoot down Air Force One.}}</ref>
<ref name="NYTimes2015-02-04b">{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/05/us/claims-against-saudis-cast-new-light-on-secret-pages-of-9-11-report.html | title = Claims Against Saudis Cast New Light on Secret Pages of 9/11 Report | work = [[The New York Times]] | author = [[Carl Hulse]] | date = 2015-02-04 | page = A10 | location = [[Washington DC]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150208043842/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/05/us/claims-against-saudis-cast-new-light-on-secret-pages-of-9-11-report.html | archive-date = 2015-02-08 | access-date = 2015-02-20 | url-status = live | quote = Now new claims by Zacarias Moussaoui, a convicted former member of Al Qaeda, that he had high-level contact with officials of the Saudi government in the prelude to Sept. 11 have brought renewed attention to the inquiry's withheld findings, which lawmakers and relatives of those killed in the attacks have tried unsuccessfully to declassify.}}</ref>
<ref name="NYTimes2015-02-03">{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/04/us/zacarias-moussaoui-calls-saudi-princes-patrons-of-al-qaeda.html | title = Moussaoui Calls Saudi Princes Patrons of Al Qaeda | work = [[The New York Times]] | author = [[Scott Shane]] | date = 2015-02-03 | page = A1 | location = [[Washington DC]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150208043940/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/04/us/zacarias-moussaoui-calls-saudi-princes-patrons-of-al-qaeda.html | archive-date = 2015-02-08 | access-date = 2015-02-20 | url-status = live | quote = The Qaeda member, Zacarias Moussaoui, wrote last year to Judge George B. Daniels of United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, who is presiding over a lawsuit filed against Saudi Arabia by relatives of those killed in the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. He said he wanted to testify in the case, and after lengthy negotiations with Justice Department officials and the federal Bureau of Prisons, a team of lawyers was permitted to enter the prison and question him for two days last October.}}</ref>
<ref name="Slate2006-04-03">{{cite news | url = http://www.slate.com/id/2139185/ | title = When You Wish Upon a Scar: Zacarias Moussai finally makes his dream come true | publisher = [[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] | author-link = Dahlia Lithwick | last = Lithwick | first = Dahlia | date = 2006-04-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110511174914/http://www.slate.com/id/2139185/ | archive-date = 2011-05-11 | access-date = 2015-02-20 | url-status = live | quote = When it looked like little Moussaoui was too small to play the outsized role the prosecutors had scripted for him, he simply grew himself to fit into it. Moussaoui's lies don't appear to have actually advanced the conspiracy of 9/11, but they have certainly forwarded the conspiracy to put him to death as a perpetrator of 9/11.}}</ref>
<ref name="DOMESTIC">{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/09/magazine/09MOUSSAOUI.html | title = Everybody Has a Mother | publisher = [[The New York Times Magazine]] | author-link = Susan Dominus | first = Susan | last = Dominus | date = 2003-02-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110512201312/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/09/magazine/09MOUSSAOUI.html | archive-date = 2011-05-12 | access-date = 2015-02-20 | url-status = live | quote = He's not referring to Zacarias, who is being held in isolation in Virginia, charged with conspiracy in the Sept. 11 attacks. The waiter is talking about her other son, Abd-Samad Moussaoui, author of ''Zacarias, My Brother: The Making of a Terrorist,'' an account of his younger brother's life until 1995, when Zacarias was 27, after which the two fell permanently out of touch.}}</ref>
<ref name="NYTimes2006-02-14">{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/14/national/14cnd-mouss.html?ex=1297573200&en=74e0ad4419ce7d57&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss | title = Moussaoui Is Banned from Courtroom | work = [[New York Times]] | author-link = David Stout | first = David | last = Stout | date = 2006-02-14 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110512201308/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/14/national/14cnd-mouss.html?ex=1297573200&en=74e0ad4419ce7d57&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss | archive-date = 2011-05-12 | access-date = 2015-02-20 | url-status = live | quote = The confessed Al Qaeda plotter Zacarias Moussaoui berated the judge today and was banned from the courtroom during the jury-selection process that will determine whether he lives or dies.}}</ref>
<ref name="BOP">"[http://www.bop.gov/iloc2/InmateFinderServlet?Transaction=IDSearch&needingMoreList=false&IDType=IRN&IDNumber=51427-054&x=27&y=30 Zacarias Moussaoui] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914151957/http://www.bop.gov/iloc2/InmateFinderServlet?Transaction=IDSearch&needingMoreList=false&IDType=IRN&IDNumber=51427-054&x=27&y=30 |date=September 14, 2012}}." [[Federal Bureau of Prisons]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref>
<ref name="Sniffen">Sniffen, Michael J. 'America, you lost -- I won': Moussaoui sentenced to life in prison. ''[[Chicago Sun Times]]'' (2006-05-04). Available at [https://web.archive.org/web/20070218193409/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20060504/ai_n16344678 findarticles.com.] Retrieved on 2007-01-03</ref>
<ref name="Withdraw">[http://files.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/moussaoui/mouss50806mot.pdf The United States of America v. Zacarias Moussaoui: Defendant's Motion to Withdraw Guilty Plea (PDF).] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309015420/http://files.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/moussaoui/mouss50806mot.pdf |date=March 9, 2016}} The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, May 2006, available at [[FindLaw.com]]. Also available at [http://notablecases.vaed.uscourts.gov/1:01-cr-00455/docs/72453/0.pdf uscourts.gov (PDF).] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060517032048/http://notablecases.vaed.uscourts.gov/1%3A01-cr-00455/docs/72453/0.pdf |date=May 17, 2006}} Retrieved on 2007-01-03.</ref>
<ref name="Oklahoma">Hirschkorn, Phil and Deborah Feyerick. [http://archives.cnn.com/2002/LAW/07/22/moussaoui.witness/index.html Friend of Moussaoui pleads guilty to making false statements.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061030054337/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/LAW/07/22/moussaoui.witness/index.html |date=October 30, 2006}} ''CNN'' (2002-07-22).</ref>
<ref name="isim">[https://web.archive.org/web/20210912102013/http://www.isim.nl/files/review_21/review_21-18.pdf "The Religious Trajectories of the Moussaoui Family", Katherine Donahue, ISIM Review 21 (Spring 2008), p. 18, accessed 11 January 2001]</ref>
<ref name="paradise">Hirschkorn, Phil. [http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/03/21/moussaoui.trial/index.html Roommate: Moussaoui saw jihad as way to paradise.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180409/http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/03/21/moussaoui.trial/index.html |date=March 3, 2016}} ''CNN'' (2006-03-21).</ref>
<ref name="StatementOfFacts">{{cite web |year=2007|url = http://i.a.cnn.net/cnn/2005/images/04/22/moussaoui.statement.pdf|title = UNITED STATES OF AMERICA vs ZACARIAS MOUSSAOUI — Criminal No. 01-455-A|publisher = [[CNN News]]| access-date = 2007-09-09}}</ref>
<ref name="a911">{{cite book|last= National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States |title=The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2004|isbn=0-393-06041-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNqdmUnqTJUC&q=ressam&pg=PA501|access-date=February 28, 2010}}</ref>
<ref name="damning">Markon, Jerry and Timothy Dwyer. [http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/damning-evidence-highlights-fbi-bungles/2006/03/21/1142703358754.html Damning evidence highlights FBI bungles.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309143632/http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/damning-evidence-highlights-fbi-bungles/2006/03/21/1142703358754.html |date=March 9, 2016}} ''The Sydney Morning Herald'' (March 22, 2006).</ref>
}}

==References==
* Moussaoui, Abd Samad. ''Zacarias My Brother'' ({{ISBN|1-58322-585-4}}).
* [https://www.theguardian.com/september11/story/0,11209,1468558,00.html Moussaoui pleads guilty to role in 9/11 attacks.] ''[[Guardian Unlimited]]''/[[Associated Press]] (April 22, 2005).
* [http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12615601 "Moussaoui formally sentenced, still defiant"]. Associated Press, [[MSNBC]].com.
* [http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2006/04/20084915222203521.html "Moussaoui scorns 9/11 victims"] Al Jazeera (April 14, 2006)]
* Novak, Viveca. [https://web.archive.org/web/20050305053612/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101031027-524419,00.html "How the Moussaoui Case Crumbled"] ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' (October 27, 2003).
* [http://notablecases.vaed.uscourts.gov/1:01-cr-00455/docs/72321/0.pdf Special Verdict Form for Phase II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221150929/http://notablecases.vaed.uscourts.gov/1:01-cr-00455/docs/72321/0.pdf |date=2007-02-21 }} Official jury ballot (PDF)
* [http://edition.cnn.com/interactive/us/0207/moussoui.timeline/frameset.exclude.html Timeline: The Zacarias Moussaoui Case.] [[CNN]].com.
* Donahue, Katherine C. 2007. ''Slave of Allah: Zacarias Moussaoui vs. The USA''. London: Pluto Press. ({{ISBN|978-0-7453-2619-1}})

==External links==
{{Wikinews|Zacarias Moussaoui to serve life in prison}}
{{Wikisource index|Zacarias Moussaoui}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100529010145/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/moussaoui/moussaouihome.html Trial of Zacarias Moussaoui]
* [http://www.rcfp.org/moussaoui/Case documents from The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071227185116/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,193661,00.html Looking for Trouble] (''Time'' magazine)



{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{FrenchTerrorism}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}
{{Al-Muhajiroun}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Moussaoui, Zacarias}}
[[Category:1968 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century French criminals]]
[[Category:People from Saint-Jean-de-Luz]]
[[Category:French Islamists]]
[[Category:French people of Moroccan descent]]
[[Category:Alumni of London South Bank University]]
[[Category:Inmates of ADX Florence]]
[[Category:French al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:People convicted on terrorism charges]]
[[Category:People imprisoned on charges of terrorism]]
[[Category:French prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment]]
[[Category:Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by the United States federal government]]
[[Category:French people imprisoned abroad]]
[[Category:People associated with the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:American people of Moroccan descent]]

Mohamed Atta

2023-09-12T21:52:39Z

78.157.120.208: Date format has never been discussed. In Arabic, mdy is not used. He lived most of his life in an Arabic-speaking country. bin Ladens article is aslo written with the dmy format. Added template for American English

{{Short description|Egyptian terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1968–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{distinguish|Mohammed Atef}}{{other people|}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Mohamed Atta
| relatives =
| image = Mohamed Atta.jpg
| image_caption = Atta in May 2001
| native_name = محمد عطا
| birth_name = Mohamed Mohamed el-Amir Awad el-Sayed Atta
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1968|9|1}}
| birth_place = [[Kafr El Sheikh Governorate|Kafr el-Sheikh]], Egypt
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2001|9|11|1968|9|1}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[American Airlines Flight 11|Plane crash]], [[Suicide attack|suicide]]
| alma_mater = [[Cairo University]] [[Hamburg University of Technology]]
| known_for = Ringleader of the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]] as the [[Aircraft hijacking|hijacker]]-[[Aircraft pilot|pilot]] of [[American Airlines Flight 11]]
}}
'''Mohamed Mohamed el-Amir Awad el-Sayed Atta''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|t|ɑː}} {{respell|AT|ah}}; {{lang-ar|محمد محمد الأمير عوض السيد عطا}} {{IPA-arz|mæˈħæmmæd elʔæˈmiːɾ ˈʕɑwɑdˤ esˈsæj.jed ˈʕɑtˤɑ|}}; 1 September 1968 – 11 September 2001) was an Egyptian terrorist hijacker. He was the ringleader of the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]] and served as the [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|hijacker-pilot]] of [[American Airlines Flight 11]], which he crashed into the North Tower of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] as part of the coordinated attacks. Having turned 33 just ten days earlier, he was the oldest of the [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|19 hijackers]] who took part in the mission.

Born and raised in Egypt, Atta studied architecture at [[Cairo University]], graduating in 1990, and continued his studies in Germany at the [[Hamburg University of Technology]]. In Hamburg, Atta became involved with the [[Al-Quds Mosque Hamburg|al-Quds Mosque]], where he met [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], and [[Ziad Jarrah]], together forming the [[Hamburg cell]]. Atta disappeared from Germany for periods of time, embarking on the [[hajj]] in 1995 but also meeting [[Osama bin Laden]] and other top [[al-Qaeda]] leaders in [[Afghanistan]] from late-1999 to early-2000. Atta and the other Hamburg cell members were recruited by bin Laden and [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] for a "planes operation" in the United States. Atta returned to Hamburg in February 2000, and began inquiring about flight training in the United States.

In June 2000, Atta, Ziad Jarrah and Marwan al-Shehhi arrived in the United States to learn how to pilot planes, obtaining [[instrument rating]]s in November. Beginning in May 2001, Atta assisted with the arrival of the muscle hijackers, and in July he traveled to Spain to meet with bin al-Shibh to finalize the plot. In August 2001, Atta traveled as a passenger on several [[dry run (terrorism)|"surveillance"]] flights, to establish in detail how the attacks could be carried out.

On the morning of 11 September 2001, Atta boarded [[American Airlines Flight 11]], which he and his team hijacked 15 minutes after takeoff. Atta took control of the plane and crashed it into the North Tower of the World Trade Center from floors 93 to 99 at 8:46 a.m., causing it to collapse at 10:28 that morning, after burning for 102 minutes, killing more than 1,600 people.

== Aliases ==
{{main article|Arabic name}}
Mohamed Atta had varied his name on documents, also using "Mehan Atta", "Mohammad El Amir", "Muhammad Atta", "Mohamed El Sayed", "Mohamed Elsayed", "Muhammad al-Amir", "Awag Al Sayyid Atta", and "Awad Al Sayad".<ref>{{cite news |author=Cherry, Alan |title=The Trail of Terror |work=Sun-Sentinel |date=September 28, 2001}}</ref> In Germany, he registered his name as "Mohamed el-Amir Awad el-Sayed Atta", and went by the name Mohamed el-Amir at the [[Hamburg University of Technology]].<ref name="hooper">{{cite news |url=http://observer.guardian.co.uk/waronterrorism/story/0,,556630,00.html |title=The shy, caring, deadly fanatic |date=September 23, 2001 |author=Hooper, John |work=The Guardian |access-date=September 16, 2008 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080125070524/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/waronterrorism/story/0,,556630,00.html |archive-date=January 25, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> In his will, written in 1996, Atta gives his name as "Mohamed the son of Mohamed Elamir awad Elsayed".<ref name="will">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/network/personal/attawill.html |title=Mohamed Atta's Last Will and Testament |publisher=PBS Frontline |access-date=August 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930214842/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/network/personal/attawill.html |archive-date=September 30, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> He was known as Abd al-Rahman al-Misri by al-Qaeda. Atta also claimed different nationalities, sometimes Egyptian and other times telling people he was from the [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref name="hooper"/>

== Early life ==
Atta was born on 1 September 1968, in [[Kafr el-Sheikh Governorate|Kafr el-Sheikh]], located in the [[Nile Delta]] region of Egypt (then a part of the [[United Arab Republic]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=Personal Stories – Who Were They? § Mohamed Atta |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/network/personal/whowere.html |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=5 February 2023}}</ref> His father, Mohamed el-Amir Awad el-Sayed Atta, was a lawyer, educated in both [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] and [[sharia|''sharia'']]. His mother, Buthayna Mohamed Mustapha Shiraqi, came from a wealthy farming and trading family and was also educated. Buthayna and Mohamed married when she was 14, via an [[arranged marriage]]. The family had few relatives on the father's side and kept their distance from Buthayna's family. In-laws characterized the father of Atta as "austere, strict, and private," and neighbors viewed the family as reclusive.{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|pp=9–11}} Atta was the only son; he had two older sisters who are both well-educated and successful in their careers — one as a medical doctor and the other as a professor.<ref name="cloud">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101011008-176917,00.html |title=Atta's Odyssey |magazine=Time |date=September 30, 2001 |author=Cloud, John |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210050403/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101011008-176917,00.html |archive-date=December 10, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

When Atta was ten, his family moved to the [[Cairo]] neighborhood of Abdeen, situated near the city center. His father, who kept the family ever insulated, forbade young Atta to fraternize with the other children in their neighborhood. Having little else to do, he mostly studied at home and easily excelled in school.{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|pp=12–14}}<ref name="abc-20011112">{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/transcript.htm |title=Transcript: A Mission to Die For |publisher=Four Corners / ABC (Australia) |date=November 12, 2001 |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917001606/http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/transcript.htm |archive-date=September 17, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1985, Atta enrolled at [[Cairo University]] and focused his studies on engineering. He was among the highest-scoring students; by his senior year, he was admitted to an exclusive architecture program. After he graduated in 1990 with an architecture degree,<ref name="newsweek">{{cite news |title=The Day That Changed America |work=Newsweek |date=December 31, 2001}}</ref> he joined the Engineers Syndicate, an organization under the control of the [[Muslim Brotherhood]].<ref name="hooper"/> He then worked for several months at the Urban Development Center in [[Cairo]], where he joined various building projects and dispatched diverse architectural tasks.<ref name="timeline">{{cite web |url=http://www.911myths.com/index.php/File:Hijackers_Timeline_OCR.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=9/11 Myths |date=February 4, 2008 |access-date=August 1, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607150225/http://www.911myths.com/index.php/File:Hijackers_Timeline_OCR.pdf |archive-date=June 7, 2011}}</ref> Also in 1990, Atta's family moved into the eleventh floor of an apartment building in the Egyptian city of [[Giza]].<ref name="newsweek"/><ref>{{cite news |title=In Egypt, some see war on terror as a war on Islam |author=Adams, Paul |work=Globe and Mail |location=Canada |date=September 4, 2002 |url=http://www.ctv.ca/special/sept11/hubs/muslim/adams.html |access-date=January 19, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080314225345/http://www.ctv.ca/special/sept11/hubs/muslim/adams.html |archive-date=March 14, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Atta also got engaged to a woman lined up by his father and her family in Cairo, at late 1999, after coming back from Germany the same year. Although the marriage never happened, Atta's father mentioned they liked each other.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-jan-27-mn-25005-story.html|title = A Perfect Soldier| website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date = January 27, 2002}}</ref>

== Germany ==
[[File:Mohammed Atta Pekka Tanner TUHH.jpg|thumb|Mohamed Atta (left) as a student in Germany, 1993]]
Atta graduated from Cairo University with marks insufficient for the graduate program. As his father insisted that he go abroad for [[Graduate school|graduate studies]], Atta, to this end, entered a German-language program at the [[Goethe Institute]] in Cairo.{{Sfn|Fouda|Fielding|2003|p=78}} In 1992, his father had overheard a German couple who were visiting Egypt's capital. The couple explained at dinner that they ran an exchange program and invited Atta to continue his studies in Germany; they also offered him room and board at their home in the city. Mohamed Atta accepted and was in Germany two weeks later, in July.

In Germany, he enrolled in the [[urban planning]] graduate program at the [[Hamburg University of Technology]].<ref name="cloud" /> Atta initially lived with two high school teachers; however, they eventually found his closed-mindedness and introverted personality to be too much for them. Atta began adhering to the strictest [[Islamic dietary laws|Islamic diet]], frequenting the most conservative [[mosque]]s, socializing seldom, and acting disdainfully towards the couple's unmarried daughter who had a young child. After six months, they asked him to leave.<ref>{{cite news |title=9/11 haunts hijacker's sponsors; German couple talks of living with pilot Atta |work=Chicago Tribune |date=March 7, 2003 |author=Swanson, Stevenson}}</ref><ref name="mcdermott-20020127">{{cite news |title= A Perfect Soldier; Mohamed Atta, whose hard gaze has stared from a billion television screens and newspaper pages, has become, for many, the face of evil incarnate |author=McDermott, Terry |work=Los Angeles Times |date=January 27, 2002}}</ref>{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|pp=22–23}}

By early 1993, Atta had moved into university housing with two roommates, in Centrumshaus. He stayed there until 1998. During that period, his roommates grew annoyed with him. He seldom bathed, and they could not bear his "complete, almost aggressive insularity".{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|p=25}} He kept to himself to such an extent that he would often react to simple greetings with silence.

===Academic studies===
At the Hamburg University of Technology, Atta studied under the guidance of the department chair, Dittmar Machule, who specialized in the Middle East.{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|p=24}} Atta was averse to modern development. This included the construction of [[high-rise building]]s in Cairo and other ancient cities in the region. He believed that the drab and impersonal [[Tower block|apartment blocks]], built in the 60s and 70s, ruined the beauty of old neighborhoods and robbed their people of privacy and dignity. Atta's family moved into an apartment block in 1990; it was to him but "a shabby symbol of Egypt's haphazard attempts to modernize and its shameless embrace of the West."<ref name="newsweek" /> For his thesis, Atta concentrated on the ancient Syrian city of [[Aleppo]]. He researched the history of the urban landscape in relation to the general theme of conflict between Arab and modern civilization. He criticized how the newfangled skyscrapers and other modernizing projects were disrupting the fabric of communities by blocking common streets and altering the [[skyline]].

Atta's professor, Dittmar Machule, brought him along on an archaeological expedition to Aleppo in 1994.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/interviews/machule.htm |title=Interview with Professor Dittmar Machule |publisher=ABC (Australia) |date=October 18, 2001 |access-date=August 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618213410/http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/interviews/machule.htm |archive-date=June 18, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The invitation had been for a three-day visit, but Atta ended up staying several weeks that August, only to visit Aleppo yet again that December.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/maps/europe/default.htm |title=A Mission to Die For – Europe Map |publisher=ABC (Australia) |date=October 18, 2001 |access-date=August 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930145530/http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/maps/europe/default.htm |archive-date=September 30, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> While in Syria, he met Amal, a young [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] woman who worked for a planning bureau in the city. Volker Hauth, who was traveling with Atta, described Amal as "attractive and self-confident. She observed Muslim customs, taking taxis to and from the office so as not to come into close physical contact with men on buses. But she was also said to be 'emancipated' and 'challenging'. Atta and Amal appeared to be attracted to each other, but Atta soon decided that "she had a quite different orientation and that the emancipation of the young lady did not fit." His nascent infatuation with her, begrudgingly realised, was the closest thing Atta knew to romance.<ref name="hooper"/> In mid-1995, he stayed for three months in Cairo, on a grant from the Carl Duisberg Society, along with fellow students Volker Hauth and Ralph Bodenstein. The academic team inquired into the effects of redevelopment in the [[Islamic Cairo]], the old quarter, which the government undertook to remodel for [[Tourism in Egypt|tourism]]. Atta stayed in Cairo awhile with his family after Hauth and Bodenstein flew back to Germany.{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|pp=29–31}}{{Sfn|Corbin|2003|p=122}}
While in Hamburg, Atta held several positions, such as one part-time job at Plankontor, as well as another at an urban planning firm, beginning in 1992. He was let go from the firm in 1997, however, because its business had declined and "his draughtsmanship was not needed" after it bought a [[computer-aided design|CAD]] system.<ref name="hooper"/>{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|p=47}} Among other odd jobs to supplement his income, Atta sometimes worked at a cleaning company and sometimes bought and sold cars.<ref name="Washpost">{{cite news |title=A Fanatic's Quiet Path to Terror; Rage Was Born in Egypt, Nurtured in Germany, Inflicted on U.S. |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=September 22, 2001 |author=Finn, Peter}}</ref> Atta had harbored a desire to return to his native city, ever since he finished his studies in Hamburg; but he was prevented by the dearth of job prospects in Cairo, his family lacking the "right connections" to avail the customary [[nepotism]].<ref name="cbs-20030305">{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/10/09/60II/main524947.shtml |title=The Mastermind |date=March 5, 2003 |publisher=CBS News |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930153018/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/10/09/60II/main524947.shtml |archive-date=September 30, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="prospect">{{cite news |url=http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=5362 |title=Portrait: Atta in Hamburg |work=Prospect |date=August 29, 2002 |author=Lappin, Elena |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930205629/http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=5362 |archive-date=September 30, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> Further, after the Egyptian government had imprisoned droves of [[Activism|political activists]], he knew better than to trust it not to target him too, with his social and political beliefs being such as they were.{{Sfn|Corbin|2003|p=123}}

===Religious zeal and Hamburg cell===
{{further|Hamburg cell}}
After coming to Hamburg in 1992, Atta grew more religiously fanatical and frequented the mosque with greater regularity.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/childhood-clues-to-what-makes-a-killer-748415.html |title=Childhood clues to what makes a killer |last=Buncombe |first=Andrew |work=The Independent |date=October 12, 2001 |access-date=September 8, 2010 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119084047/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/childhood-clues-to-what-makes-a-killer-748415.html |archive-date=January 19, 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> His friends in Germany described him as an intelligent man in whom religious convictions and political motives held equal sway. He harbored anger and resentment toward the U.S. for its policy in Islamic nations of the Middle East, with nothing inflaming his ire more than the [[Oslo Accords]] and the [[Gulf War]] in particular.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/interviews/hauth.htm |title=Four Corners – Volker Hauth interview |publisher=ABC (Australia) |date=October 18, 2001 |access-date=August 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618181916/http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/interviews/hauth.htm |archive-date=June 18, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/interviews/bodenstein.htm |title=Four Corners – Ralph Bodenstein interview |publisher=ABC (Australia) |date=October 18, 2001 |access-date=August 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617121230/http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/interviews/bodenstein.htm |archive-date=June 17, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> He was also angry and bitter at the elite in his native Egypt, who he believed hoarded power for themselves, as well as at the Egyptian government, that cracked down on the dissident [[Muslim Brotherhood]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/network/etc/script.html |title=Inside the Terror Network |work=Frontline |publisher=PBS |date=January 17, 2002 |last=Loeterman |first=Ben |author2=Hedrick Smith |access-date=September 8, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224023851/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/network/etc/script.html |archive-date=February 24, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Atta was [[Antisemitism|anti-Semitic]], believing that [[Jews]] controlled the world's media, financial, and political institutions from [[New York City]].{{sfn|Wright|2006|p=Chapter 18 ("Boom")}} These beliefs were even stronger during [[Operation Infinite Reach]], as he believed that [[Monica Lewinsky]] was a Jewish agent influencing [[Bill Clinton]] against aiding Palestine, which would later play a key role in creating the Hamburg cell.{{sfn|Wright|2006}}

On 1 August 1995, Atta returned to Egypt for three months of study.{{Sfn|Fouda|Fielding|2003|p=82}} Before this trip he grew out a beard to show himself as a devout Muslim and also to make a political gesture.<ref name="Washpost"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/interviews/hauth.htm |title=Volker Hauth interview |date=October 18, 2001 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Company (ABC) |work=Four Corners |access-date=September 8, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100504181217/http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/interviews/hauth.htm |archive-date=May 4, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Atta returned to Hamburg on 31 October 1995,{{Sfn|Fouda|Fielding|2003|p=82}} only to join the pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] shortly thereafter.<ref name="Washpost"/>

In Hamburg, Atta was intensely drawn to [[al-Quds Mosque]] which adhered to a "harsh, uncompromisingly [[Islamic fundamentalism|fundamentalist]], and resoundingly militant" version of [[Sunni Islam]].{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|pp=2–3}} He made acquaintances at al-Quds; some of whom visited him on occasion at Centrumshaus. He also began teaching classes both at Al-Quds and at a Turkish mosque near the [[Harburg, Hamburg|Harburg]] district. Atta also started and led a prayer group, which Ahmed Maklat and [[Mounir El Motassadeq]] joined. [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] was also there, teaching occasional classes, and became Atta's friend.{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|pp=34–37}}

On 11 April 1996, Atta signed his [[Will (law)|last will and testament]] at the mosque, officially declaring his Muslim beliefs and giving 18 instructions regarding his burial.<ref name="will"/>{{Sfn|Fouda|Fielding|2003|p=77}} This was the same day that [[Israel]], much to Atta's fury, attacked [[Lebanon]] in [[Operation Grapes of Wrath]]; signing the will "offering his life" was his response.{{sfn|Wright|2006|p=Chapter 18 ("Boom")}} The instructions in his last will and testament reflect both [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] funeral practices along with some more puritanical demands from [[Salafism]], including asking people not "to weep and cry" and to generally refrain from showing emotion. The will was signed by el-Motassadeq and a second person at the mosque.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://old.911digitalarchive.org/crr/documents/1017.pdf |title=Will Gives a Window into Suspect's Mind |author=Finn, Peter and Charles Lane |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] and 9/11 Digital Archive |date=October 6, 2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228003140/http://old.911digitalarchive.org/crr/documents/1017.pdf |archive-date=February 28, 2008}}</ref>

After leaving Plankontor in the summer of 1997, Atta disappeared again and did not return until 1998. He had made no progress on his thesis. Atta phoned his graduate advisor, Machule, and mentioned family problems at home, saying, "Please understand, I don't want to talk about this."<ref>{{cite news |title=In hindsight, more suspicion called for; Hamburg was early hotbed for plotters |work=Chicago Tribune |date=September 21, 2001 |author=Sly, Liz}}</ref><ref name="McDermott 2005, Chapter 5">McDermott (2005), Chapter 5</ref> At the winter break in 1997, Atta left and did not return to Hamburg for three months. He said that he went on pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] again, just 18 months after his first time. This claim has been disputed; Journalist [[Terry McDermott (journalist)|Terry McDermott]] has argued that it is unusual for someone to go on pilgrimage so soon after the first time and to spend three months there (more than [[Hajj]] requires). When Atta returned, he claimed that his passport was lost and applied for a new one, which is a common tactic to erase evidence of travel to places such as [[Afghanistan]].{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|p=57}} When he returned in spring 1998, after disappearing for several months, he had grown a thick long beard, and "seemed more serious and aloof" than before to those who knew him.<ref name="Washpost"/>
[[File:Marienstraße 54.JPG|thumb|upright|The apartment Atta, Bahaji, and bin al-Shibh shared from 1998 until 2001 in Marienstrasse, [[Hamburg]], Germany]]
By mid-1998, Atta was no longer eligible for university housing in Centrumshaus. He moved into a nearby apartment in the [[Wilhelmsburg, Hamburg|Wilhelmsburg]] district, where he lived with [[Said Bahaji]] and [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]]. By early 1999, Atta had completed his thesis, and formally defended it in August 1999.<ref name="McDermott 2005, Chapter 5"/>

In mid-1998, Atta worked alongside Shehhi, bin al-Shibh, and Belfas, at a warehouse, packing computers in crates for shipping.{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|p=58}} The Hamburg group did not stay in Wilhelmsburg for long. The next winter, they moved into an apartment at Marienstrasse 54 in the [[Harburg, Hamburg|borough of Harburg]], near the [[Hamburg University of Technology]],{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|p=63}} at which they enrolled. It was here that the [[Hamburg cell]] developed and acted more as a group.<ref>{{cite news|author=Bernstein, Richard Bernstein |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/10/national/10PLOT.html?ei=5070&en=81b2bc66ebffd6b4&ex=1139374800 |title=On Path to the U.S. Skies, Plot Leader Met bin Laden |work=The New York Times |date=September 10, 2002 |access-date=September 16, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601202151/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/10/national/10PLOT.html?ei=5070&en=81b2bc66ebffd6b4&ex=1139374800 |archive-date=June 1, 2009 }}</ref> They met three or four times a week to discuss their anti-American feelings and to plot possible attacks. Many [[al-Qaeda]] members lived in this apartment at various times, including hijacker [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], [[Zakariya Essabar]], and others.

In late 1999, Atta, Shehhi, Jarrah, Bahaji, and bin al-Shibh decided to travel to [[Chechnya]] to fight against the Russians, but were convinced by [[Khalid al-Masri]] and [[Mohamedou Ould Salahi]] at the last minute to change their plans. They instead traveled to [[Afghanistan]] over a two-week period in late November. On 29 November 1999, Mohamed Atta boarded [[Turkish Airlines]] Flight TK1662 from [[Hamburg]] to [[Istanbul]], where he changed to flight TK1056 to [[Karachi|Karachi, Pakistan]].<ref name="Yosri">{{cite news |last=Fouda |first=Yosri |date=October 1, 2006 |title=Chilling message of the 9/11 plots |work=The Sunday Times |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article656440.ece |url-status=live |access-date=September 24, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706181828/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article656440.ece |archive-date=July 6, 2008}}</ref> After they arrived, they were selected by al-Qaeda leader [[Mohammed Atef]] as suitable candidates for the "planes operation" plot. They were all well-educated, had experience of living in western society, along with some English skills, and would be able to obtain visas.{{sfn|Wright|2006|p=Chapter 18 ("Boom")}} Even before bin al-Shibh had arrived, Atta, Shehhi, and Jarrah were sent to the House of Ghamdi near bin Laden's home in [[Kandahar]], where he was waiting to meet them. Bin Laden asked them to pledge loyalty and commit to suicide missions, which Atta and the other three Hamburg men all accepted. Bin Laden sent them to see Atef to get a general overview of the mission, and then they were sent to Karachi to see [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] to go over specifics.{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|p=180}}{{additional citations needed|date=August 2023}}

German investigators said that they had evidence that Mohamed Atta trained at [[Afghan training camp|al-Qaeda camps]] in Afghanistan from late 1999 to early 2000. The timing of the Afghanistan training was outlined on 23 August 2002, by a senior investigator. The investigator, Klaus Ulrich Kersten was the director of Germany's federal anticrime agency, the [[Federal Criminal Police Office (Germany)|Bundeskriminalamt]]. He provided the first official confirmation that Atta and two other pilots had been in Afghanistan, and he also provided the first dates of the training. Kersten said in an interview at the agency's headquarters in [[Wiesbaden]] that Atta was in Afghanistan from late 1999 until early 2000,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2213701.stm |title=Atta 'trained in Afghanistan' |publisher=BBC |date=August 24, 2002 |access-date=September 7, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812184933/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2213701.stm |archive-date=August 12, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/24/world/germans-lay-out-early-qaeda-ties-to-9-11-hijackers.html |title=Germans Lay Out Early Qaeda Ties to 9/11 Hijackers |last=Frantz |first=Douglas |author2=Desmond Butler |date=August 24, 2002 |access-date=September 7, 2010 |work=The New York Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417113847/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/24/world/germans-lay-out-early-qaeda-ties-to-9-11-hijackers.html |archive-date=April 17, 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> and that there was evidence that Atta met with [[Osama bin Laden]] there.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/10/national/10PLOT.html?pagewanted=all |title=On Path to the U.S. Skies, Plot Leader Met bin Laden |last=Bernstein |first=Richard |date=September 10, 2002 |work=The New York Times |access-date=September 7, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417114220/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/10/national/10PLOT.html?pagewanted=all |archive-date=April 17, 2014 }}</ref>

A video surfaced in October 2006. The first chapter of the video showed bin Laden at [[Tarnak Farms]] on 8 January 2000. The second chapter showed Atta and [[Ziad Jarrah]] reading their wills together ten days later on January 18.<ref name="Yosri" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/15082633 |title=Video showing Atta, bin Laden is unearthed |author=Popkin, Jim |publisher=NBC News |date=October 1, 2006 |access-date=January 28, 2008}}</ref> On his return journey, Atta left Karachi on 24 February 2000, by flight TK1057 to [[Istanbul]] where he changed to flight TK1661 to Hamburg.<ref name="Yosri" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Bernstein |first=Richard |date=September 10, 2002 |title=On Path to the U.S. Skies, Plot Leader Met bin Laden |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/10/national/10PLOT.html?ex=1221624000&en=30bc6f683535b59f&ei=5070 |url-status=dead |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417085506/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/10/national/10PLOT.html?ex=1221624000&en=30bc6f683535b59f&ei=5070 |archive-date=April 17, 2009}}</ref> Immediately after returning to Germany, Atta, al-Shehhi, and Jarrah reported their passports stolen, possibly to discard travel visas to Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/network/etc/script.html |title=Inside the Terror Network |work=Frontline |publisher=PBS |date=January 17, 2002 |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930214837/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/network/etc/script.html |archive-date=September 30, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== United States ==
On 22 March 2000, Atta was still in Germany when he sent an [[Email|e-mail]] to the Academy of Lakeland in [[Florida]]. He inquired about flight training, "Dear sir, we are a small group of young men from different Arab countries. Now, we are living in Germany since a while for study purposes. We would like to start training for the career of airline professional pilots. In this field, we haven't yet any knowledge but we are ready to undergo an intensive training program (up to [[Airline transport pilot licence|ATP]] and eventually higher)." Atta sent 50–60 similar e-mails to other [[Flight training|flight training schools]] in the United States.<ref name="moussaoui-march7">{{cite web |url=http://cryptome.org/usa-v-zm-030706-02.htm |title=Zacarias Moussauoi v. the United States (trial testimony) |date=March 7, 2006 |access-date=September 16, 2008 |publisher=Cryptome / United States District Court – Eastern District of Virginia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131223174907/http://cryptome.org/usa-v-zm-030706-02.htm |archive-date=December 23, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 17 May Atta applied for a United States visa. The next day, he received a five-year [[B visa|B-1/B-2]] (tourist/business) visa from the [[Embassy of the United States, Berlin|United States embassy in Berlin]]. Atta had lived in Germany for approximately five years and also had a "strong record as a student". He was therefore treated favorably and not scrutinized.<ref name="travel">{{cite web |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |title=9/11 and Terrorist Travel |work=Staff Report |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |year=2004 |access-date=September 26, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916110951/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf |archive-date=September 16, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> After obtaining his visa, Atta took a bus on June 2 from Hamburg to [[Prague]] where he stayed overnight before traveling on to the United States the next day. Bin al-Shibh later explained that they believed it would contribute to operational security for Atta to fly out of Prague instead of Hamburg, where he traveled from previously. Likewise, Shehhi traveled from a different location, in his case via [[Brussels]].<ref name="911-ch7">{{cite book |author=9/11 Commission |chapter-url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |title=9/11 Commission Report |chapter=Chapter 7 |date=June 2004 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023214223/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |archive-date=October 23, 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Sfn|McDermott|2005|p=194}}

On 6 June 2002, [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]'s ''[[ABC World News Tonight|World News Tonight]]'' broadcast an interview with Johnelle Bryant, former loan officer at the [[United States Department of Agriculture|U.S. Department of Agriculture]] in south Florida, who told about her encounter with Mohamed Atta. This encounter took place "around the third week of April to the third week of May of 2000", before Atta's official entry date into the United States (see below). According to Bryant, Atta wanted to finance the purchase of a crop-duster. "He wanted to finance a twin-engine, six-passenger aircraft and remove the seats," Bryant told ABC's ''World News Tonight''. He insisted that she write his name as ATTA, that he originally was from Egypt but had moved to Afghanistan, that he was an engineer and that his dream was to go to a flight school. He asked about [[the Pentagon]] and the [[White House]]. He said he wanted to visit the World Trade Center and asked Bryant about the security there. He mentioned Al Qaeda and said the organization "could use memberships from Americans". He mentioned Osama bin Laden and said "this man would someday be known as the world's greatest leader." Bryant said "the picture that came out in the newspaper, that's exactly what that man looked like."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=130304&page=1|date=June 6, 2002|access-date=August 10, 2010|title=Transcript of Johnelle Bryant Interview|website=[[ABC News]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131222652/https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=130304&page=1|archive-date=January 31, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=130305&page=1|date=June 6, 2002|access-date=August 10, 2010|title=Transcript: Bryant Interview, Part 2|website=[[ABC News]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131220655/https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=130305&page=1|archive-date=January 31, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> Bryant contacted the authorities after recognising Atta in news reports.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2031563.stm|date=June 7, 2002|access-date=August 10, 2010|title=Twin towers hijacker 'sought US loan'|work=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407102108/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2031563.stm|archive-date=April 7, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Law-enforcement officials said Bryant passed a lie-detector exam.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20020607&slug=atta07|date=June 7, 2002|access-date=August 10, 2010|title=Hijacker tried to get U.S. loan to buy plane|work=The Seattle Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004083900/http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20020607&slug=atta07|archive-date=October 4, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to official reports, Atta flew from Prague to [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark International Airport]], arriving on 3 June 2000. That month, Atta and Shehhi stayed in hotels and rented rooms in New York City on a short-term basis. Jarrah had arrived in the United States on 27 June 2000, after his flight landed at [[Newark, New Jersey]], and Jarrah had decided to go with Shehhi and Atta to search for different flight schools in the US. They continued to inquire about flight schools and personally visited some, including Airman Flight School in [[Norman, Oklahoma]], which they visited on 3 July 2000. Days later, Shehhi, Jarrah and Atta ended up in [[Venice, Florida]].<ref name="timeline"/> Atta and Shehhi established accounts at [[SunTrust Banks|SunTrust Bank]] and received wire transfers from [[Ammar al-Baluchi|Ali Abdul Aziz Ali]], Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's nephew in the [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref name="timeline"/><ref name="911-ch7"/> On 6 July 2000, Atta, Jarrah and Shehhi enrolled at [[Huffman Aviation]] in [[Venice, Florida|Venice]], where they entered the Accelerated Pilot Program.<ref name="timeline"/> When Atta and Shehhi arrived in Florida, they initially stayed with Huffman's bookkeeper and his wife in a spare room of their house. After a week, they were asked to leave because they were rude. Atta and Shehhi then moved into a small house nearby in [[Nokomis, Florida|Nokomis]] where they stayed for six months.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sptimes.com/News/100201/Floridian/The_terrorists_next_d.shtml |title=The terrorists next door |author=Allison, Wes |date=October 2, 2001 |work=St. Petersburg Times |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930182654/http://www.sptimes.com/News/100201/Floridian/The_terrorists_next_d.shtml |archive-date=September 30, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Landlord: Steve Kona |author=Whittle, Patrick |date=September 10, 2006 |work=Herald Tribune (Sarasota, Florida) |url=http://www.heraldtribune.com/article/20060910/NEWS/609100876/-1/MULTIMEDIA0201 |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930184836/http://www.heraldtribune.com/article/20060910/NEWS/609100876/-1/MULTIMEDIA0201 |archive-date=September 30, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:Attasflightrecord.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Atta's flight record from Huffman]]
Atta began flight training on 6 July 2000, and continued training nearly every day. By the end of July, both Atta and Shehhi did solo flights. Atta earned his private pilot certificate in September, and then he and Shehhi decided to switch flight schools. Both enrolled at Jones Aviation in [[Sarasota, Florida|Sarasota]] and took training there for a brief time. They had problems following instructions and were both very upset when they failed their Stage 1 exam at Jones Aviation. They inquired about multi-engine planes and told the instructor that "they wanted to move quickly, because they had a job waiting in their country upon completion of their training in the U.S." In mid-October, Atta and Shehhi returned to Huffman Aviation to continue training. In November 2000, Atta earned his instrument rating, and then a commercial pilot's license in December from the [[Federal Aviation Administration]].<ref name="timeline"/>

Atta continued with flight training that included solo flights and simulator time. On 22 December, Atta and Shehhi applied to Eagle International for large jet and simulator training for [[McDonnell Douglas DC-9]] and [[Boeing 737 Classic|Boeing 737-300]] models. On 26 December, Atta and Shehhi needed a tow for their rented [[Piper Cherokee]] on a taxiway of [[Miami International Airport]] after the engine shut down. On 29 and 30 December, Atta and Marwan went to the [[Opa-locka Airport]] where they practiced on a [[Boeing 727]] simulator, and they obtained [[Boeing 767]] simulator training from Pan Am International on 31 December. Atta purchased [[cockpit]] videos for [[Boeing 747#747-200|Boeing 747-200]], [[Boeing 757#757-200|Boeing 757-200]], [[Airbus A320]] and [[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-300ER]] models via mail-order from [[Clermont County Airport|Sporty's Pilot Shop]] in [[Batavia, Ohio]], in November and December 2000.<ref name="timeline"/>

Records on Atta's cellphone indicated that he phoned the [[Embassy of Morocco, Washington, D.C.|Moroccan embassy]] in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] on 2 January, just before Shehhi flew to the country. Atta flew to Spain on 4 January 2001, to coordinate with bin al-Shibh and returned to the United States on 10 January. While in the United States he traveled to [[Lawrenceville, Georgia]], where he and Shehhi visited an LA Fitness Health Club. During that time Atta flew out of [[Gwinnett County Airport|Briscoe Field]] in Lawrenceville with a pilot, and Atta and either the pilot or Shehhi flew around the Atlanta area. They lived in the area for several months. On 3 April, Atta and Shehhi rented a postal box in [[Virginia Beach, Virginia]].

On 11 April, Atta and Shehhi rented an apartment at 10001 Atlantic Blvd, Apt. 122 in [[Coral Springs, Florida]], for $840 per month,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coralsprings.com/frontpage2/attacoralsprings.htm |title=Terrorist amongst us |access-date=January 25, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207000314/http://www.coralsprings.com/frontpage2/attacoralsprings.htm |archive-date=February 7, 2009}}</ref> and assisted with the arrival of the muscle hijackers. On 16 April, Atta was given a citation for not having a valid driver's license, and he began steps to get the license. On 2 May, Atta received his driver's license in [[Lauderdale Lakes, Florida]]. While in the United States, Atta owned a red 1989 [[Pontiac Grand Prix]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sptimes.com/2002/09/01/911/Florida__terror_s_lau.shtml |title=Florida: Terror's Launching Pad |work=The St. Petersburg Times |last=Tobin |first=Thomas C. |date=September 1, 2002 |publisher=St. Petersburg Times |access-date=September 5, 2002 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020905151317/http://www.sptimes.com/2002/09/01/911/Florida__terror_s_lau.shtml |archive-date=September 5, 2002 }}</ref>

On 27 June, Atta flew from [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]] to [[Boston|Boston, Massachusetts]], where he spent a day, and then continued to [[San Francisco]] for a short time, and from there to [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]]. On 28 June, Atta arrived at [[McCarran International Airport]] in Las Vegas to meet with the three other pilots. He rented a [[Chevrolet Malibu]] from an [[Alamo Rent A Car]] agency. It is not known where he stayed that night, but on the 29th he registered at the Econo Lodge at 1150 South [[Las Vegas Boulevard]]. Here he presented an [[American Automobile Association|AAA]] membership for a discount, and paid cash for the $49.50/night room. During his trip to Las Vegas, he is thought to have used a video camera that he had rented from a Select Photo outlet back in [[Delray Beach, Florida]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reviewjournal.com/lvrj_home/2001/Sep-29-Sat-2001/news/17113504.html |title=Algerian accused in Britain of training hijackers |newspaper=Las Vegas Review-Journal |date=November 29, 2001 |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618104558/http://www.reviewjournal.com/lvrj_home/2001/Sep-29-Sat-2001/news/17113504.html |archive-date=June 18, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>

FBI operative Elie Assaad became suspicious of Atta in early 2001 as the latter was supposedly seen with al-Qaeda fugitive [[Adnan Gulshair el Shukrijumah|Adnan Shukrujuman]].<ref name="ABC News">{{cite news |last=Ross |first=Brian |date=September 10, 2009 |title=FBI Informant Says Agents Missed Chance to Stop 9/11 Ringleader Mohammed Atta |newspaper=ABC News |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/Whistleblowers/911-ringleader-mohammed-atta-stopped-fbi-informant/story?id=8540605 |url-status=live |access-date=September 10, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230234554/https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/Whistleblowers/911-ringleader-mohammed-atta-stopped-fbi-informant/story?id=8540605 |archive-date=December 30, 2013}}</ref>

=== July 2001 summit in Spain ===
In July 2001, Atta again left for [[Spain]] in order to meet with bin al-Shibh for the last time. On 7 July 2001, Atta flew on [[Swissair]] Flight 117 from Miami to [[Zürich]], where he had a [[Layover|stopover]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/OG00013.pdf |title=Hijackers' True Name Usage |publisher=U.S.D.C. Eastern District of Virginia |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512160457/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/OG00013.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 8 July, Atta was recorded on surveillance video when he withdrew 1700 [[Swiss franc]]s from an [[Automated teller machine|ATM]]. He used his credit card to purchase two [[Swiss Army knife|Swiss Army knives]] and some chocolate in a shop at the [[Zürich Airport]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0110/20/cp.00.html |title=Investigating Terror |publisher=CNN |date=October 20, 2001 |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930143429/http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0110/20/cp.00.html |archive-date=September 30, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> After the stopover in Zürich, he arrived in Madrid at 4:45 pm on Swissair Flight 656, and spent several hours at the airport. Then at 8:50 pm, he checked into the Hotel Diana Cazadora in [[Madrid Barajas International Airport|Barajas]], a town near the airport. That night and twice the next morning, he called Bashar Ahmad Ali Musleh, a Jordanian student in Hamburg who served as a liaison for bin al-Shibh.<ref name="irujo">{{cite news |url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/Atta/recibio/Tarragona/joyas/miembros/comando/11-S/hiciesen/pasar/ricos/saudies/elpepiesp/20040321elpepinac_11/Tes/ |title=Atta recibió en Tarragona joyas para que los miembros del 'comando' del 11-S se hiciesen pasar por ricos saudíes |work=El País |date=March 21, 2004 |author=Irujo, José María |access-date=September 16, 2008 |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520112621/http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/Atta/recibio/Tarragona/joyas/miembros/comando/11-S/hiciesen/pasar/ricos/saudies/elpepiesp/20040321elpepinac_11/Tes |archive-date=May 20, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

On the morning of 9 July, Mohamed Atta rented a silver [[Hyundai Accent]], which he booked from SIXT Rent-A-Car for July 9 to 16, and later extended to the 19th.<ref name="irujo"/><ref name="stip">{{cite web |url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/ST00001A.pdf |title=Stipulation |publisher=U.S.D.C. Eastern District of Virginia |access-date=January 27, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090513193219/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/ST00001A.pdf |archive-date=May 13, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He drove east out of Madrid towards the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] beach area of [[Tarragona]]. On the way, Atta stopped in [[Reus Airport|Reus]] to pick up Ramzi bin al-Shibh at the airport. They drove to [[Cambrils]], where they spent a night at the Hotel Monica. They checked out the next morning, and spent the next few days at an unknown location in Tarragona.<ref name="irujo"/> The absence of other hotel stays, signed receipts or credit card stubs has led investigators to believe that the men may have met in a safe house provided by other al-Qaeda operatives in [[Spain]]. There, Atta and bin al-Shibh held a meeting to complete the planning of the attacks. Several clues have been found to link their stay in Spain to Syrian-born [[Abu Dahdah|Imad Eddin Barakat Yarkas]] (Abu Dahdah), and Amer el Azizi, a Moroccan in Spain. They may have helped arrange and host the meeting in Tarragona.<ref name="madrid">{{cite news |title=War Without Borders – The Madrid Bombing |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) |work=The Fifth Estate |date=December 1, 2004 |url=http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/warwithoutborders/bombing.html |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202182629/http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/warwithoutborders/bombing.html |archive-date=December 2, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Yosri Fouda]], who interviewed bin al-Shibh and [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] (KSM) before the arrest, believes that [[Said Bahaji]] and KSM may have also been present at the meeting. Spanish investigators have said that Marwan al-Shehhi and two others later joined the meeting. Bin al-Shibh would not discuss this meeting with Fouda.{{Sfn|Fouda|Fielding|2003|p=216}}

During the meetings in Spain, Atta and bin al-Shibh had coordinated the details of the attacks. The [[9/11 Commission]] obtained details about the meeting, based on interrogations of bin al-Shibh in the weeks after his arrest in September 2002. Bin al-Shibh explained that he passed along instructions from Osama bin Laden, including his desire for the attacks to be carried out as soon as possible. Bin Laden was concerned about having so many operatives in the United States. Atta confirmed that all the muscle hijackers had arrived in the United States, without any problems, but said that he needed five to six more weeks to work out details. Bin Laden also asked that other operatives not be informed of the specific data until the last minute. During the meeting, Atta and bin al-Shibh also decided on the targets to be hit, ruling out a strike on a [[nuclear power|nuclear plant]]. Bin al-Shibh passed along bin Laden's list of targets; bin Laden wanted the [[United States Capitol]], [[the Pentagon]], and the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] to be attacked, as they were deemed "symbols of America." If any of the hijackers could not reach their intended targets, Atta said, they were to crash the plane. They also discussed the personal difficulties Atta was having with fellow hijacker [[Ziad Jarrah]]. Bin al-Shibh was worried that Jarrah might even abandon the plan. The [[9/11 Commission Report]] speculated that the now-convicted terrorist conspirator [[Zacarias Moussaoui]] was being trained as a possible replacement for Jarrah.<ref name="travel"/><ref name="911-ch7"/>

From 13 to 16 July, Atta stayed at the Hotel Sant Jordi in Tarragona.<ref name="irujo"/><ref name="stip"/> After bin al-Shibh returned to Germany on 16 July 2001, Atta had three more days in Spain. He spent two nights in [[Salou]] at the beachside Casablanca Playa Hotel, then spent the last two nights at the Hotel Residencia Montsant.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F01E0DA1431F932A35756C0A9649C8B63 |title=Search for Sept. 11 Suspect Focuses on a Visit to Spain |work=The New York Times |date=May 1, 2002 |author=Frantz, Douglas |access-date=February 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204182951/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F01E0DA1431F932A35756C0A9649C8B63 |archive-date=February 4, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 19 July, Atta returned to the United States, flying on [[Delta Air Lines]] from Madrid to Fort Lauderdale, via [[Atlanta]].<ref name="stip"/>

=== Final plans in the U.S. ===
On 22 July 2001, Atta rented a [[Mitsubishi Galant]] from [[Alamo Rent a Car]], putting {{convert|3,836|mile|km}} on the vehicle before returning it on 26 July. On 25 July, Atta dropped Ziad Jarrah off at [[Miami International Airport]] for a flight back to Germany. On 26 July, Atta traveled via [[Continental Airlines]] to [[Newark, New Jersey]], checked into the Kings Inn Hotel in [[Wayne, New Jersey]], and stayed there until 30 July when he took a flight from Newark back to Fort Lauderdale.<ref name="timeline"/>

On 4 August, Atta is believed to have been at [[Orlando International Airport]] waiting to pick up suspected "20th Hijacker" [[Mohammed al-Qahtani]] from [[Dubai]], who ended up being held by immigration as "suspicious." Atta was believed to have used a payphone at the airport to phone a number "linked to al-Qaeda" after Qahtani was denied entry.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/nationworld/bal-te.hijackers27jan27,0,3333483.story |title=Sept. 11 hijacker raised suspicions at border |author=Sullivan, Laura |date=January 27, 2004 |work=Baltimore Sun |access-date=September 16, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927193334/http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/nationworld/bal-te.hijackers27jan27%2C0%2C3333483.story |archive-date=September 27, 2007 }}</ref>

On 6 August, Atta and Shehhi rented a white, four-door 1995 [[Ford Escort (North America)|Ford Escort]] from Warrick's Rent-A-Car, which was returned on 13 August. On 6 August, Atta booked a flight on [[Spirit Airlines]] from Fort Lauderdale to Newark, leaving on 7 August and returning on 9 August. The reservation was not used and canceled on August 9 with the reason "Family Medical Emergency". Instead, he went to Central Office & Travel in [[Pompano Beach, Florida|Pompano Beach]] to purchase a ticket for a flight to Newark, leaving on the evening of 7 August and schedule to return in the evening on 9 August. Atta did not take the return flight. On 7 August, Atta checked into the Wayne Inn in [[Wayne, New Jersey]] and checked out on 9 August. The same day, he booked a one-way first-class ticket via the Internet on America West Flight 244 from [[Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport]] to Las Vegas.<ref name="timeline"/> Atta traveled twice to Las Vegas on "surveillance flights" rehearsing how the 9/11 attacks would be carried out. Other hijackers traveled to Las Vegas at different times in the summer of 2001.

Throughout the summer, Atta met with [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] to discuss the status of the operation on a monthly basis.<ref name="lats">Los Angeles Times, [http://articles.latimes.com/2002/sep/27/nation/na-intel27 Document links al Qaeda paymaster, 9/11 plotter] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123064953/http://articles.latimes.com/2002/sep/27/nation/na-intel27 |date=January 23, 2011 }}, September 27, 2002</ref>

On 23 August, Atta's [[driver’s license|driver license]] was revoked [[trial in absentia|''in absentia'']] after he failed to show up in [[traffic court]] to answer the earlier citation for driving without a license.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://newsmine.org/archive/9-11/flight-schools/hijackers-traced-to-huffman-aviation.txt|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051228121415/http://newsmine.org/archive/9-11/flight-schools/hijackers-traced-to-huffman-aviation.txt|url-status=dead|title=NewsMine.org – hijackers traced to huffman aviation.txt|archivedate=December 28, 2005}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |last1=Ross |first1=Brian |title=While America Slept: The True Story of 9/11 |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/ten-years-ago-today-countdown-911/story?id=14191671 |website=ABC News |date=July 29, 2011|access-date=June 14, 2022}}</ref>

== 9/11 attacks and death ==
{{Main|American Airlines Flight 11}}
[[File:Atta in airport.jpg|right|thumb|Atta (blue shirt) and Omari in the [[Portland International Jetport]] in [[Portland, Maine]], on the morning of 11 September]]
On 10 September 2001, Atta picked up [[Abdulaziz al-Omari|al-Omari]] from the Milner Hotel in [[Boston|Boston, Massachusetts]], and the two drove [[Mohamed Atta's Nissan|their rented Nissan Altima]] to a [[Choice Hotels|Comfort Inn]] in [[South Portland, Maine]]. On the way, they were seen getting [[gasoline]] at an [[Exxon]] gas station and visited the [[Wadsworth-Longfellow House|Longfellow House]] in Portland that afternoon;<ref>{{Cite book|title=Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in Portland : the fireside poet of Maine|last=Babin, John William|others=Levinsky, Allan M.|year=2015|isbn=978-1-62619-499-1|location=Charleston, SC|pages=134–135|oclc=926057150}}</ref> they arrived at the hotel at 5:43 p.m. and spent the night in Room 233. While in South Portland, they were seen making two ATM withdrawals and stopping at [[Walmart|Wal-Mart]]. The FBI also reported that "two middle-eastern men" were seen in the parking lot of a [[Pizza Hut]], where Atta is known to have eaten that day.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/05/us/a-nation-challenged-the-night-before-a-mundane-itinerary-on-the-eve-of-terror.html?pagewanted=print&src=pm|title=A Mundane Itinerary on the Eve of Terror|last=Belluck|first=Pam|date=October 5, 2001|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=September 16, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417203932/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/05/us/a-nation-challenged-the-night-before-a-mundane-itinerary-on-the-eve-of-terror.html?pagewanted=print&src=pm|archive-date=April 17, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=What ISIS Really Wants|first=Graeme|last=Wood|work=The Atlantic|publisher=Atlantic Media|date=March 2015|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/features/archive/2015/02/what-isis-really-wants/384980/|access-date=March 5, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226023536/http://www.theatlantic.com/features/archive/2015/02/what-isis-really-wants/384980/|archive-date=February 26, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/14686192/ns/msnbc-hardball_with_chris_matthews/t/mystery-what-was-atta-doing/#.VPkQCvnF98E|title=9/11 mystery: What was Atta doing on 9/10?|website=[[NBC News]] |date=September 7, 2006|access-date=March 6, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227202458/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/14686192/ns/msnbc-hardball_with_chris_matthews/t/mystery-what-was-atta-doing#.VPkQCvnF98E|archive-date=February 27, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

Atta and al-Omari arrived early the next morning, at 5:40 a.m., at the [[Portland International Jetport]], where they left their rental car in the parking lot and boarded at 6:00 a.m. [[Colgan Air]] ([[US Airways Express]]) BE-1900C flight to [[Logan International Airport]] in Boston.<ref name="911-ch1">{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |title=Staff Report – "We Have Some Planes": The Four Flights – a Chronology |publisher=[[9/11 Commission|National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States]] |access-date=May 25, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306021319/http://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |archive-date=March 6, 2008 }}</ref> In Portland, Mohamed Atta was selected by the [[Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System]] (CAPPS), which required his checked bags to undergo extra screening for explosives but involved no extra screening at the passenger security checkpoint.<ref name="staff">{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |title=The Aviation Security System and the 9/11 Attacks – Staff Statement No. 3 |publisher=9/11 Commission |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528201527/http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |archive-date=May 28, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The connection between the two flights at Logan International Airport was within Terminal B, but the two gates were not connected within security. Passengers must leave the secured area, go outdoors, cross a covered roadway, and enter another building before going through security once again. There are two separate concourses in Terminal B; the south concourse is mainly used by US Airways and the north one is mostly used by [[American Airlines]]. It had been overlooked that there would still be a security screen to pass in Boston because of this distinct detail of the terminal's arrangement. A ticket staffer at Portland Airport reported becoming uneasy with Atta's anger upon being told of the additional screening requirements in Boston, but that he did not act on his suspicions after becoming concerned that he was [[Airport racial profiling in the United States|racially profiling]] Atta.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/amp/wbna7117783|title = Ticket agent recalls anger in Atta's eyes| website=[[NBC News]] | date=March 7, 2005 }}</ref> At 6:45 a.m., while at the Boston airport, Atta took a call from Flight 175 hijacker [[Marwan al-Shehhi]]. This call was apparently to confirm that the attacks were ready to begin. Atta checked in for [[American Airlines Flight 11]], passed through security again, and boarded the flight. Atta was seated in business class, in seat 8D. At 7:59 a.m., the plane departed from Boston to [[Los Angeles International Airport]], carrying 81 passengers.<ref name="911-ch1"/>
<div style="float:right;">
{{Listen|filename=Mohamed Atta to ATC-1.ogg |title=Mohamed Atta at 08:23|description=Mohamed Atta's first announcement, heard by ATC at 08:23|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{Listen|filename=Mohamed Atta to ATC-2.ogg |title=Mohamed Atta at 08:33|description=Mohamed Atta's second announcement at 08:33|format=[[Ogg]]}}</div>
The [[Aircraft hijacking|hijacking]] began fifteen minutes into the flight at approximately 8:14 a.m.,{{efn|Although the 9/11 Commission estimated the hijacking to have commenced at 8:14 a.m., the pilots had stopped responding to ATC by 8:13:47, implying the hijacking may have occurred slightly earlier.}} when beverage service would be starting. As this was happening, the pilots stopped responding to air traffic control and the aircraft began deviating from its assigned route.<ref name="ntsb">{{cite web |date=February 19, 2002 |title=Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 11 |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/about/Documents/Flight_Path_Study_AA11.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105103018/http://www.ntsb.gov/about/Documents/Flight_Path_Study_AA11.pdf |archive-date=November 5, 2015 |access-date=May 25, 2008 |publisher=[[National Transportation Safety Board]]}}</ref> The pilots of [[United Airlines Flight 175]] picked up on a suspicious transmission while leaving the runway around the same time Flight 11 was being hijacked, reportedly hearing the words, "Everyone, stay in your seats." Investigators later determined that this communication was made from the cockpit of Flight 11. This transmission was never heard by ATC, but the context suggests Atta was the one speaking.<ref>{{cite book|last=9/11 Final Report of the National Commission|title="We have some planes"|year=2004|url=https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|38}} By 8:18 am, flight attendants [[Betty Ong]] and [[Madeline Amy Sweeney]] began making phone calls to American Airlines to report what was happening. Ong provided information about lack of communication with the cockpit, lack of access to the cockpit, and passenger injuries.<ref name="911-ch1"/><ref name="Ong">{{cite news|last=Sullivan |first=Laura |title=9/11 victim calmly describes hijack on haunting tape |url=http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/custom/attack/bal-te.terror28jan28,0,6896536.story |date=January 28, 2004 |work=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |access-date=May 22, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604182608/http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/custom/attack/bal-te.terror28jan28%2C0%2C6896536.story |archive-date=June 4, 2011 }}</ref> The plane's [[transponder]] was switched off at 8:21 a.m. At 8:24:38 a.m., a voice believed to be Atta's was heard by air traffic controllers, saying: "We have some planes. Just stay quiet and you will be OK. We are returning to the airport." Evidently, he tried to deliver a message instructing the passengers and crew to stay put over the cabin's PA system, but pressed the wrong switch and thereby tipped off ATC that the flight had been hijacked. He spoke again seconds after that first transmission, still unaware that people on the ground were listening in: "Nobody move, everything will be OK. If you try to make any moves you'll endanger yourself and the airplane. Just stay quiet." About a minute later, he turned the plane southbound, on a course pointed in the direction of New York City.<ref name="ntsb"/> Atta was not heard from again for nine minutes until 8:33:59, when he made yet another unsuccessful attempt to communicate with the hostages: "Nobody move, please. We are going back to the airport. Don't try to make any stupid moves." This was the last transmission from Flight 11.

Twelve minutes later, at 8:46:40 a.m.,<ref name="ntsb" /> Atta crashed the plane into the North Tower of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] in New York City between floors 93 and 99,<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2004-06-18 |title=Tracking the Flights Hijacked on 9/11 |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2004-jun-18-na-introflight18-story.html |access-date=2023-06-14 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="ntsb"/> committing suicide and killing all passengers aboard the plane. Hundreds more inside the North Tower were also killed instantly, while the damage Atta had done to the building severed all escape routes from Floor 92 and higher, trapping more than 800 survivors of the crash in the upper floors of a burning quarter-mile high skyscraper,<ref name="102Mins">{{cite news |last=Dwyer |first=Jim |author2= Lipton, Eric |title=102 Minutes: Last Words at the Trade Center; Fighting to Live as the Towers Die |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/26/nyregion/102-minutes-last-words-at-the-trade-center-fighting-to-live-as-the-towers-die.html |date=May 26, 2002 |work=The New York Times |access-date=January 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114063928/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/26/nyregion/102-minutes-last-words-at-the-trade-center-fighting-to-live-as-the-towers-die.html |archive-date=November 14, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> and ensuring that no one above the 91st floor was able to make it out alive before the tower collapsed 102 minutes later at 10:28 a.m.<ref>{{cite news|date=September 10, 2003|title=TWO YEARS LATER: THE 91ST FLOOR; The Line Between Life and Death, Still Indelible|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/10/us/two-years-later-the-91st-floor-the-line-between-life-and-death-still-indelible.html |access-date=December 5, 2022}}</ref>

Because the flight from Portland to Boston had been delayed,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.capecodtimes.com/article/20011005/NEWS01/310059904 |title=FBI affidavit: Flight attendant made call to report hijacking |access-date=October 25, 2010 |date=October 5, 2001 |last=Karkavy |first=Jerry |newspaper=[[Cape Cod Times]] |publisher=[[GateHouse Media, LLC]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106233511/http://www.capecodtimes.com/article//20011005/NEWS01/310059904 |archive-date=January 6, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Atta's luggage did not make it onto Flight 11. His bags were later recovered in Logan International Airport, and were found to have contained airline uniforms, flight manuals, and other items. The luggage included a copy of Atta's will, written in Arabic, as well as a list of instructions, called "The Last Night". This document is divided into three sections; the first is a fifteen point list providing detailed instructions for the last night of a martyr's life, the second gives instructions for travelling to the plane and the third from the time between boarding the plane and martyrdom. Almost all of these points discuss spiritual preparation, such as prayer and citing religious scripture.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Taylor & Francis| isbn = 978-0-415-31654-5| last = Rapoport| first = David C.| title = Terrorism: The fourth or religious wave| date = 2006}}</ref>

== Martyrdom video ==
On 1 October 2006, ''[[The Sunday Times]]'' released a video it had obtained "through a previously tested channel", purporting to show Mohamed Atta and [[Ziad Jarrah]] recording a martyrdom message six months earlier at a training camp in [[Afghanistan]].<ref>{{cite news |date=October 1, 2006 |title=Video of 9/11 ringleader Mohammed Atta posted by British news site |work=USA Today |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-10-01-sept11-video_x.htm |url-status=live |access-date=September 24, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202160747/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-10-01-sept11-video_x.htm |archive-date=December 2, 2008}}</ref><ref name="laughing2">{{cite news |last=Fouda |first=Yosri |date=October 1, 2006 |title=The laughing 9/11 bombers |work=The Sunday Times |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article656683.ece |url-status=live |access-date=September 4, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524015512/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article656683.ece |archive-date=May 24, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Yosri" /> The video, bearing the date of 18 January 2000, is of good resolution but contains no sound track. [[lip reading|Lip readers]] have failed to decipher it. Atta and Jarrah appear in high spirits, laughing and smiling in front of the camera. They had never been pictured together before.<ref>{{Citation |last=unknown |title=Mohamad Atta and Zyad Jarrah Willing ( 11/9 ) |date=2007 |url=http://archive.org/details/atta-zyad-willing |access-date=2023-08-29}}</ref> Unidentified sources from both Al-Qaeda and the United States confirmed the video's authenticity. A separate section of the video shows [[Osama bin Laden]] addressing his followers at a complex near [[Kandahar]]. [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] is also identified in the video. According to ''The Sunday Times'', "American and German investigators have struggled to find evidence of Atta's whereabouts in January 2000 after he disappeared from Hamburg. The hour-long tape places him in Afghanistan at a decisive moment in the development of the conspiracy when he was given operational command. Months later both he and Jarrah enrolled at flying schools in America."<ref name="laughing">{{cite news |last=Fouda |first=Yosri |date=October 1, 2006 |title=The laughing 9/11 bombers |work=The Sunday Times |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article656683.ece |url-status=live |access-date=September 4, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524015512/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article656683.ece |archive-date=May 24, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Fouda, Yosri|date=October 1, 2006|title=Chilling Message of the 9/11 Pilots|work=The Sunday Times|location=London|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article656440.ece|url-status=dead|access-date=September 16, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706181828/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article656440.ece|archive-date=July 6, 2008}}</ref>

== Mistaken identity ==
In the aftermath of 9/11 attacks, the names of the hijackers were released. There was some confusion regarding who Mohamed Atta was, and cases of mistaken identity. Initially, Mohamed Atta's identity was confused with that of a native [[Jordan]]ian, [[Mahmoud Mahmoud Atta]], who bombed an Israeli bus in the [[West Bank]] in 1986, killing one and severely injuring three. Mahmoud Atta was 14 years older than Atta.<ref name="ADL2001">{{cite web |publisher=Anti-Defamation League |url=http://www.adl.org/rumors/atta%5Frumors.asp |title=A Case of Mistaken Identity: Mohammad Atta Not Linked to Bus Bombing |access-date=September 16, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917063644/http://www.adl.org/rumors/atta_rumors.asp |archive-date=September 17, 2008}}</ref> Mahmoud Atta, a naturalized U.S. citizen, was subsequently deported from [[Venezuela]] to the United States, extradited to Israel, tried and sentenced to life in prison. The Israeli Supreme Court later overturned his extradition and set him free.<ref>{{cite news |author=O'Sullivan, Arieh |work=Jerusalem Post |title=Internet rumors aside, WTC attacker not held by Israel |date=November 8, 2001 }}</ref> After the attacks, there were also reports stating that Mohamed Atta had attended the International Officers School at [[Maxwell Air Force Base]] in [[Montgomery, Alabama]]. ''[[The Washington Post]]'' quoted a [[United States Air Force]] official who explained, "discrepancies in their biographical data, such as birth dates 20 years off, indicate we are probably not talking about the same people."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A38270-2001Sep15?language=printer |title=2nd Witness Arrested; 25 Held for Questioning |author=Gugliotta, Guy and David S. Fallis |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=September 15, 2001 |access-date=September 16, 2008
| page=A29
| archive-date=March 31, 2009
| url-status=dead | archive-url=https://archive.today/20090331101805/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A38270-2001Sep15?language=printer
}}</ref>

=== Prague controversy ===
{{Main|Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection}}
In the months following the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]], officials at the Czech Interior Ministry asserted that Atta made a trip to [[Prague]] on 8 April 2001, to meet with an [[Ba'athist Iraq|Iraqi]] intelligence agent named Ahmed Khalil Ibrahim Samir al-Ani. This piece of information was passed on to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] as "unevaluated raw intelligence".<ref>{{cite news |author=Edward Jay Epstein |url=http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110007584 |title=Atta in Prague |publisher=OpinionJournal |date=November 22, 2005 |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930190824/http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110007584 |archive-date=September 30, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> Intelligence officials have concluded that such a meeting did not occur. A [[Pakistan]]i businessman named Mohammed Atta had come to Prague from [[Saudi Arabia]] on 31 May 2000, with this second Atta possibly contributing to the confusion. The Egyptian Mohamed Atta arrived at the [[Florenc Central Bus Station|Florenc bus terminal]] in Prague, from [[Germany]], on 2 June 2000. He left Prague the next day, flying on [[Czech Airlines]] to [[Newark, New Jersey]], [[United States|U.S.]] In the [[Czech Republic]], some intelligence officials say the source of the purported meeting was an Arab informant who approached the Czech intelligence service with his sighting of Atta only after Atta's photograph had appeared in newspapers all over the [[Earth|world]]. United States and Czech intelligence officials have since concluded that the person seen with Ani was mistakenly identified as Atta, and the consensus of investigators is that Atta never attended a meeting in Prague.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.radio.cz/en/article/57782/limit |title=A Tale of Two 'Attas': How spurious Czech intelligence muddied the 9/11 probe |publisher=Radio Praha |date=September 3, 2004 |author=Kenety, Brian |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203054004/http://www.radio.cz/en/article/57782/limit |archive-date=February 3, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=In Prague, a tale of 2 Attas; Mistaken identity muddied 9/11 probe |work=Chicago Tribune |date=August 29, 2004 |author=Crewdson, John}}</ref><ref name=Burke2005_17>[[#Burke2005|Burke (2005)]], p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=-_FJFFrit8AC&pg=PA17&dq=%22Credit+card+documents+proved+Atta+to+have+been+in+America+at+the+time+of+the+alleged+meeting%22 17.]</ref>

=== Able Danger ===
In 2005, Army Lt. Col. [[Anthony Shaffer (intelligence officer)|Anthony Shaffer]] and Congressman [[Curt Weldon]] alleged that the [[United States Department of Defense|Defense Department]] data mining project, [[Able Danger]], produced a chart that identified Atta, along with [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]], [[Khalid al-Mihdhar]], and [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], as members of a [[Brooklyn]]-based [[al-Qaeda]] cell in early 2000.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/09/politics/09intel.html?pagewanted=print |title=Four in 9/11 Plot Are Called Tied to Qaeda in '00 |author=Jehl, Douglas |date=August 9, 2005 |work=The New York Times |access-date=September 29, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080406160538/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/09/politics/09intel.html?pagewanted=print |archive-date=April 6, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> Shaffer largely based his allegations on the recollections of Navy Captain, Scott Phillpott,<ref name="wp-20050819">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/18/AR2005081801751.html |author=Eggen, Dan |title=Officer Says 2 Others Are Source of His Atta Claims |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=August 19, 2005 |access-date=September 29, 2008
| page=A11
| archive-date=July 24, 2008
| url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724132004/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/18/AR2005081801751.html
}}</ref> who later recanted his recollection, telling investigators that he was "convinced that Atta was not on the chart that we had." Phillpott said that Shaffer was "relying on my recollection 100 percent," and the Defense Department Inspector General's report indicated that Philpott "may have exaggerated knowing Atta's identity because he supported using Able Danger's techniques to fight [[terrorism]]."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/21/AR2006092101831.html |title=Hijackers Were Not Identified Before 9/11, Investigation Says |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=September 22, 2006 |author=White, Josh |access-date=September 29, 2008
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106151245/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/21/AR2006092101831.html
| url-status=live | archive-date=November 6, 2012
}}</ref><ref name="oig">{{cite web |url=http://www.dodig.mil/fo/foia/ERR/r_H05L97905217-PWH.pdf |title=Office Inspector General's Report |publisher=Department of Defense |date=September 18, 2006 |access-date=September 29, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216064401/http://www.dodig.mil/fo/foia/ERR/r_H05L97905217-PWH.pdf |archive-date=February 16, 2012}}</ref>

Five witnesses who had worked on Able Danger and had been questioned by the Defense Department's Inspector General later told investigative journalists that their statements to the IG were distorted by investigators in the final IG's report, or the report omitted essential information that they had provided. The alleged [[Able Danger#Alleged evidence of IG cover-up|distortions of the IG report]] centered around excluding any evidence that [[Able Danger]] had identified and tracked Atta years before 9/11.<ref name="foxnews.com">{{cite news |first=Catherine |last=Herridge |url=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/10/04/exclusive-witnesses-defense-department-report-suggest-cover-findings/ |title=Exclusive: Witnesses in Defense Dept. Report Suggest Cover-Up of 9/11 Findings |work=Fox News |date=October 4, 2010 |access-date=June 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150516210737/http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/10/04/exclusive-witnesses-defense-department-report-suggest-cover-findings/ |archive-date=May 16, 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Lt. Col. Shaffer's book also clearly indicates direct identification of the [[Brooklyn]] cell, and Mohamed Atta.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shaffer|first=Anthony|title=Operation Dark Heart|year=2010|publisher=St Martin's Press|pages=170|isbn=978-0-312-60369-4}}</ref>

== Family reaction and denial ==
Atta's father, Mohamed el-Amir Awad el-Sayed Atta, a retired lawyer in [[Egypt]], vehemently rejected allegations his son was involved in the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]], and instead accused the [[Mossad]] and the [[Federal government of the United States|United States government]] of having a hand in framing his son.<ref name="prospect"/> Atta Sr. rejected media reports that stated his son was drinking wildly, and instead described his son as a quiet boy uninvolved with [[politics]], shy and devoted to studying [[architecture]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00E2D8123BF93AA2575AC0A9679C8B63 |title=Father Denies 'Gentle Son' Could Hijack Any Jetliner |author=MacFarquhar, Neil |date=September 19, 2001 |work=The New York Times |access-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207201503/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00E2D8123BF93AA2575AC0A9679C8B63 |archive-date=December 7, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> The elder Mr. Atta said he had spoken with Mohamed by phone the day after on 12 September 2001. He held interviews with the [[Germany|German]] news magazine ''Bild am Sonntag'' in late 2002, saying his son was alive and hiding in fear for his life, and that [[Christianity in the United States|American Christians]] were responsible for the attacks.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/sep/02/september11.usa |title=Father insists alleged leader of attack on WTC is still alive |work=The Guardian |author=Connolly, Kate |date=September 2, 2002 |access-date=September 16, 2008 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826155910/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/sep/02/september11.usa |archive-date=August 26, 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> In an interview on 24 September 2001, Atta Sr. stated, "My son is gone. He is now with [[God]]. The [[Mossad]] killed him."<ref>Alan Zarembo. [http://www.newsweek.com/he-never-even-had-kite-151919 "He Never Even Had a Kite" Mohamed Atta's father talks about his son, the alleged hijacker] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912013012/http://www.newsweek.com/he-never-even-had-kite-151919 |date=September 12, 2017 }}</ref>

In 2021, on the 20th anniversary of the attacks, Atta's mother was interviewed by a Spanish newspaper. His mother, 79, at the time denied her son's involvement in the attacks and that she feels he is in Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alarabiya.net/last-page/2021/09/11/%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%AF%D8%B4%D9%86-%D9%87%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA-11-%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1-%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%B1-%D8%A3%D9%86%D9%87-%D8%AD%D9%8A-%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B8%D9%87%D8%B1|title=والدة مصري دشن هجمات 11 سبتمبر تشعر أنه حي وسيظهر|date=September 11, 2021|language=ar|website=العربية}}</ref>

== Motivation ==
There are multiple, conflicting explanations for Atta's behavior and motivation. [[Political psychologist]] [[Jerrold Post]] has suggested that Atta and his fellow hijackers were just following orders from [[al-Qaeda]] leadership, "and whatever their destructive, charismatic leader [[Osama bin Laden]] said was the right thing to do for the sake of the cause was what they would do."<ref>Weaver, Carolyn. (October 6, 2004). [http://www.militaryinfo.com/news_story.cfm?textnewsid=2149 “New video shows 9/11 hijackers Mohammed Atta, Ziad Jarrah at Al-Qaida meeting.”] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929172646/http://www.militaryinfo.com/news_story.cfm?textnewsid=2149 |date=September 29, 2011}} Voice of America News.</ref> In turn, political [[scientist]] Robert Pape has claimed that Atta was motivated by his commitment to the political cause, that he was psychologically normal, and that he was "not readily characterized as depressed, not unable to enjoy life, not detached from friends and society."<ref>Pape, Robert. (2005). ''Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism'', New York: Random House, p. 220</ref> By contrast, criminal justice professor, Adam Lankford, has found evidence that indicated Atta was [[suicidal]], and that his struggles with [[social isolation]], [[Depression (mood)|depression]], guilt, shame, hopelessness, and rage were extraordinarily similar to the struggles of those who commit conventional suicide and [[murder-suicide]]. By this view, Atta's political and religious beliefs affected the method of his suicide and his choice of target, but they were not the underlying causes of his behavior.<ref>Lankford, Adam. (2013). ''The Myth of Martyrdom: What Really Drives Suicide Bombers, Rampage Shooters, and Other Self-Destructive Killers''. {{ISBN|978-0-23-034213-2}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Suicide attack]]
* [[PENTTBOM]]
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|Hijackers in the 11 September attacks]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book
| last = Burke |first = Jason |year = 2003
| title = Al-Qaeda: The True Story of Radical Islam |edition = 2006 revised
| location = New York |publisher = IB Tauris |isbn = 978-1-85043-666-9 |ref = Burke2005}}
*{{Cite book |title=Al-Qaeda: In Search of the Terror Network that Threatens the World |author=Corbin |first=Jane |publisher=Nation Books |year=2003 |isbn=1-56025-523-4}}
*{{Cite book |author=Spiegel |title=Inside 9-11: What Really Happened |publisher=Diane Pub Co |year=2002 |isbn=0-312-98748-X |url-access=registration |first=Der |url=https://archive.org/details/inside911whatrea00newy}}
*{{Cite book |title=Masterminds of Terror |last2=Fielding |first2=Nick |author=Fouda |first=Yosri |year=2003 |publisher=Arcade Publishing |isbn=1-55970-717-8}}
* Four Corners, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, broadcast November 12, 2001
*{{Cite book |title=Perfect Soldiers: The 9/11 Hijackers: Who They Were, Why They Did It |author=McDermott |first=Terry |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2005 |isbn=0-06-058469-6}}
* ''The 9/11 Commission Report'', (W.W. Norton & Company) {{ISBN|0-393-32671-3}}
* {{Cite book |title=For Love of the Father: A Psychoanalytic Study of Religious Terrorism |author=Stein |first=Ruth |publisher=Stanford Univ. Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0804763059}}
* {{cite book |last=Wright |first=Lawrence |title=[[The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11]] |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-375-41486-2}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090531193734/http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/interviews/ Interviews with those who interacted with Atta prior to 9/11] from Australian [[ABC Television (Australian TV network)|ABC TV's]] "A Mission To Die For" TV programme
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041211192904/http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/interviews/machule.htm October 2001 interview with Dittmar Machule] – Machule was Atta's thesis supervisor at the University of Hamburg-Harburg
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090708002529/http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/resources/documents/will1.htm Atta's will, written in 1996]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070305174018/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,176917,00.html Atta's Odyssey] – October 2001 biography of Atta printed in ''Time Magazine''
*[http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/04/24/the-last-days-of-muhammad-atta The Last Days of Muhammed Atta] – a short story printed in ''The New Yorker''
* Documentary series from Court TV (now TruTV) [https://web.archive.org/web/20171006212214/http://filmrise.com/mugshots-mohammed-atta-soldier-of-terror/ "MUGSHOTS: Mohammed Atta - Soldier of Terror"] episode (2002) at ''[[FilmRise]]''

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{GermanTerrorism}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}
{{Al-Qaeda}}

{{Authority control}}






{{DEFAULTSORT:Atta, Mohamed}}
[[Category:1968 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:2001 suicides]]
[[Category:American Airlines Flight 11]]
[[Category:Anti-Americanism]]
[[Category:Anti-Western sentiment]]
[[Category:Cairo University alumni]]
[[Category:Egyptian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Egyptian expatriates in Germany]]
[[Category:Egyptian expatriates in the United States]]
[[Category:Egyptian mass murderers]]
[[Category:Egyptian Muslims]]
[[Category:Hamburg cell]]
[[Category:Hamburg University of Technology]]
[[Category:Islamic terrorism in Germany]]
[[Category:Islamists from Cairo]]
[[Category:Male murderers]]
[[Category:Mohamed Atta]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Kafr El Sheikh Governorate]]
[[Category:Suicides in New York City]]

Khalid al-Mihdhar

2023-09-12T21:33:55Z

78.157.120.208: Date format: dmy. Version of English: American

{{Short description|Saudi terrorist and 9/11 hijacker (1975–2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Khalid al-Mihdhar
| image = Khalid al-mihdhar 2.jpg
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1975|5|16|df=y}}
| birth_name = Khalid Muhammad Abdallah al-Mihdhar
| native_name = {{Lang|ar|خالد المحضار}}
| other_names =
| birth_place = [[Mecca]], Saudi Arabia
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|9|11|1975|5|16|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Arlington County, Virginia]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[American Airlines Flight 77|Plane crash]], [[suicide]]
| nationality = [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]]
| relatives = [[Ahmed al-Darbi]] (brother-in-law)
| known_for = [[September 11 attacks]]
| spouse = Hoda al-Hada
| children = 2 daughters
}}

'''Khalid Muhammad Abdallah al-Mihdhar''' ({{lang-ar|خالد المحضار}}, {{transliteration|ar|''Khālid al-Miḥḍār''}}; also [[transliteration|transliterated]] as '''Almihdhar'''); (16 May 1975{{efn|There is some discrepancy over Mihdhar's date of birth. The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States observes that "Mihdhar uses May 16, 1975 as his birthdate on his ID, as well as on his U.S. visa. See [http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_App.pdf 9/11 and Terror Travel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005014508/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_App.pdf |date=2008-10-05 }}, p. 192 for ID card; see also copy of Mihdhar's visa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/SD00407.html|title=U.S.D.C. Eastern District of Virginia|website=www.vaed.uscourts.gov|access-date=2008-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090513094851/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/prosecution/SD00407.html|archive-date=2009-05-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> George Tenet gave testimony that "The CIA gave Mihdhar's birthdate as May 5, 1975" ({{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/DCI_18_June_testimony_new.pdf |title=11 September 2001 Hijackers |work=Testimony by George Tenet before the Joint Inquiry into Terrorist Attacks Against the United States |date=2002-06-18 |publisher=Federation of American Scientists (FAS) |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005014507/http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/DCI_18_June_testimony_new.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-05 |url-status=live }}).}} – 11 September 2001) was a Saudi Arabian terrorist hijacker. He was one of the five [[Organizers of the September 11 attacks|hijackers]] of [[American Airlines Flight 77]], which was flown into the [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] as part of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]].

Al-Mihdhar was born in Saudi Arabia. In early 1999, he traveled to [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Afghanistan]] where, as an experienced and respected [[jihad]]ist, he was selected by [[Osama bin Laden]] to participate in the attacks. Al-Mihdhar arrived in [[California]] with fellow hijacker [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] in January 2000, after traveling to [[Malaysia]] for the [[Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit]]. At this point, the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] was aware of al-Mihdhar, and he was photographed in Malaysia with another [[al-Qaeda]] member who was involved in the [[USS Cole bombing|USS ''Cole'' bombing]]. The CIA did not inform the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] when it learned that al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi had entered the United States, and al-Mihdhar was not placed on any watchlists until late August 2001.

Upon arriving in [[San Diego County, California]], al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi were to train as pilots, but spoke English poorly and did not do well with [[Flight training|flight lessons]]. In June 2000, al-Mihdhar left the United States for [[Yemen]], leaving al-Hazmi behind in San Diego. Al-Mihdhar spent some time in Afghanistan in early 2001 and returned to the United States in early July 2001. He stayed in [[New Jersey]] in July and August, before arriving in the [[Washington, D.C.]], area at the beginning of September.

On the morning of 11 September 2001, al-Mihdhar boarded American Airlines Flight 77, and assisted in the hijacking of the plane which was hijacked approximately 30 minutes after takeoff. al-Mihdhar and his team of hijackers then deliberately crashed the plane into the Pentagon, killing all 64 people aboard the flight, along with 125 on the ground.

==Background==
Al-Mihdhar was born on 16 May 1975, in [[Mecca]], [[Saudi Arabia]], to a prominent family that belonged to the [[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraysh]] tribe of Mecca.<ref name="willalOmari">Videotape of recorded will of Abdulaziz al-Omari and others</ref> Little is known about his life before the age of 20, when he and childhood friend [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] went to [[Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia and Herzegovina]] to fight with the [[Bosnian mujahideen|mujahideen]] in the [[Bosnian War]].<ref name="911-ch5">9/11 Commission Report, Chapter 5.2, pp. 153–159</ref><ref>McDermott (2005), p. 191</ref> After the war, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi went to [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Afghanistan]] where they fought alongside the [[Taliban]] against the [[United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan|Northern Alliance]],<ref name="wright">Wright (2006), p. 309</ref> and al-Qaeda would later dub al-Hazmi his "second in command".<ref name="willalOmari"/> In 1997, al-Mihdhar told his family that he was leaving to [[Chechen–Russian conflict#Chechen Wars|fight in Chechnya]],<ref>{{cite news|author=McDermott, Terry |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |title=The Plot: How Terrorists hatched a simple plan to use planes as bombs |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/specials/911/la-na-plot-1sep01.story |date=2002-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919221220/http://911readingroom.org/whole_document.php?article_id=150 |archive-date=2008-09-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref> though it is not certain that he actually went to Chechnya.<ref name="Burke">Burke (2004), p. 237</ref> The same year, both men attracted the attention of [[Saudi Intelligence]], who believed they were involved in [[arms smuggling]], and the following year they were eyed as possible collaborators in the [[1998 United States embassy bombings]] in [[East Africa]] after it emerged that [[Mohamed Rashed Daoud Al-Owhali]] had given the FBI the phone number of al-Mihdhar's father-in-law; 967-1-200578, which turned out to be a key communications hub for al-Qaeda militants, and eventually tipped off the Americans about the upcoming [[Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit]].<ref name="mayer">[[Jane Mayer|Mayer, Jane]], "The Dark Side", 2008.</ref><ref name="disclose">{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,100332,00.html |title=Saudis, US Disclose Intel Operations on Terror |publisher=FOX News |date=2003-10-16 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080413214024/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,100332,00.html |archive-date=2008-04-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the late 1990s, al-Mihdhar married Hoda al-Hada, who was the sister of a comrade from [[Yemen]], and they had two daughters.<ref name="wright"/> Through marriage, al-Mihdhar was related to a number of individuals involved with [[al-Qaeda]] in some way. Al-Mihdhar's father-in-law, [[Ahmad Mohammad Ali al-Hada]], helped facilitate al-Qaeda communications in Yemen,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9502E4DF123FF936A25751C0A9649C8B63 |title=Dead Suspect Had Links To Terrorism |date=2002-02-15 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120630050804/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9502E4DF123FF936A25751C0A9649C8B63 |archive-date=2012-06-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/63855 |title=Periscope |author=Hosenball, Mark |date=2002-02-25 |magazine=Newsweek |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120630050900/http://www.newsweek.com/id/63855 |archive-date=2012-06-30 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in late 2001, al-Mihdhar's brother-in-law, [[Ahmed al-Darbi]], was captured in [[Azerbaijan]] and sent to [[Guantanamo Bay Naval Base|Guantanamo Bay]] on charges of supporting a plot to bomb ships in the [[Strait of Hormuz]].<ref>Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, [[s:Guantanamo Detainee Charged (ISN 768)|Guantanamo Detainee Charged (ISN 768)]], December 21, 2007</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/1240/story/489066.html |title=Saudi Terror Suspect: Military Trials a 'Sham' |author=Rosenberg, Carol |date=2008-04-09 |work=Miami Herald |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20081009061543/http://www.miamiherald.com/1240/story/489066.html |archive-date=2008-10-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Selection for the attacks===
In Spring 1999, al-Qaeda founder [[Osama bin Laden]] committed to support the 9/11 attacks plot, which was largely organized by prominent al-Qaeda member [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]]. Al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi were among the first group of participants selected for the operation, along with [[Walid bin 'Attash|Tawfiq bin Attash]] and [[Abu Bara al Yemeni]], al-Qaeda members from Yemen. Al-Mihdhar, who had spent time in al-Qaeda camps in the 1990s, was known and highly regarded by Bin Laden.<ref name="Burke"/> Al-Mihdhar was so eager to participate in [[jihad]] operations in the United States that he had already obtained a one-year [[B-1 visa|B-1/B-2]] (tourist/business) multiple-entry [[United States visas|visa]] from the consulate in [[Jeddah]], Saudi Arabia, on 7 April 1999, one day after obtaining a new passport.<ref name="911-ch5"/><ref name="travel">9/11 and Terrorist Travel, pp. 9–10</ref> Al-Mihdhar listed the Los Angeles [[Sheraton Hotels and Resorts|Sheraton]] as his intended destination.<ref name="timeline">FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 40</ref>

Once selected, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi were sent to the [[Mes Aynak]] training camp in Afghanistan. In late 1999, al-Hazmi, bin Attash and al Yemeni went to [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]] to see Mohammed, who instructed them on [[Western culture]] and travel; however, al-Mihdhar did not go to Karachi, instead returning to Yemen.<ref name="911-ch5"/> He was known as ''Sinaan'' during the preparations.<ref name="willalOmari"/>

==2000==

===Malaysia summit===
[[File:KAlmihdhar.JPG|thumb|right|Khalid al-Mihdhar]]
{{main|Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit}}
The [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] was aware of al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi's involvement with al-Qaeda, having been informed by Saudi intelligence during a 1999 meeting in [[Riyadh]]. Based on information uncovered by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] in the [[1998 United States embassy bombings]] case, the [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) began tracking the communications of Hada, al-Mihdhar's father-in-law. In late 1999, the NSA informed the CIA of an upcoming meeting in [[Malaysia]], which Hada mentioned would involve "Khalid", "Nawaf", and "Salem", who was al-Hazmi's younger brother, [[Salem al-Hazmi]].<ref name="soufan"/>

On 4 January 2000, al-Mihdhar left Yemen and flew to [[Dubai]], [[United Arab Emirates]], where he spent the night. The CIA broke into his hotel room and photocopied his passport, which gave them his full name, birth information and passport number for the first time, and alerted them that he held an entry visa to the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gpoaccess.gov/serialset/creports/pdf/fullreport_errata.pdf |title=Report of the Joint Inquiry into the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |year=2002 |page=144 |access-date=2008-09-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005014507/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/serialset/creports/pdf/fullreport_errata.pdf |archive-date=October 5, 2008 }}</ref> The photocopy was sent to the CIA's [[Bin Laden Issue Station|Alec Station]], which was tracking al-Qaeda.<ref name="soufan">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/07/10/060710fa_fact_wright?currentPage=all |author=Wright, Lawrence |title=The Agent: Did the CIA Stop an FBI Detective from Preventing 9/11 |date=2006-07-10 |magazine=The New Yorker |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080717133042/http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/07/10/060710fa_fact_wright?currentPage=all |archive-date=2008-07-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 5 January 2000, al-Mihdhar traveled to [[Kuala Lumpur]], where he joined al-Hazmi, bin Attash and al-Yemeni, who were all arriving from Pakistan. [[Hamburg cell]] member [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] was also at the summit, and Mohammed possibly attended.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/knew/could/ |title=The Man Who Knew: What If... |work=Frontline |publisher=PBS |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921160152/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/knew/could/ |archive-date=2008-09-21 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="fouda">Fouda and Fielding (2003), pp. 129–130</ref> The group was in Malaysia to meet with [[Hambali]], the leader of [[Jemaah Islamiyah]], an Asian al-Qaeda affiliate. During the [[Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit]], many key details of the 9/11 attacks may have been arranged. At the time, the attacks plot had an additional component involving hijacking aircraft in Asia, as well as in the United States. Bin Attash and al-Yemeni were slated for this part of the plot. However, it was later canceled by bin Laden for being too difficult to coordinate with United States operations.<ref name="911-ch5"/>

{{quote box |width=20em |quote='[W]e've got to tell the Bureau about this. These guys clearly are bad. One of them, at least, has a multiple-entry visa to the U.S. We've got to tell the FBI.' And then [the CIA officer] said to me, 'No, it's not the FBI's case, not the FBI's jurisdiction.' |author=[[Mark Rossini]] |source="The Spy Factory"<ref name=rossini1>{{cite news | url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/military/spy-factory.html | title=The Spy Factory | publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] | author=Bamford, James | author-link=James Bamford | author2=Willis, Scott | date=February 3, 2009 | access-date=July 2, 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411200414/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/military/spy-factory.html | archive-date=2014-04-11 | url-status=live }}</ref>}}

In Malaysia, the group stayed with [[Yazid Sufaat]], a local Jemaah Islamiyah member, who provided accommodation at Hambali's request.<ref name="911-ch5"/> Both al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi were secretly photographed at the meeting by Malaysian authorities, whom the CIA had asked to provide [[surveillance]]. The Malaysians reported that al-Mihdhar spoke at length with bin Attash, and he met with [[Fahd al-Quso]] and others who were later involved in the [[USS Cole bombing|USS ''Cole'' bombing]].<ref name="soufan"/><ref name="fouda"/> After the meeting, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi traveled to [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]], on 8 January and left a week later on 15 January for the United States.<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 52</ref>

===United States entry===
[[Image:Parkwood apts.jpg|thumb|right|Parkwood Apartments complex, located in the [[Clairemont, San Diego, California|Clairemont Mesa]] section of [[San Diego]], where Mihdhar and [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] lived from February until the end of May 2000]]

On 15 January 2000, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi arrived at [[Los Angeles International Airport]] from Bangkok and were admitted as tourists for a period of six months.<ref>9/11 and Terror Travel, p. 10</ref> Immediately after entering the country, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi met [[Omar al-Bayoumi]] in an airport restaurant. Al-Bayoumi claimed he was merely being charitable in assisting the two seemingly out-of-place [[Muslim]]s with moving to San Diego, where he helped them find an apartment near his own, co-signed their lease, and gave them $1,500 to help pay their rent.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/66665 |title=The Saudi Money Trail |date=2002-12-02 |author=Iskioff, Michael and Evan Thomas |work=Newsweek |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205040852/http://www.newsweek.com/id/66665 |archive-date=2008-12-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mohammed later claimed that he suggested San Diego as their destination, based on information gleaned from a San Diego phone book that listed language and flight schools. Mohammed also recommended that the two seek assistance from the local Muslim community, since neither spoke English nor had experience with Western culture.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf |title=Outline of the 9/11 Plot, Staff Statement No. 16 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |year=2004 |page=5 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005014507/http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-05 |url-status=live }}</ref>

While in San Diego, witnesses told the FBI he and al-Hazmi had a close relationship with [[Anwar Al Awlaki]], an imam who served as their spiritual advisor.<ref>[https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sandiego/access/404461061.html?dids=404461061:404461061&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Sep+11%2C+2003&author=Toby+Eckert+and+Marcus+Stern&pub=The+San+Diego+Union+-+Tribune&desc=9%2F11+investigators+baffled+FBI+cleared+3+ex-San+Diegans&pqatl=google Eckert, Toby, and Stern, Marcus, "9/11 investigators baffled FBI cleared 3 ex-San Diegans", ''The San Diego Union'', September 11, 2003, November 30, 2009]{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Authorities say the two regularly attended the [[Masjid Ar-Ribat al-Islami]] mosque al-Awlaki led in San Diego, and al-Awlaki had many closed-door meetings with them, which led investigators to believe al-Awlaki knew about the 9/11 attacks in advance.
[[File:Anwar al-Awlaki sitting on couch, lightened.jpg|thumb|160px|left|[[Anwar al-Awlaki]] in [[Yemen]], 2008]]
In early February 2000, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi rented an apartment at the Parkwood Apartments complex in the [[Clairemont, San Diego, California|Clairemont Mesa]] area of San Diego, and al-Mihdhar purchased a used 1988 [[Toyota Corolla]].<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, pp. 54–55</ref> Neighbors thought that al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi were odd because months passed without the men getting any furniture, and they slept on mattresses on the floor, yet they carried briefcases, were frequently on their mobile phones, and were occasionally picked up by a limousine.<ref name="inside911">Aust (2002), pp. 17–18</ref> Those who met al-Mihdhar in San Diego described him as "dark and brooding, with a disdain for American culture".<ref>Fouda and Fielding (2003), p. 136</ref> Neighbors also said that the pair constantly played [[flight simulator]] games.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101010924/wplot.html |title=The New Breed of Terrorist |author=McGeary, Johanna |author2=David Van Biema |work=TIME Magazine |date=2001-09-24 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930184522/http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101010924/wplot.html |archive-date=2008-09-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi took [[Flight training|flight lessons]] on 5 May 2000, at the Sorbi Flying Club in San Diego, with al-Mihdhar flying an aircraft for 42 minutes. They took additional lessons on 10 May;<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, pp. 63–64</ref> however, with poor English skills, they did not do well with flight lessons. Al-Mihdhar and Al-Hazmi raised some suspicion when they offered extra money to their flight instructor, Richard Garza, if he would train them to fly jets. Garza refused the offer but did not report them to authorities.<ref name="inside911"/> After the 9/11 attacks, Garza described the two men as "impatient students" who "wanted to learn to fly jets, specifically Boeings".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/07/terrorism.afghanistan3 |title=Saudi hijacker 'was key link to bin Laden' |work=The Observer |author=Helmore, Edward |author2=Ed Vulliamy |date=2001-10-07 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227223026/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/oct/07/terrorism.afghanistan3 |archive-date=2009-02-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Return to Yemen===
Al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi moved out of the Parkwood Apartments at the end of May 2000, and al-Mihdhar transferred registration for the Toyota Corolla to al-Hazmi.<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 67</ref> On 10 June 2000, al-Mihdhar left the United States and returned to Yemen to visit his wife, against the wishes of Mohammed who wanted him to remain in the United States to help al-Hazmi adapt.<ref>9/11 and Terror Travel, p. 11</ref><ref name="ksm">[[s:Substitution for the Testimony of KSM|Substitution for the Testimony of KSM]] at the trial of [[Zacarias Moussaoui]]</ref> Mohammed was so angered by this that he decided to remove al-Mihdhar from the 9/11 plot, but he was overruled by bin Laden. Al-Mihdhar remained part of the plot as a muscle hijacker, who would help take over the aircraft.<ref name="911-ch7-2">9/11 Commission Report, Chapter 7.2 – The Attack Looms, First Arrivals in California, pp. 215–222</ref> On 12 October 2000, the [[USS Cole (DDG-67)|USS ''Cole'']] was bombed by a small boat loaden with explosives. After the bombing, [[Prime Minister of Yemen|Yemeni Prime Minister]] [[Abdul Karim al-Iryani]] reported that al-Mihdhar had been one of the key planners of the attack and had been in the country at the time of the attacks.<ref>Smith (2005), p. 60</ref> In late 2000, al-Mihdhar was back in Saudi Arabia, staying with a cousin in Mecca.<ref name="911-ch7-2"/>

==2001==
In February 2001, al-Mihdhar returned to Afghanistan for several months, possibly entering across the [[Afghanistan–Iran border|Iranian border]] after a flight from [[Syria]].<ref name="911-ch7-3"/> FBI director [[Robert Mueller]] later stated his belief that al-Mihdhar served as the coordinator and organizer for the muscle hijackers. He was the last of the muscle hijackers to return to the United States.<ref>{{cite news |title=2 hijackers' roles in organizing 9/11 plot revealed |author=Simpson, Cam |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |date=2002-09-27}}</ref> On 10 June, he returned to Saudi Arabia for a month, where he applied to re-enter the United States through the Visa Express program, indicating that he intended to stay at a [[Marriott International|Marriott hotel]] in New York City.<ref name="911-ch7-3">9/11 Commission Report, Chapter 7.3 – The Attack Looms, Assembling the Teams, pp. 231–240</ref> On his visa application, al-Mihdhar falsely stated that he had never previously traveled to the United States.<ref>9/11 and Terror Travel, pp. 24–25</ref>

On 4 July, al-Mihdhar returned to the United States, arriving at New York City's [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]],<ref name="911-ch7-3"/> using a new passport obtained the previous month.<ref>9/11 and Terror Travel, p. 27</ref> A digital copy of one of al-Mihdhar's passports was later recovered during a search of an [[al-Qaeda safe house]] in Afghanistan, which held indicators, such as fake or altered passport stamps, that al-Mihdhar was a member of a known terrorist group.<ref>9/11 and Terror Travel, p. 42</ref> At the time when al-Mihdhar was admitted to the United States, immigration inspectors had not been trained to look for such indicators. Upon arriving, al-Mihdhar did not check into the Marriott but instead spent a night at another hotel in the city.<ref name="911-ch7-3"/>

Al-Mihdhar bought a [[Identity document forgery|fake ID]] on July 10 from All Services Plus in [[Passaic County, New Jersey]], which was in the business of selling counterfeit documents, including another ID to [[American Airlines Flight 11|Flight 11]] hijacker [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9803E0DD1E3FF93BA35750C0A9659C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |title=A Plea Deal, Then Freedom, in Terror Case Where Prosecutors Kept Evidence a Secret |author=Miller, Jonathan |date=2003-03-08 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120629111030/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9803E0DD1E3FF93BA35750C0A9659C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |archive-date=2012-06-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 1 August, al-Mihdhar and fellow Flight 77 hijacker [[Hani Hanjour]] drove to [[Virginia]] in order to obtain driver's licenses. Once they arrived, they scouted out a [[7-Eleven]] convenience store and a dollar store in [[Falls Church, Virginia|Falls Church]], and found two [[El Salvador|Salvadoran]] immigrants who, for $50 each, were willing to vouch for al-Mihdhar and Hanjour as being Virginian residents. With notarized residency forms, al-Mihdhar and Hanjour were able to obtain driver's licenses at a Virginian motor vehicle office. Flight 77 hijackers [[Salem al-Hazmi]] and [[Majed Moqed]], and [[United Airlines Flight 93]] hijacker [[Ziad Jarrah]] used the same addresses obtained from the Salvadorans to obtain Virginian driver's licenses.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps42475/80452.pdf |title=Risk to Homeland Security from Identity Fraud and Identity Theft |work=Testimony before the House Committee on the Judiciary |date=2002-06-25 |publisher=Government Printing Office |page=7 |access-date=2008-10-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012014855/http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps42475/80452.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-12 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>9/11 and Terror Travel, p. 29</ref>

In August 2001, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi made several visits to the library at [[William Paterson University]] in [[Wayne, New Jersey]], where they used computers to look up travel information and book flights.<ref>{{cite news |title=9/11 pair used state college to buy airfare |author=Cohen, Robert and Kelly Heyboer |publisher=Star-Ledger (Newark) |date=2005-04-29}}</ref> On 22 August, al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi tried to purchase flight tickets from the American Airlines online ticket-merchant, but had technical difficulties and gave up.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |title=Statement of Robert S. Mueller: Joint Investigation Into September 11 |date=2002-09-26 |publisher=Federation of American Scientists (FAS) |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205025548/http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092602mueller.html |archive-date=2008-12-05 |url-status=live }}</ref> Al-Mihdhar and Moqed were able to make flight reservations for Flight 77 on 25 August, using Moqed's credit card; however, the transaction did not fully go through because the billing address and the shipment address for the tickets did not match.<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 235</ref>

On 31 August, al-Mihdhar closed an account at [[TD Banknorth|Hudson United Bank]] in New Jersey, having opened the account when he arrived in July, and was with Hanjour when he made a withdrawal from an ATM in [[Paterson, New Jersey|Paterson]] on September 1. The next day, al-Mihdhar, Moqed and Hanjour traveled to [[Maryland]], where they stayed at budget motels in [[Laurel, Maryland|Laurel]]. Al-Mihdhar was among the muscle hijackers who worked out at a [[Gold's Gym]] in [[Greenbelt, Maryland|Greenbelt]] in early September.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://loudounextra.washingtonpost.com/news/2001/sep/19/dulles-hijackers-made-maryland-their-base/ |title=Dulles Hijackers Made Maryland Their Base |author=Masters, Brook A. |date=2001-09-19 |newspaper=The Washington Post |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5bRH6tam9?url=http://loudounextra.washingtonpost.com/news/2001/sep/19/dulles-hijackers-made-maryland-their-base/ |archive-date=2008-10-09 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="FBI Hijackers">FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 255</ref> On September 5, al-Mihdhar and Moqed went to the American Airlines ticket counter at [[Baltimore-Washington International Airport]] to pick up their tickets for Flight 77, paying $2,300 in cash.<ref name="FBI Hijackers"/>

===Intelligence leads===
Despite knowledge of his entry into the United States for over a year, al-Mihdhar was not placed on a CIA watchlist until 21 August 2001, and a note was sent on 23 August to the [[United States Department of State|Department of State]] and the [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]] (INS) suggesting that al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi be added to their watchlists. The [[Federal Aviation Administration]] (FAA) was not notified about the two men.<ref name="smith">{{cite news |title=A History of Missed Connections |author=Smith, R. Jeffrey |date=2003-07-25 |newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2003/07/25/a-history-of-missed-connections/03465f5e-f2f5-49b7-8964-3b847e0a7c5a/ |access-date=2008-09-30}}</ref> On 23 August, the CIA informed the FBI that al-Mihdhar had obtained a U.S. visa in Jeddah. The FBI headquarters received a copy of the Visa Express application from the Jeddah embassy on 24 August, showing the New York Marriott as al-Mihdhar's destination.<ref name="rolince"/>

On 28 August, the FBI New York field office requested that a criminal case be opened to determine whether al-Mihdhar was still in the United States, but the request was refused.<ref name="hill">{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092002hill.html |title=The Intelligence Community's Knowledge of the September 11 Hijackers Prior to September 11, 2001 |author=Hill, Eleanor |work=Joint Inquiry into the Events of September 11, 2001 |publisher=Federation of American Scientists (FAS) |date=2002-09-20 |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010233211/http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092002hill.html |archive-date=2008-10-10 |url-status=live }}</ref> The FBI ended up treating al-Mihdhar as an intelligence case, which meant that the FBI's criminal investigators could not work on the case, due to the barrier separating intelligence and criminal case operations. An agent in the New York office sent an e-mail to FBI headquarters saying, "Whatever has happened to this, someday someone will die, and the public will not understand why we were not more effective and throwing every resource we had at certain 'problems.'" The reply from headquarters was, "we [at headquarters] are all frustrated with this issue ... [t]hese are the rules. [[National Security Law Unit|NSLU]] does not make them up."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092002fbi.html |title=Prepared Statement of a New York Special Agent |work=Joint Inquiry into the Events of September 11, 2001 |publisher=Federation of American Scientists (FAS) |date=2002-09-20 |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014003935/http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_hr/092002fbi.html |archive-date=2008-10-14 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The FBI contacted Marriott on 30 August, requesting that they check guest records, and on 5 September, they reported that no Marriott hotels had any record of al-Mihdhar checking in.<ref name="rolince">{{cite web |url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/testimony/joint-inquiry-into-events-of-september-11-2001 |title=Testimony of Michael E. Rolince |work=Joint Inquiry into the Events of September 11, 2001 |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |date=2002-09-20 |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112151633/http://www.fbi.gov/news/testimony/joint-inquiry-into-events-of-september-11-2001 |archive-date=2011-01-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> The day before the attacks, [[Robert Fuller (FBI)|Robert Fuller]] of the New York office requested that the Los Angeles FBI office check all local [[Sheraton Hotels and Resorts|Sheraton Hotel]]s,<ref name="rolince"/> as well as [[Lufthansa]] and [[United Airlines]] bookings, because those were the two airlines al-Mihdhar had used to enter the country.<ref name="hill"/> Neither the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]]'s [[Financial Crimes Enforcement Network]] nor the FBI's Financial Review Group, which have access to credit card and other private financial records, were notified about al-Mihdhar prior to 11 September.<ref name="smith"/>

Regarding the CIA's refusal to inform the FBI about al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi, author [[Lawrence Wright]] suggests the CIA wanted to protect its turf and was concerned about giving sensitive intelligence to FBI Agent [[John P. O'Neill]], who Alec Station chief [[Michael Scheuer]] described as duplicitous. Wright also speculates that the CIA may have been protecting intelligence operations overseas, and might have been eying al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi as recruitment targets to obtain intelligence on al-Qaeda, although the CIA was not authorized to operate in the United States and might have been leaving them for Saudi intelligence to recruit.<ref name="soufan"/><ref name="wright2">Wright (2006), pp. 310–315</ref>

==September 11 attacks==
{{main|American Airlines Flight 77}}
[[Image:DM-SD-02-03886.JPEG|thumb|right|The Pentagon, minutes after American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into it]]
On 10 September 2001, al-Mihdhar and the other hijackers checked into the [[Marriott International|Marriott Residence Inn]] in [[Herndon, Virginia]], near [[Washington Dulles International Airport]].<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 284</ref> [[Saleh Ibn Abdul Rahman Hussayen]], a prominent Saudi Arabian government official, was staying at the same hotel that night, although there is no evidence that they met or knew of each other's presence.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A31402-2003Oct1?language=printer |title=Spreading Saudi Fundamentalism in U.S. |date=2003-10-02 |newspaper=The Washington Post |author=Schmidt, Susan |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224024342/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A31402-2003Oct1?language=printer |archive-date=2011-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

At 6:22 a.m. on 11 September 2001, the group checked out of the hotel and headed to Dulles airport.<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 290</ref> At 7:15 a.m., al-Mihdhar and Moqed checked in at the American Airlines ticket counter<ref name="911-ch1">9/11 Commission Report, Chapter 1.1 (2004), pp. 1–13</ref> and arrived at the passenger security checkpoint at 7:20 a.m.<ref>FBI Hijackers' Timeline, p. 288</ref> Both men set off the [[Metal detector#Security screening|metal detector]] and were put through secondary screening. Security video footage later released shows that Moqed was [[Security wand|wanded]], but the screener did not identify what set off the alarm, and both Moqed and al-Mihdhar were able to proceed without further hindrance.<ref name="dullesvideo">{{cite episode|url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0407/21/acd.01.html |title=New Video of 9/11 hijackers at Dulles Airport before attacks |series=Anderson Cooper 360 Degrees |network=CNN |airdate=2004-07-21 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005113444/http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0407/21/acd.01.html |archive-date=2008-10-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="staff3">{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |title=The Aviation Security System and the 9/11 Attacks – Staff Statement No. 3 |work=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |page=9 |access-date=2008-05-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528201527/http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_3.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Al-Mihdhar was also selected by the [[Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System]] (CAPPS), which involved extra screening of his luggage; however, because al-Mihdhar did not check any luggage, this had no effect.<ref name="four">{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306021319/http://www.archives.gov/legislative/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |archive-date=2008-03-06 |title=Staff Monograph on the "Four Flights and Civil Aviation Security" |date=September 2005 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |pages=27–29 |access-date=2008-08-14 |url-status=dead }}</ref> By 7:50 a.m., al-Mihdhar and the other hijackers, carrying knives and box cutters, had made it through the airport security checkpoint and boarded Flight 77 to Los Angeles. Al-Mihdhar was seated in seat 12B, next to Moqed.<ref name="911-ch1"/>

The flight was scheduled to depart from Gate D26 at 8:10 a.m. but was delayed by 10 minutes.<ref name="four"/> The last routine radio communication from the plane to [[air traffic control]] occurred at 8:50:51 a.m.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gregor |first=Joseph A. |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/ATC_%20Report_AA77.pdf |title=ATC Report American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=2001-12-21 |page=13 |access-date=2008-06-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409092934/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/ATC_%20Report_AA77.pdf |archive-date=April 9, 2008 }}</ref> At 8:54 a.m., Flight 77 deviated from its assigned flight path and began to turn south,<ref name="911-ch1"/> at which point the hijackers set the flight's [[autopilot]] setting for Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ntsb.gov/info/autopilot_AA77_UA93_study.pdf |title=Study of Autopilot, Navigation Equipment, and Fuel Consumption Activity Based on United Airlines Flight 93 and American Airlines Flight 77 Digital Flight Data Recorder Information |last=O'Callaghan |first=John |author2=Bower, Daniel |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |page=6 |date=2002-02-13 |access-date=2008-06-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409092923/https://www.ntsb.gov/info/autopilot_AA77_UA93_study.pdf |archive-date=April 9, 2008 }}</ref> Passenger [[Barbara Olson]] called her husband, [[United States Solicitor General]] [[Theodore Olson|Ted Olson]] (whose 61st birthday was on that day), and reported that the plane had been hijacked.<ref name="911-ch1"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Johnson |first=Glen |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |title=Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes |work=The Boston Globe |date=November 23, 2001|access-date=2008-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216072126/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |archive-date=2008-12-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> At 9:37:45 a.m, Flight 77 crashed into the west [[facade]] of [[the Pentagon]], killing all 64 people aboard, along with 125 in the Pentagon.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/about/Documents/AAL77_fdr.pdf |title=American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=2002-01-31 |page=2 |access-date=2008-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316175021/https://www.ntsb.gov/about/Documents/AAL77_fdr.pdf |archive-date=2015-03-16 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the recovery process, remains of the five hijackers were identified through a [[process of elimination]], since their [[DNA]] did not match any from the victims, and put into the custody of the FBI.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |title=Remains Of 9 Sept. 11 Hijackers Held |date=2002-08-17 |publisher=CBS News |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930021707/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/17/attack/main519033.shtml |archive-date=2008-09-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Naming the Dead – Confronting the Realities of Rapid Identification of Degraded Skeletal Remains |author=Edson, S. M. |journal=Forensic Science Review |volume=16 |issue=1 |date=January 2004 |pages=64–90 |display-authors=etal |pmid=26256813}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
After the attacks, the identification of al-Mihdhar was one of the first links suggesting that bin Laden had played a role in their organization, since al-Mihdhar had been seen at the Malaysian conference speaking to bin Laden's associates.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/piece-by-piece-the-jigsaw-of-terror-revealed-9234643.html |last=Blackhurst |first=Chris |title=Piece by piece, the jigsaw of terror revealed |work=The Independent |date=2001-09-30 |access-date=2017-09-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510152137/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/piece-by-piece-the-jigsaw-of-terror-revealed-9234643.html |archive-date=2017-05-10 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Burns, Vincent |title=Terrorism: A Documentary and Reference Guide |year=2005 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-313-33213-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780313332135/page/139 139] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780313332135/page/139 }}</ref> The FBI interrogated Quso, who was arrested following the USS ''Cole'' bombing and in custody in Yemen. Quso was able to identify al-Mihdhar, al-Hazmi and bin Attash in photos provided by the FBI, and he also knew [[Marwan al-Shehhi]], a hijacker aboard [[United Airlines Flight 175]]. From Quso, the FBI was able to establish an al-Qaeda link to the attacks.<ref>Wright (2006), pp. 362–637</ref>

On 12 September 2001, the Toyota Corolla purchased by al-Mihdhar was found in Dulles International Airport's hourly parking lot. Inside the vehicle, authorities found a letter written by [[Mohamed Atta]], a hijacker aboard [[American Airlines Flight 11]]; maps of Washington, D.C. and New York City; a cashier's check made out to a [[Phoenix, Arizona]], flight school; four drawings of a [[Boeing 757]] cockpit; a box cutter; and a page with notes and phone numbers, which contained evidence that led investigators to San Diego.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2001/sep/27/news/mn-50544 |title=Authorities' Dragnet Snags More Suspects |author=Meyer, Josh |author2=Eric Lichtblau |work=Los Angeles Times |date=2001-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520081248/http://articles.latimes.com/2001/sep/27/news/mn-50544 |archive-date=2011-05-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 19 September 2001, the [[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]] (FDIC) distributed a special alert that listed al-Mihdhar as still alive,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/inactivefinancial/2001/fil0179a.html |title=Inactive Financial Institution Letters |publisher=Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation |date=2001-09-19 |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005204707/http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/inactivefinancial/2001/fil0179a.html |archive-date=2008-10-05 |url-status=live }}</ref> and other reports began suggesting that a number of the alleged hijackers were likewise still alive. For instance, on 23 September 2001, the [[BBC News|BBC]] published an article that suggested al-Mihdhar and others named as hijackers were still at large.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/1559151.stm |work=BBC News |title=Hijack 'suspects' alive and well |date=23 September 2001|access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929150134/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/1559151.stm |archive-date=2008-09-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The German magazine ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' later investigated the BBC's claims of "living" hijackers and reported they were cases of mistaken identities.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,265160-2,00.html |author=Cziesche, Dominik |title=Panoply of the Absurd |magazine=Der Spiegel |date=2003-09-08 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015063544/http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,265160-2,00.html |archive-date=2008-10-15 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2002, Saudi Arabian officials stated that the names of the hijackers were correct and that 15 of the 19 hijackers were Saudi Arabian.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002/02/06/saudi.htm |title=Official: 15 of 19 Sept. 11 hijackers were Saudi |newspaper=USA Today |date=2002-02-06 |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929205512/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002/02/06/saudi.htm |archive-date=2008-09-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2006, in response to [[9/11 conspiracy theories]] surrounding its original news story, the BBC said that confusion had arisen with the common Arabic names, and that its later reports on the hijackers superseded its original story.<ref name="hermann">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2006/10/911_conspiracy_theory_1.html |title=9/11 conspiracy theory |author=Hermann, Steve |date=2006-10-27 |work=BBC News |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927014325/http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2006/10/911_conspiracy_theory_1.html |archive-date=2008-09-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2005, [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] [[Lieutenant Colonel|Lt. Col.]] [[Anthony Shaffer (intelligence officer)|Anthony Shaffer]] and [[Member of Congress#Bicameral legislature|Congressman]] [[Curt Weldon]] alleged that the [[United States Department of Defense|Defense Department]] [[data mining]] project [[Able Danger]] identified al-Mihdhar, al-Hazmi, al-Shehri, and Atta as members of a [[Brooklyn]]-based al-Qaeda [[Clandestine cell system|cell]] in early 2000.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/09/politics/09intel.html?scp=1&sq=Four%20in%209/11%20Plot%20Are%20Called%20Tied%20to%20Qaeda%20in%20%2700&st=cse |title=Four in 9/11 Plot Are Called Tied to Qaeda in '00 |author=Jehl, Douglas |date=2005-08-09 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704220219/http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article9714.htm |archive-date=2008-07-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Shaffer largely based his allegations on the recollections of [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[Captain (naval)|Captain]] [[Scott Phillpott]],<ref name="wp-20050819">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/18/AR2005081801751.html |author=Eggen, Dan |title=Officer Says 2 Others Are Source of His Atta Claims |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=2005-08-19 |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724132004/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/18/AR2005081801751.html |archive-date=2008-07-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> who later recanted his recollection, telling investigators that he was "convinced that Atta was not on the chart that we had". Phillpott said that Shaffer was "relying on my recollection 100 percent", and the Defense Department Inspector General's report indicated that Philpott strongly supported the [[social network analysis]] techniques used in Able Danger, and might have exaggerated claims of identifying the hijackers.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/21/AR2006092101831.html |title=Hijackers Were Not Identified Before 9/11, Investigation Says |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=2006-09-22 |author=White, Josh |access-date=2008-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106151245/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/21/AR2006092101831.html |archive-date=2012-11-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="oig">{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/agency/dod/ig-abledanger.pdf |title=Office Inspector General's Report |publisher=Department of Defense |date=2006-09-18 |access-date=2008-09-29 |pages=17–22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820035023/http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/dod/ig-abledanger.pdf |archive-date=2008-08-20 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Biography|Saudi Arabia}}
* [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite web |title=9/11 Commission Report |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |year=2004 |access-date=2008-09-30}}
* {{cite web |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_App.pdf |title=9/11 and Terror Travel: Appendix |year=2004 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=2008-09-30}}
* {{cite book |author=Aust, Stefan |author2=Der Spiegel Magazine |others=Schnibben, Cordt |title=Inside 9-11: What Really Happened |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|MacMillan]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-312-98748-X |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/inside911whatrea00newy }}
* {{cite book |author=Burke, Jason |title=Al-Qaeda: The True Story of Radical Islam |year=2004 |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]]| isbn=1-85043-666-5}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |title=Hijackers' Timeline |author=Federal Bureau of Investigation |publisher=[[NEFA Foundation]] |date=2008-02-04 |access-date=2008-10-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012013300/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/FBI911Timeline.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-12 }}
* {{cite book |author=Fouda, Yosri |author2=Fielding, Nick |title=Masterminds of Terror: The Truth Behind the Most Devastating Terrorist Attack the World Has Ever Seen |publisher=[[Arcade Publishing|Arcade]] |year=2003 |isbn=1-55970-708-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/mastermindsofter00fawd }}
* {{cite book |author=McDermott, Terry |title=Perfect Soldiers: The Hijackers: Who They Were, Why They Did It |year=2005 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=0-06-058469-6}}
* {{cite book |author=Smith, Paul J. |title=Terrorism and Violence in Southeast Asia: Transnational Challenges to States and Regional Stability |year=2005 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=0-7656-1433-2}}
* {{cite book |author=Wright, Lawrence |title=The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |isbn=0-375-41486-X |url=https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig }}

{{featured article}}

{{9-11 hijackers}}
{{AmericanTerrorism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Midhar, Khalid}}
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:American Airlines Flight 77]]
[[Category:Anwar al-Awlaki]]
[[Category:Bosnian mujahideen]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People from Mecca]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian mass murderers]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian murderers of children]]

Khalid Sheikh Mohammed

2023-09-12T21:20:56Z

78.157.120.208: Changed to dmy format for dates. Mohammed is from where mdy is not used. Dmy is used in both Urdu and Arabic. Osama bin Laden's article also uses dmy

{{short description|Pakistani member of al-Qaeda (born 1964)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Use American English|date=September 2023}}

{{Infobox War on Terror detainee
| name = Khalid Sheikh Mohammed
| native_name = {{lang|ps|{{nq|خالد شيخ محمد}}}}
| image =File:Khalid Shaikh Mohammed after capture.jpg
| caption = Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in 2003 after he was captured
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1965|4|14}}<ref name=NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024/>
| birth_place = [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]], [[Pakistan]] or [[Al Ahmadi, Kuwait|Al Ahmadi]], [[Kuwait]]
| date_of_arrest = 1 March 2003
| arrested_by = SHO, Rawalpindi, Westridge, Raja Saqlain
| place_of_arrest = [[Rawalpindi]], Pakistan
| arresting_authority = Team of [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]]
| citizenship = [[Pakistani nationality law|Pakistani]]
| detained_at = [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]]
| id_number = 10024
| charge = *[[Murder in United States law|First-degree murder]] (2,977 counts)
*Attacking civilians
*Attacking civilian objects
*Intentionally causing serious bodily injury
*Murder in violation of the [[law of war]]
*[[Destruction of property]] in violation of the law of war
*[[Aircraft hijacking|Hijacking or hazarding a vessel or aircraft]]
*[[Terrorism in the United States|Terrorism]]
*[[Providing material support for terrorism]]
| penalty =
| status = Detained
|Education=[[North Carolina A&T State University]] ([[BS]]) [[Punjab University]]
([[MA]]))
| relatives = [[Zahid Al-Sheikh]] (brother), [[Ramzi Yousef]] and [[Ammar al-Baluchi]] (nephews)
|children=2}}

'''Khalid Sheikh Mohammed''' (sometimes also spelled '''Shaykh''';<ref name="odni14">{{cite web|url=http://www.odni.gov/announcements/content/DetaineeBiographies.pdf|title=Detainee Biographies|publisher=[[Office of the Director of National Intelligence]]|archive-url=https://swap.stanford.edu/20091119181208/http://www.odni.gov/announcements/content/DetaineeBiographies.pdf|archive-date=November 19, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> also known by at least 50 [[pseudonym]]s;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.findlaw.com/nytimes/docs/terrorism/usksmetal20808chrgs.pdf|title=U.S. v. Khalid Shaikh Mohammed military tribunal charges|work=[[FindLaw]]|access-date=July 15, 2008}}</ref> born 14 April 1965), often known by his initials '''KSM''', is a Pan-Islamist Pakistani terrorist and the Former Head of Propaganda for [[Al-Qaeda]], held by the United States at the [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]] under [[terrorism]]-related charges. He was named as "the principal architect of the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]]" in the 2004 ''[[9/11 Commission Report]]''.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://projects.nytimes.com/guantanamo/detainees/10024-khalid-shaikh-mohammed | title=The Guantánamo Docket: Khalid Shaikh Mohammed | newspaper=[[The New York Times]] | access-date=September 10, 2010 | archive-date=July 16, 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716043406/http://projects.nytimes.com/guantanamo/detainees/10024-khalid-shaikh-mohammed | url-status=live }}</ref>

Mohammed was a member of [[Osama bin Laden|Osama bin Laden's]] Pan-Islamist terrorist organization Al-Qaeda, leading Al-Qaeda's [[propaganda]] operations from around 1999 until late 2001. Mohammed was captured on 1 March 2003, in the Pakistani city of [[Rawalpindi]] by a combined operation of the U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) and Pakistan's [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI). Immediately after his capture, Mohammad was [[Extraordinary rendition|extraordinarily rendered]] to [[CIA black sites|secret CIA prison sites]] in Afghanistan, then Poland, where he was interrogated by U.S. operatives.<ref name="newyorker.com">{{cite magazine |last1=Filkins |first1=Dexter |title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and the C.I.A. |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-cia |magazine=The New Yorker |date=December 31, 2014 |access-date=December 10, 2017 |archive-date=December 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210234843/https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-cia |url-status=live }}</ref> By December 2006, he had been transferred to [[Extrajudicial prisoners of the United States|military custody]] at [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]].

