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Assisi

2009-02-25T09:25:53Z

85.18.14.7: /* External links */

{{Two other uses|the Italian town|the type of embroidery|Assisi embroidery|the Assisi meteorite of 1886|Meteorite falls}}
{{Infobox CityIT |
img_coa = Assisi-Stemma.png|
official_name = Comune di Assisi [[Image:Assisi z01.jpg|300px]]|
name = Assisi|
mapx = 43.06|
mapy = 12.62|
region = [[Umbria]] |
province = [[Province of Perugia|Perugia]] (PG) |
elevation_m = 424|
area_total_km2 = 186|
population_as_of = [[December 31]], [[2004]]|
population_total = 26196|
population_density_km2 = 131|
timezone = [[Central European Time|CET]], [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1 |
coordinates = {{coord|43|04|N|12|37|E|}}|
frazioni = see [[Assisi#Frazioni|list]]|
telephone = 075|
postalcode = 06081|
gentilic = Assisani|
saint = [[Rufinus of Assisi|St. Rufinus]]|
day = [[August 12]]|
mayor = Claudio Ricci (since May 2006)|
website = [http://www.comune.assisi.pg.it www.comune.assisi.pg.it] |
}}
'''Assisi''' ({{pronEng|əˈsiːzi}} or {{IPA|/əˈsiːsi/}}) ({{lang-la|Asisium}}), is a [[town]] in [[Italy]] in [[province of Perugia]], [[Italy]], in the [[Umbria]] [[Regions of Italy|region]], on the western flank of [[Monte Subasio]]. It is the birthplace of [[St Francis of Assisi|St. Francis]], who founded the [[Franciscan]] religious order in the town in 1208, and [[Clare of Assisi|St. Clare]] (Chiara d'Offreducci), the founder of the [[Poor Clares]]. [[Saint Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows]] of the 19th century was also born in Assisi.

== History ==
Around 1000 BC a wave of immigrants settled in the upper [[Tiber]] valley as far as the [[Adriatic Sea]] and also in the neighbourhood of Assisi. These were the [[Umbrians]], living in small fortified settlements on high ground. From 450 BC these settlements were gradually taken over by the [[Etruscans]]. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] took control of central Italy by the [[Battle of Sentinum]] in 295 BC. They built the flourishing ''municipium'' Asisium on a series of terraces on Monte Subasio. Roman remains can still be found in Assisi : city walls, the forum (now Piazza del Comune), a theatre, an amphitheatre and the Temple of Minerva (now transformed into the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva).

In 238 AD Assisi was converted to Christianity by bishop [[Rufinus of Assisi|Rufino]], who was martyred at Costano. According to tradition, his remains rest in the Cathedral Church of San Rufino in Assisi.

The [[Ostrogoth]]s of king [[Totila]] destroyed most of the town in 545. Assisi then came under the rule of the [[Lombards]] as part of the Lombard and then Frankish [[Duchy of Spoleto]].

The thriving [[Medieval commune|commune]] became an independent [[Ghibelline]] commune in the 11th century. Constantly [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|struggling with the Guelph]] [[Perugia]], it was during one of those battles, the battle at Ponte San Giovanni, that Francesco di Bernardone, ([[Saint Francis of Assisi]]), was taken prisoner, setting in motion the events that eventually led him to live as a beggar, renounce the world and establish the [[Order of Friars Minor]].

The city, which had remained within the confines of the Roman walls, began to expand outside these walls in the 13th century. In this period the city was under papal jurisdiction. The Rocca Maggiore, the imperial fortress on top of the hill above the city, which had been plundered by the people in 1189, was rebuilt in 1367 on orders of the papal legate, cardinal [[Gil de Albornoz]].

In the beginning Assisi fell under the rule of Perugia and later under several despots, such as the soldier of fortune [[Biordo Michelotti]], [[Gian Galeazzo Visconti]] and his successor [[Francesco I Sforza]], dukes of Milan, [[Jacopo Piccinino]] and [[Federico II da Montefeltro]], lord of [[Urbino]]. The city went into a deep decline through the plague of the [[Black Death]] in 1348.

The city came again under papal jurisdiction under the rule of [[Pope Pius II]] (1458-1464).

[[Image:Anderson, Domenico (1854-1938) - n. 15432 - Assisi - Carro con buoi e fontana.jpg|thumb|left|Piazza del Duomo, 19th century.]]
In 1569 construction was started of the [[Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli]]. During the Renaissance and in later centuries, the city continued to develop peacefully, as the 17th-century palazzi of the Bernabei and Giacobetti attest.

Now the site of many a pilgrimage, Assisi is linked in legend with its native son, St. Francis. The gentle saint founded the Franciscan order and shares honors with [[St. Catherine of Siena]] as the patron saint of Italy. He is remembered by many, even non-Christians, as a lover of nature (his preaching to an audience of birds is one of the legends of his life).

Assisi was hit by the devastating twin earthquakes that shook [[Umbria]] in 1997, but the recovery and restoration have been remarkable, although much remains to be done. Massive damage was caused to many historical sites, but the major attraction, the Basilica di San Francesco, reopened less than two years later.

== Main sights ==
{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Assisi, the Basilica of San Francesco and Other Franciscan Sites
| Image = [[Image:Assisi-alley01.jpg|250px|An alley in Assisi.]]
| State Party = {{ITA}}
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii, iv, vi
| ID = 990
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Europe|Europe and North America]]
| Year = 2000
| Session = 24th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/990
}}
=== Churches ===

* The [[Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi]] (St. Francis) is a [[World Heritage Site]]. The Franciscan monastery, il [[Sacro Convento]], and the lower and upper church (''Basilica inferiore e superiore'') of St Francis were begun immediately after his [[canonization]] in 1228, and completed in 1253. The lower church has [[fresco]]s by renowned late-medieval [[artist]]s [[Cimabue]] and [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]]; in the upper church are frescos of scenes in the life of St. Francis previously ascribed to Giotto and now thought to be by artists of the circle of [[Pietro Cavallini]] of Rome. The Basilica was badly damaged by the earthquake of [[September 26]], [[1997]], when part of the vault collapsed, killing four people inside the church and carrying with it a fresco by Cimabue. The edifice and was closed for two years for restoration.
*Santa Maria Maggiore (St. Mary the Greater), the earliest extant church in Assisi.
*The [[Cathedral of San Rufino]] (St. Rufinus), with a [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] [[façade]] with three [[rose windows]] and a 16th‑century interior; part of it is built on a [[Roman empire|Roman]] [[cistern]].
*[[Basilica of Santa Chiara]] (St Clare) with its massive lateral [[buttress]]es, rose window, and simple [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] interior, begun in 1257, contains the [[tomb]] of the [[St. Clare|saint]] and 13th‑century [[frescoes]] and [[paintings]].
*[[Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli]] (St. Mary of the Angels), which houses the [[Porziuncola]].
*[[Chiesa Nuova (Assisi)|Chiesa Nuova]], built over the presumed parental home of St. Francis

=== Other landmarks ===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
The town is dominated by two medieval [[castle]]s. The larger, called ''[[Rocca|Rocca Maggiore]]'', is a massive presence meant to intimidate the people of the town: it was built by [[Gil Alvarez De Albornoz|Cardinal Albornoz]] (1367) and added to by Popes [[Pius II]] and [[Paul III]]. The smaller of the two was built much earlier, in the Roman era. However, not all of it stands, and only a small portion and three towers are open to the public.

[[UNESCO]] collectively designated the major monuments and urban fabric of Assisi as a [[World Heritage Site]].
[[Image:Pietro lorenzetti, compianto (dettaglio) basilica inferiore di assisi (1310-1329).jpg|thumb|left|[[Pietro Lorenzetti]] [[fresco]] detail, ''Assisi Basilica'', 1310-1329.]]
===Art===
:''See also [[Commons:Gallery of Art in Assisi|Art in Assisi]]''

Assisi has had a rich tradition of art through the centuries and is now home to a number of well known artistic works.<ref>Lorentzeti works at Web Gallery of Art [http://www.wga.hu/tours/siena/index_d.html]</ref>

Artists [[Pietro Lorenzetti]] and [[Simone Martini]] worked shoulder to shoulder at Assisi. The [[Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi]] includes a number of artistic works. Simone Martini's 1317 fresco there reflects the influence of [[Giotto]] in realism and the use of brilliant colors. Lorenzetti's fresco at the lower church of the Basilica includes a series of panels depicting the [[Crucifixion of Jesus]], [[Deposition from the Cross]], and [[Entombment of Christ]]. The figures Lorenzetti painted display emotions, yet the figures in these scenes are governed by geometric emotional interactions, unlike many prior depictions which appeared to be independent iconic aggregations. Lorenzetti's 1330 [[Madonna dei Tramonti]] also reflects the ongoing influence of [[Giotto]] on his [[Roman Catholic Marian art|Marian art]], midway through his career.<ref>Uffizi Galleries [http://www.virtualuffizi.com/biography/Pietro-Lorenzetti-s.htm]</ref><ref>Umbria Art [http://www.livingitaly.com/Umbria_Art_Cities/umbria_assisi.htm]</ref>

== Culture ==
Festival Calendimaggio, held on May 1-5, si a re-enactment of medieval and Renaissance life in the form of a challenge between the upper faction and the lower faction of the town. It includes processions, theatrical presentations, flag-weavers and dances.

[[Assisi Embroidery]] is a form of counted-thread [[embroidery]] which has been practised in Assisi since the 13th century.

Today the town has many groups coming to enjoy the simple peace of St. Francis. One such group has restored an 11th century room and added altars to the world's religions.

== Saints ==
Assisi was the home of several [[saints]]. They include:

*[[Agnes of Assisi]]
*[[Clare of Assisi]]
*[[Francis of Assisi]]
*[[Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows]]
*[[Rufinus of Assisi]]
*[[Vitalis of Assisi]]

== ''[[Frazioni]]'' ==
[[Armenzano]], Capodacqua, Castelnuovo, Costa di Trex, Colle delle Forche, Morra, Palazzo di Assisi, Paradiso, Passaggio d'Assisi, [[Petrignano d'Assisi]], Pieve San Nicolò, Porziano, Rivotorto, Rocca Sant'Angelo, San Damiano, San Gregorio, [[Santa Maria degli Angeli (Assisi)|Santa Maria degli Angeli]], Santa Maria Lignano, San Vitale, Sterpeto, Torchiagina, [[Tordandrea]], Tordibetto, Viole.

== Twin cities ==
*{{flagicon|Palestine}} [[Bethlehem]], [[Palestinian National Authority]]
*{{flagicon|United States}} [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[United States]]
==Sources==
{{Reflist}}
{{Commons|Assisi}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.360tuscany.net/?area=Assisi&mapArea=Assisi 360 Assisi] - Map, Guide & 360° Pictures
* [http://www.assisionline.com/ Assisi OnLine] (Ita-Eng-Fra-Deu-Spa)
* [http://www.aliassisi.it/ Accademia Lingua Italiana Assisi ] (Italian language courses)

{{World Heritage Sites in Italy}}
{{Province of Perugia}}

[[Category:Assisi| ]]
[[Category:Hilltowns in Italy]]
[[Category:Hilltowns in Umbria]]
[[Category:Castles in Italy]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Italy]]

[[ar:أسيزي]]
[[bar:Assisi]]
[[bg:Асизи]]
[[ca:Assís]]
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[[et:Assisi]]
[[es:Asís]]
[[eo:Asizo]]
[[fr:Assise (Italie)]]
[[gl:Asís - Assisi]]
[[ko:아시시]]
[[id:Assisi]]
[[it:Assisi]]
[[he:אסיזי]]
[[la:Asisium]]
[[lt:Asyžius]]
[[hu:Assisi]]
[[mk:Асизи]]
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[[ja:アッシジ]]
[[nap:Assisi]]
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[[pl:Asyż]]
[[pt:Assis (Itália)]]
[[ro:Assisi]]
[[ru:Ассизи]]
[[simple:Assisi]]
[[sh:Assisi]]
[[fi:Assisi]]
[[sv:Assisi]]
[[tl:Lungsod ng Assisi]]
[[th:อาซิซิ]]
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[[uk:Ассізі]]
[[vec:Asixi]]
[[vo:Assisi]]
[[zh-yue:阿思思]]
[[zh:阿西西]]

Kiteboarding

2008-11-20T15:55:58Z

85.18.14.7: /* External links */

[[Image:KiteBoardingCRGorge.jpg|thumb|Kitesurfing in the [[Columbia River]] Gorge]]
[[Image:Kitesurfing.jpg|thumb|right|Kitesurfers use [[power kite]]s hooked into harnesses to glide through water and air]]
[[Image:Kitesurfing Port Douglas.jpg|thumb|Kitesurfing at [[Port Douglas, Queensland|Port Douglas]], Australia]]
[[Image:Kite surfing Oahu.jpg|thumb|right|Kite surfing on O‘ahu in Hawai‘i with wind-surfer catching the wave break]]

'''Kitesurfing''', '''kiteboarding''', uses wind power to pull a rider through the water on a small [[surfboard]] or a kiteboard (which is like a [[wakeboard]]). Generally kiteboarding refers to a style of riding known as free-style or [[wakestyle]] where as kitesurfing is more [[waveriding]] oriented. These two styles usually require different boards and specific performance kites.

A ''kitesurfer'' or ''kiteboarder'' uses f board with or without foot-straps or bindings, combined with the power of a large controllable kite to propel him- or herself and the board across the water. In 2006, the number of kitesurfers has been estimated at around 150,000 to 210,000, with 114,465 inflatable kites sold that same year.<ref>[http://www.sbckiteboard.com/News?news_id=418&uniqid=1015 SBC Kiteboard Magazine 2006 industry survey] www.sbckiteboard.com</ref>

The sport is becoming safer due to innovations in kite design, safety release systems, and instruction{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Many riding styles have evolved to suit different types of riders and conditions, such as wakestyle, waveriding, freestyle, jumping, and cruising.

==History==
The Chinese are credited with using kites for propulsion in the 13th century.<ref name="Jelling">Jakob Jelling [http://www.kitesurfingnow.com/kitesurfing-facts/history-of-kitesurfing.shtml History of kitesurfing] Kitesurfingnow</ref>

In the 1800s [[George Pocock (inventor)|George Pocock]] used kites of increased size to propel carts on land and ships on the water, using a 4-line control system - the same system in common use today. Both carts and boats were able to turn and sail upwind. The kites could be flown for sustained periods.<ref name="Jelling"/> The intention was to establish kitepower as an alternative to horsepower, partly to avoid the hated "horse tax" that was levied at that time.<ref name="Lynn1">Peter Lynn [http://www.aquilandiafestival.com/inter2-surf1.htm A brief history of kitesurfing], Aquilandia.com, 2006</ref> In 1903, aviation pioneer [[Samuel Cody]] developed "[[man-lifting kite]]s" and succeeded in crossing the [[English channel]] in a small collapsible canvas boat powered by a kite<ref>[http://www.design-technology.org/military.htm Samuel Franklin Cody and his man-lifting kite], www.design-technology.org, 2005</ref>

In the late 1970s the development of [[Kevlar]] then [[Dyneema|Spectra]] flying lines and more controllable kites with improved efficiency contributed to practical kite traction. In 1978, Ian Day's "FlexiFoil" kite-powered Tornado [[catamaran]] exceeded 40 km/h.

Through the 1980s there were sporadic and occasionally successful attempts to combine kites with canoes, [[ice skates]], snow skis,<ref name=Harris1>Mark Harris [http://alpha2.bmc.uu.se/mark/kayak/kayak_kite.html Sea kayaking and kites], July 2002</ref> [[water ski]]s and [[roller skates]].

Through out the 70s and early 80s Dieter Strasilla from Germany developed parachute-skiing and later perfected a kiteskiing system using self made paragliders and a ball-socket swivel allowing the pilot to kitesail upwind and uphill but also to take off into the air at will<ref>www.skywing.de</ref>. Strasilla and his friend Andrea Kuhn/Switzerland used this invention also in combination with surfboards and Skurfs, grasskies and selfmade buggies. One of his patents describes 1979 the first time an inflatable kite design for kitesurfing<ref>Patent DE2933050</ref>.

Two brothers, Bruno Legaignoux and Dominique Legaignoux, from the Atlantic coast of France, developed some kite designs for kitesurfing in the late 1970s early 1980s and patented an inflatable kite design in November 1984, which has since been used by many companies to develop their own products.

In 1990, practical [[kite buggy]]ing was pioneered by [[Peter Lynn]] at Argyle Park in [[Ashburton, New Zealand]]. Lynn coupled a three-wheeled buggy with a forerunner of the modern [[parafoil]] kite. Kite buggying proved to be very popular worldwide, with over 14,000 buggies sold up to 1999.

The development of modern day kitesurfing by the Roeselers in the USA and the Legaignoux in France carried on in parallel to buggying. Bill Roeseler, a [[Boeing]] [[aerodynamicist]], and his son Corey Roeseler patented the "KiteSki" system which consisted of water skis powered by a two line delta style kite controlled via a bar mounted combined winch/brake. The KiteSki was commercially available in 1994. The kite had a rudimentary water launch capability and could go upwind. In 1995, Corey Roeseler visited Peter Lynn at New Zealand's Lake Clearwater in the Ashburton Alpine Lakes area, demonstrating speed, balance and upwind angle on his 'ski'. In the late 1990s, Corey's ski evolved to a single board similar to a surfboard.<ref name="Lynn1"/>

In 1996 [[Laird Hamilton]] and [[Manu Bertin]] were instrumental in demonstrating and popularising kitesurfing off the [[Hawaii]]an coast of [[Maui]].

In 1997 the Legaignoux brothers developed and sold the breakthrough "Wipika" kite design which had a structure of preformed inflatable tubes and a simple bridle system to the wingtips, both of which greatly assisted water re-launch. Bruno Legaignoux has continued to improve kite designs, including developing the [[bow kite]] design, which has been licensed to many kite manufacturers.

In 1997, specialist kiteboards were developed by Raphaël Salles and Laurent Ness. By 1998 kitesurfing had become a mainstream sport, and several schools were teaching kitesurfing. The first competition was held on [[Maui]] in September 1998 and won by Flash Austin.<ref name="Lynn1"/>

By 1999 single direction boards derived from windsurfing and surfing designs became the dominant form of kiteboard. From 2001 onwards, wakeboard style bi-directional boards became more popular.

==Techniques==
===Kitesurfing basics===
Kiteboarding sometimes can pose hazards to kitesurfers, beachgoers, bystanders and others on the water. Many problems and dangers that may be encountered while learning kiting (some of which may not be immediately obvious) can be avoided or minimized by taking professional instruction through lesson centers.

Kitesurfing schools provide courses and lessons to teach various skills including kite launching, flying, landing, usage of the bar, lines and safety devices.
[[Image:kitebaording.jpg|thumb|right]]
[[Image:Slufter beach.jpg|thumb|right|Kitesurfers at Slufter beach on the [[Maasvlakte]] in [[Rotterdam]]]]

===Turning===
A beginner can turn by putting the kite up into neutral, stopping, sinking backwards into the water, then turning the kite in the opposite direction and starting again. A '''heel turn jibe''' is a quicker, more skillful turn that is executed by slowing down, flattening the board, then reversing the board flat on the water by bringing the rear foot around downwind to eventually become the new leading foot. The direction of the kite is then reversed, which swings the surfer's path in a half circle, centered on the kite. As the turn ends, the kite is flown over to be in front of the surfer again.<ref>[http://www.kitesurfingschool.org/howto.htm#9.%20Jibing Jibing], How To Kitesurf, www.kitesurfingschool.org</ref> Turns away from the wind steal lift.

A poorly executed turn will "fly" the surfer, and is often followed by a tumble if the surfer can't put the board down at the right angle. It is important to use safety equipment like a deadman system where the kite lines can be detached from the surfer's harness quickly because the kite can (unintentionally) power up after tumbles and pull the rider under water or against objects at uncontrollable speeds. Safety knives are a must to quickly cut lines in the event of dangerous entanglements. After a tumble, detangling and re-launching the kite can be difficult. Experienced kite surfers try to keep the kite in the air.

If the kite is only turned partially, or is not straightened at the right rate, a turning surfer can swing up and be dragged into the air by the kite, then get hurt when he recontacts the surface. Even in water, flying a power kite can be a brutal contact sport. The kite is usually 20 to 27 meters (60 to 100 ft.) in the air, and a careless turn in high winds can easily swing one five meters (two stories) into the air and down to an uncontrolled impact.

===Controlled flying and jumping===
[[Image:Kitesurf jump aerial.jpg|thumb|right|Jumping]]
Controlled flying is possible and one of the biggest attractions of the sport, but more difficult and dangerous. Flying occurs when the momentum of the surfer pulls the kite. Before jumping, the surfer builds up as much tension as possible by accelerating and strongly edging the board. Then in controlled, straight flight, the kite is flown quickly (snapped) to an overhead position, usually just as the surfer goes over a wave. The kite must then be quickly turned to glide in the direction of motion, usually into the wind. A large variety of maneuvers can be performed while jumping such as rotations, taking the board off one's feet etc.

Jumping has associated risks and as such riders need choose locations with suitably sized downwind clear areas usually referred to as the downwind buffer zone. Much cause for litigation has come about due to riders not exercising due care when jumping and placing the public at risk or themselves should they land on hard objects.

===Board grabs===
[[Image:boardgrabs.svg|thumb|Board Grabs names]]
Board grabs are common tricks performed while a rider is jumping or has gained air from popping by grabbing the board in a number of positions with either hand. Each grab has a different name dependent on which part of the board is grabbed and with which hand it is grabbed by. Rear hand grabs are known as ''Crail'', ''Indy'', ''Trindy'', ''Tail'', ''Tailfish'' and ''Stalefish''; while front hand grabs are known as ''Slob'', ''Mute'', ''Seatbelt'', ''Melon'', ''Lien'' and ''Nose''. Names originate from other board sports like [[Grabs (skateboarding)|skateboarding]] and [[snowboarding]], such as [[Tindy]] and [[Tailfish]].

A number of grabs can also be combined into one trick. A rider may perform a ''tail grab going to indy'', where they move their rear hand from the back of the board to the middle the toe side edge.

==Assessing the wind==
===Wind strength and kite sizes===
Kitesurfers change kite size and/or line length from the harness to the kite depending on wind strength -- stronger winds call for a smaller kite to prevent overpower situations. It is important to avoid using too large a kite, particularly when you are new to the sport.

Kites come in different aspect ratios (AR). The AR refers to how much of the kite is exposed to the wind and what angle the wind takes as it passes through the kite. Newer kites also provide a "depower" option to reduce the power in the kite. By using depower, the kite's angle of attack to the wind is reduced, thereby catching less wind in the kite and reducing the power or pull.

The more optimal these factors, the lower wind speed you will be able to perform in. A 170 lb. rider will need about 8 to 10 [[Knot (nautical)|knots]] sustained wind and a larger kite (16 m² or bigger). In 12 - 15 knots you can have a lot of fun by doing low jumps and freestyle maneuvers. 16 - 20 knots on a 16 square meter kite will allow you jumping high, while 20 to 24 knots might allow you to fly with the birds on a 12 square meter kite. An experienced rider generally carries a 'quiver' of different sized kites appropriate for different wind ranges. A typical kite quiver might include 9 m², 13 m² and 18 m² traditional "C-kites". Exact kite sizes will vary depending on rider weight and desired wind ranges.

[[Bow kite]]s have a wider wind range than C-kites, so two kite sizes (such 7 m² and 12 m²) could form an effective quiver for winds ranging from 10 to 30+ knots for a 75 kg rider{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.

===Wind direction===
It is generally held that kitesurfers should never venture onto the water in direct offshore winds (because of the possibility of being 'flown' out to sea) or direct onshore winds (because of the possibility of being thrown against beach objects, trees, rocks etc). There are two exceptions to riding in offshore winds. If you have someone with a boat or other watercraft which can assist you back to shore, or if you are riding on inland lakes where you'll inevitably hit the far shore eventually. Cross-shore wind directions are widely considered to be the best. Offshore winds are also generally gusty and much more difficult to kitesurf in.

== Locations==
{{main|Kitesurfing locations}}
[[Image:Kitesurfing in Noordwijk2.JPG|thumb|right|Kitesurfing is a popular activity in [[Noordwijk]] in the Netherlands]]
[[Image:Kitesurfing ColumbiaRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Kitesurfer on the [[Columbia River]]]]
[[Image:DrySuits.jpg|thumb|right|Kitesurfers wearing [[dry suit]]s on [[Long Island]] in winter when the air and water temperatures are near 0 °C (32 °F)]]
[[Image:Kitesurfing.JPG|thumb|right|Kitesurfing at Punta Paloma Beach, Tarifa, Spain]]

Essentially any locale with consistent, steady side-onshore winds (10 to 35+ knots), large open bodies of water and good launch areas are suitable for kitesurfing. Most kitesurfing takes place along ocean shores, usually off beaches, but it can also be practiced on large lakes and inlets and occasionally on rivers. Since kiteboarding relies heavily on favorable, consistent wind conditions, specific geographic locations tend to become popular and sought out by experienced kiteboarders. The Outer Banks of Cape Hatteras, [[North Carolina]] has some of the most consistent and steady wind for kiteboarding. This is a very popular spot for begginners to come and learn the sport of Kiteboarding.

Because of its excellent and consistent wind conditions, [[Cabarete Bay]] in the [[Dominican Republic]] has been a popular site for World Championships, including the PKRA ([[Professional Kiteboard Riders Association]]) 2008 World Tour.<ref>http://www.activecabarete.com/cabarete/index.php?http://cabareteevents.com</ref>
===Restrictions===
Kite surfing is restricted or banned in some locations. This is generally the result of safety and liability concerns, excessive general beach traffic and poorly organized practicing of kiteboarding. Bans have been reversed when kitesurfers have organized, prepared riding guidelines and negotiated with authorities for resumption of this sport. The primary reason why many experienced kite boarders stress safety and adequate quality professional instruction is to keep their sport from being banned or unduly restricted at their favourite location.

Not all locations will have explicit bans posted. Usually a simple warning from a park ranger, lifeguard or other official will let you know that kite surfing is not allowed. As a general rule, if you see other kiteboarders on the water, it is probably permitted. When new to an area or visiting be sure to ask about area restrictions and precautions before rigging up and riding. This simple courtesy should aid you in having a better riding session, avoid friction with locals and help to preserve kiting access for all. If riders offer suggestions, including not using a certain sized kite, relocating to a safer launch or not going out in current conditions, take what they say to heart. Ignoring well intended advice can cause unnecessary accidents and incidents.

== Equipment ==
In order to kitesurf, several pieces of basic gear are needed. These are detailed in the following sections.

===Power kites===
[[Image:Lei-bow-foil-kites.svg|thumb|Illustration of '''[[Leading edge inflatable kite|LEI]]'''(R), '''[[Bow kite|Bow]]'''(L) and '''[[Foil kite|Foil]]'''(T) [[Power kite]]s]]
A [[power kite]] is available in two major forms: '''[[Leading edge inflatable kite|leading edge inflatables]]''' and '''[[foil kite]]s'''.

====Leading edge inflatables====
'''[[Leading edge inflatable kite]]s''', known also as '''inflatables''', '''LEI kites''' or '''C-kites''', are typically made from ripstop nylon with an a main inflatable plastic bladder that spans across the front edge of the kite with separate smaller bladders that are perpendicular to the main bladder to form the chord or foil of the kite. The inflated bladders give the kite its shape and also keep the kite floating once dropped in the water. LEIs are the most popular choice among most kitesurfers thanks to their quicker and more direct response to the rider's inputs, easy relaunchability once crashed into the water, and resilient nature. If an LEI kite hits the water/ground too hard or is subjected on water to substantial wave activity, bladders can burst or it can be torn apart.

In 2005 '''[[Bow kite]]s''' (also known as '''flat LEI kites''') were developed with features including a concave trailing edge, a shallower arc in planform, and frequently a bridle along the leading edge. These features allow the kite's angle of attack to be altered more and thus adjust the amount and range of power being generated to a much greater degree than previous LEIs. These kites can be fully depowered, which is a significant safety feature. They can also cover a wider wind range than a comparable C-shaped kite. The ability to adjust the angle of attack also makes them easier to re-launch when lying front first on the water. [[Bow kite]]s are popular with riders from beginner to advanced levels. Most [[LEI kite]] manufacturers developed a variation of the [[bow kite]] by 2006.

However, early bow kites had the following disadvantages compared to classic LEI kites:

* They can get inverted and not fly properly
* They are a bit twitchy and not as stable
* Heavier bar pressure makes them more tiring to fly
* Lack of "sled boosting" effect when jumping<ref>[http://kitesurfingschool.org/Flat%20LEI.htm Flat Inflatable Kites, Bow Kites, Flat LEIs], Kitesufingschool.org, 27 June 2006
</ref>

In 2006 second generation flat LEI kites were developed which combine 100% depower and easy, safe relaunch with higher performance, no performance penalties and reduced bar pressure. Called '''Hybrid or SLE kites''' (Supported Leading Edge), these kites are suitable for both beginners and experts.

====Foil kites====
'''[[Foil kite]]s''' are also mostly fabric ([[ripstop nylon]]) with air pockets (air cells) to provide it with lift and a fixed bridle to maintain the kite's arc-shape, similar to a [[paraglider]]. Foil kites are designed with either an open or closed cell configuration; open cell foils rely on a constant airflow against the inlet valves to stay inflated, but are generally impossible to relaunch if they hit the water, since they have no means of avoiding deflation, and quickly become soaked.

Closed cell foils are almost identical to open cell foils except they are equipped with inlet valves to hold air in the chambers, thus keeping the kite inflated (or, at least, making the deflation extremely slow) even once in the water. Water relaunches with closed cell foil kites are simpler; a steady tug on the power lines typically allows them to take off again.

Foil kites are more popular for land or snow, where getting the kite wet is not a factor. A depowerable foil kite can cover about the same wind range as two traditional C-shape LEI kite sizes, so the rider can use a smaller kite, giving a wider depower range, although the new LEI "bow" kites have a comparable wide range. Foil kites have the advantage of not needing to have bladders manually inflated, a process which, with an LEI, can take up to ten minutes.

====Kite sizes====
Kites come in various sizes ranging from .7 square meters to 21 square meters, or even larger. In general, the larger the surface area, the more power the kite has, although kite power is also directly linked to speed, and smaller kites can be flown faster; a tapering curve results, where going to a larger kite to reach lower wind ranges becomes futile at a wind speed of around eight knots. Kites come in a variety of designs. Some kites are more rectangular in shape; others have more tapered ends; each design determines the kites flying characteristics. 'Aspect ratio' is the ratio of span to length. Wider shorter (ribbon-like) kites have less drag because the wing-tip vortices are smaller. High aspect ratios (ribbon-like kites) develop more power in lower wind speeds.

Seasoned kiteboarders will likely have 3 or more kite sizes which are needed to accommodate various wind levels, although bow kites may change this, as they present an enormous wind range; some advanced kiters use only one bow kite. Smaller kites are used by light riders, or in strong wind conditions; larger kites are used by heavier riders or in light wind conditions. Larger and smaller kiteboards have the same effect: with more available power a given rider can ride a smaller board. In general, however, most kiteboarders only need one board and one to three kites (7-12m in size).



===Other equipment===
* '''Flying lines''' are made of a very strong, technologically advanced material, frequently [[Dyneema]], in order to handle the dynamic load of various riders in unpredictable wind while maintaining a small cross-sectional profile to minimize drag. They come in many different sizes, generally between seven and thirty-three meters, although shorter and longer lines are not unheard of; experimentation with different line lengths is common in kiteboarding. The lines attach the rider's control bar to the kite at its edges or through the bridle. Most power kites use a [[Kite control systems#5-Line Bars|3, 4 or 5-line]] configuration. The 5th line is used to aid in water re-launching or adjusting the kite's angle of attack.

* The '''control bar''' is a solid metal or composite bar which attaches to the kite via the lines. The rider holds on to this bar and controls the kite by pulling at its ends, causing the kite to rotate clockwise or counter-clockwise like a bicycle. Typically a ''chicken loop'' from the control bar is attached to a latch or hook on a spreader bar on the rider's harness. Most bars also provide a quick-release safety-system and a control strap to adjust the kite's [[angle of attack]]. While kite control bars are made intentionally light, they must also be very strong, and so are usually heavier than water; "bar floats" made of foam are generally fixed to the lines right above the harness to keep the bar from sinking if lost in the water.

* A '''kite harness''' comes in seat (with leg loops), waist or vest types. The harness together with a spreader bar attaches the rider to the control bar. By hooking in, the harness takes most of the strain of the kite's pull off of the rider's arms, and spreads it across a portion of his body. This allows the rider to do jumps and other tricks while remaining attached to the kite via the control bar. Waist harnesses are by far the most popular harnesses among advanced riders, although seat harnesses make it possible to kitesurf with less effort from the rider and vest harnesses provide both flotation and impact protection. Kite harnesses look very, very similar to windsurfing or sailboarding harnesses, but are actually much different; usually a windsurfing harness used for kiteboarding will break very quickly, leading to unpredictable results including possible injury or gear loss.

[[Image:Kite-board.jpg|thumb|right|Kiteboard]]
* '''Kiteboard''', a small composite, wooden, or foam board. There are now several types of kiteboards: directional surf-style boards, wakeboard-style boards, hybrids which can go in either direction but are built to operate better in one of them, and skim-type boards. Some riders also use standard surfboards, or even long boards, although without foot straps much of the high-jump capability of a kite is lost. Twin tip boards are the easiest to learn on and are by far the most popular. The boards generally come with sandle-type footstraps that allow the rider to attach and detach from the board easily; this is required for doing board-off tricks and jumps. Bindings are used mainly by the wakestyle riders wishing to replicate wakeboarding tricks such as KGBs and other pop initiated tricks. Kiteboards come in various shapes and sizes to suit the rider's skill level, riding style, wind and water conditions.

* A '''wetsuit''' is often worn by kitesurfers, except in very warm conditions with light winds. When kitesurfing in strong winds, body heat loss is reduced by wearing a [[wetsuit]] appropriate for the conditions. A "shortie" is worn to protect the torso only, and a full suit is used for protection against cool conditions, from marine life such as [[jellyfish]], and also from abrasions if the rider is dragged by the kite. [[Dry suit]]s are also used to kitesurf in cold conditions in winter.

* A '''safety hook knife''' is widely considered required equipment. The corrosion resistant [[stainless-steel]] blade is partially protected by a curved plastic hook. It can be used to cut entangled or snagged kite lines, or to release the kite if the safety release system fails. Some kitesurfing harnesses are equipped with a small pocket for the knife.

* A '''helmet''' is often worn by kitesurfers to protect the head from [[blunt trauma]]. [[Helmet]]s prevent head [[lacerations]], and can also reduce the severity of impact injuries to the head, as well as compression injuries to the neck and spine. Maintaining consciousness after a head injury can also reduce exposure to further injury.

* A '''personal flotation device''' or [[Personal flotation device|PFD]] may be required if the kitesurfer is using a boat or [[personal water craft]] for support. It is also recommended for kitesurfing in deep water in case the kitesurfer becomes disabled and must wait for rescue.

* An '''impact vest''' provides some protection against impacts to the torso area. They can also provide some flotation.

* A '''[[Surfboard leash|board leash]]''' that attaches the board to the kitesurfer's leg or harness is used by some riders. However, many kitesurfing schools discourage the use of board leashes due to the risk of recoil, where the leash can yank the board to impact the rider, which can result in serious injury or even death. Generally, kitesurfers that use a board leash will also wear a helmet to help protect against this.

* '''Signaling devices''' are useful if the kitesurfer needs to be rescued. This may be as simple as a whistle attached to the knife, or [[Retroreflector|retro-reflective]] tape applied to the helmet. Some kitesurfers carry a [[mobile phone]] or [[two-way radio]] in a waterproof pouch to use in an emergency. A small [[Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon]] (EPIRB) can be carried and activated to send out a distress signal.

* A '''buddy''' is important to help with launching and retrieving the kite, and to assist in an emergency.

* A '''[[GPS]]''' can be used to measure distance travelled, tracks and speed during a session.

==Dangers and safety==

Power kites can be dangerous. Because of strong forces that can be generated by sudden wind gusts, people can be lofted, carried off, dashed against water, buildings, terrain or power lines, resulting in what's termed a "kitemare" (kite + nightmare).

Most kiteboarding fatalities are the result of being lofted or dragged out of control, resulting in a collision with hard objects including sand. It is possible to be seriously injured simply by hitting the water surface at speed or from a height.

Jumping and being airborne at inappropriate places (such as shallow water or near fixed or floating objects) can be a contributing factor.

To maximize safety, basic safety guidelines should always be followed, some of which follow:
* '''Always check the weather forecast, color radar, real-time wind reports on the Internet for indications of storms/squalls and excessively gusty winds, wind direction changes and lightning hazards. Do not launch or ride in or near squalls or storms.
* '''Avoid kite surfing in crowded areas, near rocks, trees, or power lines.''' In general there should be a minimum of 100 meters of safe distance from all obstructions.
* '''Try to ride with side-shore winds.''' Avoid offshore or directly onshore winds.
* '''Pay attention to changing weather and wind conditions.''' Particularly dangerous are storm fronts, which are often preceded by strong, variable wind gusts and sometimes involve lightning. If a rider feels a static shock from the kite bar, they should land the kite immediately and seek shelter.
* '''Helmets and impact vests can save lives''' and add substantial convenience if a rider wears them.
* ''' Wear appropriate exposure clothing''' for conditions and a reasonable period of time in the water, should you become disabled.
* '''Do not remove or disable factory-installed safety equipment or releases.''' The most basic is a quick-release harness safety system. Harness safety systems come in different configurations; most allow the kite surfer to release the kite with one tug or push, leaving only one line which is attached to a kite leash. This one line ideally will cause the kite to lose its shape and fall from the sky, without power. Redundant safety releases are even better; do not remove your kite release because you assume you can simply unhook. "Safety equipment" also includes the bar floats, the foam floats on the outside lines of most kite bars; most kite lines sink, and without bar floats sunk lines are more likely to tangle around an underwater obstruction. This could even happen with the bar floats, but they do help. With the kite in the water, a tangle like this could drag you underwater and hold you there.
* '''Never use a board leash without wearing a helmet.''' Under very common circumstances, a board leash can cause the board to strike the rider in the head. Alternatively, don't use a board leash. A helmet is a wise precaution in most circumstances whether you use a board leash or not, but never use a board leash without wearing a helmet. NOTE: board leashes have propelled boards through helmets in the past. The best course is normally ''not to use'' a board leash and practice body dragging upwind to regain your board.
* '''Avoid riding overpowered.''' Using too large a kite for the wind conditions or your experience level is extremely dangerous. Underpowered riding is preferable to overpowered riding. When in doubt, go to a smaller kite and see how it goes. Always stay within the wind range specified by the manufacturer for the kite.
* '''Be extra careful when landing or launching the kite.''' Most accidents occur on shore or while a rider is entering or leaving the water. It's advisable to either un-hitch your kite from your harness while on-shore, holding onto it with only your arms, so you can release if necessary, or simply be ready to operate the quick-release mechanism. Ideally, don't spend any time on shore with the kite in the air; launch the kite and then leave the beach immediately, and when coming in, land as quickly as possible. When on shore, keep the kite low: if it's hit by a gust, it can drag the rider, but may prevent lofting.
* '''Carry a safety knife attached to the harness for cutting tangled lines.''' Tangles are dangerous because an entangled rider in the water may not be able free themselves quickly enough in the event the kite powers up suddenly (catches a wind gust, suddenly accelerates, or, if it's in the water, gets hit by a wave). The tangled lines around a rider’s body can cut and sever a rider's fingers, toes, or limbs or cause serious and deep lacerations. In a crash situation, with the kite in the water, under no circumstances allow a line to encircle a part of the body.
* '''Notify the coast guard if you lose a board or kite at sea.''' To prevent unnecessary concern if your equipment is lost at sea, you should notify the coast guard.

Another, more subtle hazard is that at fifty km/h (a typical speed for a skillful kite surfer), one can easily get tired, and then get farther from shore than an easy swim, which is the primary reason kite surfing in directly offshore winds is discouraged. Still other general marine hazards include sharks, jellyfish, sea otters, dolphins, and even crocodiles, depending on the location.

Collisions with wind surfers, other kite boarders or water craft are significant hazards, particularly at busy locations.

Some kite designs from late 2005 and onwards have included immediate and full depower integrated with the control bar and improved quick release mechanisms, both of which are making the sport much safer.

Weather planning and awareness are key to safe kiteboarding. A substantial quantity of riders have been killed in kiteboarding-related accidents since 2000, according to a safety adviser for one of the sport's governing bodies{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.

When practiced safely, with the proper training and gear, kiteboarding is an enjoyable, addictive sport. Like any other sport, respecting nature, paying attention to the weather and staying within the limits of the riders ability will provide the safest and most enjoyable experience<ref>[http://www.kitesurfingnow.com/kitesurfing-safety/kitesurfing-dangers.shtml Kitesurfing Dangers] www.kitesurfingnow.com</ref>.

Some countries even have laws<ref>[http://www.kiteman.co.uk/Kite%20Safty.html "Kite Safety"] www.kiteman.co.uk</ref> about flying kites and being safe while flying, this also applies to kitesurfing.

== Terminology and lingo ==
* '''air time''': the amount of time spent in the air while jumping. This can be remarkably long; the current record is Jessie Richman's 22 second long jump. Five to ten seconds is not unusual.
* '''apparent wind''': the kite's speed relative to the surrounding air. When kitesurfing in a straight line, the kite's apparent wind is a combination of the wind speed and the speed of the kite and rider over the surface, but since the kite is highly steerable apparent wind can vary widely depending on how the kite is being flown. Most ways of increasing power from the kite involve giving it a higher apparent wind somehow, i.e. diving the kite, riding faster, or riding at a greater angle into the wind. Any of these raises the kite's apparent wind speed.
* '''Big Air''': Doing a very high jump utilizing the lift of the kite. The jump is often assisted in its initial stage by the rider being katapulted off the lip of a wave.
* '''body dragging''': being pulled through the water without standing on a board. This is an early step in the learning process, and is recommended before trying the board after flying a trainer kite.
* '''boost''': to suddenly become airborne
* '''charlie browner''': same as kiteboarder or kitesurfer.
* '''chicken loop''': a hard rubber loop attached to the middle line which has been fed through the control bar. It is used to attach the control bar to the harness so the kitesurfer can produce tension in the lines using their entire bodyweight instead of using purely arm strength.
* '''chicken bone/chicken finger''': a hard rubber "tongue" attached to the chicken loop which the rider feeds through the spreader bar hook to prevent the rider from becoming "unhooked".
* '''de-power''': to reduce the kite's power (pull), generally by adjusting the angle of attack of the kite. Most kites and control bars now allow a rider to rig a kite for a number of different power levels before launching, in addition to powering the kite up and down "on the fly" by moving the bar up and down. Depowerability makes a kite safer and easier to handle. Some new kite models, especially "bow" kites, can be de-powered to practically zero power, giving them an enormous wind range.
* '''DP''': Dawn patrol; a very early morning session.
* '''downwind''': the direction the wind is blowing towards; to leeward. When a rider is facing '''downwind''' the wind is at their back.
* '''downwinder''': a kitesurfing "trip" (could actually be as short as a few minutes) where the rider starts at one point and ends up at another point downwind of their original position.
[[Image:Kitedge.jpg‎|thumb|Kiteboarder edging his board -[[Praia da Varzinha]] Brazil]]
* '''edge''': tilting the board with its edge into the water. Used to control the direction of travel. Learning to edge properly is critical for learning to tack upwind. Edging is one of the fundamental skills of kitesurfing and is one of the ways kitesurfing is different from windsurfing or wakeboarding. While windsurf boards have daggerboards and/or skegs to steer the board upwind while lift and planing is provided by the board itself, generally kiteboards actually combine both functions and the bottom of the board lifts the rider and steers simultaneously. Kiteboard fins are generally much smaller and are for keeping the board in the water (see "'''tea-bagging'''"), but are not essential. Because kite boards have a small rocker, a deep edge can allow the board to act as a large low drag fin. Edging in wakeboarding is used for steering the board; whereas in kite boarding not only does edging steer the kite board, it is essential for kite control and controlling board speed. Riding downwind towards the kite subtracts massively from the kite's power and helps control board speed as well.
* '''Freeride''': Kiteboarding style. Plain kiteboarding that does not involve tricks or jumping. The main goal is keeping a good edge and ability to traverse upwind. This would normally require a board with little rocker.
* '''Freestyle''': Kiteboarding style. Freestyle involves tricks (or combinations of tricks) where the rider is jumping off the water and experiencing enhanced elevation using lift generated from the kite. Freestyle is weather vise a multi-condition concept and is to some degree equipment specific. "Big Air" is commonly associated with Freestyle.
* '''heel side''': the side of a board on the edge where a riders heels are (opposite of toeside). "Riding heelside" is riding with heels down. Heelside is the normal and most comfortable riding position.
* '''Hindenburg''': A reference to the Hindenburg Airship disaster of 1937, which in kitesurfing terminology refers to the kite stalling and then crashing. Hindenburging can be caused either by lack of wind or by the kite advancing to a position upwind of the kitesurfer in the wind window, also called "overflying the kite".
* '''handlepass''': while unhooked, passing the control bar behind a riders back while in the air
* '''kiteloop''': is a powered group of tricks where a rider loops the kite through the power zone while spinning through the air
* '''kitemare''': a kiteboardsurfing accident or dangerous mishap. Kitemares can be deadly.
* '''Launch''': -Getting your kite up in the air. The kite may be launched assisted or un-assisted. An assisted launch is generally more safe that an un-assisted launch.
* '''lofted''': to get lifted vertically into the air by the kite by a strong gust of wind. A very dangerous occurrence that has resulted in several fatalities when kiters on or near land have been dragged into obstacles. Can be avoided by minimizing time on land with the kite flying directly overhead, and by not kiting in overpowered situations.
* '''luff''' : when the air flow stalls around the kite. It may then stall and fall out of the sky. Like sails, a luffing kite has rippling and flapping panels. When launching the kite, if the kite is luffing, the rider should move farther upwind, or the person holding the kite should move downwind.
* '''mobe''': This term has two meanings. It can either be used to describe a class of wakestyle tricks: any invert with a 360 degree spin is considered a "mobe." Also, this term can denote a specific trick: a back roll with a frontside 360 handlepass (while keeping the kite below 45 degrees); this specific trick is also known as "the mobe." The term "mobe" (as a class of tricks) is historically rooted in the fact that the mobe (the specific trick) was the first type of mobe to ever be landed. Other types of mobes include: mobe 540, mobe 720, slim chance, KGB, crow mobe, moby dick, Pete Rose, blind pete, crow mobe 540, etc.
* '''nuking''': wind blowing at great speeds (30-40 knots). These conditions are very extreme and dangerous for most riders.
* '''offshore''': wind blowing at the water from the shore. Never ride in offshore winds without some means of recovery, i.e. a chase boat. This is somewhat less important in smaller bodies of water, of course.
* '''onshore''': wind blowing perpendicular to and directly at the shore from the water. A challenging condition for beginners, especially if waves are present.
* '''Dookie Dive''': Loss of power during air time resulting in a crash into the water.
* '''O-Shit Loop''': Two loops on either ends of the bar that are attached to the kite lines and run through rings attached to the bar. A standard leash attachment point.
* '''overhead waves''': waves two or more meters (6 ft) from trough to crest;
* '''overpowered''': the condition of having too much power from the kite. Can be a result of an increase in wind, incorrect kite choice (too large for the conditions), incorrect adjustment, simply going too fast, etc. Interestingly, experienced riders who are overpowered can switch to a smaller board to compensate, to a degree, although it's common to have just one board.
* '''pop''': height gained above the water using only the board and tension in the lines to get lift, with the kite usually positioned at 45 degrees. Lower kite angles are possible for more experienced riders. Used as a basis for many tricks and regarded as an essential skill for progressing.
* '''power up''': when the kite's power increases (suddenly), because of wind gusts or the kite's movement.
* '''power zone''': is the area in the sky where the kite generates the most lift (pull), this is generally between 0 to 60 degrees arc from the center of the downwind direction.
* '''Re-Launch''': A general term for getting your kite back up in the air after crashing it (on land or water). A relaunch is unassisted and requires the rider to follow a kite-specific procedure (Read your manual!). As years of development have gone by, the more recent kites are easier to relaunch.
* '''send it''': To move the kite aggressively up through the power zone.
* '''schlogging''': This is riding extremely underpowered. A rider has no power to plane and definitely not enough to jump. A rider and their board bounce from planing on the surface to being dragged in the water.
* '''shit hot''': The art of stylish smooth moves.
* '''side offshore''': wind blowing between sideshore and at a 45 degree angle away from the shore.
* '''side onshore''': wind blowing between sideshore and at a 45 degree angle towards the shore.
* '''side shore''': winds blowing parallel to the shore. Usually the most desirable direction for kitesurfing.
* '''spreader bar''': A stainless steel bar that attaches to the rider's harness. It has a hook that holds the "chicken loop" when riding hooked in.
* '''stomp''': to successfully perform a trick.
* '''tack''': The direction which is being sailed, normally either starboard tack or port tack. In a starboard tack the wind is coming in from the rider's starboard (right-hand) side, similar to sailing a boat. In normal riding, the kitesurfer takes a heading which is as close to into the wind as possible, and in any event leads at some angle slightly upwind, sometimes as much as 45 degrees; jumping or wave riding usually results in traveling downwind, so the net result is to maintain relative position. Alternately, see "'''downwinder'''".
* '''tea-bagging''': popping out of and falling back into the water intermittently due to light or gusty wind, poor flying skills, twisted lines etc.
* '''toe side''': the side of a board on the edge where a riders toes are (opposite of heel side). "Riding toe side" is riding with toes down.
* '''underpowered''': the condition of having insufficient power from the kite. Can be a result of insufficient wind, choosing a kite that is too small for the current wind, rigging incorrectly, board too small, water current in the same direction as the wind, not riding fast enough, etc. A rider who is continuously diving the kite and sending it back up in a sine-wave pattern is usually underpowered.
* '''unhooked''' is a term used to describe when a kitesurfer is riding while the chicken loop is not attached to the rider's harness.
* '''upwind''': the direction from which the wind is blowing; windward; into the wind.
* '''VaS conditions''': [[Victory at Sea]]; very rough sea conditions, generally with overhead wind waves causing severe shore break.
* '''Walk of Shame''' is the act of walking back upwind to the location where the kite was originally launched.
* '''wind window''' is the 120-180 degree arc of the sky downwind of the rider in which the kite can be flown. Roughly one fourth of a sphere's surface. If the rider is facing downwind on a flat surface, like the ocean, the wind window consists of roughly all the area the rider can see, from the rider's peripheral vision on one side, along the horizon to the other side, and then directly overhead back to the first side. If the rider somehow puts the kite out of the window -- for example, by riding downwind very quickly and sending the kite directly overhead and behind -- the kite will stall and frequently fall out of the sky.
* '''zenith''' the location in the wind window directly over the kiter's head. This is the neutral position where kitesurfers can place the kite to stop moving or prior to movement. This places the kite in a more vulnerable to "Hindenburgs" position than any other.

==Speed records==
French kitesurfer Sebastien Cattelan became the first sailor to break the 50 knots barrier with 50.26 knots on the 3rd of October 2008 in Lüderitz, Namibia. On the 4th of October French kitesurfer Alex Caizergues broke this record with a 50.57 knots run. These speeds are verified, but are still subject to ratification by the WSSRC. <ref>http://www.sail-world.com/Australia/Fifty-knots-broken-again---New-Speed-Record/49448</ref>

The current speed record over a 500 meter (1,640 ft) course, officially ratified by the [[World Sailing Speed Record Council]], is held by Rob Douglas at 49.84 knots, which is the outright World Speed Sailing Record.
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seabreeze.com.au/News/Sailing/Outright-World-Speed-Sailing-Record-to-Rob-Douglas_1855456.aspx|title=Sailing Outright World Speed Sailing Record to Rob Douglas |publisher=www.seabreeze.com.au|accessdate=2008-09-25|last=|first=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kiteboardingmag.com/article/News/Rob-Douglas-sets-the-new-speed-record-at-499-knots|title=Rob Douglas sets the new speed record at 49.9 knots |publisher=www.kiteboardingmag.com|accessdate=2008-09-25|last=|first=}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Bow kite]]
* [[Foil kite]]
* [[Kite buggy]]
* [[Kite landboarding]]
* [[Kitesurfing locations]]
* [[LEI kite]]
* [[Power kite]]
* [[SkySails]]
* [[Snowkiting]]
* [[Windsport]]
* [[Kite]]
* [[Kite types]]
* [[Kite applications]]
* [[Kite line]]
* [[Kite mooring]]
* [[Kite control systems]]
* [[Kite books]]
* [[Windsurfing]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==

* [http://www.kitesurfing.it kitesurfing.it] - The Official Italian Portal, Forum, Travel, News, Shots, Video ecc ecc ecc.
* [http://www.sbckiteboard.com sbckiteboard.com] - Buyers' Guide, gear reviews, travel, instruction and breaking news.
* [http://www.kitesurfingschool.org/ Kitesurfingschool.org] - information on techniques and equipment
* [http://www.kiteboardingreview.com KiteboardingReview.com] - The latest kite reviews by real world riders
* [http://www.seabreeze.com.au/Articles/Kitesurfing/Summary.aspx seabreeze.com.au] - Australian Kiteboarding how-to articles & weather resource

{{Commons|Kitesurfing}}

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[[Category:Water sports]]

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Galina Ulanova

2008-10-21T19:22:52Z

85.18.14.7: /* Notes */

'''Galina Sergeyevna Ulánova''' ({{lang-ru|Галина Сергеевна Уланова}}; [[8 January]] [[1910]] ([[Old Style and New Style dates|O.S.]] [[26 December]] [[1909]]) - [[21 March]], [[1998]]) has the reputation as the greatest Soviet [[ballerina]]. Her flat in [[Moscow]] is designated a national museum, and there are monuments to her in [[Saint Petersburg]] and [[Stockholm]].
[[Image:Russia-2000-stamp-Galina Ulanova.jpg|200px|left]]
Ulanova studied in [[Petrograd]] under [[Agrippina Vaganova]] and her own mother, a ballerina of the Imperial Russian Ballet. When she joined the [[Mariinsky Theatre]] in 1928, the press found in her "much of [[Marina Semenova|Semyonova]]'s style, grace, the same exceptional plasticity and a sort of captivating modesty in her gestures"<ref>"Rabochii i teatr", 1926, #9, p. 13.</ref>. They say that [[Konstantin Stanislavsky]], fascinated with her acting style, implored her to take part in his stage productions. In 1944, when her fame reached [[Stalin]], he had her transferred to the [[Bolshoi Theatre]], where she would be the ''[[prima ballerina assoluta]]'' for 16 years. The following year, she danced the title role in the world premiere of [[Sergei Prokofiev]]'s ''[[Cinderella (ballet)|Cinderella]]''.

[[Image:Ulanova.jpg|thumb|Galina Ulanova performing in ''[[Giselle]]''.]]

Ulanova was a great [[actress]] as well as dancer, and when she was finally allowed to tour abroad at the age of 46, enraptured British papers wrote that "Galina Ulanova in London knew the greatest triumph of any individual dancer since [[Anna Pavlova]]". Having retired from the stage at the age of 50, she coached many generations of the Russian dancers. She was awarded with Lenin or Stalin Prizes in 1941, 1946, 1947, 1950, and 1957.

==Opinions on Ulanova==

*[[Sergey Prokofiev]]: ''She is the genius of Russian ballet, its elusive soul, its inspired poetry. Ulanova imparts to her interpretation of classical roles a depth of expression unheard of in twentieth century ballet.''

*[[Evgeny Mravinsky]]: ''The image of Ulanova – gentle, fragile and wise - was given to me in my early youth and is rooted in my heart and memory forever. Each encounter with Ulanova and her art, each memory of her – is always a great thrill and happiness. With thanks to her and gratitude to Fate for having given her to us''.

*[[Sviatoslav Richter]]: ''Ulanova has charted new paths in ballet …Not only has she given us unforgettable characters, she has created her own artistic world – a realm of human spirituality… Ulanova has transformed ballet into a popular art form. Thanks to her even its most implacable enemies have become its supporters and thousands of people now acknowledge ballet to be a vital necessity''.

*[[Margot Fonteyn]]: ''I cannot even begin to talk about Ulanova’s dancing, it is so marvellous, I am left speechless. It is magic. Now we know what we lack.''

*[[Maya Plisetskaya]]: ''Ulanova has created her own style, has schooled us to it. She represents an epoch, a time. She has her own hallmark. Like Mozart, Beethoven and Prokofiev she has had an impact, she has reflected her age.''

*[[Maurice Bejart]]: ''Galina Ulanova is a ballerina who has grasped the profoundest secrets of art, she has united feelings and their outer expression into an indivisible whole.''

