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Imperial Russian Navy

2014-10-18T13:24:47Z

84.23.155.88: /* Rank insignia 1911-1917 */

{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = Imperial Russian Navy
| image =
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| dates = 1696–1917
| country = {{Flag icon|Russia}} [[Tsardom of Russia]] {{flag|Russian Empire}}
| allegiance =
| branch =
| type = Navy
| role =
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| command_structure =
| current_commander =
| garrison =
| ceremonial_chief =
| colonel_of_the_regiment =
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| battles = [[Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)|Russo-Turkish War of 1686–1700]] [[Great Northern War]] [[Napoleonic Wars]] [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–74)|Russo-Turkish War of 1768–74]] [[Crimean War]] [[Russo-Japanese War]] [[World War I]] [[Russian Civil War]]
| notable_commanders =
| anniversaries =

|identification_symbol = [[File:Naval Ensign of Russia.svg|border|200px]]
|identification_symbol_label = Navy Ensign
|identification_symbol_2 = [[File:Naval Jack of Russia.svg|border|200px]]
|identification_symbol_2_label = Naval Jack
}}

{{Navies of Russia}}

The ''' Imperial Russian Navy''' was the navy of the [[Russian Empire]], often dated from 1696 until the [[February Revolution]] of 1917.

==Background==
Under Tsar [[Michael I of Russia|Mikhail Feodorovich]], construction of the first three-masted ship actually built within Russia was completed in 1636. It was built in [[Balakhna]] by [[Denmark|Danish]] shipbuilders from [[Holstein]] according to European design and was christened the ''Frederick''. During its maiden voyage on the [[Caspian Sea]], the ''Frederick'' unfortunately sailed into a heavy storm and was lost at sea.

During the [[Russo-Swedish War, 1656-1658]], Russian forces seized the [[Swedish Empire|Swedish]] fortresses of [[Siege of Dyneburg|Dünaburg]] and [[Storm of Kokenhusen|Kokenhusen]] on the [[Daugava River|Western Dvina]], the former being renamed to Borisoglebsk and the latter, Tsarevich-Dmitriyev. A ''boyar'' named [[Afanasy Ordin-Nashchokin]] founded a shipyard at Tsarevich-Dmitriev fortress and began constructing vessels to sail in the Baltic Sea. In 1661, however, Russia was once again forced to abide by the harsh terms of a treaty, this time the Peace of Cardis. Russia agreed to surrender to Sweden all captured territories, and all vessels constructed at Tsarevich-Dmitriev were ordered destroyed.

''Boyar'' Ordin-Nashchyokin, not grieving long over defeat, turned his attention to the [[Volga River]] and Caspian Sea. With the Tsar's approval, the ''boyar'' brought Dutch shipbuilding experts to the town of Dedinovo near the confluence of the [[Oka River|Oka]] and Volga Rivers. Shipbuilding commenced in the winter of 1667. Within two years, four vessels had been completed: one 22-gun galley, christened the ''Орёл'' ("Oryol" = "Eagle"), and three smaller ships. The ill-fated ''Frederick'' had been a Holstein vessel; the ''Орёл'' became Russia's first own three-masted, European-designed sailing ship but met with a similarly unfortunate end. The ship was captured in [[Astrakhan]] by rebellious [[Cossack]]s led by [[Stepan Razin]]. The Cossacks ransacked the ''Орёл'' and abandoned it, half-submerged, in an estuary of the Volga.

During much of the 17th century, Russian merchants and Cossacks, using [[Koch (boat)|koch boats]], sailed across the [[White Sea]], exploring the Rivers [[Lena River|Lena]], [[Kolyma River|Kolyma]] and [[Indigirka]], and founding settlements in the region of the upper [[Amur River|Amur]]. Unquestionably, the most celebrated Russian explorer was [[Semyon Dezhnev]], who, in 1648, sailed the entire length of present-day Russia by way of the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Rounding the [[Chukotsk Peninsula]], Dezhnev passed through the [[Bering Sea]] and sailed into the Pacific Ocean.

==Reign of Peter the Great==
[[File:Goto Predestinacia 1.jpg|right|thumb|[[Russian ship of the line Goto Predestinatsia|''Goto Predestinatsia'']], flagship of Azov flotilla until 1711]]

The creation of the regular Russian Navy took place during the reign of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]]. During the [[Azov campaigns|Second Azov campaign]] of 1696 against Turkey, the Russians employed for the first time 2 warships, 4 [[fireship]]s, 23 [[galley]]s and 1300 strugs, built on the [[Voronezh River]]. After the occupation of the [[Azov]] fortress, the [[Boyar Duma]] looked into Peter's report of this military campaign and passed a decree on commencing the construction of the navy on October 20, 1696. This date is considered the official birthday of the regular Russian Navy.

During the [[Great Northern War]] of 1700-1721, the Russians built the [[Baltic Fleet]]. The construction of the oared fleet (galley fleet) took place in 1702-1704 at several [[shipyard]]s ([[Estuary|estuaries]] of the rivers [[Syas River|Syas]], [[Luga river|Luga]] and [[Olonka River|Olonka]]). In order to be able to defend the conquered coastline and attack enemy's maritime communications in the [[Baltic Sea]], the Russians created a sailing fleet from the ships built in Russia and imported from abroad. From 1703-1723, the main [[Military base|base]] of the Baltic Fleet was located in [[Saint Petersburg]] and then in [[Kronstadt]]. The bases were also created in Reval ([[Tallinn]]) and in [[Vyborg]] after it was ceded from Sweden after [[Russo-Swedish War (1741-1743)|the war of 1741-43]]. At first, [[Vladimirsky Prikaz]] was in charge of shipbuilding. Later on, these functions were transferred to the [[Admiralty building, Saint Petersburg|Admiralteyskiy Prikaz]].

In 1745 the Russian Navy had 130 sailing vessels, including 36 ships of the line, 9 [[frigate]]s, 3 ''shnyavas'' (''шнява'' — a light two-mast ship used for [[reconnaissance]] and messenger services), 5 bombardier ships and 77 auxiliary vessels. The oared fleet consisted of 396 vessels, including 253 galleys and semi-galleys (called ''скампавеи'', or scampavei; a light high-speed galley) and 143 [[brigantine]]s. The ships were being constructed at 24 shipyards, including the ones in [[Voronezh]], [[Kazan]], [[Pereslavl-Zalessky|Pereyaslavl]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=June 2011}}, [[Arkhangelsk]], [[Olonets]], Petersburg and [[Astrakhan]].

The naval officers for the fleet were supplied from among the [[dvoryane]] (noblemen) and regular sailors — from [[Army recruit|recruit]]s. The service in the navy was lifelong. Children of noblemen were educated for naval service at the School for Mathematical and Navigational Sciences, which had been founded in 1701 in Moscow's Sukharev Tower. Students were often sent abroad for training in foreign fleets. It was also customary to hire foreign nationals, who had significant naval experience, to serve in the Russian Navy, such as the Norwegian-Dutch [[Cornelius Cruys]], the Greek [[Ivan Botsis]] or the Scotsman [[Thomas Gordon (admiral)|Thomas Gordon]]. In 1718, the Admiralty Board (Адмиралтейств-коллегия) was established as the highest naval authority in Russia.

[[File:Cathedral kronstadt.jpg|thumb|The naval cathedral in [[Kronstadt]] was one of several cathedrals of the Imperial Russian Navy.]]

The organizational principles of the Russian Navy, educational and training methods for preparing future staff, and methods for conducting military action were all summarized in the Naval Charter (1720) penned by Peter I himself.<ref>Устав морской (Naval Regulations), Санкт Петербург, 1763</ref> [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]], [[Fyodor Matveyevich Apraksin|Feodor Apraksin]], [[Alexey Senyavin]], [[Naum Senyavin]], [[Mikhail Golitsyn]] and others are generally credited for the development of the Russian art of [[naval warfare]]. The main principles of naval warfare were further developed by [[Grigory Spiridov]], [[Feodor Ushakov]], and [[Dmitry Senyavin]].

==18th century==
In the second half of the 18th century, the Russian Navy grew stronger due to activization of Russia's foreign policy and [[Russo-Turkish Wars|Russo-Turkish wars]] for supremacy in the [[Black Sea]]. For the first time, Russia sent its [[Squadron (naval)|squadrons]] from the Baltic Sea to distant [[Theater (warfare)|theaters of operations]] (''see [[Orlov Revolt|Archipelago expeditions of the Russian Navy]]''). [[Admiral]] Spiridov's squadron gained supremacy in the [[Aegean Sea]] by destroying the [[Turkish Navy|Turkish fleet]] in the [[Battle of Chesma]] in 1770. In 1771, the [[Imperial Russian Army|Russian army]] conquered the coasts of the [[Kerch Strait]] and [[fortress]]es of [[Kerch]] and [[Yenikale]].

After having advanced to the [[Danube]], the Russians formed the [[Danube Military Flotilla]] for the purpose of guarding the Danube estuary and they came in 1771 as guests to the [[Republic of Ragusa]].<ref>[[Ruđer Bošković]], page 54, Željko Brnetić, Školska knjiga, 1990. ISBN 978-86-03-99817-7</ref> The [[Beluga caviar]] from the Danube was famous and the merchants from the Republic of Ragusa dominated the import-export business in [[Serbia]] with the [[Habsburg Monarchy]].<ref>Serbien und Montenegro: Raum und Bevölkerung, Geschichte, Sprache und Literatur, Kultur, Politik, Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft, Recht, p. 152, Walter Lukan, Ljubinka Trgovcevic, Dragan Vukcevic, Walter Lukan, Ljubinka Trgovcevic, Dragan Vukcevic, ISBN 978-3-8258-9539-6</ref> In 1773 the vessels of the [[Azov Flotilla]] (created anew in 1771) sailed out into the Black Sea. The Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774 ended victoriously for Russia, which gained the coasts of the [[Sea of Azov]] and a part of the Black Sea coastline between the rivers [[Southern Bug|Bug]] and [[Dniester]]. The [[Crimea]] was pronounced independent under Russia's [[protectorate]] and would become a part of Russia in 1783. In 1778, the Russians founded the port of [[Kherson]]. It is in this city that the first battleship of the [[Black Sea Fleet]] was commissioned in 1783. A year later, it was already a squadron.

==19th century==
[[File:Ruadmiralty.jpg|thumb|Headquarters of the [[Admiralty Board (Russia)|Admiralty Board]], 1810s.]]

In the second half of the 18th century and early 19th century, the Russian Navy had the third largest fleet in the world after Great Britain and France. The Black Sea Fleet possessed five line-of-battle ships and 19 frigates (1787), the Baltic Fleet had 23 ships of the line and 130 frigates (1788). In the early 19th century, the Russian Navy consisted of the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets, [[Caspian Flotilla]], [[White Sea Flotilla]] and [[Okhotsk Flotilla]]. In 1802, the Ministry of Naval Military Forces was established (renamed to Naval Ministry in 1815).

In 1826 the Russians built their first armed [[steamboat]] [[Izhora (steamboat)|''Izhora'']] ({{convert|73.6|kW|hp|lk=on|abbr=on}}), equipped with eight [[cannon]]s. In 1836, they constructed the first [[Paddle steamer|paddle steam]] frigate of the Russian Navy called [[Bogatyr (frigate)|''Bogatyr'']] (displacement — {{convert|1340|t|LT|lk=on|abbr=on}}, power — {{convert|177|kW|hp|abbr=on}}, armament — 28 cannons). Between 1803 and 1855, Russian sailors undertook over 40 [[circumnavigation]]s and long-distant voyages, most of which were in support of their Pacific colonies in Alaska, California, and the ports on the eastern seaboard of Siberia. These voyages played an important role in the exploration of the Far East, different oceans and contributed important scientific research materials and discoveries in Pacific, Antarctic and Arctic theatres of operations.

[[Image:Russians at navarino.jpg|thumb|''Battle of Navarino'', by [[Ivan Aivazovsky]], showing the Russian squadron, in line ahead (left-centre, white flags with blue transversal crosses) bombarding the Ottoman fleet (right, with red flags)]]

In 1863, during the [[American Civil War]], the Russian Navy's Atlantic and Pacific Fleets wintered in the American ports of New York and San Francisco respectively. Some historians credit this visit as a major factor in deterring France and England from entering the war on the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] side.<ref>Norman E. Saul, Richard D. McKinzie. '''Russian-American Dialogue on Cultural Relations, 1776-1914''' p 95. ISBN 0-8262-1097-X, 9780826210975</ref> Delahaye states that besides supporting the Union, Russia was also preparing for a war with France and England should they intervene in the Polish insurrection of 1863. The Russian Navy was weak and could easily be blockaded in its home ports, but if it was in the US when the war started it could more easily attack British and French commerce.<ref>{{cite web |first=Tom |last=Delahaye |title=The Bilateral Effect of the Visit of the Russian Fleet in 1863 |url=http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1983-4/delehaye.htm |accessdate= September 4, 2008 |publisher=Loyno.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Wayback|url= http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1983-4/delehaye.htm |date=20090216102525}}</ref>

The Imperial Russian Navy continued to expand in the later part of the century becoming the third largest fleet in the world after Britain and France. The expansion accelerated under Tsar [[Nicholas II]] who had been influenced by the American naval theoretician [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]]. Russian industry, although growing in capacity, was not able to meet the demands and some ships were ordered from Britain, France, Germany, USA, and Denmark. French naval architects in particular had a considerable influence on Russian designs.

==Crimean War and aftermath==
[[File:Vladimir vs Pervaz-i Bahri.jpg|thumb|Action between Russian steam frigate '''{{Ill|ru|Vladimir (ship, 1848)|Владимир (пароходофрегат)}}'' and Turkish steam frigate ''[[Pervaz-ı Bahrî]]'' on November 5, 1853 — first action between steam ships in history.]]

Russia's slow technical and economic development in the first half of the 19th century caused her to fall behind other European countries in the field of [[steamboat]] construction. By the outbreak of the [[Crimean War]] in 1853, Russia had the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets, Arkhangelsk Flotilla, Caspian Flotilla and [[Pacific Fleet (Russia)|Okhotsk Flotilla]] (altogether, 40 battleships, 15 frigates, 24 [[corvette]]s and [[brig]]s, 16 steam frigates etc.).

The combined number of staff of all the fleets equaled 91,000 people. Despite all this, the reactionary [[serfdom]] system had an adverse effect on the development of the Russian Navy. It was especially typical of the Baltic Fleet, which was known for its harsh military drill.

Thanks to admirals [[Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev|Mikhail Lazarev]], [[Pavel Nakhimov]], [[Vladimir Kornilov]], and [[Vladimir Istomin]], the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet were taught the art of warfare and upholding of military traditions of the Russian Navy, formed in the times of Admiral Ushakov.

The [[Battle of Sinop]] in 1853 the Black Sea Fleet under Nakhimov made a number of tactical innovations. During the [[Siege of Sevastopol (1854)|Siege of Sevastopol]] in 1854-1855, the Russian sailors used all means possible to defend their base from land and sea. In accordance with the [[Treaty of Paris (1856)|Treaty of Paris]], Russia lost the right to have a military fleet in the Black Sea. In the 1860s, the Russian fleet which had relied upon sails lost its significance and was gradually replaced by steam.

After the Crimean War, Russia commenced construction of steam-powered [[ironclad]]s, [[Monitor warship type|monitor]]s, and floating batteries. These vessels had strong [[artillery]] and thick [[armor]], but lacked seaworthiness, speed and long-distance abilities. In 1861, they built the first steel-armored [[gunship]] ''Opyt'' (Опыт). In 1869, the Russians began the construction of one of the first seafaring ironclads [[Russian ironclad Petr Veliky|''Petr Veliky'']] (Пётр Великий).

==Russo-Japanese War==
{{main|Russo-Japanese War}}

On the night of February 8, 1904, the [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese naval]] fleet under Admiral [[Heihachiro Togo]] opened the war with a surprise attack by [[torpedo boat destroyer]]s<ref>Grant p. 12, 13, 15, etc. continuous throughout the book</ref> on the Russian ships at Port Arthur, badly damaging two Russian battleships. The attacks developed into the [[Battle of Port Arthur]] the next morning. A series of indecisive naval engagements followed, in which the Japanese were unable to attack the Russian fleet successfully under [[shore batteries]] (''coastal guns'')<ref>Grant p. 46, 51, 54, 63, etc. throughout the book</ref> of the harbor and the Russians declined to leave the harbor for the open seas, especially after the death of Admiral [[Stepan Osipovich Makarov]] on 13 April 1904.

After the attack on Port Arthur, the Japanese attempted to deny the Russians use of the port. On the night of 13/14 February, the Japanese attempted to block the entrance to Port Arthur by sinking several cement-filled steamers in the deep water channel to the port.<ref>Grant p. 48-57</ref> But the steamers, driven off course by Russian gunfire were unable to sink them in the designated places, rendering them ineffective. Another attempt to block the harbor entrance on the night of 3/4 May with blockships also failed.

===Mine-laying===
In March, the energetic<ref>Grant p. 93</ref> Vice Admiral [[Stepan Makarov]] (1849–1904) took command of the First Russian Pacific Squadron with the intention of making plans to break out of the Port Arthur blockade. By then, both sides began a policy of tactical offensive mine-laying by laying mines in each other's ports. This was the first time in warfare that mines were used for offensive purposes. In the past, mines were used as purely defensive purposes by keeping harbors safe from invading warships.

The Japanese mine-laying policy was effective at restricting the Russian movement of its ships outside Port Arthur when on 12 April 1904, two Russian battleships; the [[flagship]] {{Ship|Russian battleship|Petropavlovsk|1894|2}} and the {{ship|Russian battleship|Pobeda||2}} ran into a Japanese minefield off Port Arthur with both striking mines.<ref>Grant p. 127, 128</ref> ''Petropavlovsk'' sank within an hour, while ''Pobeda'' had to be towed back to Port Arthur for extensive repairs. Makarov died on ''Petropavlovsk''.

However, the Russians soon learned the Japanese tactic of offensive minelaying and decided to play the strategy too. On 15 May, two Japanese battleships — {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Yashima||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Hatsuse||2}}, were both lured into a recently laid Russian minefield off Port Arthur, both striking at least two mines. ''Yashima'' sank within minutes taking 450 sailors with her, while ''Hatsuse'' sank under tow a few hours later.<ref>Grant p. 163; Diarist may have only been aware of battleship ''Hatsuse''{{'}}s sinking, as he does not mention the ''Yashima''. However, the commander's diary had been translated into two different languages between 1905 and 1907 (Spanish and English), so it is highly possible that that information may have been lost during translation</ref>

The Russian fleet attempted to break out from Port Arthur and proceed to [[Vladivostok]], but they were intercepted and dispersed at the [[Battle of the Yellow Sea]].<ref>Grant p. 171-177</ref> The remnant of the Russian fleet remained in Port Arthur, where the ships were slowly sunk by the artillery of the besieging army. Attempts to relieve the city by land also failed, and after the [[Battle of Liaoyang]] in late August, the Russians retreated to Mukden ([[Shenyang]]). Port Arthur finally fell on 2 January 1905, after a series of brutal, high-casualty assaults.

===Russian submarines===
By 25 June, the Imperial Russian Navy had purchased (in secrecy) its first naval submarine (known as ''Madam'') from [[Isaac Rice]]'s [[Electric Boat Company]]. This submarine was (originally) built under the direction of [[Arthur Leopold Busch]] as the American torpedo boat ''Fulton''. It was a prototype of the (Holland Type 7 Design) known as the ''Adder''-class/[[Plunger-class submarine|''Plunger''-class]] submarines. By 10 October, this first IRN submarine was (officially) commissioned into service (and shipped to) the eastern coast near [[Vladivostok]] Russia and was renamed ''Som'' or (Catfish). This first Russian submarine was not ready in time for the Russo-Japanese War. The reason behind this delay was partly due to a (late) shipment of torpedoes (that was) originally ordered from Germany in early 1905. Russia soon ordered more submarines (of the same basic design) and they were built under contract with the Holland Company by the [[Neva Shipbuilding Company]] located in [[St. Petersburg]], Russia.

In 1903, the German ship building firm [[Germaniawerft]] at [[Kiel]] completed Germany's first fully functioning engine powered submarine; the ''Forelle''. The submarine was toured (inspected) by [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]], and [[Prince Heinrich]] of Prussia was given a brief cruise in the vessel.<ref>Showell, p. 22, 25, 201</ref> In April 1904, the Imperial Russian Navy purchased the ''Forelle'', and ordered two more submarines of the [[Karp-class submarine|''Karp'']] class.<ref>Showell, p. 25</ref> These vessels, as well as the ''Forelle'' were transported along the [[Trans-Siberian Railway]]<ref>Grant p. 140</ref> en route to the war zone.

Germaniawerft, under the supervision of Spanish naval architect ''Raymondo Lorenzo d'Euevilley-Montjustin'', continued his work on the ''Karp''-class submarines, improving and modifying one into Germany's first [[U-boat]], [[SM U-1 (Germany)|''U-1'']], which was commissioned into the [[Imperial German Navy]] on 14 December 1906.<ref>Showell, p. 24 & 30</ref> ''U-1'' was retired in 1919, and is currently on display at the [[Deutsches Museum]] in Munich.<ref>Showell, p. 36 & 37</ref>

Due to the ongoing blockade of [[Port Arthur naval base|Port Arthur]] in 1904, the IRN dispatched their remaining submarines to [[Vladivostok]], and by the end of 1904 the last of seven subs had reached their new base there. Using the seven boats as a foundation, the IRN created the world's first operational submarine fleet at Vladivostok on 1 January 1905. On 14 February 1905 the new ''submarine fleet'' sent out its first combat patrol consisting of the IRN ''Som'' and ''Delfin''. With patrols varying from 24 hours to a few days, the sub fleets first enemy contact occurred on 29 April 1905 when IJN torpedo boats fired upon the ''Som'', scoring no hits the IJN [[Torpedo boat|TBs]] withdrew. On 1 July the IRN submarine ''Keta'' made contact with two IJN torpedo boats in the [[Tartar Strait]]. The ''Keta'' could not submerge quick enough to obtain a firing position and both adversaries broke contact.<ref>Olender p. 175</ref>

===Decisive battle: Tsushima===
The Russians had already been preparing to reinforce their fleet the previous year by sending elements of the [[Baltic Sea]] fleet (''The Second Pacific Squadron'') under Admiral [[Zinovy Rozhestvensky]] around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] to Asia, a voyage of over {{convert|18000|mi|nmi km|abbr=on}}. On 21 October 1904, while passing by the United Kingdom (an ally of Japan but neutral in this war), they nearly provoked a war in the [[Dogger Bank incident]] by firing on British fishing boats that they mistook for Japanese [[torpedo boat]]s.

The duration of the Baltic Fleet's journey meant that [[Admiral Togo]] was well aware of the [[Baltic Fleet]]'s progress, and he made plans to meet it before it could reach port at [[Vladivostok]]. He intercepted them in the [[Tsushima Strait]] between Korea and Japan, in the early morning of 27 May 1905. Although both battleship fleets were on nearly equal footing in regards to the latest in battleship technology, with the British warship designs representing the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]], and predominately the French designs being favored by the Russian fleets;<ref>Forczyk p. 11-13</ref> it was the combat experience that Togo had accrued in the 1904 naval battles of [[Battle of Port Arthur|Port Arthur]] and the [[Yellow Sea]], that gave him the edge over the un-tested Admiral Rozhestvensky during the [[Battle of Tsushima]] on 27 May.<ref>Forczyk p. 41-54</ref> By the end of the day on 27 May, nearly all of Rozhestvensky's battleships were sunk, including his flagship, the ''Prince Suvorov''; and on the following day, Admiral Nebogatov, who had relieved Rozhestvensky due to his wounds, surrendered the remainder of the fleet to Admiral Togo.

==Reconstruction prior to World War I==
At the end of the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, Russia fell from being the third greatest naval power to sixth place. The focus of Russian naval activities shifted back from the Far East to the Baltic. The task of the [[Baltic Fleet]] was to defend the Baltic Sea and Saint Petersburg from the Germans.

Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] created a Naval General Staff in 1906. At first, attention was directed to creation of mine-laying and a submarine fleet. An ambitious expansion program was put before the [[State Duma of the Russian Empire|Duma]] in 1907-1908 but was voted down. The [[Bosnian Crisis]] of 1909 forced a strategic reconsideration, and new [[Gangut-class battleship|''Gangut''-class]] battleships, cruisers, and destroyers were ordered for the Baltic Fleet. A worsening of relations with [[Ottoman Empire|Turkey]] meant that new ships including the [[Imperatritsa Mariya-class battleship|''Imperatritsa-Mariya''-class]] battleships were also ordered for the Black Sea Fleet. The total Russian naval expenditure from 1906-1913 was $519 million, in fifth place behind Britain, Germany,the United States and France.

The re-armament program included a significant element of foreign participation with several ships (including the cruiser ''Rurik'') and machinery ordered from foreign firms. After the outbreak of World War I, ships and equipment being built in Germany were confiscated. Equipment from Britain was slow in reaching Russia or was diverted to the Western Allies' own war effort.

==World War I==

===Baltic Sea===
[[File:The Poltava.jpg|thumb|The Baltic Fleet's [[dreadnought]] ''[[Russian battleship Poltava (1911)|Poltava]]'' in 1916.]]

In the [[Baltic Sea]], Germany and Russia were the main combatants, with a number of British submarines sailing through the [[Kattegat]] to assist the Russians, including ''E9'' commanded by [[Max Horton]]. With the German fleet larger and more modern (many [[High Seas Fleet]] ships could easily be deployed to the Baltic via the [[Kiel Canal]] when the North Sea was quiet), the Russians played a mainly defensive role, at most attacking convoys between Germany and Sweden and laying offensive minefields. Russian and British submarines attacked German shipping sailing between Sweden and Germany.

With heavy defensive and offensive mining on both sides, fleets played a limited role on the Eastern Front. The Germans mounted major naval attacks on the [[Gulf of Riga]], [[Battle of the Gulf of Riga|unsuccessfully in August 1915]] and successfully in October 1917, when they occupied the islands in the Gulf ([[Operation Albion]]) and damaged Russian ships departing from [[Riga]] ([[Battle of Moon Sound]]), which had recently been captured by Germany.

By March 1918, the [[October Revolution|Russian Revolution]] and the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] made the Germans masters of the Baltic sea and German fleets transferred troops to support newly independent Finland and to occupy much of Russia, halting only when defeated in the West. The Russians evacuated the Baltic fleet from [[Helsinki]] and [[Tallinn]] to Kronstadt during the [[Ice Cruise of the Baltic Fleet]] in March 1918.

===Black Sea===
[[File:Black Sea Battleships.jpg|left|thumb|[[Black Sea]] Fleet's battleship brigade in line ahead led by the ''[[Russian battleship Ioann Zlatoust|Ioann Zlatoust]]'']]

The [[Black Sea]] was the domain of the Russians and the Ottoman Empire but the Russian fleet dominated the sea. It possessed a large fleet based in [[Sevastopol]] and it was led by two skilled commanders: [[Andrei Eberhardt|Admiral Eberhart]] and [[Alexander Kolchak|Admiral Kolchak]] (who took over in 1916).

The war in the Black Sea started when the Ottoman fleet bombarded several Russian cities in October 1914. The most advanced ships in the Ottoman fleet consisted of just two German ships: the battlecruiser {{SMS|Goeben}} and light cruiser {{SMS|Breslau}}, both under the command of Admiral [[Wilhelm Souchon]]. The ''Goeben'' was damaged on at least four different occasions and was usually chased back to port by the superior Russian navy. By the end of 1915, the Russian fleet had nearly complete control of the sea.

The Black Sea fleet was used mainly to support [[Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich|General Yudenich]] in his [[Caucasus Campaign]]. For example, in August 1915, a Russian submarine and two Russian destroyers attacked a Turkish convoy of four transports escorted by a cruiser and two destroyers. The Russian ships sank all four transports without losing a ship. Later, during the summer of 1916, the Ottoman army, under, [[Vehip Pasha]], was ordered to re-take [[Trebizond]]. The Ottoman forces tried to march along the coast in June but the Russian fleet was able to reduce the speed of their advance to a crawl using naval bombardment to harass marching troops and destroy their supply columns. Eventually the Ottoman army gave up and withdrew.

After Admiral Kolchak took command (August 1916), the Russian fleet mined the exit from the [[Bosporus]], preventing nearly all Ottoman ships from entering the Black Sea. Later that year, the naval approaches to [[Varna]] were also mined. The greatest loss suffered by the Russian Black Sea fleet was the destruction of the modern [[dreadnought]] [[Russian battleship Imperatritsa Mariya|''Imperatritsa Mariya'']], which blew up in port on 7 October 1916, just one year after it was commissioned. The sinking of the ''Empress Maria'' was never fully explained; it could have been [[sabotage]] or a terrible accident.<ref>[http://www.neva.ru/EXPO96/book/chap11-3.html The History of the Russian Navy] - Chapter 11. The Great War - In the Black Sea</ref>

==Revolution and Civil War==
{{Expand section|date=November 2008}}

The Revolution and subsequent civil war devastated the Russian Navy. Only the Baltic fleet based at Petrograd remained largely intact, although it was [[British Campaign in the Baltic 1918-19|attacked by the British Royal Navy in 1919]]. Foreign Interventionists occupied the Pacific, Black Sea and Arctic coasts. Most of the surviving Black Sea Fleet warships, with crews loyal to the [[White movement|White Russian]] movement, became part of [[Wrangel's fleet]] under the control of commander [[Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel]] and after evacuating White forces and civilians from the [[Crimea]] were eventually interned in [[Bizerta]], Tunisia. Russian sailors fought on both sides in this bloody conflict. The sailors of the Baltic fleet rebelled against harsh treatment by the Soviet authorities in the [[Kronstadt rebellion]] of 1921.

The surviving ships formed the core of the [[Soviet Navy]] on its 1918 establishment, though the remnants of Wrangel's fleet never returned to Russia.

==Ranks of the Imperial Navy (English translation)==
* ''See also: [[History of Russian military ranks]]''
Beginning in the second half of the 19th century, ranks of the IRN were divided according to speciality and branch.

=== Deck ranks and rates ===
'''Seamen and NCO's'''
* [[Seaman]]
* First Seaman
* [[Quartermaster]] Seaman
* [[Petty officer, third class|Petty Officer 3rd Class]] ([[Boatswain|Boatswain's mate]], [[Third mate]], Skipper's mate, Stuurman's mate)
* [[Petty officer, second class|Petty Officer 2nd Class]] ([[Boatswain]], [[Second mate]], [[Schooner]] skipper)
* [[Petty officer, first class|Petty Officer 1st Class]] ([[Unteroffizier]]) ([[Constable]])
* [[Chief petty officer|Chief Petty Officer]] ([[Sea captain|Skipper]])
* [[Senior Chief Petty Officer]] (Senior Unteroffizier) ([[Chief mate]], [[Conductor (Imperial Russian Navy)|Conductor]])
* [[Master Chief Petty Officer]] (Senior Boatswain)

'''Officers'''
* Brevet Midshipman/Garde-Marine (1827-1884)
* [[Midshipman]]
* Ship Secretary (until 1834), [[Sub-lieutenant]] (1834–84)
* [[Lieutenant (navy)|Lieutenant]] (formerly Second Lieutenant 1724-1884)
* [[First lieutenant|First Lieutenant]] (from 1907 onward)
* [[Captain lieutenant|Captain Lieutenant]] (formerly [[Lieutenant commander|Captain 3rd Rank]] until 1730)
* [[Commander|Captain 2nd Rank]]
* [[Captain (naval)|Captain 1st Rank]]
* Captain-[[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] (until 1764 and 1798-1826, from 1764-98 Captain-Brigadier)
* [[Counter admiral|Counter Admiral]], [[Rear admiral|Rear Admiral]]
* [[Vice admiral|Vice Admiral]]
* [[Admiral]]
* [[General Admiral]]

=== [[Naval Infantry (Russia)|Naval Infantry]] and ground service troops ranks ===
Ranks of these troops mirrored those of the [[Imperial Russian Army]] from Private to General, and were distinguished from those in the army.

'''Marine enlisted and NCOs'''
* Marine [[Private (rank)|Private]], [[Marine (military)|Marine]]
* Marine [[Gefreiter]]
* Marine Junior Unteroffizier (Formerly Marine [[Corporal]])
* Marine Senior Unteroffizier
* Marine [[Feldwebel]] (Formerly Marine [[Sergeant]])
* Marine Junior Ensign
* Marine Acting Ensign (from 1884 onward)

'''Marine officers'''
* Admiralty [[Ensign (rank)|Ensign]]
* Admiralty Sub-lieutenant
* Admiralty [[Lieutenant]]
* Admiralty Captain Lieutenant (1907–13)
* Admiralty [[Stabskapitän|Staff Captain]]
* Admiralty [[Captain (OF-2)|Captain]]
* Admiralty Second Major (1780-1829)
* Admiralty First Major (1780-1829)
* Admiralty [[Major]] (1830-1884)
* Admiralty [[Lieutenant colonel|Lieutenant Colonel]]
* Admiralty [[Colonel]]
* Admiralty [[Brigadier]] (until 1798)
* Fleet [[Major general|Major General]]
* Fleet [[Lieutenant general|Lieutenant General]]
* Fleet [[General]]

=== Engineering ranks ===
Until 1905 the Naval Mechanical Engineers Corps and the Fleet Engineers Corps had unique ranks. Both changed to ground based ranks that year and in 1912 the former changed its ranks again to naval based ranks.

===Rank insignia 1911-1917===
{| class=wide border="1" cellpadding="2" width=100 %
|+
!Class in [[Table of Ranks]]
!Rank
!''English translation''
!Rank insignia
!Russian army equivalent
!US. Navy equivalent WW1 <ref>[http://www.naval-history.net/WW1NavyUS-Ranks.htm UNITED STATES NAVY - COMMISSIONED OFFICERS and ENLISTED RANKS] 2104-10-07.</ref>
|-
|<center>I || Generaladmiral ||''General Admiral'' || [[File:Погон Генерал-адмирала Российского Императорского флота.jpg|120px]]''plus crossed batons'' || Field-marshal || -
|-
|<center>II || Admiral || ''Admiral'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF9 Admiral.png|120px]] || General || Admiral
|-
|<center>III || Vitse- admiral || ''Vice-admiral'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF8 Vice Admiral.png|120px]] ||Lieutenant-general || Vice Admiral
|-
| <center>IV || Kontr-admiral ||''Counter-admiral '' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF7 Counter Admiral.png|120px]] ||Major-general || Rear Admiral
|-
| <center>VI || Kapitan 1-go ranga ||''Captain 1st rank ''||[[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF5 Captain 1 shoulder.png|120px]] || Colonel || Captain
|-
|<center>VII ||Kapitan 2-go ranga ||''Captain 2nd rank'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF4 Captain 2 shoulder.png|120px]] ||Lieutenant-colonel || Commander
|-
|<center>VIII || Starshiy leiteneant ||''Senior Lieutenant'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF1 Starshyi Lejtnant.png|120px]] || Captain || Lieutenant Commander
|-
|<center>IX || Leitenenant ||''Lieutenant'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF1 lejtnant shoulder.png|120px]] ||Staff-captain || Lieutenant
|-
|<center>X || Michman ||''Midshipman'' || [[File:IRN OF1-3Michman 1909-1917.jpg|50px]] || Lieutenant || Lieutenant junior grade
|-
| -|| Konduktor Starshiy botsman ||''Conductor'' ''Senior Boatswain'' || [[File:IRN OR8SenBozman 1917.jpg|50px]] ''Senior Boatswain with anchor'' || Subensign || Warrant Officer
|-
| -|| Botsman ||''Boatswain'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OR8 Botsman.png|120px]] || [[Feldwebel]] || Chief Petty Officer
|-
| - || Botsmanmat ||''Boatswain's Mate'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OR7 Botsmanmat.png|120px]] ||Senior Sergeant || First Class Petty Officer
|-
| -|| Kvartirmeister || ''Quartermaster '' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OR5 Kvartirmejster.png|120px]] || Junior Sergeant || Second Class Petty Officer
|-
| -|| Matros pervoi statiy || ''Seaman first grade '' |||[[File:Russian Imperial Navy OR4 Matros 1.png|120px]] ||Corporal || Non-rated men, first class
|-
| -|| Matros vtoroi statiy ||''Seaman second grade'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OR1 Matros 2.png|120px]] || Private ||Non-rated men, second class
|}
Source:<ref>[http://army.armor.kiev.ua/titul/rusflot_1911-17.shtml Русский Флот 1911-1917 гг.] 2014-10-07.</ref><ref>[http://www.antologifo.narod.ru/tabk/tabzrf.htm Знаки различия Российского Императорского Флота 1830 - 1917] 2104-10-07.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Heads of military of Imperial Russia#Ministry of Sea Forces|Heads of Imperial Russian Navy]]
* [[List of Russian admirals]]
* [[List of battleships of Russia and the Soviet Union|List of Russian battleships]]
* [[List of cruisers of the Russian Navy|List of Russian cruisers]]
* [[List of Imperial Russian Navy destroyers|List of Russian destroyers]]
* [[List of Russian sail frigates]]
* [[List of ships of the line of Russia|List of Russian ships of the line]]
* [[List of Russian steam frigates]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* [http://rusnavy.com/history/branches/sub/index.htm Russian Submarine forces history]
* [http://www.neva.ru/EXPO96/book/book-cont.html History of the Russian Navy]
* [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/gwmccue&date=2009-10-25+23:37:32 Web site focusing on submarine history and the works of Irish-American inventor, John Philip Holland and his company which was known as The Holland Torpedo Boat Company. See Fulton and look under Russian submarines (Som Class) Type 7-P.]
* [http://flot.com/users/lapin/imperial/index.html Russian submarine history can be located on this site.]
* Boyevaya letopis' russkogo flota. Khronika vazhneishikh sobytii voyennoi istorii russkogo flota s IX veka po 1917 god. - Voyenizdat, Moskva, 1948. ([http://militera.lib.ru/h/boevaya_letopis_flota/index.html Combat Annales of the Russian Navy. Chronicle of the Most Important Events of the Russian Navy History from the 9th century up to 1917])
* Corbett, Julian, Sir. ''Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905''. (1994). ISBN 1-55750-129-7
* Forczyk, Robert. ''Russian Battleship vs Japanese Battleship, [[Yellow Sea]] 1904-05.'' (2009) Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84603-330-8.
* Grant, R. Captain. ''Before Port Arthur in a Destroyer; The Personal Diary of a Japanese Naval Officer.'' London, John Murray; first and second editions published in 1907.
* Olender, Piotr. ''Russo-Japanese Naval War 1904-1905, Vol. 2, Battle of Tsushima.'' (2010); Published by Stratus s.c., Sandomierz, Poland. ISBN 978-83-61421-02-3.
* Pleshakov, Constantine. ''The Tsar's Last Armada: The Epic Voyage to the Battle of Tsushima''. (2002). ISBN 0-465-05792-6
* Semenov, Vladimir, Capt. ''The Battle of Tsushima''. Originally published in 1907. (1912) E. P. Dutton & CO.
* Showell, Jak M. ''The U-Boat Century; German Submarine Warfare 1906-2006.'' (2006); Chatham Publishing, Great Britain. ISBN 1-86176-241-0.
* ''Russian Warships in the Age of Sail, 1696-1860: Design, Construction, Careers and Fates''. John Tredrea and Eduard Sozaev. Seaforth Publishing, 2010. ISBN 978-1-84832-058-1.
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{commons category|Ships of the Imperial Russian Navy}}
* {{ru icon}} Elagin Sergei Ivanovich. (1864) [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book4393/53196/ History of the Russian fleet. Period of Azov] (История русского флота. Период Азовский) [[DjVu]] and [[PDF]] formats at [[Runivers.ru]]
* {{ru icon}} Viskovatov A. [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3325/17012/ ''A brief historical overview of sea voyages of Russian and shipping them at all until the outcome of the 17th century''] (1864) [[DjVu]] format at [[Runivers.ru]]
* {{ru icon}} Veselago Theodosius F. [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3162/10074/ ''List of Russian warships from 1668 to 1869''] (1872) [[DjVu]] and [[PDF]] formats at [[Runivers.ru]]
* {{ru icon}} Veselago Theodosius F. [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3113/9790/ ''Essays on Russian naval history''] (1875) [[DjVu]] and [[PDF]] formats at [[Runivers.ru]]
* {{ru icon}} Veselago Theodosius F. [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3103/9768/ ''Brief information about the Russian naval battles in two centuries from 1656 to 1856''] (1871) [[DjVu]] and [[PDF]] formats at [[Runivers.ru]]
* {{ru icon}} Belavenets Peter Ivanovich. [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3365/17217/ ''Do We Need a fleet and its significance in the history of Russia''] (1910). [[DjVu]] format at [[Runivers.ru]]
* {{ru icon}} Arens, Evgeniy. [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3150/10058/ ''Russian Navy'' (1904)]. [[DjVu]] and [[PDF]] formats at [[Runivers.ru]]

[[Category:Imperial Russian Navy|Imperial]]
[[Category:Military of the Russian Empire|Navy]]
[[Category:1696 establishments|Russian Navy]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1696]]

Imperial Russian Navy

2014-10-18T13:23:49Z

84.23.155.88: /* Rank insignia 1911-1917 */ plus crossed batons

{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = Imperial Russian Navy
| image =
| caption =
| dates = 1696–1917
| country = {{Flag icon|Russia}} [[Tsardom of Russia]] {{flag|Russian Empire}}
| allegiance =
| branch =
| type = Navy
| role =
| size =
| command_structure =
| current_commander =
| garrison =
| ceremonial_chief =
| colonel_of_the_regiment =
| nickname =
| patron =
| motto =
| colors =
| march =
| mascot =
| battles = [[Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)|Russo-Turkish War of 1686–1700]] [[Great Northern War]] [[Napoleonic Wars]] [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–74)|Russo-Turkish War of 1768–74]] [[Crimean War]] [[Russo-Japanese War]] [[World War I]] [[Russian Civil War]]
| notable_commanders =
| anniversaries =

|identification_symbol = [[File:Naval Ensign of Russia.svg|border|200px]]
|identification_symbol_label = Navy Ensign
|identification_symbol_2 = [[File:Naval Jack of Russia.svg|border|200px]]
|identification_symbol_2_label = Naval Jack
}}

{{Navies of Russia}}

The ''' Imperial Russian Navy''' was the navy of the [[Russian Empire]], often dated from 1696 until the [[February Revolution]] of 1917.

==Background==
Under Tsar [[Michael I of Russia|Mikhail Feodorovich]], construction of the first three-masted ship actually built within Russia was completed in 1636. It was built in [[Balakhna]] by [[Denmark|Danish]] shipbuilders from [[Holstein]] according to European design and was christened the ''Frederick''. During its maiden voyage on the [[Caspian Sea]], the ''Frederick'' unfortunately sailed into a heavy storm and was lost at sea.

During the [[Russo-Swedish War, 1656-1658]], Russian forces seized the [[Swedish Empire|Swedish]] fortresses of [[Siege of Dyneburg|Dünaburg]] and [[Storm of Kokenhusen|Kokenhusen]] on the [[Daugava River|Western Dvina]], the former being renamed to Borisoglebsk and the latter, Tsarevich-Dmitriyev. A ''boyar'' named [[Afanasy Ordin-Nashchokin]] founded a shipyard at Tsarevich-Dmitriev fortress and began constructing vessels to sail in the Baltic Sea. In 1661, however, Russia was once again forced to abide by the harsh terms of a treaty, this time the Peace of Cardis. Russia agreed to surrender to Sweden all captured territories, and all vessels constructed at Tsarevich-Dmitriev were ordered destroyed.

''Boyar'' Ordin-Nashchyokin, not grieving long over defeat, turned his attention to the [[Volga River]] and Caspian Sea. With the Tsar's approval, the ''boyar'' brought Dutch shipbuilding experts to the town of Dedinovo near the confluence of the [[Oka River|Oka]] and Volga Rivers. Shipbuilding commenced in the winter of 1667. Within two years, four vessels had been completed: one 22-gun galley, christened the ''Орёл'' ("Oryol" = "Eagle"), and three smaller ships. The ill-fated ''Frederick'' had been a Holstein vessel; the ''Орёл'' became Russia's first own three-masted, European-designed sailing ship but met with a similarly unfortunate end. The ship was captured in [[Astrakhan]] by rebellious [[Cossack]]s led by [[Stepan Razin]]. The Cossacks ransacked the ''Орёл'' and abandoned it, half-submerged, in an estuary of the Volga.

During much of the 17th century, Russian merchants and Cossacks, using [[Koch (boat)|koch boats]], sailed across the [[White Sea]], exploring the Rivers [[Lena River|Lena]], [[Kolyma River|Kolyma]] and [[Indigirka]], and founding settlements in the region of the upper [[Amur River|Amur]]. Unquestionably, the most celebrated Russian explorer was [[Semyon Dezhnev]], who, in 1648, sailed the entire length of present-day Russia by way of the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Rounding the [[Chukotsk Peninsula]], Dezhnev passed through the [[Bering Sea]] and sailed into the Pacific Ocean.

==Reign of Peter the Great==
[[File:Goto Predestinacia 1.jpg|right|thumb|[[Russian ship of the line Goto Predestinatsia|''Goto Predestinatsia'']], flagship of Azov flotilla until 1711]]

The creation of the regular Russian Navy took place during the reign of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]]. During the [[Azov campaigns|Second Azov campaign]] of 1696 against Turkey, the Russians employed for the first time 2 warships, 4 [[fireship]]s, 23 [[galley]]s and 1300 strugs, built on the [[Voronezh River]]. After the occupation of the [[Azov]] fortress, the [[Boyar Duma]] looked into Peter's report of this military campaign and passed a decree on commencing the construction of the navy on October 20, 1696. This date is considered the official birthday of the regular Russian Navy.