In March 2007, after significant interrogations, Mohammed confessed to masterminding the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]]; the [[Richard Reid]] shoe bombing attempt to blow up an airliner; the [[Bali nightclub bombing]] in [[Indonesia]]; the [[1993 World Trade Center bombing]]; the murder of [[Daniel Pearl]]; and various foiled attacks as well as numerous other crimes.<ref>[https://www.amazon.com/Black-Banners-Inside-Against-al-Qaeda/dp/0393079422][[Ali Soufan]] and Daniel Freedman, ''The Black Banners: The Inside Story of 9/11 and the War Against al-Qaeda'' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521031728/https://www.amazon.com/Black-Banners-Inside-Against-al-Qaeda/dp/0393079422|date=May 21, 2017}}, 2011</ref><ref name="prosecutor">[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/04/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-military-prosecutor Chris McGreal, "Khalid Sheikh Mohammed: former military prosecutor denounces trial"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221110245/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/04/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-military-prosecutor |date=February 21, 2017 }}, ''[[The Guardian]]'', May 4, 2012</ref><ref name="brown">{{cite web|date=May 20, 2014|title=Truth and torture | Comment is free|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/mar/19/truthandtorture|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714171856/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/mar/19/truthandtorture|archive-date=July 14, 2015|access-date=June 13, 2015|publisher=Theguardian.co.uk}}</ref> He was charged in February 2008 with [[war crimes]] and murder by a [[Military Commissions Act of 2006|U.S. military commission]] at Guantanamo Bay detention camp, which could carry the [[death penalty]] if convicted. In 2012, a former military prosecutor criticized the proceedings as insupportable due to confessions gained under [[torture]].<ref name="prosecutor" /> [[Boumediene v. Bush|A 2008 decision]] by the [[United States Supreme Court]] had also drawn into question the legality of the methods used to gain such admissions and the admissibility of such admissions as evidence in a criminal proceeding.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2008/08/14/why-it-was-a-great-victory/|title=Why It Was a Great Victory|last=Dworkin|first=Ronald|journal=The New York Review of Books|date=August 14, 2008|access-date=February 21, 2017|archive-date=February 22, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222054231/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2008/08/14/why-it-was-a-great-victory/|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 30 August 2019, a military judge set a [[United States v. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed|trial]] date of 11 January 2021, for Mohammed's death penalty trial.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/30/us/politics/sept-11-trial-guantanamo-bay.html|title=Trial Date for Men Charged With Plotting Sept. 11 Attacks Is Set for 2021|last=Rosenberg|first=Carol|date=August 30, 2019|work=The New York Times|access-date=August 30, 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=August 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830162004/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/30/us/politics/sept-11-trial-guantanamo-bay.html|url-status=live}}</ref> His trial was further postponed on 18 December 2020, due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name="autogeneratedmil">{{cite web |url=https://www.mc.mil/Portals/0/pdfs/KSM2/KSM%20II%20(AE788(12th%20Sup)).pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=March 10, 2021 |archive-date=January 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117040435/https://www.mc.mil/Portals/0/pdfs/KSM2/KSM%20II%20(AE788(12th%20Sup)).pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Mohammed's trial restarted on 7 September 2021.<ref name="straitstimes1">{{cite news|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/world/united-states/trial-of-accused-911-mastermind-restarts-days-before-20th-anniversary|title=Trial of accused 9/11 mastermind restarts, days before 20th anniversary|website=The Straits Times|date=September 7, 2021|access-date=September 7, 2021|archive-date=September 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907120618/https://www.straitstimes.com/world/united-states/trial-of-accused-911-mastermind-restarts-days-before-20th-anniversary|url-status=live}}</ref> However, as of 2023 his trial has been postponed again, further into 2023, with a possible plea deal that would take the death penalty off the table.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2023-01-09 |title=9/11 trial delayed again as Biden administration pushes for plea deal with terrorists |url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/justice/2023-kicks-off-911-gitmo-hearings-delayed-again |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=Washington Examiner |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Mohammed was born on 14 April 1965,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=McDermott |first1=Terry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aQY2AQAAQBAJ |title=The Hunt for KSM: Inside the Pursuit and Takedown of the Real 9/11 Mastermind, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed |last2=Meyer |first2=Josh |date=2012-03-26 |publisher=Little, Brown |isbn=978-0-316-20273-2 |language=en}}</ref> in [[Balochistan, Pakistan]] or [[Kuwait]].<ref name=NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024/><ref>{{Cite web |title=OFSI Consolidated List, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed |url=https://sanctionssearchapp.ofsi.hmtreasury.gov.uk/suspect/6994 |website=[[HM Treasury]]}}</ref><ref name=HRW>{{cite web|title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed|date=October 26, 2012|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/10/26/khalid-sheikh-mohammed|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|access-date=December 4, 2016|archive-date=March 5, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305211109/https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/10/26/khalid-sheikh-mohammed|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BBC12964158">{{cite news |date=May 5, 2012 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-12964158|title=Profile: Al-Qaeda 'kingpin'|work=BBC News |access-date=September 18, 2015 |quote=Mohammed is believed to have been born in either 1964 or 1965 in Kuwait into a family originally from the Pakistani province of Baluchistan}}</ref> His father, Shaikh Muhammad Ali Dustin al-Baluchi,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2002-12-22 |title=The Plots and Designs of Al Qaeda's Engineer |url=https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-fg-alqaeda22dec22-story.html |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/02/03/world/meast/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-fast-facts/index.html|title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Fast Facts|date=February 3, 2013|publisher=CNN|access-date=February 20, 2017|archive-date=February 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221105532/http://www.cnn.com/2013/02/03/world/meast/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-fast-facts/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> was a [[Deobandi]] imam in [[Al Ahmadi, Kuwait|Al Ahmadi]], who moved with his family from Balochistan to Kuwait in the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Wanted Women: Faith, Lies, and the War on Terror: The Lives of Ayaan Hirsi Ali and Aafia Siddiqui|last=Scroggins|first=Deborah|publisher=HarperCollins |year=2012|page=60}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite magazine |last=McDermott |first=Terry |date=2010-09-06 |title=The Mastermind |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/09/13/the-mastermind |access-date=2023-05-05 |magazine=The New Yorker |language=en-US}}</ref> His mother was Halema Mohammed.<ref name=":0" /> Mohammed was raised in Badawiya, a neighborhood of the [[Fahaheel]] suburb of [[Kuwait City]].<ref name=":3" /> Mohammed is the uncle of [[Ramzi Yousef]], who was convicted on terrorism charges for his part in the [[1993 World Trade Center bombing]], and [[Ammar al-Baluchi|Ammar Al Baluchi]], who is accused of involvement in multiple terror plots.

According to U.S. federal documents, in 1982 he had heard [[Abdul Rasul Sayyaf]]'s speech in which a call for jihad against the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]] was declared.<ref name="NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024">{{cite news|author=Margot Williams|author-link=Margot Williams|date=November 3, 2008|title=Guantanamo Docket: Khalid Shaikh Mohammed|work=The New York Times|url=https://int.nyt.com/data/documenttools/82528-isn-10024-khalid-shaikh-mohammed-jtf-gtmo/c629488fa6d90379/full.pdf|access-date=September 10, 2010|archive-date=July 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716043406/http://projects.nytimes.com/guantanamo/detainees/10024-khalid-shaikh-mohammed|url-status=live}}</ref> At age 16, he joined the [[Muslim Brotherhood]].<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Harper Paperbacks |last=Mcdermott |first=Terry |title=Perfect Soldiers: The 9/11 Hijackers: Who They Were, Why They Did It |date=August 1, 2006}}, page 111</ref> After graduating from high school in 1983, Mohammad travelled to the [[United States]] and enrolled in [[Chowan University]] in [[Murfreesboro, North Carolina]]. He later transferred to [[North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University]] and received a [[Bachelor of Science]] (BS) in [[mechanical engineering]] in 1986.<ref name=NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024 /><ref>{{cite news |author1=Susan Candiotti |author2=Maria Ressa |author3=Justine Redman |author4=Henry Schuster CNN |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2002/US/South/12/19/al.qaeda.aggie/ |title=Suspected 9/11 mastermind graduated from U.S. university |publisher=Edition.cnn.com |date=December 19, 2002 |access-date=October 6, 2010 |archive-date=January 24, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124122216/http://edition.cnn.com/2002/US/South/12/19/al.qaeda.aggie/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The following year, he went to [[Peshawar]], Pakistan,<ref name=NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024 /> where he and his brothers, including [[Zahid Al-Sheikh|Zahed]], joined the [[mujahideen]] forces engaged in the [[Soviet–Afghan War]]. He attended the Sada training camp run by Sheikh [[Abdallah Azzam]], and after that he worked for the magazine ''al-Bunyan al-Marsous'', produced by Sayyaf's rebel group, the [[Islamic Union for the Liberation of Afghanistan]]. In 1992, he received a master's degree in Islamic Culture and History through correspondence classes from [[University of the Punjab|Punjab University]] in Pakistan.<ref name=NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024 /> By 1993, Mohammad had married and moved his family to [[Qatar]], where he took a position as project engineer with the Qatari Ministry of Electricity and Water.<ref name=NYTimesGuantanamoDocketISN10024 /> He began to travel to different countries from that time onward.

The United States 9/11 Commission Report notes that, "By his own account, KSM's animus toward the United States stemmed not from his experiences there as a student, but rather from his violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |title=The 9/11 Commission Report |publisher=9-11commission.gov |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=October 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019203222/https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> However, on August 29, 2009, ''[[The Washington Post]]'' reported from U.S. intelligence sources that Mohammed's time in the U.S. contributed to his radicalization.

<blockquote>"KSM's limited and negative experience in the United States—which included a brief jail stay because of unpaid bills—almost certainly helped propel him on his path to becoming a terrorist," according to this intelligence summary. "He stated that his contact with Americans, while minimal, confirmed his view that the United States was a debauched and racist country."<ref>[http://www.nbcnews.com/id/32605529 "9/11 planner is recast as key asset for CIA"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912094248/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna32605529 |date=September 12, 2021 }}, [[NBC News]]. accessed September 11, 2011.</ref></blockquote>

===Philippines 1994–1995===
Mohammed was in the [[Philippines]] in late 1994 and early 1995; he then identified as a [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] or a [[Qatar]]i [[plywood]] exporter and used the aliases "Abdul Majid" and "Salem Ali."<ref>{{cite news |title=Alleged Sept. 11 mastermind's nephew plotted 1993 bombing: FBI's most-wanted terrorist after bin Laden lived in luxury in Philippines with '93 plotter |work=Ottawa Citizen |agency=Associated Press |date=June 26, 2002}}</ref><ref name="guardian">{{cite news |title=Womaniser, joker, scuba diver: the other face of al-Qaida's No 3 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/03/alqaida.terrorism1 |access-date=September 12, 2006 |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=March 3, 2003 |first=Rohan |last=Gunaratna |archive-date=August 26, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826235640/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/03/alqaida.terrorism1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Qatar, avoiding arrest===
In early 1996, Mohammed returned to [[Afghanistan]] to avoid capture by U.S. authorities.<ref name="9-11commission">{{cite web|year=2007|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm|title=AL QAEDA AIMS AT THE AMERICAN HOMELAND — CH5|publisher=9-11commission|access-date=August 28, 2007|quote=In January 1996, well aware that U.S. authorities were chasing him, he left [[Qatar]] for good and fled to Afghanistan, where he renewed his relationship with Rasul Sayyaf.9|archive-date=August 16, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816215318/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In his flight from Qatar, he was sheltered by Sheikh [[Abdullah Bin Khalid Al-Thani|Abdullah Al Thani]], who was the [[Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs (Qatar)|Qatari Minister of Religious Affairs]] in 1996.<ref>[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/context.jsp?item=a96qatar] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050301232732/http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/context.jsp?item=a96qatar|date=March 1, 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Barrett |first=Wayne |url=http://www.villagevoice.com/2007-11-20/news/rudy-s-ties-to-a-terror-sheikh/ |title=Rudy's Ties to a Terror Sheikh |publisher=Villagevoice.com |date=November 20, 2007 |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=January 15, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115144716/http://www.villagevoice.com/2007-11-20/news/rudy-s-ties-to-a-terror-sheikh/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.propeller.com/viewstory/2007/11/29/olbermann-giulianis-direct-connections-to-terrorists/?url=http%3A%2F%2Fca.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D8wCTXcsB7zU&frame=true |title=Home |publisher=Propeller |date=September 25, 2010 |access-date=October 6, 2010 |archive-date=December 2, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071202212342/http://www.propeller.com/viewstory/2007/11/29/olbermann-giulianis-direct-connections-to-terrorists/?url=http%3A%2F%2Fca.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D8wCTXcsB7zU&frame=true |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2007/11/village-voice-giuliani-did-business-terrorism-supporter |title=MotherJones Blog: Village Voice: Giuliani Did Business With Terrorism Supporter |publisher=Motherjones.com |access-date=August 10, 2013 |archive-date=September 30, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930003244/http://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2007/11/village-voice-giuliani-did-business-terrorism-supporter |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://blogs.abcnews.com/theblotter/2007/11/giulianis-ties.html Marcus Baram, "Giuliani's Ties to Qatar Raise Questions for Mr. 9/ll"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201174612/http://blogs.abcnews.com/theblotter/2007/11/giulianis-ties.html |date=December 1, 2007}}, ABC News, November 29, 2007</ref>

==Alleged terrorist activities==


===Operation Bojinka===
{{Main|Bojinka plot}}
Mohammed traveled to the [[Philippines]] in 1994 to work with his nephew [[Ramzi Yousef]] on the Bojinka plot, a [[Manila]]-based plot to destroy 12 commercial airliners flying routes between the United States, [[East Asia]], and [[Southeast Asia]]. The 9/11 Commission Report says that "this marked the first time KSM took part in the actual planning of a terrorist operation."<ref name="911report">{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm|title=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|publisher=9-11commission|access-date=August 13, 2010|archive-date=August 16, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816215318/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{quote|Using airline timetables, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi Yousef devised a scheme whereby five men could, in a single day, board 12 flights—two each for three of the men, three each for the other two—assemble and deposit their bombs and exit the planes, leaving timers to ignite the bombs up to several days afterward. By the time the bombs exploded, the men would be far away and far from reasonable suspicion. The math was simple: 12 flights with at least 400 people per flight. Somewhere in the neighborhood of 5,000 deaths. It would be a day of glory for them, calamity for the Americans they supposed would fill the aircraft.<ref name="mcdermott">{{cite news|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2006/aug/11/nation/na-manila11|title=Echoes of '95 Manila Plot|access-date=September 13, 2006|work=Los Angeles Times|first=Terry|last=McDermott|date=August 11, 2006|archive-date=December 1, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201104954/http://articles.latimes.com/2006/aug/11/nation/na-manila11|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

Bojinka plans included renting or buying a [[Cessna]], packing it with explosives and crash landing it into CIA headquarters, with a backup plan to hijack the twelfth airliner in the air and use that instead. This information was reported in detail to the U.S. at the time.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

In December 1994, Yousef had engaged in a test of a bomb on [[Philippine Airlines Flight 434]] using only about ten percent of the explosives that were to be used in each of the bombs to be planted on U.S. airliners. The test resulted in the death of a Japanese national on board a flight from the Philippines to Japan. Mohammed conspired with Yousef in the plot until it was uncovered on 6 January 1995. Yousef was captured 7 February of that same year.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was indicted on terrorism charges in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York]] in January 1996 for his alleged involvement in Operation Bojinka,<ref name="mohammed">{{cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2003-03-02/world/mohammed.biog_1_ahmed-abdul-qadoos-al-qaeda-military-committee-ayman-al-zawahiri?_s=PM:asiapcf |publisher=CNN |title=Top al Qaeda operative caught in Pakistan |date=March 1, 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302073403/http://articles.cnn.com/2003-03-02/world/mohammed.biog_1_ahmed-abdul-qadoos-al-qaeda-military-committee-ayman-al-zawahiri?_s=PM%3Aasiapcf |archive-date=March 2, 2012 }}</ref> and was subsequently on 10 October 2001 listed as one of the FBI's 22 [[FBI Most Wanted Terrorists|Most Wanted Terrorists]].<ref name="List Released">{{cite news|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/10/10/inv.mostwanted.list/ |title=Most wanted terrorists list released |date=October 1, 2001 |access-date=July 18, 2008 |publisher=CNN |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080714134800/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/10/10/inv.mostwanted.list/ |archive-date=July 14, 2008 }}</ref>

===Relationship with Osama bin Laden===
By the time the [[Bojinka plot]] was discovered, Mohammed had returned to Qatar and his job as a project engineer at the country's Ministry of Electricity and Water. He traveled in 1995 to [[Sudan]], [[Yemen]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Brazil]] to visit elements of the worldwide [[jihadist]] community, although no evidence connects him to specific terrorist actions in any of those locations. On his trip to Sudan, he attempted to meet with [[Osama bin Laden]], who was at the time living there, aided by Sudanese political leader [[Hassan al-Turabi]]. After the U.S. asked the Qatari government to arrest Mohammed in January 1996, he fled to [[Afghanistan]], where he renewed his alliance with Abdul Rasul Sayyaf. Later that year, he formed a working relationship with Bin Laden, who had settled there.

Bin Laden and his colleagues relocated their operations to Afghanistan at this time. [[Mohammed Atef]], bin Laden's chief of operations and also known at the time as Abu Hafs al-Masri, arranged a meeting between bin Laden and Mohammed in [[Tora Bora]] sometime in mid-1996, in which Mohammed outlined a plan that would eventually become the quadruple hijackings in 2001.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3128802.stm|title=Suspect 'reveals 9/11 planning'|work=BBC News|date=September 22, 2003|access-date=March 15, 2007|archive-date=November 23, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123122645/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3128802.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Bin Laden urged Mohammed to become a full-fledged member of Al-Qaeda, but he continued to refuse such a commitment until around early 1999, after the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] in [[Nairobi]] and [[Dar es Salaam]].<ref name="911-ch5">{{cite book|title=9/11 Commission Report|author=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|year=2004|publisher=Government Printing Office|chapter=Chapter 5|chapter-url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm|access-date=October 21, 2004|archive-date=August 16, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816215318/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1997, Mohammed moved his family from [[Iran]] to [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]].<ref>''9/11 Commission Report'', p. 149</ref> That year, he tried unsuccessfully to join mujahideen leader [[Ibn al-Khattab]] in [[Chechnya]], another area of special interest to Mohammed. Unable to travel to Chechnya, he returned to Afghanistan. He ultimately accepted bin Laden's invitation to move to [[Kandahar]] and join al-Qaeda as a full-fledged member. Eventually, he became leader of Al-Qaeda's media committee.

===Plan for 11 September 2001 attacks===
{{main|11 September attacks}}
{{see also|Planning of the September 11 attacks}}
The first hijack plan that Mohammed presented to the leadership of Al-Qaeda called for several airplanes on both east and west coasts to be hijacked and flown into targets. His plan evolved from an earlier foiled plot known as the Bojinka plot (see above). Bin Laden rejected some potential targets suggested by Mohammed, such as the [[U.S. Bank Tower (Los Angeles)|U.S. Bank Tower]] in Los Angeles,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 |author=Wright, Lawrence |title-link=The Looming Tower |year=2006 |publisher=Knopf |page=308 |author-link=Lawrence Wright}}</ref> as he wished to simplify the attacks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lamag.com/citythinkblog/citydig-how-the-u-s-bank-tower-was-almost-targeted-on-911/|title=How the U.S. Bank Tower Was Almost Targeted on 9/11|last1=Harl|first1=Thomas|last2=er|date=September 11, 2015|website=Los Angeles Magazine|language=en-US|access-date=February 9, 2020|archive-date=February 23, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223022238/http://www.lamag.com/citythinkblog/citydig-how-the-u-s-bank-tower-was-almost-targeted-on-911/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In late 1998 or early 1999, bin Laden gave approval for Mohammed to proceed to organize the plot.<ref name="911-ch5"/> Meetings in early 1999 took place with Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, [[Osama bin Laden]], and his military chief, [[Mohammed Atef]].<ref name="911-ch5"/> Bin Laden led the plot and provided financial support.<ref name="911-ch5"/> He was also involved in selecting the participants, including choosing [[Mohamed Atta]] as the lead hijacker.<ref>{{cite book |author=Bergen, Peter |title=The Osama bin Laden I Know |title-link=The Osama bin Laden I Know |publisher=Free Press |year=2006 |page=283}}</ref> Khalid Sheikh provided operational support, such as selecting targets and helping arrange travel for the hijackers.<ref name="911-ch5"/> Atef directed the actions of the hijackers.<ref name=uoqnvz>{{cite web |last=Schone |first=Mark |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/scenes-planners-911-attacks/story?id=11610817#.Tzh5u1GRlJF |title=9/11 Perpetrators: Where Are They Now? – ABC News |publisher=Abcnews.go.com |date=September 11, 2010 |access-date=July 11, 2013 |archive-date=September 23, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923121610/https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/scenes-planners-911-attacks/story?id=11610817#.Tzh5u1GRlJF |url-status=live }}</ref>

After Atta was chosen as the leader of the mission, "he met with Bin Laden to discuss the targets: the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]], which represented the U.S. economy; [[the Pentagon]], a symbol of the U.S. military; and the [[U.S. Capitol]], the perceived source of U.S. policy in support of Israel. The [[White House]] was also on the list, as Bin Laden considered it a political symbol and wanted to attack it as well." If any pilot could not reach his intended target, he was to crash the plane.<ref>
{{cite news
|url = http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2004_rpt/staff_statement_16.pdf
|title = Outline of the 9/11 Plot Staff Statement No. 16
|publisher = [[9/11 Commission]]
|date = June 16, 2004
|url-status = live
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121011190514/http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2004_rpt/staff_statement_16.pdf
|archive-date = October 11, 2012
|access-date = March 26, 2017
|df = mdy
}}
</ref>

According to testimony by Philip Zelikow, bin Laden was motivated by a desire to punish the US for supporting Israel and wanted to move up the attack date. Mohammed argued for ensuring the teams were prepared.

<blockquote>[Bin Laden] allegedly told KSM it would be sufficient simply to down the planes and not hit specific targets. KSM stood his ground, arguing that the operation would not be successful unless the pilots were fully trained and the hijacking teams were larger.<ref name=PbsNewshour>
{{cite news
|url = https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/terrorism/jan-june04/911_06-16.html
|title = Philip Zelikow's testimony before the 9/11 Commission
|publisher = [[PBS Newshour]]
|date = June 16, 2004
|access-date = October 29, 2011
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111223175448/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/terrorism/jan-june04/911_06-16.html
|archive-date = December 23, 2011
|df = mdy
}}
</ref></blockquote>

In a 2002 interview with [[Al Jazeera]] journalist [[Yosri Fouda]], Mohammed admitted that he and [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]] were involved in the "Holy Tuesday operation".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/04/alqaida.terrorism |title=We left out nuclear targets, for now |newspaper=The Guardian |date=March 3, 2003 |location=London |access-date=April 4, 2010 |archive-date=January 23, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123195032/http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0%2C3604%2C906911%2C00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ("Holy Tuesday operation" was the terrorists' code name for the 9/11 attacks, and the attacks actually did take place on a Tuesday.)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nypost.com/2003/07/10/meeting-that-spawned-911-monsters-plotted-holy-tuesday/|title=MEETING THAT SPAWNED 9/11 – MONSTERS PLOTTED 'HOLY TUESDAY'|last=Blomquist|first=Brian|date=July 10, 2003|website=New York Post|language=en|access-date=February 9, 2020|archive-date=February 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212065850/https://nypost.com/2003/07/10/meeting-that-spawned-911-monsters-plotted-holy-tuesday/|url-status=live}}</ref> KSM, however, disputes this claim via his Personal Representative: "I never stated to the Al Jazeera reporter that I was the head of the al-Qaeda military committee."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.defenselink.mil/news/transcript_ISN10024.pdf|title=Verbatim Transcript of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Hearing for ISN 10024|access-date=March 15, 2007|archive-date=March 9, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309115951/http://www.defenselink.mil/news/transcript_ISN10024.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In a April 2002 interview with Al Jazeera correspondent Yosri Fouda, KSM, and Ramzi bin al-Shibh described the preparations for 9/11 attacks and said that they first thought of "striking at a couple of nuclear facilities" in the U.S. but then "it was eventually decided to leave out nuclear targets for now."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/04/alqaida.terrorism|title=We left out nuclear targets, for now|date=March 4, 2003|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|access-date=December 12, 2016|archive-date=January 23, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123195032/http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0%2C3604%2C906911%2C00.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Daniel Pearl murder===
{{Main|Daniel Pearl}}
According to a [[CNN]] interview with intelligence expert [[Rohan Gunaratna]], "[[Daniel Pearl]] was going in search of the Al-Qaeda network that was operational in Karachi, and it was at the instruction of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed that Daniel Pearl was killed."<ref name="ressa">Ressa, Maria. {{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/01/30/reid.alqaeda/|title=Sources:Reid is al Qaeda operative.|access-date=September 15, 2006|work=CNN|date=January 29, 2003|archive-date=January 4, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104171205/http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/01/30/reid.alqaeda/|url-status=live}} ''CNN.com'', December 6, 2003.</ref> On 12 October 2006, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine reported that "KSM confessed under CIA interrogation that he personally committed the murder."<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Timothy J. |last=Burger |author2=Adam Zagorin |title=Fingering Danny Pearl's Killer |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1545441,00.html?cnn=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014173248/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1545441,00.html?cnn=yes |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 14, 2006 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |publisher=[[Time Warner]] |date=October 12, 2006 |access-date=March 15, 2007 }}</ref> On 15 March 2007, [[the Pentagon]] stated that Mohammed had confessed to the murder.<ref>{{cite news |title=Key 9/11 figure 'beheaded Pearl' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6455307.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher=BBC |date=March 15, 2007 |access-date=March 15, 2007 |archive-date=March 17, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317194333/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6455307.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The statement quoted Mohammed as saying, "I decapitated with my blessed right hand the head of the American [[Jews|Jew]], Daniel Pearl, in the city of [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]]. For those who would like to confirm, there are pictures of me on the Internet holding his head."<ref>{{cite news |title=Al-Qaida No. 3 says he planned 9/11, other plots |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/17617986 |agency=Associated Press |publisher=[[NBC News]] |date=March 15, 2007 |access-date=March 15, 2007 |archive-date=August 5, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150805011630/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/17617986/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This confession was gained under torture, and Mohammed listed many other crimes at the same time.<ref name="brown"/><ref name="prosecutor"/>

According to an investigative report published in January 2011 by [[Georgetown University]], the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] used [[vein matching]] to determine that the perpetrator in the video of the killing of Pearl was most likely Mohammed, notably through identifying a "bulging vein" running across his hand.<ref name="Wired-20110120-implicate">{{cite magazine|last=Ackerman|first=Spencer|url=https://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2011/01/qaeda-killers-veins-implicate-him-in-journos-murder/|title=Qaeda Killer's Veins Implicate Him In Journo's Murder|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|date=January 20, 2011|access-date=January 21, 2011|archive-date=January 21, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110121234130/http://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2011/01/qaeda-killers-veins-implicate-him-in-journos-murder/|url-status=live}}</ref> Concerned that the confession obtained through [[waterboarding]] would not hold up in court, federal officials used this forensic evidence to bolster their case.<ref name="ABC-20110120-murder">{{cite news|last=Blackburn|first=Bradley|url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/report-justice-served-murder-daniel-pearl/story?id=12721909|title=Report Says Justice Not Served in Murder of Daniel Pearl, Wall Street Journal Reporter|publisher=[[ABC News]]|date=January 20, 2011|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-date=January 23, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123061103/http://abcnews.go.com/US/report-justice-served-murder-daniel-pearl/story?id=12721909|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Capture, interrogation, and torture==
{{See also|Enhanced interrogation techniques|waterboarding|black site}}
[[File:Khalid Shaikh Mohammed after capture.jpg|thumb|alt=Bedraggled man with heavy chest hair and tousled hair wearing a white T-shirt|Mohammed after his capture in Pakistan on 1 March 2003. His beard is shaven to confirm his identity.]]
On 11 September 2002, members of Pakistani [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI) claimed to have killed or captured Sheikh Mohammed during a raid in [[Karachi]] that resulted in bin al-Shibh's capture. This Pakistani claim was false.<ref>{{cite news|first=Syed Saleem|last=Shahzad|title=A chilling inheritance of terror|newspaper=Asia Times|date=October 30, 2002|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/DJ30Df01.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021030191230/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/DJ30Df01.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=October 30, 2002 }}</ref>

Mohammed was captured in [[Rawalpindi]], [[Pakistan]] (about 20 km southwest of Islamabad), on 1 March 2003, by the Pakistani ISI, possibly in a joint action with the CIA's [[Special Activities Division]] paramilitary operatives<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/22/washington/22ksm.html|title=Inside a 9/11 Mastermind's Interrogation|date=June 22, 2008|last=Shane|first=Scott|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=February 22, 2017|archive-date=April 2, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402075657/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/22/washington/22ksm.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and officers of the American [[Diplomatic Security Service]]. He has been in U.S. custody since that time.

Initially, Mohammed was held in the CIA's [[Salt Pit]] (''Cobalt'') prison in [[Afghanistan]]. After just a "few minutes" of questioning at ''Cobalt'', he was subject to "[[enhanced interrogation techniques]]". He was slapped, grabbed in the face, placed in [[stress positions]], placed in standing [[sleep deprivation]], doused with water, and subjected to [[Murphy drip|rectal rehydration]] multiple times, without a determination of medical need.<ref>{{cite news|date=December 9, 2014|title=Inside the CIA's Sadistic Dungeon|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/12/09/inside-a-cia-dungeon.html#|work=[[The Daily Beast]]|access-date=December 20, 2014|last1=Mak|first1=Tim|archive-date=February 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203002707/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/12/09/inside-a-cia-dungeon.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

During 2003, Mohammad was held at a secret CIA prison, or [[black site]], in [[Poland]], where the CIA [[waterboarding|waterboarded]] him 183 times.<ref name="newyorker.com"/> He was then transferred to another secret CIA prison in [[Romania]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-23269437|title=BBC News – Khalid Sheikh Mohammed 'asked to design' vacuum cleaner|work=[[BBC]]|access-date=July 11, 2013|archive-date=July 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130711124817/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-23269437|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Ksmchart.jpg|thumb|upright|Mugshot of Mohammed shortly after being transferred to the Guantanamo Bay detention camp in September 2006. The photo was taken from a cell-assignment chart at the covert high-security Camp 7, and was obtained by reporters of ''[[McClatchy]]DC''.]]
In September 2006, the U.S. government announced it had moved Mohammed from a secret CIA prison (or [[black site]]) to the military custody at the [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5321606.stm |title=Americas | Bush admits to CIA secret prisons |publisher=News.bbc.co.uk |date=September 7, 2006 |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=November 12, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112113913/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5321606.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Red Cross]], [[Human Rights Watch]] and Mohammed consider that the harsh interrogation techniques, including [[waterboarding]], which he received from U.S. agents amount to [[torture]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/042809_redcross.pdf|title=Red Cross report; page 37|date=February 14, 2007|access-date=October 6, 2010|publisher=Fox News|archive-date=October 12, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012042305/http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/042809_redcross.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Randall|last=Mikkelsen|title=CIA says used waterboarding on three suspects|date=February 5, 2008|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSN05191813|access-date=November 18, 2009|archive-date=June 10, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610014007/http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSN05191813|url-status=live}}</ref> Mohammad was also subject to [[sleep deprivation]] for a period of {{frac|7|1|2}} days, during much of which he was forced to stand.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2014/dec/09/cia-torture-report-worst-findings-waterboard-rectal |title=Rectal rehydration and broken limbs: the grisliest findings in the CIA torture report | US news |work=Theguardian.com |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=June 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611073742/http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2014/dec/09/cia-torture-report-worst-findings-waterboard-rectal |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to later reports, Mohammed initially told American interrogators he would not answer any questions until he was provided with a lawyer, which was refused. He claims to have been kept naked for more than a month during his isolation and interrogations, and said he was "questioned by an unusual number of female handlers".<ref name='MayerPg273'>{{cite book|last=Mayer|first=Jane|author-link=Jane Mayer|title=The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned Into a War on American Ideals|publisher=Random House, Inc.|year=2009|page=273|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8-y8v99TCIC&pg=PA273|isbn=9780307456298|access-date=February 26, 2018|archive-date=March 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316145132/https://books.google.com/books?id=w8-y8v99TCIC&pg=PA273|url-status=live}}</ref>

A CIA document reveals that [[Jane Harman]] (D-CA) and [[Porter Goss]] (R-FL) of the [[House Intelligence Committee]] were briefed on 13 July 2004, by the CIA [[Deputy Director for Operations]] [[James Pavitt]], General Counsel Scott Muller, and [[CIA Inspector General]] [[John L. Helgerson]] on the status of the interrogation process of Mohammed. By this date, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed had been subjected to 183 applications of waterboarding.<ref name="bradbury1">{{cite web|last=Bradbury|first=Steven|title=Memorandum from Steven Bradbury for John A. Rizzo, Senior Deputy General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, Re: Application of the United States Obligations Under Article 16 of the Convention Against Torture to Certain Techniques that May Be Used in the Interrogation of High Value al Qaeda Detainees|url=http://ccrjustice.org/files/05-30-2005_bradbury_40pg_OLC%20torture%20memos.pdf|publisher=Center for Constitutional Rights Online Archive|access-date=November 5, 2013|archive-date=April 18, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418195841/http://ccrjustice.org/files/05-30-2005_bradbury_40pg_OLC%20torture%20memos.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The document states:

{{quote|... the CIA was seeking renewed policy approval from the NSC Principals to continue using the [[enhanced interrogation techniques]].<ref name="bradbury1"/>}}

A U.S. official has clarified that the "183" number represents the number of times water was poured onto Mohammed's face—not the number of times the CIA waterboarded him. According to a 2007 Red Cross report, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was subjected a total of "five sessions of ill-treatment."

"The water was poured 183 times – there were 183 pours," the official explained, adding that "each pour was a matter of seconds."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/042809_redcross.pdf |title=ICRC Report on the Treatment of Fourteen 'High Value Detainees' in CIA Custody |date=February 2007 |publisher=Foxnews.com |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924150229/http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/042809_redcross.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

On October 12, 2004, [[Human Rights Watch]] reported that 11 suspects, including Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, had "[[Ghost detainee|disappeared]]" to a semi-secret prison in [[Jordan]], and may have been tortured there under the direction of the CIA.<ref name=Hrw>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/usa/us1004/7.htm|title=Eleven Detainees in Undisclosed Locations|work=[[Human Rights Watch]]|date=October 2004|access-date=December 4, 2016|archive-date=November 26, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126100651/http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/usa/us1004/7.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Hrw2>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/press/2001/11/TortureQandA.htm|title=The Legal Prohibition Against Torture|work=Human Rights Watch|date=June 1, 2004|access-date=December 4, 2016|archive-date=February 22, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222064450/http://www.hrw.org/press/2001/11/TortureQandA.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> At the time, Jordanian and American officials denied those allegations.<ref name=rediff>{{cite web|url=http://us.rediff.com/news/2004/oct/18ghost.htm|title=Al Qaeda men in 'ghost prison'|work=[[rediff.com]]|date=October 18, 2004|access-date=October 20, 2004|archive-date=November 18, 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041118212506/http://us.rediff.com/news/2004/oct/18ghost.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Bbc041014>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3742428.stm|title=Jordan denies 'secret US prison'|work=[[BBC]]|date=October 14, 2004|access-date=June 17, 2005|archive-date=September 20, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050920103921/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3742428.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Jurist>{{cite web|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2005/03/gonzales-insists-us-did-not-send.php |title=Gonzales insists US did not send prisoners abroad to be tortured |work=[[The Jurist]] |first=Bernard |last=Hibbitts |date=March 7, 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050903203054/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2005/03/gonzales-insists-us-did-not-send.php |archive-date=September 3, 2005 }}</ref>

On 5 February 2008, the CIA Director [[Michael Hayden (general)|Michael Hayden]] told a Senate committee that his agents had used [[waterboarding]] on Khalid Sheikh Mohammed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2008/02/cia-chief-confirms-use-of-waterboarding.php |title=CIA chief confirms use of waterboarding on 3 terror detainees |publisher=University of Pittsburgh School of Law |access-date=May 13, 2008 |last=Price |first=Caitlin |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081004115855/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2008/02/cia-chief-confirms-use-of-waterboarding.php |archive-date=October 4, 2008 }}</ref> A 2005 U.S. Justice Department memo released in April 2009 stated that Mohammed had undergone waterboarding 183 times in March 2003.<ref>{{cite news|last=Shane|first=Scott|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/world/20detain.html|title=Waterboarding Used 266 Times On 2 Suspects|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 20, 2009|page=1|access-date=February 22, 2017|archive-date=April 22, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422033555/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/world/20detain.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In October 2006, Mohammed described his mistreatment and torture in detention, including the waterboarding, to a representative of the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]]. Mohammed said that he had provided a lot of false information, which he had supposed the interrogators wanted to hear, in order to stop the mistreatment.<ref name="nybooks.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.nybooks.com/icrc-report.pdf|title=ICRC Report on the Treatment of Fourteen "High Value Detainees" in CIA Custody|date=February 14, 2007|access-date=October 6, 2010|archive-date=April 19, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419152929/http://www.nybooks.com/icrc-report.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 2006 interview with the Red Cross, Mohammed claimed to have been waterboarded in five different sessions during the first month of interrogation in his third place of detention.<ref name="nybooks.com"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/042809_redcross.pdf|title=ICRC Report on the Treatment of Fourteen "High Value Detainees" in CIA Custody|publisher=Fox News|page=35|date=February 2007|access-date=November 18, 2009|archive-date=May 9, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090509063356/http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/042809_redcross.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> While the Justice Department memos did not explain exactly what the numbers represented, a U.S. official with knowledge of the interrogation programs explained the 183 figure represented the number of times water was applied to the detainee's face during the waterboarding sessions, rather than separate sessions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/04/28/despite-reports-khalid-sheikh-mohammed-waterboarded-times/|title=Despite Reports, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Was Not Waterboarded 183 Times|publisher=FOXNews.com|date=April 7, 2010|access-date=August 13, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224025359/http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/04/28/despite-reports-khalid-sheikh-mohammed-waterboarded-times/|archive-date=February 24, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In March 2007, after four years in captivity, including six months of detention and alleged torture at [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp|Guantanamo Bay]], Khalid Sheikh Mohammed—as it was claimed by a [[Combatant Status Review Tribunal]] Hearing<ref name="BBC_Transcript">{{cite news|date=March 10, 2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/15_03_07_mohammed_transcript.pdf|title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed confession transcript|publisher=www.defenselink.mil|access-date=August 28, 2007|archive-date=September 27, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927022146/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/15_03_07_mohammed_transcript.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> in Guantanamo Bay—confessed to masterminding the 11 September attacks, the [[Richard Reid (shoe bomber)|Richard Reid]] shoe bombing attempt to blow up an airliner over the Atlantic Ocean, the [[2002 Bali bombing|Bali nightclub bombing]] in [[Indonesia]], the [[World Trade Center bombing|1993 World Trade Center bombing]] and various foiled attacks.<ref name="CNN">{{cite news|title=Transcript: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed confesses 9/11 role|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/03/14/guantanamo.mohammed/index.html|publisher=CNN|date=March 14, 2007|access-date=March 14, 2007|archive-date=March 15, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315095035/http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/03/14/guantanamo.mohammed/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> "I was responsible for the 9/11 operation from A to Z," Khalid Sheikh Mohammed said in a statement read Saturday during a Combatant Status Review Tribunal at the [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/BA2B7119-DF1D-427E-857E-5C44E3479F2A.htm |title=September 11 mastermind 'confesses' |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=March 15, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071207235804/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/BA2B7119-DF1D-427E-857E-5C44E3479F2A.htm |archive-date=December 7, 2007 }}</ref>

According to the "unclassified summary of evidence" presented during the CSRT hearing, a computer hard drive seized during the capture of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed contained the following:
* information about the four airplanes hijacked on 11 September 2001, including code names, airline company, flight number, target, pilot name and background information, and names of the hijackers
* photographs of 19 individuals identified as the 11 September 2001 hijackers
* a document that listed the pilot license fees for Mohammad Atta and biographies for some of the 11 September 2001 hijackers
* images of passports and an image of [[Mohamed Atta|Mohammad Atta]]
* transcripts of chat sessions belonging to at least one of 11 September 2001 hijackers
* three letters from Osama bin Laden
* spreadsheets that describe financial assistance to families of known al-Qaeda members
* a letter to the United Arab Emirates threatening attack if their government continued to help the United States
* a document that summarized operational procedures and training requirements of an al-Qaeda cell
* a list of killed and wounded al-Qaeda militants.

At the hearing, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed said the computer belonged not to him, but to [[Mustafa Ahmad al-Hawsawi]], arrested together with him.<ref>[[wikisource:Verbatim Transcript of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Hearing for ISN 10024]]</ref>

In June 2008, a ''[[New York Times]]'' article, citing unnamed CIA officers, claimed that Mohammed had been held in a [[black site]] or secret facility in [[Poland]] near [[Szczytno-Szymany International Airport|Szymany Airport]], about 100 miles north of [[Warsaw]]. There he was interrogated under waterboarding before he began to "cooperate."<ref>{{cite news|first=Scott|last=Shane|title=Inside a 9/11 Mastermind's Interrogation|date=June 22, 2008|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/22/washington/22ksm.html?pagewanted=4|page=4|access-date=November 18, 2009|archive-date=April 18, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418124913/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/22/washington/22ksm.html?pagewanted=4|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2009, Mohammed described his actions and motivations in a document publicly released and known as ''The Islamic Response to the Government's Nine Accusations.''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://relearnhistory.com/content/2009-March-09-Islamic-Response-Government-s-Nine-Accusations|title=The Islamic Response to the Government's Nine Accusations|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715171740/http://relearnhistory.com/content/2009-March-09-Islamic-Response-Government-s-Nine-Accusations|archive-date=July 15, 2011|access-date=November 13, 2019}}</ref>

In April 2011, the British newspaper, ''[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]'' said it received [[Guantanamo Bay files leak|leaked documents]] regarding the [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp|Guantanamo Bay]] interrogations of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed. The documents cited Mohammed as saying that, if [[Osama bin Laden]] is captured or killed by the [[Coalition of the Willing]], an al-Qaeda [[sleeper cell]] would detonate a "weapon of mass destruction" in a "secret location" in Europe, and promised it would be "a nuclear hellstorm".<ref name=TheDailyTelegraph2011-04-25>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8471907/WikiLeaks-Guantanamo-Bay-terrorist-secrets-revealed.html |title=WikiLeaks: Guantanamo Bay terrorist secrets revealed |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=April 25, 2011 |quote=A senior al-Qaeda commander claimed that the terrorist group has hidden a nuclear bomb in Europe which will be detonated if Bin-Laden is ever caught or assassinated. The US authorities uncovered numerous attempts by al-Qaeda to obtain nuclear materials and feared that terrorists have already bought uranium. Sheikh Mohammed told interrogators that [[al-Qaeda]] would unleash a 'nuclear hellstorm'. |author1=Christopher Hope |author2=Robert Winnett |author3=Holly Watt |author4=Heidi Blake |location=London |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120701204117/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8471907/WikiLeaks-Guantanamo-Bay-terrorist-secrets-revealed.html |archive-date=July 1, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="WikileaksIsn10024">{{cite news|url=http://media.mcclatchydc.com/smedia/2011/04/27/19/us9ku-010024dp.source.prod_affiliate.91.pdf|title=Combatant Status Review Tribunal Input and Recommendation for Continued Detention Under DoD Control (CD) for Guantanamo Detainee, ISN: US9KU-010024DP (S)|publisher=[[JTF-GTMO]]|date=April 15, 2008|author=Mark H. Buzby|author-link=Mark H. Buzby|access-date=October 29, 2011|archive-date=April 25, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425103624/http://media.mcclatchydc.com/smedia/2011/04/27/19/us9ku-010024dp.source.prod_affiliate.91.pdf|url-status=live}}
{{commons-inline|FIle:ISN 10024, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's Guantanamo detainee assessment.pdf}}</ref><ref>[http://www.nuclearheadlines.com/wikileaks-reveals-al-qaeda-thug-khalid-shaikh-mohammed-vowed-nuclear/] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614211901/http://www.nuclearheadlines.com/wikileaks-reveals-al-qaeda-thug-khalid-shaikh-mohammed-vowed-nuclear/|date=June 14, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url = http://www.news.com.au/breaking-news/nuclear-hellstorm-if-bin-laden-caught-911-mastermind/story-e6frfku0-1226044724298
|work = News.au
|title = 'Nuclear hellstorm' if bin Laden caught – 9/11 mastermind
|date = April 25, 2011
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110902163726/http://www.news.com.au/breaking-news/nuclear-hellstorm-if-bin-laden-caught-911-mastermind/story-e6frfku0-1226044724298
|archive-date = September 2, 2011
|df = mdy
}}</ref><ref>[https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20110425/wl_mideast_afp/usattacksguantanamowikileakssheikh_20110425184242] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501061504/http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20110425/wl_mideast_afp/usattacksguantanamowikileakssheikh_20110425184242|date=May 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://newstabulous.com/al-qaeda-hid-bomb-in-europe-wikileaks-releases-secret-files/9722/ |title=Al-Qaeda hid bomb in Europe: WikiLeaks releases secret files |publisher=Newstabulous |date=April 25, 2011 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110507031820/http://newstabulous.com/al-qaeda-hid-bomb-in-europe-wikileaks-releases-secret-files/9722/ |archive-date=May 7, 2011 }}</ref>

===Report that interrogators abused his children===
{{wikisource|Letter from Ali Khan, Majid Khan's father}}

[[Ali Khan (activist)|Ali Khan]], the father of [[Majid Khan (detainee)|Majid Khan]], another one of the 14 "high-value detainees," released an unsubstaniated affidavit on 16 April 2006, that reported that interrogators subjected Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's children, aged 6 and 8 years old, to abusive interrogation.<ref name=AssociatePress20070417>{{cite news|url=http://apnews.myway.com/article/20070416/D8OI0AF00.html|title=Father of Pakistani Alleges U.S. Torture|date=April 16, 2007|first=Michael|last=Melia|agency=Associated Press|access-date=April 18, 2007}}{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref><ref name=TheJurist20070417>{{cite news|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2007/04/guantanamo-detainees-father-says-son.php |date=April 17, 2007 |title=Guantanamo detainee's father says son tortured in secret CIA prison |first=Natalie |last=Hrubos |publisher=[[The Jurist]] |access-date=April 18, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080130040946/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2007/04/guantanamo-detainees-father-says-son.php |archive-date=January 30, 2008 }}</ref><ref name=AliKhansAffidavit20070416>{{cite web|url=http://ccrjustice.org/files/Ali%20Khan_Father%20of%20Majid%20Khan_Statement%20from%20CSRT.pdf|title=Statement of Ali Khan|date=December 2011|publisher=[[Center for Constitutional Rights]]|author=Ali Khan|access-date=June 19, 2009|author-link=Ali Khan (activist)|archive-date=June 19, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619220634/http://ccrjustice.org/files/Ali%20Khan_Father%20of%20Majid%20Khan_Statement%20from%20CSRT.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Khan's affidavit quoted another of his sons, Mohammed Khan:{{cn|date=September 2021}}

{{quote|The Pakistani guards told my son that the boys were kept in a separate area upstairs, and were denied food and water by other guards. They were also mentally tortured by having ants or other creatures put on their legs to scare them and get them to say where their father was hiding.}}

===Transfer to Guantanamo and hearing before his Combatant Status Review Tribunal===
On 6 September 2006, American President [[George W. Bush]] confirmed, for the first time, that the [[CIA]] had held "high-value detainees" for interrogation in secret prisons around the world.<ref>{{cite news|first=Don|last=Gonyea|author-link=Don Gonyea|title=Bush Concedes CIA Ran Secret Prisons Abroad|date=September 6, 2006|publisher=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5776968|access-date=February 22, 2010|archive-date=January 27, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127072309/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5776968|url-status=live}}</ref> He also announced that fourteen senior captives, including Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, were being transferred from CIA custody, to military custody, at [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]] and that these fourteen captives could now expect to face charges before Guantanamo military commissions.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/06/washington/06bush_transcript.html|title=President Bush's Speech on Terrorism|publisher=The New York|date=September 6, 2006|access-date=May 24, 2020|archive-date=May 18, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518155608/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/06/washington/06bush_transcript.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In a 29 September 2006, speech, Bush stated:

{{quote|Once captured, Abu Zubaydah, Ramzi bin al Shibh, and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed were taken into custody of the Central Intelligence Agency. The questioning of these and other suspected terrorists provided information that helped us protect the American people. They helped us break up a cell of Southeast Asian terrorist operatives that had been groomed for attacks inside the United States. They helped us disrupt an Al-Qaeda operation to develop anthrax for terrorist attacks. They helped us stop a planned strike on a U.S. Marine camp in Djibouti, and to prevent a planned attack on the U.S. Consulate in Karachi, and to foil a plot to hijack passenger planes and to fly them into Heathrow Airport and London's Canary Wharf.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/09/20060929-3.html|title=President Bush Discusses Global War on Terror|date=September 29, 2006|publisher=The White House|access-date=March 11, 2012|archive-date=December 30, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171230172804/https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/09/20060929-3.html|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

In March 2007, Mohammed testified before a closed-door hearing in Guantanamo Bay. According to transcripts of the hearing released by the Pentagon, he said, "I was responsible for the 9/11 operation, from A to Z." The transcripts also show him confessing to:

* Organizing the [[World Trade Center bombing|1993 World Trade Center bombing]]
* The [[Bali nightclub bombings]]
* Richard Reid's attempted shoe bombing
* Planning the attacks on [[Heathrow Airport]] and [[Clock Tower, Palace of Westminster|Big Ben clock tower]] in London
* Daniel Pearl's murder in 2002
* Planned [[assassination]] attempts on [[Pope John Paul II]], [[Pervez Musharraf]] and [[Bill Clinton]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Key 9/11 suspect confesses guilt|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6452573.stm|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=BBC|date=March 15, 2007|access-date=March 15, 2007|archive-date=January 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107190517/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6452573.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{quote|Because war, for sure, there will be victims. When I said I'm not happy that three thousand been killed in America. I feel sorry even. ... Killing is prohibited in all what you call the People of the Book, Jews, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. You know the Ten Commandments very well. The Ten Commandments are shared between all of us. We all are serving one God.|Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, before his tribunal<ref name="ReferenceA">[[s:Verbatim Transcript of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Hearing for ISN 10024|CSRT for Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], March 10, 2007.</ref>}}

On 15 March 2007, [[BBC News]] reported that "Transcripts of his testimony were translated from Arabic and edited by the U.S. Department of Defense to remove sensitive intelligence material before release. It appeared, from a judge's question, that Khalid Sheikh Mohammed had made allegations of torture in US custody." In the Defense Department transcript, Mohammed said his statement was not made under [[duress]] but Mohammed and human rights advocates have alleged that he was tortured. CIA officials have previously told [[ABC News]] that "Mohammed lasted the longest under waterboarding, two and a half minutes, before beginning to talk."<ref name=Abc>[https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/Investigation/story?id=1322866 CIA's Harsh Interrogation Techniques Described: Sources Say Agency's Tactics Lead to Questionable Confessions, Sometimes to Death] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406152719/https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/Investigation/story?id=1322866 |date=April 6, 2019 }}, ABC News, November 18, 2005</ref> Legal experts say this could taint all his statements. Forensic psychiatrist [[Michael Welner]], M.D., an expert in false confessions, observed from the testimony transcript that his concerns about his family may have been far more influential in soliciting Mohammed's cooperation than any earlier reported mistreatment.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/Health/story?id=2955471&page=1|title=ABC News: Expert Looks Beyond Mohammed's Confessions|publisher=Abc News|date=March 15, 2007|access-date=October 6, 2010|archive-date=April 13, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110413181430/http://abcnews.go.com/International/Health/story?id=2955471&page=1|url-status=live}}</ref>

One CIA official cautioned that "many of Mohammed's claims during interrogation were 'white noise' designed to send the U.S. on wild goose chases or to get him through the day's interrogation session." For example, according to [[Mike Rogers (Michigan politician)|Mike Rogers]], a former FBI agent and the top [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] on the terrorism panel of the [[House Intelligence Committee]], he admitted responsibility for the Bali nightclub bombing, but his involvement "could have been as small as arranging a safe house for travel. It could have been arranging finance." Mohammed also made the admission that he was "responsible for the 1993 World Trade Center Operation," which killed six and injured more than 1,000 when a bomb was detonated in an underground garage, Mohammed did not plan the attack, but he may have supported it. [[Michael Welner]] noted that by offering legitimate information to interrogators, Mohammed had secured the leverage to provide misinformation as well.<ref>{{cite news|title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's own words provide glimpse into the mind of a terrorist |url=http://www.wsvn.com/news/articles/world/BO46072/ |publisher=WSVN |agency=Associated Press |date=March 16, 2007 |access-date=March 11, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825162537/http://www.wsvn.com/news/articles/world/BO46072/ |archive-date=August 25, 2012 }}</ref>

In an article discussing the reliability of Khalid's confession and the motive for giving misinformation under torture, [[Ali Soufan]], a former FBI special agent with considerable experience interrogating al-Qaeda operatives, pointed out that:

{{quote|When they are in pain, people will say anything to get the pain to stop. Most of the time, they will lie, make up anything to make you stop hurting them. That means the information you're getting is useless.}}

His words are echoed by the U.S. Army Training Manual's section on interrogation, which suggests that:

{{quote|[T]he use of force is a poor technique, as it ... can induce the source to say whatever he thinks the interrogator wants to hear.}}

As an example of this the article discloses that although the [[Presidency of George W. Bush|George W. Bush administration]] made claims that the water-boarding (simulated drowning) of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed produced vital information that allowed them to break up a plot to attack the [[U.S. Bank Tower]] (formerly Library Tower and First Interstate Bank World Center) in Los Angeles in 2002, this has been proven to be untrue. In 2002 Sheikh Mohammed was busy evading capture in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/the-lay-scientist/2010/nov/04/2|title=Does torture work?|work=The Guardian|date=November 4, 2010|access-date=June 15, 2011|location=London|first=Martin|last=Robbins|archive-date=February 11, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140211092118/http://www.theguardian.com/science/the-lay-scientist/2010/nov/04/2|url-status=live}}</ref> Likewise the claim by former George W Bush Attorney General [[Michael Mukasey]] and former CIA [[director of the National Clandestine Service]], Jose Rodriguez, that the torture of Khalid Mohammed produced the most significant lead in finding Osama bin Laden, has also been shown to be false. According to U.S. Senator [[John McCain]], "The trail to bin Laden did not begin with a disclosure from Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who was waterboarded 183 times ... not only did the use of 'enhanced interrogation techniques' on Khalid Sheikh Mohammed not provide us with key leads on bin Laden's courier, Abu Ahmed; it actually produced false and misleading information."<ref>{{cite web|first=Ken|last=Dilanian|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2011/may/12/news/la-pn-mccain-bin-laden-20110512|title=John McCain: Abusive interrogation didn't yield trail to Osama bin Laden|work=Los Angeles Times|date=May 12, 2011|access-date=July 11, 2013|archive-date=March 9, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309013228/http://articles.latimes.com/2011/may/12/news/la-pn-mccain-bin-laden-20110512|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/43007276|title=McCain says torture did not lead to bin Laden|publisher=NBC News|date=December 5, 2011|access-date=July 11, 2013|archive-date=September 12, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912094248/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna43007276|url-status=live}}</ref>

====List of confessions====
Mohammed has made at least 31 confessions:<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6452789.stm |title=Americas | Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's '31 plots' |publisher=News.bbc.co.uk |date=March 15, 2007 |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=December 17, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217133205/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6452789.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The [[1993 World Trade Center bombing|February 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center]] in New York City
* The [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]] on the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]], [[the Pentagon]], and the [[United States Capitol]] using four hijacked commercial airliners
* A failed "shoe bomber" operation
* The October 2002 attack in [[Kuwait]]
*The beheading of ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' reporter [[Daniel Pearl]]
* The [[2002 Bali bombings]], Pady's and Sari's club bombings in Bali, Indonesia
* A plan for a "second wave" of attacks on major U.S. landmarks after the 9/11 attacks, including the [[Library Tower]] in Los Angeles, the [[Willis Tower]] (formerly Sears Tower) in Chicago, the [[Empire State Building]] in New York City, and what has been reported as the Plaza Bank Building in [[Seattle]], although there is no Plaza Bank Building; there is a [[Safeco Plaza (Seattle)|Safeco Plaza]] and [[Columbia Center]], the city's tallest skyscraper
* Plots to attack oil tankers and U.S. naval ships in the [[Straits of Hormuz]], the [[Straits of Gibraltar]] and in [[Singapore]]
* A plan to blow up the [[Panama Canal]]
* Plans to assassinate [[Jimmy Carter]]
* A plot to blow up suspension bridges in New York City
* A plan to destroy the [[Sears Tower]] in Chicago with burning fuel trucks
* Plans to destroy [[London Heathrow Airport]], [[Canary Wharf]] and [[Big Ben]] in London
* A planned attack on many nightclubs in [[Thailand]]
* A plot targeting the [[New York Stock Exchange]] and other U.S. financial targets
* A plan to destroy buildings in [[Eilat]], [[Israel]]
* Plans to destroy U.S. embassies in Indonesia, Australia and Japan in 2002
* Plots to destroy [[Israel]]i embassies in [[India]], [[Azerbaijan]], the [[Philippines]] and [[Australia]]
* Surveying and financing an attack on an [[Israel]]i [[El-Al]] flight from [[Bangkok]]
* Sending several "mujahideen" into Israel to survey "strategic targets" with the intention of attacking them
* The [[2002 Mombasa attacks|November 2002 suicide bombing]] of a hotel in [[Mombasa]], Kenya, and failed attempt to shoot down an [[Israel]]i passenger jet leaving [[Mombasa Airport]]
* Plans to attack U.S. targets in South Korea
* Providing financial support for a plan to attack U.S., British and [[Jewish]] targets in [[Turkey]]
* Surveillance of U.S. nuclear power plants in order to attack them
* A plot to attack [[NATO]]'s headquarters in Europe
* Planning and surveillance in a 1995 plan (the "Bojinka plot") to bomb 12 American passenger jets
* The planned assassination attempt against then-U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]] during a mid-1990s trip to the [[Philippines]]
* "Shared responsibility" for a [[Oplan Bojinka|plot to kill]] [[Pope]] [[John Paul II]]
* Plans to assassinate Pakistani President [[Pervez Musharraf]]
* An attempt to attack a U.S. oil company in [[Sumatra]], Indonesia, "owned by the Jewish former [U.S.] [[Secretary of State]] [[Henry Kissinger]]"

After Mohammed arrived at Guantanamo, a team of FBI and military interrogators tried to elicit from him the same confessions that the CIA had obtained about the 9/11 plot, but by using only legal means of interrogation. By 2008, the Bush Administration believed that this so-called "Clean Team" had compiled sufficient evidence to charge Mohammed and the others with capital murder.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://newyorker.com/reporting/2010/02/15/100215fa_fact_mayer|title=The Trial.Eric Holder and the battle over Khalid Sheikh Mohammed|magazine=[[The New Yorker]]|date=February 16, 2010|author=Jane Mayer|author-link=Jane Mayer|access-date=December 11, 2019|archive-date=July 7, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707053937/http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/02/15/100215fa_fact_mayer|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] announced on 9 August 2007, that all fourteen of the "high-value detainees" who had been transferred to Guantanamo from the CIA's [[black site]]s, had been officially classified as "enemy combatants".<ref name=Time20070809>
{{cite magazine
|url = http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1651680,00.html
|title = Pentagon: 14 Guantanamo Suspects Are Now Combatants
|date = August 9, 2007
|magazine = [[Time magazine]]
|author = Lolita C. Baldur
|access-date = October 26, 2016
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121019144816/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1651680,00.html
|archive-date = October 19, 2012
|url-status = dead
|df = mdy-all
}}
[https://web.archive.org/web/20201104104008/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4176/is_20070324/ai_n18757735 mirror]
</ref> Although judges [[Peter Brownback]] and [[Keith J. Allred]] had ruled two months earlier that only "''illegal'' enemy combatants" could face military commissions, the Department of Defense waived the qualifier and said that all fourteen men could now face charges before [[Guantanamo military commission]]s.<ref name=DoDKhadrChargesDismissed20070604>{{cite news
| url=http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=46281
| title=Charges Dismissed Against Canadian at Guantanamo
| author=Sergeant Sara Wood
| publisher=[[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]
| date=June 4, 2007
| access-date=June 7, 2007
| archive-date=March 16, 2008
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316011729/http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=46281
| url-status=live
}}</ref><ref name=DoDHamdanChargesDismissed20070604>{{cite news
| url=http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=46288
| title=Judge Dismisses Charges Against Second Guantanamo Detainee
| author=Sergeant Sara Wood
| publisher=[[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]
| date=June 4, 2007
| access-date=June 7, 2007
| archive-date=June 13, 2007
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613110225/http://www.defenselink.mil//news/newsarticle.aspx?id=46288
| url-status=live
}}</ref>

====Confession used in Sheikh Omar's defense====
On 19 March 2007, [[Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh]]'s lawyers cited Mohammed's confession in defense of their client.<ref name=TheJurist070319>{{cite news|publisher=[[The Jurist]] |url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2007/03/militant-convicted-of-pearl-lling-to.php |title=Militant convicted of Pearl killing to rely on KSM Guantanamo confession on appeal |date=March 19, 2007 |access-date=March 20, 2007 }}{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name=Reuters070319>{{cite news|url=http://today.reuters.com/news/articlenews.aspx?type=domesticNews&storyID=2007-03-19T104004Z_01_ISL185_RTRUKOC_0_US-PAKISTAN-PEARL.xml&pageNumber=1&imageid=&cap=&sz=13&WTModLoc=NewsArt-C1-ArticlePage1 |title=Pearl murder convict to appeal after confession |work=Reuters |date=March 19, 2007 |access-date=March 20, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402021114/http://today.reuters.com/news/articlenews.aspx?type=domesticNews |archive-date=April 2, 2007 }}</ref>

Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh, also known as Sheikh Omar, was [[capital punishment|sentenced to death]] in a Pakistani court for the murder of Daniel Pearl. Omar's lawyers recently announced that they planned to use Mohammed's confession in an appeal. They had always acknowledged that Omar played a role in Pearl's murder, but argue that Mohammed was the actual murderer.

==Prosecution in France==
In 2009, the French government decided to try Khalid Sheikh Mohammed ''[[trial in absentia|in absentia]]'' on terrorism charges with respect to the [[Ghriba synagogue bombing]] on the [[Tunis]]ian island of [[Djerba]] in 2002, which killed 14 German tourists, five Tunisians and two French nationals. They intended to charge him along with the captured German national [[Christian Ganczarski]] and Tunisian Walid Nawar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5h7KDqZLMV7eCw9v9p68QHjoesfNQ |title=France tries trio over Djerba synagogue bombing |date=January 4, 2009 |access-date=July 22, 2012}}</ref> French judges later decided to separate Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's case from those of Ganczarski and Nawar and try him separately at a later date.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.expatica.com/nl/news/local_news/Al-Qaeda-militant-found-guilty-for-Tunisian-synagogue-attack-_49356.html |title=Michel Moutot. Al Qaeda militant found guilty for Tunisian synagogue attack |publisher=Expatica.com |access-date=July 22, 2012 |archive-date=July 5, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120705035126/http://www.expatica.com/nl/news/local_news/Al-Qaeda-militant-found-guilty-for-Tunisian-synagogue-attack-_49356.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Trial for role in 9/11 attacks ==
{{main|United States v. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed}}
On 11 February 2008, the [[United States Department of Defense]] charged Mohammed, [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], [[Mustafa Ahmad al-Hawsawi]], [[Ali Abd al-Aziz Ali]] and [[Walid Bin Attash]] for the 11 September 2001 attacks under the [[Guantanamo military commission|military commission]] system, as established under the [[Military Commissions Act of 2006]]. They have reportedly been charged with the murder of almost 3,000 people, terrorism and [[providing material support for terrorism]] and plane hijacking; as well as attacking civilian objects, intentionally causing serious bodily injury and destruction of property in violation of the law of war. The charges against them list 169 overt acts allegedly committed by the defendants in furtherance of the 11 September events.<ref name=Charged>{{cite web|url=http://www.defense.gov/news/commissionsCo-conspirators.html |title=U.S. Department of Defense – Military Commissions |publisher=Defense.gov |access-date=October 6, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101109025708/http://www.defense.gov/news/commissionsCo-conspirators.html |archive-date=November 9, 2010 }}</ref>

The charges include 2,973 individual counts of murder—one for each person killed in the 9/11 attacks.<ref name="bbc6jun08">{{cite news|title=Guantanamo 9/11 suspects on trial|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7437164.stm|work=BBC News|date=June 6, 2008|access-date=December 8, 2008|archive-date=February 16, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216052225/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7437164.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> The prosecution is seeking the [[death penalty]], which would require the unanimous agreement of the commission judges.<ref name=Charged/>

[[Human rights]] groups, including [[Amnesty International]], [[Human Rights Watch]] and the [[Center for Constitutional Rights]], and U.S. military defense lawyers have criticised the military commissions for lacking due process for a fair trial. Critics generally argue for the trials to be held in a [[United States district court|federal district court]], with defendants treated as criminal suspects, or by [[court-martial]] as a prisoner under the [[Geneva Conventions]], which prohibit civilian trials for prisoners of war.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usmilitary.about.com/library/milinfo/genevacon/blart-84.htm|title=Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Article 84)|publisher=Usmilitary.about.com|date=June 19, 2010|access-date=October 6, 2010|archive-date=June 25, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625010805/http://usmilitary.about.com/library/milinfo/genevacon/blart-84.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Mohammed could face the death penalty under any of these systems.

The case is progressing through the legal system. In August 2019 the trial date was tentatively set for 11 January 2021, by Judge W. Shane Cohen,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nytimes.com/topic/person/khalid-shaikh-mohammed|title=Khalid Shaikh Mohammed (Guantánamo 9/11 Attacks Trial)|date=May 2, 2019|work=The New York Times|access-date=May 14, 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=April 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422213606/https://www.nytimes.com/topic/person/khalid-shaikh-mohammed|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/02/us/politics/9-11-judge-guantanamo.html|title=Military Judge in Trial of Sept. 11 Suspects Will Step Aside|last=Rosenberg|first=Carol|date=May 2, 2019|work=The New York Times|access-date=May 14, 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=May 14, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514015958/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/02/us/politics/9-11-judge-guantanamo.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/khalid-sheikh-mohammed|title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=May 14, 2019|archive-date=May 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528083540/https://www.theguardian.com/world/khalid-sheikh-mohammed|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/feb/02/why-cant-we-get-this-over-911-hearings-drag-on-guantanamo|title='Why can't we get this over?': 9/11 hearings drag on at Guantánamo|last=Borger|first=Julian|date=February 2, 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=May 14, 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=May 13, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513011326/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/feb/02/why-cant-we-get-this-over-911-hearings-drag-on-guantanamo|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/08/30/755983643/trial-date-set-for-khalid-sheikh-mohammed-4-others-charged-in-9-11-attacks|work=NPR|access-date=August 30, 2019|last1=Romo|first1=Vanessa|last2=Pfeiffer|first2=Sasha|last3=Myre|first3=Greg|title=Trial Date Set For Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, 4 Others Charged In 9/11 Attacks|date=August 30, 2019|archive-date=August 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830202901/https://www.npr.org/2019/08/30/755983643/trial-date-set-for-khalid-sheikh-mohammed-4-others-charged-in-9-11-attacks|url-status=live}}</ref> but this date was postponed on 18 December 2020, due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name="autogeneratedmil"/> Mohammed's trial restarted on 7 September 2021.<ref name="straitstimes1"/> The trial has been delayed further into 2023, with more delays expected. It has been reported that the Biden Administration is considering a plea deal that would eliminate the death penalty.<ref name=":1" />

== Legal rulings affecting him ==
In ''[[Boumediene v. Bush]]'' (2008), the [[United States Supreme Court]] ruled that detainees had the right of access to US federal courts to petition under ''[[habeas corpus]]'' to challenge their detentions, and that the [[Detainee Treatment Act of 2005]] and the [[Military Commissions Act of 2006]] were flawed. A revised [[Military Commissions Act of 2009|Military Commissions Act]] was passed by Congress in 2009 to address court concerns.

Mohammed, in a letter submitted to the court on 26 July 2019, communicated the willingness to help the 9/11 attack victims and their families in their lawsuit against Saudi Arabia. The mastermind is said to have demanded the elimination of his death sentence in the exchange for his cooperation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/alleged-9-11-mastermind-open-to-helping-victims-lawsuit-if-he-isnt-executed-11564426390|title=Alleged 9/11 Mastermind Open to Helping Victims' Lawsuit if U.S. Spares Him Death Penalty|access-date=July 29, 2019|website=Wall Street Journal|date=July 29, 2019|archive-date=July 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729210949/https://www.wsj.com/articles/alleged-9-11-mastermind-open-to-helping-victims-lawsuit-if-he-isnt-executed-11564426390|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 16 August 2023, the Pentagon and the FBI told families of the victims of the 11 September terrorist attacks that none of the alleged organizers of the attacks would face the death penalty as part of ongoing plea agreement considerations.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kickmeyer |first1=Ellen |last2=Peltz |first2=Jennifer |title=Plea negotiations could mean no 9/11 defendants face the death penalty, the US tells families |url=https://apnews.com/article/guantanamo-911-defendants-76fab68b1faa1a7e1634b10951258710 |website=Associated Press |date=August 16, 2023 |access-date=17 August 2023}}</ref>

== Release of new images ==
On 9 September 2009, photographs of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and [[Ammar al Baluchi]] were published on the Internet and widely in US and international media.<ref name="photos">{{cite news|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/news/breaking-news/story/1224587.html |title=Guantánamo photos of accused 9/11 mastermind posted on Web |date=September 10, 2009 |author=Carol Rosenberg |newspaper=[[The Miami Herald]] |access-date=September 10, 2009 |author-link=Carol Rosenberg }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref name=NYTimesTheLede2009-09-09>
{{cite news
| url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/09/09/photographs-of-khalid-shaikh-mohammed-at-guantanamo-appear-online/?hp
| title=Photographs of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed at Guantánamo Appear Online
| date=September 9, 2009
| first=Robert| last=Mackey
| newspaper=The New York Times
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912081144/http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/09/09/photographs-of-khalid-shaikh-mohammed-at-guantanamo-appear-online/?hp
| archive-date=September 12, 2009
| url-status=live
| access-date=September 10, 2009
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8248355.stm
| title=Photos of '9/11 plotter' hit web
| date=September 10, 2009
| work=BBC News
| access-date=September 10, 2009
| archive-date=September 12, 2009
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912012202/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8248355.stm
| url-status=live
}}</ref> Camp authorities have strict controls over the taking and distribution of images of the Guantanamo captives. Journalists and [[VIP]]s visiting Guantanamo are not allowed to take any pictures that show the captives' faces. Journalists may see "[[high value detainees|high value]]" captives such as Khalid Sheikh Mohammed only when they are in the court room, where cameras are not allowed. But, on 9 September 2009, independent counter-terrorism researchers found new images of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and his nephew Ammar al Baluchi on "jihadist websites". According to [[Carol Rosenberg]], writing in ''[[The Miami Herald]]'': "The pictures were taken in July, said [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] spokesman Bernard Barrett, under an agreement with prison camp staff that lets Red Cross delegates photograph detainees and send photos to family members."<ref name="photos"/>

In November 2014, a Turkish manufacturer of over-the-counter [[Chemical depilatory|hair removal cream]] was found to be using an image of a disheveled Mohammed in adverts for their product.<ref name=Hurriyet2014-11-04/><ref name=NYDailyNews2014-11-05/>

==Manifesto==
In January 2014, a 36-page "nonviolence manifesto" written by KSM was declassified and released by the US government. The title is "Khalid Sheikh Mohammad's Statement to the Crusaders of the Military Commissions in Guantanamo."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.huffingtonpost.com/documents/1004897-khalid-sheikh-mohammads-statement |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140117135215/http://data.huffingtonpost.com/documents/1004897-khalid-sheikh-mohammads-statement |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 17, 2014 |title=The Huffington Post |publisher=Data.huffingtonpost.com |access-date=June 13, 2015 }}</ref> The document outlines 3 parts, but appears to be just the first section, describing "the path to happiness." The subject writes to his captors and appears interested in converting his wider audience to Islam. The notes contain eight books with three Western authors and penciled initials with the date 31 October 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://transparentpolicy.org/2014/01/ksm-releases-lengthy-nonviolence-manifesto/ |title=KSM Releases Lengthy 'Nonviolence' Manifesto, Shows Nothing Has Changed - TransparentPolicy.orgTransparentPolicy.org |publisher=Transparentpolicy.org |date=January 17, 2014 |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017040556/http://transparentpolicy.org/2014/01/ksm-releases-lengthy-nonviolence-manifesto/ |archive-date=October 17, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Khalid Sheikh Mohammad and Sulaiman Abu Ghaith==
Khalid Sheikh Mohammad has participated as a witness in the trials of two alleged al-Qaeda members, [[Zacarias Moussaoui]] and [[Salim Hamdan]]. ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' reporter Richard Serrano wrote:

"In 2006, his interrogation summaries were read aloud in the capital murder trial of Zacarias Moussaoui, the so-called 20th hijacker, and Moussaoui was spared the death penalty. Two years later, different Mohammed statements were read in a military commission trial, or tribunal, that led to the release from Guantanamo Bay of Osama bin Laden's chauffeur, Salim Hamdan."<ref name="articles.latimes.com">{{cite news |first=Richard A.|last=Serrano |url=https://articles.latimes.com/2014/feb/12/nation/la-na-ksm-witness-20140213 |title=Khalid Shaikh Mohammed offers to testify in New York federal trial|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=February 12, 2014 |access-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-date=February 22, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222234351/http://articles.latimes.com/2014/feb/12/nation/la-na-ksm-witness-20140213 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Stanly Cohen, an attorney for [[Sulaiman Abu Ghaith]], requested to interview Mohammad, who they described as "the most qualified person alive" to assist in Abu Gaith's defense. Mohammad, through his attorney David Nevin, agreed to be interviewed, but only "in the absence of government personnel whether physically present or by listening or recording remotely."<ref name="articles.latimes.com"/>

Mohammed instead drafted a 14-page statement response to 451 interrogatories submitted by Cohen.<ref>{{cite web|last=Klasfeld|first=Adam|title=KSM Would Have Been a Dud in al-Qaida Case|url=http://www.courthousenews.com/2014/04/22/67243.htm|publisher=Courthouse News Services|access-date=May 8, 2014|archive-date=May 8, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508224008/http://www.courthousenews.com/2014/04/22/67243.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In the response, Mohammad called Abu Ghaith, a "pious man" and "spellbinding speaker" who, to the best of his knowledge, did not play any military role in al-Qaeda operations and had no military training. Mohammed argued that Western foreign policy has been hypocritical in that it allowed for the rise of the Mujahideen in the Soviet War, but that Western media has since branded the Mujahideen "terrorists" or "foreign fighters". He further claimed that the Taliban's strict Islamic rule had restored security to Afghanistan in the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|last=Worthington|first=Andy|title=From Guantánamo, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's Declaration in the New York Trial of Sulaiman Abu Ghaith|url=http://www.andyworthington.co.uk/2014/03/18/from-guantanamo-khalid-sheikh-mohammeds-declaration-in-the-new-york-trial-of-sulaiman-abu-ghaith/|publisher=Author|access-date=May 8, 2014|archive-date=May 8, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508223533/http://www.andyworthington.co.uk/2014/03/18/from-guantanamo-khalid-sheikh-mohammeds-declaration-in-the-new-york-trial-of-sulaiman-abu-ghaith/|url-status=live}}</ref> U.S. District Judge [[Lewis A. Kaplan]] ruled that neither Mohammad's statement nor testimony were relevant to Abu Ghaith's trial, and thus inadmissible.<ref>{{cite news|last=Jakobsson|first=Lena|title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed won't testify at bin Laden relative's trial, judge rules|url=http://www.cnn.com/2014/03/18/us/osama-bin-laden-relative-trial/|publisher=CNN|access-date=May 8, 2014|archive-date=May 8, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508223052/http://www.cnn.com/2014/03/18/us/osama-bin-laden-relative-trial/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Mohammed is fluent in [[Baloch language|Balochi]], [[Urdu]], [[Arabic]], and [[English language|English]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Prisoners : Ghost: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed |url=http://old.cageprisoners.com/prisoners.php?id=1371 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309051526/http://old.cageprisoners.com/prisoners.php?id=1371 |archive-date=March 9, 2013 |access-date=February 23, 2012 |work=[[Cageprisoners]]}}</ref> He has two sons, aged seven and eight at the time of his arrest in 2002.<ref name=":2" />

==See also==
* [[Shaker Aamer]]
* [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=

<ref name=Hurriyet2014-11-04>{{cite news
|url = http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/Default.aspx?NewsCatID=341&nID=73868&pageID=238
|title = Al-Qaeda mastermind featured for 'hairs, not terrorism' in cosmetic ad: Turkish company
|newspaper = [[Hurriyet Daily News]]
|date = November 4, 2014
|location = [[Istanbul]]
|access-date = November 24, 2014
|quote = Yıldız said the company had discovered the image on İnci Sözlük, a Turkish online social community website that can be described as Turkey's answer to 4chan.org. "Several popular caps [humorously captioned images] were produced with his photo. Most were related to insomnia," he added.
|archive-date = November 23, 2014
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141123180738/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/Default.aspx?pageID=238&nID=73868&NewsCatID=341
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

<ref name=NYDailyNews2014-11-05>{{cite news
|url = http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/al-qaida-leader-turkish-hair-removal-ad-article-1.1999838
|title = Former Al Qaeda leader used in Turkish hair-removal spray ad
|newspaper = [[New York Daily News]]
|date = November 5, 2014
|access-date = November 24, 2014
|quote = Turkey-based Epila featured a picture in its ad of the infamous former Al Qaeda leader Khalid Sheikh Mohammed shortly after he was captured in 2003 — and the best part is that a spokesman for the cosmetics company said in a statement, "We didn't know that he was a terrorist."
|archive-date = December 7, 2014
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141207052137/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/al-qaida-leader-turkish-hair-removal-ad-article-1.1999838
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

}}{{CIAPrisons}}
{{HighValue}}
{{Al-Qaeda}}
{{AmericanTerrorism|state=collapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mohammed, Khalid Sheikh}}
[[Category:1960s births]]
[[Category:Al-Qaeda leaders]]
[[Category:Chowan University alumni]]
[[Category:Detainees of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp]]
[[Category:FBI Most Wanted Terrorists]]
[[Category:Interrogations]]
[[Category:Islamist mass murderers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:North Carolina A&T State University alumni]]
[[Category:Pakistani al-Qaeda members]]
[[Category:Pakistani engineers]]
[[Category:Pakistani exiles]]
[[Category:Pakistani extrajudicial prisoners of the United States]]
[[Category:Pakistani mass murderers]]
[[Category:Pakistani Muslims]]
[[Category:People associated with the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:People subject to extraordinary rendition by the United States]]
[[Category:University of the Punjab alumni]]

18th century

2023-09-12T19:32:13Z

78.157.120.208: Last survivors

{{Short description|Time period between January 1, 1701, and December 31, 1800}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{other uses}}
{{Centurybox|18}}
[[File:1700 CE world map.PNG|thumb|Political boundaries at the beginning of year 1700]]
[[File:Prise de la Bastille.jpg|thumb|[[Storming of the Bastille]], 14 July 1789, an iconic event of the [[French Revolution]].]]
[[File:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|Development of the [[Watt steam engine]] in the late 18th century was an important element in the [[Industrial Revolution]] in Europe.]]
[[File:Surrender of Lord Cornwallis.jpg|thumb|The [[American Revolutionary War]] took place in the late 18th century.]]
The '''18th century''' lasted from 1 January [[1701]] (represented by the [[Roman numerals]] MDCCI) to 31 December [[1800]] (MDCCC). During the 18th century, elements of [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinking culminated in the [[American Revolution|American]], [[French Revolution|French]], and [[Haitian Revolution|Haitian Revolutions]]. During the century, [[History of slavery|slave trading]] and [[human trafficking]] expanded across the shores of the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], while declining in [[Russian Empire|Russia]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Volkov|first=Sergey|title=Concise History of Imperial Russia}}</ref> [[Qing dynasty|China]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rowe|first=William T.|title=China's Last Empire}}</ref> and [[Joseon|Korea]]. Revolutions began to challenge the legitimacy of monarchical and aristocratic power structures, including the structures and beliefs that [[Proslavery|supported slavery]]. The [[Industrial Revolution]] began during mid-century, leading to radical changes in [[Society|human society]] and the [[Natural environment|environment]].

Western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death of [[Louis XIV|Louis XIV of France]] and the start of the French Revolution, with an emphasis on directly interconnected events.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anderson, M. S. |url=https://archive.org/details/historianseighte0000ande |title=Historians and Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1715–1789 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-19-822548-5 |oclc=185538307 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Ribeiro, Aileen |title=Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe 1715–1789 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-300-09151-9 |edition=revised |oclc=186413657}}</ref> To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century<ref name="Baines">{{cite book |last=Baines |first=Paul |title=The Long 18th Century |publisher=Arnold |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-340-81372-0 |location=London}}</ref> may run from the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688 to the [[Battle of Waterloo]] in 1815<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford History of the British Empire) |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-924677-9 |editor=Marshall, P. J. |oclc=174866045}}, "Introduction" by P. J. Marshall, page 1</ref> or even later.<ref>{{cite book |author=O'Gorman, Frank |url=https://archive.org/details/longeighteenthce0000ogor |title=The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (The Arnold History of Britain Series) |publisher=A Hodder Arnold Publication |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-340-56751-7 |oclc=243883533 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

The period is also known as the "century of lights" or the "century of reason". In continental Europe, philosophers dreamed of a brighter age. For some, this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789, though this was later compromised by the excesses of the [[Reign of Terror]]. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but in the wake of the French Revolution they feared loss of power and formed broad coalitions to oppose the [[French First Republic|French Republic]] in the [[French Revolutionary Wars]].

The 18th century also marked the end of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] as an independent state. Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to rival the neighboring states of [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]], and [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]], which [[Partitions of Poland|partitioned]] the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth between themselves, changing the landscape of [[Central Europe]] and politics for the next hundred years.

The [[Ottoman Empire]] experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking no part in European wars from 1740 to 1768. As a result, the empire was not exposed to Europe's military improvements during the [[Seven Years' War]]. The Ottoman Empire military consequently lagged behind and suffered several defeats against Russia in the second half of the century. In [[Western Asia|Southwest]] and [[Central Asia]], [[Nader Shah]] led successful military campaigns and major invasions, which indirectly led to the founding of the [[Durrani Empire]].

The [[European colonization of the Americas]] and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as part of the [[Age of Sail]]. European colonization intensified in present-day [[Indonesia]], where the [[Dutch East India Company]] established increasing levels of control over the [[Mataram Sultanate]]. Mainland Southeast Asia would be embroiled in the [[Burmese–Siamese wars|Konbaung–Ayutthaya Wars]] and the [[Tây Sơn dynasty|Tây Sơn rebellion]], while in East Asia, the century marked the [[High Qing era]] and the continual [[Sakoku|seclusion policies]] of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]].

Various conflicts throughout the century, including the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] and the [[Seven Years' War]], saw the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] triumph over its European rivals to become the preeminent power in Europe. However, Britain's massive success in North America would prove to be short-lived. Due to its more than century-old [[Salutary neglect|colonial policies]] in [[British America|North America]], Britain's attempts to exert its authority over its [[Thirteen Colonies|colonies]] became a catalyst for the [[American Revolution]]. This revolution eventually led to the [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]]. After this war, Britain's North American colonies would go on to establish the [[United States]], a [[Republic|republic]] informed by principles of the [[American Enlightenment]], marking the start of the [[decolonization of the Americas]], though Britain would keep its possessions in [[British North America|Canada]] and the [[British West Indies|West Indies]]. The European colonization of [[History of Australia (1788–1850)|Australia]] and [[History of New Zealand|New Zealand]] also began during the late half of the century.

In the [[Indian subcontinent]], the death of [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]] [[Aurangzeb]] marked the end of [[medieval India]] and the beginning of an increasing level of European [[Colonial India|influence and control]] in the region, which coincided with a period of rapid [[Maratha Empire|Maratha expansion]]. After the reign of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire became less powerful. In 1739, [[Nader Shah]] invaded and defeated the Mughal Empire. Later, his general [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah Abdali]] scored another defeat against the Mughals in the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] in 1761.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Chandra |first=Bipin |title=Mordern India |location=India |language=en}}</ref> By the middle of the century, the [[East India Company|British East India Company]] began to conquer the eastern parts of India, a process which accelerated after their victory over the Mughal emperor, [[Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad|Nawab of Bengal]] and their [[French East India Company|French allies]] at the [[Battle of Plassey]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=John |author-link1=John Campbell (author) |first2=William |last2=Watts |year=1760 |title=Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, anno Dom. 1757 |url=https://www.wdl.org/en/item/2384/ |publisher=A. Millar, London}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Mughal emperor transformed into mere puppet of British.<ref name=":0" /> By the end of the century, [[Company rule in India]] had come to cover more regions within [[South Asia]], the British would also expand to the south, participating in the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] against the [[Kingdom of Mysore]], governed by [[Tipu Sultan]] and his father [[Hyder Ali]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |page=207 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA207}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Allana |first=Gulam |title=Muslim political thought through the ages: 1562–1947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nbiAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 January 2013 |year=1988 |edition=2 |publisher=Royal Book Company |location=Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania |page=78|isbn=9789694070919 }}</ref>

==Events==
{{For timeline}}
{{see also|Georgian era}}

===1701–1750===
[[File:Europe, 1700 - 1714.png|thumb|upright|Europe at the beginning of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], 1700]]
[[File:Marten's Poltava.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709 turned the [[Russian Empire]] into a European power.]]
[[File:Marlborough-duke-first.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough]]]]
* [[1700]]–[[1721]]: [[Great Northern War]] between the [[Russian Empire|Russian]] and [[Swedish Empire]]s.
* [[1701]]: [[Kingdom of Prussia]] declared under King [[Frederick I of Prussia|Frederick I]].
* [[1701]]: The [[Battle of Feyiase]] marks the rise of the [[Ashanti Empire]].
* [[1701]]–[[1714]]: The [[War of the Spanish Succession]] is fought, involving most of continental [[Louis XIV of France#War of the Spanish Succession|Europe]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_spanishsuccession.html |title=War of the Spanish Succession, 1701–1714 |publisher=Historyofwar.org |access-date=2009-04-25}}</ref>
* [[1702]]–[[1715]]: [[Camisards|Camisard rebellion]] in France.
* [[1703]]: [[Saint Petersburg]] is founded by [[Peter the Great]]; it is the Russian [[Capital (political)|capital]] until [[1918]].
* [[1703]]–[[1711]]: The [[Rákóczi's War of Independence|Rákóczi uprising]] against the [[Habsburg monarchy]].
* [[1704]]: End of Japan's [[Genroku]] period.
* [[1704]]: [[First Javanese War of Succession]].<ref name="RICKLEFSp82">Ricklefs (1991), page 82</ref>
* [[1706]]–[[1713]]: The [[War of the Spanish Succession]]: French troops defeated at the battles of [[Battle of Ramillies|Ramillies]] and [[Battle of Turin|Turin]].
* [[1707]]: Death of Mughal Emperor [[Aurangzeb]] leads to the fragmentation of the [[Mughal Empire]].
* [[1707]]: The [[Act of Union 1707|Act of Union]] is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments, thus establishing the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Historic uk – heritage of britain accommodation guide |url=http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/ActofUnion.htm |title=The history of Scotland – The Act of Union 1707 |publisher=Historic-uk.com |date=2007-05-03 |access-date=2009-04-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090408060918/http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/ActofUnion.htm |archive-date= 8 April 2009 |url-status= live}}</ref>
* [[1708]]: The [[East India Company|Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies]] and English Company Trading to the East Indies merge to form the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies.
* [[1708]]–[[1709]]: Famine kills one-third of [[East Prussia]]'s population.
* [[1709]]: Foundation of the [[Hotak dynasty|Hotak Afghan Empire]].
* [[1709]]: The [[Great Frost of 1709]] marks the coldest winter in 500 years, contributing to the defeat of [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]] at [[Battle of Poltava|Poltava]].
* [[1710]]: The world's first [[Copyright law|copyright legislation]], [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]]'s [[Statute of Anne]], takes effect.
* [[1710]]–[[1711]]: [[Ottoman Empire]] fights Russia in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)|Russo-Turkish War]] and regains [[Azov]].
* [[1711]]: [[Khanate of Bukhara|Bukhara Khanate]] dissolves as local begs seize power.
* [[1711]]–[[1715]]: [[Tuscarora War]] between British, Dutch, and German settlers and the [[Tuscarora people]] of [[North Carolina]].
* [[1713]]: The [[Kangxi Emperor]] acknowledges the full recovery of the Chinese economy since its apex during the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]].
* [[1714]]: In Amsterdam, [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] invents the [[mercury-in-glass thermometer]], which remains the most reliable and accurate thermometer until the electronic era.
* [[1715]]: The [[Jacobite rising of 1715|first Jacobite rising]] breaks out; the British halt the Jacobite advance at the [[Battle of Sheriffmuir]]; [[Battle of Preston (1715)|Battle of Preston]].
* [[1716]]: Establishment of the [[Misl|Sikh Confederacy]] along the present-day India-[[Pakistan]] border.
* [[1714|1716]]–[[1718]]: [[Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)|Austro-Venetian-Turkish War]].
* [[1718]]: The city of [[New Orleans]] is founded by the French in North America.
* [[1718]]–[[1720]]: [[War of the Quadruple Alliance]] between Spain, France, Britain, Austria, and the Netherlands.
* [[1718]]–[[1730]]: [[Tulip period]] of the Ottoman Empire.
* [[1719]]: [[Second Javanese War of Succession]].<ref name="RICKLEFSp84">Ricklefs (1991), page 84</ref>
* [[1720]]: The [[South Sea Bubble]].
* [[1720]]–[[1721]]: The [[Great Plague of Marseille]].
* [[1720]]: Qing forces oust [[Dzungar Khanate|Dzungar]] invaders from [[Khoshut Khanate|Tibet]].
* [[1721]]: The [[Treaty of Nystad]] is signed, ending the [[Great Northern War]].
* [[1721]]: [[Sack of Shamakhi]], massacre of its Shia population by [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Lezgins]].
* [[1722]]: [[Siege of Isfahan]] results in the handover of Iran to the [[Hotak dynasty|Hotaki Afghans]].
* [[1722]]–[[1723]]: [[Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)|Russo-Persian War]].
* [[1722]]–[[1725]]: Controversy over [[William Wood (Mintmaster)|William Wood]]'s halfpence leads to the ''[[Drapier's Letters]]'' and begins the Irish economic independence from England movement.[[File:7 Muhammad Shah and Nadir Shah. 1740, Musee Guimet, Paris.jpg|thumb|upright|Mughal emperor [[Muhammad Shah]] with the Persian invader [[Nader Shah]].]]
* [[1723]]: [[Slavery]] is abolished in Russia; [[Peter the Great]] converts household [[Slavery in medieval Europe#Slavery in Russia|slaves]] into house [[serfs]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |date=1910-01-31 |access-date=2009-04-25| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090416090645/https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160| archive-date= 16 April 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>
* [[1723]]–[[1730]]: The "Great Disaster", an invasion of [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] territories by the [[Dzungars]].
* [[1723]]–[[1732]]: The Qing and the Dzungars fight a series of wars across [[Qinghai]], [[Dzungaria]], and [[Outer Mongolia]], with inconclusive results.
* [[1724]]: [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] proposes the [[Fahrenheit]] temperature scale.
* [[1725]]: [[Peace of Vienna (1725)|Austro-Spanish alliance]] revived. Russia joins in 1726.
* [[1727]]–[[1729]]: [[Anglo-Spanish War (1727–1729)|Anglo-Spanish War]] ends inconclusively.

* [[1730]]: [[Mahmud I]] takes over Ottoman Empire after the [[Patrona Halil]] revolt, ending the [[Tulip period]].
* [[1730]]–[[1760]]: The [[First Great Awakening]] takes place in Great Britain and North America.
* [[1732]]–[[1734]]: [[Crimean Khanate|Crimean Tatar]] raids into Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/russia/milxcrimeantatars.html |title=List of Wars of the Crimean Tatars |publisher=Zum.de |access-date=2009-04-25| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090312034756/http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/russia/milxcrimeantatars.html| archive-date= 12 March 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>
*[[1733]]–[[1738]]: [[War of the Polish Succession]].[[File:Portrait of the Qianlong Emperor in Court Dress.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Qianlong Emperor]]]]
* [[1735]]–[[1739]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)|Austro-Russo-Turkish War]].
* [[1735]]–[[1799]]: The [[Qianlong Emperor]] of China oversees a huge expansion in territory.
* [[1738]]–[[1756]]: [[List of famines|Famine]] across the [[Sahel]]; half the population of [[Timbuktu]] dies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |title=Len Milich: Anthropogenic Desertification vs 'Natural' Climate Trends |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date=1997-08-10 |access-date=2009-04-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211081648/http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |archive-date=2012-02-11 }}</ref>
* [[1737]]–[[1738]]: Hotaki Afghan Empire ends after the [[Siege of Kandahar]] by [[Nader Shah]].
* [[1739]]: Great Britain and Spain fight the [[War of Jenkins' Ear]] in the Caribbean.
* [[1739]]: Nader Shah defeats a pan-Indian army of 300,000 at the [[Battle of Karnal]]. Taxation is stopped in Iran for three years.
* [[1739]]–[[1740]]: [[Nader Shah's Sindh expedition]].
* [[1740]]: [[George Whitefield]] brings the [[First Great Awakening]] to New England
* [[1740]]–[[1741]]: [[Great Irish Famine (1740–1741)|Famine in Ireland]] kills 20 percent of the population.
* [[1741]]–[[1743]]: Iran invades [[Khanate of Bukhara|Uzbekistan]], [[Khanate of Khiva|Khwarazm]], [[Dagestan]], and [[Omani Empire|Oman]].
* [[1741]]–[[1751]]: [[Maratha invasions of Bengal]].
* [[1740]]–[[1748]]: [[War of the Austrian Succession]].
* [[1742]]:
** [[Marvel's Mill]], the first water-powered [[cotton mill]], begins operation in England.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wadsworth |first1=Alfred P. |last2=Mann |first2=Julia De Lacy |year=1931 |title=The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 1600–1780 |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |oclc=2859370 |page=433}}</ref>
** [[Anders Celsius]] proposes an inverted form of the centigrade temperature, which is later renamed [[Celsius]] in his honor.
* [[1742]]: Premiere of [[Handel]]'s [[Messiah (Handel)|''Messiah'']]
* [[1743]]–[[1746]]: Another [[Ottoman–Persian War (1743–1746)|Ottoman-Persian War]] involves 375,000 men but ultimately ends in a stalemate.[[File:The Battle of Culloden.jpg|thumb|upright|The extinction of the [[Scottish clan]] system came with the defeat of the clansmen at the [[Battle of Culloden]] in 1746.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unique-cottages.co.uk/unspoilt/20/clans |title=A guide to Scottish clans |publisher=Unique-cottages.co.uk |access-date=2009-04-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080511181304/http://www.unique-cottages.co.uk/unspoilt/20/clans |archive-date = May 11, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
* [[1744]]: The [[First Saudi State]] is founded by [[Mohammed Ibn Saud]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm |title=Saudi Arabia – The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=2009-04-25}}</ref>
* [[1744]]: [[Battle of Toulon (1744)|Battle of Toulon]] is fought off the coast of France.
* [[1744]]–[[1748]]: The [[Carnatic Wars|First Carnatic War]] is fought between the British, the French, the [[Marathas]], and [[Mysore]] in India.
* [[1745]]: [[Jacobite rising of 1745|Second Jacobite rising]] is begun by [[Charles Edward Stuart]] in Scotland.
* [[1747]]: The [[Durrani Empire]] is founded by [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]].
* [[1748]]: The [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle]] ends the War of the Austrian Succession and First Carnatic War.
* [[1748]]–[[1754]]: The [[Carnatic Wars|Second Carnatic War]] is fought between the British, the French, the [[Marathas]], and [[Mysore]] in India.
* [[1750]]: Peak of the [[Little Ice Age]].

===1751–1800===
* [[1752]]: The [[British Empire]] adopts the [[Gregorian Calendar]], skipping 11 days from 3 September to 13 September. On the calendar, 2 September is followed directly by 14 September.
* [[1754]]: The Treaty of Pondicherry ends the Second Carnatic War and recognizes [[Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah]] as [[Nawab of the Carnatic]].
* [[1754]]: [[Columbia University|King's College]] is founded by a royal charter of [[George II of Great Britain]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/content/history.html|title=History|publisher=Columbia University}}</ref>
* [[1754]]–[[1763]]: The [[French and Indian War]], the North American chapter of the [[Seven Years' War]], is fought in colonial North America, mostly by the French and their allies against the English and their allies.
* [[1755]]: The [[1755 Lisbon earthquake|great Lisbon earthquake]] destroys most of [[Portugal]]'s capital and kills up to 100,000.
* [[1755]]: The [[Dzungar genocide]] depopulates much of northern Xinjiang, allowing for Han, Uyghur, Khalkha Mongol, and Manchu colonization.
* [[1755]]–[[1763]]: The [[Expulsion of the Acadians|Great Upheaval]] forces transfer of the French Acadian population from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
* [[1756]]–[[1763]]: The [[Seven Years' War]] is fought among European powers in various theaters around the world.
* [[1756]]–[[1763]]: The [[Third Carnatic War]] is fought between the British, the French, and [[Mysore]] in India.
* [[1757]]: [[Battle of Plassey|British conquest of Bengal]].
[[File:Catherinethegreatroslin.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Catherine the Great]], Empress of Russia.]]
* [[1760]]: [[George III]] becomes King of Britain.
* [[1761]]: Maratha Empire defeated at [[Battle of Panipat (1761)|Battle of Panipat]].
* [[1762]]–[[1796]]: Reign of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine the Great]] of Russia.
* [[1763]]: The [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] ends the Seven Years' War and Third Carnatic War.
* [[1764]]: [[Dahomey]] and the [[Oyo Empire]] defeat the [[military of the Ashanti Empire|Ashanti army]] at the [[Battle of Atakpamé]].
* [[1764]]: The Mughals are defeated at the [[Battle of Buxar]].
* [[1765]]: The [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]] is introduced into the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]] by the British Parliament.
* [[1767|1765–1767]]: The [[Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767)|Burmese invade Thailand]] and utterly destroy [[Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (city)|Attuthaya]].
* [[1765]]–[[1769]]: [[Konbaung dynasty|Burma]] under [[Hsinbyushin]] repels [[Sino-Burmese War|four invasions]] from Qing China, securing hegemony over the [[Shan States|Shan states]].
* [[1766]]: [[Christian VII of Denmark|Christian VII]] becomes king of Denmark. He was [[Danish Realm|king of Denmark]] to [[1808]].
* [[1766]]–[[1799]]: [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]].
* [[1767]]: [[Taksin]] expels Burmese invaders and reunites Thailand under an authoritarian regime.
* [[1768]]–[[1772]]: [[War of the Bar Confederation]].
* [[1768]]–[[1774]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)|Russo-Turkish War]].
* [[1769]]: Spanish [[missionary|missionaries]] establish the first of 21 [[Spanish Missions of California|missions]] in [[California]].
* [[1769]]–[[1770]]: [[James Cook]] explores and maps New Zealand and Australia.
* [[1769]]–[[1773]]: The [[Bengal famine of 1770]] kills one-third of the [[Bengal]] population.
* [[1769]]: The [[French East India Company]] dissolves, only to be revived in 1785.
* [[1769]]: French expeditions capture [[clove]] plants in [[Ambon Island|Ambon]], ending the VOC monopoly of the plant.<ref name="RICKLEFSp102">Ricklefs (1991), page 102</ref> (to 1772)

* [[1770]]–[[1771]]: [[Famines in Czech lands|Famine in Czech lands]] kills hundreds of thousands.
* [[1771]]: The [[Plague Riot]] in Moscow.
* [[1771]]: The [[Kalmyk Khanate]] dissolves as the territory becomes colonized by Russians. More than a hundred thousand [[Kalmyks]] migrate back to [[Xinjiang under Qing rule|Qing Dzungaria]].
* [[1772]]: [[Gustav III of Sweden]] stages a coup d'état, becoming almost an absolute monarch.[[File:Encyclopedie de D'Alembert et Diderot - Premiere Page - ENC 1-NA5.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers]]]]
* [[1772]]–[[1779]]: Maratha Empire fights Britain and [[Raghunathrao]]'s forces during the [[First Anglo-Maratha War]].
* [[1772]]–[[1795]]: The [[Partitions of Poland]] end the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and erase Poland from the map for 123 years.
* [[1773]]–[[1775]]: [[Pugachev's Rebellion]], the largest peasant revolt in Russian history.
* [[1773]]: East India Company starts operations in [[Bengal]] to smuggle [[First Opium War|opium into China]].
* [[1775]]: Russia imposes a reduction in autonomy on the [[Zaporozhian Sich|Zaporizhian Cossacks]] of Ukraine.
* [[1775]]–[[1782]]: [[First Anglo-Maratha War]].
* [[1775]]–[[1783]]: [[American Revolutionary War]].
* [[1776]]: Several [[Kongsi republic|Kongsi Republics]] are founded by Chinese settlers in the island of [[Borneo]]. They are some of the first democracies in Asia.
* [[1776]]–[[1777]]: [[Spanish–Portuguese War (1776–1777)|A Spanish-Portuguese War]] occurs over land in the South American frontiers.
* [[1776]]: [[Illuminati]] founded by [[Adam Weishaupt]].
* [[1776]]: The [[United States Declaration of Independence]] is adopted by the [[Continental Congress]] in [[Philadelphia]].
* [[1776]]: [[Adam Smith]] publishes ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]''.
* [[1778]]: [[James Cook]] becomes the first European to land on the [[Hawaiian Islands]].
* [[1778]]: [[Franco-American alliance]] signed.
* [[1778]]: Spain acquires its [[Spanish Guinea|first permanent holding in Africa]] from the Portuguese, which is administered by the newly-established [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata|La Plata Viceroyalty]].
* [[1778]]: [[Đại Việt|Vietnam]] is reunified for the first time in 200 years by the [[Tây Sơn dynasty|Tay Son brothers]]. The [[Tây Sơn dynasty]] has been established, terminated the [[Lê dynasty]]
* [[1779]]–[[1879]]: [[Xhosa Wars]] between British and [[Boer]] settlers and the [[Xhosa people|Xhosas]] in the [[South African Republic]].
* [[1779]]–[[1783]]: [[Spain and the American Revolutionary War|Britain loses several islands and colonial outposts all over the world]] to the combined Franco-Spanish navy.
* [[1779]]: Iran enters yet another period of conflict and civil war after the prosperous reign of [[Karim Khan Zand]].

