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Pope John Paul II

2005-08-30T10:42:00Z

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{{Infobox Pope|
English name=John Paul II|
image=[[Image:Pjp2c.jpg|250px]]|
birth_name= Karol Józef Wojtyła|
term_start=[[October 16]], [[1978]]|
term_end=[[April 2]], [[2005]]|
predecessor=[[Pope John Paul I|John Paul I]]|
successor=[[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]]|
birth_date=[[May 18]], [[1920]]|
birthplace=[[Wadowice]], [[Poland]]|
dead=dead|
death_date=[[April 2]], [[2005]]|
deathplace=[[Apostolic Palace]], [[Vatican City]]|}}

'''Pope John Paul II''' ([[Ecclesiastical Latin|Latin]]: ''Ioannes Paulus PP. II''), born '''Karol Józef Wojtyła''' {{ref|pronunciation}} ([[May 18]], [[1920]] – [[April 2]], [[2005]]), reigned as [[pope]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] for almost 27 years, from [[16 October]] [[1978]] until his death, making his the [[List of 10 longest-reigning popes|third-longest reign]] in the history of the Papacy according to the Roman Catholic tradition. On [[13 May]] [[2005]], [[Pope Benedict XVI]], John Paul II's successor, waived the five year waiting period for a cause for [[beatification]] to be opened. The official process for beatification began in the Diocese of [[Rome]] on [[June 28]], [[2005]]. [http://opportunities.typepad.com/news/2005/06/pope_john_paul_.html]

He was the first non-[[Italian people|Italian]] to reign since the [[16th century]]. His early reign was marked by his opposition to [[Communism]], and he is often credited as one of the forces which brought about the fall of the [[Soviet Union]]. In other domains, he advocated socially conservative values such as opposition to [[abortion]], the [[ordination of women]], [[same-sex marriage]], [[secular]] [[democracy]], and [[divorce]], but also economically progressive ones such as an emphasis on [[social justice]] and the fight against [[poverty]]. During his reign, the pope travelled extensively, visiting over 100 countries, more than any of his predecessors. He [[canonization|canonized]] more people than all popes before him put together. During his reign [[Catholicism]]'s decline continued in [[developed country|developed countries]] but it expanded in the [[Third World]]. Pope John Paul II was extremely popular worldwide, attracting crowds of millions during many of his travels, and being respected by many even outside of the Catholic Church, despite strident criticism over his controversial stances, a disparity of views that has led some to call him a [[sign of contradiction]]. John Paul II was fluently speaking in polish, italian, french, german, english, spanish, portugese and latine.

At first known as "[[God]]'s athlete" due to his sportsmanlike attitude and athletic bent, the [[1981]] attempt on his life had a lasting impact on his vigour. He never fully recovered, and the years afterward were marked by slow decline. In the late [[1990s]], he was diagnosed as having [[Parkinson's disease]]. On [[2 April]] [[2005]], Pope John Paul II passed away. The last years of his reign had been marked by his fight against the various diseases ailing him, provoking some concerns that he should abdicate, but in retrospect his determination was widely seen as an exemplary display of courage.

==Overview==
[[Image:Pope-pallium.jpg|thumb|left|Pope John Paul II]]
The man from Poland will be remembered as the "people's Pope." Respected around the world by both Christians and non-Christians, the reach of Pope John Paul II reached across the globe.

His papacy is remembered by his tireless ecumenical approach to accommodate other Christian sects as well as to forge a better understanding with the Islamic world. At his funeral, many non-Christian faiths were represented, including representatives from Islam and Buddhism.

John Paul II emphasized what he called the "[[universal call to holiness]]" and attempted to define the Catholic Church's role in the modern world. He spoke out against ideologies and politics of [[communism]], [[feminism]], [[imperialism]], [[relativism]], [[materialism]], [[fascism]] (including [[Nazism]]), [[racism]] and unrestrained [[capitalism]]. In many ways, he fought against [[oppression]], [[secularism]] and [[poverty]]. Although he was on friendly terms with many [[Western world|Western]] heads of state and leading citizens, he reserved a special opprobrium for what he believed to be the corrosive spiritual effects of modern Western [[consumerism]] and the concomitant widespread secular and hedonistic orientation of Western populations.

John Paul II affirmed traditional Catholic teachings by opposing [[abortion]], [[contraception]], [[capital punishment]], [[embryonic stem cell research]], [[human cloning]], [[euthanasia]], [[war]], but accepting [[evolution]]. He also defended traditional teachings on [[marriage]] and [[gender role]]s by opposing [[divorce]], [[same-sex marriage]] and the [[ordination of women]]. His conservative views were sometimes criticized as regressive. John Paul II called upon followers to vote according to Catholic teachings, and suggested that politicians who strayed be denied the [[Eucharist]].

John Paul II became known as the "Pilgrim Pope" for travelling greater distances than had all his predecessors combined. According to John Paul II, the trips symbolized bridge-building efforts (in keeping with his title as [[Pontifex Maximus]], literally Master Bridge-Builder) between nations and religions, attempting to remove divisions created through history.

He beatified 1,340 people, more people than any previous pope. The [[Roman Curia|Vatican]] asserts he canonized more people than the combined tally of his predecessors during the last five centuries, and from a far greater variety of cultures. Whether he had canonized more saints than all previous popes put together, as is sometimes also claimed, is difficult to prove, as the records of many early canonizations are incomplete, missing, or inaccurate. However, it is known that his abolition of the office of ''Promotor Fidei'' ("Promoter of the Faith" and the origin of the term [[Devil's Advocate]]) streamlined the process. He has been criticized by many for doing this.

Pope John Paul II died on [[2 April]] [[2005]] after a long fight against [[Parkinson's disease]] and other illnesses. Immediately after his death, many of his followers demanded that he be elevated to [[sainthood]] as soon as possible, shouting "Santo Subito" (meaning "Saint immediately" in [[Italian language|Italian]]). Both ''[[L'Osservatore Romano]]'' and [[Pope Benedict XVI]], Pope John Paul II's successor, referred to John Paul II as "Great".

John Paul II was succeeded by the Dean of the [[College of Cardinals]], [[Pope Benedict XVI|Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger]] of [[Germany]], the former head of the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]] who had led the Funeral Mass for John Paul II.

== Biography ==
{{see details|Biography of Pope John Paul II}}
===Early life===
[[Image:Karol Wojtyla at 12.jpg|thumb|140px|left|Karol Wojtyła at 12 years old]]
Karol Józef Wojtyła was born on [[18 May]] [[1920]] in [[Wadowice]] in southern [[Poland]]. His mother died in [[1929]], and his father supported him so that he could study. His youth was marked by intensive contacts with the then thriving [[Jew]]ish community of [[Wadowice]].

Karol enrolled at the [[Jagiellonian University]] in Kraków. He worked as a volunteer librarian and did compulsory military training in the Academic Legion. In his youth he was an [[athletics|athlete]], [[acting|actor]] and [[playwright]] and he learned as many as eleven [[language]]s.

During the [[Second World War]] academics of the Jagiellonian University were arrested and the university suppressed. All able-bodied males had to have a job. He variously worked as a messenger for a restaurant and a manual labourer in a limestone quarry.

===Church career===
[[Image:Pjp2b.jpg|thumb|215px|right|[[Pope Paul VI]] greets Karol Cardinal Wojtyła.]]
[[Image:JP1meetsJP2.jpg|thumb|right|215px|[[Pope John Paul I]] greets Karol Cardinal Wojtyła.]]
In 1942 he entered the [[Underground education in Poland during World War II|underground seminary]] run by the Archbishop of [[Kraków]], [[Adam Stefan Cardinal Sapieha|Cardinal Sapieha]]. Karol Wojtyła was [[ordination|ordained]] a [[priest]] on [[1 November]] [[1946]].

On [[4 July]] [[1958]] [[Pope Pius XII]] named him titular bishop of [[Ombi]] and auxiliary to Archbishop Baziak, apostolic administrator of the [[Archdiocese]] of [[Kraków]]. Karol Wojtyła found himself at 38 the youngest [[bishop]] in [[Poland]].

In [[1962]] Bishop Wojtyła took part in the [[Second Vatican Council]], and in [[December]] [[1963]] [[Pope Paul VI]] appointed him [[Archbishop]] of [[Kraków]]. Paul VI elevated him to [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]] in [[1967]].

===A Pope from Poland===

In August [[1978]] following Paul's death, he voted in the [[Papal election|Papal Conclave]] that elected [[Pope John Paul I]], who at 65 was considered young by papal standards. However John Paul I was in poor health and he died after only 33 days as pope, thereby precipitating another conclave.

Voting in the second conclave was divided between two particularly strong candidates: [[Giuseppe Cardinal Siri]], the Archbishop of [[Genoa]]; and [[Giovanni Cardinal Benelli]], the Archbishop of [[Florence]] and a close associate of [[Pope John Paul I]]. In early ballots, Benelli came within nine votes of victory. However Wojtyła secured election as a compromise candidate, in part through the support of [[Franz Cardinal König]] and others who had previously supported Cardinal Siri.

He became the 264th Pope according to the Vatican (265th according to sources that count [[Pope Stephen II]]). At only 58 years of age, he was the youngest pope elected since [[Pope Pius IX]] in [[1846]]. Like his immediate predecessor, Pope John Paul II dispensed with the traditional [[Papal coronation]] and instead received ecclesiastical [[investiture]] with the simplified [[Papal inauguration]].

=== Assassination attempts ===
{{infobox popestyles|
papal name=Pope John Paul II|
dipstyle=[[His Holiness]]|
offstyle=Your Holiness|
relstyle=Holy Father|
deathstyle=[[Servant of God]]|}}
On [[13 May]] [[1981]] John Paul II was shot and critically wounded by [[Mehmet Ali Agca|Mehmet Ali Ağca]], a [[Turkish people|Turkish]] gunman, as he entered [[Saint Peter's Square|St. Peter's Square]] to address an audience. Ağca was eventually sentenced to [[life imprisonment]]. Two days after [[Christmas]] [[1983]], John Paul II visited the prison where his would-be assassin was being held. The two spoke privately for some time. John Paul II said, "What we talked about will have to remain a secret between him and me. I spoke to him as a brother whom I have pardoned and who has my complete trust."

Another assassination attempt took place on [[12 May]] [[1982]] in [[Fatima, Portugal]] when a man tried to stab John Paul II with a [[bayonet]], but was stopped by security guards. The assailant, an ultraconservative Spanish [[priest]] named [[Juan María Fernández y Krohn]], reportedly opposed the reforms of the [[Second Vatican Council]] and called the pope an agent of [[Moscow]]. He served a six-year sentence, and was expelled from Portugal afterwards.

=== Health ===
{{see details|Health of Pope John Paul II}}
When he first entered the [[papacy]] in [[1978]], John Paul II was an avid sportsman, enjoying [[hiking]] and [[swimming]]. In addition, John Paul II travelled extensively after becoming pope; at the time, the 58-year old was extremely healthy and active.

In [[1981]], though, John Paul II's health suffered a major blow after a failed [[assassination]] attempt. The bullet-wound caused severe [[bleeding]], and the Pope's [[blood pressure]] dropped. In addition, a [[colostomy]] was also performed. Despite of this, he nevertheless maintained an impressive physical condition for a Pope throughtout the [[1980s]].

Starting about 1992, John Paul II's health slowly declined. He began to suffer from an increasingly slurred speech and difficulty in hearing. In addition, the Pope rarely walked in public. Though not officially confirmed by the [[Roman Curia|Vatican]] until [[2003]], most experts agreed that the frail pontiff suffered from [[Parkinson's Disease]].

In [[February]] [[2005]] John Paul II was taken to the hospital with an inflammation of the [[larynx]], the result of [[influenza]]. Though later released from the hospital, he was taken back later that month after difficulty breathing. A [[tracheotomy]] was performed, limiting the pope's speaking abilities.

In [[March]] of [[2005]], speculation was high that the Pope was near-death; this was confirmed by the Vatican days before John Paul II passed away.

=== Death ===
On [[31 March]] [[2005]] the Pope developed a very high [[fever]], but was neither rushed to the hospital, nor offered life support, apparently in accordance with his wishes to die in the Vatican.{{ref|Frail}} Later that day Vatican sources announced that John Paul II had been given the [[Anointing of the Sick]] by his friend and secretary [[Archbishop]] [[Stanisław Dziwisz]]. During the final days of the Pope's life, the lights were kept burning through the night where he lay in the Papal apartment on the top floor of the [[Apostolic Palace]].

Thousands of people rushed to the Vatican, filling [[St Peter's Square]] and beyond, and held vigil for two days. He died in his private apartments, at 21:37 [[CEST]] (19:37 [[UTC]]) on [[2 April]], 46 days short of his 85th birthday.

A crowd of over two million within Vatican City, over one billion Catholics world-wide, and many non-Catholics mourned John Paul II. The [[Poles]] were particularly devastated by his death. The public viewing of his body in [[St. Peter's Basilica]] drew over four million people to Vatican City and was one of the largest [[pilgrimage]]s in the [[history of Christianity]]. Many world leaders expressed their condolences and ordered flags in their countries lowered to half-mast. Numerous countries with a Catholic majority, and even some with only a small Catholic population, declared mourning for John Paul II.

==== Funeral ====
[[Image:jp2crowdstoseepope.jpg |thumb|300px|left|©[[Associated Press]] Two million people reportedly viewed Pope John Paul II's body lying in state.]]
{{see details|Funeral of Pope John Paul II}}
The death of Pope John Paul II set into motion [[ritual]]s and traditions dating back to [[medieval]] times. The [[Rite of Visitation]] took place from [[4 April]] through 22:00 CET (20:00 [[UTC]]) on [[7 April]] at [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. On [[8 April]] the Mass of [[Requiem]] was conducted by the Dean of the College of Cardinals, [[Pope Benedict XVI|Joseph Ratzinger]], who would become the next pope. It has been estimated to have been the largest attended funeral of all time.

John Paul II was interred in the grottoes under the basilica, the Tomb of the Popes. He was lowered into the [[tomb]] that had been occupied by the remains of [[Pope John XXIII|Blessed Pope John XXIII]], but which had been empty since his remains had been moved into the main body of the basilica after his [[beatification]] by John Paul II in 2003.

==== John Paul "The Great" ====
[[Image:Pope-john-paul-ii-01.jpg|thumb|right|Pope John Paul II]]

Since the death of John Paul II, a number of clergy at the Vatican have been referring to the late pontiff as "John Paul the Great"—only the fourth pope to be so acclaimed, and the first since the first millennium. His successor, [[Pope Benedict XVI]], referred to him as "the great Pope John Paul II" in his first address from the [[loggia]] of St Peter's Church. Pope Benedict has continued to refer to John Paul II as "the Great." At 2005 World Youth Day in Germany, Pope Benedict, speaking in Polish, John Paul's native language, said, "As the great Pope John Paul II would say: keep the flame of faith alive in your lives and your people." The Italian newspaper ''[[Corriere della Sera]]'' even called him "the Greatest."

Scholars of [[canon law]] say that there is no official process for declaring a pope "Great"; the title establishes itself through popular, and continued, usage. The three popes who today commonly are known as "Great" are [[Pope Leo I|Leo I]], who reigned from [[440]]–[[461]] and persuaded [[Attila the Hun]] to withdraw from Rome; [[Pope Gregory I|Gregory I]], [[590]]–[[604]], after whom the [[Gregorian Chant]] is named; and [[Pope Nicholas I|Nicholas I]], [[858]]–[[867]], who also withstood a siege of Rome (in this case from [[Carolingian]] Christians, over a dispute regarding marriage [[annulment]]).

Historically, the title "the Great" has been reserved to the first pope (or sovereign) in a line bearing a name. John Paul II would, by this criterion, be unlikely to be dubbed "the Great." However, there are exceptions. For example, Alexander the Great, was also Alexander III. The fact that, until John Paul II, no popes after the first, have received this title is likely more a function of the fact that so few individuals have received the title at all, and is not related to or limited to only popes with first pope of a given name.

====Beatification====
[[Image:TheGreat.jpg|thumb|left|Pope John Paul II.]]
On [[13 May]] [[2005]] [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]] made his first [[promulgation]] of the [[beatification]] process choosing to honour his predecessor, John Paul II. Normally five years pass before the beatification process begins for a person after his or her death but due to the popularity of John Paul II—devotees chanted "Santo subito!" ("Saint now!") during the late pontiff's funeral—Benedict XVI waived the custom and officially styled the late pope with the title given to all those being scrutinized in the beatification process, Servant of God.

{{wikinews|Pope Benedict XVI begins process for sainthood of Pope John Paul II}}
Upon the confirmation after scrutiny that the late pontiff's life is found morally clean and manifest heroic virtues, a decree will be proclaimed and John Paul II will be declared ''[[Venerable]]'' on the road to beatification. Before changes in [[canon law]] in [[1917]], the title ''Venerable'' was given at the same time a person was declared ''Servant of God''. Today, the titles are separate. Upon the confirmation of [[miracle]]s attributed to the honoree, John Paul II would then be declared ''[[Blessed]]''. A person is strictly prohibited from being officially celebrated in Mass until he or she achieves the title of ''Blessed''.

==Life's work==
===Teachings===
{{see details|Teachings of Pope John Paul II}}
As pope, John Paul II's most important role was to teach people about [[Roman Catholic]] [[Christianity]]. He wrote a number of important documents that many observers believe will have long-lasting influence on the Church.

A notable achievement of John Paul II was the publication of the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], which became an international bestseller. Its purpose, according to the Pope's [[Apostolic Constitution]] ''Fidei Depositum'' was to be "a statement of the Church's faith and of Catholic doctrine, attested to or illumined by Sacred Scripture, the Apostolic Tradition and the Church's [[Magisterium]]." His first [[encyclical]] letters focused on the [[Triune God]]; the very first was on [[Jesus]] the Redeemer (''"Redemptor Hominis"'').

[[Image:Ioannes Paulus IICoAsimple.png|thumb|150px|left|'''Coat of Arms of Pope John Paul II''' The letter M is for [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Mary]], Jesus' mother.]]

In his Apostolic Letter ''At the beginning of the third millennium'' (''[[Novo Millennio Ineunte]]''), he emphasized the importance of "starting afresh from [[Christ]]": "No, we shall not be saved by a formula but by a Person." In what he calls a "program for all times," he placed "sanctity" as the single most important priority of all pastoral activities in the entire Catholic Church. Thus, he canonized many saints around the world as exemplars for his vision and he supported the prelature of [[Opus Dei]], whose aim is to spread the message of the [[universal call to holiness]] and the sanctification of secular activities, which he said is a "great ideal."

In ''The Splendour of the Truth'' (''Veritatis Splendor'') he emphasized the dependence of man on God and his law ("Without the Creator, the creature disappears") and the "dependence of freedom on the truth". He warned that man "giving himself over to [[relativism]] and [[skepticism]], goes off in search of an illusory freedom apart from truth itself".

John Paul II also wrote extensively about workers and the social doctrine of the Church, which he discussed in three encyclicals. Through his encyclicals, John Paul also talked about the dignity of women and the importance of the [[family]] for the future of mankind.

Other important documents include ''The Gospel of Life'' (''[[Evangelium Vitae]]''), where he issued unprecedented teachings on moral matters like on murder, euthanasia and abortion, statements which, according to the [[ Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], were "infallible", ''Faith and Reason'' (''Fides et Ratio''), and ''Orientale Lumen'' (''Light of the East'').

John Paul II was also considered by some to have halted the progressive efforts of [[Second Vatican Council|Vatican II]], becoming a standard-bearer for the conservative side of the Catholic Church. He continued his staunch opposition to [[contraception|contraceptive]] methods, [[abortion]] and [[homosexuality]].

John Paul II, as a writer of [[philosophical]] and [[theology|theological]] thought, was characterized by his explorations in [[phenomenology]]. He is also known for his development of the [[theology of the body]].

=== Pastoral trips ===
{{see details|Pastoral trips of Pope John Paul II}}
During his pontificate, Pope John Paul II made over 100 foreign trips, more than all previous popes put together. In total he logged more than 1.1 million km (725,000 miles). He consistently attracted large crowds on his travels, some amongst the largest ever assembled in human history. While some of his trips (such as to the [[United States]] and the [[Holy Land]]) were to places previously visited by [[Pope Paul VI]] (the first pope to travel widely), many others were to places that no pope had ever visited before. All these travels were paid by the money of the countries he visited and not by the Vatican.

[[Image:Pope-poland.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Millions cheer Pope John Paul II during his first visit to Poland as pontiff in 1979]]
One of John Paul II's earliest official visits was to [[Poland]], in June [[1979]].{{ref|home}} In [[1982]] he became the first reigning pope to travel to the [[United Kingdom]], where he met [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], the [[Supreme Governor of the Church of England|Supreme Governor]] of the [[Church of England]].

Throughout his trips, he stressed his devotion to the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] through visits to various [[shrines to the Virgin Mary]], notably [[Knock]] in [[Ireland]], [[Fátima, Portugal|Fátima]] in [[Portugal]], [[Our Lady of Guadalupe|Guadalupe]] in [[Mexico]] and [[Lourdes]] in [[France]].

In [[1984]] John Paul II became the first Pope to visit [[Puerto Rico]]. On [[15 January]] [[1995]] he offered mass to an estimated crowd of 4.5 million in [[Luneta Park]], [[Manila, Philippines]], the largest papal crowd ever. On [[22 March]] [[1998]] he paid a second visit to [[Nigeria]]. Also in [[1999]] John Paul II made another of his multiple trips to the United States. In [[2000]] he became the first modern Catholic pope to visit [[Egypt]], where he met with the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic pope]] and the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria]]. In May [[2001]] the Pontiff took a pilgrimage that would trace the steps of his co-namesake, [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]], across the [[Mediterranean]], from [[Greece]] to [[Syria]] to [[Malta]].

He was the first Roman Catholic Pope to visit and pray in an [[Islamic]] [[mosque]], in [[Damascus]], [[Syria]]. He visited [[Umayyad Mosque]], where [[John the Baptist]] is believed to be interred.

In September [[2001]] amid post-[[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11]] concerns, he travelled to [[Kazakhstan]], with an audience of largely [[Muslim]]s, as well as [[Armenia]], to participate in the celebration of the 1700 years of [[Christianity]] in that nation.

=== Relations with other religions ===
Pope John Paul II travelled extensively and came into contact with many divergent faiths. With these he ceaselessly attempted to find common ground, whether it be doctrinal or dogmatic. He made history with his establishment of contacts with [[Israel]], praying at the [[Western Wall]] in Jerusalem. [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Tenzin Gyatso]], the 14th [[Dalai Lama]] and the spiritual leader of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], visited Pope John Paul II eight times, more than any other single dignitary. The Pope and the Dalai Lama often shared similar views and understood similar plights, both coming from peoples who have suffered under [[communism]].

In contrast, the [[Northern Irish]] [[Protestant]] leader [[Ian Paisley]] repeatedly accused John Paul II of being the [[Antichrist]].

<gallery>
Image:Dalai Lama.jpg|John Paul II meets [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama]] at the Vatican in 1999.
Image:Jp2lutheran_2.jpg|Pope John Paul II becomes the first pope ever to preach in a [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] church; Rome, December 1983
Image:jp ii wailing_wall.jpg|John Paul II prays and expresses sorrow for past Catholic mistreatment of Jews at the [[Western Wall]].
Image:Jp2synogogue.jpg|Pope John Paul II visiting The Great Synagogue of Rome in April 1986
Image:Pope_and_Christodoulos2.jpg|Pope John Paul II and Archbishop Christodoulos issue a "common declaration".
Image:Qur'an.jpg|This picture shows the late Pontiff kissing the Qur'an.
</gallery></center>

==== Relations with the Jewish people ====
[[Relations between Catholicism and Judaism]] improved during the pontificate of John Paul II. He spoke frequently about the Church's relationship with [[Jew]]s. In [[1979]] he became the first Pope to visit [[Auschwitz concentration camp]] in [[Poland]], where many of his countrymen (mostly Polish Jews) had perished under [[Nazi]] rule. Shortly afterward, he became the first modern Pope to visit a synagogue when he visited the [[Synagogue of Rome]] on [[13 April]] [[1986]].

In [[March 2000]], John Paul II visited [[Yad Vashem]], (the Israeli national [[Holocaust]] memorial) in [[Israel]] and later touched the holiest site in [[Judaism]], the [[Western Wall]] in [[Jerusalem]]. In October [[2003]] the [[Anti-Defamation League]] (ADL) issued a statement congratulating John Paul II on entering the 25th year of his papacy.

Immediately after the pope's death, the ADL issued a statement that Pope John Paul II had revolutionized Catholic-Jewish relations, saying that "more change for the better took place in his 27 year Papacy than in the nearly 2,000 years before." (''Pope John Paul II: An Appreciation: A Visionary Remembered'').

A number of points of dispute still exist between the Catholic Church and the Jewish community, including [[World War II]]-related issues and issues of doctrine. Nonetheless, the number of issues that divide Jewish groups and the Vatican has dropped significantly during the last 40 years.

==== Relations with the Eastern Orthodox Church ====
{{see details|Pope John Paul II's relations with the Eastern Orthodox Church}}
In May 1999, John Paul II visited [[Romania]] on the invitation from Patriarch [[Teoctist]] of the [[Romanian Orthodox Church]]. This was the first time a pope had visited a predominantly Eastern Orthodox country since the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] in [[1054]]. On his arrival, the Patriarch and the President of Romania, [[Emil Constantinescu]], greeted the Pope. The Patriarch stated, "The second millennium of Christian history began with a painful wounding of the unity of the Church; the end of this millennium has seen a real commitment to restoring Christian unity."

John Paul II visited other heavily Orthodox areas such as [[Ukraine]], despite lack of welcome at times, and he said that an end to the Schism was one of his fondest wishes.

Pope John Paul II could not escape the controversy of the [[involvement of Croatian Catholic clergy with the Ustasa regime]] of [[World War II]] in his relations with the [[Serb Orthodox Church]]. He beatified [[Aloysius Stepinac]] in [[1998]], the [[Croatia]]n war-time Archbishop of [[Zagreb]], a move seen negatively by those who believe that he was an active collaborator with the [[Ustase|Ustaše]] fascist regime. On [[22 June]] [[2003]] he visited [[Banja Luka]] in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]].

The Pope had been also saying during his entire pontificate that one of his greatest dreams was to visit [[Russia]], but this never occurred. He had made several attempts to solve the problems which arose over a period of centuries between the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] churches, like giving back the [[Kazan]] [[Icon|Icon of the Mother of God]] in [[August 2004]]. However, the Orthodox side was not that enthusiastic, making statements like: "The question of the visit of the Pope in Russia is not connected by the journalists with the problems between the Churches, which are now unreal to solve, but with giving back one of many sacred things, which were illegally stolen from Russia." ([[Vsevolod Chaplin]]).

===The Pope for youth===
[[Image:Toronto.jpg|frame|left|120px|Pope John Paul II met a quarter of a million young people in [[Toronto]] in 2002]]
John Paul II had a special relationship also with Catholic youth and is known by some as The Pope for Youth. He was a hero to many of them.

He established [[World Youth Day]] in [[1984]] with the intention of bringing young Catholics from all parts of the world together to celebrate their faith. These week-long meetings of youth occur every two or three years, attracting hundreds of thousands of young people, who go there to sing, party, have a good time and deepen their faith. His most faithful youths gathered themselves in two organizations: "papaboys" and "papagirls."

=== Apologies ===
Over the later parts of his reign, John Paul II made several apologies to various peoples that had been wronged by the Catholic Church through the years. Even before he became the Pope, he was a prominent supporters of initiatives like the [[Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops]] from [[1965]]. During his reign as a Pope, he publicly made apologies for over 100 of these mistakes, including:
*The persecution of the Italian scientist and philosopher [[Galileo Galilei]] in the [[trial]] by the Roman Catholic Church in [[1633]] ([[31 October]] [[1992]]).
*Catholic involvement with the [[African slave trade]] ([[9 August]] [[1993]]).
*The Church's role in [[Execution by burning|burnings at the stake]] and the religious wars that followed the [[Protestant Reformation]] (May [[1995]], in the [[Czech Republic]]).
*The injustices committed against women in the name of Christ, the violation of women's rights and for the historical denigration of women ([[10 July]] [[1995]], in a letter to "every woman").
*Inactivity and silence of Roman Catholics during the [[Holocaust]] ([[16 March]] [[1998]]).
*For the execution of [[Jan Hus]] in [[1415]] ([[18 December]] [[1999]]).
*For the sins of Catholics throughout the ages for violating "the rights of ethnic groups and peoples, and [for showing] contempt for their cultures and religious traditions". ([[12 March]] [[2000]], during a public Mass of Pardons).
*For the sins of the [[Fourth Crusade|Crusader attack on Constantinople]] in [[1204]]. ([[4 May]] [[2001]], to the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]).
*For [[missionary]] abuses in the past against indigenous peoples of the [[South Pacific]] ([[22 November]] [[2001]], via the [[Internet]]).
*For the massacre of [[Aztecs]] and other [[Mesoamerica]]ns by the [[Spain|Spanish]] in the name of the Church.

=== Social and political stances ===
[[Image:Yad Vashem.jpg|thumb|John Paul at the [[Holocaust]] memorial of [[Yad Vashem]].]]
John Paul II was a conservative on [[doctrine]] and issues relating to reproduction and the [[ordination]] of women.

A series of 129 lectures given by John Paul during his Wednesday audiences in Rome between September 1979 and November 1984 were later compiled and published as a single work entitled "[[Theology of the Body]]," an extended meditation on the nature of [[human sexuality]] and masculinity in human life. He also extended it to condemnation of abortion, [[euthanasia]] and virtually all uses of capital punishment, calling them all a part of the "[[culture of death]]" that is pervasive in the modern world. His stands on [[warfare]], capital punishment, world [[debt forgiveness]], and [[poverty]] issues were considered politically liberal, showing that "conservative" and "liberal" political labels are not easily assigned to religious leaders.

[[Image:1981 01 Lech Walesa.jpg|250px|left|thumb|[[Lech Wałęsa]], leader of [[Solidarność]], received by Pope John Paul II in the Vatican in January 1981]]
The pope, who began his papacy when the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]] controlled his native country of Poland, as well as the rest of [[Eastern Europe]], was a harsh critic of [[communism]] and offered support to those fighting for change, like the Polish [[Solidarity]] movement. Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] once said the collapse of the [[Iron Curtain]] would have been impossible without John Paul II.{{ref|Gorbachev}} This view is shared by many people of the [[post-Soviet states]], who view him, as well as [[Ronald Reagan]], as the heroes responsible for bringing an end to the communist tyranny. In later years, John Paul II also criticized some of the more extreme versions of [[corporate capitalism]].

In 2000 he publicly endorsed the [[Jubilee 2000]] campaign on [[African]] [[debt relief]] fronted by Irish rock stars [[Bob Geldof]] and [[Bono]]. It was reported that during this period, [[U2 (band)|U2]]'s recording sessions were repeatedly interrupted by phone calls from the pope, wanting to discuss the campaign with Bono.

In [[2003]] John Paul II also became a prominent critic of the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 US-led invasion of Iraq]]. He sent former [[Nunciature to the United States|Apostolic Pro-Nuncio to the United States]] [[Pío Cardinal Laghi]] to talk with [[President of the United States|American President]] [[George W. Bush]] to express opposition to the war. John Paul II said that it was up to the [[United Nations]] to solve the international conflict through diplomacy and that a unilateral aggression is a crime against peace and a violation of [[international law]].

In [[European Union]] negotiations for a new [[European Constitution]] in 2003 and [[2004]], the Vatican's representatives failed to secure any mention of Europe's "Christian heritage"—one of the pope's cherished goals.

The pope was also a leading critic of [[same-sex marriage]]. In his last book, ''Memory and Identity'', he referred to the "pressures" on the [[European Parliament]] to permit same-sex marriage. Reuters quotes the pope as writing, "It is legitimate and necessary to ask oneself if this is not perhaps part of a new ideology of evil, perhaps more insidious and hidden, which attempts to pit human rights against the family and against man."

The Pope also criticized [[transsexual]] and [[transgender]] people, as the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], which he supervised, banned them from serving in church positions, as well as considering them to have "mental pathologies".

===Criticism===
{{see details|Criticism of Pope John Paul II}}
[[Image:Pope John Paul II with Pinochet.jpg|left|thumb|Pope [[John Paul II]] with [[Chile|Chilean]] President [[Augusto Pinochet]].]]
When the [[Cold War]] ended, some conservatives argued that the Pope moved too far left on foreign policy, and had [[pacifism|pacifist]] views that were too extreme. His opposition to the [[2003 Iraq War]] was criticized for this reason.

John Paul II was also criticized for his support of the [[Opus Dei]] prelature and the [[canonization]] of its founder, [[Josemaría Escrivá]], whose opponents call him an admirer of [[Spain|Spanish]] dictator [[Francisco Franco]].

John Paul II's beliefs about [[gender roles]] and [[human sexuality|sexuality]] also came under attack. Some [[feminism|feminists]] criticized his positions on the role of women, and gay-rights activists disagreed with criticism of [[homosexuality]] and [[same-sex marriage]].

His opposition to artificial [[contraception]] was particularly controversial. Claims were made that John Paul II's papacy spread an unproven belief that [[condom]]s do not block the spread of [[HIV]]; between these two claims, many critics have blamed him for contributing to [[AIDS in Africa|AIDS epidemic]]s in [[Africa]] and elsewhere in which millions have died.{{ref|Toynbee}} His supporters disagree and stress the importance of sexual abstinence in preventing the spread of [[AIDS]]. Critics have also claimed that the large families caused by lack of contraception have exacerbated [[Third World]] poverty and problems such as [[street children]] in [[South America]].

John Paul II was also criticized for the way he administered the Church; in particular, critics charged that he failed to respond quickly enough to the [[Roman Catholic Church sex abuse scandal]]. He was also criticized for [[Centralization|recentralizing]] power back to the Vatican following the earlier [[decentralization]] of [[Pope John XXIII]]. As such he was regarded by some as a strict [[authoritarian]].

Besides all the criticism from those demanding modernization, [[Traditional Catholic]]s were at times equally vehement in denouncing him from the right, demanding a return to the [[Tridentine Mass]] and repudiation of the reforms instituted after the Second Vatican Council, such as the use of the vernacular language in Mass.

Because of the many criticisms he received during this lifetime, including many assassination attempts, some led by communists, and due to the downfall of his detractors in contrast with his fame of sanctity after his death, John Paul II has been called by theologians a [[sign of contradiction]] (a sign that is spoken against), which John Paul II suggests in his book of the same title as "a distinctive definition of Christ and of his Church."

== Other ==
[[image:Eurovatican.jpg|thumb|215px|Pope John Paul II appears on the Vatican's [[Euro|€1]] coin.]]

*John Paul II's apostolic motto was ''Totus Tuus'' ("all yours"); he borrowed the motto from the Marian consecrating prayer of [[Saint Louis Marie Grignion de Montfort]].

*According to a ''[[New York Post]]'' article of [[19 February]] [[2002]], John Paul II personally performed three [[exorcism]]s during his tenure as pope. The first exorcism was performed on a woman in [[1982]]. His second was in September [[2000]] when he performed the rite on a nineteen-year-old woman who had become enraged in [[St Peter's Square]]. A year later, in September [[2001]], he performed an exorcism on a twenty-year-old woman.

*The [[John Paul II International Airport]] ([[IATA airport code|IATA]]: KRK), in [[Balice]], [[Poland]], near [[Kraków]] where he served as Archbishop before being elected Pope, was named in his honour.

*In [[2004]] he received an extraordinary [[Charlemagne Award]] of the city of [[Aachen]], [[Germany]].

*The [[Harlem Globetrotters]] visited Pope John Paul II at the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] in November of 2000 and named the Pontiff an Honorary Harlem Globetrotter.

*[[Tom Clancy]] wrote [[Red Rabbit]], which was about an assassination attempt on the pope.

*On [[23 March]] [[1999]], John Paul II released his debut CD "[http://www.abbapater.com/ Abbà Pater]".

*John Paul II has been featured on at least seven popular albums in his native Poland. Most notably [[singer/songwriter]] [[Stanislaw Sojka]]’s 2003 album, “Jan Pawel II -- Tryptyk Rzymski”, a ten-track collection of the Pope's poems set to music, reached No. 1.{{ref|msnbc}}

*In 2003, his death was [[List of premature obituaries|incorrectly announced]] by [[CNN]] when his pre-written obituary (along with those of several other famous figures) was inadvertently published on CNN's web site due to a lapse in password protection.

== Further reading ==
=== Books by John Paul II ===
In [[Order (Sort)|chronological order]]:

====Meditations and philosophy====
* ''Memory and Identity - Conversations at the Dawn of a Millennium'', published by Rizzoli ([[22 March]] [[2005]]) ISBN 0847827615 - conversational presentation of John Paul II's views on many secular topics, such as evil, freedom, contemporary Europe, nationalism, and democracy. Included in the book is also a [[transcript]] of the Pope's discussion on his assassination attempt in [[1981]].
* ''Rise, Let Us Be On Our Way'', Warner Books ([[28 September]] [[2004]]),ISBN 0446577812 - mostly addressed to his bishops, however a rich source of inspiration for everyone having knowledge of [[Christianity]].
* ''Pope John Paul II - In My Own Words'', Gramercy ([[6 August]] [[2002]]) ISBN 0517220849 - best-seller, a compilation book of carefully selected words and prayers of John Paul II, compiled by [[Anthony F. Chiffolo]].
* ''Gift and Mystery - On the Fiftieth Anniversary of My Priestly Ordination'', Image ([[20 April]] [[1999]]) ISBN 0385493711 - about being a priest.
* ''[[Crossing the Threshold of Hope]]'', Knopf ([[19 September]], [[1995]]), ISBN 0679765611 - edited by [[Vittorio Messori]]. John Paul II makes many of his teachings and ideas more accessible.
* ''The Way to Christ - Spiritual Exercises'', HarperSanFrancisco ([[7 October]] [[1994]]) ISBN 0060642165 - conversational presentation of two retreats Karol Woytła gave 10 years apart before becoming pope. In that time he served in Kraków as bishop and cardinal. A direct and touching book.
* ''Person and Act'', by Karol Wojtyla; before his papacy, ([[28 February]] [[1979]]) ISBN 9027709858. In depth phenomenological work tied to Thomistic Ethics, apparently there is a bad translation entitled "the Acting Person".
* ''Love and Responsibility'', by Karol Woytła before his papacy, Ignatius Press; Rev. edition ([[1 April]] [[1993]]) ISBN 0898704456 - in depth philosophical analysis of human love and sexuality.

====Plays by John Paul II====
* ''Our God's Brother'', Ave Maria Press (September [[1995]]) ISBN 0877938709 - this play was written by Karol Wojtyla in Poland during [[World War II]] when the [[Nazis]] were suppressing [[Culture of Poland|Polish arts]] ([[1944]]).
* ''The Jeweller's Shop: A Meditation on the Sacrament of Matrimony, Passing on Occasion into a Drama'', Arrow, ([[17 March]] [[1980]]) ISBN 009140861X.

Both of these plays were filmed:
*''Our God's brother'' (in Polish: ''Brat naszego Boga''), 123 min, [[1997]], colour, directed by [[Krzysztof Zanussi]]. [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119846/ IMDb entry].
*''La Bottega dell'orefice'' (English: ''The Jeweller's Shop''), 88 min (Canada)/95 min (USA), [[1988]], colour, directed by [[Michael Joseph Anderson]]. [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0094787/ IMDb entry].

