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Amish

2010-06-28T21:04:01Z

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{{About|Old Order Amish, but also refers to other Amish sects}}
{{Infobox Religious group|
| group = Amish
| image = [[Image:Lancaster County Amish 03.jpg|200px]]
| poptime = 227,000 (Old Order Amish)<ref name="Scolford">{{cite web|title=Amish population nearly doubles in 16 years|url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080820/ap_on_re_us/thriving_amish|author=Mark Scolford|date=2008-08-20|accessdate=2008-08-21|publisher=Yahoo! News}}</ref>
| popplace = United States (notably [[Ohio]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Indiana]] and [[New York]])<br/>
Canada (notably [[Ontario]])
| founder = [[Jakob Ammann]]
| rels = [[Anabaptist]]
| scrips = [[The Bible]]
| langs = [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]], [[Swiss German]], [[English language|English]]
}}
The various '''Amish''' ({{pronEng|ˈɑːmɪʃ}}, {{respell|AY|mish}}) or '''Amish Mennonite''' church fellowships are Christian religious denominations that form a very traditional subgrouping of [[Mennonite]] churches. The Amish are known for [[simple living]], [[plain dress]], and reluctance to adopt modern convenience.

The history of the Amish church began with a schism in Switzerland within a group of Swiss and [[Alsace|Alsatian]] [[Anabaptist]]s in 1693 led by [[Jakob Ammann]].<ref>Kraybill (2001) pp. 7–8</ref> Those who followed Ammann became known as Amish.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 8</ref> These followers were originally from three main places: the German-speaking parts of Switzerland, the Alsace of France, and the Palatinate of Germany. In the early 18th century, many Amish and Mennonites emigrated to Pennsylvania for a variety of reasons. Today, the most traditional descendants of the Amish continue to speak [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]], also known as Pennsylvania Dutch. However, a dialect of Swiss German predominates in some Old Order Amish communities, especially in the American state of [[Indiana]].<ref name="gameo">{{cite web|title=Berne, Indiana, Old Order Amish Settlement|url=http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/B4762.html|author=Zook, Noah and Samuel L Yoder|year=1998|accessdate=2009-04-03}}</ref> Over the years, the Amish churches have divided many times over doctrinal disputes. The 'Old Order' Amish, a conservative faction that withdrew from fellowship with the wider body of Amish in the 1860s, are those that have most emphasized traditional practices and beliefs. There are as many as eight different subgroups of Amish with most belonging, in their order of conservatism, to the [[Swartzentruber Amish]], Andy Weaver, Old Order, [[New Order Amish|New Order ]] or [[Beachy Amish Mennonite|Beachy Amish]] sects. As of 2000, over 165,000 Old Order Amish live in Canada and the United States. A new study, produced in 2008, suggests their numbers have increased to 227,000.<ref name="Scolford"/>

Amish church membership begins with [[Believer's baptism|baptism]], usually between the ages of 16 and 25. It is a requirement for marriage, and once a person has affiliated with the church, she or he may only marry within the faith. Church districts average between 20 to 40 families and worship services are held every other Sunday in a member's home. The district is led by a bishop and several ministers and deacons.<ref>Kraybill, Donald; Olshan, Marc A. ''The Amish Struggle with Modernity'', UPNE, 1994.</ref>

The rules of the church — the ''[[Ordnung]]'' — must be observed by every member. These rules cover most aspects of day-to-day living, and include prohibitions or limitations on the use of power-line electricity, telephones and automobiles, as well as regulations on clothing. Many Amish church members may not buy insurance or accept government assistance such as [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]. As [[Anabaptist]]s, Amish church members practice [[nonresistance]] and will not perform any type of military service. Members who do not conform to these expectations and who cannot be convinced to [[repentance|repent]] are excommunicated. In addition to excommunication, members may be [[Shunning|shunned]] — a practice that limits social contacts to shame the wayward member into returning to the church. During adolescence (''[[rumspringa]]'' or "running around" in some communities), nonconforming behavior that would result in the shunning of an adult who had made the permanent commitment of baptism may meet with a degree of forbearance.<ref>http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/series/inside/3660/amish-rumspringa</ref>

Amish church groups seek to maintain a degree of separation from the non-Amish world. There is generally a heavy emphasis on church and family relationships. They typically operate their own [[one-room school]]s and discontinue formal education at grade eight. They value rural life, manual labor and humility. Due to intermarriage among this relatively [[Founder effect|small original population]], some groups have increased incidences of certain inheritable conditions.<ref>http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/2004/07/23/sids.php</ref>

==Population and distribution==
[[File:FarmersMarketPrestonMN.JPG|thumb|left|Amish farmers' market in [[Preston, Minnesota]].]]
A lack of detailed record keeping among the Old Order Amish, along with other factors, makes it difficult to estimate the total size of their population. Rough estimates from various studies have placed their numbers at 125,000 in 1992, 166,000 in 2000, and 221,000 in 2008, for a growth rate of nearly 4% per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/PDF/Statistics/Population_Change_Summary_1992_2008.pdf|title= Amish Population Change 1992–2008|publisher= Young Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies, Elizabethtown College|accessdate=2009-07-08}}</ref> From 1992 to 2008, population growth among the Amish in North America was 84%. During that time they established 184 new settlements and moved into six new states.<ref name="Trends">{{cite web|url=http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/Population_Trends_1992_2008.asp|title=Population Trends 1992–2008|publisher=Young Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies, Elizabethtown College|accessdate=2009-07-08}}</ref> In 2000, approximately 165,620 Old Order Amish resided in the United States, of which 73,609 were church members.<ref name='kraybill-2000'>{{cite book|author=Kraybill, Donald B.|authorlink=Donald Kraybill|title=Anabaptist World USA|publisher=Herald Press|year=2000|isbn=0836191633}}</ref> The Amish are among the fastest-growing populations in the world, with an average of 6.8 children per family.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Julia A. Ericksen |coauthors=Eugene P. Ericksen, John A. Hostetler, Gertrude E. Huntington |title=Fertility Patterns and Trends among the Old Order Amish |journal= Population Studies |issue=33 |month=July | year=1979 |issn=00324728 |oclc=39648293 |pages=255–76}}</ref>

There are Old Order communities in 27 American states and the Canadian province of [[Ontario]]; [[Ohio]] has the largest population (55,000), followed by [[Pennsylvania]] (51,000) and [[Indiana]] (38,000).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/Population_by_State_2008.asp|title=Amish Population by State (2008)|publisher=oung Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies, Elizabethtown College|accessdate=2009-07-08}}</ref> The largest Amish settlements are in [[Holmes County, Ohio|Holmes County]] in central Ohio, [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania|Lancaster County]] in south-central Pennsylvania, and [[Elkhart County, Indiana|Elkhart]] and [[LaGrange County, Indiana|LaGrange]] counties in northeast Indiana.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/Largest_Settlements_2008.asp|title=The Twelve Largest Amish Settlements (2008)|publisher=Young Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies, Elizabethtown College|accessdate=2009-07-08}}</ref> The largest concentration of Amish west of the [[Mississippi River]] is in [[Missouri]], with other settlements in eastern [[Iowa]], and [[Southeast Minnesota]].<ref>[http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/Population_by_State_2009.asp Amish Population by State (2009)]</ref> Because of rapid population growth in Amish communities, new settlements are formed to obtain sufficient farmland. Other reasons for new settlements include locating in isolated areas that support their lifestyle, moving to areas with cultures conducive to their way of life, maintaining proximity to family or other Amish groups, and sometimes to resolve church or leadership conflicts.<ref name="Trends"/>

A small [[Beachy Amish]] congregation associated with [[Weavertown Amish Mennonite Church]] exists in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]].<ref>Michael Clifford, [https://www.tribune.ie/archive/article/2000/aug/06/at-ease-with-the-alternative-amish-way/ "At ease with the alternative Amish way]", ''[[Sunday Tribune]]'', August 6, 2000.</ref>

==Ethnicity==
[[Image:Amish Buggie sign.jpg|thumb|Signs erected in areas with Old Order Amish, Old Order Mennonite or members of a few different Old Order 'Brethren' groups, alerting motorists to the presence of horse-drawn vehicles.]]
The Amish largely share a [[Swiss (people)|Swiss]]-[[Ethnic German|German]] ancestry.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} They meet the criteria of an [[ethnic group]]. However, they themselves generally use the term only for members of their faith community, and not as an ethnic designation. Those who choose to affiliate with the church, or young children raised in Amish homes, but too young to yet be church members, are considered to be Amish. Certain [[Mennonite]] churches have a high number of people who were formerly from Amish congregations. Although more Amish immigrated to America in the 19th century than during the 18th century, most of today's Amish descend from 18th century immigrants. The latter tended to emphasize tradition to a greater extent, and were perhaps more likely to maintain a separate Amish identity.<ref>Nolt, S. M. ''A History of the Amish'', Intercourse:Good Books, 1992, p. 104</ref>
There are a number of Amish Mennonite church groups that had never in their history been associated with the Old Order Amish.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} The former Western Ontario Mennonite Conference (WOMC) was made up almost entirely of former Amish Mennonites who reunited with the Mennonite Church in Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/W4781ME.html|author=Gingerich, Orland|title=Western Ontario Mennonite Conference|publisher=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online|year=1990|accessdate=2008-07-05}}</ref> Orland Gingerich's book, ''The Amish of Canada'', devotes the vast majority of its pages not to the [[Beachy Amish|Beachy]] or Old Order Amish, but to congregations in the former WOMC.

==History==
The Amish Mennonite movement descends from the 16th century fellowship known as the [[Swiss Brethren]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} The [[Swiss Brethren]] were [[Anabaptist]]s, and are often viewed as having been a part of a [[Radical Reformation]]. [[Anabaptist]] means "one who baptizes again"; a reference to those who had been baptized as infants, but later adopted a belief in "believer's baptism", and then let themselves again be baptized as adults. These [[Swiss Brethren]] trace their origination to [[Felix Manz]] (ca. 1498–1527) and [[Conrad Grebel]] (ca. 1498–1526), who broke from reformer [[Huldrych Zwingli]].

The Amish movement takes its name from [[Jakob Ammann]] (c. 1656 —c. 1730), a Swiss Mennonite leader. Ammann believed Mennonites — peaceful Anabaptists of the [[Low Countries]] and Germany — were drifting away from the teachings of [[Menno Simons]] and the 1632 Mennonite [[Dordrecht Confession of Faith]]. Ammann favored stronger church discipline, including a more rigid application of [[shunning]], the social exclusion of excommunicated members. Swiss Anabaptists, who were scattered by persecution throughout the [[Alsace]] and the [[Electoral Palatinate|Palatinate]], never practiced strict shunning as had some lowland Anabaptists.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} Ammann insisted upon this practice, even to the point of expecting spouses to refuse to eat with each other, until the banned spouse repented.<ref>Smith, pp. 68–69, 84–85.</ref> This type of strict literalism, on this issue, as well as others, brought about a division among the Mennonites of Southern Germany, the Alsace and Switzerland in 1693, and led to withdrawal of those who sided with Ammann.

Swiss Anabaptism developed, from this point, in two parallel streams. Those following Ammann became known as ''Amish'' or ''Amish Mennonite''. The others eventually formed the basis of the [[Swiss Mennonite Conference]]. Because of this common heritage, Amish and Mennonites retain many similarities. Those who leave the Amish fold tend to join conservative Mennonite congregations.<ref>Smith, pp. 212–214</ref><ref>Kraybill (2000), ''The Anabaptist Escalator'', pp. 63–64.</ref>
[[Image:amish cemetery.gif|thumb|240px|An old Amish cemetery in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]], 1941.]]
Amish Mennonites began migrating to [[Pennsylvania]] in the 18th century as part of a larger migration from the [[Palatinate (region)|Palatinate]] and neighboring areas. This migration was a reaction to religious wars, poverty, and [[religious persecution]] on the Continent.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} The first Amish immigrants went to [[Berks County, Pennsylvania]], but later moved, motivated by land issues and by security concerns tied to the [[French and Indian War]]{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}. Many eventually settled in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]]. Other groups later settled in, or spread to [[Alabama]], [[Delaware]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Iowa]], [[Kansas]], [[Kentucky]], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], [[Mississippi]], [[Missouri]], [[Nebraska]], [[New York]], [[Ohio]], [[Maryland]], [[Tennessee]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Maine]], and Canada.

The Amish congregations remaining in Europe slowly merged with the [[Mennonites]]. The last Amish congregation to merge with the Mennonites was the Ixheim Amish congregation, which merged with the neighboring Mennonite Church in 1937. Some Mennonite congregations, including most in the Alsace, are descended directly from former Amish congregations.<ref>Nolt, S. M. ''A History of the Amish'', Intercourse: Good Books, 1992</ref>

Most Amish communities that were established in North America did not ultimately retain their Amish identity. The original major split that resulted in the loss of identity occurred in the 1860s. During that decade ''Dienerversammlungen'' (ministerial conferences) were held in [[Wayne County, Ohio]], concerning how the Amish should deal with the pressures of modern society. The meetings themselves were a progressive idea; for bishops to assemble to discuss uniformity was an unprecedented notion in the Amish church.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} By the first several meetings, the more traditionally minded bishops agreed to [[boycott]] the conferences. The more progressive members, comprising approximately two thirds of the group, retained the name [[Amish Mennonite]]. Many of these eventually united with the [[Mennonite Church]], and other Mennonite denominations, especially in the early 20th century. The more traditionally minded groups became known as the Old Order Amish.<ref>Kraybill (2000), p. 67.</ref>

==Religious practices==
===Congregations and districts===
The majority of Old Order Amish congregations do not have church buildings, but hold worship services in private homes. Thus they are sometimes called "House Amish." This practice is based on a verse from the New Testament: "The God who made the world and all things in it, since He is Lord of heaven and earth, does not dwell in temples made with hands…" (Acts 17:24). In addition, the early Anabaptists, from whom the Amish are descended, were religiously persecuted, and it may have been safer to pray in the privacy of a home.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}

Unlike evangelical, charismatic, and Baptist style church congregations whose membership is based on whoever visits, stays, and joins, the Amish congregations are based on the physical location of their residence. Contiguous properties are encircled with a congregation's physical boundary. Each congregation is made up of 25–30 neighboring farm or related families whose membership in the congregation in which their farm is located is the only congregation available for membership. Accordingly, each member is also a neighbor. There is no "church hopping" from church to church like modern Protestant churches, and relationships are assumed to be long-term.
With long-term neighbor relationships as the norm, extending over time to include multiple generations as members, the implications have major impacts on relationships. Conflict resolution, gossip, grudges, neighborliness, all work to cement relationships vastly different than the socially mobile Protestant church culture.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}
Congregations meet every other week for the entire Sunday at a member family's farm. Each member family rotates as host so that each year each member family serves as host. This practice conforms to the Biblical teaching ''to forsake not the assembling of ourselves together, as the manner of some is''.<ref>Hebrews 10:25</ref>
Congregations own common property in the form of tables, chairs, and wagons to transport them from farm to farm every other week. In interleaving weeks, time is available to visit a Sunday with family, neighbors and friends in and outside the congregation of their residence and membership.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}

Each congregation's leadership is made up with one of the members serving as bishop, one as deacon, and one as secretary. Each congregation's leadership, over time, differs from other congregations within enjoining districts in teaching, doctrine, protocol, dress, routines. Congregation leaders meet with other congregation leaders within the same district from time to time and compare needs, problems, teachings, etc.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}

===Humility===
Two key concepts for understanding Amish practices are their rejection of ''Hochmut'' (pride, arrogance, haughtiness) and the high value they place on ''Demut'' (humility) and ''[[Gelassenheit]]'' (calmness, composure, placidity) — often translated as "submission" or "letting-be". Gelassenheit is perhaps better understood as a reluctance to be forward, to be self-promoting, or to assert oneself. The Amish's willingness to submit to the "Will of God", expressed through group norms, is at odds with the individualism so central to the wider American culture. The Amish anti-individualist orientation is the motive for rejecting labor-saving technologies that might make one less dependent on community. Modern innovations like electricity might spark a competition for status goods, or photographs might cultivate personal vanity.

===Separation from the world===
The Amish consider the Bible a trustworthy guide for living but do not quote it excessively. To do so would be considered a sinful showing of pride. Separation from the rest of society is based on being a "chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s own people"({{bibleverse|1|Peter|2:9|131}}), not being "conformed to this world" ({{bibleverse||Romans|12:2|131}}), avoiding the "love [of] the world or the things in the world" ({{bibleverse|1|John|2:15|131}}) and the belief that "friendship with the world is enmity with God" ({{bibleverse||James|4:4|131}}).<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp. 37 and 45.</ref>

Both out of concern for the effect of absence from the family life, and to minimize contact with outsiders, many Old Order Amish prefer to work at home.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} Increased prices of farmland and decreasing revenues for low-tech farming have forced many Amish to work away from the farm, particularly in construction and manufacturing, and, in those areas where there is a significant tourist trade, to engage in shopwork and crafts for profit. The Amish are ambivalent about both the consequences of this contact and the commoditization of their culture. The [[decorative art]]s play little role in authentic Amish life (though the prized [[Quilt#Amish|Amish quilts]] are a genuine cultural inheritance, unlike [[hex sign]]s), and are in fact regarded with suspicion, as a field where egotism and a display of vanity can easily develop.

Amish lifestyles vary between, and sometimes within, communities. These differences range from profound to minuscule. Some of the more conservative [[Beachy Amish]] congregations, which permit automobiles, may mandate that automobiles be painted black. In some communities, various Old Order groups may vary over the type of suspenders males are required to wear, if any, or how many pleats there should be in a bonnet, or if one should wear a bonnet at all. Groups in fellowship can intermarry and have communion with one another, an important consideration for avoiding problems that may result from genetically closed populations. Thus minor disagreements within communities, or within districts, over dairy equipment or telephones in workshops may or may not splinter churches or divide multiple communities.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}}

Some of the strictest Old Order Amish groups are the [[Nebraska Amish]] ("White-top" Amish), [[Troyer Amish]], and the [[Swartzendruber Amish]].<ref>Kraybill (2000), p. 68.</ref> Most Old Order Amish people speak [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] in the home, with the exception of several areas in the Midwest, where a variety of Swiss German may be used. In [[Beachy Amish]] settings, the use of English in church is the norm, but with some families continuing to use Pennsylvania German, or a variety of Swiss German, at home.

==Shunning==
Members who break church rules may be called to [[Confession|confess]] before the congregation. Those who will not correct their behavior are [[excommunication|excommunicated]]. Excommunicated members are [[Shunning|shunned]] to shame the individual into returning to the church. Members may interact with and even help a shunned person, but may not accept anything — like a handshake, payment or automobile ride — directly from the wayward person. Some communities have split in the last century over how they apply the practice of shunning. This form of discipline is recommended by the bishop after a long process of working with the individual and must be unanimously approved by the congregation.<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp. 131–141</ref> Excommunicated members will be accepted back into the church if they return and confess their wrongdoing.

==Religious services==
The Old Order Amish typically have worship services every second Sunday in private homes. A minority of Old Order congregations may have 'Sunday School' on the alternate Sundays. The typical district has 80 adults and 90 children under age 19.<ref>Based on data from Lancaster county collected. Kraybill (2001), p. 91.</ref> Worship begins with a short sermon by one of several preachers or the bishop of the church district, followed by scripture reading and prayer (this prayer is silent in some communities), then another, longer sermon. The service is interspersed with [[hymn]]s sung without instrumental accompaniment or harmony. This is meant to put the emphasis on what is said, not how it is being said. Many communities use an ancient hymnal known as the [[Ausbund]]. The hymns contained in the [[Ausbund]] were generally written in what is referred to as [[Early New High German]], a predecessor to modern [[Standard German]]. Singing is usually very slow, and a single hymn may take 15 minutes or longer to finish. In Old Order Amish services, scripture is either read or recited from the German translation of [[Martin Luther]]. Worship is followed by lunch and socializing. Church services are conducted in a mixture of Standard German (or 'Bible Dutch') and [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]]. Amish ministers and deacons are selected by lot<ref>Based on {{bibleverse||Acts|1:23–26|131}}</ref> out of a group of men nominated by the congregation. They serve for life and have no formal training. Amish bishops are similarly chosen by lot from those selected as preachers.

The Old Order Amish do not work on [[Sabbath in Christianity|Sunday]], except to care for animals. Some congregations may forbid making purchases or exchanging money on Sundays. Also, within ''some'' congregations a motor vehicle and driver may not be hired on Sunday, except in an emergency.<ref>Kauffman (2001), p. 125.</ref>

===Communion===
[[Image:AmishHymnal.jpg|280px|thumb|A German hymnal]]
Generally, the Amish hold [[Eucharist|communion]] in the spring and the autumn, and not necessarily during regular church services. Communion is only held open to those who have been baptized. As with regular services, the men and women sit separately. The ritual ends with members washing and drying each other's feet.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.amishnews.com/amisharticles/religioustraditions.htm | title=Amish Religious Traditions | publisher=Amish Country News | author=Brad Igou |year=1995 | accessdate=2007-09-10}}</ref>

===Baptism===
The practice of [[believer's baptism]] is the Amish's admission into the church. They and other Anabaptists do not accept that a child can be meaningfully baptized. Their children are expected to follow the will of their parents in all issues, but when they come of age, they must choose to make an adult, permanent commitment to God and the community. Those who come to be baptized sit with one hand over their face, representing humility and submission to the church. The candidates are asked three questions:
*1. Can you ''renounce'' the devil, the world, and your own flesh and blood?
*2. Can you commit yourself to Christ and His church, and to abide by it and therein to live and to die?
*3. And in all order ([[Ordnung]]) of the church, according to the word of the Lord, to be ''obedient'' and ''submissive'' to it and to help therein?<ref name="Kraybill 2001, pp. 116–119">Kraybill (2001), pp. 116–119.</ref>
Typically, a deacon ladles water from a bucket into the bishop's cupped hands, which drips over the candidate's head. Then the bishop blesses the young men and greets them into the fellowship of the church with a [[holy kiss]]. The bishop's wife similarly blesses and greets the young women.<ref name="Kraybill 2001, pp. 116–119"/>

Baptism is a permanent vow to follow the church and the Ordnung. Since the church leaders only perform weddings for members, baptism is an incentive for young couples with romantic ties, funneling them toward the church. Girls tend to join at an earlier age than boys. About five or six months before the ceremony, classes are held to instruct the candidates, teaching them the strict implications of what they are about to profess. The Saturday before baptism, they are given their last chance to withdraw. The difficulty of walking the narrow path is emphasized, and the applicants are instructed it is better not to vow than to make the vow and break it later on.<ref>The Riddle of Amish Culture | Kraybill | p. 116–7</ref>

Membership is taken seriously.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} Those who join the church, and then later leave, may be shunned by their former congregation and their families. Those who choose to not join can continue to relate freely with their friends and family. Church growth occurs through having large families and by retaining those children as part of the community. The Old Order Amish do not [[Proselytism|proselytize]], as a rule. Conversion to the Amish faith is rare, but does occasionally occur as in the case of historian David Luthy.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=JumMMKC44OoC&pg=PA147&lpg=PA147&dq=%22david+luthy%22+convert&source=bl&ots=f6JfOao0Ae&sig=xEUojs2ulw1T6YZJaP9XO0-vWjM&hl=en&ei=UllDS6TQMJW8ngfMxrDYAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CBEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22david%20luthy%22%20convert&f=false The sociology of Canadian Mennonites, Hutterites, and Amish: a ..., Volume 2 by Donovan E. Smucker, pg 147]</ref>

===Funerals===
[[File:Amish cemetery.JPG|thumb|175px|A modern Amish cemetery in 2006. Stones are plain, small, and simple.]]

Funeral customs appear to vary more from community to community than other religious services.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} The Amish hold funeral services in the home rather than using the funeral parlor. Instead of referring to the deceased with stories of his life, and eulogizing him, services tend to focus on the creation story and biblical accounts of resurrection. In Adams County, Indiana, and Allen County, Indiana, the Old Order Amish use only wooden grave markers that eventually decay and disappear. The same is true of other, smaller communities that have their roots in these two counties.

After the funeral, the hearse carries the casket to the cemetery for a reading from the Bible; perhaps a hymn is read (rather than sung) and the [[Lord's Prayer]] is recited. The Amish usually, but not always, choose Amish cemeteries, and purchase gravestones that are uniform, modest, and plain; in recent years, these have been inscribed in English. The bodies of both men and women are dressed in white clothing by family members of the same sex, with women in the white cape and apron of their wedding outfit.<ref>Kraybill (2001) p. 159.</ref> After a funeral, the community gathers together to share a meal.

==Family life==
===Family===

Having children, raising them, and socialization with neighbors and relatives are the greatest functions of the Amish family. Amish believe large families are a blessing from God.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 88.</ref> The main purposes of "family" can be illustrated within the Amish culture in a variety of ways. The family has authority over the individual, not only during infancy and in youth, but throughout life. Loyalties to parents, grandparents, and other relatives may change over time but they will never cease. A church district is measured by the number of families (households), rather than by the number of baptized persons.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 87.</ref> Families take turns hosting the biweekly preaching service. Parents stress their responsibilities and obligations for the correct nurture of their children. They consider themselves accountable to the Lord for the spiritual welfare of their children.
[[Image:AmishRakingHay.jpg|thumb|left|Amish man working in southeast Ohio.]]
[[Image:Amish children playing baseball, Lyndonville NY.jpg|thumb|Amish children playing baseball, [[Lyndonville, New York]].]]
The "family" provides the member with a status within the home and within the community. A person is more of a member of the family, rather than an individual. Each member has a job, a position, a responsibility, and a status. Chores within the home are normally divided by gender. The Amish traditional family provides much of the education for the child. Although the formal education ends after they finish [[eighth grade]], the boy or girl is trained for their adult tasks. The boys will work with the father in the fields, in the barn, and around the out buildings. The girls work inside the home and garden, alongside the mother. The home and family become the school for "on the job" training. Amish youth, by and large, see their parents working hard, and they want to help. They want to learn and to be a productive part of the family.<ref>[http://www.amishnews.com/amisharticles/traditionalfamily.htm The Traditional Family & The Amish]</ref>

<blockquote>
"Christ is the head of man, and man is the head of woman. One of the greatest needs of our time is men who will assume the responsibility that God has placed on their shoulders. Not to accept that responsibility is to lie down on the job, to fail God’s will." Family Life, Amish monthly magazine.
</blockquote>

Sports and recreation are shared by all members of the family. There are church outings and family get-togethers where activities are entered into and shared by all.

===Child discipline===

The Amish stress strict obedience in their children, and this is taught and enforced by parents and preachers. Several passages in the Bible are used to support this view. Their children, as do all children, may pout or resist a parent's request. However, things such as tantrums, making faces, calling another bad names, and general disobedience are rare because the child knows that those actions will result in [[corporal punishment]]. Any youthful dissatisfactions are usually verbally expressed, but profanity is never allowed because the guilty child can expect swift punishment.<ref>Amish Society{Hostetler pp.160</ref>

===Youth, courting, and Rumspringa===

''[[Rumspringa]]'' ([[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] lit. "running around") is the period of adolescence that begins the time of serious courtship, and, during which, church rules may be relaxed. As in non-Amish families, it is understood that there will likely be a certain amount of misbehavior, but it is neither encouraged nor overlooked. At the end of this period, Amish young adults are baptized into the church, and usually marry, with marriage permitted only among church members. A small percentage of the young people choose not to join the church, deciding to live the rest of their lives in wider society and marry someone outside the community.<ref name="asoc-146">Amish Society|Hostetler (Fourth Edition), p. 146.</ref>

The age for courting begins at sixteen (in some communities, the girl could be as young as fourteen). The most common event for boy-girl association is the biweekly Sunday evening sing; however, the youth use sewing bees, frolics, and weddings for other opportunities. The sing is often at the same house or barn as the Sunday morning service. Teens may arrive from several close-by districts, thus providing socialization on a wider scale than from a single church.<ref name="asoc-146"/>

On the day of the sing, and after the chores are over, the young man dresses in his for-gut clothes, makes his appearance neat, and ensures his buggy and horse are clean. A sister or sister's friend may ride with him, but usually not his girlfriend. At the sing, boys are on one side of a long table, the girls on the other side. Each person is able to announce his or her choice of a hymn, and only the faster ones are chosen. Conversation takes place between songs. The formal end of the sing is at about ten o'clock, after which there is a great deal of talking, joking, and visiting. The boys who do not have a girlfriend may pair up with a Maidel (girl).<ref name="asoc-146"/> Following this, the boy takes the girl home in his open-topped courting buggy.

Marrying a first-cousin is not allowed among the Amish, and second-cousin relationships are frowned upon, though they may occur. Marriage to a "Schwartz" cousin (first cousin once removed) is not permitted in Lancaster County.

<blockquote>
The onset of courtship is usually not openly discussed within the family or among friends. Excessive teasing by siblings or friends at the wrong time is considered invasive. Respecting privacy, or at least pretending not to know, is a prevailing mode of behavior, even among parents.<ref name="asoc-146"/>
</blockquote>

===Weddings===

Weddings are typically held on Tuesdays and Thursdays in November to early December, after the harvest is in.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 148.</ref> The bride wears a new blue linen dress that will be worn again on other formal occasions. She wears no makeup, and will not receive an engagement or wedding ring because the ''[[Ordnung]]'' prohibits personal jewelry. The marriage ceremony itself may take several hours, followed by a community reception that includes a banquet, singing, and storytelling. Newlyweds spend the wedding night at the home of the bride's parents. [[Celery]] is one of the symbolic foods served at Amish weddings. Celery is also placed in vases and used to decorate the house instead of flowers.<ref>See [http://www.amishfamilyvalues.com/amish.htm this page] [http://www.amishnews.com/amisharticles/religioustraditions.htm and this page] for more about the tradition associating celery with Amish weddings.</ref> Rather than immediately taking up housekeeping, the newlywed couple will spend several weekends visiting the homes of friends and relatives who attended the wedding.

===Retirement===

When the Amish choose to retire is neither a set nor fixed time. Considerations of the person's health, the family's needs, and personal desires all play an important part in determining when retirement may occur, usually between the ages of fifty to seventy. The elderly do not go to a retirement facility; they remain at home. If the family house is large enough they continue living with everyone else. Oftentimes there is an adjacent dwelling, called the ''Grossdaadi Haus'', where grandparents take up residence. Retired people continue to help with work on the farm and within the home, working at their own pace as they are able. This allows them independence but does not strip them of family involvement.<ref>Amish Society|Hostetler pp.168–169</ref>

The Amish method of retirement ensures that the elderly maintain contact with family and relatives. Loneliness is not a problem because they keep meaningful social contacts through various community events, such as frolics, auctions, weddings, holiday, and other community activities.<ref>Amish Society{Hostetler pp.170</ref>

If the aged become ill or infirm, then the other family members take up caring for them. The elderly parents once helped raise the younger members, therefore the younger family care for them in their old age.

==Lifestyle and culture==
{{Wikinews|Pennsylvania Amish farmer jailed for outhouse violations}}Amish lifestyle is dictated by the ''[[Ordnung]]'' (German, meaning: order), which differs slightly from community to community, and, within a community, from district to district. What is acceptable in one community may not be acceptable in another. No summary of Amish lifestyle and culture can be totally adequate, because there are few generalities that are true for all Amish. Groups may separate over matters such as the width of a hat-brim, the color of buggies, or various other issues. The use of [[tobacco]] (excluding cigarettes, which are considered "worldly")<ref>[http://www.amishnews.com/amisharticles/amishtobacco.htm "The Amish vs. Tobacco." by Brad Igou. 1992. Amish Country News]</ref> and moderate use of alcohol<ref>"Ohio's Amish seek help for underage drinking." By Amy Beth Graves (AP). Sunday, May 21, 2000. [[Cincinnati Enquirer]] [http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2000/05/21/loc_ohios_amish_seek.html]</ref> are generally permitted, particularly among older and more conservative groups.

===Modern technology===
[[Image:Amish vs modern transportation.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Modern and Amish transportation in [[New Wilmington, Pennsylvania]].]]
The Older Order Amish are known for their avoidance of certain modern technologies. Amish do not view [[technology]] as evil, and individuals may petition for acceptance of a particular technology in the local community. In Pennsylvania, bishops meet in the spring and fall to discuss common concerns, including the appropriate response to new technology, and then pass this information on to ministers and deacons in a subsequent meeting.<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp. 98–101.</ref> Because of this flat governing structure, variations of practice develop in each community.
[[Image:Farm-amish-phone-booth.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Telephone booth set up by an "English" farmer for emergency use by local Amish families.]]

High voltage electricity was rejected by 1920 through the actions of a strict bishop, as a reaction against more liberal Amish<ref>The Peachey group split from the Old Order Amish in 1910 and eventually became affiliated with the Beachy Amish</ref> and to avoid a physical connection to the outside world.<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp. 197–212.</ref> Because of the early prohibition of electricity, individual decisions about the use of new inventions such as the television would not be necessary. Electricity is used in some situations when it can be produced without access to [[Electricity distribution|outside power lines]]. Batteries, with their limited applications, are sometimes acceptable. Electric generators may be used for welding, recharging batteries, and powering milk stirrers in many communities. Outdoor electrical appliances such as riding and hand-pushed lawn mowers and string trimmers are used in some communities. Some Amish families have non-electric versions of appliances, such as [[absorption refrigerator|kerosene-powered refrigerator]]s. Some Old Order Amish districts may allow the use of thermal [[solar panel]]s.<ref>http://features.csmonitor.com/backstory/2008/10/27/the-amish-go-solar-%e2%80%93-in-a-simple-way/</ref>

Amish communities adopt compromise solutions involving technology that seem strange to outsiders.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} Petrol-powered farm equipment, such as tillers or mowers, may be pushed by a human or pulled by a horse. The reasoning is that Amish farmers will not be tempted to purchase more land to out-compete other farmers in their community, if they have to move the equipment manually. Amish farmers employ chemical [[pesticide]]s, chemical [[fertilizer]]s, and [[artificial insemination]] of cows.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 313.</ref>

[[Image:Amish Farmhouse.jpg|thumb|Amish household]]
The ''[[Ordnung]]'' is the guide to community standards, rather than doctrine that defines sin. For example, the four Old Order Amish communities of [[Allen County, Indiana]], are more conservative than most; they use open buggies, even during the winter, and they wear black leather shoes even in the hot summer.

Restrictions are not meant to impose suffering. Disabled people are allowed to use motorized [[wheelchairs]]; electricity is allowed in the home for medical equipment.<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp. 114–115.</ref> Those who break the rules may be given many months to resolve the problem so that they can use a computer to complete a business project or remove electric wiring from a new house.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 136.</ref>

Although most Amish will not drive cars, they will hire drivers and vans, for example, for visiting family, monthly grocery shopping, or commuting to the workplace off the farm — though this too is subject to local regulation and variation. The practice increases the geographic reach of the Amish, and decreases isolation: a horse can travel only about {{convert|25|mi|km}}, and it must rest for a considerable period, restricting the Amish to a radius of {{convert|12.5|mi|km}} from home. Moreover, a horse and buggy can only sustain {{convert|10|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}} over an extended distance, and thus is impractical for emergencies.<ref>[http://www.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/2004/041018.Caruthers.discover.html Purdue University]</ref> Regular bus service between Amish communities has been established in some areas, and train travel is accepted.

The Old Order Amish tend to restrict telephone use, as it is viewed by some as interfering with separation from the world. By bringing the outside world into the home, it is an intrusion into the privacy and sanctity of the family, and interferes with social community by eliminating face-to-face communication. Amish of Lancaster County use the telephone primarily for outgoing calls, with the added restriction that the telephone not be inside the house, but rather in a phone "booth" or small out-building placed far enough from the house as to make its use inconvenient. These private phones may be shared by more than one family. This allows the Amish to control their communication, and not have telephone calls invade their homes, but also to conduct business, as needed. In the past, the use of public pay phones in town for such calls was more common; today, with dwindling availability of pay phones because of increased cell phone use by the non-Amish population, Amish communities are seeing an increase in the private phone shanties.<ref>See, for example, [Dan Morse "Still Called by Faith to the Booth: As Pay Phones Vanish, Amish and Mennonites Build Their Own"], ''The Washington Post'', September 3, 2006, p. C1; see also
[http://www.regent.edu/acad/schcom/rojc/mdic/amish.html Diane Zimmerman Umble's work] on the subject of the Amish and telephones</ref> Many Amish, particularly those who run businesses, use voicemail service.<ref>Kraybill, Donald ''Amish Enterprise: From Plows to Profits'', Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004</ref> The Amish will also use trusted "English" neighbors as contact points for passing on family emergency messages. Some New Order Amish will use cellphones and pagers, but most Old Order Amish will not.<ref>Howard Rheingold "Look Who's Talking", ''Wired'', January, 1999, http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/7.01/amish.html</ref>

===Language===
In addition to English, most Old Order Amish speak a distinctive [[German dialect]] called [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] or, much more commonly, Pennsylvania Dutch. Pennsylvania German is related to the [[Palatinate German]] of the eighteenth century. It has also been strongly influenced by [[American English]].<ref>Smith, p. 511.</ref> The English term "Dutch" originally referred to all forms of German and Netherlandic languages. [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] is distinct from [[Plautdietsch|Mennonite Low German]] and [[Hutterite German]] dialects spoken by other Anabaptist groups.

Now spoken primarily by the Old Order Amish and [[Old Order Mennonite]]s, [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] was originally spoken by many [[German-American]] immigrants in Pennsylvania and surrounding areas, especially those who came prior to 1800. There are also several sizable Old Order Amish communities where a variety of [[Swiss German]] is spoken, rather than [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]]. The [[Beachy Amish]], especially those who were born roughly after 1960, tend to speak predominantly in English at home. All other Amish groups use either Pennsylvania German or a variety of Swiss German as their in-group language of discourse. There are small dialectal variations between communities, such as Lancaster County and Indiana speech varieties. The Amish are aware of regional variation, and occasionally experience difficulty in understanding speakers from outside their own area.

===Clothing===
[[Image:Lancaster County Amish 02.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Amish girls in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]].]]
The common theme amongst all Amish clothing is ''plainness''; clothing should not call attention to the wearer by cut, color, or any other feature. [[Hook-and-eye closure]]s or [[Pin (device)|straight pins]] are used as fasteners on dress clothing rather than buttons, zippers, or [[velcro]]. [[Snap fastener|Snaps]] are used on everyday clothes, and plain [[button]]s for work shirts and trousers. The historic restriction on buttons is attributed to tradition and their potential for ostentation.<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp. 66–70.</ref> In all things, the aesthetic value is plainness. Some groups tend to limit color to black (trousers, dresses) and white (shirts), while others allow muted colors. Dark blue denim work clothing is common within some groups as well. The Old Order Amish often sew their own clothing, and work clothing can become quite worn and patched with use.

Women wear calf-length plain-cut dresses in a solid color. Aprons are often worn at home, usually in white or black, and are always worn when attending church. A cape, which consists of a triangular piece of cloth, is usually worn, beginning around the teenage years, and pinned into the apron. In the colder months, a long woolen cloak may be worn. Heavy bonnets are worn over the prayer coverings when Amish women are out and about in cold weather, with the exception of the Nebraska Amish, who do not wear bonnets. Girls in some areas may wear colored bonnets until age nine; older girls and women wear black bonnets.<ref>Kraybill (2001) p. 62.</ref> Girls begin wearing a cape for church and dress up occasions at about age eight. Single women wear a white cape to church until about the age of thirty. Everyday capes are colored, matching the dress, until about age forty when only black is used.<ref>Kraybill (2001) p. 61.</ref>

During the warmer months, many children will go barefoot, even while attending school.

Men typically wear dark-colored trousers, some with a dark vest or coat, [[suspenders]] (in some communities), broad-rimmed [[straw hat]]s in the warmer months, and black felt hats in the colder months. Married men and those over forty grow a [[beard]]. [[Mustache]]s are forbidden, because they are associated with European military officers and militarism in general.<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp 63–65.</ref> A beard may serve the same symbolic function, in some Old Order Amish settings, as a wedding ring, and marks the passage into manhood.

===Furniture===
[[Image:American-Furniture.jpg|100px|thumb|A Family Dining Table.]]
[[Amish furniture]] is celebrated for its durability, simple elegance, and use of [[deciduous]] woods.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} Amish craftsmen utilize many of the same methods as their early-American ancestors in building furniture. There is still a demand for classic designs such as Mission, Shaker, Cottage and Queen Anne while some Amish furniture is more modern in design. Furniture construction is an expression of the Amish ethos of self-sufficiency, simplicity and functionality.

==Swiss Amish==

A subgroup of the Old Order Amish, known as the Swiss Amish, speak a dialect of German known as [[Swiss German]] amongst themselves instead of the more common [[Pennsylvania Dutch]]. They are found primarily in [[Allen County, Indiana|Allen]] and [[Adams County, Indiana|Adams]] County in Indiana.
The Swiss Amish only use open top buggies and are more conservative than most other Old Order Amish districts.
They also are the only Amish group to practice [[yodeling]].

==Health==
Amish populations have higher incidences of particular [[genetic disorder]]s, including [[dwarfism]] ([[Ellis-van Creveld syndrome]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v24/n3/full/ng0300_203.html|title=Ellis-van Creveld syndrome and the Amish|publisher=[[Nature Genetics]]|year=2000|accessdate=2008-07-02}}</ref> various [[metabolic disorders]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/104542765/abstract|title=Pediatric medicine and the genetic disorders of the Amish and Mennonite people of Pennsylvania|publisher=[[American Journal of Medical Genetics]]|date=2003-06-27|quote=Regional hospitals and midwives routinely send whole-blood filter paper neonatal screens for tandem mass spectrometry and other modern analytical methods to detect 14 of the metabolic disorders found in these populations…|accessdate=2008-07-02}}</ref> and unusual distribution of blood-types.<ref>Hostetler, p. 330.</ref> Amish represent a collection of different [[deme (biology)|demes]] or genetically-closed communities.<ref>Hostetler, p. 328.</ref> Since almost all Amish descend from about 200 18th century founders, genetic disorders from inbreeding exist in more isolated districts (an example of the [[founder effect]]). Some of these disorders are quite rare, or unique, and are serious enough to increase the mortality rate among Amish children. The majority of Amish accept these as "Gottes Wille" (God's will); they reject use of preventive genetic tests prior to marriage and genetic testing of unborn children to discover genetic disorder. Amish are willing to participate in studies of genetic diseases. Their extensive family histories are useful to researchers investigating diseases such as [[Alzheimer's]], [[Parkinson's]], and [[macular degeneration]].

While the Amish are at an increased risk for a number of genetic disorders, researchers at The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center—Arthur G. James Cancer Hospital and Richard J. Solove Research Institute (OSUCCC-James) have found their tendencies for clean living can lead to a healthier life. Overall cancer rates in the Amish population are 60 percent of the age-adjusted rate for Ohio and 56 percent of the national rate. The incidence of tobacco-related cancers in the Amish adults is 37 percent of the rate for Ohio adults, and the incidence of non-tobacco-related cancer is 72 percent. The Amish have protection against many types of cancer both through their lifestyle—there is very little tobacco or alcohol use and limited sexual partners—and through genes that may reduce their susceptibility to cancer. Dr. Judith Westman, director of human genetics at OSUCCC-James, conducted the study. The findings were reported in a recent issue of the journal ''Cancer Causes & Control''. Even skin cancer rates are lower for Amish, despite the fact many Amish make their living working outdoors where they are exposed to sunlight and UV rays. They are typically covered and dressed to work in the sun by wearing wide-brimmed hats and generally wearing long sleeves to protect their arms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://medicalcenter.osu.edu/viewer/Pages/index.aspx?NewsId=5307|title=Amish Have Lower Rates Of Cancer, Ohio State Study Shows|date=1 January 2010|publisher=Ohio State University Medical Center|accessdate=6 January 2010|location=Columbus, OH}}</ref>

The Amish are conscious of the advantages of [[exogamy]]. A common bloodline in one community will often be absent in another, and genetic disorders can be avoided by choosing spouses from unrelated communities. For example, the founding families of the Lancaster County Amish are unrelated to the founders of the [[Perth County, Ontario]] Amish community.

The Old Order Amish do not typically carry private commercial health insurance. About two-thirds of the Amish in Lancaster County participate in Church Aid, an informal self-insurance plan for helping members with catastrophic medical expenses.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/05/AR2006100501360.html
|title=Amish Reluctantly Accept Donations
|last=Rubinkam
|first=Michael
|publisher=The Washington Post
|date=October 5, 2006
|accessdate=2008-03-25
}}</ref> A handful of American [[hospital]]s, starting in the mid-1990s, created special outreach programs to assist the Amish. The first of these programs was instituted at the Susquehanna Health System in central Pennsylvania by James Huebert. This program has earned national media attention in the United States, and has spread to several surrounding hospitals.<ref>[http://www.dailyitem.com/archive/2004/0618/local/stories/04local.htm The Daily Item — Doctors make house calls in barn]</ref><ref>[http://www.imt.ie/lifestyle/2007/08/a_culture_vastly_different_fro.html] The Irish Medical Times. A culture vastly different from the rest of America</ref> Treating genetic problems is the mission of [[Clinic for Special Children]] in [[Strasburg, Pennsylvania]], which has developed effective treatments for such problems as [[maple syrup urine disease]], a previously fatal disease. The clinic is embraced by most Amish, ending the need for parents to leave the community to receive proper care for their children, an action that might result in shunning.

DDC Clinic for Special Needs Children, located in [[Middlefield, Ohio]], has been treating special-needs children with inherited or metabolic disorders since May 2002.<ref>[http://ddcclinic.org DDC Clinic for Special Needs Children]</ref> The DDC Clinic provides treatment, research, and educational services to Amish and non-Amish children and their families.

Although not forbidden or thought of as immoral, most Amish do not practice any form of [[birth control]], hence their large families. They are against abortion and also find "artificial insemination, genetics, eugenics, and stem cell research" to be "inconsistent with Amish values and beliefs".<ref>{{cite book|title=Transcultural concepts in nursing care | author=Margaret M. Andrews and Joyceen S. Boyle | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tq-rL8VcQBQC&pg=PA455&lpg=PA455&dq=abortion+amish&source=web&ots=bNuZh0TJLU&sig=iNvLbTsuyFfhqMI1_1ebdPDbbxQ | publisher=Lippincott | year=2002 | accessdate=2008-01-19 | isbn=9780781736800}}</ref>

''People's Helpers'' is an Amish-organized network of mental health caregivers who help families dealing with mental illness and recommend professional counselors.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 105.</ref> Suicide rates for the Amish of Lancaster County were 5.5 per 100,000 in 1980, about half that of the general population and a third the rate of the non-religious population.<ref>The overall suicide rate in 1980 in the USA was 12.5 per 100,000. Kraybill et al. "Suicide Patterns in a Religious Subculture: The Old Order Amish," International Journal of Moral and Social Studies 1 (Autumn 1986).</ref>

==Education==
[[Image:Amish schoolhouse.jpg|left|thumb|230px|Amish schoolhouse in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]] in 1941.]]
[[Image:Amish On the way to school by Gadjoboy2.jpg|thumb|Amish schoolchildren]]

The Amish do not educate their children past the [[eighth grade]], believing that the basic knowledge offered up to that point is sufficient to prepare one for the Amish lifestyle.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED455996&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&accno=ED455996
|title=Amish Schools in the United States and Canada — ''Abstract''
|last=Dewalt
|first=Mark W
|publisher=Education Resources Information Center
|date=April 10, 2001
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED354492&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&accno=ED354492
|title=Reading in Old Order Amish Schools — ''Abstract''
|last=Ediger
|first=Marlow
|publisher=Education Resources Information Center
|year=1992
}}</ref>
Almost no Amish go to [[high school]], much less to [[college]]. In many communities, the Amish operate their own schools, which are typically [[one-room schoolhouse]]s with teachers (young unmarried women) from the Amish community. These schools provide education in many crafts, and are therefore eligible as vocational education, fulfilling the nationwide requirement of education through the 10th grade or its equivalent. There are Amish children who go to non-Amish public schools, even schools that are far away and that include a very small Amish population. For instance, there have been some Amish children who have attended Leesburg Elementary School in [[Leesburg, Indiana]] (about {{convert|12|mi|km}} from [[Nappanee, Indiana]]), because their families lived on the edge of the school district. In the past, there have been major conflicts between the Amish and outsiders over these matters of local schooling. But for the most part, they have been resolved, and the educational authorities allow the Amish to educate their children in their own ways. Sometimes, there are conflicts between the state-mandated minimum age for discontinuing schooling, and the younger age of children who have completed the eighth grade. This is often handled by having the children repeat the eighth grade until they are old enough to leave school. In the past, when comparing standardized test scores of Amish students, the Amish have performed above the national average for rural public school pupils in spelling, word usage, and arithmetic. They performed below the national average, however, in vocabulary.<ref>Hostetler, p. 188.</ref>

On May 19, 1972, Jonas Yoder and Wallace Miller of the Old Order Amish, and Adin Yutzy of the Conservative Amish Mennonite Church, were each fined $5 for refusing to send their children, aged 14 and 15, to high school. In ''[[Wisconsin v. Yoder]]'', the Wisconsin Supreme Court overturned the conviction, and the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] affirmed this, finding the benefits of universal education do not justify a violation of the [[Free Exercise Clause]] of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]].

The decision of the U.S. Supreme Court quoted sociology professor [[John A. Hostetler]] (1918–2001), who was born into an Amish family, wrote several books about the Amish, [[Hutterites]], and [[Old Order Mennonites]], and was then considered the foremost academic authority on the Amish. [[Donald Kraybill]], Distinguished College Professor and Senior Fellow in the Young Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies at [[Elizabethtown College]], is one of the most active scholars studying the Amish today.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Relations with the outside world==
[[Image:Shipshewana-indiana-amish-buggy.jpg|thumb|250px|Amish buggy rides offered in tourist-oriented [[Shipshewana, Indiana]].]]
As time has passed, the Amish have felt pressures from the modern world. [[Child labor laws in the United States|Child labor laws]], for example, are threatening their long-established ways of life, and raise questions regarding the treatment of children in an Amish household, and also in the way the Amish view emotional and medical support. A modern society places little emphasis on the emotional and spiritual bonds found in an Amish household that bind them together as a people. There is instead a negative perception regarding how the Amish choose to view some medical conditions as being 'The Will of God', without always receiving modern medical treatment found in hospitals or medical clinics; though many Amish communities maintain communal telephones to reach others in cases of emergency. Amish children often follow in their faith's long-standing tradition of being taught at an early age to work jobs in the home on the family's land or that of the community. Children are taught the traditions of their parents or immediate family until adolescence, when they are able to go into the world and compare their family's teachings with those of the world through [[rumspringa]]. Viewed as a respectful and enduring group, the Amish still spark controversy in modern society relating to their methods of raising young children, which vary greatly from the non-Amish.

Contrary to popular belief, some of the Amish vote, and they have been courted by national parties as potential [[swing vote]]rs: their pacifism and social conscience cause some of them to be drawn to left-of-center politics, while their generally conservative outlook causes others to favor the right wing.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}

They are [[nonresistance|nonresistant]], and rarely defend themselves physically or even in court; in wartime, they take [[conscientious objector]] status. Their own folk-history contains tales of heroic nonresistance, such as the insistence of [[Northkill Amish Settlement|Jacob Hochstetler (1704–1775)]] that his sons stop shooting at hostile Indians, who proceeded to kill some of the family and take others captive.<ref>Nolt, pp. 66–67</ref> During World War II the Amish entered [[Civilian Public Service]].

Amish rely on their church and community for support, and thus reject the concept of insurance. An example of such support is [[barn raising]], in which the entire community gathers together to build a barn in a single day. It means coming together to celebrate with family and friends.
[[Image:Nappanee-indiana-amish-acres.jpg|thumb|250px|Amish Acres, an Amish crafts and tourist attraction in [[Nappanee, Indiana]].]]

In 1961, the United States [[Internal Revenue Service]] announced that since the Amish refuse [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] benefits and have a religious objection to insurance, they need not pay these taxes. In 1965, this policy was codified into law.<ref>[http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode26/usc_sec_26_00001402----000-.html U.S. Code collection]</ref> Self-employed individuals in certain sects do not pay into, nor receive benefits from, United States Social Security, nor do their similarly-exempt employees. [[Tax forms in the United States|Internal Revenue Service form 4029]] grants this exemption to members of a religious group that is conscientiously opposed to accepting benefits of any private or public insurance, provides a reasonable level of living for its dependent members and has existed continuously since December 31, 1950.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/f4029.pdf|format=PDF|title= Application for Exemption From Social Security and Medicare Taxes and Waiver of Benefits|publisher=[[Internal Revenue Service]]|year=2006|accessdate=2008-07-02}}</ref> A visible sign of the care Amish provide for the elderly is the smaller ''Grossdaadi Heiser'' or ''Daadiheiser'' ("grandfather house"), often built near the main dwelling. Amish employees of non-Amish employers are taxed, but they do not apply for benefits.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 279.</ref> Aside from Social Security and [[workers' compensation]], American Amish pay all required [[tax]]es.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 273.</ref>

The Amish have, on occasion, encountered discrimination and hostility from their neighbors. During the two 20th century [[World War]]s, Amish nonresistance sparked many incidents of harassment, and young Amish men forcibly inducted into the services were subjected to various forms of ill treatment.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} In the present day, anti-Amish sentiment has taken the form of pelting the horse-drawn carriages used by the Amish with stones or similar objects as the carriages pass along a road, most commonly at night.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} A 1988, made-for-TV film, ''A Stoning In Fulham County'', is based on a true story involving one such incident, in which a six-month-old Amish girl was struck in the head by a rock and died from her injuries. In 1997, Mary Kuepfer, a young Amish woman in [[Milverton, Ontario|Milverton]], [[Ontario]], Canada, was struck in the face by a beer bottle believed to have been thrown from a passing car;<ref>[http://www.nald.ca/fulltext/lifetime/issue4/page7.htm "Amish girl hit with beer bottle"]</ref> she required thousands of dollars' worth of surgery to her face (which was paid for by an outpouring of donations from the public).

==Portrayal in popular entertainment==

===Film===
[[Peter Weir]]'s 1985 drama ''[[Witness (1985 film)|Witness]]'' is set and filmed in the Amish community of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. ''Harvest of Fire'' is a 1996 [[Hallmark Hall of Fame]] made-for-TV movie about an FBI agent's investigation of cases of suspected arson in an Amish farming community. The 2002 documentary ''[[Devil's Playground (film)|Devil's Playground]]'' follows a group of Amish teenagers during [[rumspringa]], and it portrays their personal dilemma with both the 'English' world and the decision on whether or not to be baptized as adult members of the church. Michael Landon Jr's 2007 film ''[[Saving Sarah Cain]]'' shows the removing of young Amish children to the big city and realizing the life they can have with both the Amish and English world.

Some comic movie portrayals of the Amish include [[Randy Quaid]]’s Amish character "Ishmael Boorg" in ''[[Kingpin (film)|Kingpin]],'' directed by the [[Farrelly brothers]] in 1996, and the 1997 ''[[For Richer or Poorer]]'', starring [[Tim Allen]] and [[Kirstie Alley]], also about city folk hiding among the Amish.

On March 28, 2010, the [[Lifetime Movie Network]] premiered a [[television movie]] about the [[Nickel Mines, Pennsylvania]], [[Amish school shooting]] titled ''Amish Grace'',<ref name="lifetime">{{cite news
| title= Amish Grace
| work= myLifetime
| date=2010-04-05
| url = http://www.mylifetime.com/movies/amish-grace
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref> starring [[Kimberly Williams-Paisley]], [[Tammy Blanchard]], and [[Matt Letscher]], based on the book ''Amish Grace: How Forgiveness Transcended Tragedy'', Jossey-Bass, 2007, ISBN 0787997617, by [[Donald Kraybill]], [[Steven Nolt]], and David L. Weaver-Zercher.<ref name="Amish Grace">{{cite news
| title= Amish Grace: How Forgiveness Transcended Tragedy (Hardcover)
| work=Amazon
| date=2010-04-05
| url = http://www.amazon.com/Amish-Grace-Forgiveness-Transcended-Tragedy/dp/0787997617
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="Amish Grace">{{cite news
| title= Amish Grace: How Forgiveness Transcended Tragedy
| work=Amish Grace
| date=2010-04-05
| url = http://www.amishgrace.com/
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref> The movie was produced by [[Larry A. Thompson]].

The plot summary for ''Amish Grace'' is: When a group of Amish schoolgirls are taken hostage and killed in their classroom, their parents and the Amish community of [[Nickel Mines, Pennsylvania]], stun the outside world by immediately forgiving the killer. Ida Graber ([[Kimberly Williams-Paisley]]), mother of one of the murdered children, has a tougher time than the others accepting the tragedy, but in her anguish and pain, she begins a personal journey of renewed faith, ultimately accepting the heart-wrenching tragedy of losing a child; reconnecting with her husband ([[Matt Letscher]]), family, and community; offering forgiveness to the killer; and even showing kindness and compassion to the killer’s widow ([[Tammy Blanchard]]) and children—all in the form of Amish Grace.<ref name="lifetime">{{cite news
| title= Amish Grace
| work= myLifetime
| date=2010-04-05
| url = http://www.mylifetime.com/movies/amish-grace/about
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="imdb">{{cite news
| title= Amish Grace
| work= [[IMDB]]
| date=2010-04-05
|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1559025/
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref>

''Amish Grace'', in its [[Palm Sunday]] premiere, broke network records in multiple [[demographics]] with more than 4 million viewers, becoming the highest-rated and most-watched original movie in [[Lifetime Movie Network]]’s history.<ref name="MultichannelNews">{{cite news
| last = Reynolds
| first = Mike
| title= 'Amish Grace' Delivers As Highest-Rated Original Telepic In Lifetime Movie Network History
| work=[[Multichannel News]]
| date=2010-03-29
| url = http://www.multichannel.com/article/450814-_Amish_Grace_Delivers_As_Highest_Rated_Original_Telepic_In_Lifetime_Movie_Network_History.php
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="tvbythenumbers">{{cite news
| last = Seidman
| first = Robert
| title= Lifetime Movie Network’s ''Amish Grace'' Breaks Records With 4.02 Million Viewers
| work= TV by the Numbers
| date=2010-03-29
| url = http://tvbythenumbers.com/2010/03/29/lifetime-movie-networks-amish-grace-breaks-records-with-4-02-million-viewers/46478
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="variety">{{cite news
| last = Kissell
| first = Rick
| title= 7.6 million watch ''Kids’ Choice Awards''
| work= [[Variety (magazine)]]
| date=2010-03-29
|url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118017057.html?categoryid=1275&cs=1&query=Amish+Grace+-+Ratings
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="thrfeed">{{cite news
| title= ''Amish Grace'' breaks Lifetime Movie Net records
| work= [[The Hollywood Reporter]]
| date=2010-03-29
|url=http://www.thrfeed.com/2010/03/amish-grace-breaks-lifetime-movie-net-records.html
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref>
The movie received many positive [[reviews]];<ref name="variety">{{cite news
| last = Lowry
| first = Brian
| title= Amish Grace
| work= [[Variety (magazine)]]
| date=2010-03-25
|url=http://www.variety.com/review/VE1117942472.html?categoryid=32&cs=1
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="csmonitor">{{cite news
| title= Six Picks: Recommendations from the Monitor staff
| work= [[The Christian Science Monitor]]
| date=2010-03-22
|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/Arts/2010/0322/Six-Picks-Recommendations-from-the-Monitor-staff
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="previewonline">{{cite news
| last = Boatwright
| first = Phil
| title= And on TV…Amish Grace
| work= Preview Online
| date=2010-04-05
|url=http://www.previewonline.org/holyholly/amishgrace.html
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="catholicexchange">{{cite news
| last = Pacatte
| first = Sr. Rose
| title= Amish Grace: A Time for Forgiveness
| work= Catholic Exchange
| date=2010-03-20
|url=http://catholicexchange.com/2010/03/20/128377/#hide
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="catholicexchange">{{cite news
| last = Armstrong
| first = Patti Maguire
| title= Forgiveness, Not Just An ''Amish Grace''
| work= Catholic Exchange
| date=2010-03-23
|url=http://catholicexchange.com/2010/03/23/128426/
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="sisterrose">{{cite news
| last = Pacatte
| first = Sr. Rose
| title= Amish Grace: A Time for Forgiveness
| work= Sister Rose—Word Press
| date=2010-04-05
|url=http://sisterrose.wordpress.com/2010/03/23/amish-grace-on-lmn-march-28/
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="huffingtonpost">{{cite news
| last = Cooper
| first = Jackie K.
| title= ''Amish Grace'' Is A Story Of Grace Under Fire
| work= [[The Huffington Post]]
| date=2010-03-23
|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jackie-k-cooper/emamish-graceem-is-a-stor_b_507564.html?view=print
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="catholic">{{cite news
| last = Valasquez
| first = Leticia
| title= Review of ''Amish Grace''
| work= Catholic Media Review
| publisher= Catholic Online
| date=2010-03-23
|url=http://www.catholic.org/ae/tv/review.php?id=35912
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="hollywoodreporter">{{cite news
| last = Dawn
| first = Randee
| title= Amish Grace—TV Review
| work= [[The Hollywood Reporter]]
| date=2010-03-26
|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/tv-reviews/amish-grace-tv-review-1004078769.story
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="movieguide">{{cite news
| last = Baehr
| first = Dr. Ted
| last = Holder
| first = Jeff
| title= AMISH GRACE—Coming to a Greater Understanding of God’s Grace
| work= Movie Guide
| date=2010-03-22
|url=http://www.movieguide.org/articles/1/714/amish-grace-coming-to-a-greater-understanding-of-gods-grace
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="lifetimemoms">{{cite news
| last = Smith
| first = Nichole
| title= My Connection to ''Amish Grace'' the LMN Original Movie Airing March 28
| work= Lifetime Moms
| date=2010-03-17
|url=http://www.lifetimemoms.com/print/2011
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="worldmag">{{cite news
| last = Basham
| first = Megan
| title= Supernatural reaction
| work= [[World (magazine)]]
| date=2010-03-26
|url=http://www.worldmag.com/webextra/16583
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="christiancinema">{{cite news
| last = Walker
| first = Angela
| title= Amish Grace Is Amazing
| work= Christian Cinema
| date=2010-04-05
|url=http://www.christiancinema.com/catalog/article_info.php?articles_id=7250&src=rss
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref> however, it also received criticism because the authors of ''Amish Grace: How Forgiveness Transcended Tragedy'', Jossey-Bass, 2007, ISBN 0787997617, distanced themselves from the production out of respect to the Amish community.<ref name="variety">{{cite news
| title= Movie on Amish school shooting draws criticism
| work= [[Associated Press]]
| publisher= [[USA Today]]
| date=2010-03-24
|url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2010-03-24-amish-shooting_N.htm
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref> Others criticized the movie for blending facts with fiction.<ref name="pennlive">{{cite news
| last = DeJesus
| first = Ivey
| title= ''Amish Grace'' movie fictionalizes Nickel Mines tragedy, generates debate
| work= PennLive.com
| publisher= [[The Patriot-News]]
| date=2010-03-07
|url=http://blog.pennlive.com/midstate_impact/print.html?entry=/2010/03/controversial_amish_grace_movi.html
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref>

===Literature===
====Modern novels====
[[Paul Levinson]]'s 1999 [[Locus Award]]-winning novel, ''[[Phil D'Amato#The Novels|The Silk Code]]'' portrays Amish farmers involved in a science-fiction mystery about biotechnology and mysterious deaths. [[Jodi Picoult]]'s 2000 novel (and 2004 TV movie) ''[[Plain Truth]],'' deals with a crime concerning the death of a newborn infant on an Amish farm. Other novels dealing with the Amish are [[Lurlene McDaniel]]'s 2002 ''The Angels Trilogy,'' [[Beverly Lewis]]'s extensive series of Amish romantic fiction, and Paul Gaus's Ohio Amish Mystery series, set among the Amish community in Holmes County, Ohio.

====Older novels====
[[Helen Reimensnyder Martin]]'s 1905 novel ''Sabina, a Story of the Amish,'' similar to her 1904 novel ''Tillie, a Mennonite Maid,'' so harshly depicted its subjects as to provoke cries of misrepresentation. [[Anna Balmer Myers]]' 1920 novel ''Patchwork: a Story of "the Plain People,"'' like her 1921 novel ''Amanda: A Daughter of the Mennonites,'' are generally regarded as gentle correctives to the work of Martin. Ruth Lininger Dobson's 1937 novel ''Straw in the Wind,'' written while a student at the [[University of Michigan]] and receiving the school's [[Hopwood Award]], so negatively depicted the Amish of Indiana that [[Joseph Yoder]] was motivated to correct the severe stereotypes with a more accurate book about the Amish way of life. In 1940, he wrote the gentler ''Rosanna of the Amish,'' a story of his mother's life (and his own). He later wrote a sequel, ''Rosanna's Boys'' (1948), as well as other books presenting and recording what he regarded as a truer picture of Amish culture.

====Children's literature====
[[Marguerite de Angeli]]'s 1936 children's story ''[[Henner's Lydia]]'' portrays a tender Amish family. The author sketched many of the illustrations at the site of the [http://www.wikimapia.org/#y=40146077&x=-75948315&z=14&l=0&m=h&v=2 little red schoolhouse] still standing at the intersection of PA route 23 and Red Schoolhouse Road, just west of Morgantown, Pennsylvania. Today the building is the Amish Mennonite Information Center. The Lancaster County landscape, portrayed in the end papers of the book, can be recognized throughout the area. De Angeli's illustrations of a nearby bank barn were sketched just hours before the barn was destroyed by fire. She incorporated the incident in her 1944 [[Caldecott Medal|Caldecott Honor]] book ''Yonie Wondernose,'' a story about a curious Amish boy, younger brother to the Lydia of ''Henner's Lydia.''

===Theatre===
The 1955 [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musical show, ''[[Plain and Fancy]],'' is an early stage-play portrayal of the Amish people. Set in Lancaster County, it tells of a couple from New York who encounter the quaint Amish lifestyle when they arrive to sell off some property. This show depicted "shunning" and "barn-raising" to the American audience for the first time. Another play featuring the Amish is ''[[Quiet in the Land]],'' a Canadian play concerning Amish struggles during World War I (1917–1918).

===Television===
[[NBC]] aired, in 1988, a family drama called ''[[Aaron's Way]]'' about an Amish family who moved to California and had to adjust to a non-Amish lifestyle. Numerous other TV shows have presented episodes with Amish characters or storylines. Some of them include ''[[Arthur (TV series)|Arthur]]'', ''[[The Simpsons]]'', ''[[Dexter's Laboratory]]'', ''[[Picket Fences]]'', ''[[Murder She Wrote]]'', ''[[MacGyver]]'', ''[[Grey's Anatomy]]'', and ''[[Cold Case (TV series)|Cold Case]]''.<ref>Brad Igou, "The Amish in the Media," [http://www.amishnews.com/amisharticles/amishinmedia.htm ''Amish County News''], 2001/2005</ref> In the summer of 2004, a controversial reality-television program called ''[[Amish in the City]]'' aired on [[UPN]]. Amish teenagers were exposed to non-Amish culture by living together with "English" teens, and at the time of the show, had yet to decide, if they wanted to be baptized into the Amish church. On Wednesday 18 February 2009, BBC2 aired 'Trouble in Amish Paradise', a one-hour documentary on Ephraim and Jesse Stoltzfus and their desire to adhere to Biblical Christianity whilst remaining Amish in culture.

===Music===
[["Weird Al" Yankovic]]'s 1996 parody "[[Amish Paradise]]" and the accompanying music video was an affectionate send-up of [[Coolio]]'s earlier soul song "[[Gangsta's Paradise]]", with Yankovic and former [[Brady Bunch]] actress [[Florence Henderson]] in Amish garb, and lyrics reflecting Amish themes.

==Similar groups==
[[Old Order Mennonite]]s, [[Hutterite]]s, and [[Old German Baptist Brethren]] are distinct from the Amish. They all emigrated from Europe, but they arrived with different dialects, separate cultures, and diverse religious traditions. Particularly, the Hutterites live communally<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277694/Hutterites|title=Hutterites|work=Britannica Online|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref> and are generally accepting of modern technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://esask.uregina.ca/entry/hutterites.html|title=Hutterites|last=Laverdure|first=Paul|year=2006|work=Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan|publisher=Canadian Plains Research Center|accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref>

[[Testimony of Simplicity|Plain Quakers]] are similar in manner and lifestyle, but unrelated to the Amish. Early Quakers were influenced, to some degree, by the Anabaptists. Most modern Quakers have since abandoned their traditional dress.

==Abuse controversy==
{{Unbalanced section|date=July 2009}}

Some high-profile cases have focused attention on the [[sexual abuse]] perpetrated upon Amish children. In a few isolated areas it has been called "almost a plague in some communities."<ref>[http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/January-February-2005/feature_labi_janfeb05.msp Legal Affairs — The Gentle People]</ref> Because Amish Bishops mete out punishment for sins, (generally in the form of [[shunning]]), they keep discipline within the authority of the church; thus, sexual abuse may be less often reported to law enforcement. Since men dominate their society, women and children who have been mistreated have little recourse. They themselves may be shunned for seeking outside help. Mary Byler was allegedly raped more than a hundred times between the ages of 8 and 14 by her brothers, and then she was excommunicated and shunned for reporting her abusers.<ref>[http://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=316371&page=1 ABC News: Sexual Abuse in the Amish Community] and [http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=189191&page=2 ABC News: Sex Abuse Case Shocks Amish Community]</ref>
Another young woman claimed to have been raped repeatedly by her brother-in-law, who was eventually punished by being shunned for two and a half months.<ref>[http://www.amishabuse.com/chapter5pg3.htm Amish Deception 1]: Learn the truth about the Swartzentruber Amish community in Ohio: Chapter 5 Page 3</ref> Some groups have also been accused of tolerating severe [[child abuse|physical abuse of children]].<ref>[http://www.amishabuse.com Amish Abuse: Amish Deception]</ref> Although the rate of physical or sexual abuse does not appear to be higher in the Amish community than in the general public, their physical and social isolation from the outside world make it more difficult for victims to seek help.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}}

The [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]], newspaper ''[[Intelligencer Journal]]'' published a four-part series on domestic abuse, child abuse, and child sexual abuse inside Amish (and Mennonite) families within the heart of Pennsylvania Dutch country. These articles suggested that abuse may be systematically silenced inside Amish (and Mennonite) churches, because of the emphasis on Gelassenheit and male authority in the church. The series, published on August 4, 2004, began with an article entitled "Silenced by Shame: Hidden in Plain Sight," and ended with an article entitled "The Ties That Bind Can Form the Noose." As the article "Beliefs, Culture Can Perpetuate Abuse in Families, Churches" makes clear, child and spousal abuse may be concealed or denied. One reaction from an Old Order woman was the following: "They made Plain women look too stupid and ignorant to know how to get help."<ref>Kraybill, D.B. and J.P. Hurd (2006). Horse-and-Buggy Mennonites: hoofbeats of humility in a postmodern world. The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, p. 159–160.</ref>

The Amish community recently started to address the issue of abuse awareness. The Amish publisher [[Pathway Publishing Company|Pathway Publishers]] ran several series in the magazine ''[[Family Life]]'' that touch upon the subjects of sexual and physical abuse. They have also distributed, free of charge, resources for abused persons, and for their families. Some Amish have objected to the articles, preferring that the subject not be raised, claiming these problems exist only among the "English".<ref>Rensberger, Susan. (2003) The Complete Idiot's Guide to Understanding the Amish. New York, Alpha Books (Penguin Group), p. 181–183</ref>

==See also==
* [[Amish furniture]]
* [[Amish music]]
* [[Amish school shooting]]
* [[Fancy Dutch]]
* [[Martyrs Mirror]]
* [[Northkill Amish Settlement]]
* ''[[Ordnung]]''

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
*{{cite book|author=Hostetler, John A.|authorlink= John A. Hostetler|title=Amish Society|edition=fourth|ocation=Baltimore, Maryland; London|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-8018-4442-3}}
*{{cite book|author=Kraybill, Donald B.|authorlink=Donald Kraybill|title=Anabaptist World USA|publisher=Herald Press|year=2000|isbn=0836191633}}
*{{cite book|title=The Riddle of Amish Culture|author=Kraybill, Donald B.|authorlink=Donald Kraybill|edition=Revised|year=2001|isbn=080186772X}}
*{{cite book |last=Smith |first=C. Henry |other=Revised and expanded by Cornelius Krahn |title=Smith's Story of the Mennonites |year=1981 |publisher=Faith and Life Press |location=Newton, Kansas |isbn=0-87303-069-9| pages=249–356 }}
* {{cite web |title=Amish America: Swiss Amish | url=http://amishamerica.typepad.com/amish_america/swiss_amish/ | accessdate=March 26, 2009}}

==Further reading==
{{sourcesstart|2}}
* ''Die Botschaft'' (Lancaster, PA 17608-0807; 717-392-1321). Magazine for Old Order Amish published by non-Amish; only Amish may place advertisements.
* ''The Budget'' (P.O. Box 249, Sugarcreek, OH 44681; 330-852-4634). Weekly newspaper by and for Amish. Online information: http://www.thebudgetnewspaper.com/
* ''The Diary'' (P.O. Box 98, Gordonville, PA 17529). Monthly newsmagazine by and for Old Order Amish.
*DeWalt, Mark W. ''Amish Education in the United States and Canada''. Rowman and Littlefield Education, 2006. 224 pp.
*Garret, Ottie A and Ruth Irene Garret. ''True Stories of the X-Amish: Banned, Excommunicated and Shunned'', Horse Cave, KY: Neu Leben, 1998.
*Garret, Ruth Irene. ''Crossing Over: One Woman's Escape from Amish Life'', Thomas More, 1998.
*Good, Merle and Phyllis. ''20 Most Asked Questions about the Amish and Mennonites''. Intercourse, PA: Good Books, 1979.
*Hostetler, John A. ed. ''Amish Roots: A Treasury of History, Wisdom, and Lore''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. 319 pp.
* Igou, Brad. ''The Amish in Their Own Words: Amish Writings from 25 Years of Family Life'', Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1999. 400 pp.
*Johnson-Weiner, Karen M. ''Train Up a Child: Old Order Amish and Mennonite Schools''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006. 304 pp.
*Keim, Albert. ''Compulsory Education and the Amish: The Right Not to be Modern''. Beacon Press, 1976. 211 pp.
*Kraybill, Donald B. ''The Amish of Lancaster County''. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2008.
*Kraybill, Donald B. ed. ''The Amish and the State''. Foreword by Martin E. Marty. 2nd ed.: Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. 351 pp.
*Kraybill, Donald B. and Marc A. Olshan, ed. ''The Amish Struggle with Modernity''. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1994. 304 pp.
*Kraybill, Donald B. and Carl D. Bowman. ''On the Backroad to Heaven: Old Order Hutterites, Mennonites, Amish, and Brethren''. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. 330pp.
*Kraybill, Donald B. and Steven M. Nolt. ''Amish Enterprise: From Plows to Profits''. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. 286 pp.
*Kraybill, Donald B., Steven M. Nolt and David L. Weaver-Zercher. ''Amish Grace: How Forgiveness Transcended Tragedy''. New York: Jossey-Bass, 2006. 256 pp.
*Luthy, David. ''Amish Settlements That Failed, 1840–1960''. LaGrange, IN: Pathway Publishers, 1991. 555pp.
*Nolt, Steven M. ''A history of the Amish''. Rev. and updated ed.: Intercourse, Pa.: Good Books, 2003. 379 pp.
*Nolt, Steven M. and Thomas J. Myers. ''Plain Diversity: Amish Cultures and Identities''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007. 256 pp.
*Schachtman, Tom. ''Rumspringa: To be or not to be Amish''. New York: North Point Press, 2006. 286 pp.
*Schlabach, Theron F. ''Peace, Faith, Nation: Mennonites and Amish in Nineteenth-Century America''. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1988. 415 pp.
*Schmidt, Kimberly D., Diane Zimmerman Umble, and Steven D. Reschly, eds. ''Strangers at Home: Amish and Mennonite Women in History''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. 416 pp.
*Scott, Stephen. ''The Amish Wedding and Other Special Occasions of the Old Order Communities''. Intercourse, PA: Good Books, 1988. 128pp.
*Stevick, Richard A. ''Growing Up Amish: the Teenage Years''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007. 320 pp.
*Umble, Diane Zimmerman. ''Holding the Line: the Telephone in Old Order Mennonite and Amish Life''. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000. 192 pp.
*Umble, Diane Zimmerman and David L. Weaver-Zercher, eds. ''The Amish and the Media''. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008. 288 pp.
* Weaver-Zercher, David L. ''The Amish in the American Imagination''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001. 280 pp.
* Yoder, Harvey. ''The Happening: Nickel Mines School Tragedy''. Berlin, OH: TGS International, 2007. 173 pp.

{{sourcesend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Amish}}
* [http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/A4574ME.html "Amish" from Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online]
* [http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/Index.asp Amish Studies] at Young Center for Anabaptist & Pietist Studies at [[Elizabethtown College]]
* [http://missourifolkloresociety.truman.edu/Amish.htm The Amish in Missouri, from the Missouri Folklore Society]


[[Category:American people of Swiss descent]]
[[Category:Amish|*]]
[[Category:Christianity in Indiana]]
[[Category:Christianity in Ohio]]
[[Category:Christianity in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Christianity in Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in North America]]
[[Category:History of Lancaster, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Germanic peoples]]
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Amish

2010-06-28T20:04:41Z

82.21.69.196:

{{About|Old Order Amish, but also refers to other Amish sects}}
{{Infobox Religious group|
| group = Amish
| image = [[Image:Lancaster County Amish 03.jpg|200px]]
| poptime = 227,000 (Old Order Amish)<ref name="Scolford">{{cite web|title=Amish population nearly doubles in 16 years|url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080820/ap_on_re_us/thriving_amish|author=Mark Scolford|date=2008-08-20|accessdate=2008-08-21|publisher=Yahoo! News}}</ref>
| popplace = United States (notably [[Ohio]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Indiana]] and [[New York]])<br/>
Canada (notably [[Ontario]])
| founder = [[Jakob Ammann]]
| rels = [[Anabaptist]]
| scrips = [[The Bible]]
| langs = [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]], [[Swiss German]], [[English language|English]]
}}
The various '''Amish''' ({{pronEng|ˈɑːmɪʃ}}, {{respell|Ay|mish}}) or '''Amish Mennonite''' church fellowships are Christian religious denominations that form a very traditional subgrouping of [[Mennonite]] churches. The Amish are known for [[simple living]], [[plain dress]], and reluctance to adopt modern convenience.

The history of the Amish church began with a schism in Switzerland within a group of Swiss and [[Alsace|Alsatian]] [[Anabaptist]]s in 1693 led by [[Jakob Ammann]].<ref>Kraybill (2001) pp. 7–8</ref> Those who followed Ammann became known as Amish.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 8</ref> These followers were originally from three main places: the German-speaking parts of Switzerland, the Alsace of France, and the Palatinate of Germany. In the early 18th century, many Amish and Mennonites emigrated to Pennsylvania for a variety of reasons. Today, the most traditional descendants of the Amish continue to speak [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]], also known as Pennsylvania Dutch. However, a dialect of Swiss German predominates in some Old Order Amish communities, especially in the American state of [[Indiana]].<ref name="gameo">{{cite web|title=Berne, Indiana, Old Order Amish Settlement|url=http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/B4762.html|author=Zook, Noah and Samuel L Yoder|year=1998|accessdate=2009-04-03}}</ref> Over the years, the Amish churches have divided many times over doctrinal disputes. The 'Old Order' Amish, a conservative faction that withdrew from fellowship with the wider body of Amish in the 1860s, are those that have most emphasized traditional practices and beliefs. There are as many as eight different subgroups of Amish with most belonging, in their order of conservatism, to the [[Swartzentruber Amish]], Andy Weaver, Old Order, [[New Order Amish|New Order ]] or [[Beachy Amish Mennonite|Beachy Amish]] sects. As of 2000, over 165,000 Old Order Amish live in Canada and the United States. A new study, produced in 2008, suggests their numbers have increased to 227,000.<ref name="Scolford"/>

Amish church membership begins with [[Believer's baptism|baptism]], usually between the ages of 16 and 25. It is a requirement for marriage, and once a person has affiliated with the church, she or he may only marry within the faith. Church districts average between 20 to 40 families and worship services are held every other Sunday in a member's home. The district is led by a bishop and several ministers and deacons.<ref>Kraybill, Donald; Olshan, Marc A. ''The Amish Struggle with Modernity'', UPNE, 1994.</ref>

The rules of the church — the ''[[Ordnung]]'' — must be observed by every member. These rules cover most aspects of day-to-day living, and include prohibitions or limitations on the use of power-line electricity, telephones and automobiles, as well as regulations on clothing. Many Amish church members may not buy insurance or accept government assistance such as [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]. As [[Anabaptist]]s, Amish church members practice [[nonresistance]] and will not perform any type of military service. Members who do not conform to these expectations and who cannot be convinced to [[repentance|repent]] are excommunicated. In addition to excommunication, members may be [[Shunning|shunned]] — a practice that limits social contacts to shame the wayward member into returning to the church. During adolescence (''[[rumspringa]]'' or "running around" in some communities), nonconforming behavior that would result in the shunning of an adult who had made the permanent commitment of baptism may meet with a degree of forbearance.<ref>http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/series/inside/3660/amish-rumspringa</ref>

Amish church groups seek to maintain a degree of separation from the non-Amish world. There is generally a heavy emphasis on church and family relationships. They typically operate their own [[one-room school]]s and discontinue formal education at grade eight. They value rural life, manual labor and humility. Due to intermarriage among this relatively [[Founder effect|small original population]], some groups have increased incidences of certain inheritable conditions.<ref>http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/2004/07/23/sids.php</ref>

==Population and distribution==
[[File:FarmersMarketPrestonMN.JPG|thumb|left|Amish farmers' market in [[Preston, Minnesota]].]]
A lack of detailed record keeping among the Old Order Amish, along with other factors, makes it difficult to estimate the total size of their population. Rough estimates from various studies have placed their numbers at 125,000 in 1992, 166,000 in 2000, and 221,000 in 2008, for a growth rate of nearly 4% per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/PDF/Statistics/Population_Change_Summary_1992_2008.pdf|title= Amish Population Change 1992–2008|publisher= Young Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies, Elizabethtown College|accessdate=2009-07-08}}</ref> From 1992 to 2008, population growth among the Amish in North America was 84%. During that time they established 184 new settlements and moved into six new states.<ref name="Trends">{{cite web|url=http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/Population_Trends_1992_2008.asp|title=Population Trends 1992–2008|publisher=Young Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies, Elizabethtown College|accessdate=2009-07-08}}</ref> In 2000, approximately 165,620 Old Order Amish resided in the United States, of which 73,609 were church members.<ref name='kraybill-2000'>{{cite book|author=Kraybill, Donald B.|authorlink=Donald Kraybill|title=Anabaptist World USA|publisher=Herald Press|year=2000|isbn=0836191633}}</ref> The Amish are among the fastest-growing populations in the world, with an average of 6.8 children per family.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Julia A. Ericksen |coauthors=Eugene P. Ericksen, John A. Hostetler, Gertrude E. Huntington |title=Fertility Patterns and Trends among the Old Order Amish |journal= Population Studies |issue=33 |month=July | year=1979 |issn=00324728 |oclc=39648293 |pages=255–76}}</ref>

There are Old Order communities in 27 American states and the Canadian province of [[Ontario]]; [[Ohio]] has the largest population (55,000), followed by [[Pennsylvania]] (51,000) and [[Indiana]] (38,000).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/Population_by_State_2008.asp|title=Amish Population by State (2008)|publisher=oung Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies, Elizabethtown College|accessdate=2009-07-08}}</ref> The largest Amish settlements are in [[Holmes County, Ohio|Holmes County]] in central Ohio, [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania|Lancaster County]] in south-central Pennsylvania, and [[Elkhart County, Indiana|Elkhart]] and [[LaGrange County, Indiana|LaGrange]] counties in northeast Indiana.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/Largest_Settlements_2008.asp|title=The Twelve Largest Amish Settlements (2008)|publisher=Young Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies, Elizabethtown College|accessdate=2009-07-08}}</ref> The largest concentration of Amish west of the [[Mississippi River]] is in [[Missouri]], with other settlements in eastern [[Iowa]], and [[Southeast Minnesota]].<ref>[http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/Population_by_State_2009.asp Amish Population by State (2009)]</ref> Because of rapid population growth in Amish communities, new settlements are formed to obtain sufficient farmland. Other reasons for new settlements include locating in isolated areas that support their lifestyle, moving to areas with cultures conducive to their way of life, maintaining proximity to family or other Amish groups, and sometimes to resolve church or leadership conflicts.<ref name="Trends"/>

A small [[Beachy Amish]] congregation associated with [[Weavertown Amish Mennonite Church]] exists in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]].<ref>Michael Clifford, [https://www.tribune.ie/archive/article/2000/aug/06/at-ease-with-the-alternative-amish-way/ "At ease with the alternative Amish way]", ''[[Sunday Tribune]]'', August 6, 2000.</ref>

==Ethnicity==
[[Image:Amish Buggie sign.jpg|thumb|Signs erected in areas with Old Order Amish, Old Order Mennonite or members of a few different Old Order 'Brethren' groups, alerting motorists to the presence of horse-drawn vehicles.]]
The Amish largely share a [[Swiss (people)|Swiss]]-[[Ethnic German|German]] ancestry.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} They meet the criteria of an [[ethnic group]]. However, they themselves generally use the term only for members of their faith community, and not as an ethnic designation. Those who choose to affiliate with the church, or young children raised in Amish homes, but too young to yet be church members, are considered to be Amish. Certain [[Mennonite]] churches have a high number of people who were formerly from Amish congregations. Although more Amish immigrated to America in the 19th century than during the 18th century, most of today's Amish descend from 18th century immigrants. The latter tended to emphasize tradition to a greater extent, and were perhaps more likely to maintain a separate Amish identity.<ref>Nolt, S. M. ''A History of the Amish'', Intercourse:Good Books, 1992, p. 104</ref>
There are a number of Amish Mennonite church groups that had never in their history been associated with the Old Order Amish.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} The former Western Ontario Mennonite Conference (WOMC) was made up almost entirely of former Amish Mennonites who reunited with the Mennonite Church in Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/W4781ME.html|author=Gingerich, Orland|title=Western Ontario Mennonite Conference|publisher=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online|year=1990|accessdate=2008-07-05}}</ref> Orland Gingerich's book, ''The Amish of Canada'', devotes the vast majority of its pages not to the [[Beachy Amish|Beachy]] or Old Order Amish, but to congregations in the former WOMC.

==History==
The Amish Mennonite movement descends from the 16th century fellowship known as the [[Swiss Brethren]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} The [[Swiss Brethren]] were [[Anabaptist]]s, and are often viewed as having been a part of a [[Radical Reformation]]. [[Anabaptist]] means "one who baptizes again"; a reference to those who had been baptized as infants, but later adopted a belief in "believer's baptism", and then let themselves again be baptized as adults. These [[Swiss Brethren]] trace their origination to [[Felix Manz]] (ca. 1498–1527) and [[Conrad Grebel]] (ca. 1498–1526), who broke from reformer [[Huldrych Zwingli]].

The Amish movement takes its name from [[Jakob Ammann]] (c. 1656 —c. 1730), a Swiss Mennonite leader. Ammann believed Mennonites — peaceful Anabaptists of the [[Low Countries]] and Germany — were drifting away from the teachings of [[Menno Simons]] and the 1632 Mennonite [[Dordrecht Confession of Faith]]. Ammann favored stronger church discipline, including a more rigid application of [[shunning]], the social exclusion of excommunicated members. Swiss Anabaptists, who were scattered by persecution throughout the [[Alsace]] and the [[Electoral Palatinate|Palatinate]], never practiced strict shunning as had some lowland Anabaptists.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} Ammann insisted upon this practice, even to the point of expecting spouses to refuse to eat with each other, until the banned spouse repented.<ref>Smith, pp. 68–69, 84–85.</ref> This type of strict literalism, on this issue, as well as others, brought about a division among the Mennonites of Southern Germany, the Alsace and Switzerland in 1693, and led to withdrawal of those who sided with Ammann.

Swiss Anabaptism developed, from this point, in two parallel streams. Those following Ammann became known as ''Amish'' or ''Amish Mennonite''. The others eventually formed the basis of the [[Swiss Mennonite Conference]]. Because of this common heritage, Amish and Mennonites retain many similarities. Those who leave the Amish fold tend to join conservative Mennonite congregations.<ref>Smith, pp. 212–214</ref><ref>Kraybill (2000), ''The Anabaptist Escalator'', pp. 63–64.</ref>
[[Image:amish cemetery.gif|thumb|240px|An old Amish cemetery in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]], 1941.]]
Amish Mennonites began migrating to [[Pennsylvania]] in the 18th century as part of a larger migration from the [[Palatinate (region)|Palatinate]] and neighboring areas. This migration was a reaction to religious wars, poverty, and [[religious persecution]] on the Continent.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} The first Amish immigrants went to [[Berks County, Pennsylvania]], but later moved, motivated by land issues and by security concerns tied to the [[French and Indian War]]{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}. Many eventually settled in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]]. Other groups later settled in, or spread to [[Alabama]], [[Delaware]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Iowa]], [[Kansas]], [[Kentucky]], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], [[Mississippi]], [[Missouri]], [[Nebraska]], [[New York]], [[Ohio]], [[Maryland]], [[Tennessee]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Maine]], and Canada.

The Amish congregations remaining in Europe slowly merged with the [[Mennonites]]. The last Amish congregation to merge with the Mennonites was the Ixheim Amish congregation, which merged with the neighboring Mennonite Church in 1937. Some Mennonite congregations, including most in the Alsace, are descended directly from former Amish congregations.<ref>Nolt, S. M. ''A History of the Amish'', Intercourse: Good Books, 1992</ref>

Most Amish communities that were established in North America did not ultimately retain their Amish identity. The original major split that resulted in the loss of identity occurred in the 1860s. During that decade ''Dienerversammlungen'' (ministerial conferences) were held in [[Wayne County, Ohio]], concerning how the Amish should deal with the pressures of modern society. The meetings themselves were a progressive idea; for bishops to assemble to discuss uniformity was an unprecedented notion in the Amish church.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} By the first several meetings, the more traditionally minded bishops agreed to [[boycott]] the conferences. The more progressive members, comprising approximately two thirds of the group, retained the name [[Amish Mennonite]]. Many of these eventually united with the [[Mennonite Church]], and other Mennonite denominations, especially in the early 20th century. The more traditionally minded groups became known as the Old Order Amish.<ref>Kraybill (2000), p. 67.</ref>

==Religious practices==
===Congregations and districts===
The majority of Old Order Amish congregations do not have church buildings, but hold worship services in private homes. Thus they are sometimes called "House Amish." This practice is based on a verse from the New Testament: "The God who made the world and all things in it, since He is Lord of heaven and earth, does not dwell in temples made with hands…" (Acts 17:24). In addition, the early Anabaptists, from whom the Amish are descended, were religiously persecuted, and it may have been safer to pray in the privacy of a home.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}

Unlike evangelical, charismatic, and Baptist style church congregations whose membership is based on whoever visits, stays, and joins, the Amish congregations are based on the physical location of their residence. Contiguous properties are encircled with a congregation's physical boundary. Each congregation is made up of 25–30 neighboring farm or related families whose membership in the congregation in which their farm is located is the only congregation available for membership. Accordingly, each member is also a neighbor. There is no "church hopping" from church to church like modern Protestant churches, and relationships are assumed to be long-term.
With long-term neighbor relationships as the norm, extending over time to include multiple generations as members, the implications have major impacts on relationships. Conflict resolution, gossip, grudges, neighborliness, all work to cement relationships vastly different than the socially mobile Protestant church culture.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}
Congregations meet every other week for the entire Sunday at a member family's farm. Each member family rotates as host so that each year each member family serves as host. This practice conforms to the Biblical teaching ''to forsake not the assembling of ourselves together, as the manner of some is''.<ref>Hebrews 10:25</ref>
Congregations own common property in the form of tables, chairs, and wagons to transport them from farm to farm every other week. In interleaving weeks, time is available to visit a Sunday with family, neighbors and friends in and outside the congregation of their residence and membership.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}

Each congregation's leadership is made up with one of the members serving as bishop, one as deacon, and one as secretary. Each congregation's leadership, over time, differs from other congregations within enjoining districts in teaching, doctrine, protocol, dress, routines. Congregation leaders meet with other congregation leaders within the same district from time to time and compare needs, problems, teachings, etc.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}

===Humility===
Two key concepts for understanding Amish practices are their rejection of ''Hochmut'' (pride, arrogance, haughtiness) and the high value they place on ''Demut'' (humility) and ''[[Gelassenheit]]'' (calmness, composure, placidity) — often translated as "submission" or "letting-be". Gelassenheit is perhaps better understood as a reluctance to be forward, to be self-promoting, or to assert oneself. The Amish's willingness to submit to the "Will of God", expressed through group norms, is at odds with the individualism so central to the wider American culture. The Amish anti-individualist orientation is the motive for rejecting labor-saving technologies that might make one less dependent on community. Modern innovations like electricity might spark a competition for status goods, or photographs might cultivate personal vanity.

===Separation from the world===
The Amish consider the Bible a trustworthy guide for living but do not quote it excessively. To do so would be considered a sinful showing of pride. Separation from the rest of society is based on being a "chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s own people"({{bibleverse|1|Peter|2:9|131}}), not being "conformed to this world" ({{bibleverse||Romans|12:2|131}}), avoiding the "love [of] the world or the things in the world" ({{bibleverse|1|John|2:15|131}}) and the belief that "friendship with the world is enmity with God" ({{bibleverse||James|4:4|131}}).<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp. 37 and 45.</ref>

Both out of concern for the effect of absence from the family life, and to minimize contact with outsiders, many Old Order Amish prefer to work at home.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} Increased prices of farmland and decreasing revenues for low-tech farming have forced many Amish to work away from the farm, particularly in construction and manufacturing, and, in those areas where there is a significant tourist trade, to engage in shopwork and crafts for profit. The Amish are ambivalent about both the consequences of this contact and the commoditization of their culture. The [[decorative art]]s play little role in authentic Amish life (though the prized [[Quilt#Amish|Amish quilts]] are a genuine cultural inheritance, unlike [[hex sign]]s), and are in fact regarded with suspicion, as a field where egotism and a display of vanity can easily develop.

Amish lifestyles vary between, and sometimes within, communities. These differences range from profound to minuscule. Some of the more conservative [[Beachy Amish]] congregations, which permit automobiles, may mandate that automobiles be painted black. In some communities, various Old Order groups may vary over the type of suspenders males are required to wear, if any, or how many pleats there should be in a bonnet, or if one should wear a bonnet at all. Groups in fellowship can intermarry and have communion with one another, an important consideration for avoiding problems that may result from genetically closed populations. Thus minor disagreements within communities, or within districts, over dairy equipment or telephones in workshops may or may not splinter churches or divide multiple communities.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}}

Some of the strictest Old Order Amish groups are the [[Nebraska Amish]] ("White-top" Amish), [[Troyer Amish]], and the [[Swartzendruber Amish]].<ref>Kraybill (2000), p. 68.</ref> Most Old Order Amish people speak [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] in the home, with the exception of several areas in the Midwest, where a variety of Swiss German may be used. In [[Beachy Amish]] settings, the use of English in church is the norm, but with some families continuing to use Pennsylvania German, or a variety of Swiss German, at home.

==Shunning==
Members who break church rules may be called to [[Confession|confess]] before the congregation. Those who will not correct their behavior are [[excommunication|excommunicated]]. Excommunicated members are [[Shunning|shunned]] to shame the individual into returning to the church. Members may interact with and even help a shunned person, but may not accept anything — like a handshake, payment or automobile ride — directly from the wayward person. Some communities have split in the last century over how they apply the practice of shunning. This form of discipline is recommended by the bishop after a long process of working with the individual and must be unanimously approved by the congregation.<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp. 131–141</ref> Excommunicated members will be accepted back into the church if they return and confess their wrongdoing.

==Religious services==
The Old Order Amish typically have worship services every second Sunday in private homes. A minority of Old Order congregations may have 'Sunday School' on the alternate Sundays. The typical district has 80 adults and 90 children under age 19.<ref>Based on data from Lancaster county collected. Kraybill (2001), p. 91.</ref> Worship begins with a short sermon by one of several preachers or the bishop of the church district, followed by scripture reading and prayer (this prayer is silent in some communities), then another, longer sermon. The service is interspersed with [[hymn]]s sung without instrumental accompaniment or harmony. This is meant to put the emphasis on what is said, not how it is being said. Many communities use an ancient hymnal known as the [[Ausbund]]. The hymns contained in the [[Ausbund]] were generally written in what is referred to as [[Early New High German]], a predecessor to modern [[Standard German]]. Singing is usually very slow, and a single hymn may take 15 minutes or longer to finish. In Old Order Amish services, scripture is either read or recited from the German translation of [[Martin Luther]]. Worship is followed by lunch and socializing. Church services are conducted in a mixture of Standard German (or 'Bible Dutch') and [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]]. Amish ministers and deacons are selected by lot<ref>Based on {{bibleverse||Acts|1:23–26|131}}</ref> out of a group of men nominated by the congregation. They serve for life and have no formal training. Amish bishops are similarly chosen by lot from those selected as preachers.

The Old Order Amish do not work on [[Sabbath in Christianity|Sunday]], except to care for animals. Some congregations may forbid making purchases or exchanging money on Sundays. Also, within ''some'' congregations a motor vehicle and driver may not be hired on Sunday, except in an emergency.<ref>Kauffman (2001), p. 125.</ref>

===Communion===
[[Image:AmishHymnal.jpg|280px|thumb|A German hymnal]]
Generally, the Amish hold [[Eucharist|communion]] in the spring and the autumn, and not necessarily during regular church services. Communion is only held open to those who have been baptized. As with regular services, the men and women sit separately. The ritual ends with members washing and drying each other's feet.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.amishnews.com/amisharticles/religioustraditions.htm | title=Amish Religious Traditions | publisher=Amish Country News | author=Brad Igou |year=1995 | accessdate=2007-09-10}}</ref>

===Baptism===
The practice of [[believer's baptism]] is the Amish's admission into the church. They and other Anabaptists do not accept that a child can be meaningfully baptized. Their children are expected to follow the will of their parents in all issues, but when they come of age, they must choose to make an adult, permanent commitment to God and the community. Those who come to be baptized sit with one hand over their face, representing humility and submission to the church. The candidates are asked three questions:
*1. Can you ''renounce'' the devil, the world, and your own flesh and blood?
*2. Can you commit yourself to Christ and His church, and to abide by it and therein to live and to die?
*3. And in all order ([[Ordnung]]) of the church, according to the word of the Lord, to be ''obedient'' and ''submissive'' to it and to help therein?<ref name="Kraybill 2001, pp. 116–119">Kraybill (2001), pp. 116–119.</ref>
Typically, a deacon ladles water from a bucket into the bishop's cupped hands, which drips over the candidate's head. Then the bishop blesses the young men and greets them into the fellowship of the church with a [[holy kiss]]. The bishop's wife similarly blesses and greets the young women.<ref name="Kraybill 2001, pp. 116–119"/>

Baptism is a permanent vow to follow the church and the Ordnung. Since the church leaders only perform weddings for members, baptism is an incentive for young couples with romantic ties, funneling them toward the church. Girls tend to join at an earlier age than boys. About five or six months before the ceremony, classes are held to instruct the candidates, teaching them the strict implications of what they are about to profess. The Saturday before baptism, they are given their last chance to withdraw. The difficulty of walking the narrow path is emphasized, and the applicants are instructed it is better not to vow than to make the vow and break it later on.<ref>The Riddle of Amish Culture | Kraybill | p. 116–7</ref>

Membership is taken seriously.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} Those who join the church, and then later leave, may be shunned by their former congregation and their families. Those who choose to not join can continue to relate freely with their friends and family. Church growth occurs through having large families and by retaining those children as part of the community. The Old Order Amish do not [[Proselytism|proselytize]], as a rule. Conversion to the Amish faith is rare, but does occasionally occur as in the case of historian David Luthy.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=JumMMKC44OoC&pg=PA147&lpg=PA147&dq=%22david+luthy%22+convert&source=bl&ots=f6JfOao0Ae&sig=xEUojs2ulw1T6YZJaP9XO0-vWjM&hl=en&ei=UllDS6TQMJW8ngfMxrDYAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CBEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22david%20luthy%22%20convert&f=false The sociology of Canadian Mennonites, Hutterites, and Amish: a ..., Volume 2 by Donovan E. Smucker, pg 147]</ref>

===Funerals===
[[File:Amish cemetery.JPG|thumb|175px|A modern Amish cemetery in 2006. Stones are plain, small, and simple.]]

Funeral customs appear to vary more from community to community than other religious services.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} The Amish hold funeral services in the home rather than using the funeral parlor. Instead of referring to the deceased with stories of his life, and eulogizing him, services tend to focus on the creation story and biblical accounts of resurrection. In Adams County, Indiana, and Allen County, Indiana, the Old Order Amish use only wooden grave markers that eventually decay and disappear. The same is true of other, smaller communities that have their roots in these two counties.

After the funeral, the hearse carries the casket to the cemetery for a reading from the Bible; perhaps a hymn is read (rather than sung) and the [[Lord's Prayer]] is recited. The Amish usually, but not always, choose Amish cemeteries, and purchase gravestones that are uniform, modest, and plain; in recent years, these have been inscribed in English. The bodies of both men and women are dressed in white clothing by family members of the same sex, with women in the white cape and apron of their wedding outfit.<ref>Kraybill (2001) p. 159.</ref> After a funeral, the community gathers together to share a meal.

==Family life==
===Family===

Having children, raising them, and socialization with neighbors and relatives are the greatest functions of the Amish family. Amish believe large families are a blessing from God.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 88.</ref> The main purposes of "family" can be illustrated within the Amish culture in a variety of ways. The family has authority over the individual, not only during infancy and in youth, but throughout life. Loyalties to parents, grandparents, and other relatives may change over time but they will never cease. A church district is measured by the number of families (households), rather than by the number of baptized persons.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 87.</ref> Families take turns hosting the biweekly preaching service. Parents stress their responsibilities and obligations for the correct nurture of their children. They consider themselves accountable to the Lord for the spiritual welfare of their children.
[[Image:AmishRakingHay.jpg|thumb|left|Amish man working in southeast Ohio.]]
[[Image:Amish children playing baseball, Lyndonville NY.jpg|thumb|Amish children playing baseball, [[Lyndonville, New York]].]]
The "family" provides the member with a status within the home and within the community. A person is more of a member of the family, rather than an individual. Each member has a job, a position, a responsibility, and a status. Chores within the home are normally divided by gender. The Amish traditional family provides much of the education for the child. Although the formal education ends after they finish [[eighth grade]], the boy or girl is trained for their adult tasks. The boys will work with the father in the fields, in the barn, and around the out buildings. The girls work inside the home and garden, alongside the mother. The home and family become the school for "on the job" training. Amish youth, by and large, see their parents working hard, and they want to help. They want to learn and to be a productive part of the family.<ref>[http://www.amishnews.com/amisharticles/traditionalfamily.htm The Traditional Family & The Amish]</ref>

<blockquote>
"Christ is the head of man, and man is the head of woman. One of the greatest needs of our time is men who will assume the responsibility that God has placed on their shoulders. Not to accept that responsibility is to lie down on the job, to fail God’s will." Family Life, Amish monthly magazine.
</blockquote>

Sports and recreation are shared by all members of the family. There are church outings and family get-togethers where activities are entered into and shared by all.

===Child discipline===

The Amish stress strict obedience in their children, and this is taught and enforced by parents and preachers. Several passages in the Bible are used to support this view. Their children, as do all children, may pout or resist a parent's request. However, things such as tantrums, making faces, calling another bad names, and general disobedience are rare because the child knows that those actions will result in [[corporal punishment]]. Any youthful dissatisfactions are usually verbally expressed, but profanity is never allowed because the guilty child can expect swift punishment.<ref>Amish Society{Hostetler pp.160</ref>

===Youth, courting, and Rumspringa===

''[[Rumspringa]]'' ([[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] lit. "running around") is the period of adolescence that begins the time of serious courtship, and, during which, church rules may be relaxed. As in non-Amish families, it is understood that there will likely be a certain amount of misbehavior, but it is neither encouraged nor overlooked. At the end of this period, Amish young adults are baptized into the church, and usually marry, with marriage permitted only among church members. A small percentage of the young people choose not to join the church, deciding to live the rest of their lives in wider society and marry someone outside the community.<ref name="asoc-146">Amish Society|Hostetler (Fourth Edition), p. 146.</ref>

The age for courting begins at sixteen (in some communities, the girl could be as young as fourteen). The most common event for boy-girl association is the biweekly Sunday evening sing; however, the youth use sewing bees, frolics, and weddings for other opportunities. The sing is often at the same house or barn as the Sunday morning service. Teens may arrive from several close-by districts, thus providing socialization on a wider scale than from a single church.<ref name="asoc-146"/>

On the day of the sing, and after the chores are over, the young man dresses in his for-gut clothes, makes his appearance neat, and ensures his buggy and horse are clean. A sister or sister's friend may ride with him, but usually not his girlfriend. At the sing, boys are on one side of a long table, the girls on the other side. Each person is able to announce his or her choice of a hymn, and only the faster ones are chosen. Conversation takes place between songs. The formal end of the sing is at about ten o'clock, after which there is a great deal of talking, joking, and visiting. The boys who do not have a girlfriend may pair up with a Maidel (girl).<ref name="asoc-146"/> Following this, the boy takes the girl home in his open-topped courting buggy.

Marrying a first-cousin is not allowed among the Amish, and second-cousin relationships are frowned upon, though they may occur. Marriage to a "Schwartz" cousin (first cousin once removed) is not permitted in Lancaster County.

<blockquote>
The onset of courtship is usually not openly discussed within the family or among friends. Excessive teasing by siblings or friends at the wrong time is considered invasive. Respecting privacy, or at least pretending not to know, is a prevailing mode of behavior, even among parents.<ref name="asoc-146"/>
</blockquote>

===Weddings===

Weddings are typically held on Tuesdays and Thursdays in November to early December, after the harvest is in.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 148.</ref> The bride wears a new blue linen dress that will be worn again on other formal occasions. She wears no makeup, and will not receive an engagement or wedding ring because the ''[[Ordnung]]'' prohibits personal jewelry. The marriage ceremony itself may take several hours, followed by a community reception that includes a banquet, singing, and storytelling. Newlyweds spend the wedding night at the home of the bride's parents. [[Celery]] is one of the symbolic foods served at Amish weddings. Celery is also placed in vases and used to decorate the house instead of flowers.<ref>See [http://www.amishfamilyvalues.com/amish.htm this page] [http://www.amishnews.com/amisharticles/religioustraditions.htm and this page] for more about the tradition associating celery with Amish weddings.</ref> Rather than immediately taking up housekeeping, the newlywed couple will spend several weekends visiting the homes of friends and relatives who attended the wedding.

===Retirement===

When the Amish choose to retire is neither a set nor fixed time. Considerations of the person's health, the family's needs, and personal desires all play an important part in determining when retirement may occur, usually between the ages of fifty to seventy. The elderly do not go to a retirement facility; they remain at home. If the family house is large enough they continue living with everyone else. Oftentimes there is an adjacent dwelling, called the ''Grossdaadi Haus'', where grandparents take up residence. Retired people continue to help with work on the farm and within the home, working at their own pace as they are able. This allows them independence but does not strip them of family involvement.<ref>Amish Society|Hostetler pp.168–169</ref>

The Amish method of retirement ensures that the elderly maintain contact with family and relatives. Loneliness is not a problem because they keep meaningful social contacts through various community events, such as frolics, auctions, weddings, holiday, and other community activities.<ref>Amish Society{Hostetler pp.170</ref>

If the aged become ill or infirm, then the other family members take up caring for them. The elderly parents once helped raise the younger members, therefore the younger family care for them in their old age.

==Lifestyle and culture==
{{Wikinews|Pennsylvania Amish farmer jailed for outhouse violations}}Amish lifestyle is dictated by the ''[[Ordnung]]'' (German, meaning: order), which differs slightly from community to community, and, within a community, from district to district. What is acceptable in one community may not be acceptable in another. No summary of Amish lifestyle and culture can be totally adequate, because there are few generalities that are true for all Amish. Groups may separate over matters such as the width of a hat-brim, the color of buggies, or various other issues. The use of [[tobacco]] (excluding cigarettes, which are considered "worldly")<ref>[http://www.amishnews.com/amisharticles/amishtobacco.htm "The Amish vs. Tobacco." by Brad Igou. 1992. Amish Country News]</ref> and moderate use of alcohol<ref>"Ohio's Amish seek help for underage drinking." By Amy Beth Graves (AP). Sunday, May 21, 2000. [[Cincinnati Enquirer]] [http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2000/05/21/loc_ohios_amish_seek.html]</ref> are generally permitted, particularly among older and more conservative groups.

===Modern technology===
[[Image:Amish vs modern transportation.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Modern and Amish transportation in [[New Wilmington, Pennsylvania]].]]
The Older Order Amish are known for their avoidance of certain modern technologies. Amish do not view [[technology]] as evil, and individuals may petition for acceptance of a particular technology in the local community. In Pennsylvania, bishops meet in the spring and fall to discuss common concerns, including the appropriate response to new technology, and then pass this information on to ministers and deacons in a subsequent meeting.<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp. 98–101.</ref> Because of this flat governing structure, variations of practice develop in each community.
[[Image:Farm-amish-phone-booth.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Telephone booth set up by an "English" farmer for emergency use by local Amish families.]]

High voltage electricity was rejected by 1920 through the actions of a strict bishop, as a reaction against more liberal Amish<ref>The Peachey group split from the Old Order Amish in 1910 and eventually became affiliated with the Beachy Amish</ref> and to avoid a physical connection to the outside world.<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp. 197–212.</ref> Because of the early prohibition of electricity, individual decisions about the use of new inventions such as the television would not be necessary. Electricity is used in some situations when it can be produced without access to [[Electricity distribution|outside power lines]]. Batteries, with their limited applications, are sometimes acceptable. Electric generators may be used for welding, recharging batteries, and powering milk stirrers in many communities. Outdoor electrical appliances such as riding and hand-pushed lawn mowers and string trimmers are used in some communities. Some Amish families have non-electric versions of appliances, such as [[absorption refrigerator|kerosene-powered refrigerator]]s. Some Old Order Amish districts may allow the use of thermal [[solar panel]]s.<ref>http://features.csmonitor.com/backstory/2008/10/27/the-amish-go-solar-%e2%80%93-in-a-simple-way/</ref>

Amish communities adopt compromise solutions involving technology that seem strange to outsiders.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} Petrol-powered farm equipment, such as tillers or mowers, may be pushed by a human or pulled by a horse. The reasoning is that Amish farmers will not be tempted to purchase more land to out-compete other farmers in their community, if they have to move the equipment manually. Amish farmers employ chemical [[pesticide]]s, chemical [[fertilizer]]s, and [[artificial insemination]] of cows.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 313.</ref>

[[Image:Amish Farmhouse.jpg|thumb|Amish household]]
The ''[[Ordnung]]'' is the guide to community standards, rather than doctrine that defines sin. For example, the four Old Order Amish communities of [[Allen County, Indiana]], are more conservative than most; they use open buggies, even during the winter, and they wear black leather shoes even in the hot summer.

Restrictions are not meant to impose suffering. Disabled people are allowed to use motorized [[wheelchairs]]; electricity is allowed in the home for medical equipment.<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp. 114–115.</ref> Those who break the rules may be given many months to resolve the problem so that they can use a computer to complete a business project or remove electric wiring from a new house.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 136.</ref>

Although most Amish will not drive cars, they will hire drivers and vans, for example, for visiting family, monthly grocery shopping, or commuting to the workplace off the farm — though this too is subject to local regulation and variation. The practice increases the geographic reach of the Amish, and decreases isolation: a horse can travel only about {{convert|25|mi|km}}, and it must rest for a considerable period, restricting the Amish to a radius of {{convert|12.5|mi|km}} from home. Moreover, a horse and buggy can only sustain {{convert|10|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}} over an extended distance, and thus is impractical for emergencies.<ref>[http://www.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/2004/041018.Caruthers.discover.html Purdue University]</ref> Regular bus service between Amish communities has been established in some areas, and train travel is accepted.

The Old Order Amish tend to restrict telephone use, as it is viewed by some as interfering with separation from the world. By bringing the outside world into the home, it is an intrusion into the privacy and sanctity of the family, and interferes with social community by eliminating face-to-face communication. Amish of Lancaster County use the telephone primarily for outgoing calls, with the added restriction that the telephone not be inside the house, but rather in a phone "booth" or small out-building placed far enough from the house as to make its use inconvenient. These private phones may be shared by more than one family. This allows the Amish to control their communication, and not have telephone calls invade their homes, but also to conduct business, as needed. In the past, the use of public pay phones in town for such calls was more common; today, with dwindling availability of pay phones because of increased cell phone use by the non-Amish population, Amish communities are seeing an increase in the private phone shanties.<ref>See, for example, [Dan Morse "Still Called by Faith to the Booth: As Pay Phones Vanish, Amish and Mennonites Build Their Own"], ''The Washington Post'', September 3, 2006, p. C1; see also
[http://www.regent.edu/acad/schcom/rojc/mdic/amish.html Diane Zimmerman Umble's work] on the subject of the Amish and telephones</ref> Many Amish, particularly those who run businesses, use voicemail service.<ref>Kraybill, Donald ''Amish Enterprise: From Plows to Profits'', Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004</ref> The Amish will also use trusted "English" neighbors as contact points for passing on family emergency messages. Some New Order Amish will use cellphones and pagers, but most Old Order Amish will not.<ref>Howard Rheingold "Look Who's Talking", ''Wired'', January, 1999, http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/7.01/amish.html</ref>

===Language===
In addition to English, most Old Order Amish speak a distinctive [[German dialect]] called [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] or, much more commonly, Pennsylvania Dutch. Pennsylvania German is related to the [[Palatinate German]] of the eighteenth century. It has also been strongly influenced by [[American English]].<ref>Smith, p. 511.</ref> The English term "Dutch" originally referred to all forms of German and Netherlandic languages. [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] is distinct from [[Plautdietsch|Mennonite Low German]] and [[Hutterite German]] dialects spoken by other Anabaptist groups.

Now spoken primarily by the Old Order Amish and [[Old Order Mennonite]]s, [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] was originally spoken by many [[German-American]] immigrants in Pennsylvania and surrounding areas, especially those who came prior to 1800. There are also several sizable Old Order Amish communities where a variety of [[Swiss German]] is spoken, rather than [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]]. The [[Beachy Amish]], especially those who were born roughly after 1960, tend to speak predominantly in English at home. All other Amish groups use either Pennsylvania German or a variety of Swiss German as their in-group language of discourse. There are small dialectal variations between communities, such as Lancaster County and Indiana speech varieties. The Amish are aware of regional variation, and occasionally experience difficulty in understanding speakers from outside their own area.

===Clothing===
[[Image:Lancaster County Amish 02.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Amish girls in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]].]]
The common theme amongst all Amish clothing is ''plainness''; clothing should not call attention to the wearer by cut, color, or any other feature. [[Hook-and-eye closure]]s or [[Pin (device)|straight pins]] are used as fasteners on dress clothing rather than buttons, zippers, or [[velcro]]. [[Snap fastener|Snaps]] are used on everyday clothes, and plain [[button]]s for work shirts and trousers. The historic restriction on buttons is attributed to tradition and their potential for ostentation.<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp. 66–70.</ref> In all things, the aesthetic value is plainness. Some groups tend to limit color to black (trousers, dresses) and white (shirts), while others allow muted colors. Dark blue denim work clothing is common within some groups as well. The Old Order Amish often sew their own clothing, and work clothing can become quite worn and patched with use.

Women wear calf-length plain-cut dresses in a solid color. Aprons are often worn at home, usually in white or black, and are always worn when attending church. A cape, which consists of a triangular piece of cloth, is usually worn, beginning around the teenage years, and pinned into the apron. In the colder months, a long woolen cloak may be worn. Heavy bonnets are worn over the prayer coverings when Amish women are out and about in cold weather, with the exception of the Nebraska Amish, who do not wear bonnets. Girls in some areas may wear colored bonnets until age nine; older girls and women wear black bonnets.<ref>Kraybill (2001) p. 62.</ref> Girls begin wearing a cape for church and dress up occasions at about age eight. Single women wear a white cape to church until about the age of thirty. Everyday capes are colored, matching the dress, until about age forty when only black is used.<ref>Kraybill (2001) p. 61.</ref>

During the warmer months, many children will go barefoot, even while attending school.

Men typically wear dark-colored trousers, some with a dark vest or coat, [[suspenders]] (in some communities), broad-rimmed [[straw hat]]s in the warmer months, and black felt hats in the colder months. Married men and those over forty grow a [[beard]]. [[Mustache]]s are forbidden, because they are associated with European military officers and militarism in general.<ref>Kraybill (2001), pp 63–65.</ref> A beard may serve the same symbolic function, in some Old Order Amish settings, as a wedding ring, and marks the passage into manhood.

===Furniture===
[[Image:American-Furniture.jpg|100px|thumb|A Family Dining Table.]]
[[Amish furniture]] is celebrated for its durability, simple elegance, and use of [[deciduous]] woods.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} Amish craftsmen utilize many of the same methods as their early-American ancestors in building furniture. There is still a demand for classic designs such as Mission, Shaker, Cottage and Queen Anne while some Amish furniture is more modern in design. Furniture construction is an expression of the Amish ethos of self-sufficiency, simplicity and functionality.

==Swiss Amish==

A subgroup of the Old Order Amish, known as the Swiss Amish, speak a dialect of German known as [[Swiss German]] amongst themselves instead of the more common [[Pennsylvania Dutch]]. They are found primarily in [[Allen County, Indiana|Allen]] and [[Adams County, Indiana|Adams]] County in Indiana.
The Swiss Amish only use open top buggies and are more conservative than most other Old Order Amish districts.
They also are the only Amish group to practice [[yodeling]].

==Health==
Amish populations have higher incidences of particular [[genetic disorder]]s, including [[dwarfism]] ([[Ellis-van Creveld syndrome]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v24/n3/full/ng0300_203.html|title=Ellis-van Creveld syndrome and the Amish|publisher=[[Nature Genetics]]|year=2000|accessdate=2008-07-02}}</ref> various [[metabolic disorders]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/104542765/abstract|title=Pediatric medicine and the genetic disorders of the Amish and Mennonite people of Pennsylvania|publisher=[[American Journal of Medical Genetics]]|date=2003-06-27|quote=Regional hospitals and midwives routinely send whole-blood filter paper neonatal screens for tandem mass spectrometry and other modern analytical methods to detect 14 of the metabolic disorders found in these populations…|accessdate=2008-07-02}}</ref> and unusual distribution of blood-types.<ref>Hostetler, p. 330.</ref> Amish represent a collection of different [[deme (biology)|demes]] or genetically-closed communities.<ref>Hostetler, p. 328.</ref> Since almost all Amish descend from about 200 18th century founders, genetic disorders from inbreeding exist in more isolated districts (an example of the [[founder effect]]). Some of these disorders are quite rare, or unique, and are serious enough to increase the mortality rate among Amish children. The majority of Amish accept these as "Gottes Wille" (God's will); they reject use of preventive genetic tests prior to marriage and genetic testing of unborn children to discover genetic disorder. Amish are willing to participate in studies of genetic diseases. Their extensive family histories are useful to researchers investigating diseases such as [[Alzheimer's]], [[Parkinson's]], and [[macular degeneration]].

While the Amish are at an increased risk for a number of genetic disorders, researchers at The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center—Arthur G. James Cancer Hospital and Richard J. Solove Research Institute (OSUCCC-James) have found their tendencies for clean living can lead to a healthier life. Overall cancer rates in the Amish population are 60 percent of the age-adjusted rate for Ohio and 56 percent of the national rate. The incidence of tobacco-related cancers in the Amish adults is 37 percent of the rate for Ohio adults, and the incidence of non-tobacco-related cancer is 72 percent. The Amish have protection against many types of cancer both through their lifestyle—there is very little tobacco or alcohol use and limited sexual partners—and through genes that may reduce their susceptibility to cancer. Dr. Judith Westman, director of human genetics at OSUCCC-James, conducted the study. The findings were reported in a recent issue of the journal ''Cancer Causes & Control''. Even skin cancer rates are lower for Amish, despite the fact many Amish make their living working outdoors where they are exposed to sunlight and UV rays. They are typically covered and dressed to work in the sun by wearing wide-brimmed hats and generally wearing long sleeves to protect their arms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://medicalcenter.osu.edu/viewer/Pages/index.aspx?NewsId=5307|title=Amish Have Lower Rates Of Cancer, Ohio State Study Shows|date=1 January 2010|publisher=Ohio State University Medical Center|accessdate=6 January 2010|location=Columbus, OH}}</ref>

The Amish are conscious of the advantages of [[exogamy]]. A common bloodline in one community will often be absent in another, and genetic disorders can be avoided by choosing spouses from unrelated communities. For example, the founding families of the Lancaster County Amish are unrelated to the founders of the [[Perth County, Ontario]] Amish community.

The Old Order Amish do not typically carry private commercial health insurance. About two-thirds of the Amish in Lancaster County participate in Church Aid, an informal self-insurance plan for helping members with catastrophic medical expenses.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/05/AR2006100501360.html
|title=Amish Reluctantly Accept Donations
|last=Rubinkam
|first=Michael
|publisher=The Washington Post
|date=October 5, 2006
|accessdate=2008-03-25
}}</ref> A handful of American [[hospital]]s, starting in the mid-1990s, created special outreach programs to assist the Amish. The first of these programs was instituted at the Susquehanna Health System in central Pennsylvania by James Huebert. This program has earned national media attention in the United States, and has spread to several surrounding hospitals.<ref>[http://www.dailyitem.com/archive/2004/0618/local/stories/04local.htm The Daily Item — Doctors make house calls in barn]</ref><ref>[http://www.imt.ie/lifestyle/2007/08/a_culture_vastly_different_fro.html] The Irish Medical Times. A culture vastly different from the rest of America</ref> Treating genetic problems is the mission of [[Clinic for Special Children]] in [[Strasburg, Pennsylvania]], which has developed effective treatments for such problems as [[maple syrup urine disease]], a previously fatal disease. The clinic is embraced by most Amish, ending the need for parents to leave the community to receive proper care for their children, an action that might result in shunning.

DDC Clinic for Special Needs Children, located in [[Middlefield, Ohio]], has been treating special-needs children with inherited or metabolic disorders since May 2002.<ref>[http://ddcclinic.org DDC Clinic for Special Needs Children]</ref> The DDC Clinic provides treatment, research, and educational services to Amish and non-Amish children and their families.

Although not forbidden or thought of as immoral, most Amish do not practice any form of [[birth control]], hence their large families. They are against abortion and also find "artificial insemination, genetics, eugenics, and stem cell research" to be "inconsistent with Amish values and beliefs".<ref>{{cite book|title=Transcultural concepts in nursing care | author=Margaret M. Andrews and Joyceen S. Boyle | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tq-rL8VcQBQC&pg=PA455&lpg=PA455&dq=abortion+amish&source=web&ots=bNuZh0TJLU&sig=iNvLbTsuyFfhqMI1_1ebdPDbbxQ | publisher=Lippincott | year=2002 | accessdate=2008-01-19 | isbn=9780781736800}}</ref>

''People's Helpers'' is an Amish-organized network of mental health caregivers who help families dealing with mental illness and recommend professional counselors.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 105.</ref> Suicide rates for the Amish of Lancaster County were 5.5 per 100,000 in 1980, about half that of the general population and a third the rate of the non-religious population.<ref>The overall suicide rate in 1980 in the USA was 12.5 per 100,000. Kraybill et al. "Suicide Patterns in a Religious Subculture: The Old Order Amish," International Journal of Moral and Social Studies 1 (Autumn 1986).</ref>

==Education==
[[Image:Amish schoolhouse.jpg|left|thumb|230px|Amish schoolhouse in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]] in 1941.]]
[[Image:Amish On the way to school by Gadjoboy2.jpg|thumb|Amish schoolchildren]]

The Amish do not educate their children past the [[eighth grade]], believing that the basic knowledge offered up to that point is sufficient to prepare one for the Amish lifestyle.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED455996&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&accno=ED455996
|title=Amish Schools in the United States and Canada — ''Abstract''
|last=Dewalt
|first=Mark W
|publisher=Education Resources Information Center
|date=April 10, 2001
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED354492&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&accno=ED354492
|title=Reading in Old Order Amish Schools — ''Abstract''
|last=Ediger
|first=Marlow
|publisher=Education Resources Information Center
|year=1992
}}</ref>
Almost no Amish go to [[high school]], much less to [[college]]. In many communities, the Amish operate their own schools, which are typically [[one-room schoolhouse]]s with teachers (young unmarried women) from the Amish community. These schools provide education in many crafts, and are therefore eligible as vocational education, fulfilling the nationwide requirement of education through the 10th grade or its equivalent. There are Amish children who go to non-Amish public schools, even schools that are far away and that include a very small Amish population. For instance, there have been some Amish children who have attended Leesburg Elementary School in [[Leesburg, Indiana]] (about {{convert|12|mi|km}} from [[Nappanee, Indiana]]), because their families lived on the edge of the school district. In the past, there have been major conflicts between the Amish and outsiders over these matters of local schooling. But for the most part, they have been resolved, and the educational authorities allow the Amish to educate their children in their own ways. Sometimes, there are conflicts between the state-mandated minimum age for discontinuing schooling, and the younger age of children who have completed the eighth grade. This is often handled by having the children repeat the eighth grade until they are old enough to leave school. In the past, when comparing standardized test scores of Amish students, the Amish have performed above the national average for rural public school pupils in spelling, word usage, and arithmetic. They performed below the national average, however, in vocabulary.<ref>Hostetler, p. 188.</ref>

On May 19, 1972, Jonas Yoder and Wallace Miller of the Old Order Amish, and Adin Yutzy of the Conservative Amish Mennonite Church, were each fined $5 for refusing to send their children, aged 14 and 15, to high school. In ''[[Wisconsin v. Yoder]]'', the Wisconsin Supreme Court overturned the conviction, and the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] affirmed this, finding the benefits of universal education do not justify a violation of the [[Free Exercise Clause]] of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]].

The decision of the U.S. Supreme Court quoted sociology professor [[John A. Hostetler]] (1918–2001), who was born into an Amish family, wrote several books about the Amish, [[Hutterites]], and [[Old Order Mennonites]], and was then considered the foremost academic authority on the Amish. [[Donald Kraybill]], Distinguished College Professor and Senior Fellow in the Young Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies at [[Elizabethtown College]], is one of the most active scholars studying the Amish today.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Relations with the outside world==
[[Image:Shipshewana-indiana-amish-buggy.jpg|thumb|250px|Amish buggy rides offered in tourist-oriented [[Shipshewana, Indiana]].]]
As time has passed, the Amish have felt pressures from the modern world. [[Child labor laws in the United States|Child labor laws]], for example, are threatening their long-established ways of life, and raise questions regarding the treatment of children in an Amish household, and also in the way the Amish view emotional and medical support. A modern society places little emphasis on the emotional and spiritual bonds found in an Amish household that bind them together as a people. There is instead a negative perception regarding how the Amish choose to view some medical conditions as being 'The Will of God', without always receiving modern medical treatment found in hospitals or medical clinics; though many Amish communities maintain communal telephones to reach others in cases of emergency. Amish children often follow in their faith's long-standing tradition of being taught at an early age to work jobs in the home on the family's land or that of the community. Children are taught the traditions of their parents or immediate family until adolescence, when they are able to go into the world and compare their family's teachings with those of the world through [[rumspringa]]. Viewed as a respectful and enduring group, the Amish still spark controversy in modern society relating to their methods of raising young children, which vary greatly from the non-Amish.

Contrary to popular belief, some of the Amish vote, and they have been courted by national parties as potential [[swing vote]]rs: their pacifism and social conscience cause some of them to be drawn to left-of-center politics, while their generally conservative outlook causes others to favor the right wing.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}

They are [[nonresistance|nonresistant]], and rarely defend themselves physically or even in court; in wartime, they take [[conscientious objector]] status. Their own folk-history contains tales of heroic nonresistance, such as the insistence of [[Northkill Amish Settlement|Jacob Hochstetler (1704–1775)]] that his sons stop shooting at hostile Indians, who proceeded to kill some of the family and take others captive.<ref>Nolt, pp. 66–67</ref> During World War II the Amish entered [[Civilian Public Service]].

Amish rely on their church and community for support, and thus reject the concept of insurance. An example of such support is [[barn raising]], in which the entire community gathers together to build a barn in a single day. It means coming together to celebrate with family and friends.
[[Image:Nappanee-indiana-amish-acres.jpg|thumb|250px|Amish Acres, an Amish crafts and tourist attraction in [[Nappanee, Indiana]].]]

In 1961, the United States [[Internal Revenue Service]] announced that since the Amish refuse [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] benefits and have a religious objection to insurance, they need not pay these taxes. In 1965, this policy was codified into law.<ref>[http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode26/usc_sec_26_00001402----000-.html U.S. Code collection]</ref> Self-employed individuals in certain sects do not pay into, nor receive benefits from, United States Social Security, nor do their similarly-exempt employees. [[Tax forms in the United States|Internal Revenue Service form 4029]] grants this exemption to members of a religious group that is conscientiously opposed to accepting benefits of any private or public insurance, provides a reasonable level of living for its dependent members and has existed continuously since December 31, 1950.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/f4029.pdf|format=PDF|title= Application for Exemption From Social Security and Medicare Taxes and Waiver of Benefits|publisher=[[Internal Revenue Service]]|year=2006|accessdate=2008-07-02}}</ref> A visible sign of the care Amish provide for the elderly is the smaller ''Grossdaadi Heiser'' or ''Daadiheiser'' ("grandfather house"), often built near the main dwelling. Amish employees of non-Amish employers are taxed, but they do not apply for benefits.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 279.</ref> Aside from Social Security and [[workers' compensation]], American Amish pay all required [[tax]]es.<ref>Kraybill (2001), p. 273.</ref>

The Amish have, on occasion, encountered discrimination and hostility from their neighbors. During the two 20th century [[World War]]s, Amish nonresistance sparked many incidents of harassment, and young Amish men forcibly inducted into the services were subjected to various forms of ill treatment.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} In the present day, anti-Amish sentiment has taken the form of pelting the horse-drawn carriages used by the Amish with stones or similar objects as the carriages pass along a road, most commonly at night.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} A 1988, made-for-TV film, ''A Stoning In Fulham County'', is based on a true story involving one such incident, in which a six-month-old Amish girl was struck in the head by a rock and died from her injuries. In 1997, Mary Kuepfer, a young Amish woman in [[Milverton, Ontario|Milverton]], [[Ontario]], Canada, was struck in the face by a beer bottle believed to have been thrown from a passing car;<ref>[http://www.nald.ca/fulltext/lifetime/issue4/page7.htm "Amish girl hit with beer bottle"]</ref> she required thousands of dollars' worth of surgery to her face (which was paid for by an outpouring of donations from the public).

==Portrayal in popular entertainment==

===Film===
[[Peter Weir]]'s 1985 drama ''[[Witness (1985 film)|Witness]]'' is set and filmed in the Amish community of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. ''Harvest of Fire'' is a 1996 [[Hallmark Hall of Fame]] made-for-TV movie about an FBI agent's investigation of cases of suspected arson in an Amish farming community. The 2002 documentary ''[[Devil's Playground (film)|Devil's Playground]]'' follows a group of Amish teenagers during [[rumspringa]], and it portrays their personal dilemma with both the 'English' world and the decision on whether or not to be baptized as adult members of the church. Michael Landon Jr's 2007 film ''[[Saving Sarah Cain]]'' shows the removing of young Amish children to the big city and realizing the life they can have with both the Amish and English world.

Some comic movie portrayals of the Amish include [[Randy Quaid]]’s Amish character "Ishmael Boorg" in ''[[Kingpin (film)|Kingpin]],'' directed by the [[Farrelly brothers]] in 1996, and the 1997 ''[[For Richer or Poorer]]'', starring [[Tim Allen]] and [[Kirstie Alley]], also about city folk hiding among the Amish.

On March 28, 2010, the [[Lifetime Movie Network]] premiered a [[television movie]] about the [[Nickel Mines, Pennsylvania]], [[Amish school shooting]] titled ''Amish Grace'',<ref name="lifetime">{{cite news
| title= Amish Grace
| work= myLifetime
| date=2010-04-05
| url = http://www.mylifetime.com/movies/amish-grace
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref> starring [[Kimberly Williams-Paisley]], [[Tammy Blanchard]], and [[Matt Letscher]], based on the book ''Amish Grace: How Forgiveness Transcended Tragedy'', Jossey-Bass, 2007, ISBN 0787997617, by [[Donald Kraybill]], [[Steven Nolt]], and David L. Weaver-Zercher.<ref name="Amish Grace">{{cite news
| title= Amish Grace: How Forgiveness Transcended Tragedy (Hardcover)
| work=Amazon
| date=2010-04-05
| url = http://www.amazon.com/Amish-Grace-Forgiveness-Transcended-Tragedy/dp/0787997617
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="Amish Grace">{{cite news
| title= Amish Grace: How Forgiveness Transcended Tragedy
| work=Amish Grace
| date=2010-04-05
| url = http://www.amishgrace.com/
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref> The movie was produced by [[Larry A. Thompson]].

The plot summary for ''Amish Grace'' is: When a group of Amish schoolgirls are taken hostage and killed in their classroom, their parents and the Amish community of [[Nickel Mines, Pennsylvania]], stun the outside world by immediately forgiving the killer. Ida Graber ([[Kimberly Williams-Paisley]]), mother of one of the murdered children, has a tougher time than the others accepting the tragedy, but in her anguish and pain, she begins a personal journey of renewed faith, ultimately accepting the heart-wrenching tragedy of losing a child; reconnecting with her husband ([[Matt Letscher]]), family, and community; offering forgiveness to the killer; and even showing kindness and compassion to the killer’s widow ([[Tammy Blanchard]]) and children—all in the form of Amish Grace.<ref name="lifetime">{{cite news
| title= Amish Grace
| work= myLifetime
| date=2010-04-05
| url = http://www.mylifetime.com/movies/amish-grace/about
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="imdb">{{cite news
| title= Amish Grace
| work= [[IMDB]]
| date=2010-04-05
|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1559025/
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref>

''Amish Grace'', in its [[Palm Sunday]] premiere, broke network records in multiple [[demographics]] with more than 4 million viewers, becoming the highest-rated and most-watched original movie in [[Lifetime Movie Network]]’s history.<ref name="MultichannelNews">{{cite news
| last = Reynolds
| first = Mike
| title= 'Amish Grace' Delivers As Highest-Rated Original Telepic In Lifetime Movie Network History
| work=[[Multichannel News]]
| date=2010-03-29
| url = http://www.multichannel.com/article/450814-_Amish_Grace_Delivers_As_Highest_Rated_Original_Telepic_In_Lifetime_Movie_Network_History.php
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="tvbythenumbers">{{cite news
| last = Seidman
| first = Robert
| title= Lifetime Movie Network’s ''Amish Grace'' Breaks Records With 4.02 Million Viewers
| work= TV by the Numbers
| date=2010-03-29
| url = http://tvbythenumbers.com/2010/03/29/lifetime-movie-networks-amish-grace-breaks-records-with-4-02-million-viewers/46478
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="variety">{{cite news
| last = Kissell
| first = Rick
| title= 7.6 million watch ''Kids’ Choice Awards''
| work= [[Variety (magazine)]]
| date=2010-03-29
|url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118017057.html?categoryid=1275&cs=1&query=Amish+Grace+-+Ratings
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="thrfeed">{{cite news
| title= ''Amish Grace'' breaks Lifetime Movie Net records
| work= [[The Hollywood Reporter]]
| date=2010-03-29
|url=http://www.thrfeed.com/2010/03/amish-grace-breaks-lifetime-movie-net-records.html
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref>
The movie received many positive [[reviews]];<ref name="variety">{{cite news
| last = Lowry
| first = Brian
| title= Amish Grace
| work= [[Variety (magazine)]]
| date=2010-03-25
|url=http://www.variety.com/review/VE1117942472.html?categoryid=32&cs=1
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="csmonitor">{{cite news
| title= Six Picks: Recommendations from the Monitor staff
| work= [[The Christian Science Monitor]]
| date=2010-03-22
|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/Arts/2010/0322/Six-Picks-Recommendations-from-the-Monitor-staff
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="previewonline">{{cite news
| last = Boatwright
| first = Phil
| title= And on TV…Amish Grace
| work= Preview Online
| date=2010-04-05
|url=http://www.previewonline.org/holyholly/amishgrace.html
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="catholicexchange">{{cite news
| last = Pacatte
| first = Sr. Rose
| title= Amish Grace: A Time for Forgiveness
| work= Catholic Exchange
| date=2010-03-20
|url=http://catholicexchange.com/2010/03/20/128377/#hide
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="catholicexchange">{{cite news
| last = Armstrong
| first = Patti Maguire
| title= Forgiveness, Not Just An ''Amish Grace''
| work= Catholic Exchange
| date=2010-03-23
|url=http://catholicexchange.com/2010/03/23/128426/
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="sisterrose">{{cite news
| last = Pacatte
| first = Sr. Rose
| title= Amish Grace: A Time for Forgiveness
| work= Sister Rose—Word Press
| date=2010-04-05
|url=http://sisterrose.wordpress.com/2010/03/23/amish-grace-on-lmn-march-28/
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="huffingtonpost">{{cite news
| last = Cooper
| first = Jackie K.
| title= ''Amish Grace'' Is A Story Of Grace Under Fire
| work= [[The Huffington Post]]
| date=2010-03-23
|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jackie-k-cooper/emamish-graceem-is-a-stor_b_507564.html?view=print
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="catholic">{{cite news
| last = Valasquez
| first = Leticia
| title= Review of ''Amish Grace''
| work= Catholic Media Review
| publisher= Catholic Online
| date=2010-03-23
|url=http://www.catholic.org/ae/tv/review.php?id=35912
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="hollywoodreporter">{{cite news
| last = Dawn
| first = Randee
| title= Amish Grace—TV Review
| work= [[The Hollywood Reporter]]
| date=2010-03-26
|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/tv-reviews/amish-grace-tv-review-1004078769.story
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="movieguide">{{cite news
| last = Baehr
| first = Dr. Ted
| last = Holder
| first = Jeff
| title= AMISH GRACE—Coming to a Greater Understanding of God’s Grace
| work= Movie Guide
| date=2010-03-22
|url=http://www.movieguide.org/articles/1/714/amish-grace-coming-to-a-greater-understanding-of-gods-grace
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="lifetimemoms">{{cite news
| last = Smith
| first = Nichole
| title= My Connection to ''Amish Grace'' the LMN Original Movie Airing March 28
| work= Lifetime Moms
| date=2010-03-17
|url=http://www.lifetimemoms.com/print/2011
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="worldmag">{{cite news
| last = Basham
| first = Megan
| title= Supernatural reaction
| work= [[World (magazine)]]
| date=2010-03-26
|url=http://www.worldmag.com/webextra/16583
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref><ref name="christiancinema">{{cite news
| last = Walker
| first = Angela
| title= Amish Grace Is Amazing
| work= Christian Cinema
| date=2010-04-05
|url=http://www.christiancinema.com/catalog/article_info.php?articles_id=7250&src=rss
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref> however, it also received criticism because the authors of ''Amish Grace: How Forgiveness Transcended Tragedy'', Jossey-Bass, 2007, ISBN 0787997617, distanced themselves from the production out of respect to the Amish community.<ref name="variety">{{cite news
| title= Movie on Amish school shooting draws criticism
| work= [[Associated Press]]
| publisher= [[USA Today]]
| date=2010-03-24
|url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2010-03-24-amish-shooting_N.htm
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref> Others criticized the movie for blending facts with fiction.<ref name="pennlive">{{cite news
| last = DeJesus
| first = Ivey
| title= ''Amish Grace'' movie fictionalizes Nickel Mines tragedy, generates debate
| work= PennLive.com
| publisher= [[The Patriot-News]]
| date=2010-03-07
|url=http://blog.pennlive.com/midstate_impact/print.html?entry=/2010/03/controversial_amish_grace_movi.html
| accessdate=2010-04-05}}</ref>

===Literature===
====Modern novels====
[[Paul Levinson]]'s 1999 [[Locus Award]]-winning novel, ''[[Phil D'Amato#The Novels|The Silk Code]]'' portrays Amish farmers involved in a science-fiction mystery about biotechnology and mysterious deaths. [[Jodi Picoult]]'s 2000 novel (and 2004 TV movie) ''[[Plain Truth]],'' deals with a crime concerning the death of a newborn infant on an Amish farm. Other novels dealing with the Amish are [[Lurlene McDaniel]]'s 2002 ''The Angels Trilogy,'' [[Beverly Lewis]]'s extensive series of Amish romantic fiction, and Paul Gaus's Ohio Amish Mystery series, set among the Amish community in Holmes County, Ohio.

====Older novels====
[[Helen Reimensnyder Martin]]'s 1905 novel ''Sabina, a Story of the Amish,'' similar to her 1904 novel ''Tillie, a Mennonite Maid,'' so harshly depicted its subjects as to provoke cries of misrepresentation. [[Anna Balmer Myers]]' 1920 novel ''Patchwork: a Story of "the Plain People,"'' like her 1921 novel ''Amanda: A Daughter of the Mennonites,'' are generally regarded as gentle correctives to the work of Martin. Ruth Lininger Dobson's 1937 novel ''Straw in the Wind,'' written while a student at the [[University of Michigan]] and receiving the school's [[Hopwood Award]], so negatively depicted the Amish of Indiana that [[Joseph Yoder]] was motivated to correct the severe stereotypes with a more accurate book about the Amish way of life. In 1940, he wrote the gentler ''Rosanna of the Amish,'' a story of his mother's life (and his own). He later wrote a sequel, ''Rosanna's Boys'' (1948), as well as other books presenting and recording what he regarded as a truer picture of Amish culture.

====Children's literature====
[[Marguerite de Angeli]]'s 1936 children's story ''[[Henner's Lydia]]'' portrays a tender Amish family. The author sketched many of the illustrations at the site of the [http://www.wikimapia.org/#y=40146077&x=-75948315&z=14&l=0&m=h&v=2 little red schoolhouse] still standing at the intersection of PA route 23 and Red Schoolhouse Road, just west of Morgantown, Pennsylvania. Today the building is the Amish Mennonite Information Center. The Lancaster County landscape, portrayed in the end papers of the book, can be recognized throughout the area. De Angeli's illustrations of a nearby bank barn were sketched just hours before the barn was destroyed by fire. She incorporated the incident in her 1944 [[Caldecott Medal|Caldecott Honor]] book ''Yonie Wondernose,'' a story about a curious Amish boy, younger brother to the Lydia of ''Henner's Lydia.''

===Theatre===
The 1955 [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musical show, ''[[Plain and Fancy]],'' is an early stage-play portrayal of the Amish people. Set in Lancaster County, it tells of a couple from New York who encounter the quaint Amish lifestyle when they arrive to sell off some property. This show depicted "shunning" and "barn-raising" to the American audience for the first time. Another play featuring the Amish is ''[[Quiet in the Land]],'' a Canadian play concerning Amish struggles during World War I (1917–1918).

===Television===
[[NBC]] aired, in 1988, a family drama called ''[[Aaron's Way]]'' about an Amish family who moved to California and had to adjust to a non-Amish lifestyle. Numerous other TV shows have presented episodes with Amish characters or storylines. Some of them include ''[[Arthur (TV series)|Arthur]]'', ''[[The Simpsons]]'', ''[[Dexter's Laboratory]]'', ''[[Picket Fences]]'', ''[[Murder She Wrote]]'', ''[[MacGyver]]'', ''[[Grey's Anatomy]]'', and ''[[Cold Case (TV series)|Cold Case]]''.<ref>Brad Igou, "The Amish in the Media," [http://www.amishnews.com/amisharticles/amishinmedia.htm ''Amish County News''], 2001/2005</ref> In the summer of 2004, a controversial reality-television program called ''[[Amish in the City]]'' aired on [[UPN]]. Amish teenagers were exposed to non-Amish culture by living together with "English" teens, and at the time of the show, had yet to decide, if they wanted to be baptized into the Amish church. On Wednesday 18 February 2009, BBC2 aired 'Trouble in Amish Paradise', a one-hour documentary on Ephraim and Jesse Stoltzfus and their desire to adhere to Biblical Christianity whilst remaining Amish in culture.

===Music===
[["Weird Al" Yankovic]]'s 1996 parody "[[Amish Paradise]]" and the accompanying music video was an affectionate send-up of [[Coolio]]'s earlier soul song "[[Gangsta's Paradise]]", with Yankovic and former [[Brady Bunch]] actress [[Florence Henderson]] in Amish garb, and lyrics reflecting Amish themes.

==Similar groups==
[[Old Order Mennonite]]s, [[Hutterite]]s, and [[Old German Baptist Brethren]] are distinct from the Amish. They all emigrated from Europe, but they arrived with different dialects, separate cultures, and diverse religious traditions. Particularly, the Hutterites live communally<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277694/Hutterites|title=Hutterites|work=Britannica Online|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref> and are generally accepting of modern technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://esask.uregina.ca/entry/hutterites.html|title=Hutterites|last=Laverdure|first=Paul|year=2006|work=Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan|publisher=Canadian Plains Research Center|accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref>

[[Testimony of Simplicity|Plain Quakers]] are similar in manner and lifestyle, but unrelated to the Amish. Early Quakers were influenced, to some degree, by the Anabaptists. Most modern Quakers have since abandoned their traditional dress.

==Abuse controversy==
{{Unbalanced section|date=July 2009}}

Some high-profile cases have focused attention on the [[sexual abuse]] perpetrated upon Amish children. In a few isolated areas it has been called "almost a plague in some communities."<ref>[http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/January-February-2005/feature_labi_janfeb05.msp Legal Affairs — The Gentle People]</ref> Because Amish Bishops mete out punishment for sins, (generally in the form of [[shunning]]), they keep discipline within the authority of the church; thus, sexual abuse may be less often reported to law enforcement. Since men dominate their society, women and children who have been mistreated have little recourse. They themselves may be shunned for seeking outside help. Mary Byler was allegedly raped more than a hundred times between the ages of 8 and 14 by her brothers, and then she was excommunicated and shunned for reporting her abusers.<ref>[http://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=316371&page=1 ABC News: Sexual Abuse in the Amish Community] and [http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=189191&page=2 ABC News: Sex Abuse Case Shocks Amish Community]</ref>
Another young woman claimed to have been raped repeatedly by her brother-in-law, who was eventually punished by being shunned for two and a half months.<ref>[http://www.amishabuse.com/chapter5pg3.htm Amish Deception 1]: Learn the truth about the Swartzentruber Amish community in Ohio: Chapter 5 Page 3</ref> Some groups have also been accused of tolerating severe [[child abuse|physical abuse of children]].<ref>[http://www.amishabuse.com Amish Abuse: Amish Deception]</ref> Although the rate of physical or sexual abuse does not appear to be higher in the Amish community than in the general public, their physical and social isolation from the outside world make it more difficult for victims to seek help.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}}

The [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]], newspaper ''[[Intelligencer Journal]]'' published a four-part series on domestic abuse, child abuse, and child sexual abuse inside Amish (and Mennonite) families within the heart of Pennsylvania Dutch country. These articles suggested that abuse may be systematically silenced inside Amish (and Mennonite) churches, because of the emphasis on Gelassenheit and male authority in the church. The series, published on August 4, 2004, began with an article entitled "Silenced by Shame: Hidden in Plain Sight," and ended with an article entitled "The Ties That Bind Can Form the Noose." As the article "Beliefs, Culture Can Perpetuate Abuse in Families, Churches" makes clear, child and spousal abuse may be concealed or denied. One reaction from an Old Order woman was the following: "They made Plain women look too stupid and ignorant to know how to get help."<ref>Kraybill, D.B. and J.P. Hurd (2006). Horse-and-Buggy Mennonites: hoofbeats of humility in a postmodern world. The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, p. 159–160.</ref>

The Amish community recently started to address the issue of abuse awareness. The Amish publisher [[Pathway Publishing Company|Pathway Publishers]] ran several series in the magazine ''[[Family Life]]'' that touch upon the subjects of sexual and physical abuse. They have also distributed, free of charge, resources for abused persons, and for their families. Some Amish have objected to the articles, preferring that the subject not be raised, claiming these problems exist only among the "English".<ref>Rensberger, Susan. (2003) The Complete Idiot's Guide to Understanding the Amish. New York, Alpha Books (Penguin Group), p. 181–183</ref>

==See also==
* [[Amish furniture]]
* [[Amish music]]
* [[Amish school shooting]]
* [[Fancy Dutch]]
* [[Martyrs Mirror]]
* [[Northkill Amish Settlement]]
* ''[[Ordnung]]''

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
*{{cite book|author=Hostetler, John A.|authorlink= John A. Hostetler|title=Amish Society|edition=fourth|ocation=Baltimore, Maryland; London|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-8018-4442-3}}
*{{cite book|author=Kraybill, Donald B.|authorlink=Donald Kraybill|title=Anabaptist World USA|publisher=Herald Press|year=2000|isbn=0836191633}}
*{{cite book|title=The Riddle of Amish Culture|author=Kraybill, Donald B.|authorlink=Donald Kraybill|edition=Revised|year=2001|isbn=080186772X}}
*{{cite book |last=Smith |first=C. Henry |other=Revised and expanded by Cornelius Krahn |title=Smith's Story of the Mennonites |year=1981 |publisher=Faith and Life Press |location=Newton, Kansas |isbn=0-87303-069-9| pages=249–356 }}
* {{cite web |title=Amish America: Swiss Amish | url=http://amishamerica.typepad.com/amish_america/swiss_amish/ | accessdate=March 26, 2009}}

==Further reading==
{{sourcesstart|2}}
* ''Die Botschaft'' (Lancaster, PA 17608-0807; 717-392-1321). Magazine for Old Order Amish published by non-Amish; only Amish may place advertisements.
* ''The Budget'' (P.O. Box 249, Sugarcreek, OH 44681; 330-852-4634). Weekly newspaper by and for Amish. Online information: http://www.thebudgetnewspaper.com/
* ''The Diary'' (P.O. Box 98, Gordonville, PA 17529). Monthly newsmagazine by and for Old Order Amish.
*DeWalt, Mark W. ''Amish Education in the United States and Canada''. Rowman and Littlefield Education, 2006. 224 pp.
*Garret, Ottie A and Ruth Irene Garret. ''True Stories of the X-Amish: Banned, Excommunicated and Shunned'', Horse Cave, KY: Neu Leben, 1998.
*Garret, Ruth Irene. ''Crossing Over: One Woman's Escape from Amish Life'', Thomas More, 1998.
*Good, Merle and Phyllis. ''20 Most Asked Questions about the Amish and Mennonites''. Intercourse, PA: Good Books, 1979.
*Hostetler, John A. ed. ''Amish Roots: A Treasury of History, Wisdom, and Lore''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. 319 pp.
* Igou, Brad. ''The Amish in Their Own Words: Amish Writings from 25 Years of Family Life'', Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1999. 400 pp.
*Johnson-Weiner, Karen M. ''Train Up a Child: Old Order Amish and Mennonite Schools''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006. 304 pp.
*Keim, Albert. ''Compulsory Education and the Amish: The Right Not to be Modern''. Beacon Press, 1976. 211 pp.
*Kraybill, Donald B. ''The Amish of Lancaster County''. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2008.
*Kraybill, Donald B. ed. ''The Amish and the State''. Foreword by Martin E. Marty. 2nd ed.: Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. 351 pp.
*Kraybill, Donald B. and Marc A. Olshan, ed. ''The Amish Struggle with Modernity''. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1994. 304 pp.
*Kraybill, Donald B. and Carl D. Bowman. ''On the Backroad to Heaven: Old Order Hutterites, Mennonites, Amish, and Brethren''. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. 330pp.
*Kraybill, Donald B. and Steven M. Nolt. ''Amish Enterprise: From Plows to Profits''. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. 286 pp.
*Kraybill, Donald B., Steven M. Nolt and David L. Weaver-Zercher. ''Amish Grace: How Forgiveness Transcended Tragedy''. New York: Jossey-Bass, 2006. 256 pp.
*Luthy, David. ''Amish Settlements That Failed, 1840–1960''. LaGrange, IN: Pathway Publishers, 1991. 555pp.
*Nolt, Steven M. ''A history of the Amish''. Rev. and updated ed.: Intercourse, Pa.: Good Books, 2003. 379 pp.
*Nolt, Steven M. and Thomas J. Myers. ''Plain Diversity: Amish Cultures and Identities''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007. 256 pp.
*Schachtman, Tom. ''Rumspringa: To be or not to be Amish''. New York: North Point Press, 2006. 286 pp.
*Schlabach, Theron F. ''Peace, Faith, Nation: Mennonites and Amish in Nineteenth-Century America''. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1988. 415 pp.
*Schmidt, Kimberly D., Diane Zimmerman Umble, and Steven D. Reschly, eds. ''Strangers at Home: Amish and Mennonite Women in History''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. 416 pp.
*Scott, Stephen. ''The Amish Wedding and Other Special Occasions of the Old Order Communities''. Intercourse, PA: Good Books, 1988. 128pp.
*Stevick, Richard A. ''Growing Up Amish: the Teenage Years''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007. 320 pp.
*Umble, Diane Zimmerman. ''Holding the Line: the Telephone in Old Order Mennonite and Amish Life''. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000. 192 pp.
*Umble, Diane Zimmerman and David L. Weaver-Zercher, eds. ''The Amish and the Media''. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008. 288 pp.
* Weaver-Zercher, David L. ''The Amish in the American Imagination''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001. 280 pp.
* Yoder, Harvey. ''The Happening: Nickel Mines School Tragedy''. Berlin, OH: TGS International, 2007. 173 pp.

{{sourcesend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Amish}}
* [http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/A4574ME.html "Amish" from Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online]
* [http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/Index.asp Amish Studies] at Young Center for Anabaptist & Pietist Studies at [[Elizabethtown College]]
* [http://missourifolkloresociety.truman.edu/Amish.htm The Amish in Missouri, from the Missouri Folklore Society]


[[Category:American people of Swiss descent]]
[[Category:Amish|*]]
[[Category:Christianity in Indiana]]
[[Category:Christianity in Ohio]]
[[Category:Christianity in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Christianity in Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in North America]]
[[Category:History of Lancaster, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:German-American history]]
[[Category:German diaspora]]
[[Category:Ohio culture]]
[[Category:Peace churches]]
[[Category:Pennsylvania culture]]
[[Category:Religion in Lancaster, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Religious organizations established in 1693]]
[[Category:Simple living]]
[[Category:Christian organizations established in the 17th century]]
[[Category:American people of German descent]]

{{Link FA|yi}}

[[als:Amische]]
[[ar:أميش]]
[[zh-min-nan:Amisch]]
[[bg:Амиши]]
[[ca:Amish]]
[[cs:Amišové]]
[[da:Amish]]
[[pdc:Amisch]]
[[de:Amische]]
[[et:Amišid]]
[[es:Amish]]
[[eo:Amiŝismo]]
[[fa:آمیش]]
[[fr:Amish]]
[[ko:아미시파]]
[[id:Amish]]
[[it:Amish]]
[[he:אמיש]]
[[lt:Amišai]]
[[hu:Amisok]]
[[nl:Amish]]
[[ja:アーミッシュ]]
[[no:Amish]]
[[nds:Amisch]]
[[pl:Amisze]]
[[pt:Amish]]
[[ru:Амиши]]
[[simple:Amish]]
[[sk:Amiši]]
[[sl:Amiši]]
[[sr:Амиши]]
[[fi:Amishit]]
[[sv:Amish]]
[[tr:Amiş]]
[[uk:Аміші]]
[[yi:אמיש]]
[[zh:阿米什人]]

Reading School

2010-05-21T08:01:21Z

82.21.69.196:

{{Infobox UK school
| name = Reading School
| image = School_logo.png
| size = 130px
| latitude =
| longitude =
| dms = yes
| motto = ''Floreat Redingensis''
| established = 1125 (refounded in 1486)
| type = [[foundation school|Foundation]] [[Grammar school|grammar]]
| religion = Christian
| head_label = Head Master
| head = J I Weeds
| r_head_label = Chaplain
| r_head = Rev Chris Evans
| chair_label =
| chair =
| founder =
| founder_pl =
| specialist = [[Humanities College|Humanities]] <br> ([[English studies|English]], [[Classics]] and [[Geography]])<br> [[Science College|Science]]
| street = Erleigh Road
| city = [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]]
| county = [[Berkshire]]
| country = United Kingdom
| postcode = RG1 5LW
| LEA = [[Reading, Berkshire#Government|Reading Borough Council]]
| ofsted = 110097
| staff =
| enrollment = 867
| gender = Male
| lower_age = 11
| upper_age = 18
| houses = School (green,(the borders: South House (orange) and East Wing (blue)are also contained in School house and all three colours are on the tie)<br>County (burgundy)<br>East (pink/cerise)<br>West (yellow/gold)
| colours = Navy Blue, Silver, House colours.
| publication = Reading Rag
| free_label_1 =
| free_1 =
| free_label_2 =
| free_2 =
| free_label_3 =
| free_3 =
| website = http://www.readingschool.reading.sch.uk
| website_name = Reading School Website
}}

'''Reading School''' is a [[grammar school]] in the town of [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], [[Berkshire]], [[England]]. It is a [[single-sex school|single-sex]] boys' school, which selects incoming students on the basis of examined ability, usually at age 11, with a few entrants at age 13 and 16. It is state-funded, so there are no fees for day pupils, and boarders only pay for food and lodgings, not schooling. The current headmaster, since Autumn 2006, is [[John Weeds]], replacing Patricia Daniels, who was acting headteacher for one year, and also the first female headteacher in the 882-year history of the school.

Reading is a [[foundation school]], and an [[OFSTED]] report concluded that "examination results place the school in the top five per cent nationally", "Pupils' attitudes to learning are outstanding" and "The school goes to exceptional lengths to broaden and enrich the education of all pupils". The 2005 [[Key Stage 3]] results were both the best in the country for value-added and for the average points score of each student.<ref>{{cite news|title=Grammar boys are simply the best|date=2006-03-30|work=Reading Evening Post}}</ref> In the 2004 school league tables for England (including fee-paying schools), it came eighth for GCSE-level results (average 602.5 points), 106th for A-level results (average 409.3 points) and 170th for value-added between ages 11 and 16 (score of 1037.7 compared with a baseline of 1000). It has recently become a [[DFES]] [[specialist school]] for the [[Humanities College|Humanities]], specialising in [[English studies|English]]{{fact|date=October 2008}}, [[Geography]] and [[Classics]] – the first school to specialise in Classics – despite entry being selected by Mathematics and verbal and non-verbal logic ability. The School prides itself on offering A-Level Latin to any student who has an interest in studying the subject. The School will also offer Ancient Greek if numbers permit.

In 2005 the school was awarded the highly prestigious Sportsmark gold award for a four-year period. In the same year Reading was one of just 35 schools nationally to be made a [[Microsoft]] Partner School.<ref>[http://www.oldredingensians.org.uk/journals/jmay2005.pdf Andrew Linnell. The Headmaster's Letter. ''The Old Redingensian'', May 2005, p2 (PDF).]</ref> Reading School has had a partnership with Akhter Computers in [[Harlow]], [[Essex]], since 1998. The company has installed networks throughout the school and in the boarding house. It has also furnished the library with a special system which enables the school to record, edit and distribute video across the network.<ref>[http://www.akhter.co.uk/Product_pdfs/Video%20Flow%20Brochure%20-%20Page%201-4.pdf Case Study. Video Broadcast over the Network at Reading School (PDF)]</ref> In 2007, the school was identified by the [[Sutton Trust]]
as one of only 20 state schools among the 100 schools in the UK responsible for a third of admissions to [[Oxford University|Oxford]] and [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]] Universities over the five preceding years. 16.0%
of pupils went to Oxbridge and a 62.1% in total went to universities identified by the Sutton Trust as "top universities".<ref>{{Citation
| title = University Admissions by Individual Schools
| publisher = Sutton Trust
| year = 2007
| url = http://www.suttontrust.com/reports/UniversityAdmissionsbySchool.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>

==History==
[[Image:Reading school berks uk.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of Reading School from the drive]]
Reading School was founded as part of [[Reading Abbey]]. The date of the Abbey's charter, June 29, 1125, is taken as the foundation date, making it the 10th oldest school in [[England]], although there are hints that there may have been a school running in Reading before this.

In 1486, the school was refounded as a "Free Grammar School" ("free" here meaning teaching the free, or liberal, arts, not that no fees were paid) by [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] on the urging of the then [[Abbot]], John Thorne. After the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries|dissolution]] of Reading Abbey in 1539, the school fell under the control of the [[corporation]] of Reading, its status being confirmed by [[Letters patent|Letters Patent]] issued by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] in 1541. This was reconfirmed in the [[Royal Charter]] granted to the corporation of Reading by [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] in 1560, which made the corporation liable for the salary of the headmaster and gave them the power of appointing him.

There were interruptions to schooling in 1665, when [[Parliament of England|Parliament]], forced out of [[London]] by the [[Great Plague of London|Great Plague]], took over the schoolhouse. The [[English civil war|civil war]] also interrupted, with the school being used as a garrison by royalist forces. The school prospered at the start of the nineteenth century but by 1866 disagreements between the town and school, which had become increasingly exclusive, and problems with the lease on the school buildings had led to falling numbers and the school closed briefly when (according to legend), the inspectors, on asking to see the school, were told "He's runned away".

The school soon restarted, however, with the Reading School Act (1867) setting out its administration and funding. The foundation stone for new buildings, designed by [[Alfred Waterhouse]], was laid by the [[Prince of Wales]] in 1870, and in 1871 the school moved in. In 1915 Kendrick Boys' School (founded in 1875 from the legacy of [[John Kendrick (cloth merchant)|John Kendrick]]), which had a large endowment but poor facilities, was taken over by Reading, which was poorly funded but had excellent facilities – this caused considerable controversy at the time but was ultimately seen as successful.

The [[Education Act 1944|1944 Education Act]] saw the abolition of fees (apart from boarding charges), with the cost of education now being met by the local authority. The 1960s saw the rise of comprehensive education, which threatened Reading's status. However, Reading was exempted in 1973 (along with the girls' grammar school in Reading, [[Kendrick School|Kendrick]]) after a petition of over 30,000 local people (a third of the voters of Reading) was handed to the government.

In 1986 the school celebrated the quincentenary of its refounding, and was graced by a visit by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. A history of the school by Michael Naxton was published that year by Reading School Parents' Association.

[[Image:Reading School Panorama.jpg|thumb|800px|Reading School]]
On 6 July 2007 Reading School was officially designated as the landing site for the Thames Valley and Chiltern Air Ambulance when it needs to transport patients to the nearby Royal Berkshire Hospital. Previously, seriously injured or ill patients from the Reading area had to be flown either to Wexham Park Hospital near [[Slough]], or to the John Radcliffe Hospital in [[Oxford]] for treatment. The new arrangement means that the school field can now be used for emergency touchdowns. Patients are transported by land ambulance from the school to the hospital's accident and emergency department across the road.<ref>[http://www.southcentralambulance.nhs.uk/html/news/newsitem.php?county=Berkshire&it=83 Reading School – "New Landing Site for Air Ambulance". The South Central Ambulance Service NHS Trust]</ref> While this arrangement was only made official in 2007, the school field had been unofficially used on several occasions by the Thames Valley and Chiltern Air Ambulance in previous years.

==School site==
[[Image:readingschoolsnow.jpg|thumb|400px|A photo of the School, covered in snow, taken on 8 February 2007.]]
The current school site consists of a main block (with two wings), a Science block, the Page building, the John Kendrick building, South House, Music School (formerly known as Junior School) and a chapel. The main school building, the chapel, South House and the building to the east of South House have all been designated as Grade II listed buildings by English Heritage.<ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?pid=1&id=38922 Main school building, Images of England reference no. 38922]</ref><ref> [http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?pid=1&id=38923 Lecture Theatre at Reading School, Images of England reference no. 38923] </ref><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?pid=1&id=38924 South House, Images of England reference no. 38924] </ref><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?pid=1&id=38925 Building to the east of South House, Images of England reference no. 38925]</ref>

The main block consists of 11 teaching rooms, as well as most of the school's administrative rooms. The classrooms here are mainly used to teach English, Economics, Classics, Latin and Ancient Greek; but the two Drama studios are used exclusively for Drama. The block is built around a central [[Quadrangle (architecture)|quadrangle]], with the main teaching rooms down the east side, and the Drama studios to the west. Over the northern entrance to the 'quad' is Big School, the school hall. There are also two wings: East Wing and West Wing. East Wing serves as a boarding house, while West Wing houses the staff room, [[sixth form]] common room, administrative entrance and reception, the newly re-named 'Middleton room' (ICT suite) and Religious Studies department.

The Science block, situated on the south-east of the site, contains a workshop for Technology classes, three Physics labs, three Biology labs, three Chemistry labs and a lecture theatre.

South House is a boarding house, although it also contains four teaching rooms and the 'Eppstein room', which functions as a secondary Mathematics office.

The Page Building, located between South House and the Science block, contains two Art rooms, two Technology labs (Graphics and Electronics), three Mathematics rooms, the main Mathematics office and an ICT suite.

The John Kendrick building, opened in 2002, is to the west of the site, housing the Library (formerly the Learning Resources Centre), two Geography rooms, two History rooms and four language classrooms. The adjoined 'Coach House' contains another Geography room, a History room, and two offices.

[[Image:ReadingSchoolchapel.jpg|thumb|250px|The chapel at Reading School]]
The chapel is where the school's [[Christmas]] and [[Easter]] services take place, and every student attends once a week. The chapel has four groups of pews, facing towards the central aisle. Above the entrance is the [[pipe organ|organ]], and at the far end is the altar and vestry.

Music School (formerly Junior School) has a teaching room, an ICT suite, a hall (used for [[orchestra]] and choir practices) and four smaller individual teaching rooms (used for individual music lessons). The school is developing an arts area in the unused part of the building. The building is situated at the far end of the drive, on the left of the main entrance.

An outdoor eating area has recently been developed on the school site, which is situated close to the [[tuck shop]].

==Subjects taught==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Subject
! Taught at [[Key Stage 3|KS3]]
! Taught at [[General Certificate of Secondary Education|GCSE]]
! Taught at [[Advanced Level (UK)|A level]]
! Taught at [[International Baccalaureate|IB]]*
|-
|[[Ancient Greek|Classical Greek]]
|No
|Yes
|Yes
|No
|-
| [[Art]]
| Compulsory
| Yes
| Yes
| Yes
|-
| [[Biology]]
| Compulsory
| Compulsory
| Yes
| Yes
|-
| [[Business Studies]]
| No
| Yes
| No
| No
|-
| [[Chemistry]]
| Compulsory
| Compulsory
| Yes
| Yes
|-
| [[Classical Civilisation]]
| No
| Yes
| Yes
| No
|-
| [[Drama]]
| Compulsory
| Yes
| Yes
| No
|-
| [[Economics]]
| No
| Yes
| Yes
| Yes
|-
| [[English studies|English]]
| Compulsory
| Compulsory
| Yes
| Compulsory
|-
| [[French language|French]]
| Compulsory
| Yes
| Yes
| Yes
|-
| [[Geography]]
| Compulsory
| Yes
| Yes
| Yes
|-
| [[German language|German]]
| Compulsory from Year 8
| Yes
| Yes
| Yes
|-
| [[History]]
| Compulsory
| Yes
| Yes
| Yes
|-
| [[ICT (education)|ICT]]
| Compulsory
| Yes (DiDA)
| No
| No
|-
| [[Latin]]
| Compulsory
| Yes
| Yes
| Yes
|-
| [[Mandarin Chinese]]
| No
| Yes
| No
| No
|-
| [[Mathematics]]**
| Compulsory
| Compulsory
| Yes
| Compulsory
|-
| [[Music]]
| Compulsory
| Yes
| Yes
| Yes
|-
| [[Physical Education]]
| Compulsory
| Compulsory
| Compulsory***
| No***
|-
| [[Physics]]
| Compulsory
| Compulsory
| Yes
| Yes
|-
| [[Religious Education]]****
| Compulsory
| Compulsory
| Offered in special cases
| Offered in special cases
|-
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| No
| Yes
| No
| Yes
|-
| [[Design Technology|Technology]]
| Compulsory
| Yes
| Yes
| No
|-
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki>Certain subjects offered at IB are liable to change over the coming years due to its new status.

<nowiki>**</nowiki>Additional Maths is taken by some students at the same time as GCSEs. Further Maths is optional at A Level.

<nowiki>***</nowiki>In the [[sixth form]], P.E. can optionally be taken as an examined A-Level. Those that do not do this must still take part in games weekly, though this is not examined or graded in any way.

<nowiki>****</nowiki>Unless of a non-[[Christian]] background.

==Notable "Old Redingensians" (former students)==
=== Deceased Old Redingensians (chronological order) ===

{| class="wikitable"
!Name
!Year of birth
!Year of death
!Notable achievements
|-
|Sir [[Thomas White (merchant)|Thomas White]]
|1492||1567
|Founder of [[St John's College, Oxford]] and [[Lord Mayor of London]] in 1553
|-
|Sir [[Francis Moore (barrister)|Francis Moore]]
|1559||1621
|[[Member of Parliament|MP]] for Reading
|-
|[[John Blagrave]]
|c.1561
|1611
|Mathematician
|-
|[[William Laud]]
|1573||1645
|Chancellor of the [[University of Oxford]] 1629–1645, [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], 1633–1645, beheaded in 1645 during the [[English Civil War|Civil War]]
|-
|[[John Kendrick (cloth merchant)|John Kendrick]]
|1573
|1624
|Elizabethan/Jacobean merchant and philanthropist
|-
|[[Daniel Blagrave]]
|1603
|1668
|Regicide (Signatory of the death warrant of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] in 1649). Escaped to exile in [[Aachen]] at the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] in 1660
|-
|Sir [[Thomas Stampe]] (or Stamp)
|
|
|[[Lord Mayor of the City of London]] in 1691
|-
|Sir [[Constantine Phipps]]
|1656
|1723
|[[Lord Chancellor of Ireland]]
|-
|[[Thomas Noon Talfourd]]
|1795
|1854
|Judge and writer
|-
|[[Horace William Wheelwright]]
|1815
|1865
|Lawyer, hunter, naturalist and writer
|-
|Captain [[Hastings Edward Harington|Hastings Harington]]||1832||1861||Awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] as a lieutenant with the Bengal Artillery for conspicuous gallantry in the relief of [[Lucknow]], 1857; died at [[Agra]]
|-
|[[Joseph_Wells_(University_of_Oxford)|Joseph Wells]]
|1855
|1929
|Warden of [[Wadham College, Oxford]] 1913–1927, Vice-Chancellor of the [[University of Oxford]] 1923–1926
|-
|[[William Norman Rae]]
|1886
|1964
|Professor of Chemistry, [[Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland]]
|-
|[[Herbert Leader Hawkins]]
|1887
|1968
|Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] (elected 1937), President of the Palaeontological Society, Professor of [[Palaeontology]], [[University of Reading]], world authority on [[sea urchins]]
|-
|[[Arthur Negus]]
|1903
|1985
|[[broadcasting|broadcaster]] and [[antique]]s expert
|-
|[[Norman Gash]]
|1912
|2009
|Eminent historian, former Professor of Modern History at the [[University of St Andrews]]
|-
|[[John Boulting]]
|1913
|1985
|Film director and producer
|-
|[[Horace Edgar "Tom" Dollery]]
|1914
|1987
|Warwickshire and England Cricketer
|-
|[[John Minton (artist)|John Minton]]
|1917
|1957
|Artist, lecturer and teacher
|-
|[[George William Series]]
|1920
|1995
|Physicist, Professor of Physics, [[University of Reading]], Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] (elected 1971)
|-
|Sir [[Clifford Charles Butler]]
|1922
|1999
|Physicist, co-discoverer of [[hyperon]]s and [[meson]]s
|}

=== Living Old Redingensians (alphabetical order) ===

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Name
!Year of birth
!Notable achievements
|-{| class="wikitable"
|-
|[[Paul Badham]]
| 1942
|Professor of Theology and Religious Studies, [[University of Lampeter]], Director of the Alister Hardy Religious Experience Research Centre
|-
|[[Ross Brawn]]
| 1954
| Former Technical Director of [[Benetton]] and [[Ferrari]] Formula 1 teams, former Team Principle of [[Honda]] F1, former owner of [[Brawn GP]], Team Principle of [[Mercedes Grand Prix]]
|-
|[[Tom Burrows]]
| 1985
|[[Hampshire County Cricket Club|Hampshire County Cricket Club 1st Team]]
|-
|[[Mark Field]]
| 1964
|[[Member of Parliament|MP]] – [[Shadow Cabinet|Shadow]] [[Financial Secretary to the Treasury]]
|-
|[[Cris Freddi]]
| 1955
|Author
|-
|[[David Gold (bridge player)|David Gold]]
| 1979
|England International Bridge Player (World Championship Silver Medalist 2008)
|-
|[[Damian Green]]
| 1956
|Former business editor for [[Channel 4]], [[Member of Parliament|MP]] – [[Shadow Cabinet|Shadow]] [[Minister of State for Borders and Immigration|Minister for Immigration]]
|-
|[[Oliver Heald]]
| 1954
|[[Member of Parliament|MP]] – [[Shadow Cabinet|Shadow]] [[Constitutional Affairs Secretary]]
|-
|[[Haydn Middleton]]
| 1955
| Author
|-
|[[Christopher Renshaw]]
| 1951
|Theatre Director
|-
|[[John Roper, Baron Roper|Lord Roper of Thorney Island]]
| 1935
|[[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] Chief Whip in the [[House of Lords]]
|-
|[[Andrew Smith (politician)|Andrew Smith]]
| 1952
|[[Member of Parliament|MP]] – Former [[Secretary of State for Work and Pensions]] and former [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet Minister]]
|-
|[[Sandeep Baliga (economist and blogger)|Sandeep Baliga]]
| 1966
|[[Economist]] – Professor at [[Kellogg Graduate School of Management]] and author of [[Cheap Talk (blog)|Cheap Talk]]
|}

==Bibliography==
* Michael Naxton. ''The History of Reading School''. Ringwood, Hampshire: Pardy Printers, 1986.
* John Oakes and Martin Parsons. ''Reading School: The First 800 Years''. Peterborough: DSM, 2005. ISBN 0-9547229-2-2.
* John Oakes and Martin Parsons. ''Old School Ties: Educating for Empire and War''. Peterborough: DSM, 2001. ISBN 0-9536516-6-5. (The stories of Old Redingsians in World War I)
* ''A History of Cricket at Reading School'', 1987.

==References==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
* [[List of schools in the United Kingdom]]
* [[List of the oldest schools in the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of the oldest schools in the world]]
*[[List of Victoria Crosses by School]]
* [[Specialist Schools and Academies Trust]]
* [[The Abbey School]] and [[Kendrick School]], two local schools for girls

==External links==
* [http://www.readingschool.reading.sch.uk/ Reading School]
* [http://www.readingschoolpa.org.uk/ Reading School Parents' Association]
* [http://www.oldredingensians.org.uk/ Old Redingensians]
* [http://schoolsfinder.direct.gov.uk/8705401/overview/ School overview and profile from Schoolsfinder]

{{Schools in Berkshire}}
{{coord|51|26|54|N|0|57|18|W|type:edu_region:GB|display=title}}

[[Category:Grade II listed buildings in Berkshire]]
[[Category:Grammar schools in Berkshire]]
[[Category:Humanities Colleges in England]]
[[Category:Old Redingensians|*]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Reading, Berkshire]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 12th century]]
[[Category:Schools with Combined Cadet Forces]]
[[Category:1125 establishments]]
[[Category:Boys' schools in England]]
[[Category:Alfred Waterhouse buildings]]
[[Category:Foundation schools]]
[[Category:Grade II listed educational buildings]]

Vegetarianism

2009-12-30T20:26:26Z

82.21.69.196:

{{About|human nutrition and diet|plant-based diets in animals|herbivory}}
'''Vegetarianism''' is the practice of following a diet based on plant-based foods including fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, nuts, and seeds, with or without dairy products and eggs.<ref name="VegSoc definition" /> A '''vegetarian''' does not eat [[meat]], [[game (food)|game]], [[poultry]], [[fish (food)|fish]], [[crustacea]], [[shellfish]], or products of [[animal slaughter]] such as animal-derived [[gelatin]] and [[rennet]].<ref name="VegSoc definition">{{cite web
| title = The Vegetarian Society - Definitions Information Sheet
| url = http://www.vegsoc.org/info/definitions.html
| publisher = The Vegetarian Society
| accessdate = 2008-09-03
}}</ref><ref name="CompactOED">{{cite web
| title = Vegetarian
| url = http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/vegetarian?
| publisher = Compact Oxford English Dictionary
| accessdate = 2008-06-15
| quote = a person who does not eat meat for moral, religious, or health reasons. ['meat' is [http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/meat? defined] as 'the flesh of an animal as food']
}}</ref><ref name="Briggs">Briggs, Asa (1989) ''The Longman Encyclopedia'', Longman, p. 1109</ref> There are a number of vegetarian diets. A [[lacto-vegetarian]] diet includes dairy products but excludes eggs, an [[ovo-vegetarian]] diet includes eggs but not dairy products, and a [[lacto-ovo vegetarian]] diet includes both eggs and dairy products. A [[vegan]] diet excludes all [[animal product]]s, including [[dairy product]]s, [[egg (food)|eggs]], and [[honey]]. Vegetarianism may be adopted for [[ethics of eating meat|ethical]], health, [[environmental vegetarianism|environmental]], [[vegetarianism and religion|religious]], political, cultural, aesthetic, [[economic vegetarianism|economic]], or other reasons.

A [[semi-vegetarian]] diet consists largely of vegetarian foods, but may include fish and sometimes poultry, as well as dairy products and eggs. A [[pescetarian]] diet, for example, includes "fish but no meat".<ref name="www.merriam-webster.com">[[Merriam-Webster]] defines "Pescetarian" as one whose diet includes fish but no meat. {{cite web|title=Pescetarian|publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |accessdate=2008-08-22|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=pescetarian}}</ref> The [[Colloquialism|common use]] confusion between such diets and vegetarianism<ref>{{Cite book | title = [[Shorter Oxford English Dictionary]] | place = Oxford | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | year = 2007 | volume = 2 | edition = 6th | page = 3506 | id = | isbn = }} defines "vegetarian" (noun) as "A person who on principle abstains from animal food; ''esp.'' one who avoids meat but will consume dairy produce and eggs and sometimes also fish (cf. VEGAN ''noun'')."</ref> has led vegetarian groups, such as the [[Vegetarian Society]] and Esther, to note that such fish or poultry-based diets are not vegetarian, but omnivorous.<ref name="www.vegsoc.org">{{cite web|title=VEGETARIANS DO NOT EAT FISH!|publisher=[[Vegetarian Society]] |accessdate=2008-08-22|url=http://www.vegsoc.org/fish/}}</ref>

==Terminology and varieties of vegetarianism==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Foods in the main vegetarian diets. Each of the diets listed in the table are subsets of vegetarianism.
! Diet name !! [[Meat]], [[poultry]], [[fish]] !! [[Egg (food)|Eggs]] !! [[Dairy products]] !! [[Honey]]
|-
! [[Lacto-ovo vegetarianism]]
| style="background:#FFCDCD"|<div class="center">No</div>||style="background:#CDE1FF"|Yes||style="background:#CDE1FF"|Yes||style="background:#CDE1FF"|Yes
|-
![[Lacto vegetarianism]]
|style="background:#FFCDCD"|<div class="center">No</div>||style="background:#FFCDCD"|No||style="background:#CDE1FF"|Yes||style="background:#CDE1FF"|Yes
|-
![[Ovo vegetarianism]]
|style="background:#FFCDCD"|<div class="center">No</div>||style="background:#CDE1FF"|Yes||style="background:#FFCDCD"|No||style="background:#CDE1FF"|Yes
|-
![[Veganism]]
|style="background:#FFCDCD"|<div class="center">No</div>||style="background:#FFCDCD"|No||style="background:#FFCDCD"|No|| style="background:#FFCDCD"|[[Veganism#Animal products|No]]<ref>{{cite web|author=Vegan Society (UK) |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/newsroom/index.php?/plugin/faqs/1/1 |title=Vegan Basics: What is a Vegan? |publisher=vegansociety.com |date= |accessdate=2009-09-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Noah Lewis |url=http://www.vegetus.org/honey/honey.htm |title=Why Honey is Not Vegan |publisher=Vegetus.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=American Vegan Society |url=http://www.americanvegan.org/vegan.htm |title=What is Vegan? |publisher=Americanvegan.org |date= |accessdate=2009-09-29}}</ref>
|}

===Other dietary practices commonly associated with vegetarianism===
* [[Fruitarianism]] is a diet of only fruit, nuts, seeds, and other plant matter that can be gathered without harming the plant.
* [[Su vegetarianism]] (such as in [[Buddhism]]), excludes all animal products as well as the fetid vegetables: [[onion]], [[garlic]], [[scallion]]s, [[leek]]s, or [[shallot]]s.
* [[Macrobiotic diet]] is a diet of mostly [[whole grain]]s and [[bean]]s. Not all macrobiotics are vegetarians, as some consume [[fish]].
* [[Raw veganism]] is a diet of fresh and uncooked fruit, nuts, seeds, and vegetables.
* [[Veganism|Dietary veganism]]: whereas vegans do not use animal products of any kind, dietary vegans restrict their veganism to their diet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ivu.org/faq/definitions.html|title=International Vegetarian Union (IVU)|accessdate=2007-06-27}}</ref>

Strict vegetarians also avoid products that may use animal ingredients not included in their labels or which use animal products in their manufacturing e.g. cheeses that use animal [[rennet]] (enzymes from animal stomach lining), [[gelatin]] (from animal skin, bones, and [[connective tissue]]), some sugars that are whitened with [[bone char]] (e.g. [[sugarcane|cane]] sugar, but not [[sugar beet|beet]] sugar) and [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] clarified with [[gelatin]] or crushed [[shellfish]] and [[sturgeon]].

===Semi-vegetarian diets===
Semi-vegetarian diets primarily consist of vegetarian foods, but make exceptions for some non-vegetarian foods. These diets may be followed by those who choose to reduce the amount of animal flesh consumed, as a way of transitioning to a vegetarian diet, or for environmental reasons. The term "semi-vegetarian" is contested by most strict vegetarians,<ref name=www.vegsoc.org/> who believe that vegetarianism must exclude all animal-based foods.

Many individuals describe themselves as "vegetarian" while practicing a semi-vegetarian diet that includes fish or poultry.<ref name="IQ study">{{cite journal |last=Gale |first=Catharine R |coauthors=Ian J Deary, Ingrid Schoon, G David Batty, G David Batty |date=2006-12-15 |year= |month= |title=IQ in childhood and vegetarianism in adulthood: 1970 British cohort study |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=333 |issue=7581 | page = 245 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.39030.675069.55+ |url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/bmj.39030.675069.55v1?hrss=1 |accessdate=2006-12-16|pmid=17175567 |doi_brokendate=2009-06-05}}</ref>
* [[Semi-vegetarianism]]: A diet that excludes certain meats, particularly [[red meat]], but may include others.
* [[Flexitarianism]]: A diet that consists primarily of vegetarian food, but includes occasional exceptions.
* [[Pescetarianism]]: A diet that is mainly vegetarian but also includes fish.

==Etymology==
The [[Vegetarian Society]], founded in 1847, claims to have "created the word vegetarian from the Latin 'vegetus' meaning 'lively' (which is how these early vegetarians claimed their diet made them feel) ..."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vegsoc.org/news/2000/canapes.html |title=Vegetarian Society, News 2000 |publisher=Vegsoc.org |date=2000-11-01 |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> However, the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] and other standard dictionaries state that the word was formed from the term "vegetable" and the suffix "-arian".<ref>''OED'' vol. 19, second edition (1989), p. 476; ''Webster’s Third New International Dictionary'' p. 2537; ''The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology'', Oxford 1966, p. 972; ''The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology'' (1988), p. 1196; Colin Spencer, ''The Heretic's Feast. A History of Vegetarianism'', London 1993, p. 252.</ref>

The Oxford English Dictionary also gives evidence that the word was already in use before the foundation of the Vegetarian Society:
* 1839 - "If I had had to be my own cook, I should inevitably become a vegetarian." (F. A. Kemble, ''Jrnl. Residence on Georgian Plantation'' (1863) 251)
* 1842 - "To tell a healthy vegetarian that his diet is very uncongenial with the wants of his nature." (''Healthian'', Apr. 34)

but notes that "The general use of the word appears to have been largely due to the formation of the Vegetarian Society at Ramsgate in 1847."

==History==
{{Main|History of vegetarianism}}
The earliest records of (lacto) <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ivu.org/history/renaissance/words.html |title=Some background to 'vegetarian' and 'vegan' |publisher=Ivu.org |date= |accessdate=2009-10-04}}</ref> vegetarianism as a concept and practice amongst a significant number of people come from ancient [[India]].<ref name="the_heretics_feast_a02">{{Cite book | last1 = Spencer | first1 = Colin | title = The Heretic's Feast: A History of Vegetarianism | date = | publisher = Fourth Estate Classic House | location = | isbn = 1-85702-078-2 | pages = 69–84 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rIjZo-cvifAC&dq | accessdate=2009-10-13 }}</ref> Vegetarianism was also practiced by the ancient Greek civilisation in Southern Italy and in Greece in the 6th century BCE.<ref>Spencer p. 33–68.</ref> In both instances the diet was closely connected with the idea of [[nonviolence]] towards animals (called ''[[ahimsa]]'' in India) and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.<ref>
[[Indian subcontinent|Indian]] emperor [[Ashoka]] has asserted protection to fauna , from his edicts we could understand, i.e.
"Twenty-six years after my coronation various animals were declared to be protected -- parrots, mainas, //aruna//, ruddy geese, wild ducks, //nandimukhas, gelatas//, bats, queen ants, terrapins, boneless fish, //vedareyaka//, //gangapuputaka//, //sankiya// fish, tortoises, porcupines, squirrels, deer, bulls, //okapinda//, wild asses, wild pigeons, domestic pigeons and all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible. Those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milk to their young are protected, and so are young ones less than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt and forests are not to be burnt either without reason or to kill creatures. One animal is not to be fed to another."

—[[Edict of Ashoka]]on Fifth Pillar

''Religious Vegetarianism From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama'', ed. [[Kerry S. Walters]] and Lisa Portmess, Albany 2001, p. 13–46.</ref>

Following the Christianisation of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe.<ref name=Passmore>Passmore, John: ''The Treatment of Animals'', in: ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 36 (1975) p. 196–201.</ref> Several orders of [[monk]]s in [[medieval Europe]] restricted or banned the consumption of meat for [[asceticism|ascetic]] reasons, but none of them eschewed fish.<ref>Lutterbach, Hubertus: ''Der Fleischverzicht im Christentum'', in: ''Saeculum'' 50/II (1999) p. 202.</ref> Saint [[Genevieve]], the Patron Saint of [[Paris]], is mentioned as having observed a vegetarian diet - but as an act of physical austerity, rather than out of concern for animals.

Vegetarianism re-emerged somewhat in Europe during the [[Renaissance]].<ref>Spencer p. 180–200.</ref> It became a more widespread practice in the 19th and 20th centuries.

In 1847, the first ''Vegetarian Society'' was founded in [[England]];<ref>Spencer p. 252–253, 261–262.</ref> [[Germany]], the Netherlands and other countries followed. The [[International Vegetarian Union]], a union of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the [[Western world]], the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and more recently, [[environmental movement|environmental]] and [[economic]] concerns.

==Health benefits and concerns==
Vegetarianism is considered a healthy, viable diet. The [[American Dietetic Association]] and the [[Dietitians of Canada]] have found a properly planned vegetarian diet to satisfy the nutritional needs for all stages of life, and large-scale studies have shown that "Mortality from ischemic heart disease was 24% lower in vegetarians than in nonvegetarians" <ref name="AJCN metastudy" /><ref name="AJCN British study" /><ref name="Position of the ADA">{{cite journal| url=http://eatright.org/ada/files/veg.pdf|format=PDF| title=Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets| author=[[American Dietetic Association]] and [[Dietitians of Canada]]| journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association| year=2003| volume=103| issue=6| pages=748–65| accessdate=2008-12-30| doi=10.1053/jada.2003.50142}}</ref> Necessary nutrients, proteins, and amino acids for the body's sustenance can be found in vegetables, grains, nuts, soymilk, eggs and dairy.<ref>[http://www.soyfoods.com/soyfoodsdescriptions/soymilk.html Soymilk] at [http://www.soyfoods.com/ soyfoods.com]</ref>

Vegetarian diets can aid in keeping body weight under control<ref>{{cite journal| journal=International Journal of Obesity| year=2006| issue=30| pages=1389–1396| title=Weight gain over 5 years in 21 966 meat-eating, fish-eating, vegetarian, and vegan men and women in EPIC-Oxford| doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803305 | author = Rosell, M | volume = 30}} (BBC story on paper [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4801570.stm])</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4801570.stm |title=Health | Rejecting meat 'keeps weight low' |publisher=BBC News |date=2006-03-14 |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> and substantially reduce risks of heart disease and [[osteoporosis]].<ref name="news1">{{cite news|author=Prof David Jenkins |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2526891.stm |title=Health | Vegetarian diet 'cuts heart risk' |publisher=BBC News |date=2002-12-15 |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref><ref name="news1"/><ref name="news2">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/1412238.stm |title=HEALTH | Veggie diet 'protects heart' |publisher=BBC News |date=2001-06-28 |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref><ref name="news2"/> Non-lean red meat, in particular, has been found to be directly associated with dramatically increased risk of cancers of the [[lung cancer|lung]], oesophagus, liver, and [[colon cancer|colon]].<ref name="veg cancer">{{cite news | date=2007-12-11 | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/22199057/| title= Meat can raise your lung cancer risk, too| publisher= MSNBC | accessdate=2007-12-29}}{{dead link|date=October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040325&ct=1| title= A Prospective Study of Red and Processed Meat Intake in Relation to Cancer Risk| publisher= PLoS Medicine | accessdate=2008-04-21}}</ref> Other studies have shown that there were no significant differences between vegetarians and nonvegetarians in mortality from [[cerebrovascular disease]], [[stomach cancer]], [[colorectal cancer]],[[breast cancer]], or [[prostate cancer]], although the sample of vegetarians was small and included ex-smokers who had switched their diet within the last five years.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/70/3/516S#T7 |title = Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies - Key et al. 70 (3): 516S - American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |accessdate = 2008-06-23}}</ref>

The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada have stated: "Vegetarian diets offer a number of nutritional benefits, including lower levels of [[saturated fat]], [[cholesterol]], and animal protein as well as higher levels of carbohydrates, [[fibre]], [[magnesium]], [[potassium]], [[folate]], and [[antioxidants]] such as [[vitamins]] C and E and [[phytochemicals]]."<ref name="Position of the ADA" /> Vegetarians tend to have lower [[body mass index]], lower levels of [[cholesterol]], lower [[blood pressure]], and less incidence of [[heart disease]], [[hypertension]], [[Diabetes#Type 2 diabetes mellitus|type 2 diabetes]], [[renal]] disease, [[osteoporosis]], [[dementia]]s such as [[Alzheimer’s Disease]] and other disorders.<ref>{{cite book | last = Mattson| first = Mark P.| title = Diet-Brain Connection: Impact on Memory, Mood, Aging and Disease| publisher = Kluwer Academic Publishers|year=2002| isbn = 978-1402071294}}</ref>

===Nutrition===
{{Main|Vegetarian nutrition}}
[[File:Fruit Stall in Barcelona Market.jpg|thumb|right|260px|A fruit and vegetable stall in [[Barcelona]]]]

Western vegetarian diets are typically high in [[carotenoids]], but relatively low in [[omega-3 fatty acids|long-chain n-3 fatty acids]] and [[vitamin B12]]. Vegans can have particularly low intake of vitamin B and [[calcium]] if they do not eat enough items such as collard greens, leafy greens, tempeh and tofu (soy). High levels of dietary fibre, folic acid, vitamins C and E, and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat are all considered to be beneficial aspects of a vegetarian diet.<ref name=Key>{{cite journal|title=Health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets|author=Timothy J Key, Paul N Appleby, Magdalena S Rosell|year=2006|journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society|pages=35–41|volume=65|doi=10.1079/PNS2005481}}</ref><ref name=Davey>{{cite journal|title=EPIC-Oxford: lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort of 33 883 meat-eaters and 31 546 non meat-eaters in the UK|author=Davey GK, Spencer EA, Appleby PN, Allen NE, Knox KH, Key TJ|year=2003|journal=Public Health Nutrition |pages=259–69|volume=6 | doi = 10.1079/PHN2002430+|doi_brokendate=2009-06-05}}</ref>

====Protein====
Protein intake in vegetarian diets is only slightly lower than in meat diets and can meet daily requirements for any person, including athletes and bodybuilders.<ref>{{cite book | last = Peter Emery| first = Tom Sanders| title = Molecular Basis of Human Nutrition| publisher = Taylor & Francis Ltd|year=2002| page = 32| isbn = 978-0748407538}}</ref> Studies at Harvard University as well as other studies conducted in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and various European countries, have confirmed that vegetarian diets provide sufficient protein intake as long as a variety of plant sources are available and consumed.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brenda Davis| first = Vesanto Melina| title = The New Becoming Vegetarian| publisher = Book Publishing Company|year=2003| pages = 57–58| isbn = 978-1570671449}}</ref> Proteins are composed of [[amino acids]], and a common concern with protein acquired from vegetable sources is an adequate intake of the [[essential amino acids]], which cannot be synthesised by the human body. While dairy and egg products provide complete sources for [[lacto-ovo vegetarian]]s, the only vegetable sources with significant amounts of all eight types of essential amino acids are [[lupin]], [[soy]], [[hempseed]], [[chia seed]], [[amaranth grain|amaranth]], [[buckwheat]], and [[quinoa]]. It is not necessary, however, to obtain protein from these sources—the essential amino acids can also be obtained by eating a variety of complementary plant sources that, in combination, provide all eight essential amino acids (e.g. [[brown rice]] and [[bean]]s, or [[hummus]] and whole wheat [[pita]], though [[protein combining]] in the same meal is not necessary). A varied intake of such sources can be adequate, a 1994 study found.<ref name="young">{{cite journal| author=VR Young and PL Pellett| title=Plant proteins in relation to human protein and amino acid nutrition| journal=Am. J. Clinical Nutrition| month=May| year=1994| issue=59| pages=1203S–1212S| pmid=8172124| url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/59/5/1203S.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-12-30}}</ref>

====Iron====
Vegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets, but this has lower bioavailability than iron from meat sources, and its absorption can sometimes be inhibited by other dietary constituents. Vegetarian foods rich in iron include [[black beans]], [[cashews]], [[hempseed]], [[kidney beans]], [[lentils]], [[oatmeal]], [[raisins]], [[black-eyed peas]], [[soybeans]], many [[breakfast cereals]], [[sunflower seeds]], [[chickpeas]], [[tomato juice]], [[tempeh]], [[molasses]], [[thyme]], and [[whole-wheat bread]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://goveg.com/essential_nutrients.asp#iron |title=// Health Issues // Optimal Vegan Nutrition |publisher=Goveg.com |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> The related vegan diets can often be higher in iron than vegetarian diets, because dairy products are low in iron.<ref name=Davey/> Iron stores often tend to be lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians and iron deficiency is thus more common in vegetarian and vegan women and children (adult males are rarely iron deficient), however, iron deficiency [[anaemia]] is rare no matter the diet.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Dietary Iron Intake and Iron Status of German Female Vegans: Results of the German Vegan Study|author=Annika Waldmann, Jochen W. Koschizke, Claus Leitzmann, Andreas Hahn|year=2004|journal=Ann Nutr Metab|pages=103–108|volume=48|doi=10.1159/000077045}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Influence of vegetarian and mixed nutrition on selected haematological and biochemical parameters in children|author=Krajcovicova-Kudlackova M, Simoncic R, Bederova A, Grancicova E, Magalova T|year=1997|journal=Nahrung|pages=311–14|volume=41|doi=10.1002/food.19970410513}}</ref>

====Vitamin B12====
Plants are not generally significant sources of [[Vitamin B12]].<ref name="moz">{{Cite news | last= Mozafar| first= A. | year= 1997| title= Is there vitamin B12 in plants or not? A plant nutritionist's view| periodical= Vegetarian Nutrition: an International Journal| issue= 1/2| pages= 50–52 }}</ref> However, lacto-ovo vegetarians can obtain B12 from dairy products and eggs, and vegans can obtain it from fortified foods and dietary supplements.<ref>[http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/gijyutu/gijyutu3/toushin/05031802/002/009.pdf ALGAE] from ''[http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/gijyutu/gijyutu3/toushin/05031802.htm STANDARD TABLES OF FOOD COMPOSITION IN JAPAN Fifth Revised and Enlarged Edition 2005]''</ref><ref>''[http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110004688287/en/ Vegans (pure vegetarians) and vitamin B_12 deficiency]''</ref> Since the human body preserves B12 and reuses it without destroying the substance, clinical evidence of B12 deficiency is uncommon.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Vitamin B-12 status, particularly holotranscobalamin II and methylmalonic acid concentrations, and hyperhomocysteinemia in vegetarians|author=Herrmann W, Schorr H, Obeid R, Geisel J|year=2003|journal=Am J Clin Nutr|pages=131–6|volume=78}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Vegetarianism and vitamin B-12 (cobalamin) deficiency|author=Antony AC|year=2003|journal=Am J Clin Nutr|pages=3–6|volume=78}}</ref> The body can preserve stores of the vitamin for up to 30 years without needing its supplies to be replenished.<ref name="moz"/>

The only reliable vegan sources of B12 are foods fortified with B12 (including some soy products and some breakfast cereals) and B12 supplements.<ref name='Vegan Society B12 factsheet'>{{cite web | title=Vegan Society B12 factsheet | url=http://www.vegansociety.com/food/nutrition/b12/ | last=Walsh | first=Stephen, RD | publisher=Vegan Society | accessdate=2008-01-17}}</ref><ref name="donaldson">{{cite journal |title=Metabolic vitamin B12 status on a mostly raw vegan diet with follow-up using tablets, nutritional yeast, or probiotic supplements | last=Donaldson | first=MS |publisher=Ann Nutr Metab. 2000;44:229-234}}</ref> The research on vitamin B12 sources has increased in the latest years.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.unu.edu/unupress/food/8F052e/8F052E05.htm |title = Ch05 |accessdate = 2008-06-23}}</ref>

====Fatty acids====
[[Fish as food|Fish]] is a non-vegetarian source of [[Omega 3]] fatty acids. Plant-based, or vegetarian, sources exist such as [[soy]], [[walnut]]s, [[pumpkin]] seeds, [[canola oil]] and especially [[hempseed]], [[chia seed]], [[flaxseed]], and [[portulaca oleracea|purslane]]. Purslane contains more Omega 3 than any other known leafy green. Plant foods can provide [[alpha-linolenic acid]] but not the long-chain n-3 fatty acids [[Eicosapentaenoic acid|EPA]] and [[Docosahexaenoic acid|DHA]], which are found in low levels in eggs and dairy products. Vegetarians, and particularly vegans, have lower levels of EPA and DHA than meat-eaters. While the health effects of low levels of EPA and DHA are unknown, it is unlikely that supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid will significantly increase levels.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma in British meat-eating, vegetarian, and vegan men|author=Rosell MS, Lloyd-Wright Z, Appleby PN, Sanders TA, Allen NE, Key TJ|year=2003|journal=Am J Clin Nutr|pages=327–34|volume=82}}</ref> Recently, some companies have begun to market vegetarian DHA supplements containing seaweed extracts. Similar supplements providing both DHA and EPA have also begun to appear.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.water4.net/ | title = Water4life: health-giving vegetarian dietary supplements | accessdate = 2008-05-17}}</ref> Whole seaweeds are not suitable for supplementation because their high iodine content limits the amount that may be safely consumed. However, certain [[algae]] such as [[spirulina]] are good sources of [[gamma-linolenic acid]] (GLA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), [[linoleic acid]] (LA), [[stearidonic acid]] (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and [[arachidonic acid]] (AA).<ref name="uzbek">Babadzhanov, A.S., ''et al.'' "Chemical Composition of Spirulina Platensis Cultivated in Uzbekistan." ''Chemistry of Natural Compounds''. 40, 3, 2004.</ref><ref name="biomass">Tokusoglu, O., Unal, M.K. "Biomass Nutrient Profiles of Three Microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana." ''Journal of Food Science.'' 68, 4, 2003.</ref>

====Calcium====
[[Calcium]] intake in vegetarians is similar to non-vegetarians. Some impaired bone mineralisation has been found among vegans who do not consume enough leafy greens, which are sources of abundant calcium.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/calcium.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070825133156/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/calcium.html |archivedate=2007-08-25 |title=Calcium and Milk: Nutrition Source, Harvard School of Public Health |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=2007-08-25 |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> However, this is not found in lacto-ovo vegetarians.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford|author=P Appleby, A Roddam, N Allen, T Key|year=2007|journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition|doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602659|volume=61|page=1400}}</ref> Some sources of calcium include [[broccoli]], [[cauliflower]], [[beet greens]], [[bok choy]], [[collard greens]], [[kale]], [[watercress]], and [[soy beans]]. [[Watercress]], and [[kale]] are especially high in calcium. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.watercress.co.uk/health/chart.shtml|title=Watercress nutritional analysis|accessdate=Nov 01 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.happyjuicer.com/Nutrition/kale.aspx|title=Nutritional Value of Kale, raw|accessdate=Nov 01 2009}}</ref> [[Collard greens]] are high in calcium, but the calcium is bound to oxalate and therefore it is poorly absorbed. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vegansociety.com/food/nutrition/calcium.php|title=Vegan Sources of Calcium|accessdate=Nov 01 2009}}</ref>

====Vitamin D====
[[Vitamin D]] levels do not appear to be lower in vegetarians (although studies have shown that much of the general population is deficient<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/NewsTrack/Health/2008/02/21/many_vitamin_d_deficient_in_winter/5452/|title=Many vitamin D deficient in winter |publisher=United Press International|accessdate=2008-04-23}}</ref>). Vitamin D needs can be met via the human body's own generation upon sufficient and sensible UV sun exposure. Products including [[milk]], [[soy milk]] and [[cereal grain]]s may be [[fortified]] to provide a good source of Vitamin D<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamind.asp|title=Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin D|publisher=National Institutes of Health|accessdate=2007-09-10|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5Rl5u0LB5 |archivedate=2007-09-10}}</ref> and [[mushrooms]] provide over 2700 IU per serving (approx. 3 [[ounce|oz]] or 1/2 cup) of [[ergosterol|vitamin D<sub>2</sub>]], if exposed to just 5 minutes of UV light after being harvested;<ref>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Bringing Mushrooms Out of the Dark |date=April 18, 2006 | publisher= | url =http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12370708 | work =MSNBC | pages = | accessdate = 2007-08-06 | language = }}</ref> for those who do not get adequate sun exposure and/or food sources, Vitamin D supplementation may be necessary.

===Longevity===
A 1999 [[Meta-analysis|metastudy]]<ref name="AJCN metastudy">{{cite journal|authors= Timothy J Key, Gary E Fraser, Margaret Thorogood, Paul N Appleby, Valerie Beral, Gillian Reeves, Michael L Burr, Jenny Chang-Claude, Rainer Frentzel-Beyme, Jan W Kuzma, Jim Mann and Klim McPherson |title= "Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies"|journal= American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume= 70|issue=3|pages=516S-524S|date= September 1999 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/70/3/516S|accessdate=30 October 2009}}</ref> combined data from five studies from western countries. The metastudy reported [[mortality ratio]]s, where lower numbers indicated fewer deaths, for fish eaters to be .82, vegetarians to be .84, occasional meat eaters to be .84. Regular meat eaters and [[veganism|vegans]] shared the highest mortality ratio of 1.00. The study reported the numbers of deaths in each category, and expected error ranges for each ratio, and adjustments made to the data. However, the "lower mortality was due largely to the relatively low prevalence of smoking in these [vegetarian] cohorts". Out of the major causes of death studied, only one difference in mortality rate was attributed to the difference in diet, as the conclusion states: "vegetarians had a 24% lower mortality from ischemic heart disease than nonvegetarians, but no associations of a vegetarian diet with other major causes of death were established."<ref name="AJCN metastudy"/>

In "Mortality in British vegetarians",<ref name="AJCN British study">Key, Timothy J, ''et al.'', "Mortality in British vegetarians: review and preliminary results from EPIC-Oxford" American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 78, No. 3, 533S-538S, September 2003 http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/78/3/533S</ref> a similar conclusion is drawn: "British vegetarians have low mortality compared with the general population. Their death rates are similar to those of comparable non-vegetarians, suggesting that much of this benefit may be attributed to non-dietary lifestyle factors such as a low prevalence of smoking and a generally high socio-economic status, or to aspects of the diet other than the avoidance of meat and fish."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mortality in British vegetarians|quote=CONCLUSIONS: British vegetarians have low mortality compared with the general population. Their death rates are similar to those of comparable non-vegetarians, suggesting that much of this benefit may be attributed to non-dietary lifestyle factors such as a low prevalence of smoking and a generally high socio-economic status, or to aspects of the diet other than the avoidance of meat and fish.|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12001975}}</ref>

The Adventist Health Study is an ongoing study of life expectancy in [[Seventh-day Adventists]]. This is the only study among others with similar methodology which had favourable indication for vegetarianism. The researchers found that a combination of different lifestyle choices could influence life expectancy by as much as 10 years. Among the lifestyle choices investigated, a vegetarian diet was estimated to confer an extra 1–1/2 to 2 years of life. The researchers concluded that "the life expectancies of California Adventist men and women are higher than those of any other well-described natural population" at 78.5 years for men and 82.3 years for women. The [[life expectancy]] of California Adventists surviving to age 30 was 83.3 years for men and 85.7 years for women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.llu.edu/news/today/july2601/llu.html |title=TODAY - July 26, 2001 |publisher=Llu.edu |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}{{dead link|date=October 2009}}</ref>

The Adventist health study is again incorporated into a metastudy titled "Does low meat consumption increase life expectancy in humans?" published in American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, which concluded that low meat eating (less than once per week) and other lifestyle choices significantly increase life expectancy, relative to a group with high meat intake.<ref>Does low meat consumption increase life expectancy in humans?—Singh ''et al.'' 78 (3): 526—American Journal of Clinical Nutrition [http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/78/3/526S Abstract]</ref> The study concluded that "The findings from one cohort of healthy adults raises the possibility that long-term (≥ 2 decades) adherence to a vegetarian diet can further produce a significant 3.6-y increase in life expectancy." However, the study also concluded that "Some of the variation in the survival advantage in vegetarians may have been due to marked differences between studies in adjustment for confounders, the definition of vegetarian, measurement error, age distribution, the healthy volunteer effect, and intake of specific plant foods by the vegetarians." It further states that "This raises the possibility that a low-meat, high plant-food dietary pattern may be the true causal protective factor rather than simply elimination of meat from the diet." In a recent review of studies relating low-meat diet patterns to all-cause mortality, Singh noted that "5 out of 5 studies indicated that adults who followed a low meat, high plant-food diet pattern experienced significant or marginally significant decreases in mortality risk relative to other patterns of intake."

Statistical studies, such as comparing [[life expectancy]] with regional areas and local diets in Europe also have found life expectancy considerably greater in southern [[France]], where a low meat, high plant [[Mediterranean diet]] is common, than northern France, where a diet with high meat content is more common.<ref>Trichopoulou, ''et al.'' 2005 "Modified Mediterranean diet and survival: EPIC-elderly prospective cohort study", British Medical Journal 330:991 (30 April) http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/bmj;330/7498/991
<br />News story based on this article: Science Daily, April 25, 2005 "Mediterranean Diet Leads To Longer Life" http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/04/050425111008.htm</ref>

A study by the Institute of Preventive and Clinical Medicine, and Institute of Physiological Chemistry looked at a group of 19 vegetarians (lacto-ovo) and used as a comparison a group of 19 omnivorous subjects recruited from the same region. The study found that this group of vegetarians (lacto-ovo) have a significantly higher amount of plasma [[carboxymethyllysine]] and [[advanced glycation endproducts]] (AGEs) compared to this group of omnivores.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.biomed.cas.cz/physiolres/2002/issue3/krajcovic.htm | work = PHYSIOLOGY RESEARCH | title = Advanced Glycation End Products and Nutrition | accessdate = 2008-04-11 }}</ref> Carboxymethyllysine is a [[glycation]] product which represents "a general marker of oxidative stress and long-term damage of proteins in aging, atherosclerosis and diabetes." "Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) may play an important adverse role in process of atherosclerosis, diabetes, aging and chronic renal failure."

===Food safety===
[[Libby Sande]] argued in a blog for [[USA Today]] that Vegetarianism reduces ''E. coli'' infections,<ref>{{cite news
| last = Sande
| first = Libby
| title = Vegetarianism reduces ''E. coli'' infections
| publisher = USA Today
|date=2006-09-25
| url = http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2006/09/veggie_diet_red.html
| accessdate = 2007-04-28 }}</ref> and in a piece for [[The New York Times]] linked [[Escherichia coli|''E. coli'']] contamination in food to industrial scale meat and dairy farms.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Sander
| first = Libby
| title = Source of Deadly ''E. Coli'' Is Found
| publisher = New York Times
|date=2006-10-13
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/13/us/13spinach.html
| accessdate = 2006-10-13 }}</ref> ''E. coli'' infections in the US during 2006 were traced to spinach and onions.<ref>{{cite news | title = E. Coli Outbreak | pages = | publisher = NBC News |date=2006-09-15 | url = http://www.kpvi.com/index.cfm?page=nbcstories.cfm&ID=3034 | accessdate = 2006-12-13 }}</ref>{{Dead link|date=October 2009}}<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16081340/ Taco Bell removes green onions after outbreak]{{dead link|date=October 2009}} Dec. 6, 2006 [[MSNBC]]</ref>

Transmission of pathogenic ''E. coli'' often occurs via [[fecal-oral route|fecal-oral transmission]].<ref name=Evans>{{cite web |url=http://www.gsbs.utmb.edu/microbook/ch025.htm |title=Escherichia Coli |accessdate=2007-12-02 |last=Evans Jr. |first=Doyle J. |coauthors=Dolores G. Evans |date= |work=Medical Microbiology, 4th edition |publisher=The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston}}</ref><ref name=haccp>{{cite web |url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/hret2-a3.html |title=Retail Establishments; Annex 3 - Hazard Analysis |accessdate=2007-12-02 |last= |first= |coauthors= |month=April | year=2006 |work=Managing Food Safety: A Manual for the Voluntary Use of HACCP Principles for Operators of Food Service and Retail Establishments |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition}}{{dead link|date=October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gehlbach |first=S.H. |coauthors=J.N. MacCormack, B.M. Drake, W.V. Thompson |year=1973 |month=April |title=Spread of disease by fecal-oral route in day nurseries |journal=Health Service Reports |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=320–322 |pmid=4574421 |url= |quote= }}</ref> Common routes of transmission include unhygienic food preparation<ref name=haccp/> and farm contamination.<ref name=spinach>{{cite news |author=Sabin Russell |coauthors= |title=Spinach E. coli linked to cattle; Manure on pasture had same strain as bacteria in outbreak |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/10/13/MNG71LOT711.DTL |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |id= |date= October 13, 2006 |accessdate=2007-12-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Heaton JC, Jones K |title=Microbial contamination of fruit and vegetables and the behaviour of enteropathogens in the phyllosphere: a review |journal=J. Appl. Microbiol. |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=613–26 |year=2008 |month=March |pmid=17927745 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03587.x |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=1364-5072&date=2008&volume=104&issue=3&spage=613}}</ref><ref name=DeGregori>{{cite web |author=Thomas R. DeGregori |year=2007-08-17|url= http://www.cgfi.org/cgficommentary/maddening-media-misinformation-on-biotech-and-industrial-agriculture-part-5-of-5 |title=CGFI: Maddening Media Misinformation on Biotech and Industrial Agriculture |accessdate=2007-12-08 |work=}}</ref> Dairy and beef cattle are primary reservoirs of the ''E. coli'' strain ''O157:H7'',<ref name=bach/> and they can carry it asymptomatically and shed it in their feces.<ref name=bach>{{cite journal |last=Bach |first=S.J. |coauthors=T.A. McAllister, D.M. Veira, V.P.J. Gannon, and R.A. Holley |year=2002 |month= |title=Transmission and control of ''Escherichia coli'' O157:H7 |journal=Canadian Journal of Animal Science |volume=82 |issue= |pages=475–490 |id= |url=http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/aic-journals/2002ab/cjas02/dec02/cjas02-021.html |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref> Food products associated with ''E. coli'' outbreaks include raw ground beef,<ref>{{cite book |last=Institute of Medicine of the National Academies |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=''Escherichia coli'' O157:H7 in Ground Beef: Review of a Draft Risk Assessment |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10528 |edition= |series= |year=2002 |publisher=The National Academies Press |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-309-08627-2 |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}</ref> raw seed sprouts or spinach,<ref name=spinach/> raw milk, unpasteurized juice, and foods contaminated by infected food workers via fecal-oral route.<ref name=haccp/> In 2005, some people who had consumed triple-washed, pre-packaged [[lettuce]] were infected with ''E. coli''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/news/ng.asp?n=63793-fda-lettuce-e-coli |title=FDA targets lettuce industry with ''E. coli'' guidance |publisher=Foodnavigator-usa.com |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> In 2007, packaged lettuce salads were recalled after they were found to be contaminated with ''E. coli''.<ref>[http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5ijrQVRjYGHS3Jwc71VEnaViGXmdw Dole Lettuce Recalled in U.S., Canada By Lisa Leff]{{dead link|date=October 2009}} [[Associated Press]]</ref> ''E. coli'' outbreaks have been traced to unpasteurised apples,<ref>[http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/pubs/press/cider_safety.html Apple Cider & E. coli] Food Safety Update Retrieved July 26, 2007</ref> orange juice, milk, alfalfa sprouts,<ref>[http://medicalreporter.health.org/tmr0799/sprouts.html Raw Sprouts pose Salmonella and E. coli 0157 risk, says FDA] Medical Reporter Retrieved July 26, 2007</ref> and water.<ref>{{cite web|author=health & fitness |url=http://health.msn.com/dietfitness/articlepage.aspx?cp-documentid=100136394&wa=wsignin1.0 |title=''E. coli'': Dangers of eating raw or undercooked foods |publisher=Health.msn.com |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref>

Salmonella outbreaks have been traced to peanut butter, frozen pot pies & puffed vegetable snacks.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/04/10/health/webmd/main4007944.shtml|title=CDC: U.S. Food Safety Hasn't Improved|publisher=CBS News|date=11 April 2008}}</ref>
[[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|BSE]], also known as mad cow disease, is linked by the [[World Health Organization]] to [[Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease]] in humans.<ref>WHO 2002 "Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease" , Fact sheet N°180 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs180/en/</ref>

There have been reports of fears of [[foot-and-mouth disease]] in sheep, [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCBs]] in farmed salmon, [[mercury toxicity|mercury]] in fish, [[polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|dioxin]] concentrations in animal products, artificial [[growth hormone]]s, [[antibiotic]]s, lead and mercury,<ref>{{cite book | last = Graham Farrell and John E. Orchard | first = Peter Golob| title = Crop Post-Harvest: Science and Technology: Principles and Practice: v. 1| publisher = Blackwell Science Ltd|year=2002| page = 29| isbn = 978-0632057238}}</ref> pesticide contamination of vegetables and fruits, banned chemicals being used to ripen fruits.<ref>[http://www.consumersunion.org/food/do_you_know2.htm DO YOU KNOW WHAT YOU'RE EATING?]{{Dead link|date=August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20070013183 |title = NDTV.com: Artificial ripeners used for mangoes |accessdate = 2008-06-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2005/05/16/stories/2005051600881500.htm |title = The Hindu Business Line : Something is rotten in fruit trade |accessdate = 2008-06-23}}</ref> In 2005, fears that "bird flu" could be caused by eating chicken were featured in a [[PETA]] call for vegetarian diets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.consumerfreedom.com/news_detail.cfm/headline/2913 |title=consumerfreedom.com |publisher=consumerfreedom.com |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref>

===Medical use===
In [[Western medicine]], patients are sometimes advised to adhere to a vegetarian diet.<ref name="diag">{{cite book | last = L M Tierney, S J McPhee
| first = M A Papadakis | title = Current medical Diagnosis & Treatment. International edition | publisher = Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill |year=2002
| location = New York | isbn = 0-07-137688-7}}</ref> Certain [[alternative medicine]]s, such as [[Ayurveda]] and [[Siddha Medicine|Siddha]], prescribe a vegetarian diet as a normal procedure.<ref>Tiwari, Maya. 1995. ''Ayurveda: A Life of Balance.'' Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press. "Ayurveda recommends small portions of organic meat for the Vata type. The rules of hunting and killing the animal, practiced by the native peoples, were very specific and detailed. Since we are no longer observing these, I do not recommend the use of any animal meat as food, not even for the Vata types."</ref>

===Physiology===
The mainstream scientific consensus is that humans are [[human physiology|physiologically]] best suited to an [[omnivore]] diet. The Vegetarian Resource Group, among others, has concluded that humans are naturally omnivores based on the human ability to digest meat, as well as plant foods,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vrg.org/nutshell/omni.htm |title=www.vrg.org |publisher=www.vrg.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beyondveg.com/billings-t/comp-anat/comp-anat-1a.shtml |title=www.beyondveg.com |publisher=www.beyondveg.com |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> with the correspondent metabolic tendency to an adaptation that makes them need both animal and vegetable nourishment. Other arguments hold that humans are more anatomically similar to [[herbivore]]s, with long intestinal tracts and blunt teeth, unlike omnivores and carnivores.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Nutritional experts believe that early [[hominids]] evolved into eating meat as a result of huge climatic changes that took place three to four million years ago, when forests and jungles dried up and became open grasslands and opened hunting and scavenging opportunities.<ref name="milton">Milton, Katharine, "A hypothesis to explain the role of meat-eating in human evolution",Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews Volume 8, Issue 1, 1999, Pages: 11–21</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/dimensions/dimensions_health/Transcripts/s792589.htm |title=ABC |publisher=ABC |date=2003-02-25 |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref>

=== Animal-to-human disease transmissions ===
The consumption of meat can cause a transmission of a number of diseases from animals to humans.<ref name="hill">{{cite book |title= The case for vegetarianism |last= Hill |first= John Lawrence |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1996 |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield |location= |isbn= 0847681386 |page= 89 |pages= |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=W-XR1T-pXFwC&printsec=frontcover#PPA89,M1 |accessdate= 2009-04-26}}</ref> The connection between infected animal and human illness is well established in the case of [[salmonella]]; an estimated one-third to one-half of all chicken meat marketed in the United States is contaminated with salmonella.<ref name="hill" /> Only recently, however, have scientists begun to suspect that there is a similar connection between animal meat and human cancer, birth defects, mutations, and many other diseases in humans.<ref name="hill" /><ref name="stanley">{{cite book |title= Diet by Design |last= Stanley |first= Tyler |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1998|publisher= TEACH Services, Inc. |location= |isbn= 1572580968 |page= 14 |pages= |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=MdS3x6Vn2q4C&printsec=frontcover#PPA14,M1 |accessdate= 2009-04-26}}</ref><ref name="trash1">{{cite book |title= Nutrition For Vegetarians |last= Trash |first= Agatha |authorlink= |coauthors= Calvin Trash |year= 1982 |publisher= New Lifestyle Books |location= Seale, Alabama |isbn= |page= |pages= 82–85 |url= |accessdate= 2009-04-26}}</ref><ref name="trash2">{{cite book |title= Nutrition For Vegetarians |last= Trash |first= Agatha |authorlink= |coauthors= Calvin Trash |year= 1982 |publisher= New Lifestyle Books |location= Seale, Alabama |isbn= |page= 84 |pages=|url= |accessdate= 2009-04-26}}</ref><ref name="oski">{{cite book |title= Don't Drink Your Milk |last= Oski |first= Frank |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1992 |publisher= TEACH Services Inc. |location= Brushton, New York |isbn= |page= |pages= 48–49 |url= |accessdate= 2009-04-26}}</ref><ref name="shelton">{{cite book |title= The Science and Fine Art of Food and Nutrition |last= Shelton |first= Herbert |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1984 |publisher= Natural Hygiene Press |location= Oldsmar, Florida |isbn= |page= 148 |pages= |url= |accessdate= 2009-04-26}}</ref><ref name="aflatoxins">{{cite book |title= Health Protection Branch Issues |last= "Aflatoxins" |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1990 |publisher= Health Canada, May |location= Ottawa, Ontario |isbn= |page= |pages= 2–3 |url= |accessdate= 2009-04-26}}</ref> In 1975, one study found 75 percent of supermarket samples of cow's milk, and 75 percent of egg samples to contain the leukemia (cancer) virus.<ref name="stanley" /> By 1985, nearly 100 percent of the eggs tested, or the hens they came from, had the cancer virus.<ref name="hill" /><ref name="stanley" /> The rate of disease among chickens is so high that the Department of Labor has ranked the poultry industry as one of the most hazardous occupations - not for the chickens but for those who raise, slaughter and process them.<ref name="hill" /> 20 percent of all cows are afflicted with a variety of cancer known as [[bovine leukemia virus]] (BLV).<ref name="hill" /> Studies have increasingly linked BLV with [[HTLV-1]], the first human retrovirus discovered to cause cancer.<ref name="hill" /> Scientists have successfully infected human cells with a [[bovine immunodeficiency virus]] (BIV), the equivalent of the AIDS virus in cows.<ref name="hill" /> It is supposed that BIV may have a role in the development of a number of malignant or slow viruses in humans.<ref name="hill" />{{Clarify|date=June 2009}}

The proximity of animals in industrial-scale animal farming leads to an increased rate of disease transmission. [[Transmission and infection of H5N1|Transition]] of animal influenza viruses to humans has been documented, but illness from such cases is rare compared to that caused by the now common human-adapted older influenza viruses,<ref name="brown">{{cite book |others= |title= Emerging diseases of animals |last= Brown |first= Corrie |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2000 |publisher= ASM Press |location= |isbn= 1555812015 |page= |pages= 116–117 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=yKgsMbsxtfEC&printsec=frontcover#PPA116,M1 |accessdate= 2009-04-26}}</ref> transferred from animals to humans in the more distant past.<ref name=influenzareport>Sometimes a virus contains both avian adapted genes and human adapted genes. Both the [[H2N2]] and [[H3N2]] pandemic strains contained avian flu virus [[RNA]] segments. "While the pandemic human influenza viruses of 1957 (H2N2) and 1968 (H3N2) clearly arose through reassortment between human and avian viruses, the influenza virus causing the '[[Spanish flu]]' in 1918 appears to be entirely derived from an avian source (Belshe 2005)." (from [http://www.influenzareport.com/ir/ai.htm Chapter Two: Avian Influenza by Timm C. Harder and Ortrud Werner], an excellent free on-line Book called ''Influenza Report 2006'' which is a medical textbook that provides a comprehensive overview of epidemic and pandemic influenza.)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Taubenberger JK, Reid AH, Lourens RM, Wang R, Jin G, Fanning TG |title=Characterization of the 1918 influenza virus polymerase genes |journal=Nature |volume=437 |issue=7060 |pages=889–93 |year=2005 |month=October |pmid=16208372 |doi=10.1038/nature04230}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Antonovics J, Hood ME, Baker CH |title=Molecular virology: was the 1918 flu avian in origin? |journal=Nature |volume=440 |issue=7088 |pages=E9; discussion E9–10 |year=2006 |month=April |pmid=16641950 |doi=10.1038/nature04824}}</ref><ref name="pmid18353690">{{cite journal| author = Vana G, Westover KM| title = Origin of the 1918 Spanish influenza virus: a comparative genomic analysis| journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution| volume = 47| issue = 3| pages = 1100–10| year = 2008| month = June| pmid = 18353690| doi = 10.1016/j.ympev.2008.02.003}}</ref> The first documented case was in 1959, and in 1998, 18 new human cases of [[H5N1]] influenza were diagnosed, in which six people died. In 1997 more cases of H5N1 avian influenza were found in chickens in Hong Kong.<ref name="brown"/>

Whether [[tuberculosis]] originated in cattle and was then transferred to humans, or diverged from a common ancestor infecting a different species, is currently unclear.<ref name=Pearce-Duvet_2006>{{cite journal |author=Pearce-Duvet J |title=The origin of human pathogens: evaluating the role of agriculture and domestic animals in the evolution of human disease |journal=Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=369–82 |year=2006 | pmid = 16672105 |doi=10.1017/S1464793106007020}}</ref> The strongest evidence for a domestic-animal origin exists for [[measles]] and [[pertussis]], although the data do not exclude a non-domestic origin.<ref>[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118556397/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 Pearce-Duvet_2006]</ref>

According to the 'Hunter Theory', the "simplest and most plausible explanation for the cross-species transmission" the [[AIDS]] virus was transmitted from a chimpanzee to a human when a bushmeat hunter was bitten or cut while hunting or butchering an animal.<ref name=Sharp2001>{{cite journal|author=Sharp PM, Bailes E, Chaudhuri RR, Rodenburg CM, Santiago MO, Hahn BH|title=The origins of acquired immune deficiency syndrome viruses: where and when?| journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci|year=2001|pages=867–76|volume=356|issue=1410|url=http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/lxtlqmn9urgcvb7x/fulltext.pdf|doi=10.1098/rstb.2001.0863|pmid=11405934}}</ref>

Historian [[Norman Cantor]], in In the Wake of the Plague: The Black Death and the World It made (2001), suggests the [[Black Death]] might have been a combination of pandemics including a form of [[anthrax]], a cattle [[murrain]]. He cites many forms of evidence including the fact that meat from infected cattle was known to have been sold in many rural English areas prior to the onset of the plague.

=== Eating disorders ===
The American Dietetic Association indicates that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders but that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, rather that "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder."<ref name="adajournal">{{cite journal |title=Position of the American Dietetic Association: vegetarian diets. |journal=J Am Diet Assoc |volume=109 |issue=7 |pages=1266-1282 |year=2009 |month=July |pmid=19562864 |doi=10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.027 |url=http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/advocacy_933_ENU_HTML.htm }}</ref> Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.<ref name="politicallycorrectdisorder">{{cite news |first=Katherine |last=Dedyna |title=Healthy lifestyle, or politically correct eating disorder? |url=http://www.compulsiveeating.com/news/16-healthy-lifestyle-or-politically-correct-eating-disorder |work=Victoria Times Colonist |publisher=CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc. |date=2004-01-30 |accessdate=2006-10-30 |quote=Vesanto Melina, a B.C. registered dietitian and author of Becoming Vegetarian, stresses there is no cause and effect relationship between vegetarianism and eating disorders although people who have eating disorders may label themselves as vegetarians "so that they won't have to eat."}}</ref><ref name="veganorexianervosa">{{cite journal | author=O'Connor MA, Touyz SW, Dunn SM, Beumont PJ | title=Vegetarianism in anorexia nervosa? A review of 116 consecutive cases | journal=Med J Aust | year=1987 | pages=540–2 | volume=147 | issue=11–12 | pmid=3696039 |quote=In only four (6.3%) of these did meat avoidance predate the onset of their anorexia nervosa.}}</ref><ref name="becomingvegan">{{cite book |last=Davis |first=Brenda |coauthors=Vesanto Melina |title=Becoming Vegan: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Healthy Plant-Based Diet |year=2002 |pages=224 |publisher=Healthy Living Publications |isbn=1-57067-103-6 |quote=Research indicates that the large majority of vegetarian or vegan anorexics and bulimics chose this eating pattern after the onset of their disease. The "restricted" vegetarian or vegan eating pattern legitimizes the removal of numerous high-fat, energy-dense foods such as meat, eggs, cheese, … However the eating pattern chosen by those with anorexia or bulimia nervosa is far more restrictive than a healthful vegan diet, eliminating nuts, seeds, nut butters, avocados, and limiting overall caloric intake. }}</ref>

==Additional reasons for a vegetarian diet==
===Childhood IQ and diet choice===
A study published in the British Medical Journal in 2007 compared children's IQ at age 10 with their having a vegetarian diet at age 30.
The report did not provide information on whether or not the children were already vegetarian at the time when their IQ measurement was taken.
It also noted that there was no difference in IQ among those vegetarians who ate only plants, and those who also ate chicken and fish.<ref name="BMJveg"/>
The BBC summarised part of the results of the study, stating "Men who were vegetarian had an IQ score of 106, compared with 101 for non-vegetarians; while female vegetarians averaged 104, compared with 99 for non-vegetarians."<ref name="bbcIQfood">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6180753.stm|title=High IQ link to being vegetarian|date=15 December 2006|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2009-08-23}}</ref>
The report concluded that “Higher scores for IQ in childhood are associated with an increased likelihood of being a vegetarian as an adult.”<ref name="BMJveg">{{cite journal|coauthors=Catharine R Gale, Ian J Deary, Ingrid Schoon, G David Batty|date=1 February 2007|title=IQ in childhood and vegetarianism in adulthood: 1970 British cohort study|publisher=[[British Medical Journal]]|url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/334/7587/245?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=vegetarianism+&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=date&resourcetype=HWCIT|accessdate=August 23, 2009}}</ref>
Lead researcher Catharine Gale noted that this link may not be causal, but “may be merely an example of many other lifestyle preferences that might be expected to vary with intelligence.”<ref name="bbcIQfood"/>

===Ethics===
{{Main|Ethics of vegetarianism}}

Various ethical reasons have been suggested for choosing vegetarianism.

===Religion===
{{Main|Vegetarianism and religion}}
[[File:Vegetarian Curry.jpeg|thumb|[[Indian cuisine]] offers a wide range of vegetarian delicacies because [[Hinduism]], practiced by majority of India's populace, encourages vegetarian diet. Shown here is a vegetarian [[thali]].]]
[[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] teach vegetarianism as moral conduct. Buddhism in general does not prohibit meat eating, while [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]] encourages vegetarianism as beneficial for developing compassion. Other denominations that advocate a fully vegetarian diet include the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]], the [[Rastafari movement]] and the [[Hare Krishnas]].
[[Sikhism]]<ref>Junior encyclopaedia of Sikhism 1985 By H. S. Singha Page 124 ISBN 10: 070692844X / 0-7069-2844-X</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Punjab Through the Ages|editor=S.R. Bakshi, Rashmi Pathak,|publisher=Sarup and Sons|location=New Delhi|date=2007|edition=1st Edition|volume=4|page=241|chapter=12|isbn=8176257389 (Set)|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-dHzlfvHvOsC&pg=PA7&dq=Punjab+Through+the+Ages+By+S.R.+Bakshi,+Rashmi+Pathak,+Rashmi+Pathak+volume+4#v=onepage&q=Punjab%20Through%20the%20Ages%20By%20S.R.%20Bakshi%2C%20Rashmi%20Pathak%2C%20Rashmi%20Pathak%20volume%204&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sgpc.net/sikhism/sikhism4.asp |title=Shiromani Gurudwara Prabhandhak Committee |publisher=Sgpc.net |date= |accessdate=2009-08-29}}</ref> does not equate spirituality with diet and does not specify a vegetarian or meat diet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sikhs.org/meat.htm |title=The Sikhism Home Page |publisher=Sikhs.org |date=1980-02-15 |accessdate=2009-08-29}}</ref>

====Hinduism====
{{Main|Vegetarianism in Hinduism|Hindu dietary law}}
[[File:Indian Vegetable Salad.jpg|thumb|right|Indian Vegetable Salad containing Lemon, Tomato, Radish, Beetroot, Cucumber and Green Chillies]]

Most major paths of [[Hinduism]] hold vegetarianism as an ideal. There are three main reasons for this: the principle of nonviolence ([[ahimsa]]) applied to animals;<ref>Tähtinen, Unto: ''Ahimsa. Non-Violence in Indian Tradition'', London 1976, p. 107–109.</ref> the intention to offer only "pure" (vegetarian) food to a deity and then to receive it back as [[prasad]];<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b092.htm Mahabharata 12.257] (note that Mahabharata 12.257 is 12.265 according to another count); Bhagavad Gita 9.26; Bhagavata Purana 7.15.7.</ref> and the conviction that non-vegetarian food is detrimental for the mind and for spiritual development.

However, the food habits of Hindus vary according to their community and according to regional traditions. Hindu vegetarians usually eschew eggs but consume milk and dairy products, so they are lacto-vegetarians.

====Jainism====
{{Main|Jain vegetarianism}}
Followers of [[Jainism]] believe that everything from animals to inanimate objects have life in different degree and they go to great lengths to minimise any harm to it. Most Jains are lacto-vegetarians but more devote Jains do not eat root vegetables because this would involve the killing of plants. Instead they focus on eating beans and fruits, whose cultivation do not involve killing of plants. No products obtained from dead animals are allowed. Jains hold self termination from starvation as the ideal state and some dedicated monks do perform this act of self annihilation. This is for them an indispensable condition for spiritual progress.<ref>[http://www.jainstudy.org/JSC6.02-Vegetarianism.htm "Vegetarianism Good For The Self And Good For The Environment"] at [http://www.jainstudy.org/ The Jain Study Circle]</ref><ref>[http://www.vsc.org/spiritual.htm "Spiritual Traditions and Vegetarianism"]{{dead link|date=October 2009}} at the [http://www.vsc.org/index.htm Vegetarian Society of Colorado] website.</ref> Some particularly dedicated individuals are [[fruitarianism|fruitarians]].<ref>Matthews, Warren: ''World Religions'', 4th edition, Belmont: Thomson/Wadsworth 2004, p. 180. ISBN 0-534-52762-0</ref> Honey is forbidden, because its collection is seen as violence against the bees. Some Jains do not consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because tiny animals may be killed when the plants are pulled up.<ref>[http://www.jainuniversity.org/jainism.aspx "Jainism"] at JainUniversity.org</ref>

====Buddhism====
[[File:Japanese temple vegetarian dinner.jpg|thumb|175px|A vegetarian dinner at a Japanese Buddhist temple]]
{{Main|Vegetarianism in Buddhism}}
Theravadins in general eat meat. If Buddhist monks "see, hear or know" a living animal was killed specifically for them to eat, they must refuse it or else incur an offense. However, this does not include eating meat which was given in alm or commercially purchased. In Theravada cannon, Buddha did not make any comment discouraging them to eat meat (except specific types, such as human, elephant, horse, dog, snake, lion, tiger, leopard, bear, and hyena flesh<ref>Mahavagga Pali - Bhesajjakkhandhaka - Vinaya Pitaka</ref>) but he specifically refuse to institute vegetarianism in his monastic code when a suggestion has been made.

In [[Mahayana Buddhism]], there are several [[Sanskrit]] texts where the Buddha instructs his followers to avoid meat. However, each branch of Mahayana Buddhism select what sutra to follow and some branch of Mahayana Buddhism including majority of Tibetan and Japanese Buddhism do eat meat while most of Chinese Buddhism do not eat meat.

====Sikhism====
{{Main|Vegetarianism in Sikhism}}
Followers of Sikhism do not have a preference for meat or vegetarian consumption.<ref name = "SHP">[http://www.sikhs.org/meat_au.htm "Misconceptions About Eating Meat - Comments of Sikh Scholars,"] at [http://www.sikhs.org/ The Sikhism Home Page]</ref><ref>'''Sikhs and Sikhism by I.J. Singh, Manohar, Delhi ISBN 9788173040580''' ''Throughout Sikh history, there have been movements or subsects of Sikhism which have espoused vegetarianism. I think there is no basis for such dogma or practice in Sikhism. Certainly Sikhs do not think that a vegetarian's achievements in spirituality are easier or higher. It is surprising to see that vegetarianism is such an important facet of Hindu practice in light of the fact that animal sacrifice was a significant and much valued Hindu Vedic ritual for ages. Guru Nanak in his writings clearly rejected both sides of the arguments - on the virtues of vegetarianism or meat eating - as banal and so much nonsense, nor did he accept the idea that a cow was somehow more sacred than a horse or a chicken. He also refused to be drawn into a contention on the differences between flesh and greens, for instance. History tells us that to impart this message, Nanak cooked meat at an important Hindu festival in Kurukshetra. Having cooked it he certainly did not waste it, but probably served it to his followers and ate himself. History is quite clear that Guru Hargobind and Guru Gobind Singh were accomplished and avid hunters. The game was cooked and put to good use, to throw it away would have been an awful waste''.</ref><ref> '''Guru Granth Sahib, An Analytical Study by Surindar Singh Kohli, Singh Bros. Amritsar ISBN :8172050607''' ''The ideas of devotion and service in Vaishnavism have been accepted by Adi Granth, but the insistence of Vaishnavas on vegetarian diet has been rejected.''</ref><ref>'''A History of the Sikh People by Dr. Gopal Singh, World Sikh University Press, Delhi ISBN 9788170231394 ''' ''However, it is strange that now-a-days in the Community-Kitchen attached to the Sikh temples, and called the Guru's Kitchen (or, Guru-ka-langar) meat-dishes are not served at all. May be, it is on account of its being, perhaps, expensive, or not easy to keep for long. Or, perhaps the Vaishnava tradition is too strong to be shaken off.''</ref> There are two views on initiated or "Amritdhari Sikhs" and meat consumption. "Amritdhari" Sikhs (i.e. those that follow the [[Sikh Rehat Maryada]] (the Official Sikh Code of Conduct<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sgpc.net/sikhism/sikh-dharma-manual.html |title=Sikh Reht Maryada, The Definition of Sikh, Sikh Conduct & Conventions, Sikh Religion Living, India |publisher=www.sgpc.net |accessdate=2009-08-29 }}</ref>) can eat meat (provided it is not [[Kutha meat]])."Amritdharis" that belong to some Sikh sects (eg [[Akhand Kirtani Jatha]], [[Damdami Taksal]], [[Namdhari]],<ref>[http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/2007/4-6/18-32_veggie.shtml Vegetarianism and Meat-Eating in 8 Religions]{{dead link|date=October 2009}} April/May/June, 2007 [[Hinduism Today]]</ref> Rarionwalay,<ref>'''Philosophy of Sikhism by Gyani Sher Singh (Ph.D), Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee. Amritsar ''' ''As a true Vaisnavite Kabir remained a strict vegetarian. Kabir far from defying Brahmanical tradition as to the eating of meat, would not permit so much, as the plucking of a flower (G.G.S. pg 479), whereas Nanak deemed all such scruples to be superstitions, Kabir held the doctrine of Ahinsa or the non-destruction of life, which extended even to that of flowers. The Sikh Gurus, on the contrary, allowed and even encouraged, the use of animal flesh as food. Nanak has exposed this Ahinsa superstition in Asa Ki War (G.G.S. pg 472) and Malar Ke War (G.G.S. pg. 1288)''</ref> etc.) are vehemently against the consumption of meat and eggs (they do however, consume and encourage the consumption of milk, butter, and cheese).<ref>[http://www.sikhwomen.com/Community/Volunteer/langar.htm "Langar,"] at [http://www.sikhwomen.com/ http://www.sikhwomen.com]</ref>

In the case of meat, the [[Sikh Gurus]] have indicated their preference for a simple diet,<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Prithi Pal |title=The History of Sikh Gurus|publisher=Lotus Press|location=New Delhi|date=2006|page=38|chapter=3 Guru Amar Das|isbn=8183820751|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EhGkVkhUuqoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+History+of+Sikh+Gurus+By+Prithi+Pal+Singh#v=onepage&q=&f=false}}</ref> which could include meat or be vegetarian. Passages from the [[Guru Granth Sahib]] (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) say that fools argue over this issue. [[Guru Nanak]] said that over consumption of food ([[Lobh]], Greed) involves a drain on the Earth's resources and thus on life.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sikhs.org/meat_gn.htm |title=The Sikhism Home Page |publisher=Sikhs.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> The tenth guru, [[Guru Gobind Singh]], prohibited the Sikhs from the consumption of [[halal]] or [[kosher]] ([[Kutha meat|Kutha]], any ritually slaughtered meat) meat because of the Sikh belief that sacrificing an animal in the name of God is mere ritualism (something to be avoided).<ref name="SHP"/>

On the views that eating vegetation would be eating flesh, first Sikh [[Guru Nanak]] states:

{{Quoter|
''First Mehl:''<br />
ਪਾਂਡੇ ਤੂ ਜਾਣੈ ਹੀ ਨਾਹੀ ਕਿਥਹੁ ਮਾਸੁ ਉਪੰਨਾ ॥ ਤੋਇਅਹੁ ਅੰਨੁ ਕਮਾਦੁ ਕਪਾਹਾਂ ਤੋਇਅਹੁ ਤ੍ਰਿਭਵਣੁ ਗੰਨਾ ॥

O Pandit, you do not know where did flesh originate! It is water where life originated and it is water that sustains all life. It is water that produces grains, sugarcane, cotton and all forms of life.
|AGGS, M 1, p 1290.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&Param=1290&g=1&h=1&r=1&t=1&p=0&k=0 |title=Sri Guru Granth Sahib |publisher=Sri Granth |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> }}

On Vegetation, the Guru described it as living and experiencing pain:

Page 143 of the Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji

{{Quoter|
First Mehl:<br />
Look, and see how the sugar-cane is cut down. After cutting away its branches, its feet are bound together into bundles,<br />
and then, it is placed between the wooden rollers and crushed.<br />
What punishment is inflicted upon it! Its juice is extracted and placed in the cauldron; as it is heated, it groans and cries out.<br />
And then, the crushed cane is collected and burnt in the fire below.<br />
Nanak: come, people, and see how the sweet sugar-cane is treated!}}
:Page 143 [[Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji]] <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&Param=142&english=t&id=5863#l5863|title=Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji|coauthors=Sikh Gurus|pages=142 to 143|accessdate=25 November 2009}}</ref>

====Judaism====
A number of medieval scholars of [[Judaism|Jewish religion]] (e.g. [[Joseph Albo]]) regard vegetarianism as a moral ideal, not just because of a concern for the welfare of animals, but because the slaughter of animals might cause the individual who performs such acts to develop negative character traits. Therefore, their concern was with regard to possible harmful effects upon human character rather than with animal welfare. Indeed, Rabbi Joseph Albo maintains that renunciation of the consumption of meat for reasons of concern for animal welfare is not only morally erroneous but even repugnant.<ref name="innernet1">{{cite web|url=http://www.innernet.org.il/article.php?aid=107.html |title=J. David Bleich - Contemporary Halakhic Problems |publisher=Innernet.org.il |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref>

One modern-day scholar who is often cited as in favour of vegetarianism is the late Rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]], the Chief Rabbi of Pre-State Israel. It is indeed the case that in his writings, Rabbi Kook speaks of vegetarianism as an ideal, and points to the fact that Adam did not partake of the flesh of animals. In context, however, Rabbi Kook makes those comments in his portrayal of the eschatological (messianic) era.

According to some [[Kabbalah|Kabbalists]], only a mystic, who is able to sense and elevate the reincarnated human souls and "divine sparks", is permitted to consume meat, though eating the flesh of an animal might still cause spiritual damage to the soul. A number of Orthodox Jewish vegetarian groups and activists promote such ideas and believe that the [[halakha|halakhic]] permission to eat meat is a temporary leniency for those who are not ready yet to accept the vegetarian diet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishveg.com/torah.html |title=Judaism & Vegetarianism |publisher=Jewishveg.com |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref>

Having ties with both ancient [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]], members of the ancient [[Essene]] religious group practiced strict vegetarianism sharing a similar belief with the Hindus'/Jains' idea of [[Ahimsa]] or "harmlessness".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.all-creatures.org/murti/tsnhod-03.html |title="They Shall Not Hurt Or Destroy" and the Essenes |publisher=All-creatures.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref>

Translation of the [[Torah]]'s Ten Commandments state "thou shalt not murder."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishveg.com/schwartz/killormurder.html |title=Judaism and Vegetarianism: Schwartz Collection - Thou Shalt Not "Kill" or "Murder"? |publisher=Jewishveg.com |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0220.htm |title=Exodus 20 / Hebrew - English Bible / Mechon-Mamre |publisher=Mechon-mamre.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> Many argue that this can also be taken as meaning not to kill at all, animals nor humans, or at least "that one shall not kill unnecessarily," in the same manner that onerous restrictions on slavery in the Bible have been interpreted by modern theologians as to suggest banning the practice.<ref> [http://www.europeanvegetarian.org/evu/english/news/news974/jewish.html Jewish philosophy of vegetarianism] article by Philip L. Pick</ref>

While it is neither required nor prohibited for Jews to eat meat, the choice must be made in regard to the ethics and ideals of Judaism{{cite web|url=http://www.brook.com/jveg |title=The Vegetarian Mitzvah}}

====Classical Greek and Roman Thought====
Ancient Greek philosophy has a long tradition of vegetarianism. [[Pythagoras]] was reportedly vegetarian (and studied at Mt. Carmel, where some historians say there was a vegetarian community), as his followers were expected to be. [[Socrates]] was reportedly vegetarian, and in his dialogue of what people, or at least Philosopher-rulers, in an ideal [[Republic|republic]] should eat, he described only vegetarian food. He specified that if meat-eating was allowed, then society would require more doctors.<ref>Plato, The Republic.</ref>

Roman writer [[Ovid]] concluded his magnum opus [[Metamorphoses]], in part, with the impassioned argument (uttered by the character of Pythagoras) that in order for humanity to change, or [[metamorphosis|metamorphose]], into a better, more harmonious species, it must strive towards more humane tendencies. He cited vegetarianism as the crucial decision in this metamorphosis, explaining his belief that human life and animal life are so entwined that to kill an animal is virtually the same as killing a fellow human.

<blockquote>Everything changes; nothing dies; the soul roams to and fro, now here, now there, and takes what frame it will, passing from beast to man, from our own form to beast and never dies...Therefore lest appetite and greed destroy the bonds of love and duty, heed my message! Abstain! Never by slaughter dispossess souls that are kin and nourish blood with blood!<ref>[[Ovid]],'' [[Metamorphoses]]'', Book XV, translated by A.D. Melville, Oxford University Press, 1986.</ref></blockquote>

====Christianity====
{{Main|Christian vegetarianism}}
Jesus ordered to catch and prepared meal with fish<ref>John 21 (New International Version) [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+21&version=NIV]</ref> and he famously fed 5000 people with five loaves of bread and two fish.<ref>Matthew 14:13-21 (New International Version)[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+14:13-21&version=NIV]</ref> Since no other kind of meat is mentioned, and since several [[Apostles]] lived by most of the [[Nazarite]] oath (as Jesus did somewhat), it is surmised that Jesus was a pescetarian.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

While vegetarianism is not a common practice in current [[Christian]] culture, except by traditional [[monk|monastics]] and by other [[Orthodox]] at least during 'fast' times,{{Citation needed|date=September 2009|even with a source... common practice?}}) the concept and practice have scriptural and historical support. According to the Bible, in the beginning, humans and animals were vegetarian.(Genesis 1:29–30) Immediately after the Flood, God permitted the eating of meat. (Genesis 9:3)

There is also a strong association between the Quaker tradition within Christianity and vegetarianism dating back at least to the 18th century. The association grew in prominence during the 19th century, coupled with growing Quaker concerns in connection with alcohol consumption, vivisection and social purity. The association between the Quaker tradition and vegetarianism, however, becomes most significant with the founding of the Friends' Vegetarian Society in 1902 "to spread a kindlier way of living amongst the Society of Friends."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ivu.org/history/thesis/quakers.html |title=The Great War and the Interwar Period |publisher=ivu.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-14}}</ref>

====Islam====
{{See also|Islam and animals}}

Followers of [[Islam]], or [[Muslims]], have the freedom of choice to be vegetarian for medical reasons or if they do not personally like the taste of meat. However, the choice to become vegetarian for non-medical reasons can sometimes be controversial. Though some more traditional Muslims may keep quiet about their vegetarian diet, the number of vegetarian Muslims is increasing.<ref>[http://ipaki.com/content/html/28/1203.html Muslims can’t be vegetarian?] Retrieved 5/16/2008</ref>

Vegetarianism has been practiced by some influential Muslims including the Iraqi theologian, female mystic and poet [[Rabia al-Adawiyya|Râbi‘ah al-‘Adawîyah of Basrah]], who died in the year 801, and the Sri Lankan sufi master [[Bawa Muhaiyaddeen]] who established The Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship of North America in Philadelphia.<ref>[http://members.aol.com/yahyam/bawaveg.html Vegetarian quotations from Bawa Muhaiyaddeen] Retrieved 5/16/2008</ref>

In January 1996, The International Vegetarian Union announced the formation of the Muslim Vegetarian/Vegan Society.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ivu.org/news/1-96/muslim.html |title=IVU News - Islam and Vegetarianism |publisher=Ivu.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref>

Many omnivore Muslims will select vegetarian options when dining in non-[[halal]] restaurants. However, this is a matter of not having the right kind of meat rather than preferring not to eat meat on the whole. <ref>[http://ipaki.com/content/html/28/1203.html Muslims can’t be vegetarian?] Retrieved 5/16/2008</ref>

====Rastafari====
Within the Afro-Caribbean community, a minority are [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarian]] and follow the dietary regulations with varying degrees of strictness. The most orthodox eat only [[Ital]] or natural foods, in which the matching of herbs or spices with vegetables is the result of long and skillfully laid down tradition originating from the African ancestry and cultural heritage of Rastafari.<ref>Osborne, L (1980), The Rasta Cookbook, 3rd Ed. Mac Donald, London.</ref> Most Rastafarians are vegetarian. Utensils made from natural material such as stone or earthenware are preferred.

===Environmental===
{{Main|Environmental vegetarianism}}

Environmental vegetarianism is based on the concern that the production of meat and animal products for mass consumption, especially through [[factory farming]], is [[environmentalism|environmentally]] [[sustainable development|unsustainable]]. According to a 2006 [[United Nations]] initiative, the livestock industry is one of the largest contributors to environmental degradation worldwide, and modern practices of raising animals for food contributes on a "massive scale" to air and water pollution, land degradation, climate change, and loss of biodiversity. The initiative concluded that "the livestock sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.HTM |title=Livestock's long shadow - Environmental issues and options |publisher=Fao.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref>

In July 2009 [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] and [[Timberland]] stopped buying leather from deforested Amazon Rainforest <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailygreen.com/environmental-news/latest/amazon-rain-forest-4702902#ixzz0Pk0D3YWk |title=Amazon rain forest |publisher=Thedailygreen.com |date=2009-07-29 |accessdate=2009-10-04}}</ref> a few weeks after [[Greenpeace]] report demonstrated the destruction caused by Amazon cattle ranchers. According to [[Arnold Newman]] every hamburger sold results in destruction of 6.25m2 of rain forest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Z0s3X_vh1_EC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=one+hamburger+is+50+rain+forrest&source=bl&ots=8mCZP3Th56&sig=jldRdprDKsYuMbjHPQ5aQ4vZ4W4&hl=en& |title=ei=3ZKbSoyJOIP6_AbH17TGCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8#v=onepage&q=&f=false Hamburger per rain forest |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2009-10-04}}</ref>

In addition, animal agriculture is a large source of greenhouse gases and is responsible for 18 percent of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO<sub>2</sub> equivalents. By comparison, all of the world's transportation (including all cars, trucks, buses, trains, ships, and planes) emits 13.5 percent of the CO<sub>2</sub>. Animal farming produces 65 percent of human-related nitrous oxide and 37 percent of all human-induced methane. Methane has about 21 times more Global Warming Potential (GWP) than carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide has 296 times the GWP of CO2.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yogaindailylife.org.au/Articles/Environment/Going-Greenhouse-Gas-Neutral.html |title=Greenhouse gas neutral |publisher=Yogaindailylife.org.au |date= |accessdate=2009-10-04}}</ref>

Animals fed on grain, and those that rely on grazing, need far more water than grain crops.<ref>Kirby, Alex for BBC NEWS 2004 Hungry world 'must eat less meat' http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3559542.stm</ref> According to the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]], growing the crops necessary to feed farmed animals requires nearly half of the United States' water supply and 80 percent of its agricultural land. Additionally, animals raised for food in the U.S. consume 90 percent of the [[soy]] crop, 80 percent of the corn crop, and a total of 70 percent of its grain.<ref>Vesterby, Marlow and Krupa, Kenneth S. 2001 Major Uses of Land in the United States, 1997 Statistical Bulletin No. (SB973) September 2001 {{PDFlink|http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/sb973/sb973.pdf|333 KB}}</ref>

When tracking food animal production from the feed trough to consumption, the inefficiencies of meat, milk and egg production range from 4:1 up to 54:1 energy input to protein output ratio. This firstly because the feed first needs to be grown before it is eaten by the cattle, and secondly because warm-blooded vertebrates need to use a lot of calories just to stay warm (unlike plants or insects).<ref name="Time"/> An index which can be used as a measure is the [[efficiency of conversion]] of ingested food to body substance, which indicates, for example, that only 10% is converted to body substance by [[beef cattle]], versus 19–31% by [[silkworm]]s and 44% by [[German cockroach]]es.<ref name="Time">{{Cite news |last=Peterson |first= Mark |periodical=TIME |title=Eating Bugs |publication-date= 2008-05-29 |accessdate=2008-11-14 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1810336,00.html}}</ref>
Ecology professor David Pimentel has claimed, "If all the grain currently fed to livestock in the United States were consumed directly by people, the number of people who could be fed would be nearly 800 million."<ref>Cornell Science News, Aug. 7, 1997 http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Aug97/livestock.hrs.html</ref> To produce animal based food seems to be, according to these studies, typically much less efficient than the harvesting of grains, vegetables, legumes, seeds and fruits. However, this would not apply to animals that are grazed rather than fed, especially those grazed on land that could not be used for other purposes. Nor would it apply to cultivation of [[entomophagy|insects for food]], which may be more environmentally sustainable than eating food coming from cattle farming.<ref name="Time"/> Meat produced in a laboratory (called [[in vitro meat]]) may be also more environmentally sustainable than regularly produced meat.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19926635.600-comment-growing-m |title=Comment: Lab-grown meat could ease food shortage |last=Olsson |first=Anna |periodical= New Scientist |publication-date=2008-07-08 |accessdate=2008-11-17}}</ref>

According to the theory of [[trophic dynamics]], it requires 10 times as many crops to feed animals being bred for meat production as it would to feed the same number of people on a vegetarian diet. Currently, 70 percent of all the wheat, corn, and other grain produced is fed to farmed animals.<ref name=environement>Ed Ayres, [http://www.time.com/time/reports/v21/health/meat_mag.html "Will We Still Eat Meat?" Time], 8 Nov. 1999</ref> This has led many proponents of vegetarianism to believe that it is ecologically irresponsible to consume meat.<ref>Eco-Eating: Eating as if the Earth Matters (it does!) http://www.brook.com/veg/</ref> Rearing a relatively small number grazing animals is often beneficial, as observed by the Food Climate Research Network at Surrey University, which reports, "A little bit of livestock production is probably a good thing for the environment".<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/nov/11/food.climatechange Why eating less meat could cut global warming] Guardian</ref>
{{cquote2|The UN [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) has estimated that direct emissions from meat production account for about 18% of the world's total greenhouse gas emissions. So I want to highlight the fact that among options for mitigating climate change, changing diets is something one should consider.|[[Rajendra Pachauri]],<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7600005.stm "Shun meat, says UN climate chief"], BBC, September 7, 2008</ref> Chairman|[[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]}}

In May 2009, [[Ghent]] was reported to be "the first [city] in the world to go vegetarian at least once a week" for environmental reasons, when local authorities decided to implement a "weekly meatless day". Civil servants would eat vegetarian meals one day per week, in recognition of the United Nations' report. Posters were put up by local authorities to encourage the population to take part on vegetarian days, and "veggie street maps" were printed to highlight vegetarian restaurants. In September 2009, schools in Ghent are due to have a weekly ''veggiedag'' ("vegetarian day") too.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8046970.stm "Belgian city plans 'veggie' days"], Chris Mason, BBC, May 12, 2009</ref>

===Labour conditions===
Some groups, such as [[PETA]], promote vegetarianism as a way to offset poor treatment and working conditions of workers in the contemporary meat industry.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.goveg.com/workerrights.asp|title=Killing for a Living: How the Meat Industry Exploits Workers|accessdate=2009-07-16}}</ref> These groups cite studies showing the psychological damage caused by working in the meat industry, especially in factory and industrialised settings, and argue that the meat industry violates its labourers' human rights by assigning difficult and distressing tasks without adequate counselling, training and debriefing.<ref name="labor">{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/usa0105/4.htm |title=Worker Health and Safety in the Meat and Poultry Industry |publisher=Hrw.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref><ref name="labor2">{{cite web|url=http://www.ncrlc.com/academic-SR-webpages/food_safety.html |title=Food Safety, the Slaughterhouse, and Rights |publisher=Ncrlc.com |date=2004-03-30 |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref><ref name="labor3">{{PDFlink|http://www.safework.sa.gov.au/contentPages/docs/meatCultureLiteratureReviewV81.pdf|618 KB}}—Positive Safety
Culture The key to a safer meat industry</ref><ref name="labor4">{{cite web|url=http://www.hfa.org/factory/ |title=Factory Farming—Making People Sick |publisher=Hfa.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> However, the working conditions of agricultural workers as a whole, particularly non-permanent workers, remain poor and well below conditions prevailing in other economic sectors.<ref>[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/sector/sectors/agri/wkingcond.htm Working conditions in agriculture] [[International Labour Organization]]</ref> Accidents, including pesticide poisoning, among farmers and plantation workers contribute to increased health risks, including increased mortality.<ref>[http://www.evb.ch/en/p5785.html Working conditions in agriculture] Berne Declaration</ref> In fact, according to the [[International Labour Organization]], agriculture is one of the three most dangerous jobs in the world.<ref>World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, Published by World Bank Publications pg 207</ref>

===Economical===
Similar to environmental vegetarianism is the concept of [[economic vegetarianism]]. An economic vegetarian is someone who practices vegetarianism from either the philosophical viewpoint concerning issues such as public health and curbing world starvation, the belief that the consumption of meat is economically unsound, part of a conscious [[simple living]] strategy or just out of necessity. According to the WorldWatch Institute, "Massive reductions in meat consumption in industrial nations will ease their health care burden while improving public health; declining livestock herds will take pressure off rangelands and grainlands, allowing the agricultural resource base to rejuvenate. As populations grow, lowering meat consumption worldwide will allow more efficient use of declining per capita land and water resources, while at the same time making grain more affordable to the world's chronically hungry."<ref>Worldwatch Institute, News July 2, 1998, United States Leads World Meat Stampede https://www.worldwatch.org/press/news/1998/07/02</ref>

===Psychological===

The "[[Appeal to nature]]" logical fallacy invites one to believe that something is [[good and evil|good]] or [[ethics|right]] because it is [[nature|natural]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Salt|first=Henry Stephens|title=The logic of vegetarianism: essays and dialogues|publisher=G. Bell and sons|date=1906|edition=2, revised|page=24|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OnoPAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>

A metaphor has been presented by [[Douglas Dunn]]: that if one gives a young child an apple and a live chicken, the child would instinctively play with the chicken and eat the apple, whereas if a cat were presented with the same choices, its natural impulse would be the opposite.<ref>Dunn, Douglas. 1999 "Eating Without Killing: Vegetarian Health without animal cruelty" http://www.wordwiz72.com/veg.html</ref> Omnivorous and comparatively human-like species such as chimpanzees' offspring may not instinctively kill a prey animal, such as a [[Senegal Bushbaby]], when presented with one and a piece of fruit either.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iastate.edu/~nscentral/news/2007/feb/chimpstools.shtml |title=News Service: Iowa State University |publisher=Iastate.edu |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> In a similar assertion, vegetarian [[Scott Adams]] wrote humorously: "...a live cow makes a lion salivate, whereas a human just wants to say 'moo' and see if the cow responds."<ref>{{cite web|url = http://nickelkid.net/quotes/dilbert.html |title = Favorite Scott Adams Quotes |accessdate = 2008-06-23}}</ref>

This same non-predatory inter-species interaction can be seen in adult chimpanzees, which have been seen toying with other animals without regarding them as prey and even occasionally socialising with other species.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jgiuganda.org/chimps.html |title=Chimpanzees general information |publisher=Jgiuganda.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref>

===Cultural===
[[File:Chinese-buddhist-cuisine-taiwan-1.jpg|thumb|175px|Taiwanese Buddhist cuisine]]
People may choose vegetarianism because they were raised in a vegetarian household or because of a vegetarian partner, family member, or friend.

Limited vegetarianism has appeal for some young people in Western societies. A 2007 University of Michigan Medical School experiment on the diffusion of memes included an attempt to encourage limited vegetarianism.

==Demographics==
===Gender===

A 1992 market research study conducted by the Yankelovich research organisation claimed that "of the 12.4 million people [in the US] who call themselves vegetarian, 68 percent are female while only 32 percent are male."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0820/is_n210/ai_16019829 |title=The gender gap: if you're a vegetarian, odds are you're a woman. Why? |accessdate=2007-10-27 |date=2005-02-01 |publisher=Vegetarian Times}}</ref>

At least one study indicates that vegetarian women are more likely to have female babies. A study of 6,000 pregnant women in 1998 "found that while the national average in Britain is 106 boys born to every 100 girls, for vegetarian mothers the ratio was just 85 boys to 100 girls."<ref name="Babies">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/869696.stm |title='More girl babies' for vegetarians |publisher=BBC News |date=2000-08-07 |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> Catherine Collins of the British Dietetic Association has dismissed this as a "statistical fluke".<ref name="Babies" />

There is speculation that diets high in soy, due to high [[isoflavone]] content, can have a feminising effect on human infants due to their action as [[phytoestrogens]]. Proponents of this theory claim that diets high in isoflavones promote earlier onset of female puberty and delayed male puberty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.westonaprice.org/children/testimony040303.html |title=sexual development damage due to soya |publisher=Westonaprice.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> However, a 2001 study conducted by the [[University of Pennsylvania]] found no significant differences in the later onset of puberty between infants raised on soy-based formula and cow milk formula.<ref name="Penn-soyformula">{{cite paper |author= [[University of Pennsylvania]], Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics |authorlink= |coauthors= Strom BL, Schinnar R, Ziegler EE, Barnhart KT, Sammel MD, Macones GA, Stallings VA, Drulis JM, Nelson SE, Hanson SA. |title= Exposure to soy-based formula in infancy and endocrinological and reproductive outcomes in young adulthood |pages=807–814 |publisher= [[Journal of the American Medical Association]] |date=2001-08-15 |url= http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/286/7/807 |id= 11497534 |accessdate= 2008-07-11 }}</ref>

===Country-specific information===
[[File:India vegetarian labels.svg|thumb|right|Labeling used in India to distinguish vegetarian products (left) from non-vegetarian ones (right).]]
{{Main|Vegetarianism in specific countries}}
Vegetarianism is viewed in different ways around the world. In some areas there is cultural and even legal support, but in others the diet is poorly understood or even frowned upon. In many countries food labelling is in place that makes it easier for vegetarians to identify foods compatible with their diets.

In India, which has more vegetarians than the rest of the world combined (399 million as of 2006),<ref>[http://www.raw-food-health.net/NumberOfVegetarians.html The Number of Vegetarians In The World]</ref>
not only is there food labelling, but many restaurants are marketed and signed as being either "Vegetarian" or "Non-Vegetarian". People who are vegetarian in India are usually [[lacto vegetarianism|Lacto-vegetarians]], and therefore, to cater for this market, the majority of vegetarian restaurants in India do serve dairy products while eschewing egg products. Most Western vegetarian restaurants, in comparison, do serve eggs and egg-based products.
{{clear}}

==See also==
* [[Fruitarian]]
* [[List of diets]]
* [[List of vegetarians]]
* [[Meat-free day]]
* [[Veganarchism]]
* [[Vegetarian cuisine]]
* [[Vegetarian Diet Pyramid]]
* [[Cat food#Vegetarian or vegan food|Vegetarian or vegan cat food]]
* [[Template:User Vegetarian]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.goveg.com/ Vegetarian and Vegan Information]
* [http://www.eatyourveggie.com/ Resources for Vegetarian ]
* [http://www.happycow.net/becoming_vegetarian.html Resources/Support for Vegetarians ]
* [http://www.vegwiki.org/ Vegetarian Restaurant Wiki]
* [http://www.ethicalvegetarian.com/ The Ethical Vegetarian]
* [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/kathy-freston/shattering-the-meat-myth_b_214390.html Shattering The Meat Myth: Humans Are Natural Vegetarians] by Kathy Feston, ''The Huffington Post'', June 11 2009
* [http://www.brook.com/veg/ Eco-Eating: Eating as if the Earth Matters]

{{Vegetarianism}}
{{Alibend}}

[[Category:Vegetarianism| ]]
[[Category:Diets]]
[[Category:Ethical theories]]
[[Category:Intentional living]]

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Vegetarianism

2009-12-30T19:55:07Z

82.21.69.196:

Kenpachi Zaraki

2009-11-08T12:56:40Z

82.21.69.196: /* Synopsis */

{{fancruft|date=October 2008}}
{{Infobox animanga character
| color = #FCA845
| name = Kenpachi Zaraki
| series = [[Bleach (manga)|Bleach]]
| image = [[Image:zaraki.jpg|230px]]
| caption = Kenpachi Zaraki by [[Tite Kubo]]
| creator = [[Tite Kubo]]
| voiced by = [[Fumihiko Tachiki]] (Japanese) <br /> [[David Lodge (voice actor)|David Lodge]] (English)
| age =
| gender = Male
| born = [[November 19]]<ref name="Stats">''Bleach'' Official Character Book SOULs; page 140.</ref>
| death =
| occupation = [[List of Soul Reapers in Bleach|Soul Reaper]]
| title = [[Soul Reaper (Bleach)#Unit Commander|Captain]] of the 11th Division
| relatives =
| aux1 name = ''[[Zanpakutō]]''
| aux1 = Unknown
}}
{{nihongo sound|'''Kenpachi Zaraki'''|更木剣八|Zaraki Kenpachi|Zaraki kenpachi.ogg}} is a [[Character (arts)|fictional character]] and supporting [[anti-hero]] in the [[anime]] and [[manga]] series ''[[Bleach (manga)|Bleach]]'' created by [[Tite Kubo]]. He is the [[Soul Reaper (Bleach)#Unit Commander|captain]] of the 11th Division within the [[Soul Reaper (Bleach)#Gotei 13|Gotei 13]]. His [[Soul Reaper (Bleach)#Vice-unit Commander|lieutenant]] is [[Yachiru Kusajishi]].

==Character outline==
Kenpachi has a wild and aggressive appearance, fitting with his personality. He wears his captain's jacket without sleeves, and with a more ragged look to it—-he acquired his jacket from the previous 11th Division captain, whom he defeated and killed in a duel in order to become captain. He styles his hair into spikes with bells at the tips, which, Tite Kubo has remarked, makes his hair one of the most difficult to draw in the series.<ref>''Weekly Shonen Jump'' interview, year 2004, issue 42.</ref> He also wears a special eye patch on his right eye lined with a strange creature created by the 12th Division. It absorbs the bulk of his power. Both of these are meant to give enemies an advantage, similar to his habit of fighting one-handed, as in an unhandicapped state he would defeat them so quickly that he would not be able to enjoy himself sufficiently to delve into a state of bloodlust, that being what he treasures most. He has a huge scar on the left side of his face, apparently gained well before his time in Soul Society (and even before finding Yachiru).

Despite his initial introduction as a lethal foe, Kenpachi later begins to play the role of the comical anti-hero in ''Bleach'': though still self-centered and violent, his actions tend to be for the best and his relationship with his division and others is always portrayed comically. This comical shift is primarily centered around his appearances in the ''Bleach'' anime and [[omake]] stories, with the exception of the occasional diatribe between himself and Yachiru. He is depicted as having a very poor sense of direction, and is often depicted in omake stories asking his lieutenant Yachiru for directions to a particular place (who then randomly points in a direction even though she herself has a terrible sense of direction).

Kenpachi lives for battle (evidenced by his method of attaining his rank) and enjoys a good fight more than anything. He even weakens himself in an effort to make any fight last longer. He also claims that injury and death are nothing but the price one pays for a good fight. Despite his group being the most bloodthirsty of the Gotei 13, they have their own code of ethics, different from the set rules of [[Bleach (manga)#Plot|Soul Society]], fitting with Kenpachi's portrayal as a free spirit. On various occasions, he is seen putting fun before work. Despite his violent tendencies Kenpachi will usually give up on a fight if his opponent is too injured to fight back, claiming that the fight is no longer fun. However, he will unhesitatingly kill his opponent if they refuse to end their fight on his terms as seen during his battles with [[List of Soul Reapers in Bleach#Kaname Tōsen|Tōsen]] and [[List of hollows in Bleach#Nnoitora Jiruga|Nnoitora]].

==History==
[[Image:Younger kenpachi.jpg|thumb|Zaraki before becoming a captain]]
Prior to entering the Soul Reaper ranks, Zaraki resided in District 80, the most lawless district surrounding Soul Society. He became very proficient with swordsmanship while he was there; or at least fighting, and eventually adopting the district's name, "Zaraki", as his surname. After leaving the district he found a small girl who, despite her young age, did not fear his sword. Since she had no name, he named her Yachiru (やちる) in remembrance of the only person he ever admired. At the same time he also took on a name for himself: Kenpachi, the title bestowed upon the strongest swordsman, the one who has killed the most, and a tradition amongst captains of the 11th Division.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kubo, Tite|title=Bleach, Volume 36|year=2008|publisher=Shueisha|chapter=Chapter -108|isbn=4-08-874603-6}}</ref> Yachiru became inseparable from Zaraki from that point further, following him wherever he went, usually clinging to his back.

After some time had passed, Zaraki found his way into Soul Society and killed the previous captain of the 11th Division, thus gaining his seat in the [[Soul Reaper (Bleach)#Gotei 13|Gotei 13]]. As a new captain, Zaraki was begrudgingly forced to learn [[Kendo]], though he made it a point to avoid using it in battle in order to prolong the experience of fighting as long as possible.

In an interview, Tite Kubo noted that he would like to go into more depth about Zaraki.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kubo, Tite|title=Bleach SOULs. Official Character Book|year=2008|publisher=Viz Media|page=244|isbn=1-4215-2053-2}}</ref>

==Synopsis==
After [[Ichigo Kurosaki]] and his friends arrive in Soul Society, Kenpachi begins to hunt the strongest fighter in their group, and eventually battles Ichigo. During their fight, Ichigo becomes enough of a challenge that Kenpachi removes his eye patch, thus releasing the extra power it has been devouring. The battle ends in a draw, with Ichigo falling first and Kenpachi shortly after, both admitting defeat (though Kenpachi's sword breaks in the end). Much later on, while searching for Ichigo with his friends in tow, they are headed off by 7th and 9th Division members. Kenpachi battles their captains [[List of Soul Reapers in Bleach#Sajin Komamura|Sajin Komamura]] and [[List of Soul Reapers in Bleach#Kaname Tōsen|Kaname Tōsen]] respectively, defeating Tōsen and fighting off Komamura before Komamura runs away. He doesn't see Ichigo and his friends off when they leave the Soul Society. He tells Yachiru that he and Ichigo will certainly meet again because they are the only ones who are what they seem to be. Kenpachi also helps fight off the [[List of Bleach episodes (season 4)|Bount]] invasion, and successfully defeats [[List of Soul Reapers in Bleach#Maki Ichinose|Maki Ichinose]], a former member of his squad who left after Kenpachi killed his captain.

During the Arrancar arc, Kenpachi appears to Ichigo as his instinct and desire to win, explaining to him that they were both the type of people who live to fight (or fight to live) battle after battle. After Orihime is taken to Hueco Mundo, Kenpachi arrives with [[Byakuya Kuchiki]] to retrieve [[Tōshirō Hitsugaya]]'s group and bring them back to Soul Society. Later, in Hueco Mundo, Kenpachi comes to Ichigo's aid during his battle with the arrancar Tesla, dealing the arrancar a mortal blow with a single strike and then engaging the 5th Espada [[List of hollows in Bleach#Nnoitora Jiruga|Nnoitora]] in battle. Despite having "more fun than he has had in a long time," he suffers enough injuries to realize that he may die if the fight continues. He flashes back to his Kendo training, and grips his sword with two hands to deal Nnoitra a vicious, incapacitating blow. When Nnoitra refuses to accept defeat and charges Kenpachi, the latter kills him with another strike. Kenpachi then stands over Nnoitra's corpse, telling him their battle "was a blast". He later appears to save Ichigo from the zero Espada [[List of hollows in Bleach#Yammy Riyalgo|Yammy]] by cutting off one of his legs.

==Abilities==
Kenpachi is the only captain of the Gotei 13 who doesn't know the name of his sword, nor can he use his ''[[List of Soul Reapers in Bleach#Characteristics|bankai]]'' as a result. In addition, he never uses ''[[List of Soul Reapers in Bleach#Characteristics|kidō]]'' and rarely uses flash steps. The ''Bleach Official Bootleg'' databook ranks his talent in the former as zero. However, he more than makes up for his faults in sheer power. His spiritual pressure is such that, even when wearing the energy-sealing eyepatch, Kenpachi can fight on-par with and defeat other captain-level opponents, even when they release their ''zanpakutō'' in either shikai or bankai form. Its concentration is so great that it acts like armor against weaker opponents. During their first duel, he allowed Ichigo one free attack before the duel began. That attack failed to pierce his body, and Ichigo's right hand was wounded in the process. By releasing the bulk of his spiritual pressure, he was also able to cancel out the strongest attack of Maki Ichinose's ''Nijigasumi'' during their battle in the Bount Arc.

Despite his seeming disregard for any strategy in his fights and his self-admitted aversion to thinking during battle, Kenpachi is adept at finding and exploiting weaknesses in his opponents' techniques. While he claims to have no sanity or common sense, Kenpachi is actually very perceptive and notices traits in people that others wouldn't notice. For example, he correctly singles out Kaname Tōsen and [[Gin Ichimaru]] as the only captains who are afraid to die. During his battles with both [[List of Soul Reapers in Bleach#Kaname Tōsen|Tōsen]] and [[List of hollows in Bleach#Nnoitora Jiruga|Nnoitora]], he formulates strategies to work around his disadvantages, such as losing most of his senses or fighting an opponent with six arms.

Kenpachi has tremendous quantities of physical strength, proving able to both kick Tōsen through a building in their battle, and grab Ichigo's giant sword barehanded to reel both him and it in for an attack. His physical strength is matched by his endurance; Kenpachi has been shown to easily ignore most of the injuries he sustains in battle, not suffering any debilitation despite suffering multiple lacerations that would disable normal humans. He even allowed himself to be stabbed just to grab Tōsen's blade and break his ''bankai''{{'}}s effect. The majority of his fight with [[List of hollows in Bleach#Nnoitora Jiruga|Nnoitora]] was a one-sided brawl in Nnoitora's favor, with Kenpachi only taking things seriously when he finds himself in actual danger of dying from the sheer number of lacerations he had received. Kenpachi was proven strong enough to stop Nnoitora's Cero with his bare hands, effortlessly, without showing any sign of injury in the process.

===''Zanpakutō''===
Kenpachi does not know the name of his ''zanpakutō'', and is the only captain in the history of the Gotei 13 who cannot perform ''bankai''. Despite not knowing its name, his ''zanpakutō'' is constantly released due to his immense spiritual pressure in the same manner as Ichigo's [[Ichigo Kurosaki#Abilities|Zangetsu]].<ref name="Zanpakutō, Constant-Release Type">''Bleach'' Official Character Book SOULs; page 258.</ref> The sword's appearance is a reflection of Kenpachi's own practice of weakening himself to fight: it is a seemingly worn-down and dull blade with a guard that extends inward from its center. The blade is much longer than that of a standard ''zanpakutō''. Despite its appearance, it is easily capable of cutting through most objects, demonstrated when it pierces straight through Ichigo's ''zanpakutō'' and later slices a building in half with careless effort after Kenpachi releases the full force of his spiritual power. The weapon was also seen demolishing a large section of a castle in [[Bleach: The DiamondDust Rebellion]].

It appears that after his fight with Ichigo, Kenpachi wishes to learn more about his ''zanpakutō'' because he wants to become stronger and can identify with the pain of not having a name. However, he is not yet capable of communicating with his ''zanpakutō'', and it is implied that he continually tries to learn from his ''zanpakutō'' so that he can achieve a new tier of power. [[Ichigo Kurosaki#Abilities|Zangetsu]] notes that Kenpachi's disharmony with his ''zanpakutō'' causes the two to diminish each other's power; because Kenpachi believes only in his own strength, thinking it cowardly to rely on the strength of others, he has no spiritual connection with his ''zanpakutō''.

In the Hueco Mundo arc, it is actually revealed that Kenpachi can exert more power with his sword using Kendo. Having been forced by Yamamoto Genryuusai to take a class once, Kenpachi strongly dislikes kendo, as using it in battle would end the fight too quickly. He also dislikes the meaning of Kendo ("way of the sword"). However, he recognizes that using two handed attacks makes one immeasurably stronger than is the case with using one hand. To this end, he only uses Kendo as a last resort, as demonstrated in his fight with Nnoitora Jiruga.

==Appearances in other media==
Kenpachi appears in the second session of ''Bleach: Beat Collection'', together with Yachiru, Ikkaku, and Yumichika. He has a minor (yet comical) role in the ''Bleach'' OVA, and also appears briefly in ''[[Bleach: Memories of Nobody]]'', making sport of one of the Dark Ones. He also appears in [[Bleach: The DiamondDust Rebellion|the second movie]], being the first to charge in and attack Sōjirō's new dragon form; he helps out in the final battle as well. In the [[Bleach: Fade to Black, I Call Your Name|third movie]], he fought an altered [[Mayuri Kurotsuchi]] and was consumed by white substance that immobilized him for much of the movie. He was finally released in a comical fashion and aids in the final battle. Kenpachi also appears in most of the ''Bleach'' video games. He also appears in four of the [[Bleach (manga)#Musical|Rock Musical Bleach]] performances: Dark of the Bleeding Moon, No Clouds in the Blue Heavens, The All, and Live Bankai Show Code 002. He is portrayed by [[Shōgo Suzuki]].

==Reception==
Kenpachi's lust for battle has made the fights he appears in enjoyable for various critics. Calling him the "toughest Soul Reaper in business," [[IGN]] comments that "any battle with Kenpachi is always fun to watch just because of the fact that he has so much fun in his battles" and adds "almost every battle seems [lopsided in Kenpachi's favor] due to the fact that Kenpachi enjoys the battle all the way through".<ref>[http://tv.ign.com/articles/857/857158p1.html IGN: Gin Ichimaru's Temptation, Resolution Shattered Review]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Bleach characters}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zaraki, Kenpachi}}
[[Category:Shinigami in Bleach]]
[[Category:Anime and manga characters with superhuman strength]]
[[Category:Fictional sword fighters]]
[[Category:Fictional captains]]

[[ar:زاراكي كنباتشي]]
[[es:Kenpachi Zaraki]]
[[it:Kenpachi Zaraki]]
[[ms:Zaraki Kenpachi]]
[[ja:更木剣八]]
[[pl:Kenpachi Zaraki]]
[[pt:Kenpachi Zaraki]]
[[fi:Luettelo Bleachin sivuhahmoista#Kenpachi Zaraki]]
[[th:ซาราคิ เคมปาจิ]]