* [[1780]]: Outbreak of the [[Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II|indigenous rebellion]] against Spanish colonization led by [[Túpac Amaru II]] in [[Peru]].
* [[1781]]: The city of Los Angeles is founded by [[Spaniards|Spanish]] settlers.[[File:Portrait of George Washington-transparent.png|thumb|upright|[[George Washington]]]]
* [[1781]]–[[1785]]: [[Serfdom]] is abolished in the [[Habsburg monarchy|Austrian monarchy]] (first step; second step in [[1848]]).
* [[1782]]: The [[Thonburi Kingdom]] of Thailand is dissolved after a palace coup.
* [[1783]]: The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] formally ends the [[American Revolutionary War]].
* [[1783]]: Russian annexation of [[Crimean Khanate|Crimea]].
* [[1785]]–[[1791]]: Imam [[Sheikh Mansur]], a [[Chechen people|Chechen]] warrior and Muslim mystic, leads a coalition of Muslim [[Peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasian tribes]] from throughout the [[Caucasus]] in a [[Jihad|holy war]] against Russian settlers and military bases in the Caucasus, as well as against local traditionalists, who followed the traditional customs and common law (Adat) rather than the theocratic Sharia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicsupremecouncil.org/bin/site/wrappers/spirituality-sufism_caucasus.html |title=Sufism in the Caucasus |publisher=Islamicsupremecouncil.org |access-date=2009-04-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090223235641/http://www.islamicsupremecouncil.org/bin/site/wrappers/spirituality-sufism_caucasus.html |archive-date = February 23, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[1785]]–[[1795]]: The [[Northwest Indian War]] is fought between the United States and [[Indigenous peoples in the United States|Native Americans]].
* [[1785]]–[[1787]]: [[Maratha–Mysore Wars|The Maratha-Mysore War]] concludes with an exchange of territories in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]].
* [[1786]]–[[1787]]: [[Mozart]] premieres [[The Marriage of Figaro]] and [[Don Giovanni]]
* [[1787]]: The [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] occupies Timbuktu until the 19th century.
* [[1787]]–[[1792]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)|Russo-Turkish War]].
* [[1788]]: [[First Fleet]] arrives in Australia
* [[1788]]–[[1790]]: [[Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790)]].[[File:Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]]]
* [[1788]]–[[1789]]: A Qing attempt to reinstall an exiled [[Lê Chiêu Thống|Vietnamese king]] in northern Vietnam [[Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa|ends in disaster]].
* [[1789]]: [[George Washington]] is elected the first [[President of the United States]]; he serves until [[1797]].
* [[1789]] : [[Quang Trung]] defeated the [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] army
* [[1789]]–[[1799]]: [[French Revolution]].

* [[1789]]: The [[Liège Revolution]].
* [[1789]]: The [[Brabant Revolution]].
* [[1789]]: The [[Inconfidência Mineira]], an unsuccessful separatist movement in central Brazil led by [[Tiradentes]]
* [[1791]]: Suppression of the [[Liège Revolution]] by [[Holy Roman Empire|Austrian]] forces and re-establishment of the [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège]].
* [[1791]]–[[1795]]: [[George Vancouver]] explores the world during the [[Vancouver Expedition]].
* [[1791]]–[[1804]]: The [[Haitian Revolution]].
* [[1791]]: [[Mozart]] premieres [[The Magic Flute]]
* [[1792]]–[[1802]]: The [[French Revolutionary Wars]] lead into the [[Napoleonic Wars]], which last from [[1803]]–[[1815]].
* [[1792]]: The [[New York Stock Exchange|New York Stock & Exchange Board]] is founded.
* [[1792]]: [[Polish–Russian War of 1792]].
* [[1793]]: [[Upper Canada]] [[Act Against Slavery|bans slavery]].
* [[1793]]: The largest [[1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic|yellow fever epidemic]] in American history kills as many as 5,000 people in [[Philadelphia]], roughly 10% of the population.<ref>{{cite web | title=Yellow Fever Attacks Philadelphia, 1793 | work=EyeWitness to History|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/yellowfever.htm|access-date=2007-06-22| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070607233805/http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/yellowfever.htm| archive-date= 7 June 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref>
* [[1793]]–[[1796]]: [[Revolt in the Vendée]] against the French Republic at the time of the [[French Revolution|Revolution]].
* [[1794]]–[[1816]]: The [[Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars]], which were a series of incidents between settlers and [[New South Wales Corps]] and the [[Aboriginal Australian]] clans of the [[Hawkesbury River|Hawkesbury river]] in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]].
* [[1795]]: The [[Marseillaise]] is officially adopted as the French [[national anthem]].[[File:1801 Antoine-Jean Gros - Bonaparte on the Bridge at Arcole.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Napoleon]] at the [[Battle of the Bridge of Arcole|Bridge of the Arcole]]]]
* [[1795]]: The [[Battle of Nuʻuanu]] in the final days of [[Kamehameha I|King Kamehameha I's]] wars to [[Unification of Hawaii|unify]] the [[Hawaiian Islands]].
* [[1795]]–[[1796]]: [[Battle of Krtsanisi|Iran invades and devastates Georgia]], prompting [[Persian expedition of 1796|Russia to intervene and march on Tehran]].
* [[1796]]: [[Edward Jenner]] administers the first [[smallpox vaccination]]; [[smallpox]] killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year during the 18th century, including five reigning [[monarch]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Riedel S |title=Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination |journal=Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=21–5 |year=2005 |pmid=16200144 |doi= 10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028|pmc=1200696}}</ref>
* [[1796]]: [[War of the First Coalition]]: The [[Battle of Montenotte]] marks [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]'s first victory as an army commander.
* [[1796]]: The British eject the Dutch from [[Ceylon]] and [[Dutch Cape Colony|South Africa]].
* [[1796]]–[[1804]]: The [[White Lotus Rebellion]] against the [[Manchu dynasty]] in China.
* [[1798]]: The [[Irish Rebellion of 1798|Irish Rebellion]] fails to overthrow [[British rule in Ireland]].
* [[1798]]–[[1800]]: The [[Quasi-War]] is fought between the United States and France.
* [[1799]]: [[Dutch East India Company]] is dissolved.
* [[1799]]: [[Austro-Russian Alliance (1781)|Austro-Russian]] forces under [[Alexander Suvorov]] [[Italian and Swiss expedition|liberates much of Italy and Switzerland]] from French occupation.
* [[1799]]: [[Coup of 18 Brumaire]] - [[Napoleon's]] [[coup d'etat]] brings the end of the [[French Revolution]].
* [[1799]]: Death of the Qianlong Emperor after [[High Qing era|60 years of rule over China]]. His favorite official, [[Heshen]], is ordered to commit suicide.
* [[1800]]: On 1 January, the bankrupt [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) is formally dissolved and the nationalised [[Dutch East Indies]] are established.<ref name="RICKLEFSp106">Ricklefs (1991), page 106</ref>

=== Last survivors ===
Born on 21 September 1788, Dutch [[Geert Adriaans Boomgaard]] died on 3 February 1899. Boomgaard is generally accepted by scholars as the first validated case og a [[supercentenarian]] on record.<ref>{{cite web |title=Table A – Verified Supercentenarians (Listed Chronologically By Birth Date) |url=http://www.grg.org/Adams/A.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712044827/http://www.grg.org/Adams/A.HTM |archive-date=12 July 2016 |access-date=9 November 2016}}</ref><ref name="grggl">[http://grg.org/Gallery/Pre1850sGallery.html Photo Gallery for Supercentenarians born before 1850, {{as of|2019|5|17|df=US|post=.}}][//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geert_Adriaans_Boomgaard&action=edit [update]]<nowiki/>
[[Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from May 2019]]
[[Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements]]
[[Gerontology Research Group]]</ref> Subsequently, on 4 April 1903, [[Guernsey]] inhabitant [[Margaret Ann Neve]] (born 18 May 1792) died, being the first recorded female [[supercentenarian]] and the second validated human to reach the age of 110 after [[Geert Adriaans Boomgaard|Boomgaard]].<ref name="BIB">{{cite book |last=Balfour-Pau |first=Glen |title=Bagpipes in Babylon: A Lifetime in the Arab World and Beyond |date=20 December 2005 |publisher=I.B.Tauris, 2006 |isbn=9781845111519}}</ref><ref name="Priaulx">{{cite web |date=2005 |title=The Harvey Family |url=http://www.priaulxlibrary.co.uk/priaulx-library-new-details2.asp?ItemID=95 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022135751/http://www.priaulxlibrary.co.uk/priaulx-library-new-details2.asp?ItemID=95 |archivedate=22 October 2013 |work=Priaulx Library}}</ref>

==Inventions, discoveries, introductions==
{{main|Timeline of historic inventions#18th century|Timeline of scientific discoveries#18th century}}
[[File:Spinning jenny.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[spinning jenny]]]]
* [[1709]]: The first [[piano]] was built by [[Bartolomeo Cristofori]]
* [[1711]]: [[Tuning fork]] was invented by John Shore
* [[1712]]: [[Steam engine]] invented by [[Thomas Newcomen]]
* [[1714]]: [[Mercury thermometer]] by [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]]
* [[1717]]: [[Diving bell]] was successfully tested by [[Edmond Halley]], sustainable to a depth of 55 ft
* c. [[1730]]: [[Octant (instrument)|Octant]] navigational tool was developed by [[John Hadley]] in England, and [[Thomas Godfrey (inventor)|Thomas Godfrey]] in America
* [[1733]]: [[Flying shuttle]] invented by [[John Kay (flying shuttle)|John Kay]]
* [[1736]]: Europeans encountered [[rubber]] – the discovery was made by [[Charles Marie de La Condamine]] while on expedition in South America. It was named in [[1770]] by [[Joseph Priestley]]
* c. [[1740]]: Modern [[steel]] was developed by [[Benjamin Huntsman]]
* [[1741]]: [[Vitus Bering]] discovers Alaska
* [[1745]]: [[Leyden jar]] invented by [[Ewald Georg von Kleist]] was the first electrical [[capacitor]]
* [[1751]]: [[Jacques de Vaucanson]] perfects the first precision [[lathe]]
* [[1752]]: [[Lightning rod]] invented by [[Benjamin Franklin]]
* [[1753]]: The first [[clock]] to be built in the New World (North America) was invented by [[Benjamin Banneker]].
* [[1755]]: The tallest ''wooden'' [[Bodhisattva]] statue in the world is erected at [[Puning Temple (Hebei)|Puning Temple]], [[Chengde]], China.
* [[1764]]: [[Spinning jenny]] created by [[James Hargreaves]] brought on the [[Industrial Revolution]]
* [[1765]]: [[James Watt]] enhances Newcomen's steam engine, allowing new [[steel]] technologies
* [[1761]]: The problem of [[longitude]] was finally resolved by the fourth [[marine chronometer|chronometer]] of [[John Harrison]]
* [[1763]]: [[Thomas Bayes]] publishes first version of [[Bayes' theorem]], paving the way for [[Bayesian probability]]
* [[1768]]–[[1779]]: [[James Cook]] mapped the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean and discovered many [[Pacific Islands]]
* [[1774]]: [[Joseph Priestley]] discovers "dephlogisticated air", oxygen[[File:Red building Putuo Zongcheng Temple.JPG|thumb|upright|The Chinese [[Putuo Zongcheng Temple]] of [[Chengde]], completed in 1771, during the reign of the [[Qianlong Emperor]].]]
* [[1775]]: [[Joseph Priestley's]] first synthesis of "phlogisticated nitrous air", nitrous oxide, "laughing gas"
* [[1776]]: First improved steam engines installed by [[James Watt]]
* [[1776]]: [[Steamboat]] invented by [[Claude de Jouffroy]]
* [[1777]]: [[Circular saw]] invented by Samuel Miller
* [[1779]]: [[Photosynthesis]] was first discovered by [[Jan Ingenhousz]]
* [[1781]]: [[William Herschel]] announces discovery of Uranus
* [[1784]]: [[Bifocals]] invented by [[Benjamin Franklin]]
* [[1784]]: [[Argand lamp]] invented by [[Aimé Argand]]<ref>[http://corporate.britannica.com/press/inventions.html Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions], [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080807163707/http://corporate.britannica.com/press/inventions.html |date=August 7, 2008 }}</ref>
* [[1785]]: [[Power loom]] invented by [[Edmund Cartwright]]
* [[1785]]: [[Production line|Automatic flour mill]] invented by [[Oliver Evans]]
* [[1786]]: [[Threshing machine]] invented by [[Andrew Meikle]]
* [[1787]]: [[Jacques Charles]] discovers [[Charles's law]]
* [[1789]]: [[Antoine Lavoisier]] discovers the law of conservation of mass, the basis for chemistry, and begins modern chemistry
* [[1798]]: [[Edward Jenner]] publishes a treatise about [[smallpox]] [[vaccination]]
* [[1798]]: The [[Lithography|Lithographic printing process]] invented by [[Alois Senefelder]]<ref>Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. (1998) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p 146 {{ISBN|978-0-471-29198-5}}</ref>
* [[1799]]: [[Rosetta Stone]] discovered by [[Napoleon]]'s troops

==Literary and philosophical achievements==
{{main|18th century in literature|18th century in philosophy}}
* [[1703]]: ''[[The Love Suicides at Sonezaki]]'' by [[Chikamatsu]] first performed
* [[1704]]–[[1717]]: ''[[One Thousand and One Nights]]'' translated into French by [[Antoine Galland]]. The work becomes immensely popular throughout Europe.
* [[1704]]: ''[[A Tale of a Tub]]'' by [[Jonathan Swift]] first published
* [[1712]]: ''[[The Rape of the Lock]]'' by [[Alexander Pope]] (publication of first version)
* [[1719]]: ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' by [[Daniel Defoe]]
* [[1725]]: ''The New Science'' by [[Giambattista Vico]]
* [[1726]]: ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' by [[Jonathan Swift]]
* [[1728]]: ''[[The Dunciad]]'' by [[Alexander Pope]] (publication of first version)
* [[1744]]: ''[[A Little Pretty Pocket-Book]]'' becomes one of the first [[Children's literature#History|books marketed for children]]
* [[1748]]: ''[[Chushingura]]'' (''The Treasury of Loyal Retainers''), popular Japanese [[bunraku|puppet play]], composed
* [[1748]]: ''[[Clarissa]]'' by [[Samuel Richardson]]
* [[1749]]: ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling]]'' by [[Henry Fielding]]
* [[1751]]: ''[[Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard]]'' by [[Thomas Gray]] published
* [[1751]]–[[1785]]: The French [[Encyclopédie]]
* [[1755]]: ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' by [[Samuel Johnson]]
* [[1758]]: ''Arithmetika Horvatzka'' by [[Mihalj Šilobod Bolšić]]
* [[1759]]: ''[[Candide]]'' by [[Voltaire]]
* [[1759]]: ''[[The Theory of Moral Sentiments]]'' by [[Adam Smith]]
* [[1759]]–[[1767]]: ''[[Tristram Shandy]]'' by [[Laurence Sterne]]
* [[1762]]: ''[[Emile: or, On Education]]'' by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]
* [[1762]]: ''[[Social Contract (Rousseau)|The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right]]'' by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]
* [[1774]]: ''[[The Sorrows of Young Werther]]'' by [[Goethe]] first published
* [[1776]]: {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Ugetsu Monogatari]]}} (''Tales of Moonlight and Rain'') by [[Ueda Akinari]]
* [[1776]]: ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'', foundation of the modern theory of economy, was published by [[Adam Smith]]
* [[1776]]–[[1789]]: ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' was published by [[Edward Gibbon]]
* [[1779]]: ''[[Amazing Grace]]'' published by [[John Newton]]
* [[1779]]–[[1782]]: ''[[Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets]]'' by [[Samuel Johnson]]
* [[1781]]: ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' by [[Immanuel Kant]] (publication of first edition)
* [[1781]]: ''[[The Robbers]]'' by [[Friedrich Schiller]] first published
* [[1782]]: ''[[Les Liaisons dangereuses]]'' by [[Pierre Choderlos de Laclos]]
* [[1786]]: ''[[Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect]]'' by [[Robert Burns]]
* [[1787]]–[[1788]]: ''[[The Federalist Papers]]'' by [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[James Madison]], and [[John Jay]]
* [[1788]]: ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' by [[Immanuel Kant]]
* [[1789]]: ''[[Songs of Innocence]]'' by [[William Blake]]
* [[1789]]: ''[[The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano]]'' by [[Olaudah Equiano]]
* [[1790]]: ''[[Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow]]'' by [[Alexander Radishchev]]
* [[1790]]: ''[[Reflections on the Revolution in France]]'' by [[Edmund Burke]]
* [[1791]]: ''[[Rights of Man]]'' by [[Thomas Paine]]
* [[1792]]: ''[[A Vindication of the Rights of Woman]]'' by [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]
* [[1794]]: ''[[Songs of Experience]]'' by [[William Blake]]
* [[1798]]: ''[[Lyrical Ballads]]'' by [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]
* [[1798]]: ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]'' published by [[Thomas Malthus]]
* (mid-18th century): ''[[The Dream of the Red Chamber]]'' (authorship attributed to [[Cao Xueqin]]), one of the most famous Chinese novels

==Musical works==
* [[1711]]: ''[[Rinaldo (opera)|Rinaldo]]'', [[Handel]]'s first opera for the London stage, premiered
* [[1721]]: ''[[Brandenburg Concertos]]'' by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]]
* [[1723]]: ''[[The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)|The Four Seasons]]'', violin concertos by [[Antonio Vivaldi]], composed
* [[1724]]: ''[[St John Passion]]'' by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]]
* [[1727]]: ''[[St Matthew Passion]]'' composed by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]]
* [[1727]]: ''[[Zadok the Priest]]'' is composed by [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]] for the coronation of [[George II of Great Britain]]. It has been performed at every subsequent British coronation.
* [[1733]]: ''[[Hippolyte et Aricie]]'', first opera by [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]]
* [[1741]]: ''[[Goldberg Variations]]'' for [[harpsichord]] published by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]]
* [[1742]]: ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]'', oratorio by [[Handel]] premiered in [[Dublin]]
* [[1749]]: ''[[Mass in B minor]]'' by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]] assembled in current form
* [[1751]]: ''[[The Art of Fugue]]'' by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]]
* [[1762]]: ''[[Orfeo ed Euridice]]'', first "reform opera" by [[Christoph Willibald von Gluck|Gluck]], performed in [[Vienna]]
* [[1786]]: ''[[The Marriage of Figaro]]'', opera by [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]
* [[1787]]: ''[[Don Giovanni]]'', opera by [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]
* [[1788]]: ''[[Symphony No. 41 (Mozart)|Jupiter Symphony]] (Symphony No.41)'' composed by [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]
* [[1791]]: ''[[The Magic Flute]]'', opera by [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]
* [[1791]]–[[1795]]: [[London symphonies]] by [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]]
* [[1798]]: The [[Piano Sonata No. 8 (Beethoven)|Pathétique]], piano sonata by [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]
* [[1798]]: ''[[The Creation (Haydn)|The Creation]]'', oratorio by [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]] first performed

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Black, Jeremy and Roy Porter, eds. ''A Dictionary of Eighteenth-Century World History'' (1994) 890pp
* Klekar, Cynthia. "Fictions of the Gift: Generosity and Obligation in Eighteenth-Century English Literature." Innovative Course Design Winner. ''American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies'': Wake Forest University, 2004. <[http://asecs.press.jhu.edu Home | American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies (ASECS)]>. Refereed.
* Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo00lang online free]
* Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. ''Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present'' (1970) [https://archive.org/details/harperencycloped00morr online]
* Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds. ''The economic development of continental Europe: 1780–1870 '' (1973) [https://archive.org/details/economicdevelopm0001milw online]; note there are two different books with identical authors and slightly different titles. Their coverfage does not overlap.
** Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds. ''The development of the economies of continental Europe, 1850–1914'' (1977) [https://archive.org/details/developmentofeco0000milw online]
* [[Wallace Collection|The Wallace Collection]], London, houses one of the finest collections of 18th-century decorative arts from France, England and Italy, including paintings, furniture, porcelain and gold boxes.

== External links ==
* {{commons category-inline}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:18th Century}}
[[Category:18th century| ]]
[[Category:2nd millennium]]
[[Category:Centuries]]
[[Category:Early modern period]]

18th century

2023-09-12T19:12:21Z

78.157.120.208: Date format to DMY

{{Short description|Time period between January 1, 1701, and December 31, 1800}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{other uses}}
{{Centurybox|18}}
[[File:1700 CE world map.PNG|thumb|Political boundaries at the beginning of year 1700]]
[[File:Prise de la Bastille.jpg|thumb|[[Storming of the Bastille]], July 14, 1789, an iconic event of the [[French Revolution]].]]
[[File:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|Development of the [[Watt steam engine]] in the late 18th century was an important element in the [[Industrial Revolution]] in Europe.]]
[[File:Surrender of Lord Cornwallis.jpg|thumb|The [[American Revolutionary War]] took place in the late 18th century.]]
The '''18th century''' lasted from 1 January [[1701]] (represented by the [[Roman numerals]] MDCCI) to 31 December [[1800]] (MDCCC). During the 18th century, elements of [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinking culminated in the [[American Revolution|American]], [[French Revolution|French]], and [[Haitian Revolution|Haitian Revolutions]]. During the century, [[History of slavery|slave trading]] and [[human trafficking]] expanded across the shores of the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], while declining in [[Russian Empire|Russia]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Volkov|first=Sergey|title=Concise History of Imperial Russia}}</ref> [[Qing dynasty|China]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rowe|first=William T.|title=China's Last Empire}}</ref> and [[Joseon|Korea]]. Revolutions began to challenge the legitimacy of monarchical and aristocratic power structures, including the structures and beliefs that [[Proslavery|supported slavery]]. The [[Industrial Revolution]] began during mid-century, leading to radical changes in [[Society|human society]] and the [[Natural environment|environment]].

Western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death of [[Louis XIV|Louis XIV of France]] and the start of the French Revolution, with an emphasis on directly interconnected events.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anderson, M. S. |url=https://archive.org/details/historianseighte0000ande |title=Historians and Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1715–1789 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-19-822548-5 |oclc=185538307 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Ribeiro, Aileen |title=Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe 1715–1789 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-300-09151-9 |edition=revised |oclc=186413657}}</ref> To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century<ref name="Baines">{{cite book |last=Baines |first=Paul |title=The Long 18th Century |publisher=Arnold |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-340-81372-0 |location=London}}</ref> may run from the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688 to the [[Battle of Waterloo]] in 1815<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford History of the British Empire) |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-924677-9 |editor=Marshall, P. J. |oclc=174866045}}, "Introduction" by P. J. Marshall, page 1</ref> or even later.<ref>{{cite book |author=O'Gorman, Frank |url=https://archive.org/details/longeighteenthce0000ogor |title=The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (The Arnold History of Britain Series) |publisher=A Hodder Arnold Publication |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-340-56751-7 |oclc=243883533 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

The period is also known as the "century of lights" or the "century of reason". In continental Europe, philosophers dreamed of a brighter age. For some, this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789, though this was later compromised by the excesses of the [[Reign of Terror]]. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but in the wake of the French Revolution they feared loss of power and formed broad coalitions to oppose the [[French First Republic|French Republic]] in the [[French Revolutionary Wars]].

The 18th century also marked the end of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] as an independent state. Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to rival the neighboring states of [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]], and [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]], which [[Partitions of Poland|partitioned]] the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth between themselves, changing the landscape of [[Central Europe]] and politics for the next hundred years.

The [[Ottoman Empire]] experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking no part in European wars from 1740 to 1768. As a result, the empire was not exposed to Europe's military improvements during the [[Seven Years' War]]. The Ottoman Empire military consequently lagged behind and suffered several defeats against Russia in the second half of the century. In [[Western Asia|Southwest]] and [[Central Asia]], [[Nader Shah]] led successful military campaigns and major invasions, which indirectly led to the founding of the [[Durrani Empire]].

The [[European colonization of the Americas]] and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as part of the [[Age of Sail]]. European colonization intensified in present-day [[Indonesia]], where the [[Dutch East India Company]] established increasing levels of control over the [[Mataram Sultanate]]. Mainland Southeast Asia would be embroiled in the [[Burmese–Siamese wars|Konbaung–Ayutthaya Wars]] and the [[Tây Sơn dynasty|Tây Sơn rebellion]], while in East Asia, the century marked the [[High Qing era]] and the continual [[Sakoku|seclusion policies]] of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]].

Various conflicts throughout the century, including the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] and the [[Seven Years' War]], saw the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] triumph over its European rivals to become the preeminent power in Europe. However, Britain's massive success in North America would prove to be short-lived. Due to its more than century-old [[Salutary neglect|colonial policies]] in [[British America|North America]], Britain's attempts to exert its authority over its [[Thirteen Colonies|colonies]] became a catalyst for the [[American Revolution]]. This revolution eventually led to the [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]]. After this war, Britain's North American colonies would go on to establish the [[United States]], a [[Republic|republic]] informed by principles of the [[American Enlightenment]], marking the start of the [[decolonization of the Americas]], though Britain would keep its possessions in [[British North America|Canada]] and the [[British West Indies|West Indies]]. The European colonization of [[History of Australia (1788–1850)|Australia]] and [[History of New Zealand|New Zealand]] also began during the late half of the century.

In the [[Indian subcontinent]], the death of [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]] [[Aurangzeb]] marked the end of [[medieval India]] and the beginning of an increasing level of European [[Colonial India|influence and control]] in the region, which coincided with a period of rapid [[Maratha Empire|Maratha expansion]]. After the reign of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire became less powerful. In 1739, [[Nader Shah]] invaded and defeated the Mughal Empire. Later, his general [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah Abdali]] scored another defeat against the Mughals in the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] in 1761.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Chandra |first=Bipin |title=Mordern India |location=India |language=en}}</ref> By the middle of the century, the [[East India Company|British East India Company]] began to conquer the eastern parts of India, a process which accelerated after their victory over the Mughal emperor, [[Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad|Nawab of Bengal]] and their [[French East India Company|French allies]] at the [[Battle of Plassey]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=John |author-link1=John Campbell (author) |first2=William |last2=Watts |year=1760 |title=Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, anno Dom. 1757 |url=https://www.wdl.org/en/item/2384/ |publisher=A. Millar, London}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Mughal emperor transformed into mere puppet of British.<ref name=":0" /> By the end of the century, [[Company rule in India]] had come to cover more regions within [[South Asia]], the British would also expand to the south, participating in the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] against the [[Kingdom of Mysore]], governed by [[Tipu Sultan]] and his father [[Hyder Ali]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |page=207 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA207}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Allana |first=Gulam |title=Muslim political thought through the ages: 1562–1947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nbiAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 January 2013 |year=1988 |edition=2 |publisher=Royal Book Company |location=Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania |page=78|isbn=9789694070919 }}</ref>

==Events==
{{For timeline}}
{{see also|Georgian era}}

===1701–1750===
[[File:Europe, 1700 - 1714.png|thumb|upright|Europe at the beginning of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], 1700]]
[[File:Marten's Poltava.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709 turned the [[Russian Empire]] into a European power.]]
[[File:Marlborough-duke-first.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough]]]]
* [[1700]]–[[1721]]: [[Great Northern War]] between the [[Russian Empire|Russian]] and [[Swedish Empire]]s.
* [[1701]]: [[Kingdom of Prussia]] declared under King [[Frederick I of Prussia|Frederick I]].
* [[1701]]: The [[Battle of Feyiase]] marks the rise of the [[Ashanti Empire]].
* [[1701]]–[[1714]]: The [[War of the Spanish Succession]] is fought, involving most of continental [[Louis XIV of France#War of the Spanish Succession|Europe]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_spanishsuccession.html |title=War of the Spanish Succession, 1701–1714 |publisher=Historyofwar.org |access-date=2009-04-25}}</ref>
* [[1702]]–[[1715]]: [[Camisards|Camisard rebellion]] in France.
* [[1703]]: [[Saint Petersburg]] is founded by [[Peter the Great]]; it is the Russian [[Capital (political)|capital]] until [[1918]].
* [[1703]]–[[1711]]: The [[Rákóczi's War of Independence|Rákóczi uprising]] against the [[Habsburg monarchy]].
* [[1704]]: End of Japan's [[Genroku]] period.
* [[1704]]: [[First Javanese War of Succession]].<ref name="RICKLEFSp82">Ricklefs (1991), page 82</ref>
* [[1706]]–[[1713]]: The [[War of the Spanish Succession]]: French troops defeated at the battles of [[Battle of Ramillies|Ramillies]] and [[Battle of Turin|Turin]].
* [[1707]]: Death of Mughal Emperor [[Aurangzeb]] leads to the fragmentation of the [[Mughal Empire]].
* [[1707]]: The [[Act of Union 1707|Act of Union]] is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments, thus establishing the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Historic uk – heritage of britain accommodation guide |url=http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/ActofUnion.htm |title=The history of Scotland – The Act of Union 1707 |publisher=Historic-uk.com |date=2007-05-03 |access-date=2009-04-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090408060918/http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/ActofUnion.htm |archive-date= 8 April 2009 |url-status= live}}</ref>
* [[1708]]: The [[East India Company|Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies]] and English Company Trading to the East Indies merge to form the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies.
* [[1708]]–[[1709]]: Famine kills one-third of [[East Prussia]]'s population.
* [[1709]]: Foundation of the [[Hotak dynasty|Hotak Afghan Empire]].
* [[1709]]: The [[Great Frost of 1709]] marks the coldest winter in 500 years, contributing to the defeat of [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]] at [[Battle of Poltava|Poltava]].
* [[1710]]: The world's first [[Copyright law|copyright legislation]], [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]]'s [[Statute of Anne]], takes effect.
* [[1710]]–[[1711]]: [[Ottoman Empire]] fights Russia in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)|Russo-Turkish War]] and regains [[Azov]].
* [[1711]]: [[Khanate of Bukhara|Bukhara Khanate]] dissolves as local begs seize power.
* [[1711]]–[[1715]]: [[Tuscarora War]] between British, Dutch, and German settlers and the [[Tuscarora people]] of [[North Carolina]].
* [[1713]]: The [[Kangxi Emperor]] acknowledges the full recovery of the Chinese economy since its apex during the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]].
* [[1714]]: In Amsterdam, [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] invents the [[mercury-in-glass thermometer]], which remains the most reliable and accurate thermometer until the electronic era.
* [[1715]]: The [[Jacobite rising of 1715|first Jacobite rising]] breaks out; the British halt the Jacobite advance at the [[Battle of Sheriffmuir]]; [[Battle of Preston (1715)|Battle of Preston]].
* [[1716]]: Establishment of the [[Misl|Sikh Confederacy]] along the present-day India-[[Pakistan]] border.
* [[1714|1716]]–[[1718]]: [[Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)|Austro-Venetian-Turkish War]].
* [[1718]]: The city of [[New Orleans]] is founded by the French in North America.
* [[1718]]–[[1720]]: [[War of the Quadruple Alliance]] between Spain, France, Britain, Austria, and the Netherlands.
* [[1718]]–[[1730]]: [[Tulip period]] of the Ottoman Empire.
* [[1719]]: [[Second Javanese War of Succession]].<ref name="RICKLEFSp84">Ricklefs (1991), page 84</ref>
* [[1720]]: The [[South Sea Bubble]].
* [[1720]]–[[1721]]: The [[Great Plague of Marseille]].
* [[1720]]: Qing forces oust [[Dzungar Khanate|Dzungar]] invaders from [[Khoshut Khanate|Tibet]].
* [[1721]]: The [[Treaty of Nystad]] is signed, ending the [[Great Northern War]].
* [[1721]]: [[Sack of Shamakhi]], massacre of its Shia population by [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Lezgins]].
* [[1722]]: [[Siege of Isfahan]] results in the handover of Iran to the [[Hotak dynasty|Hotaki Afghans]].
* [[1722]]–[[1723]]: [[Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)|Russo-Persian War]].
* [[1722]]–[[1725]]: Controversy over [[William Wood (Mintmaster)|William Wood]]'s halfpence leads to the ''[[Drapier's Letters]]'' and begins the Irish economic independence from England movement.[[File:7 Muhammad Shah and Nadir Shah. 1740, Musee Guimet, Paris.jpg|thumb|upright|Mughal emperor [[Muhammad Shah]] with the Persian invader [[Nader Shah]].]]
* [[1723]]: [[Slavery]] is abolished in Russia; [[Peter the Great]] converts household [[Slavery in medieval Europe#Slavery in Russia|slaves]] into house [[serfs]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |date=1910-01-31 |access-date=2009-04-25| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090416090645/https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160| archive-date= 16 April 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>
* [[1723]]–[[1730]]: The "Great Disaster", an invasion of [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] territories by the [[Dzungars]].
* [[1723]]–[[1732]]: The Qing and the Dzungars fight a series of wars across [[Qinghai]], [[Dzungaria]], and [[Outer Mongolia]], with inconclusive results.
* [[1724]]: [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] proposes the [[Fahrenheit]] temperature scale.
* [[1725]]: [[Peace of Vienna (1725)|Austro-Spanish alliance]] revived. Russia joins in 1726.
* [[1727]]–[[1729]]: [[Anglo-Spanish War (1727–1729)|Anglo-Spanish War]] ends inconclusively.

* [[1730]]: [[Mahmud I]] takes over Ottoman Empire after the [[Patrona Halil]] revolt, ending the [[Tulip period]].
* [[1730]]–[[1760]]: The [[First Great Awakening]] takes place in Great Britain and North America.
* [[1732]]–[[1734]]: [[Crimean Khanate|Crimean Tatar]] raids into Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/russia/milxcrimeantatars.html |title=List of Wars of the Crimean Tatars |publisher=Zum.de |access-date=2009-04-25| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090312034756/http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/russia/milxcrimeantatars.html| archive-date= 12 March 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>
*[[1733]]–[[1738]]: [[War of the Polish Succession]].[[File:Portrait of the Qianlong Emperor in Court Dress.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Qianlong Emperor]]]]
* [[1735]]–[[1739]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)|Austro-Russo-Turkish War]].
* [[1735]]–[[1799]]: The [[Qianlong Emperor]] of China oversees a huge expansion in territory.
* [[1738]]–[[1756]]: [[List of famines|Famine]] across the [[Sahel]]; half the population of [[Timbuktu]] dies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |title=Len Milich: Anthropogenic Desertification vs 'Natural' Climate Trends |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date=1997-08-10 |access-date=2009-04-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211081648/http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |archive-date=2012-02-11 }}</ref>
* [[1737]]–[[1738]]: Hotaki Afghan Empire ends after the [[Siege of Kandahar]] by [[Nader Shah]].
* [[1739]]: Great Britain and Spain fight the [[War of Jenkins' Ear]] in the Caribbean.
* [[1739]]: Nader Shah defeats a pan-Indian army of 300,000 at the [[Battle of Karnal]]. Taxation is stopped in Iran for three years.
* [[1739]]–[[1740]]: [[Nader Shah's Sindh expedition]].
* [[1740]]: [[George Whitefield]] brings the [[First Great Awakening]] to New England
* [[1740]]–[[1741]]: [[Great Irish Famine (1740–1741)|Famine in Ireland]] kills 20 percent of the population.
* [[1741]]–[[1743]]: Iran invades [[Khanate of Bukhara|Uzbekistan]], [[Khanate of Khiva|Khwarazm]], [[Dagestan]], and [[Omani Empire|Oman]].
* [[1741]]–[[1751]]: [[Maratha invasions of Bengal]].
* [[1740]]–[[1748]]: [[War of the Austrian Succession]].
* [[1742]]:
** [[Marvel's Mill]], the first water-powered [[cotton mill]], begins operation in England.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wadsworth |first1=Alfred P. |last2=Mann |first2=Julia De Lacy |year=1931 |title=The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 1600–1780 |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |oclc=2859370 |page=433}}</ref>
** [[Anders Celsius]] proposes an inverted form of the centigrade temperature, which is later renamed [[Celsius]] in his honor.
* [[1742]]: Premiere of [[Handel]]'s [[Messiah (Handel)|''Messiah'']]
* [[1743]]–[[1746]]: Another [[Ottoman–Persian War (1743–1746)|Ottoman-Persian War]] involves 375,000 men but ultimately ends in a stalemate.[[File:The Battle of Culloden.jpg|thumb|upright|The extinction of the [[Scottish clan]] system came with the defeat of the clansmen at the [[Battle of Culloden]] in 1746.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unique-cottages.co.uk/unspoilt/20/clans |title=A guide to Scottish clans |publisher=Unique-cottages.co.uk |access-date=2009-04-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080511181304/http://www.unique-cottages.co.uk/unspoilt/20/clans |archive-date = May 11, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
* [[1744]]: The [[First Saudi State]] is founded by [[Mohammed Ibn Saud]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm |title=Saudi Arabia – The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=2009-04-25}}</ref>
* [[1744]]: [[Battle of Toulon (1744)|Battle of Toulon]] is fought off the coast of France.
* [[1744]]–[[1748]]: The [[Carnatic Wars|First Carnatic War]] is fought between the British, the French, the [[Marathas]], and [[Mysore]] in India.
* [[1745]]: [[Jacobite rising of 1745|Second Jacobite rising]] is begun by [[Charles Edward Stuart]] in Scotland.
* [[1747]]: The [[Durrani Empire]] is founded by [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]].
* [[1748]]: The [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle]] ends the War of the Austrian Succession and First Carnatic War.
* [[1748]]–[[1754]]: The [[Carnatic Wars|Second Carnatic War]] is fought between the British, the French, the [[Marathas]], and [[Mysore]] in India.
* [[1750]]: Peak of the [[Little Ice Age]].

===1751–1800===
* [[1752]]: The [[British Empire]] adopts the [[Gregorian Calendar]], skipping 11 days from 3 September to 13 September. On the calendar, 2 September is followed directly by 14 September.
* [[1754]]: The Treaty of Pondicherry ends the Second Carnatic War and recognizes [[Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah]] as [[Nawab of the Carnatic]].
* [[1754]]: [[Columbia University|King's College]] is founded by a royal charter of [[George II of Great Britain]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/content/history.html|title=History|publisher=Columbia University}}</ref>
* [[1754]]–[[1763]]: The [[French and Indian War]], the North American chapter of the [[Seven Years' War]], is fought in colonial North America, mostly by the French and their allies against the English and their allies.
* [[1755]]: The [[1755 Lisbon earthquake|great Lisbon earthquake]] destroys most of [[Portugal]]'s capital and kills up to 100,000.
* [[1755]]: The [[Dzungar genocide]] depopulates much of northern Xinjiang, allowing for Han, Uyghur, Khalkha Mongol, and Manchu colonization.
* [[1755]]–[[1763]]: The [[Expulsion of the Acadians|Great Upheaval]] forces transfer of the French Acadian population from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
* [[1756]]–[[1763]]: The [[Seven Years' War]] is fought among European powers in various theaters around the world.
* [[1756]]–[[1763]]: The [[Third Carnatic War]] is fought between the British, the French, and [[Mysore]] in India.
* [[1757]]: [[Battle of Plassey|British conquest of Bengal]].
[[File:Catherinethegreatroslin.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Catherine the Great]], Empress of Russia.]]
* [[1760]]: [[George III]] becomes King of Britain.
* [[1761]]: Maratha Empire defeated at [[Battle of Panipat (1761)|Battle of Panipat]].
* [[1762]]–[[1796]]: Reign of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine the Great]] of Russia.
* [[1763]]: The [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] ends the Seven Years' War and Third Carnatic War.
* [[1764]]: [[Dahomey]] and the [[Oyo Empire]] defeat the [[military of the Ashanti Empire|Ashanti army]] at the [[Battle of Atakpamé]].
* [[1764]]: The Mughals are defeated at the [[Battle of Buxar]].
* [[1765]]: The [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]] is introduced into the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]] by the British Parliament.
* [[1767|1765–1767]]: The [[Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767)|Burmese invade Thailand]] and utterly destroy [[Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (city)|Attuthaya]].
* [[1765]]–[[1769]]: [[Konbaung dynasty|Burma]] under [[Hsinbyushin]] repels [[Sino-Burmese War|four invasions]] from Qing China, securing hegemony over the [[Shan States|Shan states]].
* [[1766]]: [[Christian VII of Denmark|Christian VII]] becomes king of Denmark. He was [[Danish Realm|king of Denmark]] to [[1808]].
* [[1766]]–[[1799]]: [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]].
* [[1767]]: [[Taksin]] expels Burmese invaders and reunites Thailand under an authoritarian regime.
* [[1768]]–[[1772]]: [[War of the Bar Confederation]].
* [[1768]]–[[1774]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)|Russo-Turkish War]].
* [[1769]]: Spanish [[missionary|missionaries]] establish the first of 21 [[Spanish Missions of California|missions]] in [[California]].
* [[1769]]–[[1770]]: [[James Cook]] explores and maps New Zealand and Australia.
* [[1769]]–[[1773]]: The [[Bengal famine of 1770]] kills one-third of the [[Bengal]] population.
* [[1769]]: The [[French East India Company]] dissolves, only to be revived in 1785.
* [[1769]]: French expeditions capture [[clove]] plants in [[Ambon Island|Ambon]], ending the VOC monopoly of the plant.<ref name="RICKLEFSp102">Ricklefs (1991), page 102</ref> (to 1772)

* [[1770]]–[[1771]]: [[Famines in Czech lands|Famine in Czech lands]] kills hundreds of thousands.
* [[1771]]: The [[Plague Riot]] in Moscow.
* [[1771]]: The [[Kalmyk Khanate]] dissolves as the territory becomes colonized by Russians. More than a hundred thousand [[Kalmyks]] migrate back to [[Xinjiang under Qing rule|Qing Dzungaria]].
* [[1772]]: [[Gustav III of Sweden]] stages a coup d'état, becoming almost an absolute monarch.[[File:Encyclopedie de D'Alembert et Diderot - Premiere Page - ENC 1-NA5.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers]]]]
* [[1772]]–[[1779]]: Maratha Empire fights Britain and [[Raghunathrao]]'s forces during the [[First Anglo-Maratha War]].
* [[1772]]–[[1795]]: The [[Partitions of Poland]] end the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and erase Poland from the map for 123 years.
* [[1773]]–[[1775]]: [[Pugachev's Rebellion]], the largest peasant revolt in Russian history.
* [[1773]]: East India Company starts operations in [[Bengal]] to smuggle [[First Opium War|opium into China]].
* [[1775]]: Russia imposes a reduction in autonomy on the [[Zaporozhian Sich|Zaporizhian Cossacks]] of Ukraine.
* [[1775]]–[[1782]]: [[First Anglo-Maratha War]].
* [[1775]]–[[1783]]: [[American Revolutionary War]].
* [[1776]]: Several [[Kongsi republic|Kongsi Republics]] are founded by Chinese settlers in the island of [[Borneo]]. They are some of the first democracies in Asia.
* [[1776]]–[[1777]]: [[Spanish–Portuguese War (1776–1777)|A Spanish-Portuguese War]] occurs over land in the South American frontiers.
* [[1776]]: [[Illuminati]] founded by [[Adam Weishaupt]].
* [[1776]]: The [[United States Declaration of Independence]] is adopted by the [[Continental Congress]] in [[Philadelphia]].
* [[1776]]: [[Adam Smith]] publishes ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]''.
* [[1778]]: [[James Cook]] becomes the first European to land on the [[Hawaiian Islands]].
* [[1778]]: [[Franco-American alliance]] signed.
* [[1778]]: Spain acquires its [[Spanish Guinea|first permanent holding in Africa]] from the Portuguese, which is administered by the newly-established [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata|La Plata Viceroyalty]].
* [[1778]]: [[Đại Việt|Vietnam]] is reunified for the first time in 200 years by the [[Tây Sơn dynasty|Tay Son brothers]]. The [[Tây Sơn dynasty]] has been established, terminated the [[Lê dynasty]]
* [[1779]]–[[1879]]: [[Xhosa Wars]] between British and [[Boer]] settlers and the [[Xhosa people|Xhosas]] in the [[South African Republic]].
* [[1779]]–[[1783]]: [[Spain and the American Revolutionary War|Britain loses several islands and colonial outposts all over the world]] to the combined Franco-Spanish navy.
* [[1779]]: Iran enters yet another period of conflict and civil war after the prosperous reign of [[Karim Khan Zand]].

* [[1780]]: Outbreak of the [[Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II|indigenous rebellion]] against Spanish colonization led by [[Túpac Amaru II]] in [[Peru]].
* [[1781]]: The city of Los Angeles is founded by [[Spaniards|Spanish]] settlers.[[File:Portrait of George Washington-transparent.png|thumb|upright|[[George Washington]]]]
* [[1781]]–[[1785]]: [[Serfdom]] is abolished in the [[Habsburg monarchy|Austrian monarchy]] (first step; second step in [[1848]]).
* [[1782]]: The [[Thonburi Kingdom]] of Thailand is dissolved after a palace coup.
* [[1783]]: The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] formally ends the [[American Revolutionary War]].
* [[1783]]: Russian annexation of [[Crimean Khanate|Crimea]].
* [[1785]]–[[1791]]: Imam [[Sheikh Mansur]], a [[Chechen people|Chechen]] warrior and Muslim mystic, leads a coalition of Muslim [[Peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasian tribes]] from throughout the [[Caucasus]] in a [[Jihad|holy war]] against Russian settlers and military bases in the Caucasus, as well as against local traditionalists, who followed the traditional customs and common law (Adat) rather than the theocratic Sharia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicsupremecouncil.org/bin/site/wrappers/spirituality-sufism_caucasus.html |title=Sufism in the Caucasus |publisher=Islamicsupremecouncil.org |access-date=2009-04-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090223235641/http://www.islamicsupremecouncil.org/bin/site/wrappers/spirituality-sufism_caucasus.html |archive-date = February 23, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[1785]]–[[1795]]: The [[Northwest Indian War]] is fought between the United States and [[Indigenous peoples in the United States|Native Americans]].
* [[1785]]–[[1787]]: [[Maratha–Mysore Wars|The Maratha-Mysore War]] concludes with an exchange of territories in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]].
* [[1786]]–[[1787]]: [[Mozart]] premieres [[The Marriage of Figaro]] and [[Don Giovanni]]
* [[1787]]: The [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] occupies Timbuktu until the 19th century.
* [[1787]]–[[1792]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)|Russo-Turkish War]].
* [[1788]]: [[First Fleet]] arrives in Australia
* [[1788]]–[[1790]]: [[Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790)]].[[File:Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]]]
* [[1788]]–[[1789]]: A Qing attempt to reinstall an exiled [[Lê Chiêu Thống|Vietnamese king]] in northern Vietnam [[Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa|ends in disaster]].
* [[1789]]: [[George Washington]] is elected the first [[President of the United States]]; he serves until [[1797]].
* [[1789]] : [[Quang Trung]] defeated the [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] army
* [[1789]]–[[1799]]: [[French Revolution]].

* [[1789]]: The [[Liège Revolution]].
* [[1789]]: The [[Brabant Revolution]].
* [[1789]]: The [[Inconfidência Mineira]], an unsuccessful separatist movement in central Brazil led by [[Tiradentes]]
* [[1791]]: Suppression of the [[Liège Revolution]] by [[Holy Roman Empire|Austrian]] forces and re-establishment of the [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège]].
* [[1791]]–[[1795]]: [[George Vancouver]] explores the world during the [[Vancouver Expedition]].
* [[1791]]–[[1804]]: The [[Haitian Revolution]].
* [[1791]]: [[Mozart]] premieres [[The Magic Flute]]
* [[1792]]–[[1802]]: The [[French Revolutionary Wars]] lead into the [[Napoleonic Wars]], which last from [[1803]]–[[1815]].
* [[1792]]: The [[New York Stock Exchange|New York Stock & Exchange Board]] is founded.
* [[1792]]: [[Polish–Russian War of 1792]].
* [[1793]]: [[Upper Canada]] [[Act Against Slavery|bans slavery]].
* [[1793]]: The largest [[1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic|yellow fever epidemic]] in American history kills as many as 5,000 people in [[Philadelphia]], roughly 10% of the population.<ref>{{cite web | title=Yellow Fever Attacks Philadelphia, 1793 | work=EyeWitness to History|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/yellowfever.htm|access-date=2007-06-22| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070607233805/http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/yellowfever.htm| archive-date= 7 June 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref>
* [[1793]]–[[1796]]: [[Revolt in the Vendée]] against the French Republic at the time of the [[French Revolution|Revolution]].
* [[1794]]–[[1816]]: The [[Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars]], which were a series of incidents between settlers and [[New South Wales Corps]] and the [[Aboriginal Australian]] clans of the [[Hawkesbury River|Hawkesbury river]] in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]].
* [[1795]]: The [[Marseillaise]] is officially adopted as the French [[national anthem]].[[File:1801 Antoine-Jean Gros - Bonaparte on the Bridge at Arcole.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Napoleon]] at the [[Battle of the Bridge of Arcole|Bridge of the Arcole]]]]
* [[1795]]: The [[Battle of Nuʻuanu]] in the final days of [[Kamehameha I|King Kamehameha I's]] wars to [[Unification of Hawaii|unify]] the [[Hawaiian Islands]].
* [[1795]]–[[1796]]: [[Battle of Krtsanisi|Iran invades and devastates Georgia]], prompting [[Persian expedition of 1796|Russia to intervene and march on Tehran]].
* [[1796]]: [[Edward Jenner]] administers the first [[smallpox vaccination]]; [[smallpox]] killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year during the 18th century, including five reigning [[monarch]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Riedel S |title=Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination |journal=Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=21–5 |year=2005 |pmid=16200144 |doi= 10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028|pmc=1200696}}</ref>
* [[1796]]: [[War of the First Coalition]]: The [[Battle of Montenotte]] marks [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]'s first victory as an army commander.
* [[1796]]: The British eject the Dutch from [[Ceylon]] and [[Dutch Cape Colony|South Africa]].
* [[1796]]–[[1804]]: The [[White Lotus Rebellion]] against the [[Manchu dynasty]] in China.
* [[1798]]: The [[Irish Rebellion of 1798|Irish Rebellion]] fails to overthrow [[British rule in Ireland]].
* [[1798]]–[[1800]]: The [[Quasi-War]] is fought between the United States and France.
* [[1799]]: [[Dutch East India Company]] is dissolved.
* [[1799]]: [[Austro-Russian Alliance (1781)|Austro-Russian]] forces under [[Alexander Suvorov]] [[Italian and Swiss expedition|liberates much of Italy and Switzerland]] from French occupation.
* [[1799]]: [[Coup of 18 Brumaire]] - [[Napoleon's]] [[coup d'etat]] brings the end of the [[French Revolution]].
* [[1799]]: Death of the Qianlong Emperor after [[High Qing era|60 years of rule over China]]. His favorite official, [[Heshen]], is ordered to commit suicide.
* [[1800]]: On 1 January, the bankrupt [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) is formally dissolved and the nationalised [[Dutch East Indies]] are established.<ref name="RICKLEFSp106">Ricklefs (1991), page 106</ref>

==Inventions, discoveries, introductions==
{{main|Timeline of historic inventions#18th century|Timeline of scientific discoveries#18th century}}
[[File:Spinning jenny.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[spinning jenny]]]]
* [[1709]]: The first [[piano]] was built by [[Bartolomeo Cristofori]]
* [[1711]]: [[Tuning fork]] was invented by John Shore
* [[1712]]: [[Steam engine]] invented by [[Thomas Newcomen]]
* [[1714]]: [[Mercury thermometer]] by [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]]
* [[1717]]: [[Diving bell]] was successfully tested by [[Edmond Halley]], sustainable to a depth of 55 ft
* c. [[1730]]: [[Octant (instrument)|Octant]] navigational tool was developed by [[John Hadley]] in England, and [[Thomas Godfrey (inventor)|Thomas Godfrey]] in America
* [[1733]]: [[Flying shuttle]] invented by [[John Kay (flying shuttle)|John Kay]]
* [[1736]]: Europeans encountered [[rubber]] – the discovery was made by [[Charles Marie de La Condamine]] while on expedition in South America. It was named in [[1770]] by [[Joseph Priestley]]
* c. [[1740]]: Modern [[steel]] was developed by [[Benjamin Huntsman]]
* [[1741]]: [[Vitus Bering]] discovers Alaska
* [[1745]]: [[Leyden jar]] invented by [[Ewald Georg von Kleist]] was the first electrical [[capacitor]]
* [[1751]]: [[Jacques de Vaucanson]] perfects the first precision [[lathe]]
* [[1752]]: [[Lightning rod]] invented by [[Benjamin Franklin]]
* [[1753]]: The first [[clock]] to be built in the New World (North America) was invented by [[Benjamin Banneker]].
* [[1755]]: The tallest ''wooden'' [[Bodhisattva]] statue in the world is erected at [[Puning Temple (Hebei)|Puning Temple]], [[Chengde]], China.
* [[1764]]: [[Spinning jenny]] created by [[James Hargreaves]] brought on the [[Industrial Revolution]]
* [[1765]]: [[James Watt]] enhances Newcomen's steam engine, allowing new [[steel]] technologies
* [[1761]]: The problem of [[longitude]] was finally resolved by the fourth [[marine chronometer|chronometer]] of [[John Harrison]]
* [[1763]]: [[Thomas Bayes]] publishes first version of [[Bayes' theorem]], paving the way for [[Bayesian probability]]
* [[1768]]–[[1779]]: [[James Cook]] mapped the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean and discovered many [[Pacific Islands]]
* [[1774]]: [[Joseph Priestley]] discovers "dephlogisticated air", oxygen[[File:Red building Putuo Zongcheng Temple.JPG|thumb|upright|The Chinese [[Putuo Zongcheng Temple]] of [[Chengde]], completed in 1771, during the reign of the [[Qianlong Emperor]].]]
* [[1775]]: [[Joseph Priestley's]] first synthesis of "phlogisticated nitrous air", nitrous oxide, "laughing gas"
* [[1776]]: First improved steam engines installed by [[James Watt]]
* [[1776]]: [[Steamboat]] invented by [[Claude de Jouffroy]]
* [[1777]]: [[Circular saw]] invented by Samuel Miller
* [[1779]]: [[Photosynthesis]] was first discovered by [[Jan Ingenhousz]]
* [[1781]]: [[William Herschel]] announces discovery of Uranus
* [[1784]]: [[Bifocals]] invented by [[Benjamin Franklin]]
* [[1784]]: [[Argand lamp]] invented by [[Aimé Argand]]<ref>[http://corporate.britannica.com/press/inventions.html Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions], [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080807163707/http://corporate.britannica.com/press/inventions.html |date=August 7, 2008 }}</ref>
* [[1785]]: [[Power loom]] invented by [[Edmund Cartwright]]
* [[1785]]: [[Production line|Automatic flour mill]] invented by [[Oliver Evans]]
* [[1786]]: [[Threshing machine]] invented by [[Andrew Meikle]]
* [[1787]]: [[Jacques Charles]] discovers [[Charles's law]]
* [[1789]]: [[Antoine Lavoisier]] discovers the law of conservation of mass, the basis for chemistry, and begins modern chemistry
* [[1798]]: [[Edward Jenner]] publishes a treatise about [[smallpox]] [[vaccination]]
* [[1798]]: The [[Lithography|Lithographic printing process]] invented by [[Alois Senefelder]]<ref>Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. (1998) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p 146 {{ISBN|978-0-471-29198-5}}</ref>
* [[1799]]: [[Rosetta Stone]] discovered by [[Napoleon]]'s troops

==Literary and philosophical achievements==
{{main|18th century in literature|18th century in philosophy}}
* [[1703]]: ''[[The Love Suicides at Sonezaki]]'' by [[Chikamatsu]] first performed
* [[1704]]–[[1717]]: ''[[One Thousand and One Nights]]'' translated into French by [[Antoine Galland]]. The work becomes immensely popular throughout Europe.
* [[1704]]: ''[[A Tale of a Tub]]'' by [[Jonathan Swift]] first published
* [[1712]]: ''[[The Rape of the Lock]]'' by [[Alexander Pope]] (publication of first version)
* [[1719]]: ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' by [[Daniel Defoe]]
* [[1725]]: ''The New Science'' by [[Giambattista Vico]]
* [[1726]]: ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' by [[Jonathan Swift]]
* [[1728]]: ''[[The Dunciad]]'' by [[Alexander Pope]] (publication of first version)
* [[1744]]: ''[[A Little Pretty Pocket-Book]]'' becomes one of the first [[Children's literature#History|books marketed for children]]
* [[1748]]: ''[[Chushingura]]'' (''The Treasury of Loyal Retainers''), popular Japanese [[bunraku|puppet play]], composed
* [[1748]]: ''[[Clarissa]]'' by [[Samuel Richardson]]
* [[1749]]: ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling]]'' by [[Henry Fielding]]
* [[1751]]: ''[[Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard]]'' by [[Thomas Gray]] published
* [[1751]]–[[1785]]: The French [[Encyclopédie]]
* [[1755]]: ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' by [[Samuel Johnson]]
* [[1758]]: ''Arithmetika Horvatzka'' by [[Mihalj Šilobod Bolšić]]
* [[1759]]: ''[[Candide]]'' by [[Voltaire]]
* [[1759]]: ''[[The Theory of Moral Sentiments]]'' by [[Adam Smith]]
* [[1759]]–[[1767]]: ''[[Tristram Shandy]]'' by [[Laurence Sterne]]
* [[1762]]: ''[[Emile: or, On Education]]'' by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]
* [[1762]]: ''[[Social Contract (Rousseau)|The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right]]'' by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]
* [[1774]]: ''[[The Sorrows of Young Werther]]'' by [[Goethe]] first published
* [[1776]]: {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Ugetsu Monogatari]]}} (''Tales of Moonlight and Rain'') by [[Ueda Akinari]]
* [[1776]]: ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'', foundation of the modern theory of economy, was published by [[Adam Smith]]
* [[1776]]–[[1789]]: ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' was published by [[Edward Gibbon]]
* [[1779]]: ''[[Amazing Grace]]'' published by [[John Newton]]
* [[1779]]–[[1782]]: ''[[Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets]]'' by [[Samuel Johnson]]
* [[1781]]: ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' by [[Immanuel Kant]] (publication of first edition)
* [[1781]]: ''[[The Robbers]]'' by [[Friedrich Schiller]] first published
* [[1782]]: ''[[Les Liaisons dangereuses]]'' by [[Pierre Choderlos de Laclos]]
* [[1786]]: ''[[Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect]]'' by [[Robert Burns]]
* [[1787]]–[[1788]]: ''[[The Federalist Papers]]'' by [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[James Madison]], and [[John Jay]]
* [[1788]]: ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' by [[Immanuel Kant]]
* [[1789]]: ''[[Songs of Innocence]]'' by [[William Blake]]
* [[1789]]: ''[[The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano]]'' by [[Olaudah Equiano]]
* [[1790]]: ''[[Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow]]'' by [[Alexander Radishchev]]
* [[1790]]: ''[[Reflections on the Revolution in France]]'' by [[Edmund Burke]]
* [[1791]]: ''[[Rights of Man]]'' by [[Thomas Paine]]
* [[1792]]: ''[[A Vindication of the Rights of Woman]]'' by [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]
* [[1794]]: ''[[Songs of Experience]]'' by [[William Blake]]
* [[1798]]: ''[[Lyrical Ballads]]'' by [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]
* [[1798]]: ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]'' published by [[Thomas Malthus]]
* (mid-18th century): ''[[The Dream of the Red Chamber]]'' (authorship attributed to [[Cao Xueqin]]), one of the most famous Chinese novels

==Musical works==
* [[1711]]: ''[[Rinaldo (opera)|Rinaldo]]'', [[Handel]]'s first opera for the London stage, premiered
* [[1721]]: ''[[Brandenburg Concertos]]'' by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]]
* [[1723]]: ''[[The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)|The Four Seasons]]'', violin concertos by [[Antonio Vivaldi]], composed
* [[1724]]: ''[[St John Passion]]'' by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]]
* [[1727]]: ''[[St Matthew Passion]]'' composed by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]]
* [[1727]]: ''[[Zadok the Priest]]'' is composed by [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]] for the coronation of [[George II of Great Britain]]. It has been performed at every subsequent British coronation.
* [[1733]]: ''[[Hippolyte et Aricie]]'', first opera by [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]]
* [[1741]]: ''[[Goldberg Variations]]'' for [[harpsichord]] published by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]]
* [[1742]]: ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]'', oratorio by [[Handel]] premiered in [[Dublin]]
* [[1749]]: ''[[Mass in B minor]]'' by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]] assembled in current form
* [[1751]]: ''[[The Art of Fugue]]'' by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]]
* [[1762]]: ''[[Orfeo ed Euridice]]'', first "reform opera" by [[Christoph Willibald von Gluck|Gluck]], performed in [[Vienna]]
* [[1786]]: ''[[The Marriage of Figaro]]'', opera by [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]
* [[1787]]: ''[[Don Giovanni]]'', opera by [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]
* [[1788]]: ''[[Symphony No. 41 (Mozart)|Jupiter Symphony]] (Symphony No.41)'' composed by [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]
* [[1791]]: ''[[The Magic Flute]]'', opera by [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]
* [[1791]]–[[1795]]: [[London symphonies]] by [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]]
* [[1798]]: The [[Piano Sonata No. 8 (Beethoven)|Pathétique]], piano sonata by [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]
* [[1798]]: ''[[The Creation (Haydn)|The Creation]]'', oratorio by [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]] first performed

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Black, Jeremy and Roy Porter, eds. ''A Dictionary of Eighteenth-Century World History'' (1994) 890pp
* Klekar, Cynthia. "Fictions of the Gift: Generosity and Obligation in Eighteenth-Century English Literature." Innovative Course Design Winner. ''American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies'': Wake Forest University, 2004. <[http://asecs.press.jhu.edu Home | American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies (ASECS)]>. Refereed.
* Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo00lang online free]
* Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. ''Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present'' (1970) [https://archive.org/details/harperencycloped00morr online]
* Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds. ''The economic development of continental Europe: 1780–1870 '' (1973) [https://archive.org/details/economicdevelopm0001milw online]; note there are two different books with identical authors and slightly different titles. Their coverfage does not overlap.
** Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds. ''The development of the economies of continental Europe, 1850–1914'' (1977) [https://archive.org/details/developmentofeco0000milw online]
* [[Wallace Collection|The Wallace Collection]], London, houses one of the finest collections of 18th-century decorative arts from France, England and Italy, including paintings, furniture, porcelain and gold boxes.

== External links ==
* {{commons category-inline}}

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1900s

2023-09-12T19:03:23Z

78.157.120.208: Last survivors

{{short description|Decade of the Gregorian calendar (1900-1909)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{about|the decade 1900–1909|the century 1901–2000|20th century}}
<imagemap>File:1900s decademontage2.png|335px|thumb|right|From left, clockwise: The [[Wright brothers]] achieve the '''[[Wright Flyer|first manned flight]]''' with a motorized [[airplane]], in [[Kitty Hawk, North Carolina|Kitty Hawk]] in 1903; A missionary points to the severed hand of a Congolese villager, symbolic of Belgian '''[[atrocities in the Congo Free State]]'''; The '''[[1908 Messina earthquake]]''' kills 75,000–82,000 people and becomes the most destructive earthquake ever to strike Europe; America gains control over the [[Philippines]] in 1902, after the '''[[Philippine–American War]]'''; Rock being moved to construct the '''[[Panama Canal]]'''; Admiral [[Heihachiro Togo|Togo]] before the [[Battle of Tsushima]] in 1905, part of the '''[[Russo-Japanese War]]''', leading to Japanese victory and their establishment as a [[great power]], while Russia's defeat eventually led to the [[1905 Revolution]].
rect 2 2 249 161 [[Wright Flyer]]
rect 253 2 497 161 [[Atrocities in the Congo Free State]]
rect 250 165 497 334 [[1908 Messina earthquake]]
rect 250 338 497 488 [[Philippine–American War]]
rect 2 338 246 488 [[Panama Canal]]
rect 2 165 123 334 [[Russo-Japanese War]]
rect 125 165 246 334 [[1905 Russian Revolution]]
</imagemap>
{{Decadebox|190}}

The '''1900s''' (pronounced "nineteen-hundreds") was a [[decade]] that began on 1 January 1900, and ended on 31 December 1909. The [[Edwardian era]] (1901–1910) covers a similar span of time. The term "nineteen-hundreds" is sometimes also used to mean the entire century from 1 January 1900 to 31 December 1999 (the years beginning with "19").


The [[Scramble for Africa]] continued, with the [[Orange Free State]], [[South African Republic]], [[Ashanti Empire]], [[Aro Confederacy]], [[Sokoto Caliphate]] and [[Kano Emirate]] being conquered by the [[British Empire]], alongside the [[Battle of Kousséri|French Empire conquering Borno]], the [[Battle of Maroua|German Empire conquering the Adamawa Emirate]], and the [[Battle of Mufilo|Portuguese Empire conquering the Ovambo]]. [[Atrocities in the Congo Free State]] were committed by private companies and the ''[[Force Publique]]'', with a resultant population decline{{Refn|"I suggest that it is impossible to separate deaths caused by massacre and starvation from those due to the pandemic of sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis) which decimated central Africa at the time." - [[Neal Ascherson]] (1999)<ref>{{cite book|last=Ascherson|first=Neal|author-link=Neal Ascherson|title=The King Incorporated: Leopold the Second and the Congo|year=1999|publisher=Granta|location=London|isbn=1-86207-290-6|edition=New|page=9}}</ref>|name=congodecline|group=note}} of 1 to 15 million. From 1904 to 1908, German colonial forces in [[German South West Africa|South West Africa]] led a [[Herero and Namaqua genocide|campaign of ethnic extermination and collective punishment]], genociding 24,000 to 100,000 [[Herero people|Hereros]] and 10,000 [[Nama people|Namaqua]]. The [[First Moroccan Crisis|First Moroccan]] and [[Bosnian Crisis|Bosnian crises]] led to worsened tensions in Europe that would ultimately lead to the [[First World War]] in the next decade. [[Cuba]], [[Bulgaria]], and [[Norway]] became independent.


The deadliest conventional war of this decade was the [[Russo-Japanese War]], fought over rival [[Imperialism|imperial]] ambitions in [[Manchuria]] and the [[Korean Empire]]. Russia suffered a humiliating defeat in this conflict, contributing to a growing domestic unrest which culminated in the [[1905 Russian Revolution]]. Unconventional wars of similar scale include insurrections in the [[Philippine–American War|Philippines (1899–1913)]], [[Boxer Rebellion|China (1899–1901)]], and [[Thousand Days' War|Colombia (1899–1902)]]. Lesser conflicts include interstate wars such as the [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902), the [[Kuwaiti–Rashidi war]] (1900–1901), and the [[Saudi–Rashidi War (1903–1907)|Saudi–Rashidi War]] (1903–1907), as well as failed uprisings and revolutions in [[Bailundo revolt|Portuguese Angola (1902–1904)]], [[Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising|Rumelia (1903)]], [[1904 Sasun uprising|Ottoman Eastern Anatolia (1904)]], [[Revolution of 1904|Uruguay (1904)]], [[1904–1905 uprising in Madagascar|French Madagascar (1905–1906)]], [[Argentine Revolution of 1905|Argentina (1905)]], [[Persian Constitutional Revolution|Persia (1905–1911)]], [[Maji Maji Rebellion|German East Africa (1905–1907)]], and [[1907 Romanian peasants' revolt|Romania (1907)]]. [[Chinese famine of 1906–1907|A major famine took place in China from 1906 to 1907]], possibly leading to 20–25 million deaths. This famine was directly caused by the 1906 China floods (April–October 1906), which hit the Huai River particularly hard and destroyed both the summer and autumn harvest. The [[1908 Messina earthquake]] caused 75,000–82,000 deaths.


[[First-wave feminism]] saw progress, with universities being opened for women in Japan, Bulgaria, Cuba, Russia, and Peru. In 1906, Finland granted women the right to vote,<ref name="finlande1">{{cite web |title=Finnish women won the right to vote a hundred years ago – Embassy of Finland, The Hague : Current Affairs |url=http://www.finlande.nl/public/default.aspx?contentid=112162&nodeid=35916&contentlan=2&culture=en-US |access-date=2012-10-31 |publisher=Finlande.nl}}</ref> the first European country to do so.<ref name="autogenerated6">{{cite web |title=BBC Radio 4 – Woman's Hour – Women's History Timeline: 1900 – 1909 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/womanshour/timeline/1900.shtml |access-date=2012-11-07 |publisher=Bbc.co.uk}}</ref> The foundation of the [[Women's Social and Political Union]] by [[Emmeline Pankhurst]] in 1903 led to the rise of the [[Suffragettes]] in Great Britain and Ireland. In 1908, [[Young Turk Revolution|a revolution took place]] in the Ottoman Empire, where the [[Young Turks]] movement restored the [[Ottoman constitution of 1876]], establishing the [[Second Constitutional Era]]. Subsequently, ethnic tensions rose, and in 1909, [[Adana massacre|up to 30,000 mainly Armenian civilians in Adana were massacred]] by Muslim civilians.


The decade saw the widespread application of the [[History of the internal combustion engine|internal combustion engine]] including mass production of the automobile, as well as the introduction of the [[typewriter]]. The ''[[Wright Flyer]]'' performed the first recorded controlled, powered, sustained heavier than air flight on 17 December 1903. [[Reginald Fessenden]] of [[East Bolton, Quebec]], Canada made what appeared to be{{clarify|date=October 2021}} the first audio radio broadcasts of entertainment and music ever made to a general audience. The first huge success of American cinema, as well as the largest experimental achievement to this point, was the 1903 film ''[[The Great Train Robbery (1903 film)|The Great Train Robbery]]'', directed by [[Edwin S. Porter]], while the world's first feature film, ''[[The Story of the Kelly Gang]]'', was released on 26 December 1906 in [[Melbourne]], Australia. Popular books of this decade included ''[[The Tale of Peter Rabbit]]'' (1902) and ''[[Anne of Green Gables]]'' (1908), which sold 45 million and 50 million copies respectively. Popular songs of this decade include "[[Lift Every Voice and Sing]]" and "[[What Are They Doing in Heaven?]]", which have been featured in 42 and 16 [[hymnal]]s respectively.

During the decade, the world population increased from 1.60 to 1.75 billion, with approximately 580 million births and 450 million deaths in total.

==Pronunciation varieties==
There are several main varieties of how individual years of the decade are pronounced. Using 1906 as an example, they are "nineteen-oh-six", "nineteen-six", and "nineteen-aught-six". Which variety is most prominent depends somewhat on global region and generation. "Nineteen-oh-six" is the most common; "nineteen-six" is less common. In [[American English]], "nineteen-aught-six" is also recognized but not much used.{{cn|date=April 2022}}

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Estimates of historical world population}}
Estimates for the world population by 1900 vary from 1.563 to 1.710 billion.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;font-size:small;"
![[Population Reference Bureau|PRB]]
(1973–2016)<ref name="Population Reference Bureau">Data from [http://www.prb.org/Home.aspx Population Reference Bureau] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080520091122/http://www.prb.org/Home.aspx |date=2008-05-20 }}.

2016 estimate: (a) [http://www.prb.org/pdf16/prb-wpds2016-web-2016.pdf "2016 World Population Data Sheet"]

2015 estimate: (b) Toshiko Kaneda, 2015, [http://www.prb.org/pdf15/2015-world-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2015 World Population Data Sheet"].

2014 estimate: (c) Carl Haub, 2014, [http://www.prb.org/pdf14/2014-world-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2014 World Population Data Sheet"].

2013 estimate: (d) Carl Haub, 2013, [http://www.prb.org/pdf13/2013-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2013 World Population Data Sheet"].

2012 estimate: (e) Carl Haub, 2012, [http://www.prb.org/pdf12/2012-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2012 World Population Data Sheet"].

2011 estimate: (f) Carl Haub, 2011, [http://www.prb.org/pdf11/2011population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2011 World Population Data Sheet"].

2010 estimate: (g) Carl Haub, 2010, [http://www.prb.org/pdf10/10wpds_eng.pdf "2010 World Population Data Sheet"].

2009 estimate: (h) Carl Haub, 2009, [http://www.prb.org/pdf09/09wpds_eng.pdf "2009 World Population Data Sheet"].

2008 estimate: (i) Carl Haub, 2008, [http://www.prb.org/pdf08/08WPDS_Eng.pdf "2008 World Population Data Sheet"].

2007 estimate: (j) Carl Haub, 2007, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2007/2007WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx "2007 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224205549/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2007/2007WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx |date=2011-02-24 }}.

2006 estimate: (k) Carl Haub, 2006, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2006/2006WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx "2006 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222075621/http://prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2006/2006WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx |date=2010-12-22 }}.

2005 estimate: (l) Carl Haub, 2005, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2005/2005WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx "2005 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414150237/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2005/2005WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx |date=2011-04-14 }}.

2004 estimate: (m) Carl Haub, 2004, [http://www.prb.org/pdf04/04WorldDataSheet_ENG.pdf "2004 World Population Data Sheet"].

2003 estimate: (n) Carl Haub, 2003, [http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~psc/WorldPopulationDS03_Eng.pdf "2003 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819182509/http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~psc/WorldPopulationDS03_Eng.pdf |date=2019-08-19 }}.

2002 estimate: (o) Carl Haub, 2002, [http://www.prb.org/pdf/worldpopulationds02_eng.pdf "2002 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209093516/http://www.prb.org/pdf/WorldPopulationDS02_Eng.pdf |date=2017-12-09 }}.

2001 estimate: (p) Carl Haub, 2001, [http://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/18790/publi_pdf2_pop_and_soc_english_370.en.pdf "2001 World Population Data Sheet"].

2000 estimate: (q) 2000, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2000/9BillionWorldPopulationby2050.aspx "9 Billion World Population by 2050"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201050626/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2000/9BillionWorldPopulationby2050.aspx |date=2018-02-01 }}.

1997 estimate: (r) 1997, [http://www.epidemiolog.net/evolving/DemographyBasics.pdf "Studying Populations"].

Estimates for 1995 and prior: (s) Carl Haub, 1995, [https://www.un.org/popin/popis/journals/poptoday/today0295.html "How Many People Have Ever Lived on Earth?"] ''Population Today'', Vol. 23 (no. 2), pp. 5–6.</ref>
![[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|UN]]
(2015)<ref name="The World at Six Billion, 1999">Data from [http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_population.htm United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division.]

1950–2100 estimates (only medium variants shown): (a) [http://esa.un.org/unpp/ World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511162049/http://esa.un.org/unpp/ |date=2011-05-11 }}

Estimates prior to 1950: (b) [https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbillion.htm "The World at Six Billion", 1999.]

Estimates from 1950 to 2100: (c) [http://www.geohive.com/earth/his_history3.aspx "Population of the entire world, yearly, 1950 - 2100", 2013.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119132504/http://www.geohive.com/earth/his_history3.aspx |date=November 19, 2016 }}

2014: (d) [http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf "2014 World Urbanization Prospects", 2014.]

2015: (e) [http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/Key_Findings_WPP_2015.pdf"2015 World Urbanization Prospects", 2015.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320035709/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_population.htm |date=March 20, 2014 }}</ref>
![[Angus Maddison|Maddison]]
(2008)<ref name="www.ggdc.net/maddison/Historical_Statistics">[http://www.theworldeconomy.org/publications/worldeconomy/ Angus Maddison, 2003, ''The World Economy: Historical Statistics'', Vol. 2, OECD, Paris] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513232041/http://www.theworldeconomy.org/publications/worldeconomy/|date=May 13, 2008}} {{ISBN|92-64-10412-7}}.

[http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/Historical_Statistics/horizontal-file_02-2010.xls "Statistical Appendix"] (2008, ggdc.net) "The historical data were originally developed in three books: Monitoring the World Economy 1820-1992, OECD, Paris 1995; The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, OECD Development Centre, Paris 2001; The World Economy: Historical Statistics, OECD Development Centre, Paris 2003. All these contain detailed source notes. Figures for 1820 onwards are annual, wherever possible. For earlier years, benchmark figures are shown for 1 AD, 1000 AD, 1500, 1600 and 1700." "OECD countries GDP revised and updated 1991-2003 from National Accounts for OECD Countries, vol. I, 2006. Norway 1820-1990 GDP from Ola Grytten (2004), "The Gross Domestic Product for Norway, 1830-2003" in Eitrheim, Klovland and Qvigstad (eds), Historical Monetary Statistics for Norway, 1819-2003, Norges Bank, Oslo. Latin American GDP 2000-2003 revised and updated from ECLAC, Statistical Yearbook 2004 and preliminary version of the 2005 Yearbook supplied by Andre Hofman. For Chile, GDP 1820-2003 from Rolf Lűders (1998), "The Comparative Economic Performance of Chile 1810-1995", Estudios de Economia, vol. 25, no. 2, with revised population estimates from Diaz, J., R. Lűders, and G. Wagner (2005) Chili 1810-2000: la Republica en Cifras, mimeo, Instituto de Economia, Universidad Católica de Chile. For Peru, GDP 1896-1990 and population 1896-1949 from Bruno Seminario and Arlette Beltran, Crecimiento Economico en el Peru 1896-1995, Universidad del Pacifico, 1998. " "For Asia there are amendments to the GDP estimates for South and North Korea, 1911-74, to correct an error in Maddison (2003). Estimates for the Philippines, 1902-1940 were amended in line with Richard Hooley (2005), 'American Economic Policy in the Philippines, 1902-1940', Journal of Asian Economics, 16. 1820 estimates were amended for Hong Kong, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan and Thailand." "Asian countries GDP revised and updated 1998-2003 from AsianOutlook, April 2005. Population estimates for all countries except China and Indonesia revised and updated 1950-2008 and 2030 from International Data Base, International Programs Center, Population Division, US Bureau of the Census, April 2005 version. China's population 1990-2003 from China Statistical Yearbook 2005, China Statistics Press, Beijing. Indonesian population 1950-2003 kindly supplied by Pierre van der Eng. The figures now include three countries previously omitted: Cook Islands, Nauru and Tuvalu."</ref>
!HYDE
(2010)<ref name="HYDE2010">Klein Goldewijk, K., A. Beusen, M. de Vos and G. van Drecht (2011). The HYDE 3.1 spatially explicit database of human induced land use change over the past 12,000 years, Global Ecology and Biogeography20(1): 73-86. {{doi|10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00587.x}} ([http://themasites.pbl.nl/tridion/en/themasites/hyde/download/index-2.html pbl.nl]). HYDE (History Database of the Global Environment), 2010. HYDE 3.1 gives estimates for 5000 BC, 1000 BC and "AD 0". HYDE estimates are higher than those by [[Colin McEvedy]] (1978) but lower than those by [[Massimo Livi Bacci]] (1989, 2012). ([https://web.archive.org/web/20150221004127/http://itbulk.org/population/world-population-history/ graphs (itbulk.org)]).</ref>
![[John Tanton|Tanton]]
(1994)<ref name="thesocialcontract.com">[http://www.thesocialcontract.com/artman2/publish/tsc0403/article_329.shtml John H. Tanton, 1994, "End of the Migration Epoch? Time For a New Paradigm", The Social Contract, Vol. 4 (no 3), pp. 162–173].</ref>
!Biraben
(1980)<ref name="French 1980, pp. 1">Slightly updated data from original paper in French: (a) Jean-Noël Biraben, 1980, "An Essay Concerning Mankind's Evolution", Population, Selected Papers, Vol. 4, pp. 1–13. Original paper in French: (b) Jean-Noël Biraben, 1979, "Essai sur l'évolution du nombre des hommes", Population, Vol. 34 (no. 1), pp. 13–25.</ref>
![[Colin McEvedy|McEvedy]] &
Jones (1978)<ref name="Richard Jones 1978">Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones, 1978, ''Atlas of World Population History'', Facts on File, New York, {{ISBN|0-7139-1031-3}}.</ref>
!Thomlinson
(1975)<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Ralph Thomlinson]], 1975, ''Demographic Problems: Controversy over population control'', 2nd Ed., Dickenson Publishing Company, Ecino, CA, {{ISBN|0-8221-0166-1}}.</ref>
!Durand
(1974)<ref name="John D. Durand 1974">John D. Durand, 1974, "Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation", University of Pennsylvania, Population Center, Analytical and Technical Reports, Number 10.</ref>
![[Colin Clark (economist)|Clark]]
(1967)<ref name="Colin Clark 1967">Colin Clark, 1967, ''Population Growth and Land Use'', St. Martin's Press, New York, {{ISBN|0-333-01126-0}}.</ref>
|-
|1,656M
|1,650M
|1,563M
|1,654M<ref name="mnp.nl">[http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0959683609356587 Data] from [http://themasites.pbl.nl/tridion/en/themasites/hyde/index.html History Database of the Global Environment.] K. Klein Goldewijk, A. Beusen and P. Janssen, "HYDE 3.1: Long-term dynamic modeling of global population and built-up area in a spatially explicit way", from table on pg. 2, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.</ref>
|1,600M
|1,633M
|1,625M
|1,600M
|1,650–1,710M
|1,668M
|}

== Politics and wars ==
{{See also|List of sovereign states in the 1900s}}
[[File:China imperialism cartoon.jpg|right|200px|thumb|A shocked [[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarin]] in [[Manchu people|Manchu]] robe in the back, with [[Queen Victoria]] ([[British Empire]]), [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] ([[German Empire]]), [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] ([[Russian Empire|Imperial Russia]]), [[Marianne]] ([[French Third Republic]]), and a [[samurai]] ([[Empire of Japan]]) stabbing into a [[king cake]] with ''Chine'' ("China" in French) written on it. A portrayal of New Imperialism and its effects on [[Qing Empire|China]].]]

===Major political changes===
*[[New Imperialism]]
* The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] and the [[French Third Republic]] sign [[Entente Cordiale]]

===Wars===
{{Main|List of wars: 1900–1944#1900–1919}}

* [[Second Boer War]] ends.
* [[Philippine–American War]] takes place (1899–1902).
*The [[Kuwaiti–Rashidi war]] takes place (1900–1901).
* [[Russo-Japanese War]] establishes the [[Empire of Japan]] as a world power.
* [[Battle of Riyadh (1902)|Battle of Riyadh]] was a minor battle of the [[Unification of Saudi Arabia]].
* [[Battle of Dilam]] was a major battle of the [[Unification of Saudi Arabia|Unification War]] between [[Rashidi dynasty|Rashidi]] and [[Ibn Saud|Saudi]] rebels.
* [[Saudi–Rashidi War (1903–1907)|First Saudi–Rashidi War]] was engaged between the [[Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia|Saudi loyal forces]] of the newborn [[Emirate of Riyadh]] versus the [[Emirate of Ha'il]].
*The Ottomans [[Ottoman invasion of Persia (1906)|invade Persia]] and capture a strip of territory (1906).

===Internal conflicts===

* The [[Boxer Rebellion]] ends.
* The [[Russian Revolution of 1905]].
* The [[1906 Mesopotamia uprising|Mesopotamia uprising of 1906]].
* Demand for [[Irish Home Rule Movement|Home Rule]] for Ireland.
* [[Herero and Namaqua Genocide]] in German [[South-West Africa]] (modern Namibia).
* Kurdish [[Bitlis uprising (1907)|uprising in Bitlis]] against the Ottoman Empire in 1907.

===Colonization===
* 1 January 1901, British colonies in Australia [[Australian Federation|federate]], forming the [[Commonwealth of Australia]].

===Decolonization===
* 20 May 1902 – [[Cuba]] gains independence from the United States
* 7 June 1905 – The [[Stortinget|Norwegian Parliament]] declares the union with Sweden [[Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905|dissolved]], and Norway achieves full independence.
* 5 October 1908 – [[Bulgaria]] [[Bulgarian Declaration of Independence|declares its independence]] from the [[Ottoman Empire]].

=== Prominent political events ===
{{expand section|date=July 2018}}

==Disasters==

===Natural disasters===
[[File:Tunguska-Map-fr.svg|300px|thumb|June 30, 1908: The [[Tunguska event]]]]
[[File:Market Street, San Francisco, in ruins (1906).jpg|thumb|220px|right|Ruins from the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]], remembered as one of the worst [[natural disaster]]s in United States history]]
* 8 September 1900 – A powerful [[tropical cyclone|hurricane]] [[Galveston Hurricane of 1900|hits]] [[Galveston, Texas]], USA killing about 8,000.
* 19 April 1902 – A [[Guatemala 1902 earthquake|magnitude 7.5 earthquake]] rocks [[Guatemala]], killing 2,000.
* 8 May 1902 – In [[Martinique]], [[Mount Pelée]] erupts, destroying the town of [[Saint-Pierre, Martinique|Saint-Pierre]] and killing over 30,000.
* 7 April 1906 – [[Mount Vesuvius]] erupts and devastates [[Naples]].
* 18 April 1906 – The [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]] (estimated magnitude 7.8) on the [[San Andreas Fault]] destroys much of [[San Francisco]], USA, killing at least 3,000, with 225,000–300,000 left homeless, and $350 million in damages.
* 18 September 1906 – A [[typhoon]] and [[tsunami]] kill an estimated 10,000 in Hong Kong.
* 14 January 1907 – [[1907 Kingston earthquake|An earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica]] kills more than 1,000.
* 30 June 1908 – The [[Tunguska event]] or "Russian explosion" near the [[Podkamennaya Tunguska River]] in [[Krasnoyarsk Krai]], [[Siberia]], [[Russian Empire]] occurs resulting in the flattening 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi) of forest. It is believed to have been caused by the [[air burst]] of a large [[meteoroid]] or [[comet]] fragment, at an altitude of {{convert|5|–|10|km|0}} above the [[Earth]]'s surface.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pasechnik|first=I. P.|chapter=Refinement of the moment of explosion of the Tunguska meteorite from the seismic data|title=Cosmic Matter and the Earth|location=Novosibirsk|publisher=Nauka|year=1986|page=66|language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farinella |first1=Paolo |last2=Foschini |first2=L. |last3=Froeschlé |first3=Christiane |last4=Gonczi |first4=R. |last5=Jopek |first5=T. J. |last6=Longo |first6=G. |last7=Michel |first7=Patrick |url=http://www-th.bo.infn.it/tunguska/aah2886.pdf|title=Probable asteroidal origin of the Tunguska Cosmic Body|journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics|Astronomy & Astrophysics]]|volume=377|issue=3 |pages=1081–1097|year=2001|doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20011054|access-date=2011-08-23|bibcode=2001A&A...377.1081F|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Trayner|first=Chris|title=Perplexities of the Tunguska Meteorite|journal=[[The Observatory (journal)|The Observatory]]|volume=114|pages=227–231|year=1994|bibcode = 1994Obs...114..227T }}</ref>
* 28 December 1908 – [[1908 Messina earthquake|An earthquake]] and [[tsunami]] destroys [[Messina, Italy|Messina]], [[Sicily]] and [[Calabria]], killing over 80,000 people.

===Non-natural disasters===
* 26 April 1900 – The [[1900 Hull-Ottawa fire|Great Lumber Fire]] of [[Ottawa]]–[[Hull, Quebec|Hull]] kills 7 and leaves 15,000 homeless.
* 1 May 1900 – The [[Scofield Mine disaster]] in [[Scofield, Utah]] caused by explosion killing at least 200 men.
* 30 June 1900 – [[1900 Hoboken Docks Fire|Hoboken Docks Fire]]: The German passenger ships ''Saale'', ''Main, Bremen'', and ''Kaiser William der Grosse'', all owned by the [[North German Lloyd]] Steamship line, catch fire at the docks in [[Hoboken, New Jersey]], USA . The fire began on a wharf and spread to the adjacent piers, warehouses, and smaller craft, killing 326 people.
* 3 May 1901 – The [[Great Fire of 1901]] begins in [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville, FL]], USA .
*10 July 1902 – The [[Rolling Mill Mine|Rolling Mill Mine disaster]] in [[Johnstown, Pennsylvania]], USA, kills 112 miners.
* 10 August 1903 – [[Paris Métro train fire]].
* 30 December 1903 – A [[Iroquois Theater Fire|fire at the Iroquois Theater]] in Chicago, USA kills 600.
* 7 February 1904 – The [[Great Baltimore Fire]] in [[Baltimore]], USA destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours.
* 15 June 1904 – A fire aboard the steamboat ''[[General Slocum]]'' in New York City's East River kills 1,021.
* 28 June 1904 – The Danish ocean liner {{SS|Norge}} runs aground and sinks close to [[Rockall]], killing 635, including 225 Norwegian emigrants.
* 22 January 1906 – The {{SS|Valencia}} strikes a reef off [[Vancouver Island]], Canada, killing over 100 (officially 136) in the ensuing disaster.

==Assassinations and attempts==
Prominent assassinations, targeted killings, and assassination attempts include:

[[Image:McKinleyAssassination.jpg|thumb|right|A sketch of [[Leon Czolgosz]] shooting U.S. President [[William McKinley]].]]
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible sortable"
!Year
!Date
!Name
!Position
!Country
!Description
|-
|1900
|29 July
|[[Umberto I of Italy|Umberto I]]
|[[King of Italy|King]]
|[[History of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italy]]
|Assassinated by anarchist [[Gaetano Bresci]].
|-
|1901
|6 March
|[[William II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]]
|[[Kaiser]]
|[[History of Germany|Germany]]
|Attempted assassination in [[Bremen]] by Deidrich Weiland.<ref>"Kaiser Hit by a Missile Thrown into His Carriage", ''Chicago Daily Tribune'', March 7, 1901, p. 1.</ref><ref>"Kaiser Suffers from His Wound— Injuries Received by German Emperor More Serious than First Reported— Details of the Assault", ''Chicago Daily Tribune'', March 8, 1901, p. 2.</ref>
|-
|1901
|6 September
|[[William McKinley]]
|[[President of the United States|President]]
|[[History of the United States|United States]]
|Dies 8 days after being shot at the [[Pan-American Exposition]] in [[Buffalo, New York]], by American anarchist [[Leon Czolgosz]].
|-
|1904
|16 June
|[[Nikolai Ivanovich Bobrikov|Nikolai Bobrikov]]
|[[Governor-General of Finland|Governor-General]]
|[[Governor-General of Finland|Finland]]
|Assassinated by nationalist nobleman [[Eugen Schauman]].
|-
|1905
|13 June
|[[Theodoros Diligiannis]]
|[[Prime Minister of Greece|Prime Minister]]
|[[History of Greece|Greece]]
|Killed by gambler Antonios Gherakaris, reportedly for measures taken against gambling places.
|-
|1907
|11 March
|[[Dimitar Petkov]]
|[[Prime Minister of Bulgaria|Prime Minister]]
|[[History of Bulgaria (1878–1946)|Bulgaria]]
|Killed by an anarchist.
|-
|1907
|31 August
|[[Mirza Ali Asghar Khan Amin al-Soltan|Amin al-Soltan]]
|[[Prime Minister of Iran|Prime Minister]]
|[[History of Iran|Iran]]
|Killed in front of the Parliament.
|-
|1908
|1 February
|[[Carlos I of Portugal|Carlos I]]
|[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King]]
|[[History of Portugal (1834–1910)|Portugal]]
|Assassinated in Lisbon, Portugal.
|-
|1909
|26 October
|[[Itō Hirobumi]]
|[[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]]
|[[History of Japan|Japan]]
|Also [[Resident-General of Korea]], assassinated by [[Ahn Jung-geun]] at the [[Harbin]] train station in [[Manchuria]], for many grievances against Japan, including the assassination of [[Empress Myeongseong]] of [[History of Korea|Korea]].
|}

==Economics==
{{expand section|date=October 2021}}
The cost of an American postage stamp was worth 1 cent.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.theseniorlist.com/2013/09/postcards-from-the-edge-september-30-1909/ |title=1909 Postcard sent from Northern Pacific Train Conductor back home |access-date=2013-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927164150/http://www.theseniorlist.com/2013/09/postcards-from-the-edge-september-30-1909/ |archive-date=2013-09-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Science and technology==
===Science===
[[File:Albert Einstein in 1905 (cropped).jpg|210px|thumb|During 1905 the physicist [[Albert Einstein]] published [[Annus Mirabilis papers|four articles]] – each revolutionary and groundbreaking in its field.]]
* 17 March 1905 – [[Annus Mirabilis papers]] – [[Albert Einstein]] publishes his paper "On a heuristic viewpoint concerning the production and transformation of light", in which he explains the '''[[photoelectric effect]]''', using the notion of [[light quanta]]. For this paper Einstein received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.
* 11 May 1905 – [[Annus Mirabilis papers]] – Albert Einstein submits his doctoral dissertation "On the Motion of Small Particles...", in which he explains '''[[Brownian motion]]'''.
* 30 June 1905 – [[Annus Mirabilis papers]] – Albert Einstein publishes the article "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", where he reveals his theory of '''[[special relativity]]'''.
* 27 September 1905 – [[Annus Mirabilis papers]] – Albert Einstein submits his paper "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", in which he develops an argument for the famous equation '''[[mass–energy equivalence|''E'' = ''mc''2]]'''.
* '''[[Planck's law|Planck's law of black-body radiation]]'''
* '''[[Seismographs]]''' built in the [[University of California, Berkeley]], in 1900
* Practical '''[[air conditioner]]''' designed by [[Willis Carrier]] in 1902
* '''[[Geiger counter]]''' (measures radioactivity) invented by [[Hans Geiger]] in 1908
* [[Pierre Curie|Pierre]] and [[Marie Curie]] discover [[radium]] and [[polonium]], they coin the term ''''[[radioactivity]]''''.
* '''[[Third law of thermodynamics]]''' by [[Walther Nernst]]
* '''[[History of quantum mechanics|Quantum Hypothesis]]''' by [[Max Planck]] in 1900<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enotes.com/1900-science-technology-american-decades/important-events-science-technology|title=How did science and technology change in the 1900s?|work=eNotes}}</ref><ref>http://blog.modernmachanix.com/2008/06/16/invented-earlier-than-youd-think-pt-2-answering-machines{{Dead link|date=February 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>http://library.thinkquest.rg/J0111064/00invetnions.html{{Dead link|date=February 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buzzle.com/articles/history-of-radio-who-invented-the-radio.html|title=History of Radio – Who Invented the Radio?|author=Abhay Burande|work=Buzzle|access-date=2009-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090301052131/http://www.buzzle.com/articles/history-of-radio-who-invented-the-radio.html|archive-date=2009-03-01|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>http://gardenofpraise/ibdbell.htm{{Dead link|date=February 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* The '''[[Bacillus Calmette-Guérin]]''' (BCG) immunization for [[tuberculosis]] is first developed.