====Poetry by John Paul II====
* ''The Poetry of Pope John Paul II'', USCCB ([[1 September]] [[2003]]) ISBN 1574555561 - poems written in the summer of [[2002]].
* ''The Place Within: The Poetry of Pope John Paul II'', Random House; 1st edition ([[25 October]] [[1994]]) ISBN 0679760644 - lyrical poetry

===Biographies of Pope John Paul II===
* ''Witness to Hope'', [[George Weigel]], HarperCollins ([[1999]], [[2001]]) ISBN 006018793X.
* ''Man of the Century: The Life and Times of Pope John Paul II'', [[Jonathan Kwitny]], Henry Holt and Company, 1997.
* ''His Holiness: John Paul II and the History of Our Time, [[Carl Bernstein]] and [[Marco Politi]], Doubleday, 1996.
* ''Pope John Paul II: The Biography'', Tad Szulc, Scribner, 1995.

== Films about Pope John Paul II ==
* ''[[Pope John Paul II: The Movie]]'', directed by [[Herbert Wise]], starring [[Albert Finney]], [[Nigel Hawthorne]], [[Alfred Burke]], [[John McEnery]], [[Patrick Stewart]].
* ''[[Pope John Paul's Third Pilgrimage to His Homeland]]'', a documentary on John Paul's June 1987 visit to Poland.
* ''[[From a Far Country (1981)]]'', directed by [[Krzysztof Zanussi]].
* ''[[The Millennial Pope: John Paul II (1999) (TV)]]'', a documentary directed by [[Helen Whitney]].
* ''[[Karol: A Man Who Became Pope]]'' [http://www.popedocumentary.com/], polish title: ''Karol. Człowiek, który został papieżem'', 2005, a documentary, directed by [[Giacomo Batiatto]], based upon the book [[Stories of Karol: The Unknown Life of John Paul II]] by [[Gian Franco Svidercoschi]].

There is also a [[CBS]] mini-series about the his life in development [http://news.softpedia.com/news/Lord-Of-The-Rings-Star-Ian-Holm-To-Llay-Pope-John-Paul-II-4051.shtml], originally to star [[Ian Holm]], although [[Jon Voight]] has reportedly been cast after Holm left the project.

== See also ==
*[[List of Encyclicals of Pope John Paul II]]
*[[List of pastoral visits of Pope John Paul II outside Italy]]
*[[List of Roman Catholic bishops of Kraków]]
*[[Papal election, 2005]]
*[[Papabili]]
*[[Personalism]]
*[[Popemobile]]
*[[Antipope#Sedevacantist antipopes|Sedevacantist antipopes]]
*[[The Incredible Popeman]]

== Notes ==

#{{note|pronunciation}} Pronounced KARR-ol YOO-zef voy-TIH-wah, [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/ˈkarɔl ˈjuzef vɔjˈtɨwa/}}, {{audio|Pl-Karol-Jozef-Wojtyla.ogg|Polish pronunciation}}.
#{{note|Frail}} "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4399189.stm Frail Pope suffers heart failure]," ''BBC News'', April 1, 2005 (accessed June 11, 2005).
#{{note|home}} "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/2/newsid_3972000/3972361.stm 1979: Millions cheer as the Pope comes home]," from "On This Day, June 2, 1979," ''BBC News'' (accessed June 11, 2005).
#{{note|Gorbachev}} Ryan Chilcote, "[http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/europe/04/03/pope.gorbachev/index.html Gorbachev: Pope was 'example to all of us']," ''CNN'', April 4, 2005 (accessed June 11, 2005).
#{{note|Toynbee}} Polly Toynbee, "[http://www.guardian.co.uk/pope/story/0,12272,1065041,00.html False paeans to the Pope]," ''The Guardian '', October 17, 2003 (accessed June 11, 2005).
#{{note|msnbc}} "[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7848742/ Pope rocks Polish pop music charts]," ''MSNBC News'', May 14, 2005 (accessed June 11, 2005).



== References ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikinews|Category:Pope John Paul II}}
{{wikinews|Pope John Paul II dies}}
{{Commons|Johannes Paulus II}}
{{Wikisourcepar|Jan Paweł II}}
*The Pope Blog (2005). [http://thepopeblog.blogspot.com/2005/04/last-will-and-testament-of-pope-john.html The Last Will and Testament of Pope John Paul II (translated from Italian by V.I.S.)]. Retrieved [[7 April]], [[2005]]. ([[Wikisource:Testament Jana Pawła II|Testament in the original Polish]])
*''The Message of Fatima Tarcisio Bertone'' with introduction by [[Tarcisio Bertone]]. ''[http://www.vatican.va/phome_en.htm The Holy See]''
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4253415.stm "'Cured' Pope returns to Vatican"] ([[10 February]], [[2005]]). ''[[BBC News]]''.
*D'Emilio, Frances ([[31 March]], [[2005]]). [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&cid=514&u=/ap/20050401/ap_on_re_eu/pope_5 "Pope Has High Fever From Urinary Infection"]. ''The Associated Press'', published on ''Yahoo! News''.
*Domínguez, J. (no date). "[http://religion-cults.com/pope/communism.htm Pope John Paul II and Communism]". ''World Religions and 101 Cults''. Retrieved [[4 April]], [[2005]].
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4399189.stm "Frail Pope suffers heart failure"] ([[1 April]], [[2005]]). ''BBC News''.
* "[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1538173,00.html Stasi Files Implicate KGB in Pope Shooting]" ([[1 April]], [[2005]]). ''[[Deutsche Welle]]''.
*Address of Bishop Stanislaw Dziwisz On Sunday, [[13 May]], [[2001]] to the Catholic University of Lublin on the 20th anniversary of the assassination attempt, published by Catholic Culture: [http://www.catholicculture.org/docs/doc_view.cfm?recnum=3699 Dziwisz Address]
*Time Magazine, [[25 January]], [[1982]]: [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,925231,00.html The Pope vs. his doctors]
*The Pope Blog (2005). [http://thepopeblog.blogspot.com/2005/04/final-letter-of-pope-john-paul-ii-to.html Final Letter of Pope John Paul II to the Faithful (translated from Italian)]. Retrieved [[3 April]], [[2005]].
*Lorenzi, Rossella ([[22 March]], [[2005]]). [http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20050321/popeill.html "Pope's Condition Not Improving"]. ''Discovery News''.
*Navarro-Valls, Joaquin (2005). [http://www.vatican.va/gpII/bulletin/B0183-XX.01.pdf Il Santo Padre è deceduto questa sera alle ore 21.37 nel Suo appartamento privato]. Retrieved [[2 April]], [[2005]]. (''The Holy Father passed away at 9:37 this evening in his private apartment.'')
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4344923.stm "Pope returns to Vatican after op"] ([[13 March]] [[2005]]). ''BBC News''.
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7022618/ "Pope back at Vatican by Easter? It's possible"] ([[3 March]], [[2005]]). ''The Associated Press'', republished on ''MSNBC''.
*St Anthony Messenger Press (2005). [http://www.americancatholic.org/news/pope/popehospitalized/ Pope John Paul II's Final Days]. Retrieved [[2 April]], [[2005]].
*Interview with AM Programme, ''ABC Radio'' (Australia). [[3 April]], [[2005]]. Subject: Death of Pope John Paul II; helicopter crash in Indonesia.
* [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/europe/03/31/pope1/index.html "Vatican source: Pope given last rites"] ([[31 March]], [[2005]]). ''CNN''.
*Wojtyla, Karol (2005). [http://imdb.com/name/nm0937552/ Pope John Paul II]. [[Internet Movie Database]]. Retrieved [[2 April]], [[2005]].
*[http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/europe/04/01/pope1/index.html "World awaits word on pope's condition"] ([[2 April]], [[2005]]). ''CNN''.

==External links==
* [http://www.vatican.va/ Vatican: the Holy See]
* [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/index.htm The Holy See - The Holy Father - John Paul II]

===Directory categories===
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317837/us317918/us969562/us1142623/us53323/us266042/us10025672/us553539/us1005380/us893180/ LookSmart - Pope John Paul II]
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Christianity/Denominations/Catholicism/Popes/J/John_Paul_II/ Open Directory Project - John Paul II]
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/society_and_culture/religion_and_spirituality/faiths_and_practices/christianity/denominations_and_sects/catholic/people/popes/pope_john_paul_ii__1920_2005_/ Yahoo! - Pope John Paul II]

<center>
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Eugeniusz Baziak]] | title=[[Archbishop of Kraków]] | years=1963–1978 | after=[[Franciszek Macharski]] }}
{{succession box | before=[[Pope John Paul I | John Paul I]] | title=[[Pope]] | years=1978–2005 | after=[[Pope Benedict XVI | Benedict XVI]] }}
{{end box}}
</center>

{{John Paul II}}

[[Category:1920 births|John Paul II]]
[[Category:2005 deaths|John Paul II]]
[[Category:Karlspreis laureates|John Paul II]]
[[Category:Polyglots|John Paul II]]
[[Category:Polish bishops|Karol Wojtyla (John Paul II)]]
[[Category:Papal conclaves|John Paul II]]
[[Category:Pope John Paul II|*]]
[[Category:Popes|John Paul II]]
[[Category:Servants of God|John Paul II]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|John Paul II]]

[[ang:Pápa Iohannes Paulus II]]
[[ar:يوحنا بولس الثاني]]
[[ast:Xuan Pablo II]]
[[bg:Йоан Павел II]]
[[zh-min-nan:Jio̍k-bōng Pó-lo̍k II]]
[[be:Ян Павал Другі]]
[[ca:Joan Pau II]]
[[cs:Jan Pavel II.]]
[[cy:Pab Ioan Pawl II]]
[[da:Pave Johannes Paul 2.]]
[[de:Johannes Paul II.]]
[[et:Johannes Paulus II]]
[[el:Πάπας Ιωάννης Παύλος Β']]
[[es:Juan Pablo II]]
[[eo:Johano Paŭlo la 2-a]]
[[fr:Jean-Paul II]]
[[fy:Paus Johannes Paulus II]]
[[fur:Pape Zuan Pauli II]]
[[gl:Xoán Paulo II]]
[[ko:교황 요한 바오로 2세]]
[[hi:पोप जॉन पॉल]]
[[hr:Ivan Pavao II.]]
[[io:Iohannes Paulus 2ma]]
[[id:Paus Yohanes Paulus II]]
[[it:Papa Giovanni Paolo II]]
[[he:יוחנן פאולוס השני]]
[[ku:Papa John Paulê II]]
[[la:Ioannes Paulus II]]
[[lv:Pāvests Jānis Pāvils II]]
[[lt:Jonas Paulius II]]
[[lb:Jean-Paul II. (Poopst)]]
[[li:Johannes Paulus II]]
[[hu:II. János Pál]]
[[ms:Paus John Paul II]]
[[mo:Иоан Паул ал Ⅱ-ля]]
[[nl:Paus Johannes Paulus II]]
[[nds:Johannes Paul II.]]
[[ja:ヨハネ・パウロ2世 (ローマ教皇)]]
[[no:Johannes Paul II]]
[[nn:Pave Johannes Paul II]]
[[pl:Papież Jan Paweł II]]
[[pt:Papa João Paulo II]]
[[ro:Papa Ioan Paul al II-lea]]
[[ru:Иоанн Павел II (Папа Римский)]]
[[sco:Pope John Paul II]]
[[sq:Papa Gjon Pali II]]
[[scn:Giuvanni Paulu II]]
[[simple:Pope John Paul II]]
[[sk:Ján Pavol II.]]
[[sl:Papež Janez Pavel II.]]
[[sr:Папа Јован Павле II]]
[[fi:Johannes Paavali II]]
[[sv:Johannes Paulus II]]
[[tl:Papa Juan Pablo II]]
[[th:สมเด็จพระสันตะปาปาจอห์น ปอลที่ 2]]
[[vi:Gioan Phaolô II]]
[[uk:Іван Павло II]]
[[wa:Påpe Djihan-På II]]
[[zh:若望·保禄二世]]

First Crusade

2005-08-30T10:35:33Z

84.169.210.209: robot Adding: pt

{{Crusade}}

The '''First Crusade''' was launched in [[1095]] by [[Pope Urban II]] to regain control of the [[List of holy cities|sacred city]] of [[Jerusalem]] and the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Holy Land]] from [[Islam|Muslims]]. What started as a minor call for aid quickly turned into a wholesale [[migration]] and [[conquest]] of territory outside of [[Europe]]. Both [[knight]]s and peasants from many different nations of [[western Europe]], with little central leadership, travelled over land and by sea towards Jerusalem and captured the city in July [[1099]], establishing the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] and the other [[Crusader states]]. Although these gains lasted for fewer than two hundred years, the Crusade was a major turning point in the expansion of [[Western world|Western power]], and was the only crusade—in contrast to the many that followed—to achieve its stated goal.

==Background==
The origins of the [[crusade]]s in general, and of the First Crusade in particular, stem from events earlier in the [[Middle Ages]]. The breakdown of the [[Carolingian empire]] in previous centuries, combined with the relative stability of European borders after the [[Christianization]] of the [[Viking]]s and [[Magyars]], gave rise to an entire class of warriors who now had very little to do but fight among themselves and terrorize the peasant population.

Outlets for this violence took the form of campaigns against non-Christians. The [[Reconquista]] in [[Spain]] was one such outlet, which occupied Spanish knights and some mercenaries from elsewhere in Europe in the fight against the Islamic [[Moors]]. Elsewhere, the [[Normans]] were fighting for control of [[Sicily]], while [[Pisa]], [[Genoa]] and [[Aragon]] were all actively fighting Islamic strongholds in [[Majorca]] and [[Sardinia]], freeing the coasts of Italy and Spain from [[Muslim]] raids.

Because of these ongoing wars, the idea of a war against the Muslims was not implausible to the European nations. Muslims occupied the centre of the Christian universe, Jerusalem, which, along with the surrounding land, was considered one giant [[relic]], the place where [[Christ]] had lived and died. In [[1074]], [[Pope Gregory VII]] called for the ''milites Christi'' ("knights of Christ") to go to the aid of the [[Byzantine Empire]] in the east. The Byzantines had suffered a serious defeat at the hands of the [[Seljuk Turks]] at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] three years previously. This call, while largely ignored, combined with the large numbers of [[pilgrimage]]s to the [[Holy Land]] in the 11th century, focused a great deal of attention on the east. It was [[Pope Urban II]] who first disseminated to the general public the idea of a Crusade to capture the Holy Land with the famous words: "''Deus le volt!''" ("God wills it!")

===The East in the late eleventh century===
Western Europe's immediate neighbour to the southeast was the Byzantine Empire, who were fellow Christians but who had long followed a separate [[Eastern Orthodox|Orthodox]] rite. Under emperor [[Alexius I Comnenus]], the empire was largely confined to Europe and the western coast of [[Anatolia]], and faced enemies in the Normans in the west and the Seljuks in the east. Further east, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt were all under Muslim control, but were politically and, to some extent, culturally fragmented at the time of the First Crusade, which certainly contributed to the Crusade's success. Anatolia and Syria were controlled by the [[Sunni]] Seljuks, formerly in one large empire ("Great Seljuk") but by this point divided into many smaller states. [[Alp Arslan]] had defeated the Byzantine Empire at Manzikert in 1071 and incorporated much of Anatolia into Great Seljuk, but this empire was split apart by civil war after the death of [[Malik Shah I]] in [[1092]]. In the [[Sultanate of Rüm]] in Anatolia, Malik Shah was succeeded by [[Kilij Arslan I]] and in Syria by his brother [[Tutush I]], who died in 1095. Tutush's sons [[Radwan]] and [[Duqaq]] inherited [[Aleppo]] and [[Damascus]] respectively, further dividing Syria amongst emirs antagonistic towards each other, as well as towards [[Kerbogha]], the [[atabeg]] of [[Mosul]]. These states were on the whole more concerned with consolidating their own territories and gaining control of their neighbours, than with cooperating against the crusaders.

Elsewhere in nominal Seljuk territory were the [[Ortoqids]] in northeastern Syria and northern Mesopotamia. They controlled Jerusalem until 1098. In eastern Anatolia and northern Syria was a state founded by [[Danishmend]], a Seljuk mercenary; the crusaders did not have significant contact with either group until after the Crusade. The [[Hashshashin]] were also becoming important in Syrian affairs.

Egypt and much of Palestine were controlled by the [[Arab]] [[Shi'ite]] [[Fatimids]], whose empire was significantly smaller since the arrival of the Seljuks; Alexius I had advised the crusaders to work with the Fatimids against their common Seljuk enemies. The Fatimids, at this time ruled by [[caliph]] [[al-Musta'li]] (although all actual power was held by the [[vizier]] [[al-Afdal Shahanshah]]), had lost Jerusalem to the Seljuks in 1076, but recaptured it from the Ortoqids in 1098 while the crusaders were on the march. The Fatimids did not, at first, consider the crusaders a threat, assuming they had been sent by the Byzantines and that they would be content with recapturing Syria, leaving Palestine alone; they did not send an army against the crusaders until they were already at Jerusalem.

==Chronological sequence of the Crusade==
===The Council of Clermont===
''Main article: [[Council of Clermont]]''

In March of [[1095]] Alexius I sent envoys to the [[Council of Piacenza]] to ask Urban for aid against the Turks. The emperor's request met with a favourable response from Urban, who hoped to heal the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] of 40 years prior and re-unite the Church under [[papal supremacy]] as "chief bishop and prelate over the whole world" (as he referred to himself at Clermont, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2-5vers.html#Fulcher]), by helping the Eastern churches in their time of need.

At the [[Council of Clermont]], assembled in the heart of France in November 1095, Urban gave an impassioned sermon to a large audience of French nobles and clergy. He summoned the audience to wrest control of Jerusalem from the hands of the Muslims. France, he said, was overcrowded and the land of [[Canaan]] was overflowing with milk and honey. He spoke of the problems of noble violence and the solution was to turn swords to God's own service: "let robbers become knights." [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2-5vers.html#Fulcher] He spoke of rewards both on earth and in heaven, where remission of sins was offered to any who might die in the undertaking. The crowd was stirred to frenzied enthusiasm with cries of ''"Deus le volt!"'' ("God wills it!").

Urban's sermon is among the most important speeches in European history. There are many versions of the speech on record, but all were written after Jerusalem had been captured, and it is difficult to know what was actually said and what was recreated in the aftermath of the successful crusade. However, it is clear that the response to the speech was much larger than expected. For the rest of 1095 and into 1096, Urban spread the message throughout France, and urged his bishops and legates to preach in their own dioceses elsewhere in France, Germany, and Italy as well. Urban tried to forbid certain people (including women, monks, and the sick) from joining the crusade, but found this to be nearly impossible. In the end the majority of those who took up the call were not knights, but peasants who were not wealthy and had little in the way of fighting skills, but whose [[millennialism|millennial]] and apocalyptic yearnings found release from the daily oppression of their lives, in an outpouring of a new emotional and personal piety that was not easily harnessed by the ecclesiastical and lay aristocracy.

===The People's Crusade===
''Main article: [[People's Crusade]]''

Urban planned the departure of the crusade for August 15, 1096, but months before this a number of unexpected armies of peasants and lowly knights organized and set off for Jerusalem on their own. They were led by a charismatic monk and powerful orator named [[Peter the Hermit]] of [[Amiens]]. The response was beyond expectations: while Urban might have expected a few thousand knights, he ended up with a migration numbering up to 100,000 mostly unskilled fighters including women and children.

Lacking military discipline, and in what likely seemed to the participants a strange land (eastern Europe) with strange customs, those first Crusaders quickly landed in trouble, in Christian territory. The problem was one of supply as well as culture: the people needed food and supplies, and they expected host cities to give them the foods and supplies - or at least sell them at prices they felt reasonable. Unfortunately for the Crusaders, the locals did not always agree, and this quickly led to fighting and skirmishing. On their way down the [[Danube River|Danube]], Peter's followers looted [[Hungary|Hungarian]] territory and were attacked by the Hungarians, the [[Bulgaria]]ns, and even a Byzantine army near [[Nis]]. About a quarter of Peter's followers were killed, but they arrived largely intact at [[Constantinople]] in August. Constantinople was big for that time period in Europe, but so was Peter's "army", and cultural difference and a reluctance to supply such a large number of incoming people led to further tensions. In Constantinople , moreover, Peter's followers weren't the only band of crusaders - they joined with other crusading armies from France and Italy. Alexius, not knowing what else to do with such a large and unusual (and foreign) army, quickly ferried them across the [[Bosporus]].

After crossing into Asia Minor the Crusaders began to quarrel and the armies broke up into two separate camps. The Turks were experienced, savvy, and had local knowledge; most of the People's Crusade - a bunch of amateur warriors - was massacred upon entering Seljuk territory. Peter survived, however, and would later join the main Crusader army. Another army of [[Bohemia]]ns and [[Saxony|Saxons]] did not make it past Hungary before splitting up.

===The German Crusade===
''Main article: [[German Crusade, 1096]]''

[[Image:FirstCrusade.jpg|thumb|200px|Right|1250 French Bible illustration depicts Jews (identifiable by [[Yellow badge|Pileum cornutum]]) being massacred by Crusaders]]
The First Crusade ignited a long tradition of organized violence against [[Jew]]s in European culture. While [[anti-Semitism]] had existed in Europe for centuries, the First Crusade marks the first mass organized violence against Jewish communities. Setting off in the early summer of 1096, a German army of around 10,000 soldiers led by Gottschalk, Volkmar, and [[Emich of Leiningen]], proceeded northward through the [[Rhine river|Rhine]] valley, in the opposite direction to Jerusalem, began a series of [[pogrom]]s which some historians call "the first [[Holocaust]]" (1991, Jonathan Riley-Smith, pg. 50).

The preaching of the crusade inspired further anti-Semitism. According to some preachers, Jews and Muslims were enemies of Christ, and enemies were to be fought or converted to Christianity. The general public apparently assumed that "fought" meant "fought to the death", or "killed". The Christian conquest of Jerusalem and the establishment of a Christian emperor there would supposedly instigate the [[End Times]], during which the Jews were supposed to convert to Christianity. In parts of France and Germany, Jews were perceived as just as much of an enemy as Muslims: they were thought to be responsible for the [[crucifixion]], and they were more immediately visible than the far-away Muslims. Many people wondered why they should travel thousands of miles to fight non-believers when there were already non-believers closer to home.

The crusaders moved north through the Rhine valley into well-known Jewish communities such as [[Cologne]], and then southward. Jewish communities were given the option of converting to Christianity or be slaughtered. Most would not convert and as news of the mass killings spread many Jewish communities committed mass suicides in horrific scenes. Thousands of Jews were massacred, despite some attempts by local clergy and secular authorities to shelter them. The massacres were justified by the claim that Urban's speech at Clermont promised reward from God for killing non-Christians of any sort, not just Muslims. Although the papacy abhorred the purging of Muslim and Jewish inhabitants during this and future crusades, there were numerous attacks on Jews following every crusade movement.

[[Image:First.Crusade.Map.jpg|thumb|left|250px|"Route of the leaders of the first crusade." By William Shepherd, ''Historical Atlas'', 1911. '''Click Map to Expand View.''']]

===The Princes' Crusade===

The First Crusade did not end with the disasters of the People's Crusade and the massacres of Jewish people. The Princes' Crusade, also known as the Barons' Crusade, set out later in 1096 in a more orderly manner, led by various nobles with bands of knights from different regions of Europe. The three most significant of these were the [[papal legate]] [[Adhemar of Le Puy]]; [[Raymond IV of Toulouse]], who represented the knights of [[Provence]]; and [[Bohemund I of Antioch|Bohemund of Taranto]], representing the Normans of southern Italy with his nephew [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]]. Other contingents were [[Lorraine]]rs under the brothers [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], [[Eustace III|Eustace]] and [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin of Boulogne]]; [[Flemings]] under Count [[Robert II of Flanders]]; northern French [[Robert Curthose|Robert of Normandy]] (older brother of King [[William II of England]]), [[Stephen, Count of Blois]], and [[Hugh of Vermandois]] (younger brother of King [[Philip I of France]], who was forbidden from participating as he was under a ban of [[excommunication]]).

====The march to Jerusalem====

Leaving Europe around the appointed time in August, the various armies took different paths to Constantinople and gathered outside its city walls in December of 1096, two months after the annihilation of the People's Crusade by the Turks. Accompanying the knights were many poor men (''pauperes'') who could afford basic clothing and perhaps an old weapon. Peter the Hermit, who joined the Princes' Crusade at Constantinople, was considered responsible for their well-being, and they were able to organize themselves into small groups, perhaps akin to military companies, often led by an impoverished knight. One of the largest of these groups, consisting of the survivors of the People's Crusade, named itself the "[[Tafurs]]".

The Princes arrived with little food and expected provisions and help from Alexius I. Alexius was understandably suspicious after his experiences with the People's Crusade, and also because the knights included his old Norman enemy Bohemund. In return for food, Alexius I requested the leaders to swear [[fealty]] to him and promise to return to the Byzantine Empire any land recovered from the Turks. Without food or provisions they eventually had no choice but to take the oath, though not until all sides had agreed to various compromises, and only after warfare had almost broken out in the city. Only Raymond avoided swearing the oath, instead allying with Alexius against their common enemy Bohemund.

Alexius agreed to send out a Byzantine army to accompany the crusaders through Asia Minor. Their first objective was [[Nicaea]], an old Byzantine city, but now the capital of the Seljuk [[Sultanate of Rüm]] under [[Kilij Arslan I]]. The city was subjected to [[siege of Nicaea|a lengthy siege]], which was somewhat ineffectual as the crusaders could not blockade the lake on which the city was situated, and from which it could be provisioned. Alexius, fearing the crusaders would sack the city and destroy the wealth it would bring the Byzantine Empire, secretly negotiated the surrender of the city; the crusaders awoke on the morning of [[June 19]], [[1097]] to see Byzantine standards flying from the walls. To add insult to treachery, the crusaders were not allowed to enter the city except in small escorted bands, so deeply did Alexius distrust them. This caused a further rift between the Byzantines and the crusaders. The crusaders now began the journey to Jerusalem. One crusader wrote home, stating he believed it would take five weeks. In fact, the journey would take two years.

The crusaders, still accompanied by some Byzantine troops under [[Taticius]], marched on towards [[Dorylaeum]], where Bohemund was surrounded by Kilij Arslan. At the [[Battle of Dorylaeum]] on [[July 1]], Godfrey broke through the Turkish lines, but he too was surrounded, and the two crusader armies were saved only by the timely appearance of the troops led by the legate Adhemar, who defeated the Turks and looted their camp. Kilij Arslan withdrew and the crusaders marched almost unopposed through Asia Minor towards [[Antioch]], except for a battle in September in which they again defeated the Turks.

The march through Asia was unpleasant. It was the middle of summer and the crusaders had very little food and water; many men died, as did many horses. Christians, in Asia as in Europe, sometimes gave them gifts of food and money, but more often the crusaders looted and pillaged whenever the opportunity presented itself. Individual leaders continued to dispute the overall leadership, although none of them were powerful enough to take command; still, Raymond and Adhemar were generally recognized as the leaders. After passing through the [[Cilician Gates]], Baldwin of Boulogne set off on his own towards the [[Armenia]]n lands around the [[Euphrates]]. In [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] early in [[1098]], he was adopted as heir by King [[Thoros of Edessa|Thoros]], a Greek Orthodox ruler who was disliked by his Armenian subjects. Thoros was soon [[assassin]]ated and Baldwin became the new ruler, thus creating the [[County of Edessa]], the first of the crusader states.

====Siege of Antioch====
''Main article: [[Siege of Antioch]]''

The crusader army, meanwhile, marched on to [[Antioch]], which lay about half way between Constantinople and Jerusalem. They arrived in October, 1097 and set it to a siege which lasted almost 8 months. Antioch was so large that the crusaders did not have enough troops to fully surround it, and thus it was able to stay partially supplied. As the siege dragged on, it was clear that Bohemund wanted the city for himself. In May 1098 [[Kerbogha]] of [[Mosul]] approached Antioch to relieve the siege. Bohemund bribed the Armenian guard of the city to open the gates, and in June the crusaders entered the city and killed most of the inhabitants. However, only a few days later the Muslims arrived, laying siege to the former besiegers. At this point a minor monk by the name of [[Peter Bartholomew]] claimed to have discovered the [[Holy Lance]] in the city, and although some were skeptical, this was seen as a sign that they would be victorious. On [[June 28]] the crusaders defeated Kerbogha in a pitched battle outside the city, as Kerbogha was unable to organize the different factions in his army. According to legend, an army of Christian [[saint]]s came to the aid of the crusaders during the battle.

Bohemund argued that Alexius had deserted the crusade and thus invalidated all of their oaths to him. Bohemund asserted his claim to Antioch, but not everyone agreed, and the crusade was delayed for the rest of the year while the nobles argued amongst themselves. It is a common [[historiography|historiographical]] assumption that the Franks of northern France, the Provencals of southern France, and the Normans of southern Italy considered themselves separate "nations" and that each wanted to increase its status. This may have had something to do with the disputes, but personal ambition is more likely to blame. Meanwhile a plague (perhaps [[typhus]]) broke out, killing many, including the legate Adhemar. There were now even fewer horses than before, and Muslim peasants refused to give them food. The minor knights and soldiers became restless and threatened to continue to Jerusalem without their squabbling leaders. Finally, at the beginning of 1099 the march was renewed, leaving Bohemund behind as the first [[Principality of Antioch|Prince of Antioch]].

====Siege of Jerusalem====
[[Image:1099jerusalem.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Capture of Jerusalem, 1099]]

''Main article: [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|Siege of Jerusalem]]''

Proceeding down the coast of the [[Mediterranean]], the crusaders encountered little resistance, as local rulers preferred to make peace with them and give them supplies rather than fight. On [[May 7]] the crusaders reached Jerusalem, which had been recaptured from the Seljuks by the [[Fatimid|Fatimids]] of Egypt only the year before. Many Crusaders wept on seeing the city they had journeyed so long to reach.

As with Antioch the crusaders put the city to a lengthy siege, in which the crusaders themselves suffered many casualties, due to the lack of food and water around Jerusalem. Of the estimated 7,000 knights who took part in the Princes' Crusade, only about 1,500 remained. Faced with a seemingly impossible task, their morale was raised when a priest by the name of [[Peter Desiderius]] claimed to have had a divine vision instructing them to fast and then march in a barefoot procession around the city walls, after which the city would fall in nine days, following the [[Bible|Biblical]] example of [[Joshua]] at the siege of [[Jericho]]. On [[July 8]], 1099 the crusaders performed the procession as instructed by Desiderius. Meanwhile, [[siege engine]]s were constructed and seven days later on [[July 15]], the crusaders were able to end the siege by breaking down sections of the walls and entering the city.

Over the course of that afternoon, evening and next morning, the crusaders murdered almost every inhabitant of Jerusalem. Muslims, Jews, and even eastern Christians were all massacred. Although many Muslims sought shelter in [[Solomon's Temple]] (known today as [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]]), the crusaders spared few lives. According to the anonymous ''[[Gesta Francorum]]'', in what some believe to be an exaggerated account of the massacre which subsequently took place there, "''...the slaughter was so great that our men waded in blood up to their ankles...''"[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-jlem.html#gesta2]. Other accounts of blood flowing up to the bridles of horses are reminiscent of a passage from the [[Book of Revelation]] (14:20). Tancred claimed the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple quarter]] for himself and offered protection to some of the Muslims there, but he was unable to prevent their deaths at the hands of his fellow crusaders. According to Fulcher of Chartres: "''Indeed, if you had been there you would have seen our feet coloured to our ankles with the blood of the slain. But what more shall I relate? None of them were left alive; neither women nor children were spared.''"[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-jlem.html#fulcher1]

In the days following the massacre, Godfrey of Bouillon was made ''Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri'' (''Protector of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre|Holy Sepulchre]]''), refusing to be named king in the city where Christ had died. In the last action of the crusade, he led an army which defeated an invading Fatimid army at the [[Battle of Ascalon]]. Godfrey died in July, [[1100]], and was succeeded by his brother, [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin]] of Edessa, who took the title of "[[Kings of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]]".

===The Crusade of 1101 and the establishment of the kingdom===
''Main article: [[Crusade of 1101]]''

Having captured Jerusalem and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the crusading vow was now fulfilled. However, there were many who had gone home before reaching Jerusalem, and many who had never left Europe at all. When the success of the crusade became known, these people were mocked and scorned by their families and threatened with excommunication by the clergy. Many crusaders who had remained with the crusade all the way to Jerusalem also went home; according to Fulcher of Chartres there were only a few hundred knights left in the newfound kingdom in 1100. In [[1101]] another crusade set out, including Stephen of Blois and Hugh of Vermandois, both of whom had returned home before reaching Jerusalem. This crusade was mostly annihilated in Asia Minor by the Seljuks, but the survivors helped reinforce the kingdom when they arrived in Jerusalem. In the following years assistance was also provided by [[Italy|Italian]] merchants who established themselves in the Syrian ports, and from the religious and military orders of the [[Knights Templars]] and the [[Knights Hospitaller]] which were created during Baldwin I's reign.

==Analysis of the First Crusade==

===Aftermath===

The success of the First Crusade was unprecedented. Newly achieved stability in the west left a warrior aristocracy in search of new conquests and patrimony, and the new prosperity of major towns also meant that money was available to equip expeditions. The Italian naval towns, in particular Venice and Genoa, were interested in extending trade. The Papacy saw the Crusades as a way to assert Catholic influence as a unifying force, with war as a religious mission. This was a new attitude to religion: it brought religious discipline, previously applicable to monks, to soldiery—the new concept of a religious warrior and the chivalric ethos.

The First Crusade succeeded in establishing the "[[Crusader State|Crusader States]]" of [[County of Edessa|Edessa]], [[Principality of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], and [[County of Tripoli|Tripoli]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and [[Syria]] (as well as allies along the Crusaders' route, such as Cilician [[Armenia]]).

Back at home in western Europe, those who had survived to reach Jerusalem were treated as heroes. Robert of Flanders was nicknamed "Hierosolymitanus" thanks to his exploits. The life of Godfrey of Bouillon became legendary even within a few years of his death. In some cases the political situation at home was greatly affected by absence on the crusade: while Robert Curthose was away, Normandy had passed to his brother [[Henry I of England]], and their conflict resulted in the [[Battle of Tinchebrai]] in [[1106]].

Meanwhile the establishment of the crusader states in the east helped ease Seljuk pressure on the Byzantine Empire, which had regained some of its Anatolian territory with crusader help, and experienced a period of relative peace and prosperity in the 12th century. The effect on the Muslim dynasties of the east was gradual but important. The instability of the Muslim territories in the east had at first prevented a coherent defense against the aggressive and expansionist Latin states. Cooperation between them remained difficult for many decades, but from Egypt to Syria to Baghdad there were calls for the expulsion of the crusaders, culminating in the relative unity of the eastern Muslim world and the recapture of Jerusalem under [[Saladin]] later in the century.

===The pilgrims===

Although it is called the First Crusade, no one saw themselves as a "crusader." The term ''crusade'' is an early 12th century term that first appears in Latin over 100 years after the "first" crusade. Nor did the "crusaders" see themselves as the first, since they did not know there would be more. They saw themselves simply as pilgrims (''peregrinatores'') on a journey (''iter''), and were referred to as such in contemporary accounts.

===Popularity of the Crusade===

What started as a minor call for military aid turned in to a mass migration of peoples. The call to go on crusade was very popular. Two medieval roles, holy warrior and pilgrim, were merged into one. Like a holy warrior in a holy war, one would carry a weapon and fight for the Church with all its spiritual benefits, including the privilege of an [[indulgence]] or [[martyrdom]] if one died in battle. Like a pilgrim on a pilgrimage, one would have the right to hospitality and personal protection of self and property by the Church. The benefits of the indulgence were therefore twofold, both for fighting as a warrior of the Church and for travelling as a pilgrim. Thus, an indulgence would be granted regardless of whether one lived or died. In addition, there were [[feudal]] obligations, as many crusaders went because they were commanded by their lord and had no choice. There were also family obligations, with many people joining the crusade in order to support relatives who had also taken the crusading vow. All of these motivated different people for different reasons and contributed to the popularity of the crusade.

===Spiritual versus earthly rewards===

Older scholarship on this issue asserts that the bulk of the participants were likely younger sons of nobles who were dispossessed of land and influenced by the practise of [[primogeniture]], and poorer knights who were looking for a new life in the wealthy east.

However, current research suggests that although Urban promised crusaders spiritual as well as material benefit, the primary aim of most crusaders was spiritual rather than material gain. Moreover, recent research by [[Jonathan Riley-Smith]] instead shows that the crusade was an immensely expensive undertaking, affordable only to those knights who were already fairly wealthy, such as Hugh of Vermandois and Robert Curthose, who were relatives of the French and English royal families, and Raymond of Toulouse, who ruled much of southern France. Even then, these wealthy knights had to sell much of their land to relatives or the church before they could afford to participate. Their relatives, too, often had to impoverish themselves in order to raise money for the crusade. As Riley-Smith says, "''there really is no evidence to support the proposition that the crusade was an opportunity for spare sons to make themselves scarce in order to relieve their families of burdens.''" (''The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading'', pg. 47)

As an example of spiritual over earthly motivation, Godfrey of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin settled previous quarrels with the church by bequeathing their land to local clergy. The charters denoting these transactions were written by clergymen, not the knights themselves, and seem to idealize the knights as pious men seeking only to fulfill a vow of pilgrimage.

Further, poorer knights (''minores'', as opposed to the greater knights, the ''principes'') could go on crusade only if they expected to survive off of [[alms]]giving, or if they could enter the service of a wealthier knight, as was the case with Tancred, who agreed to serve his uncle Bohemund. Later crusades would be organized by wealthy kings and emperors, or would be supported by special crusade taxes.

==Selected sources and further reading==
===Primary sources===
*[[Albert of Aix]], ''Historia Hierosolymitana''
*[[Anna Comnena]], ''[[The Alexiad]]''
*[[Guibert of Nogent]], ''[[Dei gesta per Francos]]''
*[[Fulcher of Chartres]], ''Historia Hierosolymitana''
*''[[Gesta Francorum|Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hierosolimitanorum]]'' (anonymous)
*Peter Tudebode, ''Historia de Hierosolymitano itinere''
*[[Raymond of Aguilers]], ''Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem''
*[[Ibn al-Qalanisi]], ''The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades''

===Primary sources online===
*Selected letters by Crusaders:
**Anselme of Ribemont, [http://history.hanover.edu/texts/1stCrusade1.htm Anselme of Ribemont, Letter to Manasses II, Archbishop of Reims] (1098)
**Stephen, Count of Blois and Chartres, [http://history.hanover.edu/texts/1stcrusade2.html Letter to his wife, Adele] (1098)
**Daimbert, Godfrey and Raymond, [http://history.hanover.edu/texts/1stcru3.html Letter to the Pope], (1099)
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1k.html#The%20First%20Crusade Online primary sources] from the [[Internet Medieval Sourcebook]]
**Peter the Hermit and the Popular Crusade: [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/peterhermit.html Collected Accounts].
**The Crusaders Journey to Constantinople: [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-tocp.html Collected Accounts].
**The Crusaders at Constantinople: [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-atcp.html Collected Accounts].
**The Siege and Capture of Nicea: [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-nicea.html Collected Accounts].
**The Siege and Capture of Antioch: [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-antioch.html Collected Accounts].
**The Siege and Capture of Jerusalem: [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-jlem.html Collected Accounts].
*[[Fulcher of Chartres]]: [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/fulk2.html The Capture of Jerusalem], 1099.
*[[Ekkehard of Aura]]: [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/ekkehard-aur1.html On the Opening of the First Crusade].
*[[Albert of Aix]] and Ekkehard of Aura: [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1096jews.html Emico and the Slaughter of the Rhineland Jews].
*[[Soloman bar Samson]]: [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1096jews-mainz.html The Crusaders in Mainz], attacks on Rhineland Jewry.
*[[Ali ibn Tahir Al-Sulami]] (d. 1106): [http://www.arts.cornell.edu/prh3/447/texts/Sulami.html Kitab al-Jihad] (extracts). First known Islamic discussion of the concept of [[jihad]] written in the aftermath of the First Crusade.

===Secondary sources===
*Asbridge, Thomas. ''The First Crusade: A New History''. Oxford: 2004. ISBN 0195178238.
*Bartlett, Robert. ''The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Exchange, 950–1350''. Princeton: 1993.
*Chazan, Robert. ''In the Year 1096: The First Crusade and the Jews''. Jewish Publication Society, 1997. ISBN 0827605757.
*Hillenbrand, Carole. ''The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives''. Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0415929148.
*Holt, P.M. ''The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517''. Longman, 1989. ISBN 0582493021.
*Mayer, Hans Eberhard. ''The Crusades''. John Gillingham, translator. Oxford: 1988. ISBN 0198730977.
*Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading''. University of Pennsylvania: 1991. ISBN 0812213637.
*Riley-Smith, Jonathan, editor. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades''. Oxford: 2002. ISBN 0192803123.
*Runciman, Steven. ''The First Crusaders, 1095–1131'', Cambridge: 1998. ISBN 0521646030.
*Setton, Kenneth, editor. ''A History of the Crusades.'' Madison: 1969–1989 ([http://libtext.library.wisc.edu/HistCrusades/ available online]).

===Bibliographies===
*[http://www.deremilitari.org/biblio/firstcrusade.htm Bibliography of the First Crusade (1095-1099)] compiled by Alan V. Murray, Institute for Medieval Studies, [[University of Leeds]]. Extensive and up to date as of 2004.


[[Category:Crusades]]
[[Category:1090s]]



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Baruch Spinoza

2005-08-30T10:27:26Z

84.169.210.209: robot Modifying: tr

{| class="infobox biography" style="width: 21em; text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="2" style="font-size: larger;" | Benedictus de Spinoza
|-
| colspan="2" | [[Image:Spinoza.jpg|center|Benedictus de Spinoza]]
|-
! Born
| [[November 24]], [[1632]] [[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]
|-
! Died
| [[February 21]], [[1677]] [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]]
|}
'''Benedictus de Spinoza''' ([[November 24]], [[1632]] – [[February 21]], [[1677]]), was named ''Baruch Spinoza'' by his synagogue elders and known as ''Bento de Spinoza'' or ''Bento d'Espiñoza'' in his native [[Amsterdam]]. Along with [[René Descartes]] and [[Gottfried Leibniz]], he was one of the great [[rationalism|rationalists]] of [[17th-century philosophy]]. He is considered the founder of modern Biblical criticism. His [[magnum opus]] was the ''Ethics''.
==Life==
Born to a [[Sephardi]]c family among the [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Portuguese Jews]] of Amsterdam, he gained fame for his positions of [[pantheism]] and [[neutral monism]], as well as the fact that his ''Ethics'' was written in the form of postulates and definitions, as though it were a [[geometry]] treatise. In the summer of [[1656]], he was [[Excommunication|excommunicated]] from the Jewish community for his claims that [[God]] is the mechanism of nature and the universe, and the [[Bible]] is a metaphorical and allegorical work used to teach the nature of God, both of which were based on a form of Cartesianism (see [[René Descartes]]). Following his excommunication, he adopted the first name Benedictus (the [[Latin]] equivalent of his given name, either Baruch or Bento). The terms of his excommunication were quite severe; excerpts from the text may be found at [http://www.mnstate.edu/mouch/spinoza/excomm.html].

Since the public reactions to the anonymously published ''[[Theologico-Political Treatise]]'' turned unfavourable to his brand of [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/d/descarte.htm] Cartesianism, he abstained from publishing more of his works. The ''Ethics'' was published after his death, in the ''Opera postuma'' edited by his friends.

Some of the major figures whom Spinoza met include [[Henry Oldenburg]] and [[Leibniz]].

Known as both the "Greatest Jew" and the "Greatest Atheist", Spinoza contended that "God" and "Nature" were two names for the same reality, namely the single [[substance]] (meaning "to stand beneath" rather than "matter") that underlies the universe and of which all lesser "entities" are actually modes or modifications. He contended that "Deus sive Natura" ("God or Nature") was a being of infinitely many attributes, of which extension and thought were two. His account of the nature of reality, then, seems to treat the [[physics|physical]] and [[mind|mental]] worlds as two different, parallel "subworlds" that neither overlap nor interact. This formulation is a historically significant [[panpsychism|panpsychist]] solution to the [[mind-body problem]] known as [[neutral monism]].

Spinoza was a thoroughgoing [[determinism|determinist]] who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of [[necessity]]. For him, even human behaviour is fully determined, freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand ''why'' we act as we do. So freedom is not the possibility to say "no" to what happens to us but the possibility to say "yes" and fully understand why things should necessarily happen that way.

Spinoza's philosophy has much in common with [[Stoicism]], but he differed sharply from the Stoics in one important respect: he utterly rejected their contention that [[reason]] could defeat [[emotion]]. On the contrary, he contended, an emotion can be displaced or overcome only by a stronger emotion. For him, the crucial distinction was between active and passive emotions, the former being those that are rationally understood and the latter those that are not. He also held that knowledge of true causes of passive emotion can transform it to an active emotion, thus anticipating one of the key ideas of [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]].

==Modern relevance==
[[Albert Einstein]] claimed that Spinoza was the philosopher who had most influenced his worldview ([[weltanschauung]]). [[Arne Næss]], the father of the [[deep ecology]] movement, acknowledged drawing much inspiration from the works of Spinoza.

In the late twentieth century, there was a great increase in [[philosophical]] interest in Spinoza in [[Europe]], particularly from a [[left-wing]] or [[Marxist]] perspective. Notable philosophers [[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Antonio Negri]] and [[Étienne Balibar]] have each written books on Spinoza. In the English speaking world, a major philosopher to write a book on Spinoza was [[Stuart Hampshire]], though H H Joachim's work is equally valuable.

Spinoza's portrait featured prominently on the older series of the 1000 [[Guilder]] [[banknote]], which was [[legal tender]] in the [[Netherlands]] until the [[euro]] was introduced in [[2002]].

The highest and most prestigious scientific prize of the Netherlands is named the ''Spinozapremie'' (Spinoza reward).

==Bibliography==
===By Spinoza===
*Short Treatise on God, Man and His Well-Being
*On the Improvement of the Understanding ([[1662]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/1016])
*Principles of Cartesian Philosophy ([[1663]])
*''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus'' (A Theologico-Political Treatise) ([[1670]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/989 Part 1], [http://gutenberg.net/etext/990 Part 2], [http://gutenberg.net/etext/991 Part 3], [http://gutenberg.net/etext/992 Part 4])
*''Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata'' (The Ethics) ([[1677]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/3800])
*Hebrew Grammar ([[1677]])
===About Spinoza===
*Steven Nadler, ''Spinoza: A Life'', Cambridge U. Press, 1999, ISBN 0-521-55210-9

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource}}
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]

==External links==
*[http://rwmeijer.ws/spinoza/ The Ethics] - Split-screen Latin/English or Latin/French
*[http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/ The Ethics]A READABLE version with all the content still there.
*[http://cf.uba.uva.nl/en/digilib/philosophy/spinheng.html Vereniging Het Spinozahuis]
*[http://www.spinoza.net The Spinoza Net]
*[http://bdsweb.tripod.com Spinoza and Spinozism] - BDSweb
*[http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=1600-1699&author=Spinoza&text=A%20Theologico-Political%20Treatise A Theologico-Political Treatise ] -English Translation
*[http://hyperspinoza.caute.lautre.net HyperSpinoza]
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/spinoza.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Spinoza]
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/ Spinoza]
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza-psychological/ Spinoza's Psychological Theory]

[[Category:1632 births|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:1677 deaths|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Dutch philosophers|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Early modern philosophers|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Rationalists|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Secular Jewish philosophers|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Spinoza, Baruch]]

[[ar:سبينوزا]]
[[bg:Барух Спиноза]]
[[bn:বারুক স্পিনোজা]]
[[ca:Baruch Spinoza]]
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[[de:Baruch Spinoza]]
[[es:Baruch Spinoza]]
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[[fr:Baruch Spinoza]]
[[gl:Baruch de Spinoza]]
[[ko:스피노자]]
[[hr:Baruch de Spinoza]]
[[it:Baruch Spinoza]]
[[he:ברוך שפינוזה]]
[[nl:Baruch de Spinoza]]
[[ja:バールーフ・デ・スピノザ]]
[[no:Baruch de Spinoza]]
[[nn:Baruch Spinoza]]
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[[pt:Baruch de Espinoza]]
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[[zh:巴鲁赫·斯宾诺莎]]

Free market

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{{liberalism}}
A '''free market''' is an idealized [[market]] system, where all economic decisions and actions by individuals regarding transfer of money, goods, and services are ''voluntary,'' and are therefore devoid of [[coercion]] and [[theft]] (some definitions of "coercion" are inclusive of "theft"). Colloquially and loosely, a '''free market economy''' is an economy where the market is ''relatively'' free, as in an economy overseen by a government that practices a ''[[laissez-faire]],'' rather than either a ''[[mixed economy|mixed]]'' or ''[[statist]]'' economic policy. Within economics the more usual term is simply "the market", or "the market mechanism", to mean the allocation of production through supply and demand.

Internationally, free markets are advocated by proponents of [[economic liberalism]]. In the [[United States]], support for free market economic structures is a key tenet of U.S. [[conservatism]] and [[libertarianism]].

==Theory==

If a government is present, its use of force in the marketplace is ideally limited to protecting the market participants from coercion, including protection of property rights and enforcement of contracts. The essence of a free market can be understood as a [[game theory|game]] in which the players compete according to a common set of rules that prevent coercion (including theft); the enforcement of these rules may be carried out by a neutral referee (government). Players in this game may have very different skills, knowledge, and wealth, which tends to conflict with [[social norm]]s of [[fairness]], so a free market may not accord with what some would consider a ''fair'' market. This conception of a market as a pure [[economic system]] based on [[freedom]] from coercion among market participants as well as from government is in fundamental contrast to a [[command economy]].

The law of [[supply and demand]] predominates in the idealized free market, influencing prices toward an [[equilibrium]] that balances the demands for the products against the supplies. At these equilibrium prices, the market distributes the products to the purchasers according to each purchaser's use (or utility) for each product and within the relative limits of each buyer's [[purchasing power]]. The necessary components for the functioning of an idealized free market include the complete absence of artificial price pressures from taxes, subsidies, [[tariff]]s, or government regulation (other than protection from coercion and theft), and no [[government-granted monopoly|government-granted monopolies]] (usually classified as [[coercive monopoly]] by free market advocates) like the [[United States Post Office]], [[Amtrak]], arguably [[patent]]s, etc.

The distribution of purchasing power in an economy depends to a large extent on the [[labor market|labor]] and [[financial market]]s, but also on other factors such as family relationships, [[inheritance]], [[gift]]s and so on. Many theories describing the operation of a free market focus primarily on the markets for consumer products, and their description of the labor market or financial markets tends to be more complicated and controversial.

The free market can be seen as facilitating a form of decision-making through what is known as [[dollar voting]], where a purchase of a product is tantamount to casting a vote for a producer to continue producing that product.

==Practice==
While the free-market is an idealized abstraction, it is useful in understanding real markets whether artificially created and regulated by governments or non-governmental agencies, or the natural social phenomena such as the [[black market]] and the [[underground economy]], which can be remarkably robust in persisting despite attempts to suppress these markets. Taxes and government regulation bias the equilibrium points of every large government-sanctioned economy in existence today, so that these economies are only ''relatively'' free or unfree. [[monopoly|Monopolistic practices]], [[cartel]]s, [[externality|externalities]] (like [[pollution]]), and asymmetrically distributed information are often cited as potential problems that may exist in a free-market economy. Knowledge bias can lead to what many may see as evils of such an economy, like [[insider trading]], [[price fixing]], [[price gouging]], [[adverse selection]], [[moral hazard]], and the [[principal-agent problem]] which they claim justify government intervention to remedy. Some believe that the notion of a free market is inherently unachievable because they hold that [[government]]s create [[property]] rights and are fundamentally involved in markets through the enforcement of such rights. Others argue that the concept of property comes from [[natural law]] and therefore it is incorrect to see governments as creating markets.

==Definition==
The [[Heritage Foundation]], a [[neoliberal]] [[think tank]], tried to identify the key factors which allow to measure the degree of freedom of economy of a particular country. In 1986 they introduced [[Index of Economic Freedom]], which is based on some fifty variables. The variables are divided into the following major groups:
*Trade policy,
*Fiscal burden of government,
*Government intervention in the economy,
*Monetary policy,
*Capital flows and foreign investment,
*Banking and finance,
*Wages and prices,
*Property rights,
*Regulation, and
*Informal market activity.
Each group is assigned a numerical value between 1 and 5; IEF is the arithmetical mean of the values, rounded to the hundredth.

Initially, countries which were traditionally considered capitalistic received high ratings, but the method improved over time. Today one can see a vivid correlation between EOF value and country's [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. [[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/downloads/economicFreedomandPerCapita.gif]]

==Advocacy==
The advocacy of relatively free markets is a mainstay of ideologies such as [[minarchism]], [[libertarianism]], and [[19th century]] [[liberalism]], as well as the [[Western world|Western]] understanding of [[capitalism]]. It is anathema to [[communism]] and some variants of [[socialism]], although [[New liberalism|modern liberalism]] and other variants of [[socialism]] seek only to mitigate what they see as the problems of an unrestrained free market. Most who say they favor a "free market" are speaking in a relative, rather than an absolute, sense --meaning they wish that [[coercion]] be kept to the minimum that is necessary to maximize economic freedom (such necessary coercion would be taxation, for example) and to maximize market efficiency by lowering trade barriers, making the tax system neutral in its influence on important decisions such as how to raise capital, e.g., eliminating the [[dividend tax|double tax]] on dividends so that equity financing is not at a disadvantage vis'a'vis debt financing. However, there are some such as [[anarcho-capitalists]] who would not even allow for taxation and governments, instead preferring protectors of economic freedom in the form of private contractors.

While some advocate free markets out of an intrinsic moral respect for freedom, others base their support on the belief that decentralized planning by a multitude of individuals making free economic decisions produces better results in regard to a more organized, efficient, and productive economy than does a centrally-planned economy where individual decisions are overridden by a central agency. This process accords with the theory of ''[[self-organization]]'' that says the internal organization of a system can increase automatically without being guided or managed by an outside source.

Modern trends that promote international free-market systems are often described as [[neoliberalism]].

==See also==
*[[Adam Smith]]
*[[Anarcho-capitalism]]
*[[Austrian School]]
*[[Capitalism]]
*[[Free Information Infrastructure]]
*[[Free-market anarchism]]
*[[Friedrich Hayek]]
*[[Game theory]]
*[[Heritage Foundation]]
*[[LIEO]]
*[[Libertarianism]]
*[[Milton Friedman]]
*[[Minarchism]]
*[[Ludwig von Mises]]
*[[Negative liberty]]
*[[Neoliberalism]]
*[[Neoconservatism in the United States]]
*[[Night watchman state]]
*[[Nash equilibrium]]
*[[School of Salamanca]]
*[[Self-organization]]
*[[Underground economy]]
*[[Voluntaryism]]
*[[Open Source Initiative]]
*[[Non-profit organization]]

===Contrast===
*[[Communism]]
*[[Libertarian socialism]]
*[[Market abolitionism]]
*[[Market socialism]]
*[[Mixed economy]]
*[[Participatory economy]]
*[[Planned economy]]
*[[Socialism]]
*[[Statism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.freemarketdoctors.blogspot.com Free Market Doctors] Utilizing the ideals of a free-market economy to revitalize the healthcare industry
*[http://globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=145 In Defense of the Free Market]
*[http://www.mises.org Mises.org] is the official website of the [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]] for [[Austrian School|Austrian economics]] and [[classical liberalism]]
*[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ IEF]

[[Category:Markets]]



[[de:Freier Markt]]
[[id:Pasar bebas]]
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[[nl:Vrije markt]]
[[pl:Wolny rynek]]
[[pt:Economia de mercado]]
[[sk:Voľný trh]]
[[sv:Fri marknad]]
[[th:ตลาดเสรี]]

Organelle

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[[image:biological_cell.png|thumb|350px|Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular components. [[Organelle]]s: (1) [[nucleolus]] (2) [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] (3) [[ribosome]] (4) [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]],(5) rough [[endoplasmic reticulum]] (ER), (6) [[Golgi apparatus]], (7) [[Cytoskeleton]], (8) smooth ER, (9) [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]], (10) [[vacuole]], (11) [[cytoplasm]], (12) [[lysosome]], (13) [[centriole]]s]]
In [[cell biology]], an '''organelle''' is one of several structures with specialized functions, suspended in the cytoplasm of a [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[cell (biology)|cell]].
Organelles were historically identified through the use of some form of [[microscopy]] and were also identified through the use of [[cell fractionation]].

A few large organelles probably originated from [[endosymbiont]] [[bacterium|bacteria]]:
* [[chloroplast]]
* [[mitochondrion]]

Other organelles include:
* [[acrosome]]
* [[centriole]]
* [[endoplasmic reticulum]]
* [[golgi apparatus]]
* [[lysosome]]
* [[myofibril]]
* [[plastid|plastids]]
* [[cell nucleus|nucleus]]
* [[peroxisome]]
* [[ribosome]]
* [[vacuole]]
* [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]
* [[melanosome]]
* [[cilium]]/[[flagellum]]

Other related structures:
* [[cytosol]]
* [[endomembrane system]]
* [[nucleosome]]
* [[microtubule]]
* [[cell membrane]]

==See also==
*[[Cell (biology)|Cell]]
*[[Endosymbiotic theory]].

{{organelles}}

[[Category:Cell biology]]

[[cs:Organela]]
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[[ja:細胞小器官]]
[[pl:Organellum]]
[[pt:Organelo]]
[[ru:Органоид]]
[[sk:Organela]]

Tea

2005-08-29T21:19:51Z

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[[Image:Tea.jpg|thumb|100px|A hot cup of tea]]
[[Image:Tea bush.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A tea bush. Tea drinking in China dates back to before the [[Tang Dynasty]] ([[618]]–[[907]]).]]
[[Image:World tea production, 2004.png|frame|Global tea production by country. Source: http://www.fao.org]]
{{alternateuses}}

'''Tea''' is a [[caffeine]]-containing [[beverage]], an [[infusion]] made by steeping the dried [[Leaf|leaves]] or [[bud]]s of the [[shrub]] ''[[Camellia sinensis]]'' in hot water for a few minutes. In addition, tea may also include other [[herb]]s, [[spice]]s, or [[fruit]] flavours.

The expression "herbal tea" or simply "tea" is frequently used for any fruit or herb infusion, even if it does not contain ''Camellia sinensis'' (such as "[[rosehip]] tea" or "[[chamomile]] tea"). The proper term for these beverages is [[tisane]], although this is very rarely used. This article is concerned with the "true" teas; that is, those made of ''Camellia sinensis''.

Approximately 3 million tonnes of tea are produced on a global scale annually.

== Cultivation and classification ==
Tea is grown primarily in [[China]], [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], [[Iran]], [[Republic of Korea]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Taiwan]], [[Japan]], [[Indonesia]], [[Nepal]], [[Australia]], [[Argentina]], and [[Kenya]]. (Note that in the tea trade, Sri Lanka and Taiwan are still referred to by their former names of ''[[Ceylon]]'' and ''Formosa'', respectively.)

===Divisions of tea by processing technique===
[[image:tea_plant_drawing.png|right|thumb|''Camellia sinensis'']]

The four main types of tea are distinguished by their processing. ''Camellia sinensis'' is an [[evergreen]] [[shrub]] whose leaves, if not quickly dried after picking, soon begin to wilt and [[Oxidation|oxidize]]. This process resembles the [[malt]]ing of barley, in that [[starch]] is converted into [[sugar]]s; the leaves turn progressively darker, as [[chlorophyll]] breaks down and [[tannin]]s are released. The next step in processing is to stop the oxidation process at a predetermined stage by removing the water from the leaves via heating.

The term ''[[fermentation]]'' was used (probably by [[wine]] fanciers) to describe this process, and has stuck, even though no true fermentation happens (i.e. the process is not driven by [[Microorganism|microbes]] and produces no [[ethanol]]). Without careful moisture and temperature control, [[fungi]] will grow on tea. The fungi will cause fermentation which will contaminate the tea with toxic and [[carcinogen]]ic substances. In fact, when real fermentation happens, the tea must be discarded.

Tea is traditionally classified into five main groups, based on the degree or period of fermentation (oxidation) the leaves have undergone:
; '''[[White tea]]'''(白茶): Young leaves (new growth buds) that have undergone no oxidation; the buds may be shielded from sunlight to prevent formation of chlorophyll. White tea is produced in lesser quantities than most of the other styles, and can be correspondingly more expensive than tea from the same plant processed by other methods. It is also less well-known in the western countries, though this is changing with the introduction of white tea in bagged form.
; '''[[Green tea]]''' (绿茶): The oxidation process is stopped after a minimal amount of oxidation by application of heat; either with [[steam]], a traditional Japanese method; or by dry cooking in hot pans, the traditional Chinese method. Tea leaves may be left to dry as separate leaves or rolled into small pellets to make ''gun-powder'' tea. The latter process is time consuming and is typically done only with pekoes of higher quality. The tea is processed within one to two days of harvesting.
; '''[[Oolong]] (烏龍茶)''' : Oxidation is stopped somewhere between the standards for green tea and black tea. The oxidation process will take two to three days.
; '''[[Black tea]]/[[Red tea]]''' (紅茶): The tea leaves are allowed to completely oxidize. Black tea is the most common form of tea in the western countries. The literal translation of the Chinese word is ''red tea'', which may be used by some tea-lovers. However, ''red tea'' may also refer to [[rooibos]], an increasingly popular [[South Africa| South African]] [[tisane]]. The oxidation process will take around two weeks and up to one month. Black tea is further classified as either ''orthodox'' or ''CTC'' (''[[Crush, Tear, Curl]]'', a production method developed about [[1932]]). Unblended black teas are also identified by the estate they come from, their year and the flush (first, second or autumn). Orthodox and CTC teas are further graded according to the post-production leaf quality by the [[Orange Pekoe]] system.
; '''''[[Pu-erh]]'' (普洱茶/黑茶)''' : Two forms of Pu-erh are available: green (青饼) and mature (熟饼). Mature Pu-erh is made from green Pu-erh tea leaf that has been allow to go through a second stage of oxidation. This is done through a process similar to [[compost | composting]], except that both the moisture and temperature of the tea are carefully monitored. The tea is then usually compressed into various shapes including bricks, discs or spinning tops. While most teas are consumed within a year of production, pu-erh can be aged for many years to improve its flavour. Outside of [[Yunnan]] province, [[China]] where the tea is produced, the term Pu-erh is used directly to refer to the mature form of the tea. The tea is often steeped for long periods of time or even boiled ([[Tibet]]ans boil it overnight). Pu-erh is considered a [[Medicine|medicinal]] tea in [[China]]. Teas that undergo the composting such as mature Pu-erh are sometimes collectively referred to as ''Black tea (黑茶)'' in Chinese. This is not to be confused with the western term ''Black tea'', which is known in Chinese as ''Red Tea (紅茶)''.
; '''[[Yellow tea]]''' (黃茶): Either used as a name of high-quality tea served at the [[Imperial court]], or of special tea processed similarly to green tea, but with a slower drying phase.

====Variations====
There are several tea preparations available which do not fit into the usual nomenclature:
; '''[[Chong Cha]] (虫茶)''' : Literally ''worm tea'', this brew is made from the seeds of tea shrubs instead of the leaves. It is used in Chinese medicine for coping with [[summer]] heat as well as for treating [[influenza]] [[symptom]]s.
; '''[[Kukicha]] (茎茶)''' : Also called ''[[winter]] tea'', kukicha is made from [[twig]]s and old leaves [[pruning|pruned]] from the tea plant during its dormant season and [[roasting|dry-roasted]] over a fire. Popular as a health food in [[Japan]] and in [[macrobiotic diet]]s.

====Tea gallery====
<gallery>
Image:Twinings Gunpowder tea in tin.jpg|Tin of Twinings Gunpowder
Image:Twinings Gunpowder tea in pile.jpg|Pile of Twinings Gunpowder
Image:Gunpowder tea in pile.jpg|Pile of typical Gunpowder tea
Image:Lipton Earl Grey in pile.jpg|Pile of Lipton Finest Earl Grey
</gallery>

== Blends and additives ==
[[Image:Prokudin-Gorskii-13.jpg|thumb|right|Tea weighing station north of [[Batumi]], before [[1915]]]]

Almost all teas in tea-bags and most other teas are blends. Though recently with improvements in the dry freeze technique and the improved infusion method, tea powder and condensed tea essence that only needs hot or cold water to make a cup of tea are sold. Blending may occur at the level of tea-planting area (e.g., [[Assam]]), or teas from many areas may be blended. The aim of blending is a stable taste over different years, and a better price. More expensive, more tasty tea may cover the inferior taste of cheaper tea.

There are various teas which have additives and/or different processing than "pure" varieties. Tea is able to easily receive any aroma, which may cause problems in processing, transportation or storage of tea, but can be also advantageously used to prepare scented teas.

Variants include:
; '''Breakfast tea''' : Generally a blend of different black teas that are robust and full-bodied, and go well with milk. Some flavours are ''English'', ''Irish'' and ''Scottish''. '''Afternoon''' blends are lighter. Both blends are popular in the British Isles.
; '''Jasmine tea''' : Spread with [[jasmine]] flowers while oxidizing, and occasionally some are left in the tea as a decoration. Many other flowers, including [[rose]]s and other fragrant blooms, are used as flavouring in tea in China.
; '''[[Earl Grey tea]]''' : Usually a mix of black teas, with essence of the [[citrus]] fruit [[bergamot orange|bergamot]] added.
; '''Spiced teas''' : Include the Indian [[chai]], flavoured with sweet spices such as [[ginger]], [[cardamom]], [[cinnamon]], [[black pepper]], [[clove]], Indian [[bay leaf]] and sometimes [[nutmeg]] are common in southern Asia and the Middle East.
; '''[[Touareg Tea]]''' : Strong green tea with Nana [[mint]], prepared in desert areas of North Africa and the Middle East.
; '''[[Jagertee]]''' : A tea with [[rum]] added.
; '''Gen Mai Cha''' ([[genmaicha]]): A Japanese tea with roasted [[rice]] added, and favoured (as are many teas) by adherents of a [[macrobiotic]] diet.
; '''[[Lapsang souchong]] (正山小种 or 烟小种) ''': originally from [[Mount Wuyi]] in the [[Fujian]] province of China. Lapsang souchong is a black tea which is dried over burning [[pine]], thereby developing a strong smoky flavour.

== History ==
===Tea creation myths===
*In one story, [[Gautama Buddha]] is said to have discovered tea, when a falling tea leaf happened to land in his cup one day as he sat meditating in a garden.
*Another story has it that [[Bodhidharma]] cut his eyelids off so that he wouldn't fall asleep while meditating, and the first tea plants sprang up from the ground where he flung the severed eyelids.
*In yet another story [[Shennong]] (the legendary Emperor of China and founder of Chinese medicine) was on a journey, when a few leaves from a wild tea tree fell into his hot water. He tasted the mixture out of curiosity and liked its taste and its restorative properties. He then found that tea leaves eliminated numerous other [[poison]]s from the body. Because of this, tea is considered one of the earliest [[Chinese medicine]]s.

===Origin and dissemination of tea===
[[ Image:Malaysia-tea_plantation.jpg|thumb|right|Tea plantation in [[Malaysia]]. ]]

The tea plant has been traced to Southeast Asia and possibly China; historically the origin of tea as a medicinal [[herb]] useful for staying awake is unclear. Most historians would cite that China was the birthplace of tea with hints of tea use in its history to at least 1000 B.C. The use of tea as a beverage drunk for pleasure on social occasions dates from the [[Tang Dynasty]] or earlier. For its later uses, see [[#Tea culture|below]]. The [[Tang dynasty]] writer [[Lu Yu]] 陆羽's '' Cha Jing'' 茶经 is an early work on the subject.

As the Venetian explorer [[Marco Polo]] failed to mention tea in his travel records, it is conjectured that the first [[Europe]]ans to encounter tea were either Jesuits living in Beijing who attended the court of the last Ming Emperors; or [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorers visiting [[Japan]] in [[1560]]. Russia discovered tea in 1618 after a Ming Emperor of China offered it as a gift to [[Czar Alexis]].

Soon imported tea was introduced to [[Europe]], where it quickly became popular among the wealthy in [[France]] and the [[Netherlands]]. [[England|English]] use of tea dates from about [[1650]] and is attributed to [[Catherine of Braganza]] ([[Portugal|Portuguese]] princess, and [[queen consort]] of [[Charles II of England]]).

''See also: [[History of tea in China]]''

===Industrial revolution===
Tea may have played a part in the beginnings of the [[Industrial Revolution]]. This revolution occurred in the middle to late [[18th century]] in the area around [[Manchester]] and [[Liverpool]] in [[England]], when the population exceeded a critical number. Usually, the lack of drinking water and insanitary conditions caused by very large cities produced a natural limit to the population for any conurbation. The antiseptic properties of large-scale tea drinking may have brought the sewerage conditions within controllable limits. Together with access to channelled water, this allowed the area to exceed previous population limits, and provide the necessary interworking between trades that sparked the revolution.

===Exploitation, supply and demand===
The high demand for tea in Britain caused a huge [[trade deficit]] with China. The British set up tea [[plantation]]s in [[colonialism|colonial]] India to provide their own supply. They also tried to balance the trade deficit by selling [[opium]] to the Chinese, which later led to the [[First Opium War]] in 1838–1842.

The [[Boston Tea Party]] was an act of uprising in which [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] residents destroyed crates of British tea in [[1773]], in protest against British tea and taxation policy. Prior to the Boston Tea Party, residents of Britain's North American [[13 colonies]] drank far more tea than [[coffee]]. In Britain, [[coffee]] was more popular. After the protests against the various taxes, Americans stopped drinking tea as an act of patriotism. Similarly, Britons slowed their consumption of coffee.

These days, contradicting tea economies do exist. Tea farmers in the Republic of Korea, Japan, Taiwan and China often enjoy better incomes compared to farmers in black tea producing countries.

==The word ''tea''==
The [[Chinese character]] for tea is 茶, but it is pronounced very differently in the various [[Chinese dialect]]s. Two pronunciations have made their way into other languages around the world. One is 'te' (POJ: tê) which comes from the [[Minnan]] [[dialect]] spoken around the [[seaport|port]] of [[Xiamen]] (Amoy). The other is 'cha', used by the [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] dialect spoken around the ports of [[Guangzhou]] (Canton) and [[Hong Kong]], as well as in the [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] dialect of northern China. Yet another different pronunciation is 'zoo', used in the [[Wu (linguistics)|Wu]] dialect spoken around [[Shanghai]].

Languages that have ''Te'' derivatives include [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ('thee'), [[English language|English]] ('tea'), [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Estonian language|Estonian]] ('Tee'), [[French language|French]] ('Thé'), [[German language|German]] ('Tee'), [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ('תה', /te/ or /tei/), [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Italian language|Italian]] ('tè'), [[Latvian language|Latvian]], [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Polish language|Polish]] (herbata from [[Latin]] herba the), [[Singhalese language|Singhalese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (té), [[Swedish language|Swedish]] ('te'), [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ('thè'), [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], and scientific [[Latin]].

Those that use ''Cha'' or "Chai" derivatives include [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]],[[Bengali_Language|Bangla]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ('茶', 'ちゃ', 'cha'), [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]] ('chia'), [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Russian language|Russian]] ('чай', 'chai'), [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]] [[Slovenian language|Slovene]] ('čaj'), [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Thai language|Thai]], [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] ('chè' or 'trà').

It is tempting to correlate these names with the route that was used to deliver tea to these cultures, but this correspondence does not follow. For example, most British trade went through Canton, which uses ''cha.''

In [[Ireland]], or at least in [[Dublin]], the term "cha" is sometimes used for tea, with "tay" as a common pronunciation throughout the land, and "char" was a common [[slang]] term for tea throughout [[British Empire]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] military forces in the [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]], crossing over into civilian usage. In [[North America]], the word "chai" is used to refer almost exclusively to the [[India]]n "[[chai]]" (or "masala chai") beverage.

Perhaps the only place in which a word unrelated to tea is used to describe the beverage is South America (particularly Andean countries), because a similar stimulant beverage, ''[[hierba mate]]'', was consumed there long before tea arrived. In various places of South America, any tea is referred to as ''mate''.

== Tea culture ==
Tea is often drunk at social events, especially early in the day to heighten alertness; it contains [[theophylline]] and bound [[caffeine]] (sometimes called "theine"),
although there are also [[decaffeinated]] teas.

There are [[tea ceremony|tea ceremonies]] which have arisen in different cultures, Japan's complex, formal and serene one being the most known. Other examples are the [[Korean tea ceremony]] or some traditional ways of brewing tea in [[Chinese tea culture]].

=== China ===
[[Image:Prokudin-Gorskii-45.jpg|thumb|right|Chinese foreman at the Chakva Tea Farm, north of [[Batumi]], before [[1915]]]]

Due to the importance of tea in chinese society and culture, tea houses can be found in most chinese neighborhoods and business districts. Chinese-style tea houses offer dozens of varieties of hot and cold tea concoctions. They also serve a variety of tea-friendly and/or tea-related snacks. Beginning in the late afternoon, the typical Chinese tea house quickly becomes packed with students and business people, and later at night plays host to insomniacs, night owls, and Triad gangsters simply looking for a place to relax. Formal tea houses also exist. They provide a range of Chinese and Japanese tea leaves, as well as tea making accoutrements and a better class of snack food. Finally there are the tea vendors, who specialize in the sale of tea leaves, pots, and other related paraphernalia.

==== Chinese tea history ====
In [[China]], at least as early as the [[Tang Dynasty]], tea was an object of connoisseurship; in the [[Song Dynasty]] formal tea-tasting parties were held, comparable to modern wine tastings. As much as in modern wine tastings, the proper vessel was important and much attention was paid to matching the tea to an esthetically appealing serving vessel.

Historically there were '''two''' phase of tea drinking in China based on the form of tea that was produced and consumed, namely: '''Tea bricks''' versus '''Loose Leaf Tea'''.

===== Tea Bricks =====
Tea served prior to the [[Ming Dynasty]] was typically made from '''[[tea brick]]s'''. Upon harvesting, the tea leaves were either partially dried or were thoroughly dried and ground before being pressed into bricks. The pressing of Pu-erh is likely a vestige of this process. Tea bricks were also sometimes used as currency. To improve its resiliency as currency, some tea bricks were mixed with binding agents such as blood. Serving the tea from tea bricks required multiple steps:
*''Toasting'': Tea bricks are usually first toasted over a fire to destroy any mold or insects that may have burrowed into the tea bricks. Such infestation sometimes occur since the bricks were stored openly in warehouses and storerooms. Toasting also likely imparted a pleasant flavour to the resulting tea.
*''Grinding'': The tea brick was broken up and ground to a fine powder resembling Japanese powdered tea (''Matcha'').
*''Whisking'': The powdered tea is mixed into hot water and frothed with a whisk before serving. The colour and patterns formed by the powdered tea is enjoyed while the mixture is being imbibed.

The ground and whisked teas used at that time called for dark and patterned bowls in which the texture of the tea powder suspension can be enjoyed. The best of these bowls, glazed in patterns with names like oil spot, partridge-feather, hare's fur, and tortoise shell, are highly valued today. The patterened holding bowl and tea mixture was often lauded in the period's poetry with phrases such as "partridge in swirling clouds" or "snow on hare's fur". Tea in this period was enjoyed more for its patterns and less for its flavour. The practice of using powdered tea can still be seen in the Japanese Tea ceremony or ''[[Chado]]''

===== Loose-Leaf Tea =====
After 1391, Emperor [[Hung-wu]], the first Emperor of the Ming Dynasty, decreed that tributes of tea to the court were to be changed from brick to loose-leaf form. The imperial decree quickly transformed the tea drinking habits of the people, changing from whisked teas to steeped teas. The arrival of the new method for preparing tea also required the creation or use of new vessels.
*The ''tea pot'' was needed such that the tea leaves can be steeped separately from the drinking vessel for an infusion of proper concentration. The tea also needs to be kept warm and the tea leaves must be separated from the resulting infusion when required.
*''Tea caddies'' and containers also became necessary in order to keep the tea and conserve its flavour. This due to the fact that tea leaves do not preseve as well as tea bricks. Furthermore, the natural aroma tea became the focus of the tea drinking due to the new preparation method.
*A change in chinese tea ''drinking vessels'' was also evident at this point. Smaller bowls with plain or simple designs on the interior surfaces were favoured over the larger patterned bowls used for enjoying the patterns created by powdered teas. Tea drinking in small bowls and cups was likely adopted since it gathers and directs the fragrant steam from the tea to the nose and allows for better appreciation of the tea's flavour.
This is the current and preferred method of preparing tea in chinese culture.

: See also [[#Taiwan|Taiwan]], [[#Tibet|Tibet]] and [[#Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] listed below.

===Britain===
The British are amongst the largest per capita tea consumers in the world - each person consuming on average 2.5 kg per year. For most people in Britain tea drinking is not the delicate, refined cultural expression that much of the world imagines - a cup (or more often a mug) of tea is something drunk several times a day quite unceremoniously. "Tea" is not only the name of the beverage, but of a late afternoon light meal, irrespective of beverage drunk. Frequently (outside the [[United Kingdom|UK]]) this is referred to as "high tea", however in the UK [[high tea]] is an evening meal. The term evidently comes from the meal being eaten at the "high" (main) table, rather than the smaller table common in living rooms. Tea is usually served with milk (not cream) and sugar, although taking sugar is increasingly less common. There is a tradition of [[tea room]]s in the UK which usually provide the traditional fare of [[cream]] and [[jam]] on [[scones]], but these have declined in popularity since [[World War II]]. In [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] particularly, [[Devonshire tea|cream teas]] are a speciality. ''[[Lyons Corner House]]s'' were a successful chain of such establishments.

====Industrial Revolution====
The role of tea in the British [[industrial revolution]] has been studied by scholars. Afternoon tea became a way to increase the number of hours [[laborer]]s could work in [[factory|factories]]; the stimulants in the tea, accompanied by [[sugar]]y snacks would give workers energy to finish out the days work. Further, tea helped alleviate some of the consequences of the [[urbanization]] that accompanied the industrial revolution: drinking tea required boiling one's water, thereby killing water-borne [[disease]]s like [[dysentery]], [[cholera]], and [[typhoid]] [http://www.alanmacfarlane.com/savage/tea.html].

===Hong Kong===
The English-style tea has evolved into a new local style of drink, the [[Hong Kong-style milk tea]], more often simply "milk tea", in [[Hong Kong]]. It is popular at ''[[cha chaan teng]]s'' and fastfood shop such as [[Café de Coral]] and [[Maxims Express]]. [[Chinese tea|Traditional Chinese tea]], including [[green tea]], [[flower tea]], [[jasmine tea]] and [[Pu-erh tea]], are also common, and are served at [[dim sum]] restaurant during ''[[yum cha]]''.

===Iran===
Tea found its way to Persia ([[Iran]]) from India and soon became the national drink. The whole part of northern Iran along the shores of the Caspian Sea is suitable for the cultivation of tea. Especially in the [[Gilan]] province on the slopes of [[Alborz]] large areas are under tea cultivation and millions of people work in the tea industry for their livelihood. That region covers a large part of Iran's need for tea. Iranians have one of the highest per capita rate of tea consumption in the world and from old times every street has had a ''Châikhâne'' ([[Tea House]]). Châikhâne's are still an important social place. Iranians traditionally drink tea by pouring it into the saucer and putting a lump of sugar in the mouth before drinking the tea. This is seen nowhere else in the world.

===Ireland===
[[Ireland]] has, for a long time, been one of the biggest per-capita consumers of tea in the world. The national average is four cups per person per day, with many people drinking six cups or more.

=== India ===
[[Image:Ooty-tea-gardens.jpg|thumb|Tea gardens in [[Ooty]].]]
One of the world's largest producers, tea is popular all over [[India]] as a breakfast and evening drink. It is often served as [[masala chai]] with milk and sugar, and sometimes scented. Almost all the tea consumed is black Indian tea. Usually tea leaves are boiled in water while making tea, and milk is added.

Offering tea to almost every visitor to a family is a cultural norm. Tea has entered the common idiom; for example, asking money for "chai-pani" means asking for a tip; in certain states, it may mean asking for a bribe.

===Sri Lanka===
In [[Sri Lanka]], tea is served in the English style, with milk and sugar, but the milk is always warmed. Tea is a hugely popular beverage among the Sri-Lankan people, and part of its land is surrounded by the many hills of tea plantations that spread for miles and miles round. Drinking tea has become part of the culture of Sri Lanka.

===Turkey===
As pictured, [[Turkey|Turkish]] tea or Çay is produced on the eastern [[Black Sea]] coast, which has a mild climate with high precipitation and fertile [[soil]]. Turkish tea is prepared in a [[samovar]] and can be served strong ("koyu" dark) or weak ("açik" open). It is drunk from small glasses in order to show the colour of the tea, with lumps of beetroot sugar. As a [[Muslim]] country, tea replaces [[alcohol]] as the social drink.

===Russia===
[[Image:Prokudin-Gorskii-46.jpg|thumb|right|Tea harvest on the eastern shores of the [[Black Sea]], before [[1915]]]]

In [[Russia]], it is customary to drink tea brewed separately in a teapot and diluted with freshly boiled water ('pair-of-teapots tea', 'чай парой чайников'). The traditional implement for boiling water for tea used to be the [[samovar]] (and sometimes it still is). Tea is a family event, and is usually served with sugar and lemon, and an assortment of jams, pastries and confections, including pastila, pressed apple paste.

===Czech Republic===
Specific tea culture developed in the [[Czech Republic]] in recent years, including many styles of tearooms. Despite having the same name, they are mostly different from the British style [[tea room]]s. Pure teas are usually prepared with respect to their country of origin and good tea palaces may offer 80 teas from almost all tea-producing countries. Different tea rooms have also created various blends and methods of preparation and serving.

===Commonwealth countries===
[[Devonshire tea]] is the staple "tea ceremony" of the English speaking [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries, available in homes and [[tea room]]s throughout the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[India]] and [[New Zealand]]. Devonshire tea is almost unknown in the [[United States]]. Note that "tea" may also refer to a meal in Commonwealth nations, as in England, regardless of the beverage served with the meal. This could lead to confusion over the meaning of an invitation to "tea". The solution, in countries such as New Zealand, is to refer to the drink as a "cuppa" (as in a "cup of tea").

===United States===
In the [[United States]], about 80% of the tea consumed is served cold, or ''iced''. Iced tea can be purchased, like soda, in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores; usually, this pre-made tea is sweetened, and sometimes some other flavouring, such as lemon or raspberry, is added. Also, like soda, it can be purchased as a [[fountain drink]], though in some establishments it is pumped from a [[Bag-In-Box]], and in others, from a separate container near the [[Soda_fountain|fountain]] that contains freshly brewed tea. Sometimes there are two containers, one with sweet tea and one with unsweetened tea. In addition to tea bags and loose tea, powdered "instant iced tea mix" is available in stores. This is made by preparing tea and then dehydrating it, similar to instant coffee.

Iced tea is more frequently ordered during periods of hot weather, and hot tea is likewise more common in cold weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either "hot tea" or "iced tea". Beware, however, that "iced tea" may, or may not, be presweetened, depending on the restaurant. The reason for the presweetening is that it may be difficult to dissolve sugar in iced tea, even with constant stirring. The result can be insufficiently sweetened tea and/or gritty, undissolved sugar crystals in the tea.

Iced tea's popularity in the United States has led to an addition to standard [[flatware]] sets; the [[iced tea spoon]] is a standard flatware [[teaspoon]], but with a long handle, suitable for stirring sugar into the taller glasses commonly used for iced tea.

Iced tea debuted in [[1904]] in the United States.

Hot tea is often consumed "black" but sugar or honey can be added; milk or creamer is less common. It is also common for tea to be flavoured by adding a slice of [[lemon]], or lemon juice. When cream is added to tea, it may be called "English style".

Visitors from countries where tea consumption is more ubiquitous frequently complain that American restaurants are not familiar with proper tea preparation. Instead of pouring boiling water over tea leaves or a tea bag, waiters usually bring the customer a tea bag and a cup (or small pot) of hot water in which to dunk it. If the customer is lucky, the water has just been boiled, but often it has been sitting for a while and there is no way to know.

Traditionally, red and white teas were difficult to find in the United States, and even green tea was uncommon; however, they have recently become more popular. Recently, many [[coffee]] houses have begun to serve a [[milk]]y, sweet, [[spice]]d tea called "[[chai]]", based on [[India]]n "masala chai". [[Bubble tea]] from [[Taiwan]] has also become popular in the United States in recent years. This beverage contains spheres of sweet [[tapioca]], which settle to the bottom of the glass or cup prior to serving.

Decaffeinated tea is widely available in the United States, for those who wish to reduce the negative physiological effects of [[caffeine]].

====U.S. regional tea traditions====
''[[Sweet tea]]'', with [[sugar]] or [[corn syrup]] added (usually while the tea is still hot from brewing), the mixture then being cooled with ice, is ubiquitous in the [[Southern U.S. states]]. In these states, when a person says "tea", they normally mean sweetened iced tea.

In the North, "tea" generally means the hot beverage.

In [[Texas]], iced tea (pronounced "ahstee" in [[dialect]]) almost always means freshly-brewed ''unsweetened'' tea, generally served in a tall glass and garnished with a [[lemon]] wedge. [[Sweeteners]] are then added by the customer (or not) according to taste. Free refills are a matter of course in most restaurants.

''Sun tea'' is frequently brewed in temperate areas by placing tea and water together in a glass jar left outdoors in direct sunlight. Steeping times are necessarily long. Tea may also be brewed with no heat at all by simply immersing the tea bags or infuser in room-temperature water and allowing a period of several hours (typically overnight) for steeping.

====Alcoholic "tea"====
The so-called [[Long Island Iced Tea]] actually contains no tea; it is an alcoholic [[cocktail]] that looks like and (if made correctly) tastes similiar to iced tea.

====Historical background====
During the colonial period, tea and tea taxes were a bone of contention between the American Colonies and England. This led to the [[Boston Tea Party]], a precipitating event of the [[American Revolution]], where angry Colonists destroyed the tea cargo of three British ships by dumping them into [[Boston Harbor]]. Boycotts of tea by the colonists during this period led to an increase in consumption of other beverages, such as [[coffee]]. To this day, coffee remains more popular than tea in the United States.

===Japan===
[[Image:Tea ceremony.jpg|thumb|A Japanese man performs a tea ceremony]]
Green tea is very popular in [[Japan]]. Ordering ''cha'' or ''o-cha'' normally brings green tea, while ''ryoku-cha'' literally means that. Specialty shops sell vast varieties of teas, as do sections in supermarkets. In cafeterias and lunch-type restaurants, hot or cold green tea usually accompanies the meal according to the customer's preferences. It is the beverage of the workplace, and employees drink it during breaks in the day. Hosts provide green tea to visitors to the home or office by dispensing hot water from insulated electric pots through a strainer containing leaves into a ceramic teapot.

Black tea, often with milk or lemon, is served in Western style restaurants. Most of the ubiquitous vending machines also carry a wide selection of both hot and cold bottled teas. Oolong tea enjoys considerable popularity.
[[Image:Tetsubin1571.jpg|thumb|A traditional Japanese cast-iron teapot from the [[Tohoku Region]]]]
Historically, the rituals and the traditional dark pottery of [[China]] were adopted in Japan beginning in the 12th century, and gave rise to the [[Japanese tea ceremony]], which took its final form in the 16th century. The tea ceremony uses a strong, bitter infusion of powered green tea. This ''matcha'' is also a flavouring in [[wagashi]], [[kakigori]], and [[ice cream]].

Major tea-producing areas in Japan include [[Shizuoka Prefecture]] and the city of [[Uji, Kyoto|Uji]] in [[Kyoto Prefecture]].

Other infusions bearing the name ''cha'' are barley tea (''mugi-cha''), buckwheat tea (''soba-cha''), and [[Hydrangea macrophylla|hydrangea]] tea (''ama-cha'').

===Taiwan===
Recently, [[bubble tea]] from [[Taiwan]] has become an extremely popular drink among young people around the world. This Asian fad spread to the United States in 2000, where it is generally called "bubble tea", "pearl milk tea", or "Boba". (See [http://www.cnn.com/2000/FOOD/news/11/27/bubble.tea.ap/ news]) Additionally, bubble tea can now be found in major European cities such as [[London]] and [[Paris]].

Wu-Wo Tea Ceremony

Wu-Wo Tea Ceremony began in Taiwan. Grand Master [[Tsai, Rong Tsang]] the director of “Lu-Yu Tea Art Center” and the founder of the “[[Wu-Wo Tea Ceremony]]”; he has been an active part in the growth of this once small group from Taiwan (almost twenty years ago) to what is now an International Organization.
* [http://teaarts.blogspot.com/ Tea Arts] English
* [http://www.wu-wotea.com.tw/ (無我茶會首頁)] Chinese

===Tibet===
Butter, milk, salt, and sugar are added to brewed tea and churned to form a hot drink called Po cha in [[Tibet]]. Traditionally it is made with a domestic brick tea and [[yak]]'s milk, then mixed in a churn for several minutes. Using a generic black tea, milk and butter, and shaking or blending work well too. (see [http://www.tanc.org/new_food/pocha.html recipe])

==Tea preparation==
[[Image:Japanese Teapot.jpg|right|thumb|A Japanese teapot]]

''This section describes the most widespread method of making tea. Completely different methods are used in North Africa, Tibet and perhaps in other places.''

The best way to prepare tea is usually thought to be with loose tea placed either directly in a [[teapot]] or contained in a [[tea infuser]], rather than a [[teabag]]. However, perfectly acceptable tea can be made with teabags. Some circumvent the teapot stage altogether and brew the tea directly in a cup or mug.

Historically in China, tea is divided into first, second, third, and fourth and fifth infusions. The first infusion of tea made is immediately poured out to wash the tea, and then, the second and further infusions are then had. The third through fifth are nearly always considered the best infusions of tea, although different teas open up differently, and may require more infusions of boiling water to bring them to life.

; '''Black Tea:''' The water for black teas should be added at the [[boiling point]] (100 °C or 212 °F), except for very delicate [[Darjeeling]] teas, where slightly lower temperatures are recommended. This will have as large an effect on the final flavour as the type of tea used. The most common fault when making black tea is to use water at too low a temperature. Since boiling point drops with altitude, this makes it difficult to brew black tea properly in mountainous areas. The tea should not be allowed to steep for less than 30 seconds or more than about five minutes (a process known as ''brewing'' or [dialectally] ''mashing'' in the UK): after that, [[tannin]] is released, which counteracts the stimulating effect of the [[theophylline]] and caffeine and makes the tea bitter (at this point it is referred to as being ''stewed'' in the UK).

; '''Green Tea:''' Water for green tea, according to most accounts, should be around 80 °C to 85 °C (176 °F to 185 °F); the higher the quality of the leaves, the lower the temperature. Preferably, the container in which the tea is steeped; the [[mug]] or teapot should also be warmed beforehand (usually by swirling a little hot water around it then pouring it out) so that the tea does not immediately cool down.

; '''Oolong Tea:''' [[Oolong]] teas should be brewed around 90 °C to 100 °C (194 °F to 212 °F). The brewing vessel should be warmed before brewing the tea as mentioned in the Green Tea section above. [[Yixing clay]] [[teapots]] are the ideal brewing vessel for oolong tea. For best results use spring water, as the minerals in spring water tend to bring out more flavour in the tea.

; '''Premium or Delicate Tea:''' Some teas, especially green teas and delicate [[Oolong]] or [[Darjeeling]] teas, are steeped for shorter periods, sometimes less than 30 seconds. Using a [[tea strainer]] separates the leaves from the water at the end of the brewing time if a tea bag is not being used.

; '''Serving:''' In order to preserve the pre-tannin tea without requiring it all to be poured into cups a second teapot is employed. The steeping pot is best unglazed earthenware; [[Yixing]] pots are the best known of these, famed for the high quality clay from which they are made. The serving pot is generally porcelain, which retains the heat better. Larger teapots are a post 19th-century invention, as tea before this time was very rare and very expensive.

:Experienced tea-drinkers often insist that the tea should not be stirred around while it is steeping (sometimes called ''winding'' in the UK). This, they say, will do little to strengthen the tea, but is likely to bring the [[tannic acid]]s out in the same way that brewing too long will do. For the same reason one should not squeeze the last drops out of a teabag; if you want stronger tea, use more leaves or bags.

; '''Additives:''' Popular additives to tea include [[sugar]] or [[honey]], [[lemon]], [[milk]], and fruit [[jam]]s. Most connoisseurs eschew [[cream]] because it overpowers the flavour of tea. The exception to this rule is with very hearty teas such as the East Friesian blend. Milk, however, is thought to neutralize remaining tannins and reduce acidity.

:When taking milk with tea, some add the tea to the milk rather than the other way around. If the milk is chilled, this avoids scalding the milk, which leads to a better emulsion and nicer taste. The socially 'correct' method is to add the milk after the tea, but this convention was established before the invention of the [[refrigerator]]. Adding the milk first also makes a milkier cup of tea with sugar harder to prepare as there will be no hot liquid in the cup to dissolve the sugar effectively. Of course, if the tea is being brewed in a mug, the milk must be added after the tea bag is removed.

:In the United Kingdom, adding the milk first is historically considered a [[working class|lower-class]] method of preparing tea; the [[upper class]]es always add the milk last. The origin of this distinction is said to be that the rougher [[earthenware]] mugs of the working class would break if boiling-hot tea was added directly to them, whereas the fine glazed china cups of the upper class would not. It is now considered by most to be a personal preference.

==Enjoying tea the "modern" way==
; '''Tea Bag''': Tea leaves are packed into a small (usually [[paper]]) [[tea bag]]. It is easy and convenient, making tea bags popular for many people nowadays. However, because fannings and dust from modern tea processing are also included in most tea bags, it is commonly held among tea afficianados that this method provides an inferior taste and experience. The paper used for the bag can also be tasted by many which can detract from the tea's flavour.

:Additional reasons why bag tea is considered less flavourful include:

:* Dried tea loses its flavour quickly on exposure to air. Most bag teas (although not, admittedly, all) contain leaves broken into small pieces; the great surface-area-to-volume ratio of the leaves in tea bags exposes them to more air, and therefore causes them to go stale faster. Loose tea leaves are likely to be in larger pieces, or to be entirely intact.
:* Breaking up the leaves for bags extracts flavourful oils.
:* Good loose-leaf teas tend to be vacuum packed.

; '''Loose tea''' : The tea leaves are packaged loosely in a canister or other container. The portions must be individually measured by the consumer for use in a cup, mug or teapot. This allows greater flexibility, letting the consumer brew weaker or stronger tea as desired, but convenience is sacrificed. Strainers, "tea presses", filtered teapots and infusion bags are available commercially to avoid having to drink the floating loose leaves. A more traditional, yet perhaps more effective way around this problem is to use a three-piece lidded teacup, called a gaiwan. The lid of the gaiwan can be tilted to hold back the leaves while sipping the tea.

==Tea cards==
In the [[United Kingdom]] a number of varieties of loose tea sold in packets from the [[1940s]] to the [[1980s]] contained tea cards. These were illustrated cards roughly the same size as [[cigarette card]]s and intended to be collected by children. Perhaps the best known were [[Typhoo tea]] and [[Brooke Bond]] PG Tips the latter of whom also provided albums for collectors to keep their cards in. Some renowned artists were used to illustrate the cards including [[Charles Tunnicliffe]]. Many of these card collections are now valuable collectors' items.

==See also==
*[[Chinese tea culture]]
*[[Korean Tea Ceremony]]
*[[Japanese tea ceremony]]
*[[Assam tea]]
*[[Orange Pekoe]]
*[[Snapple]]
*[[List of tea companies]]
*[[Tea Classics]]

==References==
* Stephan Reimertz (1998): ''Vom Genuß des Tees : Eine eine heitere Reise durch alte Landschaften, ehrwürdige Traditionen und moderne Verhältnisse, inklusive einer kleinen Teeschule'' (In German)
* Jane Pettigrew (2002), ''A Social History of Tea''
* Roy Moxham (2003), ''Tea: Addiction, Exploitation, and Empire''

==External links==
{{commons|Tea}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.tocklai.org/about_tea/tea_class.htm Classification and Nomenclature of the Tea Plant] From the Tea Reasearch Association's Toklai labs, Assam.
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext02/tealv10.txt Tea Leaves, Francis Leggett & Co., 1900], from [[Project Gutenberg]] *[ftp://ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext97/tboft10.txt The Book of Tea by Kakuzo Okakura] from Project Gutenberg and [http://members.aol.com/willadams/portfolio/typography/thebookoftea.pdf a beautiful PDF version] typeset in [[TeX]]
*[http://www.fazekas.hu/~nagydani/rth/Russian-tea-HOWTO-v2.html Russian Tea How to] describes the Russian method for making tea and elaborates on the surrounding culture and equipment (notably [[samovar]])
*[http://ftp.ee.surrey.ac.uk/papers/AI/L.Gillam/bs_tea.pdf British Standard 6008:1980 (aka ISO 3103:1980)] Method for preparation of a liquor of tea for use in sensory tests.
*[http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Dental/wireStory?id=443320 Researchers Find Potentially Harmful Levels of Fluoride in Some Instant Teas]
*[http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/essays/col-tea.htm George Orwell: A Nice Cup of Tea] An essay by author [[George Orwell]] describing his own methods of making tea.
*[http://www.rsc.org/pdf/pressoffice/2003/tea.pdf How to make a perfect cup of tea] News Release from [[Royal Society of Chemistry]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3016342.stm BBC article]
*[http://www.aim-digest.com/gateway/pages/book/articles/tea.htm The Industrial Revolution and Tea-drinking]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A61345 Douglas Adams' humorous article on tea].
*[http://www.teauction.com Tea Auction]
*[http://www.teaforums.com Tea Forums Tea Discussion Forum]
*[http://www.teapots.net/ History of Teapots]
*[http://www.rdandt.com/HISTORY/history15.htm Taiwanese Tea Culture]
*[http://www.tradersport.tk Trader's Port tea sampling community]
*[http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/lif_tea_con Tea consumtion stats 2002]
*[http://www.teamap.com Map of Tearooms in the United States]

[[Category:Caffeine]]
[[Category:Tea|*]]
[[Category:Herbal & fungal drugs/medicines]]
[[Category:Herbal & fungal stimulants]]
[[Category:Crops]]

[[bg:Чай]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tê]]
[[ca:Te (planta)]]
[[cs:Čaj]]
[[cy:Te]]
[[da:Te]]
[[de:Tee]]
[[et:Tee (jook)]]
[[es:Té]]
[[eo:Teo]]
[[fa:چای]]
[[fr:Thé]]
[[ko:차]]
[[hi:चाय]]
[[id:Teh]]
[[it:Tè]]
[[he:תה]]
[[jv:Teh]]
[[lt:Arbata]]
[[hu:Tea]]
[[mk:Чај]]
[[nl:Thee]]
[[ja:茶]]
[[no:Te]]
[[pl:Herbata]]
[[pt:Chá]]
[[ro:Ceai]]
[[ru:Чай]]
[[sk:Čaj]]
[[sl:Čaj]]
[[fi:Tee]]
[[sv:Te]]
[[zh:茶叶]]

Anarchism

2005-08-29T20:32:56Z

84.169.210.209: robot Adding: sk

{{totallydisputed}}

{{Anarchism}}

'''Anarchism''' is a political view derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''[[Wiktionary:αναρχία|αναρχία]]'' ("without [[archon]]s (rulers)"). Thus "anarchism," in its most general meaning, is opposing to rulers. All forms of anarchism oppose all forms of what they take to be government, including the [[State]], and favor what they perceive to be voluntary relationships between individuals.

Anarchism comprises various [[political philosophy|political philosophies]] and [[social movement]]s that advocate the elimination of the [[State]], and what are believed to be authoritarian social and economic relationships. In the place of centralized political and economic structures these movements favor social relations based upon what are seen as voluntary relationships. These philosophies use ''[[anarchy]]'' to mean a [[society]] based on [[volunteer|voluntary]] interaction of [[freedom (political)|free]] individuals. Philosophical anarchist thought does not advocate [[chaos]] or [[anomie]] — it refers to "anarchy" as a manner of human relations that is intentionally established and maintained.

While anarchism is primarily viewed as a negative - opposition to compulsory authority - anarchism is also a positive vision of how a stateless and non-authoritarian society would work. There is considerable variation among the anarchist political philosophies. Opinions differ in various areas, such as whether [[violence]] should be employed to foster anarchism, what type of economic system should exist, whether [[social hierarchy]] or unequal wealth distribution is opposed, questions on the environment and industrialism, and anarchists role in various movements. Also, throughout history various anarchists of particular schools of anarchism have claimed that other particular schools, to which they do not subscribe, are not forms of anarchism.

==History of anarchism==

=== Precursors of anarchism ===

In the hunter-gatherer period before recorded [[history]], human society lived mainly in inbred super-families. Thus there was no [[State]], little accumulated wealth or division of labour, and no decreed law or rulers. One might call this primitive anarchy.

Some anarchists have embraced [[Taoism]], which developed in [[History of China|Ancient China]], as a source of anarchistic attitudes [http://www.toxicpop.co.uk/library/taoism.htm]. Similarly, anarchistic tendencies can be traced to the philosophers of [[Ancient Greece]], such as [[Zeno of Citium| Zeno]], the founder of the [[Stoic philosophy]], and [[Aristippus]], who said that the wise should not give up their [[liberty]] to the state [http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/britt1910.html]. Later movements – such as [[Stregheria]] in the 1300's, the [[Free Spirit]] in the [[Middle Ages]],
the [[Anabaptist]]s, [[The Diggers]], and the Ranters, – have also expounded ideas that have been interpreted as anarchist.

The first known usage of the word ''anarchy'' appears in the play ''[[Seven Against Thebes]]'' by [[Aeschylus]], dated [[467 BC]]. There, [[Antigone]] openly refuses to abide by the rulers' decree to leave her brother Polyneices' body unburied, as punishment for his participation in the attack on [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]], saying that "even if no one else is willing to share in burying him I will bury him alone and risk the peril of burying my own brother. Nor am I ashamed to act in defiant opposition to the rulers of the city (''ekhous apiston tênd anarkhian polei'')".

Ancient Greece also saw the first western instance of anarchism as a philosophical ideal, in the form of the [[stoicism|stoic]] philosopher [[Zeno of Citium]], who was, according to [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], "[t]he best exponent of Anarchist philosophy in ancient Greece". As summarized by Kropotkin, Zeno "repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual". Within [[Greek philosophy]], Zeno's vision of a free community without government is opposed to the state-[[Utopia]] of [[Plato's Republic]]. Zeno argued that although the necessary instinct of self-preservation leads humans to [[egotism]], nature has supplied a corrective to it by providing man with another instinct — [[socialization|sociability]]. Like some modern anarchists, he believed that if people follow their instincts, they will have no need of law, [[courts]], or [[police]], no [[temple]]s and no public [[worship]], and use no [[money]] (a [[gift economy]] taking the place of the exchanges). Zeno's beliefs have only reached us as fragmentary quotations. [http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/britt1910.html]

The [[Anabaptist]]s of [[16th century]] Europe are sometimes considered to be religious forerunners of modern anarchism. [[Bertrand Russell]], in his ''[[history of Western philosophy|History of Western Philosophy]]'', writes that the Anabaptists "repudiated all law, since they held that the good man will be guided at every moment by [[the Holy Spirit]]...[f]rom this premise they arrive at communism...." The novel [[Q_(novel)|Q]] provides a fictional depiction of this movement and its revolutionary ideology. In 1548 [[Étienne de la Boétie]] wrote [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Discourse_on_Voluntary_Servitude The Politics of Obedience: The Discourse of Voluntary Servitude], an essay which explored the question of why people obey rulers. [[Gerrard Winstanley]] of [[The Diggers]], who published a pamphlet calling for communal ownership and social and economic organization in small agrarian communities in the [[17th century]], is considered another of the forerunners of modern anarchism.

===Modern anarchism===
[[Image:Proudhon-young.jpg|thumb|right|[[Proudhon|Pierre Proudhon]] (1809-1865)]]
The first essay explicitly advocating the absence of government was "[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Burke0061/Vindication/0339_Bk.html A Vindication of Natural Society]" (1756) by [[Edmund Burke]], though when it was discovered that he was the author of the anonymous essay he claimed it to be satire --some scholars doubt Burke's claim due to the reasoned argumentation and seriousness of the essay. In [[1793]] [[William Godwin]] published ''[http://web.bilkent.edu.tr/Online/www.english.upenn.edu/jlynch/Frank/Godwin/pjtp.html An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice]'', in which he presented his vision of a free society alongside a critique of government. Some consider this the first anarchist treatise, calling Godwin the "founder of philosophical anarchism"[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/godwin/]. Other than the spontaneous association that may arise when individuals defend each other from aggressors, Godwin opposes every kind of cooperation in labor among individuals (even orchestras are opposed). He is an early proponent of [[liberalism]], supporting a right of an individual to own property, defining it as "the empire to which every man is entitled over the produce of his own industry." [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], author of "[http://ns52.super-hosts.com/~vaz1net/bill/anarchism/library/WhatIsProperty/ What is Property?]" in [[1840]] was the first individual to call himself an "anarchist." He opposes [[collectivism]] and supports an individual right to property and a market economy based in labor exchange. However, though Proudhon is commonly regarded as an [[individualist anarchist]], he did not advocate the abolition of government but its minimization: "...the institutions of the police, preventative and repressive methods officialdom, taxation etc., are reduced to a minimum..." [[Josiah Warren]], a coeval of Proudhon's, authored an individualistic philosophy of a similar nature to Proudon's that explicitly opposed the existence of government. Warren had been writing about and practicing an economic system based on the [[labor theory of value]] by which exchange was facilitate by the medium of "[[labor notes]]." Proudhon later proposed the same kind of system and called it [[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]. Many consider the periodical that Warren published and edited beginning in 1833, called ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', to be the first anarchist periodical. Warren initiated the tradition of [[American individualist anarchism]], with Proudhon also being influential by way of his later influence on [[Benjamin Tucker]].

Individualists, taking much from the writings of [[Max Stirner]], among others, demanded the utmost respect for the [[liberty]] of the individual. While some individualists looked to [[natural law]] to justify individualism, Stirner's "Egoism" held that [[self-interest]] is the only legitimate justification for action. The American tradition of individualist anarchism is firmly in support of individual sovereignty, private property, and a free market economy; though they oppose employers deducting profit from wages, the charging of interest, and most oppose the buying, selling, and renting of uninhabited or unused land.

[[classical liberalism|Liberals]] were often labeled "anarchists" by [[monarchy|monarchists]], even though they did not call for the abolition of the State. Still, they did promote the idea of a minimal State, [[individual rights]], and the responsibility of the people to judge their governments, which provided a groundwork for the development of anarchist thought. "[http://ns52.super-hosts.com/~vaz1net/bill/anarchism/library/thelaw.html The Law]" (1849) by [[Frederic Bastiat]] is a good example of an anti-statist liberal tract. A clear precursor of [[anarcho-capitalism]] was [[Gustave de Molinari]], who wrote about private defense agencies in [http://praxeology.net/GM-PS.htm The Production of Security] (1849). This was the first attempt to solve the problem of security in a stateless manner. Previous thinkers had generally either assumed that statelessness would lead to a quick change in human nature, claimed personal justice would suffice, or simply avoided the issue. In the [[United States]], anarchist thoughts were expressed in the writings of [[Henry David Thoreau]] ([[Civil Disobedience]]), Josiah Warren, and Benjamin Tucker. Individualist anarchists such as Tucker were influenced by the writings of [[Herbert Spencer]] and [[Max Stirner]], among others.

Later in the [[19th century]], anarchist collectivist theorists like [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Anarchist communism|Anarchist communists]] like [[Peter Kropotkin]] paralleled the [[Marxism|Marxist]] critique of capitalism and synthesized it with their own critique of the state, emphasizing the importance of a communal perspective to maintain individual liberty in a social context, and the critical role of workers self-managed organs of production and creation. The [[International Workingmen's Association]], at its founding, was an alliance of socialist groups, including both anarchists and Marxists. Both sides had a common aim (stateless communism) and common political opponents (conservatives and other right-wing elements). But each was critical of the other, and the inherent conflict between the two groups soon embodied itself in an ongoing argument between [[Mikhail Bakunin]], representative of anarchist ideas, and [[Karl Marx]] himself. Generally Marx wanted to work within the system, use hierarchical organizational structures, and run people in elections. Bakunin hated these ideas, and predicted that if a revolution were won under a Marxist revolutionary party, they would end up being as bad as the [[ruling class]] that they fought against. However, [[Mikhail Bakunin]] clearly saw a need to defend the [[working class]] against oppression and overthrow the ruling class, and he predicted that democratic workers' councils would arise in future revolutionary periods and fulfill this role. Nevertheless, in [[1872]], the conflict in the First International climaxed with the expulsion of Bakunin and those who had become known as the "Bakuninists" when they were outvoted by the Marx party at the [[Hague Congress (1872)|Hague Congress]]. This is often cited as the origins of the [[Anarchism and Marxism|conflict between anarchists and Marxists]].

Both Proudhon and Bakunin at various times expressed views which reflected what would not be found acceptable by most subsequent anarchists. Proudhon was somewhat of a male-chauvanist and an anti-semite, and Bakunin, at points in his life, viewed Jews as significant component of the ruling class, calling the Jews an "organic collective parasite." Many subsequent anarchists would disregard any such patriarchical and racist ideas and instead draw from Proudhon and Bakunin only the insights which they thought truly valuable.

[[Peter Kropotkin]]'s [[anarchist communism]] developed from his [[science|scientific]] theory based on [[evolution]] in which co-operation equaled or surpassed competition in importance, as illustrated in ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor in Evolution]]'' ([[1897]]).

Some [[revolution]]aries of this time encouraged acts of [[propaganda by the deed|political violence]] such as [[bomb]]ings and the [[assassination]]s of [[head of state|heads of state]] to further anarchism. However, these actions were regarded by many anarchists as counter-productive or ineffective (see "[[#Violence and non-violence|Violence and non-violence]]", below).

In the late [[19th century]], [[anarcho-syndicalism]] developed as the industrialized form of ''libertarian communism'', emphasizing [[industrial action]]s, especially the [[general strike]], as the primary strategy to achieve anarchist revolution, and "build the new society in the shell of the old".

Anarchists played a role in many of the [[labour movement]]s, uprisings, and [[revolution]]s of the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]], including the [[Russian Revolution]] (1917). In the [[United States]], many new [[immigrant]]s were anarchists; an especially notable group was the large number of [[Jew]]ish immigrants who had left [[Russia]] and [[Eastern Europe]] during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These groups were disrupted by the [[Red Scare#The first Red Scare|Red Scare of 1919]]. [[Emma Goldman]] was a very influential anarchist and feminist during this period. She traveled the country and the world spreading anarchist ideas and attempting to live an anarchist life.

The anarcho-syndicalist orientation of many early American labor unions played a large part in the formation of the American [[political spectrum]]. The United States is the only industrialized former British colony to not have a labor-based political party. In Mexico, anarcho-syndicalists like [[Ricardo Flores Magón]] led various revolts and uprisings that would help overthrow the dictator Diaz, lead the way for the growth of anarchism in [[Latin America]], and also go on to influence the modern day [[Zapatista]] rebellion.

In [[Europe]], in the first quarter of the 20th century, anarchist movements achieved relative, if short-lived, successes and were violently repressed by states. In the United States anarchist organisations were given a crushing blow during the "[[Red Scare]]" (1919-20). However, in the 1920s and 1930s the conflict between anarchism and the state was eclipsed by the one between [[liberal democracy]], [[fascism]] and [[communism]], which ended with the defeat of fascism in [[World War II]]. During the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936-1939), [[Anarchism in Spain|a widely popular anarchist movement]] supported by militias loyal to the republic took control of rural areas of northeast Spain in [[1936]]-[[1937]] and [[collectivization|collectivized]] the land. They were eventually suppressed by the Communist-controlled republican army, which later lost to [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]'s army. In the [[Soviet Union]] from [[1918]] and in Europe during the World War, thousands of anarchists were killed or sent to prisons and concentration camps.

A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred during the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]] this was associated with the [[punk rock]] movement; the band [[Crass]] is celebrated for its anarchist and [[pacifism|pacifist]] ideas. In [[Denmark]], the [[Freetown Christiania]] was created in downtown [[Copenhagen]]. The housing and employment crisis in most of [[Western Europe]] led to the formation of [[communes]] and squatter movements like the one still thriving in [[Barcelona]], in [[Catalonia]]. Militant [[antifa|resistance to neo-Nazi groups]] in places like Germany, and the uprisings of [[autonomous Marxism]], [[situationist]], and [[Autonomist]] groups in France and Italy also helped to give popularity to anti-authoritarian, non-capitalist ideas.

Beginning in the later part of the 20th century anarchist [[primitivism|primitivists]] like [[John Zerzan]] began to proclaim that [[civilization]] — not just the state — would need to fall for anarchy to be achieved. A rejection of industrial [[technology]] is also prominent in the views of many [[green anarchism | green anarchists]]. This worldview was associated with the growth of the anti-roads movement in the UK, [[Earth First!]] and the [[Earth Liberation Front]] in the US, and the actions of [[Theodore Kaczynski]] (aka the "Unabomber").

Through the [[20th century]] anarchists were actively involved in the labour, animal-rights, radical ecological, feminist movements, and later in the fight against fascism. The influence of this on anarchist thought is apparent, as most of the traditional anarchist philosophies emphasize the economic implications of anarchism, or arrive at anarchism from economic arguments. Since the mid-[[1960s]], anarchists have been involved in student protest movements, [[peace movements]], squatter movements, and the [[anti-globalization]] movement, among others.

===Anarchism today===

Today, anarchism is a growing tendency around the globe.

North American anarchism takes strong influences from the [[American Civil Rights Movement]] and the movement against the [[Vietnam War]]. European anarchism has developed out of the labour movement, and both have incorporated [[animal rights]] and environmental [[activism]] from a [[direct action]] approach which gave growth to the anti-roads movement, and [[Reclaim the Streets]]. Globally, anarchism has also grown in popularity and influence as part of the [[anti-war]], [[anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]], and [[anti-globalization]] movements. Since the late 1990s, anarchists have been known for their involvement in [[protest]]s against [[World Trade Organization]] and [[G8|Group of Eight]] meetings, and the [[World Economic Forum]] -- protests that are generally portrayed in mainstream media coverage as violent riots. Some anarchists form ''[[black bloc]]s'' at protests, in which members of the bloc wear black and cover their faces to avoid police identification and to create one large solid mass. Bloc members confront and defend other protesters from the [[police]], set up barricades, and sometimes engage in the destruction of corporate property.

Although black bloc anarchists are often the only visible anarchists at large protests, large-scale protests are often constructed and organized through anarchist structures. Affinity groupings, spokescouncils, and networking all have led to the success of various large-scale anti-war and anti-globalization mobilizations, most notably at the protests against the [[WTO Meeting of 1999]] in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]]. Anarchists have also been involved heavily with underground direct action movements such as the Animal Liberation Front, and the Earth Liberation Front, which are considered "[[eco-terrorist]]" by federal authorities and some liberal organizations. Anarchism (or at least anarchist systems of organizing) is now largely seen to have about the same sway in modern revolutionary movements as Marxism had in the 1960's.

However, anarchism is not constrained to political protest. Anarchists also engage in building parallel structures and organizations, such as communes, [[eco-villages]], infoshops and radical social centers, [[Food Not Bombs]], radical labor unions, new education methods, and do-it-yourself media in various forms. They also emphasise equality and "horizontal" organising within the movement, using such tools as [[consensus]] decision-making. This is in line with how anarchists interpret the idea of "dual-power", creating the new anti-authoritarian society "in the shell of the old", hierarchical one.

Some have said that recent technological developments have made the anarchist cause both easier to advance and more conceivable to people. [[Public key cryptography]] and the [[Internet]] have made anonymous digital currencies such as e-gold an alternative to statist [[fiat money]]. Many people use [[cell phone]]s or the Internet to form loose communities that could be said to be organized along anarchist lines. Some of these communities have as their purpose the production of information in a non-commodified or [[use-value]] format, a goal made attainable by the availability of [[personal computing]], [[desktop publishing]], and [[digital media]]. These things have made it possible for individuals to [[file sharing|share music files]] over the Internet. There are also [[open source]] programming communities, who donate their time and offer their product for free. Examples include [[Usenet]], the [[free software movement]] (including the [[GNU]]/[[Linux]] community and the [[wiki]] paradigm), and [[Indymedia]].

For examples of major groupings of anarchist collectives and groups throughout the world, see the list of Anarchist organizations at the end of this article.

===Historical and contemporary examples===

There are various examples of societies which have been organized by anarchist principles, ranging from the Thing system of classical Iceland to pirate cities.

: See [[Past and present anarchist communities]]

==Schools of anarchist thought==

From [[William Godwin]]'s utilitarian anarchism to [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]]'s [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]], to [[Max Stirner]]'s [[egoism]], to [[Benjamin Tucker]]'s [[Individualist anarchism|radical individualism]], to [[Peter Kropotkin]]'s [[anarcho-communism|anarchist communism]], the roots of anarchist thought in modern political philosophy are varied, with many different views of what a society without government should be like. A listing in chronological order of inception follows:

=== Individualist anarchism ===
{{see details|Individualist anarchism}}
[[Image:BenjaminTucker.jpg|thumb|right|[[Benjamin Tucker]]]]

Individualist anarchism is, in its broadest sense, a philosophical tradition common to most forms of anarchism which emphasises the sovereignty of the individual. While individualist anarchists include Europeans such as [[William Godwin]], [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], and [[Max Stirner]], the term is most often used in association with the [[American individualist anarchism|American tradition of individualist anarchism]], which advocates private property (individual ownership of the "full produce" of one's labor) and a competitive [[market economy]] where this property and labor may be bought and sold (therefore opposing communism). They espouse a [[labor theory of value]], and, as a result, they regard profit (and hence, capitalism) as being exploitative; they believe profit is only made possible by reduced competition due to government regulations on banking and currency issuance, as well as by protection of vacant land. Wage labor is supported as long as wages adhere to the labor theory of value, hence, traditional individualists tend to advocate, and practice, an economic system called ''[[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]'' as an alternative to capitalism and communism. Traditional individualists do not oppose the private ownership of capital, with an important exception: Most oppose property titles to raw land, land must be in use to be rightfully possessed. Individualism contrasts with collectivist forms of anarchism (anarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism), and the relationships between these groups of been characterized by varying degrees of antagonism and harmony throughout their history. As a testament to the uniquely liberal character of American individualist anarchism, the most famous individualist, Benjamin Tucker, refers to his philosophy as "unterrified Jeffersonianism." To protect individual liberty and private property, individualists tend to advocate "private police" and private courts.

Notable figures that assist in comprising the American tradition include [[Josiah Warren]], Benjamin Tucker, Lysander Spooner, and Ezra Heywood. Many also consider Henry David Thoreau as an individualist anarchist due to his position that individuals should not be governed and his belief that all should be free to withdraw themselves from "any incorporated body." Noteworthy anarchist writer and poet John Henry Mackay is also considered an individualist anarchist. Contemporary individualist anarchists include [[Robert Anton Wilson]], [[James J. Martin]], [[Joe Peacott]], [[Kevin Carson]], [[Keith Preston]], and [[Larry Gambone]]. [[Wendy McElroy]], an [[anarcho-capitalist]], also labels herself an individualist anarchist, albeit not a classical one. Italian anarcho-capitalist Guglielmo Piombini also regards his philosophy as individualist anarchism.

===Anarcho-communism===
[[Image:Kropotkin.jpg|thumb|left]]
{{see details|Anarcho-communism}}

Anarcho-communism shares many things in common with anarcho-syndicalism but generally rejects private property in favor of collectivizing the means of production and products of labor. The Florence Conference of the Federation of the International, formulated by [[Carlo Cafiero]], [[Errico Malatesta]], [[Andrea Costa]] and other ex-[[Giuseppe Mazzini|Mazzinian]] Republicans, in laying out the principles of anarcho-communism states: "''Italian Federation of the International considers the collective property of the products of labour as the necessary complement to the collectivist programme...''" Cafiero notes, in Anarchie et Communisme, that private property in the product of labor will lead to unequal accumulation of capital, and therefore undesirable class distinctions. Anarcho-communism developed as a rejection of the individualist anarchism of [[Proudhon]]; [[Joseph Dejacque]] wrote to Proudhon criticizing him for his support of private ownership of the product of labor: "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature." Anarcho-communists advocate an egalitarian society without markets or wages, and instead, propose collectives based on direct worker control, [[gift economy|gift economies]], self-management over community institutions, and mutual aid based upon the idea of "from each according to their ability, to each according to need." Anarcho-communists also propose large- and small-scale connections of communities, groups, and workplaces through [[federation]]s and [[network]]s created by [[free association]] and popular affinity. Anarcho-communists want direct worker control over production, and have decisions made through [[workers councils]] and assemblies. Communities would be organized through systems of direct democracy, and through various organizations and collectives to carry out various tasks.

[[Peter Kropotkin]], [[Emma Goldman]], [[Alexander Berkman]], and most recently, groups like [[NEFAC]] (North Eastern Federation of Anarcho-Communists), have advocated various forms of anarcho-communism. Historically, anarcho-communism is believed to have been put into practice by millions of people in the anarchist collectives and communes of the anarchist-controlled region of [[Ukraine]] during the Russian Revolution, and during the [[Spanish Civil War]] in the [[Aragon]] and [[Catalonia]] regions of Spain.

Anarcho-communists are split generally on the [[Platform]], or the "Organizational Platform of Libertarian Communists", written by [[Ukrainian]] anarchist militant, [[Nestor Makhno]]. The Platform calls for anarchist organisations based on "Theoretical Unity, Tactical Unity, Collective Action and Discipline, and Federalism", and has been accepted by some anarchists and scorned by others.

Anarcho-communists today are involved in various broad labor and community issues; generally revolving around housing, labor struggles/strikes, anti-racism, and building the anarchist movement. Anarcho-communists have generally called for more cohesive groups and structures of anarchist groups and thereby garnered criticism from other anarchist sects. Various large-scale groups of anarcho-communists exist today with the larger groups existing throughout various countries.

Traditional [[American individualist anarchist]]s, have denied that anarcho-communism is a form of anarchism. [[Benjamin Tucker]] has referred to it as "pseudo-anarchism [sic]." [http://www.geocities.com/listen_liberty/shouldlaborbepaidornot.html]

===Anarcho-syndicalism===
{{see details|Anarcho-syndicalism}}
[[Image:blkred flag.png|thumb|175px|The red-and-black flag, coming from the experience of anarchists in the labour movement, is particularly associated with anarcho-syndicalism.]]

Anarcho-syndicalism is the anarchist wing of the [[labor union]] movement. Its primary aim is the end of the wage system and the abolition of private property, both of which are believed to lead to class divisions. It functions on principles of workers solidarity, [[direct action]], and self-management.

Workers solidarity is the belief that all workers -- no matter what [[race]], [[gender]], or [[ethnic group]] -- are in a similar situation vis-à-vis their bosses. Furthermore, within capitalism, any gains or losses made by some workers in their relation to bosses will eventually impact all workers. Therefore, in order to gain liberation, all workers must support one another in their [[class war|struggle against bosses]].

Anarcho-syndicalists only believe in direct action — that is, action directly designed to confront a problem. Direct action can range from traditional [[strike action]] to active [[sabotage]].

Furthermore, anarcho-syndicalists believe that workers' organizations — the organizations struggling against the wage system who, in anarcho-syndicalist theory, will eventually form the basis of a new society – should be self-managing. They should not have bosses or "business agents"; rather, the workers should be able to make decisions that affect them amongst themselves.

The [[International Workers Association]] is an international anarcho-syndicalist federation of various labor unions from different countries. The [[Industrial Workers of the World]], a once-powerful, still active, and again growing labor union, is considered a leading organ of the anarcho-syndicalist program in the United States. The Spanish [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] played a major role in the [[Spanish Civil War]], and today it is the third biggest union in Spain. Other major anarcho-syndicalist organizations include the [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]], and the [[Solidarity Federation]] in the UK.

[[Anarcho-communist]] critics of anarcho-syndicalism oppose the strategy of unions, believing them to feed into the concept of capitalism and because they are hierarchically organized. Also, some contend that its focus on proletarian [[class struggle]] overlooks the needs of segments of society such as parents or others occupied with child-rearing or domestic labor, although some anarcho-syndicalist thought attempts to address other sectors of economic life. Some primitivist authors, notably [[Bob Black]], contend that an anarcho-syndicalist revolution would leave in place social systems they find oppressive ([[work]] and workplaces, for example), although anarcho-syndicalists contend that worker self-management would render those systems fundamentally more humane. At issue also is the willingness of various anarcho-syndicalists groups to collaborate with government in their activities.

Some, generally primitivsts, hold that anarcho-syndicalism is not a form of anarchism and attack it as a purely workerist ideology. For example, Feral Faun argues in "The Bourgeois Roots of Anarcho-Syndicalism" that anarcho-syndicalism is actually a non-anarchist form of liberalism that, by default, supports capitalism. [http://www.insurgentdesire.org.uk/syndicalism.htm]

=== Anarcho-capitalism ===
[[Image:Murray Rothbard Smile.JPG|thumb|left| [[Murray Rothbard]] (1926-1995)]]
{{see details|Anarcho-capitalism}}

''Anarcho-capitalism'' envisions a stateless society where private ownership the means of production is supported, and economic decisions are made privately through the operation of a [[free market]]. Like most modern economists, anarcho-capitalists espouse a [[subjective theory of value]] rather than a [[labor theory of value]]; therefore, they have no opposition to [[profit]]. Anarcho-capitalism is an anti-state form of liberalism derived from American individualist anarchism, abolitionism, and classical economics. Anarcho-capitalists, like all other anarchists, oppose traditional capitalism, state capitalism, and mercantilism.

Much of the credit for the foundations of anarcho-capitalist theory goes to [[Murray Rothbard]] who formally synthesized [[classical liberalism]] with [[Austrian economics]]. Other important anarcho-capitalists include [[David Friedman]], [[Jan Narveson]], [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]], and [[Lew Rockwell]]. Some [[minarchism|minarchists]], such as [[Ayn Rand]], [[Robert Nozick]], and [[Robert Heinlein]], have also contributed to the theory and popularity of anarcho-capitalism.

Anarchists who oppose private ownership of capital tend to deny that anarcho-capitalism is a form of anarchism, arguing that hierarchical institutions are inevitable in any capitalist system. On the other hand, there are contemporary [[American individualist anarchism|American individualist anarchists]] that do regard it as a form of anarchism. [http://world.std.com/~bbrigade/badpp3.htm] [http://www.attackthesystem.com/capitalism.html] [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/ac-vs-ia.html] Moreoever, anarcho-capitalists Wendy McElroy and Guglielmo Piombini regard their philosophy as "individualist anarchism." Anarcho-capitalism is compared and contrasted with classical individualist anarchism in the article ''[[Individualist anarchism and anarcho-capitalism]]''.

===Anarcho-pacifism===
'''Anarcho-pacifism''' is a form of [[anarchism]] emphasizing the complete rejection of [[violence]] in any form for any purpose (esp. political). It is most commonly associated with religious anarchism, such as [[Christian anarchism]] or [[Buddhist anarchism]]. However, the [[punk rock]] band [[Crass]] polemicised a variant of anarcho-pacifism whilst at the same time explicitly rejecting all religions, especially the symbols of 'establishment' [[Christianity|Christian]] [[mythology]]. In fact the band faced the threat of legal [[prosecution]] in [[England]] for [[blasphemy|criminal blasphemy]] due to their composition "Reality Asylum".

See also [[Leo Tolstoy]].

==Issue and Movement Anarchisms==

The philosophical schools above are often combines with pressing issues, such as environmentalism or feminism. Also, popular authors will sometimes coin a term to describe new interpretations (e.g. post-left anarchism and small-A anarchism) or combine anarchism with other special interests (e.g. crypto-anarchism and spiritual anarchism.) Some of these are outlined below.

'''Ecological anarchism'''
{{see details|Green anarchism}}

''Ecological anarchism'' (also known as ''eco-anarchism'' or ''green anarchism'') generally is a belief in [[deep ecology]], [[direct action]] against earth destroying institutions and systems, and generally a critique of industrial capitalism, although generally not against [[civilization]] per se.

There is a significant [[anarchist]] element to the [[environmental movement]], including those that are known as [[eco-anarchists]] and [[Green anarchism|green-anarchists]]. Eco-anarchism is generally a broad term that broadly refers to anarchists engaged in the earth liberation movement. The largest segment of 'eco-anarchists' is the [[Earth First!]] movement, a network of various collectives formed along anarchist principles. Earth First! generally engages in [[direct action]] and eco-defense, such as tree sitting and 'locking down'. In the modern anarchist movement, eco-anarchists generally adhere to [[deep ecology]], which is a worldview that embraces biodiversity and sustainability. [[Eco-feminism]] is also sometimes considered the form of eco-anarchist feminism.

'''Anarcho-primitivism'''

{{see details|Anarcho-primitivism}}

Anarcho-primitivism is an anarchist critique of industrial [[civilization]], and of the [[alienation]] that [[technology]], [[progress]], etc., have created between people and the natural world. Primitivists generally associate oppressive structures of hierarchy with the rise of agriculture, specialization of tasks or [[division of labor]], the production of surplus and the first city-states. Anarcho-primitivists point to the anti-authoritarian nature of many 'primitive' or hunter-gatherer societies throughout the world's history, as examples of anarchist societies, but do not generally make them a "blueprint" for the future.

The primitivist tendency has connections to radical environmental movements such as [[Earth First!]] and the [[Earth Liberation Front]]. Writers often associated with the current are [[Fredy Perlman]], [[John Zerzan]] and [[John Moore (anarchist)|John Moore]], and to some extent [[Theodore Kaczynski]] (the [[Unabomber]]) and [[Derrick Jensen]].

Some assert that anarcho-primitivism is not a form of anarchism. For example, Brian Oliver Sheppard, in ''Anarchism Vs. Primitivism'', says: "In recent decades, groups of quasi-religious mystics have begun equating the primitivism they advocate (rejection of science, rationality, and technology often lumped together under a blanket term "technology") with anarchism. In reality, the two have nothing to do with each other."

'''Anarcha-feminism'''
[[Image:Goldman-4.jpg|thumb|left|[[Emma Goldman]] (1869-1940), an early inspiration for anarcha-feminism]]
{{see details|Anarcha-feminism}}

Anarcha-feminism is a kind of [[radical feminism]] that espouses the belief that [[patriarchy]] is a fundamental problem in some societies. Feminist anarchism, or anarcha-feminism (a term allegedly created during the 1960s' [[second-wave feminism]]), views [[patriarchy]] as the first manifestation of hierarchy in human history; thus, the first form of oppression occurred in the dominance of male over female. Anarcha-feminists then conclude that if feminists are against patriarchy, they must also be against all forms of [[hierarchy]], and therefore must reject the authoritarian nature of the state and capitalism.

Anarcho-primitivists see the creation of gender roles and patriarchy a creation of the start of [[civilization]], and therefore consider primitivism to also be an anarchist school of thought that addresses feminist concerns. [[Eco-feminism]] is often considered a feminist variant of green anarchist feminist thought.

Anarcha-feminism was inspired early 20th-century authors and theorists such as [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Voltairine de Cleyre]], although even early first-wave feminist [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] held proto-anarchist views. In the [[Spanish Civil War]], an anarchist feminist group, Mujeres Libres ("Free Women"), organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas.

In the modern day anarchist movement, many anarchists, male or female, consider themselves feminists, and anarcha-feminist ideas are growing. The publishing of Quiet Rumors, an anarcha-feminist reader, has helped to spread various kinds of anti-authoritarian and anarchist feminist ideas to the broader movement.

'''Black anarchism'''
{{see details|Black anarchism}}

''Black anarchism'' opposes the existence of a state, capitalism, and subjugation and domination of people of color, and favors a non-hierarchical organization of society. Black anarchists, believing that anarchism has traditionally been European or white-based, seek to forge their own movement that represents their own identity and tailored to their own unique situation. Theorists include [[Ashanti Alston]] and [[Lorenzo Komboa Ervin]].

'''National anarchism'''
{{see details|National anarchism}}

''National anarchism'' is a strand of [[white nationalism|white nationalist]] thought which opposes [[capitalism]] and the existence of nation-states and proposes that ethnic groups (or races) should separate and live in autonomous groupings. The philosophy finds its intellectual roots in ''[[International third position|third positionism]]''. Most other anarchists reject the inclusion of national anarchism as a school of anarchist thought and many view it as a [[trojan horse]] for [[neo-nazism]].

'''Christian anarchism'''
[[Image:LeoTolstoy.jpg|thumb|[[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]]]]
{{see details|Christian anarchism}}

''Christian anarchism'' is the belief that there is only one source of authority to which [[Christian|Christians]] are ultimately answerable, the authority of [[God]] as embodied in the teachings of [[Jesus]]. Christian anarchists therefore feel that earthly authority such as [[government]], or indeed the established church do not and should not have power over them. Christian anarchists are [[pacifism|pacifists]] and oppose the use of all physical force, both proactive and reactive. Christian anarchists advocate [[nonviolent]] [[tax resistance]] to oppose war, state aggression and imperialism. Many Christian anarchists oppose profiting from economic transactions and state capitalism.

Christian anarchists believe that freedom from earthly authority will only be guided by the grace of [[God]] if individuals display compassion for others and [[turn the other cheek]] when confronted by violence. Its adherents believe this quest for freedom is justified spiritually and quote the teachings of Jesus, some of whom are critical of the existing [[establishment]] and church. They believe all individuals can directly communicate with God and will eventually unify in peace under this one God.

The most famous advocate of Christian anarchism was [[Leo Tolstoy]], author of ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'', who called for a society based on compassion, nonviolent principles and freedom.

'''Insurrectionary anarchism'''

''Insurrectionary anarchism'' is critical of formal anarchist labor unions and federations. Instead, insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization, including small affinity groups, carrying out acts of resistance in various struggles, and mass organizations called base structures, which can include exploited individuals who are not anarchists. Here, [[Wolfi Landstreicher]] writes some of the basis points of its praxis.

<blockquote>
Insurrectionary anarchism is not an ideological solution to all social problems, a commodity on the capitalist market of ideologies and opinions, but an on-going praxis aimed at putting an end to the domination of the state and the continuance of capitalism, which requires analysis and discussion to advance. We don’t look to some ideal society or offer an image of utopia for public consumption. Throughout history, most anarchists, except those who believed that society would evolve to the point that it would leave the state behind, have been insurrectionary anarchists. Most simply, this means that the state will not merely wither away, thus anarchists must attack, for waiting is defeat; what is needed is open mutiny and the spreading of subversion among the exploited and excluded. Here we spell out some implications that we and some other insurrectionary anarchists draw from this general problem: if the state will not disappear on its own, how then do we end its existence? It is, therefore, primarily a practice, and focuses on the organization of attack...The State of capital will not “wither away,” attack is the refusal of mediation, pacification, sacrifice, accommodation, and compromise.
[Landstreicher, Wolfi] </blockquote>

[[Alfredo M. Bonanno]], an Italian insurrectionary anarchist also had a great impact on this specific tendency, writing such works as "Armed Joy," "The Anarchist Tension," and others. In the US, Willful Disobedience, Killing King Abacus, and other magazines caused interest in insurrectionary anarchism to grow. Although insurrectionary anarchists are generally interested in class struggle anarchism, in the US, many insurrectionary anarchists consider themselves to be [[primitivism|primitivists]], or green anarchists, as well.

'''Post-anarchism'''
{{see details|Post-anarchism}}

The term ''post-anarchism'' was originated by Saul Newman in his book "From Bakunin to Lacan: Antiauthoritarianism and the Dislocation of Power" to refer to a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought. In this sense it has similarities with post-Marxism associated with [[Ernesto Laclau]] and Chantal Mouffee. Subsequent to Newman's use of the term, however, it has taken on a life of its own and a wide range of ideas including [[autonomism]], [[post-left anarchy]], [[situationism]], [[post-colonialism]] and Zapatismo have been suggested for inclusion under the rubric. Others have argued that the term "poststructuralist anarchism" is preferable in order to maintain an unbroken link with the anarchist heritage.

By its very nature post-anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs. As such it is difficult, if not impossible, to state with any degree of certainty who should or shouldn't be grouped under the rubric. Nonetheless key thinkers associated with post-anarchism include [[Saul Newman]], [[Todd May]], [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Felix Guattari]].

The [http://www.postanarchism.org/ Postanarchism Clearinghouse] is probably the best place to start for anyone wanting to find out more.

'''Post-left anarchy'''
{{see details|Post-left anarchy}}

''Post-left anarchy'' (anarchy often used instead of "anarchism" to avoid the connotations of doctrine that the ''-ism'' suffix brings) is a more recent current in anarchist thought that seeks to distance itself from the traditional "left" - communists, liberals, social democrats, etc. - and to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general. It has rapidly developed since the fall of the [[Soviet Union]], which many view as the death of authoritarian leftism; however, its roots are clearly visible in the ideas of the 1960s [[Situationists]]. It is not an independent "movement" as such but rather a critical way of thinking about anarchist ideas.

Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary "leftist" movements and single issue causes ([[anti-war]], [[anti-nuclear]], etc.). It calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu. It often focuses on the individual rather than speaking in terms of class or other broad generalizations and shuns organizational tendencies in favor of the complete absence of hierarchy. Total individual liberation is a key focus, rather than merely economic liberation.

Important groups and individuals associated with Post-left anarchy include: [[CrimethInc]], the magazine [[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]] and its editor [[Jason McQuinn]], [[Bob Black]], and others. For more information, see Infoshop.org's [http://www.infoshop.org/afterleftism.html Anarchy After Leftism] section, and the [http://anarchism.ws/postleft.html Post-left section] on [http://anarchism.ws/ anarchism.ws.]

'''Small 'a' anarchism'''

The term "small 'a' anarchism" has been used in two different, but not unconnected contexts.

Dave Neal posited the term in opposition to big 'A' Anarchism in the article [http://www.spunk.org/library/intro/practice/sp001689.html Anarchism: Ideology or Methodology?]. While big 'A' Anarchism referred to ideological Anarchists, small 'a' anarchism was applied to their methodological counterparts; those who viewed anarchism as "a way of acting, or a historical tendency against illegitimate authority." As an anti-ideological position, small 'a' anarchism shares some similarities with [[post-left anarchy]], while Neal's insistence that it entails a rejection of the idea that there can be an "ultimate Truth" recalls the poststructuralist turns of post-anarchism (see above).

David Graeber and Andrej Grubacic offer an alternative use of the term, applying it to groups and movements organising according to or acting in a manner consistent with anarchist principles of decentralisation, voluntary association, mutual aid, the network model, and crucially, "the rejection of any idea that the end justifies the means, let alone that the business of a revolutionary is to seize state power and then begin imposing one's vision at the point of a gun." [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=41&ItemID=4796] Graeber and Grubacic do not offer a comprehensive list of groups within this rubric, but suggest that it includes the likes of autonomism, Zapatismo and radical democracy. It should be stressed that many of these groups do not describe themselves as "anarchist", perhaps deliberately, and are grouped instead on the basis of what they do, implying that the criteria for inclusion are similar to those articulated by Neal.

It is unclear how far the term has been picked up by the wider anarchist movement, but it does help to clarify and begin to explain some of the conflicts and disagreements within contemporary anarchism.

'''Crypto-anarchism'''
{{see details|Crypto-anarchism}}

''Crypto-anarchism'' is a [[philosophy]] that expounds the use of strong [[public key]] [[cryptography]] to enforce [[privacy]] and therefore individual [[freedom]]. Crypto-anarchists aim to create virtual communities where everyone is absolutely [[anonymity|anonymous]] or [[pseudonymity|pseudonymous]].

'''Technological anarchism'''

Some anarchists see [[information technology]] as the way to replace hierarchy, defeat monopoly, and prevent war, and support [[culture jamming]] in particular as a way to do so. Some writers — particularly [[Iain M. Banks]], who has written quite extensively in the [[science fiction]] genre about [[The Culture]], a futuristic society which has disposed of government — have theorised that anarchism would be inevitable with the technological advances that would make [[space travel| travelling]] and living in space plausible [http://www.cs.bris.ac.uk/~stefan/culture.html]. The Electro-anarchy Collective poses a similar theory that technological power will naturally overthrow human government (although some question their anarchist credentials, claiming that technological governance is no less oppressive than human governance).

It has also been argued that the [[free software movement]] is an example of anarchic organization, this being an example not of hierarchical business, but of voluntary association for the production of a good.

See also [[Crypto-anarchism]] and [[Cypherpunk]].

'''Utopian anarchism'''
{{see details|Utopian anarchism}}

A ''Utopian anarchist'' believes, primarily, that nothing is static, everything is relative, and constantly affecting everything else. However, purpose is important, as is progress of purpose, and progress towards fulfillment of purpose. A Utopian anarchist is always thinking of the end desire, and makes decisions through life keeping this context in mind.

Much stress is put upon developing education and evolution. Through free association, a complex web of desires and goals will be strived for, each influencing and perhaps assisting one another in our paths.

The system strives for perfection, through unified diversity. Any static system will have flaws, and flaws fester. If one brushes one's teeth the same way every day, what happens to the missed spot?

Some critics perceive a lack of safety in the absence of enforced moral judgment. One Utopian anarchist response would be to consider this an issue with ego and desire for personal power and appreciation.

'''Spiritual Anarchism'''

''Spiritual Anarchism'', or Divine Anarchy, was originally expressed by the political revolutionary, poet and yogi [[Sri Aurobindo]] during the [[First World War]] in a series of articles published in the ''Arya'', and later made available in two books, ''The Human Cycle'' and ''The Ideal of Human Unity''. The exaggerations of both individualistic and communistic streams of anarchist thought are harmonized by going beyond the vital and intellectual foundations of most other schools of anarchism and rooting itself firmly in the spiritual realization and dynamic perfection of the individual and universal godhead in the race.

A spiritual anarchist holds that a perfect form of social organization can only be achieved by governing our individual and collective life by a higher light than the intellectual reason, a deeper law of solidarity and oneness than emotional or mental bonds of association.

<blockquote>
It is a spiritual, an inner freedom that can alone create a perfect human order. It is a spiritual, a greater than the rational enlightenment that can alone illumine the vital nature of man and impose harmony on its self-seekings, antagonisms and discords. A deeper brotherhood, a yet unfound law of love is the only sure foundation possible for a perfect social evolution, no other can replace it. But this brotherhood and love will not proceed by the vital instincts or the reason where they can be met, baffled or deflected by opposite reasonings and other discordant instincts. Nor will it found itself in the natural heart of man where there are plenty of other passions to combat it. It is in the soul that it must find its roots; the love which is founded upon a deeper truth of our being, the brotherhood or, let us say,—for this is another feeling than any vital or mental sense of brotherhood, a calmer more durable motive-force,—the spiritual comradeship which is the expression of an inner realisation of oneness. For so only can egoism disappear and the true individualism of the unique godhead in each man found itself on the true communism of the equal godhead in the race; for the Spirit, the inmost Self, the universal Godhead in every being is that whose very nature of diverse oneness it is to realise the perfection of its individual life and nature in the existence of all, in the universal life and nature. ''—[[Sri Aurobindo]], The Human Cycle''
</blockquote>

==Conceptions of an anarchist society==

''Main article:'' [[Anarchism and Society]]

Many political philosophers justify support of the state as a means of regulating violence, so that the destruction caused by human conflict is minimized and fair relationships are established. Anarchists argue that pursuit of these ends does not justify the establishment of a state, and in fact many argue that the state is incompatible with those goals. Anarchists argue that the state helps to create a [[Monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force|monopoly on violence]], and uses force and violence to expand and protect elite interests. Much effort has been dedicated to explaining how anarchist societies would handle criminality.

==Conflicts within anarchist thought==

===Private property vs. Collective ownership===
The anarcho-communists and anarcho-syndicalists advocate the elimination of private property, while the individualist anarchists support it as being essential to liberty. Individualist anarchists support private ownership of the produce of labor, including any resulting means of production. Since unused land is not the produce of labor, most classical individualists anarchists, such as Benjamin Tucker, oppose its ownership, but also oppose collective ownership of land. Tucker believes the concept to be incoherent and incompatible with anarchism: "''That there is an entity known as the community which is the rightful owner of all land, Anarchists deny. I . . . maintain that the community is a non-entity, that it has no existence, and is simply a combination of individuals having no prerogatives beyond those of the individuals themselves.''

===Tolerance vs. Expansionism===
Since any belief consistent with anti-statism is anarchist, there are vastly different and often opposing ideas about: what constitutes aggression, what is valid property, and what forms and conventions societies should adopt. As a result, there is difference of opinion ''within'' each school about how to react to, or interact with, those with opposing ideologies. E.g. How should an anarcho-socialist commune react to an anarcho-capitalist firm next door? (And vice-versa.)

The tolerant attitude is to live with it - let reality be the judge. One should not use force to promote your program. Those who take this [[panarchy|panarchist]] approach to 'foreign policy' generally predict that, since their system is better, it will attract more people in the long run. [[Benjamin Tucker]] is a good example of this tolerant approach.

The intolerant (evangelical or expansionist may be more descriptive) attitude considers the other system aggressive and/or authoritarian by its very nature. Thus it is permissible, perhaps even a moral imperative, to use force against the perceived criminals. This attitude occurs among anarcho-capitalists, particularly those who cannot conceive of an anti-statist form of socialism. Indeed, "socialism" in colloquial speech is generally understood as "statist socialism." This attitude also occurs among anarcho-socialists, particularly those who cannot conceive of an anti-statist form of [[propertarianism]]. Indeed, conventional socialist theory deems capitalism as necessarily authoritarian and exploitative.

===Violence and non-violence===
Anarchists have often been portrayed as dangerous and violent, due mainly to a number of high-profile violent acts including [[riot]]s, [[assassination]]s, and [[insurrection]]s involving anarchists. The use of [[terrorism]] and [[assassination]], however, is condemned by most anarchist ideology, though there remains no [[consensus]] on the legitimacy or utility of violence.

Some anarchists share Leo Tolstoy's [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchist]] belief in [[nonviolence]]. These [[anarcho-pacifists]] advocate [[nonviolent resistance]] as the only method of achieving a truly anarchist revolution. They often see violence as the basis of government and coercion and argue that, as such, violence is illegitimate, no matter who is the target. Some of Proudhon's [[France|French]] followers even saw [[strike action]] as coercive and refused to take part in such traditional socialist tactics.

[[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Errico Malatesta]] saw violence as a necessary and sometimes desirable force. Malatesta took the view that it is "necessary to destroy with violence, since one cannot do otherwise, the violence which denies [the means of life and for development] to the workers" (''[[Umanità Nova]]'', number 125, September 6, 1921[http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchists/malatesta/rev_haste.html]).

Between 1894 and 1901, individual anarchists assassinated numerous heads of state. Such "[[propaganda of the deed]]" was not popular among anarchists, and many in the movement condemned the tactic. For example, McKinley's assassin, [[Leon Czolgosz]], claimed to be a disciple of [[Emma Goldman]], but she disavowed any association with him.

Depictions in the press and popular fiction helped create a lasting public impression that anarchists are violent terrorists. This perception was enhanced by events such as the [[Haymarket Riot]], where anarchists were blamed for throwing a bomb at police who came to break up a public meeting in [[Chicago, Illinois]].

Some anarcho-socialists distinguish between "violence" and "property destruction": they claim that violence is when a person inflicts harm to another person, while property destruction or property damage is not violence, although it can have indirect harm such as financial harm.

Individualist anarchists expressly oppose the intiation of physical force, believing force should only be used in defense and that anarchism should be promoted through through reasoned philosophy.

===Pacifism===
Some anarchists consider [[Pacifism]] (opposition to [[war]]) to be inherent in their philosophy. Some anarchists take it further and follow [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s belief in [[Nonviolence|non-violence]] (note, however, that these [[#anarcho-pacifism|anarcho-pacifists]] are not necessarily [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchists]] as Tolstoy was), advocating [[Nonviolent resistance|non-violent resistance]] as the only method of achieving a truly anarchist [[revolution]].

Anarchist literature often portrays war as an activity in which the state seeks to gain and consolidate power, both domestically and in foreign lands. Many anarchists subscribe to [[Randolph Bourne]]'s view that "war is the health of the state"[http://struggle.ws/hist_texts/warhealthstate1918.html]. Anarchists believe that if they were to support a war they would be strengthening the state — indeed, [[Peter Kropotkin]] was alienated from other anarchists when he expressed support for the British in [[World War I]].

Just as they are critical and distrustful of most government endeavours, anarchists often view the stated reasons for war with a [[cynicism|cynical]] eye. Since the [[Vietnam War]] protests in [[North America]] and, most recently, the protests against the [[war in Iraq]], much anarchist activity has been [[anti-war]] based.

Many anarchists in the current movement however, reject complete pacifism, (although groups like Earth First!, and [[Food Not Bombs]] are based on principles of non-violence), and instead are in favor of self-defense, and sometimes violence against oppressive and authoritarian forces which they in fact also consider as defensive violence. Anarchists are skeptical however of winning a direct armed conflict with the state, and instead concern themselves mostly with organizing. Most anarchists however, do not consider the destruction of property to be violent, as do most activists who believe in non-violence.

===Parliamentarianism===
While most anarchists firmly oppose voting, or otherwise participating in the State institution, there are a few that disagree. Even hard-core anarchists (e.g. Proudhon) have succumbed to the temptation of electoral politics - and inevitably regretted it. [[Voluntaryism]] is a anarchist school of thought which emphasizes "tending your own garden" and "neither ballots nor bullets." The anarchist case against voting is explained in [http://fuckthevote.org/TheEthicsofVoting The Ethics of Voting] by George H. Smith.

== Criticism ==
See [[Criticisms of Socialism]] for a general critique of socialism, some of which may apply. There are also some specific criticisms of anarchism. Criticisms specific to an anarchist faction can be found in their own articles.

=== Self-Defense ===
One criticism of anarchism claims that the lack of a state (in particular, police and military forces) would leave the community defenseless against organised violence. Many anarchists believe in a distinction between interpersonal violence and state violence. They see interpersonal violence as a creation of class society and patriarchy, effectively producing people predisposed to violence. State violence is viewed by all anarchists as the result of power structures and the nature of the state. Briefly, anarchists believe that the establishment of anarchy will preclude most individual and social violence. Anarchists also point to examples of autonomous and anarchist societies in which the self-management of society has led to a reduction in crime; for example, Zapatista communities, the Spanish Revolution, and various IWW-led uprisings and strikes that have caused short-term near-anarchic situations.

Most anarchists perceive the need for some kind of organised communal self-defence, in the context of a world with continuing states and other repressive institutions. For many, this would take the form of an armed voluntary militia undifferentiated from the community at large, and organised on a fundamentally collective basis. Additionally, most anarchists perceive the need for social systems of mediation and arbitration to resolve disputes in a voluntary manner, replacing the judicial functions of courts. However, individualist anarchists tend to advocate "private police" and private courts to protect individual liberty and private property.

Critics, however, express doubts concerning the effectiveness of a voluntary militia against a ruthless modern military using [[weapons of mass destruction]] and hierarchical structure. Critics also argue that historical examples, like the [[Spanish Civil War]], do not support the theory that anarchist communities can defend themselves. Some anarchists argue that examples like the Spanish Civil War actually support their contention that even communities who face vastly superior forces and are poorly supplied can hold out when they believe they are fighting for a just cause.

=== Production ===

''Main article:'' [[Anarchist economics]]

Some critics of Anarchism claim that modern economic production in a stateless society is impossible. This critique assumes that economic order can only result from State central planning or capitalist market forces. Social, democratic or other emergent structures of production are seen as impossible within this critique.

In a stateless society where one community has no formal relationship with another, as some anarchists envision, production would be localized, eliminating the benefits of [[Economies of Scale]] and regional specialization. Some anarchists see a positive social value in communities producing the majority of their own needs, this would mean socially chosen losses in economic efficiency. Other anarchists oppose the transportation of goods for environmental reasons, the mass production of goods for cultural or environmental reasons, or industrial production for ethical and environmental reasons. However, many anarchists support the socialisation of industrial production, and see no contradiction between producing for economies of scale and community interests.

Though anarchists are against a centrally controlled or coordinated economic system, most do believe that some sort of system (or multiple co-existing systems) must replace the current, capitalist system, either with a [[gift economy]], a [[time-based currency]], or other, theoretical exchange/production paradigms. [[Bob Black]] proposed that anarchy would allow for "the abolition of work"[http://www.zpub.com/notes/black-work.html].

==See also==
* [[Anarchism and Marxism]]
* [[Anarchism and capitalism]]
* [[Anarchist symbolism]]
* [[Anarcho-punk]]
* [[Red and Anarchist Skinheads|Anarcho-Skinheads]]
* [[Punk ideology]]
* [[Libertarian Socialism]]
* [[Anarcho-syndicalism]]
* [[Black cat]], for a symbol of anarchism
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[Equalism]]
* [[Crimethinc]]
* [[Earth First!]]
* [[Infoshop]]
* [[Individualist anarchism]]
* [[List of anarchists]]
* [[List of anarchist organizations]]
* [[Anarchism and the arts]]
* [[Past and present anarchist communities]]
* [[Situationist]]
* [[Alternative society]]
* [[Syndicalism]]
* [[Temporary Autonomous Zone]]
* [[Free store]]
* [[Utopian Anarchism]]

===Historical events===
*[[Paris Commune]] ([[1871]])
*[[Haymarket Riot]] ([[1886]])
*[[Third Russian Revolution]] ([[1918]] - [[1922]])
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]] ([[1921]])
*[[Spanish Revolution]] ([[1936]]) (see [[Anarchism in Spain]])
*[[May 1968]], France ([[1968]])
*[[WTO Meeting of 1999|WTO Meeting in Seattle]] ([[1999]])

===Books===

*[[Mikhail Bakunin]], ''[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1.html God and the State]'', ''The Paris Commune and the Idea of the State'', others
*[[Alexander Berkman]], ''[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/berkman/comanarchism/whatis_toc.html What is Anarchism?]'', ''Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist'', others
*[[Hakim Bey]], [http://www.hermetic.com/bey/taz_cont.html Temporary Autonomous Zone]
*[[Guy Debord]], ''The Society of the Spectacle''
*[[William Godwin]], ''[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/godwin/PJfrontpiece.html An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice]''
*[[Emma Goldman]], ''[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/goldman/GoldmanCW.html Anarchism and Other Essays]'', ''Living My Life'', others
*[[Daniel Guérin]], ''[[Anarchism (book)|Anarchism]]''
*[[Peter Kropotkin]], ''[[Mutual_Aid:_A_Factor_in_Evolution|Mutual Aid]]'', ''[[The Conquest of Bread]]'', others
*[[Ursula K. LeGuin]] ''[[The Dispossessed]]'' (a novel)
*[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''[[What is Property?]]''
*[[Rudolf Rocker]], ''Anarcho-Syndicalism''
*[[Murray Rothbard]] ''[[The Ethics of Liberty]]'' (Anarcho-capitalist)
*[[Max Stirner]], ''[http://www.buildfreedom.com/content/books/ego/ The Ego And Its Own]''
*[[Leo Tolstoy]], ''The Kingdom of God is Within You''
*[[Voline]], ''The Unknown Revolution''
*[[Robert Paul Wolff]], ''[[In Defense of Anarchism]]''

===Concepts===
''Main article: [[List of anarchist concepts]]''
*[[Anarchist economics]]
*[[Anti-Capitalism]]
*[[Animal Liberation]]
*[[Anti-Authoritarianism]]
*[[Antifa]]
*[[Animal Liberation Front]]
*[[Anarchist People of Color]]
*[[Black Bloc]]
*[[Consensus Democracy]]
*[[Deep Ecology]]
*[[Direct action]]
*[[Direct democracy]]
*[[Dual Power]]
*[[Earth First!]]
*[[Earth Liberation Front]]
*[[Ecofeminism]]
*[[Free Association]]
*[[General Strike]]
*[[Gift economy]]
*[[Indymedia]]
*[[Intellectual worker]]
*[[Media democracy]]
*[[Mutual aid]]
*[[Monopoly on violence]]
*[[Parecon]]
*[[Radical Feminism]]
*[[Revolution]]
*[[Self-ownership]]
*[[Sovereignty of the individual]]
*[[Squatting]]
*[[Syndicalism]]
*[[Self-Management]]
*[[Voluntary association]]
*[[Workers' council]]

===Anarchist organizations===
''Main article: [[List of anarchist organizations]]''
*[[AK Press]]
*[[Alternative Media Project]]
*[[Anarchist Black Cross]]
*[[Anarchist Federation]]
*[[Anarchist Football Network]]
*[[Anarchist People of Color]]
*[[Animal Liberation Front]]
*[[Biotic Baking Brigade]]
*[[CrimethInc.]]
*[[Critical Mass]]
*[[Earth Liberation Front]]
*[[Food Not Bombs]]
*[[Freedom Press]]
*[[Green Anarchy]]
*[[Homes Not Jails]]
*[[Industrial Workers of the World]]
*[[Indymedia]]
*[[Institute for Anarchist Studies]]
*[[Midwest Unrest]]
*[[NEFAC]]
*[[Peoples' Global Action]]
*[[Red and Anarchist Action Network]]
*[[Red and Anarchist Skinheads]]
*[[Workers Solidarity Movement]]
*[[Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Federation]]

While all of these [[organizations]] have anarchists as members, many are inclusive beyond anarchist and include [[anti-authoritarianism|anti-authoritarians]] and [[greens]].

===Anarchism by region/culture===
* [[African Anarchism]]
* [[Anarchism in Spain]]
* [[Anarchism in the English tradition]]

==External links==
* Peter Kropotkin's [http://www.zpub.com/notes/ebanarchy.html Encylopedia entry on anarchism] for the 11th edition Encyclopedia Britannica (1911).
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568770/Anarchism.html Encyclopedia entry on anarchism] from the MS Encarta Encyclopedia
* [http://www.bartleby.com/65/an/anarchis.html Encyclopedia entry on anarchism] from Columbia Encyclopedia
* * [http://www.prole.info/introduction/intro_0.html Work - Community - Politics - War: An easy introduction to anti-political insurrectionist communism]
* Bryan Caplan's [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/anarfaq.htm "Anarchism Theory FAQ"] covers both socialist and capitalist forms of anarchism.
*An [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/ Anarchist FAQ] is written from the perspective of the socialist anarchist movement.
* [http://www.nefac.net/ North Eastern Federation of Anarcho-Communists] - ([[NEFAC]])
* [http://www.libcom.org/forums/ The Libcom forums - anarchist debate]
* [http://www.anarchism.net/anarchism_anarchismcapitalismandanarchocapitalism.htm ''Anarchism, Capitalism, and Anarcho-Capitalism''] from anarchism.net
* [http://raforum.apinc.org/article.php3?id_article=169 ''Manifesto'' by Josiah Warren, the first in the American tradition of individualist anarchism]
* [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest10.htm American Liberal-Anarchism] from ''The Conquest of Power'' by Albert Weisbord, on individualist anarchism in America
* [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest11.htm Collectivist-Anarchism] from ''The Conquest of Power'' by Albert Weisbord
* [http://www.zetetics.com/mac/articles/jlsorg.html ''The Schism Between Individualist and Communist Anarchism''] compares and contrasts the role of violence in the two movements
* [http://www.aideia.no.sapo.pt A IDEIA - Revista Libertaria - Portugal]
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568770/Anarchism.html#endads Encyclopedia entry on Anarchism from MS Encarta]
*[http://www.infoshop.org/fake.html Fake Anarchists and Libertarians]
*Hundreds of anarchists are listed, with short bios, links & dedicated pages [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm at the Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.rebelforums.org/forum/ Rebel Alliance Forums], also harbours a few communists and socialists.
*[http://www.zabalaza.net/texts/african_anarchism/contents.htm African Anarchism: The History of a Movement]
*[http://anarchoblogs.protest.net/ Anarchoblogs] Blogs by Anarchists.
*[http://www.anarchopedia.org/ Anarchopedia] intends to be an anarchist encyclopedia using the [[MediaWiki]] engine.
*[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/ Anarchy Archives] extensively archives information relating to famous anarchists. This includes many of their books and other publications.
*[http://www.antflip.com/anarchy.htm Antflip.com | Anarchism Page] A selection of websites, books, and online articles that explore social anarchism.
* [http://chuck.mahost.org/weblog/anarchist_direct_actions.pdf Anarchist Direct Actions: A Challenge for Law Enforcement] (pdf) is an article from a law enforcement perspective that includes a look at tactics, philosophy and a history of the Anarchist movement in the United States.
*[http://www.infoshop.org/ Infoshop.org]
**[http://www.infoshop.org/wiki/index.php/Main_Page InfoshopOpenWiki], a wiki about anarchist-related topics.
*[http://www.iwa-ait.org/ International Workers Association (IWA-AIT)]
*[http://www.takver.com/history/melb/maa01.htm Melbourne Anarchist Archives 1966-1973]
*[http://www.infoshop.org/inews/stories.php?story=03/09/06/9662148 The Inefficient Utopia] - an analysis of anarchist use of consensus, by the [[Curious George Brigade]].
*[http://www.jura.org.au/ Jura Books (Sydney, Australia)]
*[http://www.nefac.net/ North Eastern Federation of Anarcho-Communists] - ([[NEFAC]])
*[http://www.greenanarchy.org/ Green Anarchy]
*[http://www.blackandgreen.org/ Network of Green Anarchist Collectives]
*[http://www.autonome.org/ Autonome]
*[http://www.iww.org/ Industrial Workers of the World]
*[http://www.retailworkers.org/ IWW Retail Workers]
*[http://www.crimethinc.com/ Crimethinc.com]
*[http://www.crimethinc.net/ Crimethinc.net]
*[http://www.illegalvoices.org/ Anarchist People of Color]
*[http://www.anarcha.org/ Anarcha-feminism]
*[http://www.earthfirstjournal.org/ Earth First!]
*[http://www.zmag.org/grubanar.htm Towards an another anarchism] by Andrej Grubacic at the [[World Social Forum]]
*[http://www.libertari.org/ Libertari.org] Italian anarchist site
*[http://road.cjb.cc/ ROAD Collective] Ontario Anarchist Networking
*[http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/object_i.html ''Objections to Anarchism''] Objections and rebuttals, from ''The Dandelion'' 1977-79
*[http://www.nu-sol.org/ '''Nu-Sol''' (Núcleo de Sociabilidade Libertária) - ''in portuguese'']

=== Opposing Views ===
*[http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Politics/Anarchism/Opposing_Views/ Collection of critical articles]
* [http://www.spunk.org/texts/misc/sp000050.txt ''A Critique of Anarchist Communism'' by Ken Knudson] A criticism from an [[individualist anarchist]] perspective (includes a criticism of anarcho-capitalism), 1971
* [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bookchin/ghost2.html ''The Ghost of Anarcho-Syndicalism''] A criticism by [[Murray Bookchin]], 1992
* [http://www.zetetics.com/mac/blog/00000930.html ''Anarchist-Mutualism''] by John William Lloyd, a criticism of individualist anarchism and mutualism from a former individualist anarchist turned minarchist, 1927

[[Category:Anarchism]]
[[Category:Forms of government]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[Category:Political ideology entry points]]

[[ast:Anarquismu]]
[[bg:Анархизъм]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hui-thóng-tī-chú-gī]]
[[ca:Anarquisme]]
[[cs:Anarchismus]]
[[da:Anarkisme]]
[[de:Anarchismus]]
[[et:Anarhism]]
[[es:Anarquismo]]
[[eo:Anarkiismo]]
[[eu:Anarkismo]]
[[fa:دولت‌زدائی]]
[[fr:Anarchisme]]
[[gl:Anarquismo]]
[[ko:아나키즘]]
[[id:Anarkisme]]
[[is:Stjórnleysisstefna]]
[[it:Anarchismo]]
[[he:אנרכיזם]]
[[lt:Anarchizmas]]
[[nl:Anarchisme]]
[[ja:アナキズム]]
[[no:Anarkisme]]
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[[pt:Anarquismo]]
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[[simple:Anarchism]]
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[[th:ลัทธิอนาธิปไตย]]
[[zh:无政府主义]]

Euro

2005-08-29T19:36:33Z

84.169.210.209: robot Adding: fur

:''For other uses, see [[{{PAGENAME}} (disambiguation)]] or [[EUR (disambiguation)]].''

The '''euro''' ('''€'''; [[ISO 4217]] code '''EUR''') is the [[currency]] of twelve [[European Union]] member states: [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Portugal]], and [[Spain]]. [[Monaco]], [[San Marino]], and the [[Vatican City]], which formerly used the French [[Franc]] or the Italian [[Lira]] as their currency now use the euro as their currency and are licensed to mint their own euro coins in small amounts even though they are not EU states. The euro is also used for payment of debt in other non-EU states such as [[Montenegro]], [[Kosovo]] and [[Andorra]]. The euro is the result of the most significant [[monetary reform]] in Europe since the [[Roman Empire]]. Though the euro can be seen simply as a mechanism for perfecting the [[European Common Market|Single European Market]], facilitating [[free trade]] between the members of the [[Eurozone]], the euro is also seen by its founders as a key part of the project of European political integration.

The euro is administered by the [[European System of Central Banks]] (ESCB), composed of the [[European Central Bank]] (ECB) and the [[Eurozone]] [[central bank|central banks]] operating in member states. The ECB (headquartered in [[Frankfurt|Frankfurt am Main]], [[Germany]]) has sole authority to set [[monetary policy]]; the other members of the ESCB participate in the printing, minting and distribution of [[Euro banknotes|notes]] and [[Euro coins|coins]], and the operation of the Eurozone payment system.

[[Image:Euro banknotes.jpg|280px|right|Euro banknotes]][[Image:Euro coins.jpg|130px|right|Euro coins]]

==Characteristics==

:''Main articles: [[Euro coins]], [[Euro banknotes]]''

[[Image:Euro yellow on blue.png|right|thumb|150px|The euro sign is a stylised letter "[[E]]" resembling the letter "[[C]]" with a doubled middle bar, following the convention of many other [[currency sign]]s. [http://www.euro.ecb.int/en/section/euro/euro.html (geometry)]]]

The euro is divided into 100 '''[[Cent (currency)|cents]]'''. In the English language, the form "cent" is officially required to be used in legislation in the singular and in the plural, though the natural plural ''cents'' is recommended for use in material aimed at the general public. (For more information on language and the euro, see the relevant section below.)

All [[euro coins]] have a '''common side''' showing the denomination (value) and a '''national side''' showing an image specifically chosen by the country that issued it; the [[Monarchy|monarchies]] often have a picture of their reigning monarch, other countries usually have their national symbols. All the different coins can be used in all the participating member states: for example, a euro coin bearing an image of the Spanish king is legal tender not only in Spain, but also in all the other nations where the euro is in use. There are two-euro, one-euro, fifty-cent, twenty-cent, ten-cent, five-cent, two-cent and one-cent coins, though the latter two are not generally used in Finland or the Netherlands (but are still legal tender).

[[Euro banknotes]] have a common design for each denomination on both sides. Notes are issued in the following amounts: €500, €200, €100, €50, €20, €10, and €5. Some higher denominations are not issued in some countries, though again, are legal tender.

There is a eurowide clearing system for large transactions, set up prior to the launch of the euro - [http://www.ecb.int/paym/target/html/index.en.html TARGET]. For retail payments, several arrangements are used and the general rule is that a intra-eurozone transfer shall cost the same as a domestic one. Credit card charging and ATM withdrawals within the eurozone also are charged as if they were domestic. Paper based payment orders, such as cheques, are still domestic based.

==Transition==

The euro was established by the provisions in the [[1992]] [[Maastricht]] [[Treaty on European Union]] that was used to establish an [[economic and monetary union]]. In order to participate in the new currency, member states had to meet strict criteria such as a [[budget deficit]] of less than three per cent of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], a debt ratio of less than sixty per cent of GDP, combined with low [[inflation]] and [[interest]] rates close to the EU average.

Due to differences in national conventions for rounding and significant digits, all conversion between the national currencies had to be carried out using the process of triangulation via the euro. The ''definitive'' values in euro of these subdivisions (which represent the [[exchange rate]]s at which the currency entered the euro) are as follows:
*13.7603 Austrian [[schilling]]s (ATS)
*40.3399 Belgian [[franc]]s (BEF)
*2.20371 Dutch [[guilder]] (NLG)
*5.94573 Finnish [[markka]] (FIM)
*6.55957 French [[franc]]s (FRF)
*1.95583 German [[Deutsche Mark|Mark]] (DEM)
*0.787564 Irish [[Irish pound|pound]]s (IEP)
*1936.27 Italian [[lira|lire]] (ITL)
*40.3399 Luxembourg [[franc]]s (LUF)
*200.482 Portuguese [[escudo]]s (PTE)
*166.386 Spanish [[peseta]]s (ESP)

The above rates were determined by the Council of the European Union, based on a recommendation from the European Commission based on the market rates on [[31 December]], [[1998]], so that one ECU ([[European Currency Unit]]) would equal one euro. (The European Currency Unit was an accounting unit used by the EU, based on the currencies of the member states; it was not a currency in its own right.) These rates were set by Council Regulation 2866/98 (EC), of [[31 December]] [[1998]]. They could not be set earlier, because the ECU depended on the closing exchange rate of the non-euro currencies (principally the [[pound sterling]]) that day.

[[Greece]] failed to meet the criteria for joining initially, so it did not join the common currency on [[1 January]], [[1999]]. It was admitted two years later, on [[1 January]] [[2001]], at the following exchange rate:
*340.750 Greek [[drachma]]s (GRD)

The procedure used to fix the irrevocable conversion rate between the drachma and the euro was different, since the euro by then was already two years old. While the conversion rates for the initial eleven currencies were determined only hours before the euro was introduced, the conversion rate for the Greek drachma was fixed several months beforehand, in Council Regulation 1478/2000 (EC), of [[19 June]] [[2000]].

The currency was introduced in non-physical form (travellers' cheques, electronic transfers, banking, etc.) at midnight on [[1 January]], [[1999]], when the national currencies of participating countries (the Eurozone) ceased to exist independently in that their exchange rates were locked at fixed rates against each other, effectively making them mere non-decimal subdivisions of the euro. The euro thus became the successor to the [[European Currency Unit]] (ECU). The notes and coins for the old currencies, however, continued to be used as [[legal tender]] until new notes and coins were introduced on [[1 January]] [[2002]].

The changeover period during which the former currencies' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, until [[28 February]], [[2002]]. The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state. The earliest date was in [[Germany]]; the [[Deutsche Mark|mark]] officially ceased to be legal tender on [[31 December]], [[2001]], though the exchange period lasted two months. The final date was [[28 February]] [[2002]], by which all national currencies ceased to be legal tender in their respective member states. (Note that some of these dates were earlier than was originally planned.) However, even after the official date, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for several years up to forever (Austria, Germany, Ireland, Spain). The earliest coins to become non-convertible were the Portuguese escudos, which ceased to have monetary value after [[31 December]] [[2002]], although banknotes do remain exchangeable until [[2022]].

Although some countries are not printing the €500 and €200 banknotes, all banknotes are legal tender throughout the Eurozone. Finland decided not to mint or circulate one-cent and two-cent coins, except in small numbers for collectors. All cash transactions in Finland ending in one or two cents are rounded down and three or four cents are rounded up. Despite this convention, the one-cent and two-cent coins are still legal tender in Finland.

==Participation in the Economic and Monetary Union==
:''Main article: [[Eurozone]]''

===Countries using the euro===
At present the member states officially using the euro are [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Finland]], [[France]] (except Pacific territories using the [[CFP franc]]), [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Netherlands]], [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]]. Overseas territories of some Eurozone countries, such as [[French Guiana]], [[Réunion]], [[Saint-Pierre et Miquelon]], and [[Martinique]], also use the euro. These countries together are frequently referred to as the "[[Eurozone]]", "Euroland" or more rarely as "Eurogroup".

[[Monaco]], [[San Marino]], and [[Vatican City]] previously used currencies that were replaced by the euro, and now mint their own euro coins by virtue of [http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l25040.htm agreements] concluded with EU member states ([[Italy]] in the case of San Marino and Vatican City, and [[France]] in the case of [[Monaco]]), on behalf of the [[European Community]].

[[Andorra]], [[Montenegro]], and [[Kosovo]] also used currencies that were replaced by the euro (the French [[franc]] and Spanish [[peseta]] in the case of Andorra, and the German [[Deutsche Mark|mark]] in the case of Montenegro and Kosovo). They have now adopted the euro as their ''de facto'' currencies, without having entered into any legal arrangements with the EU that explicitly permit them to do so. In October [[2004]], Andorra began negotiating a monetary agreement with the European Union that would allow the country to issue euro coins as Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican City do.

Many of the foreign currencies that were pegged to European currencies are now [[Currencies related to the euro|pegged to the euro]]. For example, the [[escudo]] of [[Cape Verde]] used to be pegged to the Portuguese escudo, but is now pegged to the euro. Bosnia-Herzogovina uses a convertible mark which was pegged to the Deutsche mark but is now pegged to the euro. Similarly the [[CFP franc]], [[CFA franc]] and [[Comorian franc]], all once pegged to the French [[franc]], are now pegged to the euro. The euro is widely accepted in Cape Verde already on an informal basis, and in November 2004, during a meeting in Portugal, the prime minister of [[Cape Verde]] considered formally adopting the euro as his country's currency.

Since December 2002, [[North Korea]] has switched from the dollar as its official currency for all foreign transactions to the euro. The euro has since then also replaced the dollar in large parts of the blackmarket and in shops where the dollar was used earlier.

===EU-members outside the Eurozone===
The ten newest European Union members are expected to eventually use the euro, as eventual adoption of the euro was part of their accession agreements. [[Cyprus]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]] and [[Slovenia]] have already joined [[Denmark]] in the [[European Exchange Rate Mechanism]], ERM II. The dates these ten states hope to complete the third stage of the [[Economic and Monetary Union|EMU]] vary: [[1 January]], [[2007]] for [[Estonia]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Lithuania]] [http://www.lb.lt/news/pg.dll?lng=EN&did=1014 1](since they are already part of [[ERM II]]); [[2007]] for [[Cyprus]]; [[2008]] for [[Latvia]], [[Malta]] and [[Slovakia]]; [[2009]] for the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Poland]]; and finally [[2010]] for [[Hungary]]. Estonia finalised the design for the country's coins' reverse side in late 2004. [http://www.eestipank.info/pub/en/majandus/euroopaliit/euro/kavand/_1kava.html 1] [http://www.eestipank.info/pub/en/yldine/press/pressiteated/pt2004/_20041215.html 2]

The [[United Kingdom]] and [[Sweden]] have no plans at present to adopt the euro—however Sweden (unlike the UK and Denmark) does not have a formal opt-out from the monetary union (the third stage of EMU) and therefore must (in theory at least) convert to the euro at some point. Notwithstanding this, on [[14 September]], [[2003]], a Swedish [[Referenda in Sweden|referendum]] was held on the euro, the result of which was a rejection of the common currency. The Swedish government has argued that such a line of action is possible since one of the requirements for Eurozone membership is a prior two-year membership of the ERM II. By simply choosing to stay outside the exchange rate mechanism, the Swedish government is provided a formal loophole avoiding the theoretical requirement of adopting the euro. Sweden's major parties continue to believe that it would be in the national interest to join.

UK [[Eurosceptics]] believe that the single currency is merely a stepping stone to the formation of a unified European superstate, and that removing Britain's ability to set its own interest rates will have detrimental effects on its economy. The contrary view is that, since intra-European exports make up 60% of the UK's total, it eases the Single Market by removing currency risk. An interesting parallel can be seen in the [[19th century]] discussions concerning the possibility of the UK joining the [[Latin Monetary Union]] [http://www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-924366-2.pdf]. The UK government has set [[five economic tests]] that must be passed before it can recommend that the UK join the euro. It assessed these tests in October 1997 and June 2003, and decided on both occasions that they had not all been passed. All three main political parties in the UK have promised to hold a referendum before joining the euro, and opinion polls consistently report a majority of the public to be opposed to joining the euro.

[[Denmark]] negotiated a number of opt-out clauses from the [[Maastricht treaty]] after it had been rejected in a first referendum (namely, Denmark attained an opt-out from joint defence, common currency, judicial cooperation, and European citizenship). The modified treaty was then accepted in another referendum one year after the first one. In [[2000]], another referendum was held in Denmark regarding the euro; once more, the population decided to stay outside the [[eurozone]] for now. However, Danish politicians have suggested that debate on abolishing the four opt-out clauses may be re-opened in late 2005 or early 2006. In addition, Denmark has pegged its [[krone]] to the euro (€1 = DKr7.460,38 ± 2.25%), something which Sweden has not done.

===Bulgaria and Romania===
Although [[Bulgaria]] is not a member state yet (member as of [[January 1]] [[2007]]), the [[Bulgarian National Bank]] (BNB) and the Bulgarian government have agreed on the introduction of the euro in mid [[2009]], when the [[Bulgarian National Bank]] is expected to become part of the EMU and will receive the right to issue Bulgarian euro coins. The early accession to the EMU is due to the extremely tight monetary policy currently in use, which is the result of Bulgaria's agreement with the Monetary Board. In 1999 the Bulgarian currency was re-denominated (1 New Lev = 1000 Old Levs) and the value of the [[lev]] was fixed to one German Mark, therefore its value has since been fixed in relation to the euro. Even at this point of time [[Bulgaria]] has fulfilled the great majority of the EMU membership criteria.

As for [[Romania]] (member as of [[January 1]] [[2007]]), it is likely to join the Eurozone in the 2012-2013 period. However, there is no clear strategy of the Romanian government at this point, so the actual date depends on the future development in the Romanian fiscal and monetary policies.

==Effects of a single currency==
Having a single currency is expected to increase the economic interdependency of and the ease of trade between the EU members that have adopted the euro. This, in theory, should be beneficial for citizens of the euro area, as increases in trade are historically one of the main driving forces of economic growth. Moreover, this would fit with the long-term purpose of a [[unified market]] within the [[European Union]], including (since 1992) the free movement of persons, goods and capital. Free movement of services industries remains constrained, with France particularly resistant.

A major benefit is the removal of [[bank]] transaction charges that previously were a significant cost to both individuals and [[business]]es when exchanging from one national currency to another. Conversely, banks suffered a corresponding reduction in profits with the loss of this income.

A second effect of the common European currency is that differences in prices—in particular in price levels—should decrease. Differences in prices can trigger [[arbitrage]], e.g. artificial trade in a commodity between countries purely to exploit the price differential, which will tend to equalise prices across the euro area. This should also result in increased competition between companies, which should help to contain inflation and which therefore will be beneficial to consumers.

Competive funding is also a plus for many countries (and companies) that adopted the Euro.

Some economists are concerned about the possible dangers of adopting a single currency for a large and diverse area. Because the Eurozone has a single monetary policy (and so a single interest rate), set by the ECB, it cannot be fine-tuned for the economic situation in each individual country (however, prior to the introduction of the Euro, exchange rates were already very much in sync after the latest european currency crisis in the early 90's). [[Public investment]] and [[fiscal policy]] in each country is thus the only way in which government-led economic stimulus can be introduced specific to each region or nation. Eurozone members are experiencing relatively large variations in inflation and unemployment, though not great enough to cause significant economic damage.

Others point out that the Eurozone is similar in size and population to the [[United States]], which has a single currency and a single monetary policy set by the [[Federal Reserve]]. However, the individual states that make up the USA have less [[regional autonomy]] and a more homogeneous economy than the nations of the EU. Of particular concern in accordance with this theory is the notion that the economies of the EU may not all be 'in sync'—each may be at a different stage in the [[boom and bust]] cycle, or just be experiencing different inflationary pressures. Labour mobility is also much lower in the Eurozone than across the United States, largely due to the vast differences in language and culture between European nations, and despite labour, capital and goods full mobility rules.

It can also be argued that the single currency works for the USA because the [[US dollar]] is a hegemonic currency. Before the euro, eighty per cent of the world's currency reserves were held in US dollars. This gives the US economy a huge subsidy in that reserve dollars are invested in US institutions or foreign institutions under US control. This subsidy helps cushion the effects of a possible strong dollar hurting certain regions of the USA.

If the euro were to become either a hegemonic currency replacing the dollar or a co-hegemonic currency equal in reserve status to the dollar, some of the subsidy the USA gains would be transferred to the EU and help balance out some of the problems of the present heterogeneous economic structure still in place.

It has been said that the euro would add great [[liquidity]] to the financial markets in Europe. Governments and companies can now borrow money in euros instead of their local currency, and this would allow access to many more sources of funds. Other economists consider that the potential strength of the Eurozone would be in the coherent efforts of a virtual greater super-economy, in which it is now potentially easier to create stronger financial associations, rather than in the mere sum of single liquidities.

===The euro and oil===
A final and possibly decisive effect is on the pricing of oil. The Eurozone consumes more imported [[petroleum]] than the United States. This would mean that more euros than US dollars would flow into the [[OPEC]] nations, except that oil is priced by those nations in US dollars only. There have been frequent discussions at OPEC about pricing oil in euros, which would have various effects, among them, requiring nations to hold stores of euros to buy oil, rather than the US dollars that they hold now. [[Venezuela]] under [[Hugo Chávez]] has been a vocal proponent of this scheme, despite selling most of its own oil to the United States. Another proponent was [[Saddam Hussein]] of [[Iraq]], which is holding the world's second largest oil reserves. Since [[2000]] Iraq had used the Euro as oil export currency. In [[2002]], [[Iraq]] changed its US dollars into Euro, just a few months before the [[USA]] decided to declare war and subsequently invaded the country. If implemented by the OPEC, the changeover to Euro would be a transfer of a '[[float]]' that presently subsidises the United States to subsidise the European Union instead. Another effect would be that the price of oil in the Eurozone would more closely follow the world price. When oil prices skyrocketed to almost 50 US dollars in [[August]] [[2004]], the oil price in euros didn't change nearly as much because of the concurrent rise in the [[exchange rate]] of the euro to the US dollar (to an exchange rate of EUR 1.00 = USD 1.33 in December 2004). Similarly, should oil prices lower significantly, together with the USD/EUR exchange rate, the oil price in the Eurozone would not fall as much. On the other hand, if the exchange rate and the oil price move in different directions, oil price changes are magnified. Pricing oil in euros would nullify this dependency of European oil prices on the USD/EUR exchange rate.

The deficit structure of the US economy relies heavily on the dollar's hegemonic reserve status as a means of securing US debts and deficits. Without this status, the dollar and the US economy might experience what many [[Latin America]]n countries experienced during the [[1980s]]. As long as the US dollar was not threatened, the US economy was in no danger of collapse. The individual European currencies offered no threat to the dollar's hegemonic position. In the opinion of some economists the euro may pose a threat to US dollar hegemony, and could under certain circumstances result in a US economic collapse.

==Euro exchange rate==

=== Against the US Dollar ===
After the introduction of the euro, its exchange rate against other currencies, especially the [[US dollar]], declined heavily. At its introduction in [[1999]], the euro was worth USD $1.18; on [[26 October]] [[2000]], it fell to an all time low of $0.8228. It then began what at the time was thought to be a recovery; by the beginning of [[2001]] it had risen to nearly $0.96. It declined again, although less than previously, reaching a low of $0.8344 on [[6 July]] [[2001]]. The currency then began to recover against the U.S. dollar. In the wake of U.S. corporate scandals, the two currencies reached parity on [[15 July]], [[2002]], and by the end of 2002 the euro had reached $1.04 as it climbed further.

On [[23 May]], [[2003]], the euro surpassed its initial trading value for the first time as it again hit $1.18, and broke the $1.35 barrier (€0.74 = $1) on [[24 December]], [[2004]]. On [[30 December]], [[2004]] it reached a peak of $1.3668. Some analysts expected the euro to continue to strengthen against the dollar, a few even suggesting $1.60 by the end of [[2005]]. However, the dollar started to recover in 2005 and few analysts today are as inclined to predict the long term trend as confidently.

=== Currencies pegged to euro===
For information on currencies pegged to euro, see: [[Currencies related to the euro]]

===Drivers===

Part of the euro's strength in the period 2001-2004 was thought to be due to more attractive [[interest]] rates in Europe than in the United States. The US [[Federal Reserve]] has had maintained lower rates than the [[European Central Bank|ECB]] for these years, despite key European economies, notably Germany, growing relatively slowly or not at all. This is attributed in part to the ECB's duty to check inflation across the Eurozone, which in high-performing countries such as [[Republic of Ireland]] is above the ECB's target.

However, although the interest rate differential formed part of the backdrop, the main ''a posteriori'' justification for the euro's continuing ascent against the dollar was the concern over the huge unsustainable US [[current account]] [[deficit]]s. The market has been awash with concerns about the US [[twin deficit]]s, which have been a key driver of dollar weakness. The US [[budget deficit]] is about $427 [[billion]], or 3.7% of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP), while the current account—the broadest trade measure since it adds investment flows—hit a record $166.18bn shortfall in the second quarter of 2004.

A key factor is that a number of Asian currencies are rising less against the dollar than is the euro. In the case of China, the [[renminbi]] was until recently pegged against the dollar, whilst the Japanese [[yen]] is supported by intervention (and the threat of it) by the [[Bank of Japan]]. This means much of the pressure from a falling dollar is translated into a rising euro.

The euro's climb from its lows began shortly after it was introduced as a cash currency. In the time between [[1999]] and [[2002]], [[euroscepticism|eurosceptics]] believed that the weak euro was a sign that the euro experiment was doomed to fail. It may be that its weakness in this period was due to low confidence in a currency that did not exist in "real" form. While the overt conversion to notes and coins had not yet occurred, it remained possible that the project could fail. Once the euro became "real" in the sense of existing in the form of cash, confidence in the euro rose and the increasing perception that it was here to stay helped increase its value. This effect was probably significant in the euro's decline and recovery between 1999 and 2002, but other factors are more significant since then.

Another factor in the early decline of the euro was that many investors and [[central banks]] sold large portions of their legacy (national) currency holdings once the irrevocable exchange rates were set, as the goal of holding multiple currencies is to dampen losses when one currency falls. Once the exchange rates between Eurozone countries were pegged against each other, holdings in German [[German Mark|marks]] and French [[French Franc|francs]] (for example) became identical. There is also some reason to believe that significant sums of illegally held monies were sold for dollars to avoid an official and public exchange for euros.

===Consequences===
Despite the euro's rise in value, as well as the value of other major and minor currencies, the US trade deficits continue to rise. Economic theory would suggest that a fall in the dollar and a rise in the euro should lead to an improvement in US exports and a decline in US imports, as the former becomes cheaper and the latter more expensive. However, this depends to some extent on how currency costs are passed down the supply chain. Furthermore, the declining dollar makes foreign investment in the US cheaper (although also reducing the return), so that continuing foreign investment may underpin the dollar to some extent.

The role of the dollar as the world's [[de facto]] reserve currency helps support both the dollar and the US budget deficit - but it depends on the continued willingness of foreigners to finance both. Central banks and others finance the budget by acquiring newly-issued, dollar-denominated US government bonds, which they need to acquire dollars for. If at some point foreigners become unwilling to accept new bonds at the prevailing interest rate (perhaps because the falling dollar is reducing the bonds' value too much), the dollar will fall even more - or the US will have to raise interest rates, which would reduce economic growth.

There is speculation that the strength of the euro relative to the dollar might encourage the use of the euro as an alternative [[reserve currency]]; [[Saddam Hussein]]'s [[Iraq]] switched its currency reserves from dollars to euros in 2000. Moves by central banks with major reserve currency holdings such as those of [[India]] or [[China]] to switch some of their reserves from dollars to euros, or even of [[OPEC]] countries to switch the currency they trade in from dollars to euros, will further reinforce the dollar's decline. In 2004, the [[Bank for International Settlements]] reported the proportion of bank deposits held in euros rising to 20%, from 12% in 2001, and it is continuously rising. The falling dollar also raises returns for US investors from investing in foreign stocks, encouraging a switch which further depresses the dollar.

The rise in the euro should dampen Eurozone exports, but there is little sign of this happening yet. The main reason is that the currencies of Euroland's major world-wide customers are also seeing their currencies rise relative to the dollar. As the current account deficits continue to rise and the US plans no austerity measures to curb foreign imports and increase exports, the situation may cause the US dollar to lose its position as a hegemonic currency replaced by either the euro or the euro and a basket of currencies.

*[http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/fds/hi/business/market_data/currency/13/12/twelve_month.stm Current dollar/euro exchange rates (BBC)]
*[http://www.ecb.int/stats/exchange/eurofxref/html/index.en.html Current and historical exchange rates against 29 other currencies (European Central Bank)]
*[http://www.kshitij.com/graphgallery/eurmth.shtml Historical exchange rate from 1971 till now]

==Plural formation and grammar==
:''Main article: [[Linguistic issues concerning the euro]]''

Several linguistic issues have arisen in relation to the spelling of the words ''euro'' and ''cent'' in the many languages of the member states of the European Union, as well as in relation to grammar and the formation of plurals. Immutable word formations have been encouraged by the European Commission in usage with official EU legislation (originally in order to ensure uniform presentation on the banknotes), but the "unofficial" practice concerning the mutability (or not) of the words differs between the member states.

In the English language, the form "euro" is used both in the singular and the plural ''in legislation'', without much justification apart from an apparent wish not to have to revise older legislation. The natural plural cents is recommended (by the Translation Section of the European Commission) for use in all material aimed at the general public.

The (misnomer) "euro-cent" is sometimes used in countries (such as USA, Canada, Australia) that also have "cent" as a subcurrency, to distinguish them from the local coin. The terms "[[eurodollar]]", which commonly refers to US dollar deposits in European banks, or the non-existent "euro dollar" have occasionally been used incorrectly to refer to the euro by sources in other parts of the world, particularly the United States.

==The euro sign==
[[Image:Euro_symbol_construction.png|thumb|100px|right|This is the official construction of the Euro Symbol]]
The international three-letter code (according to [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] standard [[ISO 4217]]) for the euro is '''EUR'''. A special euro currency sign (€) was also designed. After a public survey had narrowed the original ten proposals down to just two, it was then up to the European Commission to choose the final design. The eventual winner was a design created by a team of four experts. The symbol is (according to the European Commission) "a combination of the Greek epsilon, as a sign of the weight of European civilisation; an E for Europe; and the parallel lines crossing through standing for the stability of the euro." This is [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4325292-102275,00.html disputed] by [[Arthur Eisenmenger]], a former chief graphic designer for the [[EEC]], who claims to have created it as a generic symbol of Europe.

The euro is represented in the [[Unicode]] [[character set]] with the character name EURO SIGN and the code position U+20AC (decimal 8364) as well as in updated versions{{fn|1}} of the traditional Latin character set encodings. In [[HTML]] "&euro;" can also be used. The HTML masking was only introduced with HTML 4.0; shortly after the introduction of the euro, many browsers were unable to render it.

[[Image:Euro_signs.png|thumb|200px|right|A selection of the euro signs in various fonts: [[Arial]], [[Times New Roman]], [[Comic Sans]], [[Courier New]], [[Lucida Console]], Microsoft Sans Serif, [[Verdana]].]]
The European Commission originally specified the euro sign to have exact proportions, not varying from font to font. By this specification, the euro sign would have effectively been a logo, unlike designable characters such as the letters or other currency signs like the dollar and pound signs. Keeping it to exact measurements would have made it rather broad in comparison to other symbols and digits in most [[typeface|font]]s and would sometimes have resulted in layout problems. For these reasons, most type designers have ignored the commission and designed their own variants for each font instead, often based upon the capital letter C in the respective font. The illustration at the top of this article is of the official, invariant euro sign.

Typing the euro sign on a computer depends on the [[operating system]] and national conventions. See [[Keyboarding the euro sign]] for details. Some mobile phone companies did an interim software update on their special [[Short message service|SMS]] character set, replacing the rarely used symbol for the Japanese [[yen]] with the euro sign: modern phones have both currency signs.

No "official" recommendation is made with regard to the use of a [[cent sign]], and sums are often expressed as fractions of the euro (for example €0.05 rather than 5¢ or 5c). The small letter '''c''' is often used (as it was for the [[guilder]]'s subdivision, the ''cent''). In Ireland, the small letter '''c''' is often seen (for instance on postage stamps) but in shops the cent sign (¢) makes an appearance from time to time. In Greece, the capital letter lambda (Λ) is widely used, as an abbreviation for [[Lepton (Currency)|''lepta'']] (''Λεπτά'') and indeed the latter is written on the national side of the Greek-issue coins. In Germany, the abbreviation "ct" is widely used for "cent". In Finland, usually the fraction method is shown -,82 €, however sometimes you see the "snt" abbreviation from the Finnish "sentti", e.g. 50 snt.

Placement of the symbol is also an example of diversity. While the official recommendation is to place it before the number, people in many countries have kept the placement of their former currencies. This is the case in Spain and France, where people are reluctant to change to a system they find somewhat illogical (writing the currency before, "€2", but reading it after, as in "deux/dos euros"). In France, therefore, € 3,50 is often written as 3€50 instead, a practice seen used for times too: 3h30.

{{fnb|1}} ''For details please see the [[Western Latin character sets (computing)]].''

== Reactions following the European Constitution votes ==

Although the failure of the [[European Constitution]] to be ratified would have no direct impact on the status of the Euro, some pessimism regarding the Euro arose after the negative outcome of the French and Dutch referendums in mid [[2005]].

* A poll by Stern magazine released [[June 1]] [[2005]] found that 56% of Germans would favor a return to the Mark. [http://www.stern.de/presse/vorab/?id=541124&q=eichel%20category:presse]
* Members of the [[Northern League]] Italian political party have discussed calling a referendum to return Italy to the Lira. [http://washingtontimes.com/world/20050614-114629-8803r.htm]
* Members of the [[Movement for France]] political party have proposed holding a referendum to return France to the Franc. [http://news.scotsman.com/international.cfm?id=664902005]
* In contrast to Germany a poll in Austria on [[June 7]] [[2005]] showed the overwhelming support of the Euro - 73 percent of the sample said they preferred to keep the common currency with only 21 percent in favour of returning to the old currency the Schilling. [http://www.vienna.at/engine.aspx/page/vienna-article-detail-page/cn/vol-news-willie-20050607-011305/dc/tp:vol:oesterreich]

However, soon after these suggestions were made, the [[European Commission]] issued a statement denying any possibility of this, stating "the euro is here to stay".



== Economists who helped realise the euro ==

Economist [[Robert Mundell]] is sometimes referred to as the father of the euro.
Other economists that helped include [[Robert Tollison]] and [[Neil Dowling]].

== Slang words ==
Some countries have given local slang words for the euro.

*In [[Finland]], the most common slang word for euro is ''ege''. This comes from ''huge'', the slang word for the Finnish [[markka]]. The etymology and origin of ''huge'' are obscure. Cents are sometimes called ''sena''. Euros are also known as ''eki'', ''eero'', or ''erkki''. ''Eero'' and ''Erkki'' are also Finnish men's names. Euro is also known as ''jörö'', the Finnish name of the dwarf [[Snow_White_and_the_Seven_Dwarfs|Grumpy]], because ''jörö'' and the English language pronunciation of Euro sound similar.
*In [[Ireland]], the term ''quid'' has been transferred from its use as a slang term for the [[Irish pound]] to a slang term for the euro. Another, less common nickname is ''[[yo-yo]]''.
*In [[Portugal]], the 1 cent coin, because it is so small, was almost immediately nicknamed. The most common nicknames are: ''feijão'' (bean), ''botão'' (button), and ''tostão'' (penny). In Portugal beans are used to gamble when people do not want to play with money, as in the popular expression ''jogar a feijões'' ('playing with beans'), implying the 1 cent coin is worth as little as a bean. Some elderly people find hard to pronounce ['euro] so they pronunce it as ''ouro'' (gold), while others think it is really named ''ouro'', because of the similarity of both words and also due to some coins being gold-like. The 1, 2 and 5 cents are nicknamed ''moedas pretas'' (the black coins) because with time they become darker. The 100, 200 and, especially, the 500 euro notes are nicknamed ''nota grande'' (big banknote).
*In [[German language|German]], the euro is sometimes shortened to ''Eu'' (approx. pron.: "oy"). In [[Austria]] and [[Germany]], it has also been called ''Teuro'' - a play on the word "teuer", meaning expensive. Many people felt that prices increased dramatically following the introduction of the euro.
*In [[Italy]], the euro is sometimes jokingly called ''neuro'', suggesting it has driven people (and the economy) mad. Also, in [[Italian language|Italian]] the word ''euro'' is the same both in the singular and in the plural form, following the rule that shortened words have no different plural (''foto'', for instance, follows this rule). However, some people use informally use the plural form ''euri''.
*In some regions of [[Spain]], euro is sometimes called ''[[ebro]]'', ''lauro'', ''leru'' or ''pavo''; the latter commonly used as a translation for the English slang [[dollar|buck]] in films and books. The 500 euro notes are sometimes jokingly nicknamed [[Osama bin Laden|Bin Ladens]] (because "''they are nowhere to be seen''"), and the contraction of ''céntimo de euro'' into ''centauro'' ([[centaur]]) is more rarely used for euro cents.
*In the [[Netherlands]], the euro is sometimes shortened to ''e'' (approx. pron.: "ay"), or diminutive ''eetje''. The nickname for the old Rijksdaalder (2½ guilders) 'knaak' is used by many, referring to the similarity in value. (There is some irony in an old joke ''2 knaak 50'' now being possible and thus no longer funny.) The more slangish ''eazer'' can also be heard. Some people use a different plural: ''euri'', instead of ''euro's''. The 5 cent coin is sometimes called ''stuiver'', which was also the name of the 5 cent coin during the Guilder era. Similarly, 10 cents is sometimes called ''dubbeltje'', which is derived from ''double stuiver''. In prices, the word ''honderd'' (a hundred), is sometimes replaced by ''snip'', which is a waterbird that featured on the 100 guilder banknote used in the 80s and 90s.

==See also==
*[[Latin Monetary Union]] '''(1865-1927)'''
*[[Currencies related to the euro]]
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Economic and Monetary Union|EMU]]
*[[Euro coins]]
*[[Euro banknotes]]
*[[European System of Central Banks]]
*[[Euribor]], a benchmark for money market in the Eurozone
*[[Eonia]], an effective overnight reference rate for the euro
*[[Stability and Growth Pact]] is an agreement by [[European Union]] member states related to their conduct of [[fiscal policy]], to facilitate and maintain [[Economic and Monetary Union]].
*[[American currency union|Amero]], a proposed [[North America|Northern American]] currency union

==External links==
{{commons|Euro}}
*[http://www.ecb.int/ European Central Bank]
*[http://www.fbe.be/ European Banking Federation]
*[http://europa.eu.int/euro/entry.html The Euro: Our Currency (Official EU Site)]
*[http://www.dollar-euro-chart.de Dollar/Euro-Chart]

===Articles===
*[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_1638_281/ai_90469048 A critical view on "The euro and Great Britain"]
*[http://www.mises.org/fullarticle.asp?record=124&month=4 A critical view on "inflationary euro"]
*[http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~nroubini/Emu/Emu.htm European Monetary Union and the euro]
*[http://go.to/infoeuro EU and EMU information including coin and banknote images]
*[http://www.ex.ac.uk/~RDavies/arian/emu.html Britain and European Monetary Union]
*[http://www.evertype.com/standards/euro/index.html The euro and standardization] ([[Michael Everson]]; including "The plural of euro is euros!" as well as a discussion on what the words for "euro" and "cent" should be in [[Irish language|Irish]])
*[http://www.robertmundell.net/Menu/Main.asp?Type=5&Cat=08&ThemeName=Euro A brief commentary by one of the economists instrumental in creating the euro]
*[http://www.myeuro.info/en An experiment that tries to track the way of euro notes across Europe]
*[http://www.eurobilltracker.com Similar experiment, but more successful: eurobilltracker]
* [http://wiki.usenet.eu.org/FAQ_of_europa.union.euro Euro FAQ Wiki]

===Books===
*[http://college.hmco.com/cgi-bin/SaCGI.cgi/CatalogStub.class/com.hmco.college.catalog.CatalogController?cmd=Portal&subcmd=display&ProductID=3014 Jay H. Levin, A Guide to the Euro (Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002)]

{{PreEuroCurrencies}}
{{EuropeanCurrencies}}

[[Category:Economy of the European Union]]
[[Category:Currency]]
[[Category:Euro|*]]
[[Category:Business and finance in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:European currencies]]


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Christianity

2005-08-29T19:13:58Z

84.169.210.209: robot Adding: fur

{{Christianity}}
'''Christianity''' is a [[monotheistic]] [[religion]] based on the life and teachings of [[Jesus of Nazareth]] as presented in the [[New Testament]] writings of his early followers. It is the world's largest religion, with an estimated 2.1 billion followers, or about one-third of the world's population. It shares with [[Judaism]] the books of the [[Hebrew Bible]] (all of which are incorporated in the [[Old Testament]]), and for this reason is sometimes called an [[Abrahamic religion]].

Christianity encompasses numerous religious traditions that widely vary by culture, as well as many diverse beliefs and sects. It is usually represented as having divided into three main branches, over the past two millennia:

#[[Catholicism]] (including the largest coherent group, the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and [[Eastern Catholic]]s, representing over one billion baptized members),
#[[Eastern Christianity]] (including the second largest coherent group, the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]),
#[[Protestantism]] (Many denominations and schools of thought, including [[Anglicanism]], [[Reformed]], [[Lutheran]], [[Methodist]], [[Evangelicalism]] and [[Pentecostalism]])

These three broad divisions do not represent equally uniform branches. On the contrary, in some cases they disguise vast disagreements, and in other cases minimize sympathies that exist. But this is the convenient standard overview of distinctions, especially as Christianity has been viewed in the [[Western world]].

A more comprehensive overview would categorize [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] as branches distinct from the [[Council of Chalcedon|Chalcedonian]] Christianity of Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism, and [[Restorationism]] as a tradition separate from Protestantism, with which it has often been included.

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In the [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]] many Christian nations, especially in [[Western Europe]], became more secular. Most [[communist]] states were governed by avowed [[atheism|atheist]]s, though only [[Albania]] was officially atheist. Adherents to [[Fundamentalist Christianity]], particularly in the [[United States]], also perceived threats from new scientific estimates about the [[age of the Earth]] and the development of the concept of [[evolution]].

[[Image:Christian-lineage.png|framed|center|Differing interpretations of the [[Bible]] and other forces led to schisms in Christianity over the millennia, but all branches trace their roots to early Christianity.]]

==Christianity today==
[[Image:Wooden_cross.jpg|right|thumb|140px|The [[Christian cross]] and its many variations are traditional Christian [[symbol]]s.]]

According to Adherents.com [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html], Christianity is the world's most widely practiced [[religion]], with 2.1 [[billion]] adherents, including 1.1 billion [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]], 510 million [[Protestantism|Protestants]] in a number of traditions, 216 million [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox]], 158 million Independents (unaffiliated with the major streams of Christianity), and 31.7 million belonging to other groups ([[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]], [[Mormon]]s, etc.). These last [[religous denomination|denomination]]s describe themselves as Christian but are not usually recognized as such by other denominations, because of their unorthodox teachings.


Not all people identified as Christians accept all, or even most, of the theological positions held by their particular churches. Like the Jews, Christians in the [[Western world|West]] were greatly affected by [[The Age of Enlightenment]] in the late [[17th century|17th]] and early [[18th century|18th]] centuries. Perhaps the most significant change for them was total or effective [[separation of church and state]], thus ending the [[state religion|state-sponsored]] Christianity that had existed in European countries. Now one could be a free member of society and disagree with one's church on various issues, and one could even be free to leave the church altogether. Many did leave, developing belief systems such as [[Deism]], [[Unitarianism]], and [[Universalism]], or becoming [[Atheism|atheists]], [[Agnosticism|agnostics]], or [[Humanism|humanists]].

Others created liberal wings of Protestant Christian theology. [[Modernist Christianity|Modernism]] in the late [[19th century]] encouraged new forms of thought and expression that did not follow traditional lines.

Reaction to the Enlightenment and Modernism triggered the development of literally thousands of Christian Protestant denominations, Roman [[Catholic traditionalism|traditionalist]] splinter groups of the Roman Catholic Church that do not recognize the legitimacy of many reforms the Roman Catholic Church has undertaken, and the growth of hundreds of [[fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist]] groups that interpret the entire Bible in a literal fashion.

In [[Europe]], and to a lesser extent the [[United States]], liberalism has also led to increased [[secularism]]. Some Christians have long since stopped participating in traditional religious duties, attending churches only on a few particular holy days per year or not at all. Many of them recall having highly religious grandparents, but grew up in homes where Christian theology was no longer a priority. They have developed ambivalent feelings towards their religious duties. On the one hand they cling to their traditions for identity reasons; on the other hand, the influence of the secular Western mentality, the demands of daily life, and peer pressure tear them away from traditional Christianity. [[Marriage]] between Christians of different denominations, or between a Christian and a non-Christian, was once taboo, but has become commonplace. Some traditionally Roman Catholic countries have largely become agnostic.

[[Liberal Christianity]] grew rapidly during the early [[20th century]] in Europe and North America, by the [[1960s]] gaining the leadership of many of the larger U.S. and Canadian ''[[Mainline|mainline]]'' denominations. However, this trend has reversed. At the turn of the [[21st century]], though secular society tends to consider the more accommodating liberals as the representatives and spokesmen of Christianity, the mainline churches are shrinking. This is partly due to a loss of [[evangelism|evangelistic]] zeal, partly due to drift of their membership to Christian churches which are associated with a more [[conservative Christianity]], and partly due to the failure of one generation to pass on Christianity to the next. Among the larger Protestant denominations in the United States, only the conservative [[Southern Baptist Convention|Southern Baptist]] is growing. In addition, many other conservative denominational churches are growing along with many conservative [[non-denominational]] churches.

[[:Category:Evangelical parachurch organisations|Evangelical parachurch organizations]] have grown rapidly in the last half of the 20th century. The liberal ''[[Christian Century]]'' magazine has shrunk, while being replaced by its challenger, the rapidly growing evangelical ''[[Christianity Today]]''.

The Enlightenment had much less impact on the Eastern Churches of Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy. Having to face a much more hostile secular society, especially during the rise of [[Communism]], the church clung to ancient beliefs, even as its membership eroded.

Today in [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Russia]], a renewing trend is taking place. After decades of communist-instated atheism, there is widespread interest in Christianity, as well as religion in general. Many Orthodox churches and monasteries are being rebuilt and restored; Protestants of many denominations are pouring in to evangelize and build churches; and the Roman Catholic Church is revealing once secret dioceses and undertaking other steps to support Roman Catholic churches more openly.

In [[South America]] and [[Africa]], [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] and [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] Christianity form rapidly growing movements that are increasingly sending [[missionary|missionaries]] to Europe and North America. This is also true of [[Asia]] where many of the underground "house churches" intend to send hundreds of thousands of missionaries out over the next decade.

During the second half of the [[20th century]] the [[Megachurch]] phenomenon developed, featuring media rich presentations and ministries targeted by careful demographics. These and other modern approaches have been reproached from some quarters as crass [[consumerism]], a dead-end result of [[Modernism]]. "Seeker sensitive" presentations, such as the [[Alpha Course]], which cater to those who are skeptical of the Christian message or have no personal familiarity with it, are occasionally the subject of such charges.

Since the development of [[Postmodernism]] with its rejection of universally accepted belief structures in favour of more personalized and experiential truth, organized Christianity has increasingly found itself at odds with the desire many people have to express faith and spirituality in a way that is authentic to them. What has thus far been known as the [[Emerging Church]] is a by-product of this trend, as many people who broadly accept Christianity seek to practice that faith while avoiding established Church institutions.

Another reaction of some Christians to [[Postmodernism]] is the advent of what might be called [[Postmodern Christianity]].

A large and growing movement within the Christian church, especially in the West and most visible in the United States, is the Evangelical movement. Most mainstream [[Protestant]] denominations have a significantly active [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] minority and, in some cases, a dominant majority (see [[Confessing Movement]]). Evangelicals are "trans-denominational" and are more willing to have formal and informal relationships with Evangelicals from outside their denomination than to have the same sort of relationship with non-Evangelicals within their denomination.

Some Evangelicals have been [[schism|schismatic]] within various church organisations, leaving to form their own denominations. More often they are forced out. It was only by dint of sheer determination that [[John Wesley]], founder of [[Methodism]], was able to remain an Anglican priest against intense opposition. His followers separated in America and in England after his death. Some Evangelicals claim that their beliefs are no less than true Christianity itself and that those within the church who differ from them may not be true believers. This attitude has led to much disunity amongst churches, especially those with a large modernist influence. Evangelicals cannot be easily categorized, but almost all believe in the necessity of a personal conversion and acceptance of Jesus as Savior and Lord, the eventual literal [[Parousia|return of Christ]], a more conservative understanding of the Bible and a belief in the miraculous. There are many different types of Evangelicals including [[Dispensationalism|Dispensationists]], [[Pentacostalism|Pentecostals]], [[Charismatic|Charismatics]] and [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Fundamentalists]].

==Doctrine==

Christians often view Christianity as the fulfillment and successor of Judaism, and Christianity carried forward much of the doctrine and many of the practices from the [[Judaism|Hebrew]] faith, including [[monotheism]], the belief in a [[Messiah]] (or Christ from the Greek ''Christós'', which means "anointed one"), certain forms of worship (such as [[prayer]], and reading from religious texts), a [[priesthood]] (although most Protestants assert the "priesthood of all believers" is the only valid priesthood today), and the idea that worship on Earth is modeled on worship in [[Heaven]].

The central belief of Christianity is that by faith in the sacrificial death and [[resurrection of Jesus]], individuals are saved from [[death]]—both [[spirituality|spiritual]] and physical—by [[redemption]] from their [[sin]]s (i.e., faults, misdeeds, disobedience, rebellion against God). Through God's [[grace]], by [[faith]] and [[repentance]], men and women are reconciled to God through forgiveness and by [[sanctification]] or [[theosis]] to return to their place with God in [[Heaven]].

Crucial beliefs in Christian teaching are Jesus' [[incarnation]], [[atonement]], [[crucifixion]], and [[resurrection of Christ|resurrection]] from the dead to redeem humankind from sin and death; and the belief that the [[New Testament]] is a part of the [[Bible]]. Many Christians today (and traditionally even more) also hold to [[supersessionism]], the belief that Christianity is the fulfillment of Biblical Judaism.

The emphasis on God the Father giving his son, or the Son (who is God) becoming incarnate for the sake of humanity, is an essential difference between Christianity and most other religions, where the emphasis is instead placed solely on humans working for [[salvation]].

The most uniform and broadly accepted tradition of doctrine, with the longest continuous representation, repeatedly reaffirmed by official Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant definitions (although not without dissent, as noted below) asserts that specific beliefs are essential to Christianity, including but not limited to:

* God is a [[Trinity]], a single eternal being existing as three persons: Father, Son (Divine [[Logos]], incarnated as Jesus Christ), and [[Holy Spirit]].
* Jesus Christ is both fully God and fully human, two "natures" in one person.
* [[Salvation]] from spiritual death, a separation from God due to mankind's [[sin]], is available to individual believers only through the person and work of Jesus Christ and by the grace of God. Most generally maintain that personal [[faith]] in Jesus Christ is necessary for salvation, and many view faith without associated "good works" as a "dead" (illegitimate) faith.
* [[Virgin Mary|Mary]], the virgin mother of Jesus, bore in her womb and gave birth to the Son of God, who although eternally existent as God was humanly formed in her womb by the Spirit of God. From her humanity he received in his person a human intellect and will, and all else that a child would naturally receive from its mother.
* Jesus is the Messiah hoped for by the Jews, the heir to the throne of [[David]]. He reigns at the right hand of the Father with all authority and power forevermore. He is the hope of all mankind, their [[advocate]] and judge. Until he returns at the end of the world, the Church has the authority and obligation to preach the [[Gospel]] and to gather new disciples.
* Jesus was innocent of any sin. Through the death and [[resurrection of Jesus]], believers are forgiven of sins and reconciled to God. Although virtually all Christians agree on this, there are a variety of views on the significance of Jesus' resurrection. Christians are [[baptism|baptized]] into the death, resurrection and new life of Christ. Through faith, they live by the promise of resurrection from death to everlasting life through Christ. The Holy Spirit is sent to them by Christ to bring hope, to lead mankind into true knowledge of God and His purposes, and to help them grow in '''holiness'''.
* Jesus will return personally, and bodily, to judge all mankind and receive the faithful to himself, so they will [[eternal life|live forever]] in the intimate presence of God.
* The Bible is an authoritative book, [[Biblical inspiration|inspired]] by God but written by men. Some, particularly in the West, refer to the Bible as the "word of God." Other Christians, particularly in the [[Eastern Christianity|East]], reserve to Jesus alone the title, [[Logos|Word of God]]. Christians disagree in various ways about the authority of the Bible (especially in relation to the authority of [[tradition]]) and how the Scriptures are best interpreted.

These beliefs are stated in a number of [[creed]]s, of which the most important and widely used are probably the [[Apostles Creed|Apostles' Creed]] and the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, commonly known as the [[Nicene Creed]]. These statements of belief were written in the first few centuries after Christ to reject certain [[heresy|heresies]]. Although there are arguments about specific parts of these creeds, they are still used by mainstream Christians to state their basic beliefs. ''(See also: [[Athanasian Creed]])''

[[Christian Love]] is basic to many forms of Christianity, based in part on Christ's answer to the question, "Which is the greatest commandment?" To which he answered, "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind. This is the great and foremost commandment. The second is like it, You shall love your neighbor as yourself." (Matt. 22:36–39 NASB).

Many persons and groups throughout history have had varying ideas about the basic tenets of the Christian faith, from ancient sects such as [[Arianism|Arians]] and [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]] to modern groups who have different understandings of fundamental Christian ideas. Some of these groups are the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], who have a different theological understanding of Jesus, God and the Bible; [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], who believe that in 1829 God restored the apostolic priesthood to their leader [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], making possible continuing revelation (including additional teachings and scripture); and the [[Unification Church]]. While various groups may differ in their approach to the specifics of Christ's role, ministry, and nature (some calling him a god or Gods, and others a man), Christ is generally assumed to be of cosmic importance. Some of these groups number themselves among the Christian churches, or believe themselves to be the only true Christian church. Furthermore, many present-day liberal Christians do not define essential Christian belief necessarily including belief in the deity of Jesus, the [[Virgin Birth|virgin birth]], the [[Trinity]], [[miracle]]s, the resurrection, the ascension of Christ, or the personality or deity of the Holy Spirit. Liberals may or may not recommend belief in such things, but differentiate themselves from conservative Christians by defining as included within genuine Christianity anyone who explains their views or teachings principally by appeal to Jesus; for example, [[John 3:16]]. It is common for those who hold the more traditional tenets of faith described in the paragraph above to assert that some or all of these groups are not true Christians, principally because they feel that by denying fundamental teachings about the nature, actions and teachings of Jesus, such persons are following a different religion. Conversely, liberals are often feel that "traditional" Christians have been misled by political organizations spanning thousands of years, and follow dogma designed to assign power to certain institutions.

''See also [[Apostasy]], [[Heresy]], [[Heterodoxy]], [[Orthodoxy]].''

==Excommunication==

[[Excommunication]] is the formal act of a Church in recognizing that a person has removed him or herself from the practice of orthodox faith. It is important to note that people are said to excommunicate themselves by their own actions; the Church claims that it merely affirms that fact formally with a declaration of excommunication. It effectively banishes a member of the Church from the communion of believers and the privileges of the Church. Excommunication is generally reserved for the most serious sins, including serious crimes, [[adultery]], in most denominations [[polygamy]] and/or [[homosexuality|homosexual]] conduct, [[apostasy]], and the alleged teaching false doctrines. In the case of apostasy and false teaching, excommunication is often a last resort after repeated warnings.
In some denominations it may be a final action, while in others it may be rescinded if certain conditions are met, such as the repentance of the excommunicated member.

== Christianity's relationship with other faiths ==
{{see details|Christianity and world religions}}

Christianity's relationship with other faiths is at times rather complicated. Historically Christianity was often used to subjugate and oppress members of other faiths, particularly faiths considered "[[pagan]]" in nature. At the same time, early Christians did great deal of almsgiving to the poor not only to fellow believers but to pagans as well. The anti-Christian pagan emperor Julian the Apostate (361-363 AD), stated "These godless Galileans (ie. Christians) feed not only their own poor but ours: our poor lack our care". [http://home.it.net.au/~jgrapsas//pages/Gospel.htm] Also, it is argued that Christianity had a role in the growth of tolerance in the West. [http://www.jubilee-centre.org/online_documents/Themythofseculartolerance.htm] In addition, in modern times, prosecutions for [[blasphemy]] have been rare in nations such as the United States which is a fairly religious country with many Christians.[http://www.crf-usa.org/terror/rushdie.htm] However, due to its diverse history and its numerous denominations and branches it is difficult to give an accurate account of Christianity's current relationship with the many non-Abrahamic faiths. The relationship of Christianity with faiths such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and the many so called "[[pagan]]" faiths of the world can vary from region to region and denomination to denomination. As such this segment will focus on Christianity's relationship with Abrahamic faiths.

[[Comparative religion]] scholars attempt to find commonality between religions; and, the description of Christianity as an [[Abrahamic religion]] arises from this effort, using the term to point out supposed commonalities especially in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which each refer to [[Abraham]] as important to their faith. The [[Jew]]s see Abraham as the progenitor of the [[Israelites|people of Israel]], through his descendants [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]], and Muslims admire Abraham (whom they call [[Ibrahim]]) as a great prophet and as the father of [[Ishmael]], whom they believe to be the progenitor of [[Muhammad]] and whom they believe Abraham was to sacrifice rather than Isaac.

For their part, Christians point to Abraham as a spiritual ancestor and an exemplar of justifying faith. (This relationship is not to be confused with Abraham's role as a ''blood'' ancestor of Jesus, as described in the genealogies of Matthew chapter 1 and Luke chapter 3.) They see Jesus as Abraham's spiritual descendant, in whom God promised that all the families of the earth would be blessed ([http://bible.gospelcom.net/passage/?search=Gen+12:3;22:18 Gen. 12:3; 22:18]), and thus they consider themselves heirs of that promise ([http://bible.gospelcom.net/passage/?search=Gal+3 Gal. 3], especially [http://bible.gospelcom.net/passage/?search=Gal+3:7,14,29 vv. 7,14,29]; [http://bible.gospelcom.net/passage/?search=Rom+9:6-8 Rom. 9:6–8]). Unlike Judaism and Islam, Christians see Abraham's willingness to offer his son, Isaac, to God, as [[foreshadowing]] God's giving of his son, Jesus, for the salvation of men ([http://bible.gospelcom.net/passage/?search=Gen+22:1-14;Heb+11:17-19 Gen. 22:1–14; Heb. 11:17–19]).

Thus, some members of each faith see Abraham as a basis for understanding between Christians, Jews, and Muslims, but when Christians use the "Abrahamic roots" language, they do not mean that true Christianity is found in some kind of average of religions with overlapping traditions, but merely that, the Christian faith has elements in common, which may provide a helpful basis for constructive relationships between peoples of the divergent traditions. Two representatives of the Roman Catholic Church, for instance, have recently referenced the Abrahamic roots of the Christian faith publicly: In a statement to the [[United Nations]] in [[2001]], [[Apostolic Nuncio]] [[Renato Cardinal Martino]], spoke of "the peoples of the Holy Land" as "cousins in the Abrahamic faith." [[Cardinal Ratzinger]] (now [[Pope Benedict XVI]]) struck the same theme in his statement in [[2000]] in an effort to repair damaged Jewish-Roman Catholic relations during the time of [[Pope Pius XII]] and [[Adolph Hitler]]: "Even if the most recent, loathsome experience of the Shoah [the [[Holocaust]]] was perpetrated in the name of an anti-Christian ideology, which tried to strike the Christian faith at its Abrahamic roots in the people of Israel, it cannot be denied that a certain insufficient resistance to this atrocity on the part of Christians can be explained by an inherited anti-Judaism present in the hearts of not a few Christians". 

=== Christianity and Judaism ===
There have long been some sentiments of [[anti-semitism]] in Christianity (see [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]]), but especially since the [[Holocaust]], there has been much dialogue between Christians groups and Jews aimed at [[Christian-Jewish reconciliation]] and Christian attitudes toward Jews have greatly improved. Many conservative evangelicals support [[Christian Zionism]], which is tied to the common belief that the Jewish people are "the apple of God's eye". Many are [[dispensationalist]]s, who believe that the ingathering of Jews to the modern state of [[Israel]] is a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy. They await the rebuilding of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], which they believe to be one of the final signs that Jesus is returning soon to rescue the Church from the [[Great Tribulation]], and to save the Jews from the [[Antichrist]], after which Jesus is expected to reign over the earth from Jerusalem, during the [[Millennialism|Millennium]].

====Jewish criticism====
A common Jewish criticism of Christianity is that Jesus did not fulfill prophecy. Christians by and large believe that Jesus did fulfill prophecy, but Jewish scholars and religious leaders often argue that many of the prophecies remain unfulfilled. Some such prophecies include the following: The Hebrew people were expecting a descendant of [[King David]], anointed by God, who would restore the Nation of Israel and the Davidic Kingdom, ushering in an everlasting age of peace on earth. The Messiah was also to end all earthly bondage and servitude (Particularly to the [[Roman]]s). Many Jews today believe that were Jesus the true Messiah (or anointed one) it would be in the power of none to deny him. Christians, by and large, believe in an eventual [[Second Coming]] in which Jesus will fulfill all prophecy.

====Messianic Judaism====
[[Messianic Judaism]] refers to a loose religious movement, self-identified as Jewish, holding that [[Jesus]] is or was the [[Messiah]]. Messianic Jews may hold a wide range of religious beliefs and practices, ranging from Evangelical Christian Judaism to Christian Orthodox Judaism. Messianic Jews vary in their adherence Jewish religious law and worship practices, such as keeping of Kosher and observing the Sabbath. Even though Messianic Jews are typically of a Jewish ethnicity, some Messianic temples may be composed entirely of gentiles. Messianic Jews are not considered part of the Jewish religion by mainstream Jewish groups. There are also Jewish members of Christian churches that are not affiliated with Messianic Judaism.

Many Jews argue that since Jesus failed to fulfill numerous prophecies he could not have been the true Messiah. Because of this argument some religious Jews have dismissed Messianic Judaism as little more than Christianity with Jewish undertones. However Messianic Jews believe in the [[Second Coming]] of Jesus and that those prophecies which Jesus supposedly failed to fulfill will be fulfilled upon his eventual return.

====See also====
* [[Comparing and contrasting Judaism and Christianity]]
* [[Judeo-Christian]]

=== Christianity and Islam ===
[[Muslim]]s refer to themselves, Jews, and Christians (among other religious adherents) as [[People of the Book]] since they all base their religion on books that are considered to have a divine origin. Christians accept the Old Testament as part of their [[Biblical canon]], but they neither consider the Qur'an to be a book of divine revelation or a part of their faith nor agree with Islam's view that Jesus was a prophet, on par with [[Muhammad]], much in the same way as Jews do not consider the New Testament a divine revelation or Jesus of divine being.

Muslims, unlike Christians and Jews, do not believe in Messianic Prophecy. Instead, in Islam Messiah means Anointed Prophet, thus Muslims believe in more than one Messiah. In Islam any Prophet anointed by God could be considered a Messiah, and therefore Muslims believe that Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad were all Messiah.

== Christianity and persecution ==

Historically Christians have been both the victims and perpetrators of persecution. Some forms of persecution continue to the present day.

Christian [[martyr]]s in the first three centuries were [[crucified]], torn apart by [[chariot]]s, cut down, or impaled on pikes in much the same manner as [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[political prisoners]] and [[rebel]]s. Many were forced to fight in Roman [[coliseum]]s as fodder for famous [[gladiator]]s, or forced to fight each other for entertainment and as punishment. When early christians refused to fight each other wild beast or gladiators would often be set loose to slaughter them, providing sinister entertainment for betting Roman citizens. Bets were often cast on which Christian would die first, whether or not one would raise arms against another, and how long one would last before having his or her torso ripped apart. They are recognized as martyrs because they chose to die rather than renounce their Christian faith.

In the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]], Christians face a great deal of persecution, including arrests for "blasphemy" in the Middle East and even being targeted for [[assassination]] and acts of [[terrorism]]. Though such violence against Christians is extremely uncommon in [[China]], Christians in [[China]] are treated as second class citizens, and are often the victims of public insults and persecution by government officials. In [[China]] there are also laws against proselytizing, so while it's not illegal to convert to Christianity, one can be fined or imprisoned for attempting to convert others, especially publicly. Predominantly Christian regions (such as [[East Timor]]) have chosen independence partly for this reason. Because of this, many Christian converts from these parts of the world have left for [[Europe]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]] and [[Australia]].

Christians have not always only been the victims of persecution however. As early as year 323 AD. [[Constantine]] became the sole [[Roman Emperor]] and declared Christianity the Roman religion. Subsequently all pagan practices and worship were made illegal, through perhaps not by Constantine himself. Those who continued to worship the ancient [[Paganism|pagan]] gods of [[Rome]] were imprisoned, tortured, and killed. The [[Paganism|pagan]] temples of Rome were also desecrated, torn apart, and sacked, or converted to Christian sites. This sent shockwaves throughout the ancient world, and the subsequent [[Christianization]] of [[Greece]] and other regions touched by Rome was by and large a very violent process, including forced conversions, public executions, and [[ethnic cleansing]]. Since the rise of Constantine as emperor of Rome Christianity has developed a long history of persecution, particularly against [[Paganism|pagan]]s and other non-Christians.

In spite of the widely held belief that violence is antithetical to Christ's teachings, some Christian adherents have at times persecuted, [[tortured]], and killed others over doctrinal and ethnic differences. Few would deny the role of Christianity in the [[Crusades]], the [[Inquisition]], and the [[Witch hunts]] that acted as a means to exterminate nonchristians between the [[Dark Ages]] and the early settlement of the USA. [[Anti-Semitism]], which remains in some denominations today, has also been a powerful force at various times in Christian history, sometimes resulting in great violence.

Christians in Western countries are sometimes accused of [[Persecution|persecution]] and [[Discrimination|discrimination]] today, although alleged offences are minor compared with the torture and death as forms of persecution elsewhere. The campaigns of some Christians against allowing homosexuals equal legal rights, and rare individual instances of religiously motivated [[violence]] and [[vandalism]] sometimes fuel these allegations. Christian disagreements with other religions are also sometimes seen as persecution by those disagreed with, particularly when the [[rhetoric]] reaches what some perceive as threatening. Campaigns by a small minority of Christians for the setting up of Christian states are sometimes seen as a dangerous form of [[separatism]], particularly by those of different faiths. Some Christians see alleged restrictions placed on some forms religious activity in the [[public sphere]] as a form of discrimination. In the [[United States]] many [[Secularism|secular]] organizations may receive government funding, but not [[Tax exemption|tax exempt status]], while religious organizations may not receive government funding but do receive tax exemption.

Conflicts within Christianity itself have led to the persecutions of one Christian group by another. [[Protestantism|Protestants]], [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] and other Christians have at times persecuted each other, sometimes violently. In the second half of the [[20th century]] the violent conflict between armed political groups among the [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionist]] and [[Irish nationalism|nationalist]] communities in [[Northern Ireland]] carried a strong element of [[sectarianism]] between Protestants and Roman Catholics.

For more information, see [[Persecution of Christians]] and [[Historical persecution by Christians]].

== See also == {{Commons|Jesus Christ}}

* [[Christian apologetics]]
* [[Christian calendar]]
* [[Christian eschatology]]
* [[Christian music]]
* [[Christian mythology]]
* [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]]
* [[The stories of Christianity|Christian stories]]
* [[Christian theological controversy]]
* [[Christian views of women]]
* [[Christian Symbolism]]
* [[Wikipedia:Wikiportal/Eastern_Christianity|Eastern Christianity portal]]
* [[Great Schism]]
* [[History of Christianity|Christian history]]
* [[Homosexuality and Christianity]]
* [[John 3:16]]
* [[List of Christians]]
* [[List of Christian denominations]]

==References and Select Bibliography==

* [http://www.ditext.com/robertson/christianity.html Archibald Robertson, ''The Origins of Christianity'' (1954, rev. ed. 1962).]

* ''The Story of Christianity'' by Justo L. Gonzalez (1984, 1985, 1999, ISBN 1565635221)
* ''Christian Theology: An Introduction'' by [[Alister McGrath]] (ISBN 0631225285)
* ''Christian Theology Reader'' by [[Alister McGrath]] (ISBN 063120637X)
* ''Mere Christianity''. [[C.S. Lewis]]
* ''Systematic Theology'', an [[Christian ecumenism|ecumenical]] trilogy by [[Thomas Oden]]
** Volume 1: ''The Living God'' (1992, ISBN 0060663634)
** Volume 2: ''The Word of Life'' (1992, ISBN 0060663642)
** Volume 3: ''Life in the Spirit'' (1994, ISBN 0060663626)
* ''The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine''. [[Jaroslav Pelikan]]. 5 Volumes, published between 1971-1989.
* ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'' [http://www.kingdomnow.org/withinyou.html] by [[Leo Tolstoy]] (1894, ISBN 0803294042)

== External links ==

===General on-line sources===
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/index.htm ReligionFacts.com: Christianity] Fast facts, glossary, timeline, history, beliefs, texts, holidays, symbols, people, etc.

* [http://www.ccel.org The Christian Classics Ethereal Library], containing the works of a wide spectrum of authors in doctrine, history, devotion, and Bible commentary

* [http://www.wikichristian.org WikiChristian], a wiki book on Christianity, church history and doctrine, and Christian art and music

* [http://www.reformed.org Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics], containing information on the Reformed faith

* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''], containing detailed information on Catholic beliefs and history and the Catholic view of other churches and beliefs

* [http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/encyc/encyc13/htm/TOC.htm ''The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge''] from a Protestant perspective

* [http://www.vatican.va The Vatican] contains much official information related to the Roman Catholic Church in many languages

* [http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/ccc.html Catechism of the Catholic Church] Comprehensive, official teaching of the Rome Catholic Church

* [http://www.cired.org Assyrian Church of the East]

* [http://www.sor.cua.edu Syriac Orthodox Resources] Large compedium of information and links relating to Oriental Orthodoxy.

* [http://aggreen.net/orth_links/orthlink.html Home Page of Orthodox Church and Bible Study Links] While this site manifestly exhibits a certain point of view or editorial bias, it does provide some good information and links regarding Eastern Orthodoxy, particularly as it relates to the more mainstream Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions.

===Criticisms===

* [http://www.xahlee.org/Periodic_dosage_dir/_p2/why_not_christian.html Why I am not a Christian] by [[Nobel Prize]] laureate [[Bertrand Russell]].

===Criticisms, responses to===
*[http://www.christiancourier.com/archives/russell1.htm Bertrand Russell and Christianity]
*[http://www.berith.org/essays/br/br03.html Why Bertrand Russell Was Not A Christian]
*[http://www.salemreformed.org/ApologeticsinPractice.html Why Russell Said He Could Not Be a Christian] Dr. [[Greg Bahnsen]] on [[Bertrand Russell]]
*[http://www.tbcs.org/academics/essays/why-3/06.htm Critique of Bertrand Russell essay "Why I am not a Christian"]

=== Directories ===
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Christianity/ Dmoz.org Open Directory Project: Christianity] (a list of links with information about Christianity)
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Opposing_Views/Christianity/ Dmoz.org Open Directory Project: Contra Christianity] (a list of links critical of Christianity)

[[Category:Christianity]]

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[[zh:基督教]]

Time zone

2005-08-29T18:38:14Z

84.169.210.209: robot Modifying: tr

::''[[Time Zone (computer game)|Time Zone]] is also a historical [[computer game]].''
::''There is also an [[Australia]]n [[franchise]] of [[video arcade]]s called [[Timezone (video arcades)|Timezone]].''

'''Time zones''' are areas of the [[Earth]] that have adopted the same standard [[time]], usually referred to as the '''local time'''. Formerly, people used local [[solar time]] (originally apparent and then mean solar time), resulting in time differing slightly from [[town]] to town. With the expansion of the [[Rail transport|railways]] and as [[telecommunication]]s improved this became increasingly awkward. Time zones partially rectified the problem by setting the clocks of a region to the same mean solar time. Time zones are generally centered on [[Meridian (geography)|meridian]]s of a [[longitude]], that is a multiple of 15°, thus making neighboring time zones one hour apart. However, the one hour separation is not universal and, as the map below shows, the shapes of time zones can be quite irregular because they usually follow the boundaries of states, countries or other administrative areas.

[[Image:Timezones.png|thumb|400px|Standard Time Zones of the World by the CIA]]

All time zones are defined relative to [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC). The reference point for Time Zones is the [[Prime Meridian]] ([[longitude]] 0°) which passes through the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]] in [[Greenwich]], [[London]], [[United Kingdom]] [http://greenwichmeantime.com/]. For this reason the term [[Greenwich Mean Time]] ([[GMT]]) is still often used (by the [[BBC]], for example, amongst others) to denote the "base time" to which all other time zones are relative. UTC is, nevertheless, the official term for today's atomically measured time as distinct from time determined by astronomical observation as formerly carried out at Greenwich.

GMT (UTC) is, incidentally, local time at Greenwich itself only between 01:00 UTC on the last Sunday in October and 01:00 UTC on the last Sunday in March. For the remainder of the year local time is UTC + 1, known in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] as [[British Summer Time]] (BST).

The time for a location is given relative to UTC. Some examples:
*[[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[United States|USA]]: [[UTC-8|UTC − 8]] (e.g. if it is 12:00 UTC, then it is 04:00 in Los Angeles)
*[[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]: [[UTC-5|UTC − 5]] (e.g. if it is 12:00 UTC, then it is 07:00 in Toronto)
*[[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]]: [[UTC|UTC + 1]] (e.g. if it is 12:00 UTC, then it is 13:00 in Stockholm)
*[[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]]: [[UTC2|UTC + 2]] (e.g. if it is 12:00 UTC, then it is 14:00 in Istanbul)
*[[Mumbai]], [[India]]: [[UTC5:30|UTC + 5:30]] (e.g. if it is 12:00 UTC, then it is 17:30 in Mumbai)
*[[Tokyo]], [[Japan]]: [[UTC9|UTC + 9]] (e.g. if it is 12:00 UTC, then it is 21:00 in Tokyo)

Where the adjustment for time zones results in a time the other side of midnight from UTC, then the date at the location is one day later or earlier. Some examples:
*[[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]: UTC + 2 (e.g. if it is 23:00 UTC on Monday 15 March, then the time in Cairo is 01:00, Tuesday 16 March)
*[[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]]: UTC + 12 (e.g. if it is 21:00 UTC on Wednesday 30 June, then the time in Auckland is 09:00, Thursday 1 July)
*[[New York]], [[United States|USA]]: [[UTC-5|UTC − 5]] (e.g. if it is 02:00 UTC on Tuesday, then the time in NY is 21:00 on Monday)
*[[Honolulu]], [[Hawaii|Hawai'i]], USA: [[UTC-10|UTC − 10]] (e.g. if it is 06:00 UTC on Monday 1 May, then the time in Honolulu is 20:00, Sunday 30 April)

Note: The time zone adjustment for a specific location may vary due to the use of [[daylight saving time]].
*e.g. [[New Zealand]] which is usually [[UTC12|UTC + 12]], observes a one-hour daylight saving time adjustment during the [[southern hemisphere]] [[summer]], resulting in a local time of [[UTC13|UTC + 13]]!

See also: [[Sidereal time]] [[Calculating local time]]

==History==

The first time zone in the world was established by British [[railways]] on [[December 1]], [[1847]]—[[Greenwich Mean Time]] (GMT) being hand carried on [[chronometer]]s. About [[August 23]], [[1852]], time signals were first transmitted by telegraph from the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]]. Even though 98% of the [[Great Britain]]'s public clocks were using GMT by [[1855]], it was not made Britain's legal time until [[August 2]], [[1880]]. Some old clocks from this period have two minute hands — one for the local time, one for GMT [http://www.wwp-italia.com/info/bristol-time.htm]. This paragraph only applies to the island of Great Britain, not to the island of [[Ireland]].

On [[November 2]], [[1868]], [[New Zealand]] officially adopted a standard time to be observed nationally, and was perhaps the first country to do so. It was based on the longitude 172° 30' East of [[Greenwich]], that is 11 hours 30 minutes ahead of Greenwich Mean Time. This standard was known as New Zealand Mean Time.

Timekeeping on the American railroads in the mid [[19th century]] was somewhat confused. Each railroad used its own standard time, usually based on the local time of its headquarters or most important terminus, and the railroad's train schedules were published using its own time. Some major railroad junctions served by several different railroads had a separate clock for each railroad, each showing a different time. [[Pittsburgh]] main station used six different times! The confusion for travellers making a long journey involving several changes of train can be imagined.

A system of one-hour standard time zones for American railroads was first proposed by [[Charles F. Dowd]] about [[1863]]. He made this proposal while teaching teenage girls, but without publishing anything. He did not even consult railroad officials until [[1869]]. In [[1870]], he proposed four ideal time zones (having north-south borders), the first centered on [[Washington, DC]], but by [[1872]] the first was centered 75°W of Greenwich with geographic borders (for example, sections of the [[Appalachian Mountains]]). Dowd's system was never accepted by American railroads—instead, U.S. and Canadian railroads implemented their own version on Sunday, [[November 18]], [[1883]], when each railroad station clock was either advanced or delayed as noon, standard time, was reached within each time zone, east to west. The zones were named Intercolonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. Within one year, 85% of all cities having populations over 10,000, about 200 cities, were using standard time. A notable exception was [[Detroit, Michigan]], which kept local time until [[1900]], then vacillated between Central Standard Time, [[local mean time]], and Eastern Standard Time until it settled on EST by ordinance May [[1915]], ratified by popular vote August [[1916]]. This hodgepodge was made uniform when Standard zone time was made legal by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] in [[1918]].

Time zones were first proposed for the entire world by [[Canada's]] Sir [[Sandford Fleming]] in [[1876]] as an appendage to the single 24-hour clock he proposed for the entire world (located at the center of the Earth and not linked to any surface meridian!). In [[1879]] he specified that his universal day would begin at the anti-meridian of Greenwich (now called 180°), while conceding that hourly time zones might have some limited local use. He continued to advocate his system at subsequent international conferences. In October [[1884]] the [[International Meridian Conference]] did not adopt his time zones because they were not within its purview. The conference did adopt a universal day of 24 hours beginning at Greenwich midnight, but specified that it "shall not interfere with the use of local or standard time where desirable." Nevertheless, most major countries had adopted hourly time zones by [[1929]]. Even today, they have not been fully realized, with several time zones keeping a standard time that is not offset by a number of whole hours from Greenwich Mean Time.

Before [[1920]], all ships kept local apparent time on the high seas by setting their clocks at night or at the morning sight so that, given the ship's speed and direction, it would be 12 o'clock when the Sun crossed the ship's meridian (12 o'clock = local apparent noon). During [[1917]], at the Anglo-French Conference on Time-keeping at Sea, it was recommended that all ships, both military and civilian, should adopt hourly standard time zones on the high seas. Whenever a ship was within the territorial waters of any nation it would use that nation's standard time. The captain was permitted to change his ship's clocks at a time of his choice following his ship's entry into another time zone—he often chose midnight. These zones were adopted by all major fleets between 1920 and [[1925]] but not by many independent merchant ships until [[World War II]].

Time on a ship's clocks and in a ship's log had to be stated along with a "zone description", which was the number of hours that was to be added to zone time to obtain GMT, hence '''zero''' in the Greenwich time zone, and negative numbers from −1 to −12 for time zones to the east and positive numbers from +1 to +12 to the west (hours, minutes, and seconds for nations without an hourly offset). These signs are opposite to those given below because ships must obtain GMT from zone time, not zone time from GMT. All zones were pole-to-pole staves 15° wide except for −12 and +12, which were each 7.5° wide separated by a [[longitude]] of 180°. Unlike the zig-zagging land-based [[International Date Line]], the nautical International Date Line follows 180° except where it is interrupted by territorial waters and the lands they border, including islands. About [[1950]], a letter suffix was added to the zone description, assigning '''Z''' to the zero zone, and A-M (except J) to the east and N-Y to the west (J may be assigned to local time in non-nautical applications). These were to be vocalized using a [[NATO phonetic alphabet | phonetic alphabet]] which included '''Zulu''' for GMT.

These nautical letters have been added to some time zone maps, like the map of [http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/world_tzones.html Standard Time Zones] by [[Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office]] (NAO), which extended the letters by adding an [[asterisk]] (*) or [[dagger (typography)|dagger]] (&dagger;) for areas that do not use a nautical time zone, and a double dagger (&Dagger;) for areas that do not have a legal standard time ([[Greenland]]'s [[ice sheet]] and all of [[Antarctica]]—Britain specifies UTC − 3 for the [[Antarctic Peninsula]], but no other country recognizes that). They conveniently ignore any zone that does not have an hour or half-hour offset, so a double dagger (&Dagger;) has been co-opted for these zones below.

In maritime usage, GMT retains its historical meaning of [[UT1]], the mean ''solar'' time at Greenwich. UTC, ''atomic'' time at Greenwich, is too inaccurate, differing by as much as 0.9 s from UT1, creating an error of 0.4 km in longitude at the equator. However, [[DUT]] can be added to UTC to correct it to within 50 ms of UT1, reducing the error to only 20 m.

==Trivia==

* In terms of number of time zones, [[Russia]] is first, with eleven time zones, including [[Kaliningrad]] on the [[Baltic Sea]]. The United States is second with nine time zones, six for states and three more for possessions. Canada is third with six time zones. Possessions of the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] may increase their number of time zones.
* In terms of area, China is the largest country with only one time zone (UTC+ 8). The next largest country with only one time zone is India (UTC + 5:30). Coincidentally, these are also the two most populous countries.
*Stations in [[Antarctica]] generally keep the time of their supply bases, thus both the [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] (U.S.) and [[McMurdo Station]] (U.S.) use [[New Zealand]] time (UTC + 12 southern winter, UTC + 13 southern summer).

== List of time zones and contained areas ==

Regions marked with asterisks (* or **) observe [[Daylight Saving Time]]: add 1 hour in [[summer]] (* for [[Northern Hemisphere]] summer; ** for [[Southern Hemisphere]]).

Some zones north-south of each other in the mid [[Pacific]] differ by 24 hours in time: they have the same time of the day but differ by a full day. The two extreme time zones on Earth (both in the mid Pacific) differ by 26 hours. A particular day starts earlier in countries with a more positive UTC offset. Thus the first occurrence of a date will be in UTC + 14 and the last of the same date in UTC − 12 (at sea). This gives the interesting feature that during one hour each day there are three different dates in use on land around the world, at 10:30 UTC Monday it is already 00:30 Tuesday in the Line Islands (UTC + 14) while the time is 23:30 Sunday in Samoa (UTC − 11) [http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/full.html?sort=2].

Time zone abbreviations are almost always customary, not legal—those listed here only exist in English and are somewhat arbitrary. English time zone names below generally only apply to English-speaking areas. The [[CIA]] and NAO disagree on the time kept by some Russian [[oblast]]s, so both are given below—this may be due to a recent time zone change.

=== UTC − 12, Y ===

Only ships at sea within 7.5° east of 180°.

For [[Kwajalein]], [[Enewetak|Eniwetok]], and [[Bikini Atoll|Bikini]] atolls, see note at UTC + 12, M.

=== UTC − 11, X ===
*[[American Samoa]]
*[[Midway Atoll]]
*[[Niue]]
*[[Samoa]]

=== UTC − 10, W ===
*[[Cook Islands]]
*[[French Polynesia]]
** [[Society Islands|Society Archipelago]] including [[Tahiti]],
** [[Tuamotu Archipelago]], and
** [[Tubuai Islands]]
*[[Johnston Atoll]]
*[[Tokelau]]
*[[United States]] (HST—[[Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time Zone|Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time]])
** [[Alaska]]
*** [[Aleutian Islands]] (west of 169° 30' West)*
** [[Hawaii]]

=== UTC − 9:30, V* ===
*[[French Polynesia]]
** [[Marquesas Islands]]

=== UTC − 9, V ===
*[[French Polynesia]]
** [[Gambier Islands]]
*[[United States]] (AKST—[[Alaska Standard Time Zone|Alaska Standard Time]])
** [[Alaska]] (most of state)*

=== UTC − 8, U ===
*[[Canada]] (PST—[[Pacific Standard Time Zone|Pacific Standard Time]]; the corresponding daylight saving time is called Pacific Daylight Time - PDT, UTC − 7)
** [[British Columbia]] (most of province)*,
** [[Yukon]]*
*[[Mexico]]
** [[Baja California (state)|Baja California]]*
*[[Pitcairn Islands]]
*[[United States]] (PST—Pacific Standard Time)
** [[California]]*
** [[Idaho]]*
*** north of the [[Salmon River (Idaho)|Salmon River]] (between the [[Oregon]] state border and the [[Idaho County, Idaho|Idaho County]]/[[Lemhi County, Idaho|Lemhi County]] border), and
*** west of the Idaho County/Lemhi County border (between the Salmon River and the [[Montana]] state border)
** [[Nevada]] (most of state, except Idaho border towns and [[West Wendover, Nevada|West Wendover]])*
** [[Oregon]] (most of state, including southern 1/5 of [[Malheur County, Oregon|Malheur County]])*
** [[Washington]]*

=== UTC − 7, T ===
*[[Canada]] (MST—[[Mountain Standard Time Zone|Mountain Standard Time]])
** [[Alberta]]*,
** [[British Columbia]]
*** northeastern (''no'' DST)
****Most of [[Peace River Regional District, British Columbia|Peace River Regional District]] except [[Fort Ware, British Columbia|Fort Ware]], [[Beatton River, British Columbia|Beatton River]], [[Pink Mountain, British Columbia|Pink Mountain]], [[Sikanni Chief, British Columbia|Sikanni Chief]], [[Buckinghorse River, British Columbia|Buckinghorse River]] and [[Trutch, British Columbia|Trutch]]
*** southeastern*
****[[Regional District of East Kootenay, British Columbia|Regional District of East Kootenay]],
****[[Regional District of Central Kootenay, British Columbia|Regional District of Central Kootenay]] east of the [[Kootenay River]] and parts east of [[Kootenay Lake]] that are south of and including [[Riondel, British Columbia|Riondel]] ([[Creston, British Columbia|Creston]] ''doesn't'' observe DST), and
****[[Columbia-Shuswap Regional District, British Columbia|Columbia-Shuswap Regional District]] east of the [[Selkirk Mountains]],
** [[Northwest Territories]]*,
** [[Nunavut]]*
*** west of 102° West, and
*** entire [[Kitikmeot Region, Nunavut|Kitikmeot Region]],
** [[Saskatchewan]]
*** [[Lloydminster, Alberta/Saskatchewan|Lloydminster]] and surrounding area* (specifically exempted from the legal prohibition of DST in Saskatchewan)
*[[Mexico]]
** [[Baja California Sur]]*,
** [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]]*,
** [[Nayarit]]* (most of state)
** [[Sinaloa]]*,
** [[Sonora]]
*[[United States]] (MST—Mountain Standard Time)
** [[Arizona]] ([[Navajo Nation]] ''does'' observe DST),
** [[Colorado]]*,
** [[Idaho]]*
*** south of the [[Salmon River]] (between the [[Oregon]] state border and the [[Idaho County, Idaho|Idaho County]]/[[Lemhi County, Idaho|Lemhi County]] border), and
*** east of the Idaho County/Lemhi County border (between the Salmon River and the [[Montana]] state border),
** [[Kansas]]*
*** [[Greeley County, Kansas|Greeley County]],
*** [[Hamilton County, Kansas|Hamilton County]],
*** [[Sherman County, Kansas|Sherman County]], and
*** [[Wallace County, Kansas|Wallace County]],
** [[Montana]]*,
** [[Nebraska]] (western)*,
** [[Nevada]]*
*** [[Duck Valley Indian Reservation]], plus the towns of Mountain City and [[Owyhee, Nevada|Owyhee]],
*** [[Jackpot, Nevada|Jackpot]], and
*** [[West Wendover, Nevada|West Wendover]],
** [[New Mexico]]*,
** [[North Dakota]] (southwestern)*,
** [[Oklahoma]]
*** Kenton*,
** [[Oregon]]
*** northern 4/5 of [[Malheur County, Oregon|Malheur County]]*,
** [[South Dakota]] (western)*,
** [[Texas]]*
*** [[El Paso County, Texas|El Paso County]],
*** [[Hudspeth County, Texas|Hudspeth County]], and
*** northwestern [[Culberson County, Texas|Culberson County]] ([[Guadalupe Mountains National Park]] area),
** [[Utah]]*,
** [[Wyoming]]*

=== UTC − 6, S ===
*[[Belize]]
*[[Canada]] (CST—[[Central Standard Time Zone|Central Standard Time]])
** [[Manitoba]]*,
** [[Nunavut]]
*** between 85° West and 102° West (except eastern Kitikmeot Region and western [[Southampton Island]])*,
** [[Ontario]]*
*** [[Northwestern Ontario]] west of 90° West (except Atikokan area, New Osnaburgh and Pickle Lake area, and Shebandowan and Upsala area), and Big Trout Lake area east of 90° West,
** [[Saskatchewan]] (most of province), except
*** Creighton and Denare Beach area, which ''does'' observe DST (unofficially, as Saskatchewan has a law prohibiting the use of DST)
*** Lloydminster and surrounding area, which observes Mountain Standard Time (UTC-7) ''with DST'' by special legal exemption
*[[Chile]]
** [[Easter Island]]**
*[[Costa Rica]]
*[[Ecuador]]
** [[Galapagos Islands]]
*[[El Salvador]]
*[[Guatemala]]
*[[Honduras]]
*[[Mexico]]*
** all other states not already mentioned, plus
** [[Mexican Federal District|Distrito Federal]]
** [[Nayarit]]
***some of Nuevo Vallarta
*[[Nicaragua]]*
*[[United States]] (CST—Central Standard Time)
** [[Alabama]] (most of state)*,
** [[Arkansas]]*,
** [[Florida]]
*** west of the [[Apalachicola River]], except for the portions of [[Franklin County, Florida|Franklin County]] and [[Gulf County, Florida|Gulf County]] south of the [[Intracoastal Waterway]]*,
** [[Illinois]]*,
** [[Indiana]]*
*** northwestern
**** [[Jasper County, Indiana|Jasper County]],
**** [[Lake County, Indiana|Lake County]],
**** [[LaPorte County, Indiana|LaPorte County]],
**** [[Newton County, Indiana|Newton County]], and
**** [[Porter County, Indiana|Porter County]],
*** southwestern
**** [[Gibson County, Indiana|Gibson County]],
**** [[Posey County, Indiana|Posey County]],
**** [[Spencer County, Indiana|Spencer County]],
**** [[Vanderburgh County, Indiana|Vanderburgh County]], and
**** [[Warrick County, Indiana|Warrick County]],
** [[Iowa]]*,
** [[Kansas]] (most of state)*,
** [[Kentucky]] (western)*,
** [[Louisiana]]*,
** [[Michigan]]*
*** [[Dickinson County, Michigan|Dickinson County]],
*** [[Gogebic County, Michigan|Gogebic County]],
*** [[Iron County, Michigan|Iron County]], and
*** [[Menominee County, Michigan|Menominee County]],
** [[Minnesota]]*,
** [[Mississippi]]*,
** [[Missouri]]*,
** [[Nebraska]] (central and eastern)*,
** [[North Dakota]] (most of state)*,
** [[Oklahoma]] (most of state)*,
** [[South Dakota]] (eastern)*,
** [[Tennessee]]*
***[[Middle Tennessee]],
***[[West Tennessee]], and
***[[Marion County, Tennessee|Marion County]]
** [[Texas]] (most of state)*,
** [[Wisconsin]]*

=== UTC − 5, R ===
*[[Bahamas]]*
*[[Brazil]]
** [[Acre State|Acre]],
** [[Amazonas State, Brazil|Amazonas]] (southwestern)
*[[Canada]] (EST—[[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern Standard Time]])
** [[Nunavut]]
*** east of 85° West*, and
*** entire Southampton Island (''no'' DST),
** [[Ontario]]
*** east of 90° West (except Big Trout Lake area)*, plus
*** Atikokan area (''no'' DST),
*** New Osnaburgh and Pickle Lake area (''no'' DST), and
*** Shebandowan and Upsala area* west of 90° West,
*** [[Greater Toronto Area|GTA]] ; [[Ottawa]].
** [[Quebec]] (most of province)*
*[[Cayman Islands]]
*[[Colombia]]
*[[Cuba]]*
*[[Ecuador]]
*[[Haiti]]
*[[Jamaica]]
*[[Panama]]
*[[Peru]]
*[[Turks and Caicos Islands]]*
*[[United States]] (EST—Eastern Standard Time)
** [[Alabama]]
***[[Phenix City, Alabama|Phenix City]]*,
** [[Connecticut]]*,
** [[Delaware]]*,
** [[District of Columbia]]*,
** [[Florida]]
*** east of the [[Apalachicola River]], plus the portions of [[Franklin County, Florida|Franklin County]] and [[Gulf County, Florida|Gulf County]] south of the [[Intracoastal Waterway]], west of the Apalachicola River*,
** [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]*,
** [[Indiana]] (most of state), except
*** [[Clark County, Indiana|Clark County]],
*** [[Dearborn County, Indiana|Dearborn County]],
*** [[Floyd County, Indiana|Floyd County]],
*** [[Harrison County, Indiana|Harrison County]], and
*** [[Ohio County, Indiana|Ohio County]], which ''do'' unofficially observe DST,
** [[Kentucky]] (eastern)*,
** [[Maine]]*,
** [[Maryland]]*,
** [[Massachusetts]]*,
** [[Michigan]] (most of state)*,
** [[New Hampshire]]*,
** [[New Jersey]]*,
** [[New York]]*,
** [[North Carolina]]*,
** [[Ohio]]*,
** [[Pennsylvania]]*,
** [[Rhode Island]]*,
** [[South Carolina]]*,
** [[Tennessee]]*
***[[East Tennessee]], except [[Marion County, Tennessee|Marion County]]
** [[Vermont]]*,
** [[Virginia]]*,
** [[West Virginia]]*

=== UTC − 4, Q ===
*[[Anguilla]]
*[[Antigua and Barbuda]]
*[[Aruba]]
*[[Barbados]]
*[[Bermuda]]*
*[[Bolivia]]
*[[Brazil]]
** [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]] (all but southwestern tip),
** [[Mato Grosso]]**,
** [[Mato Grosso do Sul]]**,
** [[Pará|Pará (western)]],
** [[Rondônia]],
** [[Roraima]]
*[[Canada]] (AST— [[Atlantic Standard Time]])
** [[Labrador]] (all but southeastern tip)*,
** [[New Brunswick]]*,
** [[Nova Scotia]]*,
** [[Prince Edward Island]]*,
** [[Quebec]] (east of the Natashquan River) (NAO)
** [[Quebec]] (east of the 63°W longitude) (CIA)
*[[Chile]]**
*[[Dominica]]
*[[Dominican Republic]]
*[[Falkland Islands]]**
*[[Greenland|Greenland - Kalaallit Nunaat]]
** northwestern
*** Pituffik area* (observes [[United States]] DST rules)
*[[Grenada]]
*[[Guadeloupe]]
*[[Guyana]]
*[[Martinique]]
*[[Montserrat]]
*[[Netherlands Antilles]]
*[[Paraguay]]**
*[[Puerto Rico]] (AST—Atlantic Standard Time)
*[[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
*[[Saint Lucia]]
*[[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
*[[Trinidad and Tobago]]
*[[Venezuela]]
*[[Virgin Islands]]
** [[British Virgin Islands]] and
** [[U.S. Virgin Islands]] (AST—Atlantic Standard Time)

=== UTC − 3:30, P* ===
*[[Canada]] (NST—[[Newfoundland Standard Time Zone|Newfoundland Standard Time]])
** [[Labrador]] (southeastern)*,
** [[Newfoundland]]*

=== UTC − 3, P ===
*[[Argentina]]
*[[Brazil]] - official time
** [[Alagoas]],
** [[Amapá]],
** [[Bahia]] (no DST since 2003),
** [[Ceará]],
** [[Brazilian Federal District|Distrito Federal]]**,
** [[Espírito Santo]]**,
** [[Goiás]]**,
** [[Maranhão]],
** [[Minas Gerais]]**,
** [[Pará|Pará (eastern)]],
** [[Paraíba]], [[Paraná]]**,
** [[Pernambuco]],
** [[Piauí]],
** [[Rio de Janeiro State|Rio de Janeiro]]**,
** [[Rio Grande do Norte]],
** [[Rio Grande do Sul]]**,
** [[Santa Catarina State|Santa Catarina]]**,
** [[São Paulo State|São Paulo]]**,
** [[Sergipe]],
** [[Tocantins State|Tocantins]]
*[[French Guiana]]
*[[Greenland|Greenland - Kalaallit Nunaat]]
** south coast and southwest coast* (observes [[European Union]] DST rules)
*[[Saint-Pierre and Miquelon]]*
*[[Suriname]]
*[[Uruguay]]**

=== UTC − 2, O ===
*[[Brazil]] - Ocean Islands
** [[Fernando de Noronha]], Trindade, Martim Vaz, etc.
*[[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]

=== UTC − 1, N ===
*[[Cape Verde]]
*[[Greenland|Greenland - Kalaallit Nunaat]]
** eastern
*** Ittoqqortoormiit and surrounding area* (observes [[European Union]] DST rules)
*[[Portugal]]
** [[Azores]]*

=== UTC, Z ===
*[[Burkina Faso]]
*[[Bouvet Island]]
*[[Côte d'Ivoire]]
*[[Faroe Islands]]*
*[[The Gambia]]
*[[Ghana]]
*[[Greenland|Greenland - Kalaallit Nunaat]]
** northeastern
*** [[Danmarkshavn]] and surrounding area
*[[Guinea]]
*[[Guinea-Bissau]]
*[[Iceland]]
*[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]*
*[[Liberia]]
*[[Mali]]
*[[Mauritania]]
*[[Morocco]]
*[[Portugal]]*
*[[Saint Helena (Britain)|Saint Helena]]
*[[São Tomé and Príncipe]]
*[[Senegal]]
*[[Sierra Leone]]
*[[Spain]] (not mainland)
** [[Canary Islands]]* (Observes [[European Union]] DST rules)
*[[Togo]]
*[[United Kingdom]]* (GMT / BST)
*[[Western Sahara]]

=== UTC + 1, A ===
*[[Albania]]*
*[[Algeria]]
*[[Andorra]]*
*[[Angola]]
*[[Austria]]*
*[[Belgium]]*
*[[Benin]]
*[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]*
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Chad]]
*[[Republic of the Congo|Congo, Republic of the]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]]
**[[Kinshasa]]
**[[Bandundu]]
**[[Bas-Congo]]
**[[Equateur]]
*[[Croatia]]*
*[[Czech Republic]]*
*[[Denmark]]*
*[[Equatorial Guinea]]
*[[France]]*
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Germany]]*
*[[Gibraltar]]*
*[[Hungary]]*
*[[Italy]]*
*[[Liechtenstein]]*
*[[Luxembourg]]*
*[[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia, Republic of]]*
*[[Malta]]*
*[[Monaco]]*
*[[Montenegro]]*
*[[Namibia]]**
*[[Netherlands]]*
*[[Niger]]
*[[Nigeria]]
*[[Norway]]*
*[[Poland]]*
*[[San Marino]]*
*[[Serbia]]*
*[[Slovakia]]*
*[[Slovenia]]*
*[[Spain]]* (except [[Canary Islands]]).
*[[Svalbard|Svalbard and Jan Mayen]]*
*[[Sweden]]*
*[[Switzerland]]*
*[[Tunisia]]*
*[[Vatican City]]*

=== UTC + 2, B ===
*[[Belarus]]*
*[[Botswana]]
*[[Bulgaria]]*
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]]
**[[Kasai-Occidental]]
**[[Kasai-Oriental]]
**[[Katanga]]
**[[Maniema]]
**[[Nord-Kivu]]
**[[Orientale]]
**[[Sud-Kivu]]
*[[Cyprus]]*
*[[Egypt]]*
*[[Estonia]]*
*[[Finland]]*
*[[Gaza Strip]]*
*[[Greece]]*
*[[Israel]]*
*[[Jordan]]*
*[[Latvia]]*
*[[Lebanon]]*
*[[Lesotho]]
*[[Libya]]
*[[Lithuania]]*
*[[Malawi]]
*[[Moldova]]*
*[[Mozambique]]
*[[Romania]]*
*Russia ([[Kaliningrad Oblast|Kaliningrad]])*
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[South Africa]]
*[[Swaziland]]
*[[Syria]]*
*[[Turkey]]*
*[[Ukraine]]*
*[[West Bank]]*
*[[Zambia]]
*[[Zimbabwe]]

=== UTC + 3, C ===
*[[Bahrain]]
*[[Comoros]]
*[[Djibouti]]
*[[Eritrea]]
*[[Ethiopia]]
*[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]* ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3843511.stm], "same as Moscow", "three hours ahead of London", the text "GMT + 4" in the link apparently refers to the situation in summer)
*[[Iraq]]*
*[[Kenya]]
*[[Kuwait]]
*[[Madagascar]]
*[[Mayotte]]
*[[Qatar]]
*[[Russia]]* (most of European portion, including [[Moscow]], [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Rostov on Don]], [[Novaya Zemlya]], [[Franz Josef Land]], and all railroads throughout Russia)
**[[Astrakhan Oblast|Astrakhan]]* (NAO)
**[[Saratov Oblast|Saratov]]* (NAO)
**[[Ulyanovsk Oblast|Ulyanovsk]]* (NAO)
**[[Volgograd Oblast|Volgograd]]* (NAO)
*[[Saudi Arabia]]
*[[Somalia]]
*[[Sudan]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Uganda]]
*[[Yemen]]

=== UTC + 3:30, C* ===
*[[Iran]]*

=== UTC + 4, D ===
*[[Armenia]]*
*[[Azerbaijan]]*
*[[Mauritius]]
*[[Oman]]
*[[Réunion]]
*Russia
**[[Samara Oblast|Samara]]*
**[[Udmurtia]]*
*[[Seychelles]]
*[[United Arab Emirates]]

=== UTC + 4:30, D* ===
*[[Afghanistan]]

=== UTC + 5, E ===
*[[British Indian Ocean Territory]] (NAO)
*[[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]
*[[Kazakhstan]] (Western)
*[[Kyrgyzstan]]*
*[[Maldives]]
*[[Pakistan]]
*Russia
**[[Astrakhan Oblast|Astrakhan]]* (CIA)
**[[Bashkortostan]]*
**[[Chelyabinsk Oblast|Chelyabinsk]]*
**[[Kurgan Oblast|Kurgan]]*
**[[Orenburg Oblast|Orenburg]]*
**[[Perm Oblast|Perm]]*
**[[Saratov Oblast|Saratov]]* (CIA)
**[[Sverdlovsk Oblast|Sverdlovsk]]* (incl. [[Yekaterinburg]])
**[[Tyumen Oblast|Tyumen]]*
**[[Ulyanovsk Oblast|Ulyanovsk]]* (CIA)
**[[Volgograd Oblast|Volgograd]]* (CIA)
*[[Tajikistan]]
*[[Turkmenistan]]
*[[Uzbekistan]]

=== UTC + 5:30, E* ===
*[[India]] (IST—Indian Standard Time)

=== UTC + 5:45, E&Dagger; ===
*[[Nepal]]

:Nepal's time zone of UTC + 5:45 was adopted in [[1986]] [http://www.sptimes.com/Travel97/10198/To_Every_Times__There.html]. This is the nearest quarter-hour from Greenwich to the [[local mean time]] of Nepal's capital [[Kathmandu]], which is at 85°19'E or 5:41:16. Old CIA maps, 1995 and earlier, have Nepal at 5:40, which may be their approximation of Kathmandu's local mean time.

=== UTC + 6, F ===
*[[Bangladesh]]
*[[Bhutan]]
*[[British Indian Ocean Territory]] (CIA)
*[[Kazakhstan]] (Eastern)
*Russia
**[[Altai Krai]]*
**[[Altai Republic]]*
**[[Novosibirsk Oblast|Novosibirsk]]*
**[[Omsk Oblast|Omsk]]*
**[[Tomsk Oblast|Tomsk]]* (NAO),
*[[Sri Lanka]]

=== UTC + 6:30, F* ===
*[[Cocos Islands]]
*[[Myanmar]]

=== UTC + 7, G ===
*[[Cambodia]]
*[[Christmas Island]] (Australia)
*[[Indonesia]] (Western)
*[[Laos]]
*[[Mongolia]]* (part of western Mongolia)
*Russia
**[[Kemerovo Oblast|Kemerovo]]*
**[[Khakassia]]*
**[[Krasnoyarsk Krai|Krasnoyarsk]]* (incl. [[Severnaya Zemlya]])
**[[Tomsk Oblast|Tomsk]]* (CIA),
**[[Tuva]]*
*[[Thailand]]
*[[Vietnam]]

=== UTC + 8, H ===
*[[Australia]] (AWST—Australian Western Standard Time)
** [[Western Australia]] (most of state)
*[[Brunei]]
*[[China]], including the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]), [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]]
:Note that the whole of China has the same time, which makes this time zone exceptionally wide. In the extreme west of China the sun is at its highest at 15:00, in the extreme east at 11:00. It also means that on the short (76 km) frontier with [[Afghanistan]], the official time change is 3 hours and 30 minutes.
*[[Indonesia]] (Central)
*[[Malaysia]]
*[[Mongolia]]* (most of country)
*[[Philippines]]
*Russia
**[[Buryat Republic|Buryatia]]*
**[[Irkutsk Oblast|Irkutsk]]*
*[[Singapore]]

=== UTC + 8:45, H&Dagger; ===
*[[Australia]]
**[[Western Australia]]
***[[Caiguna]]-[[Eucla, Western Australia|Eucla]]-[[Border Village]] (far south-eastern part of state)

=== UTC + 9, I ===
*[[East Timor]]
*[[Indonesia]] (Eastern)
*[[Japan]] (JST—[[Japan Standard Time]])
*[[North Korea]]
*[[South Korea]] (KST—[[Korea Standard Time]])
*[[Palau]]
*Russia
**[[Amur Oblast|Amur]]*
**[[Chita Oblast|Chita]]*
**[[Sakha Republic|Sakha]]* (western portion, incl. [[Yakutsk]])

=== UTC + 9:30, I* ===
*[[Australia]] (ACST—Australian Central Standard Time)
** [[New South Wales]]
*** [[Broken Hill, Australia|Broken Hill]]**,
** [[Northern Territory]],
** [[South Australia]]**

=== UTC + 10, K ===
*[[Australia]] (AEST—Australian Eastern Standard Time)
** [[Australian Capital Territory]]**,
** [[New South Wales]]** (except Broken Hill, which observes South Australia time),
** [[Queensland]],
** [[Tasmania]]** (which observes DST starting on the first weekend of October instead of the last),
** [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]**
*[[Guam]] (Chamorro Standard Time via US Law)
*[[Federated States of Micronesia]]
** [[Chuuk]],
** [[Yap]], and surrounding area
*[[Northern Mariana Islands]] (Chamorro Standard Time via US law)
*[[Papua New Guinea]]
*Russia
**[[Primorsky Krai|Primorsky]] (incl. [[Vladivostok]] and [[Sakhalin Island]])*
**[[Khabarovsk Krai|Khabarovsk]]*
**[[Sakha Republic|Sakha]]* (central portion, incl. New Siberian Islands)

=== UTC + 10:30, K* ===
*[[Australia]]
** [[New South Wales]]
*** [[Lord Howe Island]]** (DST only 0:30)

=== UTC + 11, L ===
*[[Federated States of Micronesia]]
** [[Kosrae]],
** [[Pohnpei]], and surrounding area
*[[New Caledonia]]
*Russia
**[[Magadan Oblast|Magadan]]*
**[[Sakha Republic|Sakha]]* (eastern portion)
*[[Solomon Islands]]
*[[Vanuatu]]

=== UTC + 11:30, L* ===
*[[Norfolk Island]]

=== UTC + 12, M ===
*[[Fiji]]
*[[Kiribati]]
** [[Gilbert Islands]]
*[[Marshall Islands]]
:[[Kwajalein]], [[Enewetak|Eniwetok]], and [[Bikini Atoll|Bikini]] atolls in the Marshall Islands used to be on UTC−12. Kwajalein advanced 24 hours to the [[eastern hemisphere]] side of the [[International Date Line]] by skipping [[21 August]] [[1993]]. Eniwetok and Bikini probably advanced even earlier, when the U.S. military relinquished its control of them. [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/nytimes/116416799.html?did=116416799&FMT=ABS&FMTS=AI&date=Aug+22%2C+1993&desc=In+Marshall+Islands%2C+Friday+Is+Followed+by+Sunday]

*[[Nauru]]
*[[New Zealand|New Zealand]]**
*Russia
**[[Chukotka]]*
**[[Kamchatka Oblast|Kamchatka]] (incl. [[Kuril Islands]])*
*[[Tuvalu]]
*[[Wake Island]]
*[[Wallis and Futuna]]

=== UTC + 12:45, M&Dagger; ===
*[[New Zealand|New Zealand]]
** [[Chatham Islands]]**

=== UTC + 13, M* ===
*[[Kiribati]]
** [[Phoenix Islands]] Formerly UTC-11, advanced by skipping [[31 December]] [[1994]]
*[[Tonga]]

=== UTC + 14, M&dagger; ===
*[[Kiribati]]
** [[Line Islands]] Formerly UTC-10, advanced by skipping [[31 December]] [[1994]]

==See also==
*[[History of standard time in the United States]]
*[[Time in New Zealand]]

==Bibliography==
*Bowditch, Nathaniel. ''American Practical Navigator''. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1925, 1939, 1975.
*Hill, John C., Thomas F. Utegaard, Gerard Riordan. ''Dutton's Navigation and Piloting''. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute, 1958.
*Howse, Derek. ''Greenwich Time and the Discovery of the Longitude''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980. ISBN 0192159488.

==External links==
*[http://www.timegenie.com/ Time Genie] Find the current time and date for more than 6,600 cities in 245 countries. Also includes tools for converting and comparing times.
*[http://www.worldtimeserver.com/ World Time Server]
*[http://timezones.tk The E Time zone page] - Clock, Time and Zones - View the day and night timezone clock around the world at the E Time zone page
*[http://www.watchtimezone.com/ Watch Time Zone Database]
*[http://www.virtualtravelog.net/entries/000031.html Virtual Travelog] A Solution for Managing Time Zones, and Dates in International Internet Systems
*[http://www.twinsun.com/tz/tz-link.htm The tz database] provides specific information on the beginning and ending dates of daylight saving time for each zone and tracks time zones over the years.
*[http://time.world-stay.com/en/ Time around the World ] information about the time in locations all over the world, including daylight maps, sunrise and sunset times and free clocks that can be added to a web page
*[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~wrankin/rc/?timezoneslow Animated time zones] showing the relationship between arbitrary time zones and "natural" zones, from www.radicalcartography.net
*[http://www.time.gov/timezone.cgi?UTC/s/0/java US Official Time Clock] is java enabled to graphically display night and day around the globe.

[[Category:Lists of countries]]
[[Category:Time zones| ]]

[[af:Tydsone]]
[[ast:Fusu horariu]]
[[bg:Часова зона]]
[[ca:Zona horària]]
[[cs:Časové pásmo]]
[[da:Tidszone]]
[[de:Zeitzone]]
[[et:Ajavöönd]]
[[el:Ζώνη Ώρας]]
[[es:Huso horario]]
[[eo:Horzono]]
[[fr:Fuseau horaire]]
[[fy:Tiidsône]]
[[gl:Fuso horario]]
[[ko:시간대]]
[[hr:Vremenska zona]]
[[id:Zona waktu]]
[[ia:Fuso horari]]
[[is:Tímabelti]]
[[it:Fuso orario]]
[[he:אזור זמן]]
[[ka:დროის ზონა]]
[[lv:Laika zona]]
[[lt:Laiko juosta]]
[[li:Tiedzaone]]
[[hu:Időzóna]]
[[ms:Zon masa]]
[[nl:Tijdzone]]
[[nds:Tietrebeet]]
[[ja:標準時]]
[[pl:Strefa czasowa]]
[[pt:Fuso horário]]
[[ro:Fus orar]]
[[ru:Часовой пояс]]
[[simple:Time zone]]
[[sk:Časové pásmo]]
[[sl:Časovni pas]]
[[sr:Часовна зона]]
[[fi:Aikavyöhyke]]
[[sv:Tidszon]]
[[th:เขตเวลา]]
[[vi:Múi giờ]]
[[tr:Bölge zamanı]]
[[uk:Часовий пояс]]
[[zh:时区]]