*[[Rudolf Nureyev]]: ''Only she, the world’s Number One ballerina, kept unswervingly to her chosen course, always unassuming, modestly dressed, entirely absorbed in dance and totally unreceptive to backstage intrigue. Her inner strength, her human qualities – these explain why she has remained pure, untouched by the day-to-day hassle of theatre life.''

Galina Ulanova

Il fiore più delicato di tutto il campo sovietico

Analisi del film-ballet "Romeo e Giulietta " di Leonid Lavrosky (1954)

«I did not really wish to be a ballet dancer.True my first visit to the theatre fired my imagination, but I was not swept off my feet by that strong impulse for a stage career which precipitated so many to the footlights. [...] I saw how clearly how fatigued mother was and the strain it cost her to dance.»

Con tali affermazioni,dal tono di sincera confessione, si apre il libro"The Making of a Ballerina" versione inglese(tradotto da S.Rosemberg nel 1950)dell'originale,in lingua russa,scritto dalla ballerina Galina Ulanova1.
È intuibile che il testo recante un titolo da generico manuale,costituisca,in verità,la prima autobiografia nel mezzo del cammin della vita dell'autrice:una tra le più autentiche e celebrate icone della tradizione ballettistica russo-sovietica del XX secolo.
G.U. did not really wish to be a ballet dancer; eppure i suoi natali ne segnarono,inevitabilmente, il glorioso e noto destino.
Nata il 10 gennaio 1910 a San Pietroburgo,città in cui il padre Sergej Ul'anov(1881-1950) lavorava come ballerino e régisseur del Teatro Imperiale Mariinskij2,G.U., durante gli anni della guerra civile seguita allo scoppio della Rivoluzione Russa,entrò alla Scuola Coreografica di Stato3,fu allieva per quattro anni(1919-1923)della madre Marija Romanova(1886-1954)ballerina del corpo di ballo di Anna Pavlova ed insegnante4. Nei successivi cinque anni si perfezionò con Agrippina Vaganova5 ,sua guida nel corso intermedio.Conseguì il diploma il 16 maggio 1928 debuttando nel saggio di fine corso in "Chopiniana"di Fokin e nel divertissement "Schiaccianoci" di Ivanov come "Fata Confetto".Fino a quella data G.U.aveva già danzato in pubblico interpretando i ruoli di piccolo insetto e di uccello,rispettivamente nelle opere:"I capricci di una farfalla" di Riccardo Drigo e "La fanciulla di neve" di Rimskij-Korsakov,apparendo anche nella "danse sabotière" inserita ne"L'inutile precauzione "di Dauberval e nella danza "Massu"de"La Baiadera" di Petipa .
Inoltre il percorso di formazione della giovane G. fu arricchito dallo studio di mimo con S.L.Leont'ev e della "danza di carattere" con A.M.Monachov mettendo in rilievo le sue doti di interprete in senso attoriale oltre che, naturalmente, di ballerina .
La comprensione di quest'ultimo aspetto, lungi dal collocarsi ai margini di una carriera,implica,senza dubbio, l'analisi dell' "affresco storico",del"l'uomo nell'epoca"e della "storia riflessa nella coscienza"6 ossia della temperie culturale,in particolar modo teatrale,(sul versante teorico e pratico)coeva al"genio della danza"7,giacché una serie di eventi,verificatisi soprattutto dall'ottobre del 1917,sconvolsero la Russia,la sua identità in modo profondo ed irreversibile,sin nel nuovo nome di Unione Sovietica.In seguito alla diffusione dell'epidemia di "teatromania",numerosissimi artisti seppero elaborare idee, modelli sperimentali, risultati scenici che influenzarono e riconcepirono l’esperienza estetico–rappresentativa,ma in principio fu Kostantin Stanislavskij(1863-1938)regista drammatico e d'opera,attore e teorico, con la fondazione a Mosca del Teatro
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1 Da ora in poi G.U. come abbreviazione per Galina Ulanova.
2 In seguito Teatro Kirov in onore dell'uomo politico assassinato nel 1934.
3 Ex scuola dei Teatri Imperiali
4 Condizione imposta per l'esattezza dai genitori ritenendo di non riuscire a provvedere adeguatamente alla piccola G, benché lei manifestasse un rifiuto nei confronti della danza. La chiara immagine della madre che sfilava stivali in feltro rovinato per calzare scarpine a punta e indossare un tutu di tarlatana crespo danzando sorridente non l'ingannava e alla prima lezione di danza la implorò ldi ricondurla a casa.Al diniego seguì la proposta di rimanere nella scuola fino al nuovo anno per poi decidere e quando quel momento giunse, G. essendosi ben ambientata, desiderò continuare.
5 Agrippina Vaganova(1879-1951)Allieva della Scuola Imperiale di San Pietroburgo, prima ballerina e in seguito insegnante elaborò il celebre omonimo metodo, impreziosendo la didattica coreografica nel 1934 con il suo testo "Fondamenti della danza classica".
6 Sergej Michajlovič Ejzenštejn Foreword in Memorie,La mia arte nella vita (a cura di Ornella Calvarese ) Marsilio, p.16 Il regista teatrale e cinematografico russo motiva la decisione di scrivere le sue memorie «[…]Tutto ciò serve a qualcun altro oltre a me? Non importa Innanzi tutto serve a me .Al di fuori di ogni intento didattico,o moralistico , al di fuori di qualsivoglia "affresco storico",al di fuori de "l'uomo dell'epoca ",al di fuori della "storia riflessa nella coscienza".Ma semplicemente all'insegna forse di una nuova perdita di tempo,all'inseguimento del tempo perduto...».Le lucide espressioni sono qui impiegate in chiave ovviamente rovesciata.
7 Uno degli epiteti di G.U.;V.Lo Iacono Il balletto in Russia (Parte quarta): -Dalle origini alla rivoluzione - L'epoca sovietica in Musica in scena,L'arte della danza e del balletto( a cura di Alberto Basso) Utet p 368.
d'Arte,insieme al drammaturgo Nemirovič Dančenko(1858-1943),a produrre la svolta decisiva.
Soltanto al 1918,dopo slanci eclettici,ripensamenti e continue contraddizioni, si fa risalire,mentre metteva in scena opere liriche presso la Operno-dramatičeskaja studija,conducendo,anche grazie a tale esperienza una minuziosa ricerca nel campo dell'interpretazione,l'elaborazione ufficiale della dottrina pedagogica nota come "Sistema di Stanislavskij ".
Il quesito principale,a cui il "Sistema" tentò di fornire una risposta adeguata,potenziando il concetto di immaginazione creativa,riguardò il reperimento di una tecnica che impedisse all'attore,nell'interpretare ripetutamente una parte,di intraprendere la via dell'iterazione meccanica essendo la realtà scenica e fenomenica, non un freddo ambiente sociale oggettivo,bensì identificazione con la vita spirituale del singolo, la psicologia dell'individuo e la somma dei suoi stati spirituali8.L'attore,dunque, non deve semplicemente recitare un personaggio,ma esserlo ossia viverlo,fondendosi con esso;inoltre conditio sine qua non è il credere al contesto che avvolge e motiva la parte,reputando il "magico se"(cioè l'immaginaria verità così prodotta),superiore a quella autentica.
Questi ed altri comandamenti del verbo stanislavkijano,difficilmente riassumibili in tale sede,e sempre in fieri,costretto spesso a depurarsi dagli inserti(non condivisi)di altri suoi seguaci,affascinarono immediatamente G.U. già distintasi durante le prime performances coreutiche per espressività romantica.
Fin dal 1928,solista presso il Teatro Kirov,ella iniziò a considerare il balletto come una forma di teatro drammatico,condividendo l'opinione di molte altre ballerine sovietiche,sue colleghe,propendendo a realizzarlo sul versante di un'azione pantomimica con musica e danza,anziché di componimento musicale a ritmo di danza .
Nei primi anni Trenta G.U.fu riconosciuta come interprete ideale del cosiddetto"drambalet":un tipo di balletto(ben presto divenuto la forma di danza drammatica sovietica più in voga) derivato direttamente dall'era dominata dal ballerino e coreografo francese Perrot(1810-1892),in virtù delle sue doti di attrice che,sostenute dalla bravura nella mimica,sopperivano alle mancanze tecniche abbastanza evidenti. Nessun interesse fu suscitato infatti dal suo debutto apparendo di bassa statura,estremamente fragile,debole sulle punte e con spalle larghe. Introversione ed insicurezza sfociavano in mancanza di estensione soprattutto nelle arabesques e nei jetés.I critici la giudicarono quasi ritrosa a sfruttare le sue capacità,ma dovettero constatare che il modo di danzare di G.U. era in grado di proporre ,classico sì nello stile, il superamento della tecnica accademica a favore di una libera variazione di arabesques e attitudes in funzione espressiva,verso l'elaborazione e il raggiungimento di nuovi ideali estetici.
Il nome di G.U.,che avrebbe avuto il privilegio di affermarsi in patria e in tutto l'Occidente superando la fama rimasta entro i confini russi di tante sue colleghe forse meglio dotate,divenne sinonimo di lirismo (tacciato erroneamente di "stanco sentimentalismo")in un'esistenza non di immediati successi.
Tra le qualità innegabili della ballerina,accanto all'umiltà e dedizione all'arte della danza,si può annoverare la razionale consapevolezza dei propri limiti fisici:un nec plus ultra che soltanto il possesso di un altro corpo avrebbe consentito di valicare.Alzare le spalle,piegare il capo per mascherare un collo troppo corto,"prolungare"le braccia attraverso l'estensione delle mani e la tensione delle dita,rappresentarono i"trucchi"per ovviare alle dimenticanze della natura,oggi decifrati e più semplici da spiegare grazie ad attenti studi su ogni movimento da lei eseguito.Il corpo esile e delicato esprimeva,ugualmente, l'animo umano nella varietà e totalità dei suoi sentimenti mediando tra effetti terreni sublimati e rigide pose accademiche naturalizzate,pertanto oltre alla visione di passi derivati dalla tecnica esibita con piena padronanza,carpiva l'attenzione spettatoriale mediante l'interpretazione ossia la recitazione di un ruolo,di una parte.
I progressi di G.U. come ballerina furono infatti subito sostenuti da quelli di valente attrice applicando alla danza,come lei stessa dichiarò,le teorie sull'immedesimazione nel personaggio elaborate da Stanislavskij9con un'intensità aliena dall'incorrere in eccessi divistici o,al contrario, nel ricongiungimento con mondi rarefatti
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8 Cfr. Mel Gordon Il sistema di Stanislavkij Biblioteca Marsilio 1992,pp38-39: «Nel 1918 su richiesta della sezione operistica del Teatro Bol'šoj,Stanislavskij iniziò una serie di lezioni sul Sistema in rapporto agli spettacoli lirici […] Un episodio,avvenuto agli inizi del corso ,rimase esemplare.Un giovane baritono cominciò a cantare l'aria di Valentino dal Faust e Stanislavskij lo interruppe dicendo che il pezzo era incomprensibile.[…]Il problema stava nel significato espresso dall'aria ."Per chi canti?",gli chiese Stanislavskij.L'allievo,confuso,rispose che cantava per lui,il suo maestro ,il grande Stanislavkij. E Stanislavskij allora gli ricordò che stava cantando per il Signore perché nell'aria Valentino prega rivolto a Dio. […]Stanislavskij dimostrava così che anche il cantante d'opera, come l'attore,può stabilire una relazione più intensa e profonda con il pubblico,scrostando la patina delle convenzioni stilistiche e rappresentative proprie del genere ».
9Non è da escludere l'influenza del primo coreografo della celebre compagnia dei "Balletti russi" di Sergej Djagilev:Michail Fokin promotore della storicizzazione del costume e della valorizzazione della componente espressiva,proprie del teatro concepito da Stanislavskij,giacché,come sopra indicato uno dei balletti di stampo classico"Chopiniana"o"Le Silfidi"da lui coreografato fu danzato anche da G.U..Cfr.I cosiddetti "Cinque principi di Fokin" pubblicati,per la prima volta, sul Times di Londra nel 1914.
Segnalo inoltre il "balletto russo" "Romeo e Giulietta"coreografato nel 1926 da Bronislava Nijinska ,versione moderna in due atti e un entr'acte affidato a Balanchine dell' omonima tragedia danzato da Tamara Karsavina e Serge Lifar.
e meritevole di orchestrare un jeu de théâtre di luminosa serenità con altri solisti,il corpo di ballo e la concezione del coreografo,evitando lo iato tra interpretazioni classiche e moderne .
Probabilmente per tale ragione G.U.,sembra, non amasse la danza moderna o i balletti non narrativi (evitò di lavorare con coreografi d'avanguardia come Golejzovskij e Jakobson),ma preferisse quelli drammatici in cui poteva,in maniera evidente,animare i personaggi femminili in genere ricorrendo,a causa della loro povertà coreografica, alla mimica del suo volto estremamente espressivo.
Agli albori della sua carriera molte fotografie la ritraggono ballerina dall'aria infantile e indifesa, non lontana dall'incarnare nella danza l'immagine proposta dalla piccola,fragile e ugualmente forte, nell' estrema dolcezza,Lillian Gish:la musa dei più importanti film di D.W.Griffith. In comune nasino all'insù e bocca a forma di cuore,occhi giocosi,vispi e riflessivi,dalla benefica emanazione e purezza interiore,per ironia del destino incaricate entrambe di unire mondi divisi:Lillian nel film "Nascita di una nazione"(1915) gli Stati Uniti e in "Intolerance"(1916) quattro episodi di intolleranza religiosa e razziale,proponendo il Leitmotiv del muovere una culla;Galina l'Unione Sovietica al resto dell'Occidente valicando la "cortina di ferro".
«In a dance built on ordinary classical pas it is often sufficient -especially if those pas are
performed with precision -to make a hardly perceptible movement, assume a half-pose, raise your head
or look in a different manner to change the character, or the atmosphere of the scene».
Nei numerosissimi balletti classici di cui fu protagonista anche i "vecchi" ruoli rinvigoriti,magicamente,da nuova linfa non precipitavano nella banale e vuota ripetizione denunciata dal padre della recitazione: i sentimenti, le emozioni emergevano senza enfatiche esplosioni,bensì testimoniavano una vitalità sobria e contenuta come quella del personaggio e dell'interprete: la parte non eccedeva in anarchica libertà,così come l'attrice,pur esprimendo innanzitutto sé stessa,si sottraeva dal commettere l'errore di tradirla,rimodellandola .
Concordemente al mentore Stanislavkij,l'immaginazione creativa di G.U.era l'anima di ogni balletto a testimonianza dei suoi inesauribili mezzi di espressione,fondendo sincerità e profondità del sentimento con l'irrinunciabile controllo di sé stessa e non ammettendo,rigidamente,alcuna mancanza di armonia nei movimenti. In ogni sequenza drammatica o pantomima era intensamente consapevole del bisogno di bellezza e perfezione della posa,di purezza e precisione del disegno ottenute con sforzi fisici continui,naturalmente snervanti. Infaticabile (russa e stakanovista!?), praticava un training sistematico e l'energia proveniva dalla sua ferrea e limpida morale,dal senso del dovere nei confronti dell'arte e della professione,ma soprattutto dell'umanità in quanto tale, magnifica per natura, sublimata dall'amore.
«A dancer must be a hard plodder. Daily practice is the meat and drink and
it must never cease,not even during summer holidays ».
Confermano il suo credo le testimonianze sulla conduzione delle prove durante le quali,anche se il risultato era stato giudicato soddisfacente,G.costringeva il partner a ripetere la sequenza,ripercorrendo ogni momento,aggiungendo più precisione ad ogni posa e passo.Tuttavia ,occorre precisare, che G. U. non iniziò a costituire un modello per molte ballerine e un'icona della danza e del balletto grazie ad un'eccezionale, stricto sensu, rara forza di volontà (quasi a giustificarne l'unicità e l'irripetibilità di simile stella della danza), perchè tutta la sua vita fu segnata da continue difficoltà vinte nel fedele servizio dell'arte.La sua indole,il carattere, la passione ormai nata per la danza ed un'inesauribile energia le imponevano, come imperativi categorici kantiani,allenamenti quotidiani non rinviabili per una minima indisposizione,praticati bandendo ogni negligenza o capriccio.La sua straordinaria diligenza e l'essere esigente da sé stessa la resero una campionessa instancabile.
Preparare un ruolo da danzare(sia se già noto nel repertorio o,come sarebbe accaduto plasmato dalla stessa ballerina) implicava sempre per G.,oltre al perfetto apprendimento della tecnica,dei passi,lo studio del personaggio come un'attrice teatrale stanislavkijana, retta da una solida concezione etica che non indulgeva a ritardi alle prove, dignificava i ruoli secondari validi quanto quelli principali,sottoponendo tutti gli attori alle ormai leggendarie lunghissime prove a tavolino per insegnare soprattutto la disciplina della vita sulla scena e consentire all'interprete di collegarsi con le zone inconsce dell'animo dello spettatore per lasciare in lui un'impressione profonda e durevole.
Come al Teatro d'Arte si bandirono intonazioni enfatiche,atteggiamenti eccessivi e di vuoto gigionismo affinché si recitasse con naturalezza,senza forzature compiendo gesti spontanei,così le interpretazioni di G.(dancing & acting) 10 furono scevre da un decadente compiacimento,da ogni inebriante divismo e, idealmente, univano il palcoscenico su cui danzava, alla platea diffondendo un messaggio di amore universale rivolto ai cuori e alle menti degli spettatori .
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10 G.U. ricordava per alcuni tratti altre famose ballerine :la Pavlova per il lirismo, allontanandosene però nel rifiuto di ogni acritica ovazione spettatoriale,la Spessivtzeva per l'intensità della reviviscenza dei personaggi, evitando tuttavia la sua mistica astrazione. Per la padronanza del corpo due ballerine come la Semenova e la Lepešinskaja ,forse a lei superiori in fatto di prodezze acrobatiche Il balletto classico è privo di vita senza la luce interiore del grande sentimento,dell'anima del perfomer e molti tributarono a G.U. la trasformazione della danza classica in un linguaggio vivente, intellegibile a tutti . La metamorfosi,semmai,era della ballerina che,come in un incantesimo, viveva per la durata dello spettacolo in un mondo a sé nel quale il pubblico avvertiva il privilegio di penetrarvi,di avere accesso alla dimensione oltre la quarta parete, estremamente vivida,realistica.
Infatti proprio nel concetto di realismo risiede il comune denominatore tra il lavoro dei due artisti G.U.e Stanislavskij promotore del realismo drammatico individuato già quando il"Raffaello con l'anima di Michelangelo",definizione coniata da Benois, trionfava per tutto il decennio degli anni Trenta al Teatro Kirov(lasciato nel 1944 per diventare la stella del Bol'šoj) e il padre della recitazione del '900,nello stesso periodo,dopo la tournée (1922-1924) europea ed americana del Teatro d'Arte, riprendeva ad insegnare presso lo Studio di Arte drammatica a Mosca riservato ai cantanti lirici,festeggiava il trentennale della sua inaugurazione(1928),riproponendo gli spettacoli migliori tra cui "Tre sorelle" e iniziava la stesura del libro sul "Sistema"11.
Tentare in questa sede di fornire un'esauriente spiegazione dell' equazione:
Galina Ulanova:realismo ballettistico = Kostantin Stanislavkij:realismo drammatico
conduce,inevitabilmente,ad illustrare le molteplici connotazioni dell'elemento di congruenza riscontrato come convergenze parallele per via di ragioni storiche,in ambito teatrale e politico.
Il teatro del XX secolo,nascendo come sistematica e/o picaresca avventura della regia negli ultimi decenni dell' '800,all'insegna di uno sperimentalismo invaghitosi di naturalezza,noto appunto come naturalismo, celebrò assunti in seno al realismo12 .
Cronologicamente le messinscene realistico-naturalistiche aprirono la carriera di Stanislavkij,ma le riflessioni del regista furono foriere di spunti ben più importanti:il realismo e le sue varie appendici avevano esageratamente contraffatto l'illusionismo di tradizione barocca caricando le conquiste prospettiche,per esigenza di veridicità storico-geografica ,del pathos espresso dal dramma.Malgrado ciò, la stessa istanza di fedeltà,a cui si auspicava tra vita e teatro, isteriliva nella pratica performativa la creatività ,specialmente, se i testi drammaturgicamente poco teatrali obbligavano gli scenografi a supporre(quindi inventare) luoghi, ambienti e movimenti. In un passo della sua opera "La mia vita nell'arte" Stanislavkij constatò la difficoltà a imbattersi in artisti«sufficientemente preparati per orientarsi nell'idea del dramma e nei problemi dell'autore, nella letteratura in generale ,nella psicologia ,nelle questioni di arte scenica ».
Il pedagogo coniò l'espressione realismo"psicologico"ossia una nuova proposta di ricerca votata all'interiorità a partire dal più esteriore naturalismo,ma ben presto egli dovette constatarne l'ulteriore fallimento e supportare la credenza,in precedenza soltanto intuita,nella scena plastica,ideata da uno scultore o da un architetto,capace di creare,intorno all'attore,un ambiente ancor più stimolante dell'inerte tela di un pittore.Era necessario virare dal testo poetico all'azione scenica animata dalla persona fisica dell'attore che restava il vero fulcro dello spettacolo:l'elemento reale/realistico ancora più autentico(più vero del vero)davanti alla platea,la cui recitazione,annullando ogni differenza tra sé e il personaggio(perché completamente immedesimato nella parte)non doveva essere minacciata dalla scenografia.
Stanislavskij,è noto,ammirò in assoluto, fino ad inserirlo nel suo nome d'arte,l'attore italiano Tommaso Salvini,osannò Eleonora Duse,ma da giovane,studiando anche danza(con Sankovskaja)ebbe modo di conoscere la ballerina Zucchi (protagonista di una "Esmeralda"da lui messa in scena) che gli ispirò le prime considerazioni sull'arte dell'attore.
«Della Zucchi notò l'incredibile fede infantile in ciò che accadeva attorno a lei[...]e l'assoluta mancanza nel volto di sforzo muscolare nei momenti di tensione:non "recitava" rifacendosi a modelli altrui ,ma riusciva a far piangere gli spettatori perchè( come notò un'attrice russa ) la sua era vera sofferenza e non tecnica superlativa [...]Attento all'espressività del corpo,Stanislavskij ammirò la grazia dei ballerini russi ed istituì presso i suoi Studija corsi di danza e di movimento per attori.[...]In era sovietica le migliori interpreti attingeranno al Sistema Stanislavskij per rivivere centinaia di volte la stessa parte in modo diverso ,per aggiungere togliere modificare piccoli particolari ,per reimpostare a seconda della propria storia umana il personaggio,per accogliere suggerimenti casuali o stati d'animo
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11 Il primo tomo de "Il lavoro dell'attore su sé stesso "fu pubblicato in Russia nel 1938,anno della morte di Stanislavkij,il secondo dieci anni dopo."Il lavoro dell'attore sul personaggio "incompleto e postumo fu edito nel 1956.
In quel periodo la vocazione pedagogica era prevalsa su ogni considerazione di carattere pratico;tutti i gesti,le singole battute,le minuzie di un testo drammatico erano sottoposti ad un'infinita indagine spesso fine a sé stessa valida metodologicamente: il cosiddetto "lavoro a tavolino" non sempre sarebbe approdato alla messinscena.
12Uso di mobili e oggetti praticabili,effetti di suono e di luce, mimesi del reale nel gioco scenico ed espressivo degli interpreti che,voltando le spalle al pubblico agivano spontaneamente senza limitarsi alla ristretta fascia del proscenio.Alla formulazione dei canoni del realismo a teatro contribuì anche la scoperta della fotografia nel tentativo di restituire agli allestimenti (pur continuando ad impiegare la scena dipinta) la dignità formale delle ricostruzioni rigorose.Declinato in varie accezioni tra le quali "realismo conseguente"(Holz) per indicare il naturalismo questa corrente nell'ultimo scorcio dell'Ottocento trovò un terreno singolarmente fertile in Russia grazie alla fondamentale opera narrativa di scrittori come Ostrovskij .
momentanei; privilegiando sempre l'aspetto drammaturgico dello spettacolo.»13.
Il magistero di Stanislavskij (benché le ripartizioni siano sempre precarie e a volte rischiose) si esercitò dunque anche in epoca staliniana(1929-1953)che inaugurò il "realismo socialista"(con forte accentuazione dell'aspetto didattico e celebrativo)derivato dal socialismo reale:espressione usata per indicare la pratica reale di governo propria dei regimi comunisti(l'estensione valse anche per la Cina) al fine di sottolineare lo iato con gli ideali socialisti conclamati,ma non attuati .
Nel 1934 Andrej Ždanov sancì la teoria estetica del "realismo socialista"fondata sul concetto leninista del "rispecchiamento della realtà"all'interno delle manifestazioni artistiche affinché nei lavoratori e fruitori non venisse mai meno lo spirito del socialismo:ottimismo e solidarietà del romanticismo rivoluzionario, accanto al precetto antiformalistico (il cui presunto mancato rispetto mieterà vittime illustri del mondo della cultura) per cui contro ogni fascino e bellezza ideale si deve produrre arte utile provvista di mezzi volti a emulare la realtà umana .
La visione del teatro in epoca stalinista mirò a convogliare gli artisti nell'organizzazione del Partito,in pratica a riconcepire o forgiare cultura di stato,a sottoporre ad un rigido controllo come i coevi regimi dittatoriali tragicamente noti,tutte le fasi di produzione di uno spettacolo(dalla genesi alla distribuzione) comportando la perdita di ogni libertà intellettuale e la rottura delle relazioni con il mondo estraneo all'Urss.
«Rinunciando al modernismo e al formalismo,soggetti e coreografie non si presteranno a sottintesi e ad elaborare interpretazioni;sport e ginnastica rappresenteranno nei balletti l'energia dei giovani sovietici,i temi e passi del folklore la linfa vitale che proviene dal popolo.Gli anni tra le due guerre prevedono(come in altre dittature) il dispiego e l'allineamento delle masse in scena o in parate celebrative,l'ostentazione della forza e il disprezzo della debolezza. L'enfasi si rende necessaria per propagandare un'ingenua fede nell'uomo grande e buono,a tutto tondo e senza ombre. Architetture in cemento armato,gruppi scultorei di grandi dimensioni(contadini e combattenti"eroi del lavoro socialista")rassicurano, incutono soggezione allo stesso tempo.In teatro i ballerini sono prima di tutto dei lavoratori e poi degli attori,e nella mimica di balletto movenze ampie e magniloquenti succedono a quelle mélo dei decenni precedenti[̣̣̣...]Nell'era di Stalin il balletto compie il suo" bagno di folla"semplificando procedimenti drammaturgici e scelte lessicali.Nei teatri le cellule del partito rafforzano l'idea totalitaria propagandando dedizione e senso del dovere in un'ottica confusa tra meriti artistici e attivismo politico[̣̣̣...]L'affermazione nella società civile dei valori umani e di giustizia accoglie molte istanze che in Occidente appartengono alla sfera religiosa ,quelle mistiche e irrazionali sono convogliate nel filone popolare mentre sono assenti le problematiche della società"capitalista".Nei Paesi dell'Ovest,dove il teatro di danza resta un genere elitario,i messaggi alle masse giungono attraverso forme di spettacolo più divulgative. Il balletto sovietico rimane"popolare";da qui la particolare ricchezza delle proposte interpretative: nei casi migliori,è l'intuizione artistica a riscattare le costrizioni esterne e gli intenti educativi» 14.
Nonostante la danza(come la musica)sia,per eccellenza,un'arte non narrativa,ma allusiva, all'insegna del realismo ballettistico di stato si ottenne "l'impossibile" dai danzatori:aderire realisticamente danzando ad una parte,tessere con il corpo vere e proprie trame,drammaturgie a pari merito di quelle propriamente teatrali; anzi,l'assenza della parola e la coatta comunicazione a passi di danza conduceva ad un più rigoroso lavoro di carattere didattico-didascalico ossia esplicativo.
Il balletto "Giselle"(Teatro Kirov 1931-1932)viene unanimemente considerato tra i primi esperimenti, in area sovietica, a nutrirsi davvero del realismo drammatico e socialista .
G.U.,che ne fu protagonista(perfezionò il ruolo durante tutta la sua carriera ed ottenne grazie ad esso l'apprezzamento in Occidente a metà degli anni Cinquanta)inaugurando,dopo altri ruoli di minor rilievo, gli anni Trenta con la rivelazione del suo istinto teatrale,si radicò in un dramma romantico senza eccessivi contenuti psicologici e sociali sottraendosi ad ogni declinazione mistica o simbolica (d'altronde l'aria ancora infantile del volto e la mancanza di fascino da femme fatale erano fattori di ostacolo)svolgendo la trama dal carattere causale e finalistico degli eventi .
«Ulanova non fu mai un puro spirito, ma rimase sempre una bimba innamorata che non aveva imparato a odiare.»15 .
L'episodio finale in cui Giselle impazziva rappresentava l'apice dell'attitudine tragica di G.U. e seguiva al primo atto danzato pronunciando plastici"soliloqui"16 .
Nel 1933 con l'interpretazione de "Il lago dei cigni" (montato da Agrippina Vaganova) l'Unione Sovietica celebrò G. U. come una leggenda nella storia della danza in quanto ci si espresse in favore di una completa identificazione delle ragazze del popolo con i personaggi femminili del balletto da lei costruiti:l'arte ballettistica realizzava il mondo fenomenico .
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13 Concetta Lo Iacono Il balletto in Russia (Parte quarta): -Dalle origini alla rivoluzione- L'epoca sovietica in Musica in scena, L'arte della danza e del balletto( a cura di Alberto Basso) Utet ,Torino,pp356-357
14 Concetta Lo Iacono op.cit. pp. 370;373-374.
15 Gennady Smakov Galina Ulanova in I grandi danzatori russi ( a cura di Sergio Trombetta)Nuova Edizione Aggiornata Gremese Editore 2004 p.30
16 Galina Ulanova in Bruxelles URSS section :Brussels Universal and International Exhibition 1958,p 1

Sembrava che la capacità di resistenza,la ferrea ed incorruttibile volontà della ballerina diventasse un'ulteriore e fondamentale componente delle sue eroine;la società totalitaria staliniana che si stava edificando, parallelamente, mirava a plasmare uomini e donne dall'etica indistruttibile, poco avvezzi ad uno scialbo e stucchevole sentimentalismo,alla trattazione di tematiche di carattere privato(l'amore,la sessualità), condizioni preliminari di un' irreparabile degenerazione dei costumi in eccessi ed emozioni incontrollabili e pertanto socialmente pericolosi 17 .
Allo stesso anno,con la progressiva acquisizione di competenze tecniche e di forza interiore, risale la sua prima creazione di un personaggio:Maria ne"La fontana di Bachčisaraj"spettacolo che,pur se nell'insieme coreograficamente povero,G.U. riuscì a rendere ammirevole grazie alla sua straordinaria capacità espressiva che umanizzava sia eroine moderne,come in tal caso,che classiche con la medesima vitalità sobria e contenuta, scevra da eccessi naturalistici.
Lo spettacolo montato da Zacharov testimoniava la sua predilezione per Puškin orgoglio del XIX secolo russo e,nel medesimo tempo, accoglieva la direttiva della politica teatrale di divulgare tra le masse i classici della letteratura mondiale mediante balletti educativi da affiancare a lavori propagandistici 18.
Le coreografie furono concepite preferendo la danse d'action accanto all'uso della pantomima e naturalmente della reviviscenza stanislavkijana del ruolo, riuscendo a ravvivare danze di carattere e a conferire importanza sociale e morale ai personaggi soprattutto maschili intesi non soltanto partner e porteur delle ballerine, bensì eroi nazionali.
Al riguardo si espressero diversi coreografi ad estendere il balletto ad una forma di teatro universale comprendente molteplici generi letterari e altri a reperire il suo specimen nella sfera dei sentimenti giudicando deleterio l'assolutismo ideologico sovietico.«[...]Le accuse degli Occidentali ai Sovietici,di aver cancellato pagine di storia e interrotto la naturale evoluzione del teatro di danza, riducendo al silenzio gli oppositori,
risulteranno vere soprattutto più tardi quando la formula del coreodramma dapprima salutata entusiasticamente dal pubblico[...]sarebbe stata imposta dall'alto come unica formula possibile » 19 .
Tra gli scrittori stranieri oltre a George Sand,Balzac o Lope de Vega si adattarono per la danza molti drammi di William Shakespeare,genio assoluto capace di rappresentare l'intera umanità e le sue passioni come quella d'amore,nata ignorando odi familiari, in"Romeo e Giulietta" balletto portato al successo da un glorioso trio russo:Galina Ulanova ,Sergej Porkof'ev e Leonid Lavroskij, e meritevole di aver influenzato (condizione rarissima e mai più emulata ) le coreografie occidentali, ascrivendosi ad insuperato capolavoro.
Prokof'ev compose le musiche appositamente ispirandosi a G.U. che nel 194020,quando diede vita a Giulietta, il personaggio da lei prediletto21 e con il quale affermò la sua danza in tutto il mondo,aveva trent'anni .
Tre furono i principali "Romeo" con cui danzò Giulietta nel corso di vari allestimenti della tragedia: Kostantin Sergeev a Leningrado,Michail Gabovič a Mosca e Jurij Ždanov nel film-ballet diretto nel 1954 da L.Arnstam e Leonid Lavroskij, mantenendo immutata l'espressione appassionata del suo amore e del dolore avvolto in un dignitoso mutismo,la fragilità e il riscatto morale.
Dalla genesi del balletto alle sue ultime versioni (G.U.interpretò la protagonista all'età di quarantaquattro anni) alcuni esperti spettatori notarono un certo affievolimento delle qualità tecniche ,mentre come sempre, nulla si poté eccepire sul lirismo di Giulietta e sulla capacità di mimare i suoi sentimenti tanto che la poetessa Anna Achmatova affermò vedendola danzare negli anni '50 che:«Come ballerina non è nulla,ma come mimo è un genio».
Fortunatamente,la preziosa versione filmata è ancora disponibile ridistribuita in versione dvd nel 2003 dalla Video Artists International22 consentendo di visualizzare e carpire la magnificenza della ballerina,la resa del mondo interiore di una fanciulla che approda improvvisamente alla vita diventando donna matura,ma anche la modestia dell'attrice e il lavoro compiuto su sé stessa 23.É bene precisare che "Romeo e Giulietta" in quanto film-ballet non si presenta come un saggio di danza ripreso con tecniche cinematografiche,ma nasce con una precisa volontà di configurazione ossia disposizione del piano profilmico che rifiuta la frontalità de-
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17Segnalo che anche in ambito letterario la censura e la scomunica di Stalin piombarono su Borìs Pasternàk autore di "Dottor Živago"reo di aver trattato tematiche "occidentali" come il desiderio,l'amore ,il sesso bandite dall'URSS.
18 Un autorevole membro del governo sovietico:il commissario del popolo per l'istruzione Lunačarskij con il suo "Torniamo ad Ostrovskij"(pronunciato nell'aprile 1923) aveva già tentato di mediare la difficile convivenza tra la tradizione accademica e le avanguardie ed era ormai prossimo ad avverarsi il profetico avvertimento:« Avete un bel girarvi,cari amici,ma se volete che il popolo non vi ripudi approderete al teatro realistico» V. Franco Mancini L’evoluzione dello spazio scenico, Edizioni Dedalo p 157
19 Concetta Lo Iacono op.cit. p376
20 Nel 1936 creò la passionale Coralie ne "Le illusioni perdute"di Zacharov
21"Romeo e Giulietta" e "La fontana di Bachčisaraj" sono gli unici due lavori rimasti nel repertorio ballettistico.
22 V.Bibliografia
23 L'unicità del documento filmico deriva dalla scarsità di altre notizie reperibili su G.U.tramite interviste,lettere ,dibattiti ecc...
gli elementi visibili giacché incorniciati dall'arco scenico della scatola-teatro:sullo schermo non compaiono ballerini,bensì attori che recitano danzando e mimando.Si tratta ,più precisamente, di un adattamento della versione teatrale già messa in scena prima del 1954,con una forte autonomia visiva ed una specificità di linguaggi,scopi non confrontabile con la sua Ur-versione di cui rimangono in sostanza soltanto accenni di generici commenti .
Pertanto l'esame del lavoro di G.U. non può prescindere da quello dell'intero testo filmico e dall'unica comparazione possibile con l'originale tragedia di William Shakespeare:la forma cinematografica come linguaggio/significante prevarica necessariamente sul significato(il balletto coreografato per raccontare a teatro la storia dei due amanti di Verona) e richiede una pertinente scelta metodologica come « processo di esplicitazione e di comprensione del testo,non solo nella sua letteralità,ma,soprattutto,nelle sue latenze,e quindi opera sulle reti significanti e configurative del testo,prima che sui suoi aspetti evidenti ed immediati [...]L'analista[...]intende realizzare un lavoro di oltrepassamento dell'immediatezza dei segni e di attraversamento dell'ambiguità che implicano[...] »24.
Quanto segue è pertanto una proposta di descrizione ed interpretazione di un esempio illustre di ibridazione e commistione tra letteratura,teatro,danza e cinema.

Atto I
L'incipit del film può essere individuato dopo lo scorrimento dei titoli di testa accompagnati da uno dei temi concepiti da Prokof'ev per il balletto:in successione compaiono quattro immagini.Ognuna di esse permane per qualche secondo per poi essere sostituita.Si tratta di disegni simili alle tele di un quadro (anche la cornice è stata palesemente tratteggiata a mano imitando lateralmente capitelli stilizzati) color ocra (o piuttosto affine al colore di un'antica pergamena)uniformemente distribuito.Il primo quadro/inquadratura reca in basso alcune scritte in caratteri cirillici,probabilmente una sorta di didascalia e la sua collocazione,incastonato nella parete circostante,produce un effetto metacinematografico:sembra lo schermo di una sala di proiezione.Un movimento immersivo della mdp25,mediante un carrello in avanti, focalizza,esclusivamente, gli elementi contenuti all'interno della cornice:la veduta di una città compatibile con lo spazio scenico prevedibile dall'epoca di ambientazione della tragedia shakespeariana .
Mantenendo invariato l'obiettivo il secondo ed il terzo quadro sono ancora paesaggi urbani monocolori; il quarto propone alcune variazioni mostrando al centro sullo sfondo la scultura imponente di un leone posto su un alto basamento.Ai lati del blocco, si direbbe marmoreo,tre figure umane leggermente colorate immobili (due donne sono distinguibili dalle lunghe gonne) chiudono la sequenza che,evocante un'atmosfera più epica da chanson de gestes che tragica,assolve al CL/CCL 26proponendo,immediatamente, una descrizione per quanto sommaria, dell'ambiente,del set in cui avrà luogo la vicenda,spazio vasto in cui , tuttavia, gli elementi presenti e, in modo particolare, quelli umani, non sono ben distinguibili .Inoltre si può attribuire un'ulteriore funzione all'inserimento delle inquadrature iniziali cioè di sostituzione del coro(omesso dalla versione filmica ritengo per ragioni di resa realistica) personaggio del testo teatrale, la cui prima frase pronunciata nel prologo enuncia l'hic della vicenda :
Coro- L'azione si svolge nella bella Verona[...]
Ecco quello che la nostra scena vi offrirà in due ore.
Se ascolterete con pazienza, la nostra fatica cercherà di compensare qualche mancanza .

La mdp, attraverso un carrello a precedere inquadra Romeo mentre sul far del giorno,in un taglio di luce ancora aurorale, si muove lentamente per una strada cittadina mostrando un volto pensieroso,un po' sognante come di chi è afflitto da pene d'amore.Sedutosi, presentando il profilo sinistro, inizia a leggere un libro,forse di poesie o un breviario di consolationes, oggetto scenico assente dall'originale shakespeariano.
Nella scena seguente,quasi per affinità elettiva,una raggiante Giulietta, giungendo da destra, si oppone al vento che solleva,come cullandole,le sue vesti mentre lei tira la tenda di broccato color rame reso lucente dalla luce del sole penetrata ed inondante la sua stanza dal "celebre" balcone.Giulietta (di cui è ripreso il profilo sinistro)svelta e dinamica,protesa verso il balcone,sembra respirare felice l'aria mattutina e benedirla.
La sua leggiadria ed allegria sono dovute all'ignoranza, stricto sensu ,nei confronti della vita come qualunque fanciulla che non conosce il suo triste destino;lo Streben verso l'infinito,oltre la siepe, vibra nel suo corpo _________________________________
24 Paolo Bertetto,Metodologie di analisi del film (a cura di )Editori Laterza"2006 p 179.
25 Da ora in poi mdp abbreviazione per macchina da presa
26 cl/ccl: campo lungo/lunghissimo impiegati in particolar modo nei film western specialmente nell'inquadratura di apertura giacché la relazione tra uomo e ambiente,tra natura selvaggia ancora vergine ed intervento civilizzatore costituisce in sostanza il fulcro della diegesi .Più in generale nel cinema classico hollywoodiano l'organizzazione delle sequenze contempla l'establishing shot ossia un totale dell'ambiente connesso alla vicenda seguite da inquadrature dedicate al personaggio.
esile che sembra quasi appartenere alla pesante e maestosa tenda della camera virginale a cui si avvinghiano le minute braccia non dissimili dai rami di un albero di alloro cresciuto lì accanto .
La"mostrazione" dei due personaggi non ha motivazione diegetica ,pertanto sembra continuare a proporre visivamente il contenuto del prologo enunciato dal coro27 .
Il taglio delle inquadrature dei due protagonisti, pur continuando a prevedere una collocazione classica a T ossia al centro dello spazio, contempla anche una vasta porzione di piano sviluppato in altezza necessario,a mio giudizio,alla visualizzazione di corpi responsabili di movimenti espressivi i cui gesti e passi sono sempre significativi producendo senso in rapporto all'ambiente circostante.Fin da subito è possibile stabilire,come correlativi oggettivi,le pose,generalmente,assunte dai due amanti di Verona:Romeo,capo chino,con un'espressione dolcemente mesta e raramente dinamica,ricalcherà il ruolo di partner tipico dei balletti classico romantici della tradizione europea e in seguito coreografati in Russia da Marius Petipa il cui sguardo lungi dall'essere oggetto di interesse dello spettatore deve essere diretto soltanto alla donna da lui guidata e sostenuta;Giulietta, costantemente con la gamba sinistra all'indietro,pronta a eseguire un'arabesque ,traduce la freschezza della giovane età così ingenua ed incerta e al tempo stesso l'ansia di vivere28 che cattura pudicamente l'attenzione nelle sequenze da lei danzate .
La mdp ritorna su Romeo per introdurre l'amico Mercuzio dalla buffa e comica camminata saltellante che lo sveglia dal dolce incantesimo da cui era stato rapito puntando gli occhi al libricino.Ha così inizio la scena 2)29:donne ed uomini del popolo di Verona si svegliano pieni di energia per attendere alle faccende quotidiane,agli sforzi imposti dalla vita.La varietà di esempi mostrati(una ragazza che sbadiglia al balcone,un'altra che rinfresca il viso ad una fontana,chierici,contadini ecc...)con una successione di inquadrature da teatro filmato,fornisce un'immagine ricca cromaticamente e suggestiva nel proporre quasi uno spaccato di folklore russo come alla fiera di San Pietroburgo dove è ambientata la commuovente storia della marionetta Petrouchka,focalizzando le comparse dai movimenti danzanti:il lavoro e la fatica sono affrontati serenamente e (stalinianamente) nobilitano gli uomini.
L'episodio 3)30introduce una deviazione dalla gioia collettiva a causa della lotta tra i membri delle fazioni opposte della città.Tradendo l'originale shakespeariano si osserva una coppia(afferente alla famiglia Montecchi) infastidita da un trio(i servitori dei Capuleti):il mezzo impiegato è sempre la danza che sbarra la strada con saltelli e fare canzonatorio diventando più stringente ed aggressiva fino a provocare, inevitabilmente,una reazione.Il trio in girotondo ballato attorno alla coppia si scioglie e la mdp filma in close-up (dettaglio)il gesto offensivo di uno dei servitori con il pollice tra l'indice e il medio a pugno chiuso.31
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27 William Shakespeare Romeo e Giulietta( a cura di Anna Luisa Zazo, traduzione di Salvatore Quasimodo)Oscar Mondadori 2001p 7«[...]fra due famiglie di uguale nobiltà ,per antico odio nasce una nuova discordia che sporca di sangue le mani dei cittadini.Da questi due nemici discendono i due amanti ,che ,nati sotto contraria stella ,dopo pietose vicende ,con la loro morte,annientarono l'odio di parte .Le tremende lotte del loro amore ,già segnato dalla morte,l'ira spietata dei genitori,che ha fine soltanto con la morte dei figli ,ecco quello che la nostra scena vi offrirà in due ore. [...] ».
28 Celebre attributo della ribelle Rossella nel film"Via col vento".
29 Seguo la numerazione esposta nella tabella in appendice che differisce da quella della versione in dvd
30 Nel testo teatrale la scena 2) è assente e la 3) segue immediatamente al prologo.
31 Alcuni critici hanno evidenziato una generale impronta ejzenštejniana nella modalità di ripresa del film-ballet citando come esempio proprio l'inquadratura in close-up impiegata dal sommo regista frequentemente nei lungometraggi più noti. Benché non sia riuscita a reperire ulteriori informazioni in merito all'argomento ritengo utile menzionare il primo film girato da Sua Maestà :un cortometraggio del 1923 intitolato Dnevnik Glumova (Il diario di Glumov ) trait d'union tra il quinto atto e l'epilogo dello spettacolo teatrale "Anche il più saggio ci può cascare" giacché nel secondo tempo il protagonista Glumov in piedi su una gradinata insieme alla futura sposa Mašenka mentre entrano gli altri personaggi Gorodulin, Joffre e Mamiljukov per chiedere qualcosa (inq 16) fa un rapido gesto che in dettaglio si rivela essere osceno: il pugno chiuso con il pollice tra l'indice e il medio rivolto verso l'alto (inq 17) mostrato nuovamente in orizzontale orientato verso la mdp (inq 19) dopo un primo piano dei tre inorriditi. Cfr. Giovanni Buttafava Il diario di Glumov in Immagine, Note di Storia del Cinema ,Fascicolo terzo Associazione Italiana per le Ricerche di Storia del Cinema pp 6-7
Nel testo del drammaturgo inglese(p 11) si riscontra una leggera differenza espressa nel dialogo tra Sansone ,Gregorio e Abramo:
Gregorio -Passando vicino a loro li guarderò di traverso .E la prendano come vogliono .
Sansone -Anzi ,come avranno coraggio.Li guarderò fissi mordendomi il pollice ; è un'offesa ,se la sopportano.
Abramo -Vi mordete il pollice per noi,signore?
Sansone - Io mi mordo il pollice ,signore
Abramo -Vi mordete il pollice per noi signore ?
Sansone -(a parte a Gregorio ) La legge è dalla nostra parte se rispondo di sì?
Gregorio -( a parte a Sansone ) No.
Sansone - No,signore ; non mi mordo il pollice per voi .Ma mi mordo il pollice ,signore .
Infine segnalo un ulteriore riferimento al "gesto osceno" narrato nella sua icasticità dalla Divina Commedia rinviando a Dante Alighieri La divina commedia ,Inferno(a cura di Tommaso Di Salvo) canto XXV ,cerchio VIII,bolgia VII,vv.1-6 e nota 1 Zanichelli Editore 1999, p. 477.
La lotta che segue,in linea con il testo teatrale,è ripresa dall'alto attraverso un dolly evidenziando il progressivo accrescersi della moltitudine a sostegno delle due famiglie belligeranti. Si duella con le spade assistendo alla resa realistica di una battaglia urbana in cui spazio alcuno è lasciato alla danza o a movimenti aggraziati. Mentre il caos infuria giunge Tebaldo ansioso di dare il suo contributo alla casata dei Capuleti.
L'impiego di un montaggio analitico e trasparente(da cinema classico)mostra inoltre l'ingresso dei capifamiglia:prima del padre di Giulietta seguito dall'inquadratura dall'avo di Romeo;la rissa,enfatizzata dallo splendore delle spade lunghe e possenti, inizia a mietere un enorme numero di vittime.L'intervento del Principe in posa equestre con la spada rivolta verso l'alto impone la tregua con un solo fulminante sguardo ammonitore32.
L'episodio4)concludendosi con la completa sottomissione delle due famiglie alla volontà del Principe introduce i primi esempi di autentica pantomima il cui impiego è reso necessario nella danza come sostituto del linguaggio verbale:mediante PP e PPP33 si focalizzano i volti dei nemici,le smorfie di labbra contratte, serrate, celanti denti digrignanti,sopracciglia corrucciate,fronti corrugate,occhi infuocati dalla rabbia o chini, persi nel vuoto per poi,risoluti, alzarsi di scatto.In alcuni casi il carattere causale delle sequenze del film propone i personaggi nell'accennare a mettersi in posa per lasciar catturare la loro espressione e fornire dunque un senso alla prosecuzione della vicenda .
La scena 5)si apre con un dettaglio di un vassoio di frutta posato da un servitore su una tavola già imbandita per il ballo che si terrà a casa Capuleti.34Del tutto gratuito il cliché del domestico scroccone quasi un dapontiano Leporello ante litteram con una guancia ancora gonfia di vivande furtivamente carpite 35mentre altri domestici e valletti,con movimenti ora goffi,ora leggiadri,celebrano il fasto e la magnificenza della casata. Con il passaggio fugace di una donna grassa:la nutrice recante tra le mani una veste delicata ed eterea,si introduce la sequenza successiva completamente dedicata alla protagonista assoluta della tragedia e del film-ballet ossia Giulietta ,l'unica figlia dei coniugi Capuleti.
Nascosti in un giocoso agguato teso alla nutrice,dietro la poltrona posta verso il fondo della sua stanza, gli occhi cerulei e vispi di G. U.spuntano dallo schienale conferendo subito il carattere dell'interpretazione di ballerina ed attrice di impronta dichiaratamente stanislavskijana. Sensibilità ,bellezza,purezza di giglio, a detrimento di impeto ed ardimento tipici invece dell'eroina concepita da Shakespeare,la Giulietta del film-ballet promana uno straordinario senso di pace interiore dal volto delizioso perchè buffo ed infantile, intento a beffarsi bonariamente della balia. Il rapporto è d'amore basato sulla complicità esistente tra i due personaggi femminili 36.La scena si svolge freneticamente ricalcando un po' lo schema di inseguimento delle commedie slapstick americane,(Giulietta lancia un cuscino alla nutrice appena giunta),ma tale libera traduzione schermica di una relazione di affetto continua ad essere una plausibile interpretazione pregna di significato e valida alla comprensione dei successivi passaggi diegetici.Pimpante,similmente alle fatine di "Sogno di una notte di mezza estate",immacolata come un cartone animato appena disegnato,Giulietta esprime la sua frenesia danzando,velocissima sulle punte percorre e illustra interamente la sua ampia stanza: un altro scranno posto più a destra dell'inquadratura ed uno specchio di grandi dimensioni a sinistra collocato di profilo.La nutrice, tentando di acciuffare la piccola discola la asseconda "tollerandola" spazialmente in quanto la rincorre, con in mano il cuscino, lungo lo stesso tracciato della ragazza.Giulietta non è ancora "donna",ignora veteris vestigia flammae, i suoi interessi sono,visibilmente,legati alla sfera ludica:ulteriore esempio della perfetta resa psicologica del personaggio con l'impiego della danza è fornito quando la balia esausta si rifugia sulla prima poltrona visualizzata,diventando ben presto vittima del...solletico della giovane Capuleti.Il gioco,la spensieratezza e, come in celebri fiabe trasposte in balletto(La belle au bois dormant) l'incapacità o il rifiuto di supporre eventi perturbanti,dipingono il ritratto interiore di Giulietta37unitamente all'educazione e al rispetto ostentato nei confronti della madre che giunge fredda ed altera dalla porta sullo sfondo, interrompendo il vivace intrattenimento.Il volto diafano di Madonna Capuleti severo,rigido ed inespressivo ammonisce indirettamente Giulietta che ,imitando una bimba sorpresa a commettere una bricconata, scende, a mo' di scoiattolo, dalle gambe della nutrice, si ricompone andando a baciarle la mano
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32 La scena si differenzia dall'originale shakespeariano per l'assenza delle mogli dei capifamiglia rivali pertanto sostanzialmente la si può far terminare a p. 15 .
33 PP:primo piano ,PPP:primissimo piano.
34 Omessa la scena II atto I in cui Capuleti concede a Paride la mano della figlia e lo invita al ballo.
35 Cfr. "Don Giovanni" di Mozart -Da Ponte Atto II scena XV
36 Sequenza inesistente nel testo teatrale è ejzenštejnianamente esplicitata mediante il fondamento di ogni arte ossia il conflitto sinonimo di montaggio secondo la concezione registica di Sua Maestà (traduzione "in immagini" del principio dialettico e più precisamente attraverso la configurazione del conflitto di volumi:l'esile Giulietta piena di grazia e la grassa nutrice a lei opposta in quanto priva di leggiadria .
37Nella corrispondente scena shakespeariana ovviamente non compare tale sequenza e semmai è affidata nel lodare Giulietta e nell'enunciarne l'età (a breve quattordici anni)alle battute della ciarliera nutrice.
in segno di ossequio. La quiete ristabilitasi dura un momento:Giulietta scherza di nuovo con la nutrice irritando la madre che,allibita, riesce ad afferrare la figlia per la mano spingendola brutalmente verso lo specchio.Non occorre convocare le teorie di Lacan sullo "stadio dello specchio"divulgate dal testo "Stadio dello specchio come formatore della funzione dell'io"(1949) per evidenziare il potente ruolo delle immagini, specialmente se doppie di sé stessi, e gli effetti della percezione equivalente ad una presa di coscienza ,ad una più acuta ed obbligata autoanalisi.Giulietta davanti a Giulietta,con ultimi moti infantili, sistema l'acconciatura, distende le pieghe del vestito e, improvvisamente,seguendo con la mano la linea del suo corpo si paralizza toccando i seni .La magnifica soluzione adottata da G. U. dilata le fasi di autentica scoperta del proprio corpo,delle sue potenzialità oltre alle inevitabili implicazioni sociali connesse all' hic et nunc: tocca prima il seno destro,poi il sinistro continuando attonita ad osservarsi come stupita davanti all'epifania di sé stessa.Un immediato imbarazzo la porta ad allontanarsi dall'infausto oggetto rivelatore,a piegare il capo incrociando le braccia sul petto come a voler negare l'esistenza di quella parte del suo corpo,i cambiamenti in lei avvenuti biologicamente e fisicamente da fanciulla a ragazza e i suoi portati. Tuttavia non si può, letteralmente, negare l'evidenza: il tacito scambio di sguardi compiaciuti tra Madonna Capuleti e la balia, che hanno assistito alla scena, lo avvalora .Giulietta è in età da marito ,è potenzialmente sposa e madre.38
Le successive sei sequenze(derivanti cronologicamente e contenutisticamente dal ballo presso i Capuleti),che concludono il primo atto del film-ballet, sono pregne di danza e consentono di entrare nel cuore della messinscena coreografica di "Romeo e Giulietta"in concomitanza allo sviluppo narrativo di cui, in tale fase, sciolti i nodi principali, si raggiunge una corretta comprensione .
La scena 7) 39inquadra il dettaglio della veste di Giulietta baciata da Paride ad un lembo in segno di omaggio alla promessa sposa,giacché, pur se pudicamente donato,il gesto del cavaliere ha un esplicito significato di richiesta di matrimonio.La mdp allarga l'obiettivo sulle braccia di Giulietta spiegate ai lati per la visibile emozione che trova conferma ed approvazione a quanto sta accadendo nel cenno della madre posta dietro di lei.Capo chino e posizione dei piedi rigorosamente en dehors,la ragazza sembra confusa come in un dì di festa;porgendo il braccio al promesso sposo che le ha offerto un bouquet, la coppia si avvia a godere delle danze a palazzo completando il rito di marca "cortese".Però la solennità della breve cerimonia assume un valore estrinseco:l'ignoranza di Giulietta in merito a quanto si sta verificando non genera timore:lei non chiede spiegazioni e solo in apparenza subisce passivamente;in verità, osservando con estrema attenzione, impara convertendo l'atto della visione in una vera e propria Weltanschauung .Il più alto grado di tale conoscenza sarà raggiunto danzando: i movimenti espressivi e i balletti coroneranno una sorta,direi, di Bildungstanz .
Mentre osserva i genitori danzare una tipica danse de cour40,Giulietta seduta al centro sul lato destro, riceve saluti ed auguri da altre dame ostentando un sorriso radioso.Invitata da Tebaldo a partecipare alle danze lei e Paride eseguono un breve, ma sublime e delicato pas de deux ,tipicamente romantico in cui il partner guida e sostiene la ballerina non restituendo mai lo sguardo ad altri spettatori circostanti poiché deve ammirare la sua stella quando si muove eseguendo pas de bourrée(scevri dal consueto senso di sfilata accordato dalla tradizione accademica) o arabesques.Giulietta,interpretata danzando da G. U.venuta in terra a miracol mostrare,emana grazia divina ,leggerezza,immaterialità;tuttavia la sua innocenza è preservata e le sue pose,i suoi passi sono ben lungi dall'essere oggetto di bramosi voyeurs: niente di provocante o audace in quanto la tecnica che, come si vede, è posseduta ai massimi livelli, è impregnata di umano sentire ,è manifestazione, trasposizione poetica dell'interiorità della futura sposa come a dire:ogni tipo di sentimento può essere espresso dalla danza. La sua testa mobile segue le linee tracciate dal corpo e non dimentica l'ambiente e l'occasione del ballo:non G. U.bensì Giulietta danza recandosi a ricevere il placet anche dall'affettuosa nutrice seduta a destra (estasiata dalla visione della sua bimba) sul cui volto glissa le dita .Le qualità di tale danza riescono pertanto ad essere,al tempo stesso, sempre realistiche grazie al recupero della sorgente mimica, discorsiva e non frammentata in numeri di bravura .
Già in questo primo duetto Giulietta,rispettosa delle convenzioni,palesa l'aspetto ancora un po' fanciullino
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38 A mio giudizio la traduzione coreografica di Giulietta è di grande efficacia benché differisca dalla scena III,atto I della tragedia a cui è maggiormente prossima: la ragazza viene fatta convocare dalla madre tramite la nutrice pertanto,pur non essendo chiarito in didascalia il luogo dell'incontro è plausibile escludere la sua camera impiegata al contrario,nel film.La sequenza allo specchio è affidata alla logorroica balia che rammenta l'età di Giulietta: quattordici anni alla vigilia del primo agosto. Madonna Capuleti le consente di assistere al colloquio con la figlia che «[...] ha ormai una bella età» e a sua volta ricorda«[...]se non mi sbaglio nel conto,io alla tua età non ero fanciulla come te,ma già tua madre .Ecco ,allora ,in poche parole :il nobile Paride ti chiede di amarlo.»
39 Vi è dunque un'ampia ellisse sul colloquio tra Paride e il padre di Giulietta riportato da Shakespeare.Nel film-ballet il ballo non descritto dal drammaturgo è ça va sans dire reso un punto di forza dell'intero lavoro:i personaggi sono riplasmati aggiungendo all'acting ,il performing e il dancing.
40Per questioni di spazio non mi è possibile proporre l'analisi della danza di corte ripresa frontalmente come se vista da uno spettatore a teatro.
del suo animo:l'ansia di godere della festa tout court, di divertirsi liberamente come ogni ragazza della sua età la disgiunge da Paride da cui si congeda con un inchino sbrigativo,pur sempre compìto, indizio di un mancato coup de foudre ,come auspicato invece dalla madre e dalla nutrice,per unirsi ad un altro gruppo di giovani festanti. Risponde dileguandosi sospinta, pare,dal vento al richiamo mimato con gli occhi di reali danzatrici.Sembra che le danze presso la dimora dei Capuleti siano distinte in ordine di età in quanto Giulietta, con le compagne approda in una sorta di harem,un salone in cui sono adagiati i membri del corpo di ballo Bol'šoj(i danzatori suonano i liuti dilettando le ballerine adagiate a terra)per poi proseguire verso destra in un altro ambiente più ampio,dalle volte elevatissime e dall'evidente aspetto di un palcoscenico teatrale in cui Giulietta/G. volteggerà nuovamente.
La tipologia di sguardo è duplice:oggettiva ponendo per l'intera durata della danza la mdp frontalmente concordando con l'identificazione dello spettatore teatrale dinnanzi alla quarta parete(focalizzando l'intero quadro fino all'arco scenico) e soggettiva ossia di Romeo(a dire il vero, propenderei per un'alternanza di semi e false soggettive) che, in tale sequenza,riappare recando sul viso una maschera donatagli dall'amico Mercuzio,allo scopo di introdurlo tranquillamente alla festa.41 .
La mdp restringe l'obiettivo sullo spazio attorno a Giulietta che si esibisce da sola in un balletto classico di estrema delicatezza e pieno di vitalità: i passi celestiali dai salti non altissimi,ma lirici,i disegni serpentinati, tracciati dalla sua veste nell'aria completati dai fiori che la ragazza reca in mano,come a rifinitura di un capolavoro,sono interrotti da due inquadrature di Romeo,prima di spalle dall'alto, poi si filma il suo PP mentre,accennando ad un sorriso,si bea della dolce apparizione. Improvvisamente,essendo prossima al proscenio, Giulietta termina l'ultima giravolta davanti a Romeo in contemplazione.Lei si paralizza,ma il suo meraviglioso PP con il capo oscillante a destra e sinistra manifesta sorpresa :vorrebbe distinguere meglio ciò che ha davanti,la sua modalità di sguardo indaga oltre la maschera che nasconde Romeo .
La rissa tra il giovane Montecchi e Tebaldo, in apparenza senza un valido motivo42,è felicemente interrotta dal sopraggiungere di Mercuzio (anch'egli coperto in viso da una maschera diabolica) che facendosi beffe del cugino di Giulietta ,affine al dio da cui probabilmente deriva il suo nome, e alla birichina,talora fastidiosa creatura shakesperiana Puck, ostenta l'irresistibile vena comica saltando come un funambolo,passeggiando sulle tavole imbandite, irrompendo tra i commensali desinanti.Essi offrono,in contrasto alla minuta e delicata Giulietta, l'immagine di un'indecorosa e nefasta opulenza rifiutata, a posteriori, anche dal popolo sovietico durante l'era del socialismo reale sotto l'egida del padre Stalin .
In tal modo Romeo e Giulietta, finalmente soli, possono conoscersi danzando e rendere,attraverso i loro passi e i volti estasiati dolcemente dall'amore già sbocciato al primo incontro,le sublimi parole della tragedia:la scelta registica di isolare Romeo ex abrupto davanti a Giulietta dopo il suo ballo con Paride elimina la domanda ad un servo sull'identità della ragazza .Alla seconda inquadratura a lui dedicata potrebbe essere associata l'autorisposta in cui emergono paragoni preziosi 43 .
Il balletto tra i due futuri amanti inizia con uno scambio di sguardi:ognuno legge(si legge) negli occhi dell'altro i sentimenti nascenti; ancora fissandosi sollevano e oppongono entrambi come uno scudo il braccio sinistro piegato a 90°,poi Giulietta indietreggia in un velocissimo pas de bourrée per non lasciarsi afferrare dallo sconosciuto:non è una sprovveduta.Il giovane (come Paride ) le bacia un lembo della veste per corteggiarla e riesce a stringere le sue mani .La ragazza felice ed ignara di quanto stia accadendo accetta di essere condotta dal partner,però distanziandosi e tendendo,contro il petto di lui,il suo braccio sinistro.Romeo riuscendo ad avvolgerla pone le sue labbra su quelle di Giulietta che assapora il primo bacio della sua vita spalancando gli occhi e accostando alla bocca il palmo della mano destra come per impedire ad esso di sfuggire.Nel testo teatrale Romeo funge da prototipo dell'amante platonico,mai volgare o aggressivo,pur se giovane ed impulsivo nel chiedere più volte,con sillogismi astuti e rinnovati, di avere un contatto con la dolce santa come concesso a tutti i pellegrini. Al termine del dialogo sinestetico ,evocando diversi sensi in particolar modo la vista(sight) e il tatto(touch),fondendo,di conseguenza, i canoni dell'amor cortese e la passione che attraversa immortale tutte le epoche,il giovane bacia Giulietta44.
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41Omessa dal film-ballet la parte finale della scena II,atto I in cui Romeo per aiutare il servo illetterato dei Capuleti apprende della festa degli ospiti e da quest'ultimo con libera iniziativa è a sua volta invitato.Nessuna pantomima consente di comprendere la reale ragione per cui Romeo si rechi al ballo .Secondo l'originale shakespeariano per rincontrare il doloroso perduto amor Rosalina .
42 Manca la trasposizione della scena V,atto I in cui Tebaldo avverte lo zio riconoscendo la voce di un Montecchi chiedendo inutilmente che subito l'onore della famiglia venga difeso.
43 Romeo:-Oh,essa insegna alle torce come splendere .Sembra pendere sul volto della notte come ricca gemma all'orecchio d'una Etiope. Ma è bellezza di valore immenso che mai nessuno avrà ,troppo preziosa per la terra . Come colomba bianca in una lunga fila di cornacchie sembra la fanciulla tra le sue compagne.La voglio vedere ,dopo questo ballo; come sarei felice se la mia mano rude sfiorasse quella sua . ha amato mai il mio cuore?Negate occhi:prima di questa notte non o mai veduto la bellezza .
44 Romeo:- Se credete che io profani con la mano più indegna questa sacra reliquia (peccato degli umili, del resto), le mie labbra rosse come due timidi pellegrini cercheranno di rendere morbido l'aspro contatto con un tenero bacio .
Giulietta,malgrado la sua inesperienza,risponde acutamente reagendo in maniera non convenzionale in quanto non si sottrae all'ignoto,desiderando,senza ombra di malizia, approfondirne la conoscenza e, forse con un rossore di fierezza, gli parla 45.Durante il balletto è dopo il bacio che Giulietta si dona completamente a Romeo:i suoi passi sono rapidissimi,festosi,felici;confrontando il duetto eseguito in precedenza con Paride, tecnicamente perfetto,ma freddo dal punto di vista emozionale in cui è visibile il cliché del bacio della veste e il sollevamento al di sopra della testa del partner,è evidente che la magica,miracolosa atmosfera creatasi in scena nel secondo caso viene dettata unicamente da Amore.46
Mentre Romeo solleva l'etereo corpo di Giulietta,lei gli toglie la maschera e liberandosi corre verso sinistra lasciandola cadere.Romeo insegue la fanciulla; sta per celare nuovamente il suo volto ,ma il PP dell'amata lo ammalia inducendolo a rimanere senza alcuna copertura.La scena merita molta attenzione perchè il perfetto raccordo cinematografico di sguardo suggerisce che si tratta della prima effettiva volta in cui i due protagonisti si osservano:Giulietta/G. resta folgorata dal volto di Romeo come "colpita" e "ferita"dalla freccia di Cupido. Altrettanta soggezione si palesa in Romeo:un cavaliere davanti a Midons e liberandosi anche del mantello prosegue il duetto.La beatitudine paradisiaca, che nell'amore i due giovani raggiungono, è resa da entrambi spalancando le braccia per l'estrema ed indicibile emozione:la danza probabilmente è insieme alla mimica del volto il codice più adeguato a tentare la fallace impresa verbale. Accertatasi che nessuno giunga a dividerli, un delicato gesto compiuto con il palmo della mano passato circolarmente attorno al volto di Romeo, rende più vibrante ed intensa la passione di Giulietta .Lei viene sollevata dal giovane prostratosi ai suoi piedi(nella danza accademica infatti il ballerino che innalza la partner è la figura simbolo di amore ricambiato);in posa scultorea con le labbra socchiuse sembra pregare, ringraziare il cielo, le divinità che presiedono all'amore. Sta esclamando la sorpresa ,la gioia profonda,il turbamento, il sublime senso di strana e sconvolgente novità, come a confessare a sé stessa e al mondo di essersi innamorata .Le ultime due scene del primo atto del film-ballet sintetizzano perfettamente quanto di diegeticamente rilevante per lo sviluppo della tragedia:terminata la festa,i coniugi Capuleti salutano gli ospiti,mentre Tebaldo furente è in cerca di Romeo.In una sola inquadratura(degna di un baziniano montaggio proibito)a sinistra Giulietta in FI47 sta orientando lo sguardo della nutrice seduta accanto a lei verso Romeo in FI centrale con la schiena rivolta alla parete di fondo.La balia sussultando fornisce evidentemente l'identità del giovane Montecchi gettando la ragazza in uno stato confusionale di disperazione.48
Lo spazio a forma cubica collega idealmente,mediante una diagonale da sinistra a destra passando per il centro,i due protagonisti precari nel Totale come pedine su una scacchiera,inconsapevolmente mosse dalla velocità del destino e impossibilitate ad agire in una condizione di angustia perchè ristretta, claustrofobica;
quasi in contemporanea lasciano le loro postazioni:Romeo è consapevole di essere ancora inseguito da Tebaldo e Giulietta si dilegua con la nutrice.Anticipata al I atto ecco la celeberrima "scena del balcone"49.
Rientrata nella sua camera l'affranta ed inconsolabile Giulietta,cinta ad una colonna del suo letto, come Dafne trasformata in alloro, è lasciata sola dalla nutrice a soffrire per la prima volta nella sua vita,d'amore.Si intravede Romeo arrivato nel giardino per trovare riparo mentre la giovane Capuleti,solennemente, con il capo sollevato e l'espressione mestamente rigida(gli occhi persi nel vuoto forse rivolti alla luna come nell'invocazione di Norma nell'aria "Casta diva") gli appare al balcone.Pur con le dovute differenze, la scena II della tragedia è completamente trasposta dalla danza con il misurato ausilio della mimica:conditio sine qua non per eseguire i suoi passi, Giulietta tuttavia non può rimanere al balcone e, percorrendo una scala, giunge anch'ella nel giardino.I PP di Romeo traducono le prime battute della scena in cui, lodando l'amata, paragonata ad una vestale,ad un angelo splendente, le chiede di parlare.
La mdp segue l'aerea Giulietta resa ancora più immateriale dal vento che agita le sue vesti e dall'avvolgente
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45 Giulietta :-Buon pellegrino,voi fate un grave torto alla vostra mano,che non ha fatto altro che dimostrare un'umile devozione.
Anche i santi hanno le mani,e le mani dei pellegrini le toccano ;palma contro palma : infatti è questo il bacio sacro dei palmieri.
46 Ritengo opportuno riportare per intero le battute salienti del dialogo tra i due protagonisti durante il ballo :
Romeo:-Ma i santi e i palmieri non hanno labbra?
Giulietta:-Sì ,pellegrino,labbra che servono per la preghiera .
Romeo:-Oh,allora,dolce santa,lascia che le tue labbra facciano come le tue mani; esse pregano,tu esaudiscile ,in modo che la fede non si muti in disperazione .
Giulietta:-I santi non si muovono,eppure esaudiscono coloro che li pregano.
Romeo:-Allora non muoverti,così la mia preghiera sarà esaudita [La bacia] Ecco,le tue labbra hanno tolto il peccato dalle mie.
Giulietta:-Allora le mie labbra portano il peccato cha hanno tolto.
Romeo:-Il peccato dalle mie labbra? O colpa dolcemente rimproverata!Rendimi il mio peccato !
Giulietta:-Voi baciate come insegna il libro.[...]
47 FI :figura intera.
48 Nella tragedia Giulietta esclama:-Il mio unico amore nato dal mio unico odio! O sconosciuto ,troppo presto visto ,e troppo tardi conosciuto !O sovrumana forza d'amore tu mi fai amare il nemico che odiavo.
49Eliminati dal film il prologo pronunciato dal coro dell'atto II e la scena I in cui Mercuzio e Benvolio cercano Romeo dialogando .
notte che la esalta attraverso deboli variazioni luminose.L'atmosfera è magica:Giulietta sembra appartenere ad una somma idea di Bellezza che è correlativa della natura del suo giardino.Mentre sta percorrendo le scale la battuta più appropriata che potrebbe affermare sarebbe :«O Romeo! Romeo! Perché sei tu Romeo?Rinnega dunque tuo padre e rifiuta quel nome ,o se non vuoi ,legati al mio amore e più non sarò una Capuleti».
Il braccio destro teso,come a raggiungere un'essenza effimera,direziona,rapidamente, le punte della ragazza verso un piccolo roseto perché:«Solo il tuo nome è mio nemico:tu,sei tu,anche se non fossi uno dei Montecchi .Che cosa vuol dire Montecchi? Né mano,non piede ,né braccio ,né viso,nulla di ciò che forma un corpo.Prendi un altro nome !Che c'é nel nome? Quella che chiamiamo rosa ,anche con altro nome avrebbe il suo profumo.Anche Romeo senza più il suo nome sarebbe caro,com'è ,e così perfetto.Rinuncia al tuo nome,Romeo,e per il nome,che non è parte di te,prendi me stessa.»
Mentre sta sfiorando una rosa (focalizzata in dettaglio come a respirarne il profumo e a confermare quanto sostenuto: una rosa emanerebbe la stessa dolce fragranza pur appellato in altro modo)dall'oscurità emerge Romeo giacché,anche nel testo originale, fa seguito la battuta:«Ti prendo sulla parola, chiamami solo amore, e avrò nuovo battesimo; ecco,non mi chiamo più Romeo.»
A 31'23'' dall'inizio del film Romeo e Giulietta si amano nel duetto più suggestivo e virtuoso dell'intero balletto, romanticamente sprovveduti in quanto la mancanza di conoscenza o la sua intuizione parziale deriva da una"bad communication" e la tragedia è basata su "unawareness and not knowing".Il carpe diem di oraziana memoria è accolto dalla danza:puro linguaggio del corpo,probabilmente il più autentico, perché primordiale rispetto alla scrittura e ad altri connotati di civiltà. In verità lo stupendo pas de deux è da considerarsi come una loro proiezione fantasmatica, un desiderio materializzato ossia visualizzabile attraverso le possibilità della configurazione schermica:una dissolvenza incrociata (31'30'') sovrappone due immagini della coppia in due ambienti differenti: la prima ancora nel giardino accanto alle rose,la seconda in uno spazio completamente vuoto privo di scenografia di forma circolare come una pista da ballo avvolto nell'oscurità .Ancora Amore guida i due amanti liberi,felici e oltre ai volti espressivi,soprattutto le braccia, più volte, fendono l'aria in slanci poderosi d'affetto.In particolar modo Giulietta accarezza con dolcezza il capo dell'amato,indipendentemente,dall'utilità del gesto finalizzato all'esecuzione della danza. Sembrano volteggiare in mondi metafisici come due angeli del Paradiso che stanno giurando reciprocamente fedeltà eterna.Una nuova dissolvenza incrociata (33'37'')riconduce la vicenda al giardino accanto alle rose: i due amanti pertanto non hanno realmente danzato; i loro sguardi persi l'uno nell'altro testimoniano letteralmente di un "sogno ad occhi aperti". Ancora una volta,accolto da una vellutata carezza,Romeo bacia la veste di Giulietta per poi seguirla,vederla sparire e riapparire al balcone .Le loro mani si congiungono terminando la sequenza, in conformità a quanto riportato nella tragedia 50.

Atto II

La scena di apertura è definibile,senza dubbio, esempio cinematografico di MacGuffin ad uso della danza: violando il testo shakespeariano si propone la visione delle celebrazioni coreutiche in onore di una cerimonia religiosa nella città di Verona:una processione di donne e uomini in costumi popolari accompagna da destra la statua della Vergine con Bambino,mentre emerge dal fondo Romeo dall'aria distratta .Il clima di festa collettiva, come prima dai Capuleti, vede ancora protagonista Mercuzio intento a suonare il liuto e a scherzare con le fanciulle(baciandole) partecipi del folklore locale.Alla luce di un brillante sole mattutino, si esibiscono numerosi gruppi di ballerini esponenti come in una fiera vari tipi di danze alcune forse anacronistiche rispetto alla Verona del tempo:vengono indossate maschere dal grugno animalesco, un danzatore in abito da giullare (il clown) si esibisce insieme ad una coppia di ballerini,tre donne a piedi nudi con ampie gonne zingaresche dilettano il pubblico al suono indeterminato delle nacchere.Dopo una pantomima danzata raffigurante il personaggio della morte e di un generico individuo("ognuno") che tenta di sfuggirle beffandola,la mdp inquadra Tebaldo in una taverna dove, insieme ai compagni ubriachi, dovrebbe trovar piacere in un'avvenente donna su un tavolo danzante il flamenco, ma il volto contratto segnala di non
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50 Romeo:-Oh ,tu mi lasci con tanto desiderio !
Giulietta:- E che desiderio può avere questa notte?
Romeo:Scambiare il tuo amore con il mio .
Giulietta:-Prima che lo chiedessi ,io t'ho dato il mio ,e vorrei non averlo ancora dato .
Romeo:-Vorresti, forse,riprenderlo ?E per quale ragione ,amore mio?
Romeo:-Per offrirlo ancora una volta .Io desidero quello che possiedo;il mio cuore ,come il mare ,non ha limiti e il mio amore è profondo quanto il mare :più a te ne concedo più ne possiedo,perchè l'uno e l'altro sono infiniti .[...]
La scena II atto II della tragedia ha una durata maggiore: benché Giulietta torni dentro richiamata come afferma dalla nutrice,riappare altre due volte al balcone per chiarire con Romeo le modalità delle loro nozze ricevendo l'indicazione di inviare un messo alle nove del giorno seguente.
aver tollerato l'affronto subìto la notte precedente a casa dello zio e il desiderio di vendetta.
Scaraventa infatti il calice da cui stava bevendo, ordinando ai suoi di seguirlo .
Il primo evento fondamentale sul piano diegetico inscenato, è il matrimonio tra i due amanti celebrato da Frate Lorenzo,dal grande impatto visivo per il candore e la compostezza dominanti.
Iconograficamente l'inquadratura configurata all'inizio somiglia,secondo me,alle tele della tradizione umanistico-rinascimentale italiana:dall'opera di Colantonio (1445) "San Gerolamo e il leone" ad "Apparizione della Vergine a San Bernardo "di Filippino Lippi(1480)passando per Antonello da Messina:"San Gerolamo nello studio" (1474 ).Più in generale il tono emula i colori del Ghirlandaio.
In una sola immagine:Romeo inchinato ai piedi del frate intento a fabbricare piccoli bouquet , tracciando un segmento ideale obliquo dal volto del giovane a quello del religioso,dunque dal basso verso l'alto,è trasmesso un profondo senso di fiducia che si tradurrà nel consenso a celebrare le nozze clandestine.Il frate51accoglie un disperato Romeo e costituisce in fondo la sua fonte di speranza.Poco dopo la mdp inquadrando ancora in esterno la festa cittadina inizia a seguire il lento iter di Giulietta che accompagnata dalla nutrice,passando sotto un porticato posto lì a proteggerla,è diretta a celebrare le sue nozze. Romeo l'attende solennemente in piedi accanto al frate,poi con dei fiori cosparsi a terra crea un morbido tappeto bianco su cui lei ,leggiadra, poserà le sue punte. Se quanto previsto accade(la nutrice non prende parte alla cerimonia),Romeo bacia di nuovo la veste di Giulietta e la donna, non dissimile dalla Matelda di dantesca memoria,gli accarezza il capo. Sembrano avvicinare i loro volti sfiorando le labbra, tentennano i visi come ad afferrarsi con il timore di sgualcire la magia dell'incanto.Avanzando per un momento lontana da Romeo,Giulietta si avvicina a Frate Lorenzo che baciandole il capo,la benedice e sembra chiederle se lei sia disposta alla soluzione escogitata per il matrimonio. La donna annuisce, poi liberata del mantello dal promesso sposo, ha inizio la "marcia nuziale" coregrafata dalla U. per giungere all'altare. Essa ha un preciso inizio dal punto di vista spaziale:esattamente sotto una volta a crociera gotica e viene ripresa in long take da sinistra. La luce naturale ,vagamente antica, stinta per opacità,elabora una configurazione affine all'"Annunciazione "di Beato Angelico(metà del '400).La mdp riprende a distanza, sempre come se si trattasse di teatro filmato,Romeo e Giulietta che, andando a ricevere i sacramenti del matrimonio costituiscono un unico corpo,un solo amore sorgente di beatitudine. Procedono all'unisono,fusi, inframezzando il percorso con accenni di arabesque della promessa sposa. Entrambi distendendo all'indietro le braccia fanno ali al sublime volo:resi più bianchi dalla luce crescente somigliano ad angeli o a colombe.Giunti all'altare Giulietta casta diva imita i gesti del frate inchinandosi davanti ad una statua virginale.Frate Lorenzo con il messale tra le mani si allontana e la coppia ancora con lirici movimenti delle braccia rendono omaggio alla Madonna.Uniscono allora in avanti le mani (Giulietta la destra,Romeo la sinistra) toccate da quella del frate a congiungerli ufficialmente in matrimonio, per portarle così indietro mentre i bracci(sinistro lei,destro lui) diventano il raggio trascinato a percorrere una semicirconferenza e ad estendersi in perfetto diametro. I due sposi, timidi, si baciano chiudendo la figura creata con il capo di Giulietta amorevolmente adagiato sul petto di Romeo.52
La scena successiva mira alla condensazione degli eventi e alla sintesi spaziale in concomitanza al loro precipitare:si riconfigura,tradendolo,il testo shakespeariano ,pur conservando la stessa pregnanza e arrivando alla conclusione dell'atto concepito nel film-ballet,la morte di Mercuzio che,come nella tragedia, è causata da Tebaldo,ma è occasione,sul piano visivo,per proporre ulteriori momenti di pantomima.
Romeo serra le mani sul cuore in segno di pace per rabbonire Tebaldo giunto in piazza e che,come a ricambiare il gesto,giunge le sue a mo' di preghiera con l'intenzione tuttavia di ingannarlo, provocando la reazione di Mercuzio a suon di spada ondeggiata come un calice di vino.
Nel film-ballet inoltre la morte di quest'ultimo avviene in scena( "mostrazione " severamente proibita a teatro per tradizione ancora durante il periodo in cui visse il drammaturgo e aborrita anche da D'Aubignac)
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51 Omessa quasi interamente la scena III,atto II della tragedia
52 Solo parzialmente vi è corrispondenza tra la scena VI atto II e la resa filmica in quanto la descrizione del rito nuziale mancante nel testo teatrale è motivo di spunto coreutico.Uno spettatore d'eccezione della versione messa in scena al Teatro Kirov:Sergej Michajlovič Ejzenštejn propone una sua analisi della coreografia delle nozze aggettivando come botticelliana la trasparenza aerea del disegno. Gli aspetti più interessanti concernono la descrizione di un lavoro allestito in teatro in uno spazio limitato, ben differente dai vari set della versione cinematografica e i puntuali giudizi negativi nei confronti dell'interprete di Romeo,reo della mancata coincidenza del suo tragitto sia con quello della U. sia con la melodia estremamente plastica composta da Prokof'ev. In altre occasioni il grande regista aveva affermato che le ballerine sanno catturare l'attenzione spettatoriale all'inizio e alla fine delle sequenze dei balletti,ma nel suo saggio dando ragione ad Aristotele esamina anche il centro"tragicamente discordante" in quanto nel duetto verso l'altare :« (Sebbene proprio nell'identità risieda il senso più profondo dell'unità e della fusione che la figura è chiamata a manifestare ,come Lavroskij ha intuito e visto con grande finezza nei suoi tratti essenziali) e[...]Se tra il punto d'inizio e di fine del movimento il tratteggio disegnato nello spazio dalla gamba di Galina Seergevna rivela un morbidissimo scivolamento ,intonato al movimento del disegno melodico, [...] lo spostamento da un punto all'altro(di Romeo) avviene in modo del tutto slegato e arbitrario».V.S.M. Ejzenštejn L'unicità di Galina Sergeevna Ulanova in Il movimento espressivo, scritti sul teatro (a cura di Pietro Montani) Saggi Marsilio1998,p185 e seguenti.
accentuata da un dettaglio della sua mano macchiata del sangue della ferita mortale e da un'agonia(della durata di quattro minuti esatti)al fine di trasformarsi in un momento di tragicomica attesa.Mercuzio,gigione, incarnando ancora il prototipo mercuriale,sulle sue lunghe e magre gambe più simili alle zampe del goffo albatros beaudelairiano catturato dai marinai, nel cuore di Verona,attorniato dal popolo aspetta una morte comica che non arriva,cadendo e risorgendo più volte!La mdp.coglie l'amarezza nei volti dei festanti e il desiderio di vendetta di Romeo presto realizzato sguainando la spada contro Tebaldo, ferendolo a morte in un ennesimo duello disputatosi(inquadrato dall'alto) attorno al cadavere del compagno.
L'apparizione di Giulietta ad un balcone della dimora dei Capuleti che affaccia sulla piazza le consente direttamente di apprendere,in un solo momento, i tragici delitti consumati in pochi minuti.Davanti a lei un eloquente tableau vivant:scorta da Romeo che ha appena assassinato suo cugino,riceve con ampi gesti delle braccia,la completa dimostrazione di infinito amore.La conclusione dell'atto,con un piano americano del Principe intervenuto a riportare l'ordine,privilegia la focalizzazione degli eventi da parte dei coniugi Capuleti(la madre di Giulietta,dai capelli sciolti, si lacera le vesti sconvolta,interroga il cielo sulla sciagura abbracciando il corpo dell'amato Tebaldo,mentre il marito le promette più volte,ostentando la spada, una celere giustizia)53 .

Atto III

Interamente pensato per Giulietta e l'interpretazione coreutica,l'atto III è il più complesso ed emozionante del film-ballet dato che ,ricorrendo alle parole di S.M.Ejzenštejn si esprime,al massimo grado, "l'unicità di Galina Sergeevna Ulanova "e la "capacità del gesto di tratteggiare la melodia " 54 .
La sequenza riproduce ed estende,in quanto danzato,il dialogo dopo la notte trascorsa insieme,all'interno della stanza di Giulietta secondo le soluzioni adottate da tutti i registi dei film girati sugli amanti di Verona da me visionati (da Castellani,a Zeffirelli fino a Baz Luhrmann di "Romeo + Juliet"),malgrado la didascalia del testo teatrale indichi :entrano Romeo e Giulietta, in alto, al balcone55 .
Per evidenziare il nunc della scena si visualizzano tre o quattro inquadrature in esterno della notte e delle prime luci della mattina(tra cui l'orologio della piazza che sembra indicare le ore sei) infatti,quando viene mostrata la coppia abbracciata sulla sponda del letto di Giulietta, le azioni compiute traducono una prima parte del dialogo shakesperiano:la sposa tende il capo verso l'amato con espressione interrogativa come a dire secondo il copione :
Giulietta:- Vuoi andare già via?Ancora è lontano il giorno:
non era l'allodola ,era l'usignolo
che trafisse il tuo orecchio timoroso:
canta ogni notte laggiù dal melograno;
credimi,amore ,era l'usignolo .
Romeo corre a verificare e scosta la tenda già conoscendo la triste verità :
Romeo: -Era l'allodola,messaggera dell'alba,
non l'usignolo. Guarda,amore ,la luce invidiosa
a strisce orla le nubi che si sciolgono a oriente;
le candele della notte non ardono più e il giorno
in punta di piedi si sporge felice dalle cime
nebbiose dei monti. Devo andare: è la vita,
o restare e morire.
Lo sposo afferra il mantello,ma Giulietta lo riposa sullo scranno e richiude la tenda giacché:
Giulietta :-Quel chiarore laggiù
non è la luce del giorno,lo so:è una meteora
che si libera per te dal sole questa notte,
la torcia per farti lume sulla via di Mantova ;
dunque rimani ancora ,c'è tempo per andare.

In simbiosi con l'amata Romeo resta. La coppia inizia ad esprimere l'amore che li governa danzando lentamente tra baci ,carezze e vibranti sguardi di passione.I loro corpi più volte sembrano incastrarsi ,trovare delle posizioni per far combaciare le sagome come in una totale unione .Gli slanci dei numerosi salti,seguiti da un ultimo momento in cui Romeo sposta la tenda,raggiunto poco dopo da Giulietta si conclude con la stessa figura creata dopo le nozze celebrate da Frate Lorenzo.
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53 Riconcepite diegeticamente le scene I,II,III dell'atto III del testo teatrale.
54 S.M. Ejzenštejn L'unicità di Galina Sergeevna Ulanova,op cit,p184
55 Atto III scena V
(Giulietta:- É giorno ,è giorno: dunque ,presto ,va' via!
É l'allodola che canta fuori tono
forzando su dissonanze e aspri acuti.
Dicono che l'allodola divida con dolcezza
ogni accordo:questa non ci divide con dolcezza;
e ancora ,che l'allodola e il rospo ripugnante
abbiano scambiato i loro occhi:
così avessero fatto anche della voce,
poi che quella voce lotta il nostro abbraccio,
perché ti caccia da me, col suo richiamo al giorno.
Oh,va',ora ,va'; si fa sempre più luce .)

Improvvisamente l'inquadratura della nutrice a bussare dietro la porta della camera di Giulietta (nella tragedia la donna entra in fretta)rende più frenetica ed accelera la danza della coppia.L'interpretazione è straordinaria:il tormento di separarsi,la croce che stanno sostenendo silenziosamente entrambi non ha un numero sufficiente di passi di danza come i basia mille deinde centum usque altera mille catulliani.
I pas de bourrée di Giulietta contengono timore,dolore e soprattutto impotenza di fronte al profilarsi di un secondo matrimonio.
La successiva sequenza è la più violenta del film-ballet :Giulietta rifiuta categoricamente di sposare Paride e viene aggredita,minacciata,offesa da Capuleti in una sorta di corpo a corpo in cui il gracile fisico della ragazza nulla può contro la forza bruta di un uomo,pur trattandosi di suo padre.La sintesi è validamente ottenuta condensando più momenti della tragedia: nella stanza di Giulietta giungono la nutrice,i coniugi Capuleti e Paride.La ragazza tesissima sfugge sgarbatamente a quest'ultimo non lasciandosi baciare la veste, sottraendo mani e braccia al suo contatto,rifiutando ogni dimostrazione di affetto,sconvolgendo anche i genitori allibiti dalla mancanza di educazione e mortificati per la reazione del promesso sposo che,non disposto ad essere ulteriormente umiliato,va via .Giulietta si rifugia dalla madre per poi correre verso la porta da cui è uscito Paride:con tutta la forza che le resta la spalanca tendendo un braccio nel vuoto ad indicare l'uomo appena uscito.Con le mani in alto,dopo, traccia un autorevole segno di diniego che scatena le ire del padre.I pas de bourrée ora sono l'effetto del maltrattamento che sta subendo dal genitore il quale l'afferra stringendole i polsi quasi per batterla;la madre in cui ,come spinta da una tempesta spera di trovare riparo,la rifiuta.Il tracciato circolare che lei percorre la porta a piangere ai piedi dello specchio osservata dalla nutrice che deve tacere pur sapendo dell'inferno nel cuore della ragazza.Pare di sentire il pianto di Giulietta,i suoi singhiozzi mentre sussulta con la schiena piegata a mo' di scudo di protezione .
Tenta poi alzandosi di calmare l'avo per fornirgli una spiegazione e ricevere conforto,ma il furore di costui è implacabile:più volte la fa cadere a terra senza pietà e nell'ultima sua inquadratura,l'indice puntato alla giovane rannicchiata(posizione che mi ricorda Vera Baranovskaja ne "La madre" di Pudovkin) è il monito più severo ad obbedire ai suoi ordini.Giulietta ha uno scatto altrettanto violento nel provare a sollevarsi:sembra un insetto,una farfalla impietrita,colta da paralisi,in uno stato di rigor mortis così carico di significato.L'inquadratura,come nel cinema classico,evidenzia il carattere finalistico del comportamento dell'eroina .Giulietta vivrà da tale momento in poi per trovare il modo di rimanere sposa soltanto di Romeo. Sola, uccello in gabbia, inizia una danza folle(menziono per uno spunto comparativo anche quella eseguita da una giovane "fidanzata russa" nuda,dai capelli lunghissimi ne "La terra "di Dovzenko) e trema disperata toccando i vari angoli della stanza per trovare in essi una metaforica via d'uscita:la porta e il balcone oltre i quali c'è il mondo sono fonte di dolore,ma all'esterno di quella che ormai per lei è una prigione l'unica speranza può essere fornita da chi ha suggellato santamente il suo matrimonio:Frate Lorenzo.L'indice destro sollevato con violenza e abbassato lentamente(come quando si ritorna in sé dopo aver pronunciato una frase non voluta o preso coscienza,in senso hegeliano,della realtà in una determinata circostanza)e il mantello con cui si avvolge trasformano Giulietta in una donna che ardentemente decide di difendere,ad ogni costo, il suo amore.Dopo un lungo piano sequenza della sua corsa disperata in una luce notturna, da sinistra verso destra, la sposa arriva dal frate che ugualmente al testo teatrale dopo la minaccia di suicidarsi vibrando un colpo di coltello alla gola le consegna una boccetta( lei la conserva in seno)contenente il veleno per inscenare la finta morte. Ritornata a casa nella sua stanza ecco ad attenderla i genitori e Paride:Giulietta si inchina al cospetto del padre di cui bacia la mano e rinsavita ,annuisce con il capo al matrimonio.La coppia di futuri sposi viene lasciata sola per danzare in un duetto in cui Giulietta, che ha reso la menzogna sua fedele compagna,con occhi inespressivi,da automa,accondiscende alle richieste del partner,ma non tollera la sua insistenza:visibilmente il volto è contratto in smorfie di disgusto,nausea,ripugnanza ,mostra di subire una molestia.Paride,audacemente,percorre con le mani tutto il corpo e cerca di baciarla:la mano della donna contro la bocca di lui arresta i suoi propositi ,costringendolo, desolato ad andare via .
Giunge la notte del suo sacrificio d'amore e della salvezza auspicata:avvicinatasi alla porta per verificare che sia serrata,costantemente con la mano sul petto dove è riposta l'ampollina,Giulietta esegue una danza straziante che si consuma con dolore ed angoscia perché il timore esplicitato nel soliloquio shakespeariano della scena III ,atto IV, in cui si ode pronunciare per quattro volte l'anafora dell'ipotesi "e se"
(Giulietta: [...]Devo essere sola a recitare la mia lugubre scena.
Vieni ,o fiala!
E se questa mistura non agisse ?
Allora sarei sposa domattina? [...]
E se fosse un veleno che il frate avesse preparato
con astuzia per farmi morire,
piuttosto che avere disonore da queste nozze,
perchè proprio lui mi aveva già unita con Romeo? ecc...)
e gli sprazzi di speranza, quando si rivolge al balcone(ossia a Romeo lontano),non possono evitare la puntualità del rito che è di morte.56. Nel buio più fitto della sua camera con un gesto veloce Giulietta porta alle labbra il veleno e, in un'inquadratura fissa,a figura intera,della durata di dieci secondi con ancora le mani sulla bocca,gli occhi spalancati ed inorriditi,seguita da un'altra dello specchio in cui è riflesso soltanto il volto dai contorni sfumati della donna,ectoplasmatica in una misteriosa luce blu di taglio espressionista, sembra terminare perfettamente il soliloquio:
Giulietta:-[...]Eccomi,Romeo! Bevo per te.
Si getta sul letto dietro la tenda.57
Nel film-ballet Giulietta/G. cade due volte sul letto come sfinita dalla danza e appropriato è il giudizio di Smakov :«[...]Nessuna come lei era capace di esprimere il sorgere dell'amore nell'anima di Giselle o di Giulietta.Le sue scene di morte divennero leggendarie :nessun'altra ballerina sapeva rendere come lei la debolezza fisica di fronte alla morte e la vittoria spirituale su questa» 58.
Le scene finali del balletto seguono i punti salienti della tragedia e, eccezion fatta per due circostanze, non compaiono più momenti danzati:i ballerini del Bol'šoj, in occasione delle nozze,eseguono generiche coreografie floreali,ma la scoperta della "morte" di Giulietta rovescia la festa in un funerale solennemente celebrato;la mancata consegna della lettera di Frate Lorenzo a Romeo (il racconto dell'imprevisto avviene grazie ad inquadrature fisse della pergamena scritta in russo e dell'altro monaco che isola a Mantova un caso di peste) portano, celermente, al ricongiungimento danzato,per l'ultima volta, dei due amanti di Verona .
Romeo arriva alla tomba di Giulietta che crede non più in vita(essa richiama la"Tomba di Ilaria del Carretto" di Jacopo della Quercia,1406-1407 ed è inserita in un paesaggio carico di sacralità e liturgia alla Giotto)Il desiderio d'amore, la consapevolezza del triste destino lo rendono un novello Orfeo inducendolo a rianimare la sposa facendola danzare.Per riscaldarla le bacia più volte i polsi e le mani,tenta di ridarle linfa vitale,ma il corpo di Giulietta rimane rigido.Il colore della sua pelle levigata ed eburnea,gli arti che tra le braccia di Romeo sono mossi singolarmente ricadendo,quasi esausti,se il giovane ne muove altri quasi glissando su corde d'arpa,sono segni di sovrumana bellezza,del fiore del bene,del fiore più delicato del campo come ha in precedenza affermato Capuleti.Giulietta già non appartiene al suo mondo,l'unico modo di omaggiarla è sollevarla in trionfo59 .
Dopo aver riposto Giulietta sul freddo marmo e bevuto il veleno60 Romeo cade sulla scalinata .L'istante successivo Giulietta si sveglia, si vede il suo piccolo corpo tornare a respirare e forzare i gesti come al mattino,di norma,nella luce crescente. Voltandosi al cadavere dello sposo e,ricordando dell'effetto ormai terminato della pozione del frate, si precipita su di lui e baciandolo avverte sulle labbra il sapore di un veleno davvero mortale.Essendo l'ampolla vuotata non le resta che pugnalarsi al petto,in fretta, e ritrovare nella morte per sempre il suo sposo.
Dopo una panoramica sui volti affranti dei membri delle fazioni Montecchi e Capuleti conclusa dall'abbraccio tra i capifamiglia spinti a riappacificarsi da Frate Lorenzo(nel testo teatrale la condanna
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56 Cfr.la danza dell'Eletta ne "Le Sacre du Printemps" .
57 Fine scena III atto IV.
58 Gennady Smakov Galina Ulanova op,cit.p34
59 La suggestione del cruento momento ,a mio avviso,anticipa la celebre scena del film"Casanova " di Federico Fellini in cui, proprio al termine delle numerose peripezie del protagonista una proiezione onirica e/o fantasmatica conduce il protagonista a danzare con una bambola meccanica che si anima al contrario per magia:gli arti cigolanti ad ogni movimento restituiscono tutta la plasticità del corpo umano. I duetti hanno molti elementi degni di nota essendo pura poesia coreografata e non balletti generati da perversioni necrofile.
60 Nell'ultima parte del film-ballet molti importanti passaggi narrativi non sono stati inseriti e prevedono di certo un pubblico preventivamente informato:alcuna indicazione sul giovane Montecchi costretto all'esilio e sullo speziale presso il quale Romeo si procura un potente veleno.Ancor prima, non è illustrata l'astuzia di Giulietta che ottiene il permesso per recarsi dal frate motivando l'esigenza di una confessione .
all'irresponsabilità è proferita dal Principe) che ha puntato l'indice sui corpi degli amanti uccisi dal loro odio, la struttura è una Ringkomposition suggellata dall'ultima inquadratura della frase realmente posta al termine della tragedia di William Shakespeare:
For never was a story of more woe
Than this of Juliet and her Romeo.

Nel 1940 in occasione della prima rappresentazione a San Pietroburgo,G.U. parafrasò il distico finale:
For never was a story of more woe
Than this of Prokof'ev and her Romeo.
a cui fece eco l' ensemble del teatro:
There is no tale of greater woe
Than Prokof'ev's music for Romeo.
infatti la genesi del balletto fu "tragica" quanto la storia dei protagonisti:Prokof'ev iniziò a comporre nel 1934 ultimando nel 1936 la partitura(essa porta il nome di Opera 64)che il 30 dicembre 1938 fu eseguita finalmente con successo per accompagnare il balletto inscenato a Brno,nell'ex-Cecoslavacchia 61.
La temperie politica e culturale dell'epoca fu espressa dall'artista obbedendo all'esigenza di nitore per interagire con tutto il popolo sovietico poco esperto di musica,ma capace e desideroso di apprendere e migliorarsi.Prokof'ev diede vita ad una fiaba in cui tutto è lirismo e fantasia,senza esagerare nel rappresentare gli aspetti più drammatici e contrastanti della storia:prevale il ritmo che nelle movenze melodiche incarna il giusto senso di plasticità proprio di corpi che si muovono,agiscono ,compiono gesti ,eseguono passi di danza.
Pertanto la divisione in atti della tragedia non comporta una scissione nella musica:essa sa unire ,suggerire la vera azione scenica possibile,anzi contiene in nuce una straordinaria efficacia visiva anticipando concreti momenti di pantomima.L'atmosfera è dall'inizio molto romantica,come quella dei balletti classici dell'Ottocento,ma le note si soffermano ad affrescare limpidamente, cristallinamente il popolo(buono allo stato di natura) di Verona con una libera resa di danze storiche, di taglio più russo che occidentale,così come apprezzabile è la scelta di impiegare Leitmotiv per caratterizzare musicalmente i personaggi principali.I due amanti vivono principalmente come sospesi in una dimensione čjaikovskijana mista di nostalgia e malinconia,connubio in fondo adatto a sostenere il dramma di due giovani il cui legame non ha tempo e spazio per consolidarsi,per essere vissuto;è effimero come le rose,come tutte le più belle cose.
Nel finale della morte il dramma,la sciagura non conoscono maggiore enfasi in quanto indotti e prevedibili,naturalmente conseguenti,agli accadimenti in scena.Tutto è sobrio e contenuto pur non mancando un tono appassionato:un surplus di violenza,di angoscia o di sofferenza sarebbe stato probabilmente inadeguato e addirittura offensivo al pudore,alla bellezza,alla compostezza che Romeo e Giulietta hanno saputo mantenere nel difendere il loro amore. La melodia è giustamente plastica e grafica..
Per quanto ormai si ritengano ingenue le massime attribuite a Prokof'ev del "leggermente serio" e del "seriamente leggero",nel balletto non vi sono elementi che ne destituiscano il significato perché il musicista pose sempre al centro dei suoi interessi il problema reale della comunicazione,lavorando alla creazione di un linguaggio in grado di risolverlo.
Suppongo che l'eleganza naturale di G.U. e la sua conoscenza (rara tra le altre sue colleghe) della musica abbiano contribuito a valorizzare la melodia di Prokof'ev rielaborata dal suo corpo per rendere la realtà del sentimento,del suo mondo interiore attraverso una formulazione danzata :la sincronia è in alcuni momenti davvero sublime ,ogni battuta val bene un passo di danza.
G.U.fu la risposta alla domanda pralogica che Ejzenštejn si pose:«[...](Il movimento della danza si colloca in un punto intermedio tra i due )Dove cercare materiale per studiarlo e insegnarlo ? Evidentemente là dove la musica si converte con più immediatezza in movimento: nel balletto.Nel balletto brilla Ulanova .Ulanova la divina. Ulanova la prodigiosa.Ulanova ,impareggiabile e unica tra tutte le danzatrici.Per quanto c'è di più arcano.Per la natura stessa dell'enigma.Per la magica unificazione di due dimensioni:l'elemento originario del movimento del suono nella melodia e l'elemento originario del movimento del corpo nella danza .Nel loro coincidere in una dimensione unitaria si produce il miracolo [...] »62.
Nel film-ballet giudico di buon livello le inquadrature di G.mentre balla e il suo duro lavoro è visibile e dignificato63;si intreccia con la musica come le sue mani a parlare d'amore,non termina con la fine di un
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61 Nella sua autobiografia Prokof'ev ricorda che i responsabili della coreografia del balletto avrebbero voluto cambiare il finale proponendo un monstrum:l'happy ending in quanto realisticamente la danza a cui era conferita maggiore importanza nel lavoro poteva essere eseguita soltanto da persone vive e non da morti.
62 Sergej Michajlovič Ejzenštejn L'unicità di Galina Sergeevna Ulanova op.cit.p 184
63 Un altro ballerino/attore:Fred Astaire chiedeva invano ai registi di riprendere nei film interpretati le sue gambe e non il volto
gesto,ma si libra nell'aria facendosi puro spirito.Pars pro toto indice di un concetto immenso.
Oltre alla ballerina ha dunque modo di emergere perfettamente l'attrice stanislavskijana in G.,anche,se a mio modesto parere,a tale attributo vada aggiunto il chiarimento"di seconda fase",oppure sostituito con l'aggettivo "čechoviana".
Gli anni Trenta in cui si formò G.U. coincisero non soltanto con la stesura del libro sul"Sistema" di Stanislavksij,ma anche con una riformulazione del processo nella pratica della recitazione.
Se nella prima fase (1912-1923) esso si compiva "dall'interno all'esterno" fondandosi sulla "memoria emotiva",in seguito il regista promosse un "lavoro sulle azioni fisiche "ossia un processo "dall'esterno all'interno" influenzato sicuramente dagli studi che in totale autonomia dal suo illustre insegnante, un allievo di nome Michail Čechov (nipote del drammaturgo Anton) andava compiendo,elaborando la nozione di "gesto psicologico".
Nel volume "Il lavoro dell'attore sul personaggio" Stanislavskij dichiarò :«Dobbiamo ricorrere a compimenti fisici poiché il corpo è incomparabilmente più solido del sentimento»64ammettendo l'inaffidabilità delle sole emozioni da cui ogni attore doveva partire per creare un ruolo.
Anche Čechov gli rimproverava di aver innescato un sistema deleterio per gli interpreti che rischiavano, oltre ad una degenerazione del loro talento, quasi di incorrere in un isterismo incontrollabile,perché finivano con l'imitare sé stessi senza convocare mezzi creativi .
La soluzione profilata dallo studente fu un'inversione di rotta attraverso il "gesto psicologico"ossia:«un movimento corporeo che risveglia la vita interiore dell'attore.Esso funge da chiave d'accesso ai tratti essenziali nascosti del personaggio.I gesti psicologici possono essere ampi o piccoli,astratti o naturali, ma sono sempre di facile esecuzione.Un personaggio può avere anche un solo gesto psicologico,ed è sufficiente che l'attore pensi al gesto,mentre recita,per riuscire ad alimentare la sua caratterizzazione interiore. Non ha particolare importanza che il gesto venga di fatto compiuto fisicamente.»65 .
L'azione venne ritenuta quindi la chiave d'accesso alla dimensione psicologica e, in base all'idea che la prima non consiste soltanto in puro movimento fisico,ma in attività psicofisica ,l'ultimo Stanislavkij «[...]ora crede che siano il gesto,il movimento,il ritmo a indurre nell'interprete le emozioni ,dall'azione nasce la reviviscenza e scatta il meccanismo dell'identificazione ,poiché attraverso lo spartito fisico-gestuale l'attore ha già iniziato a vivere l'esistenza del personaggio».66
Data la scarsezza delle informazioni sulla creazione del personaggio di Giulietta partorito da G.U. e, disponendo soltanto del film-ballet per vederla in scena esserne l'interprete, ne deduco una sorta di "psicotecnica" come condizione necessaria e sufficiente di chi si esprime con il linguaggio della danza.
Nella fusione di corpo ed anima con il primo si esprime il secondo che al tempo stesso lo nutre dettandogli comportamenti fisici, mimici. Da ciò ha origine nel film-ballet l'efficacia della traduzione in gesti delle parole della tragedia giacché i due codici visivi ed auditivi, come accade nella realtà con il metodo Braille o il linguaggio dei sordomuti( per citare solo alcuni esempi)sono equipollenti.Si potrebbe obiettare una contraddizione in termini tra la presunta ricerca psicologica di G.e il suo esser ballerina di regime,ma supporre una contaminazione čechoviana è da considerarsi in senso lato,per accedere ai tratti essenziali nascosti del personaggio di Giulietta.
Alla morte di Stalin (1953)alcuni critici considerarono anche G.U.un prodotto della falsa estetica dell'era dominata dal dittatore,però prima di ritirarsi dalla danza per insegnarla(1962)67,continuò a ballare rendendo nota la sua arte nell'Europa dell'Ovest,precisamente a Londra in tournée con il Bol'šoj Ballet nel 1956(nel 1945 danzò a Vienna,nel 1949 a Roma e nel 1951 a Firenze e Venezia;nel 1954 a Berlino) giungendo poi in America,a New York nel 1959,per venir gratificata in patria con il Premio Stalin nel 1941,1946,1947 e 1950,con la proclamazione di Artista del Popolo nel 1951 e infine con il Premio Lenin nel 1957 68 .
La sua arte resta ancora ,forse,un incantesimo da sciogliere,maligno per alcuni,come il ballerino Anton Dolin che l'accusò di eccessivo realismo e mancanza di profondità mistica ;divino secondo Ejzenštejn giudicando il suo passo prossimo alla perfezione .
Galina Ulanova,vittima del sortilegio,come in un balletto fiabesco dell''800 visse,realizzò ed amò
l'aspirazione di Carlo Blasis riportata nel" Traité élémentaire théorique et pratique de l'art de la Danse":
«Occorre anche toccare il cuore ,non è sufficiente gratificare gli occhi ».
Roma,16 settembre 2008 Mariangela Imbrenda
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64 Kostantin Stanislavskij Il lavoro dell'attore sul personaggio ,Laterza,p 223 in Marco De Marinis In cerca dell'attore Bulzoni Editore p111
65 Mel Gordon Il sistema di Stanislavkij op cit p 113
66 Umberto Artioli Il teatro di regia, Carocci Editore p 55
67 G.U.è morta il 21 marzo 1998
68V.Galina Ulanova Foundation cit in Bibliografia sito contenente anche tutta la sua filmografia e i riconoscimenti internazionali
== Notes ==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://michaelminn.net/andros/biographies/ulanova_galina.htm Galina Ulanova (1910-1998)]
*[http://www.ballerinagallery.com/ulanova.htm The Ballerina Gallery - Galina Ulanova]

{{Portal|Ballet}}

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[[cv:Уланова Галина Сергеевна]]
[[de:Galina Sergejewna Ulanowa]]
[[fr:Galina Oulanova]]
[[nl:Galina Oelanova]]
[[ja:ガリーナ・ウラノワ]]
[[no:Galina Ulanova]]
[[ro:Galina Ulanova]]
[[ru:Уланова, Галина Сергеевна]]
[[sr:Галина Уљанова]]
[[sv:Galina Ulanova]]
[[zh:加林娜·乌兰诺娃]]

Gladiator

2008-07-30T21:18:55Z

85.18.14.7: /* Female gladiators */

{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Gladiators from the Zliten mosaic 3.JPG|thumb|400px|right|The [[Zliten]] mosaic from [[Libya]] (Leptis Magna) prob. 2nd c. AD: A [[thraex]] and [[murmillo]], a [[Hoplomachi|hoplomachus]] and murmillo (who is signaling his defeat to the referee), and a matched pair.]]
'''Gladiators''' ([[Latin]]: ''gladiatōrēs'', "swordsmen" or "one who uses a sword," from ''gladius'', "sword") were professional fighters in [[ancient Rome]] who fought against each other, [[Wildlife|wild animals]], and condemned criminals, sometimes to the death, for the [[entertainment]] of [[Spectator sport|spectators]]. These fights took place in [[arena]]s in many cities from the [[Roman Republic]] period through the [[Roman Empire]].

==History of gladiatorial combats==
====Origins====
The origin of the gladiatorial games is not known for certain. There are two theories: that the Romans adopted gladiatorial fights from the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]], and that the games came from [[Campania]] and [[Lucania]]. The evidence for the theory of Etruscan origin is a passage by the [[Greeks|Greek]] writer [[Nicolaus of Damascus]] in the second half of the first century BCE describing the origins as Etruscan, an account by Isidore of Seville during the 600s relating the Latin word for gladiator manager, ''lanista'', to the Etruscan word for '[[executioner]]', and also likeness of the Roman god of hell, [[Charon (mythology)|Charon]], who accompanied the executed bodies as they exited the arena, to the Etruscan god of death, also named Charon. The theory that the games developed from a Campanian and Lucanian tradition is supported by [[fresco]]es dating to the fourth century BCE depicting funeral games in which pair of gladiators fought to the death to commemorate the death of an important individual. However, the Campanians could also have adapted this tradition from the Greeks who could have introduced funeral games with [[human sacrifice]]s to the area in the eighth century BCE. Regardless of the origin, the Romans adopted the tradition of funeral games to display important people's status and power.

The earliest known gladiatorial games were held in 310 BC by the [[Campania]]ns ([[Livy]] 9.40.17). These games re-enacted the Campanians' military success over the [[Samnium|Samnites]].

The first recorded Roman gladiatorial combats took place in [[Rome]] in 264 BC, at the start of the [[First Punic War]] against [[Carthage]]. [[Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus]] staged it in honour of his dead father Brutus Pera. It was held between three pairs of slaves chosen from among 22 [[prisoners of war]], and held in the cattle market (''[[Forum Boarium]]''). The ceremony was called a munus or “duty paid to a dead ancestor by his descendants, with the intention of keeping alive his memory” (Baker, Gladiator 10). Roman [[aristocrat]]s soon took up the practice as an alternative to the earlier custom of sacrificing prisoners on the graves of warriors, with events being held for notable people and repeated every one to five years after the person’s death.

These games became popular throughout the [[Roman Empire|Empire]] and were especially popular in [[Greece]]. So popular that there are many records of people in towns where prominent citizens died virtually extorting promises of gladiatorial games from the survivors. The aristocracy also began to compete in having the best games so that whereas the sons of Brutus Pera offered three matches, a century later, [[Titus Quinctius Flamininus|Titus Flamininus]] offered 74 matches lasting three days for his fathers funeral and by the passing of yet another century [[Julius Caesar]] promised 320 matches for his daughter, [[Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)|Julia]]. As a result the emperors eventually had to regulate how much could be spent on gladiatorial performances to prevent members of the elite from bankrupting themselves.

Gradually, as the connection to funerals faded in the late second century BC, the funeral games gradually transformed into public performances. [[Julius Caesar]] eventually owned so many gladiators that the Senate, fearing the use such a "private army" could be put to, passed a law limiting private citizens to owning no more than 640 gladiators.<ref>[http://www.classicsunveiled.com/romel/html/amphiglad.html Rome Exposed]</ref> The moment when a true split from the funeral backdrop occurred was after the [[assassination]] of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Bad [[omen]]s plagued the city and the games were seen as a method to please the gods and save Rome. During the first century A.D., giving games even became a requirement of some public offices.

Over time the games had became integrated ever more into the [[Imperial cult]] through games financed by the state or by the Emperors as a means to get public approval, and especially so in the provincial towns. After Caesars' death a clear distinction between games organized by public officials (''ludi'') and those held by private citizens (''munera'') was set. Although it was still possible for private citizens to organise their own gladiatorial games, Augustus decreed that they could use no more than 120 gladiators and the days on which such private games could be organised were limited: from December 2 to December 8, during the [[Saturnalia]] from December 17 to the 23 (the [[Winter solstice]]) and between March 19 and 23 for the Spring celebration of [[Quinquatria]].

==Peak==
====Amphitheatres====

[[Image:arlesarena.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Roman arena at [[Arles]], inside view.]]

The popularity of the games resulted in the construction of proper venues and transformation of others (such as the Roman Forum) into spaces for the spectacles.

Gladiator fights took place in these [[amphitheatre]]s during the afternoon of a full day event. The [[amphitheater]]s built were made of wood and were usually neither structurally sound, often being prone to collapse,<ref>During the reign of Tiberius, a wooden amphitheater collapsed killing either twenty thousand spectators (according to Suetonius) or fifty thousand (according to Tacitus). Suetonius also records (XLIII) that at the games in honour of Augustas' grandsons, the spectators were in a panic for fear the amphitheatre would collapse. Unable to calm them Augustas left his own seat and sat in the section most likely to fail.</ref> nor did they survive the fires of Rome. The first permanent amphitheater in Rome dates to around 30 BC. Not until AD 70 and [[Vespasian]]'s reign did plans for a purpose built stone venue for the games develop. [[The Colosseum]] (''Amphitheatrum Flavium'') was unveiled in AD 80.

The [[Stone Pine]], a conifer native to the [[Iberian Peninsula]] was often planted near the local amphitheatre in foreign countries. The [[Aroma compound|aromatic]] pinecones were traditionally burnt in bowls (''tazze'' = cups) to mask the smell of the arena. The word “arena” means sand, a reference to the thick layer of sand on the floor for the purpose of soaking up the blood.

The spectator seating in amphitheatres was originally "disorderly and indiscriminate" until [[Augustus]] was upset at the insult to a senator, to whom no one offered a seat at a crowded games in [[Pozzuoli|Puteoli]].<blockquote>"In consequence of this the senate decreed that, whenever any public show was given anywhere, the first row of seats should be reserved for senators; and at Rome he would not allow the envoys of the free and allied nations to sit in the orchestra, since he was informed that even freedmen were sometimes appointed. He separated the soldiery from the people. He assigned special seats to the married men of the commons, to boys under age their own section and the adjoining one to their preceptors; and he decreed that no one wearing a dark cloak should sit in the middle of the house. He would not allow women to view even the gladiators except from the upper seats, though it had been the custom for men and women to sit together at such shows. Only the Vestal virgins were assigned a place to themselves, opposite the praetor's tribunal" ([[Suetonius]] [[Lives of the Twelve Caesars]] Augustus, XLIV).</blockquote>

====The Games====

[[Image:Colosseum in Rome, Italy - April 2007.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Colosseum]] in [[Rome]], [[Italy]]. A photograph of the best known [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] era amphitheatre taken in the early evening. Gladiatorial combats were the main event and usually held around this time of day.]]

The games were carefully and precisely planned by an organizer (''editor'') on behalf of the emperor. The combinations of animals and gladiator types were meticulously planned, such that the show would be most appealing to the audience. Gladiators would be publicly displayed in the Roman forum to large crowds one to two days prior to the actual event. Programmes containing the gladiatorial and personal history of the fighters were passed out. [[Banquet]]s for the gladiators were also held the evening before the games and many attended these as well. Even the criminals (''noxii'') listed to fight were at times permitted to attend.

When the day of the event came, gladiator fights were preceded by animal-on-animal fights, animal hunts (''venationes''), and public [[Capital punishment|executions]] of condemned criminals (''damnati'') during lunchtime. As it was considered bad taste to watch the executions, the upper classes would usually leave and return after lunch. The Emperor [[Claudius]] was often criticised because he usually stayed in the stadium to watch the executions. The ''damnati'' were sometimes required to fight battle recreations or in paired gladiatorial combats against each. The winner then fought a new opponent and so on until only one was left alive. Usually this "winner" was then himself put to death but he could be spared if he showed sufficient bravery. Under [[Nero]], it became the practice to perform plays adapted from myths in which people died and assigning the role of a character who would die to a condemned man. The audience would then watch the play, and the actual killing of the condemned man in the same manner as the fictional character.<ref>[[Kathleen Coleman|K. M. Coleman]], The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 80, 1990 (1990), pp. 44-73]</ref> Before the afternoon fights began, a procession (''pompa'') was led into the arena containing the organizer, his servants, blacksmiths to show that the weapons were in order, servants carrying weaponry and armour, and the gladiators themselves. Next came the checking of the weapons to make sure they were real (''probatio armorum'') by the editor of the games. In Rome this would be by the emperor himself, or he could bestow the honour upon a guest.

Like today, the games had [[Ticket resale|ticket scalpers]] or Ticket touts(''Locarii''), people who buy up seats and sell them on at an inflated price. [[Martial]] in his Epigrams wrote "''Hermes divitiae locariorum''" or “''Hermes means riches for the ticket scalpers''” so scalping/touting seems to have been a common practice. The mentioned Hermes was a famous gladiator, not the deity, who was called [[Mercury (god)|Mercury]] by the Romans.

During the fights musicians played accompaniments altering their [[tempo]] to match that of the combat in the style now familiar with music in action movies. Typical instruments were a long straight trumpet (''[[Lituus|tubicen]]''), a large curved instrument (''[[Cornu (horn)|Cornu]]'') similar to an exaggerated [[French horn]] and a [[water organ]] (''hydraulis''). The Romans loved [[burlesque]] and [[pantomime]] and these musicians were often dressed as animals with names such as "flute playing bear" (''Ursus tibicen'') and "horn-blowing chicken" (''Pullus cornicen''), names sometimes found displayed on contemporary mosaics.

Like today’s athletes, gladiators did [[Testimonial|product endorsements]]. Particularly successful gladiators would endorse goods in the arena before commencing a fight and have their names promoting products on the Roman equivalent of billboards.<ref>[http://au.movies.ign.com/articles/035/035289p1.html Not Such a Wonderful Life: A Look at History in Gladiator] IGN movies [[February 10]], [[2000]]</ref>

[[Image:GladiatorFeldflasche.jpg|thumb|right|A flask depicting the final phase of the fight between a ''[[murmillo]]'' (winning) and a ''[[thraex]]''.]]

During gladiatorial combat, it was preferable for gladiators ''not'' to kill each other; technically, they were slaves, but they also often had years of intensive training and therefore were quite valuable. Gladiators were instructed to inflict non-lethal wounds upon each other, and often lived long, rather successful lives able to purchase their freedom after three years. However, accidents did happen at times resulting in death, and gladiators who failed to display bravery in combat could be executed by order of the emperor. After fights, the bodies of the gladiators were buried in a manner depending on the status of the fighter.

As with modern sports, spectators liked to support “sides” (''factiones'') which they called the “great shields” (''scutarii'') and the “little shields” (''parmularii''). The “great shields” were lightly armoured defensive fighter types. Whereas the “little shields” were the more aggressive heavily armoured fighter types. Fighting without a shield would have been classed as a “great shield” due to fighting style. “Little shields” always had an advantage early in a match (as attested by the odds given by contemporary [[Bookmaker]]s) but the longer the match lasted the greater the advantage for the “great shield” as his opponent tired much more quickly due to heavier armour and also as they usually had helmets with more restricted vision. Spectators also had local rivalries. During games at Pompeii, Pompeians and spectators from Nuceria traded insults which led to stone throwing and eventually a riot broke out with many being killed or wounded. Nero was furious and banned the games at Pompeii for ten years. The story is told in graffiti on the walls of Pompeii with much boasting of their "victory" over Nuceria.

[[Julius Caesar]] in 59 BC started a daily newspaper called the Acta Diurna (''daily acts'') that reported gladiator news. It carried news of gladiatorial contests, games, astrological omens, notable marriages, births and deaths, public appointments, and trials and executions. The Acta's content varied over time depending on the Emperor's whims and the tastes of the public.

==Decline==
Gladiator games were not loved by all emperors and people throughout Roman history. The enthusiasm for the spectacle by [[Augustus]], [[Caligula]], and [[Nero]] contrasted the apathy of [[Tiberius]] and the discontent of [[Cicero]], Seneca, and Tertullian. As well, barbarian attack on the provinces during the third century AD led to an economic recession and decreased funds for such shows. Some emperors, such as Gordianus I, Gordianus III, and Probus did continue to organize costly performances, but privately funded shows, especially those in the provinces, declined. In the Eastern Empire invasion had much less of an effect on the economy and gladiator shows prevailed. The gradual downfall in the east has been attributed to the effect of Christians on the gore-filled games. Although Christians saw the combats as murder they had no objection to the killing and bloodshed in itself but rather objected to the moral harm done to the spectators. They also saw the arena as a place of martyrdom and both refused to participate as spectators and sought for an end to the gladiator shows although they had no objection to the continuation of animal-on-animal fights and animal hunts (venationes). [[Constantine I]] issued an edict in AD 325 which briefly ended the games. "''in times in which peace and peace relating to domestic affairs prevail, bloody demonstrations displease us. Therefore we order that there may be no more gladiator combats. Those, who were condemned to become gladiators for their crimes, are to work from now on in the mines. Thus they pay for their crimes, without having to pour their blood.''" Speculation that the edict was a permanent ban is refuted by the presence of unchallenged games only three years later.

An indication of the declining popularity is that in AD 354 of the 176 official holidays with games, the main event for 102 of these were theatre performances, 64 were chariot races and gladiatorial combats were held on only 10 days. In AD 367 Valentinianus I placed a ban on sentencing Christians to the arena, but the sentencing of non-Christians remained unchanged. Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in AD 393 under the reign of [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]]. The emperor himself sought to ban heathen festivals, but gladiator shows continued. Their programmes, however, were very limited due to financial reasons and the audience dwindled as many converted to Christianity. [[Honorius]], Theodosius' son, finally decreed the end of gladiatorial contests in 399 AD. The last known gladiator competition in the city of Rome occurred on January 1, 404 AD. It is speculated that gladiator fights were no longer practiced by AD 440, as they were not mentioned by Bishop Salvianus in a pamphlet attacking public shows. It would seem only appropriate for the inclusion of gladiator games had they still occurred.

==Life as a gladiator==
===Origins===
Gladiators could have been either [[prisoners of war]], slaves or criminals condemned to gladiator schools (''ad ludum gladiatorium''). There were also a number of volunteer gladiators (''auctoratus''). By the end of the republic as many as half of the gladiators were ''auctoratii''. These were either sons of prominent men perhaps looking for a radical change, poor men attracted by the potential for fame or relinquishing themselves from poverty, or even men with a monetary purpose, such as Sisinnes who sought to earn money to buy a friend's freedom. All gladiators kept the monetary prizes that they won in the arena and [[Titus]] is on record for paying a freed slave 1,000 gold [[aurei]] to return for a single match. These men came from all different backgrounds but were soon united as they entered the training schools. By the end of the Republic, about half of the gladiators were volunteers (''auctorati''), who took on the status of a slave for an agreed-upon period of time, similar to the indentured servitude that was common in the late second millennium. Sometimes people were forced to fight in one off events. [[Caligula]] was known for forcing anyone he did not like to fight, including spectators who annoyed him at the games ([[Cassius Dio]] 59.10, 13-14). One of the benefits of becoming a gladiator for slaves and criminals is that they were then allowed to have relationships with women and although they themselves could never become Roman citizens, if they gained their freedom, their marriages then were legally recognised and their children could then become citizens.<ref>[http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/gladiatr/gladiatr.htm The Gladiator] [[Brooklyn College Classics Department]]</ref>

Gladiators were very proud of their ethnic origins and made sure their true origin was known to the public if they fought under a title suggesting another ethnic group. Even in death they made sure their race was inscribed on their headstone. After Judea was “pacified” there was a large increase in the number of Jewish gladiators as it was common practice under [[Titus]] and [[Vespasian]] to sentence Jewish rebels and criminals to gladiatorial schools.<ref>[http://abacus.bates.edu/~mimber/Rciv/gladiator.htm Roman Civilization History 206] [[Bates College]]</ref>

[[Left-handed]] gladiators were popular and a rare novelty, their fights were always advertised as a special event. As with modern-day "lefty" fencers, tennis players and other sportsman, these left-handers had a large advantage as they were trained to fight right-handers who were themselves not trained to defend against a left-hander. Mentions of left handedness on gravestones have been found.

Research on the remains of 70 [[Murmillo]]s and [[Retiarius|Retiariae]] gladiators found at an ancient site in [[Ephesus]] has shown that, contrary to popular belief, gladiators were probably overweight and also ate a high energy vegetarian diet consisting of mainly barley, beans and [[dried fruit]]. Fabian Kanz of the [[Austrian Archaeological Institute]] said he believed gladiators "''cultivated layers of fat to protect their vital organs from the cutting blows of their opponents''". Gladiators were sometimes known as ''hordearii'', which means "eaters of barley." Although considered an inferior grain to Wheat (a punishment for [[Legionaries]] was to replace their wheat ration with barley), gladiators probably preferred it as Romans believed that barley contributed to strength and covered the arteries with a layer of fat which helped to reduce bleeding. Other findings from the research indicate gladiators fought [[barefoot]] in sand.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/ancient/AncientRepublish_1081439.htm Roman gladiators were fat vegetarians] [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] Science [[April 5]] [[2004]]</ref>

===Training===

[[Image:Ludus01.jpg|thumb|175px|Model of The Great Gladiatorial Training School ([[Ludus Magnus]])]]

Estimations are that there were more 100 gladiator schools (''ludi'') throughout the [[Roman Empire|empire]]. Two of the more famous are the school in [[Capua]] where [[Spartacus]] was trained and the school in [[Pompeii]] that was buried in the 79 AD eruption of [[Mount Vesuvius|Vesuvius]]. One of the largest schools was based in [[Ravenna]]. There were four schools in Rome: ''[[Ludus Magnus]]'' (the most important), ''Ludus Dacus'', ''Ludus Gallicus'', and ''Ludus Matutinus'' (school for gladiators dealing with animals). The schools had barracks for the gladiators with small cells and a large training ground. The most impressive had seating for spectators to watch the men train and some even had boxes for the emperor.

Prospective gladiators (''novicius'') upon entering a gladiator school swore an oath (''sacramentum'') giving their lives to the gods of the underworld and vowing to accept, without protest, humiliation by any means. Volunteers also signed a contract (''auctoramentum'') with a gladiator manager (''lanista'') stating how often they were to perform, which weapons they would use, and how much they would earn. Prospectives also went under a physical examination by a doctor to determine if they were both physically capable of the rigorous training and aesthetically pleasing. Once accepted the novicius usually had his debts forgiven and was given a sign up fee. For as long as he was a gladiator he was well fed and received high quality medical care. Overall, gladiators were united as members of a ''familia gladiatoria'' and became second to the prestige of the school. They also joined unions (''collegia'') formed to ensure proper burials for fallen members and compensation for their families.

As a rule gladiators, slaves and criminals had tattoos (''stigma'') applied as an identifying mark on the face, legs and hands (legionnaires were also tattooed but only on their hands). This practice continued until the emperor Constantine banned them on the face by decree in AD 325.<ref>[http://www.vanishingtattoo.com/tattoo_museum/greek_roman_tattoos.html Greek and Roman Tattoos]</ref>

Training was under teachers called “''Doctores''” and involved the learning of a series of “numbers”, which were broken down into various phases much as a play is a series of acts broken down into scenes. Sometimes fans complained that a gladiator fought too “mechanically” when he followed the “numbers” too closely. Gladiators would even be taught how to die correctly. Each type of gladiator had its own teacher; doctore secutorum, doctore thracicum, etc. Although gladiators in times of need helped train legionaries, they were not usually good soldiers themselves as a result of this [[choreograph]]ed style of training. Within a training-school there was a competitive hierarchy of grades (''paloi'') through which individuals were promoted. They trained using two meter poles (''palus'') buried in the ground. The levels were named for the training pole and were ''primus palus'', ''secundus palus'', and so on. It was also rare for a novicius to train in more than one gladiatorial style. Once a gladiator had finished training but had not yet fought in an arena he was called a “''Tiro''”.

===Typical combat===
The announcement for the coming shows were often made by painting the program (''libellus'') on the walls of the city which also often included depictions of the featured fighters. Sometimes the results of combats were added to the advertisement after the matches. A "[[v]]" over the fighters image stood for "''vicit''" meaning he won. A "[[p]]" stood for "''periit''" meaning he was killed. A "[[m]]" stood for "''missus''", meaning he lost but was spared. Games were often commemorated with a representation of the fights with an inscription (i.e. Astyanax defeated Kalendio). If one was killed a circle with a diagonal line through it (usually [[Ø]] but sometimes excluding the line within the circle) was inscribed over the defeated man's head.

An average game had between ten and thirteen pairs (''Ordinarii'') of gladiators, with a single bout lasting around ten to fifteen minutes. They were usually of differing [[List of Roman gladiator types|types]]. However, sponsor or audience could request other combinations like several gladiators fighting together (''Catervarii'') or specific gladiators against each other. As a rule gladiators only fought others from within the same school or troupe (''ad ludum gladiatorium'') but sometimes specific gladiators would be requested to fight one from another troupe (''Postulaticii''). Sometimes a lanista had to rely on substitutes (''supposititii'') if the requested gladiator was already dead or incapacitated. The Emperor could have his own gladiators (''Fiscales''). The largest contest of gladiators ever given was by the emperor [[Trajan]] in [[Dacia]] as part of a victory celebration in 107 AD and included 5,000 pairs of fighters.

Some matches were advertised as “sine missione” (''without release'') meaning “to the death”. The referees allowed these fights to continue as long as it took to get a result. Although already a rare event, [[Augustus]] outlawed “sine missiones” due to the expense of compensating the “''Lanistas''” but they were later reintroduced.

When one gladiator was wounded the spectators would yell out one of several traditional cheers such as "''habet, hoc habet''” (he’s had it) or "''habet, peractum est''” (he's had it, it's all over), the referee would then end the fight by separating the combatants with his staff. A gladiator could also acknowledge defeat by raising a finger (ad digitum), The referee would then step in, stopping the combat, and refer the decision of the defeated gladiator’s fate to the games sponsor (munerarius) who would decide whether he should live or die after taking the audiences wishes into account or considering how well he had fought. If a gladiator was killed it was normal practice for the games sponsor to pay compensation to the owner (''Lanista'') of up to 100 times the gladiator's value. For the death of a popular gladiator this could be very expensive.

Fights were generally not to the death during the Republic, but gladiators were still killed or maimed accidentally. [[Claudius]] was infamous for rarely sparing the life of a defeated Retiarius. He liked to watch his face as he died, as the Retiarius was the only gladiator that never wore a helmet. [[Suetonius]] recounts a combat where the death of an opponent was called a murder. "''Once a band of five [[Retiarius|retiarii]] in tunics (retiarius tunicatus), matched against the same number of [[secutores]], yielded without a struggle; but when their death was ordered, one of them caught up his trident and slew all the victors. [[Caligula]] bewailed this in a public proclamation as a most cruel murder''." ([[Lives of the Twelve Caesars]] XXX.3)
[[Image:Astyanax vs Kalendio mosaic.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Mosaic at the [[National Archaeological Museum of Spain|National Archaeological Museum]] in [[Madrid]] showing a [[retiarius]] named Kalendio (shown surrendering in the upper section) fighting a [[secutor]] named Astyanax. The Ø sign by Kalendio's name implies he was killed after surrendering.]]

The figure of a [[referee]] is frequently depicted on mosaics as standing in the background, sometimes accompanied by an assistant and carrying a staff with which to hold back a gladiator after his opponent signified submission. This implies contests were fought with fixed rules. We know from mosaics, and from surviving skeletons that gladiators primarily aimed for the head and the major arteries under the arm and behind the knee. {{Fact|date=May 2008}}

Gladiators were paid each time they fought. The winner of a match received from the editor a palm branch and additionally an award such as a golden bowl, crown or a sum of money in the form of gold coins. Money was also awarded to the victor by the crowd and was collected on a silver tray. A laurel crown was awarded for an
especially outstanding performance. The victor then ran around the perimeter of the amphitheatre, waving the
palm. Gladiators were allowed to keep any money or gold they received as a prize. The ultimate prize awarded to gladiators was a permanent discharge from the obligation to fight. As a symbol of this award, the editor gave the gladiator a wooden sword (''rudis''), [[Martial]] (''Spect. 27'') mentions a particularly famous match between two gladiators named Priscus and Verus, who fought so evenly and bravely for so long that when they both acknowledged defeat at the same instant, the emperor [[Titus]] awarded victory to both and gave wooden swords (''rudes'') to each. Gladiators (including criminals) could earn their freedom if they survived three to five years of combat but there was no set rule as to what a gladiator would have to do in order to win this freedom. Usually if a gladiator won five fights, or especially distinguished himself in a particular fight, he won the rudis and his freedom. A famous Secutor nicknamed Flamma was awarded the rudis four times but he chose to remain a gladiator. He was killed in his 34th fight.
Flamma's gravestone in [[Sicily]] is particularly informative as it includes his record: ''Flamma, secutor, lived 30 years, fought 34 times, won 21 times, fought to a draw 9 times, defeated 4 times, a Syrian by nationality. Delicatus made this for his deserving comrade-in-arms''.<ref>[http://www.personal.kent.edu/~bkharvey/roman/texts/gladFlamma.htm Flamma tombstone]</ref>

After a gladiator's defeat, if the crowd gave the signal for him to die there was a ritual to be observed. With one knee on the ground, the loser grasped the thigh of the victor, who, while holding the helmet or head of his opponent, plunged his sword into his neck or cut his throat depending on his weapon ([[Martial]]). To die well a gladiator was not allowed to ask for mercy and was not allowed to scream when killed. Recent research suggests that gladiators adhered to a code of discipline, and were not as savage as once thought — they did not resort to violence and mutilation which could occur on the battlefields of the day. If defeated but mortally wounded the gladiator was not killed in front of the audience but was taken from the arena to be executed "humanely" with a hammer on the forehead in private.<ref>"Head injuries of Roman gladiators", ''Forensic Science International'', Volume 160, Issue 2–3, Pages 207–216 F. Kanz, K. Grossschmidt</ref>

After the death of a gladiator in combat, two attendants impersonating [[Charon]] (the god of the dead) and [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] (messenger to the gods) would approach the body. Charon would strike the body with a mallet and Hermes would then prod the body with a hot poker disguised as a wand to see whether the gladiator was really dead or not. The body was then placed on a "couch of Libitina" by bearers (''libitinarii'') in larger games and taken from the arena through the Libitinarian Gate (victors left via the ''Porta Triumphalis'' and losers the ''Porta Sanavivaria''). In lesser games the libitinarii often used hooks to drag the body. Attendants then spread a fresh layer of sand (''harena'' from where we get the word arena) to soak up the blood. [[Libitina]] was the goddess of funerals. After stripping the armour, the gladiator's body was then taken to a nearby morgue (''spoliarium'') where by custom, as final proof the fight was not "fixed", officials slit the man's throat to ensure that he was truly dead.<ref>[http://discovermagazine.com/2006/jun/vox-populi/article_view?b_start:int=1&-C= Archaeology: Vox Populi] Discover Magazine July 2006</ref>

===Life expectancy of a Gladiator===

It is thought that only 10 percent of gladiators actually died in combat{{Fact|date=January 2008}}. Gladiators rarely lived past age 30 unless they were particularly outstanding and accomplished victors but at a time when around 50 percent of Roman citizens died, from all causes, before age 25<ref>[http://www.utexas.edu/depts/classics/documents/Life.html Roman Life Expectancy] [[University of Texas]]</ref> this indicates that gladiators in fact tended to live longer than the general populace which is attributed to the extra care they received. Reasonable estimates show that they fought on average two to three times yearly, but there are some exceptions such as some men fighting all nine days during one of ''Trajan'''s shows.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}

French historian George Villes evaluated 100 fights from the 1st century CE, involving 200 gladiators, and found that 19 gladiators had lost their lives.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} His evaluations of gladiator gravestones indicates that the average age at time of death was around 27 years, however, historian Marcus Junkelmann points out that only the most successful gladiators were usually given a headstone and that the majority of the gladiators who died were at the beginning of their career and thus not included in this average. According to Junkelmann the majority died between 18 and 25 years of age.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}

===Slave revolts===
Rome had to fight three [[Servile Wars]], the last being against one of the most famous gladiators — [[Spartacus]] who became the leader of a group of escaped gladiators and slaves. His revolt, which began in 73 BC, was crushed by [[Marcus Crassus]] two years later in 71 BC. After this, gladiators were deported from Rome and other cities during times of social disturbances, for fear that they might organize and rebel again. As well, armouries within the schools were closely guarded and gladiators who were potential threats were chained.

==Roman attitudes==
===Towards gladiators===
The Romans' attitude towards the gladiators was ambiguous: on the one hand to be a gladiator was the ultimate social disgrace and in fact they were legally designated as ''infamia'' (loss of certain public rights);<ref>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Infamia.html Roman Law - Infamia] Smiths Dictionary 1875 pp634‑636</ref> but on the other hand, some successful gladiators rose to celebrity status and even those of senatorial and equites families seemed to join up as gladiators (the [[Larinum]] decree under [[Tiberius]] banned those of such status from becoming gladiators, which implies that this must have been happening).<ref>http://www.personal.kent.edu/~bkharvey/roman/texts/sclaurin.htm</ref> Being a ''Lanista'' was a very lucrative business,<ref>[[Cicero]] wrote of his friend Atticus recovering his entire investment in a gladiator troupe after two performances.</ref> but it also was viewed as among the lowest professions on the social scale and well below [[prostitution]], although paradoxically if the ''Lanista'' had other sources of income he carried no [[stigma]] at all. Likewise if the gladiator took no fee for fighting then the legal stigma of ''infamia'' did not apply and the gladiator legally lost no social status although still remaining publicly disgraced.

Outside the intellectual circle of people such as [[Pliny the Younger]] (whose dislike for gladiatorial shows may have been more class- than conscience-based), there was widespread acceptance of gladiatorial shows and little qualm as to their brutality.

Many ancient writers give specific instances and detailed accounts of the combats that provide invaluable insight into Roman attitudes:
“''Many ladies of distinction, however, and senators, disgraced themselves by appearing in the amphitheatre''” ([[Tacitus]] 15.32). The Roman historian, [[Cassius Dio]] (62.17.3), writes of a festival that [[Nero]] held in honour of his mother: “''....There was another exhibition that was at once most disgraceful and most shocking, when men and women not only of the equestrian but even of the senatorial order appeared as performers in the orchestra, in the Circus, and in the hunting-theatre, like those who are held in lowest esteem; they drove horses, killed wild beasts and fought as gladiators, some willingly and some sore against their will''".
Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] believed gladiator shows to be boring, but also saw the gladiators themselves as privileged athletes and so took extraordinary measures to prevent bloodshed and death (Cassius Dio 71.29.4) For example he decreed that swords have a blunt point and banned iron blades.

Gladiators often developed large followings of women, who apparently saw them as sexual objects despite it being socially unacceptable for citizen women to have sexual contact with them.<blockquote>What was the youthful charm that so fired Eppia? What hooked her? What did she see in him to make her put up with being called "the gladiator's moll"? Her poppet, her Sergius, was no chicken, with a dud arm that prompted hope of early retirement. Besides his face looked a proper mess, helmet-scarred, a great wart on his nose, an unpleasant discharge always trickling from one eye. But he was a gladiator. That word makes the whole breed seem handsome, and made her prefer him to her children and country, her sister, her husband. Steel is what they fall in love with. (Juvenal: Satires: 6.102 ff. Translated by P. Green).</blockquote> There is an inscription on a wall in Pompeii that says the Thracian gladiator Celadus was "''suspirum et decus puellarum''", literally "''the sigh and glory of the girls''." [[Faustina the Younger]], the mother of the emperor [[Commodus]], was said to have conceived Commodus with a gladiator, but Commodus likely invented this story himself. Despite or because of the prohibition many rich women sought intimate contact with gladiators and there are several instances of historians mentioning Senators wives running off to live with gladiators. The ancient [[celebrity]] and the festivity before the fights gave the women an opportunity to meet them.

Despite the extreme dangers and hardships of the profession, some gladiators were volunteers (called ''auctorati'') who fought for money; effectively this career was a sort of last chance for people who had fallen into financial troubles. Indeed, their combat skills were such that, when he had no alternative, [[Gaius Marius]] had gladiators train the [[legionaries]] in single combat. They were also frequently depicted in art, the [[Gladiator Mosaic]], or a [[Bignor]] [[Roman villa]] showing [[Cupid]]s as gladiators. Souvenir bowls were also produced depicting named gladiators in combat.

===Retiarius Tunicatus===
{{Main|Retiarius}}

Even lower on the social scale were gladiators considered ''[[Homosexuality|effeminate]]''. They appear to have fought primarily as Retiarii or more specifically ''Retiarius Tunicatus'', named for the tunic they wore to differentiate them from normal Retiarii who fought bare chested. Although mentioned by [[Juvenal]], [[Seneca]] and [[Suetonius]] very little detail is given. They are referred to as training in an “''indecent part of the gladiator's school''” and fighting in a “''disgraceful type of armament''”. Juvenal mentions the trainers practice of keeping separate "''from their fellow retiarii the wearers of the ill-famed tunic''”.<ref>The Retiarius Tunicatus of Suetonius, Juvenal, and Petronius" (1989) by Steven M. Cerutti and L. Richardson, Jr., The [[American Journal of Philology]], 110, P589-594</ref>

It was thought by their contemporaries that they willingly became Retiarii to exhibit both their vanity and contempt for disgrace as their faces were not hidden by a helmet as was the case with other [[List of Roman gladiator types|gladiator types]].<blockquote>"In this way they incurred death instead of disfranchisement; for they fought just as much as ever, especially since their contests were eagerly witnessed, so that even Augustus used to watch them in company with the praetors who superintended the contests" (Cassius Dio, LVI.25.7).</blockquote>

The only named example of this class of gladiator was Gracchus, an aristocrat and descendant of the [[Gracchi]] who was infamous for his marriage (as a bride) to a male horn player. It is recorded by Cassius that he voluntarily fought, not only as a ''Retiarius Tunicatus'', but wore a conical hat adorned with gold lace and ribbons during the combat (Gracchus was also chief of the priests of [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] (''Salii'') for whom this hat was normal attire).

==Female gladiators==
{{Main|Female gladiator}}
Female gladiators<ref>In Latin gladiator has no feminine form. However, while gladiator is prefered, "gladiatrix" is acceptable to historians.</ref> also existed. Women also often fought as [[Venetores]] (''wild animal hunting'') but these are not considered true gladiators.<ref>[http://ejmas.com/jcs/jcsart_murray_0703.htm Female Gladiators of the Ancient Roman World] Journal of Combative Sport July 2003</ref>

The Emperor [[Domitian]] liked to stage torchlit fights between dwarves and women, according to Suetonius in "[[The Twelve Caesars]]." From depictions it appears they fought bare-chested and rarely wore helmets no matter what type of gladiator they fought as.

Women apparently fought at night, and this being the time that the games main events were held indicates the possible importance or rarity of female gladiators. Most modern scholars consider female gladiators a novelty act due to the sparse writings about them but those ancient historians that do mention them do so “casually” which suggests that female gladiators were "more widespread than direct evidence might otherwise indicate".<ref>[Zoll, A. (2002) P.27. Gladiatrix: The true story of history’s unknown woman warrior. New York: Berkley Publishing Group]</ref> The author of an inscription found in [[Pompeii]] boasts of being the first ''editor'' to bring female gladiators to the town.

[[Dio Cassius]] (62.3.1) mentions that not only women but children fought in a gladiatorial event that Nero sponsored in 66 AD. It is known the emperor Nero also forced the wives of some Roman senators into amphitheatres, presumably to fight.

A 1st or 2nd century Marble relief from [[Halicarnassus]] suggests that some women fought in heavy armour. Both women are depicted as [[Provocatore|provocatrices]] in combat. The inscription names them as “Amazon” and “Achillia” and mentions that both received an honourable discharge (missio) from the arena despite fighting each other (both deemed to have won).

Mark Vesley, a Roman social historian speculates that as gladiatorial schools were not fit places for women, they may have studied under private tutors in the collegia iuvenum. These schools were for training high ranking males over the age of 14 in martial arts but Vesley found three references to women training there as well including one who died..."''To the divine shades of Valeria Iucunda, who belonged to the body of the iuvenes. She lived 17 years, 9 months''".

A female Roman skeleton unearthed in Southwark, London in 2001 was identified as a female gladiator, but this was on the basis that although wealthy she was buried as an outcast outside the main cemetery, had pottery lamps of Anubis (ie Mercury ie the gladiatorial master of ceremonies), a lamp with a depiction of a fallen gladiator engraved and bowls containing burnt pinecones from a Stone Pine placed in the grave. The only Stone Pines in Britain at the time were those planted around the London amphitheatre as the pinecones of this particular species were traditionally burnt during games. Most experts believe the identification to be erroneous but the [[Museum of London]] states it is "70 percent probable" that the Great Dover Street Woman was a gladiator. Hedley Swain, head of early history at the Museum states: "''No single piece of evidence says that she is a gladiator. Instead, there’s simply a group of circumstantial evidence that makes it an intriguing idea''".
She is now on display at the end of the Roman London section of the [[Museum of London]]. This gladiator was the subject of a program on the UK's [[Channel 4]].<ref>[http://www.channel4.com/community/showcards/G/Gladiator_Girl.html Gladiator Girl] [[Channel 4]] [[May 14]],[[2001]]</ref>

==Emperors as gladiators==
[[Caligula]], [[Titus]], [[Hadrian]], [[Lucius Verus]], [[Caracalla]], [[Geta]] and [[Didius Julianus]] were all said to have performed in the arena.<ref name="Barton">{{Cite book |last=Barton|first=Carlin |title= The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster. Page 66|publisher= Princeton University Press|year=1995 |isbn= 0691010919}}</ref> It is uncertain if these performances were one-time-only or repeated appearances and there is question regarding the risk as the emperors chose their opponents and no one was likely to injure an emperor. [[Commodus]], however, is known for his passion for public performance and is remembered for his participation in gladiatorial shows as a [[Secutor]] fighting under the title of "Hercules". He is often depicted this way in art, including a statue outside the Colosseum that he had had boastfully incribed "''Champion of secutores; only left-handed fighter to conquer twelve times (as I recall the number) one thousand men''". Commodus also dedicated an inscription that claimed 620 victories as a gladiator. He also raced chariots, chased animals in the arena, hunted wild animals from the stands and was so impressive that it is said that he rarely needed a second spear to kill his prey.<ref>[http://www.unrv.com/decline-of-empire/gladiator-emperor.php The Gladiator Emperor] UNRV History</ref>

==Misconceptions==
[[Image:Jean-Leon Gerome Pollice Verso.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''[[Pollice Verso]]'' ("With a Turned Thumb"), an 1872 painting by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], is a well known [[history painting|historical painter]]'s researched conception of a gladiatorial combat.]]
It is known that the audience (or sponsor or emperor) pointed their thumbs a certain way if they wanted the loser to be killed (called a ''[[pollice verso]]'', literally "with turned thumb"), but it is not clear which way they actually pointed. A thumbs up (called ''pollux infestus'') was an insult to Romans so is unlikely to have meant sparing a life. The clear "thumbs up" and "thumbs down" image is not a product of historical sources, but of [[Hollywood]] and [[epic film]]s such as ''[[Quo Vadis (1951 film)|Quo Vadis]]''. It is thought they may have raised their fist with the thumb inside it (''pollice compresso'', literally "compressed thumbs") if they wanted the loser to live. One popular belief is that the "thumbs down" meant lower your weapon, and let the loser live and a thumbs up sign pointed towards the throat or chest, signaled the gladiator to stab him there. Some scholars believe that a hand movement was involved as the notion of "turning" does not seem to fit the action of merely extending a thumb. One of the few sources to allude to the use of the "thumbs up" and "thumbs down" gestures in the Roman arena comes from [[Satire III]] of [[Juvenal]] (3.34-37)<ref>[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/juvenal/3.shtml Juvenal III]</ref> and seems to indicate that, contrary to modern usage, the thumbs ''down'' signified that the losing gladiator was to be spared and that the thumbs ''up'' meant he was to be killed. A carved relief of a gladiator being spared also exists that shows the hand "sign" as a thumb laid flat along the hand (pressed?) with two fingers extended and two clenched. This has led some to believe those who wanted the gladiator killed waved their thumbs in any direction they wanted, and those who wanted him spared kept their thumbs pressed against their hands.
[[Image:Thraex murmillo show fight 01.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Recreation of a combat between a [[thraex]] and [[murmillo]] in the [[Carnuntum]] Roman ruins. A contemporary incription credits Carnuntum with having the fourth largest [[amphitheatre]] in the Roman Empire. Of interest is that research indicates the physiques of the fighters pictured above possibly reflects reality more closely than movie depictions. As a rule gladiators cultivated fat as well as muscle for protection from blows. With exceptions a typical gladiator was expected to fight in only three to five bouts per year with each lasting around 15 minutes]]

The now famous gladiatorial salute “[[Ave Caesar, morituri te salutant]]” or “''Hail Caesar, they who are about to die salute you''” is another product of movies. This salute was only mentioned by [[Suetonius]] ([[Lives of the Twelve Caesars]], Claudius, XXI, 1214) as happening once, spoken by condemned men (''damnati'') to [[Claudius]] at a [[naumachia]] (a staged naval battle) and they used the word “''imperator''” (Emperor) not Caesar. [[Tacitus]] also wrote of this event:<blockquote>“''although they were criminals, they fought with the spirit of brave men. Their (the survivors') reward was exemption from the penalty of wholesale execution''”.</blockquote>

The cutting up of the bodies to feed the animals is another common misconception and is mentioned only by [[Suetonius]] as an extraordinary and unheard of action that [[Caligula]] ordered to be done only once. The bodies of ''noxii'' and ''damnati'' were either buried or thrown into rivers, this being the traditional Roman disposal method for the bodies of executed criminals while other gladiators were often buried with honours by their "union" (''collegia'') or friends. Animal carcasses were either disposed of or distributed to the poor for sustenance.

Although ancient Romans did not normally wear hats (went heads bare ''capite aperto'') and this is seen in today's movie depictions of games, it was actually customary for free men to wear white woolen conical hats when attending games and festivals (Martial xi.7. xiv.1 Suetonius Ner.57. Seneca Epist.18). The hats were a symbol of liberty.

==Gladiators in films and television==
[[Image:2005-12-28 Berlin Pergamon museum Gladiator helmet.jpg|thumb|[[Thraex]] Gladiator helmet in the [[Pergamon Museum]], [[Berlin]].]]

Gladiators feature frequently in many [[Sword and sandal|epic films]] and [[television series]] set in this period. These include films such as four versions of ''[[Ben-Hur]]'', ''[[Spartacus (film)|Spartacus]]'' (1960), ''[[Gladiator (2000 film)|Gladiator]]'' (2000) and ''[[Demetrius and the Gladiators]]'' (1954), ''[[Quo Vadis (1951 film)|Quo Vadis]]'', as well as the television series ''[[A. D. (TV series)|A.D.]]'' (1985) (which features a female gladiator), and ''[[Rome (TV series)|Rome]]''.



==See also==
* [[Bestiarii]]
* [[List of Roman gladiator types]]
* [[Gladiator (2000 film)]]
* [[The Far Arena]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Further reading ==
{{Commons|Gladiator}}
* ''Gladiator: Film and History'', edited by Martin M. Winkler. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4051-1043-0; paperback, ISBN 1-4051-1042-2).
* James Grout: [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/gladiators/gladiators.html ''Gladiators'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana]
* [http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Arena.html Violence and the Romans: The Arena Spectacles]
* [http://nefer-seba.net/essays/Spartacus/ The Revolt of Spartacus] A narrative essay.
* [[Daniel Pratt Mannix IV|Daniel P Mannix]]: ''Those About To Die'', Ballantine Books, New York 1958
* Michael Grant: ''Gladiators'', Penguin Books, London 1967, reprinted 2000, ISBN 0-14-029934-3
* Roland Auguet: ''Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games'', Paris 1970; English reprint Routledge 1994
* [http://www.imdb.com/find?s=all&q=gladiator IMDB- movie titles containg 'Gladiator' etc.; click also on keywords]
* Thomas Wiedemann: ''Emperors and Gladiators'', Routledge 1992
* Fik Meijer: ''The Gladiators: History's Most Deadly Sport'', Thomas Dunne Books 2003; reprinted by St. Martin's Griffin 2007. ISBN-13: 978-0-312-36402-1; ISBN-10: 0-312-36402-4.
* [http://ejmas.com/jwma/articles/2004/jwmaart_eiland_1104.htm Eckart Köhne and Cornelia Ewigleben (editors); ''Gladiators and Caesars''; British Museum Press, London, 2000; ISBN 0-5202279-80-1]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/gladiators_01.shtml Gladiators: Heroes of the Roman Amphitheatre]
*[http://ablemedia.com/ctcweb/consortium/gladiator1.html The Roman Gladiator]
*[http://www.unrv.com/culture/gladiator.php History of the Roman Empire. Culture. Roman Gladiators:]
*[http://www.archaeology.org/gladiators/ Gladiators] [[Archaeological Institute of America]] Index of articles related to Gladiators.

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6614479.stm BBC News: Gladiator bones found in Turkey]
*[http://www.medicinemagazine.info/consumer/index.php/articles/5-human-evolution-biology-and-anthropology/10-roman-gladiators-beat-pharma-company-to-osteoporosis-drug Medicine Magazine: Roman gladiators beat pharma company to osteoporosis drug]

[[Category:Ancient Roman culture]]
[[Category:Defunct occupations]]
[[Category:Sports occupations]]
[[Category:Gladiator types|*]]
[[Category:Gladiatorial combat| ]]

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Gustavo Cerati

2008-07-20T21:10:14Z

85.18.14.7:

{{Infobox musical artist 
| Name = Gustavo Cerati
| Img = GC.jpg
| Background = solo_singer
| Born = {{birth date and age|1959|8|11}}
| Origin = [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]]
| Genre = [[Rock en Español|Rock]], [[Pop music|Pop]]
| Instrument = [[Guitar]]
| Occupation = [[Singer]], [[songwriter]], [[record producer]]
| Years_active = 1982 – present
| URL = [http://www.cerati.com/ www.cerati.com]
}}

'''Gustavo Adrián Cerati Clark''' (born in [[Buenos Aires]] on [[August 11]], [[1959]]) is an [[Argentina|Argentine]] artist and [[songwriter]]. During the 1980s and 90s he was a member of the Argentinian [[Pop music|pop]] group [[Soda Stereo]], along with [[Charly Alberti]] and [[Zeta Bosio]]. In the early 90s, with [[Amor Amarillo]], he pursued a solo career.

== Career ==

Cerati recorded two solo albums while playing with Soda Stereo. These albums are:

* [[Colores Santos]] (Holy Colors) (1991) A project with [[Daniel Melero]]. Songs to highlight include "Vuelta por el Universo" ("Going around the universe"), "Tu Medicina" ("Your Medicine") and "Colores Santos" ("Holy Colors").

* [[Amor Amarillo]] (Yellow Love) (1994) A totally new album and the very first album with his solo name. Participation of Hector (Zeta) Bosio, ex-bass player for Soda Stereo, on the song "Amor Amarillo" ("Yellow Love"). Singles to highlight include "Lisa" ("Lisa"), "Te llevo para que me lleves" ("I Take You So You'll Take Me"), "Pulsar" ("Pulsar") and "Bajan" ("Coming Down") (a remake of a song written by Luis Alberto Spinetta).

Cerati had six solo albums after his career with Soda Stereo. The albums are:

*[[Bocanada]] (Mouthful) (1999) This album was his first official solo album. Heavy use of electronic samples and beats were used. Some outstanding songs from this album are: "Engaña" ("Mislead"), "Río Babel" ("Babel river"), "Bocanada" ("Mouthful"), "Puente" ("Bridge") and "Paseo Inmoral" ("Immoral Walk"). During an interview, Cerati said that he would like to name this album "Cerati Iluminado" ("Cerati Illuminated") in regards of the lyrics and music they arranged for the records.

*[[+ Bien]] (Rather) (2001) Soundtracks of the movie of the same name, directed by Eduardo Capilla, in which he also stars and makes his acting debut. Another soundtrack he produced was for the movie "Solo Por Hoy" ("Only for today")

*[[11 Episodios Sinfónicos]] (11 Symphonic Episodes) (2001) A live recording of Cerati singing with a classic orchestra playing some of Cerati and Soda Stereo's most popular songs.

*[[Siempre es Hoy]] (It is Always Today) (2002) The third non-instrumental album of his solo career; A new perspective of his music and sound. Some highlights of this album include "Karaoke" ("Karaoke"), "Cosas Imposibles" ("Impossible Things") and "Artefacto" ("Artifact").

*[[Siempre es Hoy / Reversiones]] (It is Always Today/Reversions) (2003) A compilation of remixes from the album "Siempre es hoy" performed by several artists of the ambient [[Electronic music|electronica]] around the world.

*[[Ahí vamos]] (There We Go!) (2006) It is probably his most rock-oriented album to date. An album that combines Cerati's guitar roots and a melodic style. It includes songs such as "Un lago en el cielo" ("A Lake in Heaven"), "Crimen" ("Crime"), "La excepcion" ("The exception"), "Uno entre mil" ("One in a Thousand"), "[[Adios (song)|Adios]]" ("Goodbye"), "Me quedo aqui" ("I'm Staying Here"), "Medium" ("Medium"). Hector Castillo and [[Tweety Gonzalez]] were the responsible for the sound engineering of the album.

Cerati is known for his lead and rhythm guitar talents and for his ability to play intricate lead solos on guitar while singing in key. He released his latest album, Ahí vamos, in April 2006, in which his guitar playing is featured prominently as opposed to the heavy use of electronic samplers as in Bocanada. Ahí Vamos was certified platinum in Argentina in only one day.

Cerati has several electronic music alter egos as well, namely Plan V, Ocio and Roken. He has produced albums for other artists, most notably ''[[Sueños en Tránsito]]'' ("Dreams on Transit") for [[Nicole (Chilean singer)|Nicole]] and ''Mar'' ("Sea") for [[Leo Garcia]] as well as for the band Friccion. He is a contributing artist on several albums for artists such as [[Caifanes]], [[Los Calzones]], and [[Shakira]].

Despite stating that the Grammys do not matter to him[http://youtube.com/watch?v=sdPQ4UaIxq8] he attended the Latin Grammys ceremony on November 2, 2006 [http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid=726880][http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid=997472] where he won for Best Rock Album and Best Rock Song [http://media.cerati.com/video/crimen.mp][http://www.cnn.com/2006/SHOWBIZ/Music/11/02/latin.grammies.ap/].

On 10 March 2007 Cerati played a free concert in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The show was held in a popular square and main streets were closed. The concert was the closure of the Summer Programme of the city government. The government estimated that between 150,000<ref>[http://www.clarin.com/diario/2007/03/11/laciudad/h-05801.htm "Cerati coronó la fiesta del verano ante una impresionante multitud"] - [[Clarín (newspaper)|Clarín]] {{es icon}}</ref> and 200,000<ref>[http://ar.news.yahoo.com/s/11032007/30/entretenimiento-noticias-cerati-present-palermo-200-mil-personas.html "Cerati se presentó en Palermo ante 200 mil personas"] - Yahoo Argentina {{es icon}}</ref>people attended.

On [[7 July]] [[2007 in music|2007]] he performed at [[Live Earth]] with [[Shakira]] in Germany.

== Personal life ==
He was married to [[Chile]]an model [[Cecilia Amenábar]] from 1992 till 2002. They have two children: Lisa and Benito.{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}} Cecilia collaborated in vocals and double bass in Gustavo's first solo album: Amor Amarillo.
Later on he dated supermodel Déborah de Corral, former girlfriend of Charly Alberti during the mid-nineties. Déborah appeared as a guest singer in Gustavo's album Siempre Es Hoy. Some songs on his next album, Ahí Vamos, seem to talk about their break-up. He is uncle of musician Benny Vega.

== Solo Discography ==
* [[Amor Amarillo]] (1993<ref>[http://cerati.com/amor_amarillo/ CERATI.COM | Amor Amarillo]</ref>)
* [[Bocanada]] (1999)
* [[Siempre es Hoy]] (2002)
* [[Ahí vamos]] (2006)

== Other Records ==
* [[+Bien]] (Movie Soundtrack) (2001)
* [[11 Episodios Sinfónicos]] (Live with Symphonic Orchestra) (2001)
* Canciones Elegidas 93-04 (2004) (Compilation, European edition)
* Canciones Elegidas 93-04 (2004) (Compilation, American edition) ''(CD + DVD)''
* Siempre es Hoy: Reversiones (2003) ''(Double CD- Remixes Compilations)''

== Other Projects ==

* Fricción (with Richard Coleman) (1985)
* Colores Santos (with Daniel Melero) (1992)
* Colores Santos, The Remixes (1995)
* Plan V (with [http://www.kupei.com Andrés Bucci], Guillermo Ugarte, Christian Powditch, and Hugo Chávez) (1996)
* Plan Black V Dog (with Black Dog) (1998)
* Ocio - Medida Universal (with Flavius E.) (1999)
* Ocio - Insular (2000)
* Roken (with Flavius E., Leandro Fresco) (only live presentations, no album or record was done) (2004)
* Nicole - Sueños En Transito (Producer) (1997)
* Leo García- Mar (Producer) (2000)

== Collaborations ==

* Outlandos D'Americas - Tribute to [[The Police]], with [[Andy Summers]], song "Tráeme la noche" ("Bring on the Night")
* Tribute to [[Queen (band)|Queen]] (Soda Stereo, song "Someday, One Day")
* Los Durabeat (Beatles Tribute)
* [[Shakira]] - Fijacíon Oral Vol.1 + 2 ("Día Especial" respectively "The Day And The Time", "No")
* plasticos from Los Calzones-tribute to Argentinean rock songs made in ska version (en la ciudad de la furia)

== Awards ==
{{dablink|For awards, nominations, honors, see [[Cerati Awards]]}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.cerati.com Gustavo Cerati's official website]
* [http://www.sodastereo.com Soda Stereo official website]

{{SodaStereo}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cerati, Gustavo}}
[[Category:1959 births]]
[[Category:Argentine singers]]
[[Category:Argentine songwriters]]
[[Category:Argentines of Italian descent]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Buenos Aires]]
[[Category:Rock en Español]]
[[Category:Soda Stereo members]]

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Newton College (Peru)

2008-03-06T16:23:03Z

85.18.14.7: /* References */

{{Infobox Secondary school
| name = Newton College
| native_name = Colegio Sir Isaac Newton
| logo = [[Image:Newton.gif]]
| motto = ''Facite Omnia Sapienter'' (Latin: "Use Common Sense")
| established = [[1979]]
| city = [[Lima]]
| country = [[Peru]]
| campus = Urban
| type = [[private school|Private]] [[coeducational]]
| affiliation =[[Round Square]], ADCA (Asociación de Colegios Privados de Asociaciones Culturales)
| affiliations = | headmaster = Andrew Cino
| faculty =
| students = 1,300 approx.
| grades = Pre-[[Kindergarten]], [[primary school|Primary]] 1-6, [[secondary school|Secondary]] 1-6 ''Secondary 6 is optional because it's The [[International Baccalaureate|IB]]''
| address = Av. Ricardo Elías Aparicio 240. La Molina
| mascot = Lion
| colours = Green, White
| newspaper =
| yearbook = The Apple
| free_label_1 = Newsletter
| free_1 = News Sheet
| free_label_2 = Alumni Association
| free_2 = [http://www.newton.edu.pe/olneas/pag/newtonian/index.htm Old Newtonian Association]
| free_label_3 = Primary language
| free_3 = English
| website = [http://www.newton.edu.pe www.newton.edu.pe]
| footnotes =
| picture =
}}

'''Newton College''' is an Anglo-Peruvian British school, in [[Lima]], [[Peru]]. It was founded in [[1979]] by Mr. Stanley J. Moulden, a former [[Markham College|Markham]] School teacher. It is based on the [[International General Certificate of Secondary Education|IGCSE]] curriculum of the [[Cambridge International Examinations|University of Cambridge]] up until Form IV, then the [[International Baccalaureate|IB]] Diploma Program starts, with a choice of starting it in Form V, and choosing to stay an extra year and completing it in Form VI, thus postponing university entrance by a year. It is a bilingual, teaching English and Spanish, co-educational private school, though most of its classes are taught in english.

It was originally situated in a house in the [[San Isidro District|San Isidro]] district but it shortly moved to the [[La Molina]] district, where it has continued to grow over the years, building a theater, gym facilities, a pre-school area (Little Newton), a large sports area and finally a coliseum, inaugurated on September 28th, 2006.

In addition, the school has its own lodge situated in [[Tambopata]], [[Madre de Dios Region|Madre de Dios]], where students go on field trips to and take classes on Geography and Biology.

It has been awarded "Empresa Peruana del Año" (Peruvian Enterprise of the Year) in the School Category more than once. In 2006, the British ''[[The Guardian|Guardian]]'' newspaper listed it as one of the best UK-curriculum international schools in the world.<ref>[http://education.guardian.co.uk/publicschools/story/0,,1970352,00.html A guide to schools abroad that offer a British curriculum], Education Guardian, December 12, 2006</ref>

The school has about 1300 students and 120 teachers.

== References ==
<references />
Newton Corazon!
Pupo(Bellatin)es un gordo y huele a MIERDA!
Jean Yepez es el mejor profe del WORLD.
La Miss Blanca es la VIEJA mas PERRA de Newton!
La Miss Maria Clelia Garcès el una fumona de mierda!
ojala que se pudran todos los profes hijos de puta!

Mauricio Chumpitasi es el papi de los papis del cole!
Luis Diego De La Torre es un CABRASO que le gusta chuparle la pinga a su pata italiano.

==External links==
*[http://www.newton.edu.pe/ Newton College] Official School Website
*[http://www.adca.edu.pe/ ADCA] Association of Private Schools in Peru

[[Category:Schools in Peru]]
[[Category:Private schools in Peru]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1979]]
[[es:Colegio Newton]]
{{Peru-stub}}

Talk:Energie

2008-02-12T21:25:06Z

85.18.14.7: ←Created page with 'energie ce a via del corso. Federico ha alcuni vestiti della Energie. Bella Zi.'

energie ce a via del corso.

Federico ha alcuni vestiti della Energie.

Bella Zi.

London Stansted Airport

2008-01-23T17:50:48Z

85.18.14.7: /* Coaches */

{{Infobox Airport
| name = London Stansted Airport
| nativename =
| nativename-a =
| nativename-r =
[[Image:BAA Stansted logo.gif|165px]]
| image = London Stansted Airport.jpg
| image-width =
| caption =
| IATA = STN
| ICAO = EGSS
| type = Public
| owner-oper = [[BAA Limited|BAA]]
| city-served = [[London]]
| location = [[Uttlesford]]
| elevation-f = 348
| elevation-m = 106
| coordinates = {{Coord|51|53|06|N|000|14|06|E|display=inline|type:airport}}
| website = [http://www.stanstedairport.com/ www.stanstedairport.com]
| metric-rwy = yes
| r1-number = 05/23
| r1-length-f = 10,000
| r1-length-m = 3,048
| r1-surface = [[Grooved Asphalt]]
| stat-year = 2006
| stat1-header = Aircraft Movements
| stat1-data = 206,693
| stat2-header = Passengers
| stat2-data = 23,687,013
| footnotes = Source: [[United Kingdom]] [[Aeronautical Information Publication|AIP]] <ref>[http://www.ais.org.uk/ UK Aeronautical Information Service]</ref>
Statistics from the UK CAA<ref name="stats">[http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data/2006Annual/Table_03_1_Aircraft_Movements_2006.csv Aircraft Movements], [http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data/2006Annual/Table_08_Air_Passengers_by_Type_and_Nat_of_Operator_2006.csv Air Passengers by Type and Nationality of Operator]</ref>
}}

'''London Stansted Airport''' {{Airport codes|STN|EGSS}} is a large passenger [[airport]] with a single runway and hub for a number of major European low-cost airlines. It is located in the [[Uttlesford]] District of the [[England|English]] [[county]] of [[Essex]] about 30 miles (48 km) north-east of [[London]]. It is about {{convert|2|mi|km|0}} outside [[Bishop's Stortford]] and {{convert|6|mi|km|0}} outside [[Harlow]]. It is the third largest airport serving the London area after [[London Heathrow Airport|Heathrow]] and [[London Gatwick Airport|Gatwick]]; and is one of London's five international airports along with [[London Luton Airport|Luton]] and [[London City Airport]]s.

== Overview==
[[Image:Wfm stansted.jpg|thumb|The Interior of Stansted Airport]]

Stansted Airport has one terminal. There are three satellites, two connected to the main terminal by an air - bridge and the other one by a transit system. The terminal facilities include a ''[[bureau de change]]'', left luggage service, several shops and restaurants as well as internet access. Car hire and taxis can also be arranged from within the terminal building. The terminal building was designed by [[Foster and Partners|Foster Associates]] and features a "floating" roof, supported by a [[space frame]] of inverted-pyramid roof trusses, creating the impression of a stylised swan in flight. The base of each truss structure is a "utility pillar", which provides indirect uplighting illumination and is the location for [[air-conditioning]] and water, telecommunications, and electrical outlets. The layout of the airport is designed to provide an unobstructed flow for passengers to arrive at the short-stay car park, move through the check-in hall, go through security, and on to the departure gates all on the same level. However, the airport has never catered for spectators or those wishing to watch friends depart because of the current security restrictions put in place by the Government.

In the last ten years Stansted has seen a rapid expansion of passenger numbers: Having 12 million passengers in 2000, the number of passengers using Stansted in 2004 was 20.9 million which rose by 5.3% to 21.9 million in 2005. [http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data_prov/200512/December_2005_Provisional_Airport_Statistics.pdf]

==Ground transportation==

===Trains===
[[Image:stnstn.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Stansted Airport train station linking London, Cambridge, Peterborough, Leicester and Birmingham with the Airport.]]
Stansted has a [[Stansted Airport railway station|railway station]] below the terminal building, with rail services to [[Cambridge]], [[Leicester]] and the [[Midlands]] every 60 minutes operated by [[CrossCountry]]. The [[Stansted Express]] train runs to and from [[Liverpool Street station]] in [[London]] every 15 minutes and the journey time is 45 minutes.

===Coaches===
Scheduled express bus or coach services run to and from [[Stratford, London|Stratford]], [[Victoria Coach Station]], [[Liverpool Street Station]] and [[Golders Green]] (all in London), costing half as much as the train but taking rather longer (ca. 80 - 130 minutes). The bus/coach station is adjacent to the terminal building. [[National Express]] runs scheduled but infrequent direct coach services to the airport from [[Oxford]] as service JL737, taking about three hours, and hourly services to and from [[Cambridge]]. [[easyBus]] provides journeys between the airport and Baker Street, Central London.[[Terravision]], runs scheduled direct coach services from the airport to Victoria Station and Liverpool Street

===Roads===
Stansted is connected to northeast London and Cambridge by the [[M11 motorway]] and to [[Colchester]] and [[Harwich]] by the A120 dual-carriageway. The access from the motorway has recently been improved with a new grade-separated junction. The long term car park is situated about a mile from the terminal and passengers need to allow at least twenty minutes to park and use a courtesy bus shuttle service prior to check-in. There are short term car parks next to the terminal building.

==Proposed expansion==
[[Image:stansted-front-02.jpg|thumb|The lawn in front of Stansted Airport, which has now been paved]]
The airport capacity is limited to a maximum throughput of 25 million passengers per annum (25mppa) in accordance with recommendations made by the public inquiry in 1984 and confirmed by the Government of the day. In November 2006 [[Uttlesford]] district council rejected a [[BAA Limited]] (BAA) planning application to increase the permitted number of aircraft movements and to remove the limit on passenger numbers. Rejection was on a number of grounds. BAA immediately appealed against the decision and a public inquiry considered this from May to October 2007. Planning Inspector Alan Boyland is expected to make his recommendation by the end of 2007. This will be considered by two Government ministers who will take the final decision. They are the Secretary of State for Transport (Ruth Kelly) and the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government (Hazel Blears).

BAA has indicated that it will seek permission to build a second runway, in line with a recommendation in the [[Future of air transport in the United Kingdom|2003 Air Transport White Paper]]. A planning application is expected to be made in 2007. This would be the subject of another public inquiry. A second runway would allow Stansted to handle more passengers than Heathrow does today.

In April 2007, a major expansion program to the existing terminal began. Works to add nearly 6000 square metres of floorspace are underway and are designed to give space for additional baggage carousels, a new immigration and passport control hall and a [[hypostyle]] arrivals hall with improved facilities.

==Stop Stansted Expansion==
Stop Stansted Expansion [SSE] is a campaign group opposed to the expansion of Stansted Airport. Its objective is: "To contain the development of Stansted Airport within tight limits that are truly [[sustainability|sustainable]] and, in this way, to protect the [[quality of life]] of residents over wide areas of [[Essex]], [[Hertfordshire]] and [[Suffolk]], to preserve our [[cultural heritage|heritage]] and to protect the [[natural environment]]." The campaign group is well organised with over 6,000 individual members and the support of more than 100 local authorities and other organisations. SSE has been fighting airport expansion by legal means and constructive argument since 2002, when a Department for Transport consultation suggested that Stansted could expand to up to 4 runways. In 2004/2005, SSE mounted a High Court challenge to the government [[White Paper]] on aviation transport policy and, although it did not manage to overturn the paper, the judge deemed that the wide-spaced runway option presented as the preferred option in the document was "a bridge too far" and a matter that should be decided through the normal planning procedures.

==Airlines and destinations==
[[Image:London Stansted Airport - England.JPG|thumb|300px|View of the apron at Stansted Airport. Channel Express (now Jet2.com), Air Berlin, and TUI jets can be seen]]
===Scheduled service===
*[[Air Berlin]] (Berlin-Tegel, Düsseldorf, Hanover, Munich, Münster/Osnabrück, Nürnberg, Paderborn/Lippstadt)
*[[Air Malta]] (Malta)
*[[Air Moldova]] (Chisinau)
*[[American Airlines]] (New York-JFK)
*[[Atlantic Airways]] (Shetland Islands, Faroe Islands)
*[[Aurigny Air Services]] (Guernsey)
*[[Albanian Airlines]] (Tirana)
*[[Blue1]] (Helsinki [ends March 30])
*[[Blue Air]] (Bucharest-Băneasa [ends 30 March] )
*[[Centralwings]] (Warsaw) [ends 29 March]
*[[Cyprus Airways]] (Larnaca, Paphos)
*[[Kıbrıs Türk Hava Yolları|Cyprus Turkish Airlines]] (Antalya, Dalaman, Gazientep, Izmir)
*[[easyJet]] (Alicante, Almeria, Asturias, Amsterdam, Barcelona, Basel/Mulhouse, Belfast-International, Bilbao, Copenhagen, Edinburgh, Faro, Funchal, Geneva, Glasgow-International, Ibiza, Ljubljana, Lyon, Málaga, Munich, Naples, Newcastle, Nice, Palma de Mallorca, Prague, Tallinn, Valencia)
*[[Eastern Airways]] (Manchester)
*[[El Al Israel Airlines]] (Tel Aviv)
*[[Eos Airlines]] (New York-JFK, Newark [begins Spring 2008])
*[[Germanwings]] (Cologne/Bonn, Stuttgart)
*[[Iceland Express]] (Reykjavík-Keflavik)
*[[Norwegian Air Shuttle]] (Oslo-Gardermoen, Oslo-Rygge, Trondheim, Tromsø, Bergen)
*[[Ryanair]] (Aarhus, Alghero, Alicante, Almeria, Altenburg, Ancona, Angouleme [begins 1 April], Balaton, Bari, Belfast-City, Bergerac, Berlin-Schönefeld, Biarritz, Billund, Bratislava, Bremen, Brescia, Brindisi, Brno, Bydgoszcz, Carcassonne, Cork, Derry, Dinard, Dublin, Dusselforf-Weeze, Eindhoven, Faro [begins 1 April], Forli, Frankfurt-Hahn, Friedrichshafen, Gdańsk, Genoa, Girona, Glasgow-Prestwick, Gothenburg-City, Granada, Graz, Grenoble, Haugesund, Jerez, Karlsruhe, Kaunas, Kerry, Klagenfurt, Knock, Kraków, La Rochelle, Limoges, Linz, Łódź, Lübeck, Maribor, Marseille, Milan-Bergamo, Montpellier, Murcia, Nantes, Newquay, Oslo-Torp, Palermo, Palma de Mallorca, Parma, Pau, Perpignan, Perugia, Pescara, Pisa, Poitiers, Porto, Poznan, Pula, Reus, Riga, Rodez, Rome-Ciampino, Rzeszów, Salzburg, Santander, Santiago de Compostela, Seville, Shannon, Stockholm-Skavsta, Stockholm-Vasteras, Szczecin, Tampere, Toulon, Tours, Trieste, Turin, Valencia, Valladolid, Venice-Treviso, Wrocław, Zadar, Zaragoza)
*[[TACV Cabo Verde Airlines]] (Praia, Sal island)
*[[transavia.com]] (Rotterdam)
*[[Turkish Airlines]] (Istanbul-Atatürk)
*[[Wizz Air]] (Katowice)

===Charter operators===
*[[Air Europa]] (Las Palmas, Tenerife-South)
*[[Air Southwest]] (Jersey)
*[[BH Air]] (Bourgas)
*[[BritishJet]] (Malta)
*[[Darwin Airline]] (Geneva)
*[[European Air Charter]] (Palma de Mallorca)
*[[First Choice Airways]] (Arrecife, Bodrum, Bourgas, Corfu, Dalaman, Faro, Fuerteventura, Heraklion, Ibiza, Kos, Larnaca, Las Palmas, Mahon, Palma de Mallorca, Paphos, Reus, Rhodes, Tenerife-South, Zakynthos)
*[[Iberworld]] (Palma de Mallorca)
*[[Israir]] (Tel Aviv)
*[[Jet2.com]] (Calvi, Lourdes, Olbia)
*[[Monarch Airlines]] (Palma de Mallorca, Zakynthos)
*[[MyTravel Airways]] (Mahon, Reus)
*[[Nouvelair]] (Monastir)
*[[Onur Air]] (Bodrum, Dalaman)
*[[Thomas Cook Airlines]] (Antalya, Arrecife, Bodrum, Corfu, Dalaman, Faro, Heraklion, Ibiza, Izmir, Kos, Larnaca, Mahon, Paphos, Palma de Mallorca, Tenerife-South, Zakynthos)
*[[Spanair]] (Palma de Mallorca)
*[[SunExpress]] (Antalya, Izmir)
*[[Thomsonfly]] (Arrecife, Corfu, Fuerteventura, Heraklion, Ibiza, Las Palmas, Mahon, Ovda-Eilat, Palma de Mallorca, Paphos)
*[[Titan Airways]] (Lourdes & Preveza)
*[[XL Airways]] (Corfu, Dalaman, Heraklion, Κos, Arrecife, Ibiza, Tenerife-South, Faro, Las Palmas, Zakynthos, Paphos)

===Cargo airlines===
*[[Air Contractors]] (Dublin, Glasgow-International, Manchester, Paris-Charles de Gaulle) Air Contractors operate [[wet leased]] flights for [[FedEx]]
*[[Asiana Airlines]] (Seoul, Amsterdam)
*[[BAC Express Airlines]] (Exeter)
*[[Coyne Airways]]
*[[FedEx Express]] (Newark, Memphis, Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Dublin, Frankfurt)
*[[Global Supply Systems]] on behalf of [[British Airways]] (Delhi, Mumbai, Atlanta, Chicago-O'Hare, Hong Kong, Frankfurt-Hahn)
*[[Jet2.com]] (Edinburgh, Newcastle)
*[[Martinair]] (San Juan, Amsterdam)
*[[Royal Jordanian Airlines]] (New York-JFK, Amman)
*[[Titan Airways]] (Belfast-International, Edinburgh, Exeter)
*[[UPS Airlines]] (Newark, Cologne/Bonn)

== History ==
=== World War II===
During [[World War II]] '''Stansted Mountfitchet Airfield''' was used by the [[Royal Air Force]] and the [[United States Army Air Force]] as a bomber airfield and as a major maintenance depot. Although the official name was Stansted Mountfitchet, the base was known as simply Stansted in both written and spoken form.

The station was first allocated to the USAAF [[Eighth Air Force]] in August 1942 as a bomber airfield. Its USAAF Station Code was 169. Later, in October Stansted was selected to be an advanced air depot for the 9th Air Force Martin B-26 Marauder medium bombers. Construction was carried out by the United States Army 817th, 825th and 850th Engineering Battalions, completing the airfield by mid-1943.

==== 344th Bombardment Group ====

Stansted was officially opened on [[7 August]] [[1943]] when the 30th Air Depot Group took up residence. The airfield was officially transferred to the [[Ninth Air Force]] on [[16 October]]

The 344th Bombardment Group arrived at Stansted on [[8 February]] [[1944]], from [[Hunter Army Airfield|Hunter AAF]], Georgia flying the twin-engine [[B-26 Marauder|Martin B-26 Marauder]]. It's operational squadrons and fuselage codes were:

* 494th Bombardment Squadron (K9)
* 495th Bombardment Squadron (Y5)
* 496th Bombardment Squadron (N3)
* 497st Bombardment Squadron (7I)
[[Image:B-26-stanst.jpg|thumb|Unidentified B-26 of the 344th Bomb Group at Stansted, 1944.]]
[[Image:B-26-43-34181-495bs-stanst.jpg|thumb|Martin B-26G-1-MA Marauder serial 43-34181 of the 495th Bomb Squadron preparing to take off at Stansted Airfield, 1944. This aircraft is the Lak-a-Nookie, piloted by Charles E. (Chuck) Mininan.]]
The 344th BG began operations in March 1944, attacking attacking airfields, missile sites, marshaling yards, submarine shelters, coastal defenses, and other targets in German-occupied [[France]], [[Belgium]], and the [[Netherlands]]. Beginning in May, the 344th helped prepare for the [[Operation Overlord|Normandy invasion]] by striking vital bridges in France.

The 344th Bombardment Group was selected to lead the IX Bomber Command formations on [[D-Day]], with the first aircraft taking off at 04:12 hours, attacking coastal batteries at [[Cherbourg]], and during the remainder of June, it supported the drive that resulted in the seizure of the [[Cotentin Peninsula]].

The unit also defended positions to assist British forces in the area of [[Caen]] and received a [[Distinguished Unit Citation]] for a three-day action against the enemy in late July when the group struck troop concentrations, supply dumps, a bridge, and a railroad viaduct to assist advancing ground forces at [[St Lo]].

Another action of the 344th was to knock out bridges to hinder the German Army's withdrawal through the [[Falaise gap]], and bombed vessels and strong points at [[Brest, France|Brest]] during August and September.

On [[30 September]] the 344th moved to their Advanced Landing Ground at Cormeilles-en-Vexin, France, France (A-59). While at Stansted the group flew over 100 missions, and lost 26 aircraft in combat.

On the continent, the 344th BG used the following Advanced Landing Grounds:

* A-59 Cormeilles-en-Vexin France 30 September 1944
* A-78 Florences/Juzaine Belgium 5 April 1945

After [[V-E Day]] the group moved to Schleissheim, [[Germany]] for occupation duty and began training with [[A-26 Invader|Douglas A-26 Invaders]], but continued to use B-26 aircraft. It was transferred, without personnel and equipment, to the United States on [[15 February]] [[1946]] where it was inactivated.

==== 2d Tactical Air Depot ====
As well as being an operational bomber base, Stansted airfield was a maintenance and supply depot, concerned with major overhauls and modification of B-26s. After D-Day, these activities were transferred to France, but the base was still used as a supply storage area for the support of aircraft on the continent.

=== Postwar RAF use ===
After the withdrawal of the Americans on [[12 August]] [[1945]], Stansted was taken over by the RAF No. 263 Maintenance Unit for storage. In addition, between March 1946 and August 1947, Stansted was used for housing German P.O.Ws.

It is interesting to note that there are still many World War II Nissen Huts in use at Stansted today, albeit for various non-military purposes.

=== Postwar use ===

After the withdrawal of the Americans on [[12 August]] [[1945]], Stansted was taken over by the RAF Maintenance Unit for storage. In addition, between March 1946 and August 1947, Stansted was used for housing German P.O.Ws. After the war, however, the base was not needed and was transferred to the Air Ministry in 1947. The US military returned in 1954 to extend the runway for a possible transfer to [[NATO]] but this was never realised and the airport ended up under [[BAA Limited|BAA]] control in 1966.

During the 60s, 70s and early 80s the Fire Service Training School (FSTS) was based on the Eastern side of the Airfield under the auspices of the Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation, now the Civil Aviation Authority. The School was responsible for the training of all Aviation Fire Crews for UK Airfields as well as for many overseas countries.

=== Commercial operations===

Beginning in 1966, after Stansted was placed under BAA control, it was used by holiday charter operators wishing to escape the higher costs associated with operating from Heathrow and Gatwick. From the outset, however, BAA and the British government planned to develop Stansted into London's third airport, to relieve Heathrow and Gatwick of excess congestion in the future. The airport's first terminal building opened in 1969 and was expanded the next year to handle the growing number of passengers.

In 1984, the government approved a plan to develop Stansted in two phases, involving both airfield and terminal improvements that would increase the airport's capacity to 15 million passengers per year. Construction of the current terminal building began in 1988 and was completed in March 1991, and was designed by the internationally acclaimed [[Sir Norman Foster]].

Long-haul scheduled services became reality in the early 1990s when [[American Airlines]] operated a transatlantic service between Stansted and Chicago. This was unprofitable and was withdrawn, however, in a similar fashion to the [[Continental Airlines]] service between Stansted and [[Newark, New Jersey]] using a Boeing 757-200, which was withdrawn shortly after beginning following [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11, 2001]]. The first long-haul scheduled service which has lasted at Stansted has been that offered by Israeli airline [[El Al Israel Airlines]] between Stansted and [[Tel Aviv]], following an excess of demand for its flights at Heathrow. This was followed by another [[Israeli|Israel]] airline, [[Israir Airlines]].

Long-haul services to the USA returned in late 2005, when [[Eos Airlines]] and [[MAXjet Airways]] commenced all business class services from Stansted to New York-JFK, with EOS using a Boeing 757-200 and MAXjet using a 767-200. In 2006, MAXjet expanded their service with flights to Washington DC and Las Vegas, and Los Angeles. [[MAXjet Airways]] ceased operations on December 24, 2007 leaving [[Eos Airlines]] and [[American Airlines]] the only long haul carriers at Stansted.

[[American Airlines]] began service to Stansted in October, 2007 to New York-JFK airport and is expected to operate a second daily flight in April 2008.

===Incidents and accidents===

* On [[31 March]] [[1998]] a chartered [[Hawker Siddeley]] HS-748 [[turbo prop]] (owned by [[Emerald Airways]]), carrying the [[Leeds United]] football team, suffered an engine explosion on take off resulting in an emergency landing and evacuation. All onboard survived due to the expertise of the flight crew and the distinct bravery of the team's assistant manager, [[David O'Leary]].<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19980401/ai_n14156544 Football: Leeds play on after flight ends in flames] by Guy Hodgson from ''The Independent'', 1 April 1998</ref>

*On the [[22 December]] [[1999]], [[Korean Air Cargo]] flight 8509, a [[Boeing 747]], crashed shortly after take off from the air field due to pilot error. The only people onboard at the time were the aircrew and all four were killed. The aircraft crashed in Hatfield Forest near the village of Great Hallingbury.

*[[February 27]] [[2002]] - [[Ryanair]] [[Boeing 737#737-800|Boeing 737-800]] aircraft operating [[Ryanair Flight 296]] from [[Dublin Airport|Dublin]] to Stansted caught fire shortly after landing. Subsequent investigations found that although the aircraft was fully evacuated within 90 seconds, the air crew struggled to open the emergency doors, and some passengers were initially evacuated towards the fire. The UK [[Air Accidents Investigation Branch]] recommended changes to training procedures for air-crew to allow better handling of similar situations in future.<ref name="ref">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aaib.dft.gov.uk/cms_resources/dft_avsafety_pdf_029538.pdf|title=Boeing 737-8AS, EI-CSA|accessdate=2007-04-05|publisher=Air Accidents Investigation Branch|format=PDF}}</ref>

* On [[February 6]] [[2000]] an [[Ariana Afghan Airlines]] [[Boeing 727]] with 156 people on board was hijacked and flown to Stansted Airport. After a four-day stand-off the hostages on board were safely freed and the incident ended peacefully. It later emerged that the motive behind the hijack was to gain asylum in the UK, sparking debate about immigration into the country. A large number of passengers on board the plane also applied for asylum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/636375.stm|title=Special report: Hijack at Stansted|accessdate=2007-04-05|publisher=BBC News|year=2000}}</ref>
:In July 2004, it was reported that a number of hijackers had won their bid for asylum in the UK, their convictions for hijacking having been quashed for misdirection of the jury in 2003.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/essex/3889107.stm|title=Afghans win right to stay in UK|accessdate=2007-04-05|publisher=BBC News|year=2004}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Location map
|Essex
|label =
|background = white
|lat = 51.88
|long = 0.24
|caption = Map showing location of London Stansted Airport in Essex
|float = right
|width = 185
}}

* [[List of RAF stations]]
* [[Ninth Air Force|USAAF Ninth Air Force - World War II]]

== References ==
* Freeman, Roger A. (1994) UK Airfields of the Ninth: Then and Now. After the Battle ISBN 0900913800
* Maurer, Maurer (1983). Air Force Combat Units Of World War II. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0892010924.
* [http://home.att.net/~jbaugher/usafserials.html] USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers--1908 to present
<references/>
* The Bishop's Stortford Herald newspaper, 26 April 2007.

==External links==
{{commonscat|London Stansted Airport}}
* [http://www.stanstedairport.com Stansted Airport]
* [http://www.stacc.info/ Stansted Airport Consultative Committee]

{{UKAirports}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Stansted Airport}}
[[Category:Airports in England]]
[[Category:Airports of the London region]]
[[Category:BAA Limited]]
[[Category:Aviation in Essex]]
[[Category:1942 establishments]]
[[Category:1991 architecture]]
[[Category:Norman Foster buildings]]
[[Category:Transport in Uttlesford]]

[[cs:Letiště London Stansted]]
[[da:Stansted]]
[[de:Flughafen London-Stansted]]
[[et:Londoni Stanstedi lennujaam]]
[[es:Aeropuerto de Londres-Stansted]]
[[eo:Flughaveno London Stansted]]
[[fa:فرودگاه استانستد لندن]]
[[fr:Aéroport de Londres Stansted]]
[[id:Bandar Udara London Stansted]]
[[it:Aeroporto di Londra-Stansted]]
[[lmo:London Stansted Airport]]
[[nl:Luchthaven Londen Stansted]]
[[ja:ロンドン・スタンステッド空港]]
[[no:London Stansted lufthavn]]
[[pms:London Stansted Airport]]
[[pl:Port lotniczy Londyn-Stansted]]
[[ru:Станстед]]
[[sk:London Stansted]]
[[fi:Stanstedin lentoasema]]
[[sv:London Stansted Airport]]
[[th:ท่าอากาศยานลอนดอนสแตนสเต็ด]]
[[zh:坦斯特德機場]]

London Stansted Airport

2008-01-23T17:46:49Z

85.18.14.7: /* Coaches */

{{Infobox Airport
| name = London Stansted Airport
| nativename =
| nativename-a =
| nativename-r =
[[Image:BAA Stansted logo.gif|165px]]
| image = London Stansted Airport.jpg
| image-width =
| caption =
| IATA = STN
| ICAO = EGSS
| type = Public
| owner-oper = [[BAA Limited|BAA]]
| city-served = [[London]]
| location = [[Uttlesford]]
| elevation-f = 348
| elevation-m = 106
| coordinates = {{Coord|51|53|06|N|000|14|06|E|display=inline|type:airport}}
| website = [http://www.stanstedairport.com/ www.stanstedairport.com]
| metric-rwy = yes
| r1-number = 05/23
| r1-length-f = 10,000
| r1-length-m = 3,048
| r1-surface = [[Grooved Asphalt]]
| stat-year = 2006
| stat1-header = Aircraft Movements
| stat1-data = 206,693
| stat2-header = Passengers
| stat2-data = 23,687,013
| footnotes = Source: [[United Kingdom]] [[Aeronautical Information Publication|AIP]] <ref>[http://www.ais.org.uk/ UK Aeronautical Information Service]</ref>
Statistics from the UK CAA<ref name="stats">[http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data/2006Annual/Table_03_1_Aircraft_Movements_2006.csv Aircraft Movements], [http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data/2006Annual/Table_08_Air_Passengers_by_Type_and_Nat_of_Operator_2006.csv Air Passengers by Type and Nationality of Operator]</ref>
}}

'''London Stansted Airport''' {{Airport codes|STN|EGSS}} is a large passenger [[airport]] with a single runway and hub for a number of major European low-cost airlines. It is located in the [[Uttlesford]] District of the [[England|English]] [[county]] of [[Essex]] about 30 miles (48 km) north-east of [[London]]. It is about {{convert|2|mi|km|0}} outside [[Bishop's Stortford]] and {{convert|6|mi|km|0}} outside [[Harlow]]. It is the third largest airport serving the London area after [[London Heathrow Airport|Heathrow]] and [[London Gatwick Airport|Gatwick]]; and is one of London's five international airports along with [[London Luton Airport|Luton]] and [[London City Airport]]s.

== Overview==
[[Image:Wfm stansted.jpg|thumb|The Interior of Stansted Airport]]

Stansted Airport has one terminal. There are three satellites, two connected to the main terminal by an air - bridge and the other one by a transit system. The terminal facilities include a ''[[bureau de change]]'', left luggage service, several shops and restaurants as well as internet access. Car hire and taxis can also be arranged from within the terminal building. The terminal building was designed by [[Foster and Partners|Foster Associates]] and features a "floating" roof, supported by a [[space frame]] of inverted-pyramid roof trusses, creating the impression of a stylised swan in flight. The base of each truss structure is a "utility pillar", which provides indirect uplighting illumination and is the location for [[air-conditioning]] and water, telecommunications, and electrical outlets. The layout of the airport is designed to provide an unobstructed flow for passengers to arrive at the short-stay car park, move through the check-in hall, go through security, and on to the departure gates all on the same level. However, the airport has never catered for spectators or those wishing to watch friends depart because of the current security restrictions put in place by the Government.

In the last ten years Stansted has seen a rapid expansion of passenger numbers: Having 12 million passengers in 2000, the number of passengers using Stansted in 2004 was 20.9 million which rose by 5.3% to 21.9 million in 2005. [http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data_prov/200512/December_2005_Provisional_Airport_Statistics.pdf]

==Ground transportation==

===Trains===
[[Image:stnstn.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Stansted Airport train station linking London, Cambridge, Peterborough, Leicester and Birmingham with the Airport.]]
Stansted has a [[Stansted Airport railway station|railway station]] below the terminal building, with rail services to [[Cambridge]], [[Leicester]] and the [[Midlands]] every 60 minutes operated by [[CrossCountry]]. The [[Stansted Express]] train runs to and from [[Liverpool Street station]] in [[London]] every 15 minutes and the journey time is 45 minutes.

===Coaches===
Scheduled express bus or coach services run to and from [[Stratford, London|Stratford]], [[Victoria Coach Station]], [[Liverpool Street Station]] and [[Golders Green]] (all in London), costing half as much as the train but taking rather longer (ca. 80 - 130 minutes). The bus/coach station is adjacent to the terminal building. [[National Express]] runs scheduled but infrequent direct coach services to the airport from [[Oxford]] as service JL737, taking about three hours, and hourly services to and from [[Cambridge]]. [[easyBus]] provides journeys between the airport and Baker Street, Central London.[[Terravision]], runs scheduled direct coach services from/to the airport.

===Roads===
Stansted is connected to northeast London and Cambridge by the [[M11 motorway]] and to [[Colchester]] and [[Harwich]] by the A120 dual-carriageway. The access from the motorway has recently been improved with a new grade-separated junction. The long term car park is situated about a mile from the terminal and passengers need to allow at least twenty minutes to park and use a courtesy bus shuttle service prior to check-in. There are short term car parks next to the terminal building.

==Proposed expansion==
[[Image:stansted-front-02.jpg|thumb|The lawn in front of Stansted Airport, which has now been paved]]
The airport capacity is limited to a maximum throughput of 25 million passengers per annum (25mppa) in accordance with recommendations made by the public inquiry in 1984 and confirmed by the Government of the day. In November 2006 [[Uttlesford]] district council rejected a [[BAA Limited]] (BAA) planning application to increase the permitted number of aircraft movements and to remove the limit on passenger numbers. Rejection was on a number of grounds. BAA immediately appealed against the decision and a public inquiry considered this from May to October 2007. Planning Inspector Alan Boyland is expected to make his recommendation by the end of 2007. This will be considered by two Government ministers who will take the final decision. They are the Secretary of State for Transport (Ruth Kelly) and the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government (Hazel Blears).

BAA has indicated that it will seek permission to build a second runway, in line with a recommendation in the [[Future of air transport in the United Kingdom|2003 Air Transport White Paper]]. A planning application is expected to be made in 2007. This would be the subject of another public inquiry. A second runway would allow Stansted to handle more passengers than Heathrow does today.

In April 2007, a major expansion program to the existing terminal began. Works to add nearly 6000 square metres of floorspace are underway and are designed to give space for additional baggage carousels, a new immigration and passport control hall and a [[hypostyle]] arrivals hall with improved facilities.

==Stop Stansted Expansion==
Stop Stansted Expansion [SSE] is a campaign group opposed to the expansion of Stansted Airport. Its objective is: "To contain the development of Stansted Airport within tight limits that are truly [[sustainability|sustainable]] and, in this way, to protect the [[quality of life]] of residents over wide areas of [[Essex]], [[Hertfordshire]] and [[Suffolk]], to preserve our [[cultural heritage|heritage]] and to protect the [[natural environment]]." The campaign group is well organised with over 6,000 individual members and the support of more than 100 local authorities and other organisations. SSE has been fighting airport expansion by legal means and constructive argument since 2002, when a Department for Transport consultation suggested that Stansted could expand to up to 4 runways. In 2004/2005, SSE mounted a High Court challenge to the government [[White Paper]] on aviation transport policy and, although it did not manage to overturn the paper, the judge deemed that the wide-spaced runway option presented as the preferred option in the document was "a bridge too far" and a matter that should be decided through the normal planning procedures.

==Airlines and destinations==
[[Image:London Stansted Airport - England.JPG|thumb|300px|View of the apron at Stansted Airport. Channel Express (now Jet2.com), Air Berlin, and TUI jets can be seen]]
===Scheduled service===
*[[Air Berlin]] (Berlin-Tegel, Düsseldorf, Hanover, Munich, Münster/Osnabrück, Nürnberg, Paderborn/Lippstadt)
*[[Air Malta]] (Malta)
*[[Air Moldova]] (Chisinau)
*[[American Airlines]] (New York-JFK)
*[[Atlantic Airways]] (Shetland Islands, Faroe Islands)
*[[Aurigny Air Services]] (Guernsey)
*[[Albanian Airlines]] (Tirana)
*[[Blue1]] (Helsinki [ends March 30])
*[[Blue Air]] (Bucharest-Băneasa [ends 30 March] )
*[[Centralwings]] (Warsaw) [ends 29 March]
*[[Cyprus Airways]] (Larnaca, Paphos)
*[[Kıbrıs Türk Hava Yolları|Cyprus Turkish Airlines]] (Antalya, Dalaman, Gazientep, Izmir)
*[[easyJet]] (Alicante, Almeria, Asturias, Amsterdam, Barcelona, Basel/Mulhouse, Belfast-International, Bilbao, Copenhagen, Edinburgh, Faro, Funchal, Geneva, Glasgow-International, Ibiza, Ljubljana, Lyon, Málaga, Munich, Naples, Newcastle, Nice, Palma de Mallorca, Prague, Tallinn, Valencia)
*[[Eastern Airways]] (Manchester)
*[[El Al Israel Airlines]] (Tel Aviv)
*[[Eos Airlines]] (New York-JFK, Newark [begins Spring 2008])
*[[Germanwings]] (Cologne/Bonn, Stuttgart)
*[[Iceland Express]] (Reykjavík-Keflavik)
*[[Norwegian Air Shuttle]] (Oslo-Gardermoen, Oslo-Rygge, Trondheim, Tromsø, Bergen)
*[[Ryanair]] (Aarhus, Alghero, Alicante, Almeria, Altenburg, Ancona, Angouleme [begins 1 April], Balaton, Bari, Belfast-City, Bergerac, Berlin-Schönefeld, Biarritz, Billund, Bratislava, Bremen, Brescia, Brindisi, Brno, Bydgoszcz, Carcassonne, Cork, Derry, Dinard, Dublin, Dusselforf-Weeze, Eindhoven, Faro [begins 1 April], Forli, Frankfurt-Hahn, Friedrichshafen, Gdańsk, Genoa, Girona, Glasgow-Prestwick, Gothenburg-City, Granada, Graz, Grenoble, Haugesund, Jerez, Karlsruhe, Kaunas, Kerry, Klagenfurt, Knock, Kraków, La Rochelle, Limoges, Linz, Łódź, Lübeck, Maribor, Marseille, Milan-Bergamo, Montpellier, Murcia, Nantes, Newquay, Oslo-Torp, Palermo, Palma de Mallorca, Parma, Pau, Perpignan, Perugia, Pescara, Pisa, Poitiers, Porto, Poznan, Pula, Reus, Riga, Rodez, Rome-Ciampino, Rzeszów, Salzburg, Santander, Santiago de Compostela, Seville, Shannon, Stockholm-Skavsta, Stockholm-Vasteras, Szczecin, Tampere, Toulon, Tours, Trieste, Turin, Valencia, Valladolid, Venice-Treviso, Wrocław, Zadar, Zaragoza)
*[[TACV Cabo Verde Airlines]] (Praia, Sal island)
*[[transavia.com]] (Rotterdam)
*[[Turkish Airlines]] (Istanbul-Atatürk)
*[[Wizz Air]] (Katowice)

===Charter operators===
*[[Air Europa]] (Las Palmas, Tenerife-South)
*[[Air Southwest]] (Jersey)
*[[BH Air]] (Bourgas)
*[[BritishJet]] (Malta)
*[[Darwin Airline]] (Geneva)
*[[European Air Charter]] (Palma de Mallorca)
*[[First Choice Airways]] (Arrecife, Bodrum, Bourgas, Corfu, Dalaman, Faro, Fuerteventura, Heraklion, Ibiza, Kos, Larnaca, Las Palmas, Mahon, Palma de Mallorca, Paphos, Reus, Rhodes, Tenerife-South, Zakynthos)
*[[Iberworld]] (Palma de Mallorca)
*[[Israir]] (Tel Aviv)
*[[Jet2.com]] (Calvi, Lourdes, Olbia)
*[[Monarch Airlines]] (Palma de Mallorca, Zakynthos)
*[[MyTravel Airways]] (Mahon, Reus)
*[[Nouvelair]] (Monastir)
*[[Onur Air]] (Bodrum, Dalaman)
*[[Thomas Cook Airlines]] (Antalya, Arrecife, Bodrum, Corfu, Dalaman, Faro, Heraklion, Ibiza, Izmir, Kos, Larnaca, Mahon, Paphos, Palma de Mallorca, Tenerife-South, Zakynthos)
*[[Spanair]] (Palma de Mallorca)
*[[SunExpress]] (Antalya, Izmir)
*[[Thomsonfly]] (Arrecife, Corfu, Fuerteventura, Heraklion, Ibiza, Las Palmas, Mahon, Ovda-Eilat, Palma de Mallorca, Paphos)
*[[Titan Airways]] (Lourdes & Preveza)
*[[XL Airways]] (Corfu, Dalaman, Heraklion, Κos, Arrecife, Ibiza, Tenerife-South, Faro, Las Palmas, Zakynthos, Paphos)

===Cargo airlines===
*[[Air Contractors]] (Dublin, Glasgow-International, Manchester, Paris-Charles de Gaulle) Air Contractors operate [[wet leased]] flights for [[FedEx]]
*[[Asiana Airlines]] (Seoul, Amsterdam)
*[[BAC Express Airlines]] (Exeter)
*[[Coyne Airways]]
*[[FedEx Express]] (Newark, Memphis, Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Dublin, Frankfurt)
*[[Global Supply Systems]] on behalf of [[British Airways]] (Delhi, Mumbai, Atlanta, Chicago-O'Hare, Hong Kong, Frankfurt-Hahn)
*[[Jet2.com]] (Edinburgh, Newcastle)
*[[Martinair]] (San Juan, Amsterdam)
*[[Royal Jordanian Airlines]] (New York-JFK, Amman)
*[[Titan Airways]] (Belfast-International, Edinburgh, Exeter)
*[[UPS Airlines]] (Newark, Cologne/Bonn)

== History ==
=== World War II===
During [[World War II]] '''Stansted Mountfitchet Airfield''' was used by the [[Royal Air Force]] and the [[United States Army Air Force]] as a bomber airfield and as a major maintenance depot. Although the official name was Stansted Mountfitchet, the base was known as simply Stansted in both written and spoken form.

The station was first allocated to the USAAF [[Eighth Air Force]] in August 1942 as a bomber airfield. Its USAAF Station Code was 169. Later, in October Stansted was selected to be an advanced air depot for the 9th Air Force Martin B-26 Marauder medium bombers. Construction was carried out by the United States Army 817th, 825th and 850th Engineering Battalions, completing the airfield by mid-1943.

==== 344th Bombardment Group ====

Stansted was officially opened on [[7 August]] [[1943]] when the 30th Air Depot Group took up residence. The airfield was officially transferred to the [[Ninth Air Force]] on [[16 October]]

The 344th Bombardment Group arrived at Stansted on [[8 February]] [[1944]], from [[Hunter Army Airfield|Hunter AAF]], Georgia flying the twin-engine [[B-26 Marauder|Martin B-26 Marauder]]. It's operational squadrons and fuselage codes were:

* 494th Bombardment Squadron (K9)
* 495th Bombardment Squadron (Y5)
* 496th Bombardment Squadron (N3)
* 497st Bombardment Squadron (7I)
[[Image:B-26-stanst.jpg|thumb|Unidentified B-26 of the 344th Bomb Group at Stansted, 1944.]]
[[Image:B-26-43-34181-495bs-stanst.jpg|thumb|Martin B-26G-1-MA Marauder serial 43-34181 of the 495th Bomb Squadron preparing to take off at Stansted Airfield, 1944. This aircraft is the Lak-a-Nookie, piloted by Charles E. (Chuck) Mininan.]]
The 344th BG began operations in March 1944, attacking attacking airfields, missile sites, marshaling yards, submarine shelters, coastal defenses, and other targets in German-occupied [[France]], [[Belgium]], and the [[Netherlands]]. Beginning in May, the 344th helped prepare for the [[Operation Overlord|Normandy invasion]] by striking vital bridges in France.

The 344th Bombardment Group was selected to lead the IX Bomber Command formations on [[D-Day]], with the first aircraft taking off at 04:12 hours, attacking coastal batteries at [[Cherbourg]], and during the remainder of June, it supported the drive that resulted in the seizure of the [[Cotentin Peninsula]].

The unit also defended positions to assist British forces in the area of [[Caen]] and received a [[Distinguished Unit Citation]] for a three-day action against the enemy in late July when the group struck troop concentrations, supply dumps, a bridge, and a railroad viaduct to assist advancing ground forces at [[St Lo]].

Another action of the 344th was to knock out bridges to hinder the German Army's withdrawal through the [[Falaise gap]], and bombed vessels and strong points at [[Brest, France|Brest]] during August and September.

On [[30 September]] the 344th moved to their Advanced Landing Ground at Cormeilles-en-Vexin, France, France (A-59). While at Stansted the group flew over 100 missions, and lost 26 aircraft in combat.

On the continent, the 344th BG used the following Advanced Landing Grounds:

* A-59 Cormeilles-en-Vexin France 30 September 1944
* A-78 Florences/Juzaine Belgium 5 April 1945

After [[V-E Day]] the group moved to Schleissheim, [[Germany]] for occupation duty and began training with [[A-26 Invader|Douglas A-26 Invaders]], but continued to use B-26 aircraft. It was transferred, without personnel and equipment, to the United States on [[15 February]] [[1946]] where it was inactivated.

==== 2d Tactical Air Depot ====
As well as being an operational bomber base, Stansted airfield was a maintenance and supply depot, concerned with major overhauls and modification of B-26s. After D-Day, these activities were transferred to France, but the base was still used as a supply storage area for the support of aircraft on the continent.

=== Postwar RAF use ===
After the withdrawal of the Americans on [[12 August]] [[1945]], Stansted was taken over by the RAF No. 263 Maintenance Unit for storage. In addition, between March 1946 and August 1947, Stansted was used for housing German P.O.Ws.

It is interesting to note that there are still many World War II Nissen Huts in use at Stansted today, albeit for various non-military purposes.

=== Postwar use ===

After the withdrawal of the Americans on [[12 August]] [[1945]], Stansted was taken over by the RAF Maintenance Unit for storage. In addition, between March 1946 and August 1947, Stansted was used for housing German P.O.Ws. After the war, however, the base was not needed and was transferred to the Air Ministry in 1947. The US military returned in 1954 to extend the runway for a possible transfer to [[NATO]] but this was never realised and the airport ended up under [[BAA Limited|BAA]] control in 1966.

During the 60s, 70s and early 80s the Fire Service Training School (FSTS) was based on the Eastern side of the Airfield under the auspices of the Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation, now the Civil Aviation Authority. The School was responsible for the training of all Aviation Fire Crews for UK Airfields as well as for many overseas countries.

=== Commercial operations===

Beginning in 1966, after Stansted was placed under BAA control, it was used by holiday charter operators wishing to escape the higher costs associated with operating from Heathrow and Gatwick. From the outset, however, BAA and the British government planned to develop Stansted into London's third airport, to relieve Heathrow and Gatwick of excess congestion in the future. The airport's first terminal building opened in 1969 and was expanded the next year to handle the growing number of passengers.

In 1984, the government approved a plan to develop Stansted in two phases, involving both airfield and terminal improvements that would increase the airport's capacity to 15 million passengers per year. Construction of the current terminal building began in 1988 and was completed in March 1991, and was designed by the internationally acclaimed [[Sir Norman Foster]].

Long-haul scheduled services became reality in the early 1990s when [[American Airlines]] operated a transatlantic service between Stansted and Chicago. This was unprofitable and was withdrawn, however, in a similar fashion to the [[Continental Airlines]] service between Stansted and [[Newark, New Jersey]] using a Boeing 757-200, which was withdrawn shortly after beginning following [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11, 2001]]. The first long-haul scheduled service which has lasted at Stansted has been that offered by Israeli airline [[El Al Israel Airlines]] between Stansted and [[Tel Aviv]], following an excess of demand for its flights at Heathrow. This was followed by another [[Israeli|Israel]] airline, [[Israir Airlines]].

Long-haul services to the USA returned in late 2005, when [[Eos Airlines]] and [[MAXjet Airways]] commenced all business class services from Stansted to New York-JFK, with EOS using a Boeing 757-200 and MAXjet using a 767-200. In 2006, MAXjet expanded their service with flights to Washington DC and Las Vegas, and Los Angeles. [[MAXjet Airways]] ceased operations on December 24, 2007 leaving [[Eos Airlines]] and [[American Airlines]] the only long haul carriers at Stansted.

[[American Airlines]] began service to Stansted in October, 2007 to New York-JFK airport and is expected to operate a second daily flight in April 2008.

===Incidents and accidents===

* On [[31 March]] [[1998]] a chartered [[Hawker Siddeley]] HS-748 [[turbo prop]] (owned by [[Emerald Airways]]), carrying the [[Leeds United]] football team, suffered an engine explosion on take off resulting in an emergency landing and evacuation. All onboard survived due to the expertise of the flight crew and the distinct bravery of the team's assistant manager, [[David O'Leary]].<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19980401/ai_n14156544 Football: Leeds play on after flight ends in flames] by Guy Hodgson from ''The Independent'', 1 April 1998</ref>

*On the [[22 December]] [[1999]], [[Korean Air Cargo]] flight 8509, a [[Boeing 747]], crashed shortly after take off from the air field due to pilot error. The only people onboard at the time were the aircrew and all four were killed. The aircraft crashed in Hatfield Forest near the village of Great Hallingbury.

*[[February 27]] [[2002]] - [[Ryanair]] [[Boeing 737#737-800|Boeing 737-800]] aircraft operating [[Ryanair Flight 296]] from [[Dublin Airport|Dublin]] to Stansted caught fire shortly after landing. Subsequent investigations found that although the aircraft was fully evacuated within 90 seconds, the air crew struggled to open the emergency doors, and some passengers were initially evacuated towards the fire. The UK [[Air Accidents Investigation Branch]] recommended changes to training procedures for air-crew to allow better handling of similar situations in future.<ref name="ref">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aaib.dft.gov.uk/cms_resources/dft_avsafety_pdf_029538.pdf|title=Boeing 737-8AS, EI-CSA|accessdate=2007-04-05|publisher=Air Accidents Investigation Branch|format=PDF}}</ref>

* On [[February 6]] [[2000]] an [[Ariana Afghan Airlines]] [[Boeing 727]] with 156 people on board was hijacked and flown to Stansted Airport. After a four-day stand-off the hostages on board were safely freed and the incident ended peacefully. It later emerged that the motive behind the hijack was to gain asylum in the UK, sparking debate about immigration into the country. A large number of passengers on board the plane also applied for asylum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/636375.stm|title=Special report: Hijack at Stansted|accessdate=2007-04-05|publisher=BBC News|year=2000}}</ref>
:In July 2004, it was reported that a number of hijackers had won their bid for asylum in the UK, their convictions for hijacking having been quashed for misdirection of the jury in 2003.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/essex/3889107.stm|title=Afghans win right to stay in UK|accessdate=2007-04-05|publisher=BBC News|year=2004}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Location map
|Essex
|label =
|background = white
|lat = 51.88
|long = 0.24
|caption = Map showing location of London Stansted Airport in Essex
|float = right
|width = 185
}}

* [[List of RAF stations]]
* [[Ninth Air Force|USAAF Ninth Air Force - World War II]]

== References ==
* Freeman, Roger A. (1994) UK Airfields of the Ninth: Then and Now. After the Battle ISBN 0900913800
* Maurer, Maurer (1983). Air Force Combat Units Of World War II. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0892010924.
* [http://home.att.net/~jbaugher/usafserials.html] USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers--1908 to present
<references/>
* The Bishop's Stortford Herald newspaper, 26 April 2007.

==External links==
{{commonscat|London Stansted Airport}}
* [http://www.stanstedairport.com Stansted Airport]
* [http://www.stacc.info/ Stansted Airport Consultative Committee]

{{UKAirports}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Stansted Airport}}
[[Category:Airports in England]]
[[Category:Airports of the London region]]
[[Category:BAA Limited]]
[[Category:Aviation in Essex]]
[[Category:1942 establishments]]
[[Category:1991 architecture]]
[[Category:Norman Foster buildings]]
[[Category:Transport in Uttlesford]]

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[[da:Stansted]]
[[de:Flughafen London-Stansted]]
[[et:Londoni Stanstedi lennujaam]]
[[es:Aeropuerto de Londres-Stansted]]
[[eo:Flughaveno London Stansted]]
[[fa:فرودگاه استانستد لندن]]
[[fr:Aéroport de Londres Stansted]]
[[id:Bandar Udara London Stansted]]
[[it:Aeroporto di Londra-Stansted]]
[[lmo:London Stansted Airport]]
[[nl:Luchthaven Londen Stansted]]
[[ja:ロンドン・スタンステッド空港]]
[[no:London Stansted lufthavn]]
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[[pl:Port lotniczy Londyn-Stansted]]
[[ru:Станстед]]
[[sk:London Stansted]]
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[[th:ท่าอากาศยานลอนดอนสแตนสเต็ด]]
[[zh:坦斯特德機場]]

London Stansted Airport

2008-01-23T17:46:27Z

85.18.14.7: /* Coaches */

{{Infobox Airport
| name = London Stansted Airport
| nativename =
| nativename-a =
| nativename-r =
[[Image:BAA Stansted logo.gif|165px]]
| image = London Stansted Airport.jpg
| image-width =
| caption =
| IATA = STN
| ICAO = EGSS
| type = Public
| owner-oper = [[BAA Limited|BAA]]
| city-served = [[London]]
| location = [[Uttlesford]]
| elevation-f = 348
| elevation-m = 106
| coordinates = {{Coord|51|53|06|N|000|14|06|E|display=inline|type:airport}}
| website = [http://www.stanstedairport.com/ www.stanstedairport.com]
| metric-rwy = yes
| r1-number = 05/23
| r1-length-f = 10,000
| r1-length-m = 3,048
| r1-surface = [[Grooved Asphalt]]
| stat-year = 2006
| stat1-header = Aircraft Movements
| stat1-data = 206,693
| stat2-header = Passengers
| stat2-data = 23,687,013
| footnotes = Source: [[United Kingdom]] [[Aeronautical Information Publication|AIP]] <ref>[http://www.ais.org.uk/ UK Aeronautical Information Service]</ref>
Statistics from the UK CAA<ref name="stats">[http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data/2006Annual/Table_03_1_Aircraft_Movements_2006.csv Aircraft Movements], [http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data/2006Annual/Table_08_Air_Passengers_by_Type_and_Nat_of_Operator_2006.csv Air Passengers by Type and Nationality of Operator]</ref>
}}

'''London Stansted Airport''' {{Airport codes|STN|EGSS}} is a large passenger [[airport]] with a single runway and hub for a number of major European low-cost airlines. It is located in the [[Uttlesford]] District of the [[England|English]] [[county]] of [[Essex]] about 30 miles (48 km) north-east of [[London]]. It is about {{convert|2|mi|km|0}} outside [[Bishop's Stortford]] and {{convert|6|mi|km|0}} outside [[Harlow]]. It is the third largest airport serving the London area after [[London Heathrow Airport|Heathrow]] and [[London Gatwick Airport|Gatwick]]; and is one of London's five international airports along with [[London Luton Airport|Luton]] and [[London City Airport]]s.

== Overview==
[[Image:Wfm stansted.jpg|thumb|The Interior of Stansted Airport]]

Stansted Airport has one terminal. There are three satellites, two connected to the main terminal by an air - bridge and the other one by a transit system. The terminal facilities include a ''[[bureau de change]]'', left luggage service, several shops and restaurants as well as internet access. Car hire and taxis can also be arranged from within the terminal building. The terminal building was designed by [[Foster and Partners|Foster Associates]] and features a "floating" roof, supported by a [[space frame]] of inverted-pyramid roof trusses, creating the impression of a stylised swan in flight. The base of each truss structure is a "utility pillar", which provides indirect uplighting illumination and is the location for [[air-conditioning]] and water, telecommunications, and electrical outlets. The layout of the airport is designed to provide an unobstructed flow for passengers to arrive at the short-stay car park, move through the check-in hall, go through security, and on to the departure gates all on the same level. However, the airport has never catered for spectators or those wishing to watch friends depart because of the current security restrictions put in place by the Government.

In the last ten years Stansted has seen a rapid expansion of passenger numbers: Having 12 million passengers in 2000, the number of passengers using Stansted in 2004 was 20.9 million which rose by 5.3% to 21.9 million in 2005. [http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data_prov/200512/December_2005_Provisional_Airport_Statistics.pdf]

==Ground transportation==

===Trains===
[[Image:stnstn.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Stansted Airport train station linking London, Cambridge, Peterborough, Leicester and Birmingham with the Airport.]]
Stansted has a [[Stansted Airport railway station|railway station]] below the terminal building, with rail services to [[Cambridge]], [[Leicester]] and the [[Midlands]] every 60 minutes operated by [[CrossCountry]]. The [[Stansted Express]] train runs to and from [[Liverpool Street station]] in [[London]] every 15 minutes and the journey time is 45 minutes.

===Coaches===
Scheduled express bus or coach services run to and from [[Stratford, London|Stratford]], [[Victoria Coach Station]], [[Liverpool Street Station]] and [[Golders Green]] (all in London), costing half as much as the train but taking rather longer (ca. 80 - 130 minutes). The bus/coach station is adjacent to the terminal building. [[National Express]] runs scheduled but infrequent direct coach services to the airport from [[Oxford]] as service JL737, taking about three hours, and hourly services to and from [[Cambridge]]. [[easyBus]] provides journeys between the airport and Baker Street, Central London.[[Terravision]]runs scheduled direct coach services from/to the airport.

===Roads===
Stansted is connected to northeast London and Cambridge by the [[M11 motorway]] and to [[Colchester]] and [[Harwich]] by the A120 dual-carriageway. The access from the motorway has recently been improved with a new grade-separated junction. The long term car park is situated about a mile from the terminal and passengers need to allow at least twenty minutes to park and use a courtesy bus shuttle service prior to check-in. There are short term car parks next to the terminal building.

==Proposed expansion==
[[Image:stansted-front-02.jpg|thumb|The lawn in front of Stansted Airport, which has now been paved]]
The airport capacity is limited to a maximum throughput of 25 million passengers per annum (25mppa) in accordance with recommendations made by the public inquiry in 1984 and confirmed by the Government of the day. In November 2006 [[Uttlesford]] district council rejected a [[BAA Limited]] (BAA) planning application to increase the permitted number of aircraft movements and to remove the limit on passenger numbers. Rejection was on a number of grounds. BAA immediately appealed against the decision and a public inquiry considered this from May to October 2007. Planning Inspector Alan Boyland is expected to make his recommendation by the end of 2007. This will be considered by two Government ministers who will take the final decision. They are the Secretary of State for Transport (Ruth Kelly) and the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government (Hazel Blears).

BAA has indicated that it will seek permission to build a second runway, in line with a recommendation in the [[Future of air transport in the United Kingdom|2003 Air Transport White Paper]]. A planning application is expected to be made in 2007. This would be the subject of another public inquiry. A second runway would allow Stansted to handle more passengers than Heathrow does today.

In April 2007, a major expansion program to the existing terminal began. Works to add nearly 6000 square metres of floorspace are underway and are designed to give space for additional baggage carousels, a new immigration and passport control hall and a [[hypostyle]] arrivals hall with improved facilities.

==Stop Stansted Expansion==
Stop Stansted Expansion [SSE] is a campaign group opposed to the expansion of Stansted Airport. Its objective is: "To contain the development of Stansted Airport within tight limits that are truly [[sustainability|sustainable]] and, in this way, to protect the [[quality of life]] of residents over wide areas of [[Essex]], [[Hertfordshire]] and [[Suffolk]], to preserve our [[cultural heritage|heritage]] and to protect the [[natural environment]]." The campaign group is well organised with over 6,000 individual members and the support of more than 100 local authorities and other organisations. SSE has been fighting airport expansion by legal means and constructive argument since 2002, when a Department for Transport consultation suggested that Stansted could expand to up to 4 runways. In 2004/2005, SSE mounted a High Court challenge to the government [[White Paper]] on aviation transport policy and, although it did not manage to overturn the paper, the judge deemed that the wide-spaced runway option presented as the preferred option in the document was "a bridge too far" and a matter that should be decided through the normal planning procedures.

==Airlines and destinations==
[[Image:London Stansted Airport - England.JPG|thumb|300px|View of the apron at Stansted Airport. Channel Express (now Jet2.com), Air Berlin, and TUI jets can be seen]]
===Scheduled service===
*[[Air Berlin]] (Berlin-Tegel, Düsseldorf, Hanover, Munich, Münster/Osnabrück, Nürnberg, Paderborn/Lippstadt)
*[[Air Malta]] (Malta)
*[[Air Moldova]] (Chisinau)
*[[American Airlines]] (New York-JFK)
*[[Atlantic Airways]] (Shetland Islands, Faroe Islands)
*[[Aurigny Air Services]] (Guernsey)
*[[Albanian Airlines]] (Tirana)
*[[Blue1]] (Helsinki [ends March 30])
*[[Blue Air]] (Bucharest-Băneasa [ends 30 March] )
*[[Centralwings]] (Warsaw) [ends 29 March]
*[[Cyprus Airways]] (Larnaca, Paphos)
*[[Kıbrıs Türk Hava Yolları|Cyprus Turkish Airlines]] (Antalya, Dalaman, Gazientep, Izmir)
*[[easyJet]] (Alicante, Almeria, Asturias, Amsterdam, Barcelona, Basel/Mulhouse, Belfast-International, Bilbao, Copenhagen, Edinburgh, Faro, Funchal, Geneva, Glasgow-International, Ibiza, Ljubljana, Lyon, Málaga, Munich, Naples, Newcastle, Nice, Palma de Mallorca, Prague, Tallinn, Valencia)
*[[Eastern Airways]] (Manchester)
*[[El Al Israel Airlines]] (Tel Aviv)
*[[Eos Airlines]] (New York-JFK, Newark [begins Spring 2008])
*[[Germanwings]] (Cologne/Bonn, Stuttgart)
*[[Iceland Express]] (Reykjavík-Keflavik)
*[[Norwegian Air Shuttle]] (Oslo-Gardermoen, Oslo-Rygge, Trondheim, Tromsø, Bergen)
*[[Ryanair]] (Aarhus, Alghero, Alicante, Almeria, Altenburg, Ancona, Angouleme [begins 1 April], Balaton, Bari, Belfast-City, Bergerac, Berlin-Schönefeld, Biarritz, Billund, Bratislava, Bremen, Brescia, Brindisi, Brno, Bydgoszcz, Carcassonne, Cork, Derry, Dinard, Dublin, Dusselforf-Weeze, Eindhoven, Faro [begins 1 April], Forli, Frankfurt-Hahn, Friedrichshafen, Gdańsk, Genoa, Girona, Glasgow-Prestwick, Gothenburg-City, Granada, Graz, Grenoble, Haugesund, Jerez, Karlsruhe, Kaunas, Kerry, Klagenfurt, Knock, Kraków, La Rochelle, Limoges, Linz, Łódź, Lübeck, Maribor, Marseille, Milan-Bergamo, Montpellier, Murcia, Nantes, Newquay, Oslo-Torp, Palermo, Palma de Mallorca, Parma, Pau, Perpignan, Perugia, Pescara, Pisa, Poitiers, Porto, Poznan, Pula, Reus, Riga, Rodez, Rome-Ciampino, Rzeszów, Salzburg, Santander, Santiago de Compostela, Seville, Shannon, Stockholm-Skavsta, Stockholm-Vasteras, Szczecin, Tampere, Toulon, Tours, Trieste, Turin, Valencia, Valladolid, Venice-Treviso, Wrocław, Zadar, Zaragoza)
*[[TACV Cabo Verde Airlines]] (Praia, Sal island)
*[[transavia.com]] (Rotterdam)
*[[Turkish Airlines]] (Istanbul-Atatürk)
*[[Wizz Air]] (Katowice)

===Charter operators===
*[[Air Europa]] (Las Palmas, Tenerife-South)
*[[Air Southwest]] (Jersey)
*[[BH Air]] (Bourgas)
*[[BritishJet]] (Malta)
*[[Darwin Airline]] (Geneva)
*[[European Air Charter]] (Palma de Mallorca)
*[[First Choice Airways]] (Arrecife, Bodrum, Bourgas, Corfu, Dalaman, Faro, Fuerteventura, Heraklion, Ibiza, Kos, Larnaca, Las Palmas, Mahon, Palma de Mallorca, Paphos, Reus, Rhodes, Tenerife-South, Zakynthos)
*[[Iberworld]] (Palma de Mallorca)
*[[Israir]] (Tel Aviv)
*[[Jet2.com]] (Calvi, Lourdes, Olbia)
*[[Monarch Airlines]] (Palma de Mallorca, Zakynthos)
*[[MyTravel Airways]] (Mahon, Reus)
*[[Nouvelair]] (Monastir)
*[[Onur Air]] (Bodrum, Dalaman)
*[[Thomas Cook Airlines]] (Antalya, Arrecife, Bodrum, Corfu, Dalaman, Faro, Heraklion, Ibiza, Izmir, Kos, Larnaca, Mahon, Paphos, Palma de Mallorca, Tenerife-South, Zakynthos)
*[[Spanair]] (Palma de Mallorca)
*[[SunExpress]] (Antalya, Izmir)
*[[Thomsonfly]] (Arrecife, Corfu, Fuerteventura, Heraklion, Ibiza, Las Palmas, Mahon, Ovda-Eilat, Palma de Mallorca, Paphos)
*[[Titan Airways]] (Lourdes & Preveza)
*[[XL Airways]] (Corfu, Dalaman, Heraklion, Κos, Arrecife, Ibiza, Tenerife-South, Faro, Las Palmas, Zakynthos, Paphos)

===Cargo airlines===
*[[Air Contractors]] (Dublin, Glasgow-International, Manchester, Paris-Charles de Gaulle) Air Contractors operate [[wet leased]] flights for [[FedEx]]
*[[Asiana Airlines]] (Seoul, Amsterdam)
*[[BAC Express Airlines]] (Exeter)
*[[Coyne Airways]]
*[[FedEx Express]] (Newark, Memphis, Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Dublin, Frankfurt)
*[[Global Supply Systems]] on behalf of [[British Airways]] (Delhi, Mumbai, Atlanta, Chicago-O'Hare, Hong Kong, Frankfurt-Hahn)
*[[Jet2.com]] (Edinburgh, Newcastle)
*[[Martinair]] (San Juan, Amsterdam)
*[[Royal Jordanian Airlines]] (New York-JFK, Amman)
*[[Titan Airways]] (Belfast-International, Edinburgh, Exeter)
*[[UPS Airlines]] (Newark, Cologne/Bonn)

== History ==
=== World War II===
During [[World War II]] '''Stansted Mountfitchet Airfield''' was used by the [[Royal Air Force]] and the [[United States Army Air Force]] as a bomber airfield and as a major maintenance depot. Although the official name was Stansted Mountfitchet, the base was known as simply Stansted in both written and spoken form.

The station was first allocated to the USAAF [[Eighth Air Force]] in August 1942 as a bomber airfield. Its USAAF Station Code was 169. Later, in October Stansted was selected to be an advanced air depot for the 9th Air Force Martin B-26 Marauder medium bombers. Construction was carried out by the United States Army 817th, 825th and 850th Engineering Battalions, completing the airfield by mid-1943.

==== 344th Bombardment Group ====

Stansted was officially opened on [[7 August]] [[1943]] when the 30th Air Depot Group took up residence. The airfield was officially transferred to the [[Ninth Air Force]] on [[16 October]]

The 344th Bombardment Group arrived at Stansted on [[8 February]] [[1944]], from [[Hunter Army Airfield|Hunter AAF]], Georgia flying the twin-engine [[B-26 Marauder|Martin B-26 Marauder]]. It's operational squadrons and fuselage codes were:

* 494th Bombardment Squadron (K9)
* 495th Bombardment Squadron (Y5)
* 496th Bombardment Squadron (N3)
* 497st Bombardment Squadron (7I)
[[Image:B-26-stanst.jpg|thumb|Unidentified B-26 of the 344th Bomb Group at Stansted, 1944.]]
[[Image:B-26-43-34181-495bs-stanst.jpg|thumb|Martin B-26G-1-MA Marauder serial 43-34181 of the 495th Bomb Squadron preparing to take off at Stansted Airfield, 1944. This aircraft is the Lak-a-Nookie, piloted by Charles E. (Chuck) Mininan.]]
The 344th BG began operations in March 1944, attacking attacking airfields, missile sites, marshaling yards, submarine shelters, coastal defenses, and other targets in German-occupied [[France]], [[Belgium]], and the [[Netherlands]]. Beginning in May, the 344th helped prepare for the [[Operation Overlord|Normandy invasion]] by striking vital bridges in France.

The 344th Bombardment Group was selected to lead the IX Bomber Command formations on [[D-Day]], with the first aircraft taking off at 04:12 hours, attacking coastal batteries at [[Cherbourg]], and during the remainder of June, it supported the drive that resulted in the seizure of the [[Cotentin Peninsula]].

The unit also defended positions to assist British forces in the area of [[Caen]] and received a [[Distinguished Unit Citation]] for a three-day action against the enemy in late July when the group struck troop concentrations, supply dumps, a bridge, and a railroad viaduct to assist advancing ground forces at [[St Lo]].

Another action of the 344th was to knock out bridges to hinder the German Army's withdrawal through the [[Falaise gap]], and bombed vessels and strong points at [[Brest, France|Brest]] during August and September.

On [[30 September]] the 344th moved to their Advanced Landing Ground at Cormeilles-en-Vexin, France, France (A-59). While at Stansted the group flew over 100 missions, and lost 26 aircraft in combat.

On the continent, the 344th BG used the following Advanced Landing Grounds:

* A-59 Cormeilles-en-Vexin France 30 September 1944
* A-78 Florences/Juzaine Belgium 5 April 1945

After [[V-E Day]] the group moved to Schleissheim, [[Germany]] for occupation duty and began training with [[A-26 Invader|Douglas A-26 Invaders]], but continued to use B-26 aircraft. It was transferred, without personnel and equipment, to the United States on [[15 February]] [[1946]] where it was inactivated.

==== 2d Tactical Air Depot ====
As well as being an operational bomber base, Stansted airfield was a maintenance and supply depot, concerned with major overhauls and modification of B-26s. After D-Day, these activities were transferred to France, but the base was still used as a supply storage area for the support of aircraft on the continent.

=== Postwar RAF use ===
After the withdrawal of the Americans on [[12 August]] [[1945]], Stansted was taken over by the RAF No. 263 Maintenance Unit for storage. In addition, between March 1946 and August 1947, Stansted was used for housing German P.O.Ws.

It is interesting to note that there are still many World War II Nissen Huts in use at Stansted today, albeit for various non-military purposes.

=== Postwar use ===

After the withdrawal of the Americans on [[12 August]] [[1945]], Stansted was taken over by the RAF Maintenance Unit for storage. In addition, between March 1946 and August 1947, Stansted was used for housing German P.O.Ws. After the war, however, the base was not needed and was transferred to the Air Ministry in 1947. The US military returned in 1954 to extend the runway for a possible transfer to [[NATO]] but this was never realised and the airport ended up under [[BAA Limited|BAA]] control in 1966.

During the 60s, 70s and early 80s the Fire Service Training School (FSTS) was based on the Eastern side of the Airfield under the auspices of the Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation, now the Civil Aviation Authority. The School was responsible for the training of all Aviation Fire Crews for UK Airfields as well as for many overseas countries.

=== Commercial operations===

Beginning in 1966, after Stansted was placed under BAA control, it was used by holiday charter operators wishing to escape the higher costs associated with operating from Heathrow and Gatwick. From the outset, however, BAA and the British government planned to develop Stansted into London's third airport, to relieve Heathrow and Gatwick of excess congestion in the future. The airport's first terminal building opened in 1969 and was expanded the next year to handle the growing number of passengers.

In 1984, the government approved a plan to develop Stansted in two phases, involving both airfield and terminal improvements that would increase the airport's capacity to 15 million passengers per year. Construction of the current terminal building began in 1988 and was completed in March 1991, and was designed by the internationally acclaimed [[Sir Norman Foster]].

Long-haul scheduled services became reality in the early 1990s when [[American Airlines]] operated a transatlantic service between Stansted and Chicago. This was unprofitable and was withdrawn, however, in a similar fashion to the [[Continental Airlines]] service between Stansted and [[Newark, New Jersey]] using a Boeing 757-200, which was withdrawn shortly after beginning following [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11, 2001]]. The first long-haul scheduled service which has lasted at Stansted has been that offered by Israeli airline [[El Al Israel Airlines]] between Stansted and [[Tel Aviv]], following an excess of demand for its flights at Heathrow. This was followed by another [[Israeli|Israel]] airline, [[Israir Airlines]].

Long-haul services to the USA returned in late 2005, when [[Eos Airlines]] and [[MAXjet Airways]] commenced all business class services from Stansted to New York-JFK, with EOS using a Boeing 757-200 and MAXjet using a 767-200. In 2006, MAXjet expanded their service with flights to Washington DC and Las Vegas, and Los Angeles. [[MAXjet Airways]] ceased operations on December 24, 2007 leaving [[Eos Airlines]] and [[American Airlines]] the only long haul carriers at Stansted.

[[American Airlines]] began service to Stansted in October, 2007 to New York-JFK airport and is expected to operate a second daily flight in April 2008.

===Incidents and accidents===

* On [[31 March]] [[1998]] a chartered [[Hawker Siddeley]] HS-748 [[turbo prop]] (owned by [[Emerald Airways]]), carrying the [[Leeds United]] football team, suffered an engine explosion on take off resulting in an emergency landing and evacuation. All onboard survived due to the expertise of the flight crew and the distinct bravery of the team's assistant manager, [[David O'Leary]].<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19980401/ai_n14156544 Football: Leeds play on after flight ends in flames] by Guy Hodgson from ''The Independent'', 1 April 1998</ref>

*On the [[22 December]] [[1999]], [[Korean Air Cargo]] flight 8509, a [[Boeing 747]], crashed shortly after take off from the air field due to pilot error. The only people onboard at the time were the aircrew and all four were killed. The aircraft crashed in Hatfield Forest near the village of Great Hallingbury.

*[[February 27]] [[2002]] - [[Ryanair]] [[Boeing 737#737-800|Boeing 737-800]] aircraft operating [[Ryanair Flight 296]] from [[Dublin Airport|Dublin]] to Stansted caught fire shortly after landing. Subsequent investigations found that although the aircraft was fully evacuated within 90 seconds, the air crew struggled to open the emergency doors, and some passengers were initially evacuated towards the fire. The UK [[Air Accidents Investigation Branch]] recommended changes to training procedures for air-crew to allow better handling of similar situations in future.<ref name="ref">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aaib.dft.gov.uk/cms_resources/dft_avsafety_pdf_029538.pdf|title=Boeing 737-8AS, EI-CSA|accessdate=2007-04-05|publisher=Air Accidents Investigation Branch|format=PDF}}</ref>

* On [[February 6]] [[2000]] an [[Ariana Afghan Airlines]] [[Boeing 727]] with 156 people on board was hijacked and flown to Stansted Airport. After a four-day stand-off the hostages on board were safely freed and the incident ended peacefully. It later emerged that the motive behind the hijack was to gain asylum in the UK, sparking debate about immigration into the country. A large number of passengers on board the plane also applied for asylum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/636375.stm|title=Special report: Hijack at Stansted|accessdate=2007-04-05|publisher=BBC News|year=2000}}</ref>
:In July 2004, it was reported that a number of hijackers had won their bid for asylum in the UK, their convictions for hijacking having been quashed for misdirection of the jury in 2003.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/essex/3889107.stm|title=Afghans win right to stay in UK|accessdate=2007-04-05|publisher=BBC News|year=2004}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Location map
|Essex
|label =
|background = white
|lat = 51.88
|long = 0.24
|caption = Map showing location of London Stansted Airport in Essex
|float = right
|width = 185
}}

* [[List of RAF stations]]
* [[Ninth Air Force|USAAF Ninth Air Force - World War II]]

== References ==
* Freeman, Roger A. (1994) UK Airfields of the Ninth: Then and Now. After the Battle ISBN 0900913800
* Maurer, Maurer (1983). Air Force Combat Units Of World War II. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0892010924.
* [http://home.att.net/~jbaugher/usafserials.html] USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers--1908 to present
<references/>
* The Bishop's Stortford Herald newspaper, 26 April 2007.

==External links==
{{commonscat|London Stansted Airport}}
* [http://www.stanstedairport.com Stansted Airport]
* [http://www.stacc.info/ Stansted Airport Consultative Committee]

{{UKAirports}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Stansted Airport}}
[[Category:Airports in England]]
[[Category:Airports of the London region]]
[[Category:BAA Limited]]
[[Category:Aviation in Essex]]
[[Category:1942 establishments]]
[[Category:1991 architecture]]
[[Category:Norman Foster buildings]]
[[Category:Transport in Uttlesford]]

[[cs:Letiště London Stansted]]
[[da:Stansted]]
[[de:Flughafen London-Stansted]]
[[et:Londoni Stanstedi lennujaam]]
[[es:Aeropuerto de Londres-Stansted]]
[[eo:Flughaveno London Stansted]]
[[fa:فرودگاه استانستد لندن]]
[[fr:Aéroport de Londres Stansted]]
[[id:Bandar Udara London Stansted]]
[[it:Aeroporto di Londra-Stansted]]
[[lmo:London Stansted Airport]]
[[nl:Luchthaven Londen Stansted]]
[[ja:ロンドン・スタンステッド空港]]
[[no:London Stansted lufthavn]]
[[pms:London Stansted Airport]]
[[pl:Port lotniczy Londyn-Stansted]]
[[ru:Станстед]]
[[sk:London Stansted]]
[[fi:Stanstedin lentoasema]]
[[sv:London Stansted Airport]]
[[th:ท่าอากาศยานลอนดอนสแตนสเต็ด]]
[[zh:坦斯特德機場]]

Corrado Grabbi

2008-01-06T17:28:05Z

85.18.14.7:

{{Football player infobox
| playername = Corrado Grabbi
| image = [[Image:http://bp3.blogger.com/_q82ZolHN1Ak/Rg_RctgkMFI/AAAAAAAAACk/u_tTPPqYshw/s1600-h/grabbi3.jpg]]
| fullname = Corrado Grabbi
| height = {{height|ft=5|in=10}}
| nickname = Ciccio
| dateofbirth = {{birth date and age|1975|07|29}}
| cityofbirth = [[Turin]]
| countryofbirth = [[Italy]]
| currentclub = [[AC Bellinzona]]
| clubnumber = 12
| position = [[Striker]]
| youthyears =
| youthclubs =
| years = 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995 1995-1996 1996-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002 2002-2004 2004 2004-2005 2005-2007 2007 2007-
| clubs = [[Sparta Novara]] [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]] [[A.S. Lucchese|Lucchese]] [[A.C. Chievo Verona|Chievo]] [[Modena F.C.|Modena]] [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]] [[Ravenna Calcio|Ravenna]] [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]] [[Blackburn Rovers|Blackburn]] → [[F.C. Messina|Messina]] ''(loan)'' [[Blackburn Rovers|Blackburn]] [[A.C. Ancona|Ancona]] [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]] [[Genoa C.F.C.|Genoa]] [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]] [[AC Bellinzona|Bellinzona]]
| caps(goals) = 31 (8) 2 (1) 8 (1) 18 (2) 58 (30) 14 (2) 29 (13) 34 (20) 14 (1) 12 (4) 16 (1) 7 (0) 13 (1) 25 (8) 7 (0) 1 (0) 
| pcupdate = 28 October 2007

}}
'''Corrado Grabbi''' also credited as '''Ciccio Grabbi'''(born on [[July 29]], [[1975]] in [[Turin]]) is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] player. He plays as a [[striker]].

Grabbi began his career with [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]], scoring once, against Lazio, in two appearances in the 1994-1995 season. Unable to break into the team, he moved to [[A.S. Lucchese-Libertas|Lucchese]] (76 games, 88 goals) and then [[A.C. ChievoVerona|Chievo]] (18 games, 2 goals) before switching to [[Modena F.C.|Modena]]. There he found some real form, scoring 88 times in 70 appearances. This performance saw him signed by [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]]. It was in Terni that he was again a regular scorer, with 91 goals in 84 games and became idol for the local supporters, who still remember him as the best player to ever have played for
Ternana.

His brilliant season with Ternana saw him attract attention of various Serie A clubs, including Udinese and AC Milan. But apparently [[Luciano Moggi|Luciano Moggi ]] of Juventus, who had previously pressured Grabbi to change his agent and join GEA with no success, made it impossible for Ciccio to play in Italy, so in 2001 he was signed by [[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]] for a record fee of £6.75 million in July [[2001-02 in English football|2001]], but, due to injuries and bad luck he failed to repeat this progress, scoring just once in fourteen games. A loan spell back in Italy with [[F.C. Messina Peloro|Messina]] where he scored 2 goals in the final game and saved Messina from relegation, failed to reignite his form, and after a further 16 games with Blackburn,who had meantime bought Yorke and Cole, he was allowed to return to Italy permanently with [[A.C. Ancona|Ancona]] in 2004. After spending 1 year without a team, he joined [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club|Genoa]] of [[Serie C|Serie C1/A]] in September [[2005]]. With his new team, he gained promotion to Serie B on playoffs scoring 9 fatal goals. Before the return playoff final, Grabbi announced he was considering retiring from football, because of his physical conditions, but later he declared he was persuaded to go on by the Genoa supporters and fellow players, as well as club president [[Enrico Preziosi]]. Preziosi though decided then that Genoa did not need Grabbi anymore, so during the 2007 winter transfer window, Grabbi signed for [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]], still in [[Serie B]], after having never made a single appearance in the first half of the season for Genoa. After relegation with Arezzo, scoring no goals, Grabbi signed a contract with [[AC Bellinzona]], a team from the [[Swiss Challenge League]] (second division). Ciccio scored the winning goal (his first after more than 1 year) in the Swiss Cup game Bellinzona-Gossau: 2-1[http://corradograbbi.blogspot.com/2007/12/grabbi-goal.html].
==Websites==
*http://www.acbellinzona.ch
*http://corradograbbi.blogspot.com/

{{AC Bellinzona squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Grabbi, Corrado}}

[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Italian footballers]]
[[Category:Juventus F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.S. Lucchese-Libertas players]]
[[Category:A.C. ChievoVerona players]]
[[Category:Modena F.C. players]]
[[Category:Ternana Calcio players]]
[[Category:Blackburn Rovers F.C. players]]
[[Category:F.C. Messina Peloro players]]
[[Category:A.C. Ancona players]]
[[Category:Genoa C.F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.C. Arezzo players]]
[[Category:Premier League players]]

{{Italy-footy-striker-stub}}

[[it:Corrado Grabbi]]

Corrado Grabbi

2008-01-06T17:13:25Z

85.18.14.7:

{{Football player infobox
| playername = Corrado Grabbi
| image =
| fullname = Corrado Grabbi
| height = {{height|ft=5|in=10}}
| nickname = Ciccio & Francesco Grabbi
| dateofbirth = {{birth date and age|1975|07|29}}
| cityofbirth = [[Turin]]
| countryofbirth = [[Italy]]
| currentclub = [[AC Bellinzona]]
| clubnumber = 12
| position = [[Striker]]
| youthyears =
| youthclubs =
| years = 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995 1995-1996 1996-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002 2002-2004 2004 2004-2005 2005-2007 2007 2007-
| clubs = [[Sparta Novara]] [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]] [[A.S. Lucchese|Lucchese]] [[A.C. Chievo Verona|Chievo]] [[Modena F.C.|Modena]] [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]] [[Ravenna Calcio|Ravenna]] [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]] [[Blackburn Rovers|Blackburn]] → [[F.C. Messina|Messina]] ''(loan)'' [[Blackburn Rovers|Blackburn]] [[A.C. Ancona|Ancona]] [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]] [[Genoa C.F.C.|Genoa]] [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]] [[AC Bellinzona|Bellinzona]]
| caps(goals) = 31 (8) 2 (1) 8 (1) 18 (2) 58 (30) 14 (2) 29 (13) 34 (20) 14 (1) 12 (4) 16 (1) 7 (0) 13 (1) 25 (8) 7 (0) 1 (0) 
| pcupdate = 28 October 2007

}}
'''Corrado Grabbi''' also credited as '''Ciccio Grabbi''' and '''Francesco Grabbi''' (born on [[July 29]], [[1975]] in [[Turin]]) is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] player. He plays as a [[striker]].

Grabbi began his career with [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]], scoring once in two appearances in the 1994-1995 season. Unable to break into the team, he moved to [[A.S. Lucchese-Libertas|Lucchese]] (76 games, 88 goals) and then [[A.C. ChievoVerona|Chievo]] (18 games, 2 goals) before switching to [[Modena F.C.|Modena]]. There he found some real form, scoring 88 times in 70 appearances. This performance saw him signed by [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]]. There he was again a regular scorer, with 91 goals in 84 games.

This saw him signed by [[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]] for a fee of £6.75 million in July [[2001-02 in English football|2001]], but he failed to repeat this progress, scoring just once in fourteen games. A loan spell back in Italy with [[F.C. Messina Peloro|Messina]] failed to reignite his form, and after a further 16 games, he was allowed to return to Italy permanently with [[A.C. Ancona|Ancona]] in 2004. After playing once again with Ternana, he joined [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club|Genoa]] of [[Serie C|Serie C1/A]] in September [[2005]]. With his new team, he gained promotion to Serie B on playoffs. Before the return playoff final, Grabbi announced he was considering retiring from football, because of his physical conditions, but later he declared he was persuaded to go on by the Genoa supporters and fellow players, as well as club president [[Enrico Preziosi]].

During the 2007 winter transfer window, Grabbi signed for [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]], still in [[Serie B]], after having never made a single appearance in the first half of the season for Genoa. After relegation with Arezzo, scoring no goals, Grabbi signed a contract with [[AC Bellinzona]], a team from the [[Swiss Challenge League]] (second division). Ciccio scored the winning goal (his first after more than 1 year) in the Swiss Cup game Bellinzona-Gossau: 2-1[http://corradograbbi.blogspot.com/2007/12/grabbi-goal.html].
==Websites==
*http://www.acbellinzona.ch
*http://corradograbbi.blogspot.com/

{{AC Bellinzona squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Grabbi, Corrado}}

[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Italian footballers]]
[[Category:Juventus F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.S. Lucchese-Libertas players]]
[[Category:A.C. ChievoVerona players]]
[[Category:Modena F.C. players]]
[[Category:Ternana Calcio players]]
[[Category:Blackburn Rovers F.C. players]]
[[Category:F.C. Messina Peloro players]]
[[Category:A.C. Ancona players]]
[[Category:Genoa C.F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.C. Arezzo players]]
[[Category:Premier League players]]

{{Italy-footy-striker-stub}}

[[it:Corrado Grabbi]]

Corrado Grabbi

2008-01-06T17:11:32Z

85.18.14.7: latest news about grabbi

{{Football player infobox
| playername = Corrado Grabbi
| image =
| fullname = Corrado Grabbi
| height = {{height|ft=5|in=10}}
| nickname = Ciccio & Francesco Grabbi
| dateofbirth = {{birth date and age|1975|07|29}}
| cityofbirth = [[Turin]]
| countryofbirth = [[Italy]]
| currentclub = [[AC Bellinzona]]
| clubnumber = 12
| position = [[Striker]]
| youthyears =
| youthclubs =
| years = 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995 1995-1996 1996-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002 2002-2004 2004 2004-2005 2005-2007 2007 2007-
| clubs = [[Sparta Novara]] [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]] [[A.S. Lucchese|Lucchese]] [[A.C. Chievo Verona|Chievo]] [[Modena F.C.|Modena]] [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]] [[Ravenna Calcio|Ravenna]] [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]] [[Blackburn Rovers|Blackburn]] → [[F.C. Messina|Messina]] ''(loan)'' [[Blackburn Rovers|Blackburn]] [[A.C. Ancona|Ancona]] [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]] [[Genoa C.F.C.|Genoa]] [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]] [[AC Bellinzona|Bellinzona]]
| caps(goals) = 31 (8) 2 (1) 8 (1) 18 (2) 58 (30) 14 (2) 29 (13) 34 (20) 14 (1) 12 (4) 16 (1) 7 (0) 13 (1) 25 (8) 7 (0) 1 (0) 
| pcupdate = 28 October 2007

}}
'''Corrado Grabbi''' also credited as '''Ciccio Grabbi''' and '''Francesco Grabbi''' (born on [[July 29]], [[1975]] in [[Turin]]) is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] player. He plays as a [[striker]].

Grabbi began his career with [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]], scoring once in two appearances in the 1994-1995 season. Unable to break into the team, he moved to [[A.S. Lucchese-Libertas|Lucchese]] (76 games, 88 goals) and then [[A.C. ChievoVerona|Chievo]] (18 games, 2 goals) before switching to [[Modena F.C.|Modena]]. There he found some real form, scoring 88 times in 70 appearances. This performance saw him signed by [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]]. There he was again a regular scorer, with 91 goals in 84 games.

This saw him signed by [[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]] for a fee of £6.75 million in July [[2001-02 in English football|2001]], but he failed to repeat this progress, scoring just once in fourteen games. A loan spell back in Italy with [[F.C. Messina Peloro|Messina]] failed to reignite his form, and after a further 16 games, he was allowed to return to Italy permanently with [[A.C. Ancona|Ancona]] in 2004. After playing once again with Ternana, he joined [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club|Genoa]] of [[Serie C|Serie C1/A]] in September [[2005]]. With his new team, he gained promotion to Serie B on playoffs. Before the return playoff final, Grabbi announced he was considering retiring from football, because of his physical conditions, but later he declared he was persuaded to go on by the Genoa supporters and fellow players, as well as club president [[Enrico Preziosi]].

During the 2007 winter transfer window, Grabbi signed for [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]], still in [[Serie B]], after having never made a single appearance in the first half of the season for Genoa. After relegation with Arezzo, scoring no goals, Grabbi signed a contract with [[AC Bellinzona]], a team from the [[Swiss Challenge League]] (second division). Ciccio scored the winning goal (his first after more than 1 year) in the Swiss Cup game [[Bellinzona-Gossau: 2-1]][http://corradograbbi.blogspot.com/2007/12/grabbi-goal.html].
==Websites==
*http://www.acbellinzona.ch
*http://corradograbbi.blogspot.com/

{{AC Bellinzona squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Grabbi, Corrado}}

[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Italian footballers]]
[[Category:Juventus F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.S. Lucchese-Libertas players]]
[[Category:A.C. ChievoVerona players]]
[[Category:Modena F.C. players]]
[[Category:Ternana Calcio players]]
[[Category:Blackburn Rovers F.C. players]]
[[Category:F.C. Messina Peloro players]]
[[Category:A.C. Ancona players]]
[[Category:Genoa C.F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.C. Arezzo players]]
[[Category:Premier League players]]

{{Italy-footy-striker-stub}}

[[it:Corrado Grabbi]]

Daihatsu Charade

2007-12-25T00:49:59Z

85.18.14.7: /* Nameplate return */

{{Infobox Automobile
| boxcolor = darkgreen
| image = [[Image:Daihatsu Charade front 20070919.jpg|250px|1987-1994 Daihatsu Charade]]
| name = Daihatsu Charade
| manufacturer = [[Daihatsu]]
| production = 1977–2000
| class = [[Supermini car|Supermini]]
| body_styles = 3-door hatch 5-door hatch 4-door sedan
| engines =
| transmission =
| length =
| width =
| height =
| weight =
| predecessor =
| successor = [[Daihatsu Sirion]]
| aka =
| related =
| similar = [[Fiat Uno]] [[Nissan March]] [[Toyota Starlet]]
}}

The '''Daihatsu Charade''' was a [[Supermini car|supermini]] sold from 1977 to 2000. [[Daihatsu]] considers the Charade a large "compact" car to differentiate it from other compacts in its lineup, such as the [[Daihatsu Mira]]/[[Daihatsu Cuore|Cuore]].

==G10 (1977–83)==
The first generation (G10) appeared in 1977. It was available as 3-door or 5-door [[hatchback]], powered only by a 993 cc [[straight-3|3-cylinder]] engine with 50 hp [[JIS]] (37 kW).

The early G10 (Series 1) had round headlights and the late G10 (Series 2) had square headlights.

==G11 (1983–87)==
[[Image:Daihatsu Charade Utrecht Nass.JPG|280px|right|thumb|Daihatsu Charade G11]]The second generation (G11) was released in 1983, again as a 3- or 5-door [[hatchback]]. It featured several variations of the 3-cylinder 1.0 L engine, including a turbocharged version with 68 hp [[JIS]] and a Diesel version. A 5-speed [[manual transmission]] was available. The G11 was produced with two frontends, colloquially known as "square-eyes" (Series 1) and "cat-eyes" (Series 2).

In [[Europe]], the G11 underbody, engines and transmissions were used as the basis for the [[Innocenti De Tomaso]], after [[Innocenti]]'s contract with [[British Leyland]] expired. The G11 parts continued to be used by the [[Italian automaker]] until 1992.

The G11 series 2 turbo:
http://autospeed.drive.com.au/cms/A_1126/article.html?popularArticle

The G11 [[Daihatsu]] Charade was released with two engine variants. The base model has the naturally aspirated, three cylinder, 993 cc CB23 engine that spawns around 50-55 bhp. 0-60 mph takes around 12-13 seconds. The other Charade Turbo and Charade DeTomaso models had the upgraded cb23 engine, called the cb60. The cb60 was also a three cylinder 993 cc engine, but was fitted with an IHI TurboCharger, which saw its power rise to 65-70bhp.

==G100 (1987–94)==
[[Image:Daihatsu Charade rear 20070919.jpg|thumb|1987-1994 Daihatsu Charade]]

The third generation of the Daihatsu Charade (G100) debuted in 1987. It originally shipped with a 1.0 L 3-cylinder engine (CB23) and 1.3 L four-cylinder with single carburetor (HC-C). A 1.0 L [[turbo]] [[diesel]], a 1.0 L twin-cam turbo (CB70)(CB80) , named GTti and delivering 101 hp [[JIS]] (74 kW), a 1.3 L fuel injected 4-cylinder (HC-E) and 3-cylinder (CB90) were later added. It was released in a 3-door and a 5-door hatchback. A 4-door sedan was released with the 1.3 L EFI engine in 1988. In [[Japan]] the GTti version was available, dubbed GTxx, featured a sunroof, power windows, air-con and power steering. Also the interior was quite different from the GTti in that the fuse box was mounted inside the car and the seats were of a different design. The exterior featured side skirts, Speedline alloys and a different rear spoiler to the GTti.

The third-generation car was sold in the United States for just four years, from 1988 through 1992. The car sold poorly, perhaps because of its high price, poor sale sites, and [[Wiktionary:charade|unfortunate translation in English]], and the company withdrew permanently from the US market. Sales for 1989 were 15,118. Only the 3-door hatchback and sedan were available

Not all export markets were featured with all the bodywork variants (eg. [[Singapore]] received the 3-door hatch only, while [[Malaysia]] got the 5-door), but [[Europe]] received all three variants (with the sedan reserved for [[Central Europe]]).

In the [[Australian]] market the GTti was unavailable and the turbocharged petrol Charade used the carburettor engine (CB60/61) from the previous generation.

amendment to above: Singapore did have the 5dr version but only in 1.0 liter 3 cylinder engine, there's another 3dr version called TX with 1.0 3cylinder Turbo-charged.

==G200 (1994–2000)==
The fourth generation was introduced in 1994, again with hatchback and sedan bodies. A 1.0 L engine was the base model in [[Japan]], but in many [[Europe]]an countries, the [[SOHC]] 1.3 L was used. The [[sedan]], introduced in 1994, featured a 1.5 L engine with optional 4WD. The [[Diesel]] models were dropped in all markets where they were previously available.

The turbocharged GTti version was replaced by a more conventional GTi with an [[SOHC]] 16-valve 1.6 L engine. This version was engineered by Italian ex-racing driver [[De Tomaso]] (the previous owner of Innocenti), including racing-derived [[camshaft]]s, and was capable of 124 hp [[JIS]] (91 kW) in the Japanese market. The export version was detuned to 105 hp [[DIN]] (77 kW). De Tomaso also added their own bodykit, [[Recaro]] seats, a Nardi Torino steering wheel, and [[Pirelli]] sports tyres. A total of 120,000 Charade GTi were produced following this joint effort.

The Charade was restyled in 1996, only two years after release (with the codename G203). It had a ‘smiley face’ grille and changed headlights, looking more like its [[Toyota]] sibling the Starlet. It was produced until 2000, when it was replaced by the [[Daihatsu Sirion|Sirion/Storia]].

==Safety==
In [[Australia]], the Daihatsu Charade was assessed in the Used Car Safety Ratings 2006 as providing "significantly worse than average" protection for its occupants in the event of a crash.[http://www.vicroads.vic.gov.au/vrne/vrne5nav.nsf/childdocs/-B8F8655488907260CA256FD300241C1A-667BCFE41674A389CA256FD300241C2B-1EE471300C4801C3CA2570A400083B3F?open]

==Nameplate return==
In 2003, the Charade name was resurrected in the [[UK]] and [[Australia]]. The new Charade is now a rebadged [[Daihatsu Mira]] (Cuore in other European markets, Charade in [[Morocco]][http://www.toyota.co.ma/daihatsu/daihatsuauto.php?modele=Charade&ver=1.0%20l%20essence&action=presentation]), and it is positioned one market segment below its previous generations. It is available as a 3- or 5-door hatchback with a 1.0 L engine. It has since been discontinued in Australia due to [[Toyota]] retiring the [[Daihatsu]] nameplate in Australia, due to the market climate and the fact that Toyota believes that the [[Toyota Yaris]] does justice as their smallest car in Australia.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Daihatsu Charade}}
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.toyota.co.ma/daihatsu/daihatsuauto.php?modele=Charade&ver=1.0%20l%20essence&action=presentation Daihatsu Charade] Toyota Morocco

{{Daihatsu}}

[[Category:Daihatsu vehicles|Charade]]

[[de:Daihatsu Charade]]
[[fr:Daihatsu Charade]]
[[ja:ダイハツ・シャレード]]
[[pt:Daihatsu Charade]]
[[sv:Daihatsu Charade]]

Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow

2007-10-30T23:02:59Z

85.18.14.7: /* Mark 1 */

{{Infobox Aircraft
|name= CF-105 Arrow
|type=[[Interceptor aircraft|Interceptor]]
|manufacturer=[[Avro Canada|Avro Aircraft Limited (Canada)]]
|image=Image:AvroArrow1.jpg
|caption=Photo from the Canadian [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]]
|designer=[[James C. Floyd]]
|first flight=[[25 March]] [[1958]]
|introduction=[[4 October]] [[1957]]
|retired=
|status=Cancelled [[20 February]] [[1959]]
|primary user=[[Royal Canadian Air Force]] (intended)
|more users=
|produced=1950s
|number built=Five (see later note on aircraft in production)
|unit cost=
|variants with their own articles=
}}

The '''Avro CF-105 Arrow''' was a [[delta-wing]] [[interceptor aircraft]], designed and built by [[Avro Canada|Avro Aircraft Limited (Canada)]] in [[Malton, Ontario]], [[Canada]], as the culmination of a design study that began in 1953. Considered to be both an advanced technical and aerodynamic achievement for the Canadian aviation industry, the CF-105 held the promise of [[Mach number|Mach]] 2 speeds at 50,000 ft+ altitude, intended to serve as the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]]'s interceptor for the 1960s and beyond.

Following the start of its flight test program in 1958, the Arrow, and its accompanying [[Orenda Iroquois|Iroquois]] jet engine program, were abruptly cancelled in 1959,<ref>Dow 1979, p. 127. Quote: "In February, Diefenbaker was urged by members of his cabinet to make an early decision on the Arrow." The actual project review was not due until [[31 March]] [[1959]].</ref><ref>[http://www.magellanroi.com/ComponentManufacturing/OCM_Overview/ocm_overview.html Orenda]</ref> sparking a long and bitter political debate. The Arrow is still the subject of controversy, over forty years after it was cancelled.

At the time of its cancellation, the Arrow was considered to be one of the most advanced aircraft in the world.<ref name= "Gunston p. 18"> Gunston 1981, p. 18. Quote: "In its planning, design and flight-test programme, this fighter, in almost every way the most advanced of all the fighters of the 1950s, was as impressive, and successful as any aircraft in history." </ref>

==Origins==
In the post-[[World War II|Second World War]] period, the [[Soviet Union]] began developing a fleet of long-range [[bombers]] capable of delivering [[nuclear weapons]] to [[North America]] and [[Europe]]. To counter this threat, Western countries developed interceptor aircraft that could engage and destroy these bombers before they reached their targets. <ref name= "Gunston p. 18"> Gunston 1981, p. 18. </ref>

[[Avro Canada|A. V. Roe Canada Limited]] had been set up as a subsidiary of the [[Hawker Siddeley]] Group in 1945, initially handling repair and maintenance work for aircraft at Malton, Ontario Airport (today known as [[Pearson International Airport]], [[Toronto]]'s main airport). The next year the company began the design of Canada's first jet fighter for the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]], the [[Avro CF-100]] ''Canuck'' all-weather interceptor. The Canuck underwent a lengthy prototype period before entering service seven years later in 1953. It would nevertheless go on to become one of the most enduring aircraft of its class, serving into the 1980s in a variety of roles.

Recognizing that the delays that impacted the development and deployment of the CF-100 could also impact its successor, and the fact that the Soviets were working on newer jet-powered bombers, the RCAF began looking for a supersonic, missile-armed replacement for the Canuck even before it had entered service. In March 1952, the RCAF's ''Final Report of the All-Weather Interceptor Requirements Team'' was submitted to Avro Canada.

==Design and development==
Avro engineering had been considering supersonic developments for some time at this point. German research during the Second World War had identified a number of solutions to the problems associated with supersonic flight. It was known that the onset of [[wave drag]] was greatly reduced by using thinner airfoils with much longer [[chord (aircraft)|chord]], but these airfoils were impractical because they left little internal room in the wing for armament or fuel.

Instead, aerodynamicists employed a [[swept-wing]] design to "trick" the airflow into behaving as though it was flowing over a long, thin wing. Almost every fighter project in the postwar era immediately applied the concept, which started appearing on production fighters in the late 1940s. Avro engineers had previously explored swept-wing and tail modification to the CF-100 known as the CF-103, which had proceeded to wooden mock-up stage. Although the design theoretically provided transonic speeds, the small performance gain over the CF-100 was not considered worth the extra development costs.

Instead, the engineers turned to the delta-wing design, which had many of the advantages of the swept wing in terms of transonic performance, but offered much more internal room and overall area. This had the advantage of providing more internal room for fuel, an important consideration given the thirsty engines of the era, and the large wing area provided lift at high altitudes. The disadvantages of the design were increased drag at lower speeds and altitudes, a cause for some debate in the industry at the time. For the interceptor role this was a minor concern, as the aircraft would be spending most of its time at high altitudes and speeds, mitigating these disadvantages.

In the words of designer [[James C. Floyd]],
:"At the time we laid down the design of the CF-105, there was a somewhat emotional controversy going on in the United States on the relative merits of the delta plan form versus the straight wing for supersonic aircraft… our choice of a tailless delta was based mainly on the compromise of attempting to achieve structural and aeroelastic efficiency, with a very thin wing, and yet, at the same time, achieving the large internal fuel capacity required for the specified range"<ref name=Floyd>Floyd, James, Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society, December 1958.</ref>.

Further proposals resulted in two versions of the design known as '''C104''': the single engine '''C104/1''', and twin-engined '''C104/2'''. The designs were otherwise similar, using a low-mounted delta-wing and powered by the new [[Orenda Engines|Orenda TR.9 engines]]. Armament featured a battery of [[Velvet Glove missile]]s, (a Canadair Aircraft product based on [[CARDE]] design work), stored in an internal bay. It would be crewed by a single pilot guided by a completely automatic weapons control system to track and attack the target, similar to the system utilized in the [[F-86 Sabre|F-86D]]. The primary advantages of the twin-engine C104/2 version was that it was larger overall, with a much larger weapons bay, and that it provided twin-engine reliability. The proposals were submitted to the RCAF in June 1952.

Intensive discussions between Avro and the RCAF examined a wide range of alternative sizes and configurations for a supersonic interceptor, culminating in RCAF ''Specification AIR 7-3'' in April 1953.

AIR 7-3 called specifically for:
* Crew of two (It was considered unlikely even a fully automated system would reduce workload enough to allow a lone crewman).
* Twin engines (no single engine then available could lift the fuel load needed for the long-range missions the RCAF demanded).
* Range of 300 nautical miles (556 km) for a normal low-speed mission, and 200 nautical miles (370 km) for a high-speed interception mission.
* Operation from a 6,000 foot  (1830m) runway.
* Mach 1.5 cruise at an altitude of 50,000 feet (15,000 m).
* Maneuverability (2 [[g-force|g]] turns with no loss of speed or altitude at Mach 1.5 and 50,0000 feet).
* The time from a signal to start the engines to the aircraft's reaching 50,000 feet and Mach 1.5 to be less than five minutes.
*Turn-around time on the ground was to be less than ten minutes.

An RCAF team led by [[Ray Footit]] visited U.S. aircraft producers and surveyed British and French manufacturers before concluding that no existing or planned aircraft could fulfill these requirements.

Avro submitted their modified '''C105''' design in May 1953, essentially a two-man version of the C104/2. A change to a "shoulder-mounted" wing allowed rapid access to the plane's internals, weapons bay, and engines. The new design also allowed the wing to be built as a single structure sitting on the upper fuselage, simplifying construction and improving strength. The wing design required a long main landing gear that still had to fit within the thin delta wing, presenting an engineering challenge. Five different wing sizes were outlined in the report, from 1,000 to 1,400 square-feet (93 to 130 m²). The 1,200 square-feet (111 m²) version was eventually selected. Three engines were considered as well: the [[Rolls-Royce RB.106]], the [[Bristol Olympus|Bristol B.0L.4 ''Olympus'']], and the [[Curtiss-Wright]] J67 (a license-built version of the Olympus). The RB-106 was selected, with the J67 as backup.

The weapons bay design was larger than the original C104/2 design, situated in a large thin box on the bottom fuselage, running from a point adjacent to the front of the wing to the middle of the fuselage. The weapon system originally selected was the [[Hughes Aircraft|Hughes]] MX-1179, which was a pairing of the existing MA-1 fire-control system with the [[AIM-4 Falcon]] [[missile]] of both radar-guided and [[heat-seeking]] variants. This system was already under development for proposed use in the USAF's WS-201[[1954 interceptor]] (dating from 1949, which would lead to the [[F-102 Delta Dagger]]). The [[Velvet Glove]] radar-guided missile had been under development with the RCAF for some time, but was considered unsuitable for supersonic launch, and further work on that project was eventually cancelled in 1956.

In July 1953, the proposal was accepted and Avro was given the go-ahead to start a full design study. In December, $27 million was provided to start flight modeling. At first, the project was limited in scope, but the introduction of the Soviet [[Myasishchev M-4]] ''Bison'' jet [[bomber]] and the Soviet Union's testing of a [[hydrogen bomb]] dramatically changed [[Cold War]] priorities. In March 1955, the contract was upgraded to $260 million for five '''Arrow Mark 1''' flight-test aircraft, to be followed by 35 '''Arrow Mark 2'''s with production engines and [[fire-control system]]s.

==Production==
Most aircraft designs start with the construction of a small number of hand-built prototypes that are test flown and modified, if required, before being committed to a set of ''jigs'' for production. This requires extra time to move from testing to manufacturing. The Arrow program instead adopted the [[Cook-Craigie plan]]. Developed in the 1940s, Cook-Craigie eliminated the prototype phase, with the first test airframes constructed on production jigs. Any changes would be incorporated into the jigs while testing continued, with full production starting when the test program was complete. As Jim Floyd noted at the time, this was a risky approach, but together with the RCAF, "...it was decided to take the technical risks involved to save time on the programme… I will not pretend that this philosophy of production type build from the outset did not cause us a lot of problems in Engineering. However, it did achieve its objective."<ref name=Floyd/>

In order to mitigate risks, a massive testing program was started. By mid-1954, the first production drawings were issued and wind tunnel work began. In a related program, nine instrumented free-flight models were mounted on solid fuel [[Project Nike|Nike]] rocket boosters and launched over Lake Ontario while two additional models were launched from Wallops Island, USA, over the Atlantic Ocean. These models were for aerodynamic drag and stability testing, flown to a maximum speed of Mach 1.7+ before intentionally crashing into the water. Ongoing efforts have been made to search for the models in Lake Ontario, and, to date, two have reputedly been found, along with one Nike booster and another for a Velvet Glove.

Experiments showed the need for only a small number of design changes, mainly involving the wing profile and positioning. To improve [[angle of attack|high-alpha]] performance, the leading edge of the wing was drooped, especially on outer sections, a dog-tooth was introduced to control spanwise flow, and the entire wing given a slight negative [[camber]] which helped control trim drag and pitch-up.

The [[area rule]] principle, made public in 1952, was also applied to the design. This resulted in several changes including the addition of a tailcone, sharpening the radar nose profile, thinning the intake lips, and reducing the cross-sectional area of the fuselage below the canopy<ref name=Floyd/>.

The aircraft used a measure of [[magnesium]] and [[titanium]] in the fuselage, the latter limited largely to the area around the engines and to fasteners. Titanium was still expensive and not widely used because it was difficult to machine. The construction of the airframe itself was fairly conventional, however, with a semi-[[monocoque]] frame and multi-spar wing.

The Arrow's thin wing required aviation's first 4,000 pounds per square inch (28 MPa) hydraulic system to supply enough force while using small actuators and piping. A rudimentary [[fly-by-wire]] system was employed, in which the pilot's input was detected by a series of pressure-sensitve transducers in the stick, and their signal was sent to an electronic control servo that operated the valves in the hydraulic system to move the various flight controls. This resulted in a lack of control "feel", since, because the control stick input was "disconnected" from the hydraulic system, the variations in back-pressure from the flight control surfaces that would normally be felt by the pilot could no longer be transmitted back into the stick. To re-create a sense of "feel", the same electronic control box rapidly responded to the hydraulic back-pressure fluctuations and motivated actuators in the stick, making it move; this "artificial feel" was also a first. An advanced stability augmentation system was added as well, recognizing long, "thin" aircraft have a number of [[coupling modes]] that can lead to departure from controlled flight if not damped out quickly. Since the center of lift moved with speed, the flight control system also assisted stability and manoeuvre.

In 1954, the RB.106 program was cancelled, necessitating the use the backup J67 instead. In 1955, this engine was also cancelled, leaving the design with no engine. At this point, the [[Pratt & Whitney J75]] was selected for the initial test-flight models, while the new TR 13 (soon [[Orenda Iroquois|PS-13 ''Iroquois'']]) engine was developed at [[Orenda]] for the production Mk 2s. Ultimately, only the rejected [[Bristol Olympus]] engine would actually go into production.

In 1956, the RCAF demanded additional changes, selecting the advanced RCA-Victor ''Astra'' fire-control system firing the equally advanced [[US Navy]] [[AIM-7 Sparrow#Sparrow II|Sparrow II]] in place of the MX-1179 and Falcon combination. Avro objected on the grounds that neither of these were even in testing at that point, whereas both the MX-1179 and Falcon were almost ready for production. RCAF planners felt the greatly improved performance of the Sparrow was worth the gamble.

The Astra proved to be problematic as the system ran into a lengthy period of delays, and when the USN cancelled the Sparrow II in 1956, [[Canadair]] was quickly brought in to continue the Sparrow program in Canada, although they expressed grave concerns about the project as well.

==Variants and design stages==
===Mark 1===
[[Image:Avro Arrow rollout.jpg|thumb|right| Avro CF-105 rollout, 4 October 1957, DND photograph]]
Go-ahead on the production was given in 1955, with series production taking place in Assembly Bay One. The rollout of the first CF-105, marked as RL-201, took place [[4 October]] [[1957]]. The company had planned to capitalize on the event, inviting more than 13,000 guests to the formal occasion.<ref> Gainor 2001, p. 15.</ref> Unfortunately, the media and public attention for the Arrow rollout was dwarfed by the launch of [[Sputnik]] the same day.<ref> Gainor 2001, p. 18.</ref>

The J75 engine was slightly heavier than the PS-13, and therefore required ballast to be placed in the nose to return the [[center of gravity]] to the correct position. In addition, the Astra fire-control system was not ready, and it too, was replaced by ballast. The otherwise unused weapons bay was loaded with test equipment.

RL-201 first flew on [[25 March]] [[1958]] with Chief Development Test Pilot S/L [[Janusz Żurakowski]] at the controls. Four more J75-powered Mk 1s were delivered in the next 18 months. The test flights went surprisingly well; the aircraft demonstrated excellent handling throughout the flight envelope. Much of this was due to the natural qualities of the delta-wing, but an equal amount can be attributed to the Arrow's stability augmentation system. The aircraft went supersonic on only her third flight and, on her seventh, broke 1,000 miles ''per'' hour (1600 kph) at 50,000 feet, while climbing and still accelerating. A top speed of Mach 1.98 would eventually be reached at three quarters throttle, even with these lower-powered engines.

No major problems were encountered during the testing phase, though some minor issues found with the landing gear, flight control system, and the stability augmentation system needed considerable tuning.

The former problem was partly due to the tandem main landing gear (two wheels and tires: one in front of and one behind the gear leg) being very narrow, in order to fit into the wings. The leg shortened in length and rotated as it was stowed. During one landing incident, the chain mechanism (used to shorten the gear) in the Mark 1 gear jammed, resulting in incomplete rotation. In a second incident with Arrow 202 on [[11 November]] [[1958]], the flight control system commanded [[elevon]]s full down at landing. The resulting reduction in weight on the gears reduced the effective tire friction, ultimately resulting in brake lockup and subsequent gear collapse. A photograph taken of the incident proved inadvertent flight control activation had caused the accident<ref> http://www.avromuseum.ca/index.php?q=node/45</ref>.

The stability augmentation system was a matter of tuning, tuning and more tuning. Although the CF-105 was not the first aircraft to use such a system – the Arrow used this system for all three axes, other aircraft did not – it was one of the first of its kind, and was consequently problematic. By February 1959, the five aircraft had completed the majority of the company test program and were progressing to the RCAF acceptance trials.

===Mark 2===
The Mk 2 version was to be fitted with the Iroquois engine. The Astra/Sparrow fire control system had been terminated by the government in September 1958 with all aircraft to employ the Hughes/Falcon combination. At the time of cancellation of the entire program, the first Arrow Mk 2, RL-206, was nearly complete. It was expected to break the world speed record but never had the chance.

Top speed would have been limited by frictional heating but, “The aluminum alloy structure which we favoured was good for speeds greater than a Mach number of 2."<ref> Floyd 1958</ref>

===Other designs===
Avro Canada had a wide range of Arrow derivatives under development at the time of project cancellation. Frequent mention is made of an Arrow that could have been capable of Mach 3, similar to the [[Mikoyan-Gurevich]] [[MiG-25]]. This was not the production version, but one of the design studies, and would have been a greatly modified version of the Arrow Mk 2, featuring revised engine inlets and extensive use of [[stainless steel]] or [[titanium]] to withstand airframe heating.
[[Image:Arrow 5.jpg|thumb|RL-203 with nose of RL-202 in foreground, late 1958]]
==Political issues==
Until 1955, the Arrow project had been cost effective. Only $27 million had been earmarked for the studies, with $260 million for initial production. However, in September 1955, Avro informed the Canadian Cabinet that an additional $59 million was required to keep the program on schedule. In December 1955, Cabinet limited Avro to 11 aircraft and put a spending cap on the overall program of $170 million over three years. In February 1957, Cabinet ordered the spending cap increased to $216 million. There is some evidence that the Liberals were losing faith in the project although no formal reviews were carried out.

In June 1957, the Liberals lost the election, and a Progressive Conservative government under [[John Diefenbaker]] took power. Diefenbaker, from the Canadian west, had campaigned on a platform of reining in what they claimed was "rampant Liberal spending." Much of this was posed as an east/west divide, with eastern Canada using money from across the country to fund their "industrial welfare" projects. The Arrow was not the only major industrial project targeted during the campaign, others such as the "million dollar monster" postal sorting computer from [[Ferranti Canada]] were singled out for additional scorn.

In August 1957, Diefenbaker signed the [[NORAD]] (''North American Air Defense''<ref>[http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/airdef/norad-overview.htm NORAD at 40 Historical Overview] The designation was changed in 1981 to North American Aerospace Defense.</ref>) Agreement with the United States, which required the subordination of the RCAF Air Defence Command to American command and control. The USAF was in the process of completely automating their air defense system with the [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]] project, and insisted that the RCAF had to use it as well. One aspect of the SAGE system was the [[BOMARC]] nuclear-tipped anti-aircraft missile, which when intercepting bombers over [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]] would be exploding over major Canadian cities. This led to studies on basing BOMARCs in Canada in order to push the line further north, away from the cities.

''Storms of Controversy'' revealed a top secret brief prepared for [[George Pearkes]], then Minister of National Defence, for his July 1958 meeting with US officials. The brief states, <blockquote>"The introduction of SAGE in Canada will cost in the neighborhood of $107 million. Further improvements are required in the radar… NORAD has also recommended the introduction of the BOMARC missile… will be a further commitment of $164 million… All these commitments coming at this particular time… will tend to increase our defence budget by as much as 25 to 30%…"
</blockquote>

Pearkes was also concerned about funding defence against ballistic missiles. The existence of Sputnik had also raised the spectre of attack from space, and, as the year progressed, word of a "missile gap" began spreading. An American brief of the meeting with Pearkes reported Pearkes "stated that the problem of developing a defence against missiles while at the same time completing and rounding out defence measures against manned bombers posed a serious problem for Canada from the point of view of expense…"<ref>Eisenhower Library, File: DDE Trip to Canada, Memcons, 8 -11, July 1958, Canada-U.S. Defence Problems.</ref> In a document written after the cancellation, Pearkes noted, "We did not cancel the CF-105 because there was no bomber threat, but because there was a lesser threat and we got the Bomarc in lieu of more airplanes to look after this"<ref>Department of National Defence, Directorate of History, File 79/469 Folder 19.</ref> It is also said Canada could afford the Arrow or Bomarc/SAGE, but not both.<ref>Campagna 1988, p. 88. Quote: "Could Canada afford both SAGE and the Arrow? Was the system even needed for defence? As it turned out, the answer to both questions was no."</ref>.

In a later interview in the 1990s, Pearkes discussed these problems and revealed he was advised by an American official, while ''en route'' to Colorado, Canada did not need to build aircraft because the US had plenty and could make them available at any time. Pearkes states this is when he made his decision to cancel the Arrow. His dilemma was how to fill in the defence gap from cancellation of the Arrow to the time when Bomarc bases would be operational. He revealed he struck a deal to allow American training in Goose Bay (Labrador) and Cold Lake (Alberta) in exchange for protection.

By [[11 August]] [[1958]], Pearkes requested cancellation of the Arrow, but the Cabinet Defence Committee refused. He tabled it again in September, and recommended installation of the Bomarc missile system. The latter was accepted but, again, the CDC refused to cancel the entire Arrow program. The CDC wanted to wait until a major review in [[31 March]] [[1959]], to better examine world conditions. They did, however, cancel the Sparrow/Astra system in September 1958. Efforts to continue the program through cost-sharing with other countries were then explored.

The Arrow was far from the only heavy high-speed interceptor design canceled at that time; both the [[Republic Aircraft]] [[Republic XF-103|XF-103]] and [[North American Aviation]] [[XF-108 Rapier]], both of which were more advanced than the Arrow, were cancelled at approximately the same time. Even the [[Convair]] [[F-106 Delta Dart]] was very nearly terminated. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the ramifications of the [[1957 Defence White Paper]] led to the cancellation of almost all manned fighter aircraft development.

==Foreign interest==
Canada tried to sell the Arrow aircraft to the US and Britain, but had no takers. The aircraft industry in both countries, was and still is considered a national interest, and buying foreign designs, no matter how worthy, remains rare.<ref> Peden 1987, p. 72.</ref>

From 1955 onwards, the UK had shown considerable interest in the Arrow; in April 1956, the UK's Air Council<ref>The senior body for the organization of the RAF</ref> recommended a purchase of 144 Arrows for the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] to serve alongside the [[Saunders-Roe SR.177]] [[mixed power]] interceptor, instead of the "thin-wing" [[Gloster Javelin]] then under study. The CF-105 would serve as a stopgap until the UK's [[Operational Requirement F.155|F.155]] project came to fruition. However with the F.155 due in 1963 and the Arrow not likely to reach the RAF before 1962, there was little point in proceeding, even if the costs of acquisition had not been so high. The infamous [[1957 Defence White Paper]], prompted by a general lack of funds, foretold an end to manned fighters and completely curtailed any likelihood of a purchase. In January 1959, the UK's final answer was no – with an offer to sell Canada the English Electric P.1 (the aircraft that would become the [[English Electric Lightning]]). The French government was prepared to buy some 200 Iroquois engines, but cancelled their order in 1958, being advised by persons unknown that the Arrow was going to be cancelled.

The [[US Air Force]] had already developed three aircraft with performance intended to be broadly similar to the Arrow, originally as part of their "[[1954 interceptor|1954 Interceptor]]" project -- the [[F-101 Voodoo|Mcdonnell F-101B Voodoo]], [[F-102 Delta Dagger|Convair F-102 Delta Dagger]] and [[F-106 Delta Dart|Convair F-102B]] (later Convair F-106 Delta Dart). Additionally, two more advanced interceptors (the [[Republic XF-103]] and [[XF-108 Rapier|North American XF-108]]) were under development, although both would ultimately be cancelled in the early design and mock-up phases.<ref> Whitcomb 2002, p. 80, 181-182.</ref> Nevertheless it appears the USAF was concerned about the effect the cancellation would have on Canada's defence industry. In 1958, Avro Aircraft Limited President and General Manager [[Frederick Thomas Smye, Jr.|Fred Smye]] had elicited a promise from the USAF to "supply, free, the fire control system and missiles and if they would allow the free use of their flight test center at Muroc Lake in California (now known as Edwards AFB)".<ref> Smye 1985, p. 87.</ref>

==Cancellation: "Black Friday"==
On [[20 February]] [[1959]], known as "Black Friday" at the Avro plants, Diefenbaker announced to the [[Canadian House of Commons]] that the Arrow and Iroquois programs were to be cancelled immediately; subsequently, telegrams sent to Avro stated that all work should stop on reception. Due to contract obligations with the unions at Avro, the Avro management had no choice but to immediately lay off some 14,000 workers at Avro and Orenda plants. Avro engineer [[John Hodge (engineer)|John Hodge]] later recalled that in his plant the announcement about the lay-offs was made over the public address system.<ref> Hodge, John D. "NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project". ''NASA'' [[10 April]] [[1999]]. [http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HodgeJD/JDH_4-18-99.pdf NASA oral history]. . Access date: [[31 October]] [[2006]]. Note: Although most people recalled it was Crawford Gordon Jr making the announcement, it was actually John L. Plant, President and General Manager of Avro Aircraft.</ref> In total, an estimated 60,000 employees or more (with 15,000 employees in the Avro/Orenda plants alone) were laid off due to cancellations of contracts with various subcontractors. At the time Avro was Canada's third largest employer.{{cn}}

Declassified records show Avro management was caught unprepared by the suddenness of the announcement by the government. While executives were aware that the program was in jeopardy, they expected it to continue at least until the March review. It was widely believed that during this lead-up to the review, the first Arrow Mk 2, RL-206, would be prepared for an attempt at both world speed and altitude records.

An attempt was made to provide the completed Arrows to the [[National Research Council of Canada]] as high-speed test aircraft. The NRC refused, noting that without sufficient spare parts and maintenance, as well as qualified pilots, the NRC could make no use of them. A similar project initiated by the [[Royal Aircraft Establishment]] (Boscombe Down) had resulted in Avro Vice-President (Engineering) Jim Floyd, preparing a transatlantic ferry operation. This proposal, like others from the United States, were never realized.
[[Image:AvroCF105ArrowRL206Serial25206.jpg|left|thumb|250px|'''Avro CF-105 Arrow''' nose section on display at the [[Canada Aviation Museum]]]]
===Aftermath===
Within two months, all aircraft, engines, production tooling and technical data were ordered scrapped. This was partly in response to [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] fears that a Soviet "mole" had infiltrated Avro, later confirmed to some degree in the [[Vasili Mitrokhin|Mitrokhin archives]]. Officially, the reason given for the destruction order from Cabinet and the Chiefs of Staff was to destroy classified and "secret" materials utilized in the Arrow/Iroquois programs<ref>Stewart 1998, p. 274-276.</ref>.

Along with the five flying test models and production aircraft, blueprints and other materials were destroyed leading to the creation of a piece of Canadian mythology. The rushed destruction incited a number of conspiracy theories alleging American culpability for the Arrow's demise. There remains an enduring but fanciful legend that one of the prototypes was spirited away after the cancellation and remains intact, but there is no evidence to support this.

Following the Canadian government's cancellation of the Avro Arrow project in 1959, CF-105 Chief Aerodynamicist [[Jim Chamberlin]] led a team of 25 engineers to NASA's [[Space Task Group]] to become lead engineers, program managers, and heads of engineering in [[NASA]]'s manned space programs—Projects [[Project Mercury|Mercury]], [[Project Gemini|Gemini]] and [[Project Apollo|Apollo]]. This team would eventually grow to 32 Avro engineers and technicians, and become emblematic of what many Canadians viewed as a "[[brain drain]]" to the US. Many other engineers, including Jim Floyd (whose design studies at [[Hawker Siddeley]] (Avro Aircraft's UK parent) on the HSA.1000 SST design studies were ultimately influential in the design of the [[Concorde]]<ref> Whitcomb 1999, p. 251-259. Note: An entire chapter, ''The SST Saga: Canadian Contributions Exposed'' is devoted to the work of Floyd in the UK. His role in SST development is fully detailed.</ref>) found work abroad in either the UK or the United States.

In 1961, the RCAF obtained 66 [[CF-101 Voodoo]] aircraft, one of the American designs the RCAF originally rejected,<ref> Page et al 1980, p. 13. Note: Although the source indicates it was the F-101 that was evaluated, it was the XF-88 Voodoo that was flying at the time while the F-101 was a revised and upgraded variant that was only in the development stage in 1953.</ref> to serve in the role originally intended for the Avro Arrow. The controversy surrounding this acquisition, and Canada's acquiring nuclear weapons for the Voodoos and Bomarcs eventually contributed to the collapse of the Diefenbaker government in 1963.

Although nearly everything connected to the CF-105 and Orenda Iroquois programs was destroyed, the cockpit and nose gear of RL-206, the first Mk 2 Arrow, and two outer panels of RL-203's wings were saved and are on display at the [[Canada Aviation Museum]] in Ottawa, alongside an Iroquois engine.

===CBC Docu-drama===
In 1997, the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] broadcast the two-part mini-series, ''[[The Arrow]]'' about the Arrow program, which remains one of the most-watched CBC English-language television programs. [http://www.ggower.com/dief/text/sun1.shtml] The production used a combination of archival film, remote-control flying models and computer animation for the flying and sequences. The flying models were built by [[Doug Hyslip]] of Calgary, but a full-scale replica of the Arrow was used in ground scenes. Due to the mini-series' blatant lack of historical accuracy, critics forced the CBC to reclassify it as a "docu-drama," [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-75-275-1410/science_technology/avro_arrow/clip12]''[[The Arrow]]'' was subsequently advertised as entertainment rather than literal history.

===Avro Arrow replicas===
[[Allan Jackson]] of [[Wetaskiwin, Alberta]] was the original designer of the replica used in the CBC docu-drama. As a hobby, he began building a full-scale replica of the Arrow in 1989. Years later, in 1996, when the producers of the Arrow miniseries learned of Jackson's replica, then about 70% complete, an offer was made to complete the construction if the replica could be used for the production. After use on the mini-series, and several public appearances at air shows, the Jackson replica was donated to the [[Reynolds-Alberta Museum]] in Wetaskiwin. While on display in a temporary outdoor collection, the replica was damaged in a wind storm. It is presently being stored after a recent repair, and readied for future display.

The Avro Museum of Calgary began a [http://www.avromuseum.ca/taxonomy/term/46 Replica Arrow Project]. Theirs is a 0.6-scale piloted replica aircraft being built for public flight demonstration — construction started in September 2005 following eight years of research. Built of modern-day [[composite material]]s under Canadian Recreational Aircraft Legislation, construction is expected to take five years of volunteer labour and cost a half-million dollars in materials and parts.
[[Image:Avro Arrow replica.jpg|thumb|right||Avro Arrow replica at TAM Arrow Rollout, 8 October 2006]]

The [http://torontoaerospacemuseum.com Toronto Aerospace Museum], located at the former [[CFB Downsview]] features a full-size replica Arrow built by volunteers with assistance from local aerospace firms. With a metal structure, the replica features many authentic-looking components including landing gear constructed by [[Messier-Dowty]] (the original Arrow main landing gear sub-contractor). Painted in the colours of Arrow 25203, the Arrow replica was rolled out for a media event on [[28 September]] [[2006]] and was on [http://torontoaerospacemuseum.com/arrowrollout/PublicViewing.html public display] on 8-[[9 October]] [[2006]] to commemorate the original aircraft's rollout in 1957. It will be permanently displayed beside an [[Avro Lancaster]] bomber (currently under restoration) built at the same Malton plant that produced the Arrow. The museum ultimately hopes to acquire an Avro CF-100 and obtain the first Avro VZ-9-AV Avrocar (the company's last aviation project) on a long-term loan from the [[National Air and Space Museum]], in Washington, D.C., to be exhibited alongside the Arrow replica and Avro Lancaster.

==Specifications (Arrow Mk 1)==
{{aircraft specifications


|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=jet



|ref=The Great Book of Fighters<ref>Green, William and Swanborough, Gordon. ''The Great Book of Fighters''. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0-7603-1194-3.</ref>

|crew=2
|capacity=
|length main=77 [[foot (length)|ft]] 9 [[inch|in]]
|length alt=23.71 m
|span main=50 ft 0 in
|span alt=15.24 m
|height main=20  ft 6 in
|height alt=6.25 m
|area main=1,225 ft²
|area alt=113.8 m²
|airfoil=[[NACA airfoil|NACA 0003.5 mod]] root, NACA 0003.8 tip
|empty weight main=49,040 [[pound (mass)|lb]]
|empty weight alt=22,245 kg
|loaded weight main=56,920 lb
|loaded weight alt=25,820 kg
|max takeoff weight main=68,605 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=31,120 kg

|engine (jet)=[[Pratt & Whitney J75]]-P-3
|type of jet=[[turbojet]]s
|number of jets=2
|thrust main=12,500 lbf
|thrust alt=55.6 kN
|afterburning thrust main=23,500 [[pound-force|lbf]]
|afterburning thrust alt=104.53 kN

|max speed main=[[mach number|Mach]] 2
|max speed alt=1,307 [[mph]], 2,104 km/h
|max speed more=at 50,000 ft (15,000 m)
|cruise speed main=Mach 0.91
|cruise speed alt=607 mph, 977 km/h
|cruise speed more=at 36,000 ft (11,000 m)
|stall speed main=
|stall speed alt=
|never exceed speed main=
|never exceed speed alt=
|range main=360 [[nautical mile|NM]]
|range alt=410 [[mile|mi]], 660 km
|ceiling main=53,000 ft
|ceiling alt=16,150 m
|climb rate main=
|climb rate alt=
|loading main=46.5 lb/ft²
|loading alt=226.9 kg/m²
|thrust/weight=0.439
|afterburning thrust/weight=0.650

|avionics=
* Hughes MX-1179 fire control system

|armament header=Armament (projected)
|missiles=8× [[AIM-4 Falcon]], [[Canadair]] [[Velvet Glove]] (cancelled 1956), 2 [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] II 2D active guidance missiles (cancelled)
|rockets=1-4× [[AIR-2 Genie]] unguided nuclear rockets

}}

==References==
;Notes
{{reflist|2}}
;Bibliography
{{refbegin}}
* Campagna, Palmiro. ''Storms of Controversy: The Secret Avro Arrow Files Revealed, Third Paperback Edition.'' Toronto: Stoddart, 1998. ISBN 0-7737-5990-5.
* Campagna, Palmiro. ''Requiem for a Giant: A.V. Roe Canada and the Avro Arrow.'' Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2003. ISBN 1-55002-438-8.
* Dow, James. ''The Arrow.'' Toronto: James Lorimer and Company Publishers, 1979. ISBN 0-88862-282-1.
* Floyd, James. "The Canadian Approach to All-Weather Interceptor Development." ''The Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society, December 1958.''
* Gainor, Chris. ''Arrows to the Moon: Avro's Engineers and the Space Race.'' Burlington, Ontario: Apogee, 2001. ISBN 1-896522-83-1.
* Gunston, Bill. ''Fighters of the Fifties''. Oscela, Wisconsin: Speciality Press, 1981. ISBN 0-933424-2-9.
* Page, Ron, Organ, Richard, Watson, Don and Wilkinson, Les. ''Avro Arrow: The Story of the Avro Arrow from its Evolution to its Extinction.'' Erin, Ontario: Boston Mills Press, 1979, reprinted Stoddart, 2004. ISBN 1-55046-047-1.
* Peden, Murray. ''Fall of an Arrow.'' Toronto: Stoddart Publishing, 1987. ISBN 0-7737-5105-X.
* Shaw, E.K. ''There Never was an Arrow.''Toronto: Steel Rail Educational Publishing, 1979.
* Smye, Fred. ''Canadian Aviation and the Avro Arrow''(Limited publication). Oakville, Ontario: Randy Smye, 1985.
* Stewart, Greig. ''Arrow Through the Heart: The Life and Times of Crawford Gordon and the Avro Arrow.'' Toronto: McGraw-Hill-Ryerson, 1998. ISBN 0-07-560102-8.
* Stewart, Greig. ''Shutting Down the National Dream: A.V. Roe and the Tragedy of the Avro Arrow.'' Toronto: McGraw-Hill-Ryerson, 1991. ISBN 0-07-551119-3.
* ''Supersonic Sentinel.'' Rare Avro Arrow film footage. Available from [http://www.avroarrow.org Arrow Digital Archives] (ARC); also includes extra footage of the Arrow in flight and some footage of the [[Avro Jetliner]] (1950).
* Whitcomb, Randall.''Avro Aircraft and Cold War Aviation.'' St. Catharine's, Ontario: Vanwell, 2002. ISBN 1-55125-082-9.
* Zuk, Bill. ''The Avro Arrow Story: The Impossible Dream.'' Calgary: Altitude Publishing, 2006. ISBN 1-55439-703-0.
* Zuk, Bill. ''The Avro Arrow Story: The Revolutionary Airplane and its Courageous Test Pilots.'' Calgary: Altitude Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-55153-978-0.
;Further reading
* Zuk, Bill. ''Janusz Zurakowski: Legends in the Sky''. St. Catharine's, Ontario: Vanwell, 2004. ISBN 1-55125-083-7.
* Zuuring, Peter. ''Arrow Countdown.'' Kingston, Ontario: Arrow Alliance Press, 2001. ISBN 1-55056-866-3.
* Zuuring, Peter. ''Arrow First Flight.'' Kingston, Ontario: Arrow Alliance Press, 2002. ISBN 1-55056-903-1.
* Zuuring, Peter. ''Arrow Rollout.'' Kingston, Ontario: Arrow Alliance Press, 2002. ISBN 1-55056-902-3.
* Zuuring, Peter. ''The Arrow Scrapbook.'' Kingston, Ontario: Arrow Alliance Press, 1999. ISBN 1-55056-690-3.
* Zuuring, Peter. ''Iroquois Rollout.'' Kingston, Ontario: Arrow Alliance Press, 2002. ISBN 1-55056-906-6.
;Additional resources
* Library and Archives Canada - this is the official repository of all government documents relating to the Avro CF-105 Arrow projects. Not all Avro Arrow documents have been declassified, only some and it is expected that all documents held on the Arrow will not become public until 2067.
* ''There Never Was an Arrow'' broadcast on the CBC in March 1980 (Available as an extra on the Arrow Docu-Drama DVD). [Clips from the program can be seen at [http://archives.cbc.ca/500f.asp?id=1-75-275-1416&wm6=1].)
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.avromuseum.ca Avro Museum's Replica Arrow Project]
* [http://www.avro-arrow.org Homage to the Avro Arrow - the longest running Arrow website]
* [http://www.avroarrow.org The Largest Archive of Factual Arrow Information]
* [http://www.exn.ca/flightdeck/arrow/images.cfm Avro Arrow pictures on Discovery Channel Canada site]
* [http://www.maverick2.com/ArrowPics.htm Avro Arrow pictures on maverick2.com]
* [http://www.avroland.ca A site dedicated to the people and projects of Avro Canada and Orenda Engines Limited]
* [http://www.airforce.forces.gc.ca/equip/historical/arrowlst_e.asp Avro CF-105 Arrow Mk.1] ([[Department of National Defence]], [[Government of Canada]])
*[http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-75-275/science_technology/avro_arrow/ CBC Digital Archives - The Avro Arrow: Canada's Broken Dream]
* [http://www.histori.ca/minutes/minute.do?id=10220 Historica Minutes TV Commercial Canadian Heritage]
* [http://aa.domaindlx.com/ModelPaperEngine/AVRO%20ARROW.html Mechanical Paper Machines A Paper Model]
* [http://scaa.usask.ca/gallery/arrow/thesis/thesis3.htm The Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow Programme: Decisions and Determinants]

==Related content==
{{aircontent

|related=

|similar aircraft=
* [[F-106 Delta Dart|Convair F-106 Delta Dart]]
* [[English Electric Lightning]]
* [[F-101 Voodoo|McDonnell F-101B Voodoo]]
* [[XF-108 Rapier|North American XF-108 Rapier]]
* [[Operational Requirement F.155|F.155 Project (UK)]]
* [[Republic XF-103]]
* [[Saunders-Roe SR.177]]
* [[Saab 35 Draken]]
* [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25|MiG-25]]

|sequence=
* [[Avro CF-100|CF-100]] - [[CF-101 Voodoo|CF-101]] - [[Canadair CF-104|CF-104]] - '''CF-105''' - [[Canadair CL-44|CC-106]] - [[Canadair CL-28|CP-107]] - [[De Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribou|CC-108]]

|lists=
* [[List of aircraft of the Canadian Air Force]]
* [[List of fighter aircraft]]

|see also
* [[Avro Canada|Avro Aircraft Ltd. (Canada)]]
* [[Jim Chanmberlin]]
* [[John Diefenbaker]]
* [[James C. Floyd]]
* [[Crawford Gordon|Crawford Gordon Jr.]]
* [[Hawker Siddeley Group]]
* [[C.D. Howe]]
* [[Orenda Aerospace]]
* [[George Pearkes]]
* [[Janusz Żurakowski]]

}}

[[Category:Canadian fighter aircraft 1950-1959]]
[[Category:Cancelled aircraft projects]]
[[Category:Delta-wing aircraft]]
[[Category:Tailless aircraft]]
[[Category:Military history of Canada]]
[[Category:Goods manufactured in Canada]]
[[Category:Multiple engine aircraft]]
[[Category:Jet aircraft]]
[[Category:Canadian inventions]]

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[[no:Avro CF-105 Arrow]]
[[pt:Avro CF-105 Arrow]]
[[ru:CF-105 Arrow]]
[[tr:CF-105 Arrow]]

List of Brazilian Jews

2007-09-14T21:15:46Z

85.18.14.7: /* G */

{{AfDM|page=List of Brazilian Jews|date=2007 September 12|substed=yes}}


{{Unreferenced|date=January 2007}}

{{Not verified|date=January 2007}}

{{JewsByCountry}}
[[Jew]]ish immigration to Latin America began with seven sailors arriving in Christopher Columbus's crew. Since then, the Jewish population of [[Latin America]] has risen to more than 500,000 — more than half of whom live in [[Argentina]], with large communities also present in [[Brazil]] and [[Mexico]]. Here is a list of some prominent Brazilian Jews.

{{compactTOC2}}
==A==
* [[Sandra Annenberg]], journalist and news anchor{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Clara Ant]], political activist and presidential adviser
* [[Daniel Azulay]], comic artist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Jom Tob Azulay]], film director

==B==
* [[Hector Babenco]], film director
* [[Miro Bacin]], journalist
* [[Leoncio Basbaum]], physician and political activist
* [[Carlos Minc Baumfeld]], politician and social activist
* [[Moysés Baumstein]], holographer, film/video producer, painter, writer
* [[Manoel Beckman]], colonial leader
* [[Adriana Behar]], beach volleyball player
* [[Tatiana Belinky]], actress and writer [http://www.google.com.br/search?hl=pt-BR&q=%22tatiana+belinky%22&meta=] [http://www.judaica.com.br/perfil.htm]
* [[Olga Benário Prestes]], communist militant
* [[Samuel Benchimol]], entrepreneur and Amazon pioneer
* [[Abraham Bentes]], army commander
* [[Daniel Benzali]], TV actor
* [[Claudio Besserman Vianna]], comedian
* [[Joel Birman]], writer
* [[Eva Altman Blay]], sociologist and politician
* [[Adolfo Bloch]], journalist [http://www.fortunecity.com/lavender/tomatoes/792/bloch.htm]
* [[Debora Bloch]], actress
* [[Nilton Bonder]], community leader and writer
* Claudio Basbaum ,gynecologist medecine professor

==C==
* [[Waldemar Levy Cardoso]], field marshal
* [[Boris Casoy]], journalist
* [[Otto Maria Carpeaux]], literary critic
* [[Moyses Chahon]], army commander
* [[Juca Chaves]], comedian, composer and singer
* [[Caco Ciocler]], actor
* [[Roberto Civita]], journalist and entrepreneur [http://www.midiaindependente.org/pt/blue/2005/07/322015.shtml]
* [[Victor Civita]], journalist
* [[Deborah Colker]], dancer and choreographer

==D==
* [[Gilberto Dimenstein]], journalist
* [[Alberto Dines]], journalist
* [[Tufi Duek]], fashion designer

==E==
* [[German Efromovich]], entrepreneur [http://www.jewishtribalreview.org/jpower.htm]

==F==
* [[Leon Feffer]], industrialist [http://www.judaica.com.br/edicoes_21_a_30.htm] [http://www.terra.com.br/istoe/biblioteca/brasileiro/empreendedor/emp18.htm]
*[[Benny Feilhaber]] professional soccer player<ref>'''Feilhaber''' - [http://www.jewishjournal.com/home/preview.php?id=16619] "Outside of my UCLA teammate Benny Feilhaber, I never really thought there were other high-class Jewish soccer players out there"</ref>
* [[Walter Feldman]], politician [http://www.netjudaica.com.br/novanetjudaica/default.asp?submenu=Social&novaPagina=Social/mostraSocial.asp&id=609]
* [[Fortuna, Brazilian singer|Fortuna]], singer and composer
* [[Vilém Flusser]], philosopher

==G==
* [[Marcelo Gleiser]], physicist and writer
* [[Betty Gofman]], actress{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Rosane Gofman]], actress{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[José Goldemberg]], educator, physicist and minister
* [[Alberto Goldman]], politician
* [[Alisson Gothz]], drag queen
[http://www.netjudaica.com.br/novanetjudaica/default.asp?submenu=Social&novaPagina=Social/mostraSocial.asp&id=609]
* [[Oded Grajew]], human rights activist [http://www.pletz.com/shachar/artigo20.htm]
* [[Serginho Groisman]], TV host [http://www.terra.com.br/istoegente/33/reportagens/rep_groisman3.htm]

==H==
* [[Mario Haberfeld]], racing driver
* [[Alexandre Herchcovitch]], fashion designer
* [[Wladimir Herzog]], journalist
* [[Leon Hirszman]], film director [http://www.judaica.com.br/perfil.htm]
* [[Luciano Huck]], TV show host
* [[Felipe Hirch]], theater director
[http://www.visaojudaica.com.br/Novembro_2004/Quem,onde,quando/quem_onde_quando_nov_2004.htm]

==J==
* [[Roberto Justus]], advertiser and TV host [http://www.visaojudaica.com.br/Novembro_2004/Quem,onde,quando/quem_onde_quando_nov_2004.htm]

==K==
* [[Isaac Karabtchevsky]], musician and conductor
* [[Abraham Kasinski]], industrialist [http://www.zencast.com/channels/showchannel.asp?cid=5621]
* [[Elisa Kauffman]], politician
* [[Israel Klabin]], mayor of [[Rio de Janeiro]][http://www.judaica.com.br/perfil.htm]
* [[Jacques Klein]], pianist [http://www.judaica.com.br/perfil.htm]
* [[Samuel Klein]], entrepreneur [http://www.judaica.com.br/materias/053_05a07.htm]
* [[Samuel Kicis]], army commander
* [[Ithamara Koorax]], jazz singer
* [[Frans Krajcberg]], artist and environmentalist [http://www.rfi.fr/actubr/articles/063/article_10.asp]
* [[Miguel Krigsner]], entrepreneur and environmentalist

==L==
* [[Celso Lafer]], diplomat [http://www.judaica.com.br/perfil.htm]
* [[Cesar Lattes]], physicist
* [[Jaime Lerner]], politician (governor Paraná state), urban planner
* [[José Lewgoy]], actor and director
* [[Clarice Lispector]], writer
* [[Leo Lebellot]], musician, songwriter and lead singer of the Brazilian Rock Band Prato Principal. [http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_lebellot]

==N==
* [[Salomão Nauslausky]], army commander
* [[Arnaldo Niskier]], journalist and writer [http://www.judaica.com.br/edicoes_21_a_30.htm]
* [[Noel Nutels]], public health physician and human rights activist
* [[Carlos Nuzman]], sportsman and president of Olympic Committee [http://www.judaica.com.br/materias/005_05e06.htm]

==P==
* [[Joyce Pascowitch]], journalist
* [[Ivo Perelman]], jazz saxophonist [http://www.google.com.br/search?hl=pt-BR&q=%22Ivo+Perelman%22+%22judeu%22&btnG=Pesquisar&meta=]
* [[Flora Purim]], jazz singer
* [[Ricardo Rosset]], Formula One driver

==S==
* [[Edmond Safra]], banker [http://lebaneselobby.org/lebanese/Edmond%20J%20Safra.htm]
* [[Joseph Safra]], banker
* [[Ricardo Semler]], enterpreneur
* [[Moise Safra]], banker
* [[Silvio Santos]], (Senor Abravanel), TV show host
* [[Mario Schenberg]], physicist
* [[Moacyr Scliar]], writer
* [[Lasar Segall]], artist
* [[Dina Sfat]], actress [http://www.judaica.com.br/perfil.htm]
* [[Amir Slama]], fashion designer
* [[Henry Sobel]], Rabbi, community leader
* [[Jaime Spitzcovsky]], journalist [http://www.morasha.com.br/conteudo/artigos/artigos_view.asp?a=310&p=0]
* [[Dan Stulbach]], actor [http://veja.abril.com.br/vejasp/240903/cidade.html]
* [[Luciano Szafir]], actor [http://www.visaojudaica.com.br/Novembro_2004/Quem,onde,quando/quem_onde_quando_nov_2004.htm]
* [[Alex Stry]], Musician - Guitarist and Singer of Brazilian Rock band Prato Principal.

==T==
* [[Eva Todor]], actress [http://www.judaica.com.br/perfil.htm]

==W==
* [[Mauricio Waldman]], sociologist and politician
* [[Didi Wagner]], tv show host

==Y==
* [[Yara Yavelberg]], political activist

==Z==
* [[Mayana Zatz]], geneticist
* [[Jacob Zveibil]], politician{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Jacob Zveiter]], air force commander
* [[David Zylberstajn]], politician and administrator [http://www.brazilpoliticalcomment.com.br/content/view/104/46/lang,en/]
* [[Benjamin Zymler]], auditor-general

==Unsourced==

* [[Jacob Blochtein]], physician and writer{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Jacob Benemond]], sailor{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Moysés Baumstein]], publisher, holographer, artist
* [[Jaime Benatar]], scientist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Caco Ciocler]], actor{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Rodrigo Osna]], entrepreneur {{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Gilberto Tumscitz Braga]], novelist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Jose Benedito Cohen]], poet{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Betty Fuks]], writer{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Rubens Gerchman]], painter{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Alfred Lemle]], physician and writer{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Salomao Malina]], politician{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Abraham Kasinski]], industrialist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Mario Kertesz]], journalist and politician{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Flavio Koutzi]], politician and social activist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Inacio L. Obadia]] (architect, Rio De Janeiro){{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Helena Salem]], journalist and writer{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Elie Horn]], founder of Cyrela Group{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Ivoncy Ioschpe]], industrialist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Bella Josef]], writer{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Fabio Koifman]], historian{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Fayga Ostrower]], painter and writer{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
[http://www.sorayab.com/Portuguese/articleRevistaVejaPort.htm]
* [[Mauricio Pinkusfeld]], sailor{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Carla Pinsky]], historian and writer{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Jacks Rabinovich]], industrialist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Moises Rabinovitch]], journalist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Saul Raiz]], politician (mayor Curitiba){{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Isaias Raw]], biochemist and educator{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Philippe Reichstul]], civil servant and administrator{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Cora Ronai]], journalist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Max Rosenmann]], politician{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Bernard Rajzman]], volleyball player{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[David Rodin]], sailor{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Caca Rosset]], director{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Jacob Gorender]], politician and historian{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Mauricio Grabois]], communist political activist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Jacob Guinsburg]], publisher{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Zevi Ghivelder]], journalist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Andre Singer]], journalist and presidential spokesman{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Alfredo Sirkis]], politician and ecologist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Mauricio Sirotski]], journalist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Eugenio Staub]], industrialist {{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Benjamin Steinbruch]], steel manufacturer{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Hans Stern]], entrepreneur{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Salli Szajnferber]], army commander{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Fanny Tabak]], political activist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Boris Schnaiderman]], writer{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Chael Schreier]], political activist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Mauricio Schulman]], civil servant and administrator{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Carlos Scliar]], painter{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Natalia Thimberg]], actress{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Henrique Veltman]], journalist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Jacques Wagner]], trade unionist and minister {{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Ann Wainer]], environmental lawyer, writer{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[David Wainer]], activist {{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Samuel Wainer]], journalist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Arnold Wald]], jurist{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Waldemar Zveiter]], high court judge{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Helio Zylberstajn]], economist and writer{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Gregori Warchavchik]], architect{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Istvan Wessel]], entrepreneur{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Israel Zecker]], politician{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
* [[Leo Kryss]], entrepreneur{{Fact|date=January 2007}}

==See also==
*[http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juda%C3%ADsmo_messi%C3%A2nico See too news groups in Brazil]
*[[List of Latin American Jews]]
*[[List of Brazilians]]
*[[List of Jews]]

==Footnotes==
<div class="references-small"><references /></div>

[[Category:Lists of Jews by country|Brazil]]
[[Category:Brazilian Jews| ]]

[[pt:Lista de judeus do Brasil]]

Corrado Grabbi

2007-09-03T14:53:42Z

85.18.14.7: /* Websites */ corrected the website address...

{{Football player infobox
| playername = Corrado Grabbi
| image =
| fullname = Corrado Grabbi
| height = {{height|ft=5|in=10}}
| nickname = Ciccio & Francesco Grabbi
| dateofbirth = {{birth date and age|1975|07|29}}
| cityofbirth = [[Turin]]
| countryofbirth = [[Italy]]
| currentclub = [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]]
| clubnumber = 5
| position = [[Striker]]
| youthyears =
| youthclubs =
| years = 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995-1996 1995-1996 1996-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2001-2002 2002-2004 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2007 2006-2007
| clubs = [[Sparta|Sparta]] [[Juventus F.C.]] [[A.S. Lucchese]] [[A.C. ChievoVerona]] [[Modena F.C.]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Ravenna|Ravenna]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Blackburn Rovers F.C|Blackburn Rovers]] → [[F.C. Messina]]''(loan)'' [[Blackburn Rovers F.C|Blackburn Rovers]] [[A.C. Ancona]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Genoa|Genoa C.F.C]] [[A.C. Arezzo]]
| caps(goals) = 31 (8) 2 (1) 8 (1) 18 (2) 58 (30) 14 (2) 29 (13) 34 (20) 14 (1) 12 (4) 16 (1) 7 (0) 13 (1) 25 (8) 0 (0) 
| nationalyears = 2002
| nationalteam = [[Italy national football team|Italy]]
| nationalcaps(goals) = {{0}}{{0}}1 {{0}}(0)
| pcupdate = 17:19, 25 February 2007 (UTC)
| ntupdate = 19/10/2006
}}
'''Corrado Grabbi''' also credited as '''Ciccio Grabbi''' and '''Francesco Grabbi''' (born on [[July 29]], [[1975]] in [[Turin]]) is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] player. He plays as a [[striker]].

Grabbi began his career with [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]], scoring once in two appearances in the [[1994]]-[[1995]] season. Unable to break into the team, he moved to [[A.S. Lucchese-Libertas|Lucchese]] (76 games, 8 goals) and then [[A.C. ChievoVerona|Chievo]] (18 games, 2 goals) before switching to [[Modena F.C.|Modena]]. There he found some real form, scoring 58 times in 70 appearances. This performance saw him signed by [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]]. There he was again a regular scorer, with 61 goals in 84 games.

This saw him signed by [[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]] for a fee of £6.75 million in July [[2001-02 in English football|2001]], but he failed to repeat this progress, scoring just once in fourteen games. A loan spell back in Italy with [[F.C. Messina Peloro|Messina]] failed to reignite his form, and after a further 8 games (yielding nine more goals), he was allowed to return to Italy permanently with [[A.C. Ancona|Ancona]] in [[2003]]. He is currently playing for [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club|Genoa]] of [[Serie C|Serie C1/A]] since September [[2005]]. He obtained with his new team a promotion to Serie B on playoffs. Before the return playoff final, Grabbi announced he was considering to retire from football, because of his physical conditions, but later he declared he was persuaded to go on by the Genoa supporters and fellow players, and club president [[Enrico Preziosi]].

Available during the 2007 winter transfer window, Grabbi signed for [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]], still in [[Serie B]], after having never made a single appearance in the first half of the season for Genoa.
After relegating with Arezzo in Serie C1 and scoring no goals, Grabbi signed a new contract with AC Bellinzona a team from the Swiss Challenge League.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Grabbi, Corrado}}
{{Italy-footy-striker-stub}}

==Websites==
* http://www.acbellinzona.ch
* http://corradograbbi.blogspot.com/

[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Italian footballers]]
[[Category:Juventus F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.S. Lucchese-Libertas players]]
[[Category:A.C. ChievoVerona players]]
[[Category:Modena F.C. players]]
[[Category:Ternana Calcio players]]
[[Category:Blackburn Rovers F.C. players]]
[[Category:F.C. Messina Peloro players]]
[[Category:A.C. Ancona players]]
[[Category:Genoa C.F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.C. Arezzo players]]
[[Category:Premier League players]]

[[it:Corrado Grabbi]]

Corrado Grabbi

2007-09-02T01:53:46Z

85.18.14.7: added grabbi's new team

{{Football player infobox
| playername = Corrado Grabbi
| image =
| fullname = Corrado Grabbi
| height = {{height|ft=5|in=10}}
| nickname = Ciccio & Francesco Grabbi
| dateofbirth = {{birth date and age|1975|07|29}}
| cityofbirth = [[Turin]]
| countryofbirth = [[Italy]]
| currentclub = [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]]
| clubnumber = 5
| position = [[Striker]]
| youthyears =
| youthclubs =
| years = 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995-1996 1995-1996 1996-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2001-2002 2002-2004 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2007 2006-2007
| clubs = [[Sparta|Sparta]] [[Juventus F.C.]] [[A.S. Lucchese]] [[A.C. ChievoVerona]] [[Modena F.C.]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Ravenna|Ravenna]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Blackburn Rovers F.C|Blackburn Rovers]] → [[F.C. Messina]]''(loan)'' [[Blackburn Rovers F.C|Blackburn Rovers]] [[A.C. Ancona]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Genoa|Genoa C.F.C]] [[A.C. Arezzo]]
| caps(goals) = 31 (8) 2 (1) 8 (1) 18 (2) 58 (30) 14 (2) 29 (13) 34 (20) 14 (1) 12 (4) 16 (1) 7 (0) 13 (1) 25 (8) 0 (0) 
| nationalyears = 2002
| nationalteam = [[Italy national football team|Italy]]
| nationalcaps(goals) = {{0}}{{0}}1 {{0}}(0)
| pcupdate = 17:19, 25 February 2007 (UTC)
| ntupdate = 19/10/2006
}}
'''Corrado Grabbi''' also credited as '''Ciccio Grabbi''' and '''Francesco Grabbi''' (born on [[July 29]], [[1975]] in [[Turin]]) is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] player. He plays as a [[striker]].

Grabbi began his career with [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]], scoring once in two appearances in the [[1994]]-[[1995]] season. Unable to break into the team, he moved to [[A.S. Lucchese-Libertas|Lucchese]] (76 games, 8 goals) and then [[A.C. ChievoVerona|Chievo]] (18 games, 2 goals) before switching to [[Modena F.C.|Modena]]. There he found some real form, scoring 58 times in 70 appearances. This performance saw him signed by [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]]. There he was again a regular scorer, with 61 goals in 84 games.

This saw him signed by [[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]] for a fee of £6.75 million in July [[2001-02 in English football|2001]], but he failed to repeat this progress, scoring just once in fourteen games. A loan spell back in Italy with [[F.C. Messina Peloro|Messina]] failed to reignite his form, and after a further 8 games (yielding nine more goals), he was allowed to return to Italy permanently with [[A.C. Ancona|Ancona]] in [[2003]]. He is currently playing for [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club|Genoa]] of [[Serie C|Serie C1/A]] since September [[2005]]. He obtained with his new team a promotion to Serie B on playoffs. Before the return playoff final, Grabbi announced he was considering to retire from football, because of his physical conditions, but later he declared he was persuaded to go on by the Genoa supporters and fellow players, and club president [[Enrico Preziosi]].

Available during the 2007 winter transfer window, Grabbi signed for [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]], still in [[Serie B]], after having never made a single appearance in the first half of the season for Genoa.
After relegating with Arezzo in Serie C1 and scoring no goals, Grabbi signed a new contract with AC Bellinzona a team from the Swiss Challenge League.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Grabbi, Corrado}}
{{Italy-footy-striker-stub}}

==Websites==
* http://www.ackbellinzona.ch
* http://corradograbbi.blogspot.com/

[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Italian footballers]]
[[Category:Juventus F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.S. Lucchese-Libertas players]]
[[Category:A.C. ChievoVerona players]]
[[Category:Modena F.C. players]]
[[Category:Ternana Calcio players]]
[[Category:Blackburn Rovers F.C. players]]
[[Category:F.C. Messina Peloro players]]
[[Category:A.C. Ancona players]]
[[Category:Genoa C.F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.C. Arezzo players]]
[[Category:Premier League players]]

[[it:Corrado Grabbi]]

Multi-Purpose Logistics Module

2007-07-29T12:06:43Z

85.18.14.7: /* Scheduled missions */

[[Image:mplm_in_shuttle.jpg|thumbnail|250px|[[March 10]] [[2001]] - The Leonardo Multi Purpose Logistics Module rests in [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'s payload bay in this view taken from the [[International Space Station|ISS]] by a crew member using a digital still camera during [[STS-102]].]]
[[Image:STS-114 Raffaello module.jpg|thumb|250px|Raffaello module docked to the ISS during [[STS-114]] mission]]
[[Image:Yuri Gidzenko ISS Leonardo Module.jpg|thumb|250px|[[March 21]] [[2001]] - Cosmonaut [[Yuri Gidzenko|Yuri P. Gidzenko]] is dwarfed by transient hardware aboard Leonardo.]]

A '''Multi-Purpose Logistics Module''' (MPLM) is a large pressurized container used on [[Space Shuttle]] missions to transfer cargo to and from the [[International Space Station]] (ISS). It is carried in the cargo bay of the [[Space Shuttle]] and berthed to the [[Unity Module]], where supplies are offloaded and finished experiments and waste are loaded. The MPLM is then reberthed in the Shuttle for return to [[Earth]].

The MPLMs are provided to [[NASA]] under contract by the [[Italian Space Agency]] (ASI). Three MPLMs have been delivered to NASA and have names chosen by the ASI to denote some of the great talents in Italian history: ''[[Leonardo]]'', ''[[Raffaello]]'', and ''[[Donatello]]''. While built by ASI, the MPLMs are owned by NASA. In exchange for building the MPLMs, ASI receives access to U.S. research time on the ISS.[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/mplm.html]

The MPLM was originally designed for [[Space Station Freedom]]. Initially, it was to be built by [[Boeing]], but in 1992, the Italians announced that they would build a "Mini-Pressurized Logistics Module," able to carry 4500 kg of cargo. After the 1993 redesign, the length was doubled and it was renamed the "Multi-Purpose Logistics Module." Each empty MPLM is approximately 21 feet long, 15 feet in diameter, weighs 4.5 tons, and can deliver up to 10 tons of cargo to the ISS.

''Donatello'' is a more capable module than its two siblings, as it is capable of carrying powered payloads. It will only fly once, and it will be flown on [[STS-128]]. In this mission, ''Donatello'' will deliver equipment for enlarging the station crew from three to six astronauts.

With the early end of the Space Shuttle program in 2010, the three modules will fly just ten times based on the current schedule.

==Completed missions==

{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
! '''Launch Date'''
! '''Mission'''
! '''Shuttle'''
! '''MPLM'''
|-
| [[March 8]], [[2001]]
| [[STS-102]]
| [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]
| ''Leonardo''
|-
| [[April 19]], [[2001]]
| [[STS-100]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| ''Raffaello''
|-
| [[August 10]], [[2001]]
| [[STS-105]]
| [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]
| ''Leonardo''
|-
| [[December 5]], [[2001]]
| [[STS-108]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| ''Raffaello''
|-
| [[June 5]], [[2002]]
| [[STS-111]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| ''Leonardo''
|-
| [[July 26]], [[2005]]
| [[STS-114]]
| [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]
| ''Raffaello''
|-
| [[July 4]], [[2006]]
| [[STS-121]]
| [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]
| ''Leonardo''
|}

==Scheduled missions==

{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
! '''Launch Date'''
! '''Mission'''
! '''Shuttle'''
! '''MPLM'''
|-
| NET October 2008
| [[STS-126]] ISS ULF2
| Endeavour
| ''Leonardo''
|-
| NET April 2009
| [[STS-128]] ISS 17A
| Endeavour
| ''Donatello''
|-
| NET November 2009
| [[STS-130]] ISS 19A
| Endeavour
| ''Raffaello''
|}
NET: No Earlier Than

==Specifications==
*'''Length''' - 6.4 m
*'''Width''' - 4.57 m
*'''Mass''' - 4,082 kg empty; 13,154 kg loaded

==External links==
*[http://mplm.msfc.nasa.gov NASA website on the MPLMs]

{{ISS modules}}

[[Category:International Space Station]]

[[de:Multi-Purpose Logistics Module]]
[[hu:Multi-Purpose Logistics Module]]
[[it:Multi-Purpose Logistics Module]]
[[ja:多目的補給モジュール]]
[[pl:Wielofunkcyjny Moduł Logistyczny]]
[[pt:Módulo de Logística Multifuncional]]

Rebetiko

2007-07-12T00:15:07Z

85.18.14.7:

'''Rebetiko''', plural '''rebetika''', ([[Greek language|Greek]] '''ρεμπέτικο''' and '''ρεμπέτικα''' respectively) is the name for a type of urban [[Greece|Greek]] music.

''Rebetika'' were the songs of the Greek underground, sung by the so-called ''rebetes'' (Greek: ''ρεμπέτης''). ''Rebetes'' were unconventional people who lived outside the social order. They first appeared after the [[Greek War of Independence]] of [[1821]].

The songs, often compared to genres like American [[blues]], are full of grief, passion, romance, and bitterness. They are generally melancholic songs telling of the misfortunes of simple ordinary men. Many early rebetic songs were about drugs, especially [[Hashish]] which led Rebetiko to be criminalized. Not until 1947, when [[Manos Hadjidakis]] introduced Rebetika to the upper classes, were these songs accepted as a music style. [[Damianakos Stathis]] noted that the rebetic songs of the first period were mostly the singing expression of [[lumpenproletariat]]. A lot of the rebetika songs are for dancing, [[zeibekiko]] and [[chasapiko]] being very common but they also include [[tsifteteli]], [[karsilamas]] and other dance styles.

== History ==
''See also: [[Timeline of Rebetika]]''

[[Elias Petropoulos]], one of the principal historians of the rebetic style, divides the history of the style into three periods:
* [[1922]]–[[1932]] — the era when rebetika emerged from its roots in the music of [[Smyrna]] (İzmir in modern day Turkey)
* [[1932]]–[[1942]] — the classical period
* [[1942]]–[[1952]] — the era of discovery, spread, and acceptance.

=== Prehistory ===
The roots of rebetic song may be found in the music of the coastal settlements of [[Asia Minor]], or ''Mikr'asia'' in Greek, [[Anatolia]] in English or ''Anadolu'' in Turkish, that of [[Constantinople]] or [[Istanbul]], and also in the prisons; the existence of which is attested from the middle of the nineteenth century.

At the end of the 19th century the [[Cafe Aman]] arrived in Greece and Asia Minor. These were [[coffeehouse]]s in which the habitués amused themselves with lively music. These rooms constituted one of the cradles of rebetic song — along with the [[prison]], the [[tavern]], and the [[hashish]] den.

=== The mastery period & its Smyrnian roots ===
[[1922]] was the year of the [[Asia Minor Disaster]], which was followed by population exhanges in accordance with the [[Treaty of Lausanne]]. Many Asia Minor Greeks were settled in the larger cites of Greece, bringing with them their traditional music.

From the admixture of the music of Asia Minor with elements from Greece proper, the rebetic style came into being. In this period, the themes of the rebetika revolved mainly around love songs and songs with references to illicit activities (such as narcotics). The influences of the music of [[Smyrna]] or [[İzmir]] were profound, given their unrivalled pathos, and at certain times it is difficult to distinguish the rebetic song from the Smyrnian.

=== The "classical" period ===
Gradually the rebetic variety acquired its own peculiar character. In [[1932]], the first recordings of rebetika arrived, made by [[Markos Vamvakaris]]. In [[1936]] began the dictatorship of [[Ioannis Metaxas]] and with it, the onset of [[censorship]].

Consequently the album was sanitized and the references to narcotics, opium, etc. vanished from the recordings. Yet the recording of illicit themes continued, for in that period a great number of Greeks emigrated to the [[United States of America|United States]], and with the emigrants went their rebetika. Many noteworthy songs were recorded, while a synthesis of Greek and foreign music produced many new musical varieties.

== Instruments ==
The basic instruments for the performance of rebetic song are the [[bouzouki]], [[baglamas]] (or [[baglama]] in Turkish) and whatever similar instruments one might care to include (e.g. the [[tzouras]]). Additional instruments used include the [[tambourine]] (or [[tambur]] in Turkish), [[violin]], [[accordion]], [[guitar]], [[toubeleki|tonbak]], finger-[[cymbals]] (comparable to [[castanets]]). In a few older recordings, something like clattering glass may be heard. It is a matter of some debate whether the sound is possibly produced by the striking of [[worry beads]] against a drinking glass. Some ''[[manges]]'' are in the habit of making the sound in their music with that method, a practice which was passed on and occurs in some modern recordings.

== Famous performers ==
Some of the main rebetiko singers and creators include [[Panagiotis Tountas]], [[Vaggelis Papazoglou]], [[Giannis Eitziridis]] and [[Manolis Chrisafakis]]. The next generation included [[Markos Vamvakaris]], [[Kostas Skarvelis]], [[Giannis Papaioannou]] Kostas Kaplanis and [[Vassilis Tsitsanis]].

*[[Rita Abatzi]]
*[[Grigoris Asikis]]
*[[Apostolos Chatzikhristos]]
*[[Manolis Chrisafakis]]
*[[Anna Chrisafi]]
*[[Yiorgos Batis]]
*[[Sotiria Belou]]
*[[Loukas Daralas]]
*[[Roza Eskenazi]]
*[[Mikhalis Genitsaris]]
*[[Babis Goles]]
*[[Dimitris Gogos]] (Bayanderas)
*[[Antonios Katinaris]]
*[[Maria Katinari]]
*[[Georgios Ksintaris]]
*[[Marika Ninou]]
*[[Marika Papagika]]
*[[Yiannis Papaioannou]]
*[[Vangelis Papazoglou]]
*[[Stratos Payoumtzis]]
*[[Stelios Perpiniadis]]
*[[Kostas Roukounas]]
*[[Kostas Skarvelis]]
*[[Yovan Tsaous]]
*[[Prodromos Tsaousakis]]
*[[Vassilis Tsitsanis]]
*[[Michalis Jenitzaris]]
*[[Markos Vamvakaris]]

*[[Marika Kanaropoulou (Tourkalitsa, Brousalia)]]

== See also ==
*''[[Rebetiko (film)]]'' — a film by [[Costas Ferris]]
*[[Rebetes]]
*[[List of rebetic songs]]
*[[List of dances ]]
*[[List of dances sorted by ethnicity]]

==Further reading==
*Damianakos Stathis, ''Κοινωνιολογία του Ρεμπέτικου'' 2nd Edition. Athens, Plethron, 2001.
*Gauntlett Stathis, ''Rebetika, Carmina Graeciae Recentoris''. Athens, D. Harvey and Co., 1985.
*[[Manos Hadjidakis|Hadjidakis Manos]], ''Ερμηνεία και θέση του ρεμπέτικου τραγουδιού''. 1949.
*Holst-Warhaft Gail, [http://www.anagnosis.gr/index.php?pageID=41&la=eng&page=3 ''Road to Rembetika: Music of a Greek sub-culture, songs of love, sorrow and hashish,''] Athens, Denise Harvey, 1989
*Kotarides Nikos, ''Ρεμπέτες και ρεμπέτικο τραγούδι''. Athens, Plethron, 1996.
*Kounades Panagiotis, ''Εις ανάμνησιν στιγμών ελκυστικών''. Athens, Katarti, 2000.
*[[Elias Petropoulos|Petropoulos Elias]], ''Ρεμπέτικα τραγούδια''. Athens, 1968.

==External links==
*[http://www.greekradio.net/meta/rebetiko.wvx''Se Xrono Rebetiko Kai Laiko''] (Audio file) A weekly syndicated Greek radio show on Rebetika music hosted by [http://exploringmedia.com/about''Photi Sotiropoulos''] and written by Vlassis Kokonis
*[http://www.greecetravel.com/music/rembetika/ Rembetika and Greek Popular Music] Extensive article by Matt Barrett
*[http://www.rebetiko.gr Rebetiko On-line]There you can read a brief introduction in Greek and English, see many photos and listen 24h a day live rebetika music
*[http://www.falireas.com Falireas Productions - Greek Traditional Music]Greek record label specializing in traditional Greek music styles such as rebetiko, smyrnaiko, music from Epirus etc.

{{Rembetika}}



[[Category:Greek music]]
[[Category:Rebetiko|*]]
[[Category:Greek dances]]
[[Category:European folk dances]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern culture]]
[[ast:Rembetika]]
[[bg:Ребетико]]
[[da:Rembetika]]
[[de:Rembetiko]]
[[el:Ρεμπέτικη μουσική]]
[[es:Rebético]]
[[fr:Rebetiko]]
[[he:רמבטיקו]]
[[hu:Rembetika]]
[[it:Rebetiko]]
[[nl:Rebetika]]
[[sr:Rebetiko]]
[[sv:Rebetiko]]
[[tr:Rebetika]]

G.723.1

2007-07-02T20:50:02Z

85.18.14.7: /* Licensing */

'''G.723.1''' is an audio [[codec]] for voice that compresses voice audio in 30 ms frames. An algorithmic look-ahead of 7.5 ms duration means that total algorithmic delay is 37.5 ms.

Note that this is a completely different codec from [[G.723]].

There are two [[bit rate]]s at which G.723.1 can operate:
* 6.3 kbit/s (using 24 byte frames) using a [[MPC-MLQ]] algorithm ([[Mean Opinion Score|MOS]] 3.9)
* 5.3 kbit/s (using 20 byte frames) using an [[ACELP]] algorithm ([[Mean Opinion Score|MOS]] 3.62)

== Use ==
G.723.1 is mostly used in Voice over IP ([[VoIP]]) applications due to its low bandwidth requirement. Music or tones such as [[DTMF]] or [[fax]] tones cannot be transported reliably with this codec, and thus some other method such as [[G.711]] or [[out-of-band signaling|out-of-band]] methods should be used to transport these signals. The complexity of the algorithm is below 16 MIPS. 2.2 kilobytes of RAM is needed for codebooks.

== Features ==
* Sampling frequency 8 kHz/16-bit (240 samples for 30 ms frames)
* Fixed bit rate (5.3 kbit/s with 20 byte 30 ms frames, 6.3 kbit/s with 24 byte 30 ms frames)
* Fixed frame size for each rate (5.3 kbit/s with 20 byte 30 ms frames, 6.3 kbit/s with 24 byte 30 ms frames)
* Algorithmic delay is 37.5 ms per frame, with 7,5 ms look-ahead delay
* G.723 is a hybrid speech coder, with low bit rate using Multi-Pulse Maximum Likelihood Quantization (MP-MLQ) and high bit rate using Algebraic Code Excited Linear Prediction (ACELP)
* The complexity of the algorithm is rated at 25, using a relative scale where [[G.711]] is 1 and [[G.729a]] is 15.
* G.723.1 Annex A defines 4 byte Silence Insertion Descriptor (SID) frame for [[Comfort_noise|Comfort Noise Generation]]
* [[PSQM]] [http://www.vocal.com/psqm_data.html testing] under ideal conditions yields [[Mean_Opinion_Score|Mean Opinion Scores]] of 4.08 for G.723.1 (6.3 kbit/s), compared to 4.45 for [[G.711]] ([[μ-law]])
*[[PSQM]] [http://www.vocal.com/psqm_data.html testing] under network stress yields [[Mean_Opinion_Score|Mean Opinion Scores]] of 3.57 for G.723.1 (6.3 kbit/s), compared to 4.13 for [[G.711]] (μ-law)

== Licensing ==
Use of G.723.1 requires a license for the patents that cover the algorithm. The last patent will expire in 2014.

== See also ==
* [[G.711]]
* [[G.722]]
* [[G.722.1]]
* [[G.726]]
* [[G.728]]
* [[G.729]]
* [[List of codecs]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.vocal.com/psqm_data.html Tables] of PSQM/PSQM+ derived [[Mean_Opinion_Score|MOS]] values for different [[:Category:Speech_codecs|speech codecs]]
* [http://www.itu.int/itudoc/itu-t/patents/database/pat-list.pdf ITU Patent database]
* [http://www.sipro.com/g7231.php Sipro administers the patent pool for G.723.1 and G.729]

[[Category:Audio codecs]]
[[Category:Speech codecs]]
[[Category:ITU-T recommendations]]

{{Compression Formats}}

[[pl:G.723.1]]
[[ru:G.723.1]]

Digital Access Signalling System 2

2007-04-18T01:12:47Z

85.18.14.7:

'''Digital Access Signaling System 2''' ('''DASS2''') is an obsolescent [[protocol (computing)|protocol]] defined by [[British Telecom]] for digital links to [[PSTN]] based on [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]]. Although still available on request, it has been superseded by [[ETS 300]] ("EuroISDN").

DASS2 is an improved version over [[DASS1]], based on experiences with [[DPNSS]].

In the UK, the ISDN concept was first introduced to customers by BT with their
DASS2 connections. DASS2 (Digital Access Signalling System) is a BT designed
signalling standard. It was introduced before the [[Q.931]] standard was finalised
by the International Community. British Telecom used the term ISDN when
describing their DASS2 lines.

DASS2 lines are provided to the customer on a 2Mb/s link and can handle 30
simultaneous calls (64Kb/s each). DASS2 is still offered by BT and other UK
carriers. Q.931 is the name of the [[CCITT]] document that describes the agreed
signaling format for International ISDN. The CCITT used to be International
Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee. This is the organization that set out the internationally agreed standards for telecommunications. This organization has
subsequently evolved into the ITU. In the United Kingdom the Q.931 based
protocol is [[ETS 300]] (also known as Euro ISDN). This is a very close
implementation of the original CCITT specification. This is a 2Mb/s service as
with DASS2 but the feature capability is far greater and has negated the
problems associated with DASS2 including echo problems and circuit spikes. In
the UK both DASS 2 and Euro ISDN (ETS 300) lines are available to customers with EuroISDN as the preferred signaling type. Customers will normally choose
the desired signalling system, as this will be dictated by their CPE equipment,
usually a PABX. (CPE- Customer Premises equipment)

Most modern PABXs can handle many different types of signalling system, however
the trend seems to be away from the DASS2 which is no longer being developed by
BT and have been known to deny problems with their DASS2 circuits, and move
towards the internationally recognized Q.931 standard. The Q.931 standard is an
international standard utilized by many countries telephony service providers.

The CCITT specify the standards for the Layer 1,2 and layer 3 signalling
messages. The Layer 3 messages are the messages that actually control the call
setup, teardown, and routing.

The Layer 3 messages or Call Control messages are the minimum messages that must
be understood by the interfacing equipment. Individual service providers may
publish their own documentation that details further messages that will be
transported in addition to Q.931 messages. There are a number of additional
European documents that cover supplementary services. These cover features that
may be instigated by exchanges via the ISDN and require a higher degree of Layer 3 implementation.

==See also==
*[[DSS1]] ([[ETSI]] "[[Europe|Euro]]-ISDN", also used in many non-European countries)
*[[DSS2]] (Digital Subscriber Signalling System No. 2) - enhanced DSS1.

[[Category:Integrated Services Digital Network]]

Short Belfast

2007-04-05T21:05:05Z

85.18.14.7:

{{infobox Aircraft
|name = Belfast
|type = heavy airfrieghter
|manufacturer = [[Short Brothers]]
|image = Image:Short Belfast G-BEPS - HeavyLift.jpg
|caption = The Short Belfast G-BEPS ''Theseus'' of HeavyLift Cargo Airlines
|designer =
|first flight = [[5 January]] [[1964]]
|introduced =
|retired = from RAF service [[1976]]
|status =
|primary user = RAF
|more users = HeavyLift Cargo Airlines<ref name=HAC>http://heavyliftcargo.com/</ref>
|produced = 
|number built = 10
|unit cost =
|variants with their own articles =
}}

The '''Short Belfast''' is a heavy lift [[turboprop]] [[freighter]] built by [[Short Brothers]] at [[Belfast]]. Only 10 were built for the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Air Force]] with the designation '''Short Belfast C1'''. When they were retired by the RAF 5 went into civilian service with the [[cargo airline]] HeavyLift Cargo Airlines.<ref name=HAC/> Three aircraft remain in existence, one of which is on display at the [[Royal Air Force Museum|RAF Museum Cosford]]

==History==

The Belfast was developed to meet a Royal Air Force requirement for a freighter capable of carrying a wide range of military loads over long ranges. The military loads envisaged included including [[artillery]], more than 200 troops, [[helicopters]], and [[guided missiles]]. Shorts design was based on studies they had worked on in late [[1950s]] and the project started as the SC.5/10 in February 1959. From that design, the prototype Belfast first flew on [[5 January]] [[1964]]. The aircraft was flown by Shorts' chief test pilot Denis Taylor, the crew consisted of Peter Lowe (2nd pilot), Malcolm Wild (engineer), Ricky Steel (flt. engineer), Bill Mortimer (radio operator & navigator), Alex Mackenzie and Gil Thomas (flt. observers).<ref>Flight International, No. 2862, Vol. 85, 16 January 1964, p. 97.</ref>

The Belfast was unusual in being only the second aircraft type to be built equipped with [[autoland]] blind landing equipment.

To meet the demands of the specification the Belfast used a high wing carrying four [[Rolls-Royce Limited|Rolls-Royce]] [[Rolls-Royce Tyne|Tyne]] [[turboprop]]s. The cargo deck 64 ft long in a fuselage over 18 feet in diameter (roomy enough for two single deck [[bus]]es) was reached through a "beaver tail" rear loading doors and ramp. The main undercarriage was two 8-wheel bogies and a 2-wheel nose. The Belfast was capable of a maximum takeoff weight of over 220,500 lb (100 [[tonne]]s) but still less than the contemporaneous 250 tonne all-up [[Antonov An-22]] and the 128 tonne [[Douglas Aircraft Company|Douglas]] [[C-133 Cargomaster]]. It could carry 150 troops with full equipment, or a [[Chieftain tank|Chieftain]] [[tank]] or two [[Westland Wessex]] helicopters.

==Service==
Thirty planes had been planned but only 10 were ordered. The Belfast entered service with [[No. 53 Squadron RAF]] in January 1966. All ten were retired in 1976. TAC Heavylift then purchased 5 of them for commercial use in 1977, and operated three of them from [[1980]] after they had received work so they could be certificated to civil standards. Ironically, some of them were later charted during the [[Falklands war]], with some sources suggesting that this cost more than keeping all the aircraft in RAF service until the [[1990]]s.{{ref|commercialaircraft}} One aircraft is still flying (2007) in Australia for [[Heavylift Cargo Airlines|HeavyLift Cargo Airlines]]; it is often clearly visible parked on the General Aviation side of [[Cairns International Airport]] in [[Queensland]], in company with one or two 727s. A Short Belfast remaining in the UK can be found in the RAF Cosford Aerospace Museum, where it has been displayed since October 1978.<ref>[http://www.historyofaircargo.com/i-RAF-Short-Belfast-C1.-RAF-Museum.html Image at www.HistoryofAirCargo.com]</ref>

==Aircraft==
All 10 Belfasts were named:

* ''[[Samson]]'' - RAF Serial XR362 (used registration G-ASKE for overseas test flight), sold as G-BEPE then scrapped
* ''[[Goliath]]'' - RAF Serial XR363, sold as G-OHCA then scrapped
* ''[[Pallas]]'' - RAF Serial XR364, sold as scrap to [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls-Royce]] who recovered the Tyne engines
* ''[[Hector]]'' - RAF Serial XR365, sold as G-HLFT then as 9L-LDQ operating with HeavyLift Cargo Ailines (see reference) (2005)
* ''[[Atlas]]'' - RAF Serial XR366, sold to RR for engines
* ''[[Heracles]]'' - RAF Serial XR367 - sold as G-BFYU then scrapped
* ''[[Theseus]]'' - RAF Serial XR368, sold as G-BEPS then in storage at [[Southend Airport]] - under restoration to fly with HeavyLift Cargo Airlines (see reference)
* ''[[Spartacus]]'' - RAF Serial XR369, sold as G-BEPL then scrapped
* ''[[Ajax the Great|Ajax]]'' - RAF Serial XR370, sold to RR for engines
* ''[[Enceladus (mythology)|Enceladus]]''- RAF Serial XR371, preserved as an exhibit at [[RAF Museum Cosford]]

==Military operators==
* [[United Kingdom]]
** [[Royal Air Force]].
*** [[No. 53 Squadron RAF]]

==Civil operators==
* TAC HeavyLift
* HeavyLift Cargo Airlines

==Specifications (Belfast CMk.1)==
{{aircraft specifications

|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=prop

|ref=

|crew=Basic aircrew 4 (2 pilots, engineer & navigator/radio operator) plus reserve crew
|capacity= 11,750 cu. ft.
|payload main=80,000 lb
|payload alt=36,288 kg
|length main= 136 ft 5 in
|length alt=41.70 m
|span main=158 ft 10 in
|span alt=48.1 m
|span sweep=
|height main=47 ft
|height alt=14.33 m
|area main= 2,466 ft²
|area alt= 229.1 m²
|airfoil=
|empty weight main= 130,000 lb
|empty weight alt= 59,020 kg
|loaded weight main=
|loaded weight alt=
|useful load main=
|useful load alt=
|max takeoff weight main=230,000 lb
|max takeoff weight alt= 104,300 kg
|more general=
|engine (prop)=[[Rolls-Royce Tyne]] R.Ty.12, Mk. 101 turboprops,
|type of prop= Hawker Siddeley Dynamics 4/7000/fully-feathering airscrews of 16 ft. diam.
|number of props=4
|power main= 5,730 ehp
|power alt=4,270 kW
|power original=
|max speed main=
|max speed alt=
|cruise speed main= 358 mph
|cruise speed alt= 576 km/h
|stall speed main=
|stall speed alt=
|never exceed speed main=
|never exceed speed alt=
|range main= 5,200 miles (with capacity fuel load of 80,720 lb)
|range alt= 8,368 km
|ceiling main= 30,000 ft
|ceiling alt= 9,100 m
|climb rate main= 1,060 ft/min
|climb rate alt=
|loading main=
|loading alt=
|thrust/weight=
|power/mass main=
|power/mass alt=
|more performance=*'''Range with maximum payload:''' 970 miles (1,560 km)
|armament=

|avionics=

}}

==References==

<references/>

== External links ==
*[http://www.britishaircraft.co.uk/aircraftpage.php?ID=37 Shorts Belfast specifications]
*[http://heavyliftcargo.com/belfastcap.htm Shorts Belfast capabilities]
*[http://www.airliners.net/info/stats.main?id=355 Shorts Belfast specs and history at airliners.net]
*[http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/short-brothers-belfast-ci.htm Shorts Belfast XR371 "Encedalus" at RAF Museum]
*[http://www.airliners.net/search/photo.search?regsearch=XR371&distinct_entry=true Shorts Belfast XR371 "Encedalus" photo gallery at airliners.net]
*[http://www.abpic.co.uk/search.php?q=XR371&u=reg Shorts Belfast XR371 "Encedalus" photo gallery at Air-Britain Photos]
*[http://www.flightglobal.com/Articles/2007/01/04/Navigation/177/211367/Picture+Second+Shorts+SC-5+Belfast+oversized+freighter+restored+for+17%2c000km+ferry+flight+and.html Second Shorts SC-5 Belfast goes from UK to Australia to reenter service]

==Notes==
# {{note|commercialaircraft}} Robert Hewson (Ed.) (2001). ''Commercial Aircraft and Airliners'' (2nd ed). Aerospace Publishing Ltd and Airlife Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-84037-064-5

==Related content==
{{aircontent

|related=


|similar aircraft=


|sequence= - [[Short SC.1]] - [[Shorts SC.7 Skyvan]]- '''Belfast''' - [[Shorts 330]]


|lists=[[List of aircraft of the RAF]]


|see also=

}}

{{airlistbox}}
{{aero-specs}}

[[Category:British military transport aircraft 1960-1969]]
[[Category:Short Brothers aircraft|Belfast]]

[[it:Short Belfast]]
[[sv:Short Belfast]]

Corrado Grabbi

2007-03-25T19:21:00Z

85.18.14.7: edited websites title

{{Football player infobox
| playername = Corrado Grabbi
| image =
| fullname = Corrado Grabbi
| height = 5ft 10in
| nickname = Ciccio & Francesco Grabbi
| dateofbirth = {{birth date and age|1975|07|29}}
| cityofbirth = [[Turin]]
| countryofbirth = [[Italy]]
| currentclub = [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]]
| clubnumber = 5
| position = [[Striker]]
| youthyears =
| youthclubs =
| years = 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995-1996 1995-1996 1996-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2001-2002 2002-2004 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2007 2006-2007
| clubs = [[Sparta|Sparta]] [[Juventus F.C.]] [[A.S. Lucchese]] [[A.C. ChievoVerona]] [[Modena F.C.]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Ravenna|Ravenna]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Blackburn Rovers F.C|Blackburn Rovers]] → [[F.C. Messina]]''(loan)'' [[Blackburn Rovers F.C|Blackburn Rovers]] [[A.C. Ancona]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Genoa|Genoa C.F.C]] [[A.C. Arezzo]]
| caps(goals) = 31 (8) 2 (1) 8 (1) 18 (2) 58 (30) 14 (2) 29 (13) 34 (20) 14 (1) 12 (4) 16 (1) 7 (0) 13 (1) 25 (8) 0 (0) 
| nationalyears = 2002
| nationalteam = [[Italy national football team|Italy]]
| nationalcaps(goals) = {{0}}{{0}}1 {{0}}(0)
| pcupdate = 17:19, 25 February 2007 (UTC)
| ntupdate = 19/10/2006
}}
'''Corrado Grabbi''' also credited as '''Ciccio Grabbi''' and '''Francesco Grabbi''' (born on [[July 29]], [[1975]] in [[Turin]]) is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] player. He plays as a [[striker]].

Grabbi began his career with [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]], scoring once in two appearances in the [[1994]]-[[1995]] season. Unable to break into the team, he moved to [[A.S. Lucchese-Libertas|Lucchese]] (76 games, 8 goals) and then [[A.C. ChievoVerona|Chievo]] (18 games, 2 goals) before switching to [[Modena F.C.|Modena]]. There he found some real form, scoring 58 times in 70 appearances. This performance saw him signed by [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]]. There he was again a regular scorer, with 61 goals in 84 games.

This saw him signed by [[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]] for a fee of £6.75 million in July [[2001-02 in English football|2001]], but he failed to repeat this progress, scoring just once in fourteen games. A loan spell back in Italy with [[F.C. Messina Peloro|Messina]] failed to reignite his form, and after a further 8 games (yielding nine more goals), he was allowed to return to Italy permanently with [[A.C. Ancona|Ancona]] in [[2003]]. He is currently playing for [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club|Genoa]] of [[Serie C|Serie C1/A]] since September [[2005]]. He obtained with his new team a promotion to Serie B on playoffs. Before the return playoff final, Grabbi announced he was considering to retire from football, because of his physical conditions, but later he declared he was persuaded to go on by the Genoa supporters and fellow players, and club president [[Enrico Preziosi]].

Available during the 2007 winter transfer window, Grabbi signed for [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]], still in [[Serie B]], after having never made a single appearance in the first half of the season for Genoa.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Grabbi, Corrado}}
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Italian footballers]]
[[Category:Juventus F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.S. Lucchese-Libertas players]]
[[Category:A.C. ChievoVerona players]]
[[Category:Modena F.C. players]]
[[Category:Ternana Calcio players]]
[[Category:Blackburn Rovers F.C. players]]
[[Category:F.C. Messina Peloro players]]
[[Category:A.C. Ancona players]]
[[Category:Genoa C.F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.C. Arezzo players]]
[[Category:FA Premier League players]]
{{Italy-footybio-stub}}

[[it:Corrado Grabbi]]

==Websites==
* http://www.arezzocalcio.it/squadra/squadra.php?cart=210
* http://corradograbbi.blogspot.com/

Corrado Grabbi

2007-03-19T12:26:06Z

85.18.14.7: i changed the current club number (5 instead of 19)

{{Football player infobox
| playername = Corrado Grabbi
| image =
| fullname = Corrado Grabbi
| height = 5ft 10in
| nickname = Ciccio & Francesco Grabbi
| dateofbirth = {{birth date and age|1975|07|29}}
| cityofbirth = [[Turin]]
| countryofbirth = [[Italy]]
| currentclub = [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]]
| clubnumber = 5
| position = [[Striker]]
| youthyears =
| youthclubs =
| years = 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995-1996 1995-1996 1996-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2001-2002 2002-2004 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2007 2006-2007
| clubs = [[Sparta|Sparta]] [[Juventus F.C.]] [[A.S. Lucchese]] [[A.C. ChievoVerona]] [[Modena F.C.]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Ravenna|Ravenna]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Blackburn Rovers F.C|Blackburn Rovers]] → [[F.C. Messina]]''(loan)'' [[Blackburn Rovers F.C|Blackburn Rovers]] [[A.C. Ancona]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Genoa|Genoa C.F.C]] [[A.C. Arezzo]]
| caps(goals) = 31 (8) 2 (1) 8 (1) 18 (2) 58 (30) 14 (2) 29 (13) 34 (20) 14 (1) 12 (4) 16 (1) 7 (0) 13 (1) 25 (8) 0 (0) 
| nationalyears = 2002
| nationalteam = [[Italy national football team|Italy]]
| nationalcaps(goals) = {{0}}{{0}}1 {{0}}(0)
| pcupdate = 17:19, 25 February 2007 (UTC)
| ntupdate = 19/10/2006
}}
'''Corrado Grabbi''' also credited as '''Ciccio Grabbi''' and '''Francesco Grabbi''' (born on [[July 29]], [[1975]] in [[Turin]]) is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] player. He plays as a [[striker]].

Grabbi began his career with [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]], scoring once in two appearances in the [[1994]]-[[1995]] season. Unable to break into the team, he moved to [[A.S. Lucchese-Libertas|Lucchese]] (76 games, 8 goals) and then [[A.C. ChievoVerona|Chievo]] (18 games, 2 goals) before switching to [[Modena F.C.|Modena]]. There he found some real form, scoring 58 times in 70 appearances. This performance saw him signed by [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]]. There he was again a regular scorer, with 61 goals in 84 games.

This saw him signed by [[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]] for a fee of £6.75 million in July [[2001-02 in English football|2001]], but he failed to repeat this progress, scoring just once in fourteen games. A loan spell back in Italy with [[F.C. Messina Peloro|Messina]] failed to reignite his form, and after a further 8 games (yielding nine more goals), he was allowed to return to Italy permanently with [[A.C. Ancona|Ancona]] in [[2003]]. He is currently playing for [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club|Genoa]] of [[Serie C|Serie C1/A]] since September [[2005]]. He obtained with his new team a promotion to Serie B on playoffs. Before the return playoff final, Grabbi announced he was considering to retire from football, because of his physical conditions, but later he declared he was persuaded to go on by the Genoa supporters and fellow players, and club president [[Enrico Preziosi]].

Available during the 2007 winter transfer window, Grabbi signed for [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]], still in [[Serie B]], after having never made a single appearance in the first half of the season for Genoa.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Grabbi, Corrado}}
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Italian footballers]]
[[Category:Juventus F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.S. Lucchese-Libertas players]]
[[Category:A.C. ChievoVerona players]]
[[Category:Modena F.C. players]]
[[Category:Ternana Calcio players]]
[[Category:Blackburn Rovers F.C. players]]
[[Category:F.C. Messina Peloro players]]
[[Category:A.C. Ancona players]]
[[Category:Genoa C.F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.C. Arezzo players]]
[[Category:FA Premier League players]]
{{Italy-footybio-stub}}

[[it:Corrado Grabbi]]

'''Websites'''
http://www.arezzocalcio.it/squadra/squadra.php?cart=210
http://corradograbbi.blogspot.com/

Corrado Grabbi

2007-03-15T19:37:20Z

85.18.14.7: i added the only existing web site dedicated to corrado grabbi!!

{{Football player infobox
| playername = Corrado Grabbi
| image =
| fullname = Corrado Grabbi
| height = 5ft 10in
| nickname = Ciccio & Francesco Grabbi
| dateofbirth = {{birth date and age|1975|07|29}}
| cityofbirth = [[Turin]]
| countryofbirth = [[Italy]]
| currentclub = [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]]
| clubnumber = 19
| position = [[Striker]]
| youthyears =
| youthclubs =
| years = 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995-1996 1995-1996 1996-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2001-2002 2002-2004 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2007 2006-2007
| clubs = [[Sparta|Sparta]] [[Juventus F.C.]] [[A.S. Lucchese]] [[A.C. ChievoVerona]] [[Modena F.C.]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Ravenna|Ravenna]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Blackburn Rovers F.C|Blackburn Rovers]] [[F.C. Messina]] [[Blackburn Rovers F.C|Blackburn Rovers]] [[A.C. Ancona]] [[Ternana Calcio]] [[Genoa|Genoa C.F.C]] [[A.C. Arezzo]]
| caps(goals) = 31 (8) 2 (1) 8 (1) 18 (2) 58 (30) 14 (2) 29 (13) 34 (20) 14 (1) 12 (4) 16 (1) 7 (0) 13 (1) 25 (8) 0 (0) 
| nationalyears = 2002
| nationalteam = [[Italy national football team|Italy]]
| nationalcaps(goals) = {{0}}{{0}}1 {{0}}(0)
| pcupdate = 17:19, 25 February 2007 (UTC)
| ntupdate = 19/10/2006
}}
'''Corrado Grabbi''' also credited as '''Ciccio Grabbi''' and '''Francesco Grabbi''' (born on [[July 29]], [[1975]] in [[Turin]]) is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] player. He plays as a [[striker]].

Grabbi began his career with [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]], scoring once in two appearances in the [[1994]]-[[1995]] season. Unable to break into the team, he moved to [[A.S. Lucchese-Libertas|Lucchese]] (76 games, 8 goals) and then [[A.C. ChievoVerona|Chievo]] (18 games, 2 goals) before switching to [[Modena F.C.|Modena]]. There he found some real form, scoring 58 times in 70 appearances. This performance saw him signed by [[Ternana Calcio|Ternana]]. There he was again a regular scorer, with 61 goals in 84 games.

This saw him signed by [[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]] for a fee of £6.75 million in July [[2001-02 in English football|2001]], but he failed to repeat this progress, scoring once in just one game. A loan spell back in Italy with [[F.C. Messina Peloro|Messina]] failed to reignite his form, and after a further 8 games (yielding nine more goals), he was allowed to return to Italy permanently with [[A.C. Ancona|Ancona]] in [[2003]]. He is currently playing for [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club|Genoa]] of [[Serie C|Serie C1/A]] since September [[2005]]. He obtained with his new team a promotion to Serie B on playoffs. Before the return playoff final, Grabbi announced he was considering to retire from football, because of his physical conditions, but later he declared he was persuaded to go on by the Genoa supporters and fellow players, and club president [[Enrico Preziosi]].

Available during the 2007 winter transfer window, Grabbi signed for [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]], still in [[Serie B]], after having never made a single appearance in the first half of the season for Genoa.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Grabbi, Corrado}}
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Italian footballers]]
[[Category:Juventus F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.S. Lucchese-Libertas players]]
[[Category:A.C. ChievoVerona players]]
[[Category:Modena F.C. players]]
[[Category:Ternana Calcio players]]
[[Category:Blackburn Rovers F.C. players]]
[[Category:F.C. Messina Peloro players]]
[[Category:A.C. Ancona players]]
[[Category:Genoa C.F.C. players]]
[[Category:A.C. Arezzo players]]
[[Category:FA Premier League players]]
{{Italy-footybio-stub}}

[[it:Corrado Grabbi]]

'''Websites'''
http://www.arezzocalcio.it/squadra/squadra.php?cart=210
http://corradograbbi.blogspot.com/

Sant'Onofrio, Calabria

2007-03-12T15:32:05Z

85.18.14.7:

{{Infobox CityIT |
img_coa = |
city = Sant'Onofrio |
name = Sant'Onofrio |
region = [[Calabria]] |
province = [[Province of Vibo Valentia]] (VV) |
altitude = |
area_cityproper = 18.4 |
population_as_of = Dec. 2004 |
populationdensity = 3,202 |
populationdensitymetric = 174 |
timezone = [[Central European Time|CET]], [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1 |
coordinates = {{coor dm|38|42|N|16|9|E|type:city(3,202)_region:IT}}|
frazioni = |
telephone = 0963 |
postalcode = 89843 |
gentilic = |
saint = |
day = |
mayor = |
website = |
mapy = 16.1500 |
mapx = 38.7000 |
}}

'''Sant'Onofrio''' is a ''[[comune]]'' (municipality) in the [[Province of Vibo Valentia]] in the [[Italy|Italian]] region [[Calabria]], located about 45 km southwest of [[Catanzaro]] and about 4 km northeast of [[Vibo Valentia]]. As of [[31 December]] [[2004]], it had a population of 3,202 and an area of 18.4 km2.<ref name="istat">All demographics and other statistics: Italian statistical institute [[Istat]].</ref> It is named after Saint [[Onuphrius]]. There's a girl in this town, called ''[Alcolella]'' or ''[Luthrah]'', who's very very dangerous. If you are visiting the town of Sant'Onofrio, PLEASE avoid meeting this girl. Related to this situation, another person called ''[Pippi]'', who lives near Alcolella, is very dangerous for people's life. If you see them together, you can either call the police or call Peppe Elvis, a man without fear, a man famous for his ass in guessing when the Juventus F.C. scores a goal and winning many ''[banchi]'' at bacarà card's game.

Sant'Onofrio borders the following municipalities: [[Filogaso]], [[Maierato]], [[Pizzo, Calabria|Pizzo]], [[Stefanaconi]], [[Vazzano]], [[Vibo Valentia]].

== Demographic evolution ==
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bar:1911 at:3502 fontsize:XS text: 3502 shift:(-8,5)
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==References==
<references/>

 
{{Province of Vibo Valentia}}
[[Category:Cities and towns in Calabria]]
{{Calabria-geo-stub}}

[[eo:Sant'Onofrio]]
[[fr:Sant'Onofrio]]
[[it:Sant'Onofrio]]
[[nl:Sant'Onofrio]]
[[nap:Sant'Onofrio]]
[[pl:Sant'Onofrio]]
[[pt:Sant'Onofrio]]

Caller ID

2007-01-24T00:16:39Z

85.18.14.7: /* External Links */

:''For the protein involved in the synthesis of [[major histocompatibility complex]] II, see [[CLIP (protein)]].''

'''Caller ID''' ('''caller identification''' or '''CID''', and more properly '''calling number identification''' - '''CNID''') is a [[telephony]] [[intelligent network]] [[Custom Local Area Signaling Services|service]] that transmits the [[caller (telecommunications)|caller's]] [[telephone number]] and in some places the caller's name to the [[called party]]'s [[telephone]] equipment during the [[ringing signal]] or when the call is being set up but before the call is answered. In the USA, CNID is typically [[transmission (telecommunications)|transmitted]] [[digital]]ly using [[Bell 202]] modulation between the first and second rings, but in other countries other methodes are also used. Instead of sending the caller ID in between the first and second ring, some systems use a "[[line reversal]]" to announce the caller ID, or caller ID signals are simply send without any anouncement. Instead of Bell 202 the European alternative [[ITU-T V-Series Recommendations|V.23]] is sometimes used, (without the 75 baud reverse channel) or the data is sent using [[DTMF]] signalling.

The CID is '''only''' the calling party number. In the United States, the calling party name is a separate piece of data and must be requested by the consumer's terminating central office if the consumer has subscribed to that service. Calling name delivery is not automatic. An SS7 (or Signaling System 7) TCAP query must be launched by the called party's central office to retrieve the information for Calling Name delivery to the Caller ID equipment at the consumer's location. Canadian systems automatically send the calling name with the call set up and routing information at the time of the call.

Fully 99 per cent of the names that could be delivered are available to all central offices in the US. Most carriers, however, are now refusing to retrieve the information for delivery, since it may reside in a non-owned database and would require payment to another provider for the data. The local carrier will then claim the name is "unavailable", or "out of area", or default to a "city, state" response.

[[Telemarketing]] organisations want their names displayed, since having a name displayed actually increases the answer rate for calls. To block a name display involves dialing additional digits which slows outbound calling and costs additional money.

Telemarketing organisations often block the display of their calling ''numbers''. Some states and countries require telemarketers to display a contact number that can accept complaints, as the individual caller numbers may not be able to be called.

Many [[Internet service provider]]s (ISPs) providing dial-up access require the customer to use CNID to prevent abuse of the account by unauthorised callers. {{fact}}

The device is helpful for tracing down [[prank call]]s and telemarketers. The concept behind caller ID is the value of [[informed consent]]; however, it also poses problems for personal [[privacy]].

==Calling line identification==
Caller ID is also known as '''calling line identification''' (CLI) when provided via an [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]] connection to a [[PABX]], while in some countries, the terms '''caller display''', '''calling line identification presentation''' (CLIP), [[call capture]], or just '''calling line identity''' (CLID) are used; '''call display''' is the predominant marketing name used in [[Canada]] (though customers often call it caller ID). CNID originated with [[automatic number identification]] (ANI) in the [[U.S]].

However, CNID and ANI are not the same thing. Caller ID is made up of two separate entities: the calling number and the billing (or subscriber) name. When a phone switch sends out a number, the remote telephone company is responsible for looking up the name of the subscriber in a common database. Additionally, nothing ensures that the number sent by a switch is the actual number where the call originated. It is very easy for a telephone switch to send any digit string it requests to the system.

For telemarketing purposes, the use of alternate Caller ID and alternate Calling Names is very useful and informative to consumers. An outbound dialing company may have one number that would display "American Heart Assn" for calls on Tuesday, and another number that might display "National Republican Com" on Wednesday. Since the databases responsible for changing the names associated with the numbers typically takes weeks to months to make data changes, it is only reasonable for outbound calling centers to have numerous "spoofed" numbers to use to properly identify the customer they are representing at the time.

==History==
Initially, the operating telephone companies wanted to have the caller ID function performed by the central office as a voice announcement and charged on a per call basis. John Harris, an employee of Northern Telecom's telephone set manufacturing division in London, Ontario promoted the idea of having caller ID as a telephone set display. The telephone was coded ECCS for Enhanced Custom Calling Services. A video of his prototype was used to leverage the feature from the central office to the telephone set.

In 1982 [[Nélio Nicolai]], a Brazilian inventor, created a machine capable of identifying and displaying the caller ID, he named it BINA (B identifies number of A).

The first market trial for caller ID and other "TouchStar" services was on [[July 7]], [[1984]] in [[Orlando, Florida]]. Ellis D. Hill, the head of the BellSouth Product team, coined the term "caller ID." This market trial lasted seven months. It was conducted and analyzed by [[Lucent Technologies|Bell Labs/AT&T Network Systems]]. In 1987, [[Verizon Communications|Bell Atlantic]] conducted another market trial in [[Hudson County, New Jersey]], which was followed by limited deployment. BellSouth began the first commercial application of caller ID in December 1988 in [[Memphis, Tennessee]] and was the first [[Regional Bell Operating Company|regional Bell]] to fully deploy the system.

In 1995, Bellcore released another type of [[modulation]] similar to [[Bell 202]] in which it became possible to transmit caller ID information and even provide call-disposition options while the user was already on the telephone. This service became known in some markets as call waiting ID or when it was combined with call-disposition options, [[Call Waiting Deluxe]]; it is technically referred to as ADSI: [[Analog Display Services Interface]]

==Operation==
In the United States, caller ID information is sent to the [[called party]] by the [[telephone switch]] as an analog data stream (similar to data passed between two [[modem]]s), between the first and second ring, while the [[telephone]] unit is still on hook. If the telephone call is answered before the second ring, caller ID information is not available. There are two types of caller ID, number only and name+number. Number only caller ID is called '''Single Data Message Format''' (SDMF), which provides the caller's telephone number, the date and time of the call. Name+number caller ID is called '''Multiple Data Message Format''' (MDMF), which in addition to the information provided by SDMF format, can also provide the directory listed name for the particular number. Caller ID readers which are compatible with MDMF can also read the simpler SDMF format, but an SDMF caller ID reader will not recognize an MDMF data stream, and will act as if there is no caller ID information present, e.g. as if the line is not equipped for caller ID.

==Problems==
{{original research}}
Caller ID between different countries is often not transmitted, meaning that the equipment with caller ID will simply display either 'UNAVAILABLE' or 'INTERNATIONAL'. However, caller ID between countries is becoming more widely available, meaning that a telephone number in another country will be displayed, complete with the [[List of country calling codes|country calling code]]. This is usually the case with mobile phones, particularly when a subscriber is roaming overseas. However, the overseas number may be compressed into a 'domestic' format, meaning that the number may not be recognisable to the called party. For example, a U.S. number 1 646 555 1212 may be displayed in the UK as 0646 555 1212, instead of 001 646 555 1212.

Some callers have situations in which revealing the number being called from would invade their privacy or cause other severe problems. Caller ID can falsely report when the caller is using a discount or travel calling program or a [[voice over IP]] phone (such as Vonage), because those systems use intermediate telephone numbers in the country being called. This can create problems with automated systems (sometimes involving security).

*For example, a caller calling the Poison Control Center in the USA using a calling card (such as MCI Worldphone) or Internet phone (such as Vonage) from another country, will be routed to the poison control center in the state of the number through which the number is being routed. The agent asks questions such as "What is your address?" and then says, "You have reached the wrong poison control center; you will have to re-dial," and cannot by policy help the caller, resulting in an endless loop (July 2003).
*When [[Banco do Brasil]] is called through Vonage from the USA, the call is routed to the São Paulo banking service center, who says the same thing, and will not help the caller who has a bank in Rio de Janeiro, and then finds it impossible to get through (July 2005).
*Cox Cable in [[Arizona]], upon receiving a call through Vonage said, "We cannot help you because you are not calling from the phone at the address of service." (Jan 2001), and MCI Worldphone said, "We have a security issue with your account being used from two different countries in the same hour."
*People calling friends often hear, "Where are you calling from? Are you sure, because the caller ID shows you are calling from another state in my country."

Because there are a myriad of automated systems for dealing with caller ID, and no standard, issues like these — and much more complex ones when it comes to large systems interacting — occur frequently.

==Getting around caller ID==

===Blocking===
[[Image:Skype-Call.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The caller ID information is masked when a [[Skype|SkypeOut]] call is placed.]]

Blocking is the common term for preventing the display of a calling number.

Telecommunications regulators vary in their requirements for the use of assorted technologies to prevent numbers from being displayed. There is also varying treatment for equation of call display blocking with non-published numbers; in some areas, having a non-published number does ''not'' mean call display blocking will be automatic, so customers should inquire carefully to make sure their non-published number is not being displayed and if it is, what steps to take to block the number.

In Canada, the [[CRTC]] requires blocking to be customer-activated for each call, although there is an exception for telephone lines at shelters for victims of domestic violence. Such lines can be programmed to always block, without the use of an activation code at the time a call is placed.

In some locations in the United States, regulators allow (or require) blocking to be automatic, transparent to the caller.

In the United States, and possibly elsewhere, blocking does not work when calling toll-free (800, 888, 877 and 866) numbers -- this is because US toll-free subscribers do not ''receive'' CNID; they receive [[Automatic number identification|ANI]] instead, and ANI cannot be blocked.

Where blocking is applied on a call-by-call basis (at the time a call is made), subscribers can block -- prevent their numbers from being displayed -- by [[dial]]ing a special code before making a call. In North America and some other regions, the code is *67, while the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]] use 141. This special code does not block the information from companies using [[call capture]] technology. This means that equipment with caller ID will simply display the word 'PRIVATE' or 'WITHHELD'. When CNID is blocked at the caller's request, the number is actually transmitted through the entire telephone network, with the 'Presentation Withheld' flag set; the destination CO is expected to honor this flag, but sometimes does not -- especially when the destination phone number is served by an ISDN PRI.

Alternatively, in cases where caller ID is being blocked automatically, it can only be released on a call-by-call basis by dialing a special code (*82 in the U.S.; 1470 in the UK). See Disabling, below.

Similarly, some countries offer '''[[anonymous]] caller rejection''', which rejects all calls when the subscriber's number is blocked. Some [[telephone company|telephone companies]] also route anonymous calls to a service which requires the caller to announce him or herself, and then requires the called party to accept or reject the call. Blocking the number is referred to as '''Calling Line Identification Restriction''' (CLIR). Emergency services will most likely be able to show the restricted number using a service called '''Calling Line Identification Restriction Override''' (CLIRO), or by using general ANI services.

===Hacking===
Caller ID is a simple string of data that can be read and generated very simply by small computer programs and even some inexpensive devices. Although the caller ID information is transmitted in between the first and second rings, before the phone call is connected, it is possible to mislead the phone company as to the origin of the call, thus defeating caller ID. Although misleading the phone company by generating ANI code or by other electronic means is very complex, simpler means do exist. Using services like Vonage or Skype, calling from a payphone, or using a calling card are easy means to fool caller ID.

===Disabling===
In North America, there is one code to disable caller ID. The code is *67. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, 141 is the equivalent code. Australia uses 1831. New Zealand uses 0197. Hong Kong uses 133. Israel uses *43. Other countries and networks may vary. On [[GSM]] mobile networks, callers may dial #31# before the number you wish to call to disable it.

==See also==
* Calling ID is the identification of whom you are calling, or connecting to, as opposed to caller ID identifying who calls you. Some [[Centrex]] telephone systems offer this feature. Similarly, when one [[Skype]] user calls another Skype user, the caller can see the other party's details and even an image or photograph they have chosen to represent their identity.
* The inverse feature, giving the number originally dialed, is known as [[Direct Inward Dialing]] (DID), Direct Dialing Inward (DDI), or [[Dialed Number Identification System]] (DNIS). This tells the PBX where to route an incoming call, when there are more internal lines with external phone numbers than there are actual incoming lines in a large company or other organisation.
* [[List of telephony terminology]]
* As a sidenote: Not all types of caller identification use 202-type modulation, nor do all systems send the information between the first and second ring, e.g., British Telecom sends the signal before the first ring, after a polarity reversal in the line. As a result, not all "CallerID" devices are compatible from country to country or in the same country, even though the basic phone system is the same. Some providers use [[frequency-shift keying|FSK]], others use the [[DTMF]] protocol.
* This is not to be confused with Microsoft Caller-ID, a patent encumbered [[:Category:E-mail authentication|e-mail authentication]] technology. For the history of this now-dead proposal, see [[MARID]].
* [[Caller ID spoofing]]
* [[Vertical service code|List of vertical service codes]]

==External Links==
* [http://www.ainslie.org.uk/callerid/cli_faq.htm Caller ID FAQ]
* [http://www.nelio.hpg.ig.com.br/pb_texto.htm Page about BINA (in Portoguese)]
[[Category:Telephony]]
[[Category:Authentication methods]]
[[Category:Telephone service enhanced features]]

[[it:Caller ID]]
[[nl:Nummermelder]]
[[ja:ナンバーディスプレイ]]
[[pt:Identificador de chamadas]]
[[ru:Caller ID]]
[[sv:nummerpresentatör]]

Rowena (disambiguation)

2007-01-11T22:41:07Z

85.18.14.7:

==Place names - Rowen==
* [[Rowen, Conwy|Rowen]] is a village in the Conwy Valley, Wales.

==Place names - Rowena==
Rowena is a place name:
;in the [[United States]]:
* [[Rowena, Texas]]
* [[Rowena, South Dakota]]
* [[Rowena, Oregon]]
;in [[Australia]]
* [[Rowena, New South Wales]]

==People named Rowena==
'''Rowena''' is a Latinized form of a Germanic name meaning "fame and joy", formed from the words ''hrod'' (fame) and ''wynn'' (joy).<ref>[http://www.behindthename.com/php/view.php?name=rowena 'Rowena', on Behind the Name]</ref>

Rowena may also refer to:

* Rowena (also Rowen or Renwein), named by [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] as the daughter of [[Hengest]], [[Jutes|Jutish]] king of [[Kent]] [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Kings_of_Britain/Book_6#12]
* [[Rowena Morrill]], noted American fantasy artist
* [[Rowena Meeks Abdy]] (April 24, 1887 - August 18, 1945), 20th century American painter
* The Lady Rowena, [[Ivanhoe]]'s love interest in the novel of the same name by [[Sir Walter Scott]]
* [[The Hogwarts Founders#Rowena Ravenclaw|Rowena Ravenclaw]], one of the Founders of [[Hogwarts]] in the [[Harry Potter]] series of books
* Rowena, [[Druss the Legend]]'s wife in [[Drenai]] saga by [[David Gemmell]]

==References==
<references/>

{{dab}}

Rowena (disambiguation)

2007-01-11T22:39:37Z

85.18.14.7:

==Place names - Rowen==
* [[Rowen, Conwy|Rowen]] is a village in the Conwy Valley, Wales.

==Place names - Rowena==
Rowena is a place name:
;in the [[United States]]:
* [[Rowena, Texas]]
* [[Rowena, South Dakota]]
* [[Rowena, Oregon]]
;in [[Australia]]
* [[Rowena, New South Wales]]

==People named Rowena==
'''Rowena''' is a Latinized form of a Germanic name meaning "fame and joy", formed from the words ''hrod'' (fame) and ''wynn'' (joy).<ref>[http://www.behindthename.com/php/view.php?name=rowena 'Rowena', on Behind the Name]</ref>

Rowena may also refer to:

* Rowena (also Rowen or Renwein), named by [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] as the daughter of [[Hengest]], [[Jutes|Jutish]] king of [[Kent]] [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Kings_of_Britain/Book_6#12]
* [[Rowena Morrill]], noted American fantasy artist
* [[Rowena Meeks Abdy]] (April 24, 1887 - August 18, 1945), 20th century American painter
* The Lady Rowena, [[Ivanhoe]]'s love interest in the novel of the same name by [[Sir Walter Scott]]
* [[The Hogwarts Founders#Rowena Ravenclaw|Rowena Ravenclaw]], one of the Founders of [[Hogwarts]] in the [[Harry Potter]] series of books
* Rowena, [[Druss The Legend]]'s wife in [[Drenai]] saga by [[David Gemmell]]

==References==
<references/>

{{dab}}

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T09:32:11Z

85.18.14.7: /* Art and literature */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via Duke Shore Stairs while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's harsh conditions and extreme poverty encouraged the intervention of early social reformers like [[George Robert Sims]] and political [[agitation]] for better working conditions led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. [[Clement Attlee]] became MP for Limehouse in 1922.

Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] also attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[Arthur Conan Doyle]] fictional detective [[Sherlock Holmes]] visits an opium den in Limehouse looking for clues.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T09:31:31Z

85.18.14.7: /* Art and literature */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via Duke Shore Stairs while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's harsh conditions and extreme poverty encouraged the intervention of early social reformers like [[George Robert Sims]] and political [[agitation]] for better working conditions led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. [[Clement Attlee]] became MP for Limehouse in 1922.
Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] also attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[Arthur Conan Doyle]] fictional detective [[Sherlock Holmes]] visits an opium den in Limehouse looking for clues.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T09:02:27Z

85.18.14.7: /* Art and literature */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via Duke Shore Stairs while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's harsh conditions and extreme poverty encouraged the intervention of early social reformers like [[George Robert Sims]] and political [[agitation]] for better working conditions led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] also attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[Arthur Conan Doyle]] fictional detective [[Sherlock Holmes]] visits an opium den in Limehouse looking for clues.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T09:01:34Z

85.18.14.7: /* Art and literature */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via Duke Shore Stairs while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's harsh conditions and extreme poverty encouraged the intervention of early social reformers like [[George Robert Sims]] and political [[agitation]] for better working conditions led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] also attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[Arthur Conan Doyle]] fictional [[Sherlock Holmes]] visits an opium den in Limehouse looking for clues.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T08:50:43Z

85.18.14.7: /* Art and literature */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via Duke Shore Stairs while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's harsh conditions and extreme poverty encouraged the intervention of early social reformers like [[George Robert Sims]] and political [[agitation]] for better working conditions led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] also attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T08:47:26Z

85.18.14.7: /* Art and literature */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via Duke Shore Stairs while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's harsh conditions and extreme poverty encouraged the intervention of early social reformers like [[George Robert Sims]] and political [[agitation]] for better working conditions led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] also attracted artists and writers who made it a center for [[counterculture]].
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.
*[[Francis Bacon]] was a Limehouse resident.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T08:23:39Z

85.18.14.7: /* Art and literature */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via Duke Shore Stairs while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's harsh conditions and extreme poverty encouraged the intervention of early social reformers like [[George Robert Sims]] and political [[agitation]] for better working conditions led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] also attracted artists and writers who made it a center for [[counterculture]].
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T08:19:51Z

85.18.14.7: /* Art and literature */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via Duke Shore Stairs while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's harsh conditions and extreme poverty encouraged the intervention of early social reformers like [[George r. Sims]] and political [[agitation]] for better working conditions led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] also attracted artists and writers who made it a center for [[counterculture]].
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T08:09:02Z

85.18.14.7: /* Art and literature */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via Duke Shore Stairs while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's location made it a center for [[counterculture]] and political [[agitation]] for better working conditions which led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] also attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T08:05:02Z

85.18.14.7: /* Art and literature */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via Duke Shore Stairs while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's location made it a center for [[counterculture]] and political [[agitation]] for better working conditions which led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T08:04:25Z

85.18.14.7: /* Art and literature */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via Duke Shore Stairs while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's location made it a center for [[counterculture]] and [[political agitation]] for better working conditions which led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T07:59:39Z

85.18.14.7: /* History */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via Duke Shore Stairs while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's location made it a center for [[counterculture]] and political agitation which led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T07:58:11Z

85.18.14.7: /* Related links */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via '''[[Duke Shore Stairs]]''' while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's location made it a center for [[counterculture]] and political agitation which led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T07:48:47Z

85.18.14.7: /* History */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled here building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via '''[[Duke Shore Stairs]]''' while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's location made it a center for [[counterculture]] and political agitation which led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==
* [[Sir Humphrey Gilbert]]

* [[William Borough]]
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0808390.html
* [[Sir Henry Palmer]]
http://www.history.ac.uk/office/navycompt.html

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-20T07:46:45Z

85.18.14.7: /* History */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s settled building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via '''[[Duke Shore Stairs]]''' while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's location made it a center for [[counterculture]] and political agitation which led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==
* [[Sir Humphrey Gilbert]]

* [[William Borough]]
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0808390.html
* [[Sir Henry Palmer]]
http://www.history.ac.uk/office/navycompt.html

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Narrow Street

2006-10-18T11:14:38Z

85.18.14.7: /* Art and literature */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s etc settled building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via '''[[Duke Shore Stairs]]''' while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's location made it a center for [[counterculture]] and political agitation which led to the creation of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==
* [[Sir Humphrey Gilbert]]

* [[William Borough]]
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0808390.html
* [[Sir Henry Palmer]]
http://www.history.ac.uk/office/navycompt.html

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]

Stilo

2006-09-23T16:28:00Z

85.18.14.7:

{{Otheruses1|Stilo, town of Don Vincenzo}}
{{Infobox CityIT |
img_coa = Stilo-Stemma.gif|
city = Comune di Stilo|
region = [[Calabria]] |
province = [[Province of Reggio Calabria|Reggio Calabria]] (RC) |
altitude = 386|
area_cityproper = 78.49|
population_as_of = [[2001]]|
populationdensity = does it really matter|
populationdensitymetric = 36|
timezone = [[Central European Time|CET]], [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1 |
coordinates = {{coor dm|38|29|N|16|28|E}}|
frazioni = Caldarella, Bordingiano, Gatticello, Ferdinandea, Mila |
telephone = 0964|
postalcode = 89049|
gentilic = Stilesi|
saint = [[St. Vincenzo]]|
day = [[April 23]]|
mayor = Giancarlo Miriello
website = [http://www.comune.stilo.rc.it/ comune.stilo.rc.it] |
}}
[[image:Stilo Cattolica.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The Cattolica of Stilo, a Byzantine-style church from the 11th century.]]
'''Stilo''' is a town and commune in the [[province of Reggio Calabria]], in the [[Calabria]] region of southern [[Italy]]. It is located at 151 km from [[Reggio Calabria]].

The economy of the commune is mainly based on agriculture, with production of [[cereal]]s, [[oil]], wine and [[cheese]]. There are mine of [[iron]] and [[lead]].

At 10 km from the city is the promontory of Cape Stilo, which was the set of the omonymous [[Battle of Punta Stilo]] between [[Regia Marina|Italian]] and the [[Royal Navy|British Navies]] (1940).

Stilo

2006-09-23T16:26:10Z

85.18.14.7: /* Main sights */

{{Otheruses1|Stilo, town of Don Vincenzo}}
{{Infobox CityIT |
img_coa = Stilo-Stemma.gif|
city = Comune di Stilo|
region = [[Calabria]] |
province = [[Province of Reggio Calabria|Reggio Calabria]] (RC) |
altitude = 386|
area_cityproper = 78.49|
population_as_of = [[2001]]|
populationdensity = does it really matter, don vincenzo is from here|
populationdensitymetric = 36|
timezone = [[Central European Time|CET]], [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1 |
coordinates = {{coor dm|38|29|N|16|28|E}}|
frazioni = Caldarella, Bordingiano, Gatticello, Ferdinandea, Mila |
telephone = 0964|
postalcode = 89049|
gentilic = Stilesi|
saint = [[St. Vincenzo]]|
day = [[April 23]]|
mayor = Mr. Don Vincenzo (since [[May 25]], [[2003]])|
website = [http://www.comune.stilo.rc.it/ comune.stilo.rc.it] |
}}
[[image:Stilo Cattolica.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The Cattolica of Stilo, a Byzantine-style church from the 11th century.]]
'''Stilo''' is a town and commune in the [[province of Reggio Calabria]], in the [[Calabria]] region of southern [[Italy]]. It is located at 151 km from [[Reggio Calabria]]. It's main attraction is Don Vincenzo.

The economy of the commune is mainly based on agriculture, with production of [[cereal]]s, [[oil]], wine and [[cheese]]. There are mine of [[iron]] and [[lead]].

At 10 km from the city is the promontory of Cape Stilo, which was the set of the omonymous [[Battle of Punta Stilo]] between [[Regia Marina|Italian]] and the [[Royal Navy|British Navies]] (1940).

Stilo

2006-09-23T16:25:48Z

85.18.14.7: /* History */

{{Otheruses1|Stilo, town of Don Vincenzo}}
{{Infobox CityIT |
img_coa = Stilo-Stemma.gif|
city = Comune di Stilo|
region = [[Calabria]] |
province = [[Province of Reggio Calabria|Reggio Calabria]] (RC) |
altitude = 386|
area_cityproper = 78.49|
population_as_of = [[2001]]|
populationdensity = does it really matter, don vincenzo is from here|
populationdensitymetric = 36|
timezone = [[Central European Time|CET]], [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1 |
coordinates = {{coor dm|38|29|N|16|28|E}}|
frazioni = Caldarella, Bordingiano, Gatticello, Ferdinandea, Mila |
telephone = 0964|
postalcode = 89049|
gentilic = Stilesi|
saint = [[St. Vincenzo]]|
day = [[April 23]]|
mayor = Mr. Don Vincenzo (since [[May 25]], [[2003]])|
website = [http://www.comune.stilo.rc.it/ comune.stilo.rc.it] |
}}
[[image:Stilo Cattolica.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The Cattolica of Stilo, a Byzantine-style church from the 11th century.]]
'''Stilo''' is a town and commune in the [[province of Reggio Calabria]], in the [[Calabria]] region of southern [[Italy]]. It is located at 151 km from [[Reggio Calabria]]. It's main attraction is Don Vincenzo.

The economy of the commune is mainly based on agriculture, with production of [[cereal]]s, [[oil]], wine and [[cheese]]. There are mine of [[iron]] and [[lead]].

At 10 km from the city is the promontory of Cape Stilo, which was the set of the omonymous [[Battle of Punta Stilo]] between [[Regia Marina|Italian]] and the [[Royal Navy|British Navies]] (1940).

==Main sights==
DON VINCENZO!

Whats even better is that I can write that vinny is a deuche bag and he will never know.

Love,
Scott

Narrow Street

2006-09-16T21:45:39Z

85.18.14.7: /* History */

'''Narrow Street''' is just that, a narrow street running parallel to the [[River Thames]] through the [[Limehouse]] area of east [[London]].
[[Image:narrowstreet1827.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1827]]
[[Image:narrowstreet1993.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Narrow Street 1993]]
[[Image:Bootys_Pub.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Booty's Pub 92a Narrow Street]]
== History ==
A combination of [[tides]] and currents made this point on the Thames a natural [[landfall]] for ships, the first [[wharf]] being completed in [[1348]]. [[Lime (mineral)]] kilns or 'Lymehostes' used in the production of mortar and pottery were built at this location in the fourteenth century.
The area grew rapidly in [[Elizabethan]] times as a center for world trade. River workers gravitated to the area to work offloading imported goods from ships to the then new Limehouse Bridge Dock now [[Limehouse Basin]]. By the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] nearly half of the areas 2,000 population were [[sailor|mariners]]. Ships [[Chandler]]s etc settled building wooden houses and [[wharves]] in the cramped space between street and river, indeed Narrow Street may take its name from the closeness of the original buildings, now demolished, which stood barely a few meters apart on each side of the street.
In [[1661]] [[Samuel Pepys]] visited a porcelain factory in Narrow Street alighting via '''[[Duke Shore Stairs]]''' while en route to view work on boats being built for [[Herring]] fishing. The Limehouse area fitted out, repaired and resupplied ships. Taylor Walker & Co Ltd started brewing at the site of today's "[[The Barley Mow]]" pub in [[1823]].
[[Limehouse Basin]] was one of the first docks to close in the late 1960s. Much of Narrow Street and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]s’ Church [[St Anne's Limehouse]] was chosen as a conservation area by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] in the [[1980]]s. In [[1993]] the 1.8 km [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] was opened moving heavy traffic away from Narrow street.

== Chinatown ==
In the eighteenth century a small group of Chinese sailors from [[Guangdong|Canton]] and Southern [[China]] settled along the old Limehouse Causeway creating the original London [[Chinatown]]. The Chinese community later moved to [[Soho]] following heavy bombing of the area during [[World War II]] often referred to as the [[Blitz]].

== Historic buildings ==
[[Image:Limehouse_terrace_1.jpg|thumb|left|Early Georgian terrace on Narrow Street, with The Grapes public house. (January 2006)]]A number of historic buildings remain, including [[The Grapes]] [[public house]], immortalised as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in [[Charles Dickens]]' work, ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''. Built in [[1720]], the pub is now a [[listed building]] and backs onto the Thames waterfront.

Next to the Grapes is a rare example of an early [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] brick terrace.(see notes)

== Redevelopment ==
The late twentieth century brought much development to the area, with the erection of the [[Canary Wharf]] tower close by. Since the [[1990]]s, many new apartment complexes have been built around the Limehouse Basin as well as [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] warehouse conversions, with Limehouse now being one of the most sought after property sites in London. Its close proximity to the River Thames has made property prices around Limehouse and the [[Docklands]] soar over the last decade.
Famous residents include the actor Sir [[Ian Mckellen]] and [[David Owen]], and it was also the home of the iconic film director Sir [[David Lean]], whose Narrow Street house is still owned by his family.

== Art and literature ==
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Narrow Street's location made it a center for [[counterculture]] and political agitation which led to the forming of some of Londons earliest [[trade unions]]. Its picturesque buildings and atmospheric location [[abut]]ting onto the [[River Thames]] attracted artists and writers.
*[[Charles Dickens]]’ godfather ran his sail-making business from Limehouse.
*[[James McNeill Whistler]] and [[Charles Napier Hemy]] sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Streets' river waterfront.
*[[George Orwell]]s’ book [[Down and Out in Paris and London]] features a Limehouse lodging house.

== Notes ==
The [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] word '''tirl''', means 'narrow street' or a 'gate' to keep horses and other cattle out of the city.

Early Georgian houses can be distinguished from late ones in the way that the windows are not set back from the brick frontage.

== Related links ==
* [[Sir Humphrey Gilbert]]

* [[William Borough]]
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0808390.html
* [[Sir Henry Palmer]]
http://www.history.ac.uk/office/navycompt.html

* [[Sir Walter Besant]]
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/wapping LDDC]
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.127/chapterId/2614/Chinese-in-the-Port-of-London.html Chinatown]
* [[Ratcliffe]]
* [[Limehouse Cut]]

==References==
* Taylor & Walker http://www.quaffale.org.uk/php/brewery/746
* Limehouse http://www.eolfhs.org.uk/parish/limehouse.htm
* Early history http://www.mernick.co.uk/thhol/limehouse.html
* Early history http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/data/discover/data/Poplar/index.cfm
* Duke Shore stairs http://www.burkes-peerage.net/sites/common/sitepages/lwallindex.asp
* Amalgamated Society of Watermen, Lightermen and Bargemen 1893-1921 http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/126WL.htm
* Image reference: Greenwood's Map of London 1827 http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html
* Image reference: Limehouse Link 1993
* Image reference: Booty's pub looking out towards the river, April 3rd 2004

[[Category:Streets in London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]