During the [[Great Northern War]] of 1700-1721, the Russians built the [[Baltic Fleet]]. The construction of the oared fleet (galley fleet) took place in 1702-1704 at several [[shipyard]]s ([[Estuary|estuaries]] of the rivers [[Syas River|Syas]], [[Luga river|Luga]] and [[Olonka River|Olonka]]). In order to be able to defend the conquered coastline and attack enemy's maritime communications in the [[Baltic Sea]], the Russians created a sailing fleet from the ships built in Russia and imported from abroad. From 1703-1723, the main [[Military base|base]] of the Baltic Fleet was located in [[Saint Petersburg]] and then in [[Kronstadt]]. The bases were also created in Reval ([[Tallinn]]) and in [[Vyborg]] after it was ceded from Sweden after [[Russo-Swedish War (1741-1743)|the war of 1741-43]]. At first, [[Vladimirsky Prikaz]] was in charge of shipbuilding. Later on, these functions were transferred to the [[Admiralty building, Saint Petersburg|Admiralteyskiy Prikaz]].

In 1745 the Russian Navy had 130 sailing vessels, including 36 ships of the line, 9 [[frigate]]s, 3 ''shnyavas'' (''шнява'' — a light two-mast ship used for [[reconnaissance]] and messenger services), 5 bombardier ships and 77 auxiliary vessels. The oared fleet consisted of 396 vessels, including 253 galleys and semi-galleys (called ''скампавеи'', or scampavei; a light high-speed galley) and 143 [[brigantine]]s. The ships were being constructed at 24 shipyards, including the ones in [[Voronezh]], [[Kazan]], [[Pereslavl-Zalessky|Pereyaslavl]]{{Disambiguation needed|date=June 2011}}, [[Arkhangelsk]], [[Olonets]], Petersburg and [[Astrakhan]].

The naval officers for the fleet were supplied from among the [[dvoryane]] (noblemen) and regular sailors — from [[Army recruit|recruit]]s. The service in the navy was lifelong. Children of noblemen were educated for naval service at the School for Mathematical and Navigational Sciences, which had been founded in 1701 in Moscow's Sukharev Tower. Students were often sent abroad for training in foreign fleets. It was also customary to hire foreign nationals, who had significant naval experience, to serve in the Russian Navy, such as the Norwegian-Dutch [[Cornelius Cruys]], the Greek [[Ivan Botsis]] or the Scotsman [[Thomas Gordon (admiral)|Thomas Gordon]]. In 1718, the Admiralty Board (Адмиралтейств-коллегия) was established as the highest naval authority in Russia.

[[File:Cathedral kronstadt.jpg|thumb|The naval cathedral in [[Kronstadt]] was one of several cathedrals of the Imperial Russian Navy.]]

The organizational principles of the Russian Navy, educational and training methods for preparing future staff, and methods for conducting military action were all summarized in the Naval Charter (1720) penned by Peter I himself.<ref>Устав морской (Naval Regulations), Санкт Петербург, 1763</ref> [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]], [[Fyodor Matveyevich Apraksin|Feodor Apraksin]], [[Alexey Senyavin]], [[Naum Senyavin]], [[Mikhail Golitsyn]] and others are generally credited for the development of the Russian art of [[naval warfare]]. The main principles of naval warfare were further developed by [[Grigory Spiridov]], [[Feodor Ushakov]], and [[Dmitry Senyavin]].

==18th century==
In the second half of the 18th century, the Russian Navy grew stronger due to activization of Russia's foreign policy and [[Russo-Turkish Wars|Russo-Turkish wars]] for supremacy in the [[Black Sea]]. For the first time, Russia sent its [[Squadron (naval)|squadrons]] from the Baltic Sea to distant [[Theater (warfare)|theaters of operations]] (''see [[Orlov Revolt|Archipelago expeditions of the Russian Navy]]''). [[Admiral]] Spiridov's squadron gained supremacy in the [[Aegean Sea]] by destroying the [[Turkish Navy|Turkish fleet]] in the [[Battle of Chesma]] in 1770. In 1771, the [[Imperial Russian Army|Russian army]] conquered the coasts of the [[Kerch Strait]] and [[fortress]]es of [[Kerch]] and [[Yenikale]].

After having advanced to the [[Danube]], the Russians formed the [[Danube Military Flotilla]] for the purpose of guarding the Danube estuary and they came in 1771 as guests to the [[Republic of Ragusa]].<ref>[[Ruđer Bošković]], page 54, Željko Brnetić, Školska knjiga, 1990. ISBN 978-86-03-99817-7</ref> The [[Beluga caviar]] from the Danube was famous and the merchants from the Republic of Ragusa dominated the import-export business in [[Serbia]] with the [[Habsburg Monarchy]].<ref>Serbien und Montenegro: Raum und Bevölkerung, Geschichte, Sprache und Literatur, Kultur, Politik, Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft, Recht, p. 152, Walter Lukan, Ljubinka Trgovcevic, Dragan Vukcevic, Walter Lukan, Ljubinka Trgovcevic, Dragan Vukcevic, ISBN 978-3-8258-9539-6</ref> In 1773 the vessels of the [[Azov Flotilla]] (created anew in 1771) sailed out into the Black Sea. The Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774 ended victoriously for Russia, which gained the coasts of the [[Sea of Azov]] and a part of the Black Sea coastline between the rivers [[Southern Bug|Bug]] and [[Dniester]]. The [[Crimea]] was pronounced independent under Russia's [[protectorate]] and would become a part of Russia in 1783. In 1778, the Russians founded the port of [[Kherson]]. It is in this city that the first battleship of the [[Black Sea Fleet]] was commissioned in 1783. A year later, it was already a squadron.

==19th century==
[[File:Ruadmiralty.jpg|thumb|Headquarters of the [[Admiralty Board (Russia)|Admiralty Board]], 1810s.]]

In the second half of the 18th century and early 19th century, the Russian Navy had the third largest fleet in the world after Great Britain and France. The Black Sea Fleet possessed five line-of-battle ships and 19 frigates (1787), the Baltic Fleet had 23 ships of the line and 130 frigates (1788). In the early 19th century, the Russian Navy consisted of the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets, [[Caspian Flotilla]], [[White Sea Flotilla]] and [[Okhotsk Flotilla]]. In 1802, the Ministry of Naval Military Forces was established (renamed to Naval Ministry in 1815).

In 1826 the Russians built their first armed [[steamboat]] [[Izhora (steamboat)|''Izhora'']] ({{convert|73.6|kW|hp|lk=on|abbr=on}}), equipped with eight [[cannon]]s. In 1836, they constructed the first [[Paddle steamer|paddle steam]] frigate of the Russian Navy called [[Bogatyr (frigate)|''Bogatyr'']] (displacement — {{convert|1340|t|LT|lk=on|abbr=on}}, power — {{convert|177|kW|hp|abbr=on}}, armament — 28 cannons). Between 1803 and 1855, Russian sailors undertook over 40 [[circumnavigation]]s and long-distant voyages, most of which were in support of their Pacific colonies in Alaska, California, and the ports on the eastern seaboard of Siberia. These voyages played an important role in the exploration of the Far East, different oceans and contributed important scientific research materials and discoveries in Pacific, Antarctic and Arctic theatres of operations.

[[Image:Russians at navarino.jpg|thumb|''Battle of Navarino'', by [[Ivan Aivazovsky]], showing the Russian squadron, in line ahead (left-centre, white flags with blue transversal crosses) bombarding the Ottoman fleet (right, with red flags)]]

In 1863, during the [[American Civil War]], the Russian Navy's Atlantic and Pacific Fleets wintered in the American ports of New York and San Francisco respectively. Some historians credit this visit as a major factor in deterring France and England from entering the war on the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] side.<ref>Norman E. Saul, Richard D. McKinzie. '''Russian-American Dialogue on Cultural Relations, 1776-1914''' p 95. ISBN 0-8262-1097-X, 9780826210975</ref> Delahaye states that besides supporting the Union, Russia was also preparing for a war with France and England should they intervene in the Polish insurrection of 1863. The Russian Navy was weak and could easily be blockaded in its home ports, but if it was in the US when the war started it could more easily attack British and French commerce.<ref>{{cite web |first=Tom |last=Delahaye |title=The Bilateral Effect of the Visit of the Russian Fleet in 1863 |url=http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1983-4/delehaye.htm |accessdate= September 4, 2008 |publisher=Loyno.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Wayback|url= http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1983-4/delehaye.htm |date=20090216102525}}</ref>

The Imperial Russian Navy continued to expand in the later part of the century becoming the third largest fleet in the world after Britain and France. The expansion accelerated under Tsar [[Nicholas II]] who had been influenced by the American naval theoretician [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]]. Russian industry, although growing in capacity, was not able to meet the demands and some ships were ordered from Britain, France, Germany, USA, and Denmark. French naval architects in particular had a considerable influence on Russian designs.

==Crimean War and aftermath==
[[File:Vladimir vs Pervaz-i Bahri.jpg|thumb|Action between Russian steam frigate '''{{Ill|ru|Vladimir (ship, 1848)|Владимир (пароходофрегат)}}'' and Turkish steam frigate ''[[Pervaz-ı Bahrî]]'' on November 5, 1853 — first action between steam ships in history.]]

Russia's slow technical and economic development in the first half of the 19th century caused her to fall behind other European countries in the field of [[steamboat]] construction. By the outbreak of the [[Crimean War]] in 1853, Russia had the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets, Arkhangelsk Flotilla, Caspian Flotilla and [[Pacific Fleet (Russia)|Okhotsk Flotilla]] (altogether, 40 battleships, 15 frigates, 24 [[corvette]]s and [[brig]]s, 16 steam frigates etc.).

The combined number of staff of all the fleets equaled 91,000 people. Despite all this, the reactionary [[serfdom]] system had an adverse effect on the development of the Russian Navy. It was especially typical of the Baltic Fleet, which was known for its harsh military drill.

Thanks to admirals [[Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev|Mikhail Lazarev]], [[Pavel Nakhimov]], [[Vladimir Kornilov]], and [[Vladimir Istomin]], the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet were taught the art of warfare and upholding of military traditions of the Russian Navy, formed in the times of Admiral Ushakov.

The [[Battle of Sinop]] in 1853 the Black Sea Fleet under Nakhimov made a number of tactical innovations. During the [[Siege of Sevastopol (1854)|Siege of Sevastopol]] in 1854-1855, the Russian sailors used all means possible to defend their base from land and sea. In accordance with the [[Treaty of Paris (1856)|Treaty of Paris]], Russia lost the right to have a military fleet in the Black Sea. In the 1860s, the Russian fleet which had relied upon sails lost its significance and was gradually replaced by steam.

After the Crimean War, Russia commenced construction of steam-powered [[ironclad]]s, [[Monitor warship type|monitor]]s, and floating batteries. These vessels had strong [[artillery]] and thick [[armor]], but lacked seaworthiness, speed and long-distance abilities. In 1861, they built the first steel-armored [[gunship]] ''Opyt'' (Опыт). In 1869, the Russians began the construction of one of the first seafaring ironclads [[Russian ironclad Petr Veliky|''Petr Veliky'']] (Пётр Великий).

==Russo-Japanese War==
{{main|Russo-Japanese War}}

On the night of February 8, 1904, the [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese naval]] fleet under Admiral [[Heihachiro Togo]] opened the war with a surprise attack by [[torpedo boat destroyer]]s<ref>Grant p. 12, 13, 15, etc. continuous throughout the book</ref> on the Russian ships at Port Arthur, badly damaging two Russian battleships. The attacks developed into the [[Battle of Port Arthur]] the next morning. A series of indecisive naval engagements followed, in which the Japanese were unable to attack the Russian fleet successfully under [[shore batteries]] (''coastal guns'')<ref>Grant p. 46, 51, 54, 63, etc. throughout the book</ref> of the harbor and the Russians declined to leave the harbor for the open seas, especially after the death of Admiral [[Stepan Osipovich Makarov]] on 13 April 1904.

After the attack on Port Arthur, the Japanese attempted to deny the Russians use of the port. On the night of 13/14 February, the Japanese attempted to block the entrance to Port Arthur by sinking several cement-filled steamers in the deep water channel to the port.<ref>Grant p. 48-57</ref> But the steamers, driven off course by Russian gunfire were unable to sink them in the designated places, rendering them ineffective. Another attempt to block the harbor entrance on the night of 3/4 May with blockships also failed.

===Mine-laying===
In March, the energetic<ref>Grant p. 93</ref> Vice Admiral [[Stepan Makarov]] (1849–1904) took command of the First Russian Pacific Squadron with the intention of making plans to break out of the Port Arthur blockade. By then, both sides began a policy of tactical offensive mine-laying by laying mines in each other's ports. This was the first time in warfare that mines were used for offensive purposes. In the past, mines were used as purely defensive purposes by keeping harbors safe from invading warships.

The Japanese mine-laying policy was effective at restricting the Russian movement of its ships outside Port Arthur when on 12 April 1904, two Russian battleships; the [[flagship]] {{Ship|Russian battleship|Petropavlovsk|1894|2}} and the {{ship|Russian battleship|Pobeda||2}} ran into a Japanese minefield off Port Arthur with both striking mines.<ref>Grant p. 127, 128</ref> ''Petropavlovsk'' sank within an hour, while ''Pobeda'' had to be towed back to Port Arthur for extensive repairs. Makarov died on ''Petropavlovsk''.

However, the Russians soon learned the Japanese tactic of offensive minelaying and decided to play the strategy too. On 15 May, two Japanese battleships — {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Yashima||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Hatsuse||2}}, were both lured into a recently laid Russian minefield off Port Arthur, both striking at least two mines. ''Yashima'' sank within minutes taking 450 sailors with her, while ''Hatsuse'' sank under tow a few hours later.<ref>Grant p. 163; Diarist may have only been aware of battleship ''Hatsuse''{{'}}s sinking, as he does not mention the ''Yashima''. However, the commander's diary had been translated into two different languages between 1905 and 1907 (Spanish and English), so it is highly possible that that information may have been lost during translation</ref>

The Russian fleet attempted to break out from Port Arthur and proceed to [[Vladivostok]], but they were intercepted and dispersed at the [[Battle of the Yellow Sea]].<ref>Grant p. 171-177</ref> The remnant of the Russian fleet remained in Port Arthur, where the ships were slowly sunk by the artillery of the besieging army. Attempts to relieve the city by land also failed, and after the [[Battle of Liaoyang]] in late August, the Russians retreated to Mukden ([[Shenyang]]). Port Arthur finally fell on 2 January 1905, after a series of brutal, high-casualty assaults.

===Russian submarines===
By 25 June, the Imperial Russian Navy had purchased (in secrecy) its first naval submarine (known as ''Madam'') from [[Isaac Rice]]'s [[Electric Boat Company]]. This submarine was (originally) built under the direction of [[Arthur Leopold Busch]] as the American torpedo boat ''Fulton''. It was a prototype of the (Holland Type 7 Design) known as the ''Adder''-class/[[Plunger-class submarine|''Plunger''-class]] submarines. By 10 October, this first IRN submarine was (officially) commissioned into service (and shipped to) the eastern coast near [[Vladivostok]] Russia and was renamed ''Som'' or (Catfish). This first Russian submarine was not ready in time for the Russo-Japanese War. The reason behind this delay was partly due to a (late) shipment of torpedoes (that was) originally ordered from Germany in early 1905. Russia soon ordered more submarines (of the same basic design) and they were built under contract with the Holland Company by the [[Neva Shipbuilding Company]] located in [[St. Petersburg]], Russia.

In 1903, the German ship building firm [[Germaniawerft]] at [[Kiel]] completed Germany's first fully functioning engine powered submarine; the ''Forelle''. The submarine was toured (inspected) by [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]], and [[Prince Heinrich]] of Prussia was given a brief cruise in the vessel.<ref>Showell, p. 22, 25, 201</ref> In April 1904, the Imperial Russian Navy purchased the ''Forelle'', and ordered two more submarines of the [[Karp-class submarine|''Karp'']] class.<ref>Showell, p. 25</ref> These vessels, as well as the ''Forelle'' were transported along the [[Trans-Siberian Railway]]<ref>Grant p. 140</ref> en route to the war zone.

Germaniawerft, under the supervision of Spanish naval architect ''Raymondo Lorenzo d'Euevilley-Montjustin'', continued his work on the ''Karp''-class submarines, improving and modifying one into Germany's first [[U-boat]], [[SM U-1 (Germany)|''U-1'']], which was commissioned into the [[Imperial German Navy]] on 14 December 1906.<ref>Showell, p. 24 & 30</ref> ''U-1'' was retired in 1919, and is currently on display at the [[Deutsches Museum]] in Munich.<ref>Showell, p. 36 & 37</ref>

Due to the ongoing blockade of [[Port Arthur naval base|Port Arthur]] in 1904, the IRN dispatched their remaining submarines to [[Vladivostok]], and by the end of 1904 the last of seven subs had reached their new base there. Using the seven boats as a foundation, the IRN created the world's first operational submarine fleet at Vladivostok on 1 January 1905. On 14 February 1905 the new ''submarine fleet'' sent out its first combat patrol consisting of the IRN ''Som'' and ''Delfin''. With patrols varying from 24 hours to a few days, the sub fleets first enemy contact occurred on 29 April 1905 when IJN torpedo boats fired upon the ''Som'', scoring no hits the IJN [[Torpedo boat|TBs]] withdrew. On 1 July the IRN submarine ''Keta'' made contact with two IJN torpedo boats in the [[Tartar Strait]]. The ''Keta'' could not submerge quick enough to obtain a firing position and both adversaries broke contact.<ref>Olender p. 175</ref>

===Decisive battle: Tsushima===
The Russians had already been preparing to reinforce their fleet the previous year by sending elements of the [[Baltic Sea]] fleet (''The Second Pacific Squadron'') under Admiral [[Zinovy Rozhestvensky]] around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] to Asia, a voyage of over {{convert|18000|mi|nmi km|abbr=on}}. On 21 October 1904, while passing by the United Kingdom (an ally of Japan but neutral in this war), they nearly provoked a war in the [[Dogger Bank incident]] by firing on British fishing boats that they mistook for Japanese [[torpedo boat]]s.

The duration of the Baltic Fleet's journey meant that [[Admiral Togo]] was well aware of the [[Baltic Fleet]]'s progress, and he made plans to meet it before it could reach port at [[Vladivostok]]. He intercepted them in the [[Tsushima Strait]] between Korea and Japan, in the early morning of 27 May 1905. Although both battleship fleets were on nearly equal footing in regards to the latest in battleship technology, with the British warship designs representing the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]], and predominately the French designs being favored by the Russian fleets;<ref>Forczyk p. 11-13</ref> it was the combat experience that Togo had accrued in the 1904 naval battles of [[Battle of Port Arthur|Port Arthur]] and the [[Yellow Sea]], that gave him the edge over the un-tested Admiral Rozhestvensky during the [[Battle of Tsushima]] on 27 May.<ref>Forczyk p. 41-54</ref> By the end of the day on 27 May, nearly all of Rozhestvensky's battleships were sunk, including his flagship, the ''Prince Suvorov''; and on the following day, Admiral Nebogatov, who had relieved Rozhestvensky due to his wounds, surrendered the remainder of the fleet to Admiral Togo.

==Reconstruction prior to World War I==
At the end of the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, Russia fell from being the third greatest naval power to sixth place. The focus of Russian naval activities shifted back from the Far East to the Baltic. The task of the [[Baltic Fleet]] was to defend the Baltic Sea and Saint Petersburg from the Germans.

Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] created a Naval General Staff in 1906. At first, attention was directed to creation of mine-laying and a submarine fleet. An ambitious expansion program was put before the [[State Duma of the Russian Empire|Duma]] in 1907-1908 but was voted down. The [[Bosnian Crisis]] of 1909 forced a strategic reconsideration, and new [[Gangut-class battleship|''Gangut''-class]] battleships, cruisers, and destroyers were ordered for the Baltic Fleet. A worsening of relations with [[Ottoman Empire|Turkey]] meant that new ships including the [[Imperatritsa Mariya-class battleship|''Imperatritsa-Mariya''-class]] battleships were also ordered for the Black Sea Fleet. The total Russian naval expenditure from 1906-1913 was $519 million, in fifth place behind Britain, Germany,the United States and France.

The re-armament program included a significant element of foreign participation with several ships (including the cruiser ''Rurik'') and machinery ordered from foreign firms. After the outbreak of World War I, ships and equipment being built in Germany were confiscated. Equipment from Britain was slow in reaching Russia or was diverted to the Western Allies' own war effort.

==World War I==

===Baltic Sea===
[[File:The Poltava.jpg|thumb|The Baltic Fleet's [[dreadnought]] ''[[Russian battleship Poltava (1911)|Poltava]]'' in 1916.]]

In the [[Baltic Sea]], Germany and Russia were the main combatants, with a number of British submarines sailing through the [[Kattegat]] to assist the Russians, including ''E9'' commanded by [[Max Horton]]. With the German fleet larger and more modern (many [[High Seas Fleet]] ships could easily be deployed to the Baltic via the [[Kiel Canal]] when the North Sea was quiet), the Russians played a mainly defensive role, at most attacking convoys between Germany and Sweden and laying offensive minefields. Russian and British submarines attacked German shipping sailing between Sweden and Germany.

With heavy defensive and offensive mining on both sides, fleets played a limited role on the Eastern Front. The Germans mounted major naval attacks on the [[Gulf of Riga]], [[Battle of the Gulf of Riga|unsuccessfully in August 1915]] and successfully in October 1917, when they occupied the islands in the Gulf ([[Operation Albion]]) and damaged Russian ships departing from [[Riga]] ([[Battle of Moon Sound]]), which had recently been captured by Germany.

By March 1918, the [[October Revolution|Russian Revolution]] and the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] made the Germans masters of the Baltic sea and German fleets transferred troops to support newly independent Finland and to occupy much of Russia, halting only when defeated in the West. The Russians evacuated the Baltic fleet from [[Helsinki]] and [[Tallinn]] to Kronstadt during the [[Ice Cruise of the Baltic Fleet]] in March 1918.

===Black Sea===
[[File:Black Sea Battleships.jpg|left|thumb|[[Black Sea]] Fleet's battleship brigade in line ahead led by the ''[[Russian battleship Ioann Zlatoust|Ioann Zlatoust]]'']]

The [[Black Sea]] was the domain of the Russians and the Ottoman Empire but the Russian fleet dominated the sea. It possessed a large fleet based in [[Sevastopol]] and it was led by two skilled commanders: [[Andrei Eberhardt|Admiral Eberhart]] and [[Alexander Kolchak|Admiral Kolchak]] (who took over in 1916).

The war in the Black Sea started when the Ottoman fleet bombarded several Russian cities in October 1914. The most advanced ships in the Ottoman fleet consisted of just two German ships: the battlecruiser {{SMS|Goeben}} and light cruiser {{SMS|Breslau}}, both under the command of Admiral [[Wilhelm Souchon]]. The ''Goeben'' was damaged on at least four different occasions and was usually chased back to port by the superior Russian navy. By the end of 1915, the Russian fleet had nearly complete control of the sea.

The Black Sea fleet was used mainly to support [[Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich|General Yudenich]] in his [[Caucasus Campaign]]. For example, in August 1915, a Russian submarine and two Russian destroyers attacked a Turkish convoy of four transports escorted by a cruiser and two destroyers. The Russian ships sank all four transports without losing a ship. Later, during the summer of 1916, the Ottoman army, under, [[Vehip Pasha]], was ordered to re-take [[Trebizond]]. The Ottoman forces tried to march along the coast in June but the Russian fleet was able to reduce the speed of their advance to a crawl using naval bombardment to harass marching troops and destroy their supply columns. Eventually the Ottoman army gave up and withdrew.

After Admiral Kolchak took command (August 1916), the Russian fleet mined the exit from the [[Bosporus]], preventing nearly all Ottoman ships from entering the Black Sea. Later that year, the naval approaches to [[Varna]] were also mined. The greatest loss suffered by the Russian Black Sea fleet was the destruction of the modern [[dreadnought]] [[Russian battleship Imperatritsa Mariya|''Imperatritsa Mariya'']], which blew up in port on 7 October 1916, just one year after it was commissioned. The sinking of the ''Empress Maria'' was never fully explained; it could have been [[sabotage]] or a terrible accident.<ref>[http://www.neva.ru/EXPO96/book/chap11-3.html The History of the Russian Navy] - Chapter 11. The Great War - In the Black Sea</ref>

==Revolution and Civil War==
{{Expand section|date=November 2008}}

The Revolution and subsequent civil war devastated the Russian Navy. Only the Baltic fleet based at Petrograd remained largely intact, although it was [[British Campaign in the Baltic 1918-19|attacked by the British Royal Navy in 1919]]. Foreign Interventionists occupied the Pacific, Black Sea and Arctic coasts. Most of the surviving Black Sea Fleet warships, with crews loyal to the [[White movement|White Russian]] movement, became part of [[Wrangel's fleet]] under the control of commander [[Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel]] and after evacuating White forces and civilians from the [[Crimea]] were eventually interned in [[Bizerta]], Tunisia. Russian sailors fought on both sides in this bloody conflict. The sailors of the Baltic fleet rebelled against harsh treatment by the Soviet authorities in the [[Kronstadt rebellion]] of 1921.

The surviving ships formed the core of the [[Soviet Navy]] on its 1918 establishment, though the remnants of Wrangel's fleet never returned to Russia.

==Ranks of the Imperial Navy (English translation)==
* ''See also: [[History of Russian military ranks]]''
Beginning in the second half of the 19th century, ranks of the IRN were divided according to speciality and branch.

=== Deck ranks and rates ===
'''Seamen and NCO's'''
* [[Seaman]]
* First Seaman
* [[Quartermaster]] Seaman
* [[Petty officer, third class|Petty Officer 3rd Class]] ([[Boatswain|Boatswain's mate]], [[Third mate]], Skipper's mate, Stuurman's mate)
* [[Petty officer, second class|Petty Officer 2nd Class]] ([[Boatswain]], [[Second mate]], [[Schooner]] skipper)
* [[Petty officer, first class|Petty Officer 1st Class]] ([[Unteroffizier]]) ([[Constable]])
* [[Chief petty officer|Chief Petty Officer]] ([[Sea captain|Skipper]])
* [[Senior Chief Petty Officer]] (Senior Unteroffizier) ([[Chief mate]], [[Conductor (Imperial Russian Navy)|Conductor]])
* [[Master Chief Petty Officer]] (Senior Boatswain)

'''Officers'''
* Brevet Midshipman/Garde-Marine (1827-1884)
* [[Midshipman]]
* Ship Secretary (until 1834), [[Sub-lieutenant]] (1834–84)
* [[Lieutenant (navy)|Lieutenant]] (formerly Second Lieutenant 1724-1884)
* [[First lieutenant|First Lieutenant]] (from 1907 onward)
* [[Captain lieutenant|Captain Lieutenant]] (formerly [[Lieutenant commander|Captain 3rd Rank]] until 1730)
* [[Commander|Captain 2nd Rank]]
* [[Captain (naval)|Captain 1st Rank]]
* Captain-[[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] (until 1764 and 1798-1826, from 1764-98 Captain-Brigadier)
* [[Counter admiral|Counter Admiral]], [[Rear admiral|Rear Admiral]]
* [[Vice admiral|Vice Admiral]]
* [[Admiral]]
* [[General Admiral]]

=== [[Naval Infantry (Russia)|Naval Infantry]] and ground service troops ranks ===
Ranks of these troops mirrored those of the [[Imperial Russian Army]] from Private to General, and were distinguished from those in the army.

'''Marine enlisted and NCOs'''
* Marine [[Private (rank)|Private]], [[Marine (military)|Marine]]
* Marine [[Gefreiter]]
* Marine Junior Unteroffizier (Formerly Marine [[Corporal]])
* Marine Senior Unteroffizier
* Marine [[Feldwebel]] (Formerly Marine [[Sergeant]])
* Marine Junior Ensign
* Marine Acting Ensign (from 1884 onward)

'''Marine officers'''
* Admiralty [[Ensign (rank)|Ensign]]
* Admiralty Sub-lieutenant
* Admiralty [[Lieutenant]]
* Admiralty Captain Lieutenant (1907–13)
* Admiralty [[Stabskapitän|Staff Captain]]
* Admiralty [[Captain (OF-2)|Captain]]
* Admiralty Second Major (1780-1829)
* Admiralty First Major (1780-1829)
* Admiralty [[Major]] (1830-1884)
* Admiralty [[Lieutenant colonel|Lieutenant Colonel]]
* Admiralty [[Colonel]]
* Admiralty [[Brigadier]] (until 1798)
* Fleet [[Major general|Major General]]
* Fleet [[Lieutenant general|Lieutenant General]]
* Fleet [[General]]

=== Engineering ranks ===
Until 1905 the Naval Mechanical Engineers Corps and the Fleet Engineers Corps had unique ranks. Both changed to ground based ranks that year and in 1912 the former changed its ranks again to naval based ranks.

===Rank insignia 1911-1917===
{| class=wide border="1" cellpadding="2" width=100 %
|+
!Class in [[Table of Ranks]]
!Rank
!''English translation''
!Rank insignia
!Russian army equivalent
!US. Navy equivalent WW1 <ref>[http://www.naval-history.net/WW1NavyUS-Ranks.htm UNITED STATES NAVY - COMMISSIONED OFFICERS and ENLISTED RANKS] 2104-10-07.</ref>
|-
|<center>I || Generaladmiral ||''General Admiral'' || [[File:Погон Генерал-адмирала Российского Императорского флота.jpg|120px]]plus crossed batons || Field-marshal || -
|-
|<center>II || Admiral || ''Admiral'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF9 Admiral.png|120px]] || General || Admiral
|-
|<center>III || Vitse- admiral || ''Vice-admiral'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF8 Vice Admiral.png|120px]] ||Lieutenant-general || Vice Admiral
|-
| <center>IV || Kontr-admiral ||''Counter-admiral '' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF7 Counter Admiral.png|120px]] ||Major-general || Rear Admiral
|-
| <center>VI || Kapitan 1-go ranga ||''Captain 1st rank ''||[[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF5 Captain 1 shoulder.png|120px]] || Colonel || Captain
|-
|<center>VII ||Kapitan 2-go ranga ||''Captain 2nd rank'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF4 Captain 2 shoulder.png|120px]] ||Lieutenant-colonel || Commander
|-
|<center>VIII || Starshiy leiteneant ||''Senior Lieutenant'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF1 Starshyi Lejtnant.png|120px]] || Captain || Lieutenant Commander
|-
|<center>IX || Leitenenant ||''Lieutenant'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OF1 lejtnant shoulder.png|120px]] ||Staff-captain || Lieutenant
|-
|<center>X || Michman ||''Midshipman'' || [[File:IRN OF1-3Michman 1909-1917.jpg|50px]] || Lieutenant || Lieutenant junior grade
|-
| -|| Konduktor Starshiy botsman ||''Conductor'' ''Senior Boatswain'' || [[File:IRN OR8SenBozman 1917.jpg|50px]] ''Senior Boatswain with anchor'' || Subensign || Warrant Officer
|-
| -|| Botsman ||''Boatswain'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OR8 Botsman.png|120px]] || [[Feldwebel]] || Chief Petty Officer
|-
| - || Botsmanmat ||''Boatswain's Mate'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OR7 Botsmanmat.png|120px]] ||Senior Sergeant || First Class Petty Officer
|-
| -|| Kvartirmeister || ''Quartermaster '' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OR5 Kvartirmejster.png|120px]] || Junior Sergeant || Second Class Petty Officer
|-
| -|| Matros pervoi statiy || ''Seaman first grade '' |||[[File:Russian Imperial Navy OR4 Matros 1.png|120px]] ||Corporal || Non-rated men, first class
|-
| -|| Matros vtoroi statiy ||''Seaman second grade'' || [[File:Russian Imperial Navy OR1 Matros 2.png|120px]] || Private ||Non-rated men, second class
|}
Source:<ref>[http://army.armor.kiev.ua/titul/rusflot_1911-17.shtml Русский Флот 1911-1917 гг.] 2014-10-07.</ref><ref>[http://www.antologifo.narod.ru/tabk/tabzrf.htm Знаки различия Российского Императорского Флота 1830 - 1917] 2104-10-07.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Heads of military of Imperial Russia#Ministry of Sea Forces|Heads of Imperial Russian Navy]]
* [[List of Russian admirals]]
* [[List of battleships of Russia and the Soviet Union|List of Russian battleships]]
* [[List of cruisers of the Russian Navy|List of Russian cruisers]]
* [[List of Imperial Russian Navy destroyers|List of Russian destroyers]]
* [[List of Russian sail frigates]]
* [[List of ships of the line of Russia|List of Russian ships of the line]]
* [[List of Russian steam frigates]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* [http://rusnavy.com/history/branches/sub/index.htm Russian Submarine forces history]
* [http://www.neva.ru/EXPO96/book/book-cont.html History of the Russian Navy]
* [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/gwmccue&date=2009-10-25+23:37:32 Web site focusing on submarine history and the works of Irish-American inventor, John Philip Holland and his company which was known as The Holland Torpedo Boat Company. See Fulton and look under Russian submarines (Som Class) Type 7-P.]
* [http://flot.com/users/lapin/imperial/index.html Russian submarine history can be located on this site.]
* Boyevaya letopis' russkogo flota. Khronika vazhneishikh sobytii voyennoi istorii russkogo flota s IX veka po 1917 god. - Voyenizdat, Moskva, 1948. ([http://militera.lib.ru/h/boevaya_letopis_flota/index.html Combat Annales of the Russian Navy. Chronicle of the Most Important Events of the Russian Navy History from the 9th century up to 1917])
* Corbett, Julian, Sir. ''Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905''. (1994). ISBN 1-55750-129-7
* Forczyk, Robert. ''Russian Battleship vs Japanese Battleship, [[Yellow Sea]] 1904-05.'' (2009) Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84603-330-8.
* Grant, R. Captain. ''Before Port Arthur in a Destroyer; The Personal Diary of a Japanese Naval Officer.'' London, John Murray; first and second editions published in 1907.
* Olender, Piotr. ''Russo-Japanese Naval War 1904-1905, Vol. 2, Battle of Tsushima.'' (2010); Published by Stratus s.c., Sandomierz, Poland. ISBN 978-83-61421-02-3.
* Pleshakov, Constantine. ''The Tsar's Last Armada: The Epic Voyage to the Battle of Tsushima''. (2002). ISBN 0-465-05792-6
* Semenov, Vladimir, Capt. ''The Battle of Tsushima''. Originally published in 1907. (1912) E. P. Dutton & CO.
* Showell, Jak M. ''The U-Boat Century; German Submarine Warfare 1906-2006.'' (2006); Chatham Publishing, Great Britain. ISBN 1-86176-241-0.
* ''Russian Warships in the Age of Sail, 1696-1860: Design, Construction, Careers and Fates''. John Tredrea and Eduard Sozaev. Seaforth Publishing, 2010. ISBN 978-1-84832-058-1.
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{commons category|Ships of the Imperial Russian Navy}}
* {{ru icon}} Elagin Sergei Ivanovich. (1864) [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book4393/53196/ History of the Russian fleet. Period of Azov] (История русского флота. Период Азовский) [[DjVu]] and [[PDF]] formats at [[Runivers.ru]]
* {{ru icon}} Viskovatov A. [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3325/17012/ ''A brief historical overview of sea voyages of Russian and shipping them at all until the outcome of the 17th century''] (1864) [[DjVu]] format at [[Runivers.ru]]
* {{ru icon}} Veselago Theodosius F. [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3162/10074/ ''List of Russian warships from 1668 to 1869''] (1872) [[DjVu]] and [[PDF]] formats at [[Runivers.ru]]
* {{ru icon}} Veselago Theodosius F. [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3113/9790/ ''Essays on Russian naval history''] (1875) [[DjVu]] and [[PDF]] formats at [[Runivers.ru]]
* {{ru icon}} Veselago Theodosius F. [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3103/9768/ ''Brief information about the Russian naval battles in two centuries from 1656 to 1856''] (1871) [[DjVu]] and [[PDF]] formats at [[Runivers.ru]]
* {{ru icon}} Belavenets Peter Ivanovich. [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3365/17217/ ''Do We Need a fleet and its significance in the history of Russia''] (1910). [[DjVu]] format at [[Runivers.ru]]
* {{ru icon}} Arens, Evgeniy. [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3150/10058/ ''Russian Navy'' (1904)]. [[DjVu]] and [[PDF]] formats at [[Runivers.ru]]

[[Category:Imperial Russian Navy|Imperial]]
[[Category:Military of the Russian Empire|Navy]]
[[Category:1696 establishments|Russian Navy]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1696]]

New York City Department of Correction

2014-06-25T21:50:02Z

84.23.155.88: /* Ranks */

{{Infobox Law enforcement agency
| agencyname = New York City Department of Correction
| nativename =
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| headquarters = [[Jackson Heights, Queens]]
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| sworntype = Correction Officer
| sworn = 9,500
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| minister1name = Joseph Ponte
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The '''New York City Department of Correction''' is responsible for [[New York City|New York City's]] inmates, housing the majority of them on [[Rikers Island]].<ref name=his/> It employs 8,000 uniformed officers and 1,400 civilian staff, has 543 vehicles,<ref name=facil/> and processes over 100,000 new inmates every year,<ref name=press/> retaining a population of inmates of between 13,000 and 18,000.<ref name=facil>[http://www.nyc.gov/html/doc/html/about/facilities_overview.shtml Facilities Overview] New York City Department of Correction, retrieved March 13, 2008</ref> Its nickname is ''New York's Boldest''.<ref name=press/> Previously located in Manhattan, the Department of Correction headquarters has now moved to the [[Bulova]] building in the northern section of [[Jackson Heights, Queens]], minutes from [[Rikers Island]].

==History==

The New York City Department of Correction was first founded as a separate entity in New York City in 1895 after a split from the Department of Public Charities and Correction.<ref name=his>[http://www.nyc.gov/html/doc/html/about/history.shtml History of the DOC] New York City Department of Correction, retrieved March 13, 2008</ref> [[Roosevelt Island]], then called Blackwell's Island, was the main penal institution under the jurisdiction of the DOC until the 1930s when it was closed. The penal institutions moved to Rikers Island, which the city purchased for [[US Dollar|$]]180,000, where 10 prisons and 12,000 inmates are now held.<ref name=his/>

In 1995, the [[New York City]] jail system was one of the most mismanaged and violent in the [[United States]], averaging more than 100 stabbings and slashings per month. Between January 1995 and January 2002, the department achieved a 93% reduction in inmate on inmate violence as a result of a management system recognized by [[Harvard University]]'s John F. Kennedy School of Government, called Total Efficiency Accountability Management System (TEAMS). <ref>http://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/08/nyregion/lockdown-special-report-iron-hand-rikers-island-drastically-reduces-violence.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm</ref> By 2007, the number of stabbings was reduced to 19, making that year the Department of Correction's safest on record. Although the issue of under reporting of incidents has not been ever addressed. <ref name=press>''Press Release - January 6, 2008'' New York City Department of Corrections, available [http://www.nyc.gov/html/doc/html/home/home.shtml here] retrieved March 13, 2008</ref>

In 2009, former commissioner of both the [[Missouri Department of Corrections|Missouri]] and [[Arizona Department of Corrections|Arizona prison systems]] Dora Schriro was selected to head the department, with some citing a need in the department for a boost in morale.<ref>City Jails Get a New Commissioner [http://blogs.villagevoice.com/runninscared/archives/2009/09/city_jails_get.php] [[The Village Voice]]</ref> Schriro was named in several federal court cases such as [[2005_term_per_curiam_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States#Schriro_v._Smith|Schriro v. Smith]] and [[Schriro v. Summerlin]]. Schriro served with the [[United States Department of Homeland Security]] prior to coming to the Department.

==Power and Authority of Correction Officers==
Correction Officers are New York State peace officers, and hold such status on and off duty, but only when acting under [[color (law)|color of law]].<ref>{{cite web | last = Schwartz | first = Martin A. | title = Section 1983 Litigation: Claims and Defenses | publisher = Aspen | date = 1997 | url = http://books.google.ca/books?id=hjxJg6EFkU4C&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>{{rp|5-27}}

==Ranks==

There are ten titles (referred to as ranks) in the New York City Department of Correction. Their images refer to the uniform rank insignia. However, there are also equivalent level civilian titles as well who also have equivalent power and responsibility and are saluted due to following uniform customs and courtesies. From highest to lowest rank, they are:

{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-collapse:collapse;" class="wikitable"
|-
!Title
!Insignia
|-
|Commissioner
|[[File:5 Gold Stars.svg|center|135px]]
|-
|Chief of Department / First Deputy Commissioner
|[[File:4 Gold Stars.svg|center|108px]]
|-
|Deputy Chief / Deputy Commissioner
|[[File:3 Gold Stars.svg|center|76px]]
|-
|Assistant Chief / Supervising Warden
|[[File:2 Gold Stars.svg|center|54px]]
|-
|Warden
|[[File:1 Gold Star.svg|center|27px]]
|-
|Deputy Warden in Command
|[[File:Colonel Gold.png|center|50px]]
|-
|Deputy Warden / Chaplain
|[[File:Colonel Gold.png|center|50px]]
|-
|Assistant Deputy Warden
|[[File:US-O4 insignia.svg|center|30px]]
|-
|Correction Captain
|[[File:Captain insignia gold.svg|center|25px]]
|-
|[[Correction Officer]]
|
|-
|}

==Tour of duty==

In the New York City Department of Correction, one day is divided into three 8-hour and 31-minute shifts: 11:00 PM to 7:31 AM (called a 2300hrs to 0731hrs), 7:00 AM to 3:31 PM (called an 0700hrs to 1531hrs), and 3:00 PM to 11:31 PM (called a 1500hrs to 2331hrs). Officers work 4 of these shifts per week based upon a rotating squad chart (i.e. 4 working days, 2 days off then another 4 working days and 2 days off). There is also a 5 and 2 squad (5 days on; 2 days off) for specialized units (i.e. Investigation Division, Intelligence Unit, Academy and Firearms Training Units, etc.)

==Equipment and vehicles==

Although correction officers are trained to carry firearms, only correction officers at certain post assignments carry a firearm due to the potential threat of prisoners overpowering an officer and seizing their firearm. No one may carry a firearm into a prison without the permission of the Warden or the commanding officer. Officers assigned to prisoner transport units, outside hospital posts, exterior patrol posts, and security posts carry firearms at all times. Not all correction officers carry a firearm on or off-duty, for off-duty carry correction officer must get approval from their respective Warden or commanding officer. On duty firearm is provided (Smith & Wesson 5946 DAO) however should the member elect there is a list of authorized on/off duty firearms such as Glock, Sig Sauer, Beretta, etc. For officers hired before March of 1994, the model 10 & 64 revolvers are still an option. If authorized to carry firearms off duty, officers' options include the on duty firearms and, but not limited to, the Glock 26 and the Beretta 92D. <ref>Firearms Directive</ref>

The department uses numerous vehicles including [[Chevrolet_Impala#Police_Package|Chevrolet Impalas]], [[Ford]] vans, transport buses, firetrucks, and riot vehicles.<ref>[http://www.flickr.com/photos/1987porsche944/1325435257/sizes/l/ NYC Corrections Chevy Impala]</ref><ref>[http://members.fortunecity.com/pdcar4/nydc.htm NYC Corrections Vehicles]</ref>

==Notable people of NYC DOC==
Over the years, several notable people have come through the ranks of DOC:

*[[Mickey Marcus]], Commissioner in 1940 - Would go on to serve in [[World War II]] with the [[United States Army]] and later join the [[Israeli Defense Force]] and be instrumental in leading their forces during that country's independence movement.

*[[Bernard Kerik]], Served in the NYCDOC from 1994-2001 Mr. Kerik became Correction Commissioner in 1998 and served in that position until appointed the 40th Police commissioner of the NYPD in August 2001.

*Soul singer [[Sharon Jones (singer)|Sharon Jones]] served as a corrections officer at Rikers Island.<ref>[http://www.motherjones.com/mixed-media/2011/04/sharon-jones-interview-dap-kings]</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|New York City|Criminal justice|Law enforcement/Law enforcement topics}}
* [[List of law enforcement agencies in New York]]
* [[New York City Department of Probation]]
* [[New York State Department of Correctional Services]]
* [[Corrections]]
{{-}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.nyc.gov/html/doc/ Official Website]

{{New York City Government}}
{{Law enforcement in New York City}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:New York City Department Of Correction}}
[[Category:Government departments of New York City|Correction]]
[[Category:Prison and correctional agencies in the United States]]
[[Category:Penal system in New York]]
[[Category:Law enforcement agencies of New York City]]

Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl of Godolphin

2014-06-09T21:06:01Z

84.23.155.88: /* Biography */ Forest of Dartmoor

{{Other people|Francis Godolphin}}
[[Image:Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl of Godolphin by Sir Godfrey Kneller, Bt.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The 2nd Earl of Godolphin.]]
'''Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl of Godolphin''', [[Privy Council of Great Britain|PC]] (3 September 1678 – 17 January 1766) was a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] politician, styled '''Viscount Rialton''' between 1706 and 1712.

==Biography==
Godolphin, only child of [[Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin]], was born in [[Whitehall]], [[London]], on 3 September 1678, and baptised the same day. His mother, [[Margaret Blagge| Margaret Godolphin]], died six days later on 9 September. [[John Evelyn]], who had been her most intimate acquaintance, transferred his friendship to her infant son, took charge of the general superintendence of his education, and continued to take an interest in his welfare as he grew.

Francis Godolphin was educated at[[ Eton College]], and at [[King's College, Cambridge]], where he took his [[Master of Arts|M.A. degree]] in 1705.<ref name=Venn>{{acad|id=GDLN695F|name=Godolphin, Francis}}</ref> His first public appointment was that of joint [[registrar]] of the [[court of chancery]] on 29 June 1698, which he held to 20 January 1727, holding also the place of one of the tellers of the [[exchequer]] from 1699 to 1704. He was chosen a [[member of parliament]] for [[Looe|East Looe]] in [[Cornwall]] on 1 December 1701, but on 4 February 1701–2 elected to serve for [[Helston]], and sat for that [[constituency]] till 21 September 1710. As [[cofferer of the household]] he was in office from 1704 to 1711, and acted as [[Lord Warden of the Stannaries|lord warden of the stannaries]], [[high steward]] of the [[duchy of Cornwall]], and rider and master [[forester]] of [[Forest of Dartmoor|Dartmoor]] from 1705 to 1708. He was known under the courtesy title of ''Viscount Rialton'' from 29 December 1706 till 1712. He sat for the [[Oxfordshire|county of Oxford]] from 1708 to 1710, and for [[Tregony]] in Cornwall from the latter date until he was elevated to the upper house as second [[Earl of Godolphin]] on the death of his father on 15 September 1712.

He was again cofferer of the household 1714–23, [[lord lieutenant]] of the county of Oxford 1715–1735, [[lord of the bedchamber]] to [[George I of Great Britain|George I]] 1716, high steward of [[Banbury]] 1718, and a [[privy council]]lor 26 May 1723. To [[George II of Great Britain|George II]] he was [[groom of the stole]], and first lord of the bedchamber 1727–35. He was named high steward of [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire|Woodstock]] 18 March 1728, and the same day appointed [[Isles of Scilly#Lord Proprietors of the Scilly Islands|Governor of the Scilly Islands]].

On 23 January 1735 he was created ''[[Baron Godolphin]] of Helston in Cornwall'', with special remainder, in default of his own issue, to the heirs male of his deceased uncle, Dr. [[Henry Godolphin]], [[Dean (Christianity)|dean]] of [[St Paul's Cathedral|St. Paul's]]. During the king's absence from Great Britain in 1723, 1725, and 1727 he acted as one of the [[Lord Justice|lords justices]] of the United Kingdom. Finally, as [[lord privy seal]], he was in office from 14 May 1735 to 25 April 1740. The [[pocket borough]] of Helston, not far from his ancestral home, [[Godolphin House]], was under his [[patronage]] for many years, and sent his nominees to parliament. In return for this complaisance he rebuilt [[Churches and places of interest#Churches and places of interest|Helston Church]] in 1763, at an expense of £6,000, and it was also his custom to pay the rates and taxes for all the electors in the borough. It is said that he only read two works, [[Gilbert Burnet|Burnet's]] ''History of my own Time'' and [[Colley Cibber]]'s ''Apology''. When he had perused them throughout he began them again. He died on 17 January 1766, and was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]]on 25 January, when the earldom of Godolphin, viscounty of Rialton, and barony of Godolphin of Rialton became extinct; but the barony of Godolphin of Helston devolved upon his cousin [[Francis Godolphin, 2nd Baron Godolphin of Helston]].

Godolphin married, in March 1698, [[Henrietta Godolphin, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough|Lady Henrietta Churchill]], eldest daughter of [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough]] and [[Sarah Jennings]]. She was born 20 July, and baptised at [[St. Martin-in-the-Fields]], London, 29 July 1681. On the death of her father, 16 June 1722, she became Duchess of Marlborough, and dying 24 October 1733 was buried in Westminster Abbey on 9 November. She acquired much notoriety by her attachment to [[William Congreve]], the dramatist.

Godolphin was one of the founding Governors of the charity called the [[Foundling Hospital]], created in 1739. The charity aimed to tackle the problem of [[child abandonment]] in [[London]] by providing an [[orphanage]] where parents could leave babies they considered themselves incapable of raising. He also had the distinction of owning one of the founding thoroughbred sires, the [[Godolphin Arabian]].

== Issue ==
*[[William Godolphin, Marquess of Blandford]] (c. 1699 – 1731), married Maria Catherina de Jong.
*Lord Henry Godolphin (b. February 1701)
*Lady Margaret Godolphin (born c. 1703)
*[[Henrietta Pelham-Holles, Duchess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne|Lady Henrietta Godolphin]] (c. 1707 - 1776), married the [[Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne|1st Duke of Newcastle]].
*[[Mary Osborne, Duchess of Leeds|Lady Mary Godolphin]] (1723–1764), married the [[Thomas Osborne, 4th Duke of Leeds|4th Duke of Leeds]].

==Notes==
{{refimprove section|date=December 2006}}
{{reflist}}

==References==
*{{cite book|ref=harv |first=R. H. |last=Nichols and |first2=F. A. |last2=Wray |title=The History of the Foundling Hospital |location=London |publisher=Oxford University Press |year= 1935 |page=345}}

;Attribution
{{DNB|last=Boase |first=George Clement |wstitle=Godolphin, Francis |volume=22|pages=39–40}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|en}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Helston (UK Parliament constituency)|Helston]]
| with = [[Charles Godolphin]]
| before = [[Charles Godolphin]] [[Sir John St Aubyn, 2nd Baronet|Sir John St Aubyn, Bt]]
| after = [[Charles Godolphin]] [[Sidney Godolphin (1652-1732)|Sidney Godolphin]]
| years = 1695–1698
}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[East Looe (UK Parliament constituency)|East Looe]]
| with = [[Sir Henry Seymour, 1st Baronet|Sir Henry Seymour, Bt]]
| before = [[Henry Trelawny]] [[Sir Henry Seymour, 1st Baronet|Sir Henry Seymour, Bt]]
| after = [[Sir Henry Seymour, 1st Baronet|Sir Henry Seymour, Bt]] [[George Courtenay (politician)|George Courtenay]]
| years = 1701
}}
{{s-bef | before = [[Charles Godolphin]] [[Sidney Godolphin (1652-1732)|Sidney Godolphin]] }}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Helston (UK Parliament constituency)|Helston]]
| with = [[Sidney Godolphin (1652-1732)|Sidney Godolphin]]
| years = 1701–1707
}}
{{s-non | reason = Parliament of England abolished }}
{{s-par|gb}}
{{s-new | creation reason = Parliament of Great Britain created}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Helston (UK Parliament constituency)|Helston]]
| with = [[Sidney Godolphin (1652-1732)|Sidney Godolphin]]
| years = [[British general election, 1707|1707]]–1708
}}
{{s-aft | after = [[Sidney Godolphin (1652-1732)|Sidney Godolphin]] [[Sir John Evelyn, 1st Baronet of Wotton|John Evelyn]] }}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Oxfordshire (UK Parliament constituency)|Oxfordshire]]
| with = [[Sir Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Baronet|Sir Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Bt]] 1689–1710
| with2 = [[Sir Robert Jenkinson, 3rd Baronet|Sir Robert Jenkinson, 3rd Bt]] 1710
| before = [[Sir Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Baronet|Sir Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Bt]] [[Edward Norreys|Sir Edward Norreys]]
| after = [[Sir Robert Jenkinson, 3rd Baronet|Sir Robert Jenkinson, 3rd Bt]] [[Francis Clerke (MP for Oxfordshire)|Francis Clerke]]
| years = 1708–1710
}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Tregony (UK Parliament constituency)|Tregony]]
| with = [[John Trevanion (1667–1740)|John Trevanion]] 1710
| with2 = [[George Robinson (1687–1728)|George Robinson]] 1710–1713
| before = [[Anthony Nicoll]] [[Thomas Herne (MP)|Thomas Herne]]
| after = [[George Robinson (1687–1728)|George Robinson]] [[Edward Southwell (1671–1730)|Edward Southwell]]
| years = 1710–1713
}}

{{s-off}}
{{succession box | before=Henry Carew | title=[[Teller of the Exchequer]] | years=1699–1704 | after=[[Thomas Coke (privy counsellor)|Thomas Coke]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[Cofferer of the Household]] | before=[[Benjamin Bathurst (1635–1704)|Sir Benjamin Bathurst]] | after=[[Samuel Masham, 1st Baron Masham of Otes|Samuel Masham]] | years=1704–1711}}
{{succession box | title=[[Cofferer of the Household]] | before=[[Samuel Masham, 1st Baron Masham of Otes|The Lord Masham]] | after=[[William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath|William Pulteney]] | years=1714–1723}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord Privy Seal]] | before=[[Henry Lowther, 3rd Viscount Lonsdale|The Viscount Lonsdale]] | after=[[John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey|The Lord Hervey]] | years=1735–1740}}
{{s-court}}
{{succession box | before=[[John Granville, 1st Baron Granville|The Lord Granville]] | title=[[Lord Warden of the Stannaries]] | years=1705–1708 | after=[[Hugh Boscawen, 1st Viscount Falmouth|Hugh Boscawen]]}}
{{s-hon}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord Lieutenant of Oxfordshire]] | before=[[Montagu Venables-Bertie, 2nd Earl of Abingdon|The Earl of Abingdon]] | after=[[Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough|The Duke of Marlborough]] | years=1715–1739}}
{{succession box | title=[[Isles of Scilly#History|Governor of the Isles of Scilly]] | years=1712−1766| before= [[Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin|Sidney Godolphin]] | after=[[Thomas Osborne, 4th Duke of Leeds|The Duke of Leeds]]}}
{{s-reg|en}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin|Sidney Godolphin]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Earl of Godolphin]] | years=1712–1766}}
{{s-non | reason=Extinct}}
{{s-reg|gb}}
{{s-new|creation}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Baron Godolphin]] | years=1735–1766}}
{{s-aft | after=[[Francis Godolphin, 2nd Baron Godolphin|Francis Godolphin]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Walpole ministry}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Godolphin, Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl of
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = English politician and Viscount
| DATE OF BIRTH = 3 September 1678
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 17 January 1766
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Godolphin, Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl Of}}
[[Category:Alumni of King's College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:English MPs 1695–98]]
[[Category:English MPs 1701]]
[[Category:English MPs 1701–02]]
[[Category:English MPs 1702–05]]
[[Category:English MPs 1705–07]]
[[Category:British MPs 1707–08|Rialton, Francis Godolphin, Viscount]]
[[Category:British MPs 1708–10|Rialton, Francis Godolphin, Viscount]]
[[Category:British MPs 1710–13|Rialton, Francis Godolphin, Viscount]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of England]]
[[Category:Lord-Lieutenants of Oxfordshire]]
[[Category:Lords Privy Seal]]
[[Category:Members of the pre-1707 English Parliament for constituencies in Cornwall|Rialton, Francis Godolphin, Viscount]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for constituencies in Cornwall|Rialton, Francis Godolphin, Viscount]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies|Rialton, Francis Godolphin, Viscount]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain]]
[[Category:People educated at Eton College]]
[[Category:1678 births]]
[[Category:1766 deaths]]
[[Category:Godolphin family|Francis]]

Nepalese cuisine

2014-04-23T18:55:18Z

84.23.155.88: /* Himalayan cuisine */

[[Image:Sel Roti.jpg|250px|left|thumbnail|200px| Sel Roti]]
[[Image:Assamese thali.JPG|thumb|right|290px|Dal-bhat-tarkari]]
[[Image:Plateful of Momo in Nepal.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Plateful of Momo in Nepal]]

'''Nepalese cuisine''' refers to the food eaten in [[Nepal]]. The country's [[Cultural diversity|cultural]] and [[Geography of Nepal|geographic]] diversity provides ample space for a variety of cuisines based on [[ethnicity]] and on soil and [[Geography of Nepal#Climate|climate]]. Nevertheless ''[[Dal bhat|dal-bhat-tarkari]]'' ({{lang-ne|दाल भात तरकारी }}) is eaten throughout the country. ''[[Dal]]'' is a soup made of [[lentils]] and spices. This is served over boiled grain, ''bhat''—usually [[rice]] but sometimes another grain—with vegetable curry, ''tarkari''. Condiments are usually small amounts of extremely spicy [[chutney]] (चटनी) or [[South Asian pickle|pickle (''achaar'', अचार)]] which can be fresh or fermented. The variety of these is staggering, said to number in the thousands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.food-nepal.com/ingredients/i009.htm |title=Pickle - Achar - Chutney |publisher=Food-nepal.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref> Other accompaniments may be sliced [[lemon]] (''nibuwa'') or [[Kaffir lime|lime]] (''kagati'') and fresh green chili, ''hariyo'' ''khursani''. [[Dhindo]] is traditional food of Nepal.

Much of the cuisine is variation on Asian themes. Other foods have hybrid Tibetan, Indian and Thai origins. [[Momo (dumpling)|''Momo'']]—Tibetan types dumplings with Nepali spices—are important in [[Newa cuisine]]. They were originally filled with [[Water buffalo|buffalo]] meat but now also with goat or chicken as well as vegetarian preparations. Special foods such as ''[[sel roti]]'' and ''[[patre]]'' are eaten during festivals such as ''[[Tihar (festival)|Tihar]]''. New food varieties have been introduced such as ''taas'',<ref>http://www.nepalitimes.com/issue/2012/08/10/Review/19536</ref> similar to [[Kebab|shish kebab]].

Contact with Europeans has introduced [[Krishna Pauroti|loaf bread]], [[List of cheeses#Nepal|cheese]], [[Pastry|pastries]] and [[ice cream]] as well as restaurants serving dishes like [[pizza]], catering originally to tourists but increasingly to local people too. Nepalis have also taken to [[Instant noodles|ramen noodles]] as [[fast food]] that can be prepared much more quickly than traditional dhal-bhat.
[[Image:Dalbath.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Typical Nepali Dal-bhat-tarkari]]

==Types==
[[File:Chicken Chow Mein.JPG|thumb|Nepalese-style chow mein]]

===Khas or Pahari cuisine===
Dal-bhat-tarkari is the standard meal eaten twice daily. However with land suitable for irrigated rice paddies in short supply, other grains supplement or even dominate. Wheat becomes unleavened flat wheat bread (''[[roti]]'' or ''[[chapati]]''). [[Maize]] (''makai''), [[buckwheat]] (''fapar''), [[barley]] (''jau'') or [[millet]] (''kodo'') become [[porridge]]-like (''dhido'' or ''ato''). ''Tarkari'' can be spinach or greens (''sag''), fermented and dried greens (''[[gundruk]]'' or [[sinki (food)|''sinki'']]), [[daikon]] radish (''mula''), [[potato]]es (''alu''), [[green bean]]s (''simi''), [[tomato]]es (''golbeda''), [[cauliflower]] (''kauli''), [[cabbage]] (''bandakopi''), [[pumpkin]] (''farsi''), etc.
[[File:Nepali Meal.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Typical Pahari meal]]

Fruit traditionally grown in the hills include [[mandarin orange]] (''suntala''), [[kaffir lime]] (''kaguti''), [[lemon]] (''nibuwa''), [[Pyrus pyrifolia|Asian pear]] (''nashpati''), and [[Myrica|bayberry]] (''kaphal''). [[Mango]]es (''aap'') grow up to about 800 meters elevation.

[[Yogurt]] (''dahi'') and [[curry|curried]] meat (''masu'') or [[fish (food)|fish]] (''machha'') are served as side dishes when available. [[Chicken (food)|Chicken]] (''kukhura''), and fish are usually acceptable to all but the highest [[Brahmin]] (''[[Bahun]]'') caste, who limit meat to goat (''khasi''). Observant Hindus never eat [[Cow in Hinduism|beef]] (''gaiko masu''), except [[Dalit|untouchables]] (''dalit'') possibly eating animals that have died of natural causes. They also eschew [[Water buffalo|buffalo]] and [[yak]] meat as being too cow-like. Domestic [[pork]] (''sungurko masu'') was traditionally only eaten by [[Dalit]]s, However ''bangur ko masu'' [[wild boar]] was traditionally hunted and eaten by [[chhetri|''Chhetris'']]. A strain derived from wild boar is now raised in captivity and used for meat that is increasingly popular with Pahari ethnicities and castes that did not traditionally eat pork.

===Himalayan cuisine===
{{See also|Tibetan cuisine}}
[[File:Tibetan snack Syabhaley in Nepal.jpg|thumb|left|Tibetan snack Syabhaley in [[Nepal]]]]
Himalayan cuisine eaten by culturally [[Tibet#Culture|Tibetan]] and closely related ethnic groups in the [[Geography of Nepal#Himalaya|Himalaya and Trans-himalaya]]. Buckwheat, barley and millet are important cold-tolerant grains often processed into [[noodle]]s or ''[[tsampa]]'' which is flour ground from toasted grain. [[Butter tea]] is made by mixing butter or [[ghee]] and salt into strong [[tea]]. This tea preparation is commonly mixed with tsampa flour to make a kind of fast food especially eaten while traveling. Grain is also made into alcoholic beverages (see below). [[Potato]]es are another important staple crop and food. Substantial amounts of rice are imported from the lowlands. The meat of [[yak]] and possibly [[Yak#Yak bovid hybrids|yak-cow hybrids]] may be used, as well as their milk. Meat is often prepared as momo.
[[Image:Thukpa, Tibetan noodle in Osaka, Japan.jpg|right|thumb| Thukpa in Nepali Restaurant of Japan]]

===Thakali cuisine===
[[File:Dhindo by Ganesh.jpeg|thumb|[[Dhindo]] [[Thali]] in Thakali Restaurant]]
[[Image:Momo nepal.jpg|thumb|left|Momo with Sesame Yellow and Red Garlic chilli sauce]]
Thakali cuisine — transitional between Himalayan and lowland cuisines — is eaten by ''[[Thakali]]'' people living in [[Kali Gandaki Gorge|''Thak-Khola'' Valley]], an ancient and relatively easy trade route through the high Himalaya. This cuisine is also served in inns (''bhattis'') run by Thakalis along other trade routes and in [[Pokhara]] and other towns in the hills of central Nepal, that were said to offer the best food and accommodations before the great proliferation of facilities catering to foreign trekkers.

Thakali cuisine is less vegetarian than Pahari cuisine. [[Yak]] and Yak-cow hybrids locally known as ''Jhopa'' were consumed by the lower castes. All castes eat the meat of local [[sheep]] called ''Bheda'' and ''Chyangra'' or ''Chiru'' imported from Tibet. Meat is sliced into thin slices and dried on thin poles near the cooking fire. Blood sausage is also prepared and dried. Dried meat is added to vegetable curries or sauteed in ghee and dipped into ''timur-ko-choup'' a mixture of red chili powder, [[Sichuan pepper]], salt and local herbs. This spice mixture also seasons new potatoes, or eggs which may be boiled, fried or made into omelets.

Thakali cuisine uses locally grown buckwheat, barley, millet and dal as well as rice, maize and dal imported from lower regions to the south. Grain may be ground and boiled into a thick porridge that is eaten in place of rice with dal. A kind of dal is even made from dried, ground buckweat leaves. Grain can be roasted or popped in hot sand (which is then sieved off) as a snack food. Thakalis also follow the Tibetan customs of preparing tsampa and tea with butter and salt. ''[[Ghee]]'' is used in this tea preparation and as a cooking oil otherwise.

Since most Thakali people were engaged in trade, they could import vegetables, fruits and eggs from lower regions. A large variety of vegetables were consumed daily, some—especially [[daikon|daikon radish]] and [[beetroot]]—dried and often prepared with mutton. Soup prepared from [[spinach]] known as ''gyang-to'' was served with a pinch of timur-ko-choup. [[Apples]] were introduced following the arrival of foreign horticulturists <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/ab985e/ab985e09.htm |title=Deciduous Fruit in Nepal |publisher=FAO |author=Lok Nath Devkota |date= |accessdate=2013-10-14}}</ref> and are now widely enjoyed.

===Newars===
{{See also|Newa cuisine}}
[[File:Culinária tradicional do Nepal.jpg|right|thumb|Elaborate Newa meal in Kathmandu.]]
[[Image:Kebab.jpg|border|thumb|right|Sekuwa Kebab in Kathmandu restaurant.]]
[[Newar]]s are an [[Urbanization|urbanized]] ethnic group originally living in the Kathmandu Valley, now also in bazaar towns elsewhere in the ''[[Geography of Nepal#Hills|Middle Hills]]''. In the fertile Kathmandu and Pokhara valleys, local market farmers find growing produce more profitable than grain, especially now that cheap rice and other staples can be trucked in. Furthermore Newar households have relatively high incomes and their culture emphasizes food and feasting. Urban Newari cuisine can be much more varied than Pahari cuisine in the poorer, more isolated countryside where maximizing grain production is still a matter of survival.

Newari cuisine makes wide use of [[Water buffalo|buffalo]] meat. For vegetarians, meat or dried fish can be replaced by fried tofu or cottage cheese. The cuisine has a wide range of fermented preparations, whereas Pahari cuisine has few beyond [[South Asian pickle|''aachar'']] condiments. There are aachars made with [[Choerospondias axillaris|''lapsi'']] fruit. [[Chhaang|Homemade rice beer]] is called ''tho'' in Newari; [[Raksi|distilled liquor]] is called ''aela''.

[[Image:Choila.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Typical Newari Choila, spicy and hot]]
[[File:Gỏi đu đủ khô bò.jpg|thumb|right|250px| [[Sukuti]] with [[papaya]] salad ]]
[[Image:Yamari.jpg|thumb|200px|Yomari Newa Sweet]]

===Other ethnic variations in the Middle Hills===
[[Water buffalo|buffalo]] meat and [[pork]] are eaten by many ''[[Adivasi|janajati]]'' (indigenous nationalities with customs departing from Hindu norms). In the course of the [[Nepalese Civil War]], Magars (and perhaps other ethnicities in areas under rebel control) began eating beef to flaunt longstanding Hindu domination. More traditionally, Magars ate pork but not water buffalo while the superficially similar ''[[Gurung]]'' did the opposite. Further east, ''[[Tamang]]'', [[Rai people|''Rai'']] and [[Limbu people|''Limbu'']] have unique ethnic foods including ''Kinema'' (fermented soybeans), ''yangben'' ([[Reindeer Moss]]), preparations of bamboo shoots, bread made from millet or buckwheat, and traditional Limbu drink ''[[tongba]]'' (millet beer).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forum.welovenepal.com/index.php?topic=7942.0;wap2 |title=?About Historical and Contemporary Limbu Women of Nepal? |publisher=Forum.welovenepal.com |date=2008-06-24 |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiatraveltimes.com/sikkim/sikkim_cuisine.html |title=The Sikkim cuisines |publisher=Indiatraveltimes.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref>

===''[[Terai#Terai in Nepal|Terai]]'' cuisine===
Food in ''Outer Terai'' south of ''[[Sivalik Hills]]'' tend to mirror cuisines of adjacent parts of India such as [[Maithil|''Maithili'']]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mithilacuisine.blogspot.com/ |title=Mithila Cuisine |publisher=Mithilacuisine.blogspot.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-12}}</ref> cuisine in the east, [[Bihari cuisine|''Bihari'']] and [[Bhojpuri cuisine|''Bhojpuri'']] cuisine in the center and near west. Further west there is [[Cuisine of Uttar Pradesh|''Uttar Pradeshi'']] and even [[Mughlai cuisine|''Mughlai'']]-influenced [[Awadhi cuisine|''Awadhi'']] cuisine—particularly eaten by the substantial Muslim population around [[Nepalganj]] and further west. Terai diets can be more varied than in the Middle Hills because of greater variety of crops grown locally plus cash crops imported from cooler microclimates in nearby hill regions as well as from different parts of India. Fruit commonly grown in the Terai include [[mango]] (''aam''), [[litchi]], [[papaya]] (''armewa/papeeta''), [[banana]] (''kera/kela'') and [[jackfruit]] (''katahar/katahal'').
[[File:Chaat stand in mussoorie.jpg|thumb|left|A young man at Street Vendor of [[panipuri]]]]

===Tharu Cuisine===
Nepal has seven low elevation [[Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal|Inner Terai valleys]] enclosed by the [[Sivalik Hills|Sivalik]] and [[Mahabharat Range|Mahabharat]] ranges. Historically these valleys were extremely [[malaria]]l and populated mainly by the [[Tharu people|''Tharu'']] who had genetic resistance. Since the valleys were isolated from one another, different Tharu enclaves spoke different dialects and had different customs. They may have had different cuisines, although this has not been very well studied. Nevertheless most Tharu historically obtained a varied diet through hunting and gathering as well as shifting agriculture and animal husbandry. This contrasted with diets of Pahari Hindus that were predominantly agricultural and utilized only a few sources of animal protein because of [[Diet in Hinduism|religious or caste prohibitions]].

In the 1950s when Nepal opened its borders to foreigners and foreign aid missions, malaria suppression programs in the Inner Terai finally made it possible for people without genetic resistance to survive there, so the Tharu faced an influx of people fleeing land and food deficits in the [[Geography of Nepal#The Hill Region|hills]]. Conversion of forest and grassland to cropland and prohibitions on hunting shifted the Tharu away from land-based hunting and gathering, toward greater utilization of fish,<ref>http://tharuculture.blogspot.com/2013/05/fishing-and-tharus.html</ref> [[freshwater crab]], [[Atyidae|prawns]] and [[Freshwater snail|snails]] from rivers and ponds. Tharu also raise chickens and are reported to employ dogs to hunt rats in rice paddies and then roast them whole on sticks. Mutton may be obtained from [[Nomadic pastoralism|nomadic]] hill people such as [[Kham Magar]] who take herds of sheep and goats up to subalpine pastures bordering the high Himalaya in summer, and down to Inner Terai valleys in winter.

Increasing competition for land forces the Tharu away from [[shifting cultivation]] toward sedentary agriculture, so the national custom of eating rice with lentils gains headway. Nevertheless the Tharu also have unique ways of preparing these staples, such as rice and lentil dumplings called ''bagiya'' or ''dhikri''<ref>http://www.tharuculture.blogspot.com/2012/12/bagiya-rice-flour-dumplings-made-tharu.html</ref> and immature rice is used to make a kind of gruel ''maar''.

[[Taro]] root is an important crop and leaves as well as roots are eaten. Sidhara<ref>http://tharuculture.blogspot.com/2011/12/sidhara-colocasia-concoction.html</ref> is a mixture of [[taro]] root, dried fish and [[turmeric]] that is formed into cakes and dried for preservation. The cakes are broken up and cooked with radish, chile, garlic and other spices to accompany boiled rice.

Snails are cleansed, boiled and spiced to make ''ghonghi''.<ref>http://tharuculture.blogspot.com/2011/12/excuse-me-its-escargot.html</ref> Another short compendium of Tharu recipes<ref>http://tharuculture.blogspot.com/2013/07/three-mouth-watering-tharu-dishes.html</ref> includes roasted crab, wheat flatbread fried in mustard oil, and fried taro leaf cakes.

===Lohorung cuisine===
[[File:Fried chicken, Lohorung food.jpg|thumb|right|Fried chicken, Lohorung food]]
[[File:Asalee fish of Shankhuwa river, Shankhuwasabha, Nepal.jpg|thumb|right|Asalee fish of Shankhuwa river, Shankhuwasabha, Nepal]]
[[Lohorung people|Lohorung]] are indigenous of eastern [[Nepal]]. They have a varieties of food in their cuisine made from local ingredients. Some of them are ''[[Tongba]]'', ''Wachipa'', ''Wamik'', ''Masikdaam'', ''Kinima'', ''Sibring'', [[Sel roti]], ''Bawari'', ''Dhule Achar'', ''Saruwa'', ''Chamre'', ''Yangpen'', ''Dibu'' and so on.

===Snacks===
[[File:Packet of Wai Wai.jpg|thumb|left|Packet of Wai Wai Quick Chicken Pizza]]
[[Snack foods|Snacks]] include maize popped or parched called ''khaja'' (literally, "Eat and run."); [[flattened rice|beaten rice]] (''baji'' or ''chiura''), dry-roasted [[soybean]]s (''bhatmas'' Nepali: भटमास), ''lapsi'' (dried fruit candy), and South Asian foods like ''[[samosa]]'' and [[South Asian sweets]]. International snacks like [[biscuit]]s (packaged cookies), [[potato chip]]s and [[Wai Wai (food)|''wai wai'']] (Nepali: वाइ वाइ) ([[Instant noodles]]) are all coming into widespread use.
[[File:Instant noodles with cabbage egg and carrot.jpg|thumb|[[Vegetables]] and [[egg (food)|eggs]] with instant noodles]]

===Beverages===
[[Tea]] (''chiya'') usually taken with milk and sugar, juice of [[sugarcane]] (''sarbat'') and [[buttermilk]] (''mahi''). Alcoholic beverages include ''[[raksi]]'', spirits made in rustic distilleries, and ''jard'', homemade beer made from rice. At higher elevations there is millet beer (''[[tongba]]'' or ''[[Chhaang]]'').
<gallery>
Image:Messe-36.JPG|Street vendor of snack foods
Image:Distillery Nagarkot Nepal.jpg|Raksi distillery
Image:Tongba.jpg|Millet beer
</gallery>

==Etiquette==
{{POV-section|date=December 2013}}
[[Image:Sekuwa Stall in Kathmandu.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Sekuwa]] Stall in [[Kathmandu]]]]
Meals are traditionally eaten seated or squatting on the floor although urban restaurants have tables and chairs. A large mound of ''bhat'' (boiled rice or other grain such as cornmeal or barley) or a pile of ''roti'' (rounds of thin unleavened bread) is served on a ''[[thali]]''—a rimmed brass or stainless steel plate about 12"/30 cm. diameter. The rice is surrounded by smaller mounds of prepared vegetables, fresh chutney or preserved pickles, and sometimes curd / yoghurt, fish or meat. Soup-like dal and vegetables cooked in sauce may be served in separate small bowls, to be poured over the rice. Food is brought to the mouth with the fingers of the right hand. The left hand—traditionally used for certain toilet purposes—should never touch food but may hold cups and glasses. The right hand should be rinsed before and after eating.

Although Nepali society is moving away from [[caste]]-based discrimination and becoming less mindful of ''ritual pollution'', these concepts can still hold sway in traditionally minded upper caste households. In such contexts water itself is highly subject to pollution, affecting containers as well. Clay or wooden containers must then be discarded while metal containers require ritual scouring. You will often find people drinking water by pouring it into their mouths rather than touching their lips to the container to avoid polluting the container and contents.

Dry-cooked grains—including beaten rice and roasted soybeans or corn—also rice pudding cooked in milk rather than water (''khir'') and raw fruit are less subject to ritual pollution. These foods can be accepted from any clean caste but not from the ''[[Dalit]]''. However water and foods cooked with water can be problematic. Traditionally they are not to be cooked or touched by a person of lower caste than the recipient. For this reason even in a polygamous household the first wife should not be of lower caste than the husband.

Foreigners and members of many partially Hinduized ''janajati'' ethnic groups may occupy an ambiguous space, neither fully untouchable nor fully "clean". They may not be welcome inside upper-caste homes and should not presume to enter without being invited (and not just invited to sit outside on the porch). Upper-caste Hindus may decline to eat with them at all, or may avoid eating foods that most subject to ritual pollution.

Breaches of dietary etiquette were made criminal offences in ''[[Jang Bahadur#Muluki Ain|Muluki Ain]]'' — the main corpus of civil law — in 1854 and not decriminalized until 1962. Since 1962 discriminatory customs have been falling into disuse among educated and urban Nepalis, yet they often prevail in the countryside. Guests and visitors should try to conform to tradition until clearly instructed otherwise by their hosts.

==See also==
{{Portal|Nepal|Food}}
* [[Culture of Nepal]]
* [[Newari cuisine]]
* [[Chaat]]
* [[Sel roti]]
* [[Dal bhat]]
* [[Momo (dumpling)|Mo:Mo:]]
* [[South Asian cuisine]]
* [[Jimbu]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.food-nepal.com/ Guide to Nepali food l]
* Saidi, Nicole. "[http://eatocracy.cnn.com/2011/10/14/in-search-of-nepals-culinary-identity/ In search of Nepal's culinary identity]." ''[[CNN]]''. October 14, 2011.
* [http://www.nepalvista.com/travel/food.html Nepali food recipes]
* [http://www.himalayanlearning.org/the-himalaya/nepal-food.php Nepali food]
* [http://nepali-food.com Authentic Nepali food]
* {{cite web
| last = Löwdin
| first = Per
| authorlink =
| title = Food, Ritual and Society: A Study of Social Structure and Food Symbolism among the Newars
| origyear = 1986
| year = 2002
| url = http://archive.is/Vvb3
| format = Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Culture Anthropology, University of Uppsala, Sweden
| accessdate = November 17, 2013
}}
{{Asian topic|| cuisine}}
{{cuisine}}

[[Category:Nepalese cuisine| ]]

Military ranks, special ranks and class rates in Russia

2014-04-09T21:04:05Z

84.23.155.88: /* Special Ranks */

This is the full list of ranks and rates used in the Russian Federation.
== Military Ranks ==
* '''Deck Ranks are used by:'''
** [[Ministry of Defence (Russia)|Ministry of Defense]]
*** [[Russian Navy|Navy]] — Deck personnel only
** [[Federal Security Service (Russia)|Federal Security Service (FSB)]]
*** [[Russian FSB Coast Guard]]
** [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Russia)|Ministry of Internal Affairs]]
*** [[Internal Troops|Marine Internal Troops of Ministry of Internal Affairs]]

* '''Troop ranks are used by:'''
** [[Ministry of Defence (Russia)|Ministry of Defense]]
*** [[Russian Air Force|Air Force]]
*** [[Russian Ground Forces|Ground Forces]]
*** [[Russian Navy|Navy]] — [[Naval Infantry (Russia)|Naval Infantry]], [[Russian Naval Aviation|Naval Aviation]], Coastal Defense troops, Medical Service, and over shore services
*** [[Russian Airborne Troops|Air-Borne Assault Troops]]
*** [[Strategic Missile Troops]]
*** [[Russian Aerospace Defence Forces|Aerospace Defense Troops]]
*** Other troops
** [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Russia)|Ministry of Internal Affairs]]
*** [[Internal Troops|Internal Troops of Ministry of Internal Affairs]]
*** Highest ministry officilas, even if not from internal troops.
** [[Federal Security Service (Russia)|Federal Security Service (FSB)]]
*** Federal Security Service by itself
*** [[Border Guard Service of Russia|Border Troops of FSB]]
** [[Federal Protective Service (Russia)|Federal Protective Service (FSO)]]
** [[Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)|Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR)]]
** [[Ministry of Emergency Situations|Ministry of Emergency Situations (MChS / EMERCOM)]]
*** [[Civil defense|Civil Defense]] Troops
*** Military Personnel of the State Firefighting Service
** Military Prosecution — under Office of Prosecutor General of Russia — not under Ministry of Defense.
** Military Judges of Military Courts — military courts are part of Unified Judicial System of Russia and subordinate to Supreme Court of Russian Federation (which has a military colligue) — not under Ministry of Defense, there are also civilian judges in military courts.

== Special Ranks ==
* Special ranks '''of Police''' are used by:
** [[Police of Russia|Russian Police]] (under [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Russia)|Ministry of Internal Affairs]])
* Special ranks '''of justice''' are used by
** [[Investigative Committee of Russia]] (not to be confused with '''military''' ranks of military prosecutors and military judges)
* Special ranks '''of internal service''' are used by
** [[Federal Migratory Service (Russia)|Federal Migration Service]] (under Ministry of Internal Affairs)
** other uniformed services of Ministry of Internal Affairs (passport desks, medical service of ministry, etc.)
** [[Federal Penitentiary Service|Federal Prison Service]] (under [[Ministry of Justice (Russia)|Ministry of Justice]])
** [[Russian State Fire Service|State Firefighting Service]] (under [[Ministry of Emergency Situations]]) (apart from military personnel of the service which use military ranks)
** [[State Courier Service (Russia)]]
* Special ranks '''of police'''
** [[Federal Drug Control Service of Russia]](Gosnarkokontrol)
* Special rank '''of customs service'''
** [[Federal Customs Service of Russia]]

== Class Rates ==
Class Rate are used by different federal ministries and agencies of Russia. Some of them use common State Civil Service class rates while others (like Ministry of Justice and State Prosecution Service) use specialized class rates. Some municipal organizations also use class rates.

== Table of Ranks ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan=2 | [[History of Russian military ranks#Russian Federation|Military ranks]]
! colspan=5 | Special ranks
! colspan=3 | Class rates
|-
! Troop ranks
! Deck ranks
! [[Militsiya#Rank insignia|of Militsiya]]
! of Justice
! of Internal Service
! of Police
! of Customs Service
! State Civil Service
! Ministry of Justice
! [[Prosecution Service of Russia class rate insignia|Prosecution Service]]
|- align="center"
| colspan=2 | [[Marshal of the Russian Federation]]
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- align="center"
| rowspan=4 | [[Army General (Russia)|General of the Army]]
| rowspan=4 | [[Admiral of the Fleet (Russia)|Admiral of the Fleet]]
| rowspan=4 | —
| rowspan=4 | —
| rowspan=4 | —
| rowspan=4 | General of Police
| rowspan=4 | Actual State Councillor of Customs Service of Russian Federation
| —
| Actual State Councillor of Justice of Russian Federation
| rowspan=4 | Actual State Councillor of Justice
|- align="center"
| Actual State Councillor of Russian Federation, 1st class
| Actual State Councillor of Justice of Russian Federation, 1st class
|- align="center"
| Actual State Councillor of Russian Federation, 2nd class
| Actual State Councillor of Justice of Russian Federation, 2nd class
|- align="center"
| Actual State Councillor of Russian Federation, 3rd class
| Actual State Councillor of Justice of Russian Federation, 3rd class
|- align="center"
| [[Colonel General#Russia|Colonel General]]
| [[Admiral]]
| Colonel General of Militsya
| Colonel General of justice
| Colonel General of internal service
| Colonel General of police
| Colonel General of customs service
| State Councillor of Russian Federation, 1st class
| State Councillor of Justice of Russian Federation, 1st class
| State Councillor of Justice, 1st class
|- align="center"
| [[Lieutenant General]]
| [[Vice Admiral]]
| Lieutenant General of militsiya
| Lieutenant General of justice
| Lieutenant General of internal service
| Lieutenant General of police
| Lieutenant General of customs service
| State Councillor of Russian Federation, 2nd class
| State Councillor of Justice of Russian Federation, 2nd class
| State Councillor of Justice, 2nd class
|- align="center"
| [[Major General]]
| [[Rear Admiral]]
| Major General of militsiya
| Major General of justice
| Major General of internal service
| Major General of police
| Major General of customs service
| State Councillor of Russian Federation, 3rd class
| State Councillor of Justice of Russian Federation, 3rd class
| State Councillor of Justice, 3rd class
|- align="center"
| [[Polkovnik|Colonel]]
| [[Captain (naval)|Captain, 1st rank]]
| Colonel of militsiya
| Colonel of justice
| Colonel of internal service
| Colonel of police
| Colonel of customs service
| Councillor of State Civil Service of Russian Federation, 1st class
| Councillor of Justice, 1st class
| Senior Councillor of Justice
|- align="center"
| [[Podpolkovnik|Lieutenant Colonel]]
| [[Commander|Captain, 2nd rank]]
| Lieutenant Colonel of militsiya
| Lieutenant Colonel of justice
| Lieutenant Colonel of internal service
| Lieutenant Colonel of police
| Lieutenant Colonel of customs service
| Councillor of State Civil Service of Russian Federation, 2nd class
| Councillor of Justice, 2nd class
| Councillor of Justice
|- align="center"
| [[Major]]
| [[Lieutenant Commander|Captain, 3rd rank]]
| Major of militsiya
| Major of justice
| Major of internal service
| Major of police
| Major of customs service
| Councillor of State Civil Service of Russian Federation, 3rd class
| Councillor of Justice, 3rd class
| Junior Councillor of Justice
|- align="center"
| [[Captain (land)|Captain]]
| [[Captain Lieutenant]]
| Captain of militsiya
| Captain of justice
| Captain of internal service
| Captain of police
| Captain of customs service
| Referent of State Civil Service of Russian Federation, 1st class
| Jurist, 1st class
| Jurist, 1st class
|- align="center"
| Senior Lieutenant
| Senior Lieutenant
| Senior Lieutenant of militsiya
| Senior Lieutenant of justice
| Senior Lieutenant of internal service
| Senior Lieutenant of police
| Senior Lieutenant of costumes service
| Referent of State Civil Service of Russian Federation, 2nd class
| Jurist, 2nd class
| Jurist, 2nd class
|- align="center"
| [[Lieutenant]]
| [[Lieutenant]]
| Lieutenant of militsiya
| Lieutenant of justice
| Lieutenant of internal service
| Lieutenant of police
| Lieutenant of customs service
| Referent of State Civil Service of Russian Federation, 3rd class
| Jurist, 3rd class
| Jurist, 3rd class
|- align="center"
| Junior Lieutenant
| Junior Lieutenant
| Junior Lieutenant of militsiya
| Junior Lieutenant of justice
| Junior Lieutenant of internal service
| Junior Lieutenant of police
| Junior Lieutenant of customs service
| Secretary of State Civil Service of Russian Federation, 1st class
| —
| Junior Jurist
|- align="center"
| Senior Praporshchik
| Senior Michman
| Senior Praporshchik of militsiya
| Senior Praporshchik of justice
| Senior Praporshchik of internal service
| Senior Praporshchik of police
| Senior Praporshchik of customs service
| Secretary of State Civil Service of Russian Federation, 2nd class
| —
| —
|- align="center"
| [[Praporshchik]]
| Michman
| Praporshchik of militsiya
| Praporshchik of justice
| Praporshchik of internal service
| Praporshchik of police
| Praporshchik of customs service
| Secretary of State Civil Service of Russian Federation, 3rd class
| —
| —
|- align="center"
| [[Starshina]]
| Chief Ship Starshina
| Starshina of militsiya
| Starshina of justice
| Starshina of internal service
| Starshina of police
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- align="center"
| Senior Sergeant
| Chief Starshina
| Senior Sergeant of militsiya
| Senior Sergeant of justice
| Senior Sergeant of internal service
| Senior Sergeant of police
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- align="center"
| [[Sergeant]]
| Starshina 1st Class
| Sergeant of militsiya
| Sergeant of justice
| Sergeant of internal service
| Sergeant of police
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- align="center"
| [[Junior Sergeant]]
| Starshina 2nd class
| Junior Sergeant of militsiya
| Junior Sergeant of justice
| Junior Sergeant of internal service
| Junior Sergeant of police
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- align="center"
| [[Gefreiter|Yefreitor]]
| Senior Seaman
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|- align="center"
| [[Private (rank)|Private]]
| [[Seaman]]
| Private of militsiya
| Private of justice
| Private of internal service
| Private of police
| —
| —
| —
| —
|}
==Source==
* [http://www.consultant.ru/popular/military/32_6.html Федеральный закон "О воинской обязанности и военной службе" от 28.03.1998 N 53-ФЗ] 2013-11-03
* [http://www.r68.fssprus.ru/ukaz_prezidenta_rf_ot_7_ijunja_2011_g_n_720_quoto_vnesenii_izmenenijj_v_nekotorye_akty_prezidenta_rossijjskojj_federaciiquot/ Указ Президента РФ от 7 июня 2011 г. N 720 "О внесении изменений в некоторые акты Президента Российской Федерации"] 2013-11-03

== See also ==
* [[History of Russian military ranks]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Military Ranks, Special Ranks And Class Rates In Russia}}
[[Category:Military ranks of Russia]]
[[Category:Civil service ranks]]
[[Category:Law enforcement titles]]

Battle of Lake George

2014-04-02T18:18:53Z

84.23.155.88: Province of New York

{{infobox military conflict
|conflict =Battle of Lake George
|partof =the [[French and Indian War]]
|image =[[File:Johnson saving Dieskau.jpg|300px]]
|caption =[[Benjamin West]]'s depiction of [[General Johnson saving a Wounded French Officer from the Tomahawk of a North American Indian|William Johnson sparing Baron Dieskau's life after the battle]]
|date =8 September 1755
|place =South end of [[Lake George (New York)|Lake George]], [[New York]]
|coordinates ={{coord|43.429|N|73.680|W|type:event|display=inline,title}}
|map_type =
|latitude =
|longitude =
|map_size =
|map_marksize =
|map_caption =
|map_label =
|territory =
|result =Tactically inconclusive British-Iroquois [[strategic victory]]
|status =
|combatant1 ={{flagcountry|Kingdom of Great Britain|23px}} [[Province of New York]] Some Mohawk Warriors<ref>Anderson, Crucible of War</ref>
|combatant2 ={{flagcountry|Kingdom of France|23px}} {{flagicon|Kingdom of France|23px}} [[Canada (New France)|Province of Canada]]
|commander1 =[[Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet|William Johnson]] [[Hendrick Theyanoguin]]{{KIA}} [[Ephraim Williams]] {{KIA}} [[Phineas Lyman]]
|commander2 =[[Jean Erdman, Baron Dieskau]] {{POW}}
|units1 =
|units2 =
|strength1 =1,500 militia 200 Iroquois
|strength2 =1,500 regulars, militia, and natives
|casualties1 =331 total ? Disputed (see 'Losses')
|casualties2 =339 total ? Disputed (see 'Losses')
|notes =
|campaignbox ={{Campaignbox French and Indian War}}
}}
The '''Battle of [[Lake George (New York)|Lake George]]''' was fought on 8 September 1755, in the north of the [[Province of New York]]. The battle was part of a campaign by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] to expel the [[France|French]] from [[North America]] in the [[French and Indian War]].

On one side were 1,500 French, [[Canadien]], and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indian]] troops under the command of the [[Jean Erdman, Baron Dieskau|Baron de Dieskau]] and on the other side 1,500 [[Thirteen colonies|colonial]] troops under [[Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet|William Johnson]] and 200 [[Mohawks]] led by a noted war chief, [[Hendrick Theyanoguin]].

== Background ==
William Johnson, who had recently been named the British agent to the [[Iroquois]], arrived at the southern end of ''Lac Saint Sacrement'' on 28 August 1755 and renamed it Lake George in honor of his sovereign, [[George II of Great Britain|George II]]. His intention was to advance via Lakes George and [[Lake Champlain|Champlain]] to attack French-held [[Fort St. Frédéric]] at [[Crown Point, New York|Crown Point]], which was a keystone in the defense of [[Canada, New France|Canada]].<ref>Anderson, Fred, ''Crucible of War: The Seven Years War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766'', Faber and Faber Limited, London, 2000, ISBN 0-571-20565-8, p. 118</ref>

With a view to stopping Johnson's advance, Dieskau had already left Crown Point for an encampment situated between the two lakes (later to be built into [[Fort Carillon]], the precursor of [[Fort Ticonderoga]].) On 4 September Dieskau decided to launch a raid on Johnson's base, the recently constructed [[Fort Edward, New York|Fort Edward]] (at the time called Fort Lyman) on the [[Hudson River]].<ref>Parkman, Francis, ''Montcalm and Wolfe (The French and English in North America, Part Seventh), Vol. I,'' Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1942, p. 309</ref> His aim was to destroy the boats, supplies and artillery that Johnson needed for his campaign.<ref>Anderson, ''Crucible of War'', Page 117</ref> Leaving half his force at Carillon, Dieskau led the rest on an alternate route to the Hudson by landing his men at South Bay and then marching them east of Lake George along Wood Creek.<ref>Bancroft, George, ''History of the United States, from the Discovery of the American Continent, Vol. IV,'' Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1856, p. 209</ref> Dieskau arrived near Fort Edward on the evening of 7 September 1755 with 222 French regular [[grenadiers]] from the [[Régiment de la Reine]] and the [[Régiment de Languedoc]], 600 Canadian militia and 700 [[Abenaki]] and [[Mohawk nation|Caughnawaga Mohawk]] allies.<ref>Anderson, ''Crucible of War'', p. 115</ref>

Johnson, camped {{convert|14|mi|km}} north of Fort Edward at the southern end of Lake George, was alerted by scouts to the presence of the enemy forces to his south, and he dispatched a messenger to warn the 500-man garrison at Fort Edward. But the messenger was intercepted, and soon afterward a supply train was captured, with the result that the disposition of all of Johnson's forces became known to Dieskau. The Indians in the French party, after holding council, declined to assault Fort Edward because they expected it to be defended with cannons; so in the morning Dieskau gave the order to march north toward the lake.<ref>Parkman, ''Montcalm and Wolfe,'' p. 310</ref>

At 9 am on 8 September, Johnson sent Colonel [[Ephraim Williams]] south to reinforce Fort Edward with 200 Mohawk allies and 1,000 troops from Williams' [[Province of Massachusetts Bay|Massachusetts]] Regiment and Colonel [[Nathan Whiting]]'s [[Connecticut Colony|Connecticut]] Regiment. Dieskau, warned by a deserter of Williams' approach, blocked the portage road with his French grenadiers and sent his Canadians and Indians to ambush the Americans from both sides of the road.<ref>Anderson, ''Crucible of War'', pp. 118–119</ref> They lay in wait in a ravine three miles south of the present-day village of [[Lake George (village), New York|Lake George]].<ref>Bancroft, ''History of the United States, Vol. IV,'' p. 210</ref>

== Battle ==

=== "The Bloody Morning Scout" ===
Williams' column marched straight into the trap and were engulfed in a blaze of enemy musketry. In an engagement known as "The Bloody Morning Scout", Williams and Hendrick were killed along with many of their troops. At this point, the French regulars, brought forward by Dieskau, poured volleys into the beleaguered colonial troops.<ref>Gallay, Alan (ed), ''Colonial Wars of North America, 1512–1763: An Encyclopedia'', Garland Publishing, Inc., New York and London, 1996, ISBN 0-8240-7208-1, p. 363</ref> Most of the New Englanders fled toward Johnson's camp, while about 100 of their comrades under Whiting and Lt. Col. [[Seth Pomeroy]] and most of the surviving Mohawks covered their withdrawal with a fighting retreat.<ref name="Anderson, p. 119">Anderson, ''Crucible of War'', p. 119</ref> The American rearguard were able to inflict substantial casualties on their overconfident pursuers. Pomeroy noted that his men "killed great numbers of them; they were seen to drop like pigeons".<ref name="Gallay, p. 363">Gallay, ''Colonial Wars of North America, 1512–1763: An Encyclopedia'', p. 363</ref> One of those killed in this phase of the battle was [[Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre]], the highly respected commander of Dieskau's Canadian and Indian forces. His fall caused great dismay, particularly to the French Indians.

=== The assault on Johnson's camp ===
Dieskau ordered his Canadians and Indians to follow up their success with an attack on Johnson's camp. However, with their morale already shaken by the loss of their leader, the Caughnawagas "did not wish to attack an entrenched camp, the defenders of which included hundreds of their Mohawk kinsmen. The Abenakis would not go forward without the Caughnawagas, and neither would the Canadians".<ref name="Anderson, p. 119"/> Hoping to shame the Indians into attacking, Dieskau formed his 222 French grenadiers into a column, six abreast, and led them in person along the Lake Road into the clearing where Johnson's camp was, around which Sir William had hurriedly constructed defensive barricades of "wagons, overturned boats and hewn-down trees".<ref name="Gallay, p. 363"/> Once the grenadiers were out in the open ground, the American gunners, crewing Johnson's three cannons, loaded up with [[grapeshot]] and cut "lanes, streets and alleys"<ref>Anderson, ''Crucible of War'', p. 121</ref> through the French ranks. When Johnson was wounded and forced to retire to his tent for treatment, Gen. [[Phineas Lyman]] took over command. When Dieskau went down with a serious wound, the French attack was abandoned.

After the French withdrawal, the Americans found about 20 severely wounded Frenchmen who were lying too close to the field of fire of Johnson's artillery for their comrades to retrieve them. They included Baron Dieskau, who had paid the price of leading from the front with a shot through the bladder.<ref>Anderson, ''Crucible of War'', pp. 120–121</ref> ([[Benjamin West]] painted a portrait of Johnson saving a French Officer—allegedly Baron Dieskau.)<ref>[http://www.frenchandindianwar250.org/relive/photo_gallery_Details.aspx?Gallery=7&image=54]</ref>

=== Bloody Pond ===
Meanwhile, Col. [[Joseph Blanchard]], commander of Fort Edward, saw the smoke from the battle in the distance and sent out [[Nathaniel Folsom]]'s 80-strong company of the [[New Hampshire Provincial Regiment]] and 40 [[New York]] Provincials under Capt. McGennis to investigate.

:"Hearing the report of guns in the direction of the Lake, they pressed forward, and when within about two miles of it, fell in with the baggage of the French army protected by a guard, which they immediately attacked and dispersed. About four o'clock in the afternoon, some 300 of the French army appeared in sight. They had rallied, and retreating in tolerable order. Capt. Folsom posted his men among the trees, and as the enemy approached, they poured in upon them a well directed and galling fire. He continued the attack in this manner till prevented by darkness, killing many of the enemy, taking some of them prisoners, and finally driving them from the field. He then collected his own wounded, and securing them with many of the enemy's packs, he brought his prisoners and booty safe into camp. The next day the rest of the baggage was brought in, thus securing the entire baggage and ammunition of the French army. In this brilliant affair, Folsom lost only six men, but McGennis was mortally wounded, and died soon after. The loss of the French was very considerable".<ref>Potter, C.E., ''The History of Manchester, Formerly Derryfield, In New Hampshire; Including that of Ancient Amoskeag, Or the Middle Merrimack Valley'', Manchester (New Hampshire), C. E. Potter, Publisher, 1856. Published online at ‘History of Manchester, Hillsborough County, ALHN-New Hampshire, Created December 14, 2000, Copyright 2000, Chapter 15’, at: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/nh/county/hillsborough/manchester/book/chap15.html</ref>

The bodies of the French troops who were killed in this engagement (actually Canadians and Indians, not French regulars) were thrown into the pool "which bears to this day the name of Bloody Pond”.<ref>Reid, W. Max, ''The Story of Old Fort Johnson'', G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York and London, The Knickerbocker Press, 1906. Transcribed from the original text and html prepared by Bill Carr and published online at: http://www.rootsweb.com/~nyherkim/johnson/Contents.html, Chapter III: Sir William Johnson at the Battle of Lake George</ref>

== Aftermath ==
Although the battle itself was inconclusive, and Johnson's expedition eventually stopped short of Fort St. Frédéric, the strategic result at Lake George was significant. Johnson was able to advance a considerable distance down the lake and consolidated his gains by building [[Fort William Henry]] at its southern end. Historian Fred Anderson writes that had Dieskau succeeded in halting Johnson at Fort Edward, it would have not only ended the threat to Fort St. Frédéric but would also "roll back New York's and New England's defenses to Albany itself".<ref>Anderson, ''Crucible of War'', pp. 117–118</ref>

The death of [[Ephraim Williams]] was commemorated in early versions of the satirical song [[Yankee Doodle]].{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

== Casualties ==
There seem to be as many different versions of the casualties suffered at Lake George as there are accounts of the battle.

James P. Millard<ref>Millard, James P., ''The Battle of Lake George: September 8, 1755'', The Lake Champlain and Lake George Historical Site, America’s Historic Lakes, 2004, published online at: http://www.historiclakes.org/wm_henry/lg_battle.html</ref> says: "Peter Palmer states in his history<ref>Palmer, Peter S., ''History of Lake Champlain, from its first exploration by the French in 1609 to the close of the year 1814'', Frank F. Lovell and Company, New York, 1886, p. 61</ref> that “the loss of the English this day was about two hundred and sixteen killed and ninety-six wounded; of the French the loss was much greater.” He claims Johnson estimated the French loss at five to six hundred, while stating that another source noted it as “a little short of eight hundred”.

W. Max Reid<ref>Reid, ''The Story of Old Fort Johnson'', Chapter III: Sir William Johnson at the Battle of Lake George</ref> says, “The English loss in killed, wounded, and missing at the battle of Lake George was 262, and that of the French, by their own account, was 228”.

Ian K. Steele<ref>Steele, Ian K., ''Betrayals: Fort William Henry & the "Massacre"'', Oxford University Press, Inc., New York, 1990, ISBN 0-19-505893-3, p. 53</ref> says of the American losses, "The official returns, corrected, read 154 dead, 103 wounded, and 67 missing. Most of those listed as missing had not deserted into woods full of Canadians and Indians; most of the missing were later found dead. Pomeroy was preoccupied with the losses, but overlooked the Iroquois casualties, which brought the totals to 223 dead and about 108 wounded".

Of the French losses, Steele<ref>Steele, ''Betrayals: Fort William Henry & the "Massacre"'', p. 53</ref> says, "The official French journal of the operation probably minimized Indian casualties in a total count of 149 dead, 163 wounded, and 27 taken prisoner. The reported number of those killed, wounded, and captured was remarkably close on both sides, with those fighting for the English losing 331 and the French, 339." Steele does not give a reason for his suspicion that the Indian casualties were under-reported.

In his 2009 book, ''Combattre pour la France en Amérique'', Marcel Fournier diverges considerably from the other sources in reporting the casualties for the Battle of Lac St-Sacrement (as the French called it) at 800 killed or wounded for the British and 200 killed or wounded for the French.<ref>Marcel Fournier: ''Combattre pour la France en Amérique'', p.47: 2009</ref>

A letter of 20 October 1755, from Monsieur Doreil to the Comte d'Argenson, a senior French commander in North America,<ref>Roux, Larry ''1755: French and Indian War Webpage'' at http://web.syr.edu/~laroux/docs/doc1.html</ref> confirms that the French grenadiers paid for their assault on Johnson's entrenchments with the loss of more than a third of their total strength: the Regiment de la Reine had 21 killed or missing and 30 wounded, while the Regiment de Languedoc had 5 killed and 21 wounded.

== Map gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:Carte Guerre de 7 ans Amérique du nord.PNG|Map showing location of fighting in the French and Indian War
Image:Lake Champlain Landsat.jpg|[[Landsat]] photo of Lakes Champlain and George and portions of the Hudson and Richelieu Rivers.
Image:Champlainmap.svg|Map showing the Lake Champlain and Richelieu River watershed.
Image:Hudsonmap.png|The watershed of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers.
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Battle of Lake Champlain]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

===Further reading===

*'''Harrison''', Bird (1962). ''Navies in the Mountains: The Battles on the Waters of Lake Champlain and Lake George, 1609-1814'', Oxford University Press, pp. 361, [http://books.google.com/books?id=iW1KAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Url]

== External links ==
*[http://www.historiclakes.org/wm_henry/lg_battle.html America’s Historic Lakes]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Lake George}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1755]]
[[Category:1755 in North America]]
[[Category:Battles of the French and Indian War|Lake George, Battle of]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of Connecticut]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of New York]]
[[Category:Battles involving Great Britain|Lake George]]
[[Category:Battles involving France|Lake George]]
[[Category:1755 in New York]]

Svinfylking

2014-02-15T22:14:39Z

84.23.155.88:

{{Unreferenced stub|auto=yes|date=December 2009}}
[[File:Svinefylking1.jpg|thumb|Sketch of the Svinfylking.]]
The '''Svinfylking''', or the 'Swine Array,' or Boar Snout, was a version of [[wedge formation]] used by the [[Vikings]] and earlier [[Germanic peoples]]. The formation consisted of heavily armed, presumably hand-to-hand [[warrior]]s and less-armored [[archery|archer]]s grouped in a triangle formation with the warriors in the front lines protecting the archers in center or rear. [[Cavalry]] charging a group in Svinfylking formation were frequently attacked by the outer warriors with spears causing complete chaos among the horses. The Swine Array could also be used as a wedge to break through enemy lines. Several Svinfylking formations can be grouped in a side by side appearing something like a zig-zag to press or break the opposition's ranks.

The weakness of the swine array was that it couldn't handle flanking. Swine array was based on a monumental shock. If the swine array didn't break the enemy lines immediately then the men in the swine array would not hold long.

==Se also==
*[[Flying wedge]]

[[Category:Viking practices]]
[[Category:Germanic warfare]]

{{Mil-stub}}

Svinfylking

2014-02-15T22:12:16Z

84.23.155.88:

{{Unreferenced stub|auto=yes|date=December 2009}}
[[File:Svinefylking1.jpg|thumb|Sketch of the Svinfylking.]]
The '''Svinfylking''', or the 'Swine Array,' or Boar Snout, was a version of [[wedge formation]] used by the [[Vikings]] and earlier [[Germanic peoples]]. The formation consisted of heavily armed, presumably hand-to-hand [[warrior]]s and less-armored [[archery|archer]]s grouped in a triangle formation with the warriors in the front lines protecting the archers in center or rear. [[Cavalry]] charging a group in Svinfylking formation were frequently attacked by the outer warriors with spears causing complete chaos among the horses. The Swine Array could also be used as a wedge to break through enemy lines. Several Svinfylking formations can be grouped in a side by side appearing something like a zig-zag to press or break the opposition's ranks.

The weakness of the swine array was that it couldn't handle flanking. Swine array was based on a monumental shock. If the swine array didn't break the enemy lines immediately then the men in the swine array would not hold long.

[[Category:Viking practices]]
[[Category:Germanic warfare]]

{{Mil-stub}}

Talk:Flaco Jiménez

2014-02-08T21:56:27Z

84.23.155.88: /* Discography */ new section

{{WikiProjectBannerShell|blp=yes|1=
{{WikiProject Biography
|living=yes
|class=Start
|musician-work-group=yes
|listas=Jimenez, Flaco
}}
{{WikiProject Latin music|class=|importance=}}
{{WikiProject United States|class=Start|importance=Low|TX=yes|TX-importance=Low}}
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==Untitled==
I suggest that the redirect be reversed. The surname "Jimenez" is not accented in Spanish, and diacritics are not used in English except in loanwords, so in either case the accent in "Jimenez" is unnecessary.
[[User:SWalkerTTU|SWalkerTTU]] 06:20, 14 December 2005 (UTC)
== WikiProject class rating==
This article was automatically assessed because at least one article was rated and this bot brought all the other ratings up to at least that level. [[User:BetacommandBot|BetacommandBot]] 11:34, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

== Discography ==

Addition: El Sonido De San Antonio 1980
[[Special:Contributions/84.23.155.88|84.23.155.88]] ([[User talk:84.23.155.88|talk]]) 21:56, 8 February 2014 (UTC)

2014 Catalan self-determination referendum

2014-01-30T17:39:22Z

84.23.155.88: /* Opinion polling */

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}
{{Politics of Catalonia}}

The '''Catalan self-determination referendum''' is a projected [[referendum]] on the "political future of [[Catalonia]]",<ref name=proces>{{cite web|title=Procés de convocatòria de la consulta sobre el futur polític de Catalunya|url=http://ep00.epimg.net/descargables/2012/12/18/1e01365afce100887a3a1d18836be2a2.pdf|accessdate=17 September 2013|language=ca}}</ref> that is included in the governance agreement ratified by [[Artur Mas i Gavarró|Artur Mas]] from [[Convergence and Union]] (CiU) and [[Oriol Junqueras]] from [[Republican Left of Catalonia]] (ERC) on 18 December 2012,<ref name="ciuercagreement2014">{{cite web |url=http://www.vilaweb.cat/noticia/4066661/20121218/ciu-and-erc-come-to-an-agreement-in-catalonia-referendum-in-2014.html| title=CIU and ERC came to an agreement in Catalonia: Referendum in 2014 | accessdate= 18 December 2012 | work = | publisher = [[VilaWeb]] | date = 18 December 2012 |language=ca}}</ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/19/world/europe/separatist-catalan-parties-announce-alliance.html Separatist Catalan Parties Announce Alliance] The New York Times, 18 December 2012</ref><ref>[http://www.euronews.com/2012/12/19/agreement-in-catalonia-on-date-of-independence-referendum/ Agreement in Catalonia on date of independence referendum] Euronews, 19 December 2012</ref><ref>[http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/113da2a8-4a01-11e2-8002-00144feab49a.html Catalonia referendum set for 2014] Financial Times, 19 December 2012</ref> and called by its signatories ''Agreement for Freedom''.
<ref name="ciuercagreement2014"/><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ara.cat/politica/Artur_Mas-Oriol_Junqueras-CiU-ERC_0_830917107.html | title = Mas and Junqueras come to an agreement on helding the independence referendum on 2014| work = | publisher = [[Ara (newspaper)|Ara]] | date = 18 December 2012 |language=ca}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elsingulardigital.cat/cat/notices/2012/12/mas_i_junqueras_segellen_el_pacte_per_la_llibertat_91987.php| title=Artur Mas and Oriol Jonqueras sign the "Agreement for the Freedom" | accessdate = 30 December 2012 | work = | publisher = The Singular Digital | date = 19 December 2012 |language=ca}}</ref> The text indicates that the date of the referendum will be agreed between the two parties, both of which commit to attempting to hold it in 2014 "except if the socio-economic and political context made a postponement necessary."<ref name=proces/><ref>{{cite news|first=Miquel|last=Noguer|coauthors=Roger, Maiol|title=CiU y ERC pactan la consulta de autodeterminación para 2014|url=http://ccaa.elpais.com/ccaa/2012/12/18/catalunya/1355821961_967807.html|newspaper=[[El País]]|date=18 December 2012}}</ref> As part of the agreement Artur Mas was voted in as [[President of the Generalitat of Catalonia]] for a second term.

On 12 December 2013, the [[Government of Catalonia]] announced that the date for the referendum on independence will be set for Sunday 9 November 2014 and that it will contain a question with two sections: "Do you want Catalonia to become a State?" and "In case of an affirmative response, do you want this State to be independent?".<ref>[http://premsa.gencat.cat/pres_fsvp/AppJava/notapremsavw/detall.do?id=236549 Catalan President Mas: "The country's good sense has made it possible to come to a consensus and agree on an inclusive, clear question, which enjoys broad support"], Government of Catalonia.</ref><ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2013/12/12/world/europe/spain-catalonia-vote/index.html Political parties announce date for vote on Catalonia independence], CNN.</ref> The [[Spanish Government]] stated shortly thereafter its intention to attempt to block the referendum, stating "Such a poll will not be held."<ref name=bbc2013>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-25353086 Spain to block Catalonia independence referendum], BBC World.</ref><ref>[http://world.time.com/2013/12/12/spain-rejects-call-for-catalonia-independence-vote/ Spain Rejects Call for Catalonia Independence Vote], TIME.</ref>

==History==
=== 2009–2012 ===
==== Unofficial Catalan independence referendums ====
{{main|Catalan independence referendums, 2009–2011}}
In 2009 and 2011 unofficial referendums were held in hundreds of Catalan towns and the independence option won an overwhelming majority of the votes cast, although the participation was very low.{{cn|date=December 2013}}

==== Demonstrations in Barcelona ====
{{main|2010 Catalan autonomy protest|2012 Catalan independence demonstration}}
In 2010 and 2012 two massive demonstrations took place in Barcelona. The first one was on 10 July 2010. It featured a Catalan [[Regionalism (politics)|regionalist]] ideological leadership. The second one on 11 September 2012 was openly in favor of [[Catalan independence]] and had as a slogan "Catalonia, next state in Europe". As a consequence of this second demonstration, the Rt. Hon. Artur Mas, [[President of the Generalitat of Catalonia]] at that time, [[Catalonian parliamentary election, 2012|called a snap election]], and the "Agreement for Freedom" was negotiated between Artur Mas (CiU) and Oriol Junqueras (ERC)

<gallery>
File:Manifestació10J-293.JPG|The [[2010 Catalan autonomy protest|Protest "Som una nació, nosaltres decidim"]] on 10 July 2010 at the junction of Passeig de Gracia and Aragon street.<ref Name="CNN">{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/07/11/spain.protests/?HPT=T2&fbid=OvJ53vcl_sW | title = More than 1 million protest court ruling in Barcelona | accessdate = 12 July 2010 | publisher = [[CNN]] | date = 11 July 2010 }}</ref>
File:Fanals-Banc P1150941.JPG|The [[2012 Catalan independence demonstration|Demonstration "Catalunya, nou estat d'Europa"]] of 11 September 2012.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/spain/9537181/1.5-million-take-to-streets-of-Barcelona-in-support-of-independence.html | title = 1.5 million take to streets of Barcelona in support of Independence | publisher = [[The Daily Telegraph]] | date = 11 September 2012}}</ref> [[Estelada]] hanging between Mallorca and Valencia streets, along Passeig de Gracia.
File:El President Mas acompanyat d'Oriol Junqueras aquest matí al Parlament.jpg| The [[President of the Generalitat of Catalonia]] [[Artur Mas]] and [[Oriol Junqueras]], signing the 2012–2016 governability agreement on 19 December 2012.
</gallery>

==== Free Catalan Territories====
[[File:LocationCataloniaInEurope.png|thumb|Location of [[Catalonia]] in [[Spain]] (green) and [[Europe]].]]
{{main|Free Catalan Territory}}
[[File:Municipis independencia 1-8-13.png|thumb|[[Association of Municipalities for Independence]]]]
Also, during 2012, dozens of Catalan towns declared themselves [[Free Catalan Territory]] stating that "the Spanish legislation and regulations have effect only in Spain, so this town will wait for new legislation and regulation from the [[Catalan Government]] and the [[Parliament of Catalonia]]."

==== Resolution of the Catalan Parliament for Celebrating an Independence Referendum ====
The Catalan independence referendum is planned to take place during the [[Catalonian parliamentary election, 2012|tenth legislature]] of the [[Parliament of Catalonia]]. According to a resolution adopted by the Parliament of Catalonia on 27 September 2012:

{{quote | The Parliament of Catalonia confirms the need for the people of Catalonia to be able to freely and democratically determine their collective future and urges the government to hold a referendum during the following legislature.<ref>{{cite web | title = Proposed resolution passed in the Parliament of Catalonia |url=http://www.ara.cat/politica/resolucio-CiU-ERC-autodeterminacio-Parlament_ARAFIL20120926_0001.pdf | publisher = [[Parliament of Catalonia]] | date = 27 September 2012 |language=ca}}</ref>}}

The resolution was adopted after the general policy debate. It received 84 favourable votes, 21 against and 25 abstentions.<ref>{{cite web| title = Parliament heads for national emancipation voting for a query | url=http://www.ara.cat/politica/Parlament-emancipacio_nacional-independencia-resolucio-autodeterminacio_0_781721919.html | query = | work = | publisher = [[Ara (newspaper)|Ara]] | date = 27 September 2012 |language=ca}}</ref> The President of the Generalitat of Catalonia, Artur Mas, declared in a speech to Parliament that it was time for the people of Catalonia to exercise the right of [[self-determination]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ara.cat/politica/Mas-Ha-Catalunya-exerceixi-lautodeterminacio_0_780522085.html | title = It is time for the people Catalonia to exercise their right to self-determination | Query = | work = | publisher = [[Ara (newspaper)|Ara]] | date = 25 September 2012 |language=ca}}</ref>

===2013===

====Declaration of Sovereignty ====
{{Main|Catalan Sovereignty Declaration}}
[[File:Votació per a la declaració de Sobirania.svg|thumb|300px|Results of the votes for the "Declaration of sovereignty" at the Catalan Parliament, on 23 January 2013]]
On 23 January 2013 the Parliament of Catalonia adopted by 85 favourable votes, 41 against, and 2 abstentions the "[[Catalan Sovereignty Declaration|Declaration of Sovereignty and of the Right to Decide of the Catalan People]]".<ref name = "estament de sobirania">{{cite web | url=http://www.parlament.cat/web/actualitat/noticies?p_id=129656021|title =El Parlament acorda iniciar el procés per fer efectiu el dret de decidir, amb 85 vots a favor, 41 en contra i 2 abstencions| publisher = Parliament Catalonia | accessdate = 2013-01-23 |language=ca}}</ref><ref name = "Declaration of sovereignty">{{cite web | url=http://www.vilaweb.cat/noticia/4076896/20130124/declaration-of-sovereignty-and-of-the-right-to-decide-of-the-catalan-nation.html|title =Declaration of sovereignty and of the right to decide of the Catalan nation| publisher = Vilaweb | accessdate = 2013-01-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/23/world/europe/spain-catalan-self-determination/index.html | title=Catalan parliament declaration pushes self-determination| accessdate = 2013-01-23| publisher = [[cnn]] }}</ref> It states that "The people of Catalonia have – by reason of democratic legitimacy – the character of a sovereign political and legal entity." Five Socialist MPs did not vote. It is based on the following principles: sovereignty, democratic legitimacy, transparency, dialogue, social cohesion, Europeanism, legality, role of the Catalan Parliament and participation.<ref name="sobirania"/><ref name="vila23gen"/>

{{quote |In accordance with the democratically expressed will of the majority of the Catalan public, the Parliament of Catalonia initiates a process to bring to promote the right of the citizens of Catalonia to collectively decide their political future.<ref name ="sobirania ">{{cite web | author = Colomer | author = Marco | url = http://www.ara.cat/politica/declaracio-sobirania-Parlament-CiU-ERC-ICV_0_851914901.html | title = The declaration of sovereignty starts off in Parliament | publisher = [[Ara (newspaper)|Ara]]| date = January 22, 2013 |language=ca}}</ref>}}

The political parties [[Convergence and Union]] (CiU) (50 yes), [[Republican Left of Catalonia]] (ERC) (21 yes) and [[Initiative for Catalonia Greens]] (ICV) (13 yes) totally supported the statement of sovereignty. On the other hand, the [[People's Party of Catalonia]] (PPC) (19 no) and [[Citizens – Party of the Citizenry]] (C's) (9 no) totally opposed the proposal. 15 members of the [[Socialists' Party of Catalonia]] (PSC) voted against; 5 did not vote despite being present in the Chamber, thus disobeying the orders of the party whips to vote against the proposal. Finally, the [[Popular Unity Candidature]] (CUP) gave a "critical yes", with 1 vote in favour and 2 abstentions.<ref name="vila23gen">{{cite web |url=http://www.vilaweb.cat/noticia/4076787/20130123/catalunya-sobirana.html | title = Catalonia, a sovereign state | accessdate = 23 January 2013 | publisher = [[Vilaweb]] | date = 23 January 2013 |language=ca}}</ref>

On 8 May 2013 this declaration was provisionally suspended by the [[Constitutional Court of Spain]].<ref>{{cite web|title=El Tribunal Constitucional suspende la declaración soberanista de Parlamento de Cataluña|url=http://www.abc.es/espana/20130508/abci-constitucional-declaracion-catalana-201305081352.html|publisher=abc.es|accessdate=8 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=El Constitucional suspèn la declaració de sobirania|url=http://www.ara.cat/politica/declaracio_de_sobirania-Parlament-Catalunya-Tribunal_Constitucional-TC_0_915508532.html|publisher=ara.cat|accessdate=8 May 2013|language=ca}}</ref>

==== Catalan Way towards Independence ====
{{Main|Catalan Way}}

==Vote==
[[File:ArturMas Press conference on Nov92014 Catalonia independence poll 02.jpg|thumb|Announcement of the Referendum's date and wording]]
On 12 December 2013, Catalan President Artur Mas announced that a deal between Catalan parties had set the date and wording of a referendum. The date would be 9 November 2014 and would ask Catalan voters want Catalonia to be a state and, if so, should it be independent.<ref>[http://premsa.gencat.cat/pres_fsvp/AppJava/notapremsavw/detall.do?id=236549 Catalan President Mas: "The country's good sense has made it possible to come to a consensus and agree on an inclusive, clear question, which enjoys broad support"], Government of Catalonia.</ref><ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2013/12/12/world/europe/spain-catalonia-vote/index.html Political parties announce date for vote on Catalonia independence], CNN.</ref> The date was chosen as it would allow for discussions with the Spanish Government in order "to stage the consultation legally".

[[Mariano Rajoy]], [[Spanish Prime Minister]], immediately said that the referendum would be considered illegal and that "any discussion or debate on this is out of the question".<ref name=bbc2013/><ref name=aljazeera2013>{{cite news|title=Spain rejects Catalonia referendum bid|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/12/spain-rejects-catalonia-referendum-bid-20131212161025718238.html|accessdate=13 December 2013|newspaper=[[Al Jazeera]]|date=12 December 2013}}</ref>

== Positions ==

=== Catalonia ===
{{POV-section|date=November 2013}}

Position of the parties with parliamentary representation in Catalonia (sorted by votes):

* [[Convergence and Union|CiU]], liberal and [[Catalan nationalism|Catalan nationalist]] coalition (CDC have 37 seats and UDC have 13): the goal to achieve a sovereign state in the European framework was included in their election manifesto, ''Catalunya 2020''. This is an aim shared by a majority within the party and by the party president [[Artur Mas i Gavarró|Artur Mas]] and some other important leaders like [[Oriol Pujol]], but some leaders of UDC such as [[Josep Antoni Duran Lleida]] have had an ambiguous position and have defended a [[confederal]] model.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Mas promises to take Catalonia towards statehood within the EU | accessdate = January 29, 2013 | publisher = [[La Vanguardia]] | date = October 28, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news| title = Duran defends a confederal model: "A Catalonia linked to Spain with the rights of an independent state" |language=es| accessdate = January 29, 2013 | newspaper = [[La Vanguardia]] | date = January 16, 2013}}</ref>
* [[Republican Left of Catalonia|ERC]], social and pro [[Catalan independence]] party (21 seats): ERC clearly supports Catalonia having its own State within the [[European Union]] framework, and for that reason they have signed the pact with CiU since 2012.<ref>{{Cite web | title = ERC believes that the multinationals with headquarters in Catalonia would be an argument for the EU to accept the State | accessdate = January 29, 2013 | publisher = [[The Newspaper of Catalunya]] | date = December 7, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.esquerra.cat/documents/c2012_programa-2.pdf | title = Catalan Parliament election 2012 program | query = 30 January 2013 | publisher = esquerra.cat }}</ref>
* [[Socialists' Party of Catalonia|PSC]], socialist party federated with the [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party]] (20 seats): in the words of their leader, the PSC is against independence, but favors the holding of a legal referendum agreed with the Spanish government. This is why it decided to abstain in all parliamentary votes dealing with the right to decide. Despite that, some notable PSC leaders (like [[Montserrat Tura]] and [[Joaquim Nadal]]) have said they will vote for independence.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://diaridemiqueliceta.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/parlament20121.pdf | title = Program Catalan Parliament election 2012 | accessdate = 30 January 2013 | publisher = |language=ca}}</ref>
* [[People's Party of Catalonia|PPC]], a conservative, liberal and [[Spanish nationalism|Spanish nationalist]] party (19 seats): the PP insists that the referendum is illegal, they defend the Spanish Constitutional framework and are against secession. They also claim that the independence of Catalonia would give rise to a number of serious social and economic problems, such as expulsion from the Eurozone.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.ppcatalunya.com/programa-electoral-elecciones-2012/ | title = Program Catalan Parliament election 2012 | accessdate = 30 January 2013 | publisher = ppcatalunya. com}}</ref>
* [[Initiative for Catalonia Greens|ICV]]-[[United and Alternative Left|EUiA]] [[ecosocialism|ecosocialist]] and Catalan nationalist coalition (ICV hold 10 seats and EUiA hold 3): ICV, an eco-socialist group, defends the right to self-determination, but party leaders have never responded as to how they would vote in a referendum and say they are a union of federalists and separatists.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://iniciativa.cat/protected_media/documents/3950/programa_definitiu__2_Novembre_2011.pdf | title = Program Catalan Parliament election 2012 | accessdate = 30 January 2013 | publisher = iniciativa.cat }}</ref>
* [[Citizens – Party of the Citizenry|C's]], a [[social_liberalism|social liberal]] and [[Spanish nationalism|Spanish unionist]] party (9 seats): C's is clearly positioned against both the right to self-determination and to independence.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.mejorunidos.cat/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/programa-electoral-2012.pdf | title = 2012 Catalan Parliament election manifesto | accessdate = January 30, 2013 | publisher = mejorunidos.cat}}</ref>
* [[Popular Unity Candidates|CUP]], anticapitalist, socialist and pro-independence party (3 seats): the CUP is in favour of the independence of Catalonia, as part of the emancipation of all the [[Catalan Countries]], and seeks the formation of a Socialist country outside the European Union.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cup.cat/pagina/qu%C3%A8-%C3%A9s-a-cup | title = What is CUP? | accessdate = 23 January 2013 | publisher = cup.cat}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url =
http://www.unitatpopular.cat/programa/programa | title = Program Catalan Parliament election 2012 | accessdate = 23 January 2013 | publisher = unitatpopular.cat}}</ref>

=== Spain ===
;Spanish Government

The Spanish Government "will not allow" and "will not negotiate" on Catalonia’s self-determination vote.<ref name=deputy>{{cite news|title=The Spanish Government “will not allow” and “will not negotiate” on Catalonia’s self-determination vote |url=http://www.vilaweb.cat/noticia/4161935/20131213/the-spanish-government-will-not-allow-and-will-not-negotiate-catalonias-self-determination-vote.html|accessdate=17 December 2013|date=13 December 2013|agency=VilaWeb}}</ref><ref name=bbc2013/>

*[[Mariano Rajoy]], [[Prime Minister of Spain]]: "I want to tell you with all clarity that this consultation will not take place".<ref name=deputy/><ref name=cna17december2013>{{cite news|title=The Spanish Government “will not allow” and “will not negotiate” on Catalonia’s self-determination vote |url=http://www.catalannewsagency.com/politics/item/the-spanish-government-will-not-allow-and-will-not-negotiate-on-catalonia-s-self-determination-vote|accessdate=17 December 2013|date=12 December 2013|agency=Catalan News Agency}}</ref> "Any discussion or debate on this is out of the question."<ref name=aljazeera2013/><ref name=cna17december2013>{{cite news|title=Rajoy insists he will not negotiate on Catalonia’s self-determination |url=http://www.catalannewsagency.com/politics/item/rajoy-insists-he-will-not-negotiate-on-catalonia-s-self-determination|accessdate=17 December 2013|date=17 December 2013|agency=Catalan News Agency}}</ref>

*[[Alberto Ruiz-Gallardón]], [[Ministry of Justice (Spain)|Spanish Justice Minister]]: "The vote will not take place".<ref name=deputy/><ref name=aljazeera2013/>

;Parties
Position of the parties with parliamentary representation in the Parliament of Spain (sorted by votes):

* [[People's Party (Spain)|People's Party]] (PP) (186 seats) [[conservatism|conservative]], [[liberalism|liberal]] and [[Spanish nationalism|Spanish nationalist]] argue that the referendum is illegal. The Spanish deputy Prime Minister [[Soraya Saenz de Santamaria]] says Catalonia cannot hold an independence referendum without first consulting the rest of the country. She also said the call for a referendum "of this nature" requires prior constitutional procedures, which consist of "authorization by the State". She also noted that it would be a matter that would "affect the whole Spanish people, that is, the whole electoral roll and thus each and every Spanish citizen must be consulted, because it is up to all of us to determine the territorial organization".<ref name=deputy>{{cite news|title=No referendum on Catalonian independence without Spanish approval|url=http://rt.com/news/catalonia-public-consultations-independence-158/|accessdate=13 December 2013|date=28 September 2013|agency=[[RT (TV network){{!}}RT]]}}</ref>

* [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party]] (PSOE) (110 seats) argue that the referendum is illegal. Disagrees with the Catalan socialists, PSC, and considers the Catalan referendum 'unlawful and disastrous'. Reiterates that the route taken by the Government of Catalonia is a "road to nowhere".<ref>[http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2012/12/21/espana/1356094549.html The PSOE, disagrees with the PSC. and believes the Catalan referendum 'unlawful and disastrous' (Spanish)] elmundo.es</ref><ref>[http://www.elperiodico.cat/ca/noticias/politica/rubalcaba-estem-estarem-mai-favor-del-dret-dautodeterminacio-2925749 Rubalcaba: "No estem ni estarem mai a favor del dret d'autodeterminació" (Catalan)], El Periódico</ref>

* [[The Plural Left]] (11 seats) anti-capitalist and eco-socialist group led by [[United Left (Spain)|United Left]], and containing a number of [[Left-wing politics|Left]], [[environmental policy|environmental]], [[Federalist]] and [[nationalist]] parties throughout Spain, defends a [[federal Government|federal]], [[multinational state|multinational]], [[social]] and [[Republicanism|Republican]] government and recognizes the right of the people of Catalonia to decide their political future.<ref name=IU>[http://www.abc.es/local-cataluna/20130529/abci-defiende-estado-federal-reconozca-201305291747.html IU defends a federal state, multi-national, social and republican recognize the right of the people of Catalonia to decide their political future. (Spanish)] ABC</ref>

* [[Union, Progress and Democracy]] (UPyD) (5 seats) argue that the referendum is illegal and believes that the Spanish government should use all legal means to prevent the referendum, and partially blames PP and PSOE for this situation.<ref name=Rosa>[http://www.abc.es/20121113/espana/abci-entrevista-rosa-diez-upyd-201211130025.html Rosa Díez: «El Gobierno debe utilizar todos los medios legales para evitar el referéndum»] ABC</ref>

===International reaction===
;Organizations
*{{Flagu|United Nations}} — In April 2013, UN General Secretary [[Ban Ki-moon]] stated in a press conference that "All the issues between the countries and among the countries should be resolved through peaceful means, through dialogue, respecting the genuine aspirations of the people concerned."<ref>{{cite web|title=Secretary-General's remarks at press conference with Prime Minister Antoni Martí of Andorra|url=http://www.un.org/sg/offthecuff/index.asp?nid=2761|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=8 January 2014|location=Andorra|date=2 April 2013}}</ref>
*{{flagu|European Union}} — A spokesperson of the [[European Commission]] declared that if Catalonia seceded from Spain it would automatically leave the [[European Union]]: "An independent state, because of its independence, would become a third country vis a vis the EU and as of the day of the independence the EU treaties will no longer apply'".<ref>{{cite web|title=Brussels says an independent Catalonia would need to leave EU|url=http://www.euractiv.com/video/brussels-independent-catalonia-n-530496|publisher=Euractiv.com|accessdate=29 September 2013}}</ref>
* {{flagu|NATO}} — A spokesperson for [[NATO]] said that an independent country would not automatically be part of the organisation, saying "for any nation to be incorporated into the alliance the consensus of all the NATO allies will be necessary".<ref>http://www.tumbit.com/news/articles/8349-idea-of-an-independent-catalonia-gets-a-nato-no-go.html</ref>
;States
* {{Flagu|Latvia}} — Prime Minister [[Valdis Dombrovskis]]: "If there is a clear will of the people and a clear demand for a referendum, it is absolutely worth it to pay attention and look at options on how to tackle it".<ref>{{cite news|title=Letonia abre la puerta a reconocer una Catalunya independiente|url=http://www.lavanguardia.com/politica/20130913/54382402803/letonia-abre-puerta-reconocer-catalunya-independiente.html|newspaper=La Vanguardia|date=13 September 2013|language=es}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Lithuania}} — Prime Minister [[Algirdas Butkevičius]]: "Each country must find its own path and has the right to self-determination".<ref>{{cite news|title=El primer ministre lituà: "Cada país ha de trobar el seu propi camí i té dret a l'autodeterminació"|url=http://www.ara.cat/politica/ministre-litua-trobar-propi-lautodeterminacio_0_992900923.html|date=14 September 2013|agency=Catalan News Agency}}</ref>
*{{flagu|United Kingdom}} — Prime Minister [[David Cameron]]: "Let the people decide" and "[do not] ignore questions of nationality, independence, identity".<ref name=USArules>[http://www.catalannewsagency.com/news/politics/david-cameron-let-people-decide-and-do-not-ignore-questions-nationality-independence-i David Cameron: "let the people decide" and do not "ignore questions of nationality, independence, identity"], Catalan News Agency.</ref>
*{{flagu|United States}} — Caitlin Hayden, the Deputy [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] Spokesperson and Assistant Press Secretary, United States Official White House Response (as a response to a petition in the web of White House supported by 30,000 signatures): "The United States recognizes the unique culture and traditions of the Catalan region, but considers the status of Catalonia to be an internal Spanish matter. We are confident that the Government and the people of Spain will resolve this issue in accordance with their laws and Constitution."<ref>{{cite web|title=Our response to the people of Catalonia|url=http://archive.is/fa1Ml|publisher=[[whitehouse.gov]]|accessdate=24 July 2013}}</ref>
;European parties
*[[Graham Watson]], President of the [[European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party]]: "The people of Catalonia have the right to choose their own future [...] I believe in the democracy. Catalans should be able to choose. That's what democracy is about."<ref name=vweb>[http://www.vilaweb.cat/noticia/4131306/20130702/donariem-benvinguda-republica-catalana.html 'Donaríem la benvinguda a una república catalana'], VilaWeb</ref>
*Gunther Dauwen,{{who|date=December 2013}} [[European Free Alliance]]: "We believe that freedom, democracy and the right to decide on your own future are core values of Europe. We would welcome Catalonia and a Catalan Republic to be a new state within Europe, if the people so decide"<ref name=vweb/>
;Media
*David Gardner, International Affairs Editor at the ''[[Financial Times]]'': "No one can simply ban a democratic referendum in Catalonia".<ref>[http://www.catalannewsagency.com/news/politics/%E2%80%9Cno-one%E2%80%9D-can-simply-ban-referendum-catalan-independence-says-ft-international-affairs- “No one” can simply ban a referendum on Catalan independence, says FT International Affairs Editor], Catalan News Agency.</ref><ref>[http://www.ara.cat/politica/Financial_Times-consulta-Catalunya_0_928707322.html L'editor internacional del 'Financial Times': "Ningú pot prohibir una consulta"], Ara.</ref> On 15 December 2013 the ''Financial Times'' published an editorial saying that "This is a political problem that requires a negotiated solution – more federalism within Spain’s crying need for institutional renewal." It exhorted "politicians from both sides (...) to prevent what is at root a political issue becoming a problem that threatens the very state."<ref>{{cite news|title=Spain's next crisis|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ef7810ca-6419-11e3-98e2-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2no4vjjbH|accessdate=18 December 2013|newspaper=Financial Times|date=15 December 2013}}</ref>

== Opinion polling ==
{{Main|Catalan independence#Studies on public opinion}}

===Attitudes in Catalonia===
==== Long-term surveys ====
Trends in support for Catalan independence can be observed by comparing more recent surveys with that carried out by Spain's [[Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas]] in 1996, which asked "Personally, would you support or reject Catalonia becoming independent?".

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;line-height:14px"
|-
!! style="width:100px;"| Date published !! style="width:350px;"|Polling organisation!! class="unsortable" style="background:#008142; color:white; width:100px;"| Support!! class="unsortable" style="background:#dc241f; color:white; width:100px;"|Reject!! class="unsortable" style="background:gray; color:white; width:90px;"| Undecided!! class="unsortable" style="width:80px;"| Lead
|-
| data-sort-value="2011" | 2011 || [http://www.icps.es/sondeigs.asp?con=35&apr=1#35 Institut de Ciències Polítiques i Socials] || style="background:#9f9;"| '''41.4%''' || 22.9% || 35.7% ||style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 18.5%
|-
| data-sort-value="1996" | 1996 || [http://www.cis.es/cis/export/sites/default/-Archivos/Marginales/2220_2239/2228/e222840.html Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas] || 33.6% || style="background:#e96b67;;"| '''53.5%''' || 13.1% || style="background:#dc241f; color:white;"| 19.9%
|}

==== Short-term polling ====
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;line-height:14px"
|-
!! style="width:100px;"| Date published !! style="width:350px;"|Polling organisation!! class="unsortable" style="background:#008142; color:white; width:100px;"| Support!! class="unsortable" style="background:#dc241f; color:white; width:100px;"|Reject!! class="unsortable" style="background:gray; color:white; width:90px;"| Undecided!! class="unsortable" style="width:80px;"| Lead
|-
| data-sort-value="2013-09" | Sep 2013 || [http://www.cadenaser.com/espana/articulo/52-favor-independencia/csrcsrpor/20130911csrcsrnac_3/Tes Cadena SER] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''52.3%''' || 24.1% || 23.6% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 28.2%
|-
| data-sort-value="2013-06" | Jun 2013 || [http://www.vilaweb.cat/acn/ultima-hora/pg/2/4127168/20130620/556-catalans-donaria-suport-independencia-referendum-enfront-234-dirien.html Centre d'Estudis d'Opinió] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''55.6%''' || 23.4% || 21% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 32.2%
|-
| data-sort-value="2013-05" | May 2013 || [http://www.elperiodico.cat/ca/noticias/politica/catalanes-piden-rajoy-autorice-consulta-2412865 El Periódico de Catalunya] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''57.8%''' || 36% || 6.2% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 21.8%
|-
| data-sort-value="2013-02" | Feb 2013 || [http://premsa.gencat.cat/pres_fsvp/docs/2013/02/21/10/47/7f6d7ac7-09f6-4b12-a676-2ee95a051b10.pdf Centre d'Estudis d'Opinió] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''54.7%''' || 20.7% || 24.6% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 34%
|-
| data-sort-value="2012-09" | Sep 2012 || [http://www.ara.cat/politica/enquesta-Telecinco-detecta-catalans-independencia_0_774522721.html Telecinco (GESOP)] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''50.9%''' || 18.6% || 30.5% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 32.3%
|-
| data-sort-value="2012-07" | Jul 2013 || [http://www.ara.cat/premium/politica/Independentistes-pero-roja_0_741525907.html Diari Ara] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''50.4%''' || 23.8% || 25.8% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 26.6%
|-
| data-sort-value="2012-06" | Jun 2012 || [http://premsa.gencat.cat/pres_fsvp/docs/2012/06/27/10/36/60220d32-3dde-4bbe-bd32-e66085959a29.pdf Centre d'Estudis d'Opinió] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''51.1%''' || 21.1% || 27.8% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 30%
|-
| data-sort-value="2012-03" | Mar 2012 || [http://ceo.gencat.cat/ceop/AppJava/pages/home/fitxaEstudi.html?colId=3808&lastTitle=Bar%F2metre+d%27Opini%F3+Pol%EDtica+%28BOP%29.+3a+onada+2011 Centre d'Estudis d'Opinió] || style="background:#9f9;"| '''44.6%''' || 24.7% || 30.7% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 19.9%
|-
| data-sort-value="2012-01" | Jan 2012 || [http://www.elperiodico.cat/ca/noticias/politica/els-partidaris-independencia-arriben-per-primer-cop-1358982 El Periódico de Catalunya] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''53.6%''' || 32% || 14.4% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 21.6%
|}

==See also==
* [[Self-determination]]
* [[Politics of Spain]]
* [[Constitution of Spain]]
* [[Basque referendum, 2008]]
* [[Scottish independence referendum, 2014]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book|editor=[[Elizabeth Castro|Castro, Elizabeth]]|title=What's up with Catalonia?|url=http://files.cataloniapress.com/files/WhatsupCATcc.pdf|location=Ashfield, Massachusetts, USA|publisher=Catalonia Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1-61150-032-5}}

==External links ==
* [http://diplocat.cat/images/doc/SERIE-E-2013-1.2-EN-20130430-IntroductionToTheSelfdeterminationProcessInCatalonia.pdf Introduction to the self-determination process in Catalonia]
* [http://www.ara.cat/politica/resolucio-CiU-ERC-autodeterminacio-Parlament_ARAFIL20120926_0001.pdf Proposed resolution passed in the Parliament of Catalonia on September 27, 2012] {{ca icon}}
* [http://www.ara.cat/politica/ERC-CiU-acord_de_governabilitat_ARAFIL20121219_0001.pdf Agreement for transition and national parliamentary and government stability of Catalonia] {{ca icon}}
* [http://www.vilaweb.cat/noticia/4076896/20130124/declaration-of-sovereignty-and-of-the-right-to-decide-of-the-catalan-nation.html Declaration of sovereignty and of the right to decide of the Catalan nation]
* [http://uk.reuters.com/article/2013/01/29/uk-europe-politics-independence-idUKBRE90S0J320130129 Could Scottish, Catalan independence votes reshape Europe?], Reuters

{{Catalan elections |state=expanded}}
{{Catalonia topics}}

[[Category:Independence referendums]]
[[Category:Catalan independence movement|Referendum]]
[[Category:Referendums in Catalonia|Self-determination referendum]]
[[Category:Future referendums]]
[[Category:2014 referendums]]
[[Category:2014 in Spain]]
[[Category:2014 in Catalonia|Self-determination referendum]]

2014 Catalan self-determination referendum

2014-01-30T17:33:55Z

84.23.155.88:

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}
{{Politics of Catalonia}}

The '''Catalan self-determination referendum''' is a projected [[referendum]] on the "political future of [[Catalonia]]",<ref name=proces>{{cite web|title=Procés de convocatòria de la consulta sobre el futur polític de Catalunya|url=http://ep00.epimg.net/descargables/2012/12/18/1e01365afce100887a3a1d18836be2a2.pdf|accessdate=17 September 2013|language=ca}}</ref> that is included in the governance agreement ratified by [[Artur Mas i Gavarró|Artur Mas]] from [[Convergence and Union]] (CiU) and [[Oriol Junqueras]] from [[Republican Left of Catalonia]] (ERC) on 18 December 2012,<ref name="ciuercagreement2014">{{cite web |url=http://www.vilaweb.cat/noticia/4066661/20121218/ciu-and-erc-come-to-an-agreement-in-catalonia-referendum-in-2014.html| title=CIU and ERC came to an agreement in Catalonia: Referendum in 2014 | accessdate= 18 December 2012 | work = | publisher = [[VilaWeb]] | date = 18 December 2012 |language=ca}}</ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/19/world/europe/separatist-catalan-parties-announce-alliance.html Separatist Catalan Parties Announce Alliance] The New York Times, 18 December 2012</ref><ref>[http://www.euronews.com/2012/12/19/agreement-in-catalonia-on-date-of-independence-referendum/ Agreement in Catalonia on date of independence referendum] Euronews, 19 December 2012</ref><ref>[http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/113da2a8-4a01-11e2-8002-00144feab49a.html Catalonia referendum set for 2014] Financial Times, 19 December 2012</ref> and called by its signatories ''Agreement for Freedom''.
<ref name="ciuercagreement2014"/><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ara.cat/politica/Artur_Mas-Oriol_Junqueras-CiU-ERC_0_830917107.html | title = Mas and Junqueras come to an agreement on helding the independence referendum on 2014| work = | publisher = [[Ara (newspaper)|Ara]] | date = 18 December 2012 |language=ca}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elsingulardigital.cat/cat/notices/2012/12/mas_i_junqueras_segellen_el_pacte_per_la_llibertat_91987.php| title=Artur Mas and Oriol Jonqueras sign the "Agreement for the Freedom" | accessdate = 30 December 2012 | work = | publisher = The Singular Digital | date = 19 December 2012 |language=ca}}</ref> The text indicates that the date of the referendum will be agreed between the two parties, both of which commit to attempting to hold it in 2014 "except if the socio-economic and political context made a postponement necessary."<ref name=proces/><ref>{{cite news|first=Miquel|last=Noguer|coauthors=Roger, Maiol|title=CiU y ERC pactan la consulta de autodeterminación para 2014|url=http://ccaa.elpais.com/ccaa/2012/12/18/catalunya/1355821961_967807.html|newspaper=[[El País]]|date=18 December 2012}}</ref> As part of the agreement Artur Mas was voted in as [[President of the Generalitat of Catalonia]] for a second term.

On 12 December 2013, the [[Government of Catalonia]] announced that the date for the referendum on independence will be set for Sunday 9 November 2014 and that it will contain a question with two sections: "Do you want Catalonia to become a State?" and "In case of an affirmative response, do you want this State to be independent?".<ref>[http://premsa.gencat.cat/pres_fsvp/AppJava/notapremsavw/detall.do?id=236549 Catalan President Mas: "The country's good sense has made it possible to come to a consensus and agree on an inclusive, clear question, which enjoys broad support"], Government of Catalonia.</ref><ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2013/12/12/world/europe/spain-catalonia-vote/index.html Political parties announce date for vote on Catalonia independence], CNN.</ref> The [[Spanish Government]] stated shortly thereafter its intention to attempt to block the referendum, stating "Such a poll will not be held."<ref name=bbc2013>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-25353086 Spain to block Catalonia independence referendum], BBC World.</ref><ref>[http://world.time.com/2013/12/12/spain-rejects-call-for-catalonia-independence-vote/ Spain Rejects Call for Catalonia Independence Vote], TIME.</ref>

==History==
=== 2009–2012 ===
==== Unofficial Catalan independence referendums ====
{{main|Catalan independence referendums, 2009–2011}}
In 2009 and 2011 unofficial referendums were held in hundreds of Catalan towns and the independence option won an overwhelming majority of the votes cast, although the participation was very low.{{cn|date=December 2013}}

==== Demonstrations in Barcelona ====
{{main|2010 Catalan autonomy protest|2012 Catalan independence demonstration}}
In 2010 and 2012 two massive demonstrations took place in Barcelona. The first one was on 10 July 2010. It featured a Catalan [[Regionalism (politics)|regionalist]] ideological leadership. The second one on 11 September 2012 was openly in favor of [[Catalan independence]] and had as a slogan "Catalonia, next state in Europe". As a consequence of this second demonstration, the Rt. Hon. Artur Mas, [[President of the Generalitat of Catalonia]] at that time, [[Catalonian parliamentary election, 2012|called a snap election]], and the "Agreement for Freedom" was negotiated between Artur Mas (CiU) and Oriol Junqueras (ERC)

<gallery>
File:Manifestació10J-293.JPG|The [[2010 Catalan autonomy protest|Protest "Som una nació, nosaltres decidim"]] on 10 July 2010 at the junction of Passeig de Gracia and Aragon street.<ref Name="CNN">{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/07/11/spain.protests/?HPT=T2&fbid=OvJ53vcl_sW | title = More than 1 million protest court ruling in Barcelona | accessdate = 12 July 2010 | publisher = [[CNN]] | date = 11 July 2010 }}</ref>
File:Fanals-Banc P1150941.JPG|The [[2012 Catalan independence demonstration|Demonstration "Catalunya, nou estat d'Europa"]] of 11 September 2012.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/spain/9537181/1.5-million-take-to-streets-of-Barcelona-in-support-of-independence.html | title = 1.5 million take to streets of Barcelona in support of Independence | publisher = [[The Daily Telegraph]] | date = 11 September 2012}}</ref> [[Estelada]] hanging between Mallorca and Valencia streets, along Passeig de Gracia.
File:El President Mas acompanyat d'Oriol Junqueras aquest matí al Parlament.jpg| The [[President of the Generalitat of Catalonia]] [[Artur Mas]] and [[Oriol Junqueras]], signing the 2012–2016 governability agreement on 19 December 2012.
</gallery>

==== Free Catalan Territories====
[[File:LocationCataloniaInEurope.png|thumb|Location of [[Catalonia]] in [[Spain]] (green) and [[Europe]].]]
{{main|Free Catalan Territory}}
[[File:Municipis independencia 1-8-13.png|thumb|[[Association of Municipalities for Independence]]]]
Also, during 2012, dozens of Catalan towns declared themselves [[Free Catalan Territory]] stating that "the Spanish legislation and regulations have effect only in Spain, so this town will wait for new legislation and regulation from the [[Catalan Government]] and the [[Parliament of Catalonia]]."

==== Resolution of the Catalan Parliament for Celebrating an Independence Referendum ====
The Catalan independence referendum is planned to take place during the [[Catalonian parliamentary election, 2012|tenth legislature]] of the [[Parliament of Catalonia]]. According to a resolution adopted by the Parliament of Catalonia on 27 September 2012:

{{quote | The Parliament of Catalonia confirms the need for the people of Catalonia to be able to freely and democratically determine their collective future and urges the government to hold a referendum during the following legislature.<ref>{{cite web | title = Proposed resolution passed in the Parliament of Catalonia |url=http://www.ara.cat/politica/resolucio-CiU-ERC-autodeterminacio-Parlament_ARAFIL20120926_0001.pdf | publisher = [[Parliament of Catalonia]] | date = 27 September 2012 |language=ca}}</ref>}}

The resolution was adopted after the general policy debate. It received 84 favourable votes, 21 against and 25 abstentions.<ref>{{cite web| title = Parliament heads for national emancipation voting for a query | url=http://www.ara.cat/politica/Parlament-emancipacio_nacional-independencia-resolucio-autodeterminacio_0_781721919.html | query = | work = | publisher = [[Ara (newspaper)|Ara]] | date = 27 September 2012 |language=ca}}</ref> The President of the Generalitat of Catalonia, Artur Mas, declared in a speech to Parliament that it was time for the people of Catalonia to exercise the right of [[self-determination]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ara.cat/politica/Mas-Ha-Catalunya-exerceixi-lautodeterminacio_0_780522085.html | title = It is time for the people Catalonia to exercise their right to self-determination | Query = | work = | publisher = [[Ara (newspaper)|Ara]] | date = 25 September 2012 |language=ca}}</ref>

===2013===

====Declaration of Sovereignty ====
{{Main|Catalan Sovereignty Declaration}}
[[File:Votació per a la declaració de Sobirania.svg|thumb|300px|Results of the votes for the "Declaration of sovereignty" at the Catalan Parliament, on 23 January 2013]]
On 23 January 2013 the Parliament of Catalonia adopted by 85 favourable votes, 41 against, and 2 abstentions the "[[Catalan Sovereignty Declaration|Declaration of Sovereignty and of the Right to Decide of the Catalan People]]".<ref name = "estament de sobirania">{{cite web | url=http://www.parlament.cat/web/actualitat/noticies?p_id=129656021|title =El Parlament acorda iniciar el procés per fer efectiu el dret de decidir, amb 85 vots a favor, 41 en contra i 2 abstencions| publisher = Parliament Catalonia | accessdate = 2013-01-23 |language=ca}}</ref><ref name = "Declaration of sovereignty">{{cite web | url=http://www.vilaweb.cat/noticia/4076896/20130124/declaration-of-sovereignty-and-of-the-right-to-decide-of-the-catalan-nation.html|title =Declaration of sovereignty and of the right to decide of the Catalan nation| publisher = Vilaweb | accessdate = 2013-01-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/23/world/europe/spain-catalan-self-determination/index.html | title=Catalan parliament declaration pushes self-determination| accessdate = 2013-01-23| publisher = [[cnn]] }}</ref> It states that "The people of Catalonia have – by reason of democratic legitimacy – the character of a sovereign political and legal entity." Five Socialist MPs did not vote. It is based on the following principles: sovereignty, democratic legitimacy, transparency, dialogue, social cohesion, Europeanism, legality, role of the Catalan Parliament and participation.<ref name="sobirania"/><ref name="vila23gen"/>

{{quote |In accordance with the democratically expressed will of the majority of the Catalan public, the Parliament of Catalonia initiates a process to bring to promote the right of the citizens of Catalonia to collectively decide their political future.<ref name ="sobirania ">{{cite web | author = Colomer | author = Marco | url = http://www.ara.cat/politica/declaracio-sobirania-Parlament-CiU-ERC-ICV_0_851914901.html | title = The declaration of sovereignty starts off in Parliament | publisher = [[Ara (newspaper)|Ara]]| date = January 22, 2013 |language=ca}}</ref>}}

The political parties [[Convergence and Union]] (CiU) (50 yes), [[Republican Left of Catalonia]] (ERC) (21 yes) and [[Initiative for Catalonia Greens]] (ICV) (13 yes) totally supported the statement of sovereignty. On the other hand, the [[People's Party of Catalonia]] (PPC) (19 no) and [[Citizens – Party of the Citizenry]] (C's) (9 no) totally opposed the proposal. 15 members of the [[Socialists' Party of Catalonia]] (PSC) voted against; 5 did not vote despite being present in the Chamber, thus disobeying the orders of the party whips to vote against the proposal. Finally, the [[Popular Unity Candidature]] (CUP) gave a "critical yes", with 1 vote in favour and 2 abstentions.<ref name="vila23gen">{{cite web |url=http://www.vilaweb.cat/noticia/4076787/20130123/catalunya-sobirana.html | title = Catalonia, a sovereign state | accessdate = 23 January 2013 | publisher = [[Vilaweb]] | date = 23 January 2013 |language=ca}}</ref>

On 8 May 2013 this declaration was provisionally suspended by the [[Constitutional Court of Spain]].<ref>{{cite web|title=El Tribunal Constitucional suspende la declaración soberanista de Parlamento de Cataluña|url=http://www.abc.es/espana/20130508/abci-constitucional-declaracion-catalana-201305081352.html|publisher=abc.es|accessdate=8 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=El Constitucional suspèn la declaració de sobirania|url=http://www.ara.cat/politica/declaracio_de_sobirania-Parlament-Catalunya-Tribunal_Constitucional-TC_0_915508532.html|publisher=ara.cat|accessdate=8 May 2013|language=ca}}</ref>

==== Catalan Way towards Independence ====
{{Main|Catalan Way}}

==Vote==
[[File:ArturMas Press conference on Nov92014 Catalonia independence poll 02.jpg|thumb|Announcement of the Referendum's date and wording]]
On 12 December 2013, Catalan President Artur Mas announced that a deal between Catalan parties had set the date and wording of a referendum. The date would be 9 November 2014 and would ask Catalan voters want Catalonia to be a state and, if so, should it be independent.<ref>[http://premsa.gencat.cat/pres_fsvp/AppJava/notapremsavw/detall.do?id=236549 Catalan President Mas: "The country's good sense has made it possible to come to a consensus and agree on an inclusive, clear question, which enjoys broad support"], Government of Catalonia.</ref><ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2013/12/12/world/europe/spain-catalonia-vote/index.html Political parties announce date for vote on Catalonia independence], CNN.</ref> The date was chosen as it would allow for discussions with the Spanish Government in order "to stage the consultation legally".

[[Mariano Rajoy]], [[Spanish Prime Minister]], immediately said that the referendum would be considered illegal and that "any discussion or debate on this is out of the question".<ref name=bbc2013/><ref name=aljazeera2013>{{cite news|title=Spain rejects Catalonia referendum bid|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/12/spain-rejects-catalonia-referendum-bid-20131212161025718238.html|accessdate=13 December 2013|newspaper=[[Al Jazeera]]|date=12 December 2013}}</ref>

== Positions ==

=== Catalonia ===
{{POV-section|date=November 2013}}

Position of the parties with parliamentary representation in Catalonia (sorted by votes):

* [[Convergence and Union|CiU]], liberal and [[Catalan nationalism|Catalan nationalist]] coalition (CDC have 37 seats and UDC have 13): the goal to achieve a sovereign state in the European framework was included in their election manifesto, ''Catalunya 2020''. This is an aim shared by a majority within the party and by the party president [[Artur Mas i Gavarró|Artur Mas]] and some other important leaders like [[Oriol Pujol]], but some leaders of UDC such as [[Josep Antoni Duran Lleida]] have had an ambiguous position and have defended a [[confederal]] model.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Mas promises to take Catalonia towards statehood within the EU | accessdate = January 29, 2013 | publisher = [[La Vanguardia]] | date = October 28, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news| title = Duran defends a confederal model: "A Catalonia linked to Spain with the rights of an independent state" |language=es| accessdate = January 29, 2013 | newspaper = [[La Vanguardia]] | date = January 16, 2013}}</ref>
* [[Republican Left of Catalonia|ERC]], social and pro [[Catalan independence]] party (21 seats): ERC clearly supports Catalonia having its own State within the [[European Union]] framework, and for that reason they have signed the pact with CiU since 2012.<ref>{{Cite web | title = ERC believes that the multinationals with headquarters in Catalonia would be an argument for the EU to accept the State | accessdate = January 29, 2013 | publisher = [[The Newspaper of Catalunya]] | date = December 7, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.esquerra.cat/documents/c2012_programa-2.pdf | title = Catalan Parliament election 2012 program | query = 30 January 2013 | publisher = esquerra.cat }}</ref>
* [[Socialists' Party of Catalonia|PSC]], socialist party federated with the [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party]] (20 seats): in the words of their leader, the PSC is against independence, but favors the holding of a legal referendum agreed with the Spanish government. This is why it decided to abstain in all parliamentary votes dealing with the right to decide. Despite that, some notable PSC leaders (like [[Montserrat Tura]] and [[Joaquim Nadal]]) have said they will vote for independence.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://diaridemiqueliceta.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/parlament20121.pdf | title = Program Catalan Parliament election 2012 | accessdate = 30 January 2013 | publisher = |language=ca}}</ref>
* [[People's Party of Catalonia|PPC]], a conservative, liberal and [[Spanish nationalism|Spanish nationalist]] party (19 seats): the PP insists that the referendum is illegal, they defend the Spanish Constitutional framework and are against secession. They also claim that the independence of Catalonia would give rise to a number of serious social and economic problems, such as expulsion from the Eurozone.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.ppcatalunya.com/programa-electoral-elecciones-2012/ | title = Program Catalan Parliament election 2012 | accessdate = 30 January 2013 | publisher = ppcatalunya. com}}</ref>
* [[Initiative for Catalonia Greens|ICV]]-[[United and Alternative Left|EUiA]] [[ecosocialism|ecosocialist]] and Catalan nationalist coalition (ICV hold 10 seats and EUiA hold 3): ICV, an eco-socialist group, defends the right to self-determination, but party leaders have never responded as to how they would vote in a referendum and say they are a union of federalists and separatists.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://iniciativa.cat/protected_media/documents/3950/programa_definitiu__2_Novembre_2011.pdf | title = Program Catalan Parliament election 2012 | accessdate = 30 January 2013 | publisher = iniciativa.cat }}</ref>
* [[Citizens – Party of the Citizenry|C's]], a [[social_liberalism|social liberal]] and [[Spanish nationalism|Spanish unionist]] party (9 seats): C's is clearly positioned against both the right to self-determination and to independence.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.mejorunidos.cat/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/programa-electoral-2012.pdf | title = 2012 Catalan Parliament election manifesto | accessdate = January 30, 2013 | publisher = mejorunidos.cat}}</ref>
* [[Popular Unity Candidates|CUP]], anticapitalist, socialist and pro-independence party (3 seats): the CUP is in favour of the independence of Catalonia, as part of the emancipation of all the [[Catalan Countries]], and seeks the formation of a Socialist country outside the European Union.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cup.cat/pagina/qu%C3%A8-%C3%A9s-a-cup | title = What is CUP? | accessdate = 23 January 2013 | publisher = cup.cat}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url =
http://www.unitatpopular.cat/programa/programa | title = Program Catalan Parliament election 2012 | accessdate = 23 January 2013 | publisher = unitatpopular.cat}}</ref>

=== Spain ===
;Spanish Government

The Spanish Government "will not allow" and "will not negotiate" on Catalonia’s self-determination vote.<ref name=deputy>{{cite news|title=The Spanish Government “will not allow” and “will not negotiate” on Catalonia’s self-determination vote |url=http://www.vilaweb.cat/noticia/4161935/20131213/the-spanish-government-will-not-allow-and-will-not-negotiate-catalonias-self-determination-vote.html|accessdate=17 December 2013|date=13 December 2013|agency=VilaWeb}}</ref><ref name=bbc2013/>

*[[Mariano Rajoy]], [[Prime Minister of Spain]]: "I want to tell you with all clarity that this consultation will not take place".<ref name=deputy/><ref name=cna17december2013>{{cite news|title=The Spanish Government “will not allow” and “will not negotiate” on Catalonia’s self-determination vote |url=http://www.catalannewsagency.com/politics/item/the-spanish-government-will-not-allow-and-will-not-negotiate-on-catalonia-s-self-determination-vote|accessdate=17 December 2013|date=12 December 2013|agency=Catalan News Agency}}</ref> "Any discussion or debate on this is out of the question."<ref name=aljazeera2013/><ref name=cna17december2013>{{cite news|title=Rajoy insists he will not negotiate on Catalonia’s self-determination |url=http://www.catalannewsagency.com/politics/item/rajoy-insists-he-will-not-negotiate-on-catalonia-s-self-determination|accessdate=17 December 2013|date=17 December 2013|agency=Catalan News Agency}}</ref>

*[[Alberto Ruiz-Gallardón]], [[Ministry of Justice (Spain)|Spanish Justice Minister]]: "The vote will not take place".<ref name=deputy/><ref name=aljazeera2013/>

;Parties
Position of the parties with parliamentary representation in the Parliament of Spain (sorted by votes):

* [[People's Party (Spain)|People's Party]] (PP) (186 seats) [[conservatism|conservative]], [[liberalism|liberal]] and [[Spanish nationalism|Spanish nationalist]] argue that the referendum is illegal. The Spanish deputy Prime Minister [[Soraya Saenz de Santamaria]] says Catalonia cannot hold an independence referendum without first consulting the rest of the country. She also said the call for a referendum "of this nature" requires prior constitutional procedures, which consist of "authorization by the State". She also noted that it would be a matter that would "affect the whole Spanish people, that is, the whole electoral roll and thus each and every Spanish citizen must be consulted, because it is up to all of us to determine the territorial organization".<ref name=deputy>{{cite news|title=No referendum on Catalonian independence without Spanish approval|url=http://rt.com/news/catalonia-public-consultations-independence-158/|accessdate=13 December 2013|date=28 September 2013|agency=[[RT (TV network){{!}}RT]]}}</ref>

* [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party]] (PSOE) (110 seats) argue that the referendum is illegal. Disagrees with the Catalan socialists, PSC, and considers the Catalan referendum 'unlawful and disastrous'. Reiterates that the route taken by the Government of Catalonia is a "road to nowhere".<ref>[http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2012/12/21/espana/1356094549.html The PSOE, disagrees with the PSC. and believes the Catalan referendum 'unlawful and disastrous' (Spanish)] elmundo.es</ref><ref>[http://www.elperiodico.cat/ca/noticias/politica/rubalcaba-estem-estarem-mai-favor-del-dret-dautodeterminacio-2925749 Rubalcaba: "No estem ni estarem mai a favor del dret d'autodeterminació" (Catalan)], El Periódico</ref>

* [[The Plural Left]] (11 seats) anti-capitalist and eco-socialist group led by [[United Left (Spain)|United Left]], and containing a number of [[Left-wing politics|Left]], [[environmental policy|environmental]], [[Federalist]] and [[nationalist]] parties throughout Spain, defends a [[federal Government|federal]], [[multinational state|multinational]], [[social]] and [[Republicanism|Republican]] government and recognizes the right of the people of Catalonia to decide their political future.<ref name=IU>[http://www.abc.es/local-cataluna/20130529/abci-defiende-estado-federal-reconozca-201305291747.html IU defends a federal state, multi-national, social and republican recognize the right of the people of Catalonia to decide their political future. (Spanish)] ABC</ref>

* [[Union, Progress and Democracy]] (UPyD) (5 seats) argue that the referendum is illegal and believes that the Spanish government should use all legal means to prevent the referendum, and partially blames PP and PSOE for this situation.<ref name=Rosa>[http://www.abc.es/20121113/espana/abci-entrevista-rosa-diez-upyd-201211130025.html Rosa Díez: «El Gobierno debe utilizar todos los medios legales para evitar el referéndum»] ABC</ref>

===International reaction===
;Organizations
*{{Flagu|United Nations}} — In April 2013, UN General Secretary [[Ban Ki-moon]] stated in a press conference that "All the issues between the countries and among the countries should be resolved through peaceful means, through dialogue, respecting the genuine aspirations of the people concerned."<ref>{{cite web|title=Secretary-General's remarks at press conference with Prime Minister Antoni Martí of Andorra|url=http://www.un.org/sg/offthecuff/index.asp?nid=2761|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=8 January 2014|location=Andorra|date=2 April 2013}}</ref>
*{{flagu|European Union}} — A spokesperson of the [[European Commission]] declared that if Catalonia seceded from Spain it would automatically leave the [[European Union]]: "An independent state, because of its independence, would become a third country vis a vis the EU and as of the day of the independence the EU treaties will no longer apply'".<ref>{{cite web|title=Brussels says an independent Catalonia would need to leave EU|url=http://www.euractiv.com/video/brussels-independent-catalonia-n-530496|publisher=Euractiv.com|accessdate=29 September 2013}}</ref>
* {{flagu|NATO}} — A spokesperson for [[NATO]] said that an independent country would not automatically be part of the organisation, saying "for any nation to be incorporated into the alliance the consensus of all the NATO allies will be necessary".<ref>http://www.tumbit.com/news/articles/8349-idea-of-an-independent-catalonia-gets-a-nato-no-go.html</ref>
;States
* {{Flagu|Latvia}} — Prime Minister [[Valdis Dombrovskis]]: "If there is a clear will of the people and a clear demand for a referendum, it is absolutely worth it to pay attention and look at options on how to tackle it".<ref>{{cite news|title=Letonia abre la puerta a reconocer una Catalunya independiente|url=http://www.lavanguardia.com/politica/20130913/54382402803/letonia-abre-puerta-reconocer-catalunya-independiente.html|newspaper=La Vanguardia|date=13 September 2013|language=es}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Lithuania}} — Prime Minister [[Algirdas Butkevičius]]: "Each country must find its own path and has the right to self-determination".<ref>{{cite news|title=El primer ministre lituà: "Cada país ha de trobar el seu propi camí i té dret a l'autodeterminació"|url=http://www.ara.cat/politica/ministre-litua-trobar-propi-lautodeterminacio_0_992900923.html|date=14 September 2013|agency=Catalan News Agency}}</ref>
*{{flagu|United Kingdom}} — Prime Minister [[David Cameron]]: "Let the people decide" and "[do not] ignore questions of nationality, independence, identity".<ref name=USArules>[http://www.catalannewsagency.com/news/politics/david-cameron-let-people-decide-and-do-not-ignore-questions-nationality-independence-i David Cameron: "let the people decide" and do not "ignore questions of nationality, independence, identity"], Catalan News Agency.</ref>
*{{flagu|United States}} — Caitlin Hayden, the Deputy [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] Spokesperson and Assistant Press Secretary, United States Official White House Response (as a response to a petition in the web of White House supported by 30,000 signatures): "The United States recognizes the unique culture and traditions of the Catalan region, but considers the status of Catalonia to be an internal Spanish matter. We are confident that the Government and the people of Spain will resolve this issue in accordance with their laws and Constitution."<ref>{{cite web|title=Our response to the people of Catalonia|url=http://archive.is/fa1Ml|publisher=[[whitehouse.gov]]|accessdate=24 July 2013}}</ref>
;European parties
*[[Graham Watson]], President of the [[European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party]]: "The people of Catalonia have the right to choose their own future [...] I believe in the democracy. Catalans should be able to choose. That's what democracy is about."<ref name=vweb>[http://www.vilaweb.cat/noticia/4131306/20130702/donariem-benvinguda-republica-catalana.html 'Donaríem la benvinguda a una república catalana'], VilaWeb</ref>
*Gunther Dauwen,{{who|date=December 2013}} [[European Free Alliance]]: "We believe that freedom, democracy and the right to decide on your own future are core values of Europe. We would welcome Catalonia and a Catalan Republic to be a new state within Europe, if the people so decide"<ref name=vweb/>
;Media
*David Gardner, International Affairs Editor at the ''[[Financial Times]]'': "No one can simply ban a democratic referendum in Catalonia".<ref>[http://www.catalannewsagency.com/news/politics/%E2%80%9Cno-one%E2%80%9D-can-simply-ban-referendum-catalan-independence-says-ft-international-affairs- “No one” can simply ban a referendum on Catalan independence, says FT International Affairs Editor], Catalan News Agency.</ref><ref>[http://www.ara.cat/politica/Financial_Times-consulta-Catalunya_0_928707322.html L'editor internacional del 'Financial Times': "Ningú pot prohibir una consulta"], Ara.</ref> On 15 December 2013 the ''Financial Times'' published an editorial saying that "This is a political problem that requires a negotiated solution – more federalism within Spain’s crying need for institutional renewal." It exhorted "politicians from both sides (...) to prevent what is at root a political issue becoming a problem that threatens the very state."<ref>{{cite news|title=Spain's next crisis|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ef7810ca-6419-11e3-98e2-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2no4vjjbH|accessdate=18 December 2013|newspaper=Financial Times|date=15 December 2013}}</ref>

== Opinion polling ==
{{Main|Catalan independence#Studies on public opinion}}
=== Long-term surveys ===
Trends in support for Catalan independence can be observed by comparing more recent surveys with that carried out by Spain's [[Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas]] in 1996, which asked "Personally, would you support or reject Catalonia becoming independent?".

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;line-height:14px"
|-
!! style="width:100px;"| Date published !! style="width:350px;"|Polling organisation!! class="unsortable" style="background:#008142; color:white; width:100px;"| Support!! class="unsortable" style="background:#dc241f; color:white; width:100px;"|Reject!! class="unsortable" style="background:gray; color:white; width:90px;"| Undecided!! class="unsortable" style="width:80px;"| Lead
|-
| data-sort-value="2011" | 2011 || [http://www.icps.es/sondeigs.asp?con=35&apr=1#35 Institut de Ciències Polítiques i Socials] || style="background:#9f9;"| '''41.4%''' || 22.9% || 35.7% ||style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 18.5%
|-
| data-sort-value="1996" | 1996 || [http://www.cis.es/cis/export/sites/default/-Archivos/Marginales/2220_2239/2228/e222840.html Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas] || 33.6% || style="background:#e96b67;;"| '''53.5%''' || 13.1% || style="background:#dc241f; color:white;"| 19.9%
|}

=== Short-term polling ===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;line-height:14px"
|-
!! style="width:100px;"| Date published !! style="width:350px;"|Polling organisation!! class="unsortable" style="background:#008142; color:white; width:100px;"| Support!! class="unsortable" style="background:#dc241f; color:white; width:100px;"|Reject!! class="unsortable" style="background:gray; color:white; width:90px;"| Undecided!! class="unsortable" style="width:80px;"| Lead
|-
| data-sort-value="2013-09" | Sep 2013 || [http://www.cadenaser.com/espana/articulo/52-favor-independencia/csrcsrpor/20130911csrcsrnac_3/Tes Cadena SER] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''52.3%''' || 24.1% || 23.6% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 28.2%
|-
| data-sort-value="2013-06" | Jun 2013 || [http://www.vilaweb.cat/acn/ultima-hora/pg/2/4127168/20130620/556-catalans-donaria-suport-independencia-referendum-enfront-234-dirien.html Centre d'Estudis d'Opinió] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''55.6%''' || 23.4% || 21% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 32.2%
|-
| data-sort-value="2013-05" | May 2013 || [http://www.elperiodico.cat/ca/noticias/politica/catalanes-piden-rajoy-autorice-consulta-2412865 El Periódico de Catalunya] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''57.8%''' || 36% || 6.2% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 21.8%
|-
| data-sort-value="2013-02" | Feb 2013 || [http://premsa.gencat.cat/pres_fsvp/docs/2013/02/21/10/47/7f6d7ac7-09f6-4b12-a676-2ee95a051b10.pdf Centre d'Estudis d'Opinió] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''54.7%''' || 20.7% || 24.6% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 34%
|-
| data-sort-value="2012-09" | Sep 2012 || [http://www.ara.cat/politica/enquesta-Telecinco-detecta-catalans-independencia_0_774522721.html Telecinco (GESOP)] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''50.9%''' || 18.6% || 30.5% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 32.3%
|-
| data-sort-value="2012-07" | Jul 2013 || [http://www.ara.cat/premium/politica/Independentistes-pero-roja_0_741525907.html Diari Ara] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''50.4%''' || 23.8% || 25.8% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 26.6%
|-
| data-sort-value="2012-06" | Jun 2012 || [http://premsa.gencat.cat/pres_fsvp/docs/2012/06/27/10/36/60220d32-3dde-4bbe-bd32-e66085959a29.pdf Centre d'Estudis d'Opinió] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''51.1%''' || 21.1% || 27.8% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 30%
|-
| data-sort-value="2012-03" | Mar 2012 || [http://ceo.gencat.cat/ceop/AppJava/pages/home/fitxaEstudi.html?colId=3808&lastTitle=Bar%F2metre+d%27Opini%F3+Pol%EDtica+%28BOP%29.+3a+onada+2011 Centre d'Estudis d'Opinió] || style="background:#9f9;"| '''44.6%''' || 24.7% || 30.7% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 19.9%
|-
| data-sort-value="2012-01" | Jan 2012 || [http://www.elperiodico.cat/ca/noticias/politica/els-partidaris-independencia-arriben-per-primer-cop-1358982 El Periódico de Catalunya] || style="background:#01DF74;"| '''53.6%''' || 32% || 14.4% || style="background:#008142; color:white;"| 21.6%
|}

==See also==
* [[Self-determination]]
* [[Politics of Spain]]
* [[Constitution of Spain]]
* [[Basque referendum, 2008]]
* [[Scottish independence referendum, 2014]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book|editor=[[Elizabeth Castro|Castro, Elizabeth]]|title=What's up with Catalonia?|url=http://files.cataloniapress.com/files/WhatsupCATcc.pdf|location=Ashfield, Massachusetts, USA|publisher=Catalonia Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1-61150-032-5}}

==External links ==
* [http://diplocat.cat/images/doc/SERIE-E-2013-1.2-EN-20130430-IntroductionToTheSelfdeterminationProcessInCatalonia.pdf Introduction to the self-determination process in Catalonia]
* [http://www.ara.cat/politica/resolucio-CiU-ERC-autodeterminacio-Parlament_ARAFIL20120926_0001.pdf Proposed resolution passed in the Parliament of Catalonia on September 27, 2012] {{ca icon}}
* [http://www.ara.cat/politica/ERC-CiU-acord_de_governabilitat_ARAFIL20121219_0001.pdf Agreement for transition and national parliamentary and government stability of Catalonia] {{ca icon}}
* [http://www.vilaweb.cat/noticia/4076896/20130124/declaration-of-sovereignty-and-of-the-right-to-decide-of-the-catalan-nation.html Declaration of sovereignty and of the right to decide of the Catalan nation]
* [http://uk.reuters.com/article/2013/01/29/uk-europe-politics-independence-idUKBRE90S0J320130129 Could Scottish, Catalan independence votes reshape Europe?], Reuters

{{Catalan elections |state=expanded}}
{{Catalonia topics}}

[[Category:Independence referendums]]
[[Category:Catalan independence movement|Referendum]]
[[Category:Referendums in Catalonia|Self-determination referendum]]
[[Category:Future referendums]]
[[Category:2014 referendums]]
[[Category:2014 in Spain]]
[[Category:2014 in Catalonia|Self-determination referendum]]

Quercus palustris

2014-01-26T15:38:19Z

84.23.155.88: /* Distribution */

{{redirect|Pin oak|the community|Pin Oak, West Virginia}}
{{More footnotes|date=July 2013}}
{{italic title}}{{taxobox
|name = Pin oak
|image = Pin oak quercus palustris.jpg
|regnum = [[Plant]]ae
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
|unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]]
|ordo = [[Fagales]]
|familia = [[Fagaceae]]
|genus = ''[[Oak|Quercus]]''
|sectio = ''[[List of Quercus species#Section Lobatae|Lobatae]]''
|species = '''''Q. palustris'''''
|binomial = ''Quercus palustris''
|binomial_authority = [[Otto von Münchhausen|Münchh.]]
|range_map = Quercus palustris range map 1.png
|}}
'''''Quercus palustris''''', the '''Pin oak''' or '''Swamp Spanish oak''', is an [[oak]] in the [[List of Quercus species#Section Lobatae|red oak]] section ''Quercus'' sect. ''Lobatae''.

==Distribution==
Quercus palustris is mainly distributed in the eastern United States from Connecticut west to eastern Kansas, and south to Georgia, across to eastern Oklahoma; it is also native in the extreme south of Ontario, Canada. The pin oak is also well adapted to life in Australia (where it has been introduced) and is quite widespread across the Australian continent especially in the cooler southern States such as Victoria and New South Wales. Is also well adapted to life in Argentina, especially in the Río de la Plata region.
[[Image:988TerraceBoulevardFall (Quercus palustris).jpg|thumb|left|60-70 year old Pin Oak displaying typical bronze fall coloration]]

==Description==
It is a medium-sized [[deciduous]] tree growing to {{convert|18|-|22|m|ft}} tall, with a trunk up to {{convert|1|m|ft}} diameter. It has an {{convert|8|-|14|m|ft|adj=on}} spread. A 10-year-old tree will be about {{convert|8|m|ft}} tall. The crown is broad conic when young, with numerous small branches radiating out from a central leader. When older, some upper branches become quite large and the central leader is lost, while the lower branches gradually droop downwards.

The [[leaf|leaves]] are {{convert|5|-|16|cm}} long and {{convert|5|-|12|cm}} broad, lobed, with five or seven lobes. Each lobe has 5-7 bristle-tipped teeth. The sinuses are typically u-shaped and extremely deep cut. In fact, there is approximately the same amount of sinus area as actual leaf area. The leaf is mostly hairless, except for a very characteristic tuft of pale orange-brown down on the lower surface where each lobe vein joins the central vein. Overall autumn leaf coloration is generally bronze, though individual leaves may be red for a time. The [[acorn]]s, borne in a shallow, thin cap, are hemispherical, {{convert|10|-|16|mm}} long and {{convert|9|-|15|mm}} broad, green maturing pale brown about 18 months after [[pollination]]. The acorn is unpalatable because the kernel is very bitter.

A fast-growing pioneer or riparian species, Pin Oak is relatively short-lived, with a maximum lifespan of 120 years against many oaks which can live several centuries. It is naturally a [[wetland]] tree, and develops a shallow, fibrous [[root]] system, unlike many [[oak]]s, which have a strong, deep taproot when young. It is confined to acidic soils, and does not tolerate [[limestone]] or sandy Florida soil, and grows at low altitudes from sea level up to {{convert|350|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. The Latin [[Botanical name#Binary name|specific epithet]] ''palustris'' means "of swamps".<ref name=RHSLG>{{cite book|last=Harrison|first=Lorraine|title=RHS Latin for gardeners|year=2012|publisher=Mitchell Beazley|location=United Kingdom|isbn=9781845337315|pages=224}}</ref>

A characteristic shared by a few other oak species, and also some beeches and hornbeams, is the retention of leaves through the winter on juvenile trees, a natural phenonemon referred to as marcesence. Young trees under {{convert|6|m|ft}} will often be covered with leaves year-round, though the leaves die in the fall, remaining attached to the shoots until the new leaves appear in the spring. As with many other oak species, dead pin oak branches will stay on the tree for many years. [[image:Quercus-palustris.JPG|thumb|right|Leaves]]

The pin oak can give off a strange skunk-like odor. The acorns are small with a thin, shallow cap. The pin oak is in the red oak subgenus: pointed lobes. The sinuses are very deeply cut and u-shaped. The amount of sinus area is approximately equivalent to the amount of actual leaf area. The upper branches point upwards, the middle branches are perpendicular to trunk, and the lower branches angle down.

Pin oak grows primarily on level or nearly level, poorly drained alluvial floodplain and river bottom soils with high clay content. Pin oak is usually found on sites that flood intermittently during the dormant season but do not ordinarily flood during the growing season. It does not grow on the lowest, most poorly drained sites that may be covered with standing water through much of the growing season. However, it does grow extensively on poorly drained upland "pin oak flats" on the glacial till plains of southwestern Ohio, southern Illinois and Indiana, and northern Missouri. The level topography and presence of a claypan in the soil of these areas cause these sites to be excessively wet in winter and spring.
[[File:Pin Oak Northampton MA - August 2013.jpg|thumb|Largest known pin oak in New England, located in Northampton, MA. 2005 measurements: Height 107.9 feet; Circumference 17.4 feet; Average Spread 96 feet.]]
[[File:Pin Oak Northampton MA - November 2013.jpg|thumb|Largest known pin oak in New England, located in Northampton, MA. 2005 measurements: Height 107.9 feet; Circumference 17.4 feet; Average Spread 96 feet.]]

==Associated forest cover==
Pin oak is a major species in only one forest cover type, Pin Oak-Sweetgum, which is found on bottom lands and some upland sites throughout the central portion of the pin oak range. Associated species in this type include red maple (''Acer rubrum''), American elm (''Ulmus americana''), black tupelo (''Nyssa sylvatica''), swamp white oak (''Quercus bicolor''), willow oak (''Quercus phellos''), overcup oak (''Quercus lyrata''), bur oak (''Quercus macrocarpa''), green ash (''Fraxinus pennsylvanica''), Nuttall oak (''Quercus nuttallii''), swamp chestnut oak (''Quercus michauxii''), and shellbark (''Carya laciniosa'') and shagbark (''Carya ovata'') hickories. Pin oak and sweetgum (''Liquidambar styraciflua'') vary in their relative proportions in this cover type. Large areas of almost pure pin oak occur on the "pin oak flats" of the upland glacial till plains or in the bottom lands of the lower Ohio and central Mississippi River valleys.

Pin oak is an associated species in Silver Maple-American Elm in the bottom lands along the Ohio, Wabash, Mississippi, and Missouri Rivers. A variant of this type, silver maple-American elm-pin oak-sweetgum, is found along major streams in southern Illinois and Indiana.

Pin oak also occurs in Black Ash-American Elm-Red Maple in poorly drained bottom lands in northern Ohio and Indiana along with silver maple ([[Acer saccharinum]]), swamp white oak, sycamore (''Platanus occidentalis''), black tupelo, and eastern cottonwood (''Populus deltoides'').
[[image:Bark Quercus palustris.jpg|thumb|right|Bark]]

==Flowering and fruiting==
Pin oak is [[monoecious]]; flowers appear at about the time the leaves develop in the spring. Staminate flowers are borne on aments that develop from buds formed in the leaf axils of the previous year, and pistillate flowers are borne on short stalks from the axils of current-year leaves. Pollination is by wind. Fruit is an acorn (nut) that matures at the end of the second growing season after flowering. Acorns are dispersed from September to early December.

==Uses==
Pin Oak is one of the few ''Quercus'' species extensively used as a landscaping tree due to its ease of transplant and faster growth than most oaks. However, as it is naturally adapted to wet, acidic soils, it may develop a condition known as iron chlorosis on less suitable locations, causing the tree to shed leaves during the growing season and rot from the top down. Mature Pin Oaks are often too big to treat and this nutrient deficiency on alkaline soil may eventually kill them. The drooping lower branches can also be a problem, interfering with access for traffic and pedestrians. It is also cultivated in parks and large gardens in the United Kingdom, and has gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]].<ref>{{cite web|title=''Quercus palustris''|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=6321|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society|accessdate=23 July 2013}}</ref>

The [[wood]] is generally marketed as red oak, but is of significantly inferior quality, being somewhat weaker, often with many small [[Wood#Knots|knots]].1. The wood is hard and heavy and is used in general construction and for firewood.

The bark was used by some Native American tribes to make a drink for treatment of intestinal pain.

The name "pin oak" is possibly due to the many small, slender twigs, but may also be from the historical use of the hard wood for pins in wooden building construction (Harlow 1942).

The pin oak is the only known foodplant of ''[[Bucculatrix domicola]]'' caterpillars.

==Reaction to competition==
Pin oak is classed as intolerant of shade. It is less tolerant than elm, boxelder ''(Acer negundo)'', sweetgum, hackberry ''(Celtis occidentalis)'', and ash, but is more tolerant than eastern cottonwood and black willow. Pin oak usually grows in even-aged stands of dominant and codominant trees. Intermediate and suppressed trees in such stands usually die within a few years of being overtopped. Single pin oaks in mixed stands usually are dominants. Pin oak is considered a subclimax species. It persists on heavy, wet soils because it produces an abundance of acorns which, if released, grow faster on these sites than most of its competitors.

==Damaging agents==
Although pin oak is very tolerant of dormant-season flooding, it is much less tolerant of growing-season flooding. Trees may be injured or killed by intermittent growing season flooding over several successive years. The trees can usually survive one growing season of continuous flooding but will be killed by continuous flooding over 2 or 3 consecutive years. Pin oak is rated as "intermediately tolerant" to growing season flooding. Also, since the bark of pin oak is relatively thin, the species is especially susceptible to damage by fire and decay associated with fire wounds.

==References and external links==
{{Portal|Trees}}
{{reflist}}
{{commons|Quercus palustris}}
* [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=210001860 Flora of North America: ''Quercus palustris'']
* [http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/species/frame/qupa2.htm ''Quercus palustris'' images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu]
* [http://www.cirrusimage.com/tree_pin_oak.htm Pin Oak] Diagnostic photographs and information.
* Harlow, W. M. (1942). ''Trees of the Eastern and Central United States and Canada''.
* [http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/quercus/palustris.htm]
* Barnes, B. V. & Wagner Jr., W. H. (2004). ''Michigan Trees''.

[[Category:Quercus|palustris]]
[[Category:Trees of Canada]]
[[Category:Trees of Michigan]]
[[Category:Trees of the United States]]
[[Category:Trees of the Eastern United States]]
[[Category:Trees of humid continental climate]]
[[Category:Ornamental trees]]
[[Category:Trees of Kansas]]
[[Category:Trees of North Carolina]]
[[Category:Trees of Kentucky]]
[[Category:Trees of Ohio]]
[[Category:Trees of Ontario]]
[[Category:Trees of West Virginia]]
[[Category:Trees of Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:Trees of Maryland]]
[[Category:Trees of New Jersey]]

Talk:1st Ski Division (Wehrmacht)

2010-11-24T20:10:49Z

84.23.155.88: /* Photo caption */ remove image

{{WPMILHIST|class=Start|German=yes|WWII=yes

|B-Class-1=no

|B-Class-2=no

|B-Class-3=no

|B-Class-4=no

|B-Class-5=no
}}

==Suggestions for improvement==
* Referencing: the article needs at least one in line citation per paragraph for a B class rating;
* Coverage: the article mentions when the unit was formed, but when was it disbanded, or what was its fate?
* Structure: the article could be broken up into a more defined structure with an introduction and then a body/main;
* Grammar: the article needs a copy edit for grammar and irregular capitalisation;
* Supporting materials: an image or infobox would fulfil this criteria.

Just a few ideas. Hope this helps. Cheers. [[User:AustralianRupert|AustralianRupert]] ([[User talk:AustralianRupert|talk]]) 14:52, 2 April 2009 (UTC)

==Photo caption==
The last point above has been addressed with the addition of a picture (usually welcome), ''but'', it is "dated 1942 in Norway". The article states that this division fought on the Eastern Front from 1944. So, is use of this picture acceptable?

[[User:RASAM|RASAM]] ([[User talk:RASAM|talk]]) 21:00, 5 October 2010 (UTC)

:No! The picture is of a German [[gebirgsjäger]] with skis, not of a skijäger. It should be removed. [[Special:Contributions/84.23.155.88|84.23.155.88]] ([[User talk:84.23.155.88|talk]]) 20:10, 24 November 2010 (UTC)

Strategic lawsuit against public participation

2009-11-10T17:21:35Z

84.23.155.88: /* Sweden */ {{fact}}

{{Censorship}}
A '''strategic lawsuit against public participation''' ('''SLAPP''') is a [[lawsuit]] that is intended to censor, intimidate and silence critics by burdening them with the cost of a [[legal defense]] until they abandon their criticism or opposition. Winning the lawsuit is not necessarily the intent of the person filing the SLAPP.

The plaintiff's goals are accomplished if the defendant succumbs to fear, intimidation, mounting legal costs or simple exhaustion and abandons the criticism. A SLAPP may also intimidate others from participating in the debate. A SLAPP is often preceded by a [[legal threat]].

== History ==
The [[acronym]] was coined in the 1980s by [[University of Denver]] professors Penelope Canan and George W. Pring. The term was originally defined as "a lawsuit involving communications made to influence a governmental action or outcome, which resulted in a civil complaint or counterclaim filed against nongovernment individuals or organizations on a substantive issue of some public interest or social significance."<ref>George W. Pring and Penelope Canan, ''SLAPPs: Getting Sued for Speaking Out'', (1996), 8-9.</ref> It has since been defined more broadly to include suits about speech on any public issue.<ref>See, e.g., [http://www.casp.net/statutes/calstats.html Cal. Code of Civil Procedure § 425.16 (e) (3) and (e) (4)].</ref>

The original concept is closely related to [[Freedom of speech in the United States|freedom of speech]] and the [[Right to petition in the United States|right to petition]], entrenched in the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution]].

According to [[New York Supreme Court]] Judge J. Nicholas Colabella, "Short of a gun to the head, a greater threat to First Amendment expression can scarcely be imagined." A number of jurisdictions have made such suits illegal, provided that the appropriate standards of journalistic responsibility have been met by the critic.

== Jurisdictional variations ==
=== Sweden ===
Under Swedish law a SLAPP suit is a direct attack against Swedish constitutional law of Freedom of the Press. {{fact}}

=== Canada ===
One of the first cases in Canada to deal with a SLAPP was ''Fraser v. Saanich'' (see [1999] B.C.J. No. 3100 (B.C. S.C.)) (QL), where the British Columbia Supreme Court struck out the claim of a hospital director against the District of Saanich, holding that it was a meritless action designed to silence or intimidate the residents who were opposed to the plaintiff’s plan to redevelop the hospital facilities.

The first case to discuss and apply the Protection of Public Participation Act (PPPA) was ''Home Equity Development v. Crow'', (see [2002] B.C.J. No. 1805 (B.C. S.C.)) (QL). The defendants' application to dismiss the action against them was dismissed. The defendants failed to meet the burden of proof required by the PPPA, that the plaintiffs had no reasonable prospect of success. Many felt that the plaintiffs did not bring their action for an improper purpose, and the suit did not inhibit the defendants in their public criticism of the particular project.

In Ontario, the decision in ''Daishowa v. Friends of the Lubicon'' (see [1996] O.J. No. 3855 Ont. Ct. Gen. Div.)) (QL) was also instructive on SLAPPs. A motion brought by the corporate plaintiff Daishowa to impose conditions on the defendant Friends of the Lubicon Indian Band that they would not represent Daishowa’s action as a SLAPP was dismissed.

Some [[political libel]] and [[forum shopping]] incidents, both common in Canada, have been called SLAPP suits, because such suits load defendants with costs of responding in unfamiliar jurisdictions or at times (typically elections) when they're extremely busy and short of funds. Both types of suits are almost unique to Canada, so there is little concern nor examination of whether political subject matter or remote forums are a clear indicator of SLAPP.

==== Anti-SLAPP legislation ====

Following the decision in ''Fraser v. Saanich'', the ''Protection of Public Participation Act'' went into effect in British Columbia in April, 2001. It was repealed in August, 2001.

Québec's Justice Minister, Jacques Dupuis, has proposed an anti-SLAPP bill on June 13, 2008.<ref>http://www.assnat.qc.ca/fra/38Legislature1/Projets-loi/Publics/08-f099.htm</ref>. The bill was adopted by the [[National Assembly of Quebec]] on June 3, 2009. As of now, Quebec's amended Code of Civil Procedure is the only anti-SLAPP mechanism in force in Canada.

===United States===
The [[U.S. state]] of [[California]] enacted [http://casp.net/statutes/cal425.html Code of Civil Procedure § 425.16] in [[1992]], a [[statute]] intended to prevent the misuse of litigation in SLAPP suits. It provides for a special motion which a [[defendant]] can file at the outset of a lawsuit to strike a [[complaint]] where the complaint arises from conduct that falls within the rights of [[petition]] or [[free speech]]. The statute expressly applies to any writing or speech made in connection with an issue under consideration or review by a legislative, executive, or judicial proceeding, or any other official proceeding authorized by law, but there is no requirement that the writing or speech be promulgated directly to the official body. It also applies to speech in a public forum about an issue of public interest and to any other petition or speech conduct about an issue of public interest.

To win an anti-SLAPP motion, the defendant must first show that the lawsuit is based on constitutionally protected activity. Then, the burden shifts to the plaintiff, to affirmatively present evidence to show that they have a reasonable probability of prevailing on the action. The filing of an anti-SLAPP motion stays all [[Discovery (law)|discovery]]. This feature acts to greatly reduce the cost of litigation to the anti-SLAPP defendant, and can make beating the motion extremely difficult for the plaintiff, because they effectively must prove their case without the benefit of discovery.

If the special motion is denied, the order denying the motion is immediately [[appeal]]able. Defendants prevailing on an anti-SLAPP motion (including any subsequent appeal) are entitled to a mandatory award of reasonable attorney’s fees. After an anti-SLAPP motion has been filed, a plaintiff cannot escape this mandatory fee award by amending their complaint. More than [http://www.casp.net/cases/calcases.html 200 published court opinions] have interpreted and applied California's anti-SLAPP law.

California's [http://casp.net/statutes/cal425-3.html '''Code of Civil Procedure § 425.17'''] corrects what the Legislature found to be abuse<ref>See [http://www.casp.net/statutes/cal425-3.html Cal. Code of Civil Procedure § 425.17(a)]: "participation in matters of public significance ... should not be chilled through abuse of the judicial process or Section 425.16."</ref> of the anti-SLAPP statute ([http://casp.net/statutes/cal425.html '''CCP § 425.16''']). Signed into law on [[September 6]], [[2003]], this statute prohibits anti-SLAPP motions in response to certain public interest lawsuits and class actions, and actions that arise from commercial statements or conduct.<ref>See [http://www.casp.net/statutes/cal425-3.html Cal. Code of Civil Procedure § 425.17(b)] [public interest litigation] and [http://www.casp.net/statutes/cal425-3.html (c)] [commercial speech].</ref> [http://casp.net/statutes/cal425-4.html '''Section 425.18'''], signed into law on [[October 6]], [[2005]], was enacted to facilitate SLAPP victims in recovering their damages through a SLAPPback (malicious prosecution action) against the SLAPP filers and their attorneys after the underlying SLAPP has been dismissed.

At least [http://www.casp.net/statutes/menstate.html 25 other states and one territory] have also enacted statutory protections against SLAPPs. These are Arkansas, Arizona, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Guam, Hawaii, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Utah, and Washington. In Colorado and West Virginia, the courts have adopted protections against SLAPPs.

There is no direct equivalent of a SLAPP statute in U.S. federal law; the closest available remedy is the [[Noerr-Pennington doctrine|''Noerr-Pennington'' doctrine]] in federal [[antitrust]] law. According to Canan and Pring, this situation is probably because of differences in [[pleading]] requirements between federal and state [[civil procedure]].

California operates under a "[[Pleading|code pleading]]" regime, in which a complaint must be quite specific as to the underlying factual contentions. Thus, there is less of a risk that an anti-SLAPP motion will kick out legitimate cases, because the burden is ''already'' on the plaintiff to research the factual foundation of their complaint before filing suit. In contrast, federal civil procedure operates under a more recent "notice pleading" regime, in which a complaint need only include a "short and plain" notice of the claims to be asserted. This system offers plaintiffs the advantage of suing first and discovering the underlying facts later without having to worry about [[statute of limitations|statutes of limitations]]. But notice pleading also has a severe disadvantage in that allowing the use of an anti-SLAPP motion would result in the dismissal of many legitimate cases.

However, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]] has allowed California litigants to use their state's special motion in [[United States district court|federal district courts]] located in California, in cases where the court is hearing at least one California state law claim through the doctrine of [[supplemental jurisdiction]]. [http://casp.net/cases/newsham1.html]

==Notable anti-SLAPP cases==

===Europe===
* In February 2005 the [[European Court of Human Rights]] found that [[Helen Steel]] and [[David Morris]] did not receive a fair trial while defending a [[Slander and libel|libel]] action brought by [[McDonald's Corporation|McDonald's]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. In what became known as the [[McLibel case]], the two had been found guilty in 1994 of libelling the company in a leaflet. The court ruled that, because [[legal aid]] is not available to libel defendants, their right to [[Freedom of speech|freedom of expression]] under the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] had been violated. They were awarded £24,000 damages, plus costs.

=== US ===
* [[Barbra Streisand]], as plaintiff, lost an anti-SLAPP motion after she sued an aerial photographer involved in the [[California Coastal Records Project]]. ''[[Streisand v. Adelman et al.]], in California Superior Court; Case SC077257'' <ref>[http://www.californiacoastline.org/streisand/lawsuit.html Streisand Sues to Suppress Free Speech Protection]</ref><ref>[http://www.mindfully.org/Reform/2003/Barbra-Streisand-Coastal3dec03.htm Streisand’s Lawsuit to Silence Coastal Website Dismissed]</ref> See [[Streisand effect]]
* Nationally syndicated talk radio host [[Tom Martino]] prevailed in an anti-SLAPP motion after he was sued for libel by a watercraft retailer. The case received national attention for its suggestion that no one reasonably expects objective facts from a typical talk show host. <ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/04/25/BA4B178L0N.DTL What Do You Expect? It's Talk Radio, Court Says]</ref><ref>[http://www.metnews.com/articles/2009/gra042709.htm Panel Concludes Reasonable Listeners Would Consider Comments Opinion]</ref> [http://www.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/opinions/2009/04/23/0635437.pdf Gardner v. Martino]
* Kim Shewalter and other neighborhood activists, as defendants, won an anti-SLAPP motion against apartment building owners because of the defendants' protest activities. [http://www.casp.net/cases/Coltrain%20v.%20Shewalter.html Coltrain v. Shewalter]
* Barry King and another Internet poster, as defendants, won an anti-SLAPP motion against corporate plaintiffs based on critical posts on an Internet financial message board. [http://www.casp.net/cases/busted.html Global Telemedia v. Does]
* Kathi Mills won an anti-SLAPP motion against the Atlanta Humane Society, ''Atlanta Humane Society v. Mills, in Gwinnett County (Georgia) Superior Court; case 01-A-13269-1'' <ref>[http://www.gwinnettdailypost.com/index.php?s=&url_channel_id=32&url_article_id=2823&url_subchannel_id=&change_well_id=2 Atlanta Humane Society settles lawsuit]</ref>
*Karen Winner, the author of "Divorced From Justice," published in 1996 by ReganBooks/Harper Collins, is recognized as "[the] catalyst for the changes that we adopted," said Leo Milonas, a retired justice with the Appellate Division of the New York state courts who chaired a special commission that recommended the changes adopted by Chief Judge Judith Kaye.<ref>Guy Ashley, Marin Independent Journal story, "The Spark Behind The Firestorm" reprinted at http://www.geocities.com/promanowsky/firestorm.html</ref> But in 1999, Winner, along with a psychologist/whistleblower, and several citizens were SLAPPed for criticizing the [[Legal guardian#United States|guardian ad litem]] system and a former judge in South Carolina. Winner's report, "Findings on Judicial Practices & Court-appointed Personnel In The Family Courts In Dorchester, Charleston & Berkeley Counties, South Carolina" and citizen demonstrations led to the very first laws in South Carolina to establish minimum standards and licensing requirements for guardians ad litem — who represent the interests of children in court cases.<ref>William J. Cook, Final Reply Brief of Appellant/Respondent Ernie Weaver in the Charleston County case, 2001-CP-10-2967.</ref> The retaliatory SLAPP suits have been dragging on for nearly 10 years, with judgments totaling more than $11 million against the co-defendants collectively. Reflecting the retaliatory nature of these suits, at least one of the co-defendants is still waiting to find out from the judges, which particular statements if any he made were actually false.<ref>Final Reply Brief of Appellant/Respondent Ernie Weaver in the Charleston County case, 2001-CP-10-2967.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Legal threat]]
*[[Spamigation]]
*[[Barratry]]
*[[Chilling effect]]
*[[Cease and desist]]
*[[Vexatious litigation]]
*[[Media transparency]]
*[[Lawfare]]
*[[Public participation]]

'''Case studies:'''
*[[McDonald's Restaurants v Morris & Steel]]
*[[Scientology and the legal system]]
*[[Varian v. Delfino]]
*[[Horizon Group v. Bonnen]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*George W. Pring and Penelope Canan, ''SLAPPs: Getting Sued for Speaking Out'' (Temple University Press, 1996). ISBN 1-56639-369-8
*Michelangelo Delfino and Mary E. Day, ''Be careful who you SLAPP'' (MoBeta Pub, 2002). ISBN 0-9725141-0-4
*Ralph Nader and Wesley J. Smith, ''No Contest: Corporate Lawyers and the Perversion of Justice in America'' (Random House, 1998). ISBN 0-375-75258-7
*[http://www.casp.net/slapps/survival.html Survival Guide for SLAPP Victims] from the [http://www.casp.net/ California Anti-SLAPP Project]
*Activist SLAPPs Back [http://www.fortbendnow.com/news/activist-slaps-back-in-countersuit-against-sienna-developer/] from Texas [http://www.fortbendnow.com/news/activist-slaps-back-in-countersuit-against-sienna-developer/]
*[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE0D8143EF933A25757C0A9639C8B63 Tenants Sound Off; Landlord Files Suit]
*[http://www.lawlib.state.ma.us/slapp.html Anti-SLAPP Law in Massachusetts]
*[http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/slapp.cgi PDF materials for California suits]
*[http://www.slapptelstra.com/ SLAPP Telstra] — A Telstra (Australian) SLAPP case.
*[http://www.horvitzlevy.com/rewivari.html Varian v. Delfino] — A California SLAPP case.
*[http://www.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/sbeder/SLAPPS.html SLAPPs—Strategic Lawsuits Against Public Participation: Coming to a Controversy Near You] — Australian article, includes history of SLAPPs
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4266209.stm 'McLibel' pair win legal aid case] on BBC news website
* [http://reclaimdemocracy.org/articles_2005/fine_frivolous_lawsuit.php U.S. judge fines major law firm for filing frivolous SLAPP suit](news story, Aug 2005).
*[http://www.phototour.minneapolis.mn.us/essays/vilana.html SLAPP suit in Minnesota against a photographer who spoke up about copyright violation by a corporation]
*[http://www.slapps.org] SLAPP Resource Center
*[http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/local/orange/orl-mgiles2807mar28,0,2382483.story?coll=orl-home-headlines Florida SLAPP Suit, (Veranda Partners v. Larry Giles) – '''Orlando Sentinel''' Mar 2007 – ''Resident: Suit filed to silence criticism'']
*[http://www.slappsuit.com Oklahoma SLAPP Suit, (Omega World Travel v. MummaGraphics, Inc.) – '''SLAPPSUIT.com''' Apr 2007 – ''Documentary Film.'']
[http://www.slapplaw.com 'California SLAPP Law & Cases']
[http://www.slapplaw.com/slappprimer.htm 'SLAPP Primer' - what constitutes a SLAPP suit and what claims typically are subject to SLAPP scrutiny']
[[Category:Legal terms]]
[[Category:Tort law]]

[[es:Pleito estratégico contra la participación pública]]
[[fr:Poursuite stratégique contre la mobilisation publique]]
[[nl:SLAPP]]
[[ja:スラップ]]
[[zh:針對公眾參與的策略性訴訟]]

Vexatious litigation

2009-11-10T17:20:36Z

84.23.155.88: /* Notable vexatious litigants */ {{fact}} *Gavin Menzies, *Dorothy Squires, *Andy Martin , *Francis 'Coyote' Shivers.

'''Vexatious litigation''' is legal action which is brought, regardless of its merits, solely to [[harass]] or subdue an [[adversary]]. It may take the form of a primary [[frivolous lawsuit]] or may be the repetitive, burdensome, and unwarranted filing of meritless motions in a matter which is otherwise a meritorious [[cause of action]]. Filing vexatious litigation is considered an abuse of the [[judicial process]] and may result in [[sanctions (law)|sanctions]] against the offender.

A single action, even a frivolous one, is not enough to raise a litigant to the level of being declared vexatious, though repeated and severe instances by a single [[lawyer]] or [[law firm|firm]] can result in eventual [[disbarment]].

Some [[jurisdiction]]s have a list of vexatious litigants: people who have repeatedly abused the legal system. Because lawyers could be disbarred for participating in the abuse, vexatious litigants are often unable to retain legal counsel, and therefore represent themselves in court. Those on the list are usually either forbidden from any further legal action or required to obtain prior permission from a senior judge before taking any legal action. The process by which a person is added to the list varies among jurisdictions.

==Law by jurisdiction==
===California, United States===
Under [[California]] law<ref>[http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=ccp&group=00001-01000&file=391-391.7 California Code of Civil Procedure, § 391(b)]</ref> a vexatious litigant is someone who does any of the following, most of which require that the litigant be proceeding ''[[Pro se legal representation in the United States|in propria persona]]'', i.e., representing himself:
#In the immediately preceding seven-year period has commenced, prosecuted, or maintained ''in propria persona'' at least five litigations other than in a small claims court that have been (i) finally determined adversely to the person or (ii) unjustifiably permitted to remain pending at least two years without having been brought to trial or hearing.
#After a litigation has been finally determined against the person, repeatedly relitigates or attempts to relitigate, ''in propria persona'', either (i) the validity of the determination against the same defendant or defendants as to whom the litigation was finally determined or (ii) the cause of action, claim, controversy, or any of the issues of fact or law, determined or concluded by the final determination against the same defendant or defendants as to whom the litigation was finally determined.
#In any litigation while acting ''in propria persona'', repeatedly files unmeritorious motions, pleadings, or other papers, conducts unnecessary discovery, or engages in other tactics that are frivolous or solely intended to cause unnecessary delay.
#Has previously been declared to be a vexatious litigant by any [[U.S. state|state]] or federal court of record in any action or proceeding based upon the same or substantially similar facts, transaction, or occurrence.

Appeals of an existing action do not count as “final determinations”. Appeals and writs that are related to a current action do not count as “final determinations” or additional determinations, because until all avenues of appeal have been exhausted the determinations cannot be construed as “final” (''Childs v. Painewebber, Inc.'' (1994), 29 Cal.App.4th 982 ...a judgment is final for all purposes when all avenues for direct review have been exhausted.” (''First Western Development Co. v. Superior Court'', (1989) 212 Cal.App.3d 860, 864, 261 Cal.Rptr. 116.) Interlocutory decisions before a judgment cannot be considered “final determinations” (''Holcomb v. U.S. Bank Nat. Ass'n'', (2005), 129 Cal.App.4th 1494, 29 Cal.Rptr.3d 578). Docket lists show nothing about qualifying merit of interim motions (Id.)

To meet the unspecified criteria for "repeated" motions or litigations, the number must be much more than two, and the rule based on caselaw seems to be around 12. "While there is no bright line rule as to what constitutes “repeatedly,” most cases affirming the vexatious litigant designation involve situations where litigants have filed dozens of motions either during the pendency of an action or relating to the same judgment." (''Bravo v. Ismaj'', (2002) 99 Cal.App.4th 211, 120 Cal.Rptr.2d 879)

Repeated motions must be "so devoid of merit and be so frivolous that they can be described as a flagrant abuse of the system, have no reasonable probability of success, lack reasonable or probable cause or excuse, and are clearly meant to abuse the processes of the courts and to harass the adverse party than other litigants." (''Morton v. Wagner'', (2007) 156 Cal.App.4th 963, 67 Cal.Rptr.3d 818. Evidence that a litigant is a frequent plaintiff or defendant alone is insufficient to support a vexatious litigant designation. (''Roston v. Edwards'', (1982) 127 Cal.App.3d at 847, 179 Cal.Rptr. 830.) The moving party, in addition to demonstrating that the plaintiff is vexatious, must make an affirmative showing based on evidence that the case has little chance of prevailing on the merits. If the plaintiff is so determined, a bond may be required, and if the bond requirement is not met within a specified time period, a judgment of dismissal is ordered. A finding of vexatiousness is not an appealable order, but a dismissal for failure to post a bond requirement based on a judgment of vexatiousness is appealable.

Habeas petitions do not count towards vexatious litigant determination, (''In re Bittaker'', (1997) 55 Cal.App.4th 1004, 64 Cal.Rptr.2d 679.) Vexatiousness in Probate Actions are governed by a different standard (Cal. Prob. Code s. 1611)

== Controversy ==
===Victoria, Australia===
{{As of|2006}}, only 13 people — including convicted mass-murderer [[Julian Knight]] — had been declared vexatious litigants since the law was introduced in 1930.<ref>[http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/annoying-litigant-is-back/2006/04/09/1144521210696.html ''Annoying litigant is back''], theage.com.au, [[April 10]], [[2006]]</ref>

===Western Australia===
Legislation has existed since 1930, but is under review as of limited use <ref>[http://www.lrc.justice.wa.gov.au/2publications/reports/P92-CJS/consults/2-11unreaslits.pdf 2.11]</ref>

===England, United Kingdom===
[[England|English]] courts have the means of escalating the sanctions against a litigant who makes applications to the court that are "totally without merit"<ref>''[[Civil Procedure Rules]]'', Practice Direction to Pt.3 3CPD.2.1</ref>:
*'''Limited civil restraint order''' (formerly a ''Grepe v. Loam'' Order) where two or more applications totally without merit are made in a single proceedings. No further application may be made in the proceedings without the permission of the court.
*'''Extended civil restraint order''' for "persistently vexatious behaviour" lasts for a specified period of no more than two years for "applications touching upon instant matters" and can only be granted by a judge of the [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales|Court of Appeal]], [[High Court of England and Wales|High Court]] or a designated civil judge.
*'''General civil restraint order''' for a maximum of two years for all proceedings in the High Court or specified [[County Court]](s).

Further applications totally without merit can lead to withdrawal of the right of [[appeal]]. Harassment of the court and court officials can lead to a penal prohibition notice, prohibiting the litigant from contacting or approaching the court without permission.<ref>{{cite book | author=O'Hare, J. & Browne, K. | title=Civil Litigation | edition=12th ed. | year=2005 | publisher=Sweet & Maxwell | location=London | isbn=0-421-90690-1 | pages=para 7.011 | nopp=true }}</ref>

[[HM Courts Service]] maintains a list of vexatious litigants.<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.hmcourts-service.gov.uk/infoabout/vexatious_litigant/ | publisher=HM Courts Service | title=List of vexatious litigants (England and Wales) | accessdate=2007-07-07 }}</ref>

=== Canada ===
Under the ''Constitution Act of 1867'', section 92(14)<ref> {{cite web|url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/c1867_e.html#distribution |title=Legislative Authority of Parliament of Canada |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>, each province is vested with the power to enact and apply laws relating to the administration of justice within its' own territory.

In Canada, Section 40 of the ''Federal Court Act''<ref>[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/F-7///en?page=1 Federal Courts Act]</ref> and in Ontario Section 140 of the ''Courts of Justice Act'',<ref>[http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_90c43_e.htm Courts of Justice Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. C.43]</ref> restrict the ability to introduce or continue proceedings for those who have instituted vexatious proceedings or conducted proceedings in a vexatious manner.

==== Quebec ====
In Quebec, the Code of Civil Procedure is the principal legislation that sets rules related to civil procedure.

Under section 46 of the Code of Civil Procedure<ref>L.R.Q., ch. C-25, s. 46</ref>, all judicial courts and judges in Quebec are vested with "...all the powers necessary for the exercise of their jurisdiction". Furthermore, they may:

<blockquote>
"…at any time and in all matters, whether in first instance or in appeal, issue orders to safeguard the rights of the parties, for such time and on such conditions as they may determine. As well, they may, in the matters brought before them, even on their own initiative, issue injunctions or reprimands, suppress writings or declare them libellous, and make such orders as are appropriate to deal with cases for which no specific remedy is provided by law."<ref>Code of civil procedure, L.R.Q., ch. C-25, s. 46</ref>
</blockquote>

Section 46 vests a very broad power on judicial courts and judges to ensure that the administration of justice is conducted according to decorum and according to the remedial nature of justice. As the courts's decisions have shown it, the authority to declare a litigant as vexatious is directly tributary to the power conferred by section 46.

Cases illustrating the application of section 46 are numerous. Among them, there are: ''Nguiagain v. Commission de la fonction publique''<ref>[1996] R.J.Q. 3009</ref>, in which the judge rejected the plaintiff's motion for a ''[[mandamus]]'' to enjoin his union to revise the grievance that he had filed on the grounds that the motion was groundless and abusive; ''De Niverville c. Descôteaux''<ref>[1997] R.J.Q. 1049</ref>, where an injunction was rendered declaring the respondent, disbarred lawyer Descôteaux, as a vexatious litigant due to the multiple unfounded and frivolous actions that he had sought against the plaintiff De Niverville; and in ''Fabrikant v. Corbin''<ref>J.E. 2000-1347</ref>, a motion to declare the plaintiff [[Valery Fabrikant]] as a vexatious litigant was granted to the defendant, Dr. Corbin. It must be noted that in all of the above cited cases, a litigant was only declared vexatious following a proceeding instated by the opposite party.

Moreover, section 46’s scope is limited to judicial courts and judges. Administrative tribunals are legislative creations and they can only exist and function within the limits that are imposed by law. Administrative tribunals in Quebec cannot declare a person a vexatious litigant.

As per section 90 of the ''Rules of Practice of the Superior Court of Québec in Civil Matters''<ref>L.R.Q., ch. C-25, r. 8</ref>, such litigants are now indexed in a registry kept by the Chief Justice in the judiciary district of Montreal. Lawyer and author Claude Duchesnay has reported in May 2003 that a document on the Quebec attorney general’s intranet contains the name of 58 persons who must obtain permission prior to instating proceedings before the courts<ref>Claude DUCHESNAY, « Se représenter seul », Congrès du Barreau du Québec, Compte rendu des activités de formation, Le Journal Barreau , édition du 1 er août 2002, p. VII et VIII</ref>.

===New Zealand===
In New Zealand a litigant may be declared a ''Vexatious Litigant'' by a High Court Judge on the application of the Solicitor-General. A vexatious litigant must then apply to a High Court Judge for leave to commence any action. In practice the Solicitor-General only makes applications against people who have persistently and vexatiously sued the Crown.

==Notable vexatious litigants==
* The [[Church of Scientology]]: "Plaintiffs (Scientologists) have abused the federal court system by using it, inter alia, to destroy their opponents, rather than to resolve an actual dispute over trademark law or any other legal matter. This constitutes 'extraordinary, malicious, wanton and oppressive conduct.' As such, this case qualifies as an 'exceptional case' and fees should be awarded pursuant to the Lanham Act... It is abundantly clear that plaintiffs sought to harass the individual defendants and destroy the church defendants through massive over-litigation and other highly questionable litigation tactics. The Special Master has never seen a more glaring example of bad faith litigation than this." (RTC v. Robin Scott, U. S. District Court, Central District of California, No. 85-711-JMI (Bx) 85-7197-JMI (Bx), January 20, 1993, Memorandum of Decision) <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.lermanet.com/cos/morejud.html |title=More Judicial Quotes |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>
*[[Julian Knight]], convicted of the [[Hoddle Street massacre]] in Melbourne, Australia.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/10/19/1097951666370.html?from=top5 |title=Hoddle Street killer banned from court |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>
*[[Gavin Menzies]], author of ''[[1421: The Year China Discovered America]]''.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.hmcourts-service.gov.uk/infoabout/vexatious_litigant/index.htm#m |title=Her majesty's court service - Vexatious litigants |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>{{fact}}
*[[David James Lindsey]], a [[Melbourne]] man so declared after repeatedly suing doctors, insurance firms and companies such as [[Carlton & United Breweries]] for smoking-related damages. On [[February 21]], 2006, the Supreme Court of Appeal gave him leave to sue [[Philip Morris International|Philip Morris]], demonstrating that a vexatious litigant is not completely blocked from launching further court action.<ref>{{cite news | first=Fergus | last=Shiel | coauthors= | title=Annoying litigant is back | date=2006-04-10 | publisher= | url =http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/annoying-litigant-is-back/2006/04/09/1144521210696.html | work =The Age | pages = | accessdate = 2008-07-06 | language = }}</ref>
* [[Leo Stoller]], American "intellectual property entrepreneur".{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}
*[[Valery Fabrikant]], a former [[Concordia University]] professor serving a [[life sentence]] for the murders of four colleagues in 1992 <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20071107.wfabrikant1107/BNStory/National/home |title= Judge dismisses Fabrikant motions |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>
*[[Suresh Deman]], academic and former teaching fellow at [[Pittsburgh University]] <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=494854&in_page_id=1770 |title=Race-claims lecturer beats legal ban to carry on suing after 40 discrimination claims |accessdate=2008-07-06 |last=BROOKE |first=CHRIS }}</ref>
*[[Dorothy Squires]], singer and former wife of actor [[Roger Moore]].{{fact}}
*[[Andy Martin (U.S. politician)|Andy Martin]] (Anthony Martin-Trigona), a law school graduate who was never admitted to the bar and [[perennial candidate]] who has been sanctioned by several state and federal courts in the United States. {{fact}}
*[[Francis 'Coyote' Shivers]], former husband of Bebe Buell and Pauley Perrette, deemed a Vexacious Litigant on August 27, 2008 by The Superior Court of Los Angeles County during a long ongoing trial between himself and Perrette. {{fact}}

==See also==
*[[Abuse of process]]
*[[Barratry]]
*[[Frivolous or vexatious]]
*[[Malicious prosecution]]
*[[Strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (also known as "SLAPP")
*[[Scientology and the legal system]]
*[[Pro se legal representation in the United States]]
*[[Restraining order abuse]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vexatious Litigation}}
[[Category:Civil procedure]]

[[fr:plaideur en délicatesse]]

Talk:Vexatious litigation

2009-11-10T17:16:25Z

84.23.155.88: /* MENZIES, Rowan Gavin Paton */ new section

{{dyktalk|21 March|2004|entry=...that a '''[[vexatious litigant]]''' may be barred from using the [[court]]s in [[common law]] countries because they have previously undertaken [[frivolous lawsuit|frivolous]] [[litigation]] claims or [[civil procedure|procedures]]?}}
== Removed Varian text ==

Removed the following line:

"It can last for years as in [[Varian v. Delfino]], a case that ended in the [[California Supreme Court]]. "

[[User:Kmccoy|kmccoy]] [[User_talk:Kmccoy|(talk)]] 08:07, 12 Jun 2005 (UTC)

== in propria persona ==

''in propria persona'' occurs three times; if it has an English equivalent, use that. If it's a special and useful term it should have its own entry. If it's a one-shot special term it should be explained parenthetically after its first usage. --[[User:AC|AC]] 15:50, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

== Cleanup ==

Why was the Cleanup template added? The article is not great but it's workable.[[User:Cutler|Cutler]] 20:25, 2 September 2007 (UTC)

== United States ==

Does this exist in other part of the United States besides California? Having the article mention a lawsuit in Washington DC seems to imply that it does exist in other parts of the US, but the "Law by jurisdiction" section seems to imply otherwise.[[User:Ricree101|Ricree101]] ([[User talk:Ricree101|talk]]) 05:52, 14 January 2008 (UTC)

== California Cleanup and Added Controversies Section ==

Cleaned up and completed discussion of California law, and added a discussion on Controversies.

-- I clarified that the California vexatious litigant standard applies to pro-se, or self-represented, litigants only. The use of Latin in the definition needed clarification. Sorry, I couldn't figure out how to make a separate subheading for this. [[User:Agnosticaphid|Agnosticaphid]] ([[User talk:Agnosticaphid|talk]]) 08:49, 4 February 2009 (UTC)

:It doesn't apply only to pro se. The first three do, but the fourth (filing a suit on the same subject matter for which the litigant has been declared vexatious in another jurisdiction) does not. [[User:TJRC|TJRC]] ([[User talk:TJRC|talk]]) 21:11, 4 February 2009 (UTC)

:: That's technically true, but not very helpful. There is no further explanation or discussion of the 4th category in the body of the article. It doesn't seem to be a large category of people. Unless you've already been found to be a vexatious litigant elsewhere, you can't be declared a vexatious litigant in California unless you're appearing pro se. Furthermore, the way the California section of the article is structured is extremely difficult to understand at a glance -- there is a heading and then a statutory citation that is cumbersome at best. I thought that it would be helpful to emphasize the otherwise-mostly-ignored-by-the-article role that pro se plays in the California vexatious litigant statute. It's nice that you linked to the pro se article but I still think it would be appropriate to mention pro se in this article. [[User:Agnosticaphid|Agnosticaphid]] ([[User talk:Agnosticaphid|talk]]) 17:29, 11 February 2009 (UTC)

:::Not sure what you mean by "not very helpful." Misinformation is less helpful. I added a clause on the intro to clarify that ''most'' cases of vexations litigation require pro se, and a short explanation of it. I have to continue to disagree with including a statement that all vexatious litigants must be pro se, because that's just wrong. I agree the California section is, in general, in need of improvement. It looks like someone just dumped the text of the statute into the article. I may take a stab at rewriting it into prose, if you don't get to it first. [[User:TJRC|TJRC]] ([[User talk:TJRC|talk]]) 21:02, 11 February 2009 (UTC)

::::You're right, of course, I didn't mean to be snarky. I think it's a lot more clear now. The reason I added it in the first place was because of a law review article I'd just read discussing how you need to be pro se to be vexatious under CA law. But that's a definite oversimplification. [[User:Agnosticaphid|Agnosticaphid]] ([[User talk:Agnosticaphid|talk]]) 00:04, 21 February 2009 (UTC)

:::::FWIW, it never occurred to me that you were being snarky; so don't worry about it. [[User:TJRC|TJRC]] ([[User talk:TJRC|talk]]) 00:15, 21 February 2009 (UTC)

==Commentary moved from article to talk page==

The following commentary has been moved from the article to here:

::Increasingly lately, the pendulum has swung in the other direction, and these laws have been abused by well-heeled and well-represented defendants to thwart lawsuits. As defendants, they frivolously bring meritless vexatious litigant motions as a expedient last resort when summary judgments, anti-SLAPP motions and demurrers seem headed for failure. Instead of discouraging meritless lawsuits, the law is misused to punish and defeat meritorious lawsuits by less affluent litigants and pro se plaintiffs seeking to vindicate their rights.

::There is deepseated prejudice currently by judges in US Courts against [[Pro se legal representation in the United States]], against those that attempt to represent themselves, despite the fact that it is Constitutionally guaranteed. US Judges often unjustifably assume that the only reason attorneys are not present is because the suit must be frivolous, without further examination. Judges are being trained in continuing education courses to overbroadly conflate self-representation with the anti-government common law movement. "The Anti-Government Movement Handbook", http://tulanelink.net/pdf/anti-gov_movement_guidebook.pdf. In truth, in many areas of the law, the financial incentive for an attorney to take a case is an unattractive one, and the law is essentially a business. [[Pro bono publico]] representation for good cases is scarce and not as available as many of these judges believe. The notion that a challenged plaintiff may remedy his situation by providing a bond, as a reason to find this statute Constitutional, is flawed. “The claim that the [double-bond] requirement operates to screen out frivolous appeals is unpersuasive,” the US Supreme Court noted, “for it not only bars nonfrivolous appeals by those who are unable to post the bond '''''but also allows meritless appeals by others who can afford the bond'''''” ''Lindsey v. Normet'', 405 U.S. 56, 92 S.Ct. 862, 31 L.Ed.2d 36 (1972), and experience teaches that such frivolous lawsuits by well-heeled plaintiffs are not uncommon.

While some citations are found in the text, the cited materials do not appear to support the opinions expressed -- such as "these laws have been abused by well-heeled...." and "There is deepseated prejudice...." and "US Judges often unjustifiably assume....." These kind of statements appear to be unsourced opinions. Stay tuned... [[User:Famspear|Famspear]] ([[User talk:Famspear|talk]]) 21:40, 6 December 2008 (UTC)

Let's look at this statement:

::Increasingly lately, the pendulum has swung in the other direction, and these laws have been abused by well-heeled and well-represented defendants to thwart lawsuits.

Is this the opinion of the Wikipedia editor who inserted the material, or is this the opinion of a previously-published third party source? If we can find a previously-published third party source who has expressed this opinion, then the material might be appropriate for the article. That does not mean looking for examples of where the laws have been abused, etc., etc. What that means is finding some previously-published third party source who has expressed this opinion.

Now this:

::As defendants, they frivolously bring meritless vexatious litigant motions as a expedient last resort when summary judgments, anti-SLAPP motions and demurrers seem headed for failure.

Again, this is a statement of opinion. Whose opinion?

And this:

::Instead of discouraging meritless lawsuits, the law is misused to punish and defeat meritorious lawsuits by less affluent litigants and pro se plaintiffs seeking to vindicate their rights.

Who says so? Whose opinion is this?

And this:

::There is deepseated prejudice currently by judges in US Courts against [[Pro se legal representation in the United States]], against those that attempt to represent themselves . . .

Who says so?

And this:

::US Judges often unjustifably assume that the only reason attorneys are not present is because the suit must be frivolous, without further examination.

Again who is it that is saying that U.S. judges do this? Yours, [[User:Famspear|Famspear]] ([[User talk:Famspear|talk]]) 21:48, 6 December 2008 (UTC)

== MENZIES, Rowan Gavin Paton ==

The note does not show that the MENZIES, Rowan Gavin Paton listed by HM Court Service as a vexatious litigant is the same person as the author of [[ 1421: The Year China Discovered the World]]. [[Special:Contributions/84.23.155.88|84.23.155.88]] ([[User talk:84.23.155.88|talk]]) 17:16, 10 November 2009 (UTC)

Vexatious litigation

2009-11-10T17:14:27Z

84.23.155.88: /* Notable vexatious litigants */

'''Vexatious litigation''' is legal action which is brought, regardless of its merits, solely to [[harass]] or subdue an [[adversary]]. It may take the form of a primary [[frivolous lawsuit]] or may be the repetitive, burdensome, and unwarranted filing of meritless motions in a matter which is otherwise a meritorious [[cause of action]]. Filing vexatious litigation is considered an abuse of the [[judicial process]] and may result in [[sanctions (law)|sanctions]] against the offender.

A single action, even a frivolous one, is not enough to raise a litigant to the level of being declared vexatious, though repeated and severe instances by a single [[lawyer]] or [[law firm|firm]] can result in eventual [[disbarment]].

Some [[jurisdiction]]s have a list of vexatious litigants: people who have repeatedly abused the legal system. Because lawyers could be disbarred for participating in the abuse, vexatious litigants are often unable to retain legal counsel, and therefore represent themselves in court. Those on the list are usually either forbidden from any further legal action or required to obtain prior permission from a senior judge before taking any legal action. The process by which a person is added to the list varies among jurisdictions.

==Law by jurisdiction==
===California, United States===
Under [[California]] law<ref>[http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=ccp&group=00001-01000&file=391-391.7 California Code of Civil Procedure, § 391(b)]</ref> a vexatious litigant is someone who does any of the following, most of which require that the litigant be proceeding ''[[Pro se legal representation in the United States|in propria persona]]'', i.e., representing himself:
#In the immediately preceding seven-year period has commenced, prosecuted, or maintained ''in propria persona'' at least five litigations other than in a small claims court that have been (i) finally determined adversely to the person or (ii) unjustifiably permitted to remain pending at least two years without having been brought to trial or hearing.
#After a litigation has been finally determined against the person, repeatedly relitigates or attempts to relitigate, ''in propria persona'', either (i) the validity of the determination against the same defendant or defendants as to whom the litigation was finally determined or (ii) the cause of action, claim, controversy, or any of the issues of fact or law, determined or concluded by the final determination against the same defendant or defendants as to whom the litigation was finally determined.
#In any litigation while acting ''in propria persona'', repeatedly files unmeritorious motions, pleadings, or other papers, conducts unnecessary discovery, or engages in other tactics that are frivolous or solely intended to cause unnecessary delay.
#Has previously been declared to be a vexatious litigant by any [[U.S. state|state]] or federal court of record in any action or proceeding based upon the same or substantially similar facts, transaction, or occurrence.

Appeals of an existing action do not count as “final determinations”. Appeals and writs that are related to a current action do not count as “final determinations” or additional determinations, because until all avenues of appeal have been exhausted the determinations cannot be construed as “final” (''Childs v. Painewebber, Inc.'' (1994), 29 Cal.App.4th 982 ...a judgment is final for all purposes when all avenues for direct review have been exhausted.” (''First Western Development Co. v. Superior Court'', (1989) 212 Cal.App.3d 860, 864, 261 Cal.Rptr. 116.) Interlocutory decisions before a judgment cannot be considered “final determinations” (''Holcomb v. U.S. Bank Nat. Ass'n'', (2005), 129 Cal.App.4th 1494, 29 Cal.Rptr.3d 578). Docket lists show nothing about qualifying merit of interim motions (Id.)

To meet the unspecified criteria for "repeated" motions or litigations, the number must be much more than two, and the rule based on caselaw seems to be around 12. "While there is no bright line rule as to what constitutes “repeatedly,” most cases affirming the vexatious litigant designation involve situations where litigants have filed dozens of motions either during the pendency of an action or relating to the same judgment." (''Bravo v. Ismaj'', (2002) 99 Cal.App.4th 211, 120 Cal.Rptr.2d 879)

Repeated motions must be "so devoid of merit and be so frivolous that they can be described as a flagrant abuse of the system, have no reasonable probability of success, lack reasonable or probable cause or excuse, and are clearly meant to abuse the processes of the courts and to harass the adverse party than other litigants." (''Morton v. Wagner'', (2007) 156 Cal.App.4th 963, 67 Cal.Rptr.3d 818. Evidence that a litigant is a frequent plaintiff or defendant alone is insufficient to support a vexatious litigant designation. (''Roston v. Edwards'', (1982) 127 Cal.App.3d at 847, 179 Cal.Rptr. 830.) The moving party, in addition to demonstrating that the plaintiff is vexatious, must make an affirmative showing based on evidence that the case has little chance of prevailing on the merits. If the plaintiff is so determined, a bond may be required, and if the bond requirement is not met within a specified time period, a judgment of dismissal is ordered. A finding of vexatiousness is not an appealable order, but a dismissal for failure to post a bond requirement based on a judgment of vexatiousness is appealable.

Habeas petitions do not count towards vexatious litigant determination, (''In re Bittaker'', (1997) 55 Cal.App.4th 1004, 64 Cal.Rptr.2d 679.) Vexatiousness in Probate Actions are governed by a different standard (Cal. Prob. Code s. 1611)

== Controversy ==
===Victoria, Australia===
{{As of|2006}}, only 13 people — including convicted mass-murderer [[Julian Knight]] — had been declared vexatious litigants since the law was introduced in 1930.<ref>[http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/annoying-litigant-is-back/2006/04/09/1144521210696.html ''Annoying litigant is back''], theage.com.au, [[April 10]], [[2006]]</ref>

===Western Australia===
Legislation has existed since 1930, but is under review as of limited use <ref>[http://www.lrc.justice.wa.gov.au/2publications/reports/P92-CJS/consults/2-11unreaslits.pdf 2.11]</ref>

===England, United Kingdom===
[[England|English]] courts have the means of escalating the sanctions against a litigant who makes applications to the court that are "totally without merit"<ref>''[[Civil Procedure Rules]]'', Practice Direction to Pt.3 3CPD.2.1</ref>:
*'''Limited civil restraint order''' (formerly a ''Grepe v. Loam'' Order) where two or more applications totally without merit are made in a single proceedings. No further application may be made in the proceedings without the permission of the court.
*'''Extended civil restraint order''' for "persistently vexatious behaviour" lasts for a specified period of no more than two years for "applications touching upon instant matters" and can only be granted by a judge of the [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales|Court of Appeal]], [[High Court of England and Wales|High Court]] or a designated civil judge.
*'''General civil restraint order''' for a maximum of two years for all proceedings in the High Court or specified [[County Court]](s).

Further applications totally without merit can lead to withdrawal of the right of [[appeal]]. Harassment of the court and court officials can lead to a penal prohibition notice, prohibiting the litigant from contacting or approaching the court without permission.<ref>{{cite book | author=O'Hare, J. & Browne, K. | title=Civil Litigation | edition=12th ed. | year=2005 | publisher=Sweet & Maxwell | location=London | isbn=0-421-90690-1 | pages=para 7.011 | nopp=true }}</ref>

[[HM Courts Service]] maintains a list of vexatious litigants.<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.hmcourts-service.gov.uk/infoabout/vexatious_litigant/ | publisher=HM Courts Service | title=List of vexatious litigants (England and Wales) | accessdate=2007-07-07 }}</ref>

=== Canada ===
Under the ''Constitution Act of 1867'', section 92(14)<ref> {{cite web|url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/c1867_e.html#distribution |title=Legislative Authority of Parliament of Canada |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>, each province is vested with the power to enact and apply laws relating to the administration of justice within its' own territory.

In Canada, Section 40 of the ''Federal Court Act''<ref>[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/F-7///en?page=1 Federal Courts Act]</ref> and in Ontario Section 140 of the ''Courts of Justice Act'',<ref>[http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_90c43_e.htm Courts of Justice Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. C.43]</ref> restrict the ability to introduce or continue proceedings for those who have instituted vexatious proceedings or conducted proceedings in a vexatious manner.

==== Quebec ====
In Quebec, the Code of Civil Procedure is the principal legislation that sets rules related to civil procedure.

Under section 46 of the Code of Civil Procedure<ref>L.R.Q., ch. C-25, s. 46</ref>, all judicial courts and judges in Quebec are vested with "...all the powers necessary for the exercise of their jurisdiction". Furthermore, they may:

<blockquote>
"…at any time and in all matters, whether in first instance or in appeal, issue orders to safeguard the rights of the parties, for such time and on such conditions as they may determine. As well, they may, in the matters brought before them, even on their own initiative, issue injunctions or reprimands, suppress writings or declare them libellous, and make such orders as are appropriate to deal with cases for which no specific remedy is provided by law."<ref>Code of civil procedure, L.R.Q., ch. C-25, s. 46</ref>
</blockquote>

Section 46 vests a very broad power on judicial courts and judges to ensure that the administration of justice is conducted according to decorum and according to the remedial nature of justice. As the courts's decisions have shown it, the authority to declare a litigant as vexatious is directly tributary to the power conferred by section 46.

Cases illustrating the application of section 46 are numerous. Among them, there are: ''Nguiagain v. Commission de la fonction publique''<ref>[1996] R.J.Q. 3009</ref>, in which the judge rejected the plaintiff's motion for a ''[[mandamus]]'' to enjoin his union to revise the grievance that he had filed on the grounds that the motion was groundless and abusive; ''De Niverville c. Descôteaux''<ref>[1997] R.J.Q. 1049</ref>, where an injunction was rendered declaring the respondent, disbarred lawyer Descôteaux, as a vexatious litigant due to the multiple unfounded and frivolous actions that he had sought against the plaintiff De Niverville; and in ''Fabrikant v. Corbin''<ref>J.E. 2000-1347</ref>, a motion to declare the plaintiff [[Valery Fabrikant]] as a vexatious litigant was granted to the defendant, Dr. Corbin. It must be noted that in all of the above cited cases, a litigant was only declared vexatious following a proceeding instated by the opposite party.

Moreover, section 46’s scope is limited to judicial courts and judges. Administrative tribunals are legislative creations and they can only exist and function within the limits that are imposed by law. Administrative tribunals in Quebec cannot declare a person a vexatious litigant.

As per section 90 of the ''Rules of Practice of the Superior Court of Québec in Civil Matters''<ref>L.R.Q., ch. C-25, r. 8</ref>, such litigants are now indexed in a registry kept by the Chief Justice in the judiciary district of Montreal. Lawyer and author Claude Duchesnay has reported in May 2003 that a document on the Quebec attorney general’s intranet contains the name of 58 persons who must obtain permission prior to instating proceedings before the courts<ref>Claude DUCHESNAY, « Se représenter seul », Congrès du Barreau du Québec, Compte rendu des activités de formation, Le Journal Barreau , édition du 1 er août 2002, p. VII et VIII</ref>.

===New Zealand===
In New Zealand a litigant may be declared a ''Vexatious Litigant'' by a High Court Judge on the application of the Solicitor-General. A vexatious litigant must then apply to a High Court Judge for leave to commence any action. In practice the Solicitor-General only makes applications against people who have persistently and vexatiously sued the Crown.

==Notable vexatious litigants==
* The [[Church of Scientology]]: "Plaintiffs (Scientologists) have abused the federal court system by using it, inter alia, to destroy their opponents, rather than to resolve an actual dispute over trademark law or any other legal matter. This constitutes 'extraordinary, malicious, wanton and oppressive conduct.' As such, this case qualifies as an 'exceptional case' and fees should be awarded pursuant to the Lanham Act... It is abundantly clear that plaintiffs sought to harass the individual defendants and destroy the church defendants through massive over-litigation and other highly questionable litigation tactics. The Special Master has never seen a more glaring example of bad faith litigation than this." (RTC v. Robin Scott, U. S. District Court, Central District of California, No. 85-711-JMI (Bx) 85-7197-JMI (Bx), January 20, 1993, Memorandum of Decision) <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.lermanet.com/cos/morejud.html |title=More Judicial Quotes |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>
*[[Julian Knight]], convicted of the [[Hoddle Street massacre]] in Melbourne, Australia.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/10/19/1097951666370.html?from=top5 |title=Hoddle Street killer banned from court |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>
*[[Gavin Menzies]], author of ''[[1421: The Year China Discovered America]]''.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.hmcourts-service.gov.uk/infoabout/vexatious_litigant/index.htm#m |title=Her majesty's court service - Vexatious litigants |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>{{fact}}
*[[David James Lindsey]], a [[Melbourne]] man so declared after repeatedly suing doctors, insurance firms and companies such as [[Carlton & United Breweries]] for smoking-related damages. On [[February 21]], 2006, the Supreme Court of Appeal gave him leave to sue [[Philip Morris International|Philip Morris]], demonstrating that a vexatious litigant is not completely blocked from launching further court action.<ref>{{cite news | first=Fergus | last=Shiel | coauthors= | title=Annoying litigant is back | date=2006-04-10 | publisher= | url =http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/annoying-litigant-is-back/2006/04/09/1144521210696.html | work =The Age | pages = | accessdate = 2008-07-06 | language = }}</ref>
* [[Leo Stoller]], American "intellectual property entrepreneur".{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}
*[[Valery Fabrikant]], a former [[Concordia University]] professor serving a [[life sentence]] for the murders of four colleagues in 1992 <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20071107.wfabrikant1107/BNStory/National/home |title= Judge dismisses Fabrikant motions |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>
*[[Suresh Deman]], academic and former teaching fellow at [[Pittsburgh University]] <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=494854&in_page_id=1770 |title=Race-claims lecturer beats legal ban to carry on suing after 40 discrimination claims |accessdate=2008-07-06 |last=BROOKE |first=CHRIS }}</ref>
*[[Dorothy Squires]], singer and former wife of actor [[Roger Moore]].
*[[Andy Martin (U.S. politician)|Andy Martin]] (Anthony Martin-Trigona), a law school graduate who was never admitted to the bar and [[perennial candidate]] who has been sanctioned by several state and federal courts in the United States.
*[[Francis 'Coyote' Shivers]], former husband of Bebe Buell and Pauley Perrette, deemed a Vexacious Litigant on August 27, 2008 by The Superior Court of Los Angeles County during a long ongoing trial between himself and Perrette.

==See also==
*[[Abuse of process]]
*[[Barratry]]
*[[Frivolous or vexatious]]
*[[Malicious prosecution]]
*[[Strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (also known as "SLAPP")
*[[Scientology and the legal system]]
*[[Pro se legal representation in the United States]]
*[[Restraining order abuse]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vexatious Litigation}}
[[Category:Civil procedure]]

[[fr:plaideur en délicatesse]]

Vexatious litigation

2009-11-10T17:10:00Z

84.23.155.88: /* United Kingdom */ Its England not UK; Scotland has its own rules.

'''Vexatious litigation''' is legal action which is brought, regardless of its merits, solely to [[harass]] or subdue an [[adversary]]. It may take the form of a primary [[frivolous lawsuit]] or may be the repetitive, burdensome, and unwarranted filing of meritless motions in a matter which is otherwise a meritorious [[cause of action]]. Filing vexatious litigation is considered an abuse of the [[judicial process]] and may result in [[sanctions (law)|sanctions]] against the offender.

A single action, even a frivolous one, is not enough to raise a litigant to the level of being declared vexatious, though repeated and severe instances by a single [[lawyer]] or [[law firm|firm]] can result in eventual [[disbarment]].

Some [[jurisdiction]]s have a list of vexatious litigants: people who have repeatedly abused the legal system. Because lawyers could be disbarred for participating in the abuse, vexatious litigants are often unable to retain legal counsel, and therefore represent themselves in court. Those on the list are usually either forbidden from any further legal action or required to obtain prior permission from a senior judge before taking any legal action. The process by which a person is added to the list varies among jurisdictions.

==Law by jurisdiction==
===California, United States===
Under [[California]] law<ref>[http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=ccp&group=00001-01000&file=391-391.7 California Code of Civil Procedure, § 391(b)]</ref> a vexatious litigant is someone who does any of the following, most of which require that the litigant be proceeding ''[[Pro se legal representation in the United States|in propria persona]]'', i.e., representing himself:
#In the immediately preceding seven-year period has commenced, prosecuted, or maintained ''in propria persona'' at least five litigations other than in a small claims court that have been (i) finally determined adversely to the person or (ii) unjustifiably permitted to remain pending at least two years without having been brought to trial or hearing.
#After a litigation has been finally determined against the person, repeatedly relitigates or attempts to relitigate, ''in propria persona'', either (i) the validity of the determination against the same defendant or defendants as to whom the litigation was finally determined or (ii) the cause of action, claim, controversy, or any of the issues of fact or law, determined or concluded by the final determination against the same defendant or defendants as to whom the litigation was finally determined.
#In any litigation while acting ''in propria persona'', repeatedly files unmeritorious motions, pleadings, or other papers, conducts unnecessary discovery, or engages in other tactics that are frivolous or solely intended to cause unnecessary delay.
#Has previously been declared to be a vexatious litigant by any [[U.S. state|state]] or federal court of record in any action or proceeding based upon the same or substantially similar facts, transaction, or occurrence.

Appeals of an existing action do not count as “final determinations”. Appeals and writs that are related to a current action do not count as “final determinations” or additional determinations, because until all avenues of appeal have been exhausted the determinations cannot be construed as “final” (''Childs v. Painewebber, Inc.'' (1994), 29 Cal.App.4th 982 ...a judgment is final for all purposes when all avenues for direct review have been exhausted.” (''First Western Development Co. v. Superior Court'', (1989) 212 Cal.App.3d 860, 864, 261 Cal.Rptr. 116.) Interlocutory decisions before a judgment cannot be considered “final determinations” (''Holcomb v. U.S. Bank Nat. Ass'n'', (2005), 129 Cal.App.4th 1494, 29 Cal.Rptr.3d 578). Docket lists show nothing about qualifying merit of interim motions (Id.)

To meet the unspecified criteria for "repeated" motions or litigations, the number must be much more than two, and the rule based on caselaw seems to be around 12. "While there is no bright line rule as to what constitutes “repeatedly,” most cases affirming the vexatious litigant designation involve situations where litigants have filed dozens of motions either during the pendency of an action or relating to the same judgment." (''Bravo v. Ismaj'', (2002) 99 Cal.App.4th 211, 120 Cal.Rptr.2d 879)

Repeated motions must be "so devoid of merit and be so frivolous that they can be described as a flagrant abuse of the system, have no reasonable probability of success, lack reasonable or probable cause or excuse, and are clearly meant to abuse the processes of the courts and to harass the adverse party than other litigants." (''Morton v. Wagner'', (2007) 156 Cal.App.4th 963, 67 Cal.Rptr.3d 818. Evidence that a litigant is a frequent plaintiff or defendant alone is insufficient to support a vexatious litigant designation. (''Roston v. Edwards'', (1982) 127 Cal.App.3d at 847, 179 Cal.Rptr. 830.) The moving party, in addition to demonstrating that the plaintiff is vexatious, must make an affirmative showing based on evidence that the case has little chance of prevailing on the merits. If the plaintiff is so determined, a bond may be required, and if the bond requirement is not met within a specified time period, a judgment of dismissal is ordered. A finding of vexatiousness is not an appealable order, but a dismissal for failure to post a bond requirement based on a judgment of vexatiousness is appealable.

Habeas petitions do not count towards vexatious litigant determination, (''In re Bittaker'', (1997) 55 Cal.App.4th 1004, 64 Cal.Rptr.2d 679.) Vexatiousness in Probate Actions are governed by a different standard (Cal. Prob. Code s. 1611)

== Controversy ==
===Victoria, Australia===
{{As of|2006}}, only 13 people — including convicted mass-murderer [[Julian Knight]] — had been declared vexatious litigants since the law was introduced in 1930.<ref>[http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/annoying-litigant-is-back/2006/04/09/1144521210696.html ''Annoying litigant is back''], theage.com.au, [[April 10]], [[2006]]</ref>

===Western Australia===
Legislation has existed since 1930, but is under review as of limited use <ref>[http://www.lrc.justice.wa.gov.au/2publications/reports/P92-CJS/consults/2-11unreaslits.pdf 2.11]</ref>

===England, United Kingdom===
[[England|English]] courts have the means of escalating the sanctions against a litigant who makes applications to the court that are "totally without merit"<ref>''[[Civil Procedure Rules]]'', Practice Direction to Pt.3 3CPD.2.1</ref>:
*'''Limited civil restraint order''' (formerly a ''Grepe v. Loam'' Order) where two or more applications totally without merit are made in a single proceedings. No further application may be made in the proceedings without the permission of the court.
*'''Extended civil restraint order''' for "persistently vexatious behaviour" lasts for a specified period of no more than two years for "applications touching upon instant matters" and can only be granted by a judge of the [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales|Court of Appeal]], [[High Court of England and Wales|High Court]] or a designated civil judge.
*'''General civil restraint order''' for a maximum of two years for all proceedings in the High Court or specified [[County Court]](s).

Further applications totally without merit can lead to withdrawal of the right of [[appeal]]. Harassment of the court and court officials can lead to a penal prohibition notice, prohibiting the litigant from contacting or approaching the court without permission.<ref>{{cite book | author=O'Hare, J. & Browne, K. | title=Civil Litigation | edition=12th ed. | year=2005 | publisher=Sweet & Maxwell | location=London | isbn=0-421-90690-1 | pages=para 7.011 | nopp=true }}</ref>

[[HM Courts Service]] maintains a list of vexatious litigants.<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.hmcourts-service.gov.uk/infoabout/vexatious_litigant/ | publisher=HM Courts Service | title=List of vexatious litigants (England and Wales) | accessdate=2007-07-07 }}</ref>

=== Canada ===
Under the ''Constitution Act of 1867'', section 92(14)<ref> {{cite web|url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/c1867_e.html#distribution |title=Legislative Authority of Parliament of Canada |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>, each province is vested with the power to enact and apply laws relating to the administration of justice within its' own territory.

In Canada, Section 40 of the ''Federal Court Act''<ref>[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/F-7///en?page=1 Federal Courts Act]</ref> and in Ontario Section 140 of the ''Courts of Justice Act'',<ref>[http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_90c43_e.htm Courts of Justice Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. C.43]</ref> restrict the ability to introduce or continue proceedings for those who have instituted vexatious proceedings or conducted proceedings in a vexatious manner.

==== Quebec ====
In Quebec, the Code of Civil Procedure is the principal legislation that sets rules related to civil procedure.

Under section 46 of the Code of Civil Procedure<ref>L.R.Q., ch. C-25, s. 46</ref>, all judicial courts and judges in Quebec are vested with "...all the powers necessary for the exercise of their jurisdiction". Furthermore, they may:

<blockquote>
"…at any time and in all matters, whether in first instance or in appeal, issue orders to safeguard the rights of the parties, for such time and on such conditions as they may determine. As well, they may, in the matters brought before them, even on their own initiative, issue injunctions or reprimands, suppress writings or declare them libellous, and make such orders as are appropriate to deal with cases for which no specific remedy is provided by law."<ref>Code of civil procedure, L.R.Q., ch. C-25, s. 46</ref>
</blockquote>

Section 46 vests a very broad power on judicial courts and judges to ensure that the administration of justice is conducted according to decorum and according to the remedial nature of justice. As the courts's decisions have shown it, the authority to declare a litigant as vexatious is directly tributary to the power conferred by section 46.

Cases illustrating the application of section 46 are numerous. Among them, there are: ''Nguiagain v. Commission de la fonction publique''<ref>[1996] R.J.Q. 3009</ref>, in which the judge rejected the plaintiff's motion for a ''[[mandamus]]'' to enjoin his union to revise the grievance that he had filed on the grounds that the motion was groundless and abusive; ''De Niverville c. Descôteaux''<ref>[1997] R.J.Q. 1049</ref>, where an injunction was rendered declaring the respondent, disbarred lawyer Descôteaux, as a vexatious litigant due to the multiple unfounded and frivolous actions that he had sought against the plaintiff De Niverville; and in ''Fabrikant v. Corbin''<ref>J.E. 2000-1347</ref>, a motion to declare the plaintiff [[Valery Fabrikant]] as a vexatious litigant was granted to the defendant, Dr. Corbin. It must be noted that in all of the above cited cases, a litigant was only declared vexatious following a proceeding instated by the opposite party.

Moreover, section 46’s scope is limited to judicial courts and judges. Administrative tribunals are legislative creations and they can only exist and function within the limits that are imposed by law. Administrative tribunals in Quebec cannot declare a person a vexatious litigant.

As per section 90 of the ''Rules of Practice of the Superior Court of Québec in Civil Matters''<ref>L.R.Q., ch. C-25, r. 8</ref>, such litigants are now indexed in a registry kept by the Chief Justice in the judiciary district of Montreal. Lawyer and author Claude Duchesnay has reported in May 2003 that a document on the Quebec attorney general’s intranet contains the name of 58 persons who must obtain permission prior to instating proceedings before the courts<ref>Claude DUCHESNAY, « Se représenter seul », Congrès du Barreau du Québec, Compte rendu des activités de formation, Le Journal Barreau , édition du 1 er août 2002, p. VII et VIII</ref>.

===New Zealand===
In New Zealand a litigant may be declared a ''Vexatious Litigant'' by a High Court Judge on the application of the Solicitor-General. A vexatious litigant must then apply to a High Court Judge for leave to commence any action. In practice the Solicitor-General only makes applications against people who have persistently and vexatiously sued the Crown.

==Notable vexatious litigants==
* The [[Church of Scientology]]: "Plaintiffs (Scientologists) have abused the federal court system by using it, inter alia, to destroy their opponents, rather than to resolve an actual dispute over trademark law or any other legal matter. This constitutes 'extraordinary, malicious, wanton and oppressive conduct.' As such, this case qualifies as an 'exceptional case' and fees should be awarded pursuant to the Lanham Act... It is abundantly clear that plaintiffs sought to harass the individual defendants and destroy the church defendants through massive over-litigation and other highly questionable litigation tactics. The Special Master has never seen a more glaring example of bad faith litigation than this." (RTC v. Robin Scott, U. S. District Court, Central District of California, No. 85-711-JMI (Bx) 85-7197-JMI (Bx), January 20, 1993, Memorandum of Decision) <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.lermanet.com/cos/morejud.html |title=More Judicial Quotes |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>
*[[Julian Knight]], convicted of the [[Hoddle Street massacre]] in Melbourne, Australia.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/10/19/1097951666370.html?from=top5 |title=Hoddle Street killer banned from court |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>
*[[Gavin Menzies]], author of ''[[1421: The Year China Discovered America]]''.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.hmcourts-service.gov.uk/infoabout/vexatious_litigant/index.htm#m |title=Her majesty's court service - Vexatious litigants |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>
*[[David James Lindsey]], a [[Melbourne]] man so declared after repeatedly suing doctors, insurance firms and companies such as [[Carlton & United Breweries]] for smoking-related damages. On [[February 21]], 2006, the Supreme Court of Appeal gave him leave to sue [[Philip Morris International|Philip Morris]], demonstrating that a vexatious litigant is not completely blocked from launching further court action.<ref>{{cite news | first=Fergus | last=Shiel | coauthors= | title=Annoying litigant is back | date=2006-04-10 | publisher= | url =http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/annoying-litigant-is-back/2006/04/09/1144521210696.html | work =The Age | pages = | accessdate = 2008-07-06 | language = }}</ref>
* [[Leo Stoller]], American "intellectual property entrepreneur".{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}
*[[Valery Fabrikant]], a former [[Concordia University]] professor serving a [[life sentence]] for the murders of four colleagues in 1992 <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20071107.wfabrikant1107/BNStory/National/home |title= Judge dismisses Fabrikant motions |accessdate=2008-07-06 }}</ref>
*[[Suresh Deman]], academic and former teaching fellow at [[Pittsburgh University]] <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=494854&in_page_id=1770 |title=Race-claims lecturer beats legal ban to carry on suing after 40 discrimination claims |accessdate=2008-07-06 |last=BROOKE |first=CHRIS }}</ref>
*[[Dorothy Squires]], singer and former wife of actor [[Roger Moore]].
*[[Andy Martin (U.S. politician)|Andy Martin]] (Anthony Martin-Trigona), a law school graduate who was never admitted to the bar and [[perennial candidate]] who has been sanctioned by several state and federal courts in the United States.
*[[Francis 'Coyote' Shivers]], former husband of Bebe Buell and Pauley Perrette, deemed a Vexacious Litigant on August 27, 2008 by The Superior Court of Los Angeles County during a long ongoing trial between himself and Perrette.

==See also==
*[[Abuse of process]]
*[[Barratry]]
*[[Frivolous or vexatious]]
*[[Malicious prosecution]]
*[[Strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (also known as "SLAPP")
*[[Scientology and the legal system]]
*[[Pro se legal representation in the United States]]
*[[Restraining order abuse]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vexatious Litigation}}
[[Category:Civil procedure]]

[[fr:plaideur en délicatesse]]

List of Scottish flags

2009-07-26T16:07:29Z

84.23.155.88: /* Counties, Regions and Cities */ Flag of the Highlands

{{British Flags}}
This is a list of flags that are used exclusively in '''[[Scotland]]'''. Other flags used in Scotland, as well as the rest of the [[United Kingdom]] can be found at '''[[List of British flags]]'''.

==National Flag==

{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
! width="110"|Flag!!width="100"|Date!!width="250"|Use!!width="250"|Description
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Flag of Scotland.svg}} || 832 - || [[Flag of Scotland]], also known as the St Andrew's Cross, and the Saltire || A white [[saltire]] on a [[sky blue]] field
|}

==Royal Flags==

{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
! width="110"|Flag!!width="100"|Date!!width="250"|Use!!width="250"|Description
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Royal Standard of the United Kingdom in Scotland.svg}} || 1837 - || [[Royal Standard (United Kingdom)|Royal Standard]] of the [[United Kingdom]] used in Scotland || A banner of the [[Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom]] used exclusively in Scotland by the sovereign. An alternative form is used elsewhere.<ref name="image">[http://flickr.com/photos/beery_pix/2689133146/ image]</ref>
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Lionrampant.svg}} || 1323 - || [[Royal Standard of Scotland]] || A banner of the ancient [[Royal coat of arms of Scotland]], now officially used in Scotland by representatives of the sovereign, including the [[First Minister of Scotland]], (as keeper of the [[Great Seal of Scotland]]), the [[Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland]], the [[Lord Lyon King of Arms]] and [[Lord-Lieutenant]]s within their lieutenancies.<ref>[http://www.lyon-court.com/lordlyon/237.html The "Lion Rampant" Flag] The Court of the Lord Lyon. Retrieved on 28 December 2008.</ref> This flag is also used at the Royal residences of [[Holyrood Palace]] and [[Balmoral Castle]] when the sovereign is not present.
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Duke of Rothesay Banner.svg}} || || Banner of the [[Duke of Rothesay]] || Banner of the Duke's Arms, 1st and 4th quarters representing the title of [[Great Steward of Scotland]], the 2nd and 3rd quarters representing the title of [[Lord of the Isles]]. In the centre an inner shield bearing the arms of the [[heir apparent]] to the [[King of Scots]]
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Duke of Rothesay Standard.svg}} || || Standard of the Duke of Rothesay. || The Royal Standard of Scotland [[Defacement (flag)|defaced]] with a [[Label (heraldry)|label]] of three points.<ref name="image"/>
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Royal Standard of the Duke of York used in Scotland.svg}}|| || Standard of the [[Prince Andrew, Duke of York|Duke of York]] used in Scotland|| As a sovereing's son, the Duke may also display a version of the form used exclusively in Scotland. This Standard is the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom used in Scotland defaced with a label of three points, the centre label bearing a blue anchor.<ref name="image"/><ref name="fotwstand">[http://flagspot.net/flags/gb-royal.html#anne The Royal Standard of the United Kingdom - FOTW]</ref><ref name="Bartram">[http://www.flags.net/UNKG02.htm The Royal Standards of the United Kingdom - Graham Bartram's The World Flag Database]</ref>
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Royal Standard of the Earl of Wessex used in Scotland.svg}}|| || Standard of the [[Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex|Earl of Wessex]] used in Scotland||The Royal Standard of the United Kingdom used in Scotland defaced with a label of three points, the centre label bearing a [[Tudor Rose]].<ref name="fotwstand"/><ref name="Bartram"/>
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Royal Standard of Princess Anne used in Scotland.svg}}|| || Standard of the [[Anne, Princess Royal|Princess Royal]] used in Scotland||The Royal Standard of the United Kingdom used in Scotland defaced with a label of three points, the first and third labels bearing a red cross, the centre label bearing a red heart.<ref name="fotwstand"/><ref name="Bartram"/>
|}

==Counties, Regions and Cities==

{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
! width="110"|Flag!!width="100"|Date!!width="250"|Use!!width="250"|Description
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Flag of Aberdeen.svg}} || || Flag of [[Aberdeen]] || Three White/Grey Castles on a Red Field, taken from the city's coat of arms.
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Bandera Western Isles.png}} || || Flag of the [[Outer Hebrides]] (and the council area [[Comhairle nan Eilean Siar]])||
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Flag of Shetland.svg}} || 1969 - || [[Flag of Shetland]] || Blue, with a white [[Scandinavian cross]]. The colours of the [[Flag of Scotland|Scottish flag]].
|-
| {{BritFlag1|2007 Flag of Orkney.svg}} || 2007 - || [[Flag of Orkney]] || Red, with a blue [[Scandinavian cross]] outlined in yellow that extends to the edges of the flag. The colours from the [[Royal Standard of Scotland]] and the [[Flag of Scotland]].
|-
| [[File:Flag of the Highlands of Scotland.svg|100px]] || 1969 - || [[Flag of the Highlands]] || Blue, with a green [[Scandinavian cross]] outlined in white that extends to the edges of the flag. The colours of the [[Flag of Scotland|Scottish flag]] and the Green of the Highlands.
|-
|}

==Historical Flags==

{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
! width="110"|Flag!!width="100"|Date!!width="250"|Use!!width="250"|Description
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Scottish Red Ensign.svg}} || -1707 || Scottish Red Ensign, used by the [[Royal Scottish Navy]] || A red ensign with the Flag of Scotland in the canton
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Union Jack 1606 Scotland.svg}} || 1606 - 1707 || [[Union Flag#Scottish Union Flag|Scottish Union Flag]]|| First [[Union Flag]] with the [[Flag of Scotland]] superior to and overlying the [[Flag of England]]
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Former Flag of Orkney.svg}} || -2007 || Former (unofficial) [[Flag of Orkney]]|| The Cross of [[St Magnus]]. (An official version has now been adopted).
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Flag of Orkney.png}} || -2007 || Another former (unofficial) [[Flag of Orkney]]|| Flag based upon the [[Coat of arms of Orkney]] (An official version has now been adopted).
|}

==Organisations==

{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
! width="110"|Flag!!width="100"|Date!!width="250"|Use!!width="250"|Description
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Ensign of the British Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses.svg}} || || Ensign of the [[Northern Lighthouse Board]]
|| A Blue Ensign defaced with a lighthouse
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Northern Lighthouse Board Commisioners Flag of the United Kingdom.png}} || || Commissioner's flag of the Northern Lighthouse Board
|| A White Ensign with a pre-1801 [[Union Flag]] in the canton, defaced with a lighthouse
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Ensign of the Scottish Fisheries Protection Agency.png}} || || Ensign of the [[Scottish Fisheries Protection Agency]] || A Blue Ensign defaced with the badge of the Scottish Fisheries Protection Agency
|-
| {{BritFlag1|Church-scotland-standard.PNG}} || || Flag of the [[Church of Scotland]] || The flag of Scotland with the [[burning bush]] in the centre
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Lists of flags}}
{{UKFlags}}
{{Scotland topics}}

[[Category:Flags of Scotland| ]]
[[Category:Lists of flags of the United Kingdom|Scotland]]

[[cy:Rhestr baneri'r Alban]]
[[he:גלריית דגלי סקוטלנד]]
[[hu:A skót zászlók képtára]]

Late Pleistocene extinctions

2009-07-24T18:02:30Z

84.23.155.88: /* Eurasia */ Note addet to Muskox

The [[Quaternary]] epoch saw the [[extinction]]s of numerous predominantly larger species, many of which occurred during the transition to the [[Holocene epoch]] in what is termed the [[Holocene extinction event]]{{Fact|date=March 2009}}. Among the main causes hypothesized by [[paleontologists]] are the spread of [[disease]], natural [[climate change]], and [[overkill]] by [[human]]s, which appeared during this epoch. A variant of this last possibility is the [[New World Pleistocene extinctions#Second-Order Predation|second-order predation]] hypothesis, which focuses more on the indirect damage caused by overcompetition with nonhuman predators.

== The Pleistocene or Ice Age extinction event ==

The Ice Age extinction event is characterised by the extinction of many large mammals weighing more than 40 kg. In [[North America]] around 33 of 45 [[genus|genera]] of large mammals became extinct, in [[South America]] 46 of 58, in [[Australia]] 15 of 16, in [[Europe]] 7 of 23, and in [[Subsaharan Africa]] only 2 of 44. The extinctions in the [[Americas]] entailed the elimination of all the larger (over 100 kg) mammalian megafaunal species of South American origin, including those that had migrated north in the [[Great American Interchange]]. Only in South America and Australia did the extinction occur at family taxonomic levels or higher.

There are two main hypotheses concerning the Pleistocene extinction:

* The animals died off due to [[climate change]]: the retreat of the [[polar ice cap]].
* The animals were exterminated by humans: the "prehistoric overkill hypothesis" (Martin, 1967).

There are some inconsistencies between the current available data and the prehistoric overkill hypothesis. For instance, there are ambiguities around the timing of sudden extinctions of [[Australian megafauna]]. Biologists note that comparable extinctions have not occurred in [[Africa]] and [[South Asia|South]] or [[Southeast Asia]], where the fauna evolved with hominids. Post-glacial megafaunal extinctions in Africa have been spaced over a longer interval.

Evidence supporting the prehistoric overkill hypothesis includes the persistence of certain island megafauna for several millennia past the disappearance of their continental cousins. [[Megalocnus|Ground sloths]] survived on the [[Antilles]] long after North and South American ground sloths were extinct. The later disappearance of the island species correlates with the later colonization of these islands by humans. Similarly, woolly mammoths died out on remote [[Wrangel Island]] 7,000 years after their mainland extinction. [[Steller's Sea Cow|Steller's sea cows]] also persisted off the isolated and uninhabited [[Commander Islands]] for thousands of years after they vanished from continental shores of the north Pacific.<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Anderson
| first = Paul K.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Competition, Predation, and the Evolution and Extinction of Steller’s Sea Cow, ''Hydrodamalis Gigas''
| journal = Marine Mammal Science
| volume = 11
| issue = 3
| pages = 391–394
| publisher = Society for Marine Mammalogy
| location =
| date = July 1995
| url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119963340/abstract
| doi = 10.1111/j.1748-7692.1995.tb00294.x
| id =
| accessdate = 2008-11-02}}</ref>

An alternative to the theory of human responsibility is [[Younger Dryas impact event|several]] [[Clovis comet|controversial]] [[Tollmann's hypothetical bolide|hypotheses]] claiming that the extinctions resulted from [[bolide]] impact(s). However, such hypotheses would predict an instantaneous, regional extinction(s), and thus cannot account for the planet-wide species losses that occurred over an interval of thousands of years.

==== Major megafaunal extinctions ====
===== Eurasia =====

[[Image:Mamut NDH 2.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The [[Woolly Mammoth]] became extinct around 12,000 years ago – except on [[Wrangel Island]] and [[Saint Paul Island (Alaska)|St. Paul Island]], which humans did not colonize until much later.]]

(40,000-10,000 years ago)

* [[Woolly mammoth]]
* [[Woolly rhinoceros]]
* [[Irish Elk]]
* [[Scimitar cat]]
* [[Cave lion]]
* [[Cave bear]]
* [[Cave hyena]]
* [[Steppe Wisent]]
* [[Giant Ostrich]]
* [[Muskox]] (survived until 2000 years ago)<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/10/051006085912.htm</ref>

===== Mediterranean Islands =====

(by 9000 years ago)

* [[Pygmy_Hippopotamus#Extinct_pygmy_and_dwarf_hippos|pygmy hippos]] of [[Cyprus Dwarf Hippopotamus|Cyprus]] (''Phanourios minutus''), [[Cretan Dwarf Hippopotamus|Crete]] (''Hippopotamus creutzburgi''), [[Maltese Hippopotamus|Malta]] (''H. melitensis'') and [[Sicilian Hippopotamus|Sicily]] (''H. pentlandi'')
* the Balearic Islands cave goat (''[[Myotragus balearicus]]'') of [[Majorca]] and [[Minorca]]
* [[Dwarf elephant]]s of Cyprus (''Elephas cypriotes''), [[Sicily]], [[Malta]] (''[[Elephas falconeri|E. falconeri]]'') and many other islands
* [[Giant swan]] (''Cygnus falconeri'') of Malta
* Giant dormice: [[Minorcan Giant Dormouse]], [[Majorcan Giant Dormouse]].

[[Image:Collared peccary02 - melbourne zoo.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Collared Peccary]], surviving relative of the extinct Giant Peccary.]]

===== North America =====
[[Image:ArctodusSimusReconstruct.jpg|thumb|200px|The size of a [[Arctodus simus|short faced bear]] compared with a human.]]
[[Image:giant ground sloth Iowa.JPG|thumb|200px|Giant [[ground sloth]] reconstruction based on ''[[Megalonyx]] jeffersonii'', [[Iowa Museum of Natural History]].]]
During the last 50,000 years, including the end of the [[last glacial period]], approximately 33 genera of large mammals have become extinct in North America. Of these, 15 genera extinctions can be reliably attributed to a brief interval of 11,500 to 10,000 [[radiocarbon]] years [[before present]], shortly following the arrival of the [[Clovis people]] in North America. Most other extinctions are poorly constrained in time, though some definitely occurred outside of this narrow interval.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Anthony D. Barnosky, Paul L. Koch, Robert S. Feranec, Scott L. Wing, Alan B. Shabel|title=Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents|journal=Science|volume=306|issue=5693|pages=70–75|doi=10.1126/science.1101476|year=2004|pmid=15459379}}</ref> Contrary to this, only about half a dozen small mammals disappeared during this time. Previous North American extinction pulses had occurred at the end of glaciations, but not with such an imbalance between large mammals and small ones. (Moreover, previous extinction pulses were not comparable to the Quaternary extinction event; they involved primarily species replacements within ecological niches, while the latter event resulted in many ecological niches being left unoccupied.) The megafaunal extinctions include twelve genera of edible herbivores ('''H'''), and five large, dangerous carnivores ('''C'''). North American extinctions included:


* American [[horse]]s, five species (Asian horses survived) ('''H''')
* Western camels [[Camelops]] ('''H''')
* North American [[llama]]s ('''H''')
* [[Deer]], two genera ('''H''')
* [[Pronghorn]], two genera (one survived) ('''H''')
* [[Stag-moose]] ('''H''')
* [[Shrub-ox]] and [[Harlan's muskox]] (the Arctic [[Muskox]] survived) ('''H''')
* [[Giant Beaver]] ('''H''')
* [[Saiga]] ('''H''')
* [[Teratorns]] ('''C''')
* [[Neochoerus pinckneyi|Capybara]] ('''H''')
* [[Eremotherium]] and [[Nothrotheriops]], megatheriid [[ground sloth]]s ('''H''')
* [[Megalonyx]], a megalonychid ground sloth ('''H''')
* [[Paramylodon]], a mylodontid ground sloth ('''H''')
* [[Glyptodontidae|Glyptodont]]s ('''H''')
* [[Pampatheriidae|Pampatheres]] ('''H''')
* [[Arctodus simus|Short-faced bear]]s (larger than the present [[Grizzly Bear]]) (''C'')
* [[Florida Cave Bear]] ('''C''')
* The [[saber-toothed cat]] ''[[Smilodon|Smilodon fatalis]]'' ('''C''')
* The 'scimitar cat' ''[[Homotherium]]'' ('''C''')
* [[American lion]] (larger than the current African [[Lion]] but probably a fairly recent immigrant through [[Beringia]]) ('''C''')
* [[American cheetah]] (not a true cheetah) ('''C''')
* [[Dire wolf]] ('''C''')
* [[Mammoth]], several species ('''H''')
* American [[mastodon]], ''Mammut americanum'' ('''H''')
* [[Ancient bison]] ('''H''')
* Flat-headed & Long-nosed peccaries [[Mylohyus]], [[Platygonus]] ('''H''')
* California & Vero [[tapirs]] ('''H''')

The survivors are as significant as the losses: [[bison]], [[moose]] (recent immigrants through [[Beringia]]), [[elk]], [[caribou]], [[deer]], [[pronghorn]], [[muskox]], [[bighorn sheep]], and [[mountain goat]]s. All save the pronghorns descended from Asian ancestors that had evolved with human predators.<ref>{{cite book|author=MacPhee, RDE|title=Extinctions in Near Time: Causes, Contexts, and Consequences|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|date=1999|isbn=0306460920}}</ref> Pronghorns are the second fastest land mammal (after the [[cheetah]]), which may have helped them elude hunters.

The culture that has been connected with the wave of extinctions in North America is the paleo-Indian culture associated with the [[Clovis culture|Clovis people]] (''q.v.''), who were thought to use [[atlatl|spear thrower]]s to kill large animals. The chief opposition to the "prehistoric overkill hypothesis" has been that population of humans such as the Clovis culture were too small to be ecologically significant. Other generalized evocations of climate change fail under detailed scrutiny.

Lack of [[Domestication|tameable]] megafauna was perhaps one of the reasons why [[Native American (Americas)|Amerindian civilization]]s evolved differently than [[Old World]] ones.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]: The Fates of Human Societies|author=Diamond, J.|date=1997|publisher=WW Norton|isbn=978-0393061314}}</ref> Critics have disputed this by arguing that [[llama]]s, [[alpaca]]s, and [[bison]] were domesticated.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pielou, EC|title=After the Ice Age: the return of life to glaciated North America|date=1992|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226668123}}</ref>

===== South America =====
[[Image:Megatherum DB.jpg|thumb|200px|An illustration of [[Megatherium]].]]
At the Pleistocene-Holocene transition South America, which had remained largely unglaciated except for increased mountain glaciation in the [[Andes]], saw an extinction wave, which carried off many large species. Today there is no wild land mammal left on this continent weighing more than a modern tapir.

* ''[[Smilodon]] fatalis'' and ''populator''
* ''[[Arctodus]]''
* [[Ground sloth]]s of three families
* [[Glyptodont]]s
* [[Pampatheriidae|Pampathere]]s
* ''[[Hippidion]]''
* Horse (''[[Equus]]'')
* ''[[Toxodon]]''
* ''[[Macrauchenia]]''
* ''[[Cuvieronius]]''
* ''[[Stegomastodon]]''

===== Australia =====
{{seealso|Australian megafauna}}
[[Image:Diprotodon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Diprotodon]] became extinct around 50,000 years ago.]]

The sudden spate of extinctions occurred earlier than in the Americas. Most evidence points to the period immediately after the first arrival of humans — thought to be a little under 50,000 years ago — but scientific argument continues as to the exact date range. The Australian extinctions included:

* [[Diprotodon]]s (giant relatives of the [[wombat]]s)
* ''[[Zygomaturus]] trilobus'' (a large [[marsupial]] herbivore)
* ''[[Palorchestes]] azael'' (a marsupial "[[tapir]]")
* ''Macropus titan'' (a giant [[kangaroo]])
* ''[[Procoptodon]] goliah'' (a hoof-toed giant short-faced kangaroo)
* ''Wonambi naracoortensis'' (a five-to-six-metre-long Australian constrictor [[snake]])
* ''[[Thylacoleo]] carnifex'' (a lioness-sized marsupial carnivore)
* ''[[Megalania prisca]]'' (a giant monitor lizard)

Some extinct megafauna, such as the [[bunyip]]-like diprotodon, may be the sources of ancient [[cryptozoology|cryptozoological legends]].

=== Younger extinctions ===



==== New Zealand ====

c. AD 1500, several species became extinct after [[Polynesia]]n settlers arrived, including:

* Ten species of [[Moa]], giant flightless [[ratite]] birds.
* The giant Haast's Eagle, ''[[Harpagornis]]''
* The flightless predatory [[Adzebill]]s.

==== Pacific, including Hawaii ====

Recent research, based on [[archeology|archaeological]] and [[paleontology|paleontological]] digs on 70 different islands, has shown that numerous species went extinct as people moved across the Pacific, starting 30,000 years ago in the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] and [[Solomon Islands]] (Steadman & Martin 2003). It is currently estimated that among the bird species of the Pacific some 2000 species have gone extinct since the arrival of humans (Steadman 1995). Among the extinctions were:

* The [[Moa-nalo]]s, giant grazing [[Hawaii]]an ducks.
* The [[Nēnē-nui]], or Woodwalking Goose, a large species of goose that once inhabited island of Maui
* ''[[Sylviornis]]'', a giant [[Galliformes|galliform]] bird on [[Biodiversity of New Caledonia|New Caledonia]].
* [[Mekosuchine crocodiles]] on New Caledonia, [[Fiji]] and [[Samoa]].
* [[Meiolania|Meiolaniid turtles]] on [[Lord Howe Island]] and New Caledonia.

==== Madagascar ====

Starting with the arrival of humans c. 2000 years ago, nearly all of the island's megafauna became extinct, including:

* Eight or more species of [[Elephant Bird|elephant birds]], giant flightless [[ratite]]s in the genera ''Aepyornis'' and ''Mullerornis''.
* 17 of 50 species of lemur, including:
** [[Giant aye-aye]] ''(Daubentonia robusta)''
** sloth lemurs, including chimpanzee-sized ''[[Palaeopropithecus]]'' and gorilla-sized ''[[Archaeoindris]]''
** ''[[Megaladapis]]'', an orangutan-sized arboreal lemur
* [[Giant tortoise]]
* Three species of [[Malagasy Hippopotamus]]

==== Africa ====

Though the effect wasn't devastating, certain large African [[mammals]] died from the continent.

* Several genera of [[giraffe]] have gone extinct, including ''[[Sivatherium]]''.
* [[Xenocyon lycaonoides|Wolves]] (with the exception of the [[Ethiopian Wolf]]) and [[Atlas Bear|Bears]] died out from Africa
* A few species of [[warthog]] went extinct; ''[[Metridiochoerus]]'' and the [[Cape Warthog]]
* ''[[Deinotherium]]'', ''[[Elephas recki]]'', ''Loxodonta adaurora'' (a species of [[African Elephant]]), ''[[Anancus]]'' and ''[[Mammuthus subplanifrons]]'', relatives to the [[elephant]] died out.
* ''[[Hippopotamus gorgops]]''
* False Saber-toothed Cats like ''[[Dinofelis]]'' die out.
* The Giant Long-horned Buffalo ''[[Pelorovis]]'' went extinct, along with the [[quagga]].
* ''[[Megalotragus]]'', a large hartebeest

==== Indian Ocean Islands ====

Starting c. 500 years ago, a number of species became extinct upon human settlement of the islands, including:

* Several species of giant tortoise on the [[Seychelles]] and [[Mascarene Islands]]
* Many species of [[extinct birds|birds]] on the Mascarene Islands, including the [[Dodo]], the [[Rodrigues Solitaire]], and the unrelated [[Réunion Sacred Ibis|Réunion Solitaire]].

==Hunting hypothesis==

The Hunting hypothesis suggests that humans hunted [[megaherbivore]]s to extinction. As a result, carnivores and scavengers that depended upon those animals became extinct from lack of prey.<ref name="Martin1963"> {{cite book | author = Martin P. S. | year = 1963 | title = The last 10,000 years: A fossil pollen record of the American Southwest | location = Tucson, AZ | publisher = Univ. Ariz. Press | isbn = 0-8165-1759-2}}</ref><ref name="Martin1967">{{cite book | author = Martin P. S. | year = 1967 | title = ''Prehistoric overkill. In'' Pleistocene extinctions: The search for a cause ''(ed. P.S. Martin and H.E. Wright)'' | location = New Haven | publisher = Yale Univ. Press | isbn = 0-300-00755-8}}</ref><ref name="Martin1989">{{cite book | author = Martin P. S. | year = 1989 | title = ''Prehistoric overkill: A global model. In'' Quaternary extinctions: A prehistoric revolution ''(ed. P.S. Martin and R.G. Klein)'' | pages = 354–404 | location = Tucson, AZ | publisher = Univ. Arizona Press | isbn = 0-8165-1100-4}}</ref>
Therefore this theory holds Pleistocene humans responsible for the megafaunal extinction. One variant, often referred to as ''overkill'', portrays humans as hunting the megafauna to extinction within a relatively short period of time. Some of the direct evidence for this includes: fossils of megafauna found in conjunction with human remains, embedded arrows and tool cut marks found in megafaunal bones, and [[cave paintings]] that depict such hunting. [[biogeography|Biogeographical]] evidence is also suggestive; the areas of the world where humans evolved currently have more of their Pleistocene megafaunal diversity (the [[elephant]]s and [[Rhinoceros|rhino]]s of [[Asia]] and [[Africa]]) compared to other areas such as [[Australia]], the [[Americas]], [[Madagascar]] and [[New Zealand]], areas where early humans were non-existent. Based on this evidence, a picture arises of the megafauna of Asia and Africa evolving ''with'' humans, learning to be wary of them, and in other parts of the world the wildlife appearing [[ecologically naive]] and easier to hunt. This is particularly true of island fauna, which display a dangerous lack of fear of humans.

Circumstantially, the close correlation in time between the appearance of humans in an area and extinction there provides weight to this theory. This is perhaps the strongest evidence, as it is almost impossible that it could be coincidental when science has so many data points. For example, the woolly mammoth survived on [[Wrangel Island|islands]] despite [[neoglaciation|worsening climatic conditions]] for thousands of years after the end of the last glaciation, but they died out when humans arrived around 1700 BC. The megafaunal extinctions covered a vast period of time and highly variable climatic situations. The earliest extinctions in Australia were complete approximately 30,000 BP, well before the last glacial maximum and before rises in temperature. The most recent extinction in New Zealand was complete no earlier than 500 BP and during a period of cooling. In between these extremes megafaunal extinctions have occurred progressively in such places as North America, South America and Madagascar with no climatic commonality. The only common factor that can be ascertained is the arrival of humans.<ref>Martin, Paul S. ''Twilight of the Mammoths: Ice Age Extinctions and the Rewilding of America.'' 2005.</ref>

[[Image:Extinctions Austrailia N America.gif|250px|thumb|left|Extinctions occur in relation to human artifacts regardless of climate change in Australia, but appear linked to climate change in North America]]
World wide extinctions seem to follow the migration of humans and to be most severe where humans arrived most recently and least severe where humans were originally – Africa (see figure at left). This suggests that in Africa, where humans evolved, prey animals and human hunting ability evolved together, so the animals evolved avoidance techniques. As humans migrated throughout the world and became more and more proficient at hunting, they encountered animals that had evolved without the presence of humans. Lacking the fear of humans that African animals had developed, animals outside of Africa were easy prey for human hunting techniques. It also suggests that this is independent of climate change (see figure at left).

Extinction through human hunting has been supported by archaeological finds of [[mammoths]] with projectile points embedded in their skeletons, by observations of modern naïve animals allowing hunters to approach easily <ref name="Flannery1995">{{cite book | author = Flannery, T | year = 1995 | title = The future eaters: an ecological history of the Australasian lands and people | location = NY | publisher = George Braziller | isbn = 0-8021-3943-4}}</ref><ref name="Diamond1984">{{cite book | author = Diamond, J. | year = 1984 | title = ''Historic extinctions: a Rosetta stone for understanding prehistoric extinctions. In'' Quaternary extinctions: A prehistoric revolution ''(ed. P.S. Martin and R.G. Klein)'' | pages = 824–62 | location = Tucson, AZ | publisher = Univ. Arizona Press | isbn = 0-8165-1100-4}}</ref><ref name="Diamond1997">{{cite book | author = Diamond, J. | year = 1997 | title = Guns, germs, and steel; the fates of human societies | location = New York | publisher = Norton | isbn = 0-393-31755-2}}</ref> and by computer models by Mosimann and Martin,<ref name="Mosimann&Martin1975">{{cite journal | author = Mossiman, J. E., and Martin, P. S. | year = 1975 | title = Simulating Overkill by Paleoindians | journal = American Scientist | volume = 63 | pages = 304–13}}</ref>and Whittington and Dyke,<ref name="Whittington&Dyke984">{{cite book | author = Whittington, S. L. & Dyke, B. | year = 1984 | title = ''Simulating overkill: experiment with the Mossiman and Martin model. In'' Quaternary extinctions: A prehistoric revolution ''(ed. P.S. Martin and R.G. Klein)'' | pages = 451–66 | location = Tucson, AZ | publisher = Univ. Arizona Press | isbn = 0-8165-1100-4}}</ref> and most recently by Alroy.<ref name="Alroy2001">{{cite journal | author = Alroy, J. | year = 2001 | title = A multispecies overkill simulation of the end-Pleistocene megafaunal mass extinction | journal = Science | volume = 292 | pages = 1893 | url = http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy/pdfs/2001-Science-292-1893.pdf | doi = 10.1126/science.1059342}}</ref>

Eugene S. Hunn, President of the Society of Ethnobiology, offers a dissenting view. He points out that the birthrate in hunter-gatherer societies is generally too low, that too much effort is involved in the bringing down of a large animal by a hunting party, and that in order for hunter-gatherers to have brought about the extinction of megafauna simply by hunting them to death, an extraordinary amount of meat would have had to have been wasted.<ref>Nadasdy, Paul. "[http://ethnohistory.dukejournals.org/cgi/content/refs/52/2/291 Transcending the Debate over the Ecologically Noble Indian: Indigenous Peoples and Environmentalism]." ''Duke University Press,'' 2006.</ref> It is possible that those who advocate the overkill hypothesis simply have not considered the differences in outlook between typical forager (hunter-gatherer) cultures and the present-day industrial cultures which exist in modernized human societies; waste may be tolerated and even encouraged in the latter, but is not so much in the former. It may be noted that in relatively recent human history, for instance, the Lakota of North America were known to take only as much bison as they could use, and they used virtually the whole animal--this despite having access to herds numbering in the millions.<ref>Svenson, Sally. "[http://www.northern.edu/natsource/mammals/bison1.htm Bison]." South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, 1995.</ref> Conversely, "buffalo jumps"<ref>"[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffalo_jump Buffalo Jump]." Wikipedia.</ref> featured indiscriminate killing of a herd. However, Hunn's comments are in reference to a hunter-prey equilibrium state reached after thousands of years of coexistence, and are not relevant to hunters newly arrived on a virgin land mass full of easily taken big game. The well-established practice of industrial-scale moa butchering by the early Maori, involving enormous wastage of less choice portions of the meat, indicates that these arguments are incorrect.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Flannery
| first = Tim
| authorlink = Tim Flannery
| coauthors =
| title = The Future Eaters
| publisher = [[Grove/Atlantic Inc.]]
| date = 2002-10-16
| location = New York
| pages =
| url = http://www.ecobooks.com/books/futureat.htm
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 0802139434}}</ref>

===Overkill Hypothesis===
[[Image:Extinctions Africa Austrailia NAmerica Madagascar.gif|300px|thumb|right|The timing of extinctions follows the "March of Man"]]
The overkill hypothesis, a variant of the hunting hypothesis, was proposed 40 years ago by Paul S. Martin, now Professor of Geosciences Emeritus at the Desert Laboratory of the [[University of Arizona]]. It sparked debate which continues today. In contrast to other hunting hypothesis it explains the megafaunal extinctions within a relatively short period of time. The most convincing evidence of his theory is that 80% of the North American large mammal species disappeared within 1000 years of the arrival of humans on the Western Hemisphere continents.

===Shortcomings of the Hunting Hypothesis===
The major objections to the theory are as follows:
*In predator-prey models it is unlikely that predators could over-hunt their prey since predators need their prey as food to sustain life and reproduce.<ref name="May2001">{{cite book | author = May, R. M. | year = 2001 | title = Stability and complexity in model ecosystems | location = Princeton | publisher = Princeton Univ. Press | isbn = 0-691-08861-6}}</ref>. This criticism has been rejected by many ecologists because humans have the widest dietary choice of any predator and are perfectly capable of switching to alternative prey or even plant foods when any prey species becomes rare. Humans have indisputably hunted numerous species to extinction, which renders any argument that human predators can never hunt prey to extinction immediately invalid.
*There is no archeological evidence that megafauna other than mammoths, mastodons, [[gomphothere]]s and bison were hunted. (Meltzer) Overkill proponents, however, say this is due to chance and the low probability of animals with low populations to be preserved. (Martin) Additionally, biochemical analyses have shown that Clovis tools were used in butchering horses and camels.<ref name = "ClovisToolCache">{{cite web
| last = Scott
| first = J.
| title = Camel-butchering in Boulder, 13,000 years ago
| work = [http://artsandsciences.colorado.edu/magazine/ Colorado Arts and Sciences Magazine]
| publisher = [[University of Colorado at Boulder]]
| date = [[2009]]-[[02-26]]
| url = http://artsandsciences.colorado.edu/magazine/2009/02/camel-butchering-in-boulder-13000-years-ago/
| format = | doi =
| accessdate = 2009-05-01}}</ref>
*A small number of animals that were hunted, such as a single species of [[bison]], did not go extinct. However the surviving bison species in North America was a recent Eurasian immigrant that arrived in the Americas at approximately the same time as humans and was thus well-adapted to human hunting pressure. In contrast at least three [[Endemism|endemic]] American bison species did become extinct. Bison also are r type herbivores and reproduce rapidly compared to other species that did go extinct such as proboscideans and horses.
*The dwarfing of animals is not explained by overkill. Numerous authors, however, have pointed out that dwarfing of animals is perfectly well explained by humans selectively harvesting the largest animals, and have provided proof that even within the 20th century numerous animal populations have reduced in average size due to human hunting.
*Eurasian Pleistocene megafauna went extinct in roughly same time period despite having a much longer time to adapt to hunting pressure by humans. However, the extinction of the Eurasian megafauna can be viewed as a result of a different process than that of the American megafauna. The latter case occurred after the sudden appearance of modern human hunters on a land mass they had never previously inhabited, while the former case was the culmination of the gradual northward movement of human hunters over thousands of years as their technology for enduring extreme cold and bringing down big game improved. Thus, while the hunting hypothesis does not necessarily predict the rough simultaneity of the north Eurasian and American megafaunal extinctions, this simultaneity cannot be regarded as evidence against it.
*The hypothesis that the [[Clovis culture]] represented the first humans to arrive in the New World has been disputed recently. (See [[Models of migration to the New World]])

==Climate change hypothesis ==

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, when scientists first realized that there had been glacial and [[interglacial]] ages, and that they were somehow associated with the prevalence or disappearance of certain animals, they surmised that the termination of the Pleistocene [[ice age]] might be an explanation for the extinctions.

Critics object that since there were [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Five_Myr_Climate_Change.png multiple] glacial [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atmospheric_CO2_with_glaciers_cycles.gif advances and withdrawals] in the evolutionary history of many of the megafauna, it is rather implausible that only after the last glacial would there be such extinctions.

Some evidence weighs against this theory as applied to Australia. It has been shown that the prevailing climate at the time of extinction (40,000–50,000 BP) was similar to that of today, and that the extinct animals were strongly adapted to an arid climate. The evidence indicates that all of the extinctions took place in the same short time period, which was the time when humans entered the landscape. The main mechanism for extinction was likely fire (started by humans) in a then much less fire-adapted landscape. Isotopic evidence shows sudden changes in the diet of surviving species, which could correspond to the stress they experienced before extinction.<ref>Willis, Paul; Bryce, Clay; Searle, Mike. "[http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s1717424.htm Thylacoleo - The Beast of the Nullarbor]." ''Catalyst,'' August 17, 2006.</ref><ref>Gavin J. Prideaux et al. "[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v445/n7126/abs/nature05471.html An Arid-Adapted Middle Pleistocene Vertebrate Fauna from South-Central Australia]." ''Nature,'' 25 August 2006.</ref><ref>Richard G. Roberts et al. "[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;292/5523/1888 New Ages for the Last Australian Megafauna: Continent-Wide Extinction About 46,000 Years Ago]." ''Science,'' 8 June 2001.</ref>

=== Increased temperature ===
The most obvious change associated with the termination of an ice age is the increase in temperature. Between 15,000 [[Before Present|BP]] and 10,000 BP, a 6[[Celsius|°C]] increase in global mean annual temperatures occurred. This was generally thought to be the cause of the extinctions.

According to this hypothesis, a temperature increase sufficient to melt the [[Wisconsin glaciation|Wisconsin ice sheet]] could have placed enough thermal stress on cold-adapted mammals to cause them to die. Their heavy fur, which helps conserve body heat in the glacial cold, might have prevented the dumping of excess heat, causing the mammals to die of heat exhaustion. Large mammals, with their reduced [[Surface area to volume ratio|surface area-to-volume ratio]], would have fared worse than small mammals.

=== Shortcomings of the Temperature Hypothesis ===
More recent research has demonstrated that the annual mean temperature of the current interglacial that we have seen for the last 10,000 years is no higher than that of previous interglacials, so the same large mammals survived similar temperature increases. Therefore warmer temperature alone is not a sufficient explanation.<ref name="Andersen1973">{{cite book | author = Andersen, S. T | year = 1973 | title = ''The differential pollen productivity of trees and its significance for the interpretation of a pollen diagram from a forested region. In'' Quaternary plant ecology: the 14thsymposium of the British Ecological society, University of Cambridge, 28–30 March 1972 ''(ed. Birks, H. J. B. and West, R. G)'' | location = Oxford | publisher = Blackwell Scientific Pubs | isbn = 0-632-09120-7}}</ref><ref name="Ashworth1980">{{cite journal | author = Ashworth, C.A. | year = 1980 | title = Environmental implications of a beetle assemblage from the Gervais formation (Early Wisconsinian?), Minnesota | journal = Quat. Res. | volume = 13 | pages = 200–12 | doi = 10.1016/0033-5894(80)90029-0}}</ref><ref name="Birks1973">{{cite book | author = Birks, H. H. | year = 1973 | title = ''Modern macrofossil assemblages in lake sediments in Minnesota. In'' Quaternary plant ecology: the 14thsymposium of the British Ecological Society, University of Cambridge, 28–30 March 1972 ''(ed. H. J. B. Birks, and R. G. West)'' | location = Oxford | publisher = Blackwell Scientific Pubs | isbn = 0-632-09120-7}}</ref><ref name="Birks & Birks1980">{{cite book | author = Birks, H. J. B. & Birks, H. H. | year = 1980 | title = Quaternary paleoecology | location = Baltimore | publisher = Univ. Park Press | isbn = 1-930665-56-3}}</ref><ref name="Bradely1985">{{cite book | author = Bradley, R. S. | year = 1985 | title = Quaternary Paleoclimatology: Methods of Paleoclimatic Reconstruction | location = Winchester, MA | publisher = Allen & Unwin | isbn = 0-04-551068-7}}</ref><ref name="Davis1976">{{cite book | author = Davis, M. B. | year = 1976 | title = ''Pleistocene biogeography of temperate deciduous forests. In'' Geoscience and man: ecology of the Pleistocene, vol.13 | location = Baton Rouge | publisher = School of Geoscience, Louisiana State Univ.}}</ref>

In addition, numerous species such as mammoths on [[Wrangel Island]]<ref name="Vartanyan1995">{{cite journal | author = Vartanyan, S.L., Arslanov, K.A., Tertychnaya, T.V. & Chernov, S.B. | year = 1995 | title = Radiocarbon dating evidence for mammoths on Wrangel Island, Arctic Ocean, until 2000 BC | journal = Radiocarbon | volume = 37 | pages = 1–6 | url = http://www.radiocarbon.org/Journal/v37n1/vartanyan.html}}</ref> and [[Saint Paul Island (Alaska)|St. Paul Island]] survived in human-free [[Refugium (population biology)|refugia]] despite changes in climate. This is precisely the opposite of what would be expected if climate change were responsible. Under normal ecological assumptions island populations should be more vulnerable to extinction due to climate change because of small populations and an inability to migrate to more favorable climes.

=== Increased continentality affects vegetation in time or space ===
Other scientists have proposed that increasingly extreme weather — hotter summers and colder winters — referred to as "[[continentality]]", or related changes in rainfall caused the extinctions. The various hypotheses are outlined below.

====Vegetation changes: geographic====
It has been shown that vegetation changed from mixed [[woodland]]-[[parkland]] to separate [[prairie]] and woodland.<ref name="Birks1973"/><ref name="Birks & Birks1980"/><ref name="Davis1976"/> This may have affected the kinds of food available. If so, [[herbivore]]s might not have found the plants with which they had evolved and thus would have fallen prey to the anti-herbivory [[toxins]] in the plants that remained available. Shorter growing seasons may have caused the extinction of large herbivores and the dwarfing of many others. In this case, as observed, bison and other large [[ruminant]]s would have fared better than horses, elephants and other [[monogastric]]s, because ruminants are able to extract more nutrition from limited quantities of high-[[Dietary fiber|fiber]] food and better able to deal with anti-herbivory toxins.<ref name="Guthrie1988">{{cite book | author = Guthrie, R. D. | year = 1988 | title = Frozen Fauna of the Mammoth Steppe: The Story of Blue Babe | publisher = University Of Chicago Press | isbn = 0-226-31122-8}}</ref><ref name="Guthrie1989">{{cite book | author = Guthrie, R. D. | year =1989 | title = ''Mosaics, allochemics, and nutrients: an ecological theory of Late Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions. In'' Quaternary extinctions: A prehistoric revolution ''(ed. P.S. Martin and R.G. Klein)'' | pages = 259–99 | location = Tucson, AZ | publisher = Univ. Arizona Press | isbn = 0-8165-1100-4}}</ref><ref name="Hoppe1978">{{citation | author = Hoppe, P. P. | year = 1978 | title = Rumen fermentation in African ruminants. Proceedings of the 13th Annual Congress of Game Biologists | location = Atlanta}}</ref> So, in general, when vegetation becomes more specialized, herbivores with less diet flexibility may be less able to find the mix of vegetation they need to sustain life and reproduce within a given area.

====Rainfall changes: time====
Increased continentality resulted in reduced and less predictable rainfall limiting the availability of plants necessary for energy and nutrition.<ref name="Bryson1970" >{{cite book | author = Bryson, R. A., Baerreis, D. A. & Wendland, W. M. | year = 1970 | title = ''The character of late-glacial and post-glacial climatic changes.'' Pleistocene and recent environments of the central Great Plains ''(ed. W. Dort, Jr. and J. K. Jones, Jr., Dept. Geol., Univ. Kan. Spec. Pub. 3) | location = Lawrence | publisher = Univ. Press Kan | isbn = 0-7006-0063-9}}</ref><ref name="Graham and Lundelius1988">{{cite book | author = Graham, R.W. & Lundelius, E.L. | year = 1989 | title = ''Coevolutionary disequilibrium and Pleistocene extinctions. In'' Quaternary extinctions: A prehistoric revolution ''(ed. P.S. Martin and R.G. Klein) | pages = 354–404 | location = Tucson, AZ | publisher = Univ. Arizona Press | isbn = 0-8165-1100-4}}</ref><ref name=" King and Saunders1988">{{cite book | author = King, J. E. and Saunders, J. J. | year = 1989 | title = ''Environmental insularity and the extinction of the American mastodont. In'' Quaternary extinctions: A prehistoric revolution ''(ed. P.S. Martin and R.G. Klein)'' | pages = 354–404 | location = Tucson, AZ | publisher = Univ. Arizona Press | isbn = 0-8165-1100-4}}</ref> Axelrod<ref name="Axelrod1967">{{cite journal | author = Axelrod, D. I. | year = 1967 | title = Quaternary extinctions of large mammals | journal = University of California Publications in Geological Sciences | volume = 74 | pages = 1–42 | id = ASIN B0006BX8LG}}</ref> and Slaughter<ref name="Slaughter1967">{{cite book | author = Slaughter, B. H. | year = 1967 | title = ''Animal ranges as a clue to late-Pleistocene extinction. In'' Pleistocene extinctions: The search for a cause ''(ed. P.S. Martin and H.E. Wright)'' | location = New Haven | publisher = Yale Univ. Press | isbn = 0-300-00755-8}}</ref> have suggested that this change in rainfall restricted the amount of time favorable for reproduction. This could disproportionately harm large animals, since they have longer, more inflexible mating periods, and so may have produced young at unfavorable seasons (i.e., when sufficient food, water, or shelter was unavailable because of shifts in the growing season. In contrast, small mammals, with their shorter [[Biological life cycle|life cycle]]s, shorter [[reproductive cycle]]s, and shorter [[gestation]] periods, could have adjusted to the increased unpredictability of the climate, both as individuals and as species which allowed them to synchronize their reproductive efforts with conditions favorable for offspring survival. If so, smaller mammals would have lost fewer offspring and would have been better able to repeat the reproductive effort when circumstances once more favored offspring survival.<ref name="Kilti1988">{{cite book | author = Kilti, R. A. | year = 1988 | title = ''Seasonality, gestation time, and large mammal extinctions. In'' Quaternary extinctions: A prehistoric revolution ''(ed. P.S. Martin and R.G. Klein)'' | pages = 354–404 | location = Tucson, AZ | publisher = Univ. Arizona Press | isbn = 0-8165-1100-4}}</ref>

=== Shortcomings of the continentality hypotheses ===
Critics have identified a number of problems with the continentality hypotheses.
*Megaherbivores have prospered at other times of continental climate. For example, megaherbivores thrived in Pleistocene [[Siberia]], which had and has a more continental climate than Pleistocene or modern (post-Pleistocene, interglacial) North America.<ref name="Flereov1967"> {{cite book | author = Flereov, C. C. | year = 1967 | title = ''On the origin of the mammalian fauna of Canada. In'' The Bering Land Bridge ''(ed. D.M. Hopkins)'' | pages = 271–80 | location = Palo Alto | publisher = Stanford Univ. Press | isbn = 0-8047-0272-1}}</ref><ref name="Frenzel1968">{{cite journal | author = Frenzel, B. | year = 1968 | title = The Pleistocene vegetation of northern Eurasia | journal = Science | volume = 161 | pages = 637–49 | doi = 10.1126/science.161.3842.637}}</ref><ref name="McDonald1989">{{cite book | author = McDonald, J. | year = 1989 | title = ''The reordered North American selection regime and late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions. In'' Quaternary extinctions: A prehistoric revolution ''(ed. P.S. Martin and R.G. Klein) | pages = 354–404 | location = Tucson, AZ | publisher = Univ. Arizona Press | isbn = 0-8165-1100-4}}</ref>
*The animals that went extinct actually should have prospered during the shift from mixed woodland-parkland to prairie, because their primary food source, grass, was increasing rather than decreasing.<ref name="Birks and West1973">{{cite book | author = Birks, H. J. B. and West, R. G. | year = 1973 | title = Quaternary plant ecology: the 14th symposium of the British Ecological society, University of Cambridge, 28–30 March 1972 | location = Oxford | publisher = Blackwell Scientific Pubs | isbn = 0-632-09120-7}}</ref><ref name="McDonald 1981">{{cite book | author = McDonald, J. | year = 1981 | title = North American Bison: Their classification and evolution. | location = Berkeley | publisher = Univ. Calif. Press | isbn = 0-520-04002-3}}</ref><ref name="McDonald1989"/> Although the vegetation did become more spatially specialized, the amount of prairie and grass available increased, which would have been good for horses and for mammoths, and yet they went extinct.
*Although horses went extinct in the New World, they were successfully reintroduced by the Spanish in the 16th century – into a modern post-Pleistocene, interglacial climate. Today there are [[feral]] horses still living in those same environments. They find a sufficient mix of food to avoid toxins, they extract enough nutrition from forage to reproduce effectively and the timing of their gestation is not an issue. Similarly, mammoths survived the Pleistocene Holocene transition on isolated, uninhabited islands in the [[Mediterranean Sea]]<ref name="Burney1993">{{cite journal | author = Burney, D. A. | year = 1993 | title = Recent animal extinctions: recipes for disaster | journal = American Scientist | volume = 81 | issue = 6 | pages = 530–41}}</ref> and on Wrangel Island in the Siberian Arctic <ref name="Vartanyan1993">{{cite journal | author = Vartanyan, S.L., Garutt, V. E. and Sher, A.V. | year = 1993 | title = Holocene dwarf mammoths from Wangel Island in the Siberian Arctic | journal = Nature | volume = 362 | pages = 337–40 | doi = 10.1038/362337a0}}</ref> until 4,000 to 7,000 years ago.
*Large mammals should have been able to migrate, permanently or seasonally, if they found the temperature too extreme, the breeding season too short, or the rainfall too sparse or unpredictable.<ref name="Pennycuick1979">{{cite book | author = Pennycuick, C.J. | year = 1979 | title = ''Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of "Foraging radius." In'' Serengetti: Dynamics of an Ecosystem ''(ed. A.R.E. Sinclair and M. Norton-Griffiths)'' | pages = 164–85 | location = Chicago | publisher = Univ. Chicago Press | isbn = 0-226-76029-4}}</ref> Seasons vary geographically. By migrating away from the [[equator]], herbivores could have found areas with growing seasons more favorable for finding food and breeding successfully. Modern-day [[African elephant]]s migrate during periods of [[drought]] to places where there is apt to be water.<ref name="Wing & Buss1970">{{cite journal | author = Wing, L.D. & Buss, I.O. | year = 1970 | title = Elephants and Forests | journal = Wildl. Mong. | issue = 19}}</ref>
*Large animals store more fat in their bodies than do medium-sized animals<ref name="Owen-Smith1992">{{cite book | author = Owen-Smith, R.N. | year = 1992 | title = Megaherbivores: The influence of very large body size on ecology. Cambridge studies in ecology. | location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge Univ. Press | isbn = 0-521-42637-5}}</ref> and this should have allowed them to compensate for extreme seasonal fluctuations in food availability.
The extinction of the megafauna could have caused the disappearance of the mammoth steppe. Alaska now has low nutrient soil unable to support bison, mammoths, and horses. R. Dale Guthrie has claimed this as a cause of the extinction of the megafauna there; however, he may be interpeting it backwards. Chapin (Chapin 1980) showed that simply adding fertilizer to the soil in Alaska could make grasses grow again like they did in the era of the mammoth steppe. Possibly, the extinction of the megafauna and the correspoding loss of dung is what led to low nutrient levels in modern day soil and therefore is why the landscape can no longer support megafauna.

== Shortcomings of both Climate Change and Overkill ==
Neither the Overkill ''[[sensu stricto]]'' nor Climate Change hypotheses explain several observations.
*[[Herbivory|Browsers]], mixed feeders and non-ruminant grazer species suffered most, while ruminant grazers generally survived. However a broader scope of overkill predicts this perfectly because changes in vegetation wrought by [[anthropogenic]] fire preferentially selects against browse species.
*Many surviving mammal species were sharply diminished in size, a fact which many authors have pointed out perfectly fits the Overkill Hypothesis and is reflected in the dwarfing of many hunted species even within the 20th century.
Because of perceived shortcomings of the Overkill or Climate Change hypotheses alone, some scientists support a combination of Climate Change and Overkill.

==Hyperdisease Hypothesis==
=== Theory ===

The Hyperdisease Hypothesis attributes the extinction of large mammals during the late Pleistocene to indirect effects of the newly arrived [[Indigenous peoples|aboriginal humans]].<ref name="MacPhee&Marx1997">{{cite book | author = MacFee, R.D.E. & Marx, P.A. | year = 1997 | title = ''Humans, hyperdisease and first-contact extinctions. In'' Natural Change and Human Impact in Madagascar ''(eds S. Goodman & B.D. Patterson)'' | location = Washington D.C. | publisher = Smithsonian Press | pages = 169–217 | isbn = 1-56098-683-2}}</ref><ref name="MacPhee&Marx1998">{{cite web | author = MacFee, R.D.E. & Marx, P.A. | date = 1998 | title = Lightning Strikes Twice: Blitzkrieg, Hyperdisease, and Global Explanations of the Late Quaternary Catastrophic Extinctions | publisher = American Museum of Natural History | url = http://www.amnh.biz/science/biodiversity/extinction/Day1/bytes/MacPheePres.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference| first = Ross D.E.| last = MacPhee| coauthors = Preston Marx| title = The 40,000-year Plague: Humans, Hyperdisease, and First-Contact Extinctions| booktitle = Natural Change and Human Impact in Madagascar| pages = 169-217| publisher = Smithsonian Institution Press| date = 1997| location = Washington, D.C.}}</ref>
The Hyperdisease Hypothesis proposes that humans or animals traveling with them (e.g., domestic dogs) introduced one or more highly [[virulent]] diseases into vulnerable populations of native mammals, eventually causing extinctions. The extinction was biased toward larger-sized species because smaller species have greater resilience because of their life history traits (e.g., shorter gestation time, greater population sizes, etc). Humans are thought to be the cause because other earlier immigrations of mammals into North America from Eurasia did not cause extinctions.<ref name="MacPhee&Marx1997"/>

Diseases imported by people have been responsible for extinctions in the recent past; for example, bringing avian [[malaria]] to Hawaii has had a major impact on the isolated birds of the island. MacPhee is searching [[DNA]] in mammoth remains from [[Wrangel Island]] in [[Siberia]]; he hopes to find evidence of [[infection]].

If a disease was indeed responsible for the end-Pleistocene extinctions, then there are several criteria it must satisfy (see Table 7.3 in MacPhee & Marx 1997). First, the [[pathogen]] must have a stable [[Asymptomatic carrier|carrier]] state in a reservoir species. That is, it must be able to sustain itself in the environment when there are no susceptible [[Host (biology)|host]]s available to infect. Second, the pathogen must have a high infection rate, such that it is able to infect virtually all individuals of all ages and sexes encountered. Third, it must be extremely lethal, with a mortality rate of c. 50–75%. Finally, it must have the ability to infect multiple host species without posing a serious threat to humans. Humans may be infected, but the disease must not be highly lethal or able to cause an [[epidemic]].

One suggestion is that pathogens were transmitted by the expanding [[human]]s via the domesticated [[dog]]s they brought with them.<ref>Fiedel, S 2005. Man's best friend: mammoth's worst enemy? World Archaeology 37: 11-35</ref> Unfortunately for such a theory it can not account for several major extinction events, notably Australia and North America. Dogs did not arrive in Australia until approximately 35,000 years after the first humans arrived and approximately 30,000 years after the megafaunal extinction was complete and as such can not be implicated. In contrast numerous species including wolves, mammoths, camelids and horses had emigrated continually between Asia and North America over the past 100,000 years. For the disease hypothesis to be applicable in the case of the Americas it would require that the population remain immunologically naive despite this constant transmission of genetic and pathogenic material.

===Shortcomings of the Hyperdisease Hypothesis===
*No evidence of disease has been found.
*Generally speaking, disease has to be very virulent to kill off all the individuals in a [[genus]] or [[species]]. Even such a virulent disease as [[West Nile Virus]] is unlikely to have caused extinction.<ref name="Lyons et al2004">{{cite journal | author = Lyons, K, Smith, F.A., Wagner, P.J., White, E.P., and Brown, J.,H. | year = 2004 | title = Was a 'hyperdisease' responsible for the late Pleistocene megafaunal extinction? | journal = Ecology | volume = 7 | pages = 859–68 | url = http://biology.unm.edu/JHBrown/Published/WasAHyperdiseaseResponsible.x.pdf | format = {{Dead link|date=June 2008}} – [http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=author%3A+intitle%3AWas+a+%27hyperdisease%27+responsible+for+the+late+Pleistocene+megafaunal+extinction%3F&as_publication=Ecology&as_ylo=2004&as_yhi=2004&btnG=Search Scholar search]}}</ref>
*The disease would need to be implausibly selective while being simultaneously implausibly broad. Such a disease needs to be capable of killing of three species of ''bison'' while leaving a third very closely related species unaffected. It would need to be capable of killing off flightless birds while leaving closely related flighted species unaffected. Yet while remaining sufficiently selective to afflict only individual species within genera it must be capable of fatally infecting across such clades as birds, [[marsupial]]s, [[placental]]s, [[testudine]]s, and [[crocodilian]]s. No disease with such a broad scope of fatal infectivity is known, much less one that remains simultaneously incapable of infecting numerous closely related species within those disparate clades.

==Second-Order Predation==
[[Image:CombinedHypothesisPleistoceneExtinction.gif|150px|thumb|right|Combination Hypotheses: Climate Change, Overkill + Climate Change, Second-Order Predation + Climate Change]]
[[Image:SingleHypothesisPleistoceneExtinctions.gif|150px|thumb|left|Overkill Hypothesis and Second-Order Predation]]
=== Scenario ===
The Second-Order Predation Hypothesis says that as humans entered the New World they continued their policy of killing predators, which upset the [[Homeostasis#Ecological_homeostasis|ecological balance]] of the continent causing [[overpopulation]], environmental exhaustion, and environmental collapse. The hypothesis accounts for changes in animal, plant, and, human populations.

The scenario is as follows:
*After the arrival of ''H. sapiens'' in the New World, existing predators must share the prey populations with this new predator. Because of this competition, populations of original, or first-order, predators cannot find enough food they are in direct competition with humans.
*Second-order predation begins as humans begin to kill predators.
*Prey populations are no longer well controlled by predation. Killing of nonhuman predators by ''H. sapiens'' reduces their numbers to a point where these predators no longer regulate the size of the prey populations.
*Lack of regulation by first-order predators triggers [[Boom and bust|boom-and-bust]] cycles in prey populations. Prey populations expand and consequently overgraze and over-browse the land. Soon the environment is no longer able to support them. As a result, many herbivores starve. Species that rely on the slowest recruiting food become extinct, followed by species that cannot extract the maximum benefit from every bit of their food.
*Boom-bust cycles in herbivore populations change the nature of the vegetative environment, with consequent climatic impacts on relative humidity and continentality. Through overgrazing and overbrowsing, mixed parkland becomes grassland, and climatic continentality increases.

=== Support ===
This has been supported by a computer model, the Pleistocene Extinction Model (PEM), which, using the same assumptions and values, compares hypotheses with Second-Order Predation. The findings are that Second Order-Predation is more consistent with extinction than is Overkill<ref name="WhitneySmith2004">{{cite book | author = Whitney-Smith, E. | year = 2004 | title = ''Late Pleistocene extinctions through second-order predation. In'' Settlement of the American Continents: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Biogeography ''(eds C. M. Barton, G. A. Clark, D. R. Yesner)'' | location = Tucson, AZ | publisher = University of Arizona Press | isbn = 0-8165-2323-1}}</ref> (results graph at left). The PEM was run to test combination hypotheses by artificially introducing sufficient climate change to cause extinction. When Overkill and Climate Change are combined they balance each other out. Climate Change reduces the number of plants, Overkill removes animals, therefore fewer plants are eaten. Second-Order Predation combined with Climate Change exacerbates the extinction<ref name="WhitneySmith2006">{{cite book | author = Whitney-Smith, E. | year = 2006 | title = Clovis and Extinctions – Overkill, Second Order Predation, Environmental Degradation in a Non-equilibrium Ecosystem "Clovis Age Continent" | publisher = University of New Mexico Press}}</ref> (results graph at right).

=== Second-Order Predation and other theories ===
*'''Climate Change''': Second-Order Predation accounts for the changes in vegetation, which in turn may account for the increase in continentality. Since the extinction is due to destruction of habitat it accounts for the loss of animals not hunted by humans. Second-Order Predation accounts for the dwarfing of animals as well as extinctions since animals that could survive and reproduce on less food would be selectively favored.
*'''Hyperdisease''': The reduction of carnivores could have been from distemper or other carnivore disease carried by domestic dogs.
*'''Overkill''': The observation that extinctions follow the introduction of humans is supported by the Second-Order Predation hypothesis.

=== Shortcomings of the Second-Order Predation Hypothesis ===
*No evidence of humans hunting predators has been found in the New World though it has been found in Siberia.<ref name="Soffer1985"> {{cite book | author = Soffer, O. | year =1985 | title = The Upper Paleolithic of the Central Russian Plain | location = Orlando, Florida | publisher = Academic Press | isbn = 0-12-654270-8}}</ref>
*Like all climate-based theories, the model predicts large extinctions in response to climate change and without human hunting, so it is unable to explain why these extinctions did not occur during numerous deglaciations of equal intensity, or why they did not occur at high latitudes in Eurasia.
*It assumes decreases in vegetation due to climate change, but deglaciation doubled the habitable area of North America.
*Climate change had little effect on vegetation or the distribution of small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians throughout the southern half of the United States, not to mention tropical regions throughout the Americas that also suffered catastrophic extinctions.
*Any vegetational changes that did occur failed to cause almost any extinctions of small vertebrates, and they are more narrowly distributed on average.
*The model specifically assumes high extinction rates in grasslands, but most extinct species ranged across numerous vegetation zones, historical population densities of ungulates were very high in the Great Plains, these environments support high ungulate diversity throughout Africa, and extinction intensity was equally severe in forested environments.
*It is unable to explain why large herbivore populations were not regulated by surviving carnivores such as grizzly bears, wolves, pumas, and jaguars whose populations would have increased rapidly in response to the loss of competitors.
*It does not explain why almost all extinct carnivores were large herbivore specialists such as sabre toothed cats and short faced bears, but most hypocarnivores and generalized carnivores survived.
*There is no historical evidence of boom and bust cycles causing even local extinctions in regions where large mammal predators have been driven extinct by hunting. The recent hunting out of remaining predators throughout most of the United States has not caused massive vegetational change or dramatic boom and bust cycles in ungulates.
*It is not spatially explicit and does not track predator and prey species separately, whereas the multispecies overkill model does both.
*The multispecies model produces a mass extinction through indirect competition between herbivore species: small species with high reproductive rates subsidize predation on large species with low reproductive rates.<ref name="Alroy2001"/> The fact that all prey species are lumped in the Pleistocene Extinction Model explains why it performs poorly without adding extra assumptions about climate change and cascade effects.
*Everything explained by this model also is explained by the multispecies model, but with less assumptions, so this one is not parsimonious.

== Comet Hypothesis ==
First publicly presented at the Spring 2007 joint assembly of the [[American Geophysical Union]] in Acapulco, Mexico, the [[Younger Dryas event|comet hypothesis]] suggests that the mass extinction was caused by a swarm of comets 12,900 years ago. Debate around this hypothesis has included, among other things, the lack of an impact crater, relatively small increased level of [[Iridium]] in the soil, and the highly improbable nature of such an event . Using [[photomicrograph]] analysis, research published in January 2009 has found evidence of [[nanodiamonds]] in the soil from six sites across North America including Arizona, Minnesota, Oklahoma, South Carolina and two Canadian sites. Similar research found nanodiamonds in the [[Greenland ice sheet]].<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2009-01-01-mammothimpact_N.htm Study links mammoth extinction, comets], [[USA Today]], Updated 1/2/2009 7:43 AM, retrieved 4 Apr 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/clovis/debate.html The Extinction Debate],by Evan Hadingham, [[NOVA]], date retrieved 4 Apr 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/clovis/about.html Last Extinction], [[NOVA]],TV Program Description,Original PBS Broadcast Date: March 31, 2009, date retrieved 4 Apr 2009</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
=== Hyperdisease Hypothesis ===
*[http://www.amnh.biz/science/biodiversity/extinction/Day1/bytes/MacPheePres.html American Museum of Natural History]
*[http://biology.unm.edu/JHBrown/Published/WasAHyperdiseaseResponsible.x.pdf J.H. Brown (University of New Mexico). Was a hyperdisease responsible?]

=== Second-Order Predation ===
*[http://quaternary.net Elin Whitney-Smith]

[[Category:Extinction events]]
[[Category:Pleistocene]]

[[cs:Vymírání v pleistocénu]]