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Talk:Gender

2020-08-06T22:26:52Z

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__TOC__

== Citation Suggested ==

The rise of criticism against the WID approach led to the emergence of a new theory, that of Women and Development (WAD).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Muyoyeta |first1=Lucy |title=Women, Gender and Development |date=2004 |publisher=Women for Change |location=Zambia |isbn=095351367X |url=https://www.developmenteducation.ie/media/documents/women_gender_dev.pdf}}</ref> — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Dhum.group2|Dhum.group2]] ([[User talk:Dhum.group2#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dhum.group2|contribs]]) 17 May 2019 (UTC)

{{ref talk}}

== Citation suggested ==

In contemporary times, most literature and institutions that are concerned with women's role in development incorporate a GAD perspective, with the United Nations taking the lead of mainstreaming the GAD approach through its system and development policies. <ref>{{cite book |last1=United Nations. Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues, & Advancement of Women |title=Gender Mainstreaming an Overview |date=2002 |publisher=United Nations Publications |location=New York |url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/e65237.pdf}}</ref>— Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Dhum.group2|Dhum.group2]] ([[User talk:Dhum.group2#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dhum.group2|contribs]]) 17 May 2019 (UTC)
{{ref talk}}

== I have a issue with a specific line ==

“ these characteristics may include biological sex (i.e., the state of being male, female, or an intersex variation”

Putting intersex in there is a little misleading because several medical and scientific sources state that people with these conditions are males or females. So I think maybe add some context or a better explanation. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/CycoMa|contribs]]) 21:07, 6 March 2020 (UTC) 

I edited it intersex out. [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 01:21, 7 March 2020 (UTC)
:Please provide a neutral and reliable source for your change or I recommend it be reverted until such a source can be found. [[User:Useight|Useight]] ([[User talk:Useight|talk]]) 05:33, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

::Okay
{{hat|Copy-paste of various definition}}
Turner Syndrome:

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/turner-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20360782

“Turner syndrome, a condition that affects only females, results when one of the X chromosomes (sex chromosomes) is missing or partially missing.“

https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/turner/conditioninfo/symptoms

Klinefelter Syndrome:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klinefelter_syndrome

“Klinefelter syndrome (KS), also known as 47, XXY is the set of symptoms that result from two or more X chromosomes in males.”

https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/8705/klinefelter-syndrome

Progestin-induced virilization:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progestin-induced_virilization

“Affected females mature normally with normal fertility, there is almost total regression of the genital anomaly in cases of simple clitoral enlargement, and in even the most severe cases, surgical correction of labioscrotal fusion is relatively simple.”

Androgen insensitivity syndrome:

https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001180.htm

“Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is when a person who is genetically male”

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia:

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/congenital-adrenal-hyperplasia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355205?page=0&citems=10

“In females, enlarged clitoris or genitals that look more male than female (ambiguous genitalia) at birth, but males have normal appearing genitals”

https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/1467/congenital-adrenal-hyperplasia

Aphallia:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disorders_of_sex_development#Conditions

“Aphallia - A rare occurrence where a male is born without a penis or where a female is born without a clitoris.”

5α-Reductase deficiency:

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/5-alpha-reductase-deficiency

“5-alpha reductase deficiency is a condition that affects male sexual development before birth and during puberty. People with this condition are genetically male, with one X and one Y chromosome in each cell, and they have male gonads (testes).”

Freemartin:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemartin

“A freemartin or free-martin (sometimes martin heifer) is an infertile female mammal with masculinized behavior and non-functioning ovaries.”

Persistent Mullerian duct syndrome:

https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/8435/persistent-mullerian-duct-syndrome

“Persistent Mullerian duct syndrome (PMDS) is a disorder of sexual development that affects males.”

Partial Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome

https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/androgen-insensitivity-syndrome-partial/

“Some males have an unusually small penis (microphallus), undescended testes, hypospadias (urethra located on the underside of the penis), and/ or bifid scrotum (scrotum split in two).”

“1 in 99,000 male infants are born”

“PAIS only affects males, but females can be carriers for this genetic condition.”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome

“the insensitivity to androgens is clinically significant only when it occurs in genetic males”

Mild androgen insensitivity syndrome:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome

“MAIS is only diagnosed in males.”

Kallmann syndrome:

https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/10771/kallmann-syndrome

“Males with KS may have signs of the condition at birth”

“Females with KS”

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/kallmann-syndrome

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kallmann_syndrome

Anorchia:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3154292/

“It affects one in 20,000 male births”

https://fertilitypedia.org/edu/diagnoses/anorchia

“Anorchia (Pic. 1) is a disorder of sex development, in which a male is born with both testes absent.”

https://www.theturekclinic.com/anorchia/

17-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 3 deficiency:

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/17-beta-hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase-3-deficiency

“17-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 3 deficiency is a condition that affects male sexual development. People with this condition are genetically male, with one X and one Y chromosome in each cell, and they have male gonads (testes).”

Aromatase deficiency:

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/aromatase-deficiency

“Females with aromatase deficiency have a typical female chromosome pattern”

“Men with this condition have a typical male chromosome pattern”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromatase_deficiency

cloacal exstrophy:

http://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions-and-treatments/conditions/c/cloacal-exstrophy

“In boys, the penis is usually flat and short, with the exposed inner surface of the urethra on top. The penis is sometimes split into a right and left half. In girls, the clitoris is split and there may be one or two vaginal openings.”

The De La Chapelle syndrome:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XX_male_syndrome

“approximately 1:20,000 newborn males, making it much less common than Klinefelter syndrome.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11268892-de-la-chapelle-syndrome/

“The De La Chapelle syndrome (XX male) is a peripheral hypogonadism concerning males with 46,XX karyotype. We conducted a retrospective study of 18 cases and report the main clinical biological and hormonal characteristics.”

https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=25059

“XX male syndrome: A syndrome characterized by the presence of an XX sex chromosome complement in an individual with male genitalia including both testes but no sperm production .”
{{hab}}

::[[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 05:41, 7 March 2020 (UTC)
::: Please review [[WP:RS]]. And note the clear inconsistency of terms in the definitions you provided. Male genitalia is not the same as a male person. And a "female newborn" would better be described as [[AFAB|an infant assigned female at birth]]. [[User:EvergreenFir|'''EvergreenFir''']] [[User talk:EvergreenFir|(talk)]] 06:00, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

::::You can be born without a penis and still be male and several of these sources mention that ambiguous genitalia happens to both males and females.
::::Plus I edited intersex because I think we should go by the biologically definition.
:::::We go by what reliable sources say. And newborns with clinically observable intersex conditions are, by legal mandate, categorized as male or female on birth certificates in states and nations where intersex is not a category option. That is a social, not a biological, determination [[User:EvergreenFir|'''EvergreenFir''']] [[User talk:EvergreenFir|(talk)]] 06:12, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

::::::This has nothing to do with social or legal anything, the sources are medical and scientific sources.
::::::The sources state that people with these conditions are biologically male or female.
::::::Like people with Complete androgen insensitivity syndrome are genetically male. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/CycoMa|contribs]]) 06:18, 7 March 2020 (UTC) 
::::::: They have a [[karyotype]] of XY. They are assigned female at birth based on a visual assessment of the external genitalia. [[User:EvergreenFir|'''EvergreenFir''']] [[User talk:EvergreenFir|(talk)]] 06:24, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

::::::::Like I said dude genetically male. The reason I edited in the first place because the line states “ biological sex (i.e., the state of being male, female, or an intersex variation)”
::::::::The line was talking about the biological perspective, so I think it’s appropriate to do from it a biological perspective instead of social.
::::::::: What, then, would Klinefelter Syndrome or XO be? Chromosomes, gonads, genitalia, and hormones are individually not sufficient conditions to meet "male" and "female". Moreover, you appear to suggest that intersex is not already from a "biological perspective". [[User:EvergreenFir|'''EvergreenFir''']] [[User talk:EvergreenFir|(talk)]] 06:34, 7 March 2020 (UTC)
{{od|::::::::}}
Several sources say it’s the absence or the presence of the Y chromosome that makes you male or female. However, if there is a vital gene that’s on the Y chromosome called the SRY gene and if it malfunctions or it’s defective you become female. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/2604:2D80:4C89:1A00:9DBD:4173:2F94:A31F|2604:2D80:4C89:1A00:9DBD:4173:2F94:A31F]] ([[User talk:2604:2D80:4C89:1A00:9DBD:4173:2F94:A31F#top|talk]]) 06:39, 7 March 2020 (UTC) 

:Also the term intersex has been replaced with disorders of sex development.
:“ They could happen to anyone, and are actually more common than you might think. You may have heard DSD called terms such as "intersex" or "hermaphrodite" or "pseudohermaphroditism." However, a meeting of international experts reached consensus that the term "disorders of sex development" should replace those terms.”

:https://www.med.umich.edu/yourchild/topics/dsd.htm

:My overall problem with adding intersex is that the line paints intersex as a third sex or a combination of male or female.
:However, from a scientific standpoint that’s inaccurate and misleading. [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 17:39, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

::https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/SRY

::“ This protein starts processes that cause a fetus to develop male gonads (testes) and prevent the development of female reproductive structures (uterus and fallopian tubes).” [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 19:34, 7 March 2020 (UTC)
:::The [https://www.med.umich.edu/yourchild/topics/dsd.htm citation] you give is from 14 years ago. More recent sources make it clear that intersex refers to those individuals who do not fit into the medicotypical categories of male or female. You insisting that the SRY gene or some other criterion is the defining characteristic of a male or female person is [[WP:OR]]. The medical community and social sciences that inform their terminology selections have generally moved away from the "male/female" dichotomy ([https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/genitourinary-tract/Pages/Explaining-Disorders-of-Sex-Development-Intersexuality.aspx], [https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/140/5/e20170505], [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5808814/]).
:::[https://www.ama-assn.org/press-center/press-releases/ama-adopts-new-policies-2018-interim-meeting The American Medical Association] resolved that "{{tq|It is essential to acknowledge that an individual’s gender identity may not align with the sex assigned to them at birth. A narrow limit on the definition of sex would have public health consequences for the transgender population and individuals born with differences in sexual differentiation, also known as intersex traits.}}"
:::Unless you can show that medicine as a discipline largely agree that SRY or some other criterion can sort all individuals into "male or female" and that those are the only two accepted categories, your proposed edit would be based on your personal view and that is [[WP:NPOV|POV]]. [[User:EvergreenFir|'''EvergreenFir''']] [[User talk:EvergreenFir|(talk)]] 22:53, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

:::Re: "{{tq|My overall problem with adding intersex is that the line paints intersex as a third sex or a combination of male or female."}}, my understanding is that the objective is to differentiate the fact that there are other combinations of chromosomes besides XX and XY, which the layperson (reader) would call "female" and "male", respectively. That is to say, when the layperson reads "male", they think of XY chromosomes and when they read "female", they think of XX. For the reader, intersex needs to be included as an umbrella term for everything that isn't XX or XY. I'm open to hearing other wording for that sentence besides {{tq|(i.e., the state of being male, female, or an [[intersex]] variation)}}, but it absolutely needs to include a way for the reader to know that not everybody falls under XX or XY and it needs to be presented from a [[WP:NPOV|neutral point of view]]. [[User:Useight|Useight]] ([[User talk:Useight|talk]]) 01:24, 8 March 2020 (UTC)

::::I’m just saying how that sentence was written might make a reader think the term intersex means third sex.
::::However, that’s misleading for a number of factors. [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 01:34, 8 March 2020 (UTC)
:::::The problem is some intersex people do consider being intersex as separate from being biologically male or female. There are even countries, such as Chile, where it is standard to register babies as intersex rather than male or female, if their sex is indeterminate at birth.[https://www.latercera.com/tendencias/noticia/269-ninos-inscritos-sexo-indefinido-registro-civil-los-ultimos-12-anos/98520/] According to [[interACT]] (which is probably the most prominent intersex advocacy organization in the US), "Most people think biological sex is either 'male' or 'female,' but it can actually be more complicated... Intersex people may identify as male, female, no gender or multiple genders."[https://live-interact-advocates.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/INTERSEX101.pdf] I don't think anyone here is saying that intersex is a "third sex", but the reality is that biological sex is more complicated than just male and female, and in the context of gender, that's actually an important caveat. If you can come up with a better way to concisely express that, I'm sure folks would be willing to consider it. [[User:Kaldari|Kaldari]] ([[User talk:Kaldari|talk]]) 02:46, 8 March 2020 (UTC)

:Like I said and I’ll say this again.
:This isn’t about identity, social, or cultural.

:Various sources agree with me on this stance. Hell the Wikipedia articles for these intersex conditions state they are biologically male or female.

:We should go by the biological not view of the topic. [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 03:24, 8 March 2020 (UTC)

:Another problem with that claim is that many intersex conditions are actually pretty serious and do require treatment.
:Many of these conditions cause things like learning disorders, infertility, increase chance of cancer, heart problems, low salt, and various other problems. [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 03:28, 8 March 2020 (UTC)

::The Wikipedia article for intersex states "{{tq|do not fit the typical definitions for male or female bodies}}" and that is the point that is trying to be conveyed by that sentence - that it isn't as cut and dried as classic female (XX) and classic male (XY), which is what would be implied to the reader with a removal of the term "intersex" from the sentence. I fail to see how whether or not a particular intersex condition is serious, requires treatment, and/or causes other problems is relevant to whether or not the wholesale removal of the term "intersex" from this article (or any other article) is appropriate. I understand your concern that leaving the text as is might make the reader think there are three biological sexes, but removing it swings the pendulum too far the other way. Can you propose some wording that: 1) alleviates your concern that the reader might think intersex is a third sex; and 2) ensures that the reader is aware that there are, in fact, some complications in the subject matter? [[User:Useight|Useight]] ([[User talk:Useight|talk]]) 07:19, 8 March 2020 (UTC)

:::I read the Wikipedia article for intersex. However, the quote one that article is from the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights which is not a scientific or medical source.

:::The line that I specifically had a problem with was talking about biological sex. So I believe sources that know about biology and or health would be more reliable in this situation instead of a human rights source. [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 08:36, 8 March 2020 (UTC)
::::Please use colons to indent your comments underneath the comment you're replying to and place your signature (using four tildes) on the same line, in order to make the conversation more readable. But do you have any suggestions for how to word the sentence? How would everyone think of "{{tq|these characteristics may include biological sex (such as the typical male or female, or an [[intersex]] variation)}}"? I think that solves both problems, namely: 1) informs the reader that not everyone fits under the classic XX or XY; and 2) doesn't imply that intersex is a third sex completely outside the male/female umbrella. [[User:Useight|Useight]] ([[User talk:Useight|talk]]) 15:48, 8 March 2020 (UTC)
:::::An even easier solution would be to remove the parenthetical phrase entirely: "Depending on the context, these characteristics may include biological sex...". That seems fine to me. [[User:Kaldari|Kaldari]] ([[User talk:Kaldari|talk]]) 16:32, 8 March 2020 (UTC)
::::::That works for me, too. [[User:Useight|Useight]] ([[User talk:Useight|talk]]) 20:45, 8 March 2020 (UTC)
:::::::I just reverted CycoMa on [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gender&diff=prev&oldid=945460291 this]. As for "the typical male or female"? I oppose that. What is "the typical male or female"? So I reverted [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gender&diff=945460765&oldid=945460571 this] as well. Removing the parenthetical phrase altogether works for me. [[User:Flyer22 Frozen|Flyer22 Frozen]] ([[User talk:Flyer22 Frozen|talk]]) 03:03, 14 March 2020 (UTC)

I said it’s the typical one. What is a typical male or female.
That’s simple XX=female and XY=male.
Penis=male and vagina=female.

I presented sources showing that intersex conditions are atypical if you wish to see more sources I’ll provide some.
I’m saying these are the typical of biological sex. You can see that this model is typical by sex determination.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9967/

https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/principles-of-inheritance-and-variation/sex-determination/

https://www.who.int/genomics/gender/en/index1.html

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5866176/

https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/health/d/disorders-sexual-development

https://academic.oup.com/jpepsy/article/42/5/487/3078071

https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/mmr.2019.10819

https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=90&ContentID=P03079

https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/Disorders_of_sex_development

https://www.utmb.edu/pedi_ed/CoreV2/Endocrine/Endocrine7.html

How about this.
We change the line to something along the lines of (the typical male or female, and intersex variations)

Would that do for you? [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 17:59, 14 March 2020 (UTC)
:No. Per above, if a compromise is to be had, remove the parenthetical altogether. And, on a side note, regardless of you trying to explain biology to me, I do not see how you do not get how awful "the typical male or female" sounds. [[User:Flyer22 Frozen|Flyer22 Frozen]] ([[User talk:Flyer22 Frozen|talk]]) 22:40, 14 March 2020 (UTC)

== Remark on citations ==

The definition of gender as including gender identity, as stated in the second sentence of the first paragraph of the article, is not supported by the relevant references.
The sentence reads: "Depending on the context, these characteristics may include biological sex (i.e., the state of being male, female, or an intersex variation), sex-based social structures (i.e., gender roles), or gender identity.[1][2][3]".

It seems none of the three references listed support the claim that the term gender includes gender identity, and I interpret the first source as actually opposing this veiw.
[[Special:Contributions/85.19.179.17|85.19.179.17]] ([[User talk:85.19.179.17|talk]]) 22:26, 6 August 2020 (UTC)

Talk:Gender

2020-08-06T22:26:18Z

85.19.179.17: /* Remark on citations */ new section

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__TOC__

== Citation Suggested ==

The rise of criticism against the WID approach led to the emergence of a new theory, that of Women and Development (WAD).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Muyoyeta |first1=Lucy |title=Women, Gender and Development |date=2004 |publisher=Women for Change |location=Zambia |isbn=095351367X |url=https://www.developmenteducation.ie/media/documents/women_gender_dev.pdf}}</ref> — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Dhum.group2|Dhum.group2]] ([[User talk:Dhum.group2#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dhum.group2|contribs]]) 17 May 2019 (UTC)

{{ref talk}}

== Citation suggested ==

In contemporary times, most literature and institutions that are concerned with women's role in development incorporate a GAD perspective, with the United Nations taking the lead of mainstreaming the GAD approach through its system and development policies. <ref>{{cite book |last1=United Nations. Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues, & Advancement of Women |title=Gender Mainstreaming an Overview |date=2002 |publisher=United Nations Publications |location=New York |url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/e65237.pdf}}</ref>— Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Dhum.group2|Dhum.group2]] ([[User talk:Dhum.group2#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dhum.group2|contribs]]) 17 May 2019 (UTC)
{{ref talk}}

== I have a issue with a specific line ==

“ these characteristics may include biological sex (i.e., the state of being male, female, or an intersex variation”

Putting intersex in there is a little misleading because several medical and scientific sources state that people with these conditions are males or females. So I think maybe add some context or a better explanation. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/CycoMa|contribs]]) 21:07, 6 March 2020 (UTC) 

I edited it intersex out. [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 01:21, 7 March 2020 (UTC)
:Please provide a neutral and reliable source for your change or I recommend it be reverted until such a source can be found. [[User:Useight|Useight]] ([[User talk:Useight|talk]]) 05:33, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

::Okay
{{hat|Copy-paste of various definition}}
Turner Syndrome:

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/turner-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20360782

“Turner syndrome, a condition that affects only females, results when one of the X chromosomes (sex chromosomes) is missing or partially missing.“

https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/turner/conditioninfo/symptoms

Klinefelter Syndrome:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klinefelter_syndrome

“Klinefelter syndrome (KS), also known as 47, XXY is the set of symptoms that result from two or more X chromosomes in males.”

https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/8705/klinefelter-syndrome

Progestin-induced virilization:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progestin-induced_virilization

“Affected females mature normally with normal fertility, there is almost total regression of the genital anomaly in cases of simple clitoral enlargement, and in even the most severe cases, surgical correction of labioscrotal fusion is relatively simple.”

Androgen insensitivity syndrome:

https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001180.htm

“Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is when a person who is genetically male”

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia:

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/congenital-adrenal-hyperplasia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355205?page=0&citems=10

“In females, enlarged clitoris or genitals that look more male than female (ambiguous genitalia) at birth, but males have normal appearing genitals”

https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/1467/congenital-adrenal-hyperplasia

Aphallia:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disorders_of_sex_development#Conditions

“Aphallia - A rare occurrence where a male is born without a penis or where a female is born without a clitoris.”

5α-Reductase deficiency:

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/5-alpha-reductase-deficiency

“5-alpha reductase deficiency is a condition that affects male sexual development before birth and during puberty. People with this condition are genetically male, with one X and one Y chromosome in each cell, and they have male gonads (testes).”

Freemartin:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemartin

“A freemartin or free-martin (sometimes martin heifer) is an infertile female mammal with masculinized behavior and non-functioning ovaries.”

Persistent Mullerian duct syndrome:

https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/8435/persistent-mullerian-duct-syndrome

“Persistent Mullerian duct syndrome (PMDS) is a disorder of sexual development that affects males.”

Partial Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome

https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/androgen-insensitivity-syndrome-partial/

“Some males have an unusually small penis (microphallus), undescended testes, hypospadias (urethra located on the underside of the penis), and/ or bifid scrotum (scrotum split in two).”

“1 in 99,000 male infants are born”

“PAIS only affects males, but females can be carriers for this genetic condition.”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome

“the insensitivity to androgens is clinically significant only when it occurs in genetic males”

Mild androgen insensitivity syndrome:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome

“MAIS is only diagnosed in males.”

Kallmann syndrome:

https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/10771/kallmann-syndrome

“Males with KS may have signs of the condition at birth”

“Females with KS”

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/kallmann-syndrome

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kallmann_syndrome

Anorchia:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3154292/

“It affects one in 20,000 male births”

https://fertilitypedia.org/edu/diagnoses/anorchia

“Anorchia (Pic. 1) is a disorder of sex development, in which a male is born with both testes absent.”

https://www.theturekclinic.com/anorchia/

17-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 3 deficiency:

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/17-beta-hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase-3-deficiency

“17-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 3 deficiency is a condition that affects male sexual development. People with this condition are genetically male, with one X and one Y chromosome in each cell, and they have male gonads (testes).”

Aromatase deficiency:

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/aromatase-deficiency

“Females with aromatase deficiency have a typical female chromosome pattern”

“Men with this condition have a typical male chromosome pattern”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromatase_deficiency

cloacal exstrophy:

http://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions-and-treatments/conditions/c/cloacal-exstrophy

“In boys, the penis is usually flat and short, with the exposed inner surface of the urethra on top. The penis is sometimes split into a right and left half. In girls, the clitoris is split and there may be one or two vaginal openings.”

The De La Chapelle syndrome:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XX_male_syndrome

“approximately 1:20,000 newborn males, making it much less common than Klinefelter syndrome.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11268892-de-la-chapelle-syndrome/

“The De La Chapelle syndrome (XX male) is a peripheral hypogonadism concerning males with 46,XX karyotype. We conducted a retrospective study of 18 cases and report the main clinical biological and hormonal characteristics.”

https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=25059

“XX male syndrome: A syndrome characterized by the presence of an XX sex chromosome complement in an individual with male genitalia including both testes but no sperm production .”
{{hab}}

::[[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 05:41, 7 March 2020 (UTC)
::: Please review [[WP:RS]]. And note the clear inconsistency of terms in the definitions you provided. Male genitalia is not the same as a male person. And a "female newborn" would better be described as [[AFAB|an infant assigned female at birth]]. [[User:EvergreenFir|'''EvergreenFir''']] [[User talk:EvergreenFir|(talk)]] 06:00, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

::::You can be born without a penis and still be male and several of these sources mention that ambiguous genitalia happens to both males and females.
::::Plus I edited intersex because I think we should go by the biologically definition.
:::::We go by what reliable sources say. And newborns with clinically observable intersex conditions are, by legal mandate, categorized as male or female on birth certificates in states and nations where intersex is not a category option. That is a social, not a biological, determination [[User:EvergreenFir|'''EvergreenFir''']] [[User talk:EvergreenFir|(talk)]] 06:12, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

::::::This has nothing to do with social or legal anything, the sources are medical and scientific sources.
::::::The sources state that people with these conditions are biologically male or female.
::::::Like people with Complete androgen insensitivity syndrome are genetically male. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/CycoMa|contribs]]) 06:18, 7 March 2020 (UTC) 
::::::: They have a [[karyotype]] of XY. They are assigned female at birth based on a visual assessment of the external genitalia. [[User:EvergreenFir|'''EvergreenFir''']] [[User talk:EvergreenFir|(talk)]] 06:24, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

::::::::Like I said dude genetically male. The reason I edited in the first place because the line states “ biological sex (i.e., the state of being male, female, or an intersex variation)”
::::::::The line was talking about the biological perspective, so I think it’s appropriate to do from it a biological perspective instead of social.
::::::::: What, then, would Klinefelter Syndrome or XO be? Chromosomes, gonads, genitalia, and hormones are individually not sufficient conditions to meet "male" and "female". Moreover, you appear to suggest that intersex is not already from a "biological perspective". [[User:EvergreenFir|'''EvergreenFir''']] [[User talk:EvergreenFir|(talk)]] 06:34, 7 March 2020 (UTC)
{{od|::::::::}}
Several sources say it’s the absence or the presence of the Y chromosome that makes you male or female. However, if there is a vital gene that’s on the Y chromosome called the SRY gene and if it malfunctions or it’s defective you become female. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/2604:2D80:4C89:1A00:9DBD:4173:2F94:A31F|2604:2D80:4C89:1A00:9DBD:4173:2F94:A31F]] ([[User talk:2604:2D80:4C89:1A00:9DBD:4173:2F94:A31F#top|talk]]) 06:39, 7 March 2020 (UTC) 

:Also the term intersex has been replaced with disorders of sex development.
:“ They could happen to anyone, and are actually more common than you might think. You may have heard DSD called terms such as "intersex" or "hermaphrodite" or "pseudohermaphroditism." However, a meeting of international experts reached consensus that the term "disorders of sex development" should replace those terms.”