===Technology===
* Widespread application of the [[History of the internal combustion engine|internal combustion engine]] including mass production of the automobile. [[Rudolf Diesel]] demonstrated the [[diesel engine]] in the 1900 ''[[Exposition Universelle (1900)|Exposition Universelle]]'' (World's Fair) in Paris using peanut oil fuel (see [[biodiesel]]). The Diesel engine takes the Grand Prix. The exposition was attended by 50 million people.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dieselduck.ca/library/01%20articles/rudolph_diesel.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611043607/http://www.dieselduck.ca/library/01%20articles/rudolph_diesel.htm|url-status=dead|title=Martin Leduc, "Biography of Rudolph Diesel"|archivedate=June 11, 2010}}</ref> The same year [[Wilhelm Maybach]] designed an engine built at [[Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft]]—following the specifications of [[Emil Jellinek]]—who required the engine to be named ''Daimler-Mercedes'' after his daughter, [[Mercédès Jellinek]]. In 1902, the [[Mercedes 35 hp]] automobiles with that engine were put into production by DMG.<ref>[http://www.emercedesbenz.com/Apr08/17_001109_The_History_Behind_The_Mercedes_Benz_Brand_And_The_Three_Pointed_Star.html The history behind the Mercedes-Benz brand and the three-pointed star] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101025220255/http://www.emercedesbenz.com/Apr08/17_001109_The_History_Behind_The_Mercedes_Benz_Brand_And_The_Three_Pointed_Star.html |date=2010-10-25 }}. eMercedesBenz.com. April 17, 2008.</ref>
* Wide popularity of home [[phonograph]]. "The market for home machines was created through technological innovation and pricing: Phonographs, gramophones, and graphophones were cleverly adapted to run by spring-motors (you wound them up), rather than by messy batteries or treadle mechanisms, while the musical records were adapted to reproduce loudly through a horn attachment. The cheap home machines sold as the $10 Eagle graphophone and the $40 (later $30) Home phonograph in 1896, the $20 Zon-o-phone in 1898, the $3 Victor Toy in 1900, and so on. Records sold because their fidelity improved, mass production processes were soon developed, advertising worked, and prices dropped from one and two dollars to around 35 cents.".<ref>"The most thorough account of the history of the phonograph is still Oliver Read and Walter L. Welch, Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph, 2nd ed. (Indianapolis, IN: Howard W. Sams & Co., 1976). For a recent version of the story see Leonard DeGraaf, "Thomas Edison and the Origins of the Entertainment Phonograph" NARAS Journal 8 (Winter/Spring 1997/8) 43–69, as well as William Howland Kenney's recent and welcome Recorded Music in American Life: The Phonograph and Popular Memory, 1890–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). Much of the technocentric focus of literature on the phonograph (a focus Kenney's cultural history finally shifts) may derive from the interests of collectors, for whom I have the utmost respect. In the interest of simplicity, I am going to use the eventual American generic, "phonograph," for the graphophone and gramophone as well as the phonograph. Of course in Britain and much of the postcolonial world, the generic is "gramophone.""</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/papers/gitelman.html#fn2|title=How Users Define New Media: A History of the Amusement Phonograph|work=mit.edu}}</ref> In 1907, a [[Victor Talking Machine Company|Victor Records]] recording of [[Enrico Caruso]] singing [[Ruggero Leoncavallo]]'s "[[Vesti la giubba]]" becomes the first to sell a million copies.<ref>Linehan, Andrew. "Soundcarrier". ''Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World''. pp. 359–366."</ref>
* 1899–1900 – [[Thomas Alva Edison]] of [[Milan, Ohio]], invents the nickel-alkaline storage [[History of the battery|battery]]. On 27 May 1901, Edison establishes the [[Edison Storage Battery Company]] to develop and manufacture them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edison.rutgers.edu/NamesSearch/glocpage.php3?gloc=CK600.1&|title=Location Text and List of Documents – The Edison Papers|work=rutgers.edu}}</ref> "It proved to be Edison's most difficult project, taking ten years to develop a practical alkaline battery. By the time Edison introduced his new alkaline battery, the [[gasoline]] powered car had so improved that [[electric vehicle]]s were becoming increasingly less common, being used mainly as [[Delivery (commerce)|delivery vehicles]] in cities. However, the Edison alkaline battery proved useful for lighting [[Railroad car|railway cars]] and [[Railway signal|signals]], maritime [[buoy]]s, and [[Davy lamp|miners lamps]]. Unlike [[iron ore]] mining with the [[Edison Ore-Milling Company]], the heavy investment Edison made over ten years was repaid handsomely, and the storage battery eventually became Edison's most profitable product. Further, Edison's work paved the way for the modern alkaline battery."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://inventors.about.com/od/estartinventors/a/Edison_Bio_3.htm|title=Biography of Thomas Edison|author=Mary Bellis|work=About.com Money}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* 1900 – The [[Brownie (camera)|Brownie]] [[camera]] is invented; this was the beginning of the [[Eastman Kodak]] company. The Brownie popularized low-cost [[photography]] and introduced the concept of the [[Snapshot (photography)|snapshot]]. The first Brownie was introduced in February 1900,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geh.org/fm/brownie/htmlsrc/index.html#E130.00034|title=George Eastman House The GEH Brownie Collection Series|work=geh.org|access-date=2010-01-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090315195832/http://www.geh.org/fm/brownie/htmlsrc/index.html#E130.00034|archive-date=2009-03-15|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:First Zeppelin ascent.jpg|thumb|The first ascent of LZ1 over Lake Constance (the Bodensee) in 1900.]]
* 1900 – The first [[zeppelin]] flight occurs over [[Lake Constance]] near [[Friedrichshafen]], Germany on 2 July 1900.
[[File:Dieselmotor vs.jpg|thumb|200px|A diesel engine built by [[MAN SE|MAN AG]] in 1906]]
* 1901 – First electric [[typewriter]] is invented by George Canfield Blickensderfer of [[Erie, Pennsylvania]]. It was part of a line of [[Blickensderfer typewriter]]s, known for its portability.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.typewritermuseum.org/history/inventors_blick.html|title=Inventors|work=typewritermuseum.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stamfordhistory.org/bl_elec.htm|title=The Stamford Historical Society, Blickensderfer Manufacturing Co., The First Electric Typewriter|work=stamfordhistory.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stamfordhistory.org/blickens.htm|title=The Stamford Historical Society, Blickensderfer Typewriters|work=stamfordhistory.org}}</ref>
* 1901 – [[Wilhelm Kress]] of [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]] creates his [[Kress Drachenflieger]] in [[Austria-Hungary]]. Power was provided by a Daimler petrol engine driving two large [[auger (drill)|auger]]-style two-bladed propellers, the first attempt to use an internal combustion engine to power a heavier-than-air aircraft.<ref name="NicolaouStephane">Nicolaou, Stephane (1998). Flying Boats & Seaplanes: A History from 1905. Osceola: Zenith.
, p. 10</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfn.li/article/?id=448|title=MFN – Metal Finishing News|work=mfn.li|access-date=2010-01-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827001740/http://www.mfn.li/article/?id=448|archive-date=2017-08-27|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* 1901 – The first radio [[Receiver (radio)|receiver]] (successfully received a radio transmission). This receiver was developed by [[Guglielmo Marconi]]. Marconi established a wireless transmitting station at Marconi House, [[Rosslare Strand]], [[County Wexford]], Ireland in 1901 to act as a link between [[Poldhu]] in [[Cornwall]] and [[Clifden]] in [[County Galway]]. He soon made the announcement that on 12 December 1901, using a {{convert|sp=us|152.4|m|ft|adj=on}} kite-supported antenna for reception, the message was received at [[Signal Hill (Newfoundland and Labrador)|Signal Hill]] in [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St John]]'s, [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] (now part of Canada), signals transmitted by the company's new high-power station at Poldhu, Cornwall. The distance between the two points was about {{convert|sp=us|3500|km|mi}}. Heralded as a great scientific advance, there was—and continues to be—some skepticism about this claim, partly because the signals had been heard faintly and sporadically. There was no independent confirmation of the reported reception, and the transmissions, consisting of the [[Morse code]] letter ''S'' sent repeatedly, were difficult to distinguish from [[atmospheric noise]]. (A detailed technical review of Marconi's early transatlantic work appears in John S. Belrose's work of 1995.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/radio/radio_differences.html |title=Fessenden and Marconi: Their Differing Technologies and Transatlantic Experiments During the First Decade of this Century |publisher=Ieee.ca |access-date=2009-01-29| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090123214652/http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/radio/radio_differences.html| archive-date= 23 January 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref> The Poldhu transmitter was a two-stage circuit.<ref>"''[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/74/28992/01305565.pdf Marconi and the History of Radio]''".</ref><ref>John S. Belrose, "[http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/radio/radio_differences.html Fessenden and Marconi: Their Differing Technologies and Transatlantic Experiments During the First Decade of this Century] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228200010/http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/radio/radio_differences.html |date=2012-12-28 }}". International Conference on 100 Years of Radio – 5–7 September 1995.</ref> The first stage operated at a lower voltage and provided the energy for the second stage to spark at a higher voltage.
* 1902 – [[Willis Carrier]] of [[Angola, New York]], invented the first indoor [[air conditioning]]. "He designed his spray driven air conditioning system which controlled both temperature and humidity using a [[nozzle]] originally designed to spray [[insecticide]]. He built his "Apparatus for Treating Air" (U.S. Pat. #808897) which was patented in 1906 and using chilled coils which not only controlled heat but could lower the humidity to as low as 55%. The device was even able to adjust the humidity level to the desired setting creating what would become the framework for the modern air conditioner. By adjusting the air movement and temperature level to the refrigeration coils he was able to determine the size and capacity of the unit to match the need of his customers. While Carrier was not the first to design a system like this his was much more stable, successful and safer than other versions and took air conditioning out of the Dark Ages and into the realm of science."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.air-conditioners-and-heaters.com/willis_carrier.htm|title=Willis Carrier air conditioning|work=air-conditioners-and-heaters.com}}</ref>
* 1902/1906/1908 – [[Sir James Mackenzie]] of [[Scone, Scotland]] invented an early [[Lie detection|lie detector]] or [[polygraph]]. MacKenzie's polygraph "could be used to monitor the [[Circulatory system|cardiovascular]] responses of his patients by taking their [[pulse]] and [[blood pressure]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.umw.edu/hisa/resources/Student%20Projects/Singel/students.umw.edu/_ksing2os/polygraph/origin.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100204031232/http://www.umw.edu/hisa/resources/Student%20Projects/Singel/students.umw.edu/_ksing2os/polygraph/origin.html|url-status=dead|title=Kati Singel, "The Polygraph:The Modern Lie Detector"|archivedate=February 4, 2010}}</ref> He had developed an early version of his device in the 1890s, but had Sebastian Shaw, a [[Lancashire]] watchmaker, improve it further. "This instrument used a clockwork mechanism for the paper-rolling and time-marker movements and it produced ink recordings of physiological functions that were easier to acquire and to interpret. It has been written that the modern polygraph is really a modification of Dr. Mackenzie's clinical ink polygraph."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.total.net/~galcar/html/brief_history_of_the_polygraph.html|title=Brief History of the Polygraph|work=total.net}}</ref> A more modern and effective polygraph machine would be invented by John Larson in 1921.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://inventors.about.com/od/fstartinventions/a/forensic_2.htm|title=History of the Lie Detector or Polygraph Machine|author=Mary Bellis|work=About.com Money}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* 1902 – [[Georges Claude]] invented the [[neon lamp]]. He applied an electrical discharge to a sealed tube of [[neon]] gas, resulting in a red glow. Claudes started working on neon tubes which could be put to use as ordinary light bulbs. His first public display of a neon lamp took place on 11 December 1910, in Paris.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Ne|title=10. Neon – Elementymology & Elements Multidict|work=vanderkrogt.net}}</ref> In 1912, Claude's associate began selling neon discharge tubes as [[neon sign|advertising signs]]. They were introduced to U.S. in 1923 when two large neon signs were bought by a Los Angeles [[Packard]] car dealership. The glow and arresting red color made neon advertising completely different from the competition.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://nymag.com/shopping/features/41814/
|title=Neon: A Brief History| last=Mangum | first= Aja |access-date=
| date = December 8, 2007 |newspaper=New York Magazine}}</ref>
* 1902 – [[Teasmade]], a device for making [[tea]] automatically, is patented on 7 April 1902 by [[gunsmith]] Frank Clarke of [[Birmingham]], England. He called it "An Apparatus Whereby a Cup of Tea or Coffee is Automatically Made" and it was later marketed as "A Clock That Makes Tea!". However, his original machine and all rights to it had been purchased from its actual inventor [[Albert E. Richardson (inventor)|Albert E. Richardson]], a [[clockmaker]] from [[Ashton-under-Lyne]]. The device was commercially available by 1904.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teawaker.com/clarke.htm |title=teawaker.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110626100212/http://www.teawaker.com/clarke.htm |archive-date=2011-06-26 }}</ref>
[[File:Gilmore monoplane.jpg|350px|thumb|Gilmore's second, larger plane]]
* 1902 – [[Lyman Gilmore]] of [[Washington (state)|Washington]], United States is awarded a patent for a [[steam engine]], intended for use in aerial vehicles. At the time he was living in [[Red Bluff, California]]. At a later date, Gilmore claimed to have incorporated his engine in "a [[monoplane]] with a 32 foot [[wingspan]]" and to have performed his debut flight in May 1902. While occasionally credited with the first powered flight in aviation history, there is no supporting evidence for his account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flyingmachines.org/gilmore.html|title=FLYING MACHINES – Lyman Wiswell Gilmore, Jr.|work=flyingmachines.org}}</ref> While Gilmore was probably working on aeronautical experiments since the late 1890s and reportedly had correspondence with [[Samuel Pierpont Langley]], there exists no photo of his creations earlier than 1908.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ncngrrmuseum.org/pb/wp_eb6830e0.html?0.5 |title=Stephen Barber, "Lyman Gilmore Jr. – Aeronautical Pioneer" |access-date=2010-01-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727114151/http://www.ncngrrmuseum.org/pb/wp_eb6830e0.html?0.5 |archive-date=2011-07-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 1902 – The [[Wright brothers]] of [[Ohio]], United States create the 1902 version of the [[Wright Glider]]. It was the third free-flight glider built by them and tested at [[Kitty Hawk, North Carolina]]. This was the first of the brothers' gliders to incorporate [[flight dynamics|yaw control]], and its design led directly to the [[Wright Flyer|1903 ''Wright Flyer'']]. The brothers designed the 1902 glider during the winter of 1901–1902 at their home in [[Dayton, Ohio]]. They designed the wing based on data from extensive airfoil tests conducted on a homemade [[wind tunnel]]. They built many of the components of the glider in Dayton, but they completed assembly at their Kitty Hawk camp in September 1902. They began testing on 19 September. Over the next five weeks, they made between 700 and 1000 glide flights (as estimated by the brothers, who did not keep detailed records of these tests). The longest of these was 622.5 ft (189.7 m) in 26 seconds. "In its final form, the 1902 Wright glider was the world's first fully controllable aircraft."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasm.si.edu/wrightbrothers/fly/1902/glider.cfm|title=The Wright Brothers – The 1902 Glider|work=si.edu|access-date=2010-01-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408194749/http://nasm.si.edu/wrightbrothers/fly/1902/glider.cfm|archive-date=2010-04-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>John David Anderson, "Introduction to flight" (2004), page 30. {{ISBN|0-07-123818-2}}</ref>
[[File:1903-ford-rc.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[Ford Model A (1903–1904)|Ford Model A]] was the first car produced by [[Ford Motor Company]] beginning production in 1903.]]
* 1903 – [[Ford Motor Company]] produces its first car – the [[Ford Model A (1903–1904)|Ford Model A]].
[[File:Pearse aeroplane replica, South Canterbury Museum-2.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A replica of Pearse's monoplane]]
* 1903 – [[Richard Pearse]] of New Zealand supposedly successfully flew and landed a powered heavier-than-air machine on 31 March 1903<ref>Rodliffe, C. Geoffrey. Richard Pearse: Pioneer Aviator. Auckland, New Zealand: Museum of Transport and Technology. Inc., 1983. {{ISBN|0-473-09686-2}}.</ref> Verifiable eyewitnesses describe Pearse crashing into a hedge on two separate occasions during 1903. His monoplane must have risen to a height of at least three metres on each occasion. Good evidence exists that on 31 March 1903 Pearse achieved a powered, though poorly controlled, flight of several hundred metres. Pearse himself said that he had made a powered takeoff, "but at too low a speed for [his] controls to work". However, he remained airborne until he crashed into the hedge at the end of the field.<ref>Rodliffe, C. Geoffrey. ''Flight over Waitohi''. Auckland, New Zealand: Acme Printing Works, 1997. {{ISBN|0-473-05048-X}}.</ref><ref>Ogilvie, Gordon. ''The Riddle of Richard Pearse''. Auckland, New Zealand: Reed Publishing, Revised edition, 1994. {{ISBN|0-589-00794-7}}.</ref>
* 1903 – [[Karl Jatho]] of [[German Empire|Germany]] performs a series of flights at Vahrenwalder Heide, near [[Hanover]], between August and November, 1903. Using first a pusher [[triplane]], then a [[biplane]]. "His longest flight, however, was only 60 meters at 3–4 meters altitude." He then quit his efforts, noting his motor was too weak to make longer or higher flights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/jatho.html|title=The Pioneers : An Anthology : Karl Jatho (1873–1933)|work=monash.edu.au}}</ref> The plane was equipped with a single-cylinder 10 horsepower (7.5 kW) Buchet engine driving a two-bladed pusher propeller and made hops of up to 200 ft (60 m), flying up to 10 ft (3 m) high. In comparison, Orville Wright's first controlled flight four months later was of 36 m (120 ft) in 12 seconds although Wilbur flew 59 seconds and {{convert|sp=us|852|ft|m|abbr=on}} later that same day. Either way Jatho managed to fly a powered heavier-than-air machine earlier than his American counterparts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flyingmachines.org/jatho.html|title=FLYING MACHINES – Karl Jatho|work=flyingmachines.org}}</ref>
* 1903 – [[Mary Anderson (inventor)|Mary Anderson]] invented [[Windscreen wiper|windshield wipers]]. In November 1903 Anderson was granted her first [[patent]]<ref>United States Patent 743,801, Issue Date: November 10, 1903</ref> for an automatic car window cleaning device controlled inside the car, called the windshield wiper.<ref>[http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/com/speeches/02-16.htm Women Hold Patents on Important Inventions; USPTO recognizes inventive women during Women's History Month] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511103740/http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/com/speeches/02-16.htm |date=2009-05-11 }}, United States Patent and Trademark Office press release #02–16, March 1, 2002, accessed March 3, 2009</ref> Her device consisted of a lever and a swinging arm with a rubber blade. The lever could be operated from inside a vehicle to cause the spring-loaded arm to move back and forth across the windshield. Similar devices had been made earlier, but Anderson's was the first to be effective.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20030318180434/http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/anderson.html Many Anderson: Windshield Wipers], September 2001, Inventor of the Week Archive, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] School of Engineering website, accessed March 3, 2009</ref>
[[File:First flight2.jpg|thumb|250px|The first flight by [[Orville Wright]] made on December 17, 1903.]]
* 1903 – The [[Wright brothers]] fly at [[Kitty Hawk, North Carolina]]. Their airplane, the ''[[Wright Flyer]]'', performed the first recorded controlled, powered, sustained heavier than air flight on 17 December 1903. In the day's fourth flight, Wilbur Wright flew 279 meters (852 ft) in 59 seconds. First three flights were approximately 120, 175, and 200 ft (61 m), respectively. The Wrights laid particular stress on fully and accurately describing all the requirements for controlled, powered flight and put them into use in an aircraft which took off from a level launching rail, with the aid of a headwind to achieve sufficient airspeed before reaching the end of the rail.<ref>[http://www.thewrightbrothers.org/fivefirstflights.html  "1903 – Who Made the First Flight?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423162519/http://www.thewrightbrothers.org/fivefirstflights.html |date=2015-04-23 }} TheWrightBrothers.org.</ref> It is one of the various candidates regarded as the First flying machine.
*1904 – [[SS Haimun]] sends its first news story on 15 March 1904.<ref name="amazon">[[Peter Slattery|Slattery, Peter]]. "Reporting the Russo-Japanese War,1904–5", 2004. [https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1901903575]</ref> It was a Chinese [[Steamboat|steamer ship]] commanded by [[war correspondent]] [[Lionel James (war correspondent)|Lionel James]] in 1904 during the [[Russo-Japanese War]] for [[The Times]]. It is the first known instance of a "press boat" dedicated to war correspondence during naval battles. The recent advent of [[wireless telegraphy]] meant that reporters were no longer limited to submitting their stories from land-based offices, and The Times spent 74 days outfitting and equipping the ship,<ref>[[The Times]], "First messages from the Yellow Sea", March 11, 2004.[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/court_and_social/the_hitch/article1042746.ece]</ref> installing a [[Lee De Forest#Audion|De Forest transmitter]] aboard the ship.<ref>''The De Forest Wireless Telegraphy Tower: Bulletin No. 1'', Summer 1904.</ref>
[[File:Panama Canal under construction, 1907.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Construction work on the [[Gaillard Cut]] is shown in this photograph from 1907]]
* 1904–1914 – The [[Panama Canal]] constructed by the United States in the territory of [[Panama]], which had [[Separation of Panama from Colombia|just gained independence]] from [[Colombia]]. The Canal is a {{convert|sp=us|77|km|mi|abbr=on}} [[ship canal]] that joins the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean and a key conduit for international maritime trade. One of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken, the canal had an enormous impact on shipping between the two oceans, replacing the long and treacherous route via the [[Drake Passage]] and [[Cape Horn]] at the southernmost tip of South America. A ship sailing from New York to [[San Francisco]] via the canal travels {{convert|sp=us|9,500|km|mi|abbr=on}}, well under half the {{convert|sp=us|22,500|km|mi|abbr=on}} route around Cape Horn.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.czbrats.com/AmPan/index.htm |title=The Americans in Panama |first=William R. |last=Scott |publisher=Statler Publishing Company |location=New York|year=1913| access-date= 5 January 2010 }}</ref> The project starts on 4 May 1904, known as Acquisition Day. The United States government purchased all Canal properties on the [[Isthmus of Panama]] from the New Panama Canal Company, except the [[Panama Canal Railway|Panama Railroad]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.czbrats.com/Builders/100years/brooke.htm|title=May 4, 1904|work=czbrats.com}}</ref> The project begun under the administration of [[Theodore Roosevelt]], continued in that of [[William Howard Taft]] and completed in that of [[Woodrow Wilson]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pancanal.com/eng/history/history/end.html|title=Panama Canal History – End of the Construction|work=pancanal.com|access-date=2010-01-05|archive-date=2018-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001145746/http://www.pancanal.com/eng/history/history/end.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65375|title=Woodrow Wilson: Address to a Joint Session of Congress on Panama Canal Tolls|work=ucsb.edu}}</ref> The Chief engineers were [[John Frank Stevens]] and [[George Washington Goethals]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://goofy313g.free.fr/calisota_online/exist/stevens.html|title=John F. Stevens|work=free.fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pancanal.com/eng/history/biographies/goethals.html|title=George Washington Goethals|work=pancanal.com|access-date=2010-01-05|archive-date=2007-06-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622031957/http://www.pancanal.com/eng/history/biographies/goethals.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* 1904 – The [[Welte-Mignon]] [[Player piano|reproducing piano]] is created by Edwin Welte and Karl Bockisch. Both employed by the "Michael Welte und Söhne" firm of [[Freiburg im Breisgau]], [[German Empire|Germany]]. "It automatically replayed the tempo, phrasing, dynamics and pedalling of a particular performance, and not just the notes of the music, as was the case with other player pianos of the time." In September, 1904, the Mignon was demonstrated in the [[Leipzig Trade Fair]]. In March, 1905 it became better known when showcased "at the [[showroom]]s of Hugo Popper, a manufacturer of roll-operated [[orchestrion]]s". By 1906, the Mignon was also exported to the United States, installed to pianos by the firms [[Feurich]] and [[Steinway & Sons]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pianola.org/reproducing/reproducing_welte.cfm|title=Welte-Mignon Reproducing Piano |publisher=The Pianola Institute}}</ref>
* 1904 – [[Benjamin Holt]] of the [[Holt Manufacturing Company]] invents one of the first practical [[continuous track]]s for use in [[tractor]]s. While the date of invention was reportedly 24 November 1904, Holt would not receive a patent until December, 1907.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kipnotes.com/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017162514/http://www.kipnotes.com/AgriculturalMachinery.htm|url-status=dead|title=Holen Sie Ihr Wissen aus dem Internet|archivedate=October 17, 2012}}</ref>
* 1905 – [[John Joseph Montgomery]] of [[California]], United States designs tandem-wing [[Glider (aircraft)|gliders]]. His pilot [[Daniel J. Maloney|Daniel Maloney]] performs a number of public exhibitions of high altitude flights in March and April 1905 in the [[Santa Clara, California]], area. These flights received national media attention and demonstrated superior control of the design, with launches as high as 4,000 feet (1,200 m) and landings made at predetermined locations. The gliders were launched from balloons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flyingmachines.org/mont.html|title=FLYING MACHINES – John J. Montgomery|work=flyingmachines.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/montgomery.html|title=Flying Wings : An Anthology : John Joseph Montgomery (1858–1911)|work=monash.edu.au}}</ref>
* 1905 – The Wright Brothers introduce their [[Wright Flyer III]]. On 5 October 1905, Wilbur flew {{convert|sp=us|24|mi|km}} in 39 minutes 23 seconds,<ref name="sharpe">{{cite book | title=Biplanes, Triplanes and Seaplanes | isbn=978-1-58663-300-4 | last=Sharpe | first=Michael | publisher=Friedman/Fairfax | year=2000 | page=311 }}</ref> longer than the total duration of all the flights of [[1903 in aviation|1903]] and [[1904 in aviation|1904]]. Ending with a safe landing when the fuel ran out. The flight was seen by a number of people, including several invited friends, their father Milton, and neighboring farmers.<ref>[http://home.dayton.lib.oh.us/archives/wbcollection/wbscrapbooks1/WBScrapbooks10007.html Dayton Metro Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905015136/http://home.dayton.lib.oh.us/archives/wbcollection/wbscrapbooks1/WBScrapbooks10007.html |date=2009-09-05 }} Note: Dayton Metro Library has a document showing durations, distances and a list of witnesses to the long flights in late September-early October 1905. Retrieved: May 23, 2007.</ref> Four days later, they wrote to the [[United States Secretary of War]] [[William Howard Taft]], offering to sell the world's first practical fixed-wing aircraft.
* 1906 – The ''Gabel Automatic Entertainer'', an early [[jukebox]]-like machine, is invented by John Gabel. It is the first such device to play a series of gramophone records. "The Automatic Entertainer with 24 selections, was produced and patented by the John Gabel owned company in Chicago. The first model (constructed in 1905) was produced in 1906 with an exposed 40 inch horn (102 cm) on top, and it is today often considered the real father of the modern multi-selection disc-playing phonographs. John Gabel and his company did in fact receive a special prize at the [[Nagoya Pan-Pacific Peace Exposition (1937)|Pan-Pacific Exposition]] for the Automatic Entertainer."<ref>The life of John Gabel (1872–1955) and the history of his company is described in detail in an article well written by Rick Crandall. The article entitled "Diary Disclosures of John Gabel: A Pioneer in Automatic Music", based on an unpublished diary, was published in the autumn, 1984, newsletter of The Musical Box Society International (Vol. XXX, No. 2), and contains a lot of interesting historic information. Another story about John Gabel and his Automatic Entertainer appeared in the newsletter "Antique Phonograph Monthly" (Vol. VII, No. 8) published by Allen Koenigsberg in the summer, 1984.</ref><ref>[http://juke-box.dk/gert-history88-13.htm Gert J. Almind, "Jukebox History 1888–1913"].</ref>
[[File:Santos Dumont flight 23 Oct 1906.gif|thumb|200x200px|[[Alberto Santos-Dumont]] realizes the first official flight, 23 October 1906, Bagatelle field.]]
*1906 – The [[Victor Talking Machine Company]] releases the [[Victrola]], the most popular [[phonograph|gramophone]] model until the late 1920s.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World|chapter=Gramophone|first=Andre|last=Millard|page=512}}</ref> The Victrola is also the first [[Sound recording and reproduction|playback]] machine containing an internal horn.<ref name="ContinuumVictor">{{cite book|title=The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World|pages= 768–769|first=David|last=Horn|author2=David Sanjek|chapter=Victor}}</ref> Victor also erects the world's largest illuminated billboard at the time, on [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]] in New York City, to advertise the company's records.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World |chapter=Advertising of Popular Music |pages=530–532 |first=Dave |last=Laing |author-link=Dave Laing}}</ref>
* 1906 – [[Traian Vuia]] of [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] takes off with his "Traian Vuia 1", an early [[monoplane]]. His flight was performed in [[Montesson]] near Paris and was about 12 meters long.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earlyaviators.com/evuia.htm |title=Traian Vuia |last=Cooper |first=Ralph S., D.V.M. |work=earlyaviators.com}}</ref>
* 1906 – [[Jacob Ellehammer]] of Denmark constructs the [[Ellehammer semi-biplane]]. In this machine, he made a tethered flight on 12 September 1906, becoming the second European to make a powered flight.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Early Years (Aviation Century) |year=2003 |first1=Ron |last1=Dick |first2=Amanda Wright |last2=Lane |first3=Dan |last3=Patterson |publisher=Boston Mills Press |isbn=1-55046-407-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Wings: A History of Aviation from Kites to the Space Age |year=2004 |first=Tom D. |last=Crouch |author-link=Tom D. Crouch |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=0-393-32620-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=100 Years of Flight: A Chronology of Aerospace History, 1903–2003 |series=Library of Flight Series |year=2003 |first1=Frank H. |last1=Winter |author-link1=Frank H. Winter |first2=F. Robert Van Der |last2=Linden |publisher=[[AIAA]] |isbn=1-56347-562-6}}</ref>
* 1906 – [[Alberto Santos-Dumont]] and his [[Santos-Dumont 14-bis]] make the first public flight of an [[airplane]] on 23 October 1906, in Paris. The flying machine was the first fixed-wing aircraft officially witnessed to take off, fly, and land. Santos Dumont is considered the "Father of Aviation" in his country of birth, [[Brazil]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Hansen |first=James R. |author-link=James R. Hansen |title=First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong |title-link=First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong |location=New York |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7432-5631-5 |page=299}}</ref> His flight is the first to have been certified by the ''[[Aéro-Club de France]]'' and the ''[[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] (FAI)''.<ref>[http://www.aeroclub.com/santos_dumont_14bis_14bis.htm Les vols du 14bis relatés au fil des éditions du journal l'illustration de 1906.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070324025948/http://www.aeroclub.com/santos_dumont_14bis_14bis.htm |date=2007-03-24 }} The wording is: "cette prouesse est le premier vol au monde '''homologué''' par l'Aéro-Club de France et la toute jeune Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI)."</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aeroclub.com/santos_dumont_14bis_index.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061128124844/http://www.aeroclub.com/santos_dumont_14bis_index.htm|url-status=dead|title=Santos-Dumont: Pionnier de l'aviation, dandy de la Belle Epoque.|archivedate=November 28, 2006}}</ref> On 12 November 1906, Santos Dumont succeeded in setting the first world record recognized by the Aero-Club De France by flying 220 metres in less than 22 seconds.<ref>JInes. Ernest. [http://earlyaviators.com/edumonb.htm "Santos Dumont in France 1906–1916: The Very Earliest Early Birds."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316120252/http://earlyaviators.com/edumonb.htm |date=2016-03-16 }} ''earlyaviators.com'', December 25, 2006. Retrieved: August 17, 2009.</ref>
* 1906 – Sound [[radio broadcasting]] was invented by [[Reginald Fessenden]] and [[Lee De Forest]]. Fessenden and [[Ernst Alexanderson]] developed a high-frequency [[alternator]]-transmitters, an improvement on an already existing device. The improved model operated at a transmitting frequency of approximately 50 kHz, although with far less power than Fessenden's rotary-spark transmitters. The alternator-transmitter achieved the goal of transmitting quality audio signals, but the lack of any way to amplify the signals meant they were somewhat weak. On 21 December 1906, Fessenden made an extensive demonstration of the new alternator-transmitter at Brant Rock, showing its utility for point-to-point wireless telephony, including interconnecting his stations to the wire telephone network. A detailed review of this demonstration appeared in ''The American Telephone Journal''.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://earlyradiohistory.us/1907fes.htm| title = Experiments and Results in Wireless Telephony ''The American Telephone Journal''}}</ref> Meanwhile, De Forest had developed the [[Audion tube]] an electronic [[amplifier]] device. He received a patent in January 1907.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.leedeforest.org/inventor.html|title=Old Site – Lee de Forest Invented the Radio Tube|work=leedeforest.org}}</ref> "DeForest's audion vacuum tube was the key component of all radio, telephone, radar, television, and computer systems before the invention of the transistor in 1947."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.invent.org/Hall_Of_Fame/40.html |title=National Inventors Hall of Fame: "Lee Deforest" |access-date=2010-01-04 |archive-date=2009-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922235252/http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/40.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 1906 – [[Reginald Fessenden]] of [[East Bolton, Quebec]], Canada made what appear to be the first audio radio broadcasts of entertainment and music ever made to a general audience. (Beginning in 1904, the [[United States Navy]] had broadcast daily time signals and weather reports, but these employed [[spark-gap transmitter]]s, transmitting in [[Morse code]]). On the evening of December 24, 1906 ([[Christmas Eve]]), Fessenden used the alternator-transmitter to send out a short program from [[Ocean Bluff-Brant Rock, Massachusetts|Brant Rock]], [[Plymouth County, Massachusetts|Plymouth County]], [[Massachusetts]]. It included a phonograph record of [[Ombra mai fù]] (Largo) by [[George Frideric Handel]], followed by Fessenden himself playing the song ''[[O Holy Night]]'' on the [[violin]]. Finishing with reading a passage from the [[Bible]]: 'Glory to God in the highest and on earth peace to men of good will' ([[Gospel of Luke]] 2:14). On 31 December, [[New Year's Eve]], a second short program was broadcast. The main audience for both these transmissions was an unknown number of shipboard radio operators along the [[East Coast of the United States]]. Fessenden claimed that the Christmas Eve broadcast had been heard "as far down" as [[Norfolk, Virginia]], while the New Year Eve's broadcast had reached places in the Caribbean. Although now seen as a landmark, these two broadcasts were barely noticed at the time and soon forgotten— the only first-hand account appears to be a letter Fessenden wrote on 29 January 1932, to his former associate, Samuel M. Kinter.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4540711;view=1up;seq=167|title=Fessenden, Builder of Tomorrows|last=Fessenden|first=Helen May Trott|publisher=Coward-McCann|year=1940|isbn=978-0405060472|location=New York|pages=153–154}}</ref><ref name="ContinuumRadio">{{cite book|title=The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World|chapter=Radio|pages= 451–461|first=Stephen|last=Barnard|author2=Donna Halper and Dave Laing}}</ref>
[[File:Percy-MacKaye-Alwyn-Genthe-diascope.jpeg|thumb|The [[Autochrome Lumière]] becomes the first commercial color photography process.]]
* 1907 – The [[Autochrome Lumière]] which was patented in 1903 becomes the first commercial color photography process.
* 1907 – [[Thomas Edison]] invented the "Universal Electric Motor" which made it possible to operate [[dictation machine]]s, etc. on all lighting circuits.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thomasedison.com/Inventions.htm|title=THOMAS EDISON'S INVENTIONS|work=thomasedison.com}}</ref>
* 1907 – The [[Photostat machine]] begins the modern era of document imaging. The Photostat machine was invented in [[Kansas City, Kansas|Kansas City]], [[Kansas]], United States by Oscar Gregory in 1907, and the Photostat Corporation was incorporated in [[Rhode Island]] in 1911. "Rectigraph and Photostat machines (Plates 40–42) combined a large camera and a developing machine and used sensitized paper furnished in 350-foot rolls. "The prints are made direct on sensitized paper, no negative, plate or film intervening. The usual exposure is ten seconds. After the exposure has been made the paper is cut off and carried underneath the exposure chamber to the developing bath, where it remains for 35 seconds, and is then drawn into a fixing bath. While one print is being developed or fixed, another exposure can be made. When the copies are removed from the fixing bath, they are allowed to dry by exposure to the air, or may be run through a drying machine. The first print taken from the original is a 'black' print; the whites in the original are black and the blacks, white. (Plate 43) A white 'positive' print of the original is made by rephotographing the black print. As many positives as required may be made by continuing to photograph the black print." (The American Digest of Business Machines, 1924.) Du Pont Co. files include black prints of graphs dating from 1909, and the company acquired a Photostat machine in 1912. ... A 1914 Rectigraph ad stated that the U.S. government had been using Rectigraphs for four years and stated that the machines were being used by insurance companies and abstract and title companies. ... In 1911, a Photostat machine was $500."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.officemuseum.com/copy_machines.htm|title=Copying Machines|work=officemuseum.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nwmangum.com/Kodak/Rochester.html|title=A History of the Rochester, NY Camera and Lens Companies|work=nwmangum.com}}</ref>
[[File:1908 Ford Model T.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[Ford Model T]] set 1908 as the historic year that the automobile came into popular usage as it is generally regarded as the first affordable automobile.]]
* 1908 – [[Henry Ford]] of the [[Ford Motor Company]] introduces the [[Ford Model T]]. The first production Model T was built on 27 September 1908, at the [[Ford Piquette Avenue Plant]] in [[Detroit]]. It is generally regarded as the first affordable automobile, the car that "put America on wheels"; some of this was because of Ford's innovations, including [[assembly line]] production instead of individual hand crafting, as well as the concept of paying the workers a wage proportionate to the cost of the car, so that they would provide a ready made market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/ford.htm|title=Henry Ford Changes the World, 1908|work=eyewitnesstohistory.com}}</ref>
*1909 – [[Leo Baekeland]] of [[Sint-Martens-Latem]], Belgium officially announces his creation of [[Bakelite]]. The announcement was made at the February 1909 meeting of the New York section of the [[American Chemical Society]].<ref name=aice>{{cite book | last = American Institute of Chemical Engineers Staff | title = Twenty-Five Years of Chemical Engineering Progress | publisher = Ayer Publishing | year = 1977 | page = 216 | isbn = 978-0-8369-0149-8}}</ref> Bakelite is an inexpensive, nonflammable, versatile, and popular [[plastic]].<ref name="CHF">{{cite web|title=Leo Hendrik Baekeland|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/leo-hendrik-baekeland|website=Science History Institute|date=June 2016 |access-date=20 March 2018}}</ref><ref name=Bowden>{{cite book|last1=Bowden|first1=Mary Ellen|title=Chemical achievers : the human face of the chemical sciences|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/chemicalachiever0000bowd|chapter-url-access=registration|date=1997|publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=9780941901123|chapter=Leo Hendrik Baekeland|pages=[https://archive.org/details/chemicalachiever0000bowd/page/127 127–129]}}</ref><ref name="time">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/baekeland.html
|title=Time 100: Leo Baekeland
|first=Ivan
|last=Amato
|date=1999-03-29
|access-date=2007-11-08
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071106110739/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/baekeland.html| archive-date= 6 November 2007 | url-status= dead}}
</ref>
{{clear}}

==Popular culture==
===Literature===
{{See also|List of years in literature#1900s|Publishers Weekly list of bestselling novels in the United States in the 1900s}}
[[File:Portrait of Winston Churchill.jpg|thumb|upright|150px|4 out of 10 best-selling American books in the 1900s were written by [[Winston Churchill (novelist)|Winston Churchill]] (1871 – 1947)]]
The best selling books of the decade were ''[[Anne of Green Gables]]'' (1908) and ''[[The Tale of Peter Rabbit]]'' (1902), which sold 50 million<ref>{{Cite news|last=Paskin|first=Willa|date=2017-04-27|title=The Other Side of Anne of Green Gables|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/27/magazine/the-other-side-of-anne-of-green-gables.html|access-date=2020-04-19|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> and 45 million<ref>Worker's Press</ref> copies respectively. [[Serbian language|Serbian writers]] used the [[Belgrade]] literary style, an [[Ekavian]] writing form which set basis for the later standardization of the Serbian language. [[Theodor Herzl]], the founder of political [[Zionism]], published ''[[The Old New Land]]'' in 1902, outlining Herzl's vision for a Jewish state in the [[Land of Israel]].

Below are the best-selling books in the United States of each year, as determined by ''[[Publishers Weekly]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2006|title=Annual Bestsellers, 1900-1909|url=http://www3.isrl.illinois.edu/~unsworth/courses/bestsellers/best00.cgi|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016093451/http://www3.isrl.illinois.edu/~unsworth/courses/bestsellers/best00.cgi|archive-date=2011-10-16|url-status=live}}</ref>

* 1900: ''[[To Have and to Hold (Johnston novel)|To Have and to Hold]]'' by [[Mary Johnston]]
* 1901: ''[[The Crisis (novel)|The Crisis]]'' by [[Winston Churchill (novelist)|Winston Churchill]]
* 1902: ''[[The Virginian (novel)|The Virginian]]'' by [[Owen Wister]]
* 1903: ''[[Lady Rose's Daughter (novel)|Lady Rose's Daughter]]'' by [[Mary Augusta Ward]]
* 1904: ''[[The Crossing (Churchill novel)|The Crossing]]'' by [[Winston Churchill (novelist)|Winston Churchill]]
* 1905: ''[[The Marriage of William Ashe]]'' by [[Mary Augusta Ward]]
* 1906: ''[[Coniston (novel)|Coniston]]'' by [[Winston Churchill (novelist)|Winston Churchill]]
* 1907: ''[[The Lady of the Decoration]]'' by [[Frances Little]]
* 1908: ''[[Mr. Crewe's Career]]'' by [[Winston Churchill (novelist)|Winston Churchill]]
* 1909: ''[[The Inner Shrine (novel)|The Inner Shrine]]'' by Anonymous ([[Basil King]])

=== Art ===
[[File:Portrait de Picasso, 1908.jpg|thumb|upright|150px|[[Pablo Picasso]] in 1908, who, along with [[Henri Matisse]], was considered a leader in [[modern art]]]]
* [[Pablo Picasso]] paints ''[[Les Demoiselles d'Avignon]]'', considered by some to be the birth of modern art.
*[[Art Nouveau]] art movement peaked in popularity at the turn of the 20th century (1890–1905).
* [[Cubism]] art movement peaked in popularity in France between 1907 and 1911.
* [[Fauvism]] art movement peaked in popularity between 1905 and 1907.

===Film===
{{See also|1900s in film}}
{{Expand section|date=January 2010}}
[[File:Great train robbery still.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Justus D. Barnes]] in [[Edwin Porter]]'s film ''[[The Great Train Robbery (1903 film)|The Great Train Robbery]]'', 1903]]
* 2 April 1902 – ''Electric Theatre'', the first [[movie theater]] in the United States, opens in [[Los Angeles]].
* The first huge success of American cinema, as well as the largest experimental achievement to this point, was the 1903 film ''[[The Great Train Robbery (1903 film)|The Great Train Robbery]]'', directed by [[Edwin S. Porter]].
* The world's first feature film, ''[[The Story of the Kelly Gang]]'' is released on 26 December 1906 in [[Melbourne]], Australia.

===Music===
Popular songs of the 1900s include "[[Lift Every Voice and Sing]]" and "[[What Are They Doing in Heaven?]]", which have been featured in 42<ref>{{cite web|title=Lift Every Voice and Sing|url=https://hymnary.org/text/lift_every_voice_and_sing#instances|website=Hymnary.org}}</ref> and 16<ref name="hymnary">{{cite web|title=What Are They Doing in Heaven?|url=http://www.hymnary.org/text/i_am_thinking_of_friends_whom_i_used_to_|website=hymnary.org|accessdate=August 24, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Charles Albert Tindley 1851{{ndash}}1933|url=http://nethymnal.org/bio/t/i/tindley_ca.htm|website=nethymnal.org|accessdate=August 24, 2015}}</ref> [[hymnal]]s respectively.
** 23 January 1900 – The [[Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra]] makes its [[Carnegie Hall]] debut with [[Victor Herbert]] conducting.
** 3 February 1900 – [[Adonais]], overture by [[George Whitefield Chadwick]] is premiered by the [[Boston Symphony Orchestra]].
** 15 December 1900 – The second and third movements of [[Piano Concerto No. 2 (Rachmaninoff)|Concerto No.2 in C Minor for Piano]] by [[Sergej Rachmaninov]] receive their world premiere in Moscow, with Rachmaninov playing the solo part.
** 29 March 1901 – [[Jean de Reszke]]'s final performance of the season with the [[Metropolitan Opera]] turns into his farewell performance with that company as he sings the title role in [[Richard Wagner|Wagner's]] [[Lohengrin (opera)|Lohengrin]].
** 27 October 1901 – [[Claude Debussy]]'s ''Trois Nocturnes'' is given in its first complete performance as [[Camille Chevillard]] conducts the [[Lamoureux Orchestra]] in Paris.
** 9 November 1901 – First complete performance of [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]]'s [[Piano Concerto No. 2 (Rachmaninoff)|Piano Concerto no. 2]] in [[C minor|C Minor]] in [[Moscow]] with Rachmaninoff playing the solo part.
** 16 December 1902 – [[Scott Joplin]]'s [[Signature song|signature]] [[Rag (music)|rag]], "[[The Entertainer (rag)|The Entertainer]]", is released.
** October 18, 1904 – [[Gustav Mahler]]'s ''[[Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)|Symphony No. 5]]'' is premiered by the [[Gürzenich Orchestra Cologne]] with Mahler conducting.
** 1905 - [[Claude Debussy]] releases his masterpiece and [[signature song]], "[[Clair de lune (Debussy)|Clair de Lune]]".
** 27 January 1907 – Executives of the [[Metropolitan Opera]] removes [[Richard Strauss]]'s [[Salome]] from the [[repertoire]] following [[protest]]s that the [[opera]] was indecent.
** 26 January 1908 – [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]]'s [[Symphony No. 2 (Rachmaninoff)|Symphony No. 2]] receives its première.
** 15 March 1908 – [[Maurice Ravel]]'s ''[[Rapsodie espagnole]]'' receives its première in Paris.
** 11 April 1908 – [[Spyridon Samaras]]'s opera ''Rhea'' is premiered in [[Florence]] (Teatro Verdi)
** 19 September 1908 – Première of [[Gustav Mahler]]'s [[Symphony No. 7 (Mahler)|Symphony No. 7]] in Prague.
** 25 January 1909 – [[Richard Strauss]]'s opera [[Elektra (opera)|Elektra]] receives its debut performance at the [[Semperoper|Dresden State Opera]]
** 19 February 1909 – First production [[Bedřich Smetana]]'s opera ''[[Prodaná nevěsta]]'' (The Bartered Bride) in the USA v [[Metropolitan Opera]], conducted by [[Gustav Mahler]] with [[Ema Destinová]] in the titul role.
** 22 February 1909 – [[Thomas Beecham]] conducts the first concert with his newly established Beecham Symphony Orchestra in the UK.
** 8 November 1909 – [[Boston Opera House (1909)|Boston Opera House]] in the United States opens with a performance of ''[[La Gioconda (opera)|La Gioconda]]'' starring [[Lillian Nordica]] and [[Louise Homer]].
** 28 November 1909 – [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]]'s [[Piano Concerto No. 3 (Rachmaninoff)|Piano Concerto No. 3]] is premièred in New York City.
** 18 December 1909 – [[George Enescu]]'s [[Octet (Enescu)|Octet for Strings]] and Piano Quartet No. 1 in D Major are premiered together on a program also featuring his ''Sept chansons de Clement Marot'', Op. 15, at the Salle des agriculteurs in Paris, as part of the "Soirées d'Art" concert series.

===Fashion===
{{See also|1900s in fashion}}
{{Expand section|date=January 2010}}

===Historic events===
[[Agustín Lizárraga]] discovers [[Machu Picchu]] on 14 July 1902.
{{Expand section|date=August 2023}}

===Sports===
{{expand section|date=July 2018}}

The [[Tour de France]] starts for the first time in 1903.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.letour.fr/2011/TDF/HISTO/us/index.html|title=Home|work=Tour de France 2015|access-date=2011-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101027083912/http://www.letour.fr/2011/TDF/HISTO/us/index.html|archive-date=2010-10-27|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Food===
* U.S. [[New Haven, Connecticut]] Louis Lassen of [[Louis' Lunch]] makes the first modern-day [[hamburger]] [[sandwich]]. According to family legend, one day in 1900 a local businessman dashed into the small New Haven lunch wagon and pleaded for a lunch to go. According to the Lassen family, the customer, Gary Widmore, exclaimed "Louie! I'm in a rush, slap a meatpuck between two planks and step on it!".<ref name="bbq">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/stevenraichlensb0000raic | url-access=registration | quote=Louis Lunch. | title=BBQ USA: 425 Fiery Recipes from All Across America | publisher=Workman Publishing | date=2003 | access-date=28 May 2014 | author=Raichlen, Steven | pages=[https://archive.org/details/stevenraichlensb0000raic/page/336 336]–337| isbn=9780761120155 }}</ref><ref name="colin">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KHEbAgAAQBAJ&q=Louis+Lunch&pg=PA108 | title=Legendary Locals of New Haven | publisher=Arcadia Publishing | author=Caplan, Colin | year=2013 | pages=108–109| isbn=9781467100960 }}</ref> Louis Lassen, the establishment's owner, placed his own blend of ground steak trimmings between two slices of toast and sent the gentleman on his way, so the story goes, with America's alleged first hamburger being served.<ref name="ctm">{{cite web | url=http://www.ctmuseumquest.com/?page_id=4954 | title=Burger at Louis' Lunch | publisher=Connecticut Museum Quest | access-date=29 May 2014}}</ref>

==People==

===Modern artists===
[[File:Henri Matisse, 1913, photograph by Alvin Langdon Coburn.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Henri Matisse]]]]
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Umberto Boccioni]]
*[[Pierre Bonnard]]
*[[Georges Braque]]
*[[Paul Cézanne]]
*[[Marc Chagall]]
*[[Edgar Degas]]
*[[André Derain]]
*[[Raoul Dufy]]
*[[Paul Gauguin]]
*[[Juan Gris]]
*[[Wassily Kandinsky]]
*[[Gustav Klimt]]
*[[Fernand Léger]]
*[[Kazimir Malevich]]
*[[Henri Matisse]]
*[[Amedeo Modigliani]]
*[[Claude Monet]]
*[[Pablo Picasso]]
*[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]
*[[Auguste Rodin]]
*[[Georges Rouault]]
*[[Henri Rousseau]]
*[[Albert Pinkham Ryder]]
*[[Egon Schiele]]
*[[Gino Severini]]
*[[Paul Signac]]
*[[Henri Toulouse-Lautrec]]
*[[Suzanne Valadon]]
*[[Maurice de Vlaminck]]
*[[Gustave Caillebotte]]
*[[Édouard Manet]]
*[[Camille Pissarro]]
*[[Georges Seurat]]
*[[Alfred Sisley]]
{{div col end}}

===Other notable people===
[[File:Sigmund freud um 1905.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sigmund Freud]], 1905]]
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Agustín Lizárraga]]
*[[Eugen d'Albert]]
*[[Hugo Alfvén]]
*[[Egbert Van Alstyne]]
*[[Broncho Billy Anderson]]
*[[Fatty Arbuckle]]
*[[Louis Daniel Armstrong]]
*[[Kurt Atterberg]]
*[[Béla Bartók]]
*[[Nora Bayes]]
*[[Jagdish Chandra Bose]]
*[[Irving Berlin]]
*[[Francis Boggs]]
*[[Frank Bridge]]
*[[Alfred Bryan (lyricist)|Alfred Bryan]]
*[[Vincent P. Bryan]]
*[[Ferruccio Busoni]]
*[[Enrico Caruso]]
*[[Gustave Charpentier]]
*[[Thurland Chattaway]]
*[[Francesco Cilea]]
*[[Will D. Cobb]]
*[[Bob Cole (composer)|Bob Cole]]
*[[Frederick Converse]]
*[[Henry Creamer]]
*[[Henry Walford Davies]]
*[[Peter Dawson (bass-baritone)|Peter Dawson]]
*[[Claude Debussy]]
*[[Frederick Delius]]
*[[Paul Dresser]]
*[[Antonín Dvořák]]
*[[Gus Edwards (vaudeville)|Gus Edwards]]
*[[Edward Elgar]]
*[[August Enna]]
*[[Manuel de Falla]]
*[[Geraldine Farrar]]
*[[Fred Fisher]]
*[[Paul Le Flem]]
*[[Sigmund Freud]]
*[[Rudolf Friml]]
*[[Julius Fučík (composer)|Julius Fučík]]
*[[Amelita Galli-Curci]]
*[[Mary Garden]]
*[[Edward German]]
*[[Alexander Glazunov]]
*[[Emilio de Gogorza]]
*[[Percy Grainger]]
*[[Enrique Granados]]
*[[D. W. Griffith]]
*[[Guy d'Hardelot]]
*[[Hamilton Harty]]
*[[The Haydn Quartet]]
*[[Anna Held]]
*[[Victor Herbert]]
*[[Max Hoffmann]]
*[[Gustav Holst]]
*[[Abe Holzmann]]
*[[David Horsley]]
*[[Harry Houdini]]
*[[Mississippi John Hurt]]
*[[Jenö Huszka]]
*[[Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov]]
*[[Carrie Jacobs-Bond]]
*[[Alfred Jarry]]
*[[William Jerome]]
*[[J. Rosamond Johnson]]
*[[James Weldon Johnson]]
*[[Scott Joplin]]
*[[Gus Kahn]]
*[[Jerome Kern]]
*[[Rudyard Kipling]]
*[[Carl Laemmle]]
*[[Harry Lauder]]
*[[Lead Belly]]
*[[Franz Lehár]]
*[[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]]
*[[Paul Lincke]]
*[[Gustav Mahler]]
*[[Arthur Marshall (ragtime composer)|Arthur Marshall]]
*[[Jules Massenet]]
*[[Nikolai Karlovich Medtner]]
*[[Nellie Melba]]
*[[Georges Méliès]]
*[[Kerry Mills]]
*[[Billy Murray (singer)|Billy Murray]]
*[[Evelyn Nesbit]]
*[[Ethelbert Woodbridge Nevin]]
*[[Carl Nielsen]]
*[[Jack Norworth]]
*[[Vítězslav Novák]]
*[[Maude Nugent]]
*[[Sidney Olcott]]
*[[Charles Pathé]]
*[[Edwin S. Porter]]
*[[Giacomo Puccini]]
*[[Sergei Rachmaninoff]]
*[[Maurice Ravel]]
*[[Ottorino Respighi]]
*[[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]]
*[[Landon Ronald]]
*[[Paul Sarebresole]]
*[[Erik Satie]]
*[[Arnold Schoenberg]]
*[[Jean Schwartz]]
*[[James Scott (musician)|James Scott]]
*[[Alexander Scriabin]]
*[[William Selig]]
*[[Chris Smith (composer)|Chris Smith]]
*[[Harry B. Smith]]
*[[Ethel Smyth]]
*[[John Philip Sousa]]
*[[George Kirke Spoor]]
*[[Charles Villiers Stanford]]
*[[Andrew B. Sterling]]
*[[Oscar Straus (composer)|Oscar Strauss]]
*[[Harry Von Tilzer]]
*[[Tom Turpin]]
*[[Edgard Varèse]]
*[[Vesta Victoria]]
*[[Anton Webern]]
*[[Percy Wenrich]]
*[[Bert Williams]]
*[[Harry Williams (songwriter)|Harry Williams]]
*[[Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari]]
*[[Amy Woodforde-Finden]]
*[[Israel Zangwill]]
*[[Ferdinand von Zeppelin]]
*[[Charles A. Zimmerman]]
{{div col end}}


===Sports figures===
{|
| valign = top |

====Baseball====
{{See also|History of baseball in the United States}}
*[[Chief Bender]]
*[[Mordecai Brown|3-Finger Brown]]
*[[Jack Chesbro]]
*[[Ty Cobb]]
*[[Pud Galvin]]
*[[Addie Joss]]
*[[Nap Lajoie]]
*[[Sam Leever]]
*[[Christy Mathewson]]
*[[John McGraw]]
*[[Kid Nichols]]
*[[Eddie Plank]]
*[[Tris Speaker]]
*[[Rube Waddell]]
*[[Honus Wagner]]
*[[Ed Walsh|Big Ed Walsh]]
*[[Cy Young]]
| valign = top |

====Boxing====
{{See also|International Boxing Hall of Fame}}
*[[Tommy Burns (Canadian boxer)|Tommy Burns]]
*[[Marvin Hart]] (boxing)
*[[James J. Jeffries]] (boxing)
*[[Jack Johnson (boxer)|Jack Johnson]] (boxing)
*[[Kid McCoy]] (boxing)
| valign = top |

====Cricket====
*[[Warwick Armstrong]]
*[[Sydney Barnes]]
*[[Colin Blythe]]
*[[Len Braund]]
*[[Aubrey Faulkner]]
*[[Tip Foster]]
*[[C.B. Fry]]
*[[Dick Lilley]]
*[[Tom Hayward]]
*[[Clem Hill]]
*[[George Hirst]]
*[[Monty Noble]]
*[[K.S. Ranjitsinhji]]
*[[Wilfred Rhodes]]
*[[Percy Sherwell]]
*[[George Thompson (cricketer)]]
*[[Victor Trumper]]
*[[Johnny Tyldesley]]
*[[Bert Vogler]]
|}

=== Last survivors ===
Born on 27 May 1909, Venezuelan [[Juan Vicente Pérez]] is currently the last man alive verified to have been born in the decade.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Juan Vicente Pérez Mora |url=https://longeviquest.com/supercentenarians/juan-vicente-perez-mora/ |access-date=2023-02-17 |website=LongeviQuest |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=WSRL – GERONTOLOGY RESEARCH GROUP |url=https://www.grg-supercentenarians.org/world-supercentenarian-ranking-list/ |access-date=2023-05-03 |language=en}}</ref> The currently oldest person in the world is American-born [[Spaniards|Spaniard]] [[Maria Branyas]] who was born on 4 March 1907.

==See also==
* [[List of years in literature#1900s|1900s in literature]]

===Timeline===
The following articles contain brief timelines which list the most prominent events of the decade:

[[1900]] • [[1901]] • [[1902]] • [[1903]] • [[1904]] • [[1905]] • [[1906]] • [[1907]] • [[1908]] • [[1909]]

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hale |first=Williams Bayard |author-link=William Bayard Hale |date=January 1911 |title=A Dramatic Decade of History: What The First Ten Years Of The Twentieth Century Witnessed Of International Stir – A Time Prolific In Wars, Revolutions And Revolts, National Tragedy And Intrigue |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXI |pages=13855–13868 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13855|access-date=2009-07-10 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Hutchinson |first=Woods |date=January 1911 |title=The Conquest Of The Great Diseases: The National Death-Rate Reduced 10 PerCent, The Discovery Of The Hook-Worm And The "Typhoid Fly", Meningitis And Syphilis Both Conquered During The Decade, The Passing Of Yellow Fever |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXI |pages=13881–13883 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13881|access-date=2009-07-10 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Keys |first=C.M. |date=January 1911 |title=Ten Years Of Industrial America: Manufacturing Industry Far Outpacing Agriculture |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXI |pages=13884–13897 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13884|access-date=2009-07-10 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Page|first=Walter Hines |author-link=Walter Hines Page |date=January 1911 |title=The Astronomical Romance Of A Decade: The Story of Ten Years' Advance In Knowledge Of The Heavens |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXI |pages=13877–13880 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13877|access-date=2009-07-10 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Mahan |first=Alfred T. |author-link=Alfred Thayer Mahan |date=January 1911 |title=The Battleship Of All-Big-Guns: How The Coming Of The "Dreadnought" Made The World's Navies Partly Obsolete, Germany's Growing Commerce Is Responsible For Changes In Many Navies, The Rise of Three Great Navies In Ten Years |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXI |pages=13898–13902 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13898|access-date=2009-07-10 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sloss |first=Robert |date=January 1911 |title=The Children Of The Gas-Engine: The Revolution In Speed And In Convenience In Transportation – Automobiles, Motor-Cycles, Motor-Boats, Aeroplanes And Other Queer Craft That Ten Years Have Brought |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXI |pages=13869–13877 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13869|access-date=2009-07-10 }}
{{Refend}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}

* [https://libraryguides.missouri.edu/pricesandwages/1900-1909 Prices and Wages by Decade: 1900s]—Research guide from the University of Missouri Library shows average wages for various occupations and prices for common items from 1900 to 1909.
{{Events by month links}}
{{20th century}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:1900s (Decade)}}
[[Category:1900s| ]]
[[Category:19th century]]
[[Category:20th century]]
[[Category:1900s decade overviews]]

1900s

2023-09-12T18:53:51Z

78.157.120.208: Changed the date format to consistently be DMY

{{short description|Decade of the Gregorian calendar (1900-1909)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{about|the decade 1900–1909|the century 1901–2000|20th century}}
<imagemap>File:1900s decademontage2.png|335px|thumb|right|From left, clockwise: The [[Wright brothers]] achieve the '''[[Wright Flyer|first manned flight]]''' with a motorized [[airplane]], in [[Kitty Hawk, North Carolina|Kitty Hawk]] in 1903; A missionary points to the severed hand of a Congolese villager, symbolic of Belgian '''[[atrocities in the Congo Free State]]'''; The '''[[1908 Messina earthquake]]''' kills 75,000–82,000 people and becomes the most destructive earthquake ever to strike Europe; America gains control over the [[Philippines]] in 1902, after the '''[[Philippine–American War]]'''; Rock being moved to construct the '''[[Panama Canal]]'''; Admiral [[Heihachiro Togo|Togo]] before the [[Battle of Tsushima]] in 1905, part of the '''[[Russo-Japanese War]]''', leading to Japanese victory and their establishment as a [[great power]], while Russia's defeat eventually led to the [[1905 Revolution]].
rect 2 2 249 161 [[Wright Flyer]]
rect 253 2 497 161 [[Atrocities in the Congo Free State]]
rect 250 165 497 334 [[1908 Messina earthquake]]
rect 250 338 497 488 [[Philippine–American War]]
rect 2 338 246 488 [[Panama Canal]]
rect 2 165 123 334 [[Russo-Japanese War]]
rect 125 165 246 334 [[1905 Russian Revolution]]
</imagemap>
{{Decadebox|190}}

The '''1900s''' (pronounced "nineteen-hundreds") was a [[decade]] that began on 1 January 1900, and ended on 31 December 1909. The [[Edwardian era]] (1901–1910) covers a similar span of time. The term "nineteen-hundreds" is sometimes also used to mean the entire century from 1 January 1900 to 31 December 1999 (the years beginning with "19").


The [[Scramble for Africa]] continued, with the [[Orange Free State]], [[South African Republic]], [[Ashanti Empire]], [[Aro Confederacy]], [[Sokoto Caliphate]] and [[Kano Emirate]] being conquered by the [[British Empire]], alongside the [[Battle of Kousséri|French Empire conquering Borno]], the [[Battle of Maroua|German Empire conquering the Adamawa Emirate]], and the [[Battle of Mufilo|Portuguese Empire conquering the Ovambo]]. [[Atrocities in the Congo Free State]] were committed by private companies and the ''[[Force Publique]]'', with a resultant population decline{{Refn|"I suggest that it is impossible to separate deaths caused by massacre and starvation from those due to the pandemic of sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis) which decimated central Africa at the time." - [[Neal Ascherson]] (1999)<ref>{{cite book|last=Ascherson|first=Neal|author-link=Neal Ascherson|title=The King Incorporated: Leopold the Second and the Congo|year=1999|publisher=Granta|location=London|isbn=1-86207-290-6|edition=New|page=9}}</ref>|name=congodecline|group=note}} of 1 to 15 million. From 1904 to 1908, German colonial forces in [[German South West Africa|South West Africa]] led a [[Herero and Namaqua genocide|campaign of ethnic extermination and collective punishment]], genociding 24,000 to 100,000 [[Herero people|Hereros]] and 10,000 [[Nama people|Namaqua]]. The [[First Moroccan Crisis|First Moroccan]] and [[Bosnian Crisis|Bosnian crises]] led to worsened tensions in Europe that would ultimately lead to the [[First World War]] in the next decade. [[Cuba]], [[Bulgaria]], and [[Norway]] became independent.


The deadliest conventional war of this decade was the [[Russo-Japanese War]], fought over rival [[Imperialism|imperial]] ambitions in [[Manchuria]] and the [[Korean Empire]]. Russia suffered a humiliating defeat in this conflict, contributing to a growing domestic unrest which culminated in the [[1905 Russian Revolution]]. Unconventional wars of similar scale include insurrections in the [[Philippine–American War|Philippines (1899–1913)]], [[Boxer Rebellion|China (1899–1901)]], and [[Thousand Days' War|Colombia (1899–1902)]]. Lesser conflicts include interstate wars such as the [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902), the [[Kuwaiti–Rashidi war]] (1900–1901), and the [[Saudi–Rashidi War (1903–1907)|Saudi–Rashidi War]] (1903–1907), as well as failed uprisings and revolutions in [[Bailundo revolt|Portuguese Angola (1902–1904)]], [[Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising|Rumelia (1903)]], [[1904 Sasun uprising|Ottoman Eastern Anatolia (1904)]], [[Revolution of 1904|Uruguay (1904)]], [[1904–1905 uprising in Madagascar|French Madagascar (1905–1906)]], [[Argentine Revolution of 1905|Argentina (1905)]], [[Persian Constitutional Revolution|Persia (1905–1911)]], [[Maji Maji Rebellion|German East Africa (1905–1907)]], and [[1907 Romanian peasants' revolt|Romania (1907)]]. [[Chinese famine of 1906–1907|A major famine took place in China from 1906 to 1907]], possibly leading to 20–25 million deaths. This famine was directly caused by the 1906 China floods (April–October 1906), which hit the Huai River particularly hard and destroyed both the summer and autumn harvest. The [[1908 Messina earthquake]] caused 75,000–82,000 deaths.


[[First-wave feminism]] saw progress, with universities being opened for women in Japan, Bulgaria, Cuba, Russia, and Peru. In 1906, Finland granted women the right to vote,<ref name="finlande1">{{cite web |title=Finnish women won the right to vote a hundred years ago – Embassy of Finland, The Hague : Current Affairs |url=http://www.finlande.nl/public/default.aspx?contentid=112162&nodeid=35916&contentlan=2&culture=en-US |access-date=2012-10-31 |publisher=Finlande.nl}}</ref> the first European country to do so.<ref name="autogenerated6">{{cite web |title=BBC Radio 4 – Woman's Hour – Women's History Timeline: 1900 – 1909 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/womanshour/timeline/1900.shtml |access-date=2012-11-07 |publisher=Bbc.co.uk}}</ref> The foundation of the [[Women's Social and Political Union]] by [[Emmeline Pankhurst]] in 1903 led to the rise of the [[Suffragettes]] in Great Britain and Ireland. In 1908, [[Young Turk Revolution|a revolution took place]] in the Ottoman Empire, where the [[Young Turks]] movement restored the [[Ottoman constitution of 1876]], establishing the [[Second Constitutional Era]]. Subsequently, ethnic tensions rose, and in 1909, [[Adana massacre|up to 30,000 mainly Armenian civilians in Adana were massacred]] by Muslim civilians.


The decade saw the widespread application of the [[History of the internal combustion engine|internal combustion engine]] including mass production of the automobile, as well as the introduction of the [[typewriter]]. The ''[[Wright Flyer]]'' performed the first recorded controlled, powered, sustained heavier than air flight on 17 December 1903. [[Reginald Fessenden]] of [[East Bolton, Quebec]], Canada made what appeared to be{{clarify|date=October 2021}} the first audio radio broadcasts of entertainment and music ever made to a general audience. The first huge success of American cinema, as well as the largest experimental achievement to this point, was the 1903 film ''[[The Great Train Robbery (1903 film)|The Great Train Robbery]]'', directed by [[Edwin S. Porter]], while the world's first feature film, ''[[The Story of the Kelly Gang]]'', was released on 26 December 1906 in [[Melbourne]], Australia. Popular books of this decade included ''[[The Tale of Peter Rabbit]]'' (1902) and ''[[Anne of Green Gables]]'' (1908), which sold 45 million and 50 million copies respectively. Popular songs of this decade include "[[Lift Every Voice and Sing]]" and "[[What Are They Doing in Heaven?]]", which have been featured in 42 and 16 [[hymnal]]s respectively.

During the decade, the world population increased from 1.60 to 1.75 billion, with approximately 580 million births and 450 million deaths in total.

==Pronunciation varieties==
There are several main varieties of how individual years of the decade are pronounced. Using 1906 as an example, they are "nineteen-oh-six", "nineteen-six", and "nineteen-aught-six". Which variety is most prominent depends somewhat on global region and generation. "Nineteen-oh-six" is the most common; "nineteen-six" is less common. In [[American English]], "nineteen-aught-six" is also recognized but not much used.{{cn|date=April 2022}}

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Estimates of historical world population}}
Estimates for the world population by 1900 vary from 1.563 to 1.710 billion.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;font-size:small;"
![[Population Reference Bureau|PRB]]
(1973–2016)<ref name="Population Reference Bureau">Data from [http://www.prb.org/Home.aspx Population Reference Bureau] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080520091122/http://www.prb.org/Home.aspx |date=2008-05-20 }}.

2016 estimate: (a) [http://www.prb.org/pdf16/prb-wpds2016-web-2016.pdf "2016 World Population Data Sheet"]

2015 estimate: (b) Toshiko Kaneda, 2015, [http://www.prb.org/pdf15/2015-world-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2015 World Population Data Sheet"].

2014 estimate: (c) Carl Haub, 2014, [http://www.prb.org/pdf14/2014-world-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2014 World Population Data Sheet"].

2013 estimate: (d) Carl Haub, 2013, [http://www.prb.org/pdf13/2013-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2013 World Population Data Sheet"].

2012 estimate: (e) Carl Haub, 2012, [http://www.prb.org/pdf12/2012-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2012 World Population Data Sheet"].

2011 estimate: (f) Carl Haub, 2011, [http://www.prb.org/pdf11/2011population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2011 World Population Data Sheet"].

2010 estimate: (g) Carl Haub, 2010, [http://www.prb.org/pdf10/10wpds_eng.pdf "2010 World Population Data Sheet"].

2009 estimate: (h) Carl Haub, 2009, [http://www.prb.org/pdf09/09wpds_eng.pdf "2009 World Population Data Sheet"].

2008 estimate: (i) Carl Haub, 2008, [http://www.prb.org/pdf08/08WPDS_Eng.pdf "2008 World Population Data Sheet"].

2007 estimate: (j) Carl Haub, 2007, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2007/2007WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx "2007 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224205549/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2007/2007WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx |date=2011-02-24 }}.

2006 estimate: (k) Carl Haub, 2006, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2006/2006WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx "2006 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222075621/http://prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2006/2006WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx |date=2010-12-22 }}.

2005 estimate: (l) Carl Haub, 2005, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2005/2005WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx "2005 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414150237/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2005/2005WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx |date=2011-04-14 }}.

2004 estimate: (m) Carl Haub, 2004, [http://www.prb.org/pdf04/04WorldDataSheet_ENG.pdf "2004 World Population Data Sheet"].

2003 estimate: (n) Carl Haub, 2003, [http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~psc/WorldPopulationDS03_Eng.pdf "2003 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819182509/http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~psc/WorldPopulationDS03_Eng.pdf |date=2019-08-19 }}.

2002 estimate: (o) Carl Haub, 2002, [http://www.prb.org/pdf/worldpopulationds02_eng.pdf "2002 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209093516/http://www.prb.org/pdf/WorldPopulationDS02_Eng.pdf |date=2017-12-09 }}.

2001 estimate: (p) Carl Haub, 2001, [http://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/18790/publi_pdf2_pop_and_soc_english_370.en.pdf "2001 World Population Data Sheet"].

2000 estimate: (q) 2000, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2000/9BillionWorldPopulationby2050.aspx "9 Billion World Population by 2050"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201050626/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2000/9BillionWorldPopulationby2050.aspx |date=2018-02-01 }}.

1997 estimate: (r) 1997, [http://www.epidemiolog.net/evolving/DemographyBasics.pdf "Studying Populations"].

Estimates for 1995 and prior: (s) Carl Haub, 1995, [https://www.un.org/popin/popis/journals/poptoday/today0295.html "How Many People Have Ever Lived on Earth?"] ''Population Today'', Vol. 23 (no. 2), pp. 5–6.</ref>
![[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|UN]]
(2015)<ref name="The World at Six Billion, 1999">Data from [http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_population.htm United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division.]

1950–2100 estimates (only medium variants shown): (a) [http://esa.un.org/unpp/ World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511162049/http://esa.un.org/unpp/ |date=2011-05-11 }}

Estimates prior to 1950: (b) [https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbillion.htm "The World at Six Billion", 1999.]

Estimates from 1950 to 2100: (c) [http://www.geohive.com/earth/his_history3.aspx "Population of the entire world, yearly, 1950 - 2100", 2013.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119132504/http://www.geohive.com/earth/his_history3.aspx |date=November 19, 2016 }}

2014: (d) [http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf "2014 World Urbanization Prospects", 2014.]

2015: (e) [http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/Key_Findings_WPP_2015.pdf"2015 World Urbanization Prospects", 2015.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320035709/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_population.htm |date=March 20, 2014 }}</ref>
![[Angus Maddison|Maddison]]
(2008)<ref name="www.ggdc.net/maddison/Historical_Statistics">[http://www.theworldeconomy.org/publications/worldeconomy/ Angus Maddison, 2003, ''The World Economy: Historical Statistics'', Vol. 2, OECD, Paris] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513232041/http://www.theworldeconomy.org/publications/worldeconomy/|date=May 13, 2008}} {{ISBN|92-64-10412-7}}.

[http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/Historical_Statistics/horizontal-file_02-2010.xls "Statistical Appendix"] (2008, ggdc.net) "The historical data were originally developed in three books: Monitoring the World Economy 1820-1992, OECD, Paris 1995; The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, OECD Development Centre, Paris 2001; The World Economy: Historical Statistics, OECD Development Centre, Paris 2003. All these contain detailed source notes. Figures for 1820 onwards are annual, wherever possible. For earlier years, benchmark figures are shown for 1 AD, 1000 AD, 1500, 1600 and 1700." "OECD countries GDP revised and updated 1991-2003 from National Accounts for OECD Countries, vol. I, 2006. Norway 1820-1990 GDP from Ola Grytten (2004), "The Gross Domestic Product for Norway, 1830-2003" in Eitrheim, Klovland and Qvigstad (eds), Historical Monetary Statistics for Norway, 1819-2003, Norges Bank, Oslo. Latin American GDP 2000-2003 revised and updated from ECLAC, Statistical Yearbook 2004 and preliminary version of the 2005 Yearbook supplied by Andre Hofman. For Chile, GDP 1820-2003 from Rolf Lűders (1998), "The Comparative Economic Performance of Chile 1810-1995", Estudios de Economia, vol. 25, no. 2, with revised population estimates from Diaz, J., R. Lűders, and G. Wagner (2005) Chili 1810-2000: la Republica en Cifras, mimeo, Instituto de Economia, Universidad Católica de Chile. For Peru, GDP 1896-1990 and population 1896-1949 from Bruno Seminario and Arlette Beltran, Crecimiento Economico en el Peru 1896-1995, Universidad del Pacifico, 1998. " "For Asia there are amendments to the GDP estimates for South and North Korea, 1911-74, to correct an error in Maddison (2003). Estimates for the Philippines, 1902-1940 were amended in line with Richard Hooley (2005), 'American Economic Policy in the Philippines, 1902-1940', Journal of Asian Economics, 16. 1820 estimates were amended for Hong Kong, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan and Thailand." "Asian countries GDP revised and updated 1998-2003 from AsianOutlook, April 2005. Population estimates for all countries except China and Indonesia revised and updated 1950-2008 and 2030 from International Data Base, International Programs Center, Population Division, US Bureau of the Census, April 2005 version. China's population 1990-2003 from China Statistical Yearbook 2005, China Statistics Press, Beijing. Indonesian population 1950-2003 kindly supplied by Pierre van der Eng. The figures now include three countries previously omitted: Cook Islands, Nauru and Tuvalu."</ref>
!HYDE
(2010)<ref name="HYDE2010">Klein Goldewijk, K., A. Beusen, M. de Vos and G. van Drecht (2011). The HYDE 3.1 spatially explicit database of human induced land use change over the past 12,000 years, Global Ecology and Biogeography20(1): 73-86. {{doi|10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00587.x}} ([http://themasites.pbl.nl/tridion/en/themasites/hyde/download/index-2.html pbl.nl]). HYDE (History Database of the Global Environment), 2010. HYDE 3.1 gives estimates for 5000 BC, 1000 BC and "AD 0". HYDE estimates are higher than those by [[Colin McEvedy]] (1978) but lower than those by [[Massimo Livi Bacci]] (1989, 2012). ([https://web.archive.org/web/20150221004127/http://itbulk.org/population/world-population-history/ graphs (itbulk.org)]).</ref>
![[John Tanton|Tanton]]
(1994)<ref name="thesocialcontract.com">[http://www.thesocialcontract.com/artman2/publish/tsc0403/article_329.shtml John H. Tanton, 1994, "End of the Migration Epoch? Time For a New Paradigm", The Social Contract, Vol. 4 (no 3), pp. 162–173].</ref>
!Biraben
(1980)<ref name="French 1980, pp. 1">Slightly updated data from original paper in French: (a) Jean-Noël Biraben, 1980, "An Essay Concerning Mankind's Evolution", Population, Selected Papers, Vol. 4, pp. 1–13. Original paper in French: (b) Jean-Noël Biraben, 1979, "Essai sur l'évolution du nombre des hommes", Population, Vol. 34 (no. 1), pp. 13–25.</ref>
![[Colin McEvedy|McEvedy]] &
Jones (1978)<ref name="Richard Jones 1978">Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones, 1978, ''Atlas of World Population History'', Facts on File, New York, {{ISBN|0-7139-1031-3}}.</ref>
!Thomlinson
(1975)<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Ralph Thomlinson]], 1975, ''Demographic Problems: Controversy over population control'', 2nd Ed., Dickenson Publishing Company, Ecino, CA, {{ISBN|0-8221-0166-1}}.</ref>
!Durand
(1974)<ref name="John D. Durand 1974">John D. Durand, 1974, "Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation", University of Pennsylvania, Population Center, Analytical and Technical Reports, Number 10.</ref>
![[Colin Clark (economist)|Clark]]
(1967)<ref name="Colin Clark 1967">Colin Clark, 1967, ''Population Growth and Land Use'', St. Martin's Press, New York, {{ISBN|0-333-01126-0}}.</ref>
|-
|1,656M
|1,650M
|1,563M
|1,654M<ref name="mnp.nl">[http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0959683609356587 Data] from [http://themasites.pbl.nl/tridion/en/themasites/hyde/index.html History Database of the Global Environment.] K. Klein Goldewijk, A. Beusen and P. Janssen, "HYDE 3.1: Long-term dynamic modeling of global population and built-up area in a spatially explicit way", from table on pg. 2, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.</ref>
|1,600M
|1,633M
|1,625M
|1,600M
|1,650–1,710M
|1,668M
|}

== Politics and wars ==
{{See also|List of sovereign states in the 1900s}}
[[File:China imperialism cartoon.jpg|right|200px|thumb|A shocked [[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarin]] in [[Manchu people|Manchu]] robe in the back, with [[Queen Victoria]] ([[British Empire]]), [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] ([[German Empire]]), [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] ([[Russian Empire|Imperial Russia]]), [[Marianne]] ([[French Third Republic]]), and a [[samurai]] ([[Empire of Japan]]) stabbing into a [[king cake]] with ''Chine'' ("China" in French) written on it. A portrayal of New Imperialism and its effects on [[Qing Empire|China]].]]

===Major political changes===
*[[New Imperialism]]
* The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] and the [[French Third Republic]] sign [[Entente Cordiale]]

===Wars===
{{Main|List of wars: 1900–1944#1900–1919}}

* [[Second Boer War]] ends.
* [[Philippine–American War]] takes place (1899–1902).
*The [[Kuwaiti–Rashidi war]] takes place (1900–1901).
* [[Russo-Japanese War]] establishes the [[Empire of Japan]] as a world power.
* [[Battle of Riyadh (1902)|Battle of Riyadh]] was a minor battle of the [[Unification of Saudi Arabia]].
* [[Battle of Dilam]] was a major battle of the [[Unification of Saudi Arabia|Unification War]] between [[Rashidi dynasty|Rashidi]] and [[Ibn Saud|Saudi]] rebels.
* [[Saudi–Rashidi War (1903–1907)|First Saudi–Rashidi War]] was engaged between the [[Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia|Saudi loyal forces]] of the newborn [[Emirate of Riyadh]] versus the [[Emirate of Ha'il]].
*The Ottomans [[Ottoman invasion of Persia (1906)|invade Persia]] and capture a strip of territory (1906).

===Internal conflicts===

* The [[Boxer Rebellion]] ends.
* The [[Russian Revolution of 1905]].
* The [[1906 Mesopotamia uprising|Mesopotamia uprising of 1906]].
* Demand for [[Irish Home Rule Movement|Home Rule]] for Ireland.
* [[Herero and Namaqua Genocide]] in German [[South-West Africa]] (modern Namibia).
* Kurdish [[Bitlis uprising (1907)|uprising in Bitlis]] against the Ottoman Empire in 1907.

===Colonization===
* 1 January 1901, British colonies in Australia [[Australian Federation|federate]], forming the [[Commonwealth of Australia]].

===Decolonization===
* 20 May 1902 – [[Cuba]] gains independence from the United States
* 7 June 1905 – The [[Stortinget|Norwegian Parliament]] declares the union with Sweden [[Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905|dissolved]], and Norway achieves full independence.
* 5 October 1908 – [[Bulgaria]] [[Bulgarian Declaration of Independence|declares its independence]] from the [[Ottoman Empire]].

=== Prominent political events ===
{{expand section|date=July 2018}}

==Disasters==

===Natural disasters===
[[File:Tunguska-Map-fr.svg|300px|thumb|June 30, 1908: The [[Tunguska event]]]]
[[File:Market Street, San Francisco, in ruins (1906).jpg|thumb|220px|right|Ruins from the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]], remembered as one of the worst [[natural disaster]]s in United States history]]
* 8 September 1900 – A powerful [[tropical cyclone|hurricane]] [[Galveston Hurricane of 1900|hits]] [[Galveston, Texas]], USA killing about 8,000.
* 19 April 1902 – A [[Guatemala 1902 earthquake|magnitude 7.5 earthquake]] rocks [[Guatemala]], killing 2,000.
* 8 May 1902 – In [[Martinique]], [[Mount Pelée]] erupts, destroying the town of [[Saint-Pierre, Martinique|Saint-Pierre]] and killing over 30,000.
* 7 April 1906 – [[Mount Vesuvius]] erupts and devastates [[Naples]].
* 18 April 1906 – The [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]] (estimated magnitude 7.8) on the [[San Andreas Fault]] destroys much of [[San Francisco]], USA, killing at least 3,000, with 225,000–300,000 left homeless, and $350 million in damages.
* 18 September 1906 – A [[typhoon]] and [[tsunami]] kill an estimated 10,000 in Hong Kong.
* 14 January 1907 – [[1907 Kingston earthquake|An earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica]] kills more than 1,000.
* 30 June 1908 – The [[Tunguska event]] or "Russian explosion" near the [[Podkamennaya Tunguska River]] in [[Krasnoyarsk Krai]], [[Siberia]], [[Russian Empire]] occurs resulting in the flattening 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi) of forest. It is believed to have been caused by the [[air burst]] of a large [[meteoroid]] or [[comet]] fragment, at an altitude of {{convert|5|–|10|km|0}} above the [[Earth]]'s surface.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pasechnik|first=I. P.|chapter=Refinement of the moment of explosion of the Tunguska meteorite from the seismic data|title=Cosmic Matter and the Earth|location=Novosibirsk|publisher=Nauka|year=1986|page=66|language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farinella |first1=Paolo |last2=Foschini |first2=L. |last3=Froeschlé |first3=Christiane |last4=Gonczi |first4=R. |last5=Jopek |first5=T. J. |last6=Longo |first6=G. |last7=Michel |first7=Patrick |url=http://www-th.bo.infn.it/tunguska/aah2886.pdf|title=Probable asteroidal origin of the Tunguska Cosmic Body|journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics|Astronomy & Astrophysics]]|volume=377|issue=3 |pages=1081–1097|year=2001|doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20011054|access-date=2011-08-23|bibcode=2001A&A...377.1081F|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Trayner|first=Chris|title=Perplexities of the Tunguska Meteorite|journal=[[The Observatory (journal)|The Observatory]]|volume=114|pages=227–231|year=1994|bibcode = 1994Obs...114..227T }}</ref>
* 28 December 1908 – [[1908 Messina earthquake|An earthquake]] and [[tsunami]] destroys [[Messina, Italy|Messina]], [[Sicily]] and [[Calabria]], killing over 80,000 people.

===Non-natural disasters===
* 26 April 1900 – The [[1900 Hull-Ottawa fire|Great Lumber Fire]] of [[Ottawa]]–[[Hull, Quebec|Hull]] kills 7 and leaves 15,000 homeless.
* 1 May 1900 – The [[Scofield Mine disaster]] in [[Scofield, Utah]] caused by explosion killing at least 200 men.
* 30 June 1900 – [[1900 Hoboken Docks Fire|Hoboken Docks Fire]]: The German passenger ships ''Saale'', ''Main, Bremen'', and ''Kaiser William der Grosse'', all owned by the [[North German Lloyd]] Steamship line, catch fire at the docks in [[Hoboken, New Jersey]], USA . The fire began on a wharf and spread to the adjacent piers, warehouses, and smaller craft, killing 326 people.
* 3 May 1901 – The [[Great Fire of 1901]] begins in [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville, FL]], USA .
*10 July 1902 – The [[Rolling Mill Mine|Rolling Mill Mine disaster]] in [[Johnstown, Pennsylvania]], USA, kills 112 miners.
* 10 August 1903 – [[Paris Métro train fire]].
* 30 December 1903 – A [[Iroquois Theater Fire|fire at the Iroquois Theater]] in Chicago, USA kills 600.
* 7 February 1904 – The [[Great Baltimore Fire]] in [[Baltimore]], USA destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours.
* 15 June 1904 – A fire aboard the steamboat ''[[General Slocum]]'' in New York City's East River kills 1,021.
* 28 June 1904 – The Danish ocean liner {{SS|Norge}} runs aground and sinks close to [[Rockall]], killing 635, including 225 Norwegian emigrants.
* 22 January 1906 – The {{SS|Valencia}} strikes a reef off [[Vancouver Island]], Canada, killing over 100 (officially 136) in the ensuing disaster.

==Assassinations and attempts==
Prominent assassinations, targeted killings, and assassination attempts include:

[[Image:McKinleyAssassination.jpg|thumb|right|A sketch of [[Leon Czolgosz]] shooting U.S. President [[William McKinley]].]]
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible sortable"
!Year
!Date
!Name
!Position
!Country
!Description
|-
|1900
|29 July
|[[Umberto I of Italy|Umberto I]]
|[[King of Italy|King]]
|[[History of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italy]]
|Assassinated by anarchist [[Gaetano Bresci]].
|-
|1901
|6 March
|[[William II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]]
|[[Kaiser]]
|[[History of Germany|Germany]]
|Attempted assassination in [[Bremen]] by Deidrich Weiland.<ref>"Kaiser Hit by a Missile Thrown into His Carriage", ''Chicago Daily Tribune'', March 7, 1901, p. 1.</ref><ref>"Kaiser Suffers from His Wound— Injuries Received by German Emperor More Serious than First Reported— Details of the Assault", ''Chicago Daily Tribune'', March 8, 1901, p. 2.</ref>
|-
|1901
|6 September
|[[William McKinley]]
|[[President of the United States|President]]
|[[History of the United States|United States]]
|Dies 8 days after being shot at the [[Pan-American Exposition]] in [[Buffalo, New York]], by American anarchist [[Leon Czolgosz]].
|-
|1904
|16 June
|[[Nikolai Ivanovich Bobrikov|Nikolai Bobrikov]]
|[[Governor-General of Finland|Governor-General]]
|[[Governor-General of Finland|Finland]]
|Assassinated by nationalist nobleman [[Eugen Schauman]].
|-
|1905
|13 June
|[[Theodoros Diligiannis]]
|[[Prime Minister of Greece|Prime Minister]]
|[[History of Greece|Greece]]
|Killed by gambler Antonios Gherakaris, reportedly for measures taken against gambling places.
|-
|1907
|11 March
|[[Dimitar Petkov]]
|[[Prime Minister of Bulgaria|Prime Minister]]
|[[History of Bulgaria (1878–1946)|Bulgaria]]
|Killed by an anarchist.
|-
|1907
|31 August
|[[Mirza Ali Asghar Khan Amin al-Soltan|Amin al-Soltan]]
|[[Prime Minister of Iran|Prime Minister]]
|[[History of Iran|Iran]]
|Killed in front of the Parliament.
|-
|1908
|1 February
|[[Carlos I of Portugal|Carlos I]]
|[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King]]
|[[History of Portugal (1834–1910)|Portugal]]
|Assassinated in Lisbon, Portugal.
|-
|1909
|26 October
|[[Itō Hirobumi]]
|[[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]]
|[[History of Japan|Japan]]
|Also [[Resident-General of Korea]], assassinated by [[Ahn Jung-geun]] at the [[Harbin]] train station in [[Manchuria]], for many grievances against Japan, including the assassination of [[Empress Myeongseong]] of [[History of Korea|Korea]].
|}

==Economics==
{{expand section|date=October 2021}}
The cost of an American postage stamp was worth 1 cent.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.theseniorlist.com/2013/09/postcards-from-the-edge-september-30-1909/ |title=1909 Postcard sent from Northern Pacific Train Conductor back home |access-date=2013-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927164150/http://www.theseniorlist.com/2013/09/postcards-from-the-edge-september-30-1909/ |archive-date=2013-09-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Science and technology==
===Science===
[[File:Albert Einstein in 1905 (cropped).jpg|210px|thumb|During 1905 the physicist [[Albert Einstein]] published [[Annus Mirabilis papers|four articles]] – each revolutionary and groundbreaking in its field.]]
* 17 March 1905 – [[Annus Mirabilis papers]] – [[Albert Einstein]] publishes his paper "On a heuristic viewpoint concerning the production and transformation of light", in which he explains the '''[[photoelectric effect]]''', using the notion of [[light quanta]]. For this paper Einstein received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.
* 11 May 1905 – [[Annus Mirabilis papers]] – Albert Einstein submits his doctoral dissertation "On the Motion of Small Particles...", in which he explains '''[[Brownian motion]]'''.
* 30 June 1905 – [[Annus Mirabilis papers]] – Albert Einstein publishes the article "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", where he reveals his theory of '''[[special relativity]]'''.
* 27 September 1905 – [[Annus Mirabilis papers]] – Albert Einstein submits his paper "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", in which he develops an argument for the famous equation '''[[mass–energy equivalence|''E'' = ''mc''2]]'''.
* '''[[Planck's law|Planck's law of black-body radiation]]'''
* '''[[Seismographs]]''' built in the [[University of California, Berkeley]], in 1900
* Practical '''[[air conditioner]]''' designed by [[Willis Carrier]] in 1902
* '''[[Geiger counter]]''' (measures radioactivity) invented by [[Hans Geiger]] in 1908
* [[Pierre Curie|Pierre]] and [[Marie Curie]] discover [[radium]] and [[polonium]], they coin the term ''''[[radioactivity]]''''.
* '''[[Third law of thermodynamics]]''' by [[Walther Nernst]]
* '''[[History of quantum mechanics|Quantum Hypothesis]]''' by [[Max Planck]] in 1900<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enotes.com/1900-science-technology-american-decades/important-events-science-technology|title=How did science and technology change in the 1900s?|work=eNotes}}</ref><ref>http://blog.modernmachanix.com/2008/06/16/invented-earlier-than-youd-think-pt-2-answering-machines{{Dead link|date=February 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>http://library.thinkquest.rg/J0111064/00invetnions.html{{Dead link|date=February 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buzzle.com/articles/history-of-radio-who-invented-the-radio.html|title=History of Radio – Who Invented the Radio?|author=Abhay Burande|work=Buzzle|access-date=2009-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090301052131/http://www.buzzle.com/articles/history-of-radio-who-invented-the-radio.html|archive-date=2009-03-01|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>http://gardenofpraise/ibdbell.htm{{Dead link|date=February 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* The '''[[Bacillus Calmette-Guérin]]''' (BCG) immunization for [[tuberculosis]] is first developed.

===Technology===
* Widespread application of the [[History of the internal combustion engine|internal combustion engine]] including mass production of the automobile. [[Rudolf Diesel]] demonstrated the [[diesel engine]] in the 1900 ''[[Exposition Universelle (1900)|Exposition Universelle]]'' (World's Fair) in Paris using peanut oil fuel (see [[biodiesel]]). The Diesel engine takes the Grand Prix. The exposition was attended by 50 million people.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dieselduck.ca/library/01%20articles/rudolph_diesel.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611043607/http://www.dieselduck.ca/library/01%20articles/rudolph_diesel.htm|url-status=dead|title=Martin Leduc, "Biography of Rudolph Diesel"|archivedate=June 11, 2010}}</ref> The same year [[Wilhelm Maybach]] designed an engine built at [[Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft]]—following the specifications of [[Emil Jellinek]]—who required the engine to be named ''Daimler-Mercedes'' after his daughter, [[Mercédès Jellinek]]. In 1902, the [[Mercedes 35 hp]] automobiles with that engine were put into production by DMG.<ref>[http://www.emercedesbenz.com/Apr08/17_001109_The_History_Behind_The_Mercedes_Benz_Brand_And_The_Three_Pointed_Star.html The history behind the Mercedes-Benz brand and the three-pointed star] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101025220255/http://www.emercedesbenz.com/Apr08/17_001109_The_History_Behind_The_Mercedes_Benz_Brand_And_The_Three_Pointed_Star.html |date=2010-10-25 }}. eMercedesBenz.com. April 17, 2008.</ref>
* Wide popularity of home [[phonograph]]. "The market for home machines was created through technological innovation and pricing: Phonographs, gramophones, and graphophones were cleverly adapted to run by spring-motors (you wound them up), rather than by messy batteries or treadle mechanisms, while the musical records were adapted to reproduce loudly through a horn attachment. The cheap home machines sold as the $10 Eagle graphophone and the $40 (later $30) Home phonograph in 1896, the $20 Zon-o-phone in 1898, the $3 Victor Toy in 1900, and so on. Records sold because their fidelity improved, mass production processes were soon developed, advertising worked, and prices dropped from one and two dollars to around 35 cents.".<ref>"The most thorough account of the history of the phonograph is still Oliver Read and Walter L. Welch, Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph, 2nd ed. (Indianapolis, IN: Howard W. Sams & Co., 1976). For a recent version of the story see Leonard DeGraaf, "Thomas Edison and the Origins of the Entertainment Phonograph" NARAS Journal 8 (Winter/Spring 1997/8) 43–69, as well as William Howland Kenney's recent and welcome Recorded Music in American Life: The Phonograph and Popular Memory, 1890–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). Much of the technocentric focus of literature on the phonograph (a focus Kenney's cultural history finally shifts) may derive from the interests of collectors, for whom I have the utmost respect. In the interest of simplicity, I am going to use the eventual American generic, "phonograph," for the graphophone and gramophone as well as the phonograph. Of course in Britain and much of the postcolonial world, the generic is "gramophone.""</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/papers/gitelman.html#fn2|title=How Users Define New Media: A History of the Amusement Phonograph|work=mit.edu}}</ref> In 1907, a [[Victor Talking Machine Company|Victor Records]] recording of [[Enrico Caruso]] singing [[Ruggero Leoncavallo]]'s "[[Vesti la giubba]]" becomes the first to sell a million copies.<ref>Linehan, Andrew. "Soundcarrier". ''Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World''. pp. 359–366."</ref>
* 1899–1900 – [[Thomas Alva Edison]] of [[Milan, Ohio]], invents the nickel-alkaline storage [[History of the battery|battery]]. On 27 May 1901, Edison establishes the [[Edison Storage Battery Company]] to develop and manufacture them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edison.rutgers.edu/NamesSearch/glocpage.php3?gloc=CK600.1&|title=Location Text and List of Documents – The Edison Papers|work=rutgers.edu}}</ref> "It proved to be Edison's most difficult project, taking ten years to develop a practical alkaline battery. By the time Edison introduced his new alkaline battery, the [[gasoline]] powered car had so improved that [[electric vehicle]]s were becoming increasingly less common, being used mainly as [[Delivery (commerce)|delivery vehicles]] in cities. However, the Edison alkaline battery proved useful for lighting [[Railroad car|railway cars]] and [[Railway signal|signals]], maritime [[buoy]]s, and [[Davy lamp|miners lamps]]. Unlike [[iron ore]] mining with the [[Edison Ore-Milling Company]], the heavy investment Edison made over ten years was repaid handsomely, and the storage battery eventually became Edison's most profitable product. Further, Edison's work paved the way for the modern alkaline battery."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://inventors.about.com/od/estartinventors/a/Edison_Bio_3.htm|title=Biography of Thomas Edison|author=Mary Bellis|work=About.com Money}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* 1900 – The [[Brownie (camera)|Brownie]] [[camera]] is invented; this was the beginning of the [[Eastman Kodak]] company. The Brownie popularized low-cost [[photography]] and introduced the concept of the [[Snapshot (photography)|snapshot]]. The first Brownie was introduced in February 1900,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geh.org/fm/brownie/htmlsrc/index.html#E130.00034|title=George Eastman House The GEH Brownie Collection Series|work=geh.org|access-date=2010-01-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090315195832/http://www.geh.org/fm/brownie/htmlsrc/index.html#E130.00034|archive-date=2009-03-15|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:First Zeppelin ascent.jpg|thumb|The first ascent of LZ1 over Lake Constance (the Bodensee) in 1900.]]
* 1900 – The first [[zeppelin]] flight occurs over [[Lake Constance]] near [[Friedrichshafen]], Germany on 2 July 1900.
[[File:Dieselmotor vs.jpg|thumb|200px|A diesel engine built by [[MAN SE|MAN AG]] in 1906]]
* 1901 – First electric [[typewriter]] is invented by George Canfield Blickensderfer of [[Erie, Pennsylvania]]. It was part of a line of [[Blickensderfer typewriter]]s, known for its portability.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.typewritermuseum.org/history/inventors_blick.html|title=Inventors|work=typewritermuseum.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stamfordhistory.org/bl_elec.htm|title=The Stamford Historical Society, Blickensderfer Manufacturing Co., The First Electric Typewriter|work=stamfordhistory.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stamfordhistory.org/blickens.htm|title=The Stamford Historical Society, Blickensderfer Typewriters|work=stamfordhistory.org}}</ref>
* 1901 – [[Wilhelm Kress]] of [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]] creates his [[Kress Drachenflieger]] in [[Austria-Hungary]]. Power was provided by a Daimler petrol engine driving two large [[auger (drill)|auger]]-style two-bladed propellers, the first attempt to use an internal combustion engine to power a heavier-than-air aircraft.<ref name="NicolaouStephane">Nicolaou, Stephane (1998). Flying Boats & Seaplanes: A History from 1905. Osceola: Zenith.
, p. 10</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfn.li/article/?id=448|title=MFN – Metal Finishing News|work=mfn.li|access-date=2010-01-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827001740/http://www.mfn.li/article/?id=448|archive-date=2017-08-27|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* 1901 – The first radio [[Receiver (radio)|receiver]] (successfully received a radio transmission). This receiver was developed by [[Guglielmo Marconi]]. Marconi established a wireless transmitting station at Marconi House, [[Rosslare Strand]], [[County Wexford]], Ireland in 1901 to act as a link between [[Poldhu]] in [[Cornwall]] and [[Clifden]] in [[County Galway]]. He soon made the announcement that on 12 December 1901, using a {{convert|sp=us|152.4|m|ft|adj=on}} kite-supported antenna for reception, the message was received at [[Signal Hill (Newfoundland and Labrador)|Signal Hill]] in [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St John]]'s, [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] (now part of Canada), signals transmitted by the company's new high-power station at Poldhu, Cornwall. The distance between the two points was about {{convert|sp=us|3500|km|mi}}. Heralded as a great scientific advance, there was—and continues to be—some skepticism about this claim, partly because the signals had been heard faintly and sporadically. There was no independent confirmation of the reported reception, and the transmissions, consisting of the [[Morse code]] letter ''S'' sent repeatedly, were difficult to distinguish from [[atmospheric noise]]. (A detailed technical review of Marconi's early transatlantic work appears in John S. Belrose's work of 1995.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/radio/radio_differences.html |title=Fessenden and Marconi: Their Differing Technologies and Transatlantic Experiments During the First Decade of this Century |publisher=Ieee.ca |access-date=2009-01-29| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090123214652/http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/radio/radio_differences.html| archive-date= 23 January 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref> The Poldhu transmitter was a two-stage circuit.<ref>"''[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/74/28992/01305565.pdf Marconi and the History of Radio]''".</ref><ref>John S. Belrose, "[http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/radio/radio_differences.html Fessenden and Marconi: Their Differing Technologies and Transatlantic Experiments During the First Decade of this Century] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228200010/http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/radio/radio_differences.html |date=2012-12-28 }}". International Conference on 100 Years of Radio – 5–7 September 1995.</ref> The first stage operated at a lower voltage and provided the energy for the second stage to spark at a higher voltage.
* 1902 – [[Willis Carrier]] of [[Angola, New York]], invented the first indoor [[air conditioning]]. "He designed his spray driven air conditioning system which controlled both temperature and humidity using a [[nozzle]] originally designed to spray [[insecticide]]. He built his "Apparatus for Treating Air" (U.S. Pat. #808897) which was patented in 1906 and using chilled coils which not only controlled heat but could lower the humidity to as low as 55%. The device was even able to adjust the humidity level to the desired setting creating what would become the framework for the modern air conditioner. By adjusting the air movement and temperature level to the refrigeration coils he was able to determine the size and capacity of the unit to match the need of his customers. While Carrier was not the first to design a system like this his was much more stable, successful and safer than other versions and took air conditioning out of the Dark Ages and into the realm of science."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.air-conditioners-and-heaters.com/willis_carrier.htm|title=Willis Carrier air conditioning|work=air-conditioners-and-heaters.com}}</ref>
* 1902/1906/1908 – [[Sir James Mackenzie]] of [[Scone, Scotland]] invented an early [[Lie detection|lie detector]] or [[polygraph]]. MacKenzie's polygraph "could be used to monitor the [[Circulatory system|cardiovascular]] responses of his patients by taking their [[pulse]] and [[blood pressure]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.umw.edu/hisa/resources/Student%20Projects/Singel/students.umw.edu/_ksing2os/polygraph/origin.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100204031232/http://www.umw.edu/hisa/resources/Student%20Projects/Singel/students.umw.edu/_ksing2os/polygraph/origin.html|url-status=dead|title=Kati Singel, "The Polygraph:The Modern Lie Detector"|archivedate=February 4, 2010}}</ref> He had developed an early version of his device in the 1890s, but had Sebastian Shaw, a [[Lancashire]] watchmaker, improve it further. "This instrument used a clockwork mechanism for the paper-rolling and time-marker movements and it produced ink recordings of physiological functions that were easier to acquire and to interpret. It has been written that the modern polygraph is really a modification of Dr. Mackenzie's clinical ink polygraph."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.total.net/~galcar/html/brief_history_of_the_polygraph.html|title=Brief History of the Polygraph|work=total.net}}</ref> A more modern and effective polygraph machine would be invented by John Larson in 1921.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://inventors.about.com/od/fstartinventions/a/forensic_2.htm|title=History of the Lie Detector or Polygraph Machine|author=Mary Bellis|work=About.com Money}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* 1902 – [[Georges Claude]] invented the [[neon lamp]]. He applied an electrical discharge to a sealed tube of [[neon]] gas, resulting in a red glow. Claudes started working on neon tubes which could be put to use as ordinary light bulbs. His first public display of a neon lamp took place on 11 December 1910, in Paris.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Ne|title=10. Neon – Elementymology & Elements Multidict|work=vanderkrogt.net}}</ref> In 1912, Claude's associate began selling neon discharge tubes as [[neon sign|advertising signs]]. They were introduced to U.S. in 1923 when two large neon signs were bought by a Los Angeles [[Packard]] car dealership. The glow and arresting red color made neon advertising completely different from the competition.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://nymag.com/shopping/features/41814/
|title=Neon: A Brief History| last=Mangum | first= Aja |access-date=
| date = December 8, 2007 |newspaper=New York Magazine}}</ref>
* 1902 – [[Teasmade]], a device for making [[tea]] automatically, is patented on 7 April 1902 by [[gunsmith]] Frank Clarke of [[Birmingham]], England. He called it "An Apparatus Whereby a Cup of Tea or Coffee is Automatically Made" and it was later marketed as "A Clock That Makes Tea!". However, his original machine and all rights to it had been purchased from its actual inventor [[Albert E. Richardson (inventor)|Albert E. Richardson]], a [[clockmaker]] from [[Ashton-under-Lyne]]. The device was commercially available by 1904.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teawaker.com/clarke.htm |title=teawaker.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110626100212/http://www.teawaker.com/clarke.htm |archive-date=2011-06-26 }}</ref>
[[File:Gilmore monoplane.jpg|350px|thumb|Gilmore's second, larger plane]]
* 1902 – [[Lyman Gilmore]] of [[Washington (state)|Washington]], United States is awarded a patent for a [[steam engine]], intended for use in aerial vehicles. At the time he was living in [[Red Bluff, California]]. At a later date, Gilmore claimed to have incorporated his engine in "a [[monoplane]] with a 32 foot [[wingspan]]" and to have performed his debut flight in May 1902. While occasionally credited with the first powered flight in aviation history, there is no supporting evidence for his account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flyingmachines.org/gilmore.html|title=FLYING MACHINES – Lyman Wiswell Gilmore, Jr.|work=flyingmachines.org}}</ref> While Gilmore was probably working on aeronautical experiments since the late 1890s and reportedly had correspondence with [[Samuel Pierpont Langley]], there exists no photo of his creations earlier than 1908.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ncngrrmuseum.org/pb/wp_eb6830e0.html?0.5 |title=Stephen Barber, "Lyman Gilmore Jr. – Aeronautical Pioneer" |access-date=2010-01-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727114151/http://www.ncngrrmuseum.org/pb/wp_eb6830e0.html?0.5 |archive-date=2011-07-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 1902 – The [[Wright brothers]] of [[Ohio]], United States create the 1902 version of the [[Wright Glider]]. It was the third free-flight glider built by them and tested at [[Kitty Hawk, North Carolina]]. This was the first of the brothers' gliders to incorporate [[flight dynamics|yaw control]], and its design led directly to the [[Wright Flyer|1903 ''Wright Flyer'']]. The brothers designed the 1902 glider during the winter of 1901–1902 at their home in [[Dayton, Ohio]]. They designed the wing based on data from extensive airfoil tests conducted on a homemade [[wind tunnel]]. They built many of the components of the glider in Dayton, but they completed assembly at their Kitty Hawk camp in September 1902. They began testing on 19 September. Over the next five weeks, they made between 700 and 1000 glide flights (as estimated by the brothers, who did not keep detailed records of these tests). The longest of these was 622.5 ft (189.7 m) in 26 seconds. "In its final form, the 1902 Wright glider was the world's first fully controllable aircraft."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasm.si.edu/wrightbrothers/fly/1902/glider.cfm|title=The Wright Brothers – The 1902 Glider|work=si.edu|access-date=2010-01-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408194749/http://nasm.si.edu/wrightbrothers/fly/1902/glider.cfm|archive-date=2010-04-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>John David Anderson, "Introduction to flight" (2004), page 30. {{ISBN|0-07-123818-2}}</ref>
[[File:1903-ford-rc.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[Ford Model A (1903–1904)|Ford Model A]] was the first car produced by [[Ford Motor Company]] beginning production in 1903.]]
* 1903 – [[Ford Motor Company]] produces its first car – the [[Ford Model A (1903–1904)|Ford Model A]].
[[File:Pearse aeroplane replica, South Canterbury Museum-2.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A replica of Pearse's monoplane]]
* 1903 – [[Richard Pearse]] of New Zealand supposedly successfully flew and landed a powered heavier-than-air machine on 31 March 1903<ref>Rodliffe, C. Geoffrey. Richard Pearse: Pioneer Aviator. Auckland, New Zealand: Museum of Transport and Technology. Inc., 1983. {{ISBN|0-473-09686-2}}.</ref> Verifiable eyewitnesses describe Pearse crashing into a hedge on two separate occasions during 1903. His monoplane must have risen to a height of at least three metres on each occasion. Good evidence exists that on 31 March 1903 Pearse achieved a powered, though poorly controlled, flight of several hundred metres. Pearse himself said that he had made a powered takeoff, "but at too low a speed for [his] controls to work". However, he remained airborne until he crashed into the hedge at the end of the field.<ref>Rodliffe, C. Geoffrey. ''Flight over Waitohi''. Auckland, New Zealand: Acme Printing Works, 1997. {{ISBN|0-473-05048-X}}.</ref><ref>Ogilvie, Gordon. ''The Riddle of Richard Pearse''. Auckland, New Zealand: Reed Publishing, Revised edition, 1994. {{ISBN|0-589-00794-7}}.</ref>
* 1903 – [[Karl Jatho]] of [[German Empire|Germany]] performs a series of flights at Vahrenwalder Heide, near [[Hanover]], between August and November, 1903. Using first a pusher [[triplane]], then a [[biplane]]. "His longest flight, however, was only 60 meters at 3–4 meters altitude." He then quit his efforts, noting his motor was too weak to make longer or higher flights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/jatho.html|title=The Pioneers : An Anthology : Karl Jatho (1873–1933)|work=monash.edu.au}}</ref> The plane was equipped with a single-cylinder 10 horsepower (7.5 kW) Buchet engine driving a two-bladed pusher propeller and made hops of up to 200 ft (60 m), flying up to 10 ft (3 m) high. In comparison, Orville Wright's first controlled flight four months later was of 36 m (120 ft) in 12 seconds although Wilbur flew 59 seconds and {{convert|sp=us|852|ft|m|abbr=on}} later that same day. Either way Jatho managed to fly a powered heavier-than-air machine earlier than his American counterparts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flyingmachines.org/jatho.html|title=FLYING MACHINES – Karl Jatho|work=flyingmachines.org}}</ref>
* 1903 – [[Mary Anderson (inventor)|Mary Anderson]] invented [[Windscreen wiper|windshield wipers]]. In November 1903 Anderson was granted her first [[patent]]<ref>United States Patent 743,801, Issue Date: November 10, 1903</ref> for an automatic car window cleaning device controlled inside the car, called the windshield wiper.<ref>[http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/com/speeches/02-16.htm Women Hold Patents on Important Inventions; USPTO recognizes inventive women during Women's History Month] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511103740/http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/com/speeches/02-16.htm |date=2009-05-11 }}, United States Patent and Trademark Office press release #02–16, March 1, 2002, accessed March 3, 2009</ref> Her device consisted of a lever and a swinging arm with a rubber blade. The lever could be operated from inside a vehicle to cause the spring-loaded arm to move back and forth across the windshield. Similar devices had been made earlier, but Anderson's was the first to be effective.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20030318180434/http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/anderson.html Many Anderson: Windshield Wipers], September 2001, Inventor of the Week Archive, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] School of Engineering website, accessed March 3, 2009</ref>
[[File:First flight2.jpg|thumb|250px|The first flight by [[Orville Wright]] made on December 17, 1903.]]
* 1903 – The [[Wright brothers]] fly at [[Kitty Hawk, North Carolina]]. Their airplane, the ''[[Wright Flyer]]'', performed the first recorded controlled, powered, sustained heavier than air flight on 17 December 1903. In the day's fourth flight, Wilbur Wright flew 279 meters (852 ft) in 59 seconds. First three flights were approximately 120, 175, and 200 ft (61 m), respectively. The Wrights laid particular stress on fully and accurately describing all the requirements for controlled, powered flight and put them into use in an aircraft which took off from a level launching rail, with the aid of a headwind to achieve sufficient airspeed before reaching the end of the rail.<ref>[http://www.thewrightbrothers.org/fivefirstflights.html  "1903 – Who Made the First Flight?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423162519/http://www.thewrightbrothers.org/fivefirstflights.html |date=2015-04-23 }} TheWrightBrothers.org.</ref> It is one of the various candidates regarded as the First flying machine.
*1904 – [[SS Haimun]] sends its first news story on 15 March 1904.<ref name="amazon">[[Peter Slattery|Slattery, Peter]]. "Reporting the Russo-Japanese War,1904–5", 2004. [https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1901903575]</ref> It was a Chinese [[Steamboat|steamer ship]] commanded by [[war correspondent]] [[Lionel James (war correspondent)|Lionel James]] in 1904 during the [[Russo-Japanese War]] for [[The Times]]. It is the first known instance of a "press boat" dedicated to war correspondence during naval battles. The recent advent of [[wireless telegraphy]] meant that reporters were no longer limited to submitting their stories from land-based offices, and The Times spent 74 days outfitting and equipping the ship,<ref>[[The Times]], "First messages from the Yellow Sea", March 11, 2004.[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/court_and_social/the_hitch/article1042746.ece]</ref> installing a [[Lee De Forest#Audion|De Forest transmitter]] aboard the ship.<ref>''The De Forest Wireless Telegraphy Tower: Bulletin No. 1'', Summer 1904.</ref>
[[File:Panama Canal under construction, 1907.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Construction work on the [[Gaillard Cut]] is shown in this photograph from 1907]]
* 1904–1914 – The [[Panama Canal]] constructed by the United States in the territory of [[Panama]], which had [[Separation of Panama from Colombia|just gained independence]] from [[Colombia]]. The Canal is a {{convert|sp=us|77|km|mi|abbr=on}} [[ship canal]] that joins the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean and a key conduit for international maritime trade. One of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken, the canal had an enormous impact on shipping between the two oceans, replacing the long and treacherous route via the [[Drake Passage]] and [[Cape Horn]] at the southernmost tip of South America. A ship sailing from New York to [[San Francisco]] via the canal travels {{convert|sp=us|9,500|km|mi|abbr=on}}, well under half the {{convert|sp=us|22,500|km|mi|abbr=on}} route around Cape Horn.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.czbrats.com/AmPan/index.htm |title=The Americans in Panama |first=William R. |last=Scott |publisher=Statler Publishing Company |location=New York|year=1913| access-date= 5 January 2010 }}</ref> The project starts on 4 May 1904, known as Acquisition Day. The United States government purchased all Canal properties on the [[Isthmus of Panama]] from the New Panama Canal Company, except the [[Panama Canal Railway|Panama Railroad]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.czbrats.com/Builders/100years/brooke.htm|title=May 4, 1904|work=czbrats.com}}</ref> The project begun under the administration of [[Theodore Roosevelt]], continued in that of [[William Howard Taft]] and completed in that of [[Woodrow Wilson]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pancanal.com/eng/history/history/end.html|title=Panama Canal History – End of the Construction|work=pancanal.com|access-date=2010-01-05|archive-date=2018-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001145746/http://www.pancanal.com/eng/history/history/end.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65375|title=Woodrow Wilson: Address to a Joint Session of Congress on Panama Canal Tolls|work=ucsb.edu}}</ref> The Chief engineers were [[John Frank Stevens]] and [[George Washington Goethals]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://goofy313g.free.fr/calisota_online/exist/stevens.html|title=John F. Stevens|work=free.fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pancanal.com/eng/history/biographies/goethals.html|title=George Washington Goethals|work=pancanal.com|access-date=2010-01-05|archive-date=2007-06-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622031957/http://www.pancanal.com/eng/history/biographies/goethals.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* 1904 – The [[Welte-Mignon]] [[Player piano|reproducing piano]] is created by Edwin Welte and Karl Bockisch. Both employed by the "Michael Welte und Söhne" firm of [[Freiburg im Breisgau]], [[German Empire|Germany]]. "It automatically replayed the tempo, phrasing, dynamics and pedalling of a particular performance, and not just the notes of the music, as was the case with other player pianos of the time." In September, 1904, the Mignon was demonstrated in the [[Leipzig Trade Fair]]. In March, 1905 it became better known when showcased "at the [[showroom]]s of Hugo Popper, a manufacturer of roll-operated [[orchestrion]]s". By 1906, the Mignon was also exported to the United States, installed to pianos by the firms [[Feurich]] and [[Steinway & Sons]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pianola.org/reproducing/reproducing_welte.cfm|title=Welte-Mignon Reproducing Piano |publisher=The Pianola Institute}}</ref>
* 1904 – [[Benjamin Holt]] of the [[Holt Manufacturing Company]] invents one of the first practical [[continuous track]]s for use in [[tractor]]s. While the date of invention was reportedly 24 November 1904, Holt would not receive a patent until December, 1907.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kipnotes.com/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017162514/http://www.kipnotes.com/AgriculturalMachinery.htm|url-status=dead|title=Holen Sie Ihr Wissen aus dem Internet|archivedate=October 17, 2012}}</ref>
* 1905 – [[John Joseph Montgomery]] of [[California]], United States designs tandem-wing [[Glider (aircraft)|gliders]]. His pilot [[Daniel J. Maloney|Daniel Maloney]] performs a number of public exhibitions of high altitude flights in March and April 1905 in the [[Santa Clara, California]], area. These flights received national media attention and demonstrated superior control of the design, with launches as high as 4,000 feet (1,200 m) and landings made at predetermined locations. The gliders were launched from balloons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flyingmachines.org/mont.html|title=FLYING MACHINES – John J. Montgomery|work=flyingmachines.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/montgomery.html|title=Flying Wings : An Anthology : John Joseph Montgomery (1858–1911)|work=monash.edu.au}}</ref>
* 1905 – The Wright Brothers introduce their [[Wright Flyer III]]. On 5 October 1905, Wilbur flew {{convert|sp=us|24|mi|km}} in 39 minutes 23 seconds,<ref name="sharpe">{{cite book | title=Biplanes, Triplanes and Seaplanes | isbn=978-1-58663-300-4 | last=Sharpe | first=Michael | publisher=Friedman/Fairfax | year=2000 | page=311 }}</ref> longer than the total duration of all the flights of [[1903 in aviation|1903]] and [[1904 in aviation|1904]]. Ending with a safe landing when the fuel ran out. The flight was seen by a number of people, including several invited friends, their father Milton, and neighboring farmers.<ref>[http://home.dayton.lib.oh.us/archives/wbcollection/wbscrapbooks1/WBScrapbooks10007.html Dayton Metro Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905015136/http://home.dayton.lib.oh.us/archives/wbcollection/wbscrapbooks1/WBScrapbooks10007.html |date=2009-09-05 }} Note: Dayton Metro Library has a document showing durations, distances and a list of witnesses to the long flights in late September-early October 1905. Retrieved: May 23, 2007.</ref> Four days later, they wrote to the [[United States Secretary of War]] [[William Howard Taft]], offering to sell the world's first practical fixed-wing aircraft.
* 1906 – The ''Gabel Automatic Entertainer'', an early [[jukebox]]-like machine, is invented by John Gabel. It is the first such device to play a series of gramophone records. "The Automatic Entertainer with 24 selections, was produced and patented by the John Gabel owned company in Chicago. The first model (constructed in 1905) was produced in 1906 with an exposed 40 inch horn (102 cm) on top, and it is today often considered the real father of the modern multi-selection disc-playing phonographs. John Gabel and his company did in fact receive a special prize at the [[Nagoya Pan-Pacific Peace Exposition (1937)|Pan-Pacific Exposition]] for the Automatic Entertainer."<ref>The life of John Gabel (1872–1955) and the history of his company is described in detail in an article well written by Rick Crandall. The article entitled "Diary Disclosures of John Gabel: A Pioneer in Automatic Music", based on an unpublished diary, was published in the autumn, 1984, newsletter of The Musical Box Society International (Vol. XXX, No. 2), and contains a lot of interesting historic information. Another story about John Gabel and his Automatic Entertainer appeared in the newsletter "Antique Phonograph Monthly" (Vol. VII, No. 8) published by Allen Koenigsberg in the summer, 1984.</ref><ref>[http://juke-box.dk/gert-history88-13.htm Gert J. Almind, "Jukebox History 1888–1913"].</ref>
[[File:Santos Dumont flight 23 Oct 1906.gif|thumb|200x200px|[[Alberto Santos-Dumont]] realizes the first official flight, 23 October 1906, Bagatelle field.]]
*1906 – The [[Victor Talking Machine Company]] releases the [[Victrola]], the most popular [[phonograph|gramophone]] model until the late 1920s.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World|chapter=Gramophone|first=Andre|last=Millard|page=512}}</ref> The Victrola is also the first [[Sound recording and reproduction|playback]] machine containing an internal horn.<ref name="ContinuumVictor">{{cite book|title=The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World|pages= 768–769|first=David|last=Horn|author2=David Sanjek|chapter=Victor}}</ref> Victor also erects the world's largest illuminated billboard at the time, on [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]] in New York City, to advertise the company's records.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World |chapter=Advertising of Popular Music |pages=530–532 |first=Dave |last=Laing |author-link=Dave Laing}}</ref>
* 1906 – [[Traian Vuia]] of [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] takes off with his "Traian Vuia 1", an early [[monoplane]]. His flight was performed in [[Montesson]] near Paris and was about 12 meters long.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earlyaviators.com/evuia.htm |title=Traian Vuia |last=Cooper |first=Ralph S., D.V.M. |work=earlyaviators.com}}</ref>
* 1906 – [[Jacob Ellehammer]] of Denmark constructs the [[Ellehammer semi-biplane]]. In this machine, he made a tethered flight on 12 September 1906, becoming the second European to make a powered flight.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Early Years (Aviation Century) |year=2003 |first1=Ron |last1=Dick |first2=Amanda Wright |last2=Lane |first3=Dan |last3=Patterson |publisher=Boston Mills Press |isbn=1-55046-407-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Wings: A History of Aviation from Kites to the Space Age |year=2004 |first=Tom D. |last=Crouch |author-link=Tom D. Crouch |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=0-393-32620-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=100 Years of Flight: A Chronology of Aerospace History, 1903–2003 |series=Library of Flight Series |year=2003 |first1=Frank H. |last1=Winter |author-link1=Frank H. Winter |first2=F. Robert Van Der |last2=Linden |publisher=[[AIAA]] |isbn=1-56347-562-6}}</ref>
* 1906 – [[Alberto Santos-Dumont]] and his [[Santos-Dumont 14-bis]] make the first public flight of an [[airplane]] on 23 October 1906, in Paris. The flying machine was the first fixed-wing aircraft officially witnessed to take off, fly, and land. Santos Dumont is considered the "Father of Aviation" in his country of birth, [[Brazil]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Hansen |first=James R. |author-link=James R. Hansen |title=First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong |title-link=First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong |location=New York |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7432-5631-5 |page=299}}</ref> His flight is the first to have been certified by the ''[[Aéro-Club de France]]'' and the ''[[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] (FAI)''.<ref>[http://www.aeroclub.com/santos_dumont_14bis_14bis.htm Les vols du 14bis relatés au fil des éditions du journal l'illustration de 1906.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070324025948/http://www.aeroclub.com/santos_dumont_14bis_14bis.htm |date=2007-03-24 }} The wording is: "cette prouesse est le premier vol au monde '''homologué''' par l'Aéro-Club de France et la toute jeune Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI)."</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aeroclub.com/santos_dumont_14bis_index.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061128124844/http://www.aeroclub.com/santos_dumont_14bis_index.htm|url-status=dead|title=Santos-Dumont: Pionnier de l'aviation, dandy de la Belle Epoque.|archivedate=November 28, 2006}}</ref> On 12 November 1906, Santos Dumont succeeded in setting the first world record recognized by the Aero-Club De France by flying 220 metres in less than 22 seconds.<ref>JInes. Ernest. [http://earlyaviators.com/edumonb.htm "Santos Dumont in France 1906–1916: The Very Earliest Early Birds."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316120252/http://earlyaviators.com/edumonb.htm |date=2016-03-16 }} ''earlyaviators.com'', December 25, 2006. Retrieved: August 17, 2009.</ref>
* 1906 – Sound [[radio broadcasting]] was invented by [[Reginald Fessenden]] and [[Lee De Forest]]. Fessenden and [[Ernst Alexanderson]] developed a high-frequency [[alternator]]-transmitters, an improvement on an already existing device. The improved model operated at a transmitting frequency of approximately 50 kHz, although with far less power than Fessenden's rotary-spark transmitters. The alternator-transmitter achieved the goal of transmitting quality audio signals, but the lack of any way to amplify the signals meant they were somewhat weak. On 21 December 1906, Fessenden made an extensive demonstration of the new alternator-transmitter at Brant Rock, showing its utility for point-to-point wireless telephony, including interconnecting his stations to the wire telephone network. A detailed review of this demonstration appeared in ''The American Telephone Journal''.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://earlyradiohistory.us/1907fes.htm| title = Experiments and Results in Wireless Telephony ''The American Telephone Journal''}}</ref> Meanwhile, De Forest had developed the [[Audion tube]] an electronic [[amplifier]] device. He received a patent in January 1907.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.leedeforest.org/inventor.html|title=Old Site – Lee de Forest Invented the Radio Tube|work=leedeforest.org}}</ref> "DeForest's audion vacuum tube was the key component of all radio, telephone, radar, television, and computer systems before the invention of the transistor in 1947."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.invent.org/Hall_Of_Fame/40.html |title=National Inventors Hall of Fame: "Lee Deforest" |access-date=2010-01-04 |archive-date=2009-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922235252/http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/40.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 1906 – [[Reginald Fessenden]] of [[East Bolton, Quebec]], Canada made what appear to be the first audio radio broadcasts of entertainment and music ever made to a general audience. (Beginning in 1904, the [[United States Navy]] had broadcast daily time signals and weather reports, but these employed [[spark-gap transmitter]]s, transmitting in [[Morse code]]). On the evening of December 24, 1906 ([[Christmas Eve]]), Fessenden used the alternator-transmitter to send out a short program from [[Ocean Bluff-Brant Rock, Massachusetts|Brant Rock]], [[Plymouth County, Massachusetts|Plymouth County]], [[Massachusetts]]. It included a phonograph record of [[Ombra mai fù]] (Largo) by [[George Frideric Handel]], followed by Fessenden himself playing the song ''[[O Holy Night]]'' on the [[violin]]. Finishing with reading a passage from the [[Bible]]: 'Glory to God in the highest and on earth peace to men of good will' ([[Gospel of Luke]] 2:14). On 31 December, [[New Year's Eve]], a second short program was broadcast. The main audience for both these transmissions was an unknown number of shipboard radio operators along the [[East Coast of the United States]]. Fessenden claimed that the Christmas Eve broadcast had been heard "as far down" as [[Norfolk, Virginia]], while the New Year Eve's broadcast had reached places in the Caribbean. Although now seen as a landmark, these two broadcasts were barely noticed at the time and soon forgotten— the only first-hand account appears to be a letter Fessenden wrote on 29 January 1932, to his former associate, Samuel M. Kinter.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4540711;view=1up;seq=167|title=Fessenden, Builder of Tomorrows|last=Fessenden|first=Helen May Trott|publisher=Coward-McCann|year=1940|isbn=978-0405060472|location=New York|pages=153–154}}</ref><ref name="ContinuumRadio">{{cite book|title=The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World|chapter=Radio|pages= 451–461|first=Stephen|last=Barnard|author2=Donna Halper and Dave Laing}}</ref>
[[File:Percy-MacKaye-Alwyn-Genthe-diascope.jpeg|thumb|The [[Autochrome Lumière]] becomes the first commercial color photography process.]]
* 1907 – The [[Autochrome Lumière]] which was patented in 1903 becomes the first commercial color photography process.
* 1907 – [[Thomas Edison]] invented the "Universal Electric Motor" which made it possible to operate [[dictation machine]]s, etc. on all lighting circuits.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thomasedison.com/Inventions.htm|title=THOMAS EDISON'S INVENTIONS|work=thomasedison.com}}</ref>
* 1907 – The [[Photostat machine]] begins the modern era of document imaging. The Photostat machine was invented in [[Kansas City, Kansas|Kansas City]], [[Kansas]], United States by Oscar Gregory in 1907, and the Photostat Corporation was incorporated in [[Rhode Island]] in 1911. "Rectigraph and Photostat machines (Plates 40–42) combined a large camera and a developing machine and used sensitized paper furnished in 350-foot rolls. "The prints are made direct on sensitized paper, no negative, plate or film intervening. The usual exposure is ten seconds. After the exposure has been made the paper is cut off and carried underneath the exposure chamber to the developing bath, where it remains for 35 seconds, and is then drawn into a fixing bath. While one print is being developed or fixed, another exposure can be made. When the copies are removed from the fixing bath, they are allowed to dry by exposure to the air, or may be run through a drying machine. The first print taken from the original is a 'black' print; the whites in the original are black and the blacks, white. (Plate 43) A white 'positive' print of the original is made by rephotographing the black print. As many positives as required may be made by continuing to photograph the black print." (The American Digest of Business Machines, 1924.) Du Pont Co. files include black prints of graphs dating from 1909, and the company acquired a Photostat machine in 1912. ... A 1914 Rectigraph ad stated that the U.S. government had been using Rectigraphs for four years and stated that the machines were being used by insurance companies and abstract and title companies. ... In 1911, a Photostat machine was $500."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.officemuseum.com/copy_machines.htm|title=Copying Machines|work=officemuseum.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nwmangum.com/Kodak/Rochester.html|title=A History of the Rochester, NY Camera and Lens Companies|work=nwmangum.com}}</ref>
[[File:1908 Ford Model T.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[Ford Model T]] set 1908 as the historic year that the automobile came into popular usage as it is generally regarded as the first affordable automobile.]]
* 1908 – [[Henry Ford]] of the [[Ford Motor Company]] introduces the [[Ford Model T]]. The first production Model T was built on 27 September 1908, at the [[Ford Piquette Avenue Plant]] in [[Detroit]]. It is generally regarded as the first affordable automobile, the car that "put America on wheels"; some of this was because of Ford's innovations, including [[assembly line]] production instead of individual hand crafting, as well as the concept of paying the workers a wage proportionate to the cost of the car, so that they would provide a ready made market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/ford.htm|title=Henry Ford Changes the World, 1908|work=eyewitnesstohistory.com}}</ref>
*1909 – [[Leo Baekeland]] of [[Sint-Martens-Latem]], Belgium officially announces his creation of [[Bakelite]]. The announcement was made at the February 1909 meeting of the New York section of the [[American Chemical Society]].<ref name=aice>{{cite book | last = American Institute of Chemical Engineers Staff | title = Twenty-Five Years of Chemical Engineering Progress | publisher = Ayer Publishing | year = 1977 | page = 216 | isbn = 978-0-8369-0149-8}}</ref> Bakelite is an inexpensive, nonflammable, versatile, and popular [[plastic]].<ref name="CHF">{{cite web|title=Leo Hendrik Baekeland|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/leo-hendrik-baekeland|website=Science History Institute|date=June 2016 |access-date=20 March 2018}}</ref><ref name=Bowden>{{cite book|last1=Bowden|first1=Mary Ellen|title=Chemical achievers : the human face of the chemical sciences|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/chemicalachiever0000bowd|chapter-url-access=registration|date=1997|publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=9780941901123|chapter=Leo Hendrik Baekeland|pages=[https://archive.org/details/chemicalachiever0000bowd/page/127 127–129]}}</ref><ref name="time">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/baekeland.html
|title=Time 100: Leo Baekeland
|first=Ivan
|last=Amato
|date=1999-03-29
|access-date=2007-11-08
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071106110739/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/baekeland.html| archive-date= 6 November 2007 | url-status= dead}}
</ref>
{{clear}}

==Popular culture==
===Literature===
{{See also|List of years in literature#1900s|Publishers Weekly list of bestselling novels in the United States in the 1900s}}
[[File:Portrait of Winston Churchill.jpg|thumb|upright|150px|4 out of 10 best-selling American books in the 1900s were written by [[Winston Churchill (novelist)|Winston Churchill]] (1871 – 1947)]]
The best selling books of the decade were ''[[Anne of Green Gables]]'' (1908) and ''[[The Tale of Peter Rabbit]]'' (1902), which sold 50 million<ref>{{Cite news|last=Paskin|first=Willa|date=2017-04-27|title=The Other Side of Anne of Green Gables|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/27/magazine/the-other-side-of-anne-of-green-gables.html|access-date=2020-04-19|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> and 45 million<ref>Worker's Press</ref> copies respectively. [[Serbian language|Serbian writers]] used the [[Belgrade]] literary style, an [[Ekavian]] writing form which set basis for the later standardization of the Serbian language. [[Theodor Herzl]], the founder of political [[Zionism]], published ''[[The Old New Land]]'' in 1902, outlining Herzl's vision for a Jewish state in the [[Land of Israel]].

Below are the best-selling books in the United States of each year, as determined by ''[[Publishers Weekly]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2006|title=Annual Bestsellers, 1900-1909|url=http://www3.isrl.illinois.edu/~unsworth/courses/bestsellers/best00.cgi|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016093451/http://www3.isrl.illinois.edu/~unsworth/courses/bestsellers/best00.cgi|archive-date=2011-10-16|url-status=live}}</ref>

* 1900: ''[[To Have and to Hold (Johnston novel)|To Have and to Hold]]'' by [[Mary Johnston]]
* 1901: ''[[The Crisis (novel)|The Crisis]]'' by [[Winston Churchill (novelist)|Winston Churchill]]
* 1902: ''[[The Virginian (novel)|The Virginian]]'' by [[Owen Wister]]
* 1903: ''[[Lady Rose's Daughter (novel)|Lady Rose's Daughter]]'' by [[Mary Augusta Ward]]
* 1904: ''[[The Crossing (Churchill novel)|The Crossing]]'' by [[Winston Churchill (novelist)|Winston Churchill]]
* 1905: ''[[The Marriage of William Ashe]]'' by [[Mary Augusta Ward]]
* 1906: ''[[Coniston (novel)|Coniston]]'' by [[Winston Churchill (novelist)|Winston Churchill]]
* 1907: ''[[The Lady of the Decoration]]'' by [[Frances Little]]
* 1908: ''[[Mr. Crewe's Career]]'' by [[Winston Churchill (novelist)|Winston Churchill]]
* 1909: ''[[The Inner Shrine (novel)|The Inner Shrine]]'' by Anonymous ([[Basil King]])

=== Art ===
[[File:Portrait de Picasso, 1908.jpg|thumb|upright|150px|[[Pablo Picasso]] in 1908, who, along with [[Henri Matisse]], was considered a leader in [[modern art]]]]
* [[Pablo Picasso]] paints ''[[Les Demoiselles d'Avignon]]'', considered by some to be the birth of modern art.
*[[Art Nouveau]] art movement peaked in popularity at the turn of the 20th century (1890–1905).
* [[Cubism]] art movement peaked in popularity in France between 1907 and 1911.
* [[Fauvism]] art movement peaked in popularity between 1905 and 1907.

===Film===
{{See also|1900s in film}}
{{Expand section|date=January 2010}}
[[File:Great train robbery still.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Justus D. Barnes]] in [[Edwin Porter]]'s film ''[[The Great Train Robbery (1903 film)|The Great Train Robbery]]'', 1903]]
* 2 April 1902 – ''Electric Theatre'', the first [[movie theater]] in the United States, opens in [[Los Angeles]].
* The first huge success of American cinema, as well as the largest experimental achievement to this point, was the 1903 film ''[[The Great Train Robbery (1903 film)|The Great Train Robbery]]'', directed by [[Edwin S. Porter]].
* The world's first feature film, ''[[The Story of the Kelly Gang]]'' is released on 26 December 1906 in [[Melbourne]], Australia.

===Music===
Popular songs of the 1900s include "[[Lift Every Voice and Sing]]" and "[[What Are They Doing in Heaven?]]", which have been featured in 42<ref>{{cite web|title=Lift Every Voice and Sing|url=https://hymnary.org/text/lift_every_voice_and_sing#instances|website=Hymnary.org}}</ref> and 16<ref name="hymnary">{{cite web|title=What Are They Doing in Heaven?|url=http://www.hymnary.org/text/i_am_thinking_of_friends_whom_i_used_to_|website=hymnary.org|accessdate=August 24, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Charles Albert Tindley 1851{{ndash}}1933|url=http://nethymnal.org/bio/t/i/tindley_ca.htm|website=nethymnal.org|accessdate=August 24, 2015}}</ref> [[hymnal]]s respectively.
** 23 January 1900 – The [[Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra]] makes its [[Carnegie Hall]] debut with [[Victor Herbert]] conducting.
** 3 February 1900 – [[Adonais]], overture by [[George Whitefield Chadwick]] is premiered by the [[Boston Symphony Orchestra]].
** 15 December 1900 – The second and third movements of [[Piano Concerto No. 2 (Rachmaninoff)|Concerto No.2 in C Minor for Piano]] by [[Sergej Rachmaninov]] receive their world premiere in Moscow, with Rachmaninov playing the solo part.
** 29 March 1901 – [[Jean de Reszke]]'s final performance of the season with the [[Metropolitan Opera]] turns into his farewell performance with that company as he sings the title role in [[Richard Wagner|Wagner's]] [[Lohengrin (opera)|Lohengrin]].
** 27 October 1901 – [[Claude Debussy]]'s ''Trois Nocturnes'' is given in its first complete performance as [[Camille Chevillard]] conducts the [[Lamoureux Orchestra]] in Paris.
** 9 November 1901 – First complete performance of [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]]'s [[Piano Concerto No. 2 (Rachmaninoff)|Piano Concerto no. 2]] in [[C minor|C Minor]] in [[Moscow]] with Rachmaninoff playing the solo part.
** 16 December 1902 – [[Scott Joplin]]'s [[Signature song|signature]] [[Rag (music)|rag]], "[[The Entertainer (rag)|The Entertainer]]", is released.
** October 18, 1904 – [[Gustav Mahler]]'s ''[[Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)|Symphony No. 5]]'' is premiered by the [[Gürzenich Orchestra Cologne]] with Mahler conducting.
** 1905 - [[Claude Debussy]] releases his masterpiece and [[signature song]], "[[Clair de lune (Debussy)|Clair de Lune]]".
** 27 January 1907 – Executives of the [[Metropolitan Opera]] removes [[Richard Strauss]]'s [[Salome]] from the [[repertoire]] following [[protest]]s that the [[opera]] was indecent.
** 26 January 1908 – [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]]'s [[Symphony No. 2 (Rachmaninoff)|Symphony No. 2]] receives its première.
** 15 March 1908 – [[Maurice Ravel]]'s ''[[Rapsodie espagnole]]'' receives its première in Paris.
** 11 April 1908 – [[Spyridon Samaras]]'s opera ''Rhea'' is premiered in [[Florence]] (Teatro Verdi)
** 19 September 1908 – Première of [[Gustav Mahler]]'s [[Symphony No. 7 (Mahler)|Symphony No. 7]] in Prague.
** 25 January 1909 – [[Richard Strauss]]'s opera [[Elektra (opera)|Elektra]] receives its debut performance at the [[Semperoper|Dresden State Opera]]
** 19 February 1909 – First production [[Bedřich Smetana]]'s opera ''[[Prodaná nevěsta]]'' (The Bartered Bride) in the USA v [[Metropolitan Opera]], conducted by [[Gustav Mahler]] with [[Ema Destinová]] in the titul role.
** 22 February 1909 – [[Thomas Beecham]] conducts the first concert with his newly established Beecham Symphony Orchestra in the UK.
** 8 November 1909 – [[Boston Opera House (1909)|Boston Opera House]] in the United States opens with a performance of ''[[La Gioconda (opera)|La Gioconda]]'' starring [[Lillian Nordica]] and [[Louise Homer]].
** 28 November 1909 – [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]]'s [[Piano Concerto No. 3 (Rachmaninoff)|Piano Concerto No. 3]] is premièred in New York City.
** 18 December 1909 – [[George Enescu]]'s [[Octet (Enescu)|Octet for Strings]] and Piano Quartet No. 1 in D Major are premiered together on a program also featuring his ''Sept chansons de Clement Marot'', Op. 15, at the Salle des agriculteurs in Paris, as part of the "Soirées d'Art" concert series.

===Fashion===
{{See also|1900s in fashion}}
{{Expand section|date=January 2010}}

===Historic events===
[[Agustín Lizárraga]] discovers [[Machu Picchu]] on 14 July 1902.
{{Expand section|date=August 2023}}

===Sports===
{{expand section|date=July 2018}}

The [[Tour de France]] starts for the first time in 1903.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.letour.fr/2011/TDF/HISTO/us/index.html|title=Home|work=Tour de France 2015|access-date=2011-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101027083912/http://www.letour.fr/2011/TDF/HISTO/us/index.html|archive-date=2010-10-27|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Food===
* U.S. [[New Haven, Connecticut]] Louis Lassen of [[Louis' Lunch]] makes the first modern-day [[hamburger]] [[sandwich]]. According to family legend, one day in 1900 a local businessman dashed into the small New Haven lunch wagon and pleaded for a lunch to go. According to the Lassen family, the customer, Gary Widmore, exclaimed "Louie! I'm in a rush, slap a meatpuck between two planks and step on it!".<ref name="bbq">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/stevenraichlensb0000raic | url-access=registration | quote=Louis Lunch. | title=BBQ USA: 425 Fiery Recipes from All Across America | publisher=Workman Publishing | date=2003 | access-date=28 May 2014 | author=Raichlen, Steven | pages=[https://archive.org/details/stevenraichlensb0000raic/page/336 336]–337| isbn=9780761120155 }}</ref><ref name="colin">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KHEbAgAAQBAJ&q=Louis+Lunch&pg=PA108 | title=Legendary Locals of New Haven | publisher=Arcadia Publishing | author=Caplan, Colin | year=2013 | pages=108–109| isbn=9781467100960 }}</ref> Louis Lassen, the establishment's owner, placed his own blend of ground steak trimmings between two slices of toast and sent the gentleman on his way, so the story goes, with America's alleged first hamburger being served.<ref name="ctm">{{cite web | url=http://www.ctmuseumquest.com/?page_id=4954 | title=Burger at Louis' Lunch | publisher=Connecticut Museum Quest | access-date=29 May 2014}}</ref>

==People==

===Modern artists===
[[File:Henri Matisse, 1913, photograph by Alvin Langdon Coburn.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Henri Matisse]]]]
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Umberto Boccioni]]
*[[Pierre Bonnard]]
*[[Georges Braque]]
*[[Paul Cézanne]]
*[[Marc Chagall]]
*[[Edgar Degas]]
*[[André Derain]]
*[[Raoul Dufy]]
*[[Paul Gauguin]]
*[[Juan Gris]]
*[[Wassily Kandinsky]]
*[[Gustav Klimt]]
*[[Fernand Léger]]
*[[Kazimir Malevich]]
*[[Henri Matisse]]
*[[Amedeo Modigliani]]
*[[Claude Monet]]
*[[Pablo Picasso]]
*[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]
*[[Auguste Rodin]]
*[[Georges Rouault]]
*[[Henri Rousseau]]
*[[Albert Pinkham Ryder]]
*[[Egon Schiele]]
*[[Gino Severini]]
*[[Paul Signac]]
*[[Henri Toulouse-Lautrec]]
*[[Suzanne Valadon]]
*[[Maurice de Vlaminck]]
*[[Gustave Caillebotte]]
*[[Édouard Manet]]
*[[Camille Pissarro]]
*[[Georges Seurat]]
*[[Alfred Sisley]]
{{div col end}}

===Other notable people===
[[File:Sigmund freud um 1905.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sigmund Freud]], 1905]]
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Agustín Lizárraga]]
*[[Eugen d'Albert]]
*[[Hugo Alfvén]]
*[[Egbert Van Alstyne]]
*[[Broncho Billy Anderson]]
*[[Fatty Arbuckle]]
*[[Louis Daniel Armstrong]]
*[[Kurt Atterberg]]
*[[Béla Bartók]]
*[[Nora Bayes]]
*[[Jagdish Chandra Bose]]
*[[Irving Berlin]]
*[[Francis Boggs]]
*[[Frank Bridge]]
*[[Alfred Bryan (lyricist)|Alfred Bryan]]
*[[Vincent P. Bryan]]
*[[Ferruccio Busoni]]
*[[Enrico Caruso]]
*[[Gustave Charpentier]]
*[[Thurland Chattaway]]
*[[Francesco Cilea]]
*[[Will D. Cobb]]
*[[Bob Cole (composer)|Bob Cole]]
*[[Frederick Converse]]
*[[Henry Creamer]]
*[[Henry Walford Davies]]
*[[Peter Dawson (bass-baritone)|Peter Dawson]]
*[[Claude Debussy]]
*[[Frederick Delius]]
*[[Paul Dresser]]
*[[Antonín Dvořák]]
*[[Gus Edwards (vaudeville)|Gus Edwards]]
*[[Edward Elgar]]
*[[August Enna]]
*[[Manuel de Falla]]
*[[Geraldine Farrar]]
*[[Fred Fisher]]
*[[Paul Le Flem]]
*[[Sigmund Freud]]
*[[Rudolf Friml]]
*[[Julius Fučík (composer)|Julius Fučík]]
*[[Amelita Galli-Curci]]
*[[Mary Garden]]
*[[Edward German]]
*[[Alexander Glazunov]]
*[[Emilio de Gogorza]]
*[[Percy Grainger]]
*[[Enrique Granados]]
*[[D. W. Griffith]]
*[[Guy d'Hardelot]]
*[[Hamilton Harty]]
*[[The Haydn Quartet]]
*[[Anna Held]]
*[[Victor Herbert]]
*[[Max Hoffmann]]
*[[Gustav Holst]]
*[[Abe Holzmann]]
*[[David Horsley]]
*[[Harry Houdini]]
*[[Mississippi John Hurt]]
*[[Jenö Huszka]]
*[[Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov]]
*[[Carrie Jacobs-Bond]]
*[[Alfred Jarry]]
*[[William Jerome]]
*[[J. Rosamond Johnson]]
*[[James Weldon Johnson]]
*[[Scott Joplin]]
*[[Gus Kahn]]
*[[Jerome Kern]]
*[[Rudyard Kipling]]
*[[Carl Laemmle]]
*[[Harry Lauder]]
*[[Lead Belly]]
*[[Franz Lehár]]
*[[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]]
*[[Paul Lincke]]
*[[Gustav Mahler]]
*[[Arthur Marshall (ragtime composer)|Arthur Marshall]]
*[[Jules Massenet]]
*[[Nikolai Karlovich Medtner]]
*[[Nellie Melba]]
*[[Georges Méliès]]
*[[Kerry Mills]]
*[[Billy Murray (singer)|Billy Murray]]
*[[Evelyn Nesbit]]
*[[Ethelbert Woodbridge Nevin]]
*[[Carl Nielsen]]
*[[Jack Norworth]]
*[[Vítězslav Novák]]
*[[Maude Nugent]]
*[[Sidney Olcott]]
*[[Charles Pathé]]
*[[Edwin S. Porter]]
*[[Giacomo Puccini]]
*[[Sergei Rachmaninoff]]
*[[Maurice Ravel]]
*[[Ottorino Respighi]]
*[[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]]
*[[Landon Ronald]]
*[[Paul Sarebresole]]
*[[Erik Satie]]
*[[Arnold Schoenberg]]
*[[Jean Schwartz]]
*[[James Scott (musician)|James Scott]]
*[[Alexander Scriabin]]
*[[William Selig]]
*[[Chris Smith (composer)|Chris Smith]]
*[[Harry B. Smith]]
*[[Ethel Smyth]]
*[[John Philip Sousa]]
*[[George Kirke Spoor]]
*[[Charles Villiers Stanford]]
*[[Andrew B. Sterling]]
*[[Oscar Straus (composer)|Oscar Strauss]]
*[[Harry Von Tilzer]]
*[[Tom Turpin]]
*[[Edgard Varèse]]
*[[Vesta Victoria]]
*[[Anton Webern]]
*[[Percy Wenrich]]
*[[Bert Williams]]
*[[Harry Williams (songwriter)|Harry Williams]]
*[[Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari]]
*[[Amy Woodforde-Finden]]
*[[Israel Zangwill]]
*[[Ferdinand von Zeppelin]]
*[[Charles A. Zimmerman]]
{{div col end}}


===Sports figures===
{|
| valign = top |

====Baseball====
{{See also|History of baseball in the United States}}
*[[Chief Bender]]
*[[Mordecai Brown|3-Finger Brown]]
*[[Jack Chesbro]]
*[[Ty Cobb]]
*[[Pud Galvin]]
*[[Addie Joss]]
*[[Nap Lajoie]]
*[[Sam Leever]]
*[[Christy Mathewson]]
*[[John McGraw]]
*[[Kid Nichols]]
*[[Eddie Plank]]
*[[Tris Speaker]]
*[[Rube Waddell]]
*[[Honus Wagner]]
*[[Ed Walsh|Big Ed Walsh]]
*[[Cy Young]]
| valign = top |

====Boxing====
{{See also|International Boxing Hall of Fame}}
*[[Tommy Burns (Canadian boxer)|Tommy Burns]]
*[[Marvin Hart]] (boxing)
*[[James J. Jeffries]] (boxing)
*[[Jack Johnson (boxer)|Jack Johnson]] (boxing)
*[[Kid McCoy]] (boxing)
| valign = top |

====Cricket====
*[[Warwick Armstrong]]
*[[Sydney Barnes]]
*[[Colin Blythe]]
*[[Len Braund]]
*[[Aubrey Faulkner]]
*[[Tip Foster]]
*[[C.B. Fry]]
*[[Dick Lilley]]
*[[Tom Hayward]]
*[[Clem Hill]]
*[[George Hirst]]
*[[Monty Noble]]
*[[K.S. Ranjitsinhji]]
*[[Wilfred Rhodes]]
*[[Percy Sherwell]]
*[[George Thompson (cricketer)]]
*[[Victor Trumper]]
*[[Johnny Tyldesley]]
*[[Bert Vogler]]
|}

==See also==
* [[List of years in literature#1900s|1900s in literature]]

===Timeline===
The following articles contain brief timelines which list the most prominent events of the decade:

[[1900]] • [[1901]] • [[1902]] • [[1903]] • [[1904]] • [[1905]] • [[1906]] • [[1907]] • [[1908]] • [[1909]]

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hale |first=Williams Bayard |author-link=William Bayard Hale |date=January 1911 |title=A Dramatic Decade of History: What The First Ten Years Of The Twentieth Century Witnessed Of International Stir – A Time Prolific In Wars, Revolutions And Revolts, National Tragedy And Intrigue |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXI |pages=13855–13868 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13855|access-date=2009-07-10 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Hutchinson |first=Woods |date=January 1911 |title=The Conquest Of The Great Diseases: The National Death-Rate Reduced 10 PerCent, The Discovery Of The Hook-Worm And The "Typhoid Fly", Meningitis And Syphilis Both Conquered During The Decade, The Passing Of Yellow Fever |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXI |pages=13881–13883 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13881|access-date=2009-07-10 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Keys |first=C.M. |date=January 1911 |title=Ten Years Of Industrial America: Manufacturing Industry Far Outpacing Agriculture |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXI |pages=13884–13897 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13884|access-date=2009-07-10 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Page|first=Walter Hines |author-link=Walter Hines Page |date=January 1911 |title=The Astronomical Romance Of A Decade: The Story of Ten Years' Advance In Knowledge Of The Heavens |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXI |pages=13877–13880 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13877|access-date=2009-07-10 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Mahan |first=Alfred T. |author-link=Alfred Thayer Mahan |date=January 1911 |title=The Battleship Of All-Big-Guns: How The Coming Of The "Dreadnought" Made The World's Navies Partly Obsolete, Germany's Growing Commerce Is Responsible For Changes In Many Navies, The Rise of Three Great Navies In Ten Years |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXI |pages=13898–13902 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13898|access-date=2009-07-10 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sloss |first=Robert |date=January 1911 |title=The Children Of The Gas-Engine: The Revolution In Speed And In Convenience In Transportation – Automobiles, Motor-Cycles, Motor-Boats, Aeroplanes And Other Queer Craft That Ten Years Have Brought |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXI |pages=13869–13877 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13869|access-date=2009-07-10 }}
{{Refend}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}

* [https://libraryguides.missouri.edu/pricesandwages/1900-1909 Prices and Wages by Decade: 1900s]—Research guide from the University of Missouri Library shows average wages for various occupations and prices for common items from 1900 to 1909.
{{Events by month links}}
{{20th century}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:1900s (Decade)}}
[[Category:1900s| ]]
[[Category:19th century]]
[[Category:20th century]]
[[Category:1900s decade overviews]]

19th century

2023-09-12T18:30:49Z

78.157.120.208:

{{Short description|Time period between 1 January 1801 and 31 December 1900}}
{{other uses}}
{{Centurybox|19}}
[[File:Jacques-Louis David - The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], Emperor of the [[First French Empire]].]]
The '''19th''' '''century''' began on 1 January 1801 (represented by the [[Roman numerals]] MDCCCI), and ended on 31 December 1900 (MCM).

The 19th century was characterized by vast social upheaval. [[Slavery]] was [[abolitionism|abolished]] in much of [[Europe]] and the [[Americas]]. The [[Industrial Revolution|First Industrial Revolution]], though it began in the late 18th century, expanding beyond its British homeland for the first time during this century, particularly remaking the economies and societies of the [[Low Countries]], the [[Rhineland]], [[Northern Italy]], and the [[Northeastern United States]]. A few decades later, the [[Second Industrial Revolution]] led to ever more massive [[urbanization]] and much higher levels of productivity, profit, and prosperity, a pattern that continued into the [[20th century]].

It was, in the Middle East, an era of change and reform. The [[Gunpowder empires|Islamic gunpowder empires]] fell into decline and European [[imperialism]] brought much of [[South Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]], and almost all of [[Africa]] under [[Colonialism|colonial rule]]. Reformers were opposed at every turn by conservatives who strove to maintain the centuries old Islamic laws and social order.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cleveland |first1=William L. |last2=Bunton |first2=Martin |title=A History of the Modern Middle East |date=2016 |isbn=9780813349800 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780429495502/history-modern-middle-east-william-cleveland|quote=The 19th century is frequently characterized as a period of tension between forces of continuity and change. The reformers who advocated the adoption of European institutions and technology, have often been portrayed as the progressive elements of society courageously charting the course toward an inevitably Westernized twentieth century. Conversely, the adherents of continuity, who viewed with alarm the dismantling of the Islamic order and sought to preserve tradition and retain the values and ideals that had served Ottoman and Islamic society so well for so long, are sometimes portrayed as nothing but archaic reactionaries. But we should avoid these simplistic characterizations if we are to appreciate the agonizing and dangerous process of transforming an established religious, social and political worldview.}}</ref> The century also saw the collapse of the large [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] and [[Mughal Empire]]s. This paved the way for the growing influence of the [[British Empire|British]], [[French colonial empire|French]], [[German colonial empire|German]], [[Russian Empire|Russian]], [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]], [[Italian Empire|Italian]], and [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empires]] along with the [[United States]]. The British boasted unchallenged global dominance after 1815.

After the defeat of [[First French Empire|France]] in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the British and Russian Empires expanded greatly, becoming two of the world's leading powers. Russia expanded its territory to [[Central Asia]] and the [[Caucasus]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] underwent a period of [[Westernization]] and reform known as the [[Tanzimat]], vastly increasing its control over core territories in the [[Middle East]]. However, it remained in decline and became known as the [[sick man of Europe]], losing territory in the [[Balkans]] and [[North Africa]].

The remaining powers in the [[Indian subcontinent]] such as the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] and [[Sikh Empire]]s suffered a massive decline and their dissatisfaction with the [[East India Company|British East India Company]]'s rule led to the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], marking its dissolution. India was later ruled directly by the [[The Crown|British Crown]] through the establishment of the [[British Raj]].

Britain's overseas possessions grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the century, the British controlled a fifth of the world's land and one-quarter of the world's population. During the post-Napoleonic era, it enforced what became known as the [[Pax Britannica]], which had ushered in unprecedented [[globalization]] on a massive scale.

The last [[man]] and [[woman]] verified to have been born during the century died in 2013 and 2017, respectively.

==Overview==
[[File:Queen Victoria - Winterhalter 1859.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Queen Victoria]] of Great Britain.]]

The first [[electronics]] appeared in the 19th century, with the introduction of the [[Relay#History|electric relay]] in 1835, the [[telegraph]] and its [[Morse code]] protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/recon/jb_recon_telephone_1.html|title=The First Telephone Call|website=www.americaslibrary.gov|access-date=2015-10-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022110620/http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/recon/jb_recon_telephone_1.html|archive-date=2015-10-22|url-status=live}}</ref> and the first functional [[light bulb]] in 1878.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2009/12/1218joseph-swan-electric-bulb/|title=Dec. 18, 1878: Let There Be Light — Electric Light|date=18 December 2009|magazine=WIRED|access-date=4 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021003405/https://www.wired.com/2009/12/1218joseph-swan-electric-bulb/|archive-date=21 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating [[Discovery (observation)#In science|scientific discovery]] and [[invention]], with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070105005042/http://corporate.britannica.com/press/inventions.html Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref> The [[Industrial Revolution]] began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America, and Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://americanhistory.about.com/od/industrialrev/a/indrevoverview.htm |title=The United States and the Industrial Revolution in the 19th Century |publisher=Americanhistory.about.com |date=2012-09-18 |access-date=2012-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728095536/http://americanhistory.about.com/od/industrialrev/a/indrevoverview.htm |archive-date=2012-07-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Victorian era]] was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict [[social norm]]s regarding modesty and gender roles.<ref>Laura Del Col, West Virginia University, [http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313022018/http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html |date=2008-03-13 }}</ref> Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the [[Meiji Restoration]], before defeating China, under the [[Qing dynasty]], in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]]. [[History of medicine#19th century: rise of modern medicine|Advances in medicine]] and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating [[population growth]] in the [[Western world]]. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change |title= Modernization – Population Change |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090406074344/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change |archive-date=April 6, 2009}}</ref> The introduction of [[Rail transport|railroads]] provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major [[urbanization]] movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's [[List of largest cities throughout history|largest city]] and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior [[Africa]] and [[Asia]], were [[Exploration|explored]] during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s. [[Liberalism]] became the pre-eminent [[reform movement]] in Europe.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339173/liberalism/237346/Liberalism-in-the-19th-century Liberalism in the 19th century] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218233116/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339173/liberalism/237346/Liberalism-in-the-19th-century |date=2009-02-18 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica.''</ref>
[[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Arab slave trade]]rs and their captives along the Ruvuma river (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique), 19th century]]

[[Slavery]] was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful [[Haitian Revolution|slave revolt in Haiti]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and France stepped up the battle against the [[Barbary pirates]] and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's [[Slavery Abolition Act]] charged the British [[Royal Navy]] with ending the global [[History of slavery|slave trade]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108141034/http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml |date=2009-01-08 }}. ''BBC.''</ref> The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] following their [[American Civil War|Civil War]] abolished slavery there in 1865, and in [[Lei Áurea|Brazil]] slavery was abolished in 1888 (see [[abolitionism]]). Similarly, [[serfdom]] was abolished in [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|Russia]] in 1861.

The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new [[Settler|settlement]] foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century. [[Chicago]] in the [[United States]] and [[Melbourne]] in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States.<ref>[http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1118_0_5_0 The Atlantic: Can the US afford immigration?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704173521/http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1118_0_5_0 |date=2010-07-04 }}. ''Migration News''. December 1996.</ref>

The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States. [[Association football]], [[rugby union]], [[baseball]], and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as [[cricket]] to many different parts of the world. Also, [[1890s in Western fashion|women's fashion]] was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous.

[[File:Europe 1815 map en.png|thumb|200px|The boundaries set by the Congress of Vienna, 1815.]]
It also marks the fall of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]] of the [[Balkans]] which led to the creation of [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] as a result of the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|second Russo-Turkish War]], which in itself followed the great [[Crimean War]].

===Eras===
[[File:World 1898 empires colonies territory.png|thumb|250px|Map of the world from 1897. The [[British Empire]] (marked in pink) was the superpower of the 19th century.]]
*[[Industrial revolution]]
*[[European imperialism]]
*[[British Regency]], [[Victorian era]] (UK, [[British Empire]])
*[[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]], [[July Monarchy]], [[French Second Republic]], [[Second French Empire]], [[French Third Republic]] ([[France in the nineteenth century|France]])
*[[Belle Époque]] (Europe)
*[[Edo period]], [[Meiji period]] (Japan)
*[[Qing dynasty]] (China)
*[[Nguyen dynasty]] (Vietnam)
*[[Joseon]] dynasty (Korea)
*[[Zulu Kingdom]] (South Africa)
*[[Tanzimat]], [[First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|First Constitutional Era]] ([[Decline of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]])
*[[Russian Empire]]
*[[Manifest Destiny|American Manifest Destiny]], [[Antebellum South|Antebellum Era]], [[Gilded Age|The Gilded Age]], [[American frontier|Wild West]], [[Reconstruction era|Reconstruction]] (United States)

== Wars ==
===Napoleonic Wars===
{{main|Napoleonic Wars}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of the Napoleonic era}}
[[File:Napoleons retreat from moscow.jpg|thumb|right|[[Napoleon]]'s retreat from Russia in 1812. The war swings decisively against the French Empire]]
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] and its allies, led by [[Napoleon I]], against a fluctuating array of [[Coalition forces of the Napoleonic Wars|European powers formed into various coalitions]], financed and usually led by the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the [[French Revolution]] and its [[French Revolutionary Wars|resultant conflict]].

In the aftermath of the [[French Revolution]], [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself [[Emperor of the French]].

In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]] ended the [[War of the Third Coalition]]. As a result of the [[Treaty of Pressburg (1805)|Treaty of Pressburg]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was dissolved.

Later efforts were less successful. In the [[Peninsular War]], France unsuccessfully attempted to establish [[Joseph Bonaparte]] as King of Spain. In 1812, the [[French invasion of Russia]] had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].

In 1814, after defeat in the [[War of the Sixth Coalition]], Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to [[Elba]]. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the [[Hundred Days]] before finally being defeated at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] and exiled to [[Saint Helena]], an island in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]].

After Napoleon's defeat, the [[Congress of Vienna]] was held to determine new national borders. The [[Concert of Europe]] attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact.

===Latin American independence===
{{main|Latin American wars of independence|Spanish American wars of independence}}
[[File:JuraIndependencia.jpg|thumb|alt=Portrait of the Chilean declaration of independence|The [[Chilean Declaration of Independence]] on 18 February 1818]]
[[Mexico]] and the majority of the countries in [[Central America]] and [[South America]] obtained independence from [[Colonialism|colonial]] overlords during the 19th century. In 1804, [[Haitian Revolution|Haiti]] gained independence from France. In [[Mexico]], the [[Mexican War of Independence]] was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821.

Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal [[Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|relocated to Brazil]] from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal.

The [[Federal Republic of Central America]] gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of [[Guatemala]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[Costa Rica]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perez-Brignoli|first1=Hector|title=A Brief History of Central America|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofce00pr|url-access=registration|date=1989|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520909762}}</ref>

In 1830, the post-colonial nation of [[Gran Colombia]] dissolved and the nations of [[Colombia]] (including modern-day Panama), [[Ecuador]], and [[Venezuela]] took its place.

===Revolutions of 1848===
{{main|Revolutions of 1848}}
[[File:Maerz1848 berlin.jpg|thumb|upright|Liberal and nationalist pressure led to the [[Revolutions of 1848|European revolutions of 1848]]]]
The [[Revolutions of 1848]] were a series of [[political upheaval]]s throughout [[Europe]] in 1848. The revolutions were essentially [[democracy|democratic]] and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old [[Monarchy|monarchical]] structures and creating independent nation states.

The first revolution began in [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states|January in Sicily]].{{clarify|date=December 2017}} Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in [[French Revolution of 1848|France in February]]. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries.

According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.<ref>R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., ''The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849'' (2000) pp. v, 4</ref>

===Abolition and the American Civil War===
{{main|Abolitionism|American Civil War}}
[[File:Wilberforce john rising.jpg|thumb|[[William Wilberforce]] (1759–1833), politician and philanthropist who was a leader of the movement to [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolish the slave trade]].]]

The [[abolitionism]] movement achieved success in the 19th century. The [[Atlantic slave trade]] was abolished in the United States in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The [[Slavery Abolition Act]] of 1833 banned slavery throughout the [[British Empire]], and the [[Lei Áurea]] abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.

[[Abolitionism in the United States]] continued until the end of the [[American Civil War]]. [[Frederick Douglass]] and [[Harriet Tubman]] were two of many American abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer, while Tubman worked with a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the [[Underground Railroad]].

The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Eleven [[Southern United States|southern states]] seceded from the [[United States]], largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President [[Abraham Lincoln]] issued the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. Lincoln issued a preliminary<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation|title=The Emancipation Proclamation|date=October 6, 2015|website=National Archives|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206210236/https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation|archive-date=February 6, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> on September 22, 1862, warning that in all states still in rebellion ([[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free."<ref>McPherson, J. M. (2014). "Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment", in E. Foner and J. A. Garraty (eds.), ''The Reader's Companion to American History''. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. [http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rcah/emancipation_proclamation_and_thirteenth_amendment/0] Retrieved from {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106000538/https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rcah/emancipation_proclamation_and_thirteenth_amendment/0|date=2018-11-06}}</ref> He did so.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation/transcript.html|title=Transcript of the Proclamation|date=October 6, 2015|website=National Archives}}</ref> The [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] to the Constitution,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/13th-amendment|title=13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery|date=January 27, 2016|website=National Archives|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216131544/https://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/13th-amendment|archive-date=February 16, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country.

Five days after [[Robert E. Lee]] surrendered at [[Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia]], [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln was assassinated]] by actor and [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] sympathiser [[John Wilkes Booth]].

=== Decline of the Ottoman Empire ===
{{main|Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire}}
In 1830, [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]] became the first country to break away from the [[Ottoman Empire]] after the [[Greek War of Independence]]. In 1831, the [[Bosnian uprising (1831–1832)|Bosnian Uprising]] against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the [[Principality of Serbia]] became [[Suzerainty|suzerain]] from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a constitution that defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1876, [[Bulgarians]] instigated the [[April Uprising of 1876|April Uprising]] against Ottoman rule. Following the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War]], the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]] recognized the formal independence of the Serbia, [[Principality of Montenegro|Montenegro]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]]. [[Principality of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] became autonomous.

=== China: Taiping Rebellion ===
{{main|Taiping Rebellion}}
[[File:Regaining the Provincial Capital of Ruizhou.jpg|thumb|280px|A scene of the [[Taiping Rebellion]].]]
The [[Taiping Rebellion]] was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20-30 million people. Its leader, [[Hong Xiuquan]], declared himself the younger brother of [[Jesus Christ]] and developed a new Chinese religion known as the [[God Worshipping Society]]. After proclaiming the establishment of the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]] in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing [[Nanjing]] in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reilly|first1=Thomas H.|title=The Taiping heavenly kingdom rebellion and the blasphemy of empire|date=2004|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|isbn=978-0295801926|edition=1}}</ref>

=== Japan: Meiji Restoration ===
{{main|Meiji Restoration}}
During the [[Edo period]], [[History of Japan|Japan]] largely pursued an [[Sakoku|isolationist foreign policy]]. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore [[Matthew C. Perry]] threatened the Japanese capital [[Edo]] with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to [[Bakumatsu|the opening of trade relations]] between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of [[Sakoku]] formally ended in 1854.

By 1872, the Japanese government under [[Emperor Meiji]] had [[Abolition of the han system|eliminated the ''daimyō'' system]] and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the [[samurai]] class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.<ref>W. G. Beasley, ''The Meiji Restoration'' (1972),</ref>

=== Colonialism ===
[[File:Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algier-Ernest-Francis Vacherot mg 5120.jpg|thumb|Arrival of Marshal [[Jacques Louis Randon|Randon]] in [[Algiers]], [[French Algeria]] in 1857]]
{{main|Western imperialism in Asia|Scramble for Africa}}
[[File:Rao Baji signing the Treaty of Vasai.jpg|thumb|The [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]] and the [[East India Company]] sign the [[Treaty of Bassein (1802)|Treaty of Bassein]] in 1802.]]
* [[1803]]: United States more than doubles in size when it buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the [[Louisiana Purchase]]. This begins the U.S.'s westward expansion to the Pacific, referred to as its [[Manifest Destiny]], which involves [[United States territorial acquisitions|annexing and conquering land]] from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans.
* [[1817]] – [[1819]]: British Empire annexed the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]] after the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]].
* [[1823]] – [[1887]]: British Empire annexed Burma (now also called [[Myanmar]]) after three [[Anglo-Burmese Wars]].
* [[1848]] – [[1849]]: [[Sikh Empire]] is defeated in the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]]. Therefore, the entire [[Indian subcontinent]] is under British control.
* [[1862]]: France gained its first foothold in [[Southeast Asia]] and in [[1863]] annexed [[Cambodia]].
* [[1867]]: United States [[Alaska Purchase|purchased Alaska]] from [[Russia]].

==== Africa ====
[[File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png|thumb|300px|Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913]]
In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as [[quinine]] and more advanced [[firearms]] allowed European nations to conquer native populations.<ref name="KerrAfrica">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Gordon|title=A Short History of Africa: From the Origins of the Human Race to the Arab Spring|date=2012|publisher=Pocket Essentials|location=Harpenden, Herts [UK]|isbn=9781842434420|pages=85–101}}</ref>

Motivations for the [[Scramble for Africa]] included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the [[Suez Canal]], but [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] defeated Italy in the [[First Italo–Ethiopian War]] at the [[Battle of Adwa]]. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations.<ref name="KerrAfrica" />

In 1867, [[diamond]]s were discovered in the [[Kimberley, Northern Cape|Kimberley]] region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in [[South African Republic|Transvaal]]. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by [[Cecil Rhodes]].<ref name="KerrAfrica" />

=== Other wars ===
* [[1801]]–[[1815]]: [[First Barbary War]] and the [[Second Barbary War]] between the United States and the [[Barbary States]] of [[North Africa]].
* [[1802]]: [[Tây Sơn dynasty|Tay Son]] army recaptured [[Thừa Thiên Huế province|Phu Xuan]], causing Vo Tanh to commit suicide, [[Gia Long|Nguyen Phuc Anh]] successfully captured [[Hanoi|Thang Long]], founded the [[Nguyen dynasty]]
* [[1804]]–[[1810]]: [[Fulani War|Fulani Jihad]] in [[Nigeria]].
* [[1804]]–[[1813]]: [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Persian War]].
* [[1806]]–[[1812]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)|Russo-Turkish War]], [[Treaty of Bucharest (1812)|Treaty of Bucharest]].
* [[1807]]–[[1837]]: [[Musket Wars]] among [[Māori people|Māori]] in many parts of [[New Zealand]].
* [[1808]]–[[1809]]: Russia conquers Finland from Sweden in the [[Finnish War]].[[File:KingShaka.jpg|thumb|1816: [[Shaka]] rises to power over the [[Zulu Kingdom]]. Zulu expansion was a major factor of the [[Mfecane]] ("Crushing") that depopulated large areas of southern Africa]]
* [[1810]]: [[Grito de Dolores]] begins the [[Mexican War of Independence]].
* [[1811]]: [[Battle of Tippecanoe]]: U.S. outnumbering Native Americans resulting in defeat and burning of community
* [[1812]]–[[1815]]: [[War of 1812]] between the United States and Britain; ends in a draw, except that Native Americans lose power.
* [[1813]]–[[1837]]: [[Afghan–Sikh Wars]].
* [[1814]]–[[1816]]: [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] between [[Nepal]] (Gurkha Empire) and [[British Empire]].
* [[1817]]: First [[Seminole War]] begins in Florida.
* [[1817]]: Russia commences its [[Caucasian War|conquest of the Caucasus]].
* [[1820]]: [[Revolutions of 1820]] in Southern Europe
* [[1821]]–[[1830]]: [[Greek War of Independence]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1825]]–[[1830]]: [[Java War]] begins.
* [[1826]]–[[1828]]: After the final [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Russo-Persian War]], the [[Qajar dynasty|Persian Empire]] took back territory lost to Russia from the previous war.
* [[1828]]–[[1832]]: [[Black War]] in [[Tasmania]] leads to the near extinction of the [[Tasmanian aborigines]]
* 1[[830]]: [[July Revolution]] overthrew old line of Bourbons.
* [[1830]]: [[November Uprising]] in [[Poland]] against [[Russia]].
* [[1830]]: [[Belgian Revolution]] results in [[Belgium]]'s independence from [[Netherlands]].
* [[1830]]: End of the Java War. The whole area of Yogyakarta and Surakarta Manca nagara Dutch seized. 27 September, Klaten Agreement determines a fixed boundary between Surakarta and Yogyakarta and permanently divide the kingdom of Mataram was signed by Sasradiningrat, Pepatih Dalem Surakarta, and Danurejo, Pepatih Dalem Yogyakarta. Mataram is a de facto and de yure controlled by the Dutch East Indies.
* [[1831]]: [[France]] [[French rule in Algeria|invades and occupies Algeria]].
* [[1831]]–[[1833]]: [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)|Egyptian–Ottoman War]].
* [[1832]]–[[1875]]: Regimental rebellions of Brazil
* [[1835]]–[[1836]]: [[Texas Revolution]] results in [[Texas]]'s independence from [[Mexico]].
* [[1839]]–[[1842]]: [[First Opium War]] begins.
* [[1846]]–[[1848]]: [[Mexican–American War]] leads to Mexico's cession of much of the modern-day [[Southwestern United States]].
* [[1848]]: [[French Revolution of 1848|February Revolution]] overthrew Louis Philippe's government. Second Republic proclaimed; Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, elected president.
* [[1853]]–[[1856]]: [[Crimean War]] between France, the United Kingdom, the [[Ottoman Empire]] and Russia.
* [[1857]]: [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion]] against the [[Company Raj]]. After this the power of the [[East India Company]] is transferred to the [[British Raj|British Crown]].
* [[1859]]: [[Second Italian War of Independence|Franco-Austrian War]] is part of the wars of [[Italian unification]].
* [[1861]]–[[1865]]: [[American Civil War]] between the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] and seceding [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. [[File:EwellsDeadSpotsylvania1864crop01.jpg|thumb|Dead Confederate soldiers. 30% of all Southern white males 18–40 years of age died in the [[American Civil War]].<ref>"''[https://archive.org/details/killinggroundpho0000hudd Killing ground: photographs of the Civil War and the changing American landscape] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228002928/https://books.google.com/books?id=YpAuHGkuIe0C&pg=PA&dq&hl=en |date=2017-02-28 }}''". John Huddleston (2002). [[Johns Hopkins University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8018-6773-8}}</ref>]]
* [[1861]]–[[1867]]: [[Second French intervention in Mexico|French intervention in Mexico]] and the creation of the [[Second Mexican Empire]], ruled by [[Maximilian I of Mexico]] and his consort [[Carlota of Mexico]].
* [[1863]]–[[1865]]: [[January Uprising]] against the [[Russian Empire]].
* [[1864]]–[[1870]]: [[Paraguayan War]] ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion and destroys much of the Paraguayan population.
* [[1866]]: [[Austro-Prussian War]] results in the dissolution of the [[German Confederation]] and the creation of the [[North German Confederation]] and the [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy]].
* [[1868]]-[[1869]]: [[Boshin War]] results in end of the shogunate and the founding the Japanese Empire.
* [[1868]]–[[1878]]: [[Ten Years' War]] between [[Cuba]] and [[Kingdom of Spain|Spain]].
* [[1870]]–[[1871]]: [[Franco-Prussian War]] results in the [[Unification of Germany|unifications of Germany]] [[Italian unification|and Italy]], the collapse of the [[Second French Empire]] and the emergence of a [[New Imperialism]].
* 1870: Napoleon III abdicated after unsuccessful conclusion of Franco-Prussian War. Third Republic proclaimed.
* [[1876]]: The [[April Uprising of 1876|April Uprising]] in [[Bulgaria]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1879]]: [[Anglo-Zulu War]] results in British victory and the annexation of the [[Zulu Kingdom]].
* [[1879]]–[[1880]]: [[Little War (Cuba)|Little War]] against Spanish rule in [[Cuba]] leads to rebel defeat.
* [[1879]]–[[1883]]: [[Chile]] battles with [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] over Andean territory in the [[War of the Pacific]].
* [[1880]]–[[1881]]: [[First Boer War]] begins.
* [[1881]]–[[1899]]: [[Mahdist War]] in [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Sudan]].[[File:Battle of Omdurman.jpg|thumb|A depiction of the [[Battle of Omdurman]] in 1898; in the battle, [[Winston Churchill]] took part in a cavalry charge.]]
* [[1882]]: [[Anglo-Egyptian War]] British invasion and subsequent occupation of [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egypt]]
* [[1883]]–[[1898]]: [[Mandingo Wars]] between the [[French colonial empire]] and the [[Wassoulou Empire]] of the [[Mandinka people|Mandingo]] people led by [[Samory Touré]].
* [[1894]]–[[1895]]: After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], China cedes [[Taiwan]] to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea.
* [[1895]]: [[Taiwan]] is ceded to the [[Empire of Japan]] as a result of the [[First Sino-Japanese War]].
* [[1895]]–[[1896]]: [[Ethiopia]] defeats Italy in the [[First Italo–Ethiopian War]] at the [[Battle of Adwa]].
* [[1895]]–[[1898]]: [[Cuban War for Independence]] results in Cuban independence from [[Spanish Empire|Spain]].
* [[1896]]-[[1898]]: [[Philippine Revolution]] results in a Filipino victory.
* [[1898]]: [[Spanish–American War]] results in the independence of Cuba.
* [[1899]]–[[1901]]: [[Boxer Rebellion]] in China is suppressed by the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]].
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Thousand Days' War]] in [[Colombia]] breaks out between the "[[Liberalism|Liberales]]" and "[[Conservatism|Conservadores]]", culminating with the loss of [[Panama]] in 1903.
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Second Boer War]] begins.
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Philippine–American War]] begins.

==Science and technology==
{{main|19th century in science}}
{{Distinguished men of science of Great Britain 1806-7|align=right}}
The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term '''scientist''' was coined in 1833 by [[William Whewell]],<ref>{{cite web
| access-date=2008-03-03
| url=http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/
| title=William Whewell
| publisher=Stanford University
| date=2000-12-23
| last1=Snyder
| first1=Laura J.
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104025611/http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/
| archive-date=2010-01-04
| url-status=live
}}</ref> which soon replaced the older term of '''natural philosopher'''. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of [[Charles Darwin]] (alongside the independent researches of [[Alfred Russel Wallace]]), who in 1859 published the book ''[[The Origin of Species]]'', which introduced the idea of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the [[germ theory of disease]]. Following this, [[Louis Pasteur]] made the first [[vaccine]] against [[rabies]], and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the [[Enantiomer|asymmetry of crystals]]. In chemistry, [[Dmitri Mendeleev]], following the [[atomic theory]] of [[John Dalton]], created the first [[periodic table]] of [[Chemical element|elements]]. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of [[Michael Faraday]], [[André-Marie Ampère]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], and their contemporaries led to the creation of [[electromagnetism]] as a new branch of science. [[Thermodynamics]] led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of [[hypercomplex number]]s. [[Karl Weierstrass]] and others carried out the [[arithmetization of analysis]] for functions of [[Function of a real variable|real]] and [[complex variable]]s. It also saw rise to [[Non-Euclidean geometry|new progress in geometry]] beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about including a rapid spread in the use of electric illumination and power in the last two decades of the century and radio wave communication at the end of the 1890s.
[[File:Faraday-Millikan-Gale-1913.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Michael Faraday]] (1791–1867)]]
[[File:1878 Darwin photo by Leonard from Woodall 1884 - cropped grayed partially cleaned.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Charles Darwin]]]]
* [[1807]]: [[Potassium]] and [[Sodium]] are individually isolated by [[Sir Humphry Davy]].
* [[1831]]–[[1836]]: [[Charles Darwin]]'s journey on {{HMS|Beagle}}.
* [[1859]]: [[Charles Darwin]] publishes ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.
* [[1861]]: [[James Clerk Maxwell]] publishes ''[[On Physical Lines of Force]]'', formulating the four [[Maxwell's equations]].
* [[1865]]: [[Gregor Mendel]] formulates his [[laws of inheritance]].
* [[1869]]: [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] creates the [[Periodic table]].
* [[1873]]: Maxwell's ''[[A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism]]'' published.
* [[1877]]: [[Asaph Hall]] discovers the [[moons of Mars]]
* [[1896]]: [[Henri Becquerel]] discovers [[radioactivity]]; [[J. J. Thomson]] identifies the [[electron]], though not by name.

===Medicine===
[[File:Robert Koch.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Robert Koch]] discovered the [[tuberculosis]] bacilli. The disease killed an estimated 25 percent of the adult population of Europe during the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cdc.gov/TB/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm |title=Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421174847/http://www.cdc.gov/tb/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm |archive-date=April 21, 2009|date=2018-12-31 }}</ref>]]

* [[1804]]: [[Morphine]] first isolated.
* [[1842]]: [[Anesthesia]] used for the first time.
* [[1847]]: [[Chloroform]] invented for the first time, given to [[Queen Victoria]] at the birth of her eighth child, [[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Prince Leopold]] in [[1853]]
* [[1855]]: [[Cocaine]] is isolated by [[Friedrich Gaedcke]].
* [[1885]]: [[Louis Pasteur]] creates the first successful [[vaccine]] against rabies for a young boy who had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog.
* [[1889]]: [[Aspirin]] patented.

===Inventions===

[[File:Edison in his NJ laboratory 1901.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thomas Edison]] was an American inventor, scientist, and businessman who developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the [[phonograph]], the [[Movie camera|motion picture camera]], and a long-lasting, practical electric [[light bulb]].]]
[[File:Erste Benzin-Omnibus der Welt.jpg|thumb|upright|First motor bus in history: the [[Karl Benz|Benz]] Omnibus, built in 1895 for the Netphener bus company]]
* [[1804]]: First [[steam locomotive]] begins operation.
* [[1816]]: [[Dandy horse|Laufmaschine]] invented by [[Karl von Drais]].
* [[1825]]: [[Erie Canal]] opened connecting the [[Great Lakes]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
* [[1825]]: First isolation of [[aluminium]].
* [[1827]]: First photograph taken (technique of [[heliography]]) by [[Joseph Nicephore Niepce]].
* [[1825]]: The [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]], the first public railway in the world, is opened.
* [[1826]]: [[Samuel Morey]] patents the [[internal combustion engine]].
* [[1829]]: First [[electric motor]] built.
* [[1837]]: [[Telegraphy]] patented.
* [[1841]]: The word "[[dinosaur]]" is coined by [[Richard Owen]].
* [[1844]]: First publicly funded [[telegraph]] line in the world—between Baltimore and Washington—sends demonstration message on 24 May, ushering in the age of the telegraph. This message read "What hath God wrought?" (Bible, Numbers 23:23)
* [[1849]]: The [[safety pin]] and the [[gas mask]] are invented.
* [[1852]]: The first successful [[blimp]] is invented
* [[1855]]: [[Bessemer process]] enables [[steel]] to be mass-produced.
* [[1856]]: World's first [[oil refinery]] in [[Romania]]
* [[1858]]: Invention of the [[phonautograph]], the first true device for [[recorded sound|recording sound]].
* [[1859]]: The first [[ironclad]] was launched into sea by the [[French Navy]].
* [[1860]]: [[Benjamin Tyler Henry]] invents the 16-shot [[Henry Rifle]]
* [[1861]]: [[Richard Gatling]] invents the [[Gatling Gun]], first modern [[machine gun]] used notably in the battles of [[Cold Harbor]] and [[Petersburg, Virginia|Petersburg]]
* [[1862]]: First meeting in combat of [[ironclad warship]]s, {{USS|Monitor|1862|6}} and {{ship|CSS|Virginia}}, during the [[American Civil War]].
* [[1863]]: First section of the [[London Underground]] opens.
* [[1866]]: Successful [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] follows an earlier attempt in 1858.
* [[1867]]: [[Alfred Nobel]] invents [[dynamite]].
* [[1868]]: [[Safety bicycle]] invented.
* [[1869]]: [[First transcontinental railroad]] completed in United States on 10 May.
* [[1870]]: [[Rasmus Malling-Hansen]]'s invention the [[Hansen Writing Ball]] becomes the first commercially sold [[typewriter]].
* [[1873]]: [[Jeans|Blue jeans]] and [[barbed wire]] are invented.
* [[1877]]: [[Thomas Edison]] invents the [[phonograph]]
* [[1878]]: First commercial [[telephone exchange]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]].
* c. [[1875]]/[[1880]]: Introduction of the widespread use of electric [[lighting]]. These included early crude systems in France and the UK and the introduction of large scale outdoor [[Arc lamp|arc lighting]] systems by 1880.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html|title=Arc Lamps - How They Work & History|website=edisontechcenter.org}}</ref>
* [[1879]]: [[Thomas Edison]] patents a practical [[incandescent light bulb]].
* [[1882]]: Introduction of large scale [[Electric power industry|electric power utilities]] with the Edison [[Holborn Viaduct power station|Holborn Viaduct]] (London) and [[Pearl Street Station|Pearl Street]] (New York) power stations supplying indoor electric lighting using Edison's incandescent bulb.<ref>Jonathan Daly, The Rise of Western Power - A Comparative History of Western Civilization, Bloomsbury Publishing · 2013, page 310</ref><ref>Turan Gonen, Electric Power Distribution Engineering, CRC Press · 2015, page 1</ref>
* [[1884]]: [[Sir Hiram Maxim]] invents the first self-powered [[Machine gun]].
* [[1885]]: [[Singer Manufacturing Company|Singer]] begins production of the '[[Singer Model 27 and 127|Vibrating Shuttle]]'. which would become the most popular model of [[sewing machine]].
* [[1886]]: [[Karl Benz]] sells the first commercial [[automobile]].
* [[1890]]: The [[cardboard box]] is invented.
* [[1892]]: [[John Froelich]] develops and constructs the first gasoline/petrol-powered [[tractor]].
* [[1894]]: [[Karl Elsener (inventor)|Karl Elsener]] invents the [[Swiss Army knife]].
* [[1894]]: First [[gramophone record]].
* [[1895]]: [[Wilhelm Röntgen]] identifies [[x-rays]].

==Religion==
[[File:BrighamYoung1.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Brigham Young]] led the [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS Church]] from 1844 until his death in 1877]]
* [[1818]]: The first permanent [[Reform Judaism]] congregation, the [[Hamburg Temple|Neuer Israelitischer Tempel]], is founded in [[Hamburg]] on October 18. Around the same time, through the development of ''[[Wissenschaft des Judentums]]'', the seeds of [[Conservative Judaism]] are sown.
* [[1830]]: The [[Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)|Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]] is established.
* [[1844]]: The [[Báb]] announces his revelation on 23 May, founding [[Bábism]]. He announced to the world of the coming of "[[He whom God shall make manifest]]". He is considered the forerunner of [[Bahá'u'lláh]], the founder of the [[Baháʼí Faith]].
* [[1850s]]–[[1890s]]: In Islam, [[Salafism]] grows in popularity.
* [[1851]]: [[Hong Xiuquan]], the leader of the [[God Worshipping Society]], founds the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]].
* [[1857]]: In [[Paris]], [[France]], [[Allan Kardec]], publishes [[The Spirits' Book]] and founds the [[Spiritism]].
* [[1868]]: In Japan, [[State Shinto]] is established amidst the [[Meiji Restoration]].
* [[1869]]–[[1870]]: The [[First Vatican Council]] is convened, articulating the dogma of [[papal infallibility]] and promoting a [[Neo-scholasticism|revival of scholastic theology]].
* [[1871]]–[[1878]]: In [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Otto von Bismarck]] challenges the Catholic Church in the ''[[Kulturkampf]]'' ("Culture War")
* [[1875]]: [[Helena Blavatsky]] co-founds the [[Theosophical Society]] and becomes the leading articulator of [[Theosophy]].
* [[1879]]: [[Mary Baker Eddy]] founds the [[Church of Christ, Scientist]]. ''[[The Watchtower]],'' published by the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], releases its first issue.
* [[1881]]: In the Sudan, [[Muhammad Ahmad]] claims to be the [[Mahdi]], founding the [[Mahdist State]] and declaring war on the [[Khedivate of Egypt]].
* [[1889]]: [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]] establishes the [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]].
* [[1891]]: [[Pope Leo XIII]] issues the [[papal encyclical]] ''[[Rerum novarum]]'', the first major document informing modern [[Catholic social teaching]].

==Culture==
[[File:Crystal Palace - interior.jpg|thumb|350px|The [[Great Exhibition]] in London. Starting during the 18th century, the United Kingdom was the first country in the world to industrialise.]]
* [[1808]]: [[Beethoven]] composes [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Fifth Symphony]]
* [[1813]]: [[Jane Austen]] publishes ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]''
* [[1818]]: [[Mary Shelley]] publishes ''[[Frankenstein]]''.
* [[1819]]: [[John Keats]] writes his [[John Keats's 1819 odes|six of his best-known odes]].
* [[1819]]: [[Théodore Géricault]] paints his masterpiece ''[[The Raft of the Medusa]]'', and exhibits it in the French Salon of 1819 at the [[The Louvre|Louvre]].
* [[1824]]: Premiere of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s ''[[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Ninth Symphony]]''.
* [[1829]]: [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]'s ''[[Goethe's Faust|Faust]]'' premieres.
* [[1833]]–[[1834]]: [[Thomas Carlyle]] publishes ''[[Sartor Resartus]]''.
* [[1837]]: [[Charles Dickens]] publishes ''[[Oliver Twist]]''.
* [[1841]]: [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] publishes ''[[Self-Reliance]]''.
* [[1845]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] publishes ''[[Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave]]''.
* [[1847]]: The [[Brontë sisters]] publish ''[[Jane Eyre]]'', ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'' and ''[[Agnes Grey]]''.
* [[1848]]: [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]] publish ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]''.
* [[1849]]: [[Josiah Henson]] publishes [[The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself]].
* [[1851]]: [[Herman Melville]] publishes [[Moby-Dick]].
* [[1851]]: [[Sojourner Truth]] delivers the speech [[Ain't I a Woman?]].
* [[1852]]: [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]] publishes [[Uncle Tom's Cabin]].
* [[1855]]: [[Walt Whitman]] publishes the first edition of ''[[Leaves of Grass]]''.
* [[1855]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] publishes the first edition of ''[[My Bondage and My Freedom]]''.
* [[1862]]: [[Victor Hugo]] publishes ''[[Les Misérables]]''.
* [[1863]]: [[Jules Verne]] begins publishing his collection of stories and novels, ''[[Voyages extraordinaires]]'', with the novel ''[[Cinq semaines en ballon]]''.
* [[1865]]: [[Lewis Carroll]] publishes [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]].
* [[1869]]: [[Leo Tolstoy]] publishes ''[[War and Peace]]''.[[File:Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Le Moulin de la Galette.jpg|thumb|[[Auguste Renoir]], ''[[Bal du moulin de la Galette]]'', 1876, [[Musée d'Orsay]]]]
* [[1875]]: [[Georges Bizet]]'s opera [[Carmen]] premiers in Paris.
* [[1876]]: [[Richard Wagner]]'s ''[[Ring Cycle]]'' is first performed in its entirety.
* [[1883]]: [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s ''[[Treasure Island]]'' is published.
* [[1884]]: [[Mark Twain]] publishes the ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''.
* [[1886]]: "[[Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde]]" by Robert Louis Stevenson is published.
* [[1887]]: [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] publishes his first [[Sherlock Holmes]] story, ''[[A Study in Scarlet]]''.
* [[1889]]: [[Vincent van Gogh]] paints ''[[The Starry Night]]''.
* [[1889]]: [[Moulin Rouge]] opens in Paris.
* [[1892]]: [[Tchaikovsky]]'s ''[[Nutcracker Suite]]'' premières in [[St Petersberg]].
* [[1894]]: [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[The Jungle Book]]'' is published
* [[1895]]: Trial of [[Oscar Wilde]] and premiere of his play ''[[The Importance of Being Earnest]]''.
* [[1897]]: [[Bram Stoker]] writes [[Dracula]].
* [[1900]]: [[L. Frank Baum]] publishes [[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]].

[[File:Ilya Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Portrait of Leo Tolstoy (1887).jpg|thumb|upright|Russian writer [[Leo Tolstoy]], author of ''[[War and Peace]]'' and ''[[Anna Karenina]]'']]

===Literature===
{{main|Romantic poetry|19th century in literature}}

On the literary front the new century opens with [[romanticism]], a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German ''[[Sturm und Drang]]'' spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the [[Napoleonic Wars]] but subsequently developed rapidly. [[Modernism]] began.<ref>David Damrosch and David L. Pike, eds. ''The Longman Anthology of World Literature, Volume E: The Nineteenth Century'' (2nd ed. 2008)</ref>

The Goncourts and [[Émile Zola]] in France and [[Giovanni Verga]] in Italy produce some of the finest [[Naturalism (literature)|naturalist novels]]. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians [[Alexander Pushkin]], [[Nikolai Gogol]], [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Anton Chekhov]] and [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]; the English [[Charles Dickens]], [[John Keats]], [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]] and [[Jane Austen]]; the Scottish [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Thomas Carlyle]] and [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] (creator of the character [[Sherlock Holmes]]); the Irish [[Oscar Wilde]]; the Americans [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], and [[Mark Twain]]; and the French [[Victor Hugo]], [[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Jules Verne]], [[Alexandre Dumas]] and [[Charles Baudelaire]].<ref>M. H. Abrams et al., eds., ''The Norton Anthology of English Literature'' (9th ed. 2012)</ref>

Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: [[Walt Whitman]], [[Mark Twain]], [[Harriet Ann Jacobs]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], [[Herman Melville]], [[Frederick Douglass]], [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], [[Joel Chandler Harris]], and [[Emily Dickinson]] to name a few.

===Photography===
[[File:View from the Window at Le Gras, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.jpg|thumb|upright|One of the first photographs, produced in 1826 by [[Nicéphore Niépce]]]]
[[File:Self-portrait of Nadar.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]], Self-portrait, {{Circa|1860}}]]
{{see also|History of photography|List of photojournalists|Photojournalism|Daguerreotype}}
*[[Ottomar Anschütz]], [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Mathew Brady]], documented the [[American Civil War]]
*[[Edward S. Curtis]], documented the [[American West]] notably [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]
*[[Louis Daguerre]], inventor of [[daguerreotype]] process of photography, chemist
*[[Thomas Eakins]], pioneer motion photographer
*[[George Eastman]], inventor of [[Photographic film|roll film]]
*[[Hércules Florence]], pioneer inventor of photography
*[[Auguste and Louis Lumière]], pioneer film-makers, inventors
*[[Étienne-Jules Marey]], pioneer motion photographer, [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Eadweard Muybridge]], pioneer motion photographer, [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]] a.k.a. Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, portrait photographer
*[[Nicéphore Niépce]], pioneer inventor of photography
*[[Louis Le Prince]], motion picture inventor and pioneer film-maker
*[[Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky]], chemist and photographer
*[[William Fox Talbot]], inventor of the negative / positive photographic process.

===Visual artists, painters, sculptors===
{{main|History of art#Modern Art (ca. 1770-1970)|Western painting|Ukiyo-e}}
[[File:El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado thin black margin.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Francisco Goya]], ''[[The Third of May 1808]]'', 1814, {{Lang|es|[[Museo del Prado]]|italic=no}}]]
[[File:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Eugène Delacroix]], ''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'', 1830, [[Louvre]]]]
[[File:Vincent van Gogh - National Gallery of Art.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Vincent van Gogh]], ''Self-portrait'', 1889, [[National Gallery of Art]]]]
[[File:Affiche Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile Mucha.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alphonse Mucha]], Advertise with ''Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile'', 1897]]
The [[Realism (arts)|Realism]] and [[Romanticism]] of the early 19th century gave way to [[Impressionism]] and [[Post-Impressionism]] in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the [[Hudson River School]] was prominent. 19th-century painters included:
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Ivan Aivazovsky]]
*[[Léon Bakst]]
*[[Albert Bierstadt]]
*[[William Blake]]
*[[Arnold Böcklin]]
*[[Rosa Bonheur]]
*[[William Burges]]
*[[Mary Cassatt]]
*[[Camille Claudel]]
*[[Paul Cézanne]]
*[[Frederic Edwin Church]]
*[[Thomas Cole]]
*[[Jan Matejko]]
*[[John Constable]]
*[[Camille Corot]]
*[[Gustave Courbet]]
*[[Honoré Daumier]]
*[[Edgar Degas]]
*[[Eugène Delacroix]]
*[[Thomas Eakins]]
*[[Caspar David Friedrich]]
*[[Paul Gauguin]]
*[[Théodore Géricault]]
*[[Vincent van Gogh]]
*[[William Morris]]
*[[Francisco Goya]]
*[[Andō Hiroshige]]
*[[Hokusai]]
*[[Winslow Homer]]
*[[Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres]]
*[[Isaac Levitan]]
*[[Édouard Manet]]
*[[Claude Monet]]
*[[Gustave Moreau]]
*[[Berthe Morisot]]
*[[Edvard Munch]]
*[[Mikhail Nesterov]]
*[[Camille Pissarro]]
*[[Augustus Pugin]]
*[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]
*[[Ilya Repin]]
*[[Auguste Rodin]]
*[[Albert Pinkham Ryder]]
*[[John Singer Sargent]]
*[[Valentin Serov]]
*[[Georges Seurat]]
*[[Ivan Shishkin]]
*[[Vasily Surikov]]
*[[James Tissot]]
*[[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]]
*[[J. M. W. Turner|Joseph Mallord William Turner]]
*[[Viktor Vasnetsov]]
*[[Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
*[[Mikhail Vrubel]]
*[[James Abbott McNeill Whistler]]
*[[Tsukioka Yoshitoshi]]
{{div col end}}

===Music===
{{main|List of Romantic-era composers|Romantic music|Romanticism}}
[[File:Joseph Karl Stieler's Beethoven mit dem Manuskript der Missa solemnis.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]]]
[[File:Porträt des Komponisten Pjotr I. Tschaikowski (1840-1893).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]]]
[[Sonata form]] matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] style. Many great composers lived through this era such as [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], [[Franz Liszt]], [[Frédéric Chopin]], [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] and [[Richard Wagner]]. The list includes:
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Mily Balakirev]]
*[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]
*[[Hector Berlioz]]
*[[Georges Bizet]]
*[[Alexander Borodin]]
*[[Johannes Brahms]]
*[[Anton Bruckner]]
*[[Frédéric Chopin]]
*[[Claude Debussy]]
*[[Antonín Dvořák]]
*[[Mikhail Glinka]]
*[[Edvard Grieg]]
*[[Scott Joplin]]
*[[Alexandre Levy]]
*[[Franz Liszt]]
*[[Gustav Mahler]]
*[[Felix Mendelssohn]]
*[[Modest Mussorgsky]]
*[[Jacques Offenbach]]
*[[Niccolò Paganini]]
*[[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]]
*[[Gioachino Rossini]]
*[[Anton Rubinstein]]
*[[Camille Saint-Saëns]]
*[[Antonio Salieri]]
*[[Franz Schubert]]
*[[Robert Schumann]]
*[[Alexander Scriabin]]
*[[Arthur Sullivan]]
*[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]
*[[Giuseppe Verdi]]
*[[Richard Wagner]]
{{div col end}}

===Sports===
* [[1867]]: The [[Marquess of Queensberry Rules]] for [[boxing]] are published.
* [[1872]]: The first recognised international [[Association football|football]] match, between [[England]] and [[Scotland]], is played.
* [[1877]]: The first [[test cricket]] match, between [[England]] and [[Australia]], is played.
* [[1891]]: [[Basketball]] is invented by [[James Naismith]].
* [[1895]]: [[Volleyball]] is invented.
* [[1896]]: [[Olympic Games#Revival|Olympic Games]] revived in [[Athens]].

==Events==
{{For timeline}}

===1801–1850===
* [[1801]]: The [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] and the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] merge to form the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]].
* [[1802]]: The [[Wahhabi]]s of the [[First Saudi State]] [[Wahhabi sack of Karbala|sack Karbala]].
* [[1803]]: [[William Symington]] demonstrates his ''[[Charlotte Dundas]]'', the "first practical steamboat".
* [[1803]]: The [[Wahhabi]]s of the [[First Saudi State]] capture [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].
* [[1804]]: [[Austrian Empire]] founded by [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis I]].
* [[1804]]: [[World population]] reaches 1 billion.
* [[1805]]: The [[Battle of Trafalgar]] eliminates the French and Spanish naval fleets and allows for British dominance of the seas, a major factor for the success of the [[British Empire]] later in the century.
* [[1805]]–[[1848]]: [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] modernizes [[Egypt]].
[[File:StamfordRaffles.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[1819]]: 29 January, [[Stamford Raffles]] arrives in Singapore with [[William Farquhar]] to establish a trading post for the [[East India Company|British East India Company]]. 8 February, The treaty is signed between Sultan Hussein of Johor, Temenggong Abdul Rahman and Stamford Raffles. Farquhar is installed as the first Resident of the settlement.]]
* [[1810]]: The [[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]] was founded. Among its students and faculty are [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], and [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]]. The German university reform proves to be so successful that its model is copied around the world (see [[History of European universities#European university models in the 19th and 20th centuries|History of European research universities]]).
* [[1814]]: [[Elisha Collier]] invents the [[Flintlock]] [[Revolver]].
* [[1814]] : February 1 Eruption of [[Mayon Volcano]]
* [[1815]]: April, [[Mount Tambora]] in [[Sumbawa]] island erupts, becoming the largest [[volcanic eruption]] in [[recorded history]], destroying [[Tambora culture]], and killing at least 71,000 people, including its aftermath. The eruption created [[global climate]] anomalies known as "[[volcanic winter]]".<ref name="Oppenheimer2003">{{cite journal|last=Oppenheimer|first=Clive|title=Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815|journal=Progress in Physical Geography|volume=27|issue=2|year=2003|pages=230–259|doi=10.1191/0309133303pp379ra|s2cid=131663534}}</ref>
* [[1816]]: [[Year Without a Summer]]: Unusually cold conditions wreak havoc throughout the Northern Hemisphere, likely influenced by the 1815 explosion of [[Mount Tambora]].
* [[1816]]–[[1828]]: [[Shaka]]'s [[Zulu Kingdom]] becomes the largest in [[Southern Africa]].
* [[1819]]: The [[Colombia|Republic of Colombia]] ([[Gran Colombia]]) achieves independence after [[Simón Bolívar]]'s triumph at the [[Battle of Boyacá]].
* [[1819]]: The modern city of [[Singapore]] is established by the [[British East India Company]].
* [[1820]]: Discovery of [[Antarctica]].
* [[1820]]: [[History of Liberia|Liberia]] founded by the [[American Colonization Society]] for freed American slaves.
* [[1820]]: Dissolution of the [[Maratha Empire]].
* [[1821]]–[[1823]]: [[First Mexican Empire]], as Mexico's first post-independent government, ruled by Emperor [[Agustín de Iturbide|Agustín I of Mexico]].
* [[1822]]: [[Pedro I of Brazil]] declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September.
* [[1823]]: [[Monroe Doctrine]] declared by US President [[James Monroe]].
* [[1825]]: The [[Decembrist revolt]].
[[File:Kolman decembrists.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Decembrists]] at the [[Saint Petersburg Senate Square|Senate Square]].]]
* [[1829]]: [[Sir Robert Peel]] founds the [[Metropolitan Police Service]], the first modern police force.
[[File:Emigrants Leave Ireland by Henry Doyle 1868.jpg|thumb|upright|Emigrants leaving [[Ireland]]. From 1830 to 1914, almost 5 million Irish people went to the United States alone.]]
* [[1830]]: Anglo-Russian rivalry over Afghanistan, [[the Great Game]], commences and concludes in 1895.
* [[1831]]: November Uprising ends with crushing defeat for Poland in the [[Battle of Warsaw (1831)|Battle of Warsaw]].
* [[1832]]: The British Parliament passes the [[Great Reform Act]].
* [[1834]]–[[1859]]: [[Imam Shamil]]'s rebellion in Russian-occupied [[Caucasus]].
* [[1835]]–[[1836]]: The [[Texas Revolution]] in Mexico resulted in the short-lived [[Republic of Texas]].
* [[1836]]: [[Samuel Colt]] popularizes the [[revolver]] and sets up a firearms company to manufacture his invention of the [[Colt Paterson]] revolver, a six bullets firearm shot one by one without reloading manually.
* [[1837]]–[[1838]]: [[Rebellions of 1837]] in [[Canada]].
* [[1838]]: By this time, 46,000 Native Americans have been forcibly relocated in the [[Trail of Tears]].
* [[1839]]–[[1860]]: After the [[First Opium War|First]] and [[Second Opium War]]s, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and Russia gain many [[Treaty ports|trade and associated concessions]] from China resulting in the start of the decline of the [[Qing dynasty]].
* [[1839]]–[[1919]]: [[Anglo-Afghan War]]s lead to stalemate and the establishment of the [[Durand line]]
* [[1842]]: [[Treaty of Nanking]] cedes [[Hong Kong]] to the British.
* [[1843]]: The first [[wagon train]] sets out from Missouri.
* [[1844]]: [[Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers]] establish what is considered the first [[cooperative]] in the world.
* [[1845]]–[[1849]]: The [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine of Ireland]] leads to the [[Irish diaspora]].
* [[1848]]: ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'' published.
* [[1848]]: [[Seneca Falls Convention]] is the first [[women's rights]] convention in the United States and leads to the [[History of Women's Suffrage in the United States|battle for women's suffrage]].
* [[1848]]–[[1855]]: [[California Gold Rush]].
* [[1849]]: Earliest recorded [[Airstrike|air raid]], as Austria employs [[The Austrian balloons|200 balloons]] to deliver ordnance against [[Venice]].
* [[1850]]: The [[Little Ice Age]] ends around this time.
* [[1850]]: [[Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch]] establishes the first [[cooperative banking|cooperative financial institution]].
[[File:U.S. Territorial Acquisitions.png|thumb|250px|Historical [[Territorial evolution of the United States|territorial expansion of the United States]]]]

===1851–1900===
{{for|later events|Timeline of the 20th century}}
* [[1851]]: The [[Great Exhibition]] in London was the world's first international Expo or [[World's fair|World Fair]].
* [[1852]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] delivers his speech "The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro" in [[Rochester, New York]].
* [[1857]]: Sir [[Joseph Whitworth]] designs the first long-range [[sniper rifle]].
* [[1857]]–[[1858]]: [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. The British Empire assumes control of India from the [[East India Company]].
* [[1858]]: Construction of [[Big Ben]] is completed.
* [[1859]]–[[1869]]: [[Suez Canal]] is constructed.
[[File:SuezCanalKantara.jpg|thumb|upright|The first vessels sail through the [[Suez Canal]]]]
* [[1860]]: [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] launches the [[Expedition of the Thousand]].
* [[1861]]: Russia [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|abolishes serfdom]].
* [[1862]]–[[1877]]: [[Dungan revolt (1862–1877)|Muslim Rebellion]] in north-west China.
* [[1863]]: Formation of the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|International Red Cross]] is followed by the adoption of the [[First Geneva Convention]] in 1864.
* [[1865]]–[[1877]]: [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] in the United States; Slavery is banned in the United States by the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]].
* [[1867]]: [[Canada]] is formed, via the process of [[Canadian Confederation]].
* [[1868]]: [[Michael Barrett (Fenian)|Michael Barrett]] is the last person to be publicly hanged in England.
* [[1869]]: The [[Suez Canal]] opens linking the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] to the [[Red Sea]].
[[File:Barricade18March1871.jpg|thumb|upright|A barricade in the [[Paris Commune]], 18 March 1871. Around 30,000 Parisians were killed, and thousands more were later executed.]]
[[File:Schwarzer Freitag Wien 1873.jpg|thumb|upright|Black Friday, 9 May 1873, Vienna Stock Exchange. The [[Panic of 1873]] and [[Long Depression]] followed.]]
* [[1870]]: Official dismantling of the [[Cultivation System]] and beginning of a '[[Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies)|Liberal Policy]]' of deregulated exploitation of the Netherlands East Indies.<ref name="VICKERS_xii">Vickers (2005), page xii</ref>
* [[1870]]–[[1890]]: [[Long Depression]] in [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]].
* [[1871]]–[[1872]]: [[List of famines|Famine]] in [[Iran|Persia]] is believed to have caused the death of 2 million.
* [[1871]]: The [[Paris Commune]] briefly rules the French capital.
* [[1872]]: [[Yellowstone National Park]], the first [[national park]], is created.
* [[1874]]: The ''Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, and Graveurs'', better known as the [[Impressionist]]s, organize and present their first public group exhibition at the Paris studio of the photographer [[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]].
* [[1874]]: The Home Rule Movement is established in [[Ireland]].
* [[1875]]: ''[[HMS Challenger]]'' surveys the deepest point in the Earth's oceans, the [[Challenger Deep]]
* [[1876]]: [[Battle of the Little Bighorn]] leads to the death of [[General Custer]] and victory for the alliance of [[Lakota people|Lakota]], [[Northern Cheyenne|Cheyenne]] and [[Arapaho]]
* [[1876]]–[[1914]]: The massive expansion in population, territory, industry and wealth in the United States is referred to as the [[Gilded Age]].
* [[1877]]: [[Great Railroad Strike]] in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide [[Strike action|labour strike]].
* [[1881]]: Wave of [[Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire|pogroms]] begins in the Russian Empire.
* [[1881]]–[[1882]]: The [[Jules Ferry laws]] are passed in [[French Third Republic|France]] establishing free, secular education.
* [[1883]]: [[Krakatoa]] volcano explosion, one of the largest in modern history.
* [[1883]]: The [[quagga]] is rendered extinct.
* [[1886]]: Construction of the [[Statue of Liberty]]; [[Coca-Cola]] is developed.
* [[1888]]: Founding of the shipping line ''[[Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij]]'' (KPM) that supported the unification and development of the colonial economy.<ref name="VICKERS_xii"/>
* [[1888]]: The [[Golden Law]] abolishes [[slavery in Brazil]].
* [[1889]]: [[Eiffel Tower]] is inaugurated in [[Paris]].
[[File:Filipino Ilustrados Jose Rizal Marcelo del Pilar Mariano Ponce.jpg|thumb|upright|Studio portrait of ''[[Ilustrado]]s'' in Europe, {{Circa|1890}}]]
* [[1889]]: A republican military coup establishes the [[First Brazilian Republic]]. The [[Empire of Brazil|parliamentary constitutional monarchy]] is abolished.
* [[1889]]-[[1890]]: [[1889–1890 pandemic]] kills 1 million people.
* [[1890]]: First use of the [[electric chair]] as a method of execution.
* [[1892]]: The [[World's Columbian Exposition]] was held in [[Chicago]] celebrating the 400th anniversary of [[Christopher Columbus]]'s arrival in the [[New World]].
* [[1892]]: [[Fingerprinting]] is officially adopted for the first time.
* [[1893]]: [[New Zealand]] becomes the first country to enact [[women's suffrage]].
* [[1893]]: The [[Coremans-de Vriendt law]] is passed in [[Belgium]], creating legal equality for [[French language|French]] and [[Dutch language]]s.
* [[1894]]: The [[Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem]]<ref name="VICKERS_xii"/> resulted in the looting and destruction of Cakranegara Palace in [[Mataram (city)|Mataram]].<ref>Wahyu Ernawati: "Chapter 8: The Lombok Treasure", in ''Colonial collections Revisited'': Pieter ter Keurs (editor) Vol. 152, CNWS publications. Issue 36 of ''Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde'', Leiden. CNWS Publications, 2007. {{ISBN|978-90-5789-152-6}}. 296 pages. pp. 186–203</ref> J. L. A. Brandes, a Dutch philologist, discovers and secures [[Nagarakretagama]] manuscript in Lombok royal library.
* [[1896]]: [[Philippine Revolution]] ends declaring Philippines free from Spanish rule.
* [[1898]]: The United States gains control of [[Cuba]], [[Puerto Rico]], and the [[Philippines]] after the [[Spanish–American War]].
* [[1898]]: [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] of [[Qing dynasty|China]] engineers a coup d'état, marking the end of the [[Hundred Days' Reform]]; the [[Guangxu Emperor]] is arrested.
* [[1900]]: [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|Exposition Universelle]] held in Paris, prominently featuring the growing art trend [[Art Nouveau]].
* [[1900]]–[[1901]]: [[Eight-Nation Alliance|Eight nations invade China]] at the same time and ransack [[Forbidden City]].

=== Last survivors ===
Born on 19 April 1897, Japanese [[Jiroemon Kimura]] died on 12 June 2013, marking the death of the last man verified man to have been born in the century.<ref>{{cite web |date=15 April 2013 |title=World's oldest man ever turns 116 in Kyoto as his health is studied |url=http://japandailypress.com/worlds-oldest-man-ever-turns-116-in-kyoto-as-his-health-is-studied-1927336 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605022257/http://japandailypress.com/worlds-oldest-man-ever-turns-116-in-kyoto-as-his-health-is-studied-1927336 |archive-date=5 June 2013 |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=The Japan Daily Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=19 April 2013 |title=World's oldest person turns 116 in Japan |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20130419-worlds-oldest-person-turns-116-japan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616010617/http://www.france24.com/en/20130419-worlds-oldest-person-turns-116-japan |archive-date=16 June 2013 |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=France 24 International News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=World's oldest person Jiroemon Kimura turns 116 in Japan |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/et-cetera/worlds-oldest-person-jiroemon-kimura-turns-116-in-japan/articleshow/19628476.cms |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=The Economic Times |agency=Agence France-Presse}}</ref> [[Jiroemon Kimura|Kimura]] remains the to date date [[List of the verified oldest men|oldest verified man in history]].<ref name="bloomberg">{{cite web |last=Matsuyama |first=Kanoko |date=27 December 2012 |title=Japanese 115-Year-Old Becomes Oldest Man in History |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-12-28/japanese-115-year-old-becomes-oldest-man-in-recorded-history.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229142949/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-12-28/japanese-115-year-old-becomes-oldest-man-in-recorded-history.html |archive-date=29 December 2012 |access-date=28 December 2012 |work=Bloomberg}}</ref> Subsequently, on 15 April 2017, Japanese [[Nabi Tajima]] (born 4 August 1900) died as the last person to verifiably have been born in the century,<ref name="slate2">{{Cite web |last=Politi |first=Daniel |date=22 April 2018 |title=The Last Known Person Born in the 19th Century Dies in Japan at 117 |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/04/the-last-known-person-born-in-the-19th-century-died-in-japan.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912162416/https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/04/the-last-known-person-born-in-the-19th-century-died-in-japan.html |archive-date=12 September 2023 |access-date=4 October 2019 |website=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]}}</ref> as well as Japan's oldest person ever until surpassed by [[Kane Tanaka]] in 2020.<ref name="oldestjapanese">{{Cite web |title=117-year-old granny sets new record as Japan's oldest ever person |url=https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/09/5e5c26158954-tanaka-sets-new-japan-age-record-at-117-years-261-days.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831182907/https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/09/5e5c26158954-tanaka-sets-new-japan-age-record-at-117-years-261-days.html |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=21 September 2020 |website=Kyodo News+}}</ref>

==Supplementary portrait gallery==
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
File:Carl Friedrich Gauss 1840 by Jensen.jpg|[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
File:Charles Robert Darwin by John Collier cropped.jpg|[[Charles Darwin]]
File:Victor Hugo by Étienne Carjat 1876 - full.jpg|[[Victor Hugo]] {{Circa|1876}}
File:Kramskoy Mendeleev 01.jpg|[[Dmitri Mendeleev]]
File:Louis Pasteur.jpg|[[Louis Pasteur]], 1878
File:Mariecurie.jpg|[[Marie Curie]], {{Circa|1898}}
File:Nikola Tesla by Sarony c1898.jpg|[[Nikola Tesla]]
File:Jose Rizal full.jpg|[[José Rizal]]
File:Jane Austen (chopped) 2.jpg|[[Jane Austen]]
File:Leo Tolstoy 1897, black and white, 37767u.jpg|[[Leo Tolstoy]] {{Circa|1897}}
File:Edgar Allan Poe 2.jpg|[[Edgar Allan Poe]]
File:Félix_Nadar_1820-1910_portraits_Jules_Verne.jpg|[[Jules Verne]]
File:Charles Dickens 3.jpg|[[Charles Dickens]]
File:Carjat Arthur Rimbaud 1872 n2.jpg|[[Arthur Rimbaud]] {{Circa|1872}}
File:Twain in Tesla's Lab.jpg|[[Mark Twain]], 1894
File:RWEmerson.jpg|[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]
File:Benjamin D. Maxham - Henry David Thoreau - Restored - greyscale - straightened.jpg|[[Henry David Thoreau]], August 1861.
File:Emile Zola 2.jpg|[[Émile Zola]], {{Circa|1900}}
File:Chekhov 1903 ArM.jpg|[[Anton Chekhov]]
File:Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky 1876.jpg|[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], 1876
File:John L Sullivan.jpg|[[John L Sullivan]] in his prime, {{Circa|1882}}
File:David Livingstone -1.jpg|[[David Livingstone]] 1864, left [[Great Britain|Britain]] for [[Africa]] in 1840
File:Jesse and Frank James.gif|[[Jesse James|Jesse]] and [[Frank James]], 1872
File:William Notman studios - Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill (1895) edit.jpg|[[Sitting Bull]] and [[Buffalo Bill Cody]], Montreal, Quebec, 1885
File:Goyaale.jpg|[[Geronimo]], 1887, prominent leader of the [[Chiricahua]] [[Apache]]
File:Billy the Kid corrected.jpg|[[William Bonney]] aka [[Henry McCarty]] aka [[Billy the Kid]], {{Circa|late 1870s}}
File:Wyatt Earp und Bat Masterson 1876.jpg|Deputies [[Bat Masterson]] and [[Wyatt Earp]] in [[Dodge City]], 1876
File:Mathew Brady 1875 cropped.jpg|[[Mathew Brady]], Self-portrait, {{Circa|1875}}
File:Alfred Lord Tennyson 1869.jpg|[[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]
File:Thomas Nast - Brady-Handy.jpg|[[Thomas Nast]], {{Circa|1860}}–1875, photo by [[Mathew Brady]] or Levin Handy
File:Hadhrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad2.jpg|[[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]]
File:Bakunin.png|[[Mikhail Bakunin]]
File:Kierkegaard.jpg|[[Søren Kierkegaard]]
File:Solomon Northup 001 (cropped).jpg|[[Solomon Northup]]
File:Dred Scott photograph (circa 1857).jpg|[[Dred Scott]]
File:Madame CJ Walker.gif|[[Madam C. J. Walker]]
File:Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant.jpg|[[Claude Monet]]'s ''[[Impression, Sunrise]]'', 1872, gave the name to [[Impressionism]]
File:Paul Cézanne 159.jpg|[[Paul Cézanne]], [[self-portrait]], 1880–1881
File:Scott Joplin.jpg|[[Scott Joplin]]
File:NiccoloPaganini.jpeg|[[Niccolò Paganini]], {{Circa|1819}}
File:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 043.jpg|[[Frédéric Chopin]], 1838
File:John D. Rockefeller, Sr.jpg|[[John D. Rockefeller]]
</gallery>

==See also==

*[[Timelines of modern history]]
*[[Long nineteenth century]]
*[[19th century in film]]
*[[19th century in games]]
*[[19th-century philosophy]]
*[[Nineteenth-century theatre]]
*[[International relations (1814–1919)]]
*[[List of wars: 1800–1899]]
*[[Victorian era]]
*[[France in the long nineteenth century]]
*[[History of Spain (1808–1874)]]
*[[History of Russia (1855–1892)]]
*[[Slavery in the United States]]
*[[Timeline of 19th-century Muslim history]]
*[[Timeline of historic inventions#19th century|Timeline of historic inventions]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo00lang online free]
* Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. ''Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present'' (1970) [https://archive.org/details/harperencycloped00morr online frr]
* ''New Cambridge Modern History'' (13 vol 1957–79), old but thorough coverage, mostly of Europe; strong on diplomacy
**Bury, J. P. T. ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 10: the Zenith of European Power, 1830–70'' (1964) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/10#page/n3/mode/1up online]
**Crawley, C. W., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History Volume IX War and Peace In An Age of Upheaval 1793–1830'' (1965) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/09#page/n4/mode/1up online]
**Darby, H. C. and H. Fullard ''The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas'' (1972)
**Hinsley, F.H., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 11, Material Progress and World-Wide Problems 1870–1898'' (1979) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/11#page/n3/mode/1up online]

===Diplomacy and international relations===
{{Main|International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)}}
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-24729-5|title=Greater France|year=1996|last1=Aldrich|first1=Robert|isbn=978-0-333-56740-1}}
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-24958-9|title=Peace, War and the European Powers, 1814–1914|year=1996|last1=Bartlett|first1=C. J.|publisher=Macmillan Education UK |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-62001-4}}
* Bridge, F. R. & Roger Bullen. ''The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914'', 2nd Ed. (2005)
* {{cite journal|doi=10.2307/3014586|jstor=3014586|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.86299|title=History of Modern Europe, 1878-1919|year=1923|last1=Gooch|first1=G. P.|journal=Journal of the British Institute of International Affairs|volume=2|issue=6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.86299/page/n277 266]}}
* Herring, George C. ''Years of Peril and Ambition: U.S. Foreign Relations, 1776–1921'' (2017)
* [[Paul Kennedy|Kennedy, Paul]]. [[The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers|''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500–2000'']] (1987), stress on economic and military factors
* Langer, William. ''European Alliances and Alignments 1870–1890'' (1950); advanced history [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.237096 online]
* Langer, William. ''The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902'' (1950); advanced history [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177815 online]
* Mowat, R.B. ''A history of European diplomacy, 1815–1914'' (1922) [https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropea00mowauoft online free]
* {{cite book|doi=10.1515/9781400849949|title=The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century|year=2014|last1=Osterhammel|first1=Jürgen|isbn=9781400849949|url=http://www.gbv.de/dms/bowker/toc/9780691147451.pdf }}
* Porter, Andrew, ed. ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century'' (2001)
* Sontag, Raymond. ''European Diplomatic History: 1871–1932'' (1933), basic summary; 425 pp [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.503351/2015.503351.european-diplomatic_text.pdf online]
* Taylor, A.J.P. ''[[The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918]]'' (1954) 638 pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy; [https://archive.org/details/struggleformaste00ajpt online free]
* Taylor, A.J.P. "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., ''The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98'' (1962): 542–66. [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/11#page/n3/mode/1up online]
* {{cite book|doi=10.4324/9781315844503|title=The European Colonial Empires|year=2015|last1=Wesseling|first1=H. L.|isbn=9781315844503}}

===Europe===
* Anderson, M. S. ''The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003)
* Blanning, T. C. W. ed. ''The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914'' (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320 pp
* Bruun, Geoffrey. ''Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 '' (1938) [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.183653/2015.183653.Europe-And-The-French-Imperium-1799-1814_text.pdf online].
* Cameron, Rondo. ''France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War'' (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history.
* Evans, Richard J. ''The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914'' (2016), 934 pp
* Gildea, Robert. ''Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp, [https://www.questia.com/read/55547824/barricades-and-borders-europe-1800-1914 online 2nd ed, 1996]
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-4039-3757-5|title=Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe|year=2003|last1=Grab|first1=Alexander|publisher=Macmillan Education UK |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-68275-3}}
* Mason, David S. ''A Concise History of Modern Europe: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity'' (2011), since 1700
* Merriman, John, and J. M. Winter, eds. ''Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire'' (5 vol. 2006)
* Steinberg, Jonathan. ''Bismarck: A Life'' (2011)
* Salmi, Hannu. ''19th Century Europe: A Cultural History'' (2008).

===Asia, Africa===
* Ajayi, J. F. Ade, ed. ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. VI, Abridged Edition: Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s'' (1998)
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139644594|title=Africa's Development in Historical Perspective|year=2014|isbn=9781139644594|editor1-last=Akyeampong|editor1-first=Emmanuel|editor2-last=Bates|editor2-first=Robert H|editor3-last=Nunn|editor3-first=Nathan|editor4-last=Robinson|editor4-first=James A}}
* [[Chamberlain. M.E.]] ''The Scramble for Africa'' (3rd ed. 2010)
* Collins, Robert O. and James M, Burns, eds. ''A History of Sub-Saharan Africa''.
*[[Basil Davidson|Davidson, Basil]] ''Africa In History, Themes and Outlines''. (2nd ed. 1991).
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/9781316340356|title=A History of East Asia|year=2017|last1=Holcombe|first1=Charles|isbn=9781107118737}}
* Ludden, David. ''India and South Asia: A Short History'' (2013).
* McEvedy, Colin. ''The Penguin Atlas of African History'' (2nd ed. 1996). [https://www.amazon.com/Penguin-Atlas-African-History-Revised/dp/0140513213/ excerpt]
* Mansfield, Peter, and Nicolas Pelham, ''A History of the Middle East'' (4th ed, 2013).
* {{cite book|doi=10.4324/9781315509495|title=A History of Asia|year=2016|last1=Murphey|first1=Rhoads|isbn=9781315509495}}
* Pakenham, Thomas. ''The Scramble for Africa: 1876 to 1912'' (1992)

=== North and South America ===
*Bakewell, Peter, ''A History of Latin America'' (Blackwell, 1997)
* Beezley, William, and Michael Meyer, eds. ''The Oxford History of Mexico'' (2010)
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521232234|title=The Cambridge History of Latin America|year=1984|isbn=9781139055161|editor1-last=Bethell|editor1-first=Leslie}}
* Black, Conrad. ''Rise to Greatness: The History of Canada From the Vikings to the Present'' (2014)
* Burns, E. Bradford, ''Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History'', paperback, Prentice Hall 2001, 7th edition
* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848'' (2009), Pulitzer Prize
* Kirkland, Edward C. ''A History Of American Economic Life'' (3rd ed. 1960) [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.223513/2015.223513.A-History.pdf online]
* Lynch, John, ed. ''Latin American revolutions, 1808–1826: old and new world origins'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1994)
* McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom The CIvil War Era'' (1988) Pulitzer Prize for US history
* Parry, J.H. ''A Short History of the West Indies'' (1987)
* Paxson, Frederic Logan. ''History of the American frontier, 1763–1893'' (1924) [https://web.archive.org/web/20160202142001/https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/ttu-ir/bitstream/handle/2346/47065/ttu_hfwc01_000001.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y online], Pulitzer Prize
* White, Richard. ''The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States during Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896'' (2017)

===Primary sources===
* de Bary, Wm. Theodore, ed. ''Sources of East Asian Tradition, Vol. 2: The Modern Period'' (2008), 1192 pp
* Kertesz, G.A. ed ''Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815–1939'' (1968), 507 pp; several hundred short documents

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
{{Wikiquote}}

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19th century

2023-09-12T18:29:00Z

78.157.120.208:

{{Short description|Time period between 1 January 1801 and 31 December 1900}}
{{other uses}}
{{Centurybox|19}}
[[File:Jacques-Louis David - The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], Emperor of the [[First French Empire]].]]
The '''19th''' '''century''' began on 1 January 1801 (represented by the [[Roman numerals]] MDCCCI), and ended on 31 December 1900 (MCM).

The 19th century was characterized by vast social upheaval. [[Slavery]] was [[abolitionism|abolished]] in much of [[Europe]] and the [[Americas]]. The [[Industrial Revolution|First Industrial Revolution]], though it began in the late 18th century, expanding beyond its British homeland for the first time during this century, particularly remaking the economies and societies of the [[Low Countries]], the [[Rhineland]], [[Northern Italy]], and the [[Northeastern United States]]. A few decades later, the [[Second Industrial Revolution]] led to ever more massive [[urbanization]] and much higher levels of productivity, profit, and prosperity, a pattern that continued into the [[20th century]].

It was, in the Middle East, an era of change and reform. The [[Gunpowder empires|Islamic gunpowder empires]] fell into decline and European [[imperialism]] brought much of [[South Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]], and almost all of [[Africa]] under [[Colonialism|colonial rule]]. Reformers were opposed at every turn by conservatives who strove to maintain the centuries old Islamic laws and social order.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cleveland |first1=William L. |last2=Bunton |first2=Martin |title=A History of the Modern Middle East |date=2016 |isbn=9780813349800 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780429495502/history-modern-middle-east-william-cleveland|quote=The 19th century is frequently characterized as a period of tension between forces of continuity and change. The reformers who advocated the adoption of European institutions and technology, have often been portrayed as the progressive elements of society courageously charting the course toward an inevitably Westernized twentieth century. Conversely, the adherents of continuity, who viewed with alarm the dismantling of the Islamic order and sought to preserve tradition and retain the values and ideals that had served Ottoman and Islamic society so well for so long, are sometimes portrayed as nothing but archaic reactionaries. But we should avoid these simplistic characterizations if we are to appreciate the agonizing and dangerous process of transforming an established religious, social and political worldview.}}</ref> The century also saw the collapse of the large [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] and [[Mughal Empire]]s. This paved the way for the growing influence of the [[British Empire|British]], [[French colonial empire|French]], [[German colonial empire|German]], [[Russian Empire|Russian]], [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]], [[Italian Empire|Italian]], and [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empires]] along with the [[United States]]. The British boasted unchallenged global dominance after 1815.

After the defeat of [[First French Empire|France]] in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the British and Russian Empires expanded greatly, becoming two of the world's leading powers. Russia expanded its territory to [[Central Asia]] and the [[Caucasus]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] underwent a period of [[Westernization]] and reform known as the [[Tanzimat]], vastly increasing its control over core territories in the [[Middle East]]. However, it remained in decline and became known as the [[sick man of Europe]], losing territory in the [[Balkans]] and [[North Africa]].

The remaining powers in the [[Indian subcontinent]] such as the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] and [[Sikh Empire]]s suffered a massive decline and their dissatisfaction with the [[East India Company|British East India Company]]'s rule led to the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], marking its dissolution. India was later ruled directly by the [[The Crown|British Crown]] through the establishment of the [[British Raj]].

Britain's overseas possessions grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the century, the British controlled a fifth of the world's land and one-quarter of the world's population. During the post-Napoleonic era, it enforced what became known as the [[Pax Britannica]], which had ushered in unprecedented [[globalization]] on a massive scale.

The last [[man]] and [[woman]] born during the century died in 2013 and 2017, respectively.

==Overview==
[[File:Queen Victoria - Winterhalter 1859.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Queen Victoria]] of Great Britain.]]

The first [[electronics]] appeared in the 19th century, with the introduction of the [[Relay#History|electric relay]] in 1835, the [[telegraph]] and its [[Morse code]] protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/recon/jb_recon_telephone_1.html|title=The First Telephone Call|website=www.americaslibrary.gov|access-date=2015-10-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022110620/http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/recon/jb_recon_telephone_1.html|archive-date=2015-10-22|url-status=live}}</ref> and the first functional [[light bulb]] in 1878.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2009/12/1218joseph-swan-electric-bulb/|title=Dec. 18, 1878: Let There Be Light — Electric Light|date=18 December 2009|magazine=WIRED|access-date=4 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021003405/https://www.wired.com/2009/12/1218joseph-swan-electric-bulb/|archive-date=21 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating [[Discovery (observation)#In science|scientific discovery]] and [[invention]], with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070105005042/http://corporate.britannica.com/press/inventions.html Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref> The [[Industrial Revolution]] began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America, and Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://americanhistory.about.com/od/industrialrev/a/indrevoverview.htm |title=The United States and the Industrial Revolution in the 19th Century |publisher=Americanhistory.about.com |date=2012-09-18 |access-date=2012-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728095536/http://americanhistory.about.com/od/industrialrev/a/indrevoverview.htm |archive-date=2012-07-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Victorian era]] was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict [[social norm]]s regarding modesty and gender roles.<ref>Laura Del Col, West Virginia University, [http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313022018/http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html |date=2008-03-13 }}</ref> Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the [[Meiji Restoration]], before defeating China, under the [[Qing dynasty]], in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]]. [[History of medicine#19th century: rise of modern medicine|Advances in medicine]] and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating [[population growth]] in the [[Western world]]. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change |title= Modernization – Population Change |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090406074344/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change |archive-date=April 6, 2009}}</ref> The introduction of [[Rail transport|railroads]] provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major [[urbanization]] movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's [[List of largest cities throughout history|largest city]] and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior [[Africa]] and [[Asia]], were [[Exploration|explored]] during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s. [[Liberalism]] became the pre-eminent [[reform movement]] in Europe.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339173/liberalism/237346/Liberalism-in-the-19th-century Liberalism in the 19th century] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218233116/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339173/liberalism/237346/Liberalism-in-the-19th-century |date=2009-02-18 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica.''</ref>
[[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Arab slave trade]]rs and their captives along the Ruvuma river (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique), 19th century]]

[[Slavery]] was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful [[Haitian Revolution|slave revolt in Haiti]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and France stepped up the battle against the [[Barbary pirates]] and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's [[Slavery Abolition Act]] charged the British [[Royal Navy]] with ending the global [[History of slavery|slave trade]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108141034/http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml |date=2009-01-08 }}. ''BBC.''</ref> The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] following their [[American Civil War|Civil War]] abolished slavery there in 1865, and in [[Lei Áurea|Brazil]] slavery was abolished in 1888 (see [[abolitionism]]). Similarly, [[serfdom]] was abolished in [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|Russia]] in 1861.

The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new [[Settler|settlement]] foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century. [[Chicago]] in the [[United States]] and [[Melbourne]] in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States.<ref>[http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1118_0_5_0 The Atlantic: Can the US afford immigration?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704173521/http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1118_0_5_0 |date=2010-07-04 }}. ''Migration News''. December 1996.</ref>

The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States. [[Association football]], [[rugby union]], [[baseball]], and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as [[cricket]] to many different parts of the world. Also, [[1890s in Western fashion|women's fashion]] was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous.

[[File:Europe 1815 map en.png|thumb|200px|The boundaries set by the Congress of Vienna, 1815.]]
It also marks the fall of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]] of the [[Balkans]] which led to the creation of [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] as a result of the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|second Russo-Turkish War]], which in itself followed the great [[Crimean War]].

===Eras===
[[File:World 1898 empires colonies territory.png|thumb|250px|Map of the world from 1897. The [[British Empire]] (marked in pink) was the superpower of the 19th century.]]
*[[Industrial revolution]]
*[[European imperialism]]
*[[British Regency]], [[Victorian era]] (UK, [[British Empire]])
*[[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]], [[July Monarchy]], [[French Second Republic]], [[Second French Empire]], [[French Third Republic]] ([[France in the nineteenth century|France]])
*[[Belle Époque]] (Europe)
*[[Edo period]], [[Meiji period]] (Japan)
*[[Qing dynasty]] (China)
*[[Nguyen dynasty]] (Vietnam)
*[[Joseon]] dynasty (Korea)
*[[Zulu Kingdom]] (South Africa)
*[[Tanzimat]], [[First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|First Constitutional Era]] ([[Decline of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]])
*[[Russian Empire]]
*[[Manifest Destiny|American Manifest Destiny]], [[Antebellum South|Antebellum Era]], [[Gilded Age|The Gilded Age]], [[American frontier|Wild West]], [[Reconstruction era|Reconstruction]] (United States)

== Wars ==
===Napoleonic Wars===
{{main|Napoleonic Wars}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of the Napoleonic era}}
[[File:Napoleons retreat from moscow.jpg|thumb|right|[[Napoleon]]'s retreat from Russia in 1812. The war swings decisively against the French Empire]]
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] and its allies, led by [[Napoleon I]], against a fluctuating array of [[Coalition forces of the Napoleonic Wars|European powers formed into various coalitions]], financed and usually led by the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the [[French Revolution]] and its [[French Revolutionary Wars|resultant conflict]].

In the aftermath of the [[French Revolution]], [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself [[Emperor of the French]].

In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]] ended the [[War of the Third Coalition]]. As a result of the [[Treaty of Pressburg (1805)|Treaty of Pressburg]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was dissolved.

Later efforts were less successful. In the [[Peninsular War]], France unsuccessfully attempted to establish [[Joseph Bonaparte]] as King of Spain. In 1812, the [[French invasion of Russia]] had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].

In 1814, after defeat in the [[War of the Sixth Coalition]], Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to [[Elba]]. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the [[Hundred Days]] before finally being defeated at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] and exiled to [[Saint Helena]], an island in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]].

After Napoleon's defeat, the [[Congress of Vienna]] was held to determine new national borders. The [[Concert of Europe]] attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact.

===Latin American independence===
{{main|Latin American wars of independence|Spanish American wars of independence}}
[[File:JuraIndependencia.jpg|thumb|alt=Portrait of the Chilean declaration of independence|The [[Chilean Declaration of Independence]] on 18 February 1818]]
[[Mexico]] and the majority of the countries in [[Central America]] and [[South America]] obtained independence from [[Colonialism|colonial]] overlords during the 19th century. In 1804, [[Haitian Revolution|Haiti]] gained independence from France. In [[Mexico]], the [[Mexican War of Independence]] was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821.

Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal [[Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|relocated to Brazil]] from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal.

The [[Federal Republic of Central America]] gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of [[Guatemala]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[Costa Rica]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perez-Brignoli|first1=Hector|title=A Brief History of Central America|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofce00pr|url-access=registration|date=1989|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520909762}}</ref>

In 1830, the post-colonial nation of [[Gran Colombia]] dissolved and the nations of [[Colombia]] (including modern-day Panama), [[Ecuador]], and [[Venezuela]] took its place.

===Revolutions of 1848===
{{main|Revolutions of 1848}}
[[File:Maerz1848 berlin.jpg|thumb|upright|Liberal and nationalist pressure led to the [[Revolutions of 1848|European revolutions of 1848]]]]
The [[Revolutions of 1848]] were a series of [[political upheaval]]s throughout [[Europe]] in 1848. The revolutions were essentially [[democracy|democratic]] and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old [[Monarchy|monarchical]] structures and creating independent nation states.

The first revolution began in [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states|January in Sicily]].{{clarify|date=December 2017}} Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in [[French Revolution of 1848|France in February]]. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries.

According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.<ref>R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., ''The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849'' (2000) pp. v, 4</ref>

===Abolition and the American Civil War===
{{main|Abolitionism|American Civil War}}
[[File:Wilberforce john rising.jpg|thumb|[[William Wilberforce]] (1759–1833), politician and philanthropist who was a leader of the movement to [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolish the slave trade]].]]

The [[abolitionism]] movement achieved success in the 19th century. The [[Atlantic slave trade]] was abolished in the United States in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The [[Slavery Abolition Act]] of 1833 banned slavery throughout the [[British Empire]], and the [[Lei Áurea]] abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.

[[Abolitionism in the United States]] continued until the end of the [[American Civil War]]. [[Frederick Douglass]] and [[Harriet Tubman]] were two of many American abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer, while Tubman worked with a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the [[Underground Railroad]].

The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Eleven [[Southern United States|southern states]] seceded from the [[United States]], largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President [[Abraham Lincoln]] issued the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. Lincoln issued a preliminary<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation|title=The Emancipation Proclamation|date=October 6, 2015|website=National Archives|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206210236/https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation|archive-date=February 6, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> on September 22, 1862, warning that in all states still in rebellion ([[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free."<ref>McPherson, J. M. (2014). "Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment", in E. Foner and J. A. Garraty (eds.), ''The Reader's Companion to American History''. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. [http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rcah/emancipation_proclamation_and_thirteenth_amendment/0] Retrieved from {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106000538/https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rcah/emancipation_proclamation_and_thirteenth_amendment/0|date=2018-11-06}}</ref> He did so.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation/transcript.html|title=Transcript of the Proclamation|date=October 6, 2015|website=National Archives}}</ref> The [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] to the Constitution,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/13th-amendment|title=13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery|date=January 27, 2016|website=National Archives|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216131544/https://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/13th-amendment|archive-date=February 16, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country.

Five days after [[Robert E. Lee]] surrendered at [[Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia]], [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln was assassinated]] by actor and [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] sympathiser [[John Wilkes Booth]].

=== Decline of the Ottoman Empire ===
{{main|Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire}}
In 1830, [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]] became the first country to break away from the [[Ottoman Empire]] after the [[Greek War of Independence]]. In 1831, the [[Bosnian uprising (1831–1832)|Bosnian Uprising]] against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the [[Principality of Serbia]] became [[Suzerainty|suzerain]] from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a constitution that defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1876, [[Bulgarians]] instigated the [[April Uprising of 1876|April Uprising]] against Ottoman rule. Following the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War]], the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]] recognized the formal independence of the Serbia, [[Principality of Montenegro|Montenegro]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]]. [[Principality of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] became autonomous.

=== China: Taiping Rebellion ===
{{main|Taiping Rebellion}}
[[File:Regaining the Provincial Capital of Ruizhou.jpg|thumb|280px|A scene of the [[Taiping Rebellion]].]]
The [[Taiping Rebellion]] was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20-30 million people. Its leader, [[Hong Xiuquan]], declared himself the younger brother of [[Jesus Christ]] and developed a new Chinese religion known as the [[God Worshipping Society]]. After proclaiming the establishment of the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]] in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing [[Nanjing]] in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reilly|first1=Thomas H.|title=The Taiping heavenly kingdom rebellion and the blasphemy of empire|date=2004|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|isbn=978-0295801926|edition=1}}</ref>

=== Japan: Meiji Restoration ===
{{main|Meiji Restoration}}
During the [[Edo period]], [[History of Japan|Japan]] largely pursued an [[Sakoku|isolationist foreign policy]]. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore [[Matthew C. Perry]] threatened the Japanese capital [[Edo]] with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to [[Bakumatsu|the opening of trade relations]] between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of [[Sakoku]] formally ended in 1854.

By 1872, the Japanese government under [[Emperor Meiji]] had [[Abolition of the han system|eliminated the ''daimyō'' system]] and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the [[samurai]] class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.<ref>W. G. Beasley, ''The Meiji Restoration'' (1972),</ref>

=== Colonialism ===
[[File:Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algier-Ernest-Francis Vacherot mg 5120.jpg|thumb|Arrival of Marshal [[Jacques Louis Randon|Randon]] in [[Algiers]], [[French Algeria]] in 1857]]
{{main|Western imperialism in Asia|Scramble for Africa}}
[[File:Rao Baji signing the Treaty of Vasai.jpg|thumb|The [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]] and the [[East India Company]] sign the [[Treaty of Bassein (1802)|Treaty of Bassein]] in 1802.]]
* [[1803]]: United States more than doubles in size when it buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the [[Louisiana Purchase]]. This begins the U.S.'s westward expansion to the Pacific, referred to as its [[Manifest Destiny]], which involves [[United States territorial acquisitions|annexing and conquering land]] from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans.
* [[1817]] – [[1819]]: British Empire annexed the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]] after the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]].
* [[1823]] – [[1887]]: British Empire annexed Burma (now also called [[Myanmar]]) after three [[Anglo-Burmese Wars]].
* [[1848]] – [[1849]]: [[Sikh Empire]] is defeated in the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]]. Therefore, the entire [[Indian subcontinent]] is under British control.
* [[1862]]: France gained its first foothold in [[Southeast Asia]] and in [[1863]] annexed [[Cambodia]].
* [[1867]]: United States [[Alaska Purchase|purchased Alaska]] from [[Russia]].

==== Africa ====
[[File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png|thumb|300px|Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913]]
In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as [[quinine]] and more advanced [[firearms]] allowed European nations to conquer native populations.<ref name="KerrAfrica">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Gordon|title=A Short History of Africa: From the Origins of the Human Race to the Arab Spring|date=2012|publisher=Pocket Essentials|location=Harpenden, Herts [UK]|isbn=9781842434420|pages=85–101}}</ref>

Motivations for the [[Scramble for Africa]] included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the [[Suez Canal]], but [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] defeated Italy in the [[First Italo–Ethiopian War]] at the [[Battle of Adwa]]. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations.<ref name="KerrAfrica" />

In 1867, [[diamond]]s were discovered in the [[Kimberley, Northern Cape|Kimberley]] region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in [[South African Republic|Transvaal]]. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by [[Cecil Rhodes]].<ref name="KerrAfrica" />

=== Other wars ===
* [[1801]]–[[1815]]: [[First Barbary War]] and the [[Second Barbary War]] between the United States and the [[Barbary States]] of [[North Africa]].
* [[1802]]: [[Tây Sơn dynasty|Tay Son]] army recaptured [[Thừa Thiên Huế province|Phu Xuan]], causing Vo Tanh to commit suicide, [[Gia Long|Nguyen Phuc Anh]] successfully captured [[Hanoi|Thang Long]], founded the [[Nguyen dynasty]]
* [[1804]]–[[1810]]: [[Fulani War|Fulani Jihad]] in [[Nigeria]].
* [[1804]]–[[1813]]: [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Persian War]].
* [[1806]]–[[1812]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)|Russo-Turkish War]], [[Treaty of Bucharest (1812)|Treaty of Bucharest]].
* [[1807]]–[[1837]]: [[Musket Wars]] among [[Māori people|Māori]] in many parts of [[New Zealand]].
* [[1808]]–[[1809]]: Russia conquers Finland from Sweden in the [[Finnish War]].[[File:KingShaka.jpg|thumb|1816: [[Shaka]] rises to power over the [[Zulu Kingdom]]. Zulu expansion was a major factor of the [[Mfecane]] ("Crushing") that depopulated large areas of southern Africa]]
* [[1810]]: [[Grito de Dolores]] begins the [[Mexican War of Independence]].
* [[1811]]: [[Battle of Tippecanoe]]: U.S. outnumbering Native Americans resulting in defeat and burning of community
* [[1812]]–[[1815]]: [[War of 1812]] between the United States and Britain; ends in a draw, except that Native Americans lose power.
* [[1813]]–[[1837]]: [[Afghan–Sikh Wars]].
* [[1814]]–[[1816]]: [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] between [[Nepal]] (Gurkha Empire) and [[British Empire]].
* [[1817]]: First [[Seminole War]] begins in Florida.
* [[1817]]: Russia commences its [[Caucasian War|conquest of the Caucasus]].
* [[1820]]: [[Revolutions of 1820]] in Southern Europe
* [[1821]]–[[1830]]: [[Greek War of Independence]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1825]]–[[1830]]: [[Java War]] begins.
* [[1826]]–[[1828]]: After the final [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Russo-Persian War]], the [[Qajar dynasty|Persian Empire]] took back territory lost to Russia from the previous war.
* [[1828]]–[[1832]]: [[Black War]] in [[Tasmania]] leads to the near extinction of the [[Tasmanian aborigines]]
* 1[[830]]: [[July Revolution]] overthrew old line of Bourbons.
* [[1830]]: [[November Uprising]] in [[Poland]] against [[Russia]].
* [[1830]]: [[Belgian Revolution]] results in [[Belgium]]'s independence from [[Netherlands]].
* [[1830]]: End of the Java War. The whole area of Yogyakarta and Surakarta Manca nagara Dutch seized. 27 September, Klaten Agreement determines a fixed boundary between Surakarta and Yogyakarta and permanently divide the kingdom of Mataram was signed by Sasradiningrat, Pepatih Dalem Surakarta, and Danurejo, Pepatih Dalem Yogyakarta. Mataram is a de facto and de yure controlled by the Dutch East Indies.
* [[1831]]: [[France]] [[French rule in Algeria|invades and occupies Algeria]].
* [[1831]]–[[1833]]: [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)|Egyptian–Ottoman War]].
* [[1832]]–[[1875]]: Regimental rebellions of Brazil
* [[1835]]–[[1836]]: [[Texas Revolution]] results in [[Texas]]'s independence from [[Mexico]].
* [[1839]]–[[1842]]: [[First Opium War]] begins.
* [[1846]]–[[1848]]: [[Mexican–American War]] leads to Mexico's cession of much of the modern-day [[Southwestern United States]].
* [[1848]]: [[French Revolution of 1848|February Revolution]] overthrew Louis Philippe's government. Second Republic proclaimed; Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, elected president.
* [[1853]]–[[1856]]: [[Crimean War]] between France, the United Kingdom, the [[Ottoman Empire]] and Russia.
* [[1857]]: [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion]] against the [[Company Raj]]. After this the power of the [[East India Company]] is transferred to the [[British Raj|British Crown]].
* [[1859]]: [[Second Italian War of Independence|Franco-Austrian War]] is part of the wars of [[Italian unification]].
* [[1861]]–[[1865]]: [[American Civil War]] between the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] and seceding [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. [[File:EwellsDeadSpotsylvania1864crop01.jpg|thumb|Dead Confederate soldiers. 30% of all Southern white males 18–40 years of age died in the [[American Civil War]].<ref>"''[https://archive.org/details/killinggroundpho0000hudd Killing ground: photographs of the Civil War and the changing American landscape] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228002928/https://books.google.com/books?id=YpAuHGkuIe0C&pg=PA&dq&hl=en |date=2017-02-28 }}''". John Huddleston (2002). [[Johns Hopkins University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8018-6773-8}}</ref>]]
* [[1861]]–[[1867]]: [[Second French intervention in Mexico|French intervention in Mexico]] and the creation of the [[Second Mexican Empire]], ruled by [[Maximilian I of Mexico]] and his consort [[Carlota of Mexico]].
* [[1863]]–[[1865]]: [[January Uprising]] against the [[Russian Empire]].
* [[1864]]–[[1870]]: [[Paraguayan War]] ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion and destroys much of the Paraguayan population.
* [[1866]]: [[Austro-Prussian War]] results in the dissolution of the [[German Confederation]] and the creation of the [[North German Confederation]] and the [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy]].
* [[1868]]-[[1869]]: [[Boshin War]] results in end of the shogunate and the founding the Japanese Empire.
* [[1868]]–[[1878]]: [[Ten Years' War]] between [[Cuba]] and [[Kingdom of Spain|Spain]].
* [[1870]]–[[1871]]: [[Franco-Prussian War]] results in the [[Unification of Germany|unifications of Germany]] [[Italian unification|and Italy]], the collapse of the [[Second French Empire]] and the emergence of a [[New Imperialism]].
* 1870: Napoleon III abdicated after unsuccessful conclusion of Franco-Prussian War. Third Republic proclaimed.
* [[1876]]: The [[April Uprising of 1876|April Uprising]] in [[Bulgaria]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1879]]: [[Anglo-Zulu War]] results in British victory and the annexation of the [[Zulu Kingdom]].
* [[1879]]–[[1880]]: [[Little War (Cuba)|Little War]] against Spanish rule in [[Cuba]] leads to rebel defeat.
* [[1879]]–[[1883]]: [[Chile]] battles with [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] over Andean territory in the [[War of the Pacific]].
* [[1880]]–[[1881]]: [[First Boer War]] begins.
* [[1881]]–[[1899]]: [[Mahdist War]] in [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Sudan]].[[File:Battle of Omdurman.jpg|thumb|A depiction of the [[Battle of Omdurman]] in 1898; in the battle, [[Winston Churchill]] took part in a cavalry charge.]]
* [[1882]]: [[Anglo-Egyptian War]] British invasion and subsequent occupation of [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egypt]]
* [[1883]]–[[1898]]: [[Mandingo Wars]] between the [[French colonial empire]] and the [[Wassoulou Empire]] of the [[Mandinka people|Mandingo]] people led by [[Samory Touré]].
* [[1894]]–[[1895]]: After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], China cedes [[Taiwan]] to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea.
* [[1895]]: [[Taiwan]] is ceded to the [[Empire of Japan]] as a result of the [[First Sino-Japanese War]].
* [[1895]]–[[1896]]: [[Ethiopia]] defeats Italy in the [[First Italo–Ethiopian War]] at the [[Battle of Adwa]].
* [[1895]]–[[1898]]: [[Cuban War for Independence]] results in Cuban independence from [[Spanish Empire|Spain]].
* [[1896]]-[[1898]]: [[Philippine Revolution]] results in a Filipino victory.
* [[1898]]: [[Spanish–American War]] results in the independence of Cuba.
* [[1899]]–[[1901]]: [[Boxer Rebellion]] in China is suppressed by the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]].
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Thousand Days' War]] in [[Colombia]] breaks out between the "[[Liberalism|Liberales]]" and "[[Conservatism|Conservadores]]", culminating with the loss of [[Panama]] in 1903.
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Second Boer War]] begins.
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Philippine–American War]] begins.

==Science and technology==
{{main|19th century in science}}
{{Distinguished men of science of Great Britain 1806-7|align=right}}
The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term '''scientist''' was coined in 1833 by [[William Whewell]],<ref>{{cite web
| access-date=2008-03-03
| url=http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/
| title=William Whewell
| publisher=Stanford University
| date=2000-12-23
| last1=Snyder
| first1=Laura J.
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104025611/http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/
| archive-date=2010-01-04
| url-status=live
}}</ref> which soon replaced the older term of '''natural philosopher'''. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of [[Charles Darwin]] (alongside the independent researches of [[Alfred Russel Wallace]]), who in 1859 published the book ''[[The Origin of Species]]'', which introduced the idea of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the [[germ theory of disease]]. Following this, [[Louis Pasteur]] made the first [[vaccine]] against [[rabies]], and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the [[Enantiomer|asymmetry of crystals]]. In chemistry, [[Dmitri Mendeleev]], following the [[atomic theory]] of [[John Dalton]], created the first [[periodic table]] of [[Chemical element|elements]]. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of [[Michael Faraday]], [[André-Marie Ampère]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], and their contemporaries led to the creation of [[electromagnetism]] as a new branch of science. [[Thermodynamics]] led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of [[hypercomplex number]]s. [[Karl Weierstrass]] and others carried out the [[arithmetization of analysis]] for functions of [[Function of a real variable|real]] and [[complex variable]]s. It also saw rise to [[Non-Euclidean geometry|new progress in geometry]] beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about including a rapid spread in the use of electric illumination and power in the last two decades of the century and radio wave communication at the end of the 1890s.
[[File:Faraday-Millikan-Gale-1913.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Michael Faraday]] (1791–1867)]]
[[File:1878 Darwin photo by Leonard from Woodall 1884 - cropped grayed partially cleaned.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Charles Darwin]]]]
* [[1807]]: [[Potassium]] and [[Sodium]] are individually isolated by [[Sir Humphry Davy]].
* [[1831]]–[[1836]]: [[Charles Darwin]]'s journey on {{HMS|Beagle}}.
* [[1859]]: [[Charles Darwin]] publishes ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.
* [[1861]]: [[James Clerk Maxwell]] publishes ''[[On Physical Lines of Force]]'', formulating the four [[Maxwell's equations]].
* [[1865]]: [[Gregor Mendel]] formulates his [[laws of inheritance]].
* [[1869]]: [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] creates the [[Periodic table]].
* [[1873]]: Maxwell's ''[[A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism]]'' published.
* [[1877]]: [[Asaph Hall]] discovers the [[moons of Mars]]
* [[1896]]: [[Henri Becquerel]] discovers [[radioactivity]]; [[J. J. Thomson]] identifies the [[electron]], though not by name.

===Medicine===
[[File:Robert Koch.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Robert Koch]] discovered the [[tuberculosis]] bacilli. The disease killed an estimated 25 percent of the adult population of Europe during the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cdc.gov/TB/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm |title=Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421174847/http://www.cdc.gov/tb/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm |archive-date=April 21, 2009|date=2018-12-31 }}</ref>]]

* [[1804]]: [[Morphine]] first isolated.
* [[1842]]: [[Anesthesia]] used for the first time.
* [[1847]]: [[Chloroform]] invented for the first time, given to [[Queen Victoria]] at the birth of her eighth child, [[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Prince Leopold]] in [[1853]]
* [[1855]]: [[Cocaine]] is isolated by [[Friedrich Gaedcke]].
* [[1885]]: [[Louis Pasteur]] creates the first successful [[vaccine]] against rabies for a young boy who had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog.
* [[1889]]: [[Aspirin]] patented.

===Inventions===

[[File:Edison in his NJ laboratory 1901.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thomas Edison]] was an American inventor, scientist, and businessman who developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the [[phonograph]], the [[Movie camera|motion picture camera]], and a long-lasting, practical electric [[light bulb]].]]
[[File:Erste Benzin-Omnibus der Welt.jpg|thumb|upright|First motor bus in history: the [[Karl Benz|Benz]] Omnibus, built in 1895 for the Netphener bus company]]
* [[1804]]: First [[steam locomotive]] begins operation.
* [[1816]]: [[Dandy horse|Laufmaschine]] invented by [[Karl von Drais]].
* [[1825]]: [[Erie Canal]] opened connecting the [[Great Lakes]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
* [[1825]]: First isolation of [[aluminium]].
* [[1827]]: First photograph taken (technique of [[heliography]]) by [[Joseph Nicephore Niepce]].
* [[1825]]: The [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]], the first public railway in the world, is opened.
* [[1826]]: [[Samuel Morey]] patents the [[internal combustion engine]].
* [[1829]]: First [[electric motor]] built.
* [[1837]]: [[Telegraphy]] patented.
* [[1841]]: The word "[[dinosaur]]" is coined by [[Richard Owen]].
* [[1844]]: First publicly funded [[telegraph]] line in the world—between Baltimore and Washington—sends demonstration message on 24 May, ushering in the age of the telegraph. This message read "What hath God wrought?" (Bible, Numbers 23:23)
* [[1849]]: The [[safety pin]] and the [[gas mask]] are invented.
* [[1852]]: The first successful [[blimp]] is invented
* [[1855]]: [[Bessemer process]] enables [[steel]] to be mass-produced.
* [[1856]]: World's first [[oil refinery]] in [[Romania]]
* [[1858]]: Invention of the [[phonautograph]], the first true device for [[recorded sound|recording sound]].
* [[1859]]: The first [[ironclad]] was launched into sea by the [[French Navy]].
* [[1860]]: [[Benjamin Tyler Henry]] invents the 16-shot [[Henry Rifle]]
* [[1861]]: [[Richard Gatling]] invents the [[Gatling Gun]], first modern [[machine gun]] used notably in the battles of [[Cold Harbor]] and [[Petersburg, Virginia|Petersburg]]
* [[1862]]: First meeting in combat of [[ironclad warship]]s, {{USS|Monitor|1862|6}} and {{ship|CSS|Virginia}}, during the [[American Civil War]].
* [[1863]]: First section of the [[London Underground]] opens.
* [[1866]]: Successful [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] follows an earlier attempt in 1858.
* [[1867]]: [[Alfred Nobel]] invents [[dynamite]].
* [[1868]]: [[Safety bicycle]] invented.
* [[1869]]: [[First transcontinental railroad]] completed in United States on 10 May.
* [[1870]]: [[Rasmus Malling-Hansen]]'s invention the [[Hansen Writing Ball]] becomes the first commercially sold [[typewriter]].
* [[1873]]: [[Jeans|Blue jeans]] and [[barbed wire]] are invented.
* [[1877]]: [[Thomas Edison]] invents the [[phonograph]]
* [[1878]]: First commercial [[telephone exchange]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]].
* c. [[1875]]/[[1880]]: Introduction of the widespread use of electric [[lighting]]. These included early crude systems in France and the UK and the introduction of large scale outdoor [[Arc lamp|arc lighting]] systems by 1880.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html|title=Arc Lamps - How They Work & History|website=edisontechcenter.org}}</ref>
* [[1879]]: [[Thomas Edison]] patents a practical [[incandescent light bulb]].
* [[1882]]: Introduction of large scale [[Electric power industry|electric power utilities]] with the Edison [[Holborn Viaduct power station|Holborn Viaduct]] (London) and [[Pearl Street Station|Pearl Street]] (New York) power stations supplying indoor electric lighting using Edison's incandescent bulb.<ref>Jonathan Daly, The Rise of Western Power - A Comparative History of Western Civilization, Bloomsbury Publishing · 2013, page 310</ref><ref>Turan Gonen, Electric Power Distribution Engineering, CRC Press · 2015, page 1</ref>
* [[1884]]: [[Sir Hiram Maxim]] invents the first self-powered [[Machine gun]].
* [[1885]]: [[Singer Manufacturing Company|Singer]] begins production of the '[[Singer Model 27 and 127|Vibrating Shuttle]]'. which would become the most popular model of [[sewing machine]].
* [[1886]]: [[Karl Benz]] sells the first commercial [[automobile]].
* [[1890]]: The [[cardboard box]] is invented.
* [[1892]]: [[John Froelich]] develops and constructs the first gasoline/petrol-powered [[tractor]].
* [[1894]]: [[Karl Elsener (inventor)|Karl Elsener]] invents the [[Swiss Army knife]].
* [[1894]]: First [[gramophone record]].
* [[1895]]: [[Wilhelm Röntgen]] identifies [[x-rays]].

==Religion==
[[File:BrighamYoung1.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Brigham Young]] led the [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS Church]] from 1844 until his death in 1877]]
* [[1818]]: The first permanent [[Reform Judaism]] congregation, the [[Hamburg Temple|Neuer Israelitischer Tempel]], is founded in [[Hamburg]] on October 18. Around the same time, through the development of ''[[Wissenschaft des Judentums]]'', the seeds of [[Conservative Judaism]] are sown.
* [[1830]]: The [[Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)|Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]] is established.
* [[1844]]: The [[Báb]] announces his revelation on 23 May, founding [[Bábism]]. He announced to the world of the coming of "[[He whom God shall make manifest]]". He is considered the forerunner of [[Bahá'u'lláh]], the founder of the [[Baháʼí Faith]].
* [[1850s]]–[[1890s]]: In Islam, [[Salafism]] grows in popularity.
* [[1851]]: [[Hong Xiuquan]], the leader of the [[God Worshipping Society]], founds the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]].
* [[1857]]: In [[Paris]], [[France]], [[Allan Kardec]], publishes [[The Spirits' Book]] and founds the [[Spiritism]].
* [[1868]]: In Japan, [[State Shinto]] is established amidst the [[Meiji Restoration]].
* [[1869]]–[[1870]]: The [[First Vatican Council]] is convened, articulating the dogma of [[papal infallibility]] and promoting a [[Neo-scholasticism|revival of scholastic theology]].
* [[1871]]–[[1878]]: In [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Otto von Bismarck]] challenges the Catholic Church in the ''[[Kulturkampf]]'' ("Culture War")
* [[1875]]: [[Helena Blavatsky]] co-founds the [[Theosophical Society]] and becomes the leading articulator of [[Theosophy]].
* [[1879]]: [[Mary Baker Eddy]] founds the [[Church of Christ, Scientist]]. ''[[The Watchtower]],'' published by the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], releases its first issue.
* [[1881]]: In the Sudan, [[Muhammad Ahmad]] claims to be the [[Mahdi]], founding the [[Mahdist State]] and declaring war on the [[Khedivate of Egypt]].
* [[1889]]: [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]] establishes the [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]].
* [[1891]]: [[Pope Leo XIII]] issues the [[papal encyclical]] ''[[Rerum novarum]]'', the first major document informing modern [[Catholic social teaching]].

==Culture==
[[File:Crystal Palace - interior.jpg|thumb|350px|The [[Great Exhibition]] in London. Starting during the 18th century, the United Kingdom was the first country in the world to industrialise.]]
* [[1808]]: [[Beethoven]] composes [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Fifth Symphony]]
* [[1813]]: [[Jane Austen]] publishes ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]''
* [[1818]]: [[Mary Shelley]] publishes ''[[Frankenstein]]''.
* [[1819]]: [[John Keats]] writes his [[John Keats's 1819 odes|six of his best-known odes]].
* [[1819]]: [[Théodore Géricault]] paints his masterpiece ''[[The Raft of the Medusa]]'', and exhibits it in the French Salon of 1819 at the [[The Louvre|Louvre]].
* [[1824]]: Premiere of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s ''[[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Ninth Symphony]]''.
* [[1829]]: [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]'s ''[[Goethe's Faust|Faust]]'' premieres.
* [[1833]]–[[1834]]: [[Thomas Carlyle]] publishes ''[[Sartor Resartus]]''.
* [[1837]]: [[Charles Dickens]] publishes ''[[Oliver Twist]]''.
* [[1841]]: [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] publishes ''[[Self-Reliance]]''.
* [[1845]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] publishes ''[[Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave]]''.
* [[1847]]: The [[Brontë sisters]] publish ''[[Jane Eyre]]'', ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'' and ''[[Agnes Grey]]''.
* [[1848]]: [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]] publish ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]''.
* [[1849]]: [[Josiah Henson]] publishes [[The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself]].
* [[1851]]: [[Herman Melville]] publishes [[Moby-Dick]].
* [[1851]]: [[Sojourner Truth]] delivers the speech [[Ain't I a Woman?]].
* [[1852]]: [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]] publishes [[Uncle Tom's Cabin]].
* [[1855]]: [[Walt Whitman]] publishes the first edition of ''[[Leaves of Grass]]''.
* [[1855]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] publishes the first edition of ''[[My Bondage and My Freedom]]''.
* [[1862]]: [[Victor Hugo]] publishes ''[[Les Misérables]]''.
* [[1863]]: [[Jules Verne]] begins publishing his collection of stories and novels, ''[[Voyages extraordinaires]]'', with the novel ''[[Cinq semaines en ballon]]''.
* [[1865]]: [[Lewis Carroll]] publishes [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]].
* [[1869]]: [[Leo Tolstoy]] publishes ''[[War and Peace]]''.[[File:Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Le Moulin de la Galette.jpg|thumb|[[Auguste Renoir]], ''[[Bal du moulin de la Galette]]'', 1876, [[Musée d'Orsay]]]]
* [[1875]]: [[Georges Bizet]]'s opera [[Carmen]] premiers in Paris.
* [[1876]]: [[Richard Wagner]]'s ''[[Ring Cycle]]'' is first performed in its entirety.
* [[1883]]: [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s ''[[Treasure Island]]'' is published.
* [[1884]]: [[Mark Twain]] publishes the ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''.
* [[1886]]: "[[Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde]]" by Robert Louis Stevenson is published.
* [[1887]]: [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] publishes his first [[Sherlock Holmes]] story, ''[[A Study in Scarlet]]''.
* [[1889]]: [[Vincent van Gogh]] paints ''[[The Starry Night]]''.
* [[1889]]: [[Moulin Rouge]] opens in Paris.
* [[1892]]: [[Tchaikovsky]]'s ''[[Nutcracker Suite]]'' premières in [[St Petersberg]].
* [[1894]]: [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[The Jungle Book]]'' is published
* [[1895]]: Trial of [[Oscar Wilde]] and premiere of his play ''[[The Importance of Being Earnest]]''.
* [[1897]]: [[Bram Stoker]] writes [[Dracula]].
* [[1900]]: [[L. Frank Baum]] publishes [[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]].

[[File:Ilya Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Portrait of Leo Tolstoy (1887).jpg|thumb|upright|Russian writer [[Leo Tolstoy]], author of ''[[War and Peace]]'' and ''[[Anna Karenina]]'']]

===Literature===
{{main|Romantic poetry|19th century in literature}}

On the literary front the new century opens with [[romanticism]], a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German ''[[Sturm und Drang]]'' spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the [[Napoleonic Wars]] but subsequently developed rapidly. [[Modernism]] began.<ref>David Damrosch and David L. Pike, eds. ''The Longman Anthology of World Literature, Volume E: The Nineteenth Century'' (2nd ed. 2008)</ref>

The Goncourts and [[Émile Zola]] in France and [[Giovanni Verga]] in Italy produce some of the finest [[Naturalism (literature)|naturalist novels]]. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians [[Alexander Pushkin]], [[Nikolai Gogol]], [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Anton Chekhov]] and [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]; the English [[Charles Dickens]], [[John Keats]], [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]] and [[Jane Austen]]; the Scottish [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Thomas Carlyle]] and [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] (creator of the character [[Sherlock Holmes]]); the Irish [[Oscar Wilde]]; the Americans [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], and [[Mark Twain]]; and the French [[Victor Hugo]], [[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Jules Verne]], [[Alexandre Dumas]] and [[Charles Baudelaire]].<ref>M. H. Abrams et al., eds., ''The Norton Anthology of English Literature'' (9th ed. 2012)</ref>

Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: [[Walt Whitman]], [[Mark Twain]], [[Harriet Ann Jacobs]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], [[Herman Melville]], [[Frederick Douglass]], [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], [[Joel Chandler Harris]], and [[Emily Dickinson]] to name a few.

===Photography===
[[File:View from the Window at Le Gras, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.jpg|thumb|upright|One of the first photographs, produced in 1826 by [[Nicéphore Niépce]]]]
[[File:Self-portrait of Nadar.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]], Self-portrait, {{Circa|1860}}]]
{{see also|History of photography|List of photojournalists|Photojournalism|Daguerreotype}}
*[[Ottomar Anschütz]], [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Mathew Brady]], documented the [[American Civil War]]
*[[Edward S. Curtis]], documented the [[American West]] notably [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]
*[[Louis Daguerre]], inventor of [[daguerreotype]] process of photography, chemist
*[[Thomas Eakins]], pioneer motion photographer
*[[George Eastman]], inventor of [[Photographic film|roll film]]
*[[Hércules Florence]], pioneer inventor of photography
*[[Auguste and Louis Lumière]], pioneer film-makers, inventors
*[[Étienne-Jules Marey]], pioneer motion photographer, [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Eadweard Muybridge]], pioneer motion photographer, [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]] a.k.a. Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, portrait photographer
*[[Nicéphore Niépce]], pioneer inventor of photography
*[[Louis Le Prince]], motion picture inventor and pioneer film-maker
*[[Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky]], chemist and photographer
*[[William Fox Talbot]], inventor of the negative / positive photographic process.

===Visual artists, painters, sculptors===
{{main|History of art#Modern Art (ca. 1770-1970)|Western painting|Ukiyo-e}}
[[File:El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado thin black margin.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Francisco Goya]], ''[[The Third of May 1808]]'', 1814, {{Lang|es|[[Museo del Prado]]|italic=no}}]]
[[File:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Eugène Delacroix]], ''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'', 1830, [[Louvre]]]]
[[File:Vincent van Gogh - National Gallery of Art.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Vincent van Gogh]], ''Self-portrait'', 1889, [[National Gallery of Art]]]]
[[File:Affiche Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile Mucha.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alphonse Mucha]], Advertise with ''Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile'', 1897]]
The [[Realism (arts)|Realism]] and [[Romanticism]] of the early 19th century gave way to [[Impressionism]] and [[Post-Impressionism]] in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the [[Hudson River School]] was prominent. 19th-century painters included:
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Ivan Aivazovsky]]
*[[Léon Bakst]]
*[[Albert Bierstadt]]
*[[William Blake]]
*[[Arnold Böcklin]]
*[[Rosa Bonheur]]
*[[William Burges]]
*[[Mary Cassatt]]
*[[Camille Claudel]]
*[[Paul Cézanne]]
*[[Frederic Edwin Church]]
*[[Thomas Cole]]
*[[Jan Matejko]]
*[[John Constable]]
*[[Camille Corot]]
*[[Gustave Courbet]]
*[[Honoré Daumier]]
*[[Edgar Degas]]
*[[Eugène Delacroix]]
*[[Thomas Eakins]]
*[[Caspar David Friedrich]]
*[[Paul Gauguin]]
*[[Théodore Géricault]]
*[[Vincent van Gogh]]
*[[William Morris]]
*[[Francisco Goya]]
*[[Andō Hiroshige]]
*[[Hokusai]]
*[[Winslow Homer]]
*[[Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres]]
*[[Isaac Levitan]]
*[[Édouard Manet]]
*[[Claude Monet]]
*[[Gustave Moreau]]
*[[Berthe Morisot]]
*[[Edvard Munch]]
*[[Mikhail Nesterov]]
*[[Camille Pissarro]]
*[[Augustus Pugin]]
*[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]
*[[Ilya Repin]]
*[[Auguste Rodin]]
*[[Albert Pinkham Ryder]]
*[[John Singer Sargent]]
*[[Valentin Serov]]
*[[Georges Seurat]]
*[[Ivan Shishkin]]
*[[Vasily Surikov]]
*[[James Tissot]]
*[[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]]
*[[J. M. W. Turner|Joseph Mallord William Turner]]
*[[Viktor Vasnetsov]]
*[[Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
*[[Mikhail Vrubel]]
*[[James Abbott McNeill Whistler]]
*[[Tsukioka Yoshitoshi]]
{{div col end}}

===Music===
{{main|List of Romantic-era composers|Romantic music|Romanticism}}
[[File:Joseph Karl Stieler's Beethoven mit dem Manuskript der Missa solemnis.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]]]
[[File:Porträt des Komponisten Pjotr I. Tschaikowski (1840-1893).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]]]
[[Sonata form]] matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] style. Many great composers lived through this era such as [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], [[Franz Liszt]], [[Frédéric Chopin]], [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] and [[Richard Wagner]]. The list includes:
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Mily Balakirev]]
*[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]
*[[Hector Berlioz]]
*[[Georges Bizet]]
*[[Alexander Borodin]]
*[[Johannes Brahms]]
*[[Anton Bruckner]]
*[[Frédéric Chopin]]
*[[Claude Debussy]]
*[[Antonín Dvořák]]
*[[Mikhail Glinka]]
*[[Edvard Grieg]]
*[[Scott Joplin]]
*[[Alexandre Levy]]
*[[Franz Liszt]]
*[[Gustav Mahler]]
*[[Felix Mendelssohn]]
*[[Modest Mussorgsky]]
*[[Jacques Offenbach]]
*[[Niccolò Paganini]]
*[[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]]
*[[Gioachino Rossini]]
*[[Anton Rubinstein]]
*[[Camille Saint-Saëns]]
*[[Antonio Salieri]]
*[[Franz Schubert]]
*[[Robert Schumann]]
*[[Alexander Scriabin]]
*[[Arthur Sullivan]]
*[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]
*[[Giuseppe Verdi]]
*[[Richard Wagner]]
{{div col end}}

===Sports===
* [[1867]]: The [[Marquess of Queensberry Rules]] for [[boxing]] are published.
* [[1872]]: The first recognised international [[Association football|football]] match, between [[England]] and [[Scotland]], is played.
* [[1877]]: The first [[test cricket]] match, between [[England]] and [[Australia]], is played.
* [[1891]]: [[Basketball]] is invented by [[James Naismith]].
* [[1895]]: [[Volleyball]] is invented.
* [[1896]]: [[Olympic Games#Revival|Olympic Games]] revived in [[Athens]].

==Events==
{{For timeline}}

===1801–1850===
* [[1801]]: The [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] and the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] merge to form the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]].
* [[1802]]: The [[Wahhabi]]s of the [[First Saudi State]] [[Wahhabi sack of Karbala|sack Karbala]].
* [[1803]]: [[William Symington]] demonstrates his ''[[Charlotte Dundas]]'', the "first practical steamboat".
* [[1803]]: The [[Wahhabi]]s of the [[First Saudi State]] capture [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].
* [[1804]]: [[Austrian Empire]] founded by [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis I]].
* [[1804]]: [[World population]] reaches 1 billion.
* [[1805]]: The [[Battle of Trafalgar]] eliminates the French and Spanish naval fleets and allows for British dominance of the seas, a major factor for the success of the [[British Empire]] later in the century.
* [[1805]]–[[1848]]: [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] modernizes [[Egypt]].
[[File:StamfordRaffles.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[1819]]: 29 January, [[Stamford Raffles]] arrives in Singapore with [[William Farquhar]] to establish a trading post for the [[East India Company|British East India Company]]. 8 February, The treaty is signed between Sultan Hussein of Johor, Temenggong Abdul Rahman and Stamford Raffles. Farquhar is installed as the first Resident of the settlement.]]
* [[1810]]: The [[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]] was founded. Among its students and faculty are [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], and [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]]. The German university reform proves to be so successful that its model is copied around the world (see [[History of European universities#European university models in the 19th and 20th centuries|History of European research universities]]).
* [[1814]]: [[Elisha Collier]] invents the [[Flintlock]] [[Revolver]].
* [[1814]] : February 1 Eruption of [[Mayon Volcano]]
* [[1815]]: April, [[Mount Tambora]] in [[Sumbawa]] island erupts, becoming the largest [[volcanic eruption]] in [[recorded history]], destroying [[Tambora culture]], and killing at least 71,000 people, including its aftermath. The eruption created [[global climate]] anomalies known as "[[volcanic winter]]".<ref name="Oppenheimer2003">{{cite journal|last=Oppenheimer|first=Clive|title=Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815|journal=Progress in Physical Geography|volume=27|issue=2|year=2003|pages=230–259|doi=10.1191/0309133303pp379ra|s2cid=131663534}}</ref>
* [[1816]]: [[Year Without a Summer]]: Unusually cold conditions wreak havoc throughout the Northern Hemisphere, likely influenced by the 1815 explosion of [[Mount Tambora]].
* [[1816]]–[[1828]]: [[Shaka]]'s [[Zulu Kingdom]] becomes the largest in [[Southern Africa]].
* [[1819]]: The [[Colombia|Republic of Colombia]] ([[Gran Colombia]]) achieves independence after [[Simón Bolívar]]'s triumph at the [[Battle of Boyacá]].
* [[1819]]: The modern city of [[Singapore]] is established by the [[British East India Company]].
* [[1820]]: Discovery of [[Antarctica]].
* [[1820]]: [[History of Liberia|Liberia]] founded by the [[American Colonization Society]] for freed American slaves.
* [[1820]]: Dissolution of the [[Maratha Empire]].
* [[1821]]–[[1823]]: [[First Mexican Empire]], as Mexico's first post-independent government, ruled by Emperor [[Agustín de Iturbide|Agustín I of Mexico]].
* [[1822]]: [[Pedro I of Brazil]] declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September.
* [[1823]]: [[Monroe Doctrine]] declared by US President [[James Monroe]].
* [[1825]]: The [[Decembrist revolt]].
[[File:Kolman decembrists.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Decembrists]] at the [[Saint Petersburg Senate Square|Senate Square]].]]
* [[1829]]: [[Sir Robert Peel]] founds the [[Metropolitan Police Service]], the first modern police force.
[[File:Emigrants Leave Ireland by Henry Doyle 1868.jpg|thumb|upright|Emigrants leaving [[Ireland]]. From 1830 to 1914, almost 5 million Irish people went to the United States alone.]]
* [[1830]]: Anglo-Russian rivalry over Afghanistan, [[the Great Game]], commences and concludes in 1895.
* [[1831]]: November Uprising ends with crushing defeat for Poland in the [[Battle of Warsaw (1831)|Battle of Warsaw]].
* [[1832]]: The British Parliament passes the [[Great Reform Act]].
* [[1834]]–[[1859]]: [[Imam Shamil]]'s rebellion in Russian-occupied [[Caucasus]].
* [[1835]]–[[1836]]: The [[Texas Revolution]] in Mexico resulted in the short-lived [[Republic of Texas]].
* [[1836]]: [[Samuel Colt]] popularizes the [[revolver]] and sets up a firearms company to manufacture his invention of the [[Colt Paterson]] revolver, a six bullets firearm shot one by one without reloading manually.
* [[1837]]–[[1838]]: [[Rebellions of 1837]] in [[Canada]].
* [[1838]]: By this time, 46,000 Native Americans have been forcibly relocated in the [[Trail of Tears]].
* [[1839]]–[[1860]]: After the [[First Opium War|First]] and [[Second Opium War]]s, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and Russia gain many [[Treaty ports|trade and associated concessions]] from China resulting in the start of the decline of the [[Qing dynasty]].
* [[1839]]–[[1919]]: [[Anglo-Afghan War]]s lead to stalemate and the establishment of the [[Durand line]]
* [[1842]]: [[Treaty of Nanking]] cedes [[Hong Kong]] to the British.
* [[1843]]: The first [[wagon train]] sets out from Missouri.
* [[1844]]: [[Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers]] establish what is considered the first [[cooperative]] in the world.
* [[1845]]–[[1849]]: The [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine of Ireland]] leads to the [[Irish diaspora]].
* [[1848]]: ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'' published.
* [[1848]]: [[Seneca Falls Convention]] is the first [[women's rights]] convention in the United States and leads to the [[History of Women's Suffrage in the United States|battle for women's suffrage]].
* [[1848]]–[[1855]]: [[California Gold Rush]].
* [[1849]]: Earliest recorded [[Airstrike|air raid]], as Austria employs [[The Austrian balloons|200 balloons]] to deliver ordnance against [[Venice]].
* [[1850]]: The [[Little Ice Age]] ends around this time.
* [[1850]]: [[Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch]] establishes the first [[cooperative banking|cooperative financial institution]].
[[File:U.S. Territorial Acquisitions.png|thumb|250px|Historical [[Territorial evolution of the United States|territorial expansion of the United States]]]]

===1851–1900===
{{for|later events|Timeline of the 20th century}}
* [[1851]]: The [[Great Exhibition]] in London was the world's first international Expo or [[World's fair|World Fair]].
* [[1852]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] delivers his speech "The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro" in [[Rochester, New York]].
* [[1857]]: Sir [[Joseph Whitworth]] designs the first long-range [[sniper rifle]].
* [[1857]]–[[1858]]: [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. The British Empire assumes control of India from the [[East India Company]].
* [[1858]]: Construction of [[Big Ben]] is completed.
* [[1859]]–[[1869]]: [[Suez Canal]] is constructed.
[[File:SuezCanalKantara.jpg|thumb|upright|The first vessels sail through the [[Suez Canal]]]]
* [[1860]]: [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] launches the [[Expedition of the Thousand]].
* [[1861]]: Russia [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|abolishes serfdom]].
* [[1862]]–[[1877]]: [[Dungan revolt (1862–1877)|Muslim Rebellion]] in north-west China.
* [[1863]]: Formation of the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|International Red Cross]] is followed by the adoption of the [[First Geneva Convention]] in 1864.
* [[1865]]–[[1877]]: [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] in the United States; Slavery is banned in the United States by the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]].
* [[1867]]: [[Canada]] is formed, via the process of [[Canadian Confederation]].
* [[1868]]: [[Michael Barrett (Fenian)|Michael Barrett]] is the last person to be publicly hanged in England.
* [[1869]]: The [[Suez Canal]] opens linking the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] to the [[Red Sea]].
[[File:Barricade18March1871.jpg|thumb|upright|A barricade in the [[Paris Commune]], 18 March 1871. Around 30,000 Parisians were killed, and thousands more were later executed.]]
[[File:Schwarzer Freitag Wien 1873.jpg|thumb|upright|Black Friday, 9 May 1873, Vienna Stock Exchange. The [[Panic of 1873]] and [[Long Depression]] followed.]]
* [[1870]]: Official dismantling of the [[Cultivation System]] and beginning of a '[[Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies)|Liberal Policy]]' of deregulated exploitation of the Netherlands East Indies.<ref name="VICKERS_xii">Vickers (2005), page xii</ref>
* [[1870]]–[[1890]]: [[Long Depression]] in [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]].
* [[1871]]–[[1872]]: [[List of famines|Famine]] in [[Iran|Persia]] is believed to have caused the death of 2 million.
* [[1871]]: The [[Paris Commune]] briefly rules the French capital.
* [[1872]]: [[Yellowstone National Park]], the first [[national park]], is created.
* [[1874]]: The ''Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, and Graveurs'', better known as the [[Impressionist]]s, organize and present their first public group exhibition at the Paris studio of the photographer [[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]].
* [[1874]]: The Home Rule Movement is established in [[Ireland]].
* [[1875]]: ''[[HMS Challenger]]'' surveys the deepest point in the Earth's oceans, the [[Challenger Deep]]
* [[1876]]: [[Battle of the Little Bighorn]] leads to the death of [[General Custer]] and victory for the alliance of [[Lakota people|Lakota]], [[Northern Cheyenne|Cheyenne]] and [[Arapaho]]
* [[1876]]–[[1914]]: The massive expansion in population, territory, industry and wealth in the United States is referred to as the [[Gilded Age]].
* [[1877]]: [[Great Railroad Strike]] in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide [[Strike action|labour strike]].
* [[1881]]: Wave of [[Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire|pogroms]] begins in the Russian Empire.
* [[1881]]–[[1882]]: The [[Jules Ferry laws]] are passed in [[French Third Republic|France]] establishing free, secular education.
* [[1883]]: [[Krakatoa]] volcano explosion, one of the largest in modern history.
* [[1883]]: The [[quagga]] is rendered extinct.
* [[1886]]: Construction of the [[Statue of Liberty]]; [[Coca-Cola]] is developed.
* [[1888]]: Founding of the shipping line ''[[Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij]]'' (KPM) that supported the unification and development of the colonial economy.<ref name="VICKERS_xii"/>
* [[1888]]: The [[Golden Law]] abolishes [[slavery in Brazil]].
* [[1889]]: [[Eiffel Tower]] is inaugurated in [[Paris]].
[[File:Filipino Ilustrados Jose Rizal Marcelo del Pilar Mariano Ponce.jpg|thumb|upright|Studio portrait of ''[[Ilustrado]]s'' in Europe, {{Circa|1890}}]]
* [[1889]]: A republican military coup establishes the [[First Brazilian Republic]]. The [[Empire of Brazil|parliamentary constitutional monarchy]] is abolished.
* [[1889]]-[[1890]]: [[1889–1890 pandemic]] kills 1 million people.
* [[1890]]: First use of the [[electric chair]] as a method of execution.
* [[1892]]: The [[World's Columbian Exposition]] was held in [[Chicago]] celebrating the 400th anniversary of [[Christopher Columbus]]'s arrival in the [[New World]].
* [[1892]]: [[Fingerprinting]] is officially adopted for the first time.
* [[1893]]: [[New Zealand]] becomes the first country to enact [[women's suffrage]].
* [[1893]]: The [[Coremans-de Vriendt law]] is passed in [[Belgium]], creating legal equality for [[French language|French]] and [[Dutch language]]s.
* [[1894]]: The [[Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem]]<ref name="VICKERS_xii"/> resulted in the looting and destruction of Cakranegara Palace in [[Mataram (city)|Mataram]].<ref>Wahyu Ernawati: "Chapter 8: The Lombok Treasure", in ''Colonial collections Revisited'': Pieter ter Keurs (editor) Vol. 152, CNWS publications. Issue 36 of ''Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde'', Leiden. CNWS Publications, 2007. {{ISBN|978-90-5789-152-6}}. 296 pages. pp. 186–203</ref> J. L. A. Brandes, a Dutch philologist, discovers and secures [[Nagarakretagama]] manuscript in Lombok royal library.
* [[1896]]: [[Philippine Revolution]] ends declaring Philippines free from Spanish rule.
* [[1898]]: The United States gains control of [[Cuba]], [[Puerto Rico]], and the [[Philippines]] after the [[Spanish–American War]].
* [[1898]]: [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] of [[Qing dynasty|China]] engineers a coup d'état, marking the end of the [[Hundred Days' Reform]]; the [[Guangxu Emperor]] is arrested.
* [[1900]]: [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|Exposition Universelle]] held in Paris, prominently featuring the growing art trend [[Art Nouveau]].
* [[1900]]–[[1901]]: [[Eight-Nation Alliance|Eight nations invade China]] at the same time and ransack [[Forbidden City]].

=== Last survivors ===
Born on 19 April 1897, Japanese [[Jiroemon Kimura]] died on 12 June 2013, marking the death of the last man verified man to have been born in the century.<ref>{{cite web |date=15 April 2013 |title=World's oldest man ever turns 116 in Kyoto as his health is studied |url=http://japandailypress.com/worlds-oldest-man-ever-turns-116-in-kyoto-as-his-health-is-studied-1927336 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605022257/http://japandailypress.com/worlds-oldest-man-ever-turns-116-in-kyoto-as-his-health-is-studied-1927336 |archive-date=5 June 2013 |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=The Japan Daily Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=19 April 2013 |title=World's oldest person turns 116 in Japan |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20130419-worlds-oldest-person-turns-116-japan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616010617/http://www.france24.com/en/20130419-worlds-oldest-person-turns-116-japan |archive-date=16 June 2013 |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=France 24 International News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=World's oldest person Jiroemon Kimura turns 116 in Japan |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/et-cetera/worlds-oldest-person-jiroemon-kimura-turns-116-in-japan/articleshow/19628476.cms |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=The Economic Times |agency=Agence France-Presse}}</ref> [[Jiroemon Kimura|Kimura]] remains the to date date [[List of the verified oldest men|oldest verified man in history]].<ref name="bloomberg">{{cite web |last=Matsuyama |first=Kanoko |date=27 December 2012 |title=Japanese 115-Year-Old Becomes Oldest Man in History |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-12-28/japanese-115-year-old-becomes-oldest-man-in-recorded-history.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229142949/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-12-28/japanese-115-year-old-becomes-oldest-man-in-recorded-history.html |archive-date=29 December 2012 |access-date=28 December 2012 |work=Bloomberg}}</ref> Subsequently, on 15 April 2017, Japanese [[Nabi Tajima]] (born 4 August 1900) died as the last person to verifiably have been born in the century,<ref name="slate2">{{Cite web |last=Politi |first=Daniel |date=22 April 2018 |title=The Last Known Person Born in the 19th Century Dies in Japan at 117 |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/04/the-last-known-person-born-in-the-19th-century-died-in-japan.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912162416/https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/04/the-last-known-person-born-in-the-19th-century-died-in-japan.html |archive-date=12 September 2023 |access-date=4 October 2019 |website=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]}}</ref> as well as Japan's oldest person ever until surpassed by [[Kane Tanaka]] in 2020.<ref name="oldestjapanese">{{Cite web |title=117-year-old granny sets new record as Japan's oldest ever person |url=https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/09/5e5c26158954-tanaka-sets-new-japan-age-record-at-117-years-261-days.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831182907/https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/09/5e5c26158954-tanaka-sets-new-japan-age-record-at-117-years-261-days.html |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=21 September 2020 |website=Kyodo News+}}</ref>

==Supplementary portrait gallery==
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
File:Carl Friedrich Gauss 1840 by Jensen.jpg|[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
File:Charles Robert Darwin by John Collier cropped.jpg|[[Charles Darwin]]
File:Victor Hugo by Étienne Carjat 1876 - full.jpg|[[Victor Hugo]] {{Circa|1876}}
File:Kramskoy Mendeleev 01.jpg|[[Dmitri Mendeleev]]
File:Louis Pasteur.jpg|[[Louis Pasteur]], 1878
File:Mariecurie.jpg|[[Marie Curie]], {{Circa|1898}}
File:Nikola Tesla by Sarony c1898.jpg|[[Nikola Tesla]]
File:Jose Rizal full.jpg|[[José Rizal]]
File:Jane Austen (chopped) 2.jpg|[[Jane Austen]]
File:Leo Tolstoy 1897, black and white, 37767u.jpg|[[Leo Tolstoy]] {{Circa|1897}}
File:Edgar Allan Poe 2.jpg|[[Edgar Allan Poe]]
File:Félix_Nadar_1820-1910_portraits_Jules_Verne.jpg|[[Jules Verne]]
File:Charles Dickens 3.jpg|[[Charles Dickens]]
File:Carjat Arthur Rimbaud 1872 n2.jpg|[[Arthur Rimbaud]] {{Circa|1872}}
File:Twain in Tesla's Lab.jpg|[[Mark Twain]], 1894
File:RWEmerson.jpg|[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]
File:Benjamin D. Maxham - Henry David Thoreau - Restored - greyscale - straightened.jpg|[[Henry David Thoreau]], August 1861.
File:Emile Zola 2.jpg|[[Émile Zola]], {{Circa|1900}}
File:Chekhov 1903 ArM.jpg|[[Anton Chekhov]]
File:Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky 1876.jpg|[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], 1876
File:John L Sullivan.jpg|[[John L Sullivan]] in his prime, {{Circa|1882}}
File:David Livingstone -1.jpg|[[David Livingstone]] 1864, left [[Great Britain|Britain]] for [[Africa]] in 1840
File:Jesse and Frank James.gif|[[Jesse James|Jesse]] and [[Frank James]], 1872
File:William Notman studios - Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill (1895) edit.jpg|[[Sitting Bull]] and [[Buffalo Bill Cody]], Montreal, Quebec, 1885
File:Goyaale.jpg|[[Geronimo]], 1887, prominent leader of the [[Chiricahua]] [[Apache]]
File:Billy the Kid corrected.jpg|[[William Bonney]] aka [[Henry McCarty]] aka [[Billy the Kid]], {{Circa|late 1870s}}
File:Wyatt Earp und Bat Masterson 1876.jpg|Deputies [[Bat Masterson]] and [[Wyatt Earp]] in [[Dodge City]], 1876
File:Mathew Brady 1875 cropped.jpg|[[Mathew Brady]], Self-portrait, {{Circa|1875}}
File:Alfred Lord Tennyson 1869.jpg|[[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]
File:Thomas Nast - Brady-Handy.jpg|[[Thomas Nast]], {{Circa|1860}}–1875, photo by [[Mathew Brady]] or Levin Handy
File:Hadhrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad2.jpg|[[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]]
File:Bakunin.png|[[Mikhail Bakunin]]
File:Kierkegaard.jpg|[[Søren Kierkegaard]]
File:Solomon Northup 001 (cropped).jpg|[[Solomon Northup]]
File:Dred Scott photograph (circa 1857).jpg|[[Dred Scott]]
File:Madame CJ Walker.gif|[[Madam C. J. Walker]]
File:Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant.jpg|[[Claude Monet]]'s ''[[Impression, Sunrise]]'', 1872, gave the name to [[Impressionism]]
File:Paul Cézanne 159.jpg|[[Paul Cézanne]], [[self-portrait]], 1880–1881
File:Scott Joplin.jpg|[[Scott Joplin]]
File:NiccoloPaganini.jpeg|[[Niccolò Paganini]], {{Circa|1819}}
File:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 043.jpg|[[Frédéric Chopin]], 1838
File:John D. Rockefeller, Sr.jpg|[[John D. Rockefeller]]
</gallery>

==See also==

*[[Timelines of modern history]]
*[[Long nineteenth century]]
*[[19th century in film]]
*[[19th century in games]]
*[[19th-century philosophy]]
*[[Nineteenth-century theatre]]
*[[International relations (1814–1919)]]
*[[List of wars: 1800–1899]]
*[[Victorian era]]
*[[France in the long nineteenth century]]
*[[History of Spain (1808–1874)]]
*[[History of Russia (1855–1892)]]
*[[Slavery in the United States]]
*[[Timeline of 19th-century Muslim history]]
*[[Timeline of historic inventions#19th century|Timeline of historic inventions]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo00lang online free]
* Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. ''Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present'' (1970) [https://archive.org/details/harperencycloped00morr online frr]
* ''New Cambridge Modern History'' (13 vol 1957–79), old but thorough coverage, mostly of Europe; strong on diplomacy
**Bury, J. P. T. ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 10: the Zenith of European Power, 1830–70'' (1964) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/10#page/n3/mode/1up online]
**Crawley, C. W., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History Volume IX War and Peace In An Age of Upheaval 1793–1830'' (1965) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/09#page/n4/mode/1up online]
**Darby, H. C. and H. Fullard ''The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas'' (1972)
**Hinsley, F.H., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 11, Material Progress and World-Wide Problems 1870–1898'' (1979) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/11#page/n3/mode/1up online]

===Diplomacy and international relations===
{{Main|International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)}}
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-24729-5|title=Greater France|year=1996|last1=Aldrich|first1=Robert|isbn=978-0-333-56740-1}}
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-24958-9|title=Peace, War and the European Powers, 1814–1914|year=1996|last1=Bartlett|first1=C. J.|publisher=Macmillan Education UK |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-62001-4}}
* Bridge, F. R. & Roger Bullen. ''The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914'', 2nd Ed. (2005)
* {{cite journal|doi=10.2307/3014586|jstor=3014586|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.86299|title=History of Modern Europe, 1878-1919|year=1923|last1=Gooch|first1=G. P.|journal=Journal of the British Institute of International Affairs|volume=2|issue=6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.86299/page/n277 266]}}
* Herring, George C. ''Years of Peril and Ambition: U.S. Foreign Relations, 1776–1921'' (2017)
* [[Paul Kennedy|Kennedy, Paul]]. [[The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers|''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500–2000'']] (1987), stress on economic and military factors
* Langer, William. ''European Alliances and Alignments 1870–1890'' (1950); advanced history [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.237096 online]
* Langer, William. ''The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902'' (1950); advanced history [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177815 online]
* Mowat, R.B. ''A history of European diplomacy, 1815–1914'' (1922) [https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropea00mowauoft online free]
* {{cite book|doi=10.1515/9781400849949|title=The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century|year=2014|last1=Osterhammel|first1=Jürgen|isbn=9781400849949|url=http://www.gbv.de/dms/bowker/toc/9780691147451.pdf }}
* Porter, Andrew, ed. ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century'' (2001)
* Sontag, Raymond. ''European Diplomatic History: 1871–1932'' (1933), basic summary; 425 pp [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.503351/2015.503351.european-diplomatic_text.pdf online]
* Taylor, A.J.P. ''[[The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918]]'' (1954) 638 pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy; [https://archive.org/details/struggleformaste00ajpt online free]
* Taylor, A.J.P. "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., ''The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98'' (1962): 542–66. [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/11#page/n3/mode/1up online]
* {{cite book|doi=10.4324/9781315844503|title=The European Colonial Empires|year=2015|last1=Wesseling|first1=H. L.|isbn=9781315844503}}

===Europe===
* Anderson, M. S. ''The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003)
* Blanning, T. C. W. ed. ''The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914'' (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320 pp
* Bruun, Geoffrey. ''Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 '' (1938) [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.183653/2015.183653.Europe-And-The-French-Imperium-1799-1814_text.pdf online].
* Cameron, Rondo. ''France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War'' (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history.
* Evans, Richard J. ''The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914'' (2016), 934 pp
* Gildea, Robert. ''Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp, [https://www.questia.com/read/55547824/barricades-and-borders-europe-1800-1914 online 2nd ed, 1996]
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-4039-3757-5|title=Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe|year=2003|last1=Grab|first1=Alexander|publisher=Macmillan Education UK |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-68275-3}}
* Mason, David S. ''A Concise History of Modern Europe: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity'' (2011), since 1700
* Merriman, John, and J. M. Winter, eds. ''Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire'' (5 vol. 2006)
* Steinberg, Jonathan. ''Bismarck: A Life'' (2011)
* Salmi, Hannu. ''19th Century Europe: A Cultural History'' (2008).

===Asia, Africa===
* Ajayi, J. F. Ade, ed. ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. VI, Abridged Edition: Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s'' (1998)
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139644594|title=Africa's Development in Historical Perspective|year=2014|isbn=9781139644594|editor1-last=Akyeampong|editor1-first=Emmanuel|editor2-last=Bates|editor2-first=Robert H|editor3-last=Nunn|editor3-first=Nathan|editor4-last=Robinson|editor4-first=James A}}
* [[Chamberlain. M.E.]] ''The Scramble for Africa'' (3rd ed. 2010)
* Collins, Robert O. and James M, Burns, eds. ''A History of Sub-Saharan Africa''.
*[[Basil Davidson|Davidson, Basil]] ''Africa In History, Themes and Outlines''. (2nd ed. 1991).
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/9781316340356|title=A History of East Asia|year=2017|last1=Holcombe|first1=Charles|isbn=9781107118737}}
* Ludden, David. ''India and South Asia: A Short History'' (2013).
* McEvedy, Colin. ''The Penguin Atlas of African History'' (2nd ed. 1996). [https://www.amazon.com/Penguin-Atlas-African-History-Revised/dp/0140513213/ excerpt]
* Mansfield, Peter, and Nicolas Pelham, ''A History of the Middle East'' (4th ed, 2013).
* {{cite book|doi=10.4324/9781315509495|title=A History of Asia|year=2016|last1=Murphey|first1=Rhoads|isbn=9781315509495}}
* Pakenham, Thomas. ''The Scramble for Africa: 1876 to 1912'' (1992)

=== North and South America ===
*Bakewell, Peter, ''A History of Latin America'' (Blackwell, 1997)
* Beezley, William, and Michael Meyer, eds. ''The Oxford History of Mexico'' (2010)
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521232234|title=The Cambridge History of Latin America|year=1984|isbn=9781139055161|editor1-last=Bethell|editor1-first=Leslie}}
* Black, Conrad. ''Rise to Greatness: The History of Canada From the Vikings to the Present'' (2014)
* Burns, E. Bradford, ''Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History'', paperback, Prentice Hall 2001, 7th edition
* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848'' (2009), Pulitzer Prize
* Kirkland, Edward C. ''A History Of American Economic Life'' (3rd ed. 1960) [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.223513/2015.223513.A-History.pdf online]
* Lynch, John, ed. ''Latin American revolutions, 1808–1826: old and new world origins'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1994)
* McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom The CIvil War Era'' (1988) Pulitzer Prize for US history
* Parry, J.H. ''A Short History of the West Indies'' (1987)
* Paxson, Frederic Logan. ''History of the American frontier, 1763–1893'' (1924) [https://web.archive.org/web/20160202142001/https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/ttu-ir/bitstream/handle/2346/47065/ttu_hfwc01_000001.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y online], Pulitzer Prize
* White, Richard. ''The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States during Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896'' (2017)

===Primary sources===
* de Bary, Wm. Theodore, ed. ''Sources of East Asian Tradition, Vol. 2: The Modern Period'' (2008), 1192 pp
* Kertesz, G.A. ed ''Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815–1939'' (1968), 507 pp; several hundred short documents

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
{{Wikiquote}}

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[[Category:19th century| ]]
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19th century

2023-09-12T18:08:43Z

78.157.120.208: Perhaps this is better

{{Short description|Time period between 1 January 1801 and 31 December 1900}}
{{other uses}}
{{Centurybox|19}}
[[File:Jacques-Louis David - The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], Emperor of the [[First French Empire]].]]
The '''19th''' '''century''' began on 1 January 1801 (represented by the [[Roman numerals]] MDCCCI), and ended on 31 December 1900 (MCM).

The 19th century was characterized by vast social upheaval. [[Slavery]] was [[abolitionism|abolished]] in much of [[Europe]] and the [[Americas]]. The [[Industrial Revolution|First Industrial Revolution]], though it began in the late 18th century, expanding beyond its British homeland for the first time during this century, particularly remaking the economies and societies of the [[Low Countries]], the [[Rhineland]], [[Northern Italy]], and the [[Northeastern United States]]. A few decades later, the [[Second Industrial Revolution]] led to ever more massive [[urbanization]] and much higher levels of productivity, profit, and prosperity, a pattern that continued into the [[20th century]].

It was, in the Middle East, an era of change and reform. The [[Gunpowder empires|Islamic gunpowder empires]] fell into decline and European [[imperialism]] brought much of [[South Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]], and almost all of [[Africa]] under [[Colonialism|colonial rule]]. Reformers were opposed at every turn by conservatives who strove to maintain the centuries old Islamic laws and social order.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cleveland |first1=William L. |last2=Bunton |first2=Martin |title=A History of the Modern Middle East |date=2016 |isbn=9780813349800 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780429495502/history-modern-middle-east-william-cleveland|quote=The 19th century is frequently characterized as a period of tension between forces of continuity and change. The reformers who advocated the adoption of European institutions and technology, have often been portrayed as the progressive elements of society courageously charting the course toward an inevitably Westernized twentieth century. Conversely, the adherents of continuity, who viewed with alarm the dismantling of the Islamic order and sought to preserve tradition and retain the values and ideals that had served Ottoman and Islamic society so well for so long, are sometimes portrayed as nothing but archaic reactionaries. But we should avoid these simplistic characterizations if we are to appreciate the agonizing and dangerous process of transforming an established religious, social and political worldview.}}</ref> The century also saw the collapse of the large [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] and [[Mughal Empire]]s. This paved the way for the growing influence of the [[British Empire|British]], [[French colonial empire|French]], [[German colonial empire|German]], [[Russian Empire|Russian]], [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]], [[Italian Empire|Italian]], and [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empires]] along with the [[United States]]. The British boasted unchallenged global dominance after 1815.

After the defeat of [[First French Empire|France]] in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the British and Russian Empires expanded greatly, becoming two of the world's leading powers. Russia expanded its territory to [[Central Asia]] and the [[Caucasus]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] underwent a period of [[Westernization]] and reform known as the [[Tanzimat]], vastly increasing its control over core territories in the [[Middle East]]. However, it remained in decline and became known as the [[sick man of Europe]], losing territory in the [[Balkans]] and [[North Africa]].

The remaining powers in the [[Indian subcontinent]] such as the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] and [[Sikh Empire]]s suffered a massive decline and their dissatisfaction with the [[East India Company|British East India Company]]'s rule led to the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], marking its dissolution. India was later ruled directly by the [[The Crown|British Crown]] through the establishment of the [[British Raj]].

Britain's overseas possessions grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the century, the British controlled a fifth of the world's land and one-quarter of the world's population. During the post-Napoleonic era, it enforced what became known as the [[Pax Britannica]], which had ushered in unprecedented [[globalization]] on a massive scale.

The last [[man]] and [[woman]] born during the century died in 2013 and 2017, respectively.

==Overview==
[[File:Queen Victoria - Winterhalter 1859.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Queen Victoria]] of Great Britain.]]

The first [[electronics]] appeared in the 19th century, with the introduction of the [[Relay#History|electric relay]] in 1835, the [[telegraph]] and its [[Morse code]] protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/recon/jb_recon_telephone_1.html|title=The First Telephone Call|website=www.americaslibrary.gov|access-date=2015-10-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022110620/http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/recon/jb_recon_telephone_1.html|archive-date=2015-10-22|url-status=live}}</ref> and the first functional [[light bulb]] in 1878.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2009/12/1218joseph-swan-electric-bulb/|title=Dec. 18, 1878: Let There Be Light — Electric Light|date=18 December 2009|magazine=WIRED|access-date=4 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021003405/https://www.wired.com/2009/12/1218joseph-swan-electric-bulb/|archive-date=21 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating [[Discovery (observation)#In science|scientific discovery]] and [[invention]], with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070105005042/http://corporate.britannica.com/press/inventions.html Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref> The [[Industrial Revolution]] began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America, and Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://americanhistory.about.com/od/industrialrev/a/indrevoverview.htm |title=The United States and the Industrial Revolution in the 19th Century |publisher=Americanhistory.about.com |date=2012-09-18 |access-date=2012-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728095536/http://americanhistory.about.com/od/industrialrev/a/indrevoverview.htm |archive-date=2012-07-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Victorian era]] was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict [[social norm]]s regarding modesty and gender roles.<ref>Laura Del Col, West Virginia University, [http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313022018/http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html |date=2008-03-13 }}</ref> Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the [[Meiji Restoration]], before defeating China, under the [[Qing dynasty]], in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]]. [[History of medicine#19th century: rise of modern medicine|Advances in medicine]] and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating [[population growth]] in the [[Western world]]. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change |title= Modernization – Population Change |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090406074344/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change |archive-date=April 6, 2009}}</ref> The introduction of [[Rail transport|railroads]] provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major [[urbanization]] movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's [[List of largest cities throughout history|largest city]] and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior [[Africa]] and [[Asia]], were [[Exploration|explored]] during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s. [[Liberalism]] became the pre-eminent [[reform movement]] in Europe.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339173/liberalism/237346/Liberalism-in-the-19th-century Liberalism in the 19th century] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218233116/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339173/liberalism/237346/Liberalism-in-the-19th-century |date=2009-02-18 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica.''</ref>
[[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Arab slave trade]]rs and their captives along the Ruvuma river (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique), 19th century]]

[[Slavery]] was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful [[Haitian Revolution|slave revolt in Haiti]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and France stepped up the battle against the [[Barbary pirates]] and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's [[Slavery Abolition Act]] charged the British [[Royal Navy]] with ending the global [[History of slavery|slave trade]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108141034/http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml |date=2009-01-08 }}. ''BBC.''</ref> The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] following their [[American Civil War|Civil War]] abolished slavery there in 1865, and in [[Lei Áurea|Brazil]] slavery was abolished in 1888 (see [[abolitionism]]). Similarly, [[serfdom]] was abolished in [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|Russia]] in 1861.

The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new [[Settler|settlement]] foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century. [[Chicago]] in the [[United States]] and [[Melbourne]] in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States.<ref>[http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1118_0_5_0 The Atlantic: Can the US afford immigration?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704173521/http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1118_0_5_0 |date=2010-07-04 }}. ''Migration News''. December 1996.</ref>

The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States. [[Association football]], [[rugby union]], [[baseball]], and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as [[cricket]] to many different parts of the world. Also, [[1890s in Western fashion|women's fashion]] was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous.

[[File:Europe 1815 map en.png|thumb|200px|The boundaries set by the Congress of Vienna, 1815.]]
It also marks the fall of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]] of the [[Balkans]] which led to the creation of [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] as a result of the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|second Russo-Turkish War]], which in itself followed the great [[Crimean War]].

===Eras===
[[File:World 1898 empires colonies territory.png|thumb|250px|Map of the world from 1897. The [[British Empire]] (marked in pink) was the superpower of the 19th century.]]
*[[Industrial revolution]]
*[[European imperialism]]
*[[British Regency]], [[Victorian era]] (UK, [[British Empire]])
*[[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]], [[July Monarchy]], [[French Second Republic]], [[Second French Empire]], [[French Third Republic]] ([[France in the nineteenth century|France]])
*[[Belle Époque]] (Europe)
*[[Edo period]], [[Meiji period]] (Japan)
*[[Qing dynasty]] (China)
*[[Nguyen dynasty]] (Vietnam)
*[[Joseon]] dynasty (Korea)
*[[Zulu Kingdom]] (South Africa)
*[[Tanzimat]], [[First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|First Constitutional Era]] ([[Decline of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]])
*[[Russian Empire]]
*[[Manifest Destiny|American Manifest Destiny]], [[Antebellum South|Antebellum Era]], [[Gilded Age|The Gilded Age]], [[American frontier|Wild West]], [[Reconstruction era|Reconstruction]] (United States)

== Wars ==
===Napoleonic Wars===
{{main|Napoleonic Wars}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of the Napoleonic era}}
[[File:Napoleons retreat from moscow.jpg|thumb|right|[[Napoleon]]'s retreat from Russia in 1812. The war swings decisively against the French Empire]]
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] and its allies, led by [[Napoleon I]], against a fluctuating array of [[Coalition forces of the Napoleonic Wars|European powers formed into various coalitions]], financed and usually led by the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the [[French Revolution]] and its [[French Revolutionary Wars|resultant conflict]].

In the aftermath of the [[French Revolution]], [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself [[Emperor of the French]].

In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]] ended the [[War of the Third Coalition]]. As a result of the [[Treaty of Pressburg (1805)|Treaty of Pressburg]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was dissolved.

Later efforts were less successful. In the [[Peninsular War]], France unsuccessfully attempted to establish [[Joseph Bonaparte]] as King of Spain. In 1812, the [[French invasion of Russia]] had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].

In 1814, after defeat in the [[War of the Sixth Coalition]], Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to [[Elba]]. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the [[Hundred Days]] before finally being defeated at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] and exiled to [[Saint Helena]], an island in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]].

After Napoleon's defeat, the [[Congress of Vienna]] was held to determine new national borders. The [[Concert of Europe]] attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact.

===Latin American independence===
{{main|Latin American wars of independence|Spanish American wars of independence}}
[[File:JuraIndependencia.jpg|thumb|alt=Portrait of the Chilean declaration of independence|The [[Chilean Declaration of Independence]] on 18 February 1818]]
[[Mexico]] and the majority of the countries in [[Central America]] and [[South America]] obtained independence from [[Colonialism|colonial]] overlords during the 19th century. In 1804, [[Haitian Revolution|Haiti]] gained independence from France. In [[Mexico]], the [[Mexican War of Independence]] was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821.

Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal [[Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|relocated to Brazil]] from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal.

The [[Federal Republic of Central America]] gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of [[Guatemala]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[Costa Rica]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perez-Brignoli|first1=Hector|title=A Brief History of Central America|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofce00pr|url-access=registration|date=1989|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520909762}}</ref>

In 1830, the post-colonial nation of [[Gran Colombia]] dissolved and the nations of [[Colombia]] (including modern-day Panama), [[Ecuador]], and [[Venezuela]] took its place.

===Revolutions of 1848===
{{main|Revolutions of 1848}}
[[File:Maerz1848 berlin.jpg|thumb|upright|Liberal and nationalist pressure led to the [[Revolutions of 1848|European revolutions of 1848]]]]
The [[Revolutions of 1848]] were a series of [[political upheaval]]s throughout [[Europe]] in 1848. The revolutions were essentially [[democracy|democratic]] and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old [[Monarchy|monarchical]] structures and creating independent nation states.

The first revolution began in [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states|January in Sicily]].{{clarify|date=December 2017}} Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in [[French Revolution of 1848|France in February]]. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries.

According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.<ref>R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., ''The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849'' (2000) pp. v, 4</ref>

===Abolition and the American Civil War===
{{main|Abolitionism|American Civil War}}
[[File:Wilberforce john rising.jpg|thumb|[[William Wilberforce]] (1759–1833), politician and philanthropist who was a leader of the movement to [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolish the slave trade]].]]

The [[abolitionism]] movement achieved success in the 19th century. The [[Atlantic slave trade]] was abolished in the United States in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The [[Slavery Abolition Act]] of 1833 banned slavery throughout the [[British Empire]], and the [[Lei Áurea]] abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.

[[Abolitionism in the United States]] continued until the end of the [[American Civil War]]. [[Frederick Douglass]] and [[Harriet Tubman]] were two of many American abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer, while Tubman worked with a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the [[Underground Railroad]].

The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Eleven [[Southern United States|southern states]] seceded from the [[United States]], largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President [[Abraham Lincoln]] issued the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. Lincoln issued a preliminary<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation|title=The Emancipation Proclamation|date=October 6, 2015|website=National Archives|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206210236/https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation|archive-date=February 6, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> on September 22, 1862, warning that in all states still in rebellion ([[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free."<ref>McPherson, J. M. (2014). "Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment", in E. Foner and J. A. Garraty (eds.), ''The Reader's Companion to American History''. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. [http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rcah/emancipation_proclamation_and_thirteenth_amendment/0] Retrieved from {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106000538/https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rcah/emancipation_proclamation_and_thirteenth_amendment/0|date=2018-11-06}}</ref> He did so.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation/transcript.html|title=Transcript of the Proclamation|date=October 6, 2015|website=National Archives}}</ref> The [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] to the Constitution,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/13th-amendment|title=13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery|date=January 27, 2016|website=National Archives|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216131544/https://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/13th-amendment|archive-date=February 16, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country.

Five days after [[Robert E. Lee]] surrendered at [[Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia]], [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln was assassinated]] by actor and [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] sympathiser [[John Wilkes Booth]].

=== Decline of the Ottoman Empire ===
{{main|Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire}}
In 1830, [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]] became the first country to break away from the [[Ottoman Empire]] after the [[Greek War of Independence]]. In 1831, the [[Bosnian uprising (1831–1832)|Bosnian Uprising]] against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the [[Principality of Serbia]] became [[Suzerainty|suzerain]] from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a constitution that defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1876, [[Bulgarians]] instigated the [[April Uprising of 1876|April Uprising]] against Ottoman rule. Following the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War]], the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]] recognized the formal independence of the Serbia, [[Principality of Montenegro|Montenegro]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]]. [[Principality of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] became autonomous.

=== China: Taiping Rebellion ===
{{main|Taiping Rebellion}}
[[File:Regaining the Provincial Capital of Ruizhou.jpg|thumb|280px|A scene of the [[Taiping Rebellion]].]]
The [[Taiping Rebellion]] was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20-30 million people. Its leader, [[Hong Xiuquan]], declared himself the younger brother of [[Jesus Christ]] and developed a new Chinese religion known as the [[God Worshipping Society]]. After proclaiming the establishment of the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]] in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing [[Nanjing]] in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reilly|first1=Thomas H.|title=The Taiping heavenly kingdom rebellion and the blasphemy of empire|date=2004|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|isbn=978-0295801926|edition=1}}</ref>

=== Japan: Meiji Restoration ===
{{main|Meiji Restoration}}
During the [[Edo period]], [[History of Japan|Japan]] largely pursued an [[Sakoku|isolationist foreign policy]]. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore [[Matthew C. Perry]] threatened the Japanese capital [[Edo]] with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to [[Bakumatsu|the opening of trade relations]] between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of [[Sakoku]] formally ended in 1854.

By 1872, the Japanese government under [[Emperor Meiji]] had [[Abolition of the han system|eliminated the ''daimyō'' system]] and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the [[samurai]] class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.<ref>W. G. Beasley, ''The Meiji Restoration'' (1972),</ref>

=== Colonialism ===
[[File:Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algier-Ernest-Francis Vacherot mg 5120.jpg|thumb|Arrival of Marshal [[Jacques Louis Randon|Randon]] in [[Algiers]], [[French Algeria]] in 1857]]
{{main|Western imperialism in Asia|Scramble for Africa}}
[[File:Rao Baji signing the Treaty of Vasai.jpg|thumb|The [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]] and the [[East India Company]] sign the [[Treaty of Bassein (1802)|Treaty of Bassein]] in 1802.]]
* [[1803]]: United States more than doubles in size when it buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the [[Louisiana Purchase]]. This begins the U.S.'s westward expansion to the Pacific, referred to as its [[Manifest Destiny]], which involves [[United States territorial acquisitions|annexing and conquering land]] from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans.
* [[1817]] – [[1819]]: British Empire annexed the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]] after the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]].
* [[1823]] – [[1887]]: British Empire annexed Burma (now also called [[Myanmar]]) after three [[Anglo-Burmese Wars]].
* [[1848]] – [[1849]]: [[Sikh Empire]] is defeated in the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]]. Therefore, the entire [[Indian subcontinent]] is under British control.
* [[1862]]: France gained its first foothold in [[Southeast Asia]] and in [[1863]] annexed [[Cambodia]].
* [[1867]]: United States [[Alaska Purchase|purchased Alaska]] from [[Russia]].

==== Africa ====
[[File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png|thumb|300px|Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913]]
In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as [[quinine]] and more advanced [[firearms]] allowed European nations to conquer native populations.<ref name="KerrAfrica">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Gordon|title=A Short History of Africa: From the Origins of the Human Race to the Arab Spring|date=2012|publisher=Pocket Essentials|location=Harpenden, Herts [UK]|isbn=9781842434420|pages=85–101}}</ref>

Motivations for the [[Scramble for Africa]] included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the [[Suez Canal]], but [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] defeated Italy in the [[First Italo–Ethiopian War]] at the [[Battle of Adwa]]. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations.<ref name="KerrAfrica" />

In 1867, [[diamond]]s were discovered in the [[Kimberley, Northern Cape|Kimberley]] region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in [[South African Republic|Transvaal]]. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by [[Cecil Rhodes]].<ref name="KerrAfrica" />

=== Other wars ===
* [[1801]]–[[1815]]: [[First Barbary War]] and the [[Second Barbary War]] between the United States and the [[Barbary States]] of [[North Africa]].
* [[1802]]: [[Tây Sơn dynasty|Tay Son]] army recaptured [[Thừa Thiên Huế province|Phu Xuan]], causing Vo Tanh to commit suicide, [[Gia Long|Nguyen Phuc Anh]] successfully captured [[Hanoi|Thang Long]], founded the [[Nguyen dynasty]]
* [[1804]]–[[1810]]: [[Fulani War|Fulani Jihad]] in [[Nigeria]].
* [[1804]]–[[1813]]: [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Persian War]].
* [[1806]]–[[1812]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)|Russo-Turkish War]], [[Treaty of Bucharest (1812)|Treaty of Bucharest]].
* [[1807]]–[[1837]]: [[Musket Wars]] among [[Māori people|Māori]] in many parts of [[New Zealand]].
* [[1808]]–[[1809]]: Russia conquers Finland from Sweden in the [[Finnish War]].[[File:KingShaka.jpg|thumb|1816: [[Shaka]] rises to power over the [[Zulu Kingdom]]. Zulu expansion was a major factor of the [[Mfecane]] ("Crushing") that depopulated large areas of southern Africa]]
* [[1810]]: [[Grito de Dolores]] begins the [[Mexican War of Independence]].
* [[1811]]: [[Battle of Tippecanoe]]: U.S. outnumbering Native Americans resulting in defeat and burning of community
* [[1812]]–[[1815]]: [[War of 1812]] between the United States and Britain; ends in a draw, except that Native Americans lose power.
* [[1813]]–[[1837]]: [[Afghan–Sikh Wars]].
* [[1814]]–[[1816]]: [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] between [[Nepal]] (Gurkha Empire) and [[British Empire]].
* [[1817]]: First [[Seminole War]] begins in Florida.
* [[1817]]: Russia commences its [[Caucasian War|conquest of the Caucasus]].
* [[1820]]: [[Revolutions of 1820]] in Southern Europe
* [[1821]]–[[1830]]: [[Greek War of Independence]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1825]]–[[1830]]: [[Java War]] begins.
* [[1826]]–[[1828]]: After the final [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Russo-Persian War]], the [[Qajar dynasty|Persian Empire]] took back territory lost to Russia from the previous war.
* [[1828]]–[[1832]]: [[Black War]] in [[Tasmania]] leads to the near extinction of the [[Tasmanian aborigines]]
* 1[[830]]: [[July Revolution]] overthrew old line of Bourbons.
* [[1830]]: [[November Uprising]] in [[Poland]] against [[Russia]].
* [[1830]]: [[Belgian Revolution]] results in [[Belgium]]'s independence from [[Netherlands]].
* [[1830]]: End of the Java War. The whole area of Yogyakarta and Surakarta Manca nagara Dutch seized. 27 September, Klaten Agreement determines a fixed boundary between Surakarta and Yogyakarta and permanently divide the kingdom of Mataram was signed by Sasradiningrat, Pepatih Dalem Surakarta, and Danurejo, Pepatih Dalem Yogyakarta. Mataram is a de facto and de yure controlled by the Dutch East Indies.
* [[1831]]: [[France]] [[French rule in Algeria|invades and occupies Algeria]].
* [[1831]]–[[1833]]: [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)|Egyptian–Ottoman War]].
* [[1832]]–[[1875]]: Regimental rebellions of Brazil
* [[1835]]–[[1836]]: [[Texas Revolution]] results in [[Texas]]'s independence from [[Mexico]].
* [[1839]]–[[1842]]: [[First Opium War]] begins.
* [[1846]]–[[1848]]: [[Mexican–American War]] leads to Mexico's cession of much of the modern-day [[Southwestern United States]].
* [[1848]]: [[French Revolution of 1848|February Revolution]] overthrew Louis Philippe's government. Second Republic proclaimed; Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, elected president.
* [[1853]]–[[1856]]: [[Crimean War]] between France, the United Kingdom, the [[Ottoman Empire]] and Russia.
* [[1857]]: [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion]] against the [[Company Raj]]. After this the power of the [[East India Company]] is transferred to the [[British Raj|British Crown]].
* [[1859]]: [[Second Italian War of Independence|Franco-Austrian War]] is part of the wars of [[Italian unification]].
* [[1861]]–[[1865]]: [[American Civil War]] between the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] and seceding [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. [[File:EwellsDeadSpotsylvania1864crop01.jpg|thumb|Dead Confederate soldiers. 30% of all Southern white males 18–40 years of age died in the [[American Civil War]].<ref>"''[https://archive.org/details/killinggroundpho0000hudd Killing ground: photographs of the Civil War and the changing American landscape] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228002928/https://books.google.com/books?id=YpAuHGkuIe0C&pg=PA&dq&hl=en |date=2017-02-28 }}''". John Huddleston (2002). [[Johns Hopkins University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8018-6773-8}}</ref>]]
* [[1861]]–[[1867]]: [[Second French intervention in Mexico|French intervention in Mexico]] and the creation of the [[Second Mexican Empire]], ruled by [[Maximilian I of Mexico]] and his consort [[Carlota of Mexico]].
* [[1863]]–[[1865]]: [[January Uprising]] against the [[Russian Empire]].
* [[1864]]–[[1870]]: [[Paraguayan War]] ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion and destroys much of the Paraguayan population.
* [[1866]]: [[Austro-Prussian War]] results in the dissolution of the [[German Confederation]] and the creation of the [[North German Confederation]] and the [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy]].
* [[1868]]-[[1869]]: [[Boshin War]] results in end of the shogunate and the founding the Japanese Empire.
* [[1868]]–[[1878]]: [[Ten Years' War]] between [[Cuba]] and [[Kingdom of Spain|Spain]].
* [[1870]]–[[1871]]: [[Franco-Prussian War]] results in the [[Unification of Germany|unifications of Germany]] [[Italian unification|and Italy]], the collapse of the [[Second French Empire]] and the emergence of a [[New Imperialism]].
* 1870: Napoleon III abdicated after unsuccessful conclusion of Franco-Prussian War. Third Republic proclaimed.
* [[1876]]: The [[April Uprising of 1876|April Uprising]] in [[Bulgaria]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1879]]: [[Anglo-Zulu War]] results in British victory and the annexation of the [[Zulu Kingdom]].
* [[1879]]–[[1880]]: [[Little War (Cuba)|Little War]] against Spanish rule in [[Cuba]] leads to rebel defeat.
* [[1879]]–[[1883]]: [[Chile]] battles with [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] over Andean territory in the [[War of the Pacific]].
* [[1880]]–[[1881]]: [[First Boer War]] begins.
* [[1881]]–[[1899]]: [[Mahdist War]] in [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Sudan]].[[File:Battle of Omdurman.jpg|thumb|A depiction of the [[Battle of Omdurman]] in 1898; in the battle, [[Winston Churchill]] took part in a cavalry charge.]]
* [[1882]]: [[Anglo-Egyptian War]] British invasion and subsequent occupation of [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egypt]]
* [[1883]]–[[1898]]: [[Mandingo Wars]] between the [[French colonial empire]] and the [[Wassoulou Empire]] of the [[Mandinka people|Mandingo]] people led by [[Samory Touré]].
* [[1894]]–[[1895]]: After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], China cedes [[Taiwan]] to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea.
* [[1895]]: [[Taiwan]] is ceded to the [[Empire of Japan]] as a result of the [[First Sino-Japanese War]].
* [[1895]]–[[1896]]: [[Ethiopia]] defeats Italy in the [[First Italo–Ethiopian War]] at the [[Battle of Adwa]].
* [[1895]]–[[1898]]: [[Cuban War for Independence]] results in Cuban independence from [[Spanish Empire|Spain]].
* [[1896]]-[[1898]]: [[Philippine Revolution]] results in a Filipino victory.
* [[1898]]: [[Spanish–American War]] results in the independence of Cuba.
* [[1899]]–[[1901]]: [[Boxer Rebellion]] in China is suppressed by the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]].
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Thousand Days' War]] in [[Colombia]] breaks out between the "[[Liberalism|Liberales]]" and "[[Conservatism|Conservadores]]", culminating with the loss of [[Panama]] in 1903.
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Second Boer War]] begins.
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Philippine–American War]] begins.

==Science and technology==
{{main|19th century in science}}
{{Distinguished men of science of Great Britain 1806-7|align=right}}
The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term '''scientist''' was coined in 1833 by [[William Whewell]],<ref>{{cite web
| access-date=2008-03-03
| url=http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/
| title=William Whewell
| publisher=Stanford University
| date=2000-12-23
| last1=Snyder
| first1=Laura J.
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104025611/http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/
| archive-date=2010-01-04
| url-status=live
}}</ref> which soon replaced the older term of '''natural philosopher'''. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of [[Charles Darwin]] (alongside the independent researches of [[Alfred Russel Wallace]]), who in 1859 published the book ''[[The Origin of Species]]'', which introduced the idea of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the [[germ theory of disease]]. Following this, [[Louis Pasteur]] made the first [[vaccine]] against [[rabies]], and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the [[Enantiomer|asymmetry of crystals]]. In chemistry, [[Dmitri Mendeleev]], following the [[atomic theory]] of [[John Dalton]], created the first [[periodic table]] of [[Chemical element|elements]]. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of [[Michael Faraday]], [[André-Marie Ampère]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], and their contemporaries led to the creation of [[electromagnetism]] as a new branch of science. [[Thermodynamics]] led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of [[hypercomplex number]]s. [[Karl Weierstrass]] and others carried out the [[arithmetization of analysis]] for functions of [[Function of a real variable|real]] and [[complex variable]]s. It also saw rise to [[Non-Euclidean geometry|new progress in geometry]] beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about including a rapid spread in the use of electric illumination and power in the last two decades of the century and radio wave communication at the end of the 1890s.
[[File:Faraday-Millikan-Gale-1913.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Michael Faraday]] (1791–1867)]]
[[File:1878 Darwin photo by Leonard from Woodall 1884 - cropped grayed partially cleaned.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Charles Darwin]]]]
* [[1807]]: [[Potassium]] and [[Sodium]] are individually isolated by [[Sir Humphry Davy]].
* [[1831]]–[[1836]]: [[Charles Darwin]]'s journey on {{HMS|Beagle}}.
* [[1859]]: [[Charles Darwin]] publishes ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.
* [[1861]]: [[James Clerk Maxwell]] publishes ''[[On Physical Lines of Force]]'', formulating the four [[Maxwell's equations]].
* [[1865]]: [[Gregor Mendel]] formulates his [[laws of inheritance]].
* [[1869]]: [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] creates the [[Periodic table]].
* [[1873]]: Maxwell's ''[[A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism]]'' published.
* [[1877]]: [[Asaph Hall]] discovers the [[moons of Mars]]
* [[1896]]: [[Henri Becquerel]] discovers [[radioactivity]]; [[J. J. Thomson]] identifies the [[electron]], though not by name.

===Medicine===
[[File:Robert Koch.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Robert Koch]] discovered the [[tuberculosis]] bacilli. The disease killed an estimated 25 percent of the adult population of Europe during the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cdc.gov/TB/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm |title=Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421174847/http://www.cdc.gov/tb/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm |archive-date=April 21, 2009|date=2018-12-31 }}</ref>]]

* [[1804]]: [[Morphine]] first isolated.
* [[1842]]: [[Anesthesia]] used for the first time.
* [[1847]]: [[Chloroform]] invented for the first time, given to [[Queen Victoria]] at the birth of her eighth child, [[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Prince Leopold]] in [[1853]]
* [[1855]]: [[Cocaine]] is isolated by [[Friedrich Gaedcke]].
* [[1885]]: [[Louis Pasteur]] creates the first successful [[vaccine]] against rabies for a young boy who had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog.
* [[1889]]: [[Aspirin]] patented.

===Inventions===

[[File:Edison in his NJ laboratory 1901.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thomas Edison]] was an American inventor, scientist, and businessman who developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the [[phonograph]], the [[Movie camera|motion picture camera]], and a long-lasting, practical electric [[light bulb]].]]
[[File:Erste Benzin-Omnibus der Welt.jpg|thumb|upright|First motor bus in history: the [[Karl Benz|Benz]] Omnibus, built in 1895 for the Netphener bus company]]
* [[1804]]: First [[steam locomotive]] begins operation.
* [[1816]]: [[Dandy horse|Laufmaschine]] invented by [[Karl von Drais]].
* [[1825]]: [[Erie Canal]] opened connecting the [[Great Lakes]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
* [[1825]]: First isolation of [[aluminium]].
* [[1827]]: First photograph taken (technique of [[heliography]]) by [[Joseph Nicephore Niepce]].
* [[1825]]: The [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]], the first public railway in the world, is opened.
* [[1826]]: [[Samuel Morey]] patents the [[internal combustion engine]].
* [[1829]]: First [[electric motor]] built.
* [[1837]]: [[Telegraphy]] patented.
* [[1841]]: The word "[[dinosaur]]" is coined by [[Richard Owen]].
* [[1844]]: First publicly funded [[telegraph]] line in the world—between Baltimore and Washington—sends demonstration message on 24 May, ushering in the age of the telegraph. This message read "What hath God wrought?" (Bible, Numbers 23:23)
* [[1849]]: The [[safety pin]] and the [[gas mask]] are invented.
* [[1852]]: The first successful [[blimp]] is invented
* [[1855]]: [[Bessemer process]] enables [[steel]] to be mass-produced.
* [[1856]]: World's first [[oil refinery]] in [[Romania]]
* [[1858]]: Invention of the [[phonautograph]], the first true device for [[recorded sound|recording sound]].
* [[1859]]: The first [[ironclad]] was launched into sea by the [[French Navy]].
* [[1860]]: [[Benjamin Tyler Henry]] invents the 16-shot [[Henry Rifle]]
* [[1861]]: [[Richard Gatling]] invents the [[Gatling Gun]], first modern [[machine gun]] used notably in the battles of [[Cold Harbor]] and [[Petersburg, Virginia|Petersburg]]
* [[1862]]: First meeting in combat of [[ironclad warship]]s, {{USS|Monitor|1862|6}} and {{ship|CSS|Virginia}}, during the [[American Civil War]].
* [[1863]]: First section of the [[London Underground]] opens.
* [[1866]]: Successful [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] follows an earlier attempt in 1858.
* [[1867]]: [[Alfred Nobel]] invents [[dynamite]].
* [[1868]]: [[Safety bicycle]] invented.
* [[1869]]: [[First transcontinental railroad]] completed in United States on 10 May.
* [[1870]]: [[Rasmus Malling-Hansen]]'s invention the [[Hansen Writing Ball]] becomes the first commercially sold [[typewriter]].
* [[1873]]: [[Jeans|Blue jeans]] and [[barbed wire]] are invented.
* [[1877]]: [[Thomas Edison]] invents the [[phonograph]]
* [[1878]]: First commercial [[telephone exchange]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]].
* c. [[1875]]/[[1880]]: Introduction of the widespread use of electric [[lighting]]. These included early crude systems in France and the UK and the introduction of large scale outdoor [[Arc lamp|arc lighting]] systems by 1880.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html|title=Arc Lamps - How They Work & History|website=edisontechcenter.org}}</ref>
* [[1879]]: [[Thomas Edison]] patents a practical [[incandescent light bulb]].
* [[1882]]: Introduction of large scale [[Electric power industry|electric power utilities]] with the Edison [[Holborn Viaduct power station|Holborn Viaduct]] (London) and [[Pearl Street Station|Pearl Street]] (New York) power stations supplying indoor electric lighting using Edison's incandescent bulb.<ref>Jonathan Daly, The Rise of Western Power - A Comparative History of Western Civilization, Bloomsbury Publishing · 2013, page 310</ref><ref>Turan Gonen, Electric Power Distribution Engineering, CRC Press · 2015, page 1</ref>
* [[1884]]: [[Sir Hiram Maxim]] invents the first self-powered [[Machine gun]].
* [[1885]]: [[Singer Manufacturing Company|Singer]] begins production of the '[[Singer Model 27 and 127|Vibrating Shuttle]]'. which would become the most popular model of [[sewing machine]].
* [[1886]]: [[Karl Benz]] sells the first commercial [[automobile]].
* [[1890]]: The [[cardboard box]] is invented.
* [[1892]]: [[John Froelich]] develops and constructs the first gasoline/petrol-powered [[tractor]].
* [[1894]]: [[Karl Elsener (inventor)|Karl Elsener]] invents the [[Swiss Army knife]].
* [[1894]]: First [[gramophone record]].
* [[1895]]: [[Wilhelm Röntgen]] identifies [[x-rays]].

==Religion==
[[File:BrighamYoung1.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Brigham Young]] led the [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS Church]] from 1844 until his death in 1877]]
* [[1818]]: The first permanent [[Reform Judaism]] congregation, the [[Hamburg Temple|Neuer Israelitischer Tempel]], is founded in [[Hamburg]] on October 18. Around the same time, through the development of ''[[Wissenschaft des Judentums]]'', the seeds of [[Conservative Judaism]] are sown.
* [[1830]]: The [[Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)|Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]] is established.
* [[1844]]: The [[Báb]] announces his revelation on 23 May, founding [[Bábism]]. He announced to the world of the coming of "[[He whom God shall make manifest]]". He is considered the forerunner of [[Bahá'u'lláh]], the founder of the [[Baháʼí Faith]].
* [[1850s]]–[[1890s]]: In Islam, [[Salafism]] grows in popularity.
* [[1851]]: [[Hong Xiuquan]], the leader of the [[God Worshipping Society]], founds the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]].
* [[1857]]: In [[Paris]], [[France]], [[Allan Kardec]], publishes [[The Spirits' Book]] and founds the [[Spiritism]].
* [[1868]]: In Japan, [[State Shinto]] is established amidst the [[Meiji Restoration]].
* [[1869]]–[[1870]]: The [[First Vatican Council]] is convened, articulating the dogma of [[papal infallibility]] and promoting a [[Neo-scholasticism|revival of scholastic theology]].
* [[1871]]–[[1878]]: In [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Otto von Bismarck]] challenges the Catholic Church in the ''[[Kulturkampf]]'' ("Culture War")
* [[1875]]: [[Helena Blavatsky]] co-founds the [[Theosophical Society]] and becomes the leading articulator of [[Theosophy]].
* [[1879]]: [[Mary Baker Eddy]] founds the [[Church of Christ, Scientist]]. ''[[The Watchtower]],'' published by the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], releases its first issue.
* [[1881]]: In the Sudan, [[Muhammad Ahmad]] claims to be the [[Mahdi]], founding the [[Mahdist State]] and declaring war on the [[Khedivate of Egypt]].
* [[1889]]: [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]] establishes the [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]].
* [[1891]]: [[Pope Leo XIII]] issues the [[papal encyclical]] ''[[Rerum novarum]]'', the first major document informing modern [[Catholic social teaching]].

==Culture==
[[File:Crystal Palace - interior.jpg|thumb|350px|The [[Great Exhibition]] in London. Starting during the 18th century, the United Kingdom was the first country in the world to industrialise.]]
* [[1808]]: [[Beethoven]] composes [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Fifth Symphony]]
* [[1813]]: [[Jane Austen]] publishes ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]''
* [[1818]]: [[Mary Shelley]] publishes ''[[Frankenstein]]''.
* [[1819]]: [[John Keats]] writes his [[John Keats's 1819 odes|six of his best-known odes]].
* [[1819]]: [[Théodore Géricault]] paints his masterpiece ''[[The Raft of the Medusa]]'', and exhibits it in the French Salon of 1819 at the [[The Louvre|Louvre]].
* [[1824]]: Premiere of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s ''[[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Ninth Symphony]]''.
* [[1829]]: [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]'s ''[[Goethe's Faust|Faust]]'' premieres.
* [[1833]]–[[1834]]: [[Thomas Carlyle]] publishes ''[[Sartor Resartus]]''.
* [[1837]]: [[Charles Dickens]] publishes ''[[Oliver Twist]]''.
* [[1841]]: [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] publishes ''[[Self-Reliance]]''.
* [[1845]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] publishes ''[[Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave]]''.
* [[1847]]: The [[Brontë sisters]] publish ''[[Jane Eyre]]'', ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'' and ''[[Agnes Grey]]''.
* [[1848]]: [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]] publish ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]''.
* [[1849]]: [[Josiah Henson]] publishes [[The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself]].
* [[1851]]: [[Herman Melville]] publishes [[Moby-Dick]].
* [[1851]]: [[Sojourner Truth]] delivers the speech [[Ain't I a Woman?]].
* [[1852]]: [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]] publishes [[Uncle Tom's Cabin]].
* [[1855]]: [[Walt Whitman]] publishes the first edition of ''[[Leaves of Grass]]''.
* [[1855]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] publishes the first edition of ''[[My Bondage and My Freedom]]''.
* [[1862]]: [[Victor Hugo]] publishes ''[[Les Misérables]]''.
* [[1863]]: [[Jules Verne]] begins publishing his collection of stories and novels, ''[[Voyages extraordinaires]]'', with the novel ''[[Cinq semaines en ballon]]''.
* [[1865]]: [[Lewis Carroll]] publishes [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]].
* [[1869]]: [[Leo Tolstoy]] publishes ''[[War and Peace]]''.[[File:Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Le Moulin de la Galette.jpg|thumb|[[Auguste Renoir]], ''[[Bal du moulin de la Galette]]'', 1876, [[Musée d'Orsay]]]]
* [[1875]]: [[Georges Bizet]]'s opera [[Carmen]] premiers in Paris.
* [[1876]]: [[Richard Wagner]]'s ''[[Ring Cycle]]'' is first performed in its entirety.
* [[1883]]: [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s ''[[Treasure Island]]'' is published.
* [[1884]]: [[Mark Twain]] publishes the ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''.
* [[1886]]: "[[Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde]]" by Robert Louis Stevenson is published.
* [[1887]]: [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] publishes his first [[Sherlock Holmes]] story, ''[[A Study in Scarlet]]''.
* [[1889]]: [[Vincent van Gogh]] paints ''[[The Starry Night]]''.
* [[1889]]: [[Moulin Rouge]] opens in Paris.
* [[1892]]: [[Tchaikovsky]]'s ''[[Nutcracker Suite]]'' premières in [[St Petersberg]].
* [[1894]]: [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[The Jungle Book]]'' is published
* [[1895]]: Trial of [[Oscar Wilde]] and premiere of his play ''[[The Importance of Being Earnest]]''.
* [[1897]]: [[Bram Stoker]] writes [[Dracula]].
* [[1900]]: [[L. Frank Baum]] publishes [[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]].

[[File:Ilya Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Portrait of Leo Tolstoy (1887).jpg|thumb|upright|Russian writer [[Leo Tolstoy]], author of ''[[War and Peace]]'' and ''[[Anna Karenina]]'']]

===Literature===
{{main|Romantic poetry|19th century in literature}}

On the literary front the new century opens with [[romanticism]], a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German ''[[Sturm und Drang]]'' spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the [[Napoleonic Wars]] but subsequently developed rapidly. [[Modernism]] began.<ref>David Damrosch and David L. Pike, eds. ''The Longman Anthology of World Literature, Volume E: The Nineteenth Century'' (2nd ed. 2008)</ref>

The Goncourts and [[Émile Zola]] in France and [[Giovanni Verga]] in Italy produce some of the finest [[Naturalism (literature)|naturalist novels]]. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians [[Alexander Pushkin]], [[Nikolai Gogol]], [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Anton Chekhov]] and [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]; the English [[Charles Dickens]], [[John Keats]], [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]] and [[Jane Austen]]; the Scottish [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Thomas Carlyle]] and [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] (creator of the character [[Sherlock Holmes]]); the Irish [[Oscar Wilde]]; the Americans [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], and [[Mark Twain]]; and the French [[Victor Hugo]], [[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Jules Verne]], [[Alexandre Dumas]] and [[Charles Baudelaire]].<ref>M. H. Abrams et al., eds., ''The Norton Anthology of English Literature'' (9th ed. 2012)</ref>

Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: [[Walt Whitman]], [[Mark Twain]], [[Harriet Ann Jacobs]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], [[Herman Melville]], [[Frederick Douglass]], [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], [[Joel Chandler Harris]], and [[Emily Dickinson]] to name a few.

===Photography===
[[File:View from the Window at Le Gras, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.jpg|thumb|upright|One of the first photographs, produced in 1826 by [[Nicéphore Niépce]]]]
[[File:Self-portrait of Nadar.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]], Self-portrait, {{Circa|1860}}]]
{{see also|History of photography|List of photojournalists|Photojournalism|Daguerreotype}}
*[[Ottomar Anschütz]], [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Mathew Brady]], documented the [[American Civil War]]
*[[Edward S. Curtis]], documented the [[American West]] notably [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]
*[[Louis Daguerre]], inventor of [[daguerreotype]] process of photography, chemist
*[[Thomas Eakins]], pioneer motion photographer
*[[George Eastman]], inventor of [[Photographic film|roll film]]
*[[Hércules Florence]], pioneer inventor of photography
*[[Auguste and Louis Lumière]], pioneer film-makers, inventors
*[[Étienne-Jules Marey]], pioneer motion photographer, [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Eadweard Muybridge]], pioneer motion photographer, [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]] a.k.a. Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, portrait photographer
*[[Nicéphore Niépce]], pioneer inventor of photography
*[[Louis Le Prince]], motion picture inventor and pioneer film-maker
*[[Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky]], chemist and photographer
*[[William Fox Talbot]], inventor of the negative / positive photographic process.

===Visual artists, painters, sculptors===
{{main|History of art#Modern Art (ca. 1770-1970)|Western painting|Ukiyo-e}}
[[File:El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado thin black margin.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Francisco Goya]], ''[[The Third of May 1808]]'', 1814, {{Lang|es|[[Museo del Prado]]|italic=no}}]]
[[File:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Eugène Delacroix]], ''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'', 1830, [[Louvre]]]]
[[File:Vincent van Gogh - National Gallery of Art.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Vincent van Gogh]], ''Self-portrait'', 1889, [[National Gallery of Art]]]]
[[File:Affiche Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile Mucha.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alphonse Mucha]], Advertise with ''Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile'', 1897]]
The [[Realism (arts)|Realism]] and [[Romanticism]] of the early 19th century gave way to [[Impressionism]] and [[Post-Impressionism]] in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the [[Hudson River School]] was prominent. 19th-century painters included:
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Ivan Aivazovsky]]
*[[Léon Bakst]]
*[[Albert Bierstadt]]
*[[William Blake]]
*[[Arnold Böcklin]]
*[[Rosa Bonheur]]
*[[William Burges]]
*[[Mary Cassatt]]
*[[Camille Claudel]]
*[[Paul Cézanne]]
*[[Frederic Edwin Church]]
*[[Thomas Cole]]
*[[Jan Matejko]]
*[[John Constable]]
*[[Camille Corot]]
*[[Gustave Courbet]]
*[[Honoré Daumier]]
*[[Edgar Degas]]
*[[Eugène Delacroix]]
*[[Thomas Eakins]]
*[[Caspar David Friedrich]]
*[[Paul Gauguin]]
*[[Théodore Géricault]]
*[[Vincent van Gogh]]
*[[William Morris]]
*[[Francisco Goya]]
*[[Andō Hiroshige]]
*[[Hokusai]]
*[[Winslow Homer]]
*[[Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres]]
*[[Isaac Levitan]]
*[[Édouard Manet]]
*[[Claude Monet]]
*[[Gustave Moreau]]
*[[Berthe Morisot]]
*[[Edvard Munch]]
*[[Mikhail Nesterov]]
*[[Camille Pissarro]]
*[[Augustus Pugin]]
*[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]
*[[Ilya Repin]]
*[[Auguste Rodin]]
*[[Albert Pinkham Ryder]]
*[[John Singer Sargent]]
*[[Valentin Serov]]
*[[Georges Seurat]]
*[[Ivan Shishkin]]
*[[Vasily Surikov]]
*[[James Tissot]]
*[[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]]
*[[J. M. W. Turner|Joseph Mallord William Turner]]
*[[Viktor Vasnetsov]]
*[[Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
*[[Mikhail Vrubel]]
*[[James Abbott McNeill Whistler]]
*[[Tsukioka Yoshitoshi]]
{{div col end}}

===Music===
{{main|List of Romantic-era composers|Romantic music|Romanticism}}
[[File:Joseph Karl Stieler's Beethoven mit dem Manuskript der Missa solemnis.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]]]
[[File:Porträt des Komponisten Pjotr I. Tschaikowski (1840-1893).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]]]
[[Sonata form]] matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] style. Many great composers lived through this era such as [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], [[Franz Liszt]], [[Frédéric Chopin]], [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] and [[Richard Wagner]]. The list includes:
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Mily Balakirev]]
*[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]
*[[Hector Berlioz]]
*[[Georges Bizet]]
*[[Alexander Borodin]]
*[[Johannes Brahms]]
*[[Anton Bruckner]]
*[[Frédéric Chopin]]
*[[Claude Debussy]]
*[[Antonín Dvořák]]
*[[Mikhail Glinka]]
*[[Edvard Grieg]]
*[[Scott Joplin]]
*[[Alexandre Levy]]
*[[Franz Liszt]]
*[[Gustav Mahler]]
*[[Felix Mendelssohn]]
*[[Modest Mussorgsky]]
*[[Jacques Offenbach]]
*[[Niccolò Paganini]]
*[[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]]
*[[Gioachino Rossini]]
*[[Anton Rubinstein]]
*[[Camille Saint-Saëns]]
*[[Antonio Salieri]]
*[[Franz Schubert]]
*[[Robert Schumann]]
*[[Alexander Scriabin]]
*[[Arthur Sullivan]]
*[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]
*[[Giuseppe Verdi]]
*[[Richard Wagner]]
{{div col end}}

===Sports===
* [[1867]]: The [[Marquess of Queensberry Rules]] for [[boxing]] are published.
* [[1872]]: The first recognised international [[Association football|football]] match, between [[England]] and [[Scotland]], is played.
* [[1877]]: The first [[test cricket]] match, between [[England]] and [[Australia]], is played.
* [[1891]]: [[Basketball]] is invented by [[James Naismith]].
* [[1895]]: [[Volleyball]] is invented.
* [[1896]]: [[Olympic Games#Revival|Olympic Games]] revived in [[Athens]].

=== Last survivors ===
Born on 19 April 1897, Japanese [[Jiroemon Kimura]] died on 12 June 2013, marking the death of the last man verified man to have been born in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |date=15 April 2013 |title=World's oldest man ever turns 116 in Kyoto as his health is studied |url=http://japandailypress.com/worlds-oldest-man-ever-turns-116-in-kyoto-as-his-health-is-studied-1927336 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605022257/http://japandailypress.com/worlds-oldest-man-ever-turns-116-in-kyoto-as-his-health-is-studied-1927336 |archive-date=5 June 2013 |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=The Japan Daily Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=19 April 2013 |title=World's oldest person turns 116 in Japan |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20130419-worlds-oldest-person-turns-116-japan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616010617/http://www.france24.com/en/20130419-worlds-oldest-person-turns-116-japan |archive-date=16 June 2013 |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=France 24 International News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=World's oldest person Jiroemon Kimura turns 116 in Japan |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/et-cetera/worlds-oldest-person-jiroemon-kimura-turns-116-in-japan/articleshow/19628476.cms |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=The Economic Times |agency=Agence France-Presse}}</ref> Subsequently, on 15 April 2017, Japanese [[Nabi Tajima]] (born 4 August 1900) died, marking the death of the last person to verifiably have been born within the 19th century.<ref name="slate">{{Cite web |last=Politi |first=Daniel |date=22 April 2018 |title=The Last Known Person Born in the 19th Century Dies in Japan at 117 |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/04/the-last-known-person-born-in-the-19th-century-died-in-japan.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912162416/https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/04/the-last-known-person-born-in-the-19th-century-died-in-japan.html |archive-date=12 September 2023 |access-date=4 October 2019 |website=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]}}</ref>

==Events==
{{For timeline}}

===1801–1850===
* [[1801]]: The [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] and the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] merge to form the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]].
* [[1802]]: The [[Wahhabi]]s of the [[First Saudi State]] [[Wahhabi sack of Karbala|sack Karbala]].
* [[1803]]: [[William Symington]] demonstrates his ''[[Charlotte Dundas]]'', the "first practical steamboat".
* [[1803]]: The [[Wahhabi]]s of the [[First Saudi State]] capture [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].
* [[1804]]: [[Austrian Empire]] founded by [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis I]].
* [[1804]]: [[World population]] reaches 1 billion.
* [[1805]]: The [[Battle of Trafalgar]] eliminates the French and Spanish naval fleets and allows for British dominance of the seas, a major factor for the success of the [[British Empire]] later in the century.
* [[1805]]–[[1848]]: [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] modernizes [[Egypt]].
[[File:StamfordRaffles.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[1819]]: 29 January, [[Stamford Raffles]] arrives in Singapore with [[William Farquhar]] to establish a trading post for the [[East India Company|British East India Company]]. 8 February, The treaty is signed between Sultan Hussein of Johor, Temenggong Abdul Rahman and Stamford Raffles. Farquhar is installed as the first Resident of the settlement.]]
* [[1810]]: The [[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]] was founded. Among its students and faculty are [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], and [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]]. The German university reform proves to be so successful that its model is copied around the world (see [[History of European universities#European university models in the 19th and 20th centuries|History of European research universities]]).
* [[1814]]: [[Elisha Collier]] invents the [[Flintlock]] [[Revolver]].
* [[1814]] : February 1 Eruption of [[Mayon Volcano]]
* [[1815]]: April, [[Mount Tambora]] in [[Sumbawa]] island erupts, becoming the largest [[volcanic eruption]] in [[recorded history]], destroying [[Tambora culture]], and killing at least 71,000 people, including its aftermath. The eruption created [[global climate]] anomalies known as "[[volcanic winter]]".<ref name="Oppenheimer2003">{{cite journal|last=Oppenheimer|first=Clive|title=Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815|journal=Progress in Physical Geography|volume=27|issue=2|year=2003|pages=230–259|doi=10.1191/0309133303pp379ra|s2cid=131663534}}</ref>
* [[1816]]: [[Year Without a Summer]]: Unusually cold conditions wreak havoc throughout the Northern Hemisphere, likely influenced by the 1815 explosion of [[Mount Tambora]].
* [[1816]]–[[1828]]: [[Shaka]]'s [[Zulu Kingdom]] becomes the largest in [[Southern Africa]].
* [[1819]]: The [[Colombia|Republic of Colombia]] ([[Gran Colombia]]) achieves independence after [[Simón Bolívar]]'s triumph at the [[Battle of Boyacá]].
* [[1819]]: The modern city of [[Singapore]] is established by the [[British East India Company]].
* [[1820]]: Discovery of [[Antarctica]].
* [[1820]]: [[History of Liberia|Liberia]] founded by the [[American Colonization Society]] for freed American slaves.
* [[1820]]: Dissolution of the [[Maratha Empire]].
* [[1821]]–[[1823]]: [[First Mexican Empire]], as Mexico's first post-independent government, ruled by Emperor [[Agustín de Iturbide|Agustín I of Mexico]].
* [[1822]]: [[Pedro I of Brazil]] declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September.
* [[1823]]: [[Monroe Doctrine]] declared by US President [[James Monroe]].
* [[1825]]: The [[Decembrist revolt]].
[[File:Kolman decembrists.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Decembrists]] at the [[Saint Petersburg Senate Square|Senate Square]].]]
* [[1829]]: [[Sir Robert Peel]] founds the [[Metropolitan Police Service]], the first modern police force.
[[File:Emigrants Leave Ireland by Henry Doyle 1868.jpg|thumb|upright|Emigrants leaving [[Ireland]]. From 1830 to 1914, almost 5 million Irish people went to the United States alone.]]
* [[1830]]: Anglo-Russian rivalry over Afghanistan, [[the Great Game]], commences and concludes in 1895.
* [[1831]]: November Uprising ends with crushing defeat for Poland in the [[Battle of Warsaw (1831)|Battle of Warsaw]].
* [[1832]]: The British Parliament passes the [[Great Reform Act]].
* [[1834]]–[[1859]]: [[Imam Shamil]]'s rebellion in Russian-occupied [[Caucasus]].
* [[1835]]–[[1836]]: The [[Texas Revolution]] in Mexico resulted in the short-lived [[Republic of Texas]].
* [[1836]]: [[Samuel Colt]] popularizes the [[revolver]] and sets up a firearms company to manufacture his invention of the [[Colt Paterson]] revolver, a six bullets firearm shot one by one without reloading manually.
* [[1837]]–[[1838]]: [[Rebellions of 1837]] in [[Canada]].
* [[1838]]: By this time, 46,000 Native Americans have been forcibly relocated in the [[Trail of Tears]].
* [[1839]]–[[1860]]: After the [[First Opium War|First]] and [[Second Opium War]]s, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and Russia gain many [[Treaty ports|trade and associated concessions]] from China resulting in the start of the decline of the [[Qing dynasty]].
* [[1839]]–[[1919]]: [[Anglo-Afghan War]]s lead to stalemate and the establishment of the [[Durand line]]
* [[1842]]: [[Treaty of Nanking]] cedes [[Hong Kong]] to the British.
* [[1843]]: The first [[wagon train]] sets out from Missouri.
* [[1844]]: [[Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers]] establish what is considered the first [[cooperative]] in the world.
* [[1845]]–[[1849]]: The [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine of Ireland]] leads to the [[Irish diaspora]].
* [[1848]]: ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'' published.
* [[1848]]: [[Seneca Falls Convention]] is the first [[women's rights]] convention in the United States and leads to the [[History of Women's Suffrage in the United States|battle for women's suffrage]].
* [[1848]]–[[1855]]: [[California Gold Rush]].
* [[1849]]: Earliest recorded [[Airstrike|air raid]], as Austria employs [[The Austrian balloons|200 balloons]] to deliver ordnance against [[Venice]].
* [[1850]]: The [[Little Ice Age]] ends around this time.
* [[1850]]: [[Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch]] establishes the first [[cooperative banking|cooperative financial institution]].
[[File:U.S. Territorial Acquisitions.png|thumb|250px|Historical [[Territorial evolution of the United States|territorial expansion of the United States]]]]

===1851–1900===
* [[1851]]: The [[Great Exhibition]] in London was the world's first international Expo or [[World's fair|World Fair]].
* [[1852]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] delivers his speech "The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro" in [[Rochester, New York]].
* [[1857]]: Sir [[Joseph Whitworth]] designs the first long-range [[sniper rifle]].
* [[1857]]–[[1858]]: [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. The British Empire assumes control of India from the [[East India Company]].
* [[1858]]: Construction of [[Big Ben]] is completed.
* [[1859]]–[[1869]]: [[Suez Canal]] is constructed.
[[File:SuezCanalKantara.jpg|thumb|upright|The first vessels sail through the [[Suez Canal]]]]
* [[1860]]: [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] launches the [[Expedition of the Thousand]].
* [[1861]]: Russia [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|abolishes serfdom]].
* [[1862]]–[[1877]]: [[Dungan revolt (1862–1877)|Muslim Rebellion]] in north-west China.
* [[1863]]: Formation of the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|International Red Cross]] is followed by the adoption of the [[First Geneva Convention]] in 1864.
* [[1865]]–[[1877]]: [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] in the United States; Slavery is banned in the United States by the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]].
* [[1867]]: [[Canada]] is formed, via the process of [[Canadian Confederation]].
* [[1868]]: [[Michael Barrett (Fenian)|Michael Barrett]] is the last person to be publicly hanged in England.
* [[1869]]: The [[Suez Canal]] opens linking the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] to the [[Red Sea]].
[[File:Barricade18March1871.jpg|thumb|upright|A barricade in the [[Paris Commune]], 18 March 1871. Around 30,000 Parisians were killed, and thousands more were later executed.]]
[[File:Schwarzer Freitag Wien 1873.jpg|thumb|upright|Black Friday, 9 May 1873, Vienna Stock Exchange. The [[Panic of 1873]] and [[Long Depression]] followed.]]
* [[1870]]: Official dismantling of the [[Cultivation System]] and beginning of a '[[Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies)|Liberal Policy]]' of deregulated exploitation of the Netherlands East Indies.<ref name="VICKERS_xii">Vickers (2005), page xii</ref>
* [[1870]]–[[1890]]: [[Long Depression]] in [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]].
* [[1871]]–[[1872]]: [[List of famines|Famine]] in [[Iran|Persia]] is believed to have caused the death of 2 million.
* [[1871]]: The [[Paris Commune]] briefly rules the French capital.
* [[1872]]: [[Yellowstone National Park]], the first [[national park]], is created.
* [[1874]]: The ''Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, and Graveurs'', better known as the [[Impressionist]]s, organize and present their first public group exhibition at the Paris studio of the photographer [[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]].
* [[1874]]: The Home Rule Movement is established in [[Ireland]].
* [[1875]]: ''[[HMS Challenger]]'' surveys the deepest point in the Earth's oceans, the [[Challenger Deep]]
* [[1876]]: [[Battle of the Little Bighorn]] leads to the death of [[General Custer]] and victory for the alliance of [[Lakota people|Lakota]], [[Northern Cheyenne|Cheyenne]] and [[Arapaho]]
* [[1876]]–[[1914]]: The massive expansion in population, territory, industry and wealth in the United States is referred to as the [[Gilded Age]].
* [[1877]]: [[Great Railroad Strike]] in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide [[Strike action|labour strike]].
* [[1881]]: Wave of [[Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire|pogroms]] begins in the Russian Empire.
* [[1881]]–[[1882]]: The [[Jules Ferry laws]] are passed in [[French Third Republic|France]] establishing free, secular education.
* [[1883]]: [[Krakatoa]] volcano explosion, one of the largest in modern history.
* [[1883]]: The [[quagga]] is rendered extinct.
* [[1886]]: Construction of the [[Statue of Liberty]]; [[Coca-Cola]] is developed.
* [[1888]]: Founding of the shipping line ''[[Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij]]'' (KPM) that supported the unification and development of the colonial economy.<ref name="VICKERS_xii"/>
* [[1888]]: The [[Golden Law]] abolishes [[slavery in Brazil]].
* [[1889]]: [[Eiffel Tower]] is inaugurated in [[Paris]].
[[File:Filipino Ilustrados Jose Rizal Marcelo del Pilar Mariano Ponce.jpg|thumb|upright|Studio portrait of ''[[Ilustrado]]s'' in Europe, {{Circa|1890}}]]
* [[1889]]: A republican military coup establishes the [[First Brazilian Republic]]. The [[Empire of Brazil|parliamentary constitutional monarchy]] is abolished.
* [[1889]]-[[1890]]: [[1889–1890 pandemic]] kills 1 million people.
* [[1890]]: First use of the [[electric chair]] as a method of execution.
* [[1892]]: The [[World's Columbian Exposition]] was held in [[Chicago]] celebrating the 400th anniversary of [[Christopher Columbus]]'s arrival in the [[New World]].
* [[1892]]: [[Fingerprinting]] is officially adopted for the first time.
* [[1893]]: [[New Zealand]] becomes the first country to enact [[women's suffrage]].
* [[1893]]: The [[Coremans-de Vriendt law]] is passed in [[Belgium]], creating legal equality for [[French language|French]] and [[Dutch language]]s.
* [[1894]]: The [[Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem]]<ref name="VICKERS_xii"/> resulted in the looting and destruction of Cakranegara Palace in [[Mataram (city)|Mataram]].<ref>Wahyu Ernawati: "Chapter 8: The Lombok Treasure", in ''Colonial collections Revisited'': Pieter ter Keurs (editor) Vol. 152, CNWS publications. Issue 36 of ''Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde'', Leiden. CNWS Publications, 2007. {{ISBN|978-90-5789-152-6}}. 296 pages. pp. 186–203</ref> J. L. A. Brandes, a Dutch philologist, discovers and secures [[Nagarakretagama]] manuscript in Lombok royal library.
* [[1896]]: [[Philippine Revolution]] ends declaring Philippines free from Spanish rule.
* [[1898]]: The United States gains control of [[Cuba]], [[Puerto Rico]], and the [[Philippines]] after the [[Spanish–American War]].
* [[1898]]: [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] of [[Qing dynasty|China]] engineers a coup d'état, marking the end of the [[Hundred Days' Reform]]; the [[Guangxu Emperor]] is arrested.
* [[1900]]: [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|Exposition Universelle]] held in Paris, prominently featuring the growing art trend [[Art Nouveau]].
* [[1900]]–[[1901]]: [[Eight-Nation Alliance|Eight nations invade China]] at the same time and ransack [[Forbidden City]].

{{for|later events|Timeline of the 20th century}}

==Supplementary portrait gallery==
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
File:Carl Friedrich Gauss 1840 by Jensen.jpg|[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
File:Charles Robert Darwin by John Collier cropped.jpg|[[Charles Darwin]]
File:Victor Hugo by Étienne Carjat 1876 - full.jpg|[[Victor Hugo]] {{Circa|1876}}
File:Kramskoy Mendeleev 01.jpg|[[Dmitri Mendeleev]]
File:Louis Pasteur.jpg|[[Louis Pasteur]], 1878
File:Mariecurie.jpg|[[Marie Curie]], {{Circa|1898}}
File:Nikola Tesla by Sarony c1898.jpg|[[Nikola Tesla]]
File:Jose Rizal full.jpg|[[José Rizal]]
File:Jane Austen (chopped) 2.jpg|[[Jane Austen]]
File:Leo Tolstoy 1897, black and white, 37767u.jpg|[[Leo Tolstoy]] {{Circa|1897}}
File:Edgar Allan Poe 2.jpg|[[Edgar Allan Poe]]
File:Félix_Nadar_1820-1910_portraits_Jules_Verne.jpg|[[Jules Verne]]
File:Charles Dickens 3.jpg|[[Charles Dickens]]
File:Carjat Arthur Rimbaud 1872 n2.jpg|[[Arthur Rimbaud]] {{Circa|1872}}
File:Twain in Tesla's Lab.jpg|[[Mark Twain]], 1894
File:RWEmerson.jpg|[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]
File:Benjamin D. Maxham - Henry David Thoreau - Restored - greyscale - straightened.jpg|[[Henry David Thoreau]], August 1861.
File:Emile Zola 2.jpg|[[Émile Zola]], {{Circa|1900}}
File:Chekhov 1903 ArM.jpg|[[Anton Chekhov]]
File:Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky 1876.jpg|[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], 1876
File:John L Sullivan.jpg|[[John L Sullivan]] in his prime, {{Circa|1882}}
File:David Livingstone -1.jpg|[[David Livingstone]] 1864, left [[Great Britain|Britain]] for [[Africa]] in 1840
File:Jesse and Frank James.gif|[[Jesse James|Jesse]] and [[Frank James]], 1872
File:William Notman studios - Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill (1895) edit.jpg|[[Sitting Bull]] and [[Buffalo Bill Cody]], Montreal, Quebec, 1885
File:Goyaale.jpg|[[Geronimo]], 1887, prominent leader of the [[Chiricahua]] [[Apache]]
File:Billy the Kid corrected.jpg|[[William Bonney]] aka [[Henry McCarty]] aka [[Billy the Kid]], {{Circa|late 1870s}}
File:Wyatt Earp und Bat Masterson 1876.jpg|Deputies [[Bat Masterson]] and [[Wyatt Earp]] in [[Dodge City]], 1876
File:Mathew Brady 1875 cropped.jpg|[[Mathew Brady]], Self-portrait, {{Circa|1875}}
File:Alfred Lord Tennyson 1869.jpg|[[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]
File:Thomas Nast - Brady-Handy.jpg|[[Thomas Nast]], {{Circa|1860}}–1875, photo by [[Mathew Brady]] or Levin Handy
File:Hadhrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad2.jpg|[[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]]
File:Bakunin.png|[[Mikhail Bakunin]]
File:Kierkegaard.jpg|[[Søren Kierkegaard]]
File:Solomon Northup 001 (cropped).jpg|[[Solomon Northup]]
File:Dred Scott photograph (circa 1857).jpg|[[Dred Scott]]
File:Madame CJ Walker.gif|[[Madam C. J. Walker]]
File:Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant.jpg|[[Claude Monet]]'s ''[[Impression, Sunrise]]'', 1872, gave the name to [[Impressionism]]
File:Paul Cézanne 159.jpg|[[Paul Cézanne]], [[self-portrait]], 1880–1881
File:Scott Joplin.jpg|[[Scott Joplin]]
File:NiccoloPaganini.jpeg|[[Niccolò Paganini]], {{Circa|1819}}
File:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 043.jpg|[[Frédéric Chopin]], 1838
File:John D. Rockefeller, Sr.jpg|[[John D. Rockefeller]]
</gallery>

==See also==

*[[Timelines of modern history]]
*[[Long nineteenth century]]
*[[19th century in film]]
*[[19th century in games]]
*[[19th-century philosophy]]
*[[Nineteenth-century theatre]]
*[[International relations (1814–1919)]]
*[[List of wars: 1800–1899]]
*[[Victorian era]]
*[[France in the long nineteenth century]]
*[[History of Spain (1808–1874)]]
*[[History of Russia (1855–1892)]]
*[[Slavery in the United States]]
*[[Timeline of 19th-century Muslim history]]
*[[Timeline of historic inventions#19th century|Timeline of historic inventions]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo00lang online free]
* Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. ''Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present'' (1970) [https://archive.org/details/harperencycloped00morr online frr]
* ''New Cambridge Modern History'' (13 vol 1957–79), old but thorough coverage, mostly of Europe; strong on diplomacy
**Bury, J. P. T. ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 10: the Zenith of European Power, 1830–70'' (1964) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/10#page/n3/mode/1up online]
**Crawley, C. W., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History Volume IX War and Peace In An Age of Upheaval 1793–1830'' (1965) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/09#page/n4/mode/1up online]
**Darby, H. C. and H. Fullard ''The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas'' (1972)
**Hinsley, F.H., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 11, Material Progress and World-Wide Problems 1870–1898'' (1979) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/11#page/n3/mode/1up online]

===Diplomacy and international relations===
{{Main|International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)}}
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-24729-5|title=Greater France|year=1996|last1=Aldrich|first1=Robert|isbn=978-0-333-56740-1}}
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-24958-9|title=Peace, War and the European Powers, 1814–1914|year=1996|last1=Bartlett|first1=C. J.|publisher=Macmillan Education UK |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-62001-4}}
* Bridge, F. R. & Roger Bullen. ''The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914'', 2nd Ed. (2005)
* {{cite journal|doi=10.2307/3014586|jstor=3014586|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.86299|title=History of Modern Europe, 1878-1919|year=1923|last1=Gooch|first1=G. P.|journal=Journal of the British Institute of International Affairs|volume=2|issue=6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.86299/page/n277 266]}}
* Herring, George C. ''Years of Peril and Ambition: U.S. Foreign Relations, 1776–1921'' (2017)
* [[Paul Kennedy|Kennedy, Paul]]. [[The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers|''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500–2000'']] (1987), stress on economic and military factors
* Langer, William. ''European Alliances and Alignments 1870–1890'' (1950); advanced history [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.237096 online]
* Langer, William. ''The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902'' (1950); advanced history [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177815 online]
* Mowat, R.B. ''A history of European diplomacy, 1815–1914'' (1922) [https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropea00mowauoft online free]
* {{cite book|doi=10.1515/9781400849949|title=The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century|year=2014|last1=Osterhammel|first1=Jürgen|isbn=9781400849949|url=http://www.gbv.de/dms/bowker/toc/9780691147451.pdf }}
* Porter, Andrew, ed. ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century'' (2001)
* Sontag, Raymond. ''European Diplomatic History: 1871–1932'' (1933), basic summary; 425 pp [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.503351/2015.503351.european-diplomatic_text.pdf online]
* Taylor, A.J.P. ''[[The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918]]'' (1954) 638 pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy; [https://archive.org/details/struggleformaste00ajpt online free]
* Taylor, A.J.P. "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., ''The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98'' (1962): 542–66. [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/11#page/n3/mode/1up online]
* {{cite book|doi=10.4324/9781315844503|title=The European Colonial Empires|year=2015|last1=Wesseling|first1=H. L.|isbn=9781315844503}}

===Europe===
* Anderson, M. S. ''The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003)
* Blanning, T. C. W. ed. ''The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914'' (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320 pp
* Bruun, Geoffrey. ''Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 '' (1938) [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.183653/2015.183653.Europe-And-The-French-Imperium-1799-1814_text.pdf online].
* Cameron, Rondo. ''France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War'' (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history.
* Evans, Richard J. ''The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914'' (2016), 934 pp
* Gildea, Robert. ''Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp, [https://www.questia.com/read/55547824/barricades-and-borders-europe-1800-1914 online 2nd ed, 1996]
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-4039-3757-5|title=Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe|year=2003|last1=Grab|first1=Alexander|publisher=Macmillan Education UK |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-68275-3}}
* Mason, David S. ''A Concise History of Modern Europe: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity'' (2011), since 1700
* Merriman, John, and J. M. Winter, eds. ''Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire'' (5 vol. 2006)
* Steinberg, Jonathan. ''Bismarck: A Life'' (2011)
* Salmi, Hannu. ''19th Century Europe: A Cultural History'' (2008).

===Asia, Africa===
* Ajayi, J. F. Ade, ed. ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. VI, Abridged Edition: Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s'' (1998)
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139644594|title=Africa's Development in Historical Perspective|year=2014|isbn=9781139644594|editor1-last=Akyeampong|editor1-first=Emmanuel|editor2-last=Bates|editor2-first=Robert H|editor3-last=Nunn|editor3-first=Nathan|editor4-last=Robinson|editor4-first=James A}}
* [[Chamberlain. M.E.]] ''The Scramble for Africa'' (3rd ed. 2010)
* Collins, Robert O. and James M, Burns, eds. ''A History of Sub-Saharan Africa''.
*[[Basil Davidson|Davidson, Basil]] ''Africa In History, Themes and Outlines''. (2nd ed. 1991).
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/9781316340356|title=A History of East Asia|year=2017|last1=Holcombe|first1=Charles|isbn=9781107118737}}
* Ludden, David. ''India and South Asia: A Short History'' (2013).
* McEvedy, Colin. ''The Penguin Atlas of African History'' (2nd ed. 1996). [https://www.amazon.com/Penguin-Atlas-African-History-Revised/dp/0140513213/ excerpt]
* Mansfield, Peter, and Nicolas Pelham, ''A History of the Middle East'' (4th ed, 2013).
* {{cite book|doi=10.4324/9781315509495|title=A History of Asia|year=2016|last1=Murphey|first1=Rhoads|isbn=9781315509495}}
* Pakenham, Thomas. ''The Scramble for Africa: 1876 to 1912'' (1992)

=== North and South America ===
*Bakewell, Peter, ''A History of Latin America'' (Blackwell, 1997)
* Beezley, William, and Michael Meyer, eds. ''The Oxford History of Mexico'' (2010)
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521232234|title=The Cambridge History of Latin America|year=1984|isbn=9781139055161|editor1-last=Bethell|editor1-first=Leslie}}
* Black, Conrad. ''Rise to Greatness: The History of Canada From the Vikings to the Present'' (2014)
* Burns, E. Bradford, ''Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History'', paperback, Prentice Hall 2001, 7th edition
* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848'' (2009), Pulitzer Prize
* Kirkland, Edward C. ''A History Of American Economic Life'' (3rd ed. 1960) [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.223513/2015.223513.A-History.pdf online]
* Lynch, John, ed. ''Latin American revolutions, 1808–1826: old and new world origins'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1994)
* McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom The CIvil War Era'' (1988) Pulitzer Prize for US history
* Parry, J.H. ''A Short History of the West Indies'' (1987)
* Paxson, Frederic Logan. ''History of the American frontier, 1763–1893'' (1924) [https://web.archive.org/web/20160202142001/https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/ttu-ir/bitstream/handle/2346/47065/ttu_hfwc01_000001.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y online], Pulitzer Prize
* White, Richard. ''The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States during Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896'' (2017)

===Primary sources===
* de Bary, Wm. Theodore, ed. ''Sources of East Asian Tradition, Vol. 2: The Modern Period'' (2008), 1192 pp
* Kertesz, G.A. ed ''Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815–1939'' (1968), 507 pp; several hundred short documents

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
{{Wikiquote}}

{{Romanticism}}
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[[Category:19th century| ]]
[[Category:2nd millennium]]
[[Category:Centuries]]
[[Category:Late modern period]]

19th century

2023-09-12T18:00:20Z

78.157.120.208: Wodring

{{Short description|Time period between 1 January 1801 and 31 December 1900}}
{{other uses}}
{{Centurybox|19}}
[[File:Jacques-Louis David - The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], Emperor of the [[First French Empire]].]]
The '''19th''' '''century''' began on 1 January 1801 (represented by the [[Roman numerals]] MDCCCI), and ended on 31 December 1900 (MCM).

The 19th century was characterized by vast social upheaval. [[Slavery]] was [[abolitionism|abolished]] in much of [[Europe]] and the [[Americas]]. The [[Industrial Revolution|First Industrial Revolution]], though it began in the late 18th century, expanding beyond its British homeland for the first time during this century, particularly remaking the economies and societies of the [[Low Countries]], the [[Rhineland]], [[Northern Italy]], and the [[Northeastern United States]]. A few decades later, the [[Second Industrial Revolution]] led to ever more massive [[urbanization]] and much higher levels of productivity, profit, and prosperity, a pattern that continued into the [[20th century]].

It was, in the Middle East, an era of change and reform. The [[Gunpowder empires|Islamic gunpowder empires]] fell into decline and European [[imperialism]] brought much of [[South Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]], and almost all of [[Africa]] under [[Colonialism|colonial rule]]. Reformers were opposed at every turn by conservatives who strove to maintain the centuries old Islamic laws and social order.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cleveland |first1=William L. |last2=Bunton |first2=Martin |title=A History of the Modern Middle East |date=2016 |isbn=9780813349800 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780429495502/history-modern-middle-east-william-cleveland|quote=The 19th century is frequently characterized as a period of tension between forces of continuity and change. The reformers who advocated the adoption of European institutions and technology, have often been portrayed as the progressive elements of society courageously charting the course toward an inevitably Westernized twentieth century. Conversely, the adherents of continuity, who viewed with alarm the dismantling of the Islamic order and sought to preserve tradition and retain the values and ideals that had served Ottoman and Islamic society so well for so long, are sometimes portrayed as nothing but archaic reactionaries. But we should avoid these simplistic characterizations if we are to appreciate the agonizing and dangerous process of transforming an established religious, social and political worldview.}}</ref> The century also saw the collapse of the large [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] and [[Mughal Empire]]s. This paved the way for the growing influence of the [[British Empire|British]], [[French colonial empire|French]], [[German colonial empire|German]], [[Russian Empire|Russian]], [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]], [[Italian Empire|Italian]], and [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empires]] along with the [[United States]]. The British boasted unchallenged global dominance after 1815.

After the defeat of [[First French Empire|France]] in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the British and Russian Empires expanded greatly, becoming two of the world's leading powers. Russia expanded its territory to [[Central Asia]] and the [[Caucasus]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] underwent a period of [[Westernization]] and reform known as the [[Tanzimat]], vastly increasing its control over core territories in the [[Middle East]]. However, it remained in decline and became known as the [[sick man of Europe]], losing territory in the [[Balkans]] and [[North Africa]].

The remaining powers in the [[Indian subcontinent]] such as the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] and [[Sikh Empire]]s suffered a massive decline and their dissatisfaction with the [[East India Company|British East India Company]]'s rule led to the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], marking its dissolution. India was later ruled directly by the [[The Crown|British Crown]] through the establishment of the [[British Raj]].

Britain's overseas possessions grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the century, the British controlled a fifth of the world's land and one-quarter of the world's population. During the post-Napoleonic era, it enforced what became known as the [[Pax Britannica]], which had ushered in unprecedented [[globalization]] on a massive scale.

Born on 19 April 1897, Japanese [[Jiroemon Kimura]] died on 12 June 2013, marking the death of the last man verified man to have been born in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |date=15 April 2013 |title=World's oldest man ever turns 116 in Kyoto as his health is studied |url=http://japandailypress.com/worlds-oldest-man-ever-turns-116-in-kyoto-as-his-health-is-studied-1927336 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605022257/http://japandailypress.com/worlds-oldest-man-ever-turns-116-in-kyoto-as-his-health-is-studied-1927336 |archive-date=5 June 2013 |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=The Japan Daily Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=19 April 2013 |title=World's oldest person turns 116 in Japan |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20130419-worlds-oldest-person-turns-116-japan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616010617/http://www.france24.com/en/20130419-worlds-oldest-person-turns-116-japan |archive-date=16 June 2013 |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=France 24 International News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=World's oldest person Jiroemon Kimura turns 116 in Japan |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/et-cetera/worlds-oldest-person-jiroemon-kimura-turns-116-in-japan/articleshow/19628476.cms |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=The Economic Times |agency=Agence France-Presse}}</ref> Subsequently, on 15 April 2017, Japanese [[Nabi Tajima]] (born 4 August 1900) died, marking the death of the last person to verifiably have been born in the 19th century.<ref name="slate">{{Cite web |last=Politi |first=Daniel |date=22 April 2018 |title=The Last Known Person Born in the 19th Century Dies in Japan at 117 |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/04/the-last-known-person-born-in-the-19th-century-died-in-japan.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912162416/https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/04/the-last-known-person-born-in-the-19th-century-died-in-japan.html |archive-date=12 September 2023 |access-date=4 October 2019 |website=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]}}</ref>

==Overview==
[[File:Queen Victoria - Winterhalter 1859.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Queen Victoria]] of Great Britain.]]

The first [[electronics]] appeared in the 19th century, with the introduction of the [[Relay#History|electric relay]] in 1835, the [[telegraph]] and its [[Morse code]] protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/recon/jb_recon_telephone_1.html|title=The First Telephone Call|website=www.americaslibrary.gov|access-date=2015-10-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022110620/http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/recon/jb_recon_telephone_1.html|archive-date=2015-10-22|url-status=live}}</ref> and the first functional [[light bulb]] in 1878.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2009/12/1218joseph-swan-electric-bulb/|title=Dec. 18, 1878: Let There Be Light — Electric Light|date=18 December 2009|magazine=WIRED|access-date=4 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021003405/https://www.wired.com/2009/12/1218joseph-swan-electric-bulb/|archive-date=21 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating [[Discovery (observation)#In science|scientific discovery]] and [[invention]], with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070105005042/http://corporate.britannica.com/press/inventions.html Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref> The [[Industrial Revolution]] began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America, and Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://americanhistory.about.com/od/industrialrev/a/indrevoverview.htm |title=The United States and the Industrial Revolution in the 19th Century |publisher=Americanhistory.about.com |date=2012-09-18 |access-date=2012-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728095536/http://americanhistory.about.com/od/industrialrev/a/indrevoverview.htm |archive-date=2012-07-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Victorian era]] was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict [[social norm]]s regarding modesty and gender roles.<ref>Laura Del Col, West Virginia University, [http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313022018/http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html |date=2008-03-13 }}</ref> Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the [[Meiji Restoration]], before defeating China, under the [[Qing dynasty]], in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]]. [[History of medicine#19th century: rise of modern medicine|Advances in medicine]] and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating [[population growth]] in the [[Western world]]. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change |title= Modernization – Population Change |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090406074344/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change |archive-date=April 6, 2009}}</ref> The introduction of [[Rail transport|railroads]] provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major [[urbanization]] movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's [[List of largest cities throughout history|largest city]] and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior [[Africa]] and [[Asia]], were [[Exploration|explored]] during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s. [[Liberalism]] became the pre-eminent [[reform movement]] in Europe.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339173/liberalism/237346/Liberalism-in-the-19th-century Liberalism in the 19th century] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218233116/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339173/liberalism/237346/Liberalism-in-the-19th-century |date=2009-02-18 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica.''</ref>
[[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Arab slave trade]]rs and their captives along the Ruvuma river (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique), 19th century]]

[[Slavery]] was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful [[Haitian Revolution|slave revolt in Haiti]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and France stepped up the battle against the [[Barbary pirates]] and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's [[Slavery Abolition Act]] charged the British [[Royal Navy]] with ending the global [[History of slavery|slave trade]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108141034/http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml |date=2009-01-08 }}. ''BBC.''</ref> The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] following their [[American Civil War|Civil War]] abolished slavery there in 1865, and in [[Lei Áurea|Brazil]] slavery was abolished in 1888 (see [[abolitionism]]). Similarly, [[serfdom]] was abolished in [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|Russia]] in 1861.

The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new [[Settler|settlement]] foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century. [[Chicago]] in the [[United States]] and [[Melbourne]] in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States.<ref>[http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1118_0_5_0 The Atlantic: Can the US afford immigration?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704173521/http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1118_0_5_0 |date=2010-07-04 }}. ''Migration News''. December 1996.</ref>

The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States. [[Association football]], [[rugby union]], [[baseball]], and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as [[cricket]] to many different parts of the world. Also, [[1890s in Western fashion|women's fashion]] was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous.

[[File:Europe 1815 map en.png|thumb|200px|The boundaries set by the Congress of Vienna, 1815.]]
It also marks the fall of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]] of the [[Balkans]] which led to the creation of [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] as a result of the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|second Russo-Turkish War]], which in itself followed the great [[Crimean War]].

===Eras===
[[File:World 1898 empires colonies territory.png|thumb|250px|Map of the world from 1897. The [[British Empire]] (marked in pink) was the superpower of the 19th century.]]
*[[Industrial revolution]]
*[[European imperialism]]
*[[British Regency]], [[Victorian era]] (UK, [[British Empire]])
*[[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]], [[July Monarchy]], [[French Second Republic]], [[Second French Empire]], [[French Third Republic]] ([[France in the nineteenth century|France]])
*[[Belle Époque]] (Europe)
*[[Edo period]], [[Meiji period]] (Japan)
*[[Qing dynasty]] (China)
*[[Nguyen dynasty]] (Vietnam)
*[[Joseon]] dynasty (Korea)
*[[Zulu Kingdom]] (South Africa)
*[[Tanzimat]], [[First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|First Constitutional Era]] ([[Decline of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]])
*[[Russian Empire]]
*[[Manifest Destiny|American Manifest Destiny]], [[Antebellum South|Antebellum Era]], [[Gilded Age|The Gilded Age]], [[American frontier|Wild West]], [[Reconstruction era|Reconstruction]] (United States)

== Wars ==
===Napoleonic Wars===
{{main|Napoleonic Wars}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of the Napoleonic era}}
[[File:Napoleons retreat from moscow.jpg|thumb|right|[[Napoleon]]'s retreat from Russia in 1812. The war swings decisively against the French Empire]]
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] and its allies, led by [[Napoleon I]], against a fluctuating array of [[Coalition forces of the Napoleonic Wars|European powers formed into various coalitions]], financed and usually led by the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the [[French Revolution]] and its [[French Revolutionary Wars|resultant conflict]].

In the aftermath of the [[French Revolution]], [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself [[Emperor of the French]].

In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]] ended the [[War of the Third Coalition]]. As a result of the [[Treaty of Pressburg (1805)|Treaty of Pressburg]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was dissolved.

Later efforts were less successful. In the [[Peninsular War]], France unsuccessfully attempted to establish [[Joseph Bonaparte]] as King of Spain. In 1812, the [[French invasion of Russia]] had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].

In 1814, after defeat in the [[War of the Sixth Coalition]], Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to [[Elba]]. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the [[Hundred Days]] before finally being defeated at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] and exiled to [[Saint Helena]], an island in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]].

After Napoleon's defeat, the [[Congress of Vienna]] was held to determine new national borders. The [[Concert of Europe]] attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact.

===Latin American independence===
{{main|Latin American wars of independence|Spanish American wars of independence}}
[[File:JuraIndependencia.jpg|thumb|alt=Portrait of the Chilean declaration of independence|The [[Chilean Declaration of Independence]] on 18 February 1818]]
[[Mexico]] and the majority of the countries in [[Central America]] and [[South America]] obtained independence from [[Colonialism|colonial]] overlords during the 19th century. In 1804, [[Haitian Revolution|Haiti]] gained independence from France. In [[Mexico]], the [[Mexican War of Independence]] was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821.

Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal [[Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|relocated to Brazil]] from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal.

The [[Federal Republic of Central America]] gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of [[Guatemala]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[Costa Rica]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perez-Brignoli|first1=Hector|title=A Brief History of Central America|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofce00pr|url-access=registration|date=1989|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520909762}}</ref>

In 1830, the post-colonial nation of [[Gran Colombia]] dissolved and the nations of [[Colombia]] (including modern-day Panama), [[Ecuador]], and [[Venezuela]] took its place.

===Revolutions of 1848===
{{main|Revolutions of 1848}}
[[File:Maerz1848 berlin.jpg|thumb|upright|Liberal and nationalist pressure led to the [[Revolutions of 1848|European revolutions of 1848]]]]
The [[Revolutions of 1848]] were a series of [[political upheaval]]s throughout [[Europe]] in 1848. The revolutions were essentially [[democracy|democratic]] and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old [[Monarchy|monarchical]] structures and creating independent nation states.

The first revolution began in [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states|January in Sicily]].{{clarify|date=December 2017}} Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in [[French Revolution of 1848|France in February]]. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries.

According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.<ref>R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., ''The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849'' (2000) pp. v, 4</ref>

===Abolition and the American Civil War===
{{main|Abolitionism|American Civil War}}
[[File:Wilberforce john rising.jpg|thumb|[[William Wilberforce]] (1759–1833), politician and philanthropist who was a leader of the movement to [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolish the slave trade]].]]

The [[abolitionism]] movement achieved success in the 19th century. The [[Atlantic slave trade]] was abolished in the United States in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The [[Slavery Abolition Act]] of 1833 banned slavery throughout the [[British Empire]], and the [[Lei Áurea]] abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.

[[Abolitionism in the United States]] continued until the end of the [[American Civil War]]. [[Frederick Douglass]] and [[Harriet Tubman]] were two of many American abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer, while Tubman worked with a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the [[Underground Railroad]].

The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Eleven [[Southern United States|southern states]] seceded from the [[United States]], largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President [[Abraham Lincoln]] issued the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. Lincoln issued a preliminary<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation|title=The Emancipation Proclamation|date=October 6, 2015|website=National Archives|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206210236/https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation|archive-date=February 6, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> on September 22, 1862, warning that in all states still in rebellion ([[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free."<ref>McPherson, J. M. (2014). "Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment", in E. Foner and J. A. Garraty (eds.), ''The Reader's Companion to American History''. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. [http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rcah/emancipation_proclamation_and_thirteenth_amendment/0] Retrieved from {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106000538/https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rcah/emancipation_proclamation_and_thirteenth_amendment/0|date=2018-11-06}}</ref> He did so.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation/transcript.html|title=Transcript of the Proclamation|date=October 6, 2015|website=National Archives}}</ref> The [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] to the Constitution,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/13th-amendment|title=13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery|date=January 27, 2016|website=National Archives|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216131544/https://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/13th-amendment|archive-date=February 16, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country.

Five days after [[Robert E. Lee]] surrendered at [[Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia]], [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln was assassinated]] by actor and [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] sympathiser [[John Wilkes Booth]].

=== Decline of the Ottoman Empire ===
{{main|Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire}}
In 1830, [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]] became the first country to break away from the [[Ottoman Empire]] after the [[Greek War of Independence]]. In 1831, the [[Bosnian uprising (1831–1832)|Bosnian Uprising]] against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the [[Principality of Serbia]] became [[Suzerainty|suzerain]] from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a constitution that defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1876, [[Bulgarians]] instigated the [[April Uprising of 1876|April Uprising]] against Ottoman rule. Following the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War]], the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]] recognized the formal independence of the Serbia, [[Principality of Montenegro|Montenegro]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]]. [[Principality of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] became autonomous.

=== China: Taiping Rebellion ===
{{main|Taiping Rebellion}}
[[File:Regaining the Provincial Capital of Ruizhou.jpg|thumb|280px|A scene of the [[Taiping Rebellion]].]]
The [[Taiping Rebellion]] was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20-30 million people. Its leader, [[Hong Xiuquan]], declared himself the younger brother of [[Jesus Christ]] and developed a new Chinese religion known as the [[God Worshipping Society]]. After proclaiming the establishment of the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]] in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing [[Nanjing]] in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reilly|first1=Thomas H.|title=The Taiping heavenly kingdom rebellion and the blasphemy of empire|date=2004|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|isbn=978-0295801926|edition=1}}</ref>

=== Japan: Meiji Restoration ===
{{main|Meiji Restoration}}
During the [[Edo period]], [[History of Japan|Japan]] largely pursued an [[Sakoku|isolationist foreign policy]]. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore [[Matthew C. Perry]] threatened the Japanese capital [[Edo]] with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to [[Bakumatsu|the opening of trade relations]] between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of [[Sakoku]] formally ended in 1854.

By 1872, the Japanese government under [[Emperor Meiji]] had [[Abolition of the han system|eliminated the ''daimyō'' system]] and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the [[samurai]] class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.<ref>W. G. Beasley, ''The Meiji Restoration'' (1972),</ref>

=== Colonialism ===
[[File:Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algier-Ernest-Francis Vacherot mg 5120.jpg|thumb|Arrival of Marshal [[Jacques Louis Randon|Randon]] in [[Algiers]], [[French Algeria]] in 1857]]
{{main|Western imperialism in Asia|Scramble for Africa}}
[[File:Rao Baji signing the Treaty of Vasai.jpg|thumb|The [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]] and the [[East India Company]] sign the [[Treaty of Bassein (1802)|Treaty of Bassein]] in 1802.]]
* [[1803]]: United States more than doubles in size when it buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the [[Louisiana Purchase]]. This begins the U.S.'s westward expansion to the Pacific, referred to as its [[Manifest Destiny]], which involves [[United States territorial acquisitions|annexing and conquering land]] from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans.
* [[1817]] – [[1819]]: British Empire annexed the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]] after the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]].
* [[1823]] – [[1887]]: British Empire annexed Burma (now also called [[Myanmar]]) after three [[Anglo-Burmese Wars]].
* [[1848]] – [[1849]]: [[Sikh Empire]] is defeated in the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]]. Therefore, the entire [[Indian subcontinent]] is under British control.
* [[1862]]: France gained its first foothold in [[Southeast Asia]] and in [[1863]] annexed [[Cambodia]].
* [[1867]]: United States [[Alaska Purchase|purchased Alaska]] from [[Russia]].

==== Africa ====
[[File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png|thumb|300px|Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913]]
In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as [[quinine]] and more advanced [[firearms]] allowed European nations to conquer native populations.<ref name="KerrAfrica">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Gordon|title=A Short History of Africa: From the Origins of the Human Race to the Arab Spring|date=2012|publisher=Pocket Essentials|location=Harpenden, Herts [UK]|isbn=9781842434420|pages=85–101}}</ref>

Motivations for the [[Scramble for Africa]] included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the [[Suez Canal]], but [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] defeated Italy in the [[First Italo–Ethiopian War]] at the [[Battle of Adwa]]. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations.<ref name="KerrAfrica" />

In 1867, [[diamond]]s were discovered in the [[Kimberley, Northern Cape|Kimberley]] region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in [[South African Republic|Transvaal]]. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by [[Cecil Rhodes]].<ref name="KerrAfrica" />

=== Other wars ===
* [[1801]]–[[1815]]: [[First Barbary War]] and the [[Second Barbary War]] between the United States and the [[Barbary States]] of [[North Africa]].
* [[1802]]: [[Tây Sơn dynasty|Tay Son]] army recaptured [[Thừa Thiên Huế province|Phu Xuan]], causing Vo Tanh to commit suicide, [[Gia Long|Nguyen Phuc Anh]] successfully captured [[Hanoi|Thang Long]], founded the [[Nguyen dynasty]]
* [[1804]]–[[1810]]: [[Fulani War|Fulani Jihad]] in [[Nigeria]].
* [[1804]]–[[1813]]: [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Persian War]].
* [[1806]]–[[1812]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)|Russo-Turkish War]], [[Treaty of Bucharest (1812)|Treaty of Bucharest]].
* [[1807]]–[[1837]]: [[Musket Wars]] among [[Māori people|Māori]] in many parts of [[New Zealand]].
* [[1808]]–[[1809]]: Russia conquers Finland from Sweden in the [[Finnish War]].[[File:KingShaka.jpg|thumb|1816: [[Shaka]] rises to power over the [[Zulu Kingdom]]. Zulu expansion was a major factor of the [[Mfecane]] ("Crushing") that depopulated large areas of southern Africa]]
* [[1810]]: [[Grito de Dolores]] begins the [[Mexican War of Independence]].
* [[1811]]: [[Battle of Tippecanoe]]: U.S. outnumbering Native Americans resulting in defeat and burning of community
* [[1812]]–[[1815]]: [[War of 1812]] between the United States and Britain; ends in a draw, except that Native Americans lose power.
* [[1813]]–[[1837]]: [[Afghan–Sikh Wars]].
* [[1814]]–[[1816]]: [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] between [[Nepal]] (Gurkha Empire) and [[British Empire]].
* [[1817]]: First [[Seminole War]] begins in Florida.
* [[1817]]: Russia commences its [[Caucasian War|conquest of the Caucasus]].
* [[1820]]: [[Revolutions of 1820]] in Southern Europe
* [[1821]]–[[1830]]: [[Greek War of Independence]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1825]]–[[1830]]: [[Java War]] begins.
* [[1826]]–[[1828]]: After the final [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Russo-Persian War]], the [[Qajar dynasty|Persian Empire]] took back territory lost to Russia from the previous war.
* [[1828]]–[[1832]]: [[Black War]] in [[Tasmania]] leads to the near extinction of the [[Tasmanian aborigines]]
* 1[[830]]: [[July Revolution]] overthrew old line of Bourbons.
* [[1830]]: [[November Uprising]] in [[Poland]] against [[Russia]].
* [[1830]]: [[Belgian Revolution]] results in [[Belgium]]'s independence from [[Netherlands]].
* [[1830]]: End of the Java War. The whole area of Yogyakarta and Surakarta Manca nagara Dutch seized. 27 September, Klaten Agreement determines a fixed boundary between Surakarta and Yogyakarta and permanently divide the kingdom of Mataram was signed by Sasradiningrat, Pepatih Dalem Surakarta, and Danurejo, Pepatih Dalem Yogyakarta. Mataram is a de facto and de yure controlled by the Dutch East Indies.
* [[1831]]: [[France]] [[French rule in Algeria|invades and occupies Algeria]].
* [[1831]]–[[1833]]: [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)|Egyptian–Ottoman War]].
* [[1832]]–[[1875]]: Regimental rebellions of Brazil
* [[1835]]–[[1836]]: [[Texas Revolution]] results in [[Texas]]'s independence from [[Mexico]].
* [[1839]]–[[1842]]: [[First Opium War]] begins.
* [[1846]]–[[1848]]: [[Mexican–American War]] leads to Mexico's cession of much of the modern-day [[Southwestern United States]].
* [[1848]]: [[French Revolution of 1848|February Revolution]] overthrew Louis Philippe's government. Second Republic proclaimed; Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, elected president.
* [[1853]]–[[1856]]: [[Crimean War]] between France, the United Kingdom, the [[Ottoman Empire]] and Russia.
* [[1857]]: [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion]] against the [[Company Raj]]. After this the power of the [[East India Company]] is transferred to the [[British Raj|British Crown]].
* [[1859]]: [[Second Italian War of Independence|Franco-Austrian War]] is part of the wars of [[Italian unification]].
* [[1861]]–[[1865]]: [[American Civil War]] between the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] and seceding [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. [[File:EwellsDeadSpotsylvania1864crop01.jpg|thumb|Dead Confederate soldiers. 30% of all Southern white males 18–40 years of age died in the [[American Civil War]].<ref>"''[https://archive.org/details/killinggroundpho0000hudd Killing ground: photographs of the Civil War and the changing American landscape] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228002928/https://books.google.com/books?id=YpAuHGkuIe0C&pg=PA&dq&hl=en |date=2017-02-28 }}''". John Huddleston (2002). [[Johns Hopkins University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8018-6773-8}}</ref>]]
* [[1861]]–[[1867]]: [[Second French intervention in Mexico|French intervention in Mexico]] and the creation of the [[Second Mexican Empire]], ruled by [[Maximilian I of Mexico]] and his consort [[Carlota of Mexico]].
* [[1863]]–[[1865]]: [[January Uprising]] against the [[Russian Empire]].
* [[1864]]–[[1870]]: [[Paraguayan War]] ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion and destroys much of the Paraguayan population.
* [[1866]]: [[Austro-Prussian War]] results in the dissolution of the [[German Confederation]] and the creation of the [[North German Confederation]] and the [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy]].
* [[1868]]-[[1869]]: [[Boshin War]] results in end of the shogunate and the founding the Japanese Empire.
* [[1868]]–[[1878]]: [[Ten Years' War]] between [[Cuba]] and [[Kingdom of Spain|Spain]].
* [[1870]]–[[1871]]: [[Franco-Prussian War]] results in the [[Unification of Germany|unifications of Germany]] [[Italian unification|and Italy]], the collapse of the [[Second French Empire]] and the emergence of a [[New Imperialism]].
* 1870: Napoleon III abdicated after unsuccessful conclusion of Franco-Prussian War. Third Republic proclaimed.
* [[1876]]: The [[April Uprising of 1876|April Uprising]] in [[Bulgaria]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1879]]: [[Anglo-Zulu War]] results in British victory and the annexation of the [[Zulu Kingdom]].
* [[1879]]–[[1880]]: [[Little War (Cuba)|Little War]] against Spanish rule in [[Cuba]] leads to rebel defeat.
* [[1879]]–[[1883]]: [[Chile]] battles with [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] over Andean territory in the [[War of the Pacific]].
* [[1880]]–[[1881]]: [[First Boer War]] begins.
* [[1881]]–[[1899]]: [[Mahdist War]] in [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Sudan]].[[File:Battle of Omdurman.jpg|thumb|A depiction of the [[Battle of Omdurman]] in 1898; in the battle, [[Winston Churchill]] took part in a cavalry charge.]]
* [[1882]]: [[Anglo-Egyptian War]] British invasion and subsequent occupation of [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egypt]]
* [[1883]]–[[1898]]: [[Mandingo Wars]] between the [[French colonial empire]] and the [[Wassoulou Empire]] of the [[Mandinka people|Mandingo]] people led by [[Samory Touré]].
* [[1894]]–[[1895]]: After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], China cedes [[Taiwan]] to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea.
* [[1895]]: [[Taiwan]] is ceded to the [[Empire of Japan]] as a result of the [[First Sino-Japanese War]].
* [[1895]]–[[1896]]: [[Ethiopia]] defeats Italy in the [[First Italo–Ethiopian War]] at the [[Battle of Adwa]].
* [[1895]]–[[1898]]: [[Cuban War for Independence]] results in Cuban independence from [[Spanish Empire|Spain]].
* [[1896]]-[[1898]]: [[Philippine Revolution]] results in a Filipino victory.
* [[1898]]: [[Spanish–American War]] results in the independence of Cuba.
* [[1899]]–[[1901]]: [[Boxer Rebellion]] in China is suppressed by the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]].
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Thousand Days' War]] in [[Colombia]] breaks out between the "[[Liberalism|Liberales]]" and "[[Conservatism|Conservadores]]", culminating with the loss of [[Panama]] in 1903.
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Second Boer War]] begins.
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Philippine–American War]] begins.

==Science and technology==
{{main|19th century in science}}
{{Distinguished men of science of Great Britain 1806-7|align=right}}
The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term '''scientist''' was coined in 1833 by [[William Whewell]],<ref>{{cite web
| access-date=2008-03-03
| url=http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/
| title=William Whewell
| publisher=Stanford University
| date=2000-12-23
| last1=Snyder
| first1=Laura J.
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104025611/http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/
| archive-date=2010-01-04
| url-status=live
}}</ref> which soon replaced the older term of '''natural philosopher'''. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of [[Charles Darwin]] (alongside the independent researches of [[Alfred Russel Wallace]]), who in 1859 published the book ''[[The Origin of Species]]'', which introduced the idea of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the [[germ theory of disease]]. Following this, [[Louis Pasteur]] made the first [[vaccine]] against [[rabies]], and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the [[Enantiomer|asymmetry of crystals]]. In chemistry, [[Dmitri Mendeleev]], following the [[atomic theory]] of [[John Dalton]], created the first [[periodic table]] of [[Chemical element|elements]]. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of [[Michael Faraday]], [[André-Marie Ampère]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], and their contemporaries led to the creation of [[electromagnetism]] as a new branch of science. [[Thermodynamics]] led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of [[hypercomplex number]]s. [[Karl Weierstrass]] and others carried out the [[arithmetization of analysis]] for functions of [[Function of a real variable|real]] and [[complex variable]]s. It also saw rise to [[Non-Euclidean geometry|new progress in geometry]] beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about including a rapid spread in the use of electric illumination and power in the last two decades of the century and radio wave communication at the end of the 1890s.
[[File:Faraday-Millikan-Gale-1913.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Michael Faraday]] (1791–1867)]]
[[File:1878 Darwin photo by Leonard from Woodall 1884 - cropped grayed partially cleaned.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Charles Darwin]]]]
* [[1807]]: [[Potassium]] and [[Sodium]] are individually isolated by [[Sir Humphry Davy]].
* [[1831]]–[[1836]]: [[Charles Darwin]]'s journey on {{HMS|Beagle}}.
* [[1859]]: [[Charles Darwin]] publishes ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.
* [[1861]]: [[James Clerk Maxwell]] publishes ''[[On Physical Lines of Force]]'', formulating the four [[Maxwell's equations]].
* [[1865]]: [[Gregor Mendel]] formulates his [[laws of inheritance]].
* [[1869]]: [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] creates the [[Periodic table]].
* [[1873]]: Maxwell's ''[[A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism]]'' published.
* [[1877]]: [[Asaph Hall]] discovers the [[moons of Mars]]
* [[1896]]: [[Henri Becquerel]] discovers [[radioactivity]]; [[J. J. Thomson]] identifies the [[electron]], though not by name.

===Medicine===
[[File:Robert Koch.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Robert Koch]] discovered the [[tuberculosis]] bacilli. The disease killed an estimated 25 percent of the adult population of Europe during the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cdc.gov/TB/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm |title=Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421174847/http://www.cdc.gov/tb/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm |archive-date=April 21, 2009|date=2018-12-31 }}</ref>]]

* [[1804]]: [[Morphine]] first isolated.
* [[1842]]: [[Anesthesia]] used for the first time.
* [[1847]]: [[Chloroform]] invented for the first time, given to [[Queen Victoria]] at the birth of her eighth child, [[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Prince Leopold]] in [[1853]]
* [[1855]]: [[Cocaine]] is isolated by [[Friedrich Gaedcke]].
* [[1885]]: [[Louis Pasteur]] creates the first successful [[vaccine]] against rabies for a young boy who had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog.
* [[1889]]: [[Aspirin]] patented.

===Inventions===

[[File:Edison in his NJ laboratory 1901.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thomas Edison]] was an American inventor, scientist, and businessman who developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the [[phonograph]], the [[Movie camera|motion picture camera]], and a long-lasting, practical electric [[light bulb]].]]
[[File:Erste Benzin-Omnibus der Welt.jpg|thumb|upright|First motor bus in history: the [[Karl Benz|Benz]] Omnibus, built in 1895 for the Netphener bus company]]
* [[1804]]: First [[steam locomotive]] begins operation.
* [[1816]]: [[Dandy horse|Laufmaschine]] invented by [[Karl von Drais]].
* [[1825]]: [[Erie Canal]] opened connecting the [[Great Lakes]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
* [[1825]]: First isolation of [[aluminium]].
* [[1827]]: First photograph taken (technique of [[heliography]]) by [[Joseph Nicephore Niepce]].
* [[1825]]: The [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]], the first public railway in the world, is opened.
* [[1826]]: [[Samuel Morey]] patents the [[internal combustion engine]].
* [[1829]]: First [[electric motor]] built.
* [[1837]]: [[Telegraphy]] patented.
* [[1841]]: The word "[[dinosaur]]" is coined by [[Richard Owen]].
* [[1844]]: First publicly funded [[telegraph]] line in the world—between Baltimore and Washington—sends demonstration message on 24 May, ushering in the age of the telegraph. This message read "What hath God wrought?" (Bible, Numbers 23:23)
* [[1849]]: The [[safety pin]] and the [[gas mask]] are invented.
* [[1852]]: The first successful [[blimp]] is invented
* [[1855]]: [[Bessemer process]] enables [[steel]] to be mass-produced.
* [[1856]]: World's first [[oil refinery]] in [[Romania]]
* [[1858]]: Invention of the [[phonautograph]], the first true device for [[recorded sound|recording sound]].
* [[1859]]: The first [[ironclad]] was launched into sea by the [[French Navy]].
* [[1860]]: [[Benjamin Tyler Henry]] invents the 16-shot [[Henry Rifle]]
* [[1861]]: [[Richard Gatling]] invents the [[Gatling Gun]], first modern [[machine gun]] used notably in the battles of [[Cold Harbor]] and [[Petersburg, Virginia|Petersburg]]
* [[1862]]: First meeting in combat of [[ironclad warship]]s, {{USS|Monitor|1862|6}} and {{ship|CSS|Virginia}}, during the [[American Civil War]].
* [[1863]]: First section of the [[London Underground]] opens.
* [[1866]]: Successful [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] follows an earlier attempt in 1858.
* [[1867]]: [[Alfred Nobel]] invents [[dynamite]].
* [[1868]]: [[Safety bicycle]] invented.
* [[1869]]: [[First transcontinental railroad]] completed in United States on 10 May.
* [[1870]]: [[Rasmus Malling-Hansen]]'s invention the [[Hansen Writing Ball]] becomes the first commercially sold [[typewriter]].
* [[1873]]: [[Jeans|Blue jeans]] and [[barbed wire]] are invented.
* [[1877]]: [[Thomas Edison]] invents the [[phonograph]]
* [[1878]]: First commercial [[telephone exchange]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]].
* c. [[1875]]/[[1880]]: Introduction of the widespread use of electric [[lighting]]. These included early crude systems in France and the UK and the introduction of large scale outdoor [[Arc lamp|arc lighting]] systems by 1880.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html|title=Arc Lamps - How They Work & History|website=edisontechcenter.org}}</ref>
* [[1879]]: [[Thomas Edison]] patents a practical [[incandescent light bulb]].
* [[1882]]: Introduction of large scale [[Electric power industry|electric power utilities]] with the Edison [[Holborn Viaduct power station|Holborn Viaduct]] (London) and [[Pearl Street Station|Pearl Street]] (New York) power stations supplying indoor electric lighting using Edison's incandescent bulb.<ref>Jonathan Daly, The Rise of Western Power - A Comparative History of Western Civilization, Bloomsbury Publishing · 2013, page 310</ref><ref>Turan Gonen, Electric Power Distribution Engineering, CRC Press · 2015, page 1</ref>
* [[1884]]: [[Sir Hiram Maxim]] invents the first self-powered [[Machine gun]].
* [[1885]]: [[Singer Manufacturing Company|Singer]] begins production of the '[[Singer Model 27 and 127|Vibrating Shuttle]]'. which would become the most popular model of [[sewing machine]].
* [[1886]]: [[Karl Benz]] sells the first commercial [[automobile]].
* [[1890]]: The [[cardboard box]] is invented.
* [[1892]]: [[John Froelich]] develops and constructs the first gasoline/petrol-powered [[tractor]].
* [[1894]]: [[Karl Elsener (inventor)|Karl Elsener]] invents the [[Swiss Army knife]].
* [[1894]]: First [[gramophone record]].
* [[1895]]: [[Wilhelm Röntgen]] identifies [[x-rays]].

==Religion==
[[File:BrighamYoung1.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Brigham Young]] led the [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS Church]] from 1844 until his death in 1877]]
* [[1818]]: The first permanent [[Reform Judaism]] congregation, the [[Hamburg Temple|Neuer Israelitischer Tempel]], is founded in [[Hamburg]] on October 18. Around the same time, through the development of ''[[Wissenschaft des Judentums]]'', the seeds of [[Conservative Judaism]] are sown.
* [[1830]]: The [[Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)|Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]] is established.
* [[1844]]: The [[Báb]] announces his revelation on 23 May, founding [[Bábism]]. He announced to the world of the coming of "[[He whom God shall make manifest]]". He is considered the forerunner of [[Bahá'u'lláh]], the founder of the [[Baháʼí Faith]].
* [[1850s]]–[[1890s]]: In Islam, [[Salafism]] grows in popularity.
* [[1851]]: [[Hong Xiuquan]], the leader of the [[God Worshipping Society]], founds the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]].
* [[1857]]: In [[Paris]], [[France]], [[Allan Kardec]], publishes [[The Spirits' Book]] and founds the [[Spiritism]].
* [[1868]]: In Japan, [[State Shinto]] is established amidst the [[Meiji Restoration]].
* [[1869]]–[[1870]]: The [[First Vatican Council]] is convened, articulating the dogma of [[papal infallibility]] and promoting a [[Neo-scholasticism|revival of scholastic theology]].
* [[1871]]–[[1878]]: In [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Otto von Bismarck]] challenges the Catholic Church in the ''[[Kulturkampf]]'' ("Culture War")
* [[1875]]: [[Helena Blavatsky]] co-founds the [[Theosophical Society]] and becomes the leading articulator of [[Theosophy]].
* [[1879]]: [[Mary Baker Eddy]] founds the [[Church of Christ, Scientist]]. ''[[The Watchtower]],'' published by the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], releases its first issue.
* [[1881]]: In the Sudan, [[Muhammad Ahmad]] claims to be the [[Mahdi]], founding the [[Mahdist State]] and declaring war on the [[Khedivate of Egypt]].
* [[1889]]: [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]] establishes the [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]].
* [[1891]]: [[Pope Leo XIII]] issues the [[papal encyclical]] ''[[Rerum novarum]]'', the first major document informing modern [[Catholic social teaching]].

==Culture==
[[File:Crystal Palace - interior.jpg|thumb|350px|The [[Great Exhibition]] in London. Starting during the 18th century, the United Kingdom was the first country in the world to industrialise.]]
* [[1808]]: [[Beethoven]] composes [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Fifth Symphony]]
* [[1813]]: [[Jane Austen]] publishes ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]''
* [[1818]]: [[Mary Shelley]] publishes ''[[Frankenstein]]''.
* [[1819]]: [[John Keats]] writes his [[John Keats's 1819 odes|six of his best-known odes]].
* [[1819]]: [[Théodore Géricault]] paints his masterpiece ''[[The Raft of the Medusa]]'', and exhibits it in the French Salon of 1819 at the [[The Louvre|Louvre]].
* [[1824]]: Premiere of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s ''[[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Ninth Symphony]]''.
* [[1829]]: [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]'s ''[[Goethe's Faust|Faust]]'' premieres.
* [[1833]]–[[1834]]: [[Thomas Carlyle]] publishes ''[[Sartor Resartus]]''.
* [[1837]]: [[Charles Dickens]] publishes ''[[Oliver Twist]]''.
* [[1841]]: [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] publishes ''[[Self-Reliance]]''.
* [[1845]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] publishes ''[[Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave]]''.
* [[1847]]: The [[Brontë sisters]] publish ''[[Jane Eyre]]'', ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'' and ''[[Agnes Grey]]''.
* [[1848]]: [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]] publish ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]''.
* [[1849]]: [[Josiah Henson]] publishes [[The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself]].
* [[1851]]: [[Herman Melville]] publishes [[Moby-Dick]].
* [[1851]]: [[Sojourner Truth]] delivers the speech [[Ain't I a Woman?]].
* [[1852]]: [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]] publishes [[Uncle Tom's Cabin]].
* [[1855]]: [[Walt Whitman]] publishes the first edition of ''[[Leaves of Grass]]''.
* [[1855]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] publishes the first edition of ''[[My Bondage and My Freedom]]''.
* [[1862]]: [[Victor Hugo]] publishes ''[[Les Misérables]]''.
* [[1863]]: [[Jules Verne]] begins publishing his collection of stories and novels, ''[[Voyages extraordinaires]]'', with the novel ''[[Cinq semaines en ballon]]''.
* [[1865]]: [[Lewis Carroll]] publishes [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]].
* [[1869]]: [[Leo Tolstoy]] publishes ''[[War and Peace]]''.[[File:Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Le Moulin de la Galette.jpg|thumb|[[Auguste Renoir]], ''[[Bal du moulin de la Galette]]'', 1876, [[Musée d'Orsay]]]]
* [[1875]]: [[Georges Bizet]]'s opera [[Carmen]] premiers in Paris.
* [[1876]]: [[Richard Wagner]]'s ''[[Ring Cycle]]'' is first performed in its entirety.
* [[1883]]: [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s ''[[Treasure Island]]'' is published.
* [[1884]]: [[Mark Twain]] publishes the ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''.
* [[1886]]: "[[Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde]]" by Robert Louis Stevenson is published.
* [[1887]]: [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] publishes his first [[Sherlock Holmes]] story, ''[[A Study in Scarlet]]''.
* [[1889]]: [[Vincent van Gogh]] paints ''[[The Starry Night]]''.
* [[1889]]: [[Moulin Rouge]] opens in Paris.
* [[1892]]: [[Tchaikovsky]]'s ''[[Nutcracker Suite]]'' premières in [[St Petersberg]].
* [[1894]]: [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[The Jungle Book]]'' is published
* [[1895]]: Trial of [[Oscar Wilde]] and premiere of his play ''[[The Importance of Being Earnest]]''.
* [[1897]]: [[Bram Stoker]] writes [[Dracula]].
* [[1900]]: [[L. Frank Baum]] publishes [[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]].

[[File:Ilya Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Portrait of Leo Tolstoy (1887).jpg|thumb|upright|Russian writer [[Leo Tolstoy]], author of ''[[War and Peace]]'' and ''[[Anna Karenina]]'']]

===Literature===
{{main|Romantic poetry|19th century in literature}}

On the literary front the new century opens with [[romanticism]], a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German ''[[Sturm und Drang]]'' spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the [[Napoleonic Wars]] but subsequently developed rapidly. [[Modernism]] began.<ref>David Damrosch and David L. Pike, eds. ''The Longman Anthology of World Literature, Volume E: The Nineteenth Century'' (2nd ed. 2008)</ref>

The Goncourts and [[Émile Zola]] in France and [[Giovanni Verga]] in Italy produce some of the finest [[Naturalism (literature)|naturalist novels]]. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians [[Alexander Pushkin]], [[Nikolai Gogol]], [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Anton Chekhov]] and [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]; the English [[Charles Dickens]], [[John Keats]], [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]] and [[Jane Austen]]; the Scottish [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Thomas Carlyle]] and [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] (creator of the character [[Sherlock Holmes]]); the Irish [[Oscar Wilde]]; the Americans [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], and [[Mark Twain]]; and the French [[Victor Hugo]], [[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Jules Verne]], [[Alexandre Dumas]] and [[Charles Baudelaire]].<ref>M. H. Abrams et al., eds., ''The Norton Anthology of English Literature'' (9th ed. 2012)</ref>

Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: [[Walt Whitman]], [[Mark Twain]], [[Harriet Ann Jacobs]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], [[Herman Melville]], [[Frederick Douglass]], [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], [[Joel Chandler Harris]], and [[Emily Dickinson]] to name a few.

===Photography===
[[File:View from the Window at Le Gras, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.jpg|thumb|upright|One of the first photographs, produced in 1826 by [[Nicéphore Niépce]]]]
[[File:Self-portrait of Nadar.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]], Self-portrait, {{Circa|1860}}]]
{{see also|History of photography|List of photojournalists|Photojournalism|Daguerreotype}}
*[[Ottomar Anschütz]], [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Mathew Brady]], documented the [[American Civil War]]
*[[Edward S. Curtis]], documented the [[American West]] notably [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]
*[[Louis Daguerre]], inventor of [[daguerreotype]] process of photography, chemist
*[[Thomas Eakins]], pioneer motion photographer
*[[George Eastman]], inventor of [[Photographic film|roll film]]
*[[Hércules Florence]], pioneer inventor of photography
*[[Auguste and Louis Lumière]], pioneer film-makers, inventors
*[[Étienne-Jules Marey]], pioneer motion photographer, [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Eadweard Muybridge]], pioneer motion photographer, [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]] a.k.a. Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, portrait photographer
*[[Nicéphore Niépce]], pioneer inventor of photography
*[[Louis Le Prince]], motion picture inventor and pioneer film-maker
*[[Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky]], chemist and photographer
*[[William Fox Talbot]], inventor of the negative / positive photographic process.

===Visual artists, painters, sculptors===
{{main|History of art#Modern Art (ca. 1770-1970)|Western painting|Ukiyo-e}}
[[File:El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado thin black margin.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Francisco Goya]], ''[[The Third of May 1808]]'', 1814, {{Lang|es|[[Museo del Prado]]|italic=no}}]]
[[File:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Eugène Delacroix]], ''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'', 1830, [[Louvre]]]]
[[File:Vincent van Gogh - National Gallery of Art.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Vincent van Gogh]], ''Self-portrait'', 1889, [[National Gallery of Art]]]]
[[File:Affiche Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile Mucha.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alphonse Mucha]], Advertise with ''Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile'', 1897]]
The [[Realism (arts)|Realism]] and [[Romanticism]] of the early 19th century gave way to [[Impressionism]] and [[Post-Impressionism]] in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the [[Hudson River School]] was prominent. 19th-century painters included:
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Ivan Aivazovsky]]
*[[Léon Bakst]]
*[[Albert Bierstadt]]
*[[William Blake]]
*[[Arnold Böcklin]]
*[[Rosa Bonheur]]
*[[William Burges]]
*[[Mary Cassatt]]
*[[Camille Claudel]]
*[[Paul Cézanne]]
*[[Frederic Edwin Church]]
*[[Thomas Cole]]
*[[Jan Matejko]]
*[[John Constable]]
*[[Camille Corot]]
*[[Gustave Courbet]]
*[[Honoré Daumier]]
*[[Edgar Degas]]
*[[Eugène Delacroix]]
*[[Thomas Eakins]]
*[[Caspar David Friedrich]]
*[[Paul Gauguin]]
*[[Théodore Géricault]]
*[[Vincent van Gogh]]
*[[William Morris]]
*[[Francisco Goya]]
*[[Andō Hiroshige]]
*[[Hokusai]]
*[[Winslow Homer]]
*[[Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres]]
*[[Isaac Levitan]]
*[[Édouard Manet]]
*[[Claude Monet]]
*[[Gustave Moreau]]
*[[Berthe Morisot]]
*[[Edvard Munch]]
*[[Mikhail Nesterov]]
*[[Camille Pissarro]]
*[[Augustus Pugin]]
*[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]
*[[Ilya Repin]]
*[[Auguste Rodin]]
*[[Albert Pinkham Ryder]]
*[[John Singer Sargent]]
*[[Valentin Serov]]
*[[Georges Seurat]]
*[[Ivan Shishkin]]
*[[Vasily Surikov]]
*[[James Tissot]]
*[[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]]
*[[J. M. W. Turner|Joseph Mallord William Turner]]
*[[Viktor Vasnetsov]]
*[[Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
*[[Mikhail Vrubel]]
*[[James Abbott McNeill Whistler]]
*[[Tsukioka Yoshitoshi]]
{{div col end}}

===Music===
{{main|List of Romantic-era composers|Romantic music|Romanticism}}
[[File:Joseph Karl Stieler's Beethoven mit dem Manuskript der Missa solemnis.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]]]
[[File:Porträt des Komponisten Pjotr I. Tschaikowski (1840-1893).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]]]
[[Sonata form]] matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] style. Many great composers lived through this era such as [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], [[Franz Liszt]], [[Frédéric Chopin]], [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] and [[Richard Wagner]]. The list includes:
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Mily Balakirev]]
*[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]
*[[Hector Berlioz]]
*[[Georges Bizet]]
*[[Alexander Borodin]]
*[[Johannes Brahms]]
*[[Anton Bruckner]]
*[[Frédéric Chopin]]
*[[Claude Debussy]]
*[[Antonín Dvořák]]
*[[Mikhail Glinka]]
*[[Edvard Grieg]]
*[[Scott Joplin]]
*[[Alexandre Levy]]
*[[Franz Liszt]]
*[[Gustav Mahler]]
*[[Felix Mendelssohn]]
*[[Modest Mussorgsky]]
*[[Jacques Offenbach]]
*[[Niccolò Paganini]]
*[[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]]
*[[Gioachino Rossini]]
*[[Anton Rubinstein]]
*[[Camille Saint-Saëns]]
*[[Antonio Salieri]]
*[[Franz Schubert]]
*[[Robert Schumann]]
*[[Alexander Scriabin]]
*[[Arthur Sullivan]]
*[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]
*[[Giuseppe Verdi]]
*[[Richard Wagner]]
{{div col end}}

===Sports===
* [[1867]]: The [[Marquess of Queensberry Rules]] for [[boxing]] are published.
* [[1872]]: The first recognised international [[Association football|football]] match, between [[England]] and [[Scotland]], is played.
* [[1877]]: The first [[test cricket]] match, between [[England]] and [[Australia]], is played.
* [[1891]]: [[Basketball]] is invented by [[James Naismith]].
* [[1895]]: [[Volleyball]] is invented.
* [[1896]]: [[Olympic Games#Revival|Olympic Games]] revived in [[Athens]].

==Events==
{{For timeline}}

===1801–1850===
* [[1801]]: The [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] and the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] merge to form the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]].
* [[1802]]: The [[Wahhabi]]s of the [[First Saudi State]] [[Wahhabi sack of Karbala|sack Karbala]].
* [[1803]]: [[William Symington]] demonstrates his ''[[Charlotte Dundas]]'', the "first practical steamboat".
* [[1803]]: The [[Wahhabi]]s of the [[First Saudi State]] capture [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].
* [[1804]]: [[Austrian Empire]] founded by [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis I]].
* [[1804]]: [[World population]] reaches 1 billion.
* [[1805]]: The [[Battle of Trafalgar]] eliminates the French and Spanish naval fleets and allows for British dominance of the seas, a major factor for the success of the [[British Empire]] later in the century.
* [[1805]]–[[1848]]: [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] modernizes [[Egypt]].
[[File:StamfordRaffles.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[1819]]: 29 January, [[Stamford Raffles]] arrives in Singapore with [[William Farquhar]] to establish a trading post for the [[East India Company|British East India Company]]. 8 February, The treaty is signed between Sultan Hussein of Johor, Temenggong Abdul Rahman and Stamford Raffles. Farquhar is installed as the first Resident of the settlement.]]
* [[1810]]: The [[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]] was founded. Among its students and faculty are [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], and [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]]. The German university reform proves to be so successful that its model is copied around the world (see [[History of European universities#European university models in the 19th and 20th centuries|History of European research universities]]).
* [[1814]]: [[Elisha Collier]] invents the [[Flintlock]] [[Revolver]].
* [[1814]] : February 1 Eruption of [[Mayon Volcano]]
* [[1815]]: April, [[Mount Tambora]] in [[Sumbawa]] island erupts, becoming the largest [[volcanic eruption]] in [[recorded history]], destroying [[Tambora culture]], and killing at least 71,000 people, including its aftermath. The eruption created [[global climate]] anomalies known as "[[volcanic winter]]".<ref name="Oppenheimer2003">{{cite journal|last=Oppenheimer|first=Clive|title=Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815|journal=Progress in Physical Geography|volume=27|issue=2|year=2003|pages=230–259|doi=10.1191/0309133303pp379ra|s2cid=131663534}}</ref>
* [[1816]]: [[Year Without a Summer]]: Unusually cold conditions wreak havoc throughout the Northern Hemisphere, likely influenced by the 1815 explosion of [[Mount Tambora]].
* [[1816]]–[[1828]]: [[Shaka]]'s [[Zulu Kingdom]] becomes the largest in [[Southern Africa]].
* [[1819]]: The [[Colombia|Republic of Colombia]] ([[Gran Colombia]]) achieves independence after [[Simón Bolívar]]'s triumph at the [[Battle of Boyacá]].
* [[1819]]: The modern city of [[Singapore]] is established by the [[British East India Company]].
* [[1820]]: Discovery of [[Antarctica]].
* [[1820]]: [[History of Liberia|Liberia]] founded by the [[American Colonization Society]] for freed American slaves.
* [[1820]]: Dissolution of the [[Maratha Empire]].
* [[1821]]–[[1823]]: [[First Mexican Empire]], as Mexico's first post-independent government, ruled by Emperor [[Agustín de Iturbide|Agustín I of Mexico]].
* [[1822]]: [[Pedro I of Brazil]] declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September.
* [[1823]]: [[Monroe Doctrine]] declared by US President [[James Monroe]].
* [[1825]]: The [[Decembrist revolt]].
[[File:Kolman decembrists.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Decembrists]] at the [[Saint Petersburg Senate Square|Senate Square]].]]
* [[1829]]: [[Sir Robert Peel]] founds the [[Metropolitan Police Service]], the first modern police force.
[[File:Emigrants Leave Ireland by Henry Doyle 1868.jpg|thumb|upright|Emigrants leaving [[Ireland]]. From 1830 to 1914, almost 5 million Irish people went to the United States alone.]]
* [[1830]]: Anglo-Russian rivalry over Afghanistan, [[the Great Game]], commences and concludes in 1895.
* [[1831]]: November Uprising ends with crushing defeat for Poland in the [[Battle of Warsaw (1831)|Battle of Warsaw]].
* [[1832]]: The British Parliament passes the [[Great Reform Act]].
* [[1834]]–[[1859]]: [[Imam Shamil]]'s rebellion in Russian-occupied [[Caucasus]].
* [[1835]]–[[1836]]: The [[Texas Revolution]] in Mexico resulted in the short-lived [[Republic of Texas]].
* [[1836]]: [[Samuel Colt]] popularizes the [[revolver]] and sets up a firearms company to manufacture his invention of the [[Colt Paterson]] revolver, a six bullets firearm shot one by one without reloading manually.
* [[1837]]–[[1838]]: [[Rebellions of 1837]] in [[Canada]].
* [[1838]]: By this time, 46,000 Native Americans have been forcibly relocated in the [[Trail of Tears]].
* [[1839]]–[[1860]]: After the [[First Opium War|First]] and [[Second Opium War]]s, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and Russia gain many [[Treaty ports|trade and associated concessions]] from China resulting in the start of the decline of the [[Qing dynasty]].
* [[1839]]–[[1919]]: [[Anglo-Afghan War]]s lead to stalemate and the establishment of the [[Durand line]]
* [[1842]]: [[Treaty of Nanking]] cedes [[Hong Kong]] to the British.
* [[1843]]: The first [[wagon train]] sets out from Missouri.
* [[1844]]: [[Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers]] establish what is considered the first [[cooperative]] in the world.
* [[1845]]–[[1849]]: The [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine of Ireland]] leads to the [[Irish diaspora]].
* [[1848]]: ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'' published.
* [[1848]]: [[Seneca Falls Convention]] is the first [[women's rights]] convention in the United States and leads to the [[History of Women's Suffrage in the United States|battle for women's suffrage]].
* [[1848]]–[[1855]]: [[California Gold Rush]].
* [[1849]]: Earliest recorded [[Airstrike|air raid]], as Austria employs [[The Austrian balloons|200 balloons]] to deliver ordnance against [[Venice]].
* [[1850]]: The [[Little Ice Age]] ends around this time.
* [[1850]]: [[Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch]] establishes the first [[cooperative banking|cooperative financial institution]].
[[File:U.S. Territorial Acquisitions.png|thumb|250px|Historical [[Territorial evolution of the United States|territorial expansion of the United States]]]]

===1851–1900===
* [[1851]]: The [[Great Exhibition]] in London was the world's first international Expo or [[World's fair|World Fair]].
* [[1852]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] delivers his speech "The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro" in [[Rochester, New York]].
* [[1857]]: Sir [[Joseph Whitworth]] designs the first long-range [[sniper rifle]].
* [[1857]]–[[1858]]: [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. The British Empire assumes control of India from the [[East India Company]].
* [[1858]]: Construction of [[Big Ben]] is completed.
* [[1859]]–[[1869]]: [[Suez Canal]] is constructed.
[[File:SuezCanalKantara.jpg|thumb|upright|The first vessels sail through the [[Suez Canal]]]]
* [[1860]]: [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] launches the [[Expedition of the Thousand]].
* [[1861]]: Russia [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|abolishes serfdom]].
* [[1862]]–[[1877]]: [[Dungan revolt (1862–1877)|Muslim Rebellion]] in north-west China.
* [[1863]]: Formation of the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|International Red Cross]] is followed by the adoption of the [[First Geneva Convention]] in 1864.
* [[1865]]–[[1877]]: [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] in the United States; Slavery is banned in the United States by the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]].
* [[1867]]: [[Canada]] is formed, via the process of [[Canadian Confederation]].
* [[1868]]: [[Michael Barrett (Fenian)|Michael Barrett]] is the last person to be publicly hanged in England.
* [[1869]]: The [[Suez Canal]] opens linking the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] to the [[Red Sea]].
[[File:Barricade18March1871.jpg|thumb|upright|A barricade in the [[Paris Commune]], 18 March 1871. Around 30,000 Parisians were killed, and thousands more were later executed.]]
[[File:Schwarzer Freitag Wien 1873.jpg|thumb|upright|Black Friday, 9 May 1873, Vienna Stock Exchange. The [[Panic of 1873]] and [[Long Depression]] followed.]]
* [[1870]]: Official dismantling of the [[Cultivation System]] and beginning of a '[[Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies)|Liberal Policy]]' of deregulated exploitation of the Netherlands East Indies.<ref name="VICKERS_xii">Vickers (2005), page xii</ref>
* [[1870]]–[[1890]]: [[Long Depression]] in [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]].
* [[1871]]–[[1872]]: [[List of famines|Famine]] in [[Iran|Persia]] is believed to have caused the death of 2 million.
* [[1871]]: The [[Paris Commune]] briefly rules the French capital.
* [[1872]]: [[Yellowstone National Park]], the first [[national park]], is created.
* [[1874]]: The ''Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, and Graveurs'', better known as the [[Impressionist]]s, organize and present their first public group exhibition at the Paris studio of the photographer [[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]].
* [[1874]]: The Home Rule Movement is established in [[Ireland]].
* [[1875]]: ''[[HMS Challenger]]'' surveys the deepest point in the Earth's oceans, the [[Challenger Deep]]
* [[1876]]: [[Battle of the Little Bighorn]] leads to the death of [[General Custer]] and victory for the alliance of [[Lakota people|Lakota]], [[Northern Cheyenne|Cheyenne]] and [[Arapaho]]
* [[1876]]–[[1914]]: The massive expansion in population, territory, industry and wealth in the United States is referred to as the [[Gilded Age]].
* [[1877]]: [[Great Railroad Strike]] in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide [[Strike action|labour strike]].
* [[1881]]: Wave of [[Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire|pogroms]] begins in the Russian Empire.
* [[1881]]–[[1882]]: The [[Jules Ferry laws]] are passed in [[French Third Republic|France]] establishing free, secular education.
* [[1883]]: [[Krakatoa]] volcano explosion, one of the largest in modern history.
* [[1883]]: The [[quagga]] is rendered extinct.
* [[1886]]: Construction of the [[Statue of Liberty]]; [[Coca-Cola]] is developed.
* [[1888]]: Founding of the shipping line ''[[Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij]]'' (KPM) that supported the unification and development of the colonial economy.<ref name="VICKERS_xii"/>
* [[1888]]: The [[Golden Law]] abolishes [[slavery in Brazil]].
* [[1889]]: [[Eiffel Tower]] is inaugurated in [[Paris]].
[[File:Filipino Ilustrados Jose Rizal Marcelo del Pilar Mariano Ponce.jpg|thumb|upright|Studio portrait of ''[[Ilustrado]]s'' in Europe, {{Circa|1890}}]]
* [[1889]]: A republican military coup establishes the [[First Brazilian Republic]]. The [[Empire of Brazil|parliamentary constitutional monarchy]] is abolished.
* [[1889]]-[[1890]]: [[1889–1890 pandemic]] kills 1 million people.
* [[1890]]: First use of the [[electric chair]] as a method of execution.
* [[1892]]: The [[World's Columbian Exposition]] was held in [[Chicago]] celebrating the 400th anniversary of [[Christopher Columbus]]'s arrival in the [[New World]].
* [[1892]]: [[Fingerprinting]] is officially adopted for the first time.
* [[1893]]: [[New Zealand]] becomes the first country to enact [[women's suffrage]].
* [[1893]]: The [[Coremans-de Vriendt law]] is passed in [[Belgium]], creating legal equality for [[French language|French]] and [[Dutch language]]s.
* [[1894]]: The [[Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem]]<ref name="VICKERS_xii"/> resulted in the looting and destruction of Cakranegara Palace in [[Mataram (city)|Mataram]].<ref>Wahyu Ernawati: "Chapter 8: The Lombok Treasure", in ''Colonial collections Revisited'': Pieter ter Keurs (editor) Vol. 152, CNWS publications. Issue 36 of ''Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde'', Leiden. CNWS Publications, 2007. {{ISBN|978-90-5789-152-6}}. 296 pages. pp. 186–203</ref> J. L. A. Brandes, a Dutch philologist, discovers and secures [[Nagarakretagama]] manuscript in Lombok royal library.
* [[1896]]: [[Philippine Revolution]] ends declaring Philippines free from Spanish rule.
* [[1898]]: The United States gains control of [[Cuba]], [[Puerto Rico]], and the [[Philippines]] after the [[Spanish–American War]].
* [[1898]]: [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] of [[Qing dynasty|China]] engineers a coup d'état, marking the end of the [[Hundred Days' Reform]]; the [[Guangxu Emperor]] is arrested.
* [[1900]]: [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|Exposition Universelle]] held in Paris, prominently featuring the growing art trend [[Art Nouveau]].
* [[1900]]–[[1901]]: [[Eight-Nation Alliance|Eight nations invade China]] at the same time and ransack [[Forbidden City]].

{{for|later events|Timeline of the 20th century}}

==Supplementary portrait gallery==
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
File:Carl Friedrich Gauss 1840 by Jensen.jpg|[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
File:Charles Robert Darwin by John Collier cropped.jpg|[[Charles Darwin]]
File:Victor Hugo by Étienne Carjat 1876 - full.jpg|[[Victor Hugo]] {{Circa|1876}}
File:Kramskoy Mendeleev 01.jpg|[[Dmitri Mendeleev]]
File:Louis Pasteur.jpg|[[Louis Pasteur]], 1878
File:Mariecurie.jpg|[[Marie Curie]], {{Circa|1898}}
File:Nikola Tesla by Sarony c1898.jpg|[[Nikola Tesla]]
File:Jose Rizal full.jpg|[[José Rizal]]
File:Jane Austen (chopped) 2.jpg|[[Jane Austen]]
File:Leo Tolstoy 1897, black and white, 37767u.jpg|[[Leo Tolstoy]] {{Circa|1897}}
File:Edgar Allan Poe 2.jpg|[[Edgar Allan Poe]]
File:Félix_Nadar_1820-1910_portraits_Jules_Verne.jpg|[[Jules Verne]]
File:Charles Dickens 3.jpg|[[Charles Dickens]]
File:Carjat Arthur Rimbaud 1872 n2.jpg|[[Arthur Rimbaud]] {{Circa|1872}}
File:Twain in Tesla's Lab.jpg|[[Mark Twain]], 1894
File:RWEmerson.jpg|[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]
File:Benjamin D. Maxham - Henry David Thoreau - Restored - greyscale - straightened.jpg|[[Henry David Thoreau]], August 1861.
File:Emile Zola 2.jpg|[[Émile Zola]], {{Circa|1900}}
File:Chekhov 1903 ArM.jpg|[[Anton Chekhov]]
File:Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky 1876.jpg|[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], 1876
File:John L Sullivan.jpg|[[John L Sullivan]] in his prime, {{Circa|1882}}
File:David Livingstone -1.jpg|[[David Livingstone]] 1864, left [[Great Britain|Britain]] for [[Africa]] in 1840
File:Jesse and Frank James.gif|[[Jesse James|Jesse]] and [[Frank James]], 1872
File:William Notman studios - Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill (1895) edit.jpg|[[Sitting Bull]] and [[Buffalo Bill Cody]], Montreal, Quebec, 1885
File:Goyaale.jpg|[[Geronimo]], 1887, prominent leader of the [[Chiricahua]] [[Apache]]
File:Billy the Kid corrected.jpg|[[William Bonney]] aka [[Henry McCarty]] aka [[Billy the Kid]], {{Circa|late 1870s}}
File:Wyatt Earp und Bat Masterson 1876.jpg|Deputies [[Bat Masterson]] and [[Wyatt Earp]] in [[Dodge City]], 1876
File:Mathew Brady 1875 cropped.jpg|[[Mathew Brady]], Self-portrait, {{Circa|1875}}
File:Alfred Lord Tennyson 1869.jpg|[[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]
File:Thomas Nast - Brady-Handy.jpg|[[Thomas Nast]], {{Circa|1860}}–1875, photo by [[Mathew Brady]] or Levin Handy
File:Hadhrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad2.jpg|[[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]]
File:Bakunin.png|[[Mikhail Bakunin]]
File:Kierkegaard.jpg|[[Søren Kierkegaard]]
File:Solomon Northup 001 (cropped).jpg|[[Solomon Northup]]
File:Dred Scott photograph (circa 1857).jpg|[[Dred Scott]]
File:Madame CJ Walker.gif|[[Madam C. J. Walker]]
File:Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant.jpg|[[Claude Monet]]'s ''[[Impression, Sunrise]]'', 1872, gave the name to [[Impressionism]]
File:Paul Cézanne 159.jpg|[[Paul Cézanne]], [[self-portrait]], 1880–1881
File:Scott Joplin.jpg|[[Scott Joplin]]
File:NiccoloPaganini.jpeg|[[Niccolò Paganini]], {{Circa|1819}}
File:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 043.jpg|[[Frédéric Chopin]], 1838
File:John D. Rockefeller, Sr.jpg|[[John D. Rockefeller]]
</gallery>

==See also==

*[[Timelines of modern history]]
*[[Long nineteenth century]]
*[[19th century in film]]
*[[19th century in games]]
*[[19th-century philosophy]]
*[[Nineteenth-century theatre]]
*[[International relations (1814–1919)]]
*[[List of wars: 1800–1899]]
*[[Victorian era]]
*[[France in the long nineteenth century]]
*[[History of Spain (1808–1874)]]
*[[History of Russia (1855–1892)]]
*[[Slavery in the United States]]
*[[Timeline of 19th-century Muslim history]]
*[[Timeline of historic inventions#19th century|Timeline of historic inventions]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo00lang online free]
* Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. ''Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present'' (1970) [https://archive.org/details/harperencycloped00morr online frr]
* ''New Cambridge Modern History'' (13 vol 1957–79), old but thorough coverage, mostly of Europe; strong on diplomacy
**Bury, J. P. T. ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 10: the Zenith of European Power, 1830–70'' (1964) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/10#page/n3/mode/1up online]
**Crawley, C. W., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History Volume IX War and Peace In An Age of Upheaval 1793–1830'' (1965) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/09#page/n4/mode/1up online]
**Darby, H. C. and H. Fullard ''The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas'' (1972)
**Hinsley, F.H., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 11, Material Progress and World-Wide Problems 1870–1898'' (1979) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/11#page/n3/mode/1up online]

===Diplomacy and international relations===
{{Main|International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)}}
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-24729-5|title=Greater France|year=1996|last1=Aldrich|first1=Robert|isbn=978-0-333-56740-1}}
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-24958-9|title=Peace, War and the European Powers, 1814–1914|year=1996|last1=Bartlett|first1=C. J.|publisher=Macmillan Education UK |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-62001-4}}
* Bridge, F. R. & Roger Bullen. ''The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914'', 2nd Ed. (2005)
* {{cite journal|doi=10.2307/3014586|jstor=3014586|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.86299|title=History of Modern Europe, 1878-1919|year=1923|last1=Gooch|first1=G. P.|journal=Journal of the British Institute of International Affairs|volume=2|issue=6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.86299/page/n277 266]}}
* Herring, George C. ''Years of Peril and Ambition: U.S. Foreign Relations, 1776–1921'' (2017)
* [[Paul Kennedy|Kennedy, Paul]]. [[The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers|''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500–2000'']] (1987), stress on economic and military factors
* Langer, William. ''European Alliances and Alignments 1870–1890'' (1950); advanced history [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.237096 online]
* Langer, William. ''The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902'' (1950); advanced history [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177815 online]
* Mowat, R.B. ''A history of European diplomacy, 1815–1914'' (1922) [https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropea00mowauoft online free]
* {{cite book|doi=10.1515/9781400849949|title=The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century|year=2014|last1=Osterhammel|first1=Jürgen|isbn=9781400849949|url=http://www.gbv.de/dms/bowker/toc/9780691147451.pdf }}
* Porter, Andrew, ed. ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century'' (2001)
* Sontag, Raymond. ''European Diplomatic History: 1871–1932'' (1933), basic summary; 425 pp [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.503351/2015.503351.european-diplomatic_text.pdf online]
* Taylor, A.J.P. ''[[The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918]]'' (1954) 638 pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy; [https://archive.org/details/struggleformaste00ajpt online free]
* Taylor, A.J.P. "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., ''The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98'' (1962): 542–66. [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/11#page/n3/mode/1up online]
* {{cite book|doi=10.4324/9781315844503|title=The European Colonial Empires|year=2015|last1=Wesseling|first1=H. L.|isbn=9781315844503}}

===Europe===
* Anderson, M. S. ''The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003)
* Blanning, T. C. W. ed. ''The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914'' (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320 pp
* Bruun, Geoffrey. ''Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 '' (1938) [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.183653/2015.183653.Europe-And-The-French-Imperium-1799-1814_text.pdf online].
* Cameron, Rondo. ''France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War'' (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history.
* Evans, Richard J. ''The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914'' (2016), 934 pp
* Gildea, Robert. ''Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp, [https://www.questia.com/read/55547824/barricades-and-borders-europe-1800-1914 online 2nd ed, 1996]
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-4039-3757-5|title=Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe|year=2003|last1=Grab|first1=Alexander|publisher=Macmillan Education UK |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-68275-3}}
* Mason, David S. ''A Concise History of Modern Europe: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity'' (2011), since 1700
* Merriman, John, and J. M. Winter, eds. ''Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire'' (5 vol. 2006)
* Steinberg, Jonathan. ''Bismarck: A Life'' (2011)
* Salmi, Hannu. ''19th Century Europe: A Cultural History'' (2008).

===Asia, Africa===
* Ajayi, J. F. Ade, ed. ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. VI, Abridged Edition: Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s'' (1998)
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139644594|title=Africa's Development in Historical Perspective|year=2014|isbn=9781139644594|editor1-last=Akyeampong|editor1-first=Emmanuel|editor2-last=Bates|editor2-first=Robert H|editor3-last=Nunn|editor3-first=Nathan|editor4-last=Robinson|editor4-first=James A}}
* [[Chamberlain. M.E.]] ''The Scramble for Africa'' (3rd ed. 2010)
* Collins, Robert O. and James M, Burns, eds. ''A History of Sub-Saharan Africa''.
*[[Basil Davidson|Davidson, Basil]] ''Africa In History, Themes and Outlines''. (2nd ed. 1991).
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/9781316340356|title=A History of East Asia|year=2017|last1=Holcombe|first1=Charles|isbn=9781107118737}}
* Ludden, David. ''India and South Asia: A Short History'' (2013).
* McEvedy, Colin. ''The Penguin Atlas of African History'' (2nd ed. 1996). [https://www.amazon.com/Penguin-Atlas-African-History-Revised/dp/0140513213/ excerpt]
* Mansfield, Peter, and Nicolas Pelham, ''A History of the Middle East'' (4th ed, 2013).
* {{cite book|doi=10.4324/9781315509495|title=A History of Asia|year=2016|last1=Murphey|first1=Rhoads|isbn=9781315509495}}
* Pakenham, Thomas. ''The Scramble for Africa: 1876 to 1912'' (1992)

=== North and South America ===
*Bakewell, Peter, ''A History of Latin America'' (Blackwell, 1997)
* Beezley, William, and Michael Meyer, eds. ''The Oxford History of Mexico'' (2010)
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521232234|title=The Cambridge History of Latin America|year=1984|isbn=9781139055161|editor1-last=Bethell|editor1-first=Leslie}}
* Black, Conrad. ''Rise to Greatness: The History of Canada From the Vikings to the Present'' (2014)
* Burns, E. Bradford, ''Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History'', paperback, Prentice Hall 2001, 7th edition
* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848'' (2009), Pulitzer Prize
* Kirkland, Edward C. ''A History Of American Economic Life'' (3rd ed. 1960) [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.223513/2015.223513.A-History.pdf online]
* Lynch, John, ed. ''Latin American revolutions, 1808–1826: old and new world origins'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1994)
* McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom The CIvil War Era'' (1988) Pulitzer Prize for US history
* Parry, J.H. ''A Short History of the West Indies'' (1987)
* Paxson, Frederic Logan. ''History of the American frontier, 1763–1893'' (1924) [https://web.archive.org/web/20160202142001/https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/ttu-ir/bitstream/handle/2346/47065/ttu_hfwc01_000001.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y online], Pulitzer Prize
* White, Richard. ''The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States during Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896'' (2017)

===Primary sources===
* de Bary, Wm. Theodore, ed. ''Sources of East Asian Tradition, Vol. 2: The Modern Period'' (2008), 1192 pp
* Kertesz, G.A. ed ''Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815–1939'' (1968), 507 pp; several hundred short documents

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
{{Wikiquote}}

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Talk:Queen Victoria

2023-09-12T17:54:22Z

78.157.120.208:

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{{Annual report|[[Wikipedia:2017 Top 50 Report|2017]] and [[Wikipedia:2018 Top 50 Report|2018]]}}
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{{Old moves|collapse=no
|title1=Queen Victoria
|title2=Victoria of the United Kingdom
|title3=Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom
|list=
*RM Queen Victoria → Victoria (queen), '''Not moved''', 15 June 2018, [[Talk:Queen_Victoria/Article_title#Requested_move_14_June_2018|discussion]]
*RM Queen Victoria → Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom, '''Not moved''', 11 July 2021, [[Talk:Queen_Victoria/Article_title#Requested_move_9_July_2021|discussion]]
*RM Queen Victoria → Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom, '''Not moved''', 29 November 2022, [[Talk:Queen_Victoria/Article_title#Requested_move_29_November_2022|discussion]]
*RM, Queen Victoria → Victoria of the United Kingdom, '''Not moved''', 30 July 2023, [[Talk:Elizabeth_II#Requested_move_30_July_2023|discussion]]
|oldlist=
*RM Victoria of the United Kingdom → ''Queen Victoria'', '''No consensus''', 22 October 2007, [[Talk:Queen_Victoria/Article_title#Requested_move_22_October_2007|discussion]]
*RM Victoria of the United Kingdom → ''Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom'' — or ''Queen Victoria'', '''Moved to Queen Victoria''', 2 October 2010, [[Talk:Queen_Victoria/Article_title#Requested_move_2_October_2010|discussion]]
*RM Queen Victoria → ''Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom'', '''Not moved''', 20 December 2010, [[Talk:Queen_Victoria/Article_title#Requested_move_20_December_2010|discussion]]
*RM Queen Victoria → ''Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom'', '''Not moved''', 11 April 2011, [[Talk:Queen_Victoria/Article_title#Requested_move_11_April_2011|discussion]]
*RM Queen Victoria → ''Victoria of the United Kingdom'', '''No consensus''', 29 July 2014, [[Talk:Edward_VIII/Archive_1#Requested_moves|discussion]]
*RM Queen Victoria → ''Victoria'', '''Withdrawn''', 18 December 2015, [[Talk:Queen_Victoria/Article_title#Requested_move_17_December_2015|discussion]]
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== Longest reign ==

Queen Elisabeth II was the longest reigning monarch. [[Special:Contributions/109.144.16.217|109.144.16.217]] ([[User talk:109.144.16.217|talk]]) 21:52, 3 May 2023 (UTC)

:Correct. Your point being? [[User:Tim O'Doherty|Tim O'Doherty]] ([[User talk:Tim O'Doherty|talk]]) 22:00, 3 May 2023 (UTC)
:I think the way it was formulated before was more adequate. "Her reign was longer than that of any other previous British monarch". There's no point in mentioning Elizabeth II's reign, which took place over half a century later, was longer - it's not relevant for this article [[Special:Contributions/85.152.246.66|85.152.246.66]] ([[User talk:85.152.246.66|talk]]) 13:03, 22 May 2023 (UTC)
== Length of reign in first paragraph ==

Intro paragraph says "Her reign of 63 years and 216 days is known as the Victorian era and was longer than any of her predecessors". Should this be updated to say second longest reign of any British monarch, surpassed only by Queen Elizabeth II or something along those lines? I know it says predecessors and not of any monarchs but it seems odd. [[Special:Contributions/173.162.154.201|173.162.154.201]] ([[User talk:173.162.154.201|talk]]) 14:52, 1 June 2023 (UTC)

:See 'Longest reign' section above.[[User:Sbishop|Sbishop]] ([[User talk:Sbishop|talk]]) 15:08, 1 June 2023 (UTC)

== Semi-protected edit request on 30 July 2023 ==

{{edit semi-protected|Queen Victoria|answered=yes}}
[[User:ResearchAgent007|ResearchAgent007]] ([[User talk:ResearchAgent007|talk]]) 02:46, 30 July 2023 (UTC)

:[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a [[WP:EDITXY|"change X to Y" format]] and provide a [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|reliable source]] if appropriate. [[User:DDMS123|DDMS123]] ([[User talk:DDMS123|talk]]) 02:48, 30 July 2023 (UTC)

== Move discussion in progress ==

There is a move discussion in progress on [[Talk:Elizabeth II#Requested move 30 July 2023|Talk:Elizabeth II]] which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you.  —[[User:RMCD bot|RMCD bot]] 18:46, 30 July 2023 (UTC)

== The last Victorian ==
Under "Declining health and death", I would give to discuss adding something about the death of the last Victorian. For example: "Born on 27 May 1900, British supercentenarian Ethel Lang died on 16 January 2015, marking the death of the last Brit verified to have been born in the Victorian era".
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jan/18/ethel-lang-last-victorian-dies-victorian-values-live-on
https://www.bbc.com/news/newsbeat-30848592

This could perhaps be followed by a note along the lines of: "Japan's Nabi Tajima (4 August 1900 – 21 April 2018) was the last person of all to verifiably have been born during Victoria's lifetime.--[[Special:Contributions/78.157.120.208|78.157.120.208]] ([[User talk:78.157.120.208|talk]]) 17:54, 12 September 2023 (UTC)

1800s (decade)

2023-09-12T16:57:30Z

78.157.120.208: Last person to die during the 1800s

{{short description|Decade of the Gregorian calendar (1800–1809)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Multiple issues|
{{original research|date=March 2017}}
{{more citations needed|date=March 2017}}
}}
<imagemap>File:1800s collage.jpg|thumb|335x335px|From top left, clockwise: [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] is crowned Emperor of the French Empire and embarked on trans-European conquests, which would later on be best known as the [[Napoleonic Wars]] – a conflict that forever transformed European politics, and gave rise to the [[superpower|global struggle for hegemony]]; [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]] was discovered, proving the existence of an [[asteroid belt]] between the [[Solar System]]'s inner and outer planets; Inventor [[Isaac de Rivas]] created a hydrogen gas-powered vehicle, an inception to [[automotive engineering]] and internal combustion engines; - The [[Louisiana Purchase]] was made, singlehandedly expanding the [[United States of America]] in a scale larger than ever; to this day the purchase is still viewed as one of the largest expansions within [[North America]] to date; [[William Symington|Symington]]'s [[Charlotte Dundas]] became the world's first functioning steamboat; [[Haiti]] declares independence in 1804, becoming the world's very first black-led republic and the first independent Caribbean state, with its victory marking the world's arguably only successful slave revolution in history; [[Morphine]] is successfully isolated from [[opium]] and is produced for the first time as a separate medicinal product in 1804; [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]] abdicates in 1806, thus dissolving the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
rect 40 40 1658 1074 [[Coronation of Napoleon I]]
rect 1699 40 3223 1074 [[Ceres (dwarf planet)]]
rect 40 1115 1105 2148 [[Morphine]]
rect 1146 1115 2180 2148 [[Peace of Pressburg (1805)]]
rect 2221 1115 3223 2148 [[De Rivaz engine]]
rect 40 2189 1105 3223 [[Haitian Revolution]]
rect 1146 2189 2180 3223 [[Charlotte Dundas]]
rect 2221 2189 3223 3223 [[Louisiana Purchase]]
</imagemap>
{{Decadebox|180}}

The '''1800s''' (pronounced "eighteen-hundreds") was a [[decade]] of the [[Gregorian calendar]] that began on 1 January 1800, and ended on 31 December 1809.

The term "eighteen-hundreds" could also mean the entire century from 1January 1800 to 31 December 1899 (the years beginning with "18"), and is almost synonymous with the [[19th century]] (1801–1900).

The decade was a period of drastic change. The advancements of the previous three decades towards the end of the 18th century had propelled the [[Industrial Revolution]] into a global movement, with entire wars fought with the newly developed technologies – creating an impetus to imperialist campaigns across [[Africa]] and [[Asia]], as well as the counter-movement on [[Latin America]] later on.

Born on 29 November 1899, Italian [[Emma Morano]] died on 15 April 2017, marking the death of the last person verified to have been born in the 1800s.<ref>{{cite news |last=Squires |first=Nick |date=29 November 2016 |title=Emma Morano, world's oldest living person and last link to 19th Century, celebrates her 117th birthday |work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/11/29/emma-morano-worlds-oldest-living-person-celebrate-117th-birthday/ |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=15 April 2017}}</ref>

==Politics and wars==
[[File:Jacques-Louis David - The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|The early 1800s saw the rise of [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], who led the French Army to conquer a substantial portion of Europe during this time.]]

===Napoleonic Wars===
{{Main|Napoleonic Wars}}

The European political landscape was dominated by the [[Napoleonic Wars]], a series of conflicts declared against [[Napoleon]]'s [[First French Empire]] and changing sets of European allies by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the [[French Revolution]] of 1789, they revolutionized European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to the application of modern [[Levée en masse|mass conscription]]. French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe by the end of the decade. The decade brought hard times.

On 9 November 1799 ([[18 Brumaire]]), Napoleon overthrew the French government, replacing it with the [[French Consulate|Consulate]], in which he was First Consul. On 2 December 1804, after a failed assassination plot, he crowned himself [[First French Empire|Emperor]]. In 1805, Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria ([[Third Coalition]]), forced him to turn his attention towards the continent, while at the same time failure to lure the superior British fleet away from the [[English Channel]], ending in a decisive French defeat at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]] (in this battle, British [[Admiral Horatio Nelson]] was fatally wounded<ref name="ThoughtCo"> J. McNamara, Robert. "Major Events of the First Decade of the 19th Century". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 13 April 2022.</ref>) on 21 October put an end to hopes of an invasion of Britain. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]], forcing Austria's withdrawal from the coalition (''see [[Treaty of Pressburg (1805)|Treaty of Pressburg]]'') and dissolving the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. In 1806, a [[Fourth Coalition]] was set up, on 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the [[Battle of Jena-Auerstedt]], marched through Germany and defeated the Russians on 14 June 1807 at [[Battle of Friedland|Friedland]]. The [[Treaties of Tilsit]] divided Europe between France and Russia and created the [[Duchy of Warsaw]].

The [[War of the Fifth Coalition]], fought in the year 1809, pitted a coalition of the [[Austrian Empire]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] against the French Empire and [[Bavaria]]. Major engagements between France and Austria, the main participants, unfolded over much of [[Central Europe]] from April to July, with very high casualty rates. Britain, already involved on the European continent in the ongoing [[Peninsular War]], sent another expedition, the [[Walcheren Campaign]], to the Netherlands in order to relieve the Austrians, although this effort had little impact on the outcome of the conflict. After much campaigning in Bavaria and across the [[Danube River|Danube valley]], the war ended favorably for the French after the bloody struggle at [[Battle of Wagram|Wagram]] in early July, resulting in the [[Treaty of Schönbrunn]] . Although fighting in the [[Peninsular War|Iberian Peninsula]] continued, the War of the Fifth Coalition was the last major conflict on the European continent until the [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|French invasion of Russia]] in 1812 sparked the [[War of the Sixth Coalition|Sixth Coalition]].

===Other wars and political upheavals===
* End of the [[White Lotus Rebellion]] (1796–1804), an uprising against the [[Qing Dynasty]] in [[China]].
* Beginning of the [[Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)]] between Russia and the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* The [[First Barbary War]] (1801–1805) is fought between the United States and the [[Barbary States]] of North Africa.
* End of the [[Quasi-War]] (1800).
* The [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]] (1803–1805) is fought between the [[Peshwa|Maratha Peshwa]] on one side and minor chieftains of the Maratha Confederacy [[Sindhia]], [[Bhonsle]] and [[Holkar]] on the other resulting in a crushing defeat of the rebel chieftains and the breakup of the Maratha confederacy.
* The [[Fulani War]] (1804–1810) is fought in present-day [[Nigeria]] and [[Cameroon]].
* The [[First Serbian Uprising]] (1804−1813) marks the first time in 300 years [[Serbia]] perceives itself an independent state.
* [[Haiti]] gains [[independence]] from France on 1 January 1804.
* Irish Republican, orator, and rebel leader [[Robert Emmet]] leads a rebellion in [[Dublin, Ireland]] on 23 July 1803 but the rebellion is crushed and Emmet is captured and later executed on 20 September 1803.<ref name="ThoughtCo" />

===Slavery===
{{See also|History of slavery}}

This decade marked the greatest increase of the [[Atlantic slave trade]] to the United States. During the period of 1798 and 1808, approximately 200,000 slaves were imported from Africa to the United States.<ref name="www.america.gov">{{cite web
|title = U.S.-Africa Chronology|url = http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/article/2008/09/20080924135836idybeekcm0.5395624.html#axzz3WdqOJXlU|access-date = 7 April 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140714213038/http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/article/2008/09/20080924135836idybeekcm0.5395624.html#axzz3WdqXy0E4|archive-date = 14 July 2014}}</ref> Still, the [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]] movement began to gain ground in this period. Britain enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807]], which barred the trade of slaves in Great Britain (though slavery was still legal). The United States enacted a similar ban in 1808.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/30/opinion/30foner.html Foner, Eric. "Forgotten step towards freedom,"] ''New York Times.'' 30 December 2007,</ref> However, Napoleon revoked the French Empire's ban on slavery with the [[Law of 20 May 1802]].

On 30 August 1800, under the cloak of religious meetings, [[Gabriel Prosser]] and Jack Bowler planned a slave rebellion in [[Richmond, Virginia]]. The rebellion was postponed due to poor weather and was ultimately unsuccessful because of unnamed two slaves betraying the cause.<ref name = "Jim Crow Museum">“Slavery in America.” Ferris State University, https://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/timeline/slavery.htm. </ref>

===Prominent political events===
* 1800
** The unfinished [[White House]] (at the time known as the "Executive Mansion") housed its first president, [[President John Adams]], on 1 November 1800.<ref name="ThoughtCo" />
* 1801
** Under the [[District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801]], [[Washington, D.C.]], a new [[New town|planned city]] and [[Capital (political)|capital]] of the [[United States]], was placed under the jurisdiction of the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]].
** The [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] and the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] merge into the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] in 1801.
* 1803
** United States doubles its size with territories gained from [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] in the [[Louisiana Purchase]].

===World leaders===
[[List of state leaders in 1800|1800]] – [[List of state leaders in 1801|1801]] – [[List of state leaders in 1802|1802]] – [[List of state leaders in 1803|1803]] – [[List of state leaders in 1804|1804]] – [[List of state leaders in 1805|1805]] – [[List of state leaders in 1806|1806]] – [[List of state leaders in 1807|1807]] – [[List of state leaders in 1808|1808]] – [[List of state leaders in 1809|1809]]

===Colonies===
{|
|-
|
* North America/Latin America
** [[Canada]] - a colony of Great Britain under the control of [[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]]
** [[Russian America]] - Alaska down through parts of California were claimed by Russia during this time, commercialized through the establishment of the [[Russian-American Company]]
** [[New Spain]] - Present day Mexico, Central America, and the western United States were under the control of Spain during this decade.
* South America
** Largely under colonial rule by [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]. Spain was losing its grip due to problems at home, setting the stage for [[Spanish American wars of independence]] in the following decade.
* Africa
** The Ottoman Empire loosely controlled the [[Maghreb]] (a.k.a. the [[Barbary Coast]])
||

|}

==Science and technology==

===Electricity===
{{See also|History of electromagnetism|History of electrochemistry}}
[[Image:VoltaBattery.JPG|thumb|upright|A voltaic pile on display in the [[Alessandro Volta#Honours|Tempio Voltiano]].]]
This decade contained some of the earliest experiments in [[electrochemistry]]. In 1800 [[Alessandro Volta]] constructed a [[voltaic pile]], the first device to produce a large electric current, later known as the [[electric battery]]. [[Napoleon]], informed of his works, summoned him in 1801 for a command performance of his experiments. He received many medals and decorations, including the [[Légion d'honneur]].

Also in 1800, [[William Nicholson (chemist)|William Nicholson]] and [[Johann Wilhelm Ritter]] succeeded in decomposing water into [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] by [[electrolysis]]. Soon thereafter Ritter discovered the process of [[electroplating]]. He also observed that the amount of metal deposited and the amount of oxygen produced during an electrolytic process depended on the distance between the [[electrode]]s. By 1801 Ritter observed [[thermoelectricity|thermoelectric currents]] and anticipated the discovery of thermoelectricity by [[Thomas Johann Seebeck]].

In 1806, [[Humphry Davy]] decomposed potash and soda, employing a voltaic pile of approximately 250 cells, showing that these substances were respectively the oxides of potassium and sodium, which metals previously had been unknown. Employing a battery of 2,000 elements of a voltaic pile and charcoal enclosed in a vacuum, Davy gave the first public demonstration of the electric [[arc lamp]] in 1809.<ref name="EncyclopediaAmericana">Maver, William Jr.: "Electricity, its History and Progress", [https://archive.org/stream/encyclopediaame21unkngoog#page/n210/mode/1up The Encyclopedia Americana; a library of universal knowledge, vol. X, pp. 172ff]. (1918). New York: Encyclopedia Americana Corp.</ref>

[[Image:Trevithicks Dampfwagen.jpg|thumb|left|The ''[[London Steam Carriage]]'']]

Steam transportation started to become viable during this decade. In 1803, [[William Symington]]'s ''[[Charlotte Dundas]]'', generally considered to be the world's first practical [[steamboat]], made her first voyage. Later, in 1807, [[Robert Fulton]]'s ''[[North River Steamboat]]'', the world's first commercially successful steamboat, made her maiden voyage.

In [[1801]], [[Richard Trevithick]] ran a full-sized steam '[[Traction engine#Road locomotive|road locomotive]]' on the road in [[Camborne|Camborne, England]],<ref name="buchanan">{{cite book
|author=C.D. Buchanan
|title=Mixed Blessing: The Motor in Britain
|url=https://archive.org/details/mixedblessingmot0000buch
|url-access=registration
|publisher=Leonard Hill
|year=1958
|chapter=1
}}</ref> followed by his 10-seater [[London Steam Carriage]] in 1803.<ref name="buchanan"/> In 1804, Trevithick built a prototype steam-powered [[railway locomotive]].

The first railway began operating during this time. The [[Surrey Iron Railway]] in Great Britain was established by the British Parliament in 1801,<ref>Introduction to ''Rail 150: The Stockton and Darlington Railway and what followed'' by [[Jack Simmons (historian)|Jack Simmons]], publ. 1975 by Methuen</ref> and began operation on 26 July 1803. The railway relied on horse-drawn haulage than powered locomotives.

In [[1807]], [[Isaac de Rivas]] made a [[hydrogen]] gas-powered vehicle, the first vehicle powered by an [[internal combustion engine]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Eckermann|first=Erik|title=World History of the Automobile|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLZeQwqNmdgC&q=%22François+Isaac+de+Rivaz%22&pg=PA18|publisher=Society of Automotive Engineers|location=Warrendale, PA|year=2001|isbn=0-7680-0800-X}}</ref>
James Watt creates first steam engine based on Newcomen's design.

===Astronomy===
* The first known [[asteroids]] are discovered in this decade:
** [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]] (1 January 1801).<ref>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Hoskin |year=1999 |title=The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy |publisher=Cambridge University press |isbn=978-0-521-57600-0 |pages=160–161 }}</ref> Ceres is reclassified as a [[dwarf planet]] in 2006.
** [[2 Pallas|Pallas]] (28 March 1802)
** [[3 Juno|Juno]] (1 September 1804)
** [[4 Vesta|Vesta]] (29 March 1807)

===Other advances===
* Invention of the [[Jacquard loom]] in 1801.
* [[Ultraviolet|Ultraviolet radiation]] is discovered by [[Johann Wilhelm Ritter]] in 1801.
* [[Flag semaphore]] is gradually adopted by various [[navy|navies]] of the world.
* [[Morphine]] is isolated from [[opium]] for the first time in 1804.
* [[Nicolas Appert]] develops a method to preserve food by means of [[canning]] in 1809.
* [[John Dalton]] publishes his atomic theory 1803.

==Culture==
* The end of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] following the beginning of the [[Romantic era]] in the [[1810s|next decade]].

[[Image:Beethoven 3.jpg|120px|thumb|right|Ludwig van Beethoven in 1804]]

===Music===
* [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]'s [[Symphony No. 1 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 1]] premiers in Vienna in 1800.
* [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach's]] [[Sonatas and partitas for solo violin]] are published by [[Bote and Bock]] in 1802.
* [[Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 3 'Eroica']] by [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] is completed in 1804.
* ''[[Fidelio]]'' by [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] is completed in 1805.
* ''[[Piano Concerto No. 4 (Beethoven)|Fourth Piano Concerto]]'' and ''[[Violin Concerto (Beethoven)|Violin Concerto]]'' by [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] are completed in 1806.
* ''[[La Vestale]]'' by [[Gaspare Spontini]] is completed in 1807.
* [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] completes both his [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|5th Symphony]] and [[Symphony No. 6 (Beethoven)|6th Symphony "Pastoral"]] in 1808.

===Fashion===
{{Main|1795–1820 in fashion}}
[[File:Dancing-Dress-1809.jpg|120px|thumb|right|High-waisted dancing dress from 1809]]
Fashion in this period in [[Europe]]an and European-influenced countries saw the final triumph of undress or informal styles over the [[brocade (fabric)|brocades]], [[lace]], [[periwig]], and powder of the earlier [[1700–1750 in fashion|eighteenth century]].

[[Image:BrummellEngrvFrmMiniature.jpg|left|thumb|120px|[[Beau Brummell]]]] Fashionable women's clothing styles were based on the [[Empire silhouette]] — dresses were closely fitted to the torso just under the bust, falling loosely below. Inspired by neoclassical tastes, the short-waisted gowns sported soft, flowing skirts and were often made of white, almost transparent [[muslin]], which was easily washed and draped loosely like the garments on Greek and Roman statues. No respectable woman would leave the house without a hat or [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnet]]. The antique head-dress, or Queen Mary ''[[coif]]'', Chinese hat, Oriental inspired turban, and Highland helmet were popular. As for bonnets, their crowns and brims were adorned with increasingly elaborate ornamentations, such as feathers and ribbons.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.regencygarderobe.com/Monthly%20QA%20Pages/BonnetsPart2.htm |title=Regency Fashion and Costume |access-date=2010-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040306115929/http://www.regencygarderobe.com/Monthly%20QA%20Pages/BonnetsPart2.htm |archive-date=2004-03-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In fact, ladies of the day embellished their hats frequently, replacing old decorations with new trims or feathers.

1800–1809 was the height of [[dandy]]ism in men's fashion in Europe, following the example of [[Beau Brummell]]. Older men, military officers, and those in conservative professions such as lawyers and physicians retained their [[Wig (hair)|wigs]] and powder into this period, but younger men of fashion wore their hair in short curls, often with long sideburns. This period saw the final abandonment of [[lace]], [[embroidery]], and other embellishment from serious men's clothing outside of formalized [[court dress]]. Instead, cut and tailoring became much more important as an indicator of quality.<ref>Payne, Blanche: ''History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century'', pp. 452–455, Harper & Row, 1965. No ISBN for this edition; ASIN B0006BMNFS</ref>

===Other===
* [[November 10|10 November]] 1809 – [[Berners Street hoax]]: [[Theodore Hook]] manages to attract dozens of people to 54 Berners Street in [[London]].

==Wikisource reference work==
*{{cite wikisource |title=History of the United States During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson |first=Henry |last=Adams |authorlink1=Henry Adams |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |date=1889–90}} History that in part contains six chapters of narration remarking upon significant individuals of that era with added wikilinks linking back to their Wikipedia articles

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{19th century}}

[[Category:1800s| ]]

1897

2023-09-12T16:43:23Z

78.157.120.208: Last person from 1897 to die

{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2011}}
{{Year dab|1897}}
{{Year nav|1897}}
{{C19 year in topic}}{{Year article header|1897}}Born on April 19, 1897, Japanese [[supercentenarian]] [[Jiroemon Kimura]] died on June 12, 2013, marking the death of the last person verified to have been born in 1897.<ref>{{cite web |author=Damien Fletcher |date=12 June 2013 |title=World's oldest person dies... long live the oldest person in the world |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/worlds-oldest-person-oldest-man-1947175 |access-date=4 January 2014 |work=Daily Mirror}}</ref>{{TOC limit|2}}

== Events ==

=== January–March ===
[[File:Mckinley.jpg|thumb|120px|right| [[March 4]], President [[William McKinley]]]]
* [[January 2]] – The International [[Alpha Omicron Pi]] sorority is founded, in [[New York City]].
* [[January 4]] – A British force is ambushed by Chief Ologbosere, son-in-law of the ruler. This leads to a [[punitive expedition]] against [[Benin City|Benin]].
* [[January 7]] – A [[1897 cyclone|cyclone]] destroys [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], [[Australia]].
* [[January 8]] – Lady [[Flora Shaw]], future wife of Governor General [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Lord Lugard]], officially proposes the name "Nigeria" in a newspaper contest, to be given to the British [[Niger Coast Protectorate]].
* [[January 22]] – In this date's issue of the journal ''Engineering'', the word ''[[computer]]'' is first used to refer to a mechanical calculation device.<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''. {{cite book|first=Lisa|last=McCoy|title=Computers and Programming|url=https://archive.org/details/computersprogram0000mcco|url-access=registration|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2010|page=[https://archive.org/details/computersprogram0000mcco/page/1 1]}}</ref>
* [[January 23]] – [[Elva Zona Heaster]] is found dead in [[Greenbrier County, West Virginia]]. The resulting murder trial of her husband is perhaps the only capital case in United States history, where [[spectral evidence]] helps secure a conviction.
* [[January 31]] – The [[Czechoslovak Trade Union Association]] is founded in [[Prague]].
* [[February 10]] – Freedom of religion is proclaimed in [[Madagascar]].
* [[February 16]] – The French conquer the island of [[Raiatea]] and capture the rebel chief Teraupoo, ending the Leeward Islands War and bringing all of the [[Society Islands]] under their control.
* [[February 18]] – [[Benin City|Benin]] is put to the torch by the British Army's [[Benin Expedition of 1897|Benin Expedition]]. [[Ovonramwen]], [[Oba of Benin]], is exiled from his kingdom and the [[Benin Bronzes]] are carried off to London.
* [[February 24]] – The Čekan Mekenroff 1897 [[association football]] club is founded in [[Bratislava|Pozsony]], in the [[Kingdom of Hungary]].
* [[February 26]] – The [[Sigma Pi]] fraternity is founded in Vincennes, Indiana.
* [[February 27]] – The [[French Third Republic|French]] military governor of [[Madagascar]], [[Joseph Gallieni]], exiles Queen [[Ranavalona III]] to [[Réunion]], abolishing the [[Merina Kingdom|monarchy]] the next day.
* [[March 4]] – [[William McKinley]] is [[First inauguration of William McKinley|sworn in]] as the 25th president of the United States.
* [[March 13]] – [[San Diego State University]] is founded.
* [[March 22]] – [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] unseats [[Andrés Bonifacio]] at the [[Tejeros Convention]], becoming the new head of the Filipino revolutionary group [[Katipunan]].

===April–June===
* [[April 15]]
** Drillers near [[Bartlesville, Oklahoma]] strike oil for the first time, in the designated "Indian Territory", on land leased from the [[Osage Nation|Osage Indians]]. The gusher, at the [[Osage Hills#The Osage|Nellie Johnstone Number One]] well, leads to rapid population growth.<ref>{{cite book|first1=W. David|last1=Baird|first2=Danney|last2=Goble|title=The Story of Oklahoma|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1994|page=8}}</ref>
** [[Yamaichi Securities]] founded in Japan; it will cease trading a hundred years later.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}
* [[April 19]] – The first [[Boston Marathon]] is held in the United States, with fifteen men competing, and won by [[John McDermott (runner)|John McDermott]].<ref>{{cite dictionary|article=Boston Marathon|dictionary=Historical Dictionary of Track and Field|first=Peter|last=Matthews|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2012|page=40}}</ref>
* [[April 23]] – Representatives of the [[Chickasaw Nation]], [[Choctaw Nation]] and U.S. [[Dawes Commission]] sign the [[Atoka Agreement]], which becomes an important precursor for creating the State of Oklahoma.
* [[April 27]]–[[6 May]] – [[Greco-Turkish War of 1897]]: [[Battle of Velestino]].<ref>{{Great Military and Naval Encyclopaedia | volume = 2 | last = Spyropoulos | first = N. | article = Βελεστῖνον | pages = 335–337}}</ref>
* [[April 30]] – [[J. J. Thomson]] of the [[Cavendish Laboratory]] announces his discovery of the [[electron]] as a [[subatomic particle]], over 1,800 times smaller than a [[proton]] (in the atomic nucleus), at a lecture at the [[Royal Institution]] in London.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Ninety years around the atom|first=Christine|last=Sutton|journal=New Scientist|date=8 January 1997|page=49}}</ref>
* [[May 6]] – [[John Jacob Abel]] announces the successful isolation of [[epinephrine]] ([[adrenaline]]), in a paper read before the Association of American Physicians.<ref>"On the Blood-Pressure-Raising Constituent of the Suprarenal Capsule", by John J. Abel, M.D., and Albert C. Crawford, M.D., in ''Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital'' (July, 1897) p151</ref>
* [[May 10]] – 19 zinc miners die of [[carbon monoxide poisoning]] at [[Snaefell Mine]] on the [[Isle of Man]].
* [[May 11]] – A patent is awarded for the invention of the first automotive [[muffler]], with the granting by the U.S. Patent Office of application number 582,485 to [[Milton Reeves]] and his brother Marshall T. Reeves, of the Reeves Pulley Company of [[Columbus, Indiana]].<ref>[http://www.google.com/patents/US582485 "Exhaust Muffler for Engines"]; [http://www.k3ir.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/QRZnewsSep2014.pdf QRZ News, September 2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717014931/http://www.k3ir.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/QRZnewsSep2014.pdf |date=July 17, 2015 }}</ref>
* [[May 14]]
** ''[[The Stars and Stripes Forever]]'', an [[American patriotic march]] by [[John Philip Sousa]], is performed for the first time.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=John Philip Sousa|title=All Music Guide to Classical Music|author=Woodstra, Chris|publisher=Hal Leonard Corporation|year=2005|page=1296|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
** (or [[May 15]]) – The [[Scientific-Humanitarian Committee]] (''[[:de:Wissenschaftlich-humanitäres Komitee|Wissenschaftlich-humanitäres Komitee]]'', WhK) is founded in Berlin as an [[LGBT social movements|LGBT campaigning organization]], [[List of lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender firsts by year|the first]] such in history.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Early Homosexual Rights Movement (1864–1935)|first1=John|last1=Lauritsen|first2=David|last2=Thorstad|publisher=Times Change Press|location=New York|edition=Revised|year=1995|isbn=0-87810-041-5}}</ref>
* [[May 19]] – [[Oscar Wilde]] is released from prison in England, and goes into exile on the continent.
* [[May 22]] – The [[Blackwall Tunnel]], at this time the longest underwater road tunnel in the world, is opened for traffic beneath the [[River Thames]] in the [[East End of London]] by the [[Edward VII|Prince of Wales]].<ref name="Pocket On This Day">{{cite book|title=Penguin Pocket On This Day|publisher=Penguin Reference Library|isbn=978-0-14-102715-9|year=2006}}</ref>
* [[May 26]] – Irish-born theatrical manager [[Bram Stoker]]'s contemporary Gothic horror novel ''[[Dracula]]'' is first published (in London); it will influence the direction of [[vampire literature]] for the following century.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Dracula (Stoker)|title=Encyclopedia of the Vampire: The Living Dead in Myth, Legend, and Popular Culture|editor=Joshi, S. T.|publisher=ABC-Clio|year=2010|page=82}}</ref>
* [[June 12]] – [[1897 Assam earthquake]]: An earthquake of magnitude of 8.0 rocks [[Assam]], [[India]], killing over 1,500 people.
* [[June 18]] – [[Kyoto University]] is officially established in [[Japan]].<ref>[[:ja:京都大学#年表#明治]] (Japanese language) Retrieved 2017-05-17.</ref>
* [[June 22]] – The [[Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]] is celebrated in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite book|first=Anne E.|last=Keeling|title=Great Britain and Her Queen|publisher=Echo Library|year=2008|page=77}}</ref> No other British monarch will celebrate such a jubilee until [[Elizabeth II]] in [[2012]].

[[File:Diamonds are a girl's best friend (8527831550).jpg|thumb|Display in celebration of [[Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee]] on Alma Place in [[Coleraine]], [[County Londonderry]], [[Ulster]]]]

===July–September===
* [[July 11]] – [[S. A. Andrée's Arctic Balloon Expedition of 1897]] begins. The ill-fated expedition to fly over the Arctic results in the death of the entire team within months.
* [[July 17]] – The [[Klondike Gold Rush]] begins when the first successful prospectors arrive in [[Seattle]]
* [[July 25]] – Writer [[Jack London]] sails to join the [[Klondike Gold Rush]], where he will write his first successful stories.
* [[July 26]]–[[August 2]] – [[Siege of Malakand]]: British troops are besieged by [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] tribesmen in [[Malakand Agency|Malakand]], on the Northwest frontier of [[British Raj|British India]] (modern-day [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] in [[Pakistan]]).
* [[July 31]] – [[Mount Saint Elias]], the second highest peak in the United States and Canada, is first ascended.
* [[August 10]] – At the [[Bayer]] pharmaceutical company, pharmacist [[Felix Hoffmann]] successfully synthesizes [[acetylsalicylic acid]], after isolating a compound from a plant of the [[Spiraea]] family; the company markets it under the brand name "[[Aspirin]]".<ref>Diarmuid Jeffreys, ''Aspirin: The Remarkable Story of a Wonder Drug'' (Bloomsbury, 2005) p70</ref>
* [[August 21]] – The [[Oldsmobile|Olds Motor Vehicle Co.]] is founded in [[Lansing, Michigan]], by [[Ransom E. Olds]].
* [[August 29]] – The [[First Zionist Congress]] convenes in [[Basel]], Switzerland.
* [[August 31]] – [[Thomas Edison]] is granted a patent for the [[Kinetoscope]], a precursor of the [[movie projector]].
[[File:Flag of Ethiopia (1897-1936; 1941-1974).svg|thumb|150px|right| [[October 6]], [[Ethiopia]]n flag.]]
* [[September 1]] – The [[Tremont Street Subway]] in Boston opens, becoming the first underground [[Rapid transit|metro]] in North America.
* [[September 10]] – [[Lattimer massacre]]: A sheriff's posse kills 19 unarmed immigrant miners in [[Pennsylvania]].
* [[September 11]] – After months of searching, generals of [[Menelik II of Ethiopia]] capture [[Gaki Sherocho]], the last king of [[Kingdom of Kaffa|Kaffa]], bringing an end to that ancient kingdom.
* [[September 12]] – [[Battle of Saragarhi]]: Twenty-one [[Sikh]]s of the [[36th Sikhs]] regiment of the [[British Indian Army]] defend an army post to the death, against 10,000 [[Afghan (ethnonym)|Afghan]] and [[Orakzai]] tribesmen, in the [[Tirah Campaign]] on the Northwest frontier of the [[British Raj]] (modern-day [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] in [[Pakistan]]).
* [[September 20]] – Greece and Turkey sign a peace treaty to end the [[Greco-Turkish War (1897)|Greco-Turkish War]].
[[Image:Uss baltimore c-3.jpg|thumb|150px|right| October: {{USS|Baltimore|C-3|6}} in Hawaii]]
* [[September 21]] – [[Francis P. Church]] responds to a letter to the editor that is known as the famous "[[Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus]]" letter.

===October–December===
* [[October 2]] – The first issue of the Australian radical paper ''[[The Tocsin|Tocsin]]'' is published.
* [[October 2]] – [[Bácskai Hírlap]] Hungarian language daily newspaper is published.
* [[October 5]] – After a long siege, Brazilian government troops take [[Canudos]] in north Brazil, crushing [[Antônio Conselheiro]] and his followers.
* [[October 6]] – [[Ethiopia]] adopts the tricolor flag: green is for the land, yellow for gold, and red is symbolic of strength and the blood shed.
* [[October 12]]
** The [[Korean Empire]] is proclaimed, marking the end of the [[Joseon]] dynasty after just over 500 years.
** The city of [[Belo Horizonte]], Brazil is created. The construction of the second Brazilian [[planned city]] is completed successfully; an immigration of 1,000,000 people is estimated.
** {{USS|Baltimore|C-3|6}} (Cruiser # 3, later CM-1) is recommissioned, since [[1890]], for several months of duty in the [[Hawaiian Islands]].
* [[October 13]] – {{HMS|Canopus|1897|6}}, a [[pre-dreadnought battleship]] of the [[Royal Navy]], is launched at [[Portsmouth]], England; she will be deployed widely in World War I.
* [[October 23]] – The [[Kappa Delta]] sorority is founded in Farmville, [[Virginia]].
* [[November 1]] – [[Juventus F.C.]] is founded as an [[association football]] club in [[Turin]].
* [[November 25]] – Spain grants [[Puerto Rico]] autonomy.
* [[December 9]] – The first issue of the feminist newspaper ''[[La Fronde (newspaper)|La Fronde]]'' is published by [[Marguerite Durand]] in Paris.
* [[December 12]] – The comic strip ''[[The Katzenjammer Kids]]'' debuts in the ''[[New York Journal]]''.
* [[December 12]] – [[Belo Horizonte]], the first planned city in Brazil, is incorporated.
* [[December 14]] – [[Pact of Biak-na-Bato]]: The [[Philippine Revolution]] is settled, with Spanish promises to reform.
* [[December 28]] – The play ''[[Cyrano de Bergerac (play)|Cyrano de Bergerac]]'', by [[Edmond Rostand]], premieres in Paris.
* [[December 30]] – [[Colony of Natal|Natal]] annexes [[Zulu Kingdom|Zululand]].
[[File:Ensba paris 1 artlibre jnl.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Women study at ''[[École des Beaux-Arts]]'' in Paris.]]

===Date unknown===
* The first [[electric bicycle]] invented by Hosea W. Libbey.
* France allows women to study at the ''[[École des Beaux-Arts]]''.
* [[Karl Lueger]] becomes [[mayor]] of [[Vienna]].
* [[Zhejiang University]] is founded in China.
* The [[Duke University]] Debating Society is founded in the United States.
* [[Émile Durkheim]] publishes his classic study ''[[Suicide (Durkheim book)|Suicide]]''.
* The pan-African anthem "[[Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika]]" ("God Bless Africa") is composed as a [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] hymn by South African teacher [[Enoch Sontonga]].
* The British [[Ayrshire Yeomanry Cavalry]] adopts the sub-title ''[[Earl of Carrick|Earl of Carrick's Own]]'', in honour of the future King [[Edward VII]].
* ''[[Dos Equis]]'' beer is first brewed in Mexico, in anticipation of the new century. "Dos equis" is Spanish for "two x", a reference to the 20th Century (XX in Roman numerals)
* [[Alexander Scriabin|Aleksándr Skriabin]] publishes his [[Piano Sonata No. 2 (Scriabin)|Piano Sonata no. 2 "Sonata-Fantasia"]] in G sharp minor

== Births ==

=== January–February ===
[[File:Mariondavies.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Marion Davies]]]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F041449-0007, Hamburg, CDU-Bundesparteitag, Ludwig Erhard.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Ludwig Erhard]]]]
[[File:Judith Anderson 1934-09-11.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Judith Anderson]]]]
[[File:Marian Anderson.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Marian Anderson]]]]
* [[January 3]]
** [[Marion Davies]], American actress (d. [[1961]])
** [[Pola Negri]], Polish-born actress (d. [[1987]])
* [[January 6]] – [[Ferenc Szálasi]], 37th prime minister of Hungary (d. [[1946]])
* [[January 8]] – [[Dennis Wheatley]], English writer (d. [[1977]])<ref>{{cite book |last1=NA |first1=NA |title=Twentieth Century Crime & Mystery Writers |date=25 December 2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-81366-7 |page=1468 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_U6vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1468 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[January 14]] – [[Hasso von Manteuffel]], German general, politician (d. [[1978]])
* [[January 21]]
** [[January 21]] – [[René Iché]], French sculptor (d. [[1954]])
** [[January 21]] – [[Jole Bovio Marconi]], Italian archaeologist and prehistorian (d. [[1986]])
* [[January 23]]
** Netaji [[Subhas Chandra Bose]], Indian political leader, led the [[Indian National Army|INA]] (d. [[1945]]?)
** [[Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky]], Austrian architect, anti-Nazi activist (d. [[2000]])
* [[January 26]] – [[Yakov Alksnis]], Soviet aviator, commander of the Red Army Air Forces (d. [[1938]])
* [[January 28]] – [[Ivan Stedeford]], British industrialist (d. [[1975]])
* [[February 1]] – [[Denise Robins]] ({{aka}} Francesca Wright, Ashley French, Harriet Gray, Julia Kane), British romance novelist (d. [[1985]])
* [[February 4]] – [[Ludwig Erhard]], Chancellor of Germany (d. [[1977]])
* [[February 7]] – [[Quincy Porter]], American composer (d. [[1966]])
* [[February 8]] – [[Zakir Husain]], Indian politician, 3rd [[President of India]] (d. [[1969]])
* [[February 9]] – [[Charles Kingsford Smith]], Australian aviator famous for his trans-Pacific flight (d. [[1935]])
* [[February 10]]
** [[Judith Anderson]], Australian-born British actress (d. [[1992]])
** [[John Franklin Enders]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1985]])
*[[February 19]] – Elizabeth Rummel, German-Canadian mountaineer and environmental activist (d. [[1980]])
* [[February 21]]
**[[Elizabeth Harrison Walker|Elizabeth Harrison]], daughter of President Benjamin Harrison (d. [[1955]])
**[[Celia Lovsky]], Austrian American actress (d. [[1979]])
* [[February 25]]
** [[Peter Llewelyn Davies]], British publisher, one of the [[Llewelyn Davies boys]] (d. [[1960]])
** (possible) [[Mikhail Krichevsky]], Ukrainian unverified supercentenarian, last [[Imperial Russian Army]] veteran of WWI (d. [[2008]])
* [[February 27]]
** [[Marian Anderson]], African-American contralto (d. [[1993]])
** [[Edgar Henry Banger]], British cartoonist (d. [[1968]])
** [[Ferdinand Heim]], World War II German general (''Scapegoat of Stalingrad'') d. [[1977]])
** [[Bernard Lyot]], French astronomer (d. [[1952]])

=== March–April ===
[[File:Lefty-odoul.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Lefty O'Doul]]]]
[[File:Lester Pearson 1957.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Lester B. Pearson]]]]
[[File:Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood|Princess Mary]]]]
* [[March 1]] – [[Shoghi Effendi]], Ottoman Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith (d. [[1957]])
* [[March 2]] – [[Minor Hall]], American jazz musician (d. [[1959]])
* [[March 4]] – [[Lefty O'Doul]], American baseball player, restaurateur (d. [[1969]])
* [[March 5]]
** [[Set Persson]], Swedish communist politician (d. [[1960]])
** [[Soong Mei-ling]], Chinese wife of [[Chiang Kai-shek]] (d. [[2003]])
* [[March 6]] – [[John D. MacArthur]], American businessman, philanthropist (d. [[1978]])
* [[March 11]] – [[Henry Cowell]], American avant-garde composer (d. [[1965]])
* [[March 15]] – [[Jackson Scholz]], American sprinter (d. [[1986]])
* [[March 16]] – [[Flora Eldershaw]], Australian novelist, critic, and historian (d. [[1956]])
* [[March 18]] – [[John Langdon-Davies]], British writer (d. [[1971]])
* [[March 19]] – [[Betty Compson]], American actress (d. [[1974]])
* [[March 21]] – [[Sim Gokkes]], Dutch-Jewish composer (d. [[1943]])
* [[March 24]] – [[Wilhelm Reich]], Austrian psychotherapist (d. [[1957]])
* [[March 28]]
**[[Frank Hawks]], American aviator (d. [[1938]])
**[[Sepp Herberger]], German football coach (d. [[1977]])
* [[March 31]]
** [[Oto Iskandar di Nata]], Indonesian politician (d. [[1945]])
** [[Harold Houser]], American admiral, 35th [[Governor of American Samoa]] (d. [[1981]])
* [[April 7]]
** [[Erich Löwenhardt]], German World War I fighter ace (d. [[1918]])
** [[Walter Winchell]], American broadcast journalist (d. [[1972]])
* [[April 8]] – [[Herbert Lumsden]], British general (d. [[1945]])
* [[April 9]] – [[John B. Gambling]], American radio talk-show host (d. [[1974]])
* [[April 10]] – [[Prafulla Chandra Sen]], Indian politician and [[Chief Minister of West Bengal]] (d. [[1990]])
* [[April 13]] – [[Werner Voss]], German World War I fighter ace (d. [[1917]])
* [[April 17]] – [[Thornton Wilder]], American dramatist (d. [[1975]])
* [[April 19]]
** [[Jiroemon Kimura]], Japanese supercentenarian, world's longest lived man, last surviving man born in the 19th century and last surviving person born in 1897 (d. [[2013]])
** [[Peter de Noronha]], Indian businessman (d. [[1970]])
** [[Vivienne Segal]], American actress (d. [[1992]])
* [[April 20]] – [[Sudhakar Chaturvedi]], Indian Vedic scholar and longevity claimant (d. [[2020]])
* [[April 21]] – [[Aiden Wilson Tozer]], American Protestant pastor (d. [[1963]])
* [[April 23]] – [[Lester B. Pearson]], 14th [[Prime Minister of Canada]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1972]])
* [[April 24]] – [[Manuel Ávila Camacho]], Mexican general, politician, and 45th [[President of Mexico]], 1940-1946 (d. [[1955]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.economia.com.mx/manuel_avila_camacho.htm|title=Manuel Avila Camacho|publisher=economia.com.mx|language=es|access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref>
* [[April 25]] – [[Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood|Mary, Princess Royal]] of England (d. [[1965]])
* [[April 26]]
** [[Eddie Eagan]], American boxer, bobsledder (d. [[1967]])
** [[Douglas Sirk]], German-born director (d. [[1987]])
* [[April 29]] – [[Charles Seel]], American actor (d. [[1980]])

=== May–June ===
[[File:Einar Gerhardsen 1945.jpeg|100px|thumb|[[Einar Gerhardsen]]]]
[[File:Odd Hassel.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Odd Hassel]]]]

[[File:Anthony Eden (retouched).jpg|100px|thumb|[[Anthony Eden]]]]
[[File:Paavo Nurmi in a calisthenic pose.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Paavo Nurmi]]]]
* [[May 2]]
** [[J. Fred Coots]], American songwriter (d. [[1985]])
** [[Adolf Hyła]], Polish painter, [[Nicolaus Copernicus University]] professor (d. [[1965]])
* [[May 4]] – [[Phelps Phelps]], 38th [[Governor of American Samoa]], [[United States Ambassador to the Dominican Republic]] (d. [[1981]])
* [[May 10]] – [[Einar Gerhardsen]], 15th prime minister of Norway (d. [[1987]])
* [[May 14]] – [[Sidney Bechet]], American-born jazz saxophonist (d. [[1959]])
* [[May 16]] – [[Zvi Sliternik]], Israeli entomologist (d. [[1994]])
* [[May 17]] – [[Odd Hassel]], Norwegian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1981]])
* [[May 18]] – [[Frank Capra]], American film producer, director and writer (d. [[1991]])
* [[May 19]]
**[[Frank Luke]], American World War I pilot (d. [[1918]])
**[[Kitty McShane]], Irish actress (d. [[1964]])
* [[May 21]] – [[Nikola Avramov]], Bulgarian painter (d. [[1945]])
* [[May 27]] – [[John Cockcroft]], English physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1967]])
* [[May 29]]
** [[Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia]] ([[Old Style]]) (d. [[1918]])
** [[Erich Wolfgang Korngold]], Austrian composer (d. [[1957]])
* [[June 2]] – [[Tan Malaka]], Indonesian teacher, philosopher, founder of Struggle Union and Murba Party, guerilla and fighter (d. [[1949]])
*[[June 5]] – [[Charles Hartshorne]], American philosopher, theologian and ornithologist (d. [[2000]])<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://bioone.org/journals/the-auk/volume-118/issue-4/0004-8038(2001)118%5b1034%3aIMCH%5d2.0.CO%3b2/IN-MEMORIAM-CHARLES-HARTSHORNE-18972000/10.1642/0004-8038(2001)118%5B1034:IMCH%5D2.0.CO;2.full | doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2001)118[1034:IMCH]2.0.CO;2 | issn=0004-8038 | year=2001 | volume=118 | page=1034 | title=In Memoriam: Charles Hartshorne, 1897–2000 | last1=Skutch | first1=Alexander F. | journal=The Auk | issue=4 | s2cid=85591093 }}</ref>
* [[June 7]]
**[[Kirill Meretskov]], Soviet military officer, [[Marshal of the Soviet Union]] (d. [[1968]])
**[[George Szell]], Hungarian conductor (d. [[1970]])
* [[June 8]]
** [[John G. Bennett]], British mathematician (d. [[1974]])
** [[Mariano Suárez]], 27th president of Ecuador (d. [[1980]])
* [[June 10]] – [[Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia]] (d. [[1918]])<ref>{{cite web |title=BBC Two - Russia's Lost Princesses - Beyond the portraits |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/HxprRdWRhF6G7zg54kFLnp/beyond-the-portraits |website=BBC |access-date=14 January 2022}}</ref>
* [[June 11]] – [[Ram Prasad Bismil]], Indian revolutionary (founded H.R.A. in 1924) (d. [[1927]])
* [[June 12]] – [[Anthony Eden]], Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. [[1977]])
* [[June 13]] – [[Paavo Nurmi]], Finnish runner (d. [[1973]])
* [[June 16]] – [[Georg Wittig]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1987]])
* [[June 19]]
** [[Cyril Norman Hinshelwood]], English chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1967]])
** [[Moe Howard]], American comedian, actor (''The Three Stooges'') (d. [[1975]])
* [[June 22]]
** [[Robert Blucke]], Royal Air Force officer (d. [[1988]])
** [[Norbert Elias]], German sociologist (d. [[1990]])
** [[Edmund A. Chester]], American broadcaster, journalist (d. [[1973]])
* [[June 24]] – [[Daniel K. Ludwig]], American businessman; billionaire philanthropist (d. [[1992]])
* [[June 26]] – [[Viola Dana]], American actress (d. [[1987]])
* [[June 27]] – [[Heinz von Cleve]], German actor (d. [[1984]])
* [[June 29]] – [[Fulgence Charpentier]], French Canadian journalist, editor and publisher (d. [[2001]])

===July–August===
[[File:Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Plaek Phibunsongkhram]]]]
[[File:Thadeus Reichstein ETH-Bib Portr 10137.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Tadeusz Reichstein]]]]
[[File:Elisabeth Bergner.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Elisabeth Bergner]]]]
* [[July 1]] – [[Bert Schneider (boxer)|Bert Schneider]], Canadian boxer (d. [[1986]])
* [[July 7]] – [[Mikhail Kovalyov]], Soviet Army colonel-general (d. [[1967]])
* [[July 9]] – [[Albert Coady Wedemeyer|Albert C. Wedemeyer]], American general (d. [[1989]])
* [[July 11]] – [[Bull Connor|Theophilus Eugene "Bull" Connor]], American civil rights opponent (d. [[1973]])
* [[July 12]] – [[Maurice Tabard]], French photographer (d. [[1984]])
* [[July 14]] – [[Plaek Phibunsongkhram]], Thai field marshal, prime minister, and dictator (d. [[1964]])
* [[July 15]] – [[Letitia Chitty]], Early British aeronautical engineer (d. [[1982]])
* [[July 20]]
** [[Tom Dickinson (American football)|Tom Dickinson]], American football player (d. [[1999]])
** [[Tadeusz Reichstein]], Polish-born chemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1996]])
* [[July 24]] – [[Amelia Earhart]], American aviator (d. [[1937]])<ref>{{cite web |title=Amelia Earhart {{!}} Biography, Disappearance, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Amelia-Earhart |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=12 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[July 25]] – [[Helen Shaw (actress)|Helen Shaw]], American actress (d. [[1997]])
* [[July 26]] – [[Harold D. Cooley]], American politician (d. [[1974]])
* [[July 28]] – [[James Fairbairn]], Australian pastoralist, aviator, and politician (d. [[1940]])
* [[July 29]] – Sir [[Neil Ritchie]], British WWII general (d. [[1983]])
* [[August 2]] – [[Max Weber (Swiss politician)|Max Weber]], Swiss Federal Councilor (d. [[1974]])
*[[August 4]] – [[José Nucete Sardi]], Venezuelan historian and diplomat (d. 1972)<ref name="POLAR">Mireya SOSA DE LEÓN: «Nucete Sardi, José». En: [http://bibliofep.fundacionempresaspolar.org/dhv/entradas/n/nucete-sardi-jose-vicente/ ''Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela'']. Venezuela: Fundación Empresas Polar, 1997. 980-6397-37-I.</ref>
* [[August 5]] – [[Aksel Larsen]], Danish politician (d. [[1972]])
* [[August 10]]
** [[John W. Galbreath]], American businessman (d. [[1988]])
**[[Jack Haley]], American actor (d. [[1979]])
* [[August 11]] – [[Enid Blyton]], British children's writer (d. [[1968]])
* [[August 15]]
** [[Ludovic Arrachart]], French aviator (d. [[1933]])
** [[Jane Ingham]], English botanist and scientific translator (d. [[1982]])
* [[August 16]]
** [[Carlo Del Prete]], Italian aviator (d. [[1928]])
** [[Hersch Lauterpacht]], Ukrainian-born international lawyer (d. [[1960]])
* [[August 22]] – [[Elisabeth Bergner]], European actress (d. [[1986]])
* [[August 26]] – [[Yun Posun]], 2nd president of South Korea (d. [[1990]])
* [[August 31]] – [[Fredric March]], American actor (d. [[1975]])

=== September–October ===
[[File:Castelobranco.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco]]]]
[[File:Perry-Mason-Pidgeon-1963.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Walter Pidgeon]]]]
[[File:Carl Van Vechten - William Faulkner.jpg|thumb|100px|[[William Faulkner]]]]
* [[September 1]] – [[Andy Kennedy (footballer, born 1897)|Andy Kennedy]], Northern Irish footballer (d. [[1963]])
* [[September 7]] – [[Al Sherman]], American [[Tin Pan Alley]] songwriter (d. [[1973]])
* [[September 8]] – [[Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)|Jimmie Rodgers]], American singer (d. [[1933]])
* [[September 10]] – [[Otto Strasser]], German Nazi politician (d. [[1974]])
* [[September 12]] – [[Irène Joliot-Curie]], French physicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (d. [[1956]])
* [[September 13]] – [[Michel Saint-Denis]], French-born actor, theater director, drama theorist and radio broadcaster (d. [[1971]])
* [[September 15]] – [[Kurt Daluege]], German Nazi officer, war criminal (d. [[1946]])
* [[September 16]] – [[Milt Franklyn]], American musical composer and arranger (d. [[1962]])
* [[September 17]] – [[Earl Webb]], American baseball player (d. [[1965]])
* [[September 19]] – [[Zhu Guangqian]], Chinese esthetician, modern literary theorist, and famous scholar (d.[[1986]])
* [[September 20]] – [[Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco]], 26th [[President of Brazil]] (d. [[1967]])
* [[September 21]] – [[Gladys Henson]], Irish actress (d. [[1982]])
* [[September 23]] – [[Walter Pidgeon]], Canadian actor (d. [[1984]])
* [[September 25]] – [[William Faulkner]], American writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1962]])
* [[September 26]]
** [[Pope Paul VI]] (d. [[1978]])
** [[Arthur Rhys-Davids]], British World War I fighter ace (d. [[1917]])
* [[September 30]] – [[Alfred Wintle]], British army officer, eccentric (d. [[1966]])
* [[October 3]] – [[Louis Aragon]], French author (d. [[1982]])
* [[October 7]] – [[Elijah Muhammad]], African-American co-founder of the Nation of Islam (d. [[1975]])
* [[October 8]] – [[Rouben Mamoulian]], Armenian-American film, theatre director (d. [[1987]])
* [[October 15]]
** [[Johannes Sikkar]], Estonian statesman (d. [[1960]])
** [[Mudicondan Venkatarama Iyer]], South Indian Carnatic singer and musicologist (d. [[1975]])
* [[October 20]] – [[Yi Un]], Korean Crown Prince (d. [[1970]])
* [[October 21]] – [[Lloyd Hughes (actor)|Lloyd Hughes]], American actor (d. [[1958]])
* [[October 25]] – [[Luigi Pavese]], Italian actor and voice actor (d. [[1969]])
* [[October 28]] – [[Edith Head]], American costume designer (d. [[1981]])
* [[October 29]] – [[Joseph Goebbels]], German Nazi propagandist (d. [[1945]])
* [[October 30]] – [[Hope Emerson]], American actress, strongwoman (d. [[1960]])

=== November–December ===
[[File:Quentin Roosevelt in Uniform 1917.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Quentin Roosevelt]]]]
[[File:Hermione Gingold (1973) by Allan Warren.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Hermione Gingold]]]]
* [[November 4]] – [[Dmitry Pavlov (general)|Dmitry Pavlov]], Soviet general (d. [[1941]])
* [[November 9]]
** [[Harvey Hendrick]], American baseball player (d. [[1941]])
** [[Ronald George Wreyford Norrish]], British chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1978]])
* [[November 15]] – [[Sacheverell Sitwell|Sir Sacheverell Sitwell, Bt]], English author (d. [[1988]])
* [[November 18]] – [[Patrick Blackett, Baron Blackett]], English physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1974]])
* [[November 19]] – [[Quentin Roosevelt]], youngest son of American President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], killed in action as fighter pilot (d. [[1918]])
* [[November 23]] – [[Nirad C. Chaudhuri]], Bengali author (d. [[1999]])
* [[November 24]] – [[Lucky Luciano]], Sicilian-American Mafia boss (d. [[1962]])
* [[November 30]] – [[Virginia Henderson]], American nurse theorist (d. [[1996]])
* [[December 2]] – [[Dean Alfange]], American politician (d. [[1989]])
* [[December 5]]
** [[Gershom Scholem]], German-born Israeli Jewish philosopher, historian (d. [[1982]])
** [[Tina Lattanzi]], Italian film, voice actress (d. [[1997]])
* [[December 9]] – [[Hermione Gingold]], English actress (d. [[1987]])
* [[December 14]] – [[Kurt Schuschnigg]], 11th Chancellor of Austria (d. [[1977]])
* [[December 18]] – [[Fletcher Henderson]], American musician (d. [[1952]])
* [[December 24]]
** [[Koto Okubo]], Japanese supercentenarian, world's oldest living woman (d. [[2013]])
** [[Lazare Ponticelli]], Italian-French supercentenarian; last surviving officially recognized French veteran of the First World War (d. [[2008]])
* [[December 25]] – [[Dorothy Peterson]], American film, television actress (d. [[1979]])
* [[December 30]] – [[Alfredo Bracchi]], Italian author (d. [[1976]])
* [[December 31]] – [[Rhys Williams (Welsh-American actor)|Rhys Williams]], Welsh actor (d. [[1969]])

=== Date unknown ===

* [[Abd-al Karim]], Afghan emir (d. [[1927]])
* [[Kamel Keilany]], Egyptian writer (d. [[1959]])<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091012211312/http://www.sis.gov.eg/VR/figures/english/html/Keilany.htm Kamel Keilany] at Egyptian State Information Service</ref>

== Deaths ==

===January–June===
[[File:JohannesBrahms.jpg|thumb|110px|[[Johannes Brahms]]]]
[[File:Andrés Bonifacio photo.jpg|thumb|110px|[[Andrés Bonifacio]]]]
[[File:Minna_Canth.jpg|thumb|right|110px|[[Minna Canth]]]]
[[File:Louis Briere de lIsle.jpg|thumb|right|110px|[[Louis Brière de l'Isle]]]]
* [[January 1]] – [[Joseph S. Skerrett]], American admiral (b. [[1833]])
* [[January 9]] – [[Thomas Gwyn Elger]], English astronomer (b. [[1836]])
*[[January 25]] - [[Albion P. Howe]], Union Army general (b. [[1818]])
* [[January 30]] – [[Robert Themptander]], 4th prime minister of Sweden (b. [[1844]])
* [[February 1]] – [[Jeanne Merkus]], Dutch deaconess, guerilla soldier and political activist (b. [[1839]])
* [[February 4]] – [[Charles Bendire]], U.S. Army captain, ornithologist (b. [[1836]])
* [[February 15]] – [[Dimitrie Ghica]], 10th prime minister of Romania (b. [[1816]])
* [[February 17]] – [[Edmund Colhoun]], American admiral (b. [[1821]])
* [[February 19]] – [[Karl Weierstrass]], German mathematician (b. [[1815]])
* [[March 6]] – [[Thomas Elder|Sir Thomas Elder]], Australian businessman and philanthropist (b. [[1818]])
* [[March 9]] – [[Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani]], Iranian teacher, writer (b. [[1838]])
* [[March 10]] – [[Savitribai Phule]], Indian social reformer and poet (b. [[1831]])
* [[March 11]] – [[Henry Drummond (evangelist)|Henry Drummond]], Scottish evangelical writer, lecturer (b. [[1851]])
* [[March 19]] – [[Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie]], Irish-born traveler (b. [[1810]])
* [[April 1]] – [[Jandamarra]], Australian Aboriginal insurrectionist (b. c. [[1873]])
* [[April 3]] – [[Johannes Brahms]], German composer (b. [[1833]])<ref>{{cite book|author=Alfred Louis Bacharach|title=Lives of Great Composers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C0nsAAAAMAAJ|year=1972|publisher=Books for Libraries Press|isbn=978-0-8369-2783-2|page=105}}</ref>
* [[April 8]] – [[Heinrich von Stephan]], German postal director (b. [[1831]])
* [[April 10]] – [[Friedrich Franz III, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin]] (b. [[1851]])
* [[April 30]] – [[A. Viola Neblett]], American activist, suffragist, women's rights pioneer (b. [[1842]])
* [[May 3]] – [[Frederick Knight (politician)|Sir Frederick Knight]], British politician (b. [[1812]])
* [[May 4]] – [[Duchess Sophie Charlotte in Bavaria]] (b. [[1847]])
* [[May 7]]
** [[Ion Ghica]], 3-time prime minister of Romania (b. [[1816]])
** [[Henri d'Orléans, Duke of Aumale]] (b. [[1822]])<ref>{{cite book|author=Hugh Montgomery-Massingberd|title=Burke's Royal Families of the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozYOAQAAMAAJ|year=1977|publisher=Burke's Peerage|isbn=978-0-85011-029-6|page=528}}</ref>
* [[May 10]] – [[Andrés Bonifacio]], Filipino revolutionary (b. [[1863]])
* [[May 12]] – [[Minna Canth]], Finnish writer and social activist (b. [[1844]])<ref>{{cite web|last1=Maijala|first1=Minna|title=Minna Canth (1844–1897)|url=http://www.helsinki.fi/sukupuolentutkimus/klassikkogalleria/canth/|website=Klassikkogalleria|publisher=Kristiina Institute, [[University of Helsinki]]|access-date=8 December 2020}}</ref>
* [[May 23]] – [[Pusapati Ananda Gajapati Raju]], Indian rajah (b. [[1850]])
* [[June 17]] – [[Sebastian Kneipp]], German priest and naturopath (b. [[1821]])
* [[June 19]] – [[Louis Brière de l'Isle]], French general (b. [[1827]])

=== July–December ===
[[File:Cánovas_Madrazo.jpg|thumb|110px|right|[[Antonio Cánovas del Castillo]]]]
[[File:Teresa-de-Lisieux.jpg|thumb|110px|right|Saint [[Thérèse of Lisieux]]]]
[[File:Jan Heemskerk Azn (1818-1897), after Heinrich Wilhelm Wollrabe.jpg|thumb|110px|[[Jan Heemskerk]]]]
* [[July 1]] – [[Ropata Wahawaha]], New Zealand Māori military leader (b. c.1820)
* [[July 6]]
** [[Tommy Burns (diver)|Tommy Burns]], English diver (b. [[1867]] or [[1868]])
** [[Celia Barrios de Reyna]], First Mother of the Nation of Guatemala (b. [[1834]])
* [[August 8]]
** [[Antonio Cánovas del Castillo]], incumbent [[Prime Minister of Spain]] and historian (assassinated) (b. [[1828]])
** [[Viktor Meyer]], German chemist (b. [[1848]])
* [[August 17]] – [[William Jervois|Sir William Jervois]], British military engineer and diplomat (b. [[1821]])
* [[August 24]]
**[[Sébastien Lespès]], French admiral (b. [[1828]])
**[[Mutsu Munemitsu]], Japanese statesman, diplomat (b. [[1844]])
* [[August 31]] – [[Louisa Lane Drew]], English-born American actress, theater manager (b. [[1820]])
* [[September 9]]
** [[Richard Holt Hutton]], English writer, theologian (b. [[1826]])
** [[Ferenc Pulszky]], Hungarian politician (b. [[1814]])
* [[September 20]] – [[Louis Pierre Mouillard]], French artist and aviation pioneer (b. [[1834]])<ref>{{cite book|author=Pierre Lecomte du Noüy|title=Between Knowing and Believing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCgmAAAAMAAJ|year=1967|publisher=McKay|page=173}}</ref>
* [[September 21]] – [[Wilhelm Wattenbach]], German historian (b. [[1819]])
* [[September 27]]
** [[Charles-Denis Bourbaki]], French military leader (b. [[1816]])
** [[George M. Robeson]], American politician (b. [[1829]])
* [[September 30]] – Saint [[Thérèse of Lisieux]], French [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Discalced Carmelite]] nun, saint (b. [[1873]])
* [[October 2]] – [[Edward Maitland (writer)|Edward Maitland]], British writer (b. [[1824]])
* [[October 3]] – [[Yamaji Motoharu]], Japanese general (b. [[1841]])
* [[October 9]]
** [[John M. B. Clitz]], American admiral (b. [[1821]])
** [[Jan Heemskerk]], Dutch politician, 16th [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]] (b. [[1818]])
* [[October 13]] – [[William Daniel (Maryland politician)|William Daniel]], American temperance movement leader (b. [[1826]])
* [[October 19]] – [[George Pullman]], American inventor and industrialist (b. [[1831]])
* [[October 27]]
** [[Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge]] (b. [[1833]])
** {{ill|Carlos Antúnez González|es}}, Chilean politician (b. [[1847]])
** [[Alexander Milton Ross]], Canadian abolitionist, naturalist (b. [[1832]])
* [[October 28]] – [[Hercules Robinson, 1st Baron Rosmead]], British colonial governor (b. [[1824]])
* [[October 29]] – [[Henry George]], American economist (b. [[1839]])
* November – [[Francisco Gonzalo Marín]], Cuban poet, freedom fighter (b. [[1863]])
* [[November 3]] – [[Thomas Lanier Clingman]], American "Prince of Politicians" (b. [[1812]])
* [[November 13]] – [[Ernest Giles]], Australian explorer (b. [[1835]])
* [[November 15]] – [[Lucinda Barbour Helm]], American women's religious activist (b. [[1839]])
* [[November 17]] – [[George Hendric Houghton]], American Protestant Episcopal clergyman (b. [[1820]])<ref>{{cite book|author=George Woolliscroft Rhead|title=British Pottery Marks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TaZpAAAAMAAJ|year=1910|publisher=Scott, Greenwood|page=115}}</ref>
* [[November 18]] – [[Henry Doulton|Sir Henry Doulton]], English pottery manufacturer (b. [[1820]])
* [[November 19]] – [[William Seymour Tyler]], American educator, historian (b. [[1810]])
* [[November 23]] – [[Étienne Stéphane Tarnier]], French obstetrician (b. [[1828]])
* [[December 14]] – [[Robert Simpson (merchant)|Robert Simpson]], Scottish-Canadian businessman (b. [[1834]])
* [[December 16]] – [[Alphonse Daudet]], French writer (b. [[1840]])
* [[December 19]] – [[Stanislas de Guaita]], French poet (b. [[1861]])
* [[December 28]] – [[William Corby]], American Catholic priest (b. [[1833]])

=== Date unknown ===
[[File:Isidora Goyenechea.jpg|thumb|110px|[[Isidora Goyenechea]]]]
* [[Isidora Goyenechea]], Chilean industrialist, mine owner (b. [[1836]])

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading and year books==
* [https://archive.org/details/appletonsannual11unkngoog ''1897 Annual Cyclopedia'' (1898)] highly detailed coverage of "Political, Military, and Ecclesiastical Affairs; Public Documents; Biography, Statistics, Commerce, Finance, Literature, Science, Agriculture, and Mechanical Industry" for year 1897; massive compilation of facts and primary documents; worldwide coverage; 824 pp

{{DEFAULTSORT:1897}}
[[Category:1897| ]]

19th century

2023-09-12T16:34:59Z

78.157.120.208: Last man and woman from the 19th century to die. I think this should be included somehow

{{Short description|Time period between 1 January 1801 and 31 December 1900}}
{{other uses}}
{{Centurybox|19}}
[[File:Jacques-Louis David - The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], Emperor of the [[First French Empire]].]]
The '''19th''' '''century''' began on 1 January 1801 (represented by the [[Roman numerals]] MDCCCI), and ended on 31 December 1900 (MCM).

The 19th century was characterized by vast social upheaval. [[Slavery]] was [[abolitionism|abolished]] in much of [[Europe]] and the [[Americas]]. The [[Industrial Revolution|First Industrial Revolution]], though it began in the late 18th century, expanding beyond its British homeland for the first time during this century, particularly remaking the economies and societies of the [[Low Countries]], the [[Rhineland]], [[Northern Italy]], and the [[Northeastern United States]]. A few decades later, the [[Second Industrial Revolution]] led to ever more massive [[urbanization]] and much higher levels of productivity, profit, and prosperity, a pattern that continued into the [[20th century]].

It was, in the Middle East, an era of change and reform. The [[Gunpowder empires|Islamic gunpowder empires]] fell into decline and European [[imperialism]] brought much of [[South Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]], and almost all of [[Africa]] under [[Colonialism|colonial rule]]. Reformers were opposed at every turn by conservatives who strove to maintain the centuries old Islamic laws and social order.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cleveland |first1=William L. |last2=Bunton |first2=Martin |title=A History of the Modern Middle East |date=2016 |isbn=9780813349800 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780429495502/history-modern-middle-east-william-cleveland|quote=The 19th century is frequently characterized as a period of tension between forces of continuity and change. The reformers who advocated the adoption of European institutions and technology, have often been portrayed as the progressive elements of society courageously charting the course toward an inevitably Westernized twentieth century. Conversely, the adherents of continuity, who viewed with alarm the dismantling of the Islamic order and sought to preserve tradition and retain the values and ideals that had served Ottoman and Islamic society so well for so long, are sometimes portrayed as nothing but archaic reactionaries. But we should avoid these simplistic characterizations if we are to appreciate the agonizing and dangerous process of transforming an established religious, social and political worldview.}}</ref> The century also saw the collapse of the large [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] and [[Mughal Empire]]s. This paved the way for the growing influence of the [[British Empire|British]], [[French colonial empire|French]], [[German colonial empire|German]], [[Russian Empire|Russian]], [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]], [[Italian Empire|Italian]], and [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empires]] along with the [[United States]]. The British boasted unchallenged global dominance after 1815.

After the defeat of [[First French Empire|France]] in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the British and Russian Empires expanded greatly, becoming two of the world's leading powers. Russia expanded its territory to [[Central Asia]] and the [[Caucasus]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] underwent a period of [[Westernization]] and reform known as the [[Tanzimat]], vastly increasing its control over core territories in the [[Middle East]]. However, it remained in decline and became known as the [[sick man of Europe]], losing territory in the [[Balkans]] and [[North Africa]].

The remaining powers in the [[Indian subcontinent]] such as the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] and [[Sikh Empire]]s suffered a massive decline and their dissatisfaction with the [[East India Company|British East India Company]]'s rule led to the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], marking its dissolution. India was later ruled directly by the [[The Crown|British Crown]] through the establishment of the [[British Raj]].

Britain's overseas possessions grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the century, the British controlled a fifth of the world's land and one-quarter of the world's population. During the post-Napoleonic era, it enforced what became known as the [[Pax Britannica]], which had ushered in unprecedented [[globalization]] on a massive scale.

On 12 June 2013, Japanese [[Jiroemon Kimura]] (19 April 1897) died, marking the death of the last man verified to have been born in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |date=15 April 2013 |title=World's oldest man ever turns 116 in Kyoto as his health is studied |url=http://japandailypress.com/worlds-oldest-man-ever-turns-116-in-kyoto-as-his-health-is-studied-1927336 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605022257/http://japandailypress.com/worlds-oldest-man-ever-turns-116-in-kyoto-as-his-health-is-studied-1927336 |archive-date=5 June 2013 |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=The Japan Daily Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=19 April 2013 |title=World's oldest person turns 116 in Japan |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20130419-worlds-oldest-person-turns-116-japan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616010617/http://www.france24.com/en/20130419-worlds-oldest-person-turns-116-japan |archive-date=16 June 2013 |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=France 24 International News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=World's oldest person Jiroemon Kimura turns 116 in Japan |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/et-cetera/worlds-oldest-person-jiroemon-kimura-turns-116-in-japan/articleshow/19628476.cms |access-date=19 April 2013 |work=The Economic Times |agency=Agence France-Presse}}</ref> Subsequently, on 15 April 2017, Japanese [[Nabi Tajima]] (born 4 August 1900) died, marking the death of the last person verified to have been born in the 19th century.<ref name="slate">{{Cite web |last=Politi |first=Daniel |date=22 April 2018 |title=The Last Known Person Born in the 19th Century Dies in Japan at 117 |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/04/the-last-known-person-born-in-the-19th-century-died-in-japan.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912162416/https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/04/the-last-known-person-born-in-the-19th-century-died-in-japan.html |archive-date=12 September 2023 |access-date=4 October 2019 |website=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]}}</ref>

==Overview==
[[File:Queen Victoria - Winterhalter 1859.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Queen Victoria]] of Great Britain.]]

The first [[electronics]] appeared in the 19th century, with the introduction of the [[Relay#History|electric relay]] in 1835, the [[telegraph]] and its [[Morse code]] protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/recon/jb_recon_telephone_1.html|title=The First Telephone Call|website=www.americaslibrary.gov|access-date=2015-10-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022110620/http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/recon/jb_recon_telephone_1.html|archive-date=2015-10-22|url-status=live}}</ref> and the first functional [[light bulb]] in 1878.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2009/12/1218joseph-swan-electric-bulb/|title=Dec. 18, 1878: Let There Be Light — Electric Light|date=18 December 2009|magazine=WIRED|access-date=4 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021003405/https://www.wired.com/2009/12/1218joseph-swan-electric-bulb/|archive-date=21 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating [[Discovery (observation)#In science|scientific discovery]] and [[invention]], with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070105005042/http://corporate.britannica.com/press/inventions.html Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref> The [[Industrial Revolution]] began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America, and Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://americanhistory.about.com/od/industrialrev/a/indrevoverview.htm |title=The United States and the Industrial Revolution in the 19th Century |publisher=Americanhistory.about.com |date=2012-09-18 |access-date=2012-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728095536/http://americanhistory.about.com/od/industrialrev/a/indrevoverview.htm |archive-date=2012-07-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Victorian era]] was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict [[social norm]]s regarding modesty and gender roles.<ref>Laura Del Col, West Virginia University, [http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313022018/http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html |date=2008-03-13 }}</ref> Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the [[Meiji Restoration]], before defeating China, under the [[Qing dynasty]], in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]]. [[History of medicine#19th century: rise of modern medicine|Advances in medicine]] and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating [[population growth]] in the [[Western world]]. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change |title= Modernization – Population Change |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090406074344/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change |archive-date=April 6, 2009}}</ref> The introduction of [[Rail transport|railroads]] provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major [[urbanization]] movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's [[List of largest cities throughout history|largest city]] and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior [[Africa]] and [[Asia]], were [[Exploration|explored]] during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s. [[Liberalism]] became the pre-eminent [[reform movement]] in Europe.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339173/liberalism/237346/Liberalism-in-the-19th-century Liberalism in the 19th century] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218233116/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339173/liberalism/237346/Liberalism-in-the-19th-century |date=2009-02-18 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica.''</ref>
[[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Arab slave trade]]rs and their captives along the Ruvuma river (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique), 19th century]]

[[Slavery]] was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful [[Haitian Revolution|slave revolt in Haiti]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and France stepped up the battle against the [[Barbary pirates]] and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's [[Slavery Abolition Act]] charged the British [[Royal Navy]] with ending the global [[History of slavery|slave trade]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108141034/http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml |date=2009-01-08 }}. ''BBC.''</ref> The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] following their [[American Civil War|Civil War]] abolished slavery there in 1865, and in [[Lei Áurea|Brazil]] slavery was abolished in 1888 (see [[abolitionism]]). Similarly, [[serfdom]] was abolished in [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|Russia]] in 1861.

The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new [[Settler|settlement]] foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century. [[Chicago]] in the [[United States]] and [[Melbourne]] in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States.<ref>[http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1118_0_5_0 The Atlantic: Can the US afford immigration?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704173521/http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1118_0_5_0 |date=2010-07-04 }}. ''Migration News''. December 1996.</ref>

The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States. [[Association football]], [[rugby union]], [[baseball]], and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as [[cricket]] to many different parts of the world. Also, [[1890s in Western fashion|women's fashion]] was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous.

[[File:Europe 1815 map en.png|thumb|200px|The boundaries set by the Congress of Vienna, 1815.]]
It also marks the fall of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]] of the [[Balkans]] which led to the creation of [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] as a result of the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|second Russo-Turkish War]], which in itself followed the great [[Crimean War]].

===Eras===
[[File:World 1898 empires colonies territory.png|thumb|250px|Map of the world from 1897. The [[British Empire]] (marked in pink) was the superpower of the 19th century.]]
*[[Industrial revolution]]
*[[European imperialism]]
*[[British Regency]], [[Victorian era]] (UK, [[British Empire]])
*[[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]], [[July Monarchy]], [[French Second Republic]], [[Second French Empire]], [[French Third Republic]] ([[France in the nineteenth century|France]])
*[[Belle Époque]] (Europe)
*[[Edo period]], [[Meiji period]] (Japan)
*[[Qing dynasty]] (China)
*[[Nguyen dynasty]] (Vietnam)
*[[Joseon]] dynasty (Korea)
*[[Zulu Kingdom]] (South Africa)
*[[Tanzimat]], [[First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|First Constitutional Era]] ([[Decline of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]])
*[[Russian Empire]]
*[[Manifest Destiny|American Manifest Destiny]], [[Antebellum South|Antebellum Era]], [[Gilded Age|The Gilded Age]], [[American frontier|Wild West]], [[Reconstruction era|Reconstruction]] (United States)

== Wars ==
===Napoleonic Wars===
{{main|Napoleonic Wars}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of the Napoleonic era}}
[[File:Napoleons retreat from moscow.jpg|thumb|right|[[Napoleon]]'s retreat from Russia in 1812. The war swings decisively against the French Empire]]
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] and its allies, led by [[Napoleon I]], against a fluctuating array of [[Coalition forces of the Napoleonic Wars|European powers formed into various coalitions]], financed and usually led by the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the [[French Revolution]] and its [[French Revolutionary Wars|resultant conflict]].

In the aftermath of the [[French Revolution]], [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself [[Emperor of the French]].

In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]] ended the [[War of the Third Coalition]]. As a result of the [[Treaty of Pressburg (1805)|Treaty of Pressburg]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was dissolved.

Later efforts were less successful. In the [[Peninsular War]], France unsuccessfully attempted to establish [[Joseph Bonaparte]] as King of Spain. In 1812, the [[French invasion of Russia]] had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].

In 1814, after defeat in the [[War of the Sixth Coalition]], Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to [[Elba]]. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the [[Hundred Days]] before finally being defeated at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] and exiled to [[Saint Helena]], an island in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]].

After Napoleon's defeat, the [[Congress of Vienna]] was held to determine new national borders. The [[Concert of Europe]] attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact.

===Latin American independence===
{{main|Latin American wars of independence|Spanish American wars of independence}}
[[File:JuraIndependencia.jpg|thumb|alt=Portrait of the Chilean declaration of independence|The [[Chilean Declaration of Independence]] on 18 February 1818]]
[[Mexico]] and the majority of the countries in [[Central America]] and [[South America]] obtained independence from [[Colonialism|colonial]] overlords during the 19th century. In 1804, [[Haitian Revolution|Haiti]] gained independence from France. In [[Mexico]], the [[Mexican War of Independence]] was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821.

Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal [[Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|relocated to Brazil]] from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal.

The [[Federal Republic of Central America]] gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of [[Guatemala]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[Costa Rica]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perez-Brignoli|first1=Hector|title=A Brief History of Central America|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofce00pr|url-access=registration|date=1989|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520909762}}</ref>

In 1830, the post-colonial nation of [[Gran Colombia]] dissolved and the nations of [[Colombia]] (including modern-day Panama), [[Ecuador]], and [[Venezuela]] took its place.

===Revolutions of 1848===
{{main|Revolutions of 1848}}
[[File:Maerz1848 berlin.jpg|thumb|upright|Liberal and nationalist pressure led to the [[Revolutions of 1848|European revolutions of 1848]]]]
The [[Revolutions of 1848]] were a series of [[political upheaval]]s throughout [[Europe]] in 1848. The revolutions were essentially [[democracy|democratic]] and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old [[Monarchy|monarchical]] structures and creating independent nation states.

The first revolution began in [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states|January in Sicily]].{{clarify|date=December 2017}} Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in [[French Revolution of 1848|France in February]]. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries.

According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.<ref>R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., ''The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849'' (2000) pp. v, 4</ref>

===Abolition and the American Civil War===
{{main|Abolitionism|American Civil War}}
[[File:Wilberforce john rising.jpg|thumb|[[William Wilberforce]] (1759–1833), politician and philanthropist who was a leader of the movement to [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolish the slave trade]].]]

The [[abolitionism]] movement achieved success in the 19th century. The [[Atlantic slave trade]] was abolished in the United States in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The [[Slavery Abolition Act]] of 1833 banned slavery throughout the [[British Empire]], and the [[Lei Áurea]] abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.

[[Abolitionism in the United States]] continued until the end of the [[American Civil War]]. [[Frederick Douglass]] and [[Harriet Tubman]] were two of many American abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer, while Tubman worked with a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the [[Underground Railroad]].

The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Eleven [[Southern United States|southern states]] seceded from the [[United States]], largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President [[Abraham Lincoln]] issued the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. Lincoln issued a preliminary<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation|title=The Emancipation Proclamation|date=October 6, 2015|website=National Archives|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206210236/https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation|archive-date=February 6, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> on September 22, 1862, warning that in all states still in rebellion ([[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free."<ref>McPherson, J. M. (2014). "Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment", in E. Foner and J. A. Garraty (eds.), ''The Reader's Companion to American History''. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. [http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rcah/emancipation_proclamation_and_thirteenth_amendment/0] Retrieved from {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106000538/https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rcah/emancipation_proclamation_and_thirteenth_amendment/0|date=2018-11-06}}</ref> He did so.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation/transcript.html|title=Transcript of the Proclamation|date=October 6, 2015|website=National Archives}}</ref> The [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] to the Constitution,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/13th-amendment|title=13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery|date=January 27, 2016|website=National Archives|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216131544/https://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/13th-amendment|archive-date=February 16, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country.

Five days after [[Robert E. Lee]] surrendered at [[Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia]], [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln was assassinated]] by actor and [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] sympathiser [[John Wilkes Booth]].

=== Decline of the Ottoman Empire ===
{{main|Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire}}
In 1830, [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]] became the first country to break away from the [[Ottoman Empire]] after the [[Greek War of Independence]]. In 1831, the [[Bosnian uprising (1831–1832)|Bosnian Uprising]] against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the [[Principality of Serbia]] became [[Suzerainty|suzerain]] from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a constitution that defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1876, [[Bulgarians]] instigated the [[April Uprising of 1876|April Uprising]] against Ottoman rule. Following the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War]], the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]] recognized the formal independence of the Serbia, [[Principality of Montenegro|Montenegro]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]]. [[Principality of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] became autonomous.

=== China: Taiping Rebellion ===
{{main|Taiping Rebellion}}
[[File:Regaining the Provincial Capital of Ruizhou.jpg|thumb|280px|A scene of the [[Taiping Rebellion]].]]
The [[Taiping Rebellion]] was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20-30 million people. Its leader, [[Hong Xiuquan]], declared himself the younger brother of [[Jesus Christ]] and developed a new Chinese religion known as the [[God Worshipping Society]]. After proclaiming the establishment of the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]] in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing [[Nanjing]] in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reilly|first1=Thomas H.|title=The Taiping heavenly kingdom rebellion and the blasphemy of empire|date=2004|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|isbn=978-0295801926|edition=1}}</ref>

=== Japan: Meiji Restoration ===
{{main|Meiji Restoration}}
During the [[Edo period]], [[History of Japan|Japan]] largely pursued an [[Sakoku|isolationist foreign policy]]. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore [[Matthew C. Perry]] threatened the Japanese capital [[Edo]] with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to [[Bakumatsu|the opening of trade relations]] between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of [[Sakoku]] formally ended in 1854.

By 1872, the Japanese government under [[Emperor Meiji]] had [[Abolition of the han system|eliminated the ''daimyō'' system]] and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the [[samurai]] class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.<ref>W. G. Beasley, ''The Meiji Restoration'' (1972),</ref>

=== Colonialism ===
[[File:Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algier-Ernest-Francis Vacherot mg 5120.jpg|thumb|Arrival of Marshal [[Jacques Louis Randon|Randon]] in [[Algiers]], [[French Algeria]] in 1857]]
{{main|Western imperialism in Asia|Scramble for Africa}}
[[File:Rao Baji signing the Treaty of Vasai.jpg|thumb|The [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]] and the [[East India Company]] sign the [[Treaty of Bassein (1802)|Treaty of Bassein]] in 1802.]]
* [[1803]]: United States more than doubles in size when it buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the [[Louisiana Purchase]]. This begins the U.S.'s westward expansion to the Pacific, referred to as its [[Manifest Destiny]], which involves [[United States territorial acquisitions|annexing and conquering land]] from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans.
* [[1817]] – [[1819]]: British Empire annexed the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]] after the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]].
* [[1823]] – [[1887]]: British Empire annexed Burma (now also called [[Myanmar]]) after three [[Anglo-Burmese Wars]].
* [[1848]] – [[1849]]: [[Sikh Empire]] is defeated in the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]]. Therefore, the entire [[Indian subcontinent]] is under British control.
* [[1862]]: France gained its first foothold in [[Southeast Asia]] and in [[1863]] annexed [[Cambodia]].
* [[1867]]: United States [[Alaska Purchase|purchased Alaska]] from [[Russia]].

==== Africa ====
[[File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png|thumb|300px|Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913]]
In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as [[quinine]] and more advanced [[firearms]] allowed European nations to conquer native populations.<ref name="KerrAfrica">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Gordon|title=A Short History of Africa: From the Origins of the Human Race to the Arab Spring|date=2012|publisher=Pocket Essentials|location=Harpenden, Herts [UK]|isbn=9781842434420|pages=85–101}}</ref>

Motivations for the [[Scramble for Africa]] included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the [[Suez Canal]], but [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] defeated Italy in the [[First Italo–Ethiopian War]] at the [[Battle of Adwa]]. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations.<ref name="KerrAfrica" />

In 1867, [[diamond]]s were discovered in the [[Kimberley, Northern Cape|Kimberley]] region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in [[South African Republic|Transvaal]]. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by [[Cecil Rhodes]].<ref name="KerrAfrica" />

=== Other wars ===
* [[1801]]–[[1815]]: [[First Barbary War]] and the [[Second Barbary War]] between the United States and the [[Barbary States]] of [[North Africa]].
* [[1802]]: [[Tây Sơn dynasty|Tay Son]] army recaptured [[Thừa Thiên Huế province|Phu Xuan]], causing Vo Tanh to commit suicide, [[Gia Long|Nguyen Phuc Anh]] successfully captured [[Hanoi|Thang Long]], founded the [[Nguyen dynasty]]
* [[1804]]–[[1810]]: [[Fulani War|Fulani Jihad]] in [[Nigeria]].
* [[1804]]–[[1813]]: [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Persian War]].
* [[1806]]–[[1812]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)|Russo-Turkish War]], [[Treaty of Bucharest (1812)|Treaty of Bucharest]].
* [[1807]]–[[1837]]: [[Musket Wars]] among [[Māori people|Māori]] in many parts of [[New Zealand]].
* [[1808]]–[[1809]]: Russia conquers Finland from Sweden in the [[Finnish War]].[[File:KingShaka.jpg|thumb|1816: [[Shaka]] rises to power over the [[Zulu Kingdom]]. Zulu expansion was a major factor of the [[Mfecane]] ("Crushing") that depopulated large areas of southern Africa]]
* [[1810]]: [[Grito de Dolores]] begins the [[Mexican War of Independence]].
* [[1811]]: [[Battle of Tippecanoe]]: U.S. outnumbering Native Americans resulting in defeat and burning of community
* [[1812]]–[[1815]]: [[War of 1812]] between the United States and Britain; ends in a draw, except that Native Americans lose power.
* [[1813]]–[[1837]]: [[Afghan–Sikh Wars]].
* [[1814]]–[[1816]]: [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] between [[Nepal]] (Gurkha Empire) and [[British Empire]].
* [[1817]]: First [[Seminole War]] begins in Florida.
* [[1817]]: Russia commences its [[Caucasian War|conquest of the Caucasus]].
* [[1820]]: [[Revolutions of 1820]] in Southern Europe
* [[1821]]–[[1830]]: [[Greek War of Independence]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1825]]–[[1830]]: [[Java War]] begins.
* [[1826]]–[[1828]]: After the final [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Russo-Persian War]], the [[Qajar dynasty|Persian Empire]] took back territory lost to Russia from the previous war.
* [[1828]]–[[1832]]: [[Black War]] in [[Tasmania]] leads to the near extinction of the [[Tasmanian aborigines]]
* 1[[830]]: [[July Revolution]] overthrew old line of Bourbons.
* [[1830]]: [[November Uprising]] in [[Poland]] against [[Russia]].
* [[1830]]: [[Belgian Revolution]] results in [[Belgium]]'s independence from [[Netherlands]].
* [[1830]]: End of the Java War. The whole area of Yogyakarta and Surakarta Manca nagara Dutch seized. 27 September, Klaten Agreement determines a fixed boundary between Surakarta and Yogyakarta and permanently divide the kingdom of Mataram was signed by Sasradiningrat, Pepatih Dalem Surakarta, and Danurejo, Pepatih Dalem Yogyakarta. Mataram is a de facto and de yure controlled by the Dutch East Indies.
* [[1831]]: [[France]] [[French rule in Algeria|invades and occupies Algeria]].
* [[1831]]–[[1833]]: [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)|Egyptian–Ottoman War]].
* [[1832]]–[[1875]]: Regimental rebellions of Brazil
* [[1835]]–[[1836]]: [[Texas Revolution]] results in [[Texas]]'s independence from [[Mexico]].
* [[1839]]–[[1842]]: [[First Opium War]] begins.
* [[1846]]–[[1848]]: [[Mexican–American War]] leads to Mexico's cession of much of the modern-day [[Southwestern United States]].
* [[1848]]: [[French Revolution of 1848|February Revolution]] overthrew Louis Philippe's government. Second Republic proclaimed; Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, elected president.
* [[1853]]–[[1856]]: [[Crimean War]] between France, the United Kingdom, the [[Ottoman Empire]] and Russia.
* [[1857]]: [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion]] against the [[Company Raj]]. After this the power of the [[East India Company]] is transferred to the [[British Raj|British Crown]].
* [[1859]]: [[Second Italian War of Independence|Franco-Austrian War]] is part of the wars of [[Italian unification]].
* [[1861]]–[[1865]]: [[American Civil War]] between the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] and seceding [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. [[File:EwellsDeadSpotsylvania1864crop01.jpg|thumb|Dead Confederate soldiers. 30% of all Southern white males 18–40 years of age died in the [[American Civil War]].<ref>"''[https://archive.org/details/killinggroundpho0000hudd Killing ground: photographs of the Civil War and the changing American landscape] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228002928/https://books.google.com/books?id=YpAuHGkuIe0C&pg=PA&dq&hl=en |date=2017-02-28 }}''". John Huddleston (2002). [[Johns Hopkins University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8018-6773-8}}</ref>]]
* [[1861]]–[[1867]]: [[Second French intervention in Mexico|French intervention in Mexico]] and the creation of the [[Second Mexican Empire]], ruled by [[Maximilian I of Mexico]] and his consort [[Carlota of Mexico]].
* [[1863]]–[[1865]]: [[January Uprising]] against the [[Russian Empire]].
* [[1864]]–[[1870]]: [[Paraguayan War]] ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion and destroys much of the Paraguayan population.
* [[1866]]: [[Austro-Prussian War]] results in the dissolution of the [[German Confederation]] and the creation of the [[North German Confederation]] and the [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy]].
* [[1868]]-[[1869]]: [[Boshin War]] results in end of the shogunate and the founding the Japanese Empire.
* [[1868]]–[[1878]]: [[Ten Years' War]] between [[Cuba]] and [[Kingdom of Spain|Spain]].
* [[1870]]–[[1871]]: [[Franco-Prussian War]] results in the [[Unification of Germany|unifications of Germany]] [[Italian unification|and Italy]], the collapse of the [[Second French Empire]] and the emergence of a [[New Imperialism]].
* 1870: Napoleon III abdicated after unsuccessful conclusion of Franco-Prussian War. Third Republic proclaimed.
* [[1876]]: The [[April Uprising of 1876|April Uprising]] in [[Bulgaria]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1879]]: [[Anglo-Zulu War]] results in British victory and the annexation of the [[Zulu Kingdom]].
* [[1879]]–[[1880]]: [[Little War (Cuba)|Little War]] against Spanish rule in [[Cuba]] leads to rebel defeat.
* [[1879]]–[[1883]]: [[Chile]] battles with [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] over Andean territory in the [[War of the Pacific]].
* [[1880]]–[[1881]]: [[First Boer War]] begins.
* [[1881]]–[[1899]]: [[Mahdist War]] in [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Sudan]].[[File:Battle of Omdurman.jpg|thumb|A depiction of the [[Battle of Omdurman]] in 1898; in the battle, [[Winston Churchill]] took part in a cavalry charge.]]
* [[1882]]: [[Anglo-Egyptian War]] British invasion and subsequent occupation of [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egypt]]
* [[1883]]–[[1898]]: [[Mandingo Wars]] between the [[French colonial empire]] and the [[Wassoulou Empire]] of the [[Mandinka people|Mandingo]] people led by [[Samory Touré]].
* [[1894]]–[[1895]]: After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], China cedes [[Taiwan]] to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea.
* [[1895]]: [[Taiwan]] is ceded to the [[Empire of Japan]] as a result of the [[First Sino-Japanese War]].
* [[1895]]–[[1896]]: [[Ethiopia]] defeats Italy in the [[First Italo–Ethiopian War]] at the [[Battle of Adwa]].
* [[1895]]–[[1898]]: [[Cuban War for Independence]] results in Cuban independence from [[Spanish Empire|Spain]].
* [[1896]]-[[1898]]: [[Philippine Revolution]] results in a Filipino victory.
* [[1898]]: [[Spanish–American War]] results in the independence of Cuba.
* [[1899]]–[[1901]]: [[Boxer Rebellion]] in China is suppressed by the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]].
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Thousand Days' War]] in [[Colombia]] breaks out between the "[[Liberalism|Liberales]]" and "[[Conservatism|Conservadores]]", culminating with the loss of [[Panama]] in 1903.
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Second Boer War]] begins.
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Philippine–American War]] begins.

==Science and technology==
{{main|19th century in science}}
{{Distinguished men of science of Great Britain 1806-7|align=right}}
The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term '''scientist''' was coined in 1833 by [[William Whewell]],<ref>{{cite web
| access-date=2008-03-03
| url=http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/
| title=William Whewell
| publisher=Stanford University
| date=2000-12-23
| last1=Snyder
| first1=Laura J.
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104025611/http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/
| archive-date=2010-01-04
| url-status=live
}}</ref> which soon replaced the older term of '''natural philosopher'''. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of [[Charles Darwin]] (alongside the independent researches of [[Alfred Russel Wallace]]), who in 1859 published the book ''[[The Origin of Species]]'', which introduced the idea of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the [[germ theory of disease]]. Following this, [[Louis Pasteur]] made the first [[vaccine]] against [[rabies]], and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the [[Enantiomer|asymmetry of crystals]]. In chemistry, [[Dmitri Mendeleev]], following the [[atomic theory]] of [[John Dalton]], created the first [[periodic table]] of [[Chemical element|elements]]. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of [[Michael Faraday]], [[André-Marie Ampère]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], and their contemporaries led to the creation of [[electromagnetism]] as a new branch of science. [[Thermodynamics]] led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of [[hypercomplex number]]s. [[Karl Weierstrass]] and others carried out the [[arithmetization of analysis]] for functions of [[Function of a real variable|real]] and [[complex variable]]s. It also saw rise to [[Non-Euclidean geometry|new progress in geometry]] beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about including a rapid spread in the use of electric illumination and power in the last two decades of the century and radio wave communication at the end of the 1890s.
[[File:Faraday-Millikan-Gale-1913.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Michael Faraday]] (1791–1867)]]
[[File:1878 Darwin photo by Leonard from Woodall 1884 - cropped grayed partially cleaned.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Charles Darwin]]]]
* [[1807]]: [[Potassium]] and [[Sodium]] are individually isolated by [[Sir Humphry Davy]].
* [[1831]]–[[1836]]: [[Charles Darwin]]'s journey on {{HMS|Beagle}}.
* [[1859]]: [[Charles Darwin]] publishes ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.
* [[1861]]: [[James Clerk Maxwell]] publishes ''[[On Physical Lines of Force]]'', formulating the four [[Maxwell's equations]].
* [[1865]]: [[Gregor Mendel]] formulates his [[laws of inheritance]].
* [[1869]]: [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] creates the [[Periodic table]].
* [[1873]]: Maxwell's ''[[A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism]]'' published.
* [[1877]]: [[Asaph Hall]] discovers the [[moons of Mars]]
* [[1896]]: [[Henri Becquerel]] discovers [[radioactivity]]; [[J. J. Thomson]] identifies the [[electron]], though not by name.

===Medicine===
[[File:Robert Koch.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Robert Koch]] discovered the [[tuberculosis]] bacilli. The disease killed an estimated 25 percent of the adult population of Europe during the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cdc.gov/TB/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm |title=Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421174847/http://www.cdc.gov/tb/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm |archive-date=April 21, 2009|date=2018-12-31 }}</ref>]]

* [[1804]]: [[Morphine]] first isolated.
* [[1842]]: [[Anesthesia]] used for the first time.
* [[1847]]: [[Chloroform]] invented for the first time, given to [[Queen Victoria]] at the birth of her eighth child, [[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Prince Leopold]] in [[1853]]
* [[1855]]: [[Cocaine]] is isolated by [[Friedrich Gaedcke]].
* [[1885]]: [[Louis Pasteur]] creates the first successful [[vaccine]] against rabies for a young boy who had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog.
* [[1889]]: [[Aspirin]] patented.

===Inventions===

[[File:Edison in his NJ laboratory 1901.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thomas Edison]] was an American inventor, scientist, and businessman who developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the [[phonograph]], the [[Movie camera|motion picture camera]], and a long-lasting, practical electric [[light bulb]].]]
[[File:Erste Benzin-Omnibus der Welt.jpg|thumb|upright|First motor bus in history: the [[Karl Benz|Benz]] Omnibus, built in 1895 for the Netphener bus company]]
* [[1804]]: First [[steam locomotive]] begins operation.
* [[1816]]: [[Dandy horse|Laufmaschine]] invented by [[Karl von Drais]].
* [[1825]]: [[Erie Canal]] opened connecting the [[Great Lakes]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
* [[1825]]: First isolation of [[aluminium]].
* [[1827]]: First photograph taken (technique of [[heliography]]) by [[Joseph Nicephore Niepce]].
* [[1825]]: The [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]], the first public railway in the world, is opened.
* [[1826]]: [[Samuel Morey]] patents the [[internal combustion engine]].
* [[1829]]: First [[electric motor]] built.
* [[1837]]: [[Telegraphy]] patented.
* [[1841]]: The word "[[dinosaur]]" is coined by [[Richard Owen]].
* [[1844]]: First publicly funded [[telegraph]] line in the world—between Baltimore and Washington—sends demonstration message on 24 May, ushering in the age of the telegraph. This message read "What hath God wrought?" (Bible, Numbers 23:23)
* [[1849]]: The [[safety pin]] and the [[gas mask]] are invented.
* [[1852]]: The first successful [[blimp]] is invented
* [[1855]]: [[Bessemer process]] enables [[steel]] to be mass-produced.
* [[1856]]: World's first [[oil refinery]] in [[Romania]]
* [[1858]]: Invention of the [[phonautograph]], the first true device for [[recorded sound|recording sound]].
* [[1859]]: The first [[ironclad]] was launched into sea by the [[French Navy]].
* [[1860]]: [[Benjamin Tyler Henry]] invents the 16-shot [[Henry Rifle]]
* [[1861]]: [[Richard Gatling]] invents the [[Gatling Gun]], first modern [[machine gun]] used notably in the battles of [[Cold Harbor]] and [[Petersburg, Virginia|Petersburg]]
* [[1862]]: First meeting in combat of [[ironclad warship]]s, {{USS|Monitor|1862|6}} and {{ship|CSS|Virginia}}, during the [[American Civil War]].
* [[1863]]: First section of the [[London Underground]] opens.
* [[1866]]: Successful [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] follows an earlier attempt in 1858.
* [[1867]]: [[Alfred Nobel]] invents [[dynamite]].
* [[1868]]: [[Safety bicycle]] invented.
* [[1869]]: [[First transcontinental railroad]] completed in United States on 10 May.
* [[1870]]: [[Rasmus Malling-Hansen]]'s invention the [[Hansen Writing Ball]] becomes the first commercially sold [[typewriter]].
* [[1873]]: [[Jeans|Blue jeans]] and [[barbed wire]] are invented.
* [[1877]]: [[Thomas Edison]] invents the [[phonograph]]
* [[1878]]: First commercial [[telephone exchange]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]].
* c. [[1875]]/[[1880]]: Introduction of the widespread use of electric [[lighting]]. These included early crude systems in France and the UK and the introduction of large scale outdoor [[Arc lamp|arc lighting]] systems by 1880.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html|title=Arc Lamps - How They Work & History|website=edisontechcenter.org}}</ref>
* [[1879]]: [[Thomas Edison]] patents a practical [[incandescent light bulb]].
* [[1882]]: Introduction of large scale [[Electric power industry|electric power utilities]] with the Edison [[Holborn Viaduct power station|Holborn Viaduct]] (London) and [[Pearl Street Station|Pearl Street]] (New York) power stations supplying indoor electric lighting using Edison's incandescent bulb.<ref>Jonathan Daly, The Rise of Western Power - A Comparative History of Western Civilization, Bloomsbury Publishing · 2013, page 310</ref><ref>Turan Gonen, Electric Power Distribution Engineering, CRC Press · 2015, page 1</ref>
* [[1884]]: [[Sir Hiram Maxim]] invents the first self-powered [[Machine gun]].
* [[1885]]: [[Singer Manufacturing Company|Singer]] begins production of the '[[Singer Model 27 and 127|Vibrating Shuttle]]'. which would become the most popular model of [[sewing machine]].
* [[1886]]: [[Karl Benz]] sells the first commercial [[automobile]].
* [[1890]]: The [[cardboard box]] is invented.
* [[1892]]: [[John Froelich]] develops and constructs the first gasoline/petrol-powered [[tractor]].
* [[1894]]: [[Karl Elsener (inventor)|Karl Elsener]] invents the [[Swiss Army knife]].
* [[1894]]: First [[gramophone record]].
* [[1895]]: [[Wilhelm Röntgen]] identifies [[x-rays]].

==Religion==
[[File:BrighamYoung1.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Brigham Young]] led the [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS Church]] from 1844 until his death in 1877]]
* [[1818]]: The first permanent [[Reform Judaism]] congregation, the [[Hamburg Temple|Neuer Israelitischer Tempel]], is founded in [[Hamburg]] on October 18. Around the same time, through the development of ''[[Wissenschaft des Judentums]]'', the seeds of [[Conservative Judaism]] are sown.
* [[1830]]: The [[Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)|Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]] is established.
* [[1844]]: The [[Báb]] announces his revelation on 23 May, founding [[Bábism]]. He announced to the world of the coming of "[[He whom God shall make manifest]]". He is considered the forerunner of [[Bahá'u'lláh]], the founder of the [[Baháʼí Faith]].
* [[1850s]]–[[1890s]]: In Islam, [[Salafism]] grows in popularity.
* [[1851]]: [[Hong Xiuquan]], the leader of the [[God Worshipping Society]], founds the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]].
* [[1857]]: In [[Paris]], [[France]], [[Allan Kardec]], publishes [[The Spirits' Book]] and founds the [[Spiritism]].
* [[1868]]: In Japan, [[State Shinto]] is established amidst the [[Meiji Restoration]].
* [[1869]]–[[1870]]: The [[First Vatican Council]] is convened, articulating the dogma of [[papal infallibility]] and promoting a [[Neo-scholasticism|revival of scholastic theology]].
* [[1871]]–[[1878]]: In [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Otto von Bismarck]] challenges the Catholic Church in the ''[[Kulturkampf]]'' ("Culture War")
* [[1875]]: [[Helena Blavatsky]] co-founds the [[Theosophical Society]] and becomes the leading articulator of [[Theosophy]].
* [[1879]]: [[Mary Baker Eddy]] founds the [[Church of Christ, Scientist]]. ''[[The Watchtower]],'' published by the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], releases its first issue.
* [[1881]]: In the Sudan, [[Muhammad Ahmad]] claims to be the [[Mahdi]], founding the [[Mahdist State]] and declaring war on the [[Khedivate of Egypt]].
* [[1889]]: [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]] establishes the [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]].
* [[1891]]: [[Pope Leo XIII]] issues the [[papal encyclical]] ''[[Rerum novarum]]'', the first major document informing modern [[Catholic social teaching]].

==Culture==
[[File:Crystal Palace - interior.jpg|thumb|350px|The [[Great Exhibition]] in London. Starting during the 18th century, the United Kingdom was the first country in the world to industrialise.]]
* [[1808]]: [[Beethoven]] composes [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Fifth Symphony]]
* [[1813]]: [[Jane Austen]] publishes ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]''
* [[1818]]: [[Mary Shelley]] publishes ''[[Frankenstein]]''.
* [[1819]]: [[John Keats]] writes his [[John Keats's 1819 odes|six of his best-known odes]].
* [[1819]]: [[Théodore Géricault]] paints his masterpiece ''[[The Raft of the Medusa]]'', and exhibits it in the French Salon of 1819 at the [[The Louvre|Louvre]].
* [[1824]]: Premiere of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s ''[[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Ninth Symphony]]''.
* [[1829]]: [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]'s ''[[Goethe's Faust|Faust]]'' premieres.
* [[1833]]–[[1834]]: [[Thomas Carlyle]] publishes ''[[Sartor Resartus]]''.
* [[1837]]: [[Charles Dickens]] publishes ''[[Oliver Twist]]''.
* [[1841]]: [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] publishes ''[[Self-Reliance]]''.
* [[1845]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] publishes ''[[Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave]]''.
* [[1847]]: The [[Brontë sisters]] publish ''[[Jane Eyre]]'', ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'' and ''[[Agnes Grey]]''.
* [[1848]]: [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]] publish ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]''.
* [[1849]]: [[Josiah Henson]] publishes [[The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself]].
* [[1851]]: [[Herman Melville]] publishes [[Moby-Dick]].
* [[1851]]: [[Sojourner Truth]] delivers the speech [[Ain't I a Woman?]].
* [[1852]]: [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]] publishes [[Uncle Tom's Cabin]].
* [[1855]]: [[Walt Whitman]] publishes the first edition of ''[[Leaves of Grass]]''.
* [[1855]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] publishes the first edition of ''[[My Bondage and My Freedom]]''.
* [[1862]]: [[Victor Hugo]] publishes ''[[Les Misérables]]''.
* [[1863]]: [[Jules Verne]] begins publishing his collection of stories and novels, ''[[Voyages extraordinaires]]'', with the novel ''[[Cinq semaines en ballon]]''.
* [[1865]]: [[Lewis Carroll]] publishes [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]].
* [[1869]]: [[Leo Tolstoy]] publishes ''[[War and Peace]]''.[[File:Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Le Moulin de la Galette.jpg|thumb|[[Auguste Renoir]], ''[[Bal du moulin de la Galette]]'', 1876, [[Musée d'Orsay]]]]
* [[1875]]: [[Georges Bizet]]'s opera [[Carmen]] premiers in Paris.
* [[1876]]: [[Richard Wagner]]'s ''[[Ring Cycle]]'' is first performed in its entirety.
* [[1883]]: [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s ''[[Treasure Island]]'' is published.
* [[1884]]: [[Mark Twain]] publishes the ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''.
* [[1886]]: "[[Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde]]" by Robert Louis Stevenson is published.
* [[1887]]: [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] publishes his first [[Sherlock Holmes]] story, ''[[A Study in Scarlet]]''.
* [[1889]]: [[Vincent van Gogh]] paints ''[[The Starry Night]]''.
* [[1889]]: [[Moulin Rouge]] opens in Paris.
* [[1892]]: [[Tchaikovsky]]'s ''[[Nutcracker Suite]]'' premières in [[St Petersberg]].
* [[1894]]: [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[The Jungle Book]]'' is published
* [[1895]]: Trial of [[Oscar Wilde]] and premiere of his play ''[[The Importance of Being Earnest]]''.
* [[1897]]: [[Bram Stoker]] writes [[Dracula]].
* [[1900]]: [[L. Frank Baum]] publishes [[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]].

[[File:Ilya Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Portrait of Leo Tolstoy (1887).jpg|thumb|upright|Russian writer [[Leo Tolstoy]], author of ''[[War and Peace]]'' and ''[[Anna Karenina]]'']]

===Literature===
{{main|Romantic poetry|19th century in literature}}

On the literary front the new century opens with [[romanticism]], a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German ''[[Sturm und Drang]]'' spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the [[Napoleonic Wars]] but subsequently developed rapidly. [[Modernism]] began.<ref>David Damrosch and David L. Pike, eds. ''The Longman Anthology of World Literature, Volume E: The Nineteenth Century'' (2nd ed. 2008)</ref>

The Goncourts and [[Émile Zola]] in France and [[Giovanni Verga]] in Italy produce some of the finest [[Naturalism (literature)|naturalist novels]]. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians [[Alexander Pushkin]], [[Nikolai Gogol]], [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Anton Chekhov]] and [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]; the English [[Charles Dickens]], [[John Keats]], [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]] and [[Jane Austen]]; the Scottish [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Thomas Carlyle]] and [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] (creator of the character [[Sherlock Holmes]]); the Irish [[Oscar Wilde]]; the Americans [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], and [[Mark Twain]]; and the French [[Victor Hugo]], [[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Jules Verne]], [[Alexandre Dumas]] and [[Charles Baudelaire]].<ref>M. H. Abrams et al., eds., ''The Norton Anthology of English Literature'' (9th ed. 2012)</ref>

Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: [[Walt Whitman]], [[Mark Twain]], [[Harriet Ann Jacobs]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], [[Herman Melville]], [[Frederick Douglass]], [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], [[Joel Chandler Harris]], and [[Emily Dickinson]] to name a few.

===Photography===
[[File:View from the Window at Le Gras, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.jpg|thumb|upright|One of the first photographs, produced in 1826 by [[Nicéphore Niépce]]]]
[[File:Self-portrait of Nadar.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]], Self-portrait, {{Circa|1860}}]]
{{see also|History of photography|List of photojournalists|Photojournalism|Daguerreotype}}
*[[Ottomar Anschütz]], [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Mathew Brady]], documented the [[American Civil War]]
*[[Edward S. Curtis]], documented the [[American West]] notably [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]
*[[Louis Daguerre]], inventor of [[daguerreotype]] process of photography, chemist
*[[Thomas Eakins]], pioneer motion photographer
*[[George Eastman]], inventor of [[Photographic film|roll film]]
*[[Hércules Florence]], pioneer inventor of photography
*[[Auguste and Louis Lumière]], pioneer film-makers, inventors
*[[Étienne-Jules Marey]], pioneer motion photographer, [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Eadweard Muybridge]], pioneer motion photographer, [[chronophotographer]]
*[[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]] a.k.a. Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, portrait photographer
*[[Nicéphore Niépce]], pioneer inventor of photography
*[[Louis Le Prince]], motion picture inventor and pioneer film-maker
*[[Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky]], chemist and photographer
*[[William Fox Talbot]], inventor of the negative / positive photographic process.

===Visual artists, painters, sculptors===
{{main|History of art#Modern Art (ca. 1770-1970)|Western painting|Ukiyo-e}}
[[File:El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado thin black margin.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Francisco Goya]], ''[[The Third of May 1808]]'', 1814, {{Lang|es|[[Museo del Prado]]|italic=no}}]]
[[File:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Eugène Delacroix]], ''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'', 1830, [[Louvre]]]]
[[File:Vincent van Gogh - National Gallery of Art.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Vincent van Gogh]], ''Self-portrait'', 1889, [[National Gallery of Art]]]]
[[File:Affiche Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile Mucha.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alphonse Mucha]], Advertise with ''Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile'', 1897]]
The [[Realism (arts)|Realism]] and [[Romanticism]] of the early 19th century gave way to [[Impressionism]] and [[Post-Impressionism]] in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the [[Hudson River School]] was prominent. 19th-century painters included:
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Ivan Aivazovsky]]
*[[Léon Bakst]]
*[[Albert Bierstadt]]
*[[William Blake]]
*[[Arnold Böcklin]]
*[[Rosa Bonheur]]
*[[William Burges]]
*[[Mary Cassatt]]
*[[Camille Claudel]]
*[[Paul Cézanne]]
*[[Frederic Edwin Church]]
*[[Thomas Cole]]
*[[Jan Matejko]]
*[[John Constable]]
*[[Camille Corot]]
*[[Gustave Courbet]]
*[[Honoré Daumier]]
*[[Edgar Degas]]
*[[Eugène Delacroix]]
*[[Thomas Eakins]]
*[[Caspar David Friedrich]]
*[[Paul Gauguin]]
*[[Théodore Géricault]]
*[[Vincent van Gogh]]
*[[William Morris]]
*[[Francisco Goya]]
*[[Andō Hiroshige]]
*[[Hokusai]]
*[[Winslow Homer]]
*[[Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres]]
*[[Isaac Levitan]]
*[[Édouard Manet]]
*[[Claude Monet]]
*[[Gustave Moreau]]
*[[Berthe Morisot]]
*[[Edvard Munch]]
*[[Mikhail Nesterov]]
*[[Camille Pissarro]]
*[[Augustus Pugin]]
*[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]
*[[Ilya Repin]]
*[[Auguste Rodin]]
*[[Albert Pinkham Ryder]]
*[[John Singer Sargent]]
*[[Valentin Serov]]
*[[Georges Seurat]]
*[[Ivan Shishkin]]
*[[Vasily Surikov]]
*[[James Tissot]]
*[[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]]
*[[J. M. W. Turner|Joseph Mallord William Turner]]
*[[Viktor Vasnetsov]]
*[[Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]
*[[Mikhail Vrubel]]
*[[James Abbott McNeill Whistler]]
*[[Tsukioka Yoshitoshi]]
{{div col end}}

===Music===
{{main|List of Romantic-era composers|Romantic music|Romanticism}}
[[File:Joseph Karl Stieler's Beethoven mit dem Manuskript der Missa solemnis.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]]]
[[File:Porträt des Komponisten Pjotr I. Tschaikowski (1840-1893).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]]]
[[Sonata form]] matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] style. Many great composers lived through this era such as [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], [[Franz Liszt]], [[Frédéric Chopin]], [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] and [[Richard Wagner]]. The list includes:
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Mily Balakirev]]
*[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]
*[[Hector Berlioz]]
*[[Georges Bizet]]
*[[Alexander Borodin]]
*[[Johannes Brahms]]
*[[Anton Bruckner]]
*[[Frédéric Chopin]]
*[[Claude Debussy]]
*[[Antonín Dvořák]]
*[[Mikhail Glinka]]
*[[Edvard Grieg]]
*[[Scott Joplin]]
*[[Alexandre Levy]]
*[[Franz Liszt]]
*[[Gustav Mahler]]
*[[Felix Mendelssohn]]
*[[Modest Mussorgsky]]
*[[Jacques Offenbach]]
*[[Niccolò Paganini]]
*[[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]]
*[[Gioachino Rossini]]
*[[Anton Rubinstein]]
*[[Camille Saint-Saëns]]
*[[Antonio Salieri]]
*[[Franz Schubert]]
*[[Robert Schumann]]
*[[Alexander Scriabin]]
*[[Arthur Sullivan]]
*[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]
*[[Giuseppe Verdi]]
*[[Richard Wagner]]
{{div col end}}

===Sports===
* [[1867]]: The [[Marquess of Queensberry Rules]] for [[boxing]] are published.
* [[1872]]: The first recognised international [[Association football|football]] match, between [[England]] and [[Scotland]], is played.
* [[1877]]: The first [[test cricket]] match, between [[England]] and [[Australia]], is played.
* [[1891]]: [[Basketball]] is invented by [[James Naismith]].
* [[1895]]: [[Volleyball]] is invented.
* [[1896]]: [[Olympic Games#Revival|Olympic Games]] revived in [[Athens]].

==Events==
{{For timeline}}

===1801–1850===
* [[1801]]: The [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] and the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] merge to form the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]].
* [[1802]]: The [[Wahhabi]]s of the [[First Saudi State]] [[Wahhabi sack of Karbala|sack Karbala]].
* [[1803]]: [[William Symington]] demonstrates his ''[[Charlotte Dundas]]'', the "first practical steamboat".
* [[1803]]: The [[Wahhabi]]s of the [[First Saudi State]] capture [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].
* [[1804]]: [[Austrian Empire]] founded by [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis I]].
* [[1804]]: [[World population]] reaches 1 billion.
* [[1805]]: The [[Battle of Trafalgar]] eliminates the French and Spanish naval fleets and allows for British dominance of the seas, a major factor for the success of the [[British Empire]] later in the century.
* [[1805]]–[[1848]]: [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] modernizes [[Egypt]].
[[File:StamfordRaffles.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[1819]]: 29 January, [[Stamford Raffles]] arrives in Singapore with [[William Farquhar]] to establish a trading post for the [[East India Company|British East India Company]]. 8 February, The treaty is signed between Sultan Hussein of Johor, Temenggong Abdul Rahman and Stamford Raffles. Farquhar is installed as the first Resident of the settlement.]]
* [[1810]]: The [[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]] was founded. Among its students and faculty are [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], and [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]]. The German university reform proves to be so successful that its model is copied around the world (see [[History of European universities#European university models in the 19th and 20th centuries|History of European research universities]]).
* [[1814]]: [[Elisha Collier]] invents the [[Flintlock]] [[Revolver]].
* [[1814]] : February 1 Eruption of [[Mayon Volcano]]
* [[1815]]: April, [[Mount Tambora]] in [[Sumbawa]] island erupts, becoming the largest [[volcanic eruption]] in [[recorded history]], destroying [[Tambora culture]], and killing at least 71,000 people, including its aftermath. The eruption created [[global climate]] anomalies known as "[[volcanic winter]]".<ref name="Oppenheimer2003">{{cite journal|last=Oppenheimer|first=Clive|title=Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815|journal=Progress in Physical Geography|volume=27|issue=2|year=2003|pages=230–259|doi=10.1191/0309133303pp379ra|s2cid=131663534}}</ref>
* [[1816]]: [[Year Without a Summer]]: Unusually cold conditions wreak havoc throughout the Northern Hemisphere, likely influenced by the 1815 explosion of [[Mount Tambora]].
* [[1816]]–[[1828]]: [[Shaka]]'s [[Zulu Kingdom]] becomes the largest in [[Southern Africa]].
* [[1819]]: The [[Colombia|Republic of Colombia]] ([[Gran Colombia]]) achieves independence after [[Simón Bolívar]]'s triumph at the [[Battle of Boyacá]].
* [[1819]]: The modern city of [[Singapore]] is established by the [[British East India Company]].
* [[1820]]: Discovery of [[Antarctica]].
* [[1820]]: [[History of Liberia|Liberia]] founded by the [[American Colonization Society]] for freed American slaves.
* [[1820]]: Dissolution of the [[Maratha Empire]].
* [[1821]]–[[1823]]: [[First Mexican Empire]], as Mexico's first post-independent government, ruled by Emperor [[Agustín de Iturbide|Agustín I of Mexico]].
* [[1822]]: [[Pedro I of Brazil]] declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September.
* [[1823]]: [[Monroe Doctrine]] declared by US President [[James Monroe]].
* [[1825]]: The [[Decembrist revolt]].
[[File:Kolman decembrists.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Decembrists]] at the [[Saint Petersburg Senate Square|Senate Square]].]]
* [[1829]]: [[Sir Robert Peel]] founds the [[Metropolitan Police Service]], the first modern police force.
[[File:Emigrants Leave Ireland by Henry Doyle 1868.jpg|thumb|upright|Emigrants leaving [[Ireland]]. From 1830 to 1914, almost 5 million Irish people went to the United States alone.]]
* [[1830]]: Anglo-Russian rivalry over Afghanistan, [[the Great Game]], commences and concludes in 1895.
* [[1831]]: November Uprising ends with crushing defeat for Poland in the [[Battle of Warsaw (1831)|Battle of Warsaw]].
* [[1832]]: The British Parliament passes the [[Great Reform Act]].
* [[1834]]–[[1859]]: [[Imam Shamil]]'s rebellion in Russian-occupied [[Caucasus]].
* [[1835]]–[[1836]]: The [[Texas Revolution]] in Mexico resulted in the short-lived [[Republic of Texas]].
* [[1836]]: [[Samuel Colt]] popularizes the [[revolver]] and sets up a firearms company to manufacture his invention of the [[Colt Paterson]] revolver, a six bullets firearm shot one by one without reloading manually.
* [[1837]]–[[1838]]: [[Rebellions of 1837]] in [[Canada]].
* [[1838]]: By this time, 46,000 Native Americans have been forcibly relocated in the [[Trail of Tears]].
* [[1839]]–[[1860]]: After the [[First Opium War|First]] and [[Second Opium War]]s, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and Russia gain many [[Treaty ports|trade and associated concessions]] from China resulting in the start of the decline of the [[Qing dynasty]].
* [[1839]]–[[1919]]: [[Anglo-Afghan War]]s lead to stalemate and the establishment of the [[Durand line]]
* [[1842]]: [[Treaty of Nanking]] cedes [[Hong Kong]] to the British.
* [[1843]]: The first [[wagon train]] sets out from Missouri.
* [[1844]]: [[Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers]] establish what is considered the first [[cooperative]] in the world.
* [[1845]]–[[1849]]: The [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine of Ireland]] leads to the [[Irish diaspora]].
* [[1848]]: ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'' published.
* [[1848]]: [[Seneca Falls Convention]] is the first [[women's rights]] convention in the United States and leads to the [[History of Women's Suffrage in the United States|battle for women's suffrage]].
* [[1848]]–[[1855]]: [[California Gold Rush]].
* [[1849]]: Earliest recorded [[Airstrike|air raid]], as Austria employs [[The Austrian balloons|200 balloons]] to deliver ordnance against [[Venice]].
* [[1850]]: The [[Little Ice Age]] ends around this time.
* [[1850]]: [[Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch]] establishes the first [[cooperative banking|cooperative financial institution]].
[[File:U.S. Territorial Acquisitions.png|thumb|250px|Historical [[Territorial evolution of the United States|territorial expansion of the United States]]]]

===1851–1900===
* [[1851]]: The [[Great Exhibition]] in London was the world's first international Expo or [[World's fair|World Fair]].
* [[1852]]: [[Frederick Douglass]] delivers his speech "The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro" in [[Rochester, New York]].
* [[1857]]: Sir [[Joseph Whitworth]] designs the first long-range [[sniper rifle]].
* [[1857]]–[[1858]]: [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. The British Empire assumes control of India from the [[East India Company]].
* [[1858]]: Construction of [[Big Ben]] is completed.
* [[1859]]–[[1869]]: [[Suez Canal]] is constructed.
[[File:SuezCanalKantara.jpg|thumb|upright|The first vessels sail through the [[Suez Canal]]]]
* [[1860]]: [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] launches the [[Expedition of the Thousand]].
* [[1861]]: Russia [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|abolishes serfdom]].
* [[1862]]–[[1877]]: [[Dungan revolt (1862–1877)|Muslim Rebellion]] in north-west China.
* [[1863]]: Formation of the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|International Red Cross]] is followed by the adoption of the [[First Geneva Convention]] in 1864.
* [[1865]]–[[1877]]: [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] in the United States; Slavery is banned in the United States by the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]].
* [[1867]]: [[Canada]] is formed, via the process of [[Canadian Confederation]].
* [[1868]]: [[Michael Barrett (Fenian)|Michael Barrett]] is the last person to be publicly hanged in England.
* [[1869]]: The [[Suez Canal]] opens linking the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] to the [[Red Sea]].
[[File:Barricade18March1871.jpg|thumb|upright|A barricade in the [[Paris Commune]], 18 March 1871. Around 30,000 Parisians were killed, and thousands more were later executed.]]
[[File:Schwarzer Freitag Wien 1873.jpg|thumb|upright|Black Friday, 9 May 1873, Vienna Stock Exchange. The [[Panic of 1873]] and [[Long Depression]] followed.]]
* [[1870]]: Official dismantling of the [[Cultivation System]] and beginning of a '[[Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies)|Liberal Policy]]' of deregulated exploitation of the Netherlands East Indies.<ref name="VICKERS_xii">Vickers (2005), page xii</ref>
* [[1870]]–[[1890]]: [[Long Depression]] in [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]].
* [[1871]]–[[1872]]: [[List of famines|Famine]] in [[Iran|Persia]] is believed to have caused the death of 2 million.
* [[1871]]: The [[Paris Commune]] briefly rules the French capital.
* [[1872]]: [[Yellowstone National Park]], the first [[national park]], is created.
* [[1874]]: The ''Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, and Graveurs'', better known as the [[Impressionist]]s, organize and present their first public group exhibition at the Paris studio of the photographer [[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]].
* [[1874]]: The Home Rule Movement is established in [[Ireland]].
* [[1875]]: ''[[HMS Challenger]]'' surveys the deepest point in the Earth's oceans, the [[Challenger Deep]]
* [[1876]]: [[Battle of the Little Bighorn]] leads to the death of [[General Custer]] and victory for the alliance of [[Lakota people|Lakota]], [[Northern Cheyenne|Cheyenne]] and [[Arapaho]]
* [[1876]]–[[1914]]: The massive expansion in population, territory, industry and wealth in the United States is referred to as the [[Gilded Age]].
* [[1877]]: [[Great Railroad Strike]] in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide [[Strike action|labour strike]].
* [[1881]]: Wave of [[Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire|pogroms]] begins in the Russian Empire.
* [[1881]]–[[1882]]: The [[Jules Ferry laws]] are passed in [[French Third Republic|France]] establishing free, secular education.
* [[1883]]: [[Krakatoa]] volcano explosion, one of the largest in modern history.
* [[1883]]: The [[quagga]] is rendered extinct.
* [[1886]]: Construction of the [[Statue of Liberty]]; [[Coca-Cola]] is developed.
* [[1888]]: Founding of the shipping line ''[[Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij]]'' (KPM) that supported the unification and development of the colonial economy.<ref name="VICKERS_xii"/>
* [[1888]]: The [[Golden Law]] abolishes [[slavery in Brazil]].
* [[1889]]: [[Eiffel Tower]] is inaugurated in [[Paris]].
[[File:Filipino Ilustrados Jose Rizal Marcelo del Pilar Mariano Ponce.jpg|thumb|upright|Studio portrait of ''[[Ilustrado]]s'' in Europe, {{Circa|1890}}]]
* [[1889]]: A republican military coup establishes the [[First Brazilian Republic]]. The [[Empire of Brazil|parliamentary constitutional monarchy]] is abolished.
* [[1889]]-[[1890]]: [[1889–1890 pandemic]] kills 1 million people.
* [[1890]]: First use of the [[electric chair]] as a method of execution.
* [[1892]]: The [[World's Columbian Exposition]] was held in [[Chicago]] celebrating the 400th anniversary of [[Christopher Columbus]]'s arrival in the [[New World]].
* [[1892]]: [[Fingerprinting]] is officially adopted for the first time.
* [[1893]]: [[New Zealand]] becomes the first country to enact [[women's suffrage]].
* [[1893]]: The [[Coremans-de Vriendt law]] is passed in [[Belgium]], creating legal equality for [[French language|French]] and [[Dutch language]]s.
* [[1894]]: The [[Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem]]<ref name="VICKERS_xii"/> resulted in the looting and destruction of Cakranegara Palace in [[Mataram (city)|Mataram]].<ref>Wahyu Ernawati: "Chapter 8: The Lombok Treasure", in ''Colonial collections Revisited'': Pieter ter Keurs (editor) Vol. 152, CNWS publications. Issue 36 of ''Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde'', Leiden. CNWS Publications, 2007. {{ISBN|978-90-5789-152-6}}. 296 pages. pp. 186–203</ref> J. L. A. Brandes, a Dutch philologist, discovers and secures [[Nagarakretagama]] manuscript in Lombok royal library.
* [[1896]]: [[Philippine Revolution]] ends declaring Philippines free from Spanish rule.
* [[1898]]: The United States gains control of [[Cuba]], [[Puerto Rico]], and the [[Philippines]] after the [[Spanish–American War]].
* [[1898]]: [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] of [[Qing dynasty|China]] engineers a coup d'état, marking the end of the [[Hundred Days' Reform]]; the [[Guangxu Emperor]] is arrested.
* [[1900]]: [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|Exposition Universelle]] held in Paris, prominently featuring the growing art trend [[Art Nouveau]].
* [[1900]]–[[1901]]: [[Eight-Nation Alliance|Eight nations invade China]] at the same time and ransack [[Forbidden City]].

{{for|later events|Timeline of the 20th century}}

==Supplementary portrait gallery==
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
File:Carl Friedrich Gauss 1840 by Jensen.jpg|[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
File:Charles Robert Darwin by John Collier cropped.jpg|[[Charles Darwin]]
File:Victor Hugo by Étienne Carjat 1876 - full.jpg|[[Victor Hugo]] {{Circa|1876}}
File:Kramskoy Mendeleev 01.jpg|[[Dmitri Mendeleev]]
File:Louis Pasteur.jpg|[[Louis Pasteur]], 1878
File:Mariecurie.jpg|[[Marie Curie]], {{Circa|1898}}
File:Nikola Tesla by Sarony c1898.jpg|[[Nikola Tesla]]
File:Jose Rizal full.jpg|[[José Rizal]]
File:Jane Austen (chopped) 2.jpg|[[Jane Austen]]
File:Leo Tolstoy 1897, black and white, 37767u.jpg|[[Leo Tolstoy]] {{Circa|1897}}
File:Edgar Allan Poe 2.jpg|[[Edgar Allan Poe]]
File:Félix_Nadar_1820-1910_portraits_Jules_Verne.jpg|[[Jules Verne]]
File:Charles Dickens 3.jpg|[[Charles Dickens]]
File:Carjat Arthur Rimbaud 1872 n2.jpg|[[Arthur Rimbaud]] {{Circa|1872}}
File:Twain in Tesla's Lab.jpg|[[Mark Twain]], 1894
File:RWEmerson.jpg|[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]
File:Benjamin D. Maxham - Henry David Thoreau - Restored - greyscale - straightened.jpg|[[Henry David Thoreau]], August 1861.
File:Emile Zola 2.jpg|[[Émile Zola]], {{Circa|1900}}
File:Chekhov 1903 ArM.jpg|[[Anton Chekhov]]
File:Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky 1876.jpg|[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], 1876
File:John L Sullivan.jpg|[[John L Sullivan]] in his prime, {{Circa|1882}}
File:David Livingstone -1.jpg|[[David Livingstone]] 1864, left [[Great Britain|Britain]] for [[Africa]] in 1840
File:Jesse and Frank James.gif|[[Jesse James|Jesse]] and [[Frank James]], 1872
File:William Notman studios - Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill (1895) edit.jpg|[[Sitting Bull]] and [[Buffalo Bill Cody]], Montreal, Quebec, 1885
File:Goyaale.jpg|[[Geronimo]], 1887, prominent leader of the [[Chiricahua]] [[Apache]]
File:Billy the Kid corrected.jpg|[[William Bonney]] aka [[Henry McCarty]] aka [[Billy the Kid]], {{Circa|late 1870s}}
File:Wyatt Earp und Bat Masterson 1876.jpg|Deputies [[Bat Masterson]] and [[Wyatt Earp]] in [[Dodge City]], 1876
File:Mathew Brady 1875 cropped.jpg|[[Mathew Brady]], Self-portrait, {{Circa|1875}}
File:Alfred Lord Tennyson 1869.jpg|[[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]
File:Thomas Nast - Brady-Handy.jpg|[[Thomas Nast]], {{Circa|1860}}–1875, photo by [[Mathew Brady]] or Levin Handy
File:Hadhrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad2.jpg|[[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]]
File:Bakunin.png|[[Mikhail Bakunin]]
File:Kierkegaard.jpg|[[Søren Kierkegaard]]
File:Solomon Northup 001 (cropped).jpg|[[Solomon Northup]]
File:Dred Scott photograph (circa 1857).jpg|[[Dred Scott]]
File:Madame CJ Walker.gif|[[Madam C. J. Walker]]
File:Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant.jpg|[[Claude Monet]]'s ''[[Impression, Sunrise]]'', 1872, gave the name to [[Impressionism]]
File:Paul Cézanne 159.jpg|[[Paul Cézanne]], [[self-portrait]], 1880–1881
File:Scott Joplin.jpg|[[Scott Joplin]]
File:NiccoloPaganini.jpeg|[[Niccolò Paganini]], {{Circa|1819}}
File:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 043.jpg|[[Frédéric Chopin]], 1838
File:John D. Rockefeller, Sr.jpg|[[John D. Rockefeller]]
</gallery>

==See also==

*[[Timelines of modern history]]
*[[Long nineteenth century]]
*[[19th century in film]]
*[[19th century in games]]
*[[19th-century philosophy]]
*[[Nineteenth-century theatre]]
*[[International relations (1814–1919)]]
*[[List of wars: 1800–1899]]
*[[Victorian era]]
*[[France in the long nineteenth century]]
*[[History of Spain (1808–1874)]]
*[[History of Russia (1855–1892)]]
*[[Slavery in the United States]]
*[[Timeline of 19th-century Muslim history]]
*[[Timeline of historic inventions#19th century|Timeline of historic inventions]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo00lang online free]
* Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. ''Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present'' (1970) [https://archive.org/details/harperencycloped00morr online frr]
* ''New Cambridge Modern History'' (13 vol 1957–79), old but thorough coverage, mostly of Europe; strong on diplomacy
**Bury, J. P. T. ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 10: the Zenith of European Power, 1830–70'' (1964) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/10#page/n3/mode/1up online]
**Crawley, C. W., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History Volume IX War and Peace In An Age of Upheaval 1793–1830'' (1965) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/09#page/n4/mode/1up online]
**Darby, H. C. and H. Fullard ''The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas'' (1972)
**Hinsley, F.H., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 11, Material Progress and World-Wide Problems 1870–1898'' (1979) [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/11#page/n3/mode/1up online]

===Diplomacy and international relations===
{{Main|International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)}}
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-24729-5|title=Greater France|year=1996|last1=Aldrich|first1=Robert|isbn=978-0-333-56740-1}}
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-24958-9|title=Peace, War and the European Powers, 1814–1914|year=1996|last1=Bartlett|first1=C. J.|publisher=Macmillan Education UK |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-62001-4}}
* Bridge, F. R. & Roger Bullen. ''The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914'', 2nd Ed. (2005)
* {{cite journal|doi=10.2307/3014586|jstor=3014586|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.86299|title=History of Modern Europe, 1878-1919|year=1923|last1=Gooch|first1=G. P.|journal=Journal of the British Institute of International Affairs|volume=2|issue=6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.86299/page/n277 266]}}
* Herring, George C. ''Years of Peril and Ambition: U.S. Foreign Relations, 1776–1921'' (2017)
* [[Paul Kennedy|Kennedy, Paul]]. [[The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers|''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500–2000'']] (1987), stress on economic and military factors
* Langer, William. ''European Alliances and Alignments 1870–1890'' (1950); advanced history [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.237096 online]
* Langer, William. ''The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902'' (1950); advanced history [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177815 online]
* Mowat, R.B. ''A history of European diplomacy, 1815–1914'' (1922) [https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropea00mowauoft online free]
* {{cite book|doi=10.1515/9781400849949|title=The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century|year=2014|last1=Osterhammel|first1=Jürgen|isbn=9781400849949|url=http://www.gbv.de/dms/bowker/toc/9780691147451.pdf }}
* Porter, Andrew, ed. ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century'' (2001)
* Sontag, Raymond. ''European Diplomatic History: 1871–1932'' (1933), basic summary; 425 pp [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.503351/2015.503351.european-diplomatic_text.pdf online]
* Taylor, A.J.P. ''[[The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918]]'' (1954) 638 pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy; [https://archive.org/details/struggleformaste00ajpt online free]
* Taylor, A.J.P. "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., ''The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98'' (1962): 542–66. [https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/11#page/n3/mode/1up online]
* {{cite book|doi=10.4324/9781315844503|title=The European Colonial Empires|year=2015|last1=Wesseling|first1=H. L.|isbn=9781315844503}}

===Europe===
* Anderson, M. S. ''The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003)
* Blanning, T. C. W. ed. ''The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914'' (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320 pp
* Bruun, Geoffrey. ''Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 '' (1938) [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.183653/2015.183653.Europe-And-The-French-Imperium-1799-1814_text.pdf online].
* Cameron, Rondo. ''France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War'' (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history.
* Evans, Richard J. ''The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914'' (2016), 934 pp
* Gildea, Robert. ''Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp, [https://www.questia.com/read/55547824/barricades-and-borders-europe-1800-1914 online 2nd ed, 1996]
* {{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-4039-3757-5|title=Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe|year=2003|last1=Grab|first1=Alexander|publisher=Macmillan Education UK |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-68275-3}}
* Mason, David S. ''A Concise History of Modern Europe: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity'' (2011), since 1700
* Merriman, John, and J. M. Winter, eds. ''Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire'' (5 vol. 2006)
* Steinberg, Jonathan. ''Bismarck: A Life'' (2011)
* Salmi, Hannu. ''19th Century Europe: A Cultural History'' (2008).

===Asia, Africa===
* Ajayi, J. F. Ade, ed. ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. VI, Abridged Edition: Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s'' (1998)
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139644594|title=Africa's Development in Historical Perspective|year=2014|isbn=9781139644594|editor1-last=Akyeampong|editor1-first=Emmanuel|editor2-last=Bates|editor2-first=Robert H|editor3-last=Nunn|editor3-first=Nathan|editor4-last=Robinson|editor4-first=James A}}
* [[Chamberlain. M.E.]] ''The Scramble for Africa'' (3rd ed. 2010)
* Collins, Robert O. and James M, Burns, eds. ''A History of Sub-Saharan Africa''.
*[[Basil Davidson|Davidson, Basil]] ''Africa In History, Themes and Outlines''. (2nd ed. 1991).
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/9781316340356|title=A History of East Asia|year=2017|last1=Holcombe|first1=Charles|isbn=9781107118737}}
* Ludden, David. ''India and South Asia: A Short History'' (2013).
* McEvedy, Colin. ''The Penguin Atlas of African History'' (2nd ed. 1996). [https://www.amazon.com/Penguin-Atlas-African-History-Revised/dp/0140513213/ excerpt]
* Mansfield, Peter, and Nicolas Pelham, ''A History of the Middle East'' (4th ed, 2013).
* {{cite book|doi=10.4324/9781315509495|title=A History of Asia|year=2016|last1=Murphey|first1=Rhoads|isbn=9781315509495}}
* Pakenham, Thomas. ''The Scramble for Africa: 1876 to 1912'' (1992)

=== North and South America ===
*Bakewell, Peter, ''A History of Latin America'' (Blackwell, 1997)
* Beezley, William, and Michael Meyer, eds. ''The Oxford History of Mexico'' (2010)
* {{cite book|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521232234|title=The Cambridge History of Latin America|year=1984|isbn=9781139055161|editor1-last=Bethell|editor1-first=Leslie}}
* Black, Conrad. ''Rise to Greatness: The History of Canada From the Vikings to the Present'' (2014)
* Burns, E. Bradford, ''Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History'', paperback, Prentice Hall 2001, 7th edition
* Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848'' (2009), Pulitzer Prize
* Kirkland, Edward C. ''A History Of American Economic Life'' (3rd ed. 1960) [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.223513/2015.223513.A-History.pdf online]
* Lynch, John, ed. ''Latin American revolutions, 1808–1826: old and new world origins'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1994)
* McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom The CIvil War Era'' (1988) Pulitzer Prize for US history
* Parry, J.H. ''A Short History of the West Indies'' (1987)
* Paxson, Frederic Logan. ''History of the American frontier, 1763–1893'' (1924) [https://web.archive.org/web/20160202142001/https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/ttu-ir/bitstream/handle/2346/47065/ttu_hfwc01_000001.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y online], Pulitzer Prize
* White, Richard. ''The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States during Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896'' (2017)

===Primary sources===
* de Bary, Wm. Theodore, ed. ''Sources of East Asian Tradition, Vol. 2: The Modern Period'' (2008), 1192 pp
* Kertesz, G.A. ed ''Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815–1939'' (1968), 507 pp; several hundred short documents

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
{{Wikiquote}}

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