:https://www.med.umich.edu/yourchild/topics/dsd.htm

:My overall problem with adding intersex is that the line paints intersex as a third sex or a combination of male or female.
:However, from a scientific standpoint that’s inaccurate and misleading. [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 17:39, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

::https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/SRY

::“ This protein starts processes that cause a fetus to develop male gonads (testes) and prevent the development of female reproductive structures (uterus and fallopian tubes).” [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 19:34, 7 March 2020 (UTC)
:::The [https://www.med.umich.edu/yourchild/topics/dsd.htm citation] you give is from 14 years ago. More recent sources make it clear that intersex refers to those individuals who do not fit into the medicotypical categories of male or female. You insisting that the SRY gene or some other criterion is the defining characteristic of a male or female person is [[WP:OR]]. The medical community and social sciences that inform their terminology selections have generally moved away from the "male/female" dichotomy ([https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/genitourinary-tract/Pages/Explaining-Disorders-of-Sex-Development-Intersexuality.aspx], [https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/140/5/e20170505], [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5808814/]).
:::[https://www.ama-assn.org/press-center/press-releases/ama-adopts-new-policies-2018-interim-meeting The American Medical Association] resolved that "{{tq|It is essential to acknowledge that an individual’s gender identity may not align with the sex assigned to them at birth. A narrow limit on the definition of sex would have public health consequences for the transgender population and individuals born with differences in sexual differentiation, also known as intersex traits.}}"
:::Unless you can show that medicine as a discipline largely agree that SRY or some other criterion can sort all individuals into "male or female" and that those are the only two accepted categories, your proposed edit would be based on your personal view and that is [[WP:NPOV|POV]]. [[User:EvergreenFir|'''EvergreenFir''']] [[User talk:EvergreenFir|(talk)]] 22:53, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

:::Re: "{{tq|My overall problem with adding intersex is that the line paints intersex as a third sex or a combination of male or female."}}, my understanding is that the objective is to differentiate the fact that there are other combinations of chromosomes besides XX and XY, which the layperson (reader) would call "female" and "male", respectively. That is to say, when the layperson reads "male", they think of XY chromosomes and when they read "female", they think of XX. For the reader, intersex needs to be included as an umbrella term for everything that isn't XX or XY. I'm open to hearing other wording for that sentence besides {{tq|(i.e., the state of being male, female, or an [[intersex]] variation)}}, but it absolutely needs to include a way for the reader to know that not everybody falls under XX or XY and it needs to be presented from a [[WP:NPOV|neutral point of view]]. [[User:Useight|Useight]] ([[User talk:Useight|talk]]) 01:24, 8 March 2020 (UTC)

::::I’m just saying how that sentence was written might make a reader think the term intersex means third sex.
::::However, that’s misleading for a number of factors. [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 01:34, 8 March 2020 (UTC)
:::::The problem is some intersex people do consider being intersex as separate from being biologically male or female. There are even countries, such as Chile, where it is standard to register babies as intersex rather than male or female, if their sex is indeterminate at birth.[https://www.latercera.com/tendencias/noticia/269-ninos-inscritos-sexo-indefinido-registro-civil-los-ultimos-12-anos/98520/] According to [[interACT]] (which is probably the most prominent intersex advocacy organization in the US), "Most people think biological sex is either 'male' or 'female,' but it can actually be more complicated... Intersex people may identify as male, female, no gender or multiple genders."[https://live-interact-advocates.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/INTERSEX101.pdf] I don't think anyone here is saying that intersex is a "third sex", but the reality is that biological sex is more complicated than just male and female, and in the context of gender, that's actually an important caveat. If you can come up with a better way to concisely express that, I'm sure folks would be willing to consider it. [[User:Kaldari|Kaldari]] ([[User talk:Kaldari|talk]]) 02:46, 8 March 2020 (UTC)

:Like I said and I’ll say this again.
:This isn’t about identity, social, or cultural.

:Various sources agree with me on this stance. Hell the Wikipedia articles for these intersex conditions state they are biologically male or female.

:We should go by the biological not view of the topic. [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 03:24, 8 March 2020 (UTC)

:Another problem with that claim is that many intersex conditions are actually pretty serious and do require treatment.
:Many of these conditions cause things like learning disorders, infertility, increase chance of cancer, heart problems, low salt, and various other problems. [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 03:28, 8 March 2020 (UTC)

::The Wikipedia article for intersex states "{{tq|do not fit the typical definitions for male or female bodies}}" and that is the point that is trying to be conveyed by that sentence - that it isn't as cut and dried as classic female (XX) and classic male (XY), which is what would be implied to the reader with a removal of the term "intersex" from the sentence. I fail to see how whether or not a particular intersex condition is serious, requires treatment, and/or causes other problems is relevant to whether or not the wholesale removal of the term "intersex" from this article (or any other article) is appropriate. I understand your concern that leaving the text as is might make the reader think there are three biological sexes, but removing it swings the pendulum too far the other way. Can you propose some wording that: 1) alleviates your concern that the reader might think intersex is a third sex; and 2) ensures that the reader is aware that there are, in fact, some complications in the subject matter? [[User:Useight|Useight]] ([[User talk:Useight|talk]]) 07:19, 8 March 2020 (UTC)

:::I read the Wikipedia article for intersex. However, the quote one that article is from the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights which is not a scientific or medical source.

:::The line that I specifically had a problem with was talking about biological sex. So I believe sources that know about biology and or health would be more reliable in this situation instead of a human rights source. [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 08:36, 8 March 2020 (UTC)
::::Please use colons to indent your comments underneath the comment you're replying to and place your signature (using four tildes) on the same line, in order to make the conversation more readable. But do you have any suggestions for how to word the sentence? How would everyone think of "{{tq|these characteristics may include biological sex (such as the typical male or female, or an [[intersex]] variation)}}"? I think that solves both problems, namely: 1) informs the reader that not everyone fits under the classic XX or XY; and 2) doesn't imply that intersex is a third sex completely outside the male/female umbrella. [[User:Useight|Useight]] ([[User talk:Useight|talk]]) 15:48, 8 March 2020 (UTC)
:::::An even easier solution would be to remove the parenthetical phrase entirely: "Depending on the context, these characteristics may include biological sex...". That seems fine to me. [[User:Kaldari|Kaldari]] ([[User talk:Kaldari|talk]]) 16:32, 8 March 2020 (UTC)
::::::That works for me, too. [[User:Useight|Useight]] ([[User talk:Useight|talk]]) 20:45, 8 March 2020 (UTC)
:::::::I just reverted CycoMa on [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gender&diff=prev&oldid=945460291 this]. As for "the typical male or female"? I oppose that. What is "the typical male or female"? So I reverted [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gender&diff=945460765&oldid=945460571 this] as well. Removing the parenthetical phrase altogether works for me. [[User:Flyer22 Frozen|Flyer22 Frozen]] ([[User talk:Flyer22 Frozen|talk]]) 03:03, 14 March 2020 (UTC)

I said it’s the typical one. What is a typical male or female.
That’s simple XX=female and XY=male.
Penis=male and vagina=female.

I presented sources showing that intersex conditions are atypical if you wish to see more sources I’ll provide some.
I’m saying these are the typical of biological sex. You can see that this model is typical by sex determination.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9967/

https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/principles-of-inheritance-and-variation/sex-determination/

https://www.who.int/genomics/gender/en/index1.html

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5866176/

https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/health/d/disorders-sexual-development

https://academic.oup.com/jpepsy/article/42/5/487/3078071

https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/mmr.2019.10819

https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=90&ContentID=P03079

https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/Disorders_of_sex_development

https://www.utmb.edu/pedi_ed/CoreV2/Endocrine/Endocrine7.html

How about this.
We change the line to something along the lines of (the typical male or female, and intersex variations)

Would that do for you? [[User:CycoMa|CycoMa]] ([[User talk:CycoMa|talk]]) 17:59, 14 March 2020 (UTC)
:No. Per above, if a compromise is to be had, remove the parenthetical altogether. And, on a side note, regardless of you trying to explain biology to me, I do not see how you do not get how awful "the typical male or female" sounds. [[User:Flyer22 Frozen|Flyer22 Frozen]] ([[User talk:Flyer22 Frozen|talk]]) 22:40, 14 March 2020 (UTC)

== Remark on citations ==

The definition of gender as including gender identity, as stated in the second sentence of the first paragraph of the article, is not supported by the relevant references.
The sentence reads: "Depending on the context, these characteristics may include biological sex (i.e., the state of being male, female, or an intersex variation), sex-based social structures (i.e., gender roles), or gender identity.[1][2][3]"
It seems none of the three references listed support the claim that the term gender includes gender identity, and I interpret the first source as actually opposing this veiw.
[[Special:Contributions/85.19.179.17|85.19.179.17]] ([[User talk:85.19.179.17|talk]]) 22:26, 6 August 2020 (UTC)

RNA

2018-11-01T07:49:53Z

85.19.179.17: /* Comparison with DNA */.

{{other uses}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{good article}}
[[File:Pre-mRNA-1ysv-tubes.png|thumb|right|A hairpin loop from a pre-mRNA. Highlighted are the [[nucleobase]]s (green) and the ribose-phosphate backbone (blue). This is a single strand of RNA that folds back upon itself.]]

'''Ribonucleic acid''' ('''RNA''') is a [[polymer]]ic molecule essential in various biological roles in [[Genetic code|coding]], [[Translation (biology)|decoding]], [[Regulatory RNA|regulation]] and [[RNA splicing|expression]] of [[gene]]s. RNA and [[DNA]] are [[nucleic acid]]s, and, along with [[lipid]]s, [[protein]]s and [[carbohydrate]]s, constitute the four major [[macromolecule]]s essential for all known forms of [[life]]. Like DNA, RNA is assembled as a chain of [[nucleotide]]s, but unlike DNA it is more often found in nature as a single-strand folded onto itself, rather than a paired double-strand. Cellular organisms use [[messenger RNA]] ('''''mRNA''''') to convey genetic information (using the [[nucleobase|nitrogenous bases]] of [[guanine]], [[uracil]], [[adenine]], and [[cytosine]], denoted by the letters G, U, A, and C) that directs synthesis of specific proteins. Many [[virus]]es encode their genetic information using an RNA [[genome]].

Some RNA molecules play an active role within cells by catalyzing biological reactions, controlling [[gene expression]], or sensing and communicating responses to cellular signals. One of these active processes is [[Protein biosynthesis|protein synthesis]], a universal function in which RNA molecules direct the assembly of proteins on [[ribosome]]s. This process uses [[transfer RNA]] ('''''tRNA''''') molecules to deliver [[amino acid]]s to the ribosome, where [[ribosomal RNA]] ('''''rRNA''''') then links amino acids together to form proteins.

==Comparison with DNA==
[[File:50S-subunit of the ribosome 3CC2.png|thumb|Three-dimensional representation of the [[50S]] ribosomal subunit. Ribosomal RNA is in ochre, proteins in blue. The active site is a small segment of rRNA, indicated in red.]]
<div style="overflow:hidden">
The chemical structure of RNA is very similar to that of [[DNA]], but differs in three primary ways:
* Unlike double-stranded DNA, RNA is a single-stranded molecule<ref>{{cite web | url=http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/molecules/rnamolecule/ | title =RNA: The Versatile Molecule | publisher =[[University of Utah]] | year =2015}}</ref> in many of its biological roles and consists of a much shorter chain of nucleotides.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.chem.ucla.edu/harding/notes/notes_14C_nucacids.pdf | title =Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids | publisher =[[University of California, Los Angeles]]}}</ref> However, RNA can, by complementary base pairing, form intrastrand (i.e., single-strand) double helixes, as in tRNA.
* While the sugar-phosphate "backbone" of DNA contains ''[[deoxyribose]]'', RNA contains ''[[ribose]]'' instead.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/?id=7-UKCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT386&lpg=PT386&dq=dna+contains+deoxyribose+rna+ribose#v=onepage&q=dna%20contains%20deoxyribose%20rna%20ribose&f=false | title =Analysis of Chromosomes | vauthors = Shukla RN | isbn =9789384568177| date =2014-06-30 }}</ref> Ribose has a [[Hydroxy group|hydroxyl]] group attached to the pentose ring in the [[nucleic acid nomenclature|2']] position, whereas deoxyribose does not. The hydroxyl groups in the ribose backbone make RNA less stable than DNA because it is more prone to [[hydrolysis]].
* The complementary base to [[adenine]] in DNA is [[thymine]], whereas in RNA, it is [[uracil]], which is an [[methylation|unmethylated]] form of thymine.<ref name=Biochemistry/>
</div>

Like DNA, most biologically active RNAs, including [[mRNA]], [[tRNA]], [[rRNA]], [[snRNA]]s, and other [[non-coding RNA]]s, contain self-complementary sequences that allow parts of the RNA to fold<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tinoco I, Bustamante C | title = How RNA folds | journal = Journal of Molecular Biology | volume = 293 | issue = 2 | pages = 271–81 | date = October 1999 | pmid = 10550208 | doi = 10.1006/jmbi.1999.3001 | last-author-amp = yes }}</ref> and pair with itself to form double helices. Analysis of these RNAs has revealed that they are highly structured. Unlike DNA, their structures do not consist of long double helices, but rather collections of short helices packed together into structures akin to proteins.
In this fashion, RNAs can achieve chemical [[catalysis]] (like enzymes).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Higgs PG | title = RNA secondary structure: physical and computational aspects | journal = Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics | volume = 33 | issue = 3 | pages = 199–253 | date = August 2000 | pmid = 11191843 | doi = 10.1017/S0033583500003620 }}</ref> For instance, determination of the structure of the ribosome—an RNA-protein complex that catalyzes peptide bond formation—revealed that its active site is composed entirely of RNA.<ref name=ribosome_activity>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nissen P, Hansen J, Ban N, Moore PB, Steitz TA | title = The structural basis of ribosome activity in peptide bond synthesis | journal = Science | volume = 289 | issue = 5481 | pages = 920–30 | date = August 2000 | pmid = 10937990 | doi = 10.1126/science.289.5481.920 | bibcode = 2000Sci...289..920N }}</ref>

Hallo

==Structure==
{{main|Nucleic acid structure}}
[[File:Piwi-siRNA-basepairing.png|thumb|right|230px|Watson-Crick base pairs in a [[siRNA]] (hydrogen atoms are not shown)]]
Each [[nucleotide]] in RNA contains a [[ribose]] sugar, with carbons numbered 1' through 5'. A base is attached to the 1' position, in general, [[adenine]] (A), [[cytosine]] (C), [[guanine]] (G), or [[uracil]] (U). Adenine and guanine are [[purine]]s, cytosine and uracil are [[pyrimidine]]s. A [[phosphate]] group is attached to the 3' position of one ribose and the 5' position of the next. The phosphate groups have a negative charge each, making RNA a charged molecule (polyanion). The bases form [[hydrogen bond]]s between cytosine and guanine, between adenine and uracil and between guanine and uracil.<ref name="pmid15561141"/> However, other interactions are possible, such as a group of adenine bases binding to each other in a bulge,<ref>{{cite book|title=RNA biochemistry and biotechnology| vauthors= Barciszewski J, Frederic B, Clark C | date = 1999 | pages = 73–87 | publisher = Springer | isbn = 978-0-7923-5862-6 | oclc = 52403776 }}</ref>
or the GNRA [[tetraloop]] that has a guanine–adenine base-pair.<ref name="pmid15561141">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee JC, Gutell RR | title = Diversity of base-pair conformations and their occurrence in rRNA structure and RNA structural motifs | journal = Journal of Molecular Biology | volume = 344 | issue = 5 | pages = 1225–49 | date = December 2004 | pmid = 15561141 | doi = 10.1016/j.jmb.2004.09.072 }}</ref>

[[File:RNA chemical structure.GIF|thumb|left|Chemical structure of RNA]]
An important structural component of RNA that distinguishes it from DNA is the presence of a [[hydroxyl]] group at the 2' position of the ribose sugar. The presence of this functional group causes the helix to mostly take the [[A-DNA|A-form geometry]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Salazar M, Fedoroff OY, Miller JM, Ribeiro NS, Reid BR | title = The DNA strand in DNA.RNA hybrid duplexes is neither B-form nor A-form in solution | journal = Biochemistry | volume = 32 | issue = 16 | pages = 4207–15 | date = April 1993 | pmid = 7682844 | doi = 10.1021/bi00067a007 }}</ref> although in single strand dinucleotide contexts, RNA can rarely also adopt the B-form most commonly observed in DNA.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sedova A, Banavali NK | title = RNA approaches the B-form in stacked single strand dinucleotide contexts | journal = Biopolymers | volume = 105 | issue = 2 | pages = 65–82 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26443416 | doi = 10.1002/bip.22750 }}</ref> The A-form geometry results in a very deep and narrow major groove and a shallow and wide minor groove.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hermann T, Patel DJ | title = RNA bulges as architectural and recognition motifs | journal = Structure | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = R47–54 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10745015 | doi = 10.1016/S0969-2126(00)00110-6 }}</ref> A second consequence of the presence of the 2'-hydroxyl group is that in conformationally flexible regions of an RNA molecule (that is, not involved in formation of a double helix), it can chemically attack the adjacent phosphodiester bond to cleave the backbone.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mikkola S, Stenman E, Nurmi K, Yousefi-Salakdeh E, Strömberg R, Lönnberg H | title = The mechanism of the metal ion promoted cleavage of RNA phosphodiester bonds involves a general acid catalysis by the metal aquo ion on the departure of the leaving group|journal=Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 2|date=1999|pages=1619–26|doi=10.1039/a903691a|issue=8}}</ref>

[[File:Ciliate telomerase RNA.JPG|thumb|[[Secondary structure]] of a [[telomerase RNA]].]]
RNA is transcribed with only four bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil),<ref>{{cite book|title=Clinical gene analysis and manipulation: Tools, techniques and troubleshooting| vauthors = Jankowski JA, Polak JM | date=1996|page=14|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-47896-0|oclc=33838261}}</ref> but these bases and attached sugars can be modified in numerous ways as the RNAs mature. [[Pseudouridine]] (Ψ), in which the linkage between uracil and ribose is changed from a C–N bond to a C–C bond, and [[5-methyluridine|ribothymidine]] (T) are found in various places (the most notable ones being in the TΨC loop of [[tRNA]]).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yu Q, Morrow CD | title = Identification of critical elements in the tRNA acceptor stem and T(Psi)C loop necessary for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infectivity | journal = Journal of Virology | volume = 75 | issue = 10 | pages = 4902–6 | date = May 2001 | pmid = 11312362 | pmc = 114245 | doi = 10.1128/JVI.75.10.4902-4906.2001 }}</ref> Another notable modified base is hypoxanthine, a deaminated adenine base whose [[nucleoside]] is called [[inosine]] (I). Inosine plays a key role in the [[wobble hypothesis]] of the [[genetic code]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Elliott MS, Trewyn RW | title = Inosine biosynthesis in transfer RNA by an enzymatic insertion of hypoxanthine | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 259 | issue = 4 | pages = 2407–10 | date = February 1984 | pmid = 6365911 }}</ref>

There are more than 100 other naturally occurring modified nucleosides.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cantara WA, Crain PF, Rozenski J, McCloskey JA, Harris KA, Zhang X, Vendeix FA, Fabris D, Agris PF | title = The RNA Modification Database, RNAMDB: 2011 update | journal = Nucleic Acids Research | volume = 39 | issue = Database issue | pages = D195–201 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21071406 | pmc = 3013656 | doi = 10.1093/nar/gkq1028 }}</ref> The greatest structural diversity of modifications can be found in [[tRNA]],<ref>{{cite book|title=TRNA: Structure, biosynthesis, and function| vauthors = Söll D, RajBhandary U |date=1995|page=165|publisher=ASM Press|isbn=978-1-55581-073-3|oclc=183036381 }}</ref> while pseudouridine and nucleosides with [[2'-O-methylation|2'-O-methylribose]] often present in rRNA are the most common.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kiss T | title = Small nucleolar RNA-guided post-transcriptional modification of cellular RNAs | journal = The EMBO Journal | volume = 20 | issue = 14 | pages = 3617–22 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11447102 | pmc = 125535 | doi = 10.1093/emboj/20.14.3617 }}</ref> The specific roles of many of these modifications in RNA are not fully understood. However, it is notable that, in ribosomal RNA, many of the post-transcriptional modifications occur in highly functional regions, such as the peptidyl transferase center and the subunit interface, implying that they are important for normal function.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = King TH, Liu B, McCully RR, Fournier MJ | title = Ribosome structure and activity are altered in cells lacking snoRNPs that form pseudouridines in the peptidyl transferase center | journal = Molecular Cell | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | pages = 425–35 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 12620230 | doi = 10.1016/S1097-2765(03)00040-6 }}</ref>

The functional form of single-stranded RNA molecules, just like proteins, frequently requires a specific [[RNA Tertiary Structure|tertiary structure]]. The scaffold for this structure is provided by [[secondary structure|secondary structural]] elements that are hydrogen bonds within the molecule. This leads to several recognizable "domains" of secondary structure like [[hairpin loop]]s, bulges, and [[internal loop]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mathews DH, Disney MD, Childs JL, Schroeder SJ, Zuker M, Turner DH | title = Incorporating chemical modification constraints into a dynamic programming algorithm for prediction of RNA secondary structure | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 101 | issue = 19 | pages = 7287–92 | date = May 2004 | pmid = 15123812 | pmc = 409911 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0401799101 | bibcode = 2004PNAS..101.7287M }}</ref> Since RNA is charged, metal ions such as [[Magnesium|Mg2+]] are needed to stabilise many secondary and [[RNA Tertiary Structure|tertiary structures]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tan ZJ, Chen SJ | title = Salt dependence of nucleic acid hairpin stability | journal = Biophysical Journal | volume = 95 | issue = 2 | pages = 738–52 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18424500 | pmc = 2440479 | doi = 10.1529/biophysj.108.131524 | bibcode = 2008BpJ....95..738T }}</ref>

The naturally occurring [[enantiomer]] of RNA is D-RNA composed of D-ribonucleotides. All chirality centers are located in the D-ribose. By the use of L-ribose or rather L-ribonucleotides, L-RNA can be synthesized. L-RNA is much more stable against degradation by [[ribonuclease|RNase]].<ref name="pmid25236655">{{cite journal | vauthors = Vater A, Klussmann S | title = Turning mirror-image oligonucleotides into drugs: the evolution of Spiegelmer(®) therapeutics | journal = Drug Discovery Today | volume = 20 | issue = 1 | pages = 147–55 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 25236655 | doi = 10.1016/j.drudis.2014.09.004 }}</ref>

Like other structured biopolymers such as proteins, one can define topology of a folded RNA molecule. This is often done based on arrangement of intra-chain contacts within a folded RNA, termed as [[circuit topology]].

==Synthesis==
Synthesis of RNA is usually catalyzed by an enzyme—[[RNA polymerase]]—using DNA as a template, a process known as [[Transcription (genetics)|transcription]]. Initiation of transcription begins with the binding of the enzyme to a [[promoter (biology)|promoter]] sequence in the DNA (usually found "upstream" of a gene). The DNA double helix is unwound by the [[helicase]] activity of the enzyme. The enzyme then progresses along the template strand in the 3’ to 5’ direction, synthesizing a complementary RNA molecule with elongation occurring in the 5’ to 3’ direction. The DNA sequence also dictates where termination of RNA synthesis will occur.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nudler E, Gottesman ME | title = Transcription termination and anti-termination in E. coli | journal = Genes to Cells | volume = 7 | issue = 8 | pages = 755–68 | date = August 2002 | pmid = 12167155 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2443.2002.00563.x }}</ref>

[[Primary transcript]] RNAs are often [[Post-transcriptional modification|modified]] by enzymes after transcription. For example, a [[poly(A) tail]] and a [[5' cap]] are added to eukaryotic [[pre-mRNA]] and [[intron]]s are removed by the [[spliceosome]].

There are also a number of [[RNA-dependent RNA polymerase]]s that use RNA as their template for synthesis of a new strand of RNA. For instance, a number of RNA viruses (such as poliovirus) use this type of enzyme to replicate their genetic material.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hansen JL, Long AM, Schultz SC | title = Structure of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of poliovirus | journal = Structure | volume = 5 | issue = 8 | pages = 1109–22 | date = August 1997 | pmid = 9309225 | doi = 10.1016/S0969-2126(97)00261-X }}</ref> Also, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase is part of the [[RNA interference]] pathway in many organisms.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ahlquist P | title = RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, viruses, and RNA silencing | journal = Science | volume = 296 | issue = 5571 | pages = 1270–3 | date = May 2002 | pmid = 12016304 | doi = 10.1126/science.1069132 | bibcode = 2002Sci...296.1270A }}</ref>

==Types of RNA==
{{see also|List of RNAs}}

===Overview===
[[File:Full length hammerhead ribozyme.png|thumb|right|Structure of a [[hammerhead ribozyme]], a ribozyme that cuts RNA]]
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the RNA that carries information from DNA to the [[ribosome]], the sites of protein synthesis ([[Translation (biology)|translation]]) in the cell. The coding sequence of the mRNA determines the [[amino acid]] sequence in the [[protein]] that is produced.<ref name=The_Cell/> However, many RNAs do not code for protein (about 97% of the transcriptional output is non-protein-coding in eukaryotes<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mattick JS, Gagen MJ | title = The evolution of controlled multitasked gene networks: the role of introns and other noncoding RNAs in the development of complex organisms | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 18 | issue = 9 | pages = 1611–30 | date = September 2001 | pmid = 11504843 | doi = 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003951 | url = http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11504843 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mattick JS | title = Non-coding RNAs: the architects of eukaryotic complexity | journal = EMBO Reports | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = 986–91 | date = November 2001 | pmid = 11713189 | pmc = 1084129 | doi = 10.1093/embo-reports/kve230 | url = http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v2/n11/full/embor291.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mattick JS | title = Challenging the dogma: the hidden layer of non-protein-coding RNAs in complex organisms | journal = BioEssays | volume = 25 | issue = 10 | pages = 930–9 | date = October 2003 | pmid = 14505360 | doi = 10.1002/bies.10332 | url = http://www.imb-jena.de/jcb/journal_club/mattick2003.pdf | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090306105646/http://www.imb-jena.de/jcb/journal_club/mattick2003.pdf | df = | deadurl = yes | archivedate = 2009-03-06 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.476.7561 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mattick JS | title = The hidden genetic program of complex organisms | journal = Scientific American | volume = 291 | issue = 4 | pages = 60–7 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15487671 | doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican1004-60 | url = http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00045BB6-5D49-1150-902F83414B7F4945 | bibcode = 2004SciAm.291d..60M }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>).

These so-called [[non-coding RNA]]s ("ncRNA") can be encoded by their own genes (RNA genes), but can also derive from mRNA [[intron]]s.<ref name=transcriptome/> The most prominent examples of non-coding RNAs are [[transfer RNA]] (tRNA) and [[ribosomal RNA]] (rRNA), both of which are involved in the process of translation.<ref name=Biochemistry>{{cite book | vauthors = Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L |title= Biochemistry|edition=5th|pages =118–19, 781–808|publisher= WH Freeman and Company|date=2002|isbn= 978-0-7167-4684-3|oclc=179705944 }}</ref> There are also non-coding RNAs involved in gene regulation, [[RNA processing]] and other roles. Certain RNAs are able to [[catalysis|catalyse]] chemical reactions such as cutting and [[ligase|ligating]] other RNA molecules,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rossi JJ | title = Ribozyme diagnostics comes of age | journal = Chemistry & Biology | volume = 11 | issue = 7 | pages = 894–5 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15271347 | doi = 10.1016/j.chembiol.2004.07.002 }}</ref> and the catalysis of [[peptide bond]] formation in the [[ribosome]];<ref name=ribosome_activity/> these are known as [[ribozyme]]s.

===In length===
According to the length of RNA chain, RNA includes [[small RNA]] and long RNA.<ref name="Noncoding RNA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Storz G | title = An expanding universe of noncoding RNAs | journal = Science | volume = 296 | issue = 5571 | pages = 1260–3 | date = May 2002 | pmid = 12016301 | doi = 10.1126/science.1072249 | bibcode = 2002Sci...296.1260S }}</ref> Usually, [[small RNA]]s are shorter than 200 [[Nucleotide|nt]] in length, and long RNAs are greater than 200 [[Nucleotide|nt]] long.<ref name="lncRNA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fatica A, Bozzoni I | title = Long non-coding RNAs: new players in cell differentiation and development | journal = Nature Reviews. Genetics | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 7–21 | date = January 2014 | pmid = 24296535 | doi = 10.1038/nrg3606 | url = https://hal-riip.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-01160208/document }}</ref> Long RNAs, also called large RNAs, mainly include [[long non-coding RNA]] (lncRNA) and [[mRNA]]. Small RNAs mainly include 5.8S [[ribosomal RNA]] (rRNA), 5S rRNA, [[transfer RNA]] (tRNA), [[microRNA]] (miRNA), [[small interfering RNA]] (siRNA), [[small nucleolar RNA]] (snoRNAs), [[Piwi-interacting RNA]] (piRNA), tRNA-derived small RNA (tsRNA)<ref name="tsRNA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen Q, Yan M, Cao Z, Li X, Zhang Y, Shi J, Feng GH, Peng H, Zhang X, Zhang Y, Qian J, Duan E, Zhai Q, Zhou Q | display-authors = 6 | title = Sperm tsRNAs contribute to intergenerational inheritance of an acquired metabolic disorder | journal = Science | volume = 351 | issue = 6271 | pages = 397–400 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26721680 | doi = 10.1126/science.aad7977 | bibcode = 2016Sci...351..397C }}</ref> and small rDNA-derived RNA (srRNA).<ref name="srRNA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wei H, Zhou B, Zhang F, Tu Y, Hu Y, Zhang B, Zhai Q | title = Profiling and identification of small rDNA-derived RNAs and their potential biological functions | journal = PLOS One | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = e56842 | date = 2013 | pmid = 23418607 | pmc = 3572043 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0056842 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...856842W }}</ref>

===In translation===
[[Messenger RNA]] (mRNA) carries information about a protein sequence to the [[ribosome]]s, the protein synthesis factories in the cell. It is [[genetic code|coded]] so that every three nucleotides (a [[codon]]) corresponds to one amino acid. In [[eukaryotic]] cells, once precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) has been transcribed from DNA, it is processed to mature mRNA. This removes its [[intron]]s—non-coding sections of the pre-mRNA. The mRNA is then exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where it is bound to ribosomes and [[Translation (biology)|translated]] into its corresponding protein form with the help of [[tRNA]]. In prokaryotic cells, which do not have nucleus and cytoplasm compartments, mRNA can bind to ribosomes while it is being transcribed from DNA. After a certain amount of time, the message degrades into its component nucleotides with the assistance of [[ribonuclease]]s.<ref name=The_Cell/>

[[Transfer RNA]] (tRNA) is a small RNA chain of about 80 [[nucleotide]]s that transfers a specific amino acid to a growing [[polypeptide]] chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation. It has sites for amino acid attachment and an [[anticodon]] region for [[codon]] recognition that binds to a specific sequence on the messenger RNA chain through hydrogen bonding.<ref name=transcriptome/>

[[Ribosomal RNA]] (rRNA) is the catalytic component of the ribosomes. Eukaryotic ribosomes contain four different rRNA molecules: 18S, 5.8S, 28S and 5S rRNA. Three of the rRNA molecules are synthesized in the [[nucleolus]], and one is synthesized elsewhere. In the cytoplasm, ribosomal RNA and protein combine to form a nucleoprotein called a ribosome. The ribosome binds mRNA and carries out protein synthesis. Several ribosomes may be attached to a single mRNA at any time.<ref name=The_Cell>{{cite book|title=The Cell: A Molecular Approach|edition=3rd| vauthors = Cooper GC, Hausman RE | date = 2004|pages=261–76, 297, 339–44|publisher=Sinauer|isbn=978-0-87893-214-6|oclc=174924833 }}</ref> Nearly all the RNA found in a typical eukaryotic cell is rRNA.

[[tmRNA|Transfer-messenger RNA]] (tmRNA) is found in many [[bacteria]] and [[plastid]]s. It tags proteins encoded by mRNAs that lack stop codons for degradation and prevents the ribosome from stalling.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gueneau de Novoa P, Williams KP | title = The tmRNA website: reductive evolution of tmRNA in plastids and other endosymbionts | journal = Nucleic Acids Research | volume = 32 | issue = Database issue | pages = D104–8 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14681369 | pmc = 308836 | doi = 10.1093/nar/gkh102 }}</ref>

== Regulatory RNA ==

The earliest known regulators of [[gene expression]] were proteins known as [[repressor]]s and [[Activator (genetics)|activators]], regulators with specific short binding sites within [[Enhancer (genetics)|enhancer]] regions near the genes to be regulated.<ref>F Jacob and J Monod (1961) "Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms in the Synthesis of Proteins. ''Journal of Molecular Biology'' '''3''': 318–356.</ref>  More recently, RNAs have been found to regulate genes as well.  There are several kinds of RNA-dependent processes in eukaryotes regulating the expression of genes at various points, such as [[RNA interference|RNAi]] repressing genes [[Post-transcriptional regulation|post-transcription]]<nowiki/>ally, [[long non-coding RNA]]s shutting down blocks of [[chromatin]] [[epigenetically]], and [[enhancer RNA]]s inducing increased gene expression.<ref name=":2">Kevin Morris and John Mattick. (2014) “The rise of regulatory RNA” ''Nature Reviews Genetics'''''15''':423–437.</ref> In addition to these mechanisms in eukaryotes, both bacteria and archaea have been found to use regulatory RNAs extensively. [[Bacterial small RNA]] and the [[CRISPR]] system are examples of such prokaryotic regulatory RNA systems.<ref name=":3">S. Gottesman (2005) “Micros for microbes: non-coding regulatory RNAs in bacteria.” ''Trends in Genetics'' '''21,'''399–404.</ref> Fire and Mello were awarded the 2006 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for discovering [[microRNA]]s (miRNAs), specific short RNA molecules that can base-pair with mRNAs.<ref name=":0">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2006". ''Nobelprize.org.'' Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 6 Aug 2018. <<nowiki>http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2006/</nowiki>></ref>

=== RNA interference by miRNAs ===
{{See also|RNA interference}}

Post-transcriptional expression levels of many genes can be controlled by [[RNA interference]], in which [[miRNA]]s, specific short RNA molecules, pair with meRNA regions and target them for degradation.<ref>Fire et al. 1998 “Potent and Specific Genetic Interference by double stranded RNA in Ceanorhabditis elegans” ''Nature'' '''391''':806–811.</ref> This [[Antisense RNA|antisense]]-based process involves steps that first process the RNA so that it can [[Base pair|base-pair]] with a region of its target mRNAs. Once the base pairing occurs, other proteins direct the mRNA to be destroyed by [[nuclease]]s.<ref name=":2" /> Fire and Mello were awarded the 2006 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for this discovery.<ref name=":0" />

=== Long non-coding RNAs ===
{{See also|Long non-coding RNA|l1=Long Non-coding RNA}}

Next to be linked to regulation were [[XIST|Xist]] and other [[long noncoding RNA]]s associated with [[X chromosome inactivation]].  Their roles, at first mysterious, were shown by [[Jeannie T. Lee]] and others to be the [[silencing]] of blocks of chromatin via recruitment of [[Polycomb-group proteins|Polycomb]] complex so that messenger RNA could not transcribed from them.<ref>J Zhao, BK Sun, JA Erwin, JJ Song, and JT Lee. (2008) “Polycomb proteins targeted by a short repeat RNA to the mouse X chromosome.” ''Science'' '''322''':750–6. [PubMed: 18974356],</ref>  Additional lncRNAs, currently defined as RNAs of more than 200 base pairs that do not appear to have coding potential,<ref name=":1">John L. Rinn and Howard Y. Chang.  (2012) “Genome regulation by long noncoding RNAs” ''Annu. Rev. Biochem'' '''81''':1–25. doi: 10.1146/annurev-biochem-051410-092902</ref> have been found associated with regulation of [[stem cell]] [[pluripotency]] and [[cell division]].<ref name=":1" />

=== Enhancer RNAs ===
{{See also|Enhancer RNA}}

The third major group of regulatory RNAs is called [[enhancer RNA]]s.<ref name=":1" />  It is not clear at present whether they are a unique category of RNAs of various lengths or constitute a distinct subset of lncRNAs.  In any case, they are transcribed from [[enhancers]], which are known regulatory sites in the DNA near genes they regulate.<ref name=":1" /><ref>RJ Taft, CD Kaplan., C Simons,  and JS  Mattick, (2009). Evolution, biogenesis and function of promoter- associated RNAs. ''Cell Cycle'' '''8''', 2332–2338.</ref>  They up-regulate the transcription of the gene(s) under control of the enhancer from which they are transcribed.<ref name=":1" /><ref>UA Orom, T Derrien, M Beringer, K Gumireddy, A. Gardini, et al.(2010) ‘Long noncoding RNAs with enhancer-like function in human cells.” ''Cell'' '''143''':46–58. [PubMed: 20887892]</ref>

=== Regulatory RNA in prokaryotes ===
At first, regulatory RNA was thought to be a eukaryotic phenomenon, a part of the explanation for why so much more transcription in higher organisms was seen than had been predicted. But as soon as researchers began to look for possible RNA regulators in bacteria, they turned up there as well.<ref name=":3" /> Currently, the ubiquitous nature of systems of RNA regulation of genes has been discussed as support for the [[RNA World]] theory.<ref name=":2" /><ref>J. W. Nelson, R. R. Breaker (2017) "The lost language of the RNA World."''Sci. Signal''.'''10''',eaam8812 1–11.</ref> [[Bacterial small RNA]]s generally act via [[Antisense RNA|antisense]] pairing with mRNA to down-regulate its translation, either by affecting stability or affecting cis-binding ability.<ref name=":2" /> [[Riboswitch]]es have also been discovered. They are cis-acting regulatory RNA sequences acting [[Allosteric regulation|allosterically]]. They change shape when they bind [[metabolite]]s so that they gain or lose the ability to bind chromatin to regulate expression of genes.<ref>WC Winklef. (2005) “Riboswitches and the role of noncoding RNAs in bacterial metabolic control. “''Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol.'' '''9''', 594–602.</ref><ref>BJ Tucker and RR Breaker (2005). “Riboswitches as versatile gene control elements.”''Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol.'' '''15''', 342–348.</ref>

Archaea also have systems of regulatory RNA.<ref>FJ Mojica, C Diez-Villasenor, E Soria, and G Juez, (2000)  “Biological significance of a family of regularly spaced repeats in the genomes of archaea, bacteria and mitochondria.”''Mol. Microbiol.'' '''36''', 244–246.</ref> The CRISPR system, recently being used to edit DNA ''in situ'', acts via regulatory RNAs in archaea and bacteria to provide protection against virus invaders.<ref name=":2" /><ref>S Brouns, MM Jore, M Lundgren, E Westra, R Slijkhuis, A Snijders, M Dickman, K. Makarova, E. Koonin, J Van Der Oost.  (2008) “Small CRISPR RNAs guide antiviral defense in prokaryotes” ''Science'' '''321''', 960–964. doi: 10.1126/science.1159689.</ref>

== In RNA processing ==
[[File:Synthesis of Pseudouridine.svg|thumb|Uridine to pseudouridine is a common RNA modification.]]
Many RNAs are involved in modifying other RNAs.
[[Intron]]s are [[Splicing (genetics)|spliced]] out of [[pre-mRNA]] by [[spliceosome]]s, which contain several [[small nuclear RNA]]s (snRNA),<ref name=Biochemistry/> or the introns can be ribozymes that are spliced by themselves.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Steitz TA, Steitz JA | title = A general two-metal-ion mechanism for catalytic RNA | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 90 | issue = 14 | pages = 6498–502 | date = July 1993 | pmid = 8341661 | pmc = 46959 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.90.14.6498 | bibcode = 1993PNAS...90.6498S }}</ref>
RNA can also be altered by having its nucleotides modified to nucleotides other than [[adenosine|A]], [[cytidine|C]], [[guanosine|G]] and [[uridine|U]].
In eukaryotes, modifications of RNA nucleotides are in general directed by [[small nucleolar RNA]]s (snoRNA; 60–300 nt),<ref name=transcriptome>{{cite book|title=Mining the transcriptome – methods and applications|url=http://kth.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:10803/FULLTEXT01 | vauthors = Wirta W |date=2006|isbn=978-91-7178-436-0|publisher=School of Biotechnology, Royal Institute of Technology|location=Stockholm|oclc=185406288}}</ref> found in the [[nucleolus]] and [[Cajal body|cajal bodies]]. snoRNAs associate with enzymes and guide them to a spot on an RNA by basepairing to that RNA. These enzymes then perform the nucleotide modification. rRNAs and tRNAs are extensively modified, but snRNAs and mRNAs can also be the target of base modification.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Xie J, Zhang M, Zhou T, Hua X, Tang L, Wu W | title = Sno/scaRNAbase: a curated database for small nucleolar RNAs and cajal body-specific RNAs | journal = Nucleic Acids Research | volume = 35 | issue = Database issue | pages = D183–7 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 17099227 | pmc = 1669756 | doi = 10.1093/nar/gkl873 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Omer AD, Ziesche S, Decatur WA, Fournier MJ, Dennis PP | title = RNA-modifying machines in archaea | journal = Molecular Microbiology | volume = 48 | issue = 3 | pages = 617–29 | date = May 2003 | pmid = 12694609 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2958.2003.03483.x }}</ref> RNA can also be methylated.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cavaillé J, Nicoloso M, Bachellerie JP | title = Targeted ribose methylation of RNA in vivo directed by tailored antisense RNA guides | journal = Nature | volume = 383 | issue = 6602 | pages = 732–5 | date = October 1996 | pmid = 8878486 | doi = 10.1038/383732a0 | bibcode = 1996Natur.383..732C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kiss-László Z, Henry Y, Bachellerie JP, Caizergues-Ferrer M, Kiss T | title = Site-specific ribose methylation of preribosomal RNA: a novel function for small nucleolar RNAs | journal = Cell | volume = 85 | issue = 7 | pages = 1077–88 | date = June 1996 | pmid = 8674114 | doi = 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81308-2 }}</ref>

==RNA genomes==
Like DNA, RNA can carry genetic information. [[RNA virus]]es have [[genome]]s composed of RNA that encodes a number of proteins. The viral genome is replicated by some of those proteins, while other proteins protect the genome as the virus particle moves to a new host cell. [[Viroid]]s are another group of pathogens, but they consist only of RNA, do not encode any protein and are replicated by a host plant cell's polymerase.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Daròs JA, Elena SF, Flores R | title = Viroids: an Ariadne's thread into the RNA labyrinth | journal = EMBO Reports | volume = 7 | issue = 6 | pages = 593–8 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16741503 | pmc = 1479586 | doi = 10.1038/sj.embor.7400706 }}</ref>

===In reverse transcription===
Reverse transcribing viruses replicate their genomes by [[Reverse transcription|reverse transcribing]] DNA copies from their RNA; these DNA copies are then transcribed to new RNA. [[Retrotransposon]]s also spread by copying DNA and RNA from one another,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kalendar R, Vicient CM, Peleg O, Anamthawat-Jonsson K, Bolshoy A, Schulman AH | title = Large retrotransposon derivatives: abundant, conserved but nonautonomous retroelements of barley and related genomes | journal = Genetics | volume = 166 | issue = 3 | pages = 1437–50 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 15082561 | pmc = 1470764 | doi = 10.1534/genetics.166.3.1437 }}</ref> and [[telomerase]] contains an RNA that is used as template for building the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Podlevsky JD, Bley CJ, Omana RV, Qi X, Chen JJ | title = The telomerase database | journal = Nucleic Acids Research | volume = 36 | issue = Database issue | pages = D339–43 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18073191 | pmc = 2238860 | doi = 10.1093/nar/gkm700 }}</ref>

== Double-stranded RNA ==
[[File:Double-stranded RNA.gif|thumb|Double-stranded RNA]]
Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is RNA with two complementary strands, similar to the DNA found in all cells, but with the replacement of thymine by uracil. dsRNA forms the genetic material of some [[virus]]es ([[double-stranded RNA viruses]]). Double-stranded RNA, such as viral RNA or [[siRNA]], can trigger [[RNA interference]] in [[eukaryote]]s, as well as [[interferon]] response in [[vertebrate]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Blevins T, Rajeswaran R, Shivaprasad PV, Beknazariants D, Si-Ammour A, Park HS, Vazquez F, Robertson D, Meins F, Hohn T, Pooggin MM | title = Four plant Dicers mediate viral small RNA biogenesis and DNA virus induced silencing | journal = Nucleic Acids Research | volume = 34 | issue = 21 | pages = 6233–46 | date = 2006 | pmid = 17090584 | pmc = 1669714 | doi = 10.1093/nar/gkl886 }}
</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jana S, Chakraborty C, Nandi S, Deb JK | title = RNA interference: potential therapeutic targets | journal = Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology | volume = 65 | issue = 6 | pages = 649–57 | date = November 2004 | pmid = 15372214 | doi = 10.1007/s00253-004-1732-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schultz U, Kaspers B, Staeheli P | title = The interferon system of non-mammalian vertebrates | journal = Developmental and Comparative Immunology | volume = 28 | issue = 5 | pages = 499–508 | date = May 2004 | pmid = 15062646 | doi = 10.1016/j.dci.2003.09.009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Whitehead KA, Dahlman JE, Langer RS, Anderson DG | title = Silencing or stimulation? siRNA delivery and the immune system | journal = Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering | volume = 2 | pages = 77–96 | year = 2011 | pmid = 22432611 | pmc = | doi = 10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-061010-114133 }}</ref>

== Circular RNA ==

In the late 1970s, it was shown that there is a single stranded covalently closed, i.e. circular form of RNA expressed throughout the animal and plant kingdom (see [[Circular RNA|circRNA]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hsu|first=Ming-Ta|last2=Coca-Prados|first2=Miguel|date=26 July 1979|title=Electron microscopic evidence for the circular form of RNA in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/280339a0|journal=Nature|language=En|volume=280|issue=5720|pages=339–340|doi=10.1038/280339a0|issn=1476-4687|via=|bibcode=1979Natur.280..339H}}</ref> circRNAs are thought to arise via a "back-splice" reaction where the [[spliceosome]] joins a downstream donor to an upstream acceptor splice site. So far the function of circRNAs is largely unknown, although for few examples a microRNA sponging activity has been demonstrated.

==Key discoveries in RNA biology==
{{further|History of RNA biology}}
[[File:R Holley.jpg|thumb|210px|Robert W. Holley, left, poses with his research team.]]
Research on RNA has led to many important biological discoveries and numerous Nobel Prizes. [[Nucleic acid]]s were discovered in 1868 by [[Friedrich Miescher]], who called the material 'nuclein' since it was found in the [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dahm R | title = Friedrich Miescher and the discovery of DNA | journal = Developmental Biology | volume = 278 | issue = 2 | pages = 274–88 | date = February 2005 | pmid = 15680349 | doi = 10.1016/j.ydbio.2004.11.028 }}</ref> It was later discovered that prokaryotic cells, which do not have a nucleus, also contain nucleic acids. The role of RNA in protein synthesis was suspected already in 1939.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Nature | vauthors = Caspersson T, Schultz J | title = Pentose nucleotides in the cytoplasm of growing tissues|date=1939|volume=143|doi=10.1038/143602c0|pages=602–3|issue=3623|bibcode=1939Natur.143..602C}}</ref> [[Severo Ochoa]] won the 1959 [[Nobel Prize in Medicine]] (shared with [[Arthur Kornberg]]) after he discovered an enzyme that can synthesize RNA in the laboratory.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Ochoa S | title = Enzymatic synthesis of ribonucleic acid|work=Nobel Lecture|date=1959|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1959/ochoa-lecture.pdf}}</ref> However, the enzyme discovered by Ochoa ([[polynucleotide phosphorylase]]) was later shown to be responsible for RNA degradation, not RNA synthesis. In 1956 Alex Rich and David Davies hybridized two separate strands of RNA to form the first crystal of RNA whose structure could be determined by X-ray crystallography.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rich A, Davies D |title=A New Two-Stranded Helical Structure: Polyadenylic Acid and Polyuridylic Acid|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|date=1956|volume=78|issue=14|doi=10.1021/ja01595a086|pages=3548–3549}}</ref>

The sequence of the 77 nucleotides of a yeast tRNA was found by [[Robert W. Holley]] in 1965,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Holley RW, Apgar J, Everett GA, Madison JT, Marquisee M, Merrill SH, Penswick JR, Zamir A | title = Structure of a ribonucleic acid | journal = Science | volume = 147 | issue = 3664 | pages = 1462–5 | date = March 1965 | pmid = 14263761 | doi = 10.1126/science.147.3664.1462 | bibcode = 1965Sci...147.1462H | displayauthors = 1 }}</ref> winning Holley the [[List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine|1968 Nobel Prize in Medicine]] (shared with [[Har Gobind Khorana]] and [[Marshall Nirenberg]]).

During the early 1970s, [[retrovirus]]es and [[reverse transcriptase]] were discovered, showing for the first time that enzymes could copy RNA into DNA (the opposite of the usual route for transmission of genetic information). For this work, [[David Baltimore]], [[Renato Dulbecco]] and [[Howard Temin]] were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1975.
In 1976, [[Walter Fiers]] and his team determined the first complete nucleotide sequence of an RNA virus genome, that of [[bacteriophage MS2]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fiers W, Contreras R, Duerinck F, Haegeman G, Iserentant D, Merregaert J, Min Jou W, Molemans F, Raeymaekers A, Van den Berghe A, Volckaert G, Ysebaert M | title = Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene | journal = Nature | volume = 260 | issue = 5551 | pages = 500–7 | date = April 1976 | pmid = 1264203 | doi = 10.1038/260500a0 | bibcode = 1976Natur.260..500F | displayauthors = 1 }}</ref>

In 1977, [[intron]]s and [[RNA splicing]] were discovered in both mammalian viruses and in cellular genes, resulting in a 1993 Nobel to [[Philip A. Sharp|Philip Sharp]] and [[Richard J. Roberts|Richard Roberts]].
Catalytic RNA molecules ([[ribozyme]]s) were discovered in the early 1980s, leading to a 1989 Nobel award to [[Thomas Cech]] and [[Sidney Altman]]. In 1990, it was found in ''[[Petunia]]'' that introduced genes can silence similar genes of the plant's own, now known to be a result of [[RNA interference]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Napoli C, Lemieux C, Jorgensen R | title = Introduction of a Chimeric Chalcone Synthase Gene into Petunia Results in Reversible Co-Suppression of Homologous Genes in trans | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 2 | issue = 4 | pages = 279–289 | date = April 1990 | pmid = 12354959 | pmc = 159885 | doi = 10.1105/tpc.2.4.279 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dafny-Yelin M, Chung SM, Frankman EL, Tzfira T | title = pSAT RNA interference vectors: a modular series for multiple gene down-regulation in plants | journal = Plant Physiology | volume = 145 | issue = 4 | pages = 1272–81 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 17766396 | pmc = 2151715 | doi = 10.1104/pp.107.106062 }}</ref>

At about the same time, 22 nt long RNAs, now called [[microRNA]]s, were found to have a role in the [[developmental biology|development]] of ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans|C. elegans]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ruvkun G | title = Molecular biology. Glimpses of a tiny RNA world | journal = Science | volume = 294 | issue = 5543 | pages = 797–9 | date = October 2001 | pmid = 11679654 | doi = 10.1126/science.1066315 }}</ref>
Studies on RNA interference gleaned a Nobel Prize for [[Andrew Z. Fire|Andrew Fire]] and [[Craig Mello]] in 2006, and another Nobel was awarded for studies on the transcription of RNA to [[Roger Kornberg]] in the same year. The discovery of gene regulatory RNAs has led to attempts to develop drugs made of RNA, such as [[siRNA]], to silence genes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fichou Y, Férec C | title = The potential of oligonucleotides for therapeutic applications | journal = Trends in Biotechnology | volume = 24 | issue = 12 | pages = 563–70 | date = December 2006 | pmid = 17045686 | doi = 10.1016/j.tibtech.2006.10.003 }}</ref> Adding to the Nobel prizes awarded for research on RNA in 2009 it was awarded for the elucidation of the atomic structure of the ribosome to Venki Ramakrishnan, Tom Steitz, and Ada Yonath.

=== Relevance for prebiotic chemistry and abiogenesis ===
In 1967, [[Carl Woese]] hypothesized that RNA might be catalytic and suggested that the earliest forms of life (self-replicating molecules) could have relied on RNA both to carry genetic information and to catalyze biochemical reactions—an [[RNA world hypothesis|RNA world]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://deposit.ddb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?idn=982323891&dok_var=d1&dok_ext=pdf&filename=982323891.pdf|title=Common sequence structure properties and stable regions in RNA secondary structures|date=2006|work=Dissertation, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität, Freiburg im Breisgau|page=1|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309212648/http://deposit.ddb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?idn=982323891&dok_var=d1&dok_ext=pdf&filename=982323891.pdf|archivedate=March 9, 2012|deadurl=yes|vauthors=Siebert S}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Szathmáry E|date=June 1999|title=The origin of the genetic code: amino acids as cofactors in an RNA world|journal=Trends in Genetics|volume=15|issue=6|pages=223–9|doi=10.1016/S0168-9525(99)01730-8|pmid=10354582}}</ref>

In March 2015, complex [[DNA]] and RNA [[nucleotide]]s, including [[uracil]], [[cytosine]] and [[thymine]], were reportedly formed in the laboratory under [[outer space]] conditions, using starter chemicals, such as [[pyrimidine]], an [[organic compound]] commonly found in [[meteorite]]s. Pyrimidine, like [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]] (PAHs), is one of the most carbon-rich compounds found in the [[Universe]] and may have been formed in [[red giant]]s or in [[Cosmic dust|interstellar dust]] and gas clouds.<ref name="NASA-20150303">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-ames-reproduces-the-building-blocks-of-life-in-laboratory|title=NASA Ames Reproduces the Building Blocks of Life in Laboratory|last=Marlaire|first=Ruth | name-list-format = vanc |date=3 March 2015|work=[[NASA]]|accessdate=5 March 2015}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Molecular and cellular biology}}
* [[Biomolecular structure]]
* [[DNA]]
* [[History of RNA biology|History of RNA Biology]]
* [[List of RNA biologists|List of RNA Biologists]]
* [[Macromolecule]]
* [[RNA origami]]
* [[Transcriptome]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|32em}}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|RNA}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070314023716/http://www.imb-jena.de/RNA.html RNA World website] Link collection (structures, sequences, tools, journals)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012034325/http://ndbserver.rutgers.edu/atlas/xray/ Nucleic Acid Database] Images of DNA, RNA and complexes.
* [https://www.ibiology.org/biochemistry/rna-structure/ Anna Marie Pyle's Seminar: RNA Structure, Function, and Recognition]

{{Genetics|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Gene expression}}
{{RNA-footer}}
{{Nucleic acids}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rna}}
[[Category:RNA| ]]
[[Category:RNA splicing]]
[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[Category:Biotechnology]]
[[Category:Nucleic acids]]

Motorsport

2018-10-12T08:34:04Z

85.19.179.17:

{{About||other uses|Motorsport (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Motorsport engineering|the field of car engineering|Automotive engineering}}
{{Redirect|Arena racing|the indoor motorsports series|Arena Racing USA|the British horse racecourse operator|Arena Racing Company}}
{{more footnotes|date=August 2015}}
{{Infobox sport
| name = Motorsport
| image = Lewis Hamilton 070615.jpg
| alt =
| imagesize = 250
| caption = A modern-day [[Formula One]] car (the [[Mercedes F1 W06 Hybrid]] of 2015)
| union = [[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile|FIA]] (four- or more wheeled) [[Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme|FIM]] (two-wheeled)
| nickname =
| first = 1894
| firstlabel = First competitive race
| region = Worldwide
| registered =
| clubs = Eirik traaseviken
| contact =
| team =
| mgender =
| type =
| equipment =
| venue =
| glossary = [[Glossary of motorsport terms]]
| olympic = [[Motor racing at the 1900 Summer Olympics|1900]] (Demonstration only)
}}

'''Motorsport''' or '''motor sport''' is a global term used to encompass the group of competitive [[Sports|sporting]] events which primarily involve the use of [[motor vehicles|motorised vehicles]], whether for racing or non-racing competition. The [[terminology]] can also be used to describe forms of competition of two-wheeled motorised vehicles under the banner of [[motorcycle racing]], and includes off-road racing such as [[motocross]].

Four- (or more) wheeled motorsport competition is globally governed by the [[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]] (FIA); and the [[Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme]] (FIM) governs two-wheeled competition.

==History==
In 1894, a French newspaper organised a race from [[Paris–Rouen (motor race)|Paris to Rouen]] and back, starting city to city racing.{{sfn|Gifford|page=7}} In 1900, the [[Gordon Bennett Cup (auto racing)|Gordon Bennett Cup]] was established. Closed [[circuit racing]] arose as open road racing, on public roads, was banned. [[Brooklands]] was the first dedicated motor racing track in the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Gifford|page=9}}

Following [[World War I]], European countries organised [[Grand Prix motor racing|Grand Prix races]] over closed courses. In the United States, dirt track racing became popular.{{sfn|Gifford|page=10}}

After World War II, the Grand Prix circuit became more formally organised. In the United States, [[stock car racing]] and [[drag racing]] became firmly established.{{sfn|Gifford|page=11}}

Motorsports ultimately became divided by types of [[motor vehicles]] into racing events, and their appropriate organisations.

=={{anchor|Racing|Motor racing}} Racing==
{{Redirect|Motor racing}}
'''Motor racing'''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/british/motor-racing|title=motor racing (noun) definition and synonyms - Macmillan Dictionary|website=www.macmillandictionary.com|accessdate=18 April 2018}}</ref> is the subset of motorsport activities which involve competitors [[racing]] against each other.
===Open wheel racing===
====Formula racing====
[[File:Nico Rosberg 2015 Malaysia FP1.jpg|thumb|The [[Mercedes F1 W06 Hybrid]], the 2015 Formula One World Championship winning car]]
{{main|Formula racing}}
[[Formula racing]] is a set of classes of motor vehicles, with their wheels outside, and not contained by, any bodywork of their vehicle. These have been globally classified as specific 'Formula' series - the most common being [[Formula One]], and many others include the likes of [[Formula 3]], [[Formula Ford]], [[Formula Renault]] and [[Formula Palmer Audi]]. However, in North America, the [[IndyCar]] series is their pinnacle open-wheeled racing series. More recently, new open-wheeled series have been created, originating in Europe, which omit the 'Formula' moniker, such as [[GP2 Series|GP2]] and [[GP3 Series|GP3]]. Former 'Formula' series include [[Formula 5000]] and [[Formula Two]].

=====Formula One=====
{{main|Formula One}}
[[Formula One]] is a class of single-seat and [[Open-wheel car|open-wheel]] grand prix closed course racing, governed by the [[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]] (FIA), and currently organized by the privately owned company [[Formula One Group]]. The formula regulations contain a very strict set of rules which govern vehicle power, weight and size.<ref name="f1fd">{{cite book|author1=Jonathan Noble|author2=Mark Hughes|title=Formula One Racing For Dummies|url=http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/discovering-what-makes-formula-one-formula-one.html|chapter=Discovering What Makes Formula One, Formula One}}</ref>

=====Formula E=====
{{main|Formula E}}
[[Formula E]] is a class of open-wheel auto racing that uses only electric-powered cars. The series was conceived in 2012, and the inaugural championship started in [[Beijing]] on 13 September 2014.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[Daily Telegraph]]|author=Telegraph Sport|date=13 September 2014|title=Formula E opens with spectacular crash involving Nick Heidfeld and Nicolas Prost as Lucas di Grassi claims win|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/motorsport/11094128/Formula-E-opens-with-spectacular-crash-involving-Nick-Heidfeld-and-Nicolas-Prost-as-Lucas-di-Grassi-claims-win.html|accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> The series is also sanctioned by the [[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile|FIA]] and races a spec chassis/battery combination with manufacturers allowed to develop their own electric power-trains. The series has gained significant traction in recent years.<ref>{{cite news|author=Formula E|date=31 July 2017|title=Agag: This has been our take-off season|url=http://www.fiaformulae.com/en/news/2017/july/agag-this-has-been-our-take-off-season/|accessdate=4 September 2017}}</ref>

=====IndyCar Series=====
{{main|IndyCar Series}}
A series originated on June 12th, 1909 in [[Portland, Oregon]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openwheelworld.net/indycar/series.php?id=37|title=OpenWheelWorld.Net >> Indy Car historie|first=Haiko Benthem, Patrick|last=Straver|website=www.openwheelworld.net|accessdate=18 April 2018}}</ref> at its first race. Shortly after, [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway ]] opened in 1909 and held races that ranged from 50-200 miles. Its premier race is the [[Indianapolis 500]] which began on May 11th, 1911 and a tradition was born. Today, [[Indycar]] operates a full schedule with over 20 teams and 40 different drivers. The current schedule includes 14 tracks over the course of 17 races per season <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indycar.com/Schedule|title=Schedule - Verizon IndyCar Series, Indy Lights, Pro Mazda & Cooper Tires USF2000|website=IndyCar.com|accessdate=18 April 2018}}</ref>. [[Josef Newgarden]] was crowned current champion of the [[Indycar]] Series at [[Sonoma Raceway]] on September 17th, 2017 in Sonoma, California.

===Enclosed wheel racing===
[[File:Neste Oil Rally 2010 - Jari-Matti Latvala in shakedown.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Ford Focus WRC]] rally racing car during [[2010 Rally Finland]]]]
Enclosed wheel racing is a set of classes of vehicles, where the wheels are primarily enclosed inside the bodywork of the vehicle, similar to a North American 'stock car'.

====Sports car racing====
{{main|Sports car racing}}
[[Sports car racing]] is a set of classes of vehicles, over a closed course track, including sports cars, and specialised racing types. The premiere race is the [[24 Hours of Le Mans]] which takes place annually in [[France]] during the month of June. Sports car racing rules and specifications differentiate in North America from established international sanctioning bodies.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Regulations|url=http://www.fia.com/regulations|website=Federation Internationale de l'Automobile|accessdate=2015-10-09}}</ref>

====Stock car racing====
{{main|Stock car racing}}
[[Stock car racing]] is a set of vehicles, that race over a speedway track, organized by [[NASCAR]]. While once stock cars, the vehicles are now purpose built, but resemble the body design and shape of production cars. Bootleggers throughout the Carolinas are often credited for the origins of [[NASCAR]] due to the resistance during the prohibition.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.history.com/news/how-prohibition-gave-birth-to-nascar|title=How Prohibition Gave Birth to NASCAR|website=history.com|accessdate=23 April 2018}}</ref> Many of the vehicles were modified to increase top speed and handling, to provide the bootleggers with an advantage toward the vehicles local law enforcement would use in the area.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/how-moonshine-bootlegging-gave-rise-nascar-180962014/|title=How Moonshine Bootlegging Gave Rise to NASCAR|first=Jennifer|last=Billock|website=smithsonianmag.com|accessdate=23 April 2018}}</ref> An important part to the modifications of stock cars, was to increase the performance of the vehicle while also maintaining the same exterior look giving it the name [[Stock car racing]]. Many legends in [[NASCAR]] originated as bootleggers in the [[Great Smoky Mountains]] of [[North Carolina]] like [[Junior Johnson]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsobserver.com/living/liv-columns-blogs/past-times/article93694277.html|title=Racing legend outran the law|website=newsobserver.com|accessdate=23 April 2018}}</ref> Organized oval racing began on Daytona Beach in [[Florida]] as a hobby but quickly gained interest from all over the country. As oval racing became larger and larger, a group gathered in hopes to form a sanctioning body for the sport.<ref name="history.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/nascar-founded|title=NASCAR founded - Feb 21, 1948 - HISTORY.com|website=history.com|accessdate=23 April 2018}}</ref> [[NASCAR]] was organized in 1947, to combine flat track oval racing of production cars.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Layford|first1=Bob|title=Built for Speed|publisher=Courage Books|isbn=0762404418|pages=29}}</ref> [[Daytona Beach and Road Course]] was founded where land speed records were set on the beach, and including part of [[A1A]]. The highlight of the stock car calendar is the season-opening [[Daytona 500]], also nicknamed 'The Great American Race' which is held at [[Daytona International Speedway]] in Daytona Beach, Florida.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/picture-gallery/sports/nascar/2013/02/14/history-of-the-daytona-500/1913949/|title=History of the Daytona 500|website=usatoday.com|accessdate=23 April 2018}}</ref> [[NASCAR]] has now held over 2,500 sanctioned events over the course of 70 seasons<ref name="history.com"/>. [[Richard Petty]] is known as the king of NASCAR with over 200 recorded wins in the series and has competed in 1,184 races in his career.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://racing-reference.info/driver/Richard_Petty|title=Driver Richard Petty Career Statistics - Racing-Reference.info|website=racing-reference.info|accessdate=23 April 2018}}</ref>

====Touring car racing====
{{main|Touring car racing}}
[[Touring car racing]] is a set of vehicles,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Car Facts {{!}} Pirelli World Challenge|url=http://www.world-challenge.com/pirelli-world-challenge-car-facts.html|website=www.World-Challenge.com|accessdate=2015-10-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151010020949/http://www.world-challenge.com/pirelli-world-challenge-car-facts.html|archive-date=2015-10-10|dead-url=yes|df=}}</ref> modified street cars, that race over closed purpose built race tracks and street courses.

====Off-Road Racing====
{{main|Off-Road Racing}}
Off-Road Racing is a group of vehicles that specialize in off-road racing and are modified street cars that can race on close purpose built off-road tracks and courses. Off-Road racing is popular in areas like [[California]] and [[Arizona]]. Premier off-road events in the United States include the [[Baja 1000]] which takes place in the [[Baja California Peninsula]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.race-dezert.com/home/off-road-racer-grandfather-off-road-racing-baja-1000-117707.html|title=Off-Road Racer: The Grandfather of Off-Road Racing: BAJA 1000 - race-deZert.com|date=21 December 2014|website=race-dezert.com|accessdate=18 April 2018}}</ref> and endures nearly 1000 miles of racing on a closed and pre-designed Baja Truck course. Series like the [[National Off-Road Racing Association]] (NORRA) utilize off-road vehicles which was founded in 1967 to sanction events through the [[Baja Desert]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.norra.com/norra.php|title=NORRA: National Off-Road Racing Association, Home of the Mexican 1000 Rally|website=www.norra.com|accessdate=18 April 2018}}</ref>. The first event sanctioned by the organization was the 1967 Mexican 1000 rally that began in [[Tijuana]] and ended in [[La Paz]].

===Other racing===
[[File:Speedway Extraliiga 22. 5. 2010 - erä 17.jpg|thumb|Finnish [[Motorcycle speedway|speedway]] riders in the [[Speedway Extraliiga]] competition]]
Motor sports which involve competitors [[racing]] against each other include:
*[[Air racing]]
*[[auto racing|Auto (car) racing]]
*[[rallying|Motor rallying]]
*[[Motorcycle racing]]
*[[Kart racing]]
*[[Boat racing|Motorboat racing]]
*[[Drone racing]]
*[[Hovercraft#Recreational/sport|Hovercraft racing]]
*[[Lawn mower racing]]
*[[Radio-controlled model]] racing
*[[Slot car racing]]
*[[Snowmobile#Types of races|Snowmobile racing]]
*[[Truck racing]]

==Non-racing disciplines==
Forms of motorsport which do not involve racing include [[Drifting (motorsport)|drifting]], [[regularity rally]], [[motorcycle trials]], [[Gymkhana (motorsport)|gymkhana]], [[Freestyle Motocross]] and [[tractor pulling]].

==Olympics==
Motorsport was a [[Olympic sports#Demonstration summer sports|demonstration]] event at the [[1900 Summer Olympics]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Motorsport}}

*[[Glossary of motorsport terms]]
*[[List of motorsport championships]]
*[[Electric motorsport]]
*[[International Motorsports Hall of Fame]]
*[[Long Beach Motorsports Walk of Fame]]
*[[Motorsports Hall of Fame of America]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*{{cite book|first=Clive|last=Gifford|title=Racing: The Ultimate Motorsports Encyclopedia|publisher=Kingfisher|year=2006|isbn=9780753460405|ref={{SfnRef|Gifford}}}}

==External links==
{{Commons category multi|Motorsports|Motor racing}}
{{Wikivoyage|Motor sport}}
*{{Official website|https://www.motorsport.com/}} {{en icon}}
*[http://www.formula1.com/ Formula 1 (F1)]
*[http://www.msauk.org/ Motorsports Association (UK)]
*[http://www.wrc.com/ World Rally Championship (WRC)]

{{Racing}}
{{Extreme sports}}

[[Category:Motorsport| ]]
[[Category:Racing]]
[[Category:Individual sports]]
[[Category:Sports by type]]

Shabbat

2018-09-13T11:12:05Z

85.19.179.17:

{{About|the rest day in Judaism|Sabbath in the Bible|Biblical Sabbath|the Talmudic tractate|Shabbat (Talmud)}}
[[File:Shabbat Candles.jpg|290px|thumb|Shabbat candles]]
{{Judaism}}
'''Shabbat''' ({{IPAc-en|ʃ|ə|'|b|ɑː|t}}; {{lang-he|שַׁבָּת}} {{IPA-he|ʃa'bat|}}, "rest" or "cessation") or '''Shabbos''' ({{IPA-yi|'ʃa.bəs|}}, [[Ashkenazi Hebrew]] and {{lang-yi|שבת}}), or the '''[[Sabbath]]''' is [[Judaism]]'s day of rest and seventh day of the [[seven-day week|week]], on which religious Jews, Samaritans and certain Christians (such as Seventh-day Adventists, the [[Church of God (Seventh-Day)|7th Day movement]] and Seventh Day Baptists) remember the Biblical [[Genesis creation narrative|creation of the heavens and the earth in six days]] and [[the Exodus]] of the Hebrews, and look forward to a future [[Messianic Age]]. Shabbat observance entails refraining from [[activities prohibited on Shabbat|work activities]], often with [[shomer Shabbat|great rigor]], and engaging in restful activities to honor the day. Judaism's traditional position is that unbroken seventh-day Shabbat originated among the Jewish people, as their first and most sacred institution, though some suggest other origins. Variations upon Shabbat are widespread in Judaism and, with adaptations, throughout the [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] and many other [[religions]].

According to ''[[halakha]]'' (Jewish religious law), Shabbat is observed from a few minutes before sunset on [[Friday]] evening until the appearance of three stars in the sky on Saturday night.<ref>[[Shulchan Aruch]], [[Orach Chayim]] 293:2</ref> Shabbat is ushered in by lighting candles and reciting a blessing. Traditionally, three [[Seudat mitzvah#Seudat Shabbat and Seudat Yom Tov|festive meals]] are eaten: in the evening, in the early afternoon, and late in the afternoon. The evening meal and the early afternoon meal typically begin with a blessing called ''[[kiddush]]'' and another blessing recited over two loaves of [[challah]]. Shabbat is closed the following evening with a ''[[havdalah]]'' blessing.

Shabbat is a festive day when Jews exercise their freedom from the regular labors of everyday life. It offers an opportunity to contemplate the spiritual aspects of life and to spend time with family. Sabbath is also known as “BIG FAT MAMA GUY” day. The day when the big fat mama guy celebrates. He stakes burgers, sausages and more food and slurp down he’s trowth.

==History==
===Etymology===
{{Main|Sabbath etymology}}
The word "Shabbat" derives from the Hebrew verb ''shavat'' ({{lang-he-n|שָׁבַת}}). Although frequently translated as "rest" (noun or verb), another accurate translation of these words is "ceasing [from work]", as resting is not necessarily denoted. The related modern Hebrew word ''shevita'' ([[labor strike]]), has the same implication of active rather than passive abstinence from work. The notion of active cessation from labor is also regarded as more consistent with an [[omnipotent]] [[Names of God in Judaism|God]]'s activity on the seventh day of [[Genesis creation narrative|Creation according to Genesis]]. Other significant connotations are to ''shevet'' (שֶּׁבֶת) which means sitting or staying, and to ''sheva'' (שֶׁבַע) meaning seven, as Shabbat is the seventh day of the week; the other days of the week do not have names but called by their [[Ordinal number|ordinals]].

===Biblical sources===
{{Main|Biblical Sabbath}}
Sabbath is given special status as a holy day at the very beginning of the [[Torah]] in {{Bibleverse||Genesis|2:1–3|HE}}. It is first commanded after [[the Exodus]] from Egypt, in {{Bibleverse||Exodus|16:26|HE}} (relating to the cessation of [[manna]]) and in {{Bibleverse||Exodus|16:29|HE}} (relating to the distance one may [[Biblical mile|travel by foot]] on the Sabbath), as also in {{Bibleverse||Exodus|20:8–11|HE}} (as the fourth of the [[Ten Commandments]]). Sabbath is commanded and commended many more times in the Torah and [[Tanakh]]; double the normal number of animal [[korban|sacrifices]] are to be offered on the day.<ref>''Every Person's Guide to Shabbat'', by Ronald H. Isaacs, Jason Aronson, 1998, p. 6</ref> Sabbath is also described by the prophets [[Isaiah]], [[Jeremiah]], [[Ezekiel]], [[Hosea]], [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]], and [[Nehemiah]].
===Origins===
[[File:Шабатна кибритна кутија - Shabbat matchbox holder.jpg|right|thumb|A silver matchbox holder for Shabbat from the [[Republic of Macedonia]] ]]
The longstanding traditional Jewish position is that unbroken seventh-day Shabbat originated among the Jewish people, as their first and most sacred institution.<ref name=landau>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/sabbath00land/sabbath00land_djvu.txt|title=The Sabbath|author=Landau, Judah Leo|publisher=Ivri Publishing Society, Ltd|accessdate=2009-03-26|location=[[Johannesburg, South Africa]]|pages=2, 12}}</ref> The origins of Shabbat and a seven-day week are not clear to scholars; the [[Moses|Mosaic]] tradition claims an origin from the [[creation according to Genesis|Biblical creation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcea.org.au/articles/the_westminster_confession/the_origin_of_the_sabbath/ |title=The Origin of the Sabbath |author=Graham, I. L. |publisher=[[Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia]] |year=2009 |accessdate=2009-03-26 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203162529/http://www.pcea.org.au/articles/the_westminster_confession/the_origin_of_the_sabbath/ |archivedate=December 3, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303554/Jewish-religious-year/34908/The-Sabbath|title=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|chapter=Jewish religious year: The Sabbath|year=2009|accessdate=2009-03-26|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|quote=According to biblical tradition, it commemorates the original seventh day on which God rested after completing the creation. Scholars have not succeeded in tracing the origin of the seven-day week, nor can they account for the origin of the Sabbath.}}</ref>

Seventh-day Shabbat did not originate with the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]], to whom it was unknown;<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13287b.htm|title=[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]]|author=Bechtel, Florentine|chapter=Sabbath|volume=13|location=[[New York City]]|publisher=Robert Appleton Company|year=1912|accessdate=2009-03-26}}</ref> and other origin theories based on the day of [[Saturn]], or on the [[planets]] generally, have also been abandoned.<ref name=orr>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tn4PAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2630&lpg=PA2630|title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia|editor=Orr, James|page=2630|chapter=Sabbath: Critical Theories|author=Sampey, John Richard|publisher=Howard-Severance Company|year=1915|accessdate=2009-08-13|editor-link=James Orr (theologian)}}</ref>

The first non-Biblical reference to Sabbath is in an [[ostracon]] found in excavations at [[Mesad Hashavyahu]], which is dated 630 BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cojs.org/cojswiki/Mezad_Hashavyahu_Ostracon%2C_c._630_BCE|title=Mezad Hashavyahu Ostracon, c. 630 BCE|accessdate=2012-09-12|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130125324/http://www.cojs.org/cojswiki/Mezad_Hashavyahu_Ostracon%2C_c._630_BCE|archivedate=2013-01-30|df=}}</ref>

Connection to Sabbath observance has been suggested in the designation of the seventh, fourteenth, nineteenth, twenty-first and twenty-eight days of a lunar month in an Assyrian religious calendar as a 'holy day', also called ‘evil days’ (meaning "unsuitable" for prohibited activities). The prohibitions on these days, spaced seven days apart, include abstaining from chariot riding, and the avoidance of eating meat by the King. On these days officials were prohibited from various activities and common men were forbidden to "make a wish", and at least the 28th was known as a "rest-day".<ref>"Histoire du peuple hébreu". [[André Lemaire]]. Presses Universitaires de France 2009 (8e édition), p. 66</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Seven Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week|author=Eviatar Zerubavel |publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1985|isbn=0-226-98165-7}}</ref> The ''[[Universal Jewish Encyclopedia]]'' advanced a theory of [[Assyriologist]]s like [[Friedrich Delitzsch]]<ref name=landau/> (and of [[Marcello Craveri]])<ref>{{cite book|author=Craveri, Marcello|title=The Life of Jesus|publisher=Grove Press|year=1967|page=134}}</ref> that Shabbat originally arose from the [[lunar cycle]] in the [[Babylonian calendar]]<ref>{{cite book|year=1943|title=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia: An authoritative and popular presentation of Jews and Judaism since the earliest times|volume=5|page=410|editor=Landman, Isaac|chapter=Holidays|author=Joseph, Max|others=Cohen, Simon, compiler|publisher=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, Inc|editor-link=Isaac Landman}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|year=1943|title=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia: An authoritative and popular presentation of Jews and Judaism since the earliest times|volume=9|page=295|editor=Landman, Isaac|chapter=Sabbath|author=Joseph, Max|others=Cohen, Simon, compiler|publisher=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, Inc|editor-link=Isaac Landman}}</ref> containing four weeks ending in Sabbath, plus one or two additional unreckoned days per month.<ref>{{cite book|year=1943|title=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia: An authoritative and popular presentation of Jews and Judaism since the earliest times|volume=10|page=482|editor=Landman, Isaac|chapter=Week|author=Cohen, Simon|others=Cohen, Simon, compiler|publisher=The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, Inc|editor-link=Isaac Landman}}</ref> The difficulties of this theory include reconciling the differences between an unbroken week and a lunar week, and explaining the absence of texts naming the lunar week as Sabbath in any language.<ref name=orr/>

===Status as a holy day===
[[File:Покривка за хала (леб) - כיסוי החלות - Challah cover.JPG|right|thumb|A challah cover with [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew inscription]]]]
The Tanakh and [[siddur]] describe Shabbat as having three purposes:
# To commemorate [[Names of God in Judaism|God's]] [[Creation according to Genesis|creation of the universe]], on the seventh day of which God rested from (or ceased) his work;
# To commemorate the Israelites' [[the Exodus|redemption from slavery]] in [[ancient Egypt]];
#As a "taste" of [[Olam Haba]] (the [[Messianic Age]]).
Judaism accords Shabbat the status of a joyous holy day. In many ways, Jewish law gives Shabbat the status of being the most important holy day in the Jewish calendar:
* It is the first holy day mentioned in the Bible, and God was the first to observe it with the cessation of [[Creation according to Genesis|Creation]] (Genesis 2:1–3).
* [[Jewish services|Jewish liturgy]] treats Shabbat as a "bride" and "queen" (see [[Shekhinah]]).
* The [[Sefer Torah]] is read during the [[Torah reading]] which is part of the Shabbat morning services, with a longer reading than during the week. The Torah is read over a yearly cycle of 54 ''[[parashioth]]'', one for each Shabbat (sometimes they are doubled). On Shabbat, the reading is divided into seven sections, more than on any other holy day, including [[Yom Kippur]]. Then, the [[Haftarah]] reading from the Hebrew prophets is read.
* A tradition states that the [[Jewish Messiah]] will come if every Jew properly observes two consecutive Shabbatoth.<ref>[[Shabbat (Talmud)|Shabbat]] 118</ref>
* The punishment in ancient times for desecrating Shabbat ([[stoning]]) is the most severe punishment in Jewish law.<ref>See e.g. Numbers 15:32–36.</ref>

==Rituals==
{{redirect|Shabbat dinner|the film|Shabbat Dinner}}
===Welcoming Sabbath===
[[File:GOOD SHABBES -.jpg|thumb|Reciting blessing over Shabbat candles]]
Honoring Shabbat (''kavod Shabbat'') on Preparation Day (Friday) includes bathing, having a haircut and cleaning and beautifying the home (with flowers, for example).
According to Jewish law, Shabbat starts a few minutes before sunset. Candles are lit at this time. It is customary in many communities to light the candles 18 minutes before sundown (''tosefet Shabbat'', though sometimes 36 minutes), and most printed Jewish calendars adhere to this custom. The Kabbalat Shabbat service is a prayer service welcoming the arrival of Shabbat. Before Friday night dinner, it is customary to sing two songs, one "greeting" two Shabbat angels into the house<ref>Shabbat 119b</ref> and the other praising the woman of the house for all the work she has done over the past week.<ref>[[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] 31:10–31</ref> After blessings over the wine and challah, a festive meal is served. Singing is traditional at Sabbath meals.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ferguson|first1=Joey|title=Jewish lecture series focuses on Sabbath Course at Chabad center focuses on secrets of sabbath's serenity|url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700137207/Jewish-lecture-series-focuses-on-Sabbath.html?pg=all|agency=Deseret News|date=May 20, 2011|quote=The more we are able to invest in it, the more we are able to derive pleasure from the Sabbath." Jewish belief is based on understanding that observance of the Sabbath is the source of all blessing, said Rabbi Zippel in an interview. He referred to the Jewish Sabbath as a time where individuals disconnect themselves from all endeavors that enslave them throughout the week and compared the day to pressing a reset button on a machine. A welcome prayer over wine or grape juice from the men and candle lighting from the women invokes the Jewish Sabbath on Friday at sundown.}}</ref> In modern times, many composers have written sacred music for use during the Kabbalat Shabbat observance, including [[Robert Strassburg]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.milkenarchive.org/artists/view/robert-strassburg/|title=Strassburg, Robert|website=Milken Archive of Jewish Music|accessdate=8 October 2017}}</ref>

According to [[rabbinic literature]], God via the Torah commands Jews to ''observe'' (refrain from forbidden activity) and ''remember'' (with words, thoughts, and actions) Shabbat, and these two actions are symbolized by the customary two [[Shabbat candles]]. Candles are lit usually by the woman of the house (or else by a man who lives alone). Some families light more candles, sometimes in accordance with the number of children.<ref>[[Shulchan Aruch]], [[Orach Chaim]] 261.</ref>

===Other rituals===
{{redirect2|Oyneg Shabes|Oneg Shabbat|the collection of documents from the Warsaw Ghetto collected and preserved by the group known by the code name Oyneg Shabes|Ringelblum Archive}}
Shabbat is a day of celebration as well as [[Jewish services|prayer]]. It is customary to eat three festive meals: Dinner on Shabbat eve (Friday night), lunch on Shabbat day (Saturday), and a third meal (a ''[[Seudah Shlishit]]'') in the late afternoon (Saturday). It is also customary to wear nice clothing (different from during the week) on Shabbat to honor the day.

Many Jews attend synagogue services on Shabbat even if they do not do so during the week. Services are held on Shabbat eve (Friday night), Shabbat morning (Saturday morning), and late Shabbat afternoon (Saturday afternoon).

With the exception of [[Yom Kippur]], which is referred to in the Torah (Lev 23:32) as "Shabbat of Shabbatoth", days of public fasting are postponed or advanced if they coincide with Shabbat. Mourners sitting ''[[shivah]]'' (week of mourning subsequent to the death of a spouse or first-degree relative) outwardly conduct themselves normally for the duration of the day and are forbidden to display public signs of mourning.

Although most Shabbat laws are restrictive, the fourth of the [[Ten Commandments]] in [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] is taken by the [[Talmud]] and [[Maimonides]] to allude to the ''positive'' commandments of Shabbat. These include:
* Honoring Shabbat (''kavod Shabbat''): on Shabbat, wearing festive clothing and refraining from unpleasant conversation. It is customary to avoid talk about money or business matters on Shabbat.<ref>Derived from {{Bibleverse||Isaiah|58:13–14|HE}}.</ref>
* Recitation of ''[[kiddush]]'' over a cup of [[kosher wine|wine]] at the beginning of Shabbat meals, or at a reception after the conclusion of morning prayers (see the [[list of Jewish prayers and blessings]]).
* [[File:Shabbat Challos.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Two homemade [[whole-wheat flour|whole-wheat]] challahs covered by traditional [[embroidery|embroidered]] Shabbat [[challah cover]]]] Eating three festive meals. Meals begin with a blessing over two loaves of bread (''[[lechem mishneh]]'', "double bread"), usually of braided [[challah]], which is symbolic of the double portion of [[manna]] that fell for the Jewish people on the day before Sabbath during their 40 years in the desert after [[the Exodus]] from [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]. It is customary to serve meat or fish, and sometimes both, for Shabbat evening and morning meals. ''[[Seudah Shlishit]]'' (literally, "third meal"), generally a light meal that may be [[pareve]] or [[dairy]], is eaten late Shabbat afternoon.
* Enjoying Shabbat (''oneg Shabbat''): Engaging in pleasurable activities such as eating, singing, spending time with the family and marital relations. Sometimes referred to as "Shabbating".
* Recitation of ''[[havdalah]]''.

===Bidding farewell===
{{Main|Havdalah}}
[[File:Havdal.jpg|left|thumb|Observing the closing ''[[havdalah]]'' ritual in 14th-century Spain]]
''[[Havdalah]]'' (Hebrew: הַבְדָּלָה, "separation") is a Jewish religious ceremony that marks the symbolic end of Shabbat, and ushers in the new week. At the conclusion of Shabbat at nightfall, after the appearance of three stars in the sky, the ''havdalah'' blessings are recited over a cup of wine, and with the use of fragrant spices and a candle, usually braided. Some communities delay ''havdalah'' later into the night in order to prolong Shabbat. There are different customs regarding how much time one should wait after the stars have surfaced until the sabbath technically ends. Some people hold by 72 minutes later and other hold longer and shorter than that.

==Prohibited activities==
{{Main|Activities prohibited on Shabbat}}
[[Halakha|Jewish law (halakha)]] prohibits doing any form of ''melakhah'' (מְלָאכָה, plural ''melakhoth'') on Shabbat, unless an urgent human or medical need is life-threatening. Though ''melakhah'' is commonly translated as "work" in [[English language|English]], a better definition is "deliberate activity" or "skill and craftmanship". There are 39 categories of prohibited activities (''melakhoth'') listed in [[Mishnah]] [[Shabbat (Talmud)|Tractate Shabbat]] 7:2.

The term ''[[shomer Shabbat]]'' is used for a person (or organization) who adheres to Shabbat laws consistently. The ''shomer Shabbat'' is an archetype mentioned in Jewish songs (e.g., ''Baruch El Elyon'') and the intended audience for various treatises on Jewish law and practice for ''Shabbat'' (e.g., ''Shemirat Shabbat ke-Hilkhata'').

There are often disagreements between Orthodox Jews and non-Orthodox Jews as to the practical observance of the Sabbath. The (strict) observance of the Sabbath is often seen as a benchmark for orthodoxy and indeed has legal bearing on the way a Jew is seen by an [[Beit din|orthodox religious court]] regarding their affiliation to Judaism. See [[Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik]]'s "Beis HaLevi" commentary on [[parasha]] [[Ki Tissa]] for further elaboration regarding the legal ramifications.

The 39 categories of ''melakhah'' are:
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* plowing earth
* sowing
* reaping
* binding sheaves
* threshing
* winnowing
* selecting
* grinding
* sifting
* kneading
* baking
* shearing wool
* washing wool
* beating wool
* dyeing wool
* spinning
* weaving
* making two loops
* weaving two threads
* separating two threads
* tying
* untying
* sewing stitches
* tearing
* trapping
* slaughtering
* flaying
* tanning
* scraping hide
* marking hide
* cutting hide to shape
* writing two or more letters
* erasing two or more letters
* building
* demolishing
* extinguishing a fire
* kindling a fire
* putting the finishing touch on an object, and
* transporting an object (between private and public domains, or over 4 [[cubit]]s within public domain)
{{div col end}}

The categories of labors prohibited on Shabbat are [[exegesis|exegetically]] derived – on account of Biblical passages juxtaposing Shabbat observance ([http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0235.htm Ex. 35:1–3]) to making the [[Tabernacle (Judaism)|Tabernacle]] (Ex. 35:4 ff.) – that they are the kinds of work that were necessary for the construction of the [[Tabernacle (Judaism)|Tabernacle]]. They are not explicitly listed in the Torah; the Mishnah observes that "the laws of Shabbat ... are like mountains hanging by a hair, for they are little Scripture but many laws".<ref>[[Chagigah]] 1:8.</ref> Many [[rabbinic literature|rabbinic scholars]] have pointed out that these labors have in common activity that is "creative", or that exercises control or dominion over one's [[environment (biophysical)|environment]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Klein|first1=Miriam|title=Sabbath Offers Serenity in a Fast-Paced World|url=http://www.triblocal.com/northbrook/community/stories/2011/04/sabbath-offers-serenity-in-a-fast-paced-world/|agency=Chicago Tribune|publisher=Triblocal|date=April 27, 2011}}</ref>

===Orthodox and Conservative===
Different streams of Judaism view the prohibition on work in different ways. Observant [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] and [[Conservative Jews]] refrain from performing the 39 prohibited categories of activities. Each ''melakhah'' has derived prohibitions of various kinds. There are, therefore, many more forbidden activities on Shabbat; all are traced back to one of the 39 above principal ''melakhoth''.

Given the above, the 39 ''melakhoth'' are not so much activities as "categories of activity". For example, while "winnowing" usually refers exclusively to the separation of [[chaff]] from [[cereal|grain]], and "selecting" refers exclusively to the separation of debris from grain, they refer in the Talmudic sense to any separation of intermixed materials which renders edible that which was inedible. Thus, filtering undrinkable water to make it drinkable falls under this category, as does picking small bones from fish ([[gefilte fish]] is one solution to this problem).

====Electricity====
{{Main|Electricity on Shabbat}}
Orthodox and some Conservative authorities rule that turning [[electricity|electric]] devices on or off is prohibited as a ''melakhah''; however, authorities are not in agreement about exactly which one(s). One view is that tiny sparks are created in a switch when the circuit is closed, and this would constitute lighting a fire (category 37). If the appliance is purposed for light or heat (such as an [[incandescent bulb]] or electric oven), then the lighting or heating elements may be considered as a type of fire that falls under both lighting a fire (category 37) and cooking (i.e., baking, category 11). Turning lights off would be extinguishing a fire (category 36).

Another view is that a device plugged into an electrical outlet of a wall becomes part of the building, but is nonfunctional while the switch is off; turning it on would then constitute building (category 35) and turning it off would be demolishing (category 34). Some schools of thought consider the use of electricity to be forbidden only by [[rabbinical law|rabbinic injunction]], rather than because it violates one of the original categories.

A common solution to the problem of electricity involves preset timers ([[Shabbat clock]]s) for electric appliances, to turn them on and off automatically, with no human intervention on Shabbat itself. Some Conservative authorities<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Neulander | first1 = Arthur | year = 1950 | title = The Use of Electricity on the Sabbath | url = | journal = Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly | volume = 14 | issue = | pages = 165–171 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Adler | first1 = Morris | last2 = Agus | first2 = Jacob | last3 = Friedman | first3 = Theodore | year = 1950 | title = Responsum on the Sabbath | url = | journal = Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly | volume = 14 | issue = | pages = 112–137 }}</ref><ref>Klein, Isaac. ''A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice.'' The Jewish Theological Seminary of America: New York, 1979.</ref> reject altogether the arguments for prohibiting the use of electricity. Some Orthodox also hire a "[[Shabbos goy]]", a Gentile to perform prohibited tasks (like operating light switches) on Shabbat.

====Automobiles====
{{Main|Driving during Shabbat}}
Orthodox and many Conservative authorities completely prohibit the use of automobiles on Shabbat as a violation of multiple categories, including lighting a fire, extinguishing a fire, and transferring between domains (category 39). However, the Conservative movement's [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] permits driving to a synagogue on Shabbat, as an emergency measure, on the grounds that if Jews lost contact with synagogue life they would become lost to the Jewish people.

A halakhically authorized [[Shabbat mode]] added to a power-operated [[mobility scooter]] may be used on the observance of Shabbat for those with walking limitations, often referred to as a Shabbat scooter. It is intended only for individuals whose limited mobility is dependent on a scooter or automobile consistently throughout the week.

====Modifications====
Seemingly "forbidden" acts may be performed by modifying technology such that no law is actually violated. In [[Sabbath mode]], a "[[Sabbath elevator]]" will stop automatically at every floor, allowing people to step on and off without anyone having to press any buttons, which would normally be needed to work. ([[Dynamic braking]] is also disabled if it is normally used, i.e., shunting energy collected from downward travel, and thus the gravitational potential energy of passengers, into a [[resistor]] network.) However, many rabbinical authorities consider the use of such elevators by those who are otherwise capable as a violation of Shabbat, with such workarounds being for the benefit of the frail and handicapped and not being in the spirit of the day.

Many observant Jews avoid the prohibition of carrying by use of an [[eruv]]. Others make their [[Key (lock)|keys]] into a [[tie bar]], part of a [[Belt (clothing)|belt]] buckle, or a [[brooch]], because a legitimate article of [[clothing]] or [[jewelry]] may be worn rather than carried. An elastic band with clips on both ends, and with keys placed between them as integral links, may be considered a belt.

[[Shabbat lamp]]s have been developed to allow a light in a room to be turned on or off at will while the electricity remains on. A special mechanism blocks out the light when the off position is desired without violating Shabbat.

The [[Shabbos App]] is a proposed [[Android app]] claimed by its creators to enable [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[Jew]]s, and all Jewish Sabbath-observers, to use a [[smartphone]] to text on the Jewish Sabbath. It has met with resistance from some authorities.<ref name=uproar>{{cite web|url=http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/international/new-shabbos-app-creates-uproar-among-orthodox-circles|title=New Shabbos App Creates Uproar Among Orthodox Circles|author=Hannah Dreyfus|work=[[The Jewish Week]]|date=October 2, 2014|accessdate=October 12, 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007195945/http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/international/new-shabbos-app-creates-uproar-among-orthodox-circles|archivedate=October 7, 2014|df=}}</ref><ref name=toi>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/app-lets-jewish-kids-text-on-sabbath-and-stay-in-the-fold/|title=App lets Jewish kids text on Sabbath – and stay in the fold; The ‘Shabbos App’ is generating controversy in the Jewish community – and a monumental on-line discussion of Jewish law|author=David Shamah|date=October 2, 2014|work=[[The Times of Israel]]|accessdate=October 3, 2014}}</ref><ref name=shalom>{{cite web|url=http://www.shalomlife.com/business/26132/finally-now-you-can-text-on-saturdays-thanks-to-new-shabbos-app/|title=Finally, Now You Can Text on Saturdays Thanks to New 'Shabbos App'|date=October 2, 2014|author=Daniel Koren|work=Shalom Life|accessdate=October 12, 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007135626/http://www.shalomlife.com/business/26132/finally-now-you-can-text-on-saturdays-thanks-to-new-shabbos-app/|archivedate=October 7, 2014|df=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishbusinessnews.com/2014/10/02/will-the-shabbos-app-change-jewish-life-raise-rabbinic-ire-or-both/|title=Will the Shabbos App Change Jewish Life, Raise Rabbinic Ire, or Both?|author= |date=October 2, 2014 |publisher=Jewish Business News|accessdate=October 12, 2014}}</ref>

====Permissions====
{{Main|Pikuach nefesh}}
In the event that a human [[life]] is in danger (''[[pikuach nefesh]]''), a Jew is not only allowed, but required,<ref>[http://www.israel21c.org/briefs/8-saved-during-qshabbat-from-hellq 8 saved during "Shabbat from hell"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119072338/http://www.israel21c.org/briefs/8-saved-during-qshabbat-from-hellq |date=2010-01-19 }} (January 17, 2010) in [http://www.israel21c.org/ ''Israel 21c Innovation News Service''] Retrieved 2010–01–18</ref><ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3835327,00.html ZAKA rescue mission to Haiti 'proudly desecrating Shabbat'] Religious rescue team holds Shabbat prayer with members of international missions in Port au-Prince. Retrieved 2010–01–22</ref> to violate any halakhic law that stands in the way of saving that person (excluding murder, idolatry, and forbidden sexual acts). The concept of life being in danger is interpreted broadly: for example, it is mandated that one violate Shabbat to bring a woman in active labor to a hospital. Lesser rabbinic restrictions are often violated under much less urgent circumstances (a patient who is ill but not critically so).

{{quote|We did everything to save lives, despite Shabbat. People asked, 'Why are you here? There are no Jews here', but we are here because the Torah orders us to save lives .... We are desecrating Shabbat with pride.|Mati Goldstein, commander of the Jewish [[ZAKA]] rescue-mission to the [[2010 Haiti earthquake]]<ref name="ynews">{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3835327,00.html|title=ZAKA mission to Haiti 'proudly desecrating Shabbat'|website=Ynetnews.com|accessdate=8 October 2017}}</ref>}}

Various other legal principles closely delineate which activities constitute desecration of Shabbat. Examples of these include the principle of ''shinui'' ("change" or "deviation"): A violation is not regarded as severe if the prohibited act was performed in a way that would be considered abnormal on a weekday. Examples include writing with one's nondominant hand, according to many rabbinic authorities. This legal principle operates ''bedi'avad'' (''[[ex post facto]]'') and does not cause a forbidden activity to be permitted barring extenuating circumstances.

===Reform and Reconstructionist===
Generally, adherents of [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] believe that the individual Jew determines whether to follow Shabbat prohibitions or not. For example, some Jews might find activities, such as writing or cooking for [[leisure]], to be enjoyable enhancements to Shabbat and its holiness, and therefore may encourage such practices. Many Reform Jews believe that what constitutes "work" is different for each person, and that only what the person considers "work" is forbidden.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/18-04-17.html|title=Soc.Culture.Jewish Newsgroups Frequently Asked Questions and Answers|page=18.4.7|date=2003-09-04|accessdate=2009-03-27|author=Faigin, Daniel P.|publisher=[[Usenet]]}}</ref> The radical Reform rabbi [[Samuel Holdheim]] advocated moving Sabbath to Sunday for many no longer observed it, a step taken by dozens of congregations in the United States in late 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://americanjewisharchives.org/publications/journal/PDF/1982_34_01_00_olitzky.pdf|title=The Sunday-Sabbath Movement in American Reform Judaism: Strategy or Evolution|website=Americanjewisharchives.org|accessdate=8 October 2017}}</ref>

More rabbinically traditional Reform and Reconstructionist Jews believe that these ''halakhoth'' in general may be valid, but that it is up to each individual to decide how and when to apply them. A small fraction of Jews in the Progressive Jewish community accept these laws much the same way as Orthodox Jews.

==Encouraged activities==
All [[Jewish denominations]] encourage the following activities on Shabbat:
* Reading, studying, and discussing [[Torah]] and commentary, [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]], and learning some [[halakha]] and [[midrash]].
* [[Synagogue]] attendance for [[Jewish services|prayers]].
* Spending time with other Jews and socializing with family, friends, and guests at Shabbat meals (''hachnasat orchim'', "hospitality").
* Singing ''[[zemiroth]]'' or ''[[niggun]]im'', special songs for Shabbat meals (commonly sung during or after a meal).
* [[Jewish views on marriage#Sexual relations|Marital relations]] between husband and wife.<ref>Shulkhan Arukh, Orach Chaim 280:1</ref>
* Sleeping.

==Special Shabbatoth==
{{Main|Special Shabbat}}
The [[Special Shabbat]]oth are the Shabbatoth that precede important [[Jewish holiday]]s: e.g., ''Shabbat haGadol'' (Shabbat preceding [[Pesach]]), ''Shabbat Zachor'' (Shabbat preceding [[Purim]]), and ''Shabbat Shuvah'' (or ''Teshuva'') (the Shabbat between [[Rosh HaShanah]] and [[Yom Kippur]]).

==Sabbath adaptation==
{{Main|First-day Sabbath|Seventh-day Sabbath}}
Most [[Christian]]s do not observe Saturday Sabbath, but instead observe a weekly day of worship on [[Sunday]], which is often called the "[[Lord's Day]]". Several Christian denominations, such as the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]], the [[Church of God (7th Day)]], the [[Seventh Day Baptist]]s, and [[List of Sabbath-keeping churches|many others]], observe [[seventh-day Sabbath]]. This observance is celebrated from Friday sunset to Saturday sunset.

The principle of weekly Sabbath also exists in other beliefs. Examples include the [[Babylonian calendar]], the [[Buddhist]] ''[[uposatha]]'', and the [[Unification Church]]'s [[Ahn Shi Il]].

==See also==
* [[Baqashot]]
* [[Church attendance]]
* [[Hebrew calendar]]
* [[Jewish greetings]]
* [[Jewish prayer]]
* [[Jumu'ah]]
* [[Moed]]
* [[Sabbath desecration]]
* [[Sabbath in Christianity]]
* [[Sabbath in seventh-day churches]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|Shabbat|shabbat}}
{{Wiktionary|Sabbath}}
{{Commons category|Shabbat}}
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13465-shabbat/ Jewish Encyclopedia: Shabbat]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040802234725/http://www.torah.org/advanced/shulchan-aruch/ocarchives.html A detailed summary of the laws of Shabbat] from Torah.org, based on the [[Shulchan Aruch]]
* [http://www.shabbat.com Shabbat Hosting] Anywhere in the world.
* Admiel Kosman: [http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/ktav_et/maamar.asp?ktavet=2&id=1411 The structure of Hilkhot Shabbat according to RaMBaM and the later halakhic literature]. In: Limudim. Ktav-Et virtualit le-Inyane Hinukh we-Hora`ah, (Sivan 2012), no. 4.

{{Shabbat}}
{{Jewish holidays}}
{{Time in religion and mythology}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Shabbat| ]]
[[Category:Saturday]]
[[Category:Sabbath]]
[[Category:Hebrew calendar]]
[[Category:Working time]]
[[Category:Bereshit (parsha)]]

Jazz

2018-02-14T09:45:28Z

85.19.179.17:

{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox music genre
| Name = Jazz
| color = black
| bgcolor = pink
| image =
| stylistic_origins = {{hlist|[[Blues]]|[[ragtime]]|[[Spiritual (music)|spirituals]]|[[Folk music|folk]]|[[American march music|marches]]|[[Classical music|classical]]}}
| cultural_origins = Late 19th century, Southern United States
| instruments = {{hlist|[[Horn (instrument)|Horns]]|[[keyboards]]|[[Bass (instrument)|bass]]|[[drums]]|[[guitar]]|[[Singing|vocals]]}}
| derivatives =
* [[Art rock]]
* [[funk]]
* [[krautrock]]
* [[progressive rock]]
* [[psychedelic rock]]
* [[reggae]]
* [[rhythm and blues]]
* [[Soul music|soul]]
| subgenrelist =
| subgenres =
* [[Avant-garde jazz]]
* [[bebop]]
* [[big band]]
* [[chamber jazz]]
* [[cool jazz]]
* [[free jazz]]
* [[gypsy jazz]]
* [[hard bop]]
* [[Latin jazz]]
* [[mainstream jazz]]
* [[modal jazz]]
* [[M-Base]]
* [[Neo-bop jazz|neo-bop]]
* [[post-bop]]
* [[progressive jazz]]
* [[soul jazz]]
* [[Swing music|swing]]
* [[Third Stream]]
* [[Trad jazz|traditional jazz]]
| fusiongenres =
* [[Acid jazz]]
* [[Afrobeat]]
* [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]]
* [[bossa nova]]
* [[crossover jazz]]
* [[dansband]]
* [[folk jazz]]
* [[free funk]]
* [[humppa]]
* [[Indo jazz]]
* [[jam band]]
* [[jazzcore]]
* [[jazz-funk]]
* [[jazz fusion]]
* [[jazz rap]]
* [[kwela]]
* [[Mambo (music)|Mambo]]
* [[Manila Sound]]
* [[nu jazz]]
* [[neo soul]]
* [[punk jazz]]
* [[ska jazz]]
* [[smooth jazz]]
* [[swing revival]]
* [[world fusion]]
| regional_scenes =
* [[Australian jazz|Australia]]
* [[Jazz in Armenia|Armenia]]
* [[Azerbaijani jazz|Azerbaijan]]
* [[Balkan jazz|Balkans]] ([[Jazz in Bulgaria|Bulgaria]])
* [[Baltimore jazz|Baltimore]]
* [[Jazz in Belgium|Belgium]]
* [[Bossa nova|Brazil]]
* [[Canadian jazz|Canada]]
* [[Dixieland#Chicago style|Chicago]]
* [[Cuban jazz|Cuba]]
* [[Danish jazz|Denmark]]
* [[French jazz|France]]
* [[Jazz in Germany|Germany]]
* [[Mini-jazz|Haiti]]
* [[Jazz in India|India]]
* [[Iranian jazz|Iran]]
* [[Italian jazz|Italy]]
* [[Japanese jazz|Japan]]
* [[Kansas City jazz|Kansas City]]
* [[Music of Malawi|Malawi]]
* [[Dutch jazz|Netherlands]]
* [[Dixieland|New Orleans]]
* [[Orchestral jazz|New York City]]
* [[Polish jazz|Poland]]
* [[South African jazz|South Africa]] ([[Cape jazz|Cape Town]])
* [[Spanish jazz|Spain]]
* [[Swedish jazz|Sweden]]
* [[British jazz|United Kingdom]]
* [[West Coast jazz|West Coast United States]]

| other_topics =
* [[List of jazz clubs|Jazz clubs]]
* [[Jazz standard]]
* [[Jazz (word)]]
}}

'''Jazz''' lois klikker i vinkel alltid[[music genre]] that originated in the [[African-American]] communities of [[New Orleans]], United States,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/history_early.htm|title=Jazz Origins in New Orleans - New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=2017-03-19}}</ref> in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in [[blues]] and [[ragtime]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sbg.ac.at/ges/people/wagnleitner/usa3/nov26frame.htm |title="The Jazz Book": A Map of Jazz Styles |last=Germuska |first=Joe |publisher=WNUR-FM, Northwestern University |via=[[University of Salzburg]] |access-date=2017-03-19}}</ref> Jazz is seen by many as 'America's classical music'.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=On the Instrumental Origins of Jazz |last=Roth |first=Russell |journal=[[American Quarterly]] |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |issn=0003-0678 |date=1952 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=305–16 |doi=10.2307/3031415 |doi-access=free |jstor=3031415 |jstor-access=free |via=[[JSTOR]] and [[Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library]] }}</ref> Since the 1920s [[Jazz Age]], jazz has become recognized as a major form of musical expression. It then emerged in the form of independent [[traditional music|traditional]] and [[popular music]]al styles, all linked by the common bonds of African-American and [[European-American]] musical parentage with a performance orientation.<ref name="Hennessey">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/From_jazz_to_swing_black_jazz_musicians.html?id=nvskngEACAAJ |last=Hennessey |first=Thomas |title=From Jazz to Swing: Black Jazz Musicians and Their Music, 1917–1935 |type=Ph.D. dissertation |publisher=[[Northwestern University]] |year=1973 |pages=470–473 }}</ref> Jazz is characterized by [[swung note|swing]] and [[blue note]]s, [[Call and response (music)|call and response vocals]], [[polyrhythm]]s and [[improvisation]]. Jazz has roots in [[Music of Africa|West African cultural and musical expression]], and in [[African-American music|African-American music traditions]] including [[blues]] and [[ragtime]], as well as European military band music.<ref>Ferris, Jean (1993) ''America's Musical Landscape''. Brown and Benchmark. {{ISBN|0697125165}}. pp. 228, 233</ref> Although the foundation of jazz is deeply rooted within the black experience of the United States, different cultures have contributed their own experience and styles to the art form as well. Intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as "one of America's original art forms".<ref>Starr, Larry, and Christopher Waterman. [http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/publication/2008/08/20080812212457eaifas0.7410852.html#axzz3QeZKNVtc "Popular Jazz and Swing: America's Original Art Form."] IIP Digital. Oxford University Press, 26 July 2008.</ref>

As jazz spread around the world, it drew on different national, regional, and local musical cultures, which gave rise to many distinctive styles. [[Dixieland|New Orleans jazz]] began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass-band marches, French [[quadrille]]s, [[biguine]], ragtime and [[blues]] with collective [[polyphony|polyphonic]] [[improvisation]]. In the 1930s, heavily arranged dance-oriented [[Swing (music)|swing]] [[big band]]s, [[Kansas City jazz]], a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style and [[Gypsy jazz]] (a style that emphasized [[Bal-musette|musette]] waltzes) were the prominent styles. [[Bebop]] emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music" which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. [[Cool jazz]] developed near the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.

The 1950s saw the emergence of [[free jazz]], which explored playing without regular meter, beat and formal structures, and in the mid-1950s, [[hard bop]] emerged, which introduced influences from [[rhythm and blues]], [[gospel music|gospel]], and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. [[Modal jazz]] developed in the late 1950s, using the [[musical mode|mode]], or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. [[Jazz fusion|Jazz-rock fusion]] appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with [[rock music]]'s rhythms, electric instruments, and highly amplified stage sound. In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called [[smooth jazz]] became successful, garnering significant radio airplay. Other styles and genres abound in the 2000s, such as [[Latin jazz|Latin]] and [[Afro-Cuban jazz]].

{{TOC limit|3}}

== Etymology and definition==
{{Main article|Jazz (word)}}
[[File:EubieBlake.jpg|thumb|right|American Jazz composer, lyricist and pianist [[Eubie Blake]] made an early contribution to the genre's etymology]]

[[File:Albert Gleizes, 1915, Composition pour Jazz, oil on cardboard, 73 x 73 cm, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York.jpg|thumb|left|[[Albert Gleizes]], 1915, ''[[Composition for "Jazz"]]'' from the [[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum]], New York]]

The question of the origin of the [[jazz (word)|word ''jazz'']] has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to ''jasm'', a slang term dating back to 1860 meaning "pep, energy."<ref name="baseball" /> The earliest written record of the word is in a 1912 article in the ''Los Angeles Times'' in which a minor league baseball pitcher described a pitch which he called a ''jazz ball'' "because it wobbles and you simply can't do anything with it."<ref name="baseball">{{cite news|last1=Wilton|first1=Dave|title=The baseball origin of 'jazz'|url=http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2015/04/jazz-baseball/|accessdate=20 June 2016|work=[[OxfordDictionaries.com]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|date=6 April 2015}}</ref>

The use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1915 in the ''Chicago Daily Tribune.''<ref name=CDT>{{Cite news |url=http://www.omf.paris-sorbonne.fr/IMG/pdf/1915_article_Seagrove.pdf |title=Blues is Jazz and Jazz Is Blues |last=Seagrove |first=Gordon |newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune|Chicago Daily Tribune]] |format=PDF |date=July 11, 1915 |accessdate=November 4, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130130212/http://www.omf.paris-sorbonne.fr/IMG/pdf/1915_article_Seagrove.pdf |archivedate=January 30, 2012 |via=[[Paris-Sorbonne University]] }} Archived at Observatoire Musical Français, [[Paris-Sorbonne University]].</ref> Its first documented use in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November 14, 1916 ''Times-Picayune'' article about "jas bands."<ref>{{cite web|author=Benjamin Zimmer|author-link=Benjamin Zimmer|title="Jazz": A Tale of Three Cities|url=http://www.visualthesaurus.com/cm/wordroutes/1876/|work=Word Routes|publisher=The Visual Thesaurus|date=June 8, 2009|accessdate=June 8, 2009}}</ref> In an interview with NPR, musician [[Eubie Blake]] offered his recollections of the original slang connotations of the term, saying: "When Broadway picked it up, they called it 'J-A-Z-Z.' It wasn't called that. It was spelled 'J-A-S-S.' That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, you wouldn't say it in front of ladies."<ref>[http://www.npr.org/2016/03/19/470879654/the-musical-that-ushered-in-the-jazz-age-gets-its-own-musical "The Musical That Ushered In The Jazz Age Gets Its Own Musical", ''NPR Music'', March 19, 2016]</ref> The American Dialect Society named it the [[word of the year|Word of the Twentieth Century]].

Jazz has proved to be very difficult to define, since it encompasses a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years, from [[ragtime]] to the 2010-era [[rock music|rock]]-infused [[Jazz fusion|fusion]]. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, such as European music history or African music. But critic [[Joachim-Ernst Berendt]] argues that its terms of reference and its definition should be broader,<ref name="Joachim E. Berendt 1981. Page 371">Joachim E. Berendt. ''The Jazz Book: From Ragtime to Fusion and Beyond''. Translated by H. and B. Bredigkeit with Dan Morgenstern. 1981. Lawrence Hill Books, p. 371.</ref> defining jazz as a "form of [[art music]] which originated in the United States through the confrontation of the Negro with European music"<ref name="Berendt1964">{{cite book|last=Berendt|first=Joachim Ernst|title=The New Jazz Book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pjgYAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=4 August 2013|year=1964|publisher=P. Owen|page=278}}</ref> and arguing that it differs from European music in that jazz has a "special relationship to time defined as '[[Swing (jazz performance style)|swing]]'", involves "a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role" and contains a "sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician".<ref name="Joachim E. Berendt 1981. Page 371"/> In the opinion of [[Robert Christgau]], "most of us would say that inventing meaning while letting loose is the essence and promise of jazz."<ref>{{cite news|last=Christgau|first=Robert|authorlink=Robert Christgau|date=October 28, 1986|url=http://www.robertchristgau.com/xg/cg/cgv10-86.php|title=Christgau's Consumer Guide|newspaper=[[The Village Voice]]|location=New York|accessdate=September 10, 2015}}</ref>

A broader definition that encompasses different eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis Jackson, "it is music that includes qualities such as swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an 'individual voice', and being open to different musical possibilities".<ref name="Elsdon" /> Krin Gibbard argued that "jazz is a construct" which designates "a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition".<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Cooke, Mervyn |author2=Horn, David G. |title=The Cambridge companion to jazz|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-521-66388-1|pages=1, 6}}</ref> In contrast to commentators who have argued for excluding types of jazz, the musicians themselves are sometimes reluctant to define the music they play. [[Duke Ellington]], one of jazz's most famous figures, said, "It's all music."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Luebbers|first=Johannes|date=September 8, 2008|title=It's All Music|journal=Resonate|publisher=Australian Music Centre}}</ref>

==Elements and issues==

===Improvisation===
[[File:PharoahSanders.jpg|thumb|Double bassist [[Reggie Workman]], saxophone player [[Pharoah Sanders]], and drummer [[Idris Muhammad]] performing in 1978]]
{{Main article|Jazz improvisation}}

Although jazz is considered difficult to define, in part because it contains many subgenres, [[musical improvisation|improvisation]] is one of its key elements. The centrality of improvisation is attributed to the influence of earlier forms of music such as [[blues]], a form of folk music which arose in part from the [[work song]]s and [[field holler]]s of African-American slaves on plantations. These work songs were commonly structured around a repetitive [[Call and response (music)|call-and-response]] pattern, but early blues was also improvisational. [[Classical music]] performance is evaluated more by its fidelity to the [[sheet music|musical score]], with less attention given to interpretation, ornamentation, and accompaniment. The classical performer's goal is to play the composition as it was written. In contrast, jazz is often characterized by the product of interaction and collaboration, placing less value on the contribution of the composer, if there is one, and performer.<ref>Giddins 1998, 70.</ref> The jazz performer interprets a tune in individual ways, never playing the same composition twice. Depending on the performer's mood, experience, and interaction with band members or audience members, the performer may change melodies, harmonies, and time signatures.<ref>Giddins 1998, 89.</ref>

In early [[Dixieland]], a.k.a. New Orleans jazz, performers took turns playing melodies and improvising [[countermelodies]]. In the [[Swing music|swing]] era of the 1920s–'40s, [[big bands]] relied more on [[arrangements]] which were written or learned by ear and memorized. Soloists improvised within these arrangements. In the [[bebop]] era of the 1940s, big bands gave way to small groups and minimal arrangements in which the melody was stated briefly at the beginning and most of the song was improvised. [[Modal jazz]] abandoned [[chord progressions]] to allow musicians to improvise even more. In many forms of jazz, a soloist is supported by a [[rhythm section]] of one or more chordal instruments (piano, guitar), double bass, and drums. The rhythm section plays chords and rhythms that outline the song structure and complement the soloist.<ref>[http://www.drumbook.org/drum-lessons/jazz-drums/jazz-drumming/ Jazz Drum Lessons] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101027050049/http://www.drumbook.org/drum-lessons/jazz-drums/jazz-drumming/ |date=2010-10-27 }} – Drumbook.org</ref> In [[avant-garde jazz|avant-garde]] and [[free jazz]], the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of chords, scales, and meters.

===Tradition and race===
Since the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that are commercially oriented or influenced by popular music have been criticized. According to Bruce Johnson, there has always been a "tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form".<ref name="Elsdon">In [http://www.fzmw.de/2003/2003_12.htm Review of ''The Cambridge Companion to Jazz''] by Peter Elsdon, ''FZMw (Frankfurt Journal of Musicology)'' No. 6, 2003.</ref> Traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, and jazz fusion as forms of debasement and betrayal. An alternative view is that jazz can absorb and transform diverse musical styles.<ref name="gilbert">{{cite web|url=http://www.metrotimes.com/music/features/19/12/jazz.html |title=Jazz Inc.: The bottom line threatens the creative line in corporate America's approach to music |accessdate=2001-07-20 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20010720153446/http://www.metrotimes.com/music/features/19/12/jazz.html |archivedate=2001-07-20 |df= }} by Andrew Gilbert, ''[[Metro Times]]'', December 23, 1998.</ref> By avoiding the creation of norms, jazz allows avant-garde styles to emerge.<ref name="Elsdon" />

For some African Americans, jazz has drawn attention to African-American contributions to culture and history. For others, jazz is a reminder of "an oppressive and racist society and restrictions on their artistic visions".<ref>{{cite journal|title=African American Musicians Reflect On 'What Is This Thing Called Jazz?' In New Book By UC Professor|journal=Oakland Post|date=20 March 2001|volume=38|issue=79|pages=7–7|url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/367372060/fulltext?accountid=14244|accessdate=December 6, 2011}}</ref> [[Amiri Baraka]] argues that there is a "white jazz" genre that expresses [[Whiteness studies|whiteness]].<ref>{{Cite book|page=42|title=The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader|author=Imamu Amiri Baraka|edition=2|publisher=[[Basic Books]]|year=2000|isbn=1-56025-238-3}}</ref> White jazz musicians appeared in the early 1920s in the midwest and in other areas throughout the U.S. [[Bix Beiderbecke]] was one of the most prominent.<ref>{{Cite book|page=94|title=Jazz Writings|author=Philip Larkin|publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]]|year=2004|isbn=0-8264-7699-6}}</ref> The Chicago School (or Chicago Style) was developed by white musicians such as [[Eddie Condon]], [[Bud Freeman]], [[Jimmy McPartland]], and [[Dave Tough]]. Others from Chicago such as [[Benny Goodman]] and [[Gene Krupa]] became leading members of swing during the 1930s.<ref>{{Cite book|page=569|title=The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia|editors=Andrew R. L. Cayton, Richard Sisson, Chris Zacher|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|year=2006|isbn=0-253-00349-0}}</ref> Many bands included both black and white musicians. These musicians helped changed attitudes toward race in the U.S.<ref>{{cite news|work=Wall Street Journal|title=How Jazz Helped Hasten the Civil Rights Movement| first=Nat|last=Hentoff | year=15 Jan 2009}}</ref>

===Roles of women===
[[File:Ethel_Waters_-_William_P._Gottlieb.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ethel Waters]] sang "[[Stormy Weather (song)|Stormy Weather]]" at the [[Cotton Club]]. ]]
[[File:CarterBetty19861025.jpg|thumb|[[Betty Carter]] was known for her improvisational style and scatting.]]

[[Women in jazz|Women jazz performers and composers]] have contributed throughout jazz history. Although [[Betty Carter]], [[Ella Fitzgerald]], [[Adelaide Hall]], [[Billie Holiday]], [[Abbey Lincoln]], [[Anita O'Day]], [[Dinah Washington]], and [[Ethel Waters]] were recognized for their vocal talent, women received less recognition for their accomplishments as bandleaders, composers, and instrumentalists. This group includes pianist [[Lil Hardin Armstrong]] and songwriters [[Irene Higginbotham]] and [[Dorothy Fields]]. Women began playing instruments in jazz in the early 1920s, drawing particular recognition on piano.<ref name=Murph>{{cite web|title = NPR's Jazz Profiles: Women In Jazz, Part 1|url = http://www.npr.org/programs/jazzprofiles/archive/women_1.html|website = www.npr.org|accessdate = 2015-04-24|first = John|last = Murph}}</ref> Popular musicians of the time were [[Lovie Austin]], [[Sweet Emma Barrett]], [[Jeanette Kimball]], [[Billie Pierce]], [[Mary Lou Williams]]

When male jazz musicians were drafted during World War II, many [[all-female bands]] took over.<ref name=Murph /> [[The International Sweethearts of Rhythm]], which was founded in 1937, was a popular band that became the first all-female integrated band in the U.S. and the first to travel with the [[USO]], touring Europe in 1945. Women were members of the big bands of [[Woody Herman]] and [[Gerald Wilson]].

==History==

Jazz originated in the late 19th to early 20th century as interpretations of American and European classical music entwined with African and slave folk songs and the influences of West African culture.<ref name=listverse>{{cite web|title=15 Most Influential Jazz Artists|url=http://listverse.com/2010/02/27/15-most-influential-jazz-artists/|publisher=Listverse|accessdate=27 July 2014|date=2010-02-27}}</ref> Its composition and style have changed many times throughout the years with each performer's personal interpretation and improvisation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the genre.<ref name=definejazz>{{cite web|last1=Criswell |first1=Chad |title=What Is a Jazz Band? |url=https://suite.io/chad-criswell/88s26b |accessdate=25 July 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728201650/https://suite.io/chad-criswell/88s26b |archivedate=28 July 2014 |df= }}</ref>

===Origins===

====Blended African and European music sensibilities====
[[File:Congo-early.gif|thumb|right|Dance in Congo Square in the late 1700s, artist's conception by [[E. W. Kemble]] from a century later]]
[[File:Slave dance to banjo, 1780s.jpg|thumb|right|In the late 18th-century painting ''[[The Old Plantation]]'', African-Americans dance to banjo and percussion.]] By the 18th century, slaves gathered socially at a special market, in an area which later became known as Congo Square, famous for its African dances.<ref>[https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/history_early.htm]</ref>

By 1866, the [[Atlantic slave trade]] had brought nearly 400,000 Africans to North America.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/|title=How Many Slaves Landed in the U.S.? - The African Americans: Many Rivers to Cross - PBS|date=3 January 2013|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/ |title=How Many Slaves Landed in the U.S.? - The African Americans: Many Rivers to Cross - PBS |date=21 September 2015 |publisher= |deadurl=unfit |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921182328/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/ |archivedate=September 21, 2015 }}</ref> The slaves came largely from [[West Africa]] and the greater [[Congo River]] basin and brought strong musical traditions with them.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=7–9}}</ref> The African traditions primarily use a single-line melody and [[Call and response (music)|call-and-response]] pattern, and the rhythms have a [[cross-beat|counter-metric]] structure and reflect African speech patterns.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=DeVeaux|first=Scott|date=1991|title=Constructing the Jazz Tradition: Jazz Historiography|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3041812|journal=Black American Literature Forum|volume=25|issue=3|pages=525–560|doi=10.2307/3041812}}</ref>

An 1885 account says that they were making strange music (Creole) on an equally strange variety of 'instruments'—washboards, washtubs, jugs, boxes beaten with sticks or bones made by stretching skin over a flour-barrel.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3031415 Roth, Russell, ''On the Instrumental Origins of Jazz''], American Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 4, The Johns Hopkins University Press (Winter, 1952), pp. 305-316</ref><ref>[https://books.google.es/books?id=XlwvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT4079&lpg=PT4079&dq=dry+goods+box+beaten+with+sticks+or+bones+made+by+stretching+skin+over+a+flour+barrel&source=bl&ots=I5xu9Pcl8S&sig=uJrUMcul5ugYRO51hq44qaQeHFA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiI5crl8YjYAhUDVhoKHTY2Aa8Q6AEINTAB#v=onepage&q=dry%20goods%20box%20beaten%20with%20sticks%20or%20bones%20made%20by%20stretching%20skin%20over%20a%20flour%20barrel&f=false Hearn, Lafcadio, ''Delphi Complete Works of Lafcadio Hearn''], Volume 19 of Delphi Series Eight, Delphi Classics, 2017, {{ISBN|1786560909}}</ref>

Lavish festivals featuring African-based dances to drums were organized on Sundays at ''Place Congo'', or [[Congo Square]], in New Orleans until 1843.<ref>"The primary instrument for a cultural music expression was a long narrow African drum. It came in various sized from three to eight feet long and had previously been banned in the South by whites. Other instruments used were the triangle, a jawbone, and early ancestors to the banjo. Many types of dances were performed in Congo Square, including the 'flat-footed-shuffle' and the 'Bamboula.'" [http://www.aaregistry.org/historic_events/view/congo-square-soul-new-orleans African American Registry.]</ref> There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings elsewhere in the southern United States. [[Robert Palmer (writer)|Robert Palmer]] said of percussive slave music:

<blockquote>Usually such music was associated with annual festivals, when the year's crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in North Carolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that included horned headdresses and cow tails and heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered "gumbo box", apparently a frame drum; triangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary percussion. There are quite a few [accounts] from the southeastern states and Louisiana dating from the period 1820–1850. Some of the earliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came from the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming was never actively discouraged for very long and homemade drums were used to accompany public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil War.<ref>Palmer, Robert (1981: 37). ''Deep Blues''. New York: Penguin.</ref></blockquote>

Another influence came from the harmonic style of [[hymn]]s of the church, which black slaves had learned and incorporated into their own music as [[spirituals]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=14–17, 27–28}}</ref> The [[origins of the blues]] are undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. However, as [[Gerhard Kubik]] points out, whereas the spirituals are [[homophonic]], rural blues and early jazz "was largely based on concepts of [[heterophony]]."<ref>Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 112).</ref>

[[File:Virginia Minstrels, 1843.jpg|thumb|right|The blackface [[Virginia Minstrels]] in 1843, featuring tambourine, fiddle, banjo and [[Bones (instrument)|bones]]]]
During the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own [[cakewalk]] dances. In turn, European-American [[minstrel show]] performers in [[blackface]] popularized the music internationally, combining [[syncopation]] with European harmonic accompaniment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composer [[Louis Moreau Gottschalk]] adapted slave rhythms and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus between the Afro-Caribbean and African-American cultures.

=====African rhythmic retention=====
The "[[Black Codes (United States)|Black Codes]]" outlawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African drumming traditions were not preserved in North America, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the Caribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were retained in the United States in large part through "body rhythms" such as stomping, clapping, and [[Juba dance|patting juba dancing]].<ref>Palmer, Robert (1981: 39). ''Deep Blues''.</ref>

In the opinion of jazz historian [[Ernest Borneman]], what preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was "Afro-Latin music", similar to what was played in the Caribbean at the time.<ref>Borneman, Ernest (1969: 104). Jazz and the Creole Tradition." ''Jazz Research'' I: 99–112.</ref> A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban music as [[tresillo (rhythm)|tresillo]] is a fundamental rhythmic figure heard in many different slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as the [[Afro-Caribbean music|Afro-Caribbean]] folk dances performed in New Orleans [[Congo Square]] and Gottschalk's compositions (for example "Souvenirs From Havana" (1859)). Tresillo is the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic [[cell (music)|cell]] in [[sub-Saharan African music traditions]] and the music of the [[African Diaspora]].<ref>Sublette, Ned (2008: 124, 287). ''The World that made New Orleans: from Spanish silver to Congo Square''. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. {{ISBN|1-55652-958-9}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Peñalosa|2010|pp=38–46}}</ref>

[[File:Tresillo divisive.png|center|thumb|Tresillo.<ref>Garrett, Charles Hiroshi (2008). ''Struggling to Define a Nation: American Music and the Twentieth Century'', p.54. {{ISBN|978-0-520-25486-2}}. Shown in common time and then in cut time with tied sixteenth & eighth note rather than rest.</ref><ref>Sublette, Ned (2007), ''Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo'', p. 134. {{ISBN|978-1-55652-632-9}}. Shown with tied sixteenth & eighth note rather than rest.</ref> {{audio|Tresillo divisive.mid|Play}}]]

Tresillo is heard prominently in New Orleans [[second line (parades)|second line]] music and in other forms of popular music from that city from the turn of the 20th century to present.<ref>Wynton Marsalis states that [[tresillo (rhythm)|tresillo]] is the New Orleans "[[clave (rhythm)|clave]]." "Wynton Marsalis part 2." ''60 Minutes''. CBS News (June 26, 2011).</ref> "By and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions," jazz historian [[Gunther Schuller]] observed. "Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed."<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Schuller|1968|p=19}}</ref>

In the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums, snare drums and fifes, and an original African-American drum and fife music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic figures.<ref>Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 52). ''Africa and the Blues''. Jackson, MI: University Press of Mississippi.</ref> This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility. "The snare and bass drummers played syncopated [[cross beat|cross-rhythms]]," observed the writer Robert Palmer, speculating that "this tradition must have dated back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it could have not have developed in the first place if there hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in the culture it nurtured."<ref name="Palmer 1981: 39">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Palmer|1981|p=39}}</ref>

===="Spanish tinge"—the Afro-Cuban rhythmic influence====
[[African-American music]] began incorporating [[Afro-Cuban]] rhythmic motifs in the 19th century when the [[habanera (music)|habanera]] (Cuban [[contradanza]]) gained international popularity.<ref>"[Afro]-Latin rhythms have been absorbed into black American styles far more consistently than into white popular music, despite Latin music's popularity among whites" (Roberts 1979: 41).</ref> Musicians from [[Havana]] and New Orleans would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the musically fertile Crescent City. [[John Storm Roberts]] states that the musical genre habanera "reached the U.S. twenty years before the first rag was published."<ref>Roberts, John Storm (1999: 12) ''Latin Jazz''. New York: Schirmer Books.</ref> For the more than quarter-century in which the [[cakewalk]], [[ragtime]], and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.<ref>Roberts, John Storm (1999: 16) ''Latin Jazz''. New York: Schirmer Books.</ref>

Habaneras were widely available as sheet music and were the first written music which was rhythmically based on an African motif (1803).<ref>Manuel, Peter (2009: 67). ''Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean.'' Philadelphia: Temple University Press.</ref> From the perspective of African-American music, the ''habanera rhythm'' (also known as ''congo'',<ref name="ReferenceA">Manuel, Peter (2009: 69). ''Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean''. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.</ref> ''tango-congo'',<ref>Acosta, Leonardo (2003: 5). ''Cubano Be Cubano Bop; One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba''. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Books.</ref> or ''[[tango (music)|tango]]''.<ref>Mauleón (1999: 4), ''Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble''. Petaluma, California: Sher Music. {{ISBN|0-9614701-9-4}}.</ref>) can be thought of as a combination of [[tresillo (rhythm)|tresillo]] and the [[beat (music)|backbeat]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peñalosa|2010|p=42}}</ref> The habanera was the first of many Cuban music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the United States and reinforced and inspired the use of tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.
[[File:Tresillo+ backbeat.jpg|thumb|center|250px|Habanera rhythm written as a combination of tresillo (bottom notes) with the backbeat (top note) {{audio|Tresillo+ backbeat.mid|Play}}]]

New Orleans native [[Louis Moreau Gottschalk]]'s piano piece "Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)" (1860) was influenced by the composer's studies in Cuba: the habanera rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand.<ref>Sublette, Ned (2008: 125). ''The World that made New Orleans: from Spanish silver to Congo Square''. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. {{ISBN|1-55652-958-9}}</ref> In Gottschalk's symphonic work "A Night in the Tropics" (1859), the tresillo variant [[cinquillo]] appears extensively.<ref>Sublette, Ned (2008:125). ''Cuba and its Music; From the First Drums to the Mambo.'' Chicago: Chicago Review Press.</ref> The figure was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers.
[[File:Cinquello bell pattern.png|thumb|center|Cinquillo. {{audio|Cinquillo.mid|Play}}]]

Comparing the music of New Orleans with the music of Cuba, [[Wynton Marsalis]] observes that [[tresillo (rhythm)|tresillo]] is the New Orleans "clave", a Spanish word meaning 'code' or 'key', as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery.<ref>"Wynton Marsalis part 2." ''60 Minutes''. CBS News (June 26, 2011).</ref> Although technically the pattern is only half a [[Clave (rhythm)|clave]], Marsalis makes the point that the single-celled figure is the [[bell pattern|guide-pattern]] of New Orleans music. [[Jelly Roll Morton]] called the rhythmic figure the ''[[Spanish tinge]]'' and considered it an essential ingredient of jazz.<ref name="ReferenceB">Morton, Jelly Roll (1938: Library of Congress Recording) ''The Complete Recordings By Alan Lomax''.</ref>

===1890s–1910s===

====Ragtime====
{{Main article|Ragtime}}
[[File:Scott Joplin 19072.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Scott Joplin]] in 1903]]
The abolition of [[slavery]] in 1865 led to new opportunities for the education of freed African Americans. Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances, [[minstrel show]]s, and in [[vaudeville]], during which time many marching bands were formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs, and brothels, as [[ragtime]] developed.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=28, 47}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnx.org/content/m10878/latest/|title=Ragtime|accessdate=October 18, 2007|author=Catherine Schmidt-Jones|year=2006|publisher=Connexions }}</ref>

Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African-American musicians such as the entertainer [[Ernest Hogan]], whose hit songs appeared in 1895. Two years later, [[Vess Ossman]] recorded a medley of these songs as a [[banjo]] solo known as "Rag Time Medley".<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=28–29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/firstragtimerecords.html|title=The First Ragtime Records (1897–1903)|accessdate=October 18, 2007 }}</ref> Also in 1897, the white composer [[William Krell|William H. Krell]] published his "[[Mississippi Rag]]" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and [[Tom Turpin]] published his "Harlem Rag", the first rag published by an African-American.

The classically trained pianist [[Scott Joplin]] produced his "[[Original Rags]]" in 1898 and, in 1899, had an international hit with "[[Maple Leaf Rag]]", a multi-[[strain (music)|strain]] ragtime [[march (music)|march]] with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass line with copious [[seventh chord]]s. Its structure was the basis for many other rags, and the [[syncopation]]s in the right hand, especially in the transition between the first and second strain, were novel at the time.<ref>Tanner, Paul, David W. Megill, and Maurice Gerow. ''Jazz''. 11th edn. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2009, pp. 328-331.</ref>

[[File:Maple Leaf Rag seventh chord resolution.png|thumb|center|400px|Excerpt from "Maple Leaf Rag" by Scott Joplin (1899), seventh chord [[resolution (music)|resolution]]{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p= 203}} {{audio|Maple Leaf Rag seventh chord resolution.mid|Play}}. The seventh resolves [[leading tone|down]] by [[semitone|half step]].]]

African-based rhythmic patterns such as tresillo and its variants, the habanera rhythm and cinquillo, are heard in the ragtime compositions of Joplin, Turpin, and others. Joplin's "Solace" (1909) is generally considered to be within the habanera genre:<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>Matthiesen, Bill (2008: 8). ''Habaneras, Maxixies & Tangos The Syncopated Piano Music of Latin America''. Mel Bay. {{ISBN|0-7866-7635-3}}</ref> both of the pianist's hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandoning any sense of a march rhythm. [[Ned Sublette]] postulates that the tresillo/habanera rhythm "found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk,"<ref>Sublette, Ned (2008:155). ''Cuba and its Music; From the First Drums to the Mambo.'' Chicago: Chicago Review Press.</ref> whilst Roberts suggests that "the habanera influence may have been part of what freed black music from ragtime's European bass."<ref>Roberts, John Storm (1999: 40). ''The Latin Tinge''. Oxford University Press.</ref>

====Blues====
{{Main article|Blues}}

=====African genesis=====
[[File:Blues and pentatonic scales..jpg|thumb|right|275px|{{audio|Blues scale hexatonic C.mid|Play blues scale}} or {{audio|C minor pentatonic scale.mid|pentatonic scale}}]]
Blues is the name given to both a musical form and a music genre,<ref>Kunzler's ''Dictionary of Jazz'' provides two separate entries: blues, an originally African-American genre (p. 128), and the blues form, a widespread musical form (p. 131).</ref> which originated in [[African-American]] communities of primarily the "[[Deep South]]" of the United States at the end of the 19th century from their [[spiritual (music)|spirituals]], [[work song]]s, [[field holler]]s, [[Ring shout|shouts]] and [[chant]]s and rhymed simple narrative [[ballad (music)|ballads]].<ref name="The Evolution of Differing Blues Styles">{{cite web|title=The Evolution of Differing Blues Styles |publisher=How To Play Blues Guitar |accessdate=2008-08-11 |url=http://how-to-play-blues-guitar.com/the-blues/the-evolution-of-different-blues-styles/ |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5msLYV7tu?url=http://how-to-play-blues-guitar.com/the-blues/the-evolution-of-different-blues-styles/ |archivedate=2010-01-18 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref>

The African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the development of [[blue note]]s in blues and jazz.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=11–14}}</ref> As Kubik explains:
<blockquote>Many of the rural blues of the Deep South are ''stylistically'' an extension and merger of basically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt:
* A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as found for example among the [[Hausa people|Hausa]]. It is characterized by melisma, wavy intonation, pitch instabilities within a pentatonic framework, and a declamatory voice.
* An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents (1999: 94).<ref>Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 96).</ref></blockquote>

=====W. C. Handy: early published blues=====
[[File:WC Handy age 19 handyphoto10.jpg|thumb|right|upright|WC Handy age 19, 1892]]
[[W. C. Handy]] became intrigued by the folk blues of the Deep South whilst traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In this folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within a limited melodic range, sounding like a field holler, and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than strummed, like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents, functioning as another "voice".<ref>Palmer (1981: 46).</ref> Handy and his band members were formally trained African-American musicians who had not grown up with the blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band instrument format and arrange them in a popular music form.

Handy wrote about his adopting of the blues:

<blockquote>The primitive southern Negro, as he sang, was sure to bear down on the third and seventh tone of the scale, slurring between major and minor. Whether in the cotton field of the Delta or on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was always the same. Till then, however, I had never heard this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro, or by any white man. I tried to convey this effect ... by introducing flat thirds and sevenths (now called blue notes) into my song, although its prevailing key was major ..., and I carried this device into my melody as well.<ref name="Handy, Father 1941, p. 99">Handy, Father (1941), p. 99.</ref></blockquote>

The publication of his "[[The Memphis Blues|Memphis Blues]]" sheet music in 1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (although Gunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues, but "more like a cakewalk"<ref>Schuller (1968: 66, 145n.).</ref>). This composition, as well as his later "[[St. Louis Blues (song)|St. Louis Blues]]" and others, included the habanera rhythm,<ref name=autogenerated2>W. C. Handy, ''Father of the Blues: An Autobiography'', edited by [[Arna Bontemps]]: foreword by Abbe Niles. Macmillan Company, New York; (1941), pp. 99, 100 (no ISBN in this first printing).</ref> and would become [[jazz standard]]s. Handy's music career began in the pre-jazz era and contributed to the codification of jazz through the publication of some of the first jazz sheet music.

=====Within the context of Western harmony=====
The blues form which is ubiquitous in jazz is characterized by specific chord progressions, of which the [[twelve-bar blues]] progression is the most common. Basic blues progressionions are based on the I, IV and V chords (often called the "one", "four" and "five" chords). An important part of the sound are the microtonal [[blue note]]s which, for expressive purposes, are sung or played flattened (thus "between" the notes on a piano), or gradually "bent" (minor third to major third) in relation to the [[Pitch (music)|pitch]] of the [[major scale]]. The blue notes opened up an entirely new approach to Western harmony, ultimately leading to a high level of harmonic complexity in jazz.{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}

====New Orleans====
{{Main article|Dixieland}}
[[File:Bolden band.gif|thumb|right|[[Buddy Bolden|The Bolden Band]] around 1905.]]
The [[music of New Orleans]] had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz. The reason why jazz is mainly associated with New Orleans is due to the slaves being able to practice elements of their culture such as voodoo, and they were also allowed drums.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neworleansonline.com/neworleans/music/musichistory/jazzbirthplace.html|title=Birthplace of Jazz|website=www.neworleansonline.com|access-date=2017-12-14}}</ref> Many early jazz performers played in venues throughout the city, such as the brothels and bars of the red-light district around [[Basin Street]], known as "[[Storyville, New Orleans|Storyville]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=47, 50}}</ref> In addition to dance bands, there were numerous marching bands who played at lavish funerals (later called [[jazz funeral]]s), which were arranged by the African-American and European-American communities. The instruments used in [[marching band]]s and dance bands became the basic instruments of jazz: brass, reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale, and drums. Small bands which mixed self-taught and well-educated African-American musicians, many of whom came from the funeral procession tradition of New Orleans, played a seminal role in the development and dissemination of early jazz. These bands travelled throughout Black communities in the Deep South and, from around 1914 onwards, [[Louisiana Creole people|Afro-Creole]] and African-American musicians played in [[vaudeville]] shows which took jazz to western and northern US cities.<ref name=creoleorch>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/creole.html|title=Original Creole Orchestra|accessdate=October 23, 2007|publisher=The Red Hot Archive}}</ref>
[[File:MortonBricktopRowCropMortonFace.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Jelly Roll Morton]], in Los Angeles, California, c. 1917 or 1918]]
In New Orleans, a white marching band leader named [[Papa Jack Laine]] integrated blacks and whites in his marching band. Laine was known as "the father of white jazz" because of the many top players who passed through his bands (including George Brunies, Sharkey Bonano and the future members of the [[Original Dixieland Jass Band]]). Laine was a good talent scout. During the early 1900s, jazz was mostly done in the African-American and [[mulatto]] communities, due to segregation laws. The red light district of [[Storyville, New Orleans]] was crucial in bringing jazz music to a wider audience via tourists who came to the port city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/jazz-map.htm|title=Jazz Neighborhoods - New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)|publisher=}}</ref> Many jazz musicians from the African-American communities were hired to perform live music in brothels and bars, including many early jazz pioneers such as [[Buddy Bolden]] and [[Jelly Roll Morton]], in addition to those from New Orleans other communities such as [[Lorenzo Tio]] and [[Alcide Nunez]]. [[Louis Armstrong]] also got his start in Storyville<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.storyvillelife.com/eksempel-side/|title=The characters -|publisher=}}</ref> and would later find success in Chicago (along with others from New Orleans) after the United States government shut down Storyville in 1917.<ref name="web.archive.org">{{cite web|url=http://web.wm.edu/americanstudies/370/2001/sp3/legend_of_storyville.htm |title=The Legend of Storyville |date=6 May 2014 |publisher= |deadurl=unfit |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506062223/http://web.wm.edu/americanstudies/370/2001/sp3/legend_of_storyville.htm |archivedate=May 6, 2014 }}</ref>

=====Syncopation=====
The cornetist Buddy Bolden led a band who are often mentioned as one of the prime originators of the style later to be called "jazz". He played in New Orleans around 1895–1906, before developing a mental illness; there are no recordings of him playing. Bolden's band is credited with creating the ''big four'', the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/jazz/classroom/rhythmicinnovations.htm |title=Marsalis, Wynton (2000: DVD n.1). ''Jazz''. PBS |work=Pbs.org |accessdate=2013-10-02}}</ref> As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.

[[File:Big four Buddy Bolden.png|center|330px|thumb| Buddy Bolden's "big four" pattern<ref>"[https://www.pbs.org/jazz/classroom/rhythmicinnovations.htm Jazz and Math: Rhythmic Innovations]", ''PBS.org''. The Wikipedia example shown in [[half time (music)|half time]] compared to the source.</ref> {{audio|Big four Buddy Bolden.mid|Play}}]]

[[File:Jelly Roll Blues 1915.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Morton published "Jelly Roll Blues" in 1915, the first jazz work in print.]]

Afro-Creole pianist [[Jelly Roll Morton]] began his career in Storyville. From 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows around southern cities, also playing in Chicago and New York City. In 1905, he composed his "[[Jelly Roll Blues]]", which on its publication in 1915 became the first jazz arrangement in print, introducing more musicians to the New Orleans style.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=38, 56}}</ref>

Morton considered the tresillo/habanera (which he called the [[Spanish tinge]]) to be an essential ingredient of jazz.<ref>Roberts, John Storm 1979. ''The Latin Tinge: The impact of Latin American music on the United States''. Oxford.</ref> In his own words: <blockquote>Now in one of my earliest tunes, "New Orleans Blues," you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz.<ref name="ReferenceB"/></blockquote>

[[File:New orleans blues corrected.jpg|thumb|center|450px|Excerpt from Jelly Roll Morton's "New Orleans Blues" (c. 1902). The left hand plays the tresillo rhythm. The right hand plays variations on cinquillo. {{audio|New orleans blues corrected.mid|Play}}]]

Morton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the early jazz form known as ragtime to jazz piano, and could perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a series of recordings for the [[Library of Congress]], in which he demonstrated the difference between the two styles. Morton's solos, however, were still close to ragtime, and were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in later jazz, but his use of the blues was of equal importance.

=====Swing in the early 20th century=====
[[File:Swing pattern in relation to straight subdivisions.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Bottom: even duple subdivisions of the beat Top: swung correlative—contrasting of duple and triple subdivisions of the beat {{audio|Shuffle feel straight.mid|Play straight drum pattern}} or {{audio|Shuffle feel.mid|Play swung pattern}}]]
Morton loosened ragtime's rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing a [[Swing (jazz performance style)|swing]] feeling.<ref>Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 61). ''Jazz Styles: History and Analysis'', 7th edn.</ref> Swing is the most important and enduring African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft quoted definition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: "if you don't feel it, you'll never know it."<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Schuller|1968|p=6}}</ref> ''The New Harvard Dictionary of Music'' states that swing is: "An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz ... Swing defies analysis; claims to its presence may inspire arguments." The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple subdivisions:<ref>''The New Harvard Dictionary of Music'' (1986: 818).</ref> swing superimposes six subdivisions of the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions. This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in African-American music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple and duple-pulse "grids".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Greenwood|first1=David Peñalosa; Peter|last2=collaborator|last3=editor|title=The Clave Matrix: Afro-Cuban rhythm: its principles and African origins|date=2009|publisher=Bembe Books|location=Redway, CA|isbn=1-886502-80-3|page=229}}</ref>

New Orleans brass bands are a lasting influence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans' [[Camelia Brass Band]], D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also credited with the abandonment of ragtime's stiffness in favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any other musician, codified the rhythmic technique of swing in jazz and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gridley|first1=Mark C.|title=Jazz Styles: history & analysis|date=2000|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|isbn=978-0130212276|pages=72–73|edition=7th|url=http://www.biblio.com/9780130212276}}</ref>
[[File:Livery Stable Blues Barnyard Blues ODJB 1917 Leo Feist New York.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Sheet music for "Livery Stable Blues"/"Barnyard Blues" by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, Leo Feist, Inc., New York, copyright 1917]]

The [[Original Dixieland Jass Band]] made the music's first recordings early in 1917, and their "[[Livery Stable Blues]]" became the earliest released jazz record.<ref>{{cite web|last=Schoenherr |first=Steven |title=Recording Technology History |work=history.sandiego.edu |url=http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/recording/notes.html |accessdate=December 24, 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100312213800/http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/recording/notes.html |archivedate=March 12, 2010 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Thomas|first=Bob|title=The Origins of Big Band Music|work=redhotjazz.com|year=1994|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/bigband.html|accessdate=December 24, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Alexander|first=Scott|title=The First Jazz Records|work=redhotjazz.com|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/jazz1917.html|accessdate=December 24, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Jazz Milestones|work=apassion4jazz.net|url=http://www.apassion4jazz.net/milestones.html|accessdate=December 24, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Original Dixieland Jazz Band Biography|work=pbs.org|url=https://www.pbs.org/jazz/biography/artist_id_original_dixieland_jazz_band.htm|accessdate=December 24, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Henry|last2=Waters|first2=Keith|title=Jazz: The First 100 Years|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth|year=2005|page=55|url=https://books.google.com/?id=kuz4EHH05I4C&pg=PT84&lpg=PT84&dq=first+jazz+recording|isbn=0-534-62804-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gracyk.com/jasband.shtml|title=Tim Gracyk's Phonographs, Singers, and Old Records – Jass in 1916–1917 and Tin Pan Alley|accessdate=October 27, 2007}}</ref> That year, numerous other bands made recordings featuring "jazz" in the title or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz. In February 1918 during World War II, James Reese Europe's [[369th Infantry Regiment (United States)|"Hellfighters" infantry]] band took ragtime to Europe,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=Emmett J. |authorlink=Emmett Jay Scott |year=1919 |title=Scott's Official History of the American Negro in the World War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=obUHAAAAIAAJ |chapter=Chapter XXI: Negro Music That Stirred France |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=obUHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA300#v=twopage&q&f=false |location=[Chicago] |publisher=[Homewood Press] |access-date=19 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|p=44}}</ref> then on their return recorded Dixieland standards including "[[Darktown Strutters' Ball]]".<ref name=hellfighters/>

====Other regions====
In the northeastern United States, a "hot" style of playing ragtime had developed, notably [[James Reese Europe]]'s symphonic [[Clef Club]] orchestra in New York City, which played a benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912.<ref name=hellfighters>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/hellfighters.html|title=Jim Europe's 369th Infantry "Hellfighters" Band|accessdate=October 24, 2007|author=Floyd Levin|year=1911|publisher=The Red Hot Archive}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|p=78}}</ref> The Baltimore rag style of [[Eubie Blake]] influenced [[James P. Johnson]]'s development of [[stride piano]] playing, in which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm and bassline.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=41–42}}</ref>

In Ohio and elsewhere in the midwest the major influence was ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when the four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians began to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary account states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gut-bucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon by the Black middle-class.<ref>Palmer (1968: 67).</ref>

===1920s and 1930s===

====Jazz Age====
{{Main article|Jazz Age}}
{{listen
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[[File:Jazzing orchestra 1921.png|thumb|right|The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921]] From 1920 to 1933, [[Prohibition in the United States]] banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies which became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music including current dance songs, novelty songs, and show tunes. Jazz began to get a reputation as being immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as threatening the old cultural values and promoting the new decadent values of the Roaring 20s. [[Henry van Dyke]] of Princeton University wrote, "... it is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion."<ref name=ward/> The media too began to denigrate jazz. ''The New York Times'' used stories and headlines to pick at jazz: Siberian villagers were said by the paper to have used jazz to scare off bears when, in fact, they had used pots and pans; another story claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.<ref name="ward">{{cite book|last1=Ward|first1=Geoffrey C.|last2=Burns| first2=Ken|title=Jazz: A History of America's Music|date=October 8, 2002|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York| isbn=978-0679765394|edition=1st|url=https://www.amazon.com/Jazz-Americas-Geoffrey-C-Ward/dp/0679765395|accessdate=27 July 2014}}</ref>

In 1919, [[Kid Ory]]'s Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans began playing in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|p=54}}</ref><ref name=ory>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/ory.html|title=Kid Ory|accessdate=October 29, 2007| publisher=The Red Hot Archive}}</ref> That year also saw the first recording by [[Bessie Smith]], the most famous of the 1920s blues singers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/bessie.html|title=Bessie Smith|accessdate=October 29, 2007| publisher=The Red Hot Archive}}</ref> Chicago meanwhile was developing the new "[[Hot Jazz]]", where [[Joe "King" Oliver|King Oliver]] joined [[Bill Johnson (double-bassist)|Bill Johnson]]. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.

Despite its Southern black origins, there was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras. In 1918, [[Paul Whiteman]] and his orchestra became a hit in San Francisco, California, signing with [[Victor Talking Machine Company]] in 1920 and becoming the top bandleader of the 1920s, giving "hot jazz" a white component, hiring white musicians including [[Bix Beiderbecke]], [[Jimmy Dorsey]], [[Tommy Dorsey]], [[Frankie Trumbauer]], and [[Joe Venuti]]. In 1924, Whiteman commissioned [[George Gershwin|Gershwin]]'s ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]'', which was premiered by his orchestra and jazz began to be recognized as a notable musical form. [[Olin Downes]], reviewing the concert in ''The New York Times'': "This composition shows extraordinary talent, as it shows a young composer with aims that go far beyond those of his ilk, struggling with a form of which he is far from being master.... In spite of all this, he has expressed himself in a significant and, on the whole, highly original form.... His first theme ... is no mere dance-tune ... it is an idea, or several ideas, correlated and combined in varying and contrasting rhythms that immediately intrigue the listener."<ref>Downes, Olin (1924). "A Concert of Jazz". The New York Times. February 13, 1924. p. 16.</ref>

After Whiteman's band successfully toured Europe, huge hot jazz orchestras in theater pits caught on with other whites, including [[Fred Waring]], [[Jean Goldkette]], and [[Nathaniel Shilkret]]. According to Mario Dunkel, Whiteman's success was based on a "rhetoric of domestication" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable (read "white") a previously inchoate (read "black") kind of music.<ref>Mario Dunkel, "W. C. Handy, Abbe Niles, and (Auto)biographical Positioning in the Whiteman Era," ''Popular Music and Society'' 38.2 (2015): 122-139.</ref> Whiteman's success caused blacks to follow suit, including [[Earl Hines]] (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago in 1928), [[Duke Ellington]] (who opened at the [[Cotton Club]] in Harlem in 1927), [[Lionel Hampton]], [[Fletcher Henderson]], [[Claude Hopkins]], and [[Don Redman]], with Henderson and Redman developing the "talking to one another" formula for "hot" Swing music.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=82–83, 100–103}}</ref>
[[File:Louis_Armstrong_restored.jpg|thumb|left|Trumpeter, composer and singer [[Louis Armstrong]] began his career in New Orleans and became one of jazz's most recognizable performers.]]
In 1924, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist. The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young [[Coleman Hawkins]]), sounded "stiff, stodgy," with "jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality."<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Schuller|1968|p=91}}</ref> The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by [[George W. Meyer]] and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924).<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Schuller|1968|p=93}}</ref> (The example approximates Armstrong's solo, as it doesn't convey his use of swing.)

[[File:Mandy (louis armstrong).tiff|thumb|center|450px|Top: excerpt from the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by George W. Meyer & Arthur Johnston. Bottom: corresponding solo excerpt by Louis Armstrong (1924).]]

Armstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic [[Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five|Hot Five]] band, where he popularized [[scat singing]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=56–59, 78–79, 66–70}}</ref>

Jelly Roll Morton recorded with the [[New Orleans Rhythm Kings]] in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926 formed his [[Red Hot Peppers]].

Also in the 1920s [[Skiffle]], jazz played with homemade instruments such as washboard, jugs, musical saw, kazoos, etc. began to be recorded in Chicago, later merging with country music.

====Swing in the 1920s and 1930s====
{{Main article|Swing music|1930s in jazz}}
[[File:BennyGoodmanStageDoorCanteen.jpg|thumb|left|Benny Goodman (1943)]]
The 1930s belonged to popular [[swing (music)|swing]] big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers [[Count Basie]], [[Cab Calloway]], [[Jimmy Dorsey|Jimmy]] and [[Tommy Dorsey]], [[Duke Ellington]], [[Benny Goodman]], [[Fletcher Henderson]], [[Earl Hines]], [[Glenn Miller]], [[Artie Shaw]], [[Harry James]], and [[Jimmie Lunceford]]. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to "solo" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be very complex "important" music.

Swing was also dance music. It was broadcast on the radio "live" nightly across America for many years, especially by Earl Hines and his [[Grand Terrace Cafe]] Orchestra broadcasting coast-to-coast from Chicago<ref>See lengthy interviews with Hines in [Nairn] ''Earl "Fatha" Hines'': [https://vimeo.com/58414566] – see External Links below.</ref> (well placed for "live" US time-zones).

Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist [[Teddy Wilson]], vibraphonist [[Lionel Hampton]] and guitarist [[Charlie Christian]] to join small groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist [[Lester Young]] (inventor of much of hipster jargon) marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" or [[jump blues]] used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on [[boogie woogie (music)|boogie-woogie]] from the 1930s.

====Beginnings of European jazz====
As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, and [[Lonnie Johnson (musician)|Lonnie Johnson]], who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time.<ref>{{cite book| last1=Wynn|first1=edited by Neil A.|title=Cross the Water Blues: African American music in Europe| date=2007| publisher=University Press of Mississippi|location=Jackson, Missippi|isbn=9781604735468|page=67|edition=1| url=http://www.upress.state.ms.us/books/867|accessdate=27 July 2014}}</ref> The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period.

British jazz began with a [[Original Dixieland Jass Band#London tour|tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919]]. In 1926, [[Fred Elizalde]] and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC.

This distinct style entered full swing in France with the [[Quintette du Hot Club de France]], which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his style was also a fusion of the two.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jackson| first=Jeffrey|title=Making Jazz French: The Reception of Jazz Music in Paris, 1927-1934.|journal=French Historical Studies| year=2002|volume=25|issue=1|pages=149–170|doi=10.1215/00161071-25-1-149}}</ref> Belgian guitar virtuoso [[Django Reinhardt]] popularized [[gypsy jazz]], a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "[[Bal-musette|musette]]" and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments are steel stringed guitar, violin, and double bass, and solos pass from one player to another as the guitar and bass play the role of the rhythm section. Some music researchers hold that it was Philadelphia's [[Eddie Lang]] and [[Joe Venuti]] who pioneered the guitar-violin partnership typical of the genre,<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/edlango.html|title=Ed Lang and his Orchestra|accessdate=March 28, 2008|work=redhotjazz.com }}</ref> which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on [[Okeh Records]] in the late 1920s.<ref>{{cite book| first=Bill|last=Crow|title=Jazz Anecdotes|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=1990}}</ref>

===1940s and 1950s===

===="American music"—the influence of Ellington====
[[File:Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club 1943.jpg|thumb|upright|Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club (1943)]]
By the 1940s, Duke Ellington's music had transcended the bounds of swing, bridging jazz and art music in a natural synthesis. Ellington called his music "American Music" rather than jazz, and liked to describe those who impressed him as "beyond category."<ref name="Tucker-1">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1995|p=6}} writes "He tried to avoid the word 'jazz' preferring 'Negro' or 'American' music. He claimed there were only two types of music, 'good' and 'bad' ... And he embraced a phrase coined by his colleague Billy Strayhorn – 'beyond category' – as a liberating principle."</ref> These included many of the musicians who were members of his orchestra, some of whom are considered among the best in jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded them into one of the most popular jazz orchestras in the history of jazz. He often composed specifically for the style and skills of these individuals, such as "Jeep's Blues" for [[Johnny Hodges]], "Concerto for Cootie" for [[Cootie Williams]] (which later became "[[Do Nothing Till You Hear from Me]]" with [[Bob Russell (songwriter)|Bob Russell]]'s lyrics), and "The Mooche" for [[Tricky Sam Nanton]] and [[Bubber Miley]]. He also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, such as [[Juan Tizol]]'s "[[Caravan (1937 song)|Caravan]]" and "[[Perdido (song)|Perdido]]", which brought the "Spanish Tinge" to big-band jazz. Several members of the orchestra remained with him for several decades. The band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices who displayed tremendous creativity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theoryjazz.com/artists/ellington.html |title=Jazz Musicians – Duke Ellington |publisher=Theory Jazz |accessdate=July 14, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903233432/http://theoryjazz.com/artists/ellington.html |archivedate=September 3, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

====Bebop====
{{Main article|Bebop}}
{{See also|List of bebop musicians}}
[[File:Thelonious Monk, Minton's Playhouse, New York, N.Y., ca. Sept. 1947 (William P. Gottlieb 06191).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thelonious Monk]] at Minton's Playhouse, 1947, New York City]]
[[File:Earl Hines 1947.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Earl Hines 1947]] In the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music." The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist [[Charlie Parker]], pianists [[Bud Powell]] and [[Thelonious Monk]], trumpeters [[Dizzy Gillespie]] and [[Clifford Brown]], and drummer [[Max Roach]]. Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established itself more as an art form, thus lessening its potential popular and commercial appeal.

Composer [[Gunther Schuller]] wrote:
<blockquote> ... In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines band which had Bird in it and all those other great musicians. They were playing all the flatted fifth chords and all the modern harmonies and substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs in the trumpet section work. Two years later I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning of modern jazz ... but the band never made recordings.<ref>[[Gunther Schuller]] November 14, 1972. Dance, p. 290.</ref> </blockquote>

Dizzy Gillespie wrote:
<blockquote> ... People talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band. But people also have the erroneous impression that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the same basic music. The difference was in how you got from here to here to here ... naturally each age has got its own shit.<ref>Dance p. 260.</ref></blockquote>

=====Rhythm=====
Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the [[ride cymbal]] was used to keep time while the snare and bass drum were used for accents. This led to a highly syncopated music with a linear rhythmic complexity.<ref name="Floyd, Samuel A. 1995">Floyd, Samuel A., Jr. (1995). ''The Power of Black Music: Interpreting its history from Africa to the United States''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref>

=====Harmony=====
[[File:Charlie Parker, Tommy Potter, Miles Davis, Max Roach (Gottlieb 06941).jpg|thumb|upright|left|Charlie Parker, Tommy Potter, Miles Davis, Max Roach (Gottlieb 06941)]]
Bebop musicians employed several harmonic devices which were not previously typical in jazz, engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an added chromatic passing note;<ref>{{harvnb|Levine|1995|p=171}}</ref> bebop also uses "passing" chords, [[substitute chord]]s, and [[altered chord]]s. New forms of [[chromaticism]] and [[Consonance and dissonance|dissonance]] were introduced into jazz, and the dissonant [[tritone]] (or "flatted fifth") interval became the "most important interval of bebop"<ref>Joachim Berendt. ''The Jazz Book'', 1981, p. 15.</ref> Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken directly from popular swing-era songs and reused with a new and more complex melody and/or reharmonized with more complex chord progressions to form new compositions, a practice which was already well-established in earlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style. Bebop made use of several relatively common chord progressions, such as blues (at base, I-IV-V, but often infused with ii-V motion) and 'rhythm changes' (I-VI-ii-V) - the chords to the 1930s pop standard "[[I Got Rhythm]]." Late bop also moved towards extended forms that represented a departure from pop and show tunes.

The harmonic development in bebop is often traced back to a transcendent moment experienced by Charlie Parker while performing "Cherokee" at Clark Monroe's Uptown House, New York, in early 1942:
<blockquote> I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped changes that were being used, ... and I kept thinking there's bound to be something else. I could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it.... I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did, I found that by using the higher intervals of a chord as a melody line and backing them with appropriately related changes, I could play the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive—Parker.<ref>Charlie Parker quoted by Gerhard Kubik (2005). "Bebop: A Case in Point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices" (critical essay), ''Black Music Research Journal'' 22 March. Digital.</ref></blockquote>

[[Gerhard Kubik]] postulates that the harmonic development in bebop sprang from the blues and other [[Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony|African-related tonal sensibilities]], rather than 20th-century Western art music as some have suggested:
<blockquote> Auditory inclinations were the African legacy in [Parker's] life, reconfirmed by the experience of the blues tonal system, a sound world at odds with the Western diatonic chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of the blues as a basis for drawing upon various African matrices.<ref>Gerhard Kubik (2005). "Bebop: A Case in Point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices" (critical essay), ''Black Music Research Journal'' March 22, Digital.</ref></blockquote>

Samuel Floyd states that blues were both the bedrock and propelling force of bebop, bringing about three main developments:
* A new harmonic conception, using extended chord structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and melodic variety.
* A developed and even more highly syncopated, linear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity in which the blue note of the fifth degree was established as an important melodic-harmonic device.
* The reestablishment of the blues as the music's primary organizing and functional principle.<ref name="Floyd, Samuel A. 1995"/>

As Kubik explained:
<blockquote>While for an outside observer, the harmonic innovations in bebop would appear to be inspired by experiences in Western "serious" music, from [[Claude Debussy]] to [[Arnold Schoenberg]], such a scheme cannot be sustained by the evidence from a cognitive approach. Claude Debussy did have some influence on jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's piano playing. And it is also true that Duke Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harmonic devices in European contemporary music. West Coast jazz would run into such debts as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct borrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, bebop was a strong statement of rejection of any kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to activate something deeply buried in self. Bebop then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted through the blues and reconstructed and expanded others in a basically non-Western harmonic approach. The ultimate significance of all this is that the experiments in jazz during the 1940s brought back to [[African-American music]] several structural principles and techniques rooted in African traditions<ref>Kubik (2005).</ref></blockquote>

These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time initially met with a divided, sometimes hostile, response among fans and fellow musicians, especially established swing players, who bristled at the new harmonic sounds. To hostile critics, bebop seemed to be filled with "racing, nervous phrases".<ref>Joachim Berendt. ''The Jazz Book''. 1981, p. 16.</ref> But despite the initial friction, by the 1950s, bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz vocabulary.

====Afro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop)====
{{Main article|Afro-Cuban jazz}}
[[File:Machito and his sister Graciella Grillo.jpg|thumb|upright|Machito (maracas) and his sister Graciella Grillo (claves)]]

=====Machito and Mario Bauza=====
The general consensus among musicians and musicologists is that the first original jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was "Tanga" (1943), composed by Cuban-born [[Mario Bauza]] and recorded by [[Machito]] and his Afro-Cubans in New York City. "Tanga" began as a spontaneous [[descarga]] (Cuban jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.<ref>In 1992 Bauza recorded "Tanga" in the expanded form of an Afro-Cuban suite, consisting of five movements. ''Mario Bauza and his Afro-Cuban Orchestra''. Messidor CD (1992).</ref>

This was the birth of [[Afro-Cuban jazz]]. The use of clave brought the African ''timeline'', or ''[[bell pattern|key pattern]]'', into jazz. Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled (binary) structure, which is a complex level of African [[cross beat|cross-rhythm]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peñalosa|2010|p=56}}</ref> Within the context of jazz, however, harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and the harmonic "one" is always understood to be "one". If the progression begins on the "three-side" of clave, it is said to be in ''3-2 clave''. If the progression begins on the "two-side", its in ''2-3 clave''.<ref>{{harvnb|Peñalosa|2010|pp=131–136}}</ref>

[[File:Kpanlogo bell.jpg|thumb|center|400px|Clave: Spanish for 'code,' or key,' as in the key to a puzzle. The antecedent half (three-side) consists of tresillo. The consequent half consists of two strokes (the two-side). {{audio|3-2 son clave.mid|Play}}]]

[[Bobby Sanabria]] mentions several innovations of Machito's Afro-Cubans, citing them as the first band: to wed big band jazz arranging techniques within an original composition, with jazz oriented soloists utilizing an authentic Afro-Cuban based rhythm section in a successful manner; to explore modal harmony (a concept explored much later by [[Miles Davis]] and [[Gil Evans]]) from a jazz arranging perspective; and to overtly explore the concept of clave counterpoint from an arranging standpoint (the ability to weave seamlessly from one side of the clave to the other without breaking its rhythmic integrity within the structure of a musical arrangement). They were also the first band in the United States to use the term "Afro-Cuban" as the band's moniker, thus identifying itself and acknowledging the West African roots of the musical form they were playing. It forced New York City's Latino and African-American communities to deal with their common West African musical roots in a direct way, whether they wanted to acknowledge it publicly or not.{{citation needed|date=January 2008}}

=====Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo=====
[[File:Dizzy Gillespie playing horn 1955.jpg|thumb|upright|Dizzy Gillespie, 1955]]
[[Mario Bauzá]] introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to Cuban conga drummer and composer [[Chano Pozo]]. Gillespie and Pozo's brief collaboration produced some of the most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. "[[Manteca (song)|Manteca]]" (1947) is the first jazz standard to be rhythmically based on clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the layered, contrapuntal [[guajeo]]s (Afro-Cuban [[ostinato]]s) of the A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the bridge. Gillespie recounted: "If I'd let it go like [Chano] wanted it, it would have been strictly Afro-Cuban all the way. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I was writing an eight-bar bridge, but...I had to keep going and ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fraser|first1=Dizzy Gillespie, with Al|title=[[To Be or Not to Bop: Memoirs of Dizzy Gillespie]]|date=March 1, 1985|publisher=Da Capo Press| location=New York, N.Y.|isbn=978-0306802362|page=77}}</ref> The bridge gave "Manteca" a typical jazz harmonic structure, setting the piece apart from Bauza's modal "Tanga" of a few years earlier.

Gillespie's collaboration with Pozo brought specific African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the boundaries of harmonic improvisation, ''cu-bop'' also drew from African rhythm. Jazz arrangements with a Latin A section and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during solos, became common practice with many Latin tunes of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be heard on pre-1980 recordings of "Manteca", "[[A Night in Tunisia]]", "Tin Tin Deo", and "[[On Green Dolphin Street (song)|On Green Dolphin Street]]".

=====African cross-rhythm=====
[[File:Mongo Santamaria 1969.JPG|thumb|upright|Mongo Santamaria (1969)]]
Cuban percussionist [[Mongo Santamaria]] first recorded his composition "[[Afro Blue]]" in 1959.<ref>"Afro Blue", ''Afro Roots'' (Mongo Santamaria) Prestige CD 24018-2 (1959).</ref>
"Afro Blue" was the first jazz standard built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) [[cross-rhythm]], or [[hemiola]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peñalosa|2010|p=26}}</ref> The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12/8, or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats—6:4 (two cells of 3:2). The following example shows the original ostinato "Afro Blue" bass line; the slashed noteheads indicate the main beats (not bass notes), where you would normally tap your foot to keep time.

[[File:Afro blue bass.jpg|thumb|center|380px|"Afro Blue" bass line, with main beats indicated by slashed noteheads.]]
When [[John Coltrane]] covered "Afro Blue" in 1963, he inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a 3/4 jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3). Originally a B{{music|flat}} [[Pentatonic scale|pentatonic]] blues, Coltrane expanded the harmonic structure of "Afro Blue."

Perhaps the most respected [[Afro-cuban jazz]] combo of the late 1950s was vibraphonist [[Cal Tjader]]'s band. Tjader had [[Mongo Santamaria]], [[Armando Peraza]], and [[Willie Bobo]] on his early recording dates.

====Dixieland revival====
{{main article|1940s in jazz|1950s in jazz}}
In the late 1940s, there was a revival of [[Dixieland]], harking back to the contrapuntal New Orleans style. This was driven in large part by record company reissues of jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two types of musicians involved in the revival: the first group was made up of those who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style and were returning to it (or continuing what they had been playing all along), such as [[Bob Crosby]]'s Bobcats, [[Max Kaminsky (musician)|Max Kaminsky]], [[Eddie Condon]], and [[Wild Bill Davison]].<ref name="Collier, 1978">Collier, 1978.</ref> Most of these players were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number of New Orleans musicians involved. The second group of revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those in the [[Lu Watters]] band, [[Conrad Janis]], and [[Ward Kimball]] and his [[Firehouse Five Plus Two]] Jazz Band. By the late 1940s, Louis Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.<ref name="Collier, 1978"/>

====Cool jazz and West Coast jazz====
{{main article|Cool jazz}}
[[File:JATP 1955.jpg|thumb|250px|right|JATP concert announcement 1956|right|thumb|150px|Jazz at the Philharmonic announcement, 1956]]

In 1944, jazz impresario [[Norman Granz]] organized the first [[Jazz at the Philharmonic]] concert in Los Angeles, which helped make a star of [[Nat "King" Cole]] and [[Les Paul]]. In 1946, he founded [[Clef Records]], discovering Canadian jazz pianist [[Oscar Peterson]] in 1949, and merging Clef Records with his new label [[Verve Records]] in 1956, which advanced the career of [[Ella Fitzgerald]] et al.

By the end of the 1940s, the nervous energy and tension of bebop was replaced with a tendency toward calm and smoothness with the sounds of [[cool jazz]], which favored long, linear melodic lines. It emerged in New York City and dominated jazz in the first half of the 1950s. The starting point was a collection of 1949 and 1950 singles by a [[nonet (music)|nonet]] led by [[Miles Davis]], released as the ''[[Birth of the Cool]]'' (1957). Later cool jazz recordings by musicians such as [[Chet Baker]], [[Dave Brubeck]], [[Bill Evans]], [[Gil Evans]], [[Stan Getz]], the [[Modern Jazz Quartet]], and [[Gerry Mulligan]] usually had a lighter sound that avoided the aggressive tempos and harmonic abstraction of bebop.

Cool jazz later became strongly identified with the [[West Coast jazz]] scene, as typified by singers Chet Baker, [[Mel Tormé]], and [[Anita O'Day]], but it also had a particular resonance in Europe, especially Scandinavia, where figures such as baritone saxophonist [[Lars Gullin]] and pianist [[Bengt Hallberg]] emerged. The theoretical underpinnings of cool jazz were laid out by the Chicago pianist [[Lennie Tristano]], and its influence stretches into such later developments as [[bossa nova]], [[modal jazz]], and even free jazz.

{{listen
|image = none
|filename = DukeEllington_TakeTheATrain.ogg
|title = "Take The 'A' Train"
|description = This 1941 sample of Duke Ellington's signature tune is an example of the swing style.
|format = [[Ogg]]
|image4 = none
|filename4 = CharlieParker_YardbirdSuite.ogg
|title4 = "Yardbird Suite"
|description4 = Excerpt from a saxophone solo by Charlie Parker. The fast, complex rhythms and substitute chords of bebop were important to the formation of jazz.
|format4 = [[Ogg]]
|image5 = none
|filename5 = JohnColtrane_MrPC.ogg
|title5 = "Mr. P.C."
|description5 = This hard blues by John Coltrane is an example of hard bop, a post-bebop style which is informed by gospel music, blues, and work songs.
|format5 = [[Ogg]]
|image6 = none
|filename6 = MahavishnuOrchestra Birds of Fire.ogg
|title6 = "Birds of Fire"
|description6 = This 1973 piece by the [[Mahavishnu Orchestra]] merges jazz improvisation and rock instrumentation into jazz fusion
|format6 = [[Ogg]]
|image7 = none
|filename7 = CourtneyPine_TheJazzstep.ogg
|title7 = "The Jazzstep"
|description7 = This 2000 track by [[Courtney Pine]] shows how electronica and hip hop influences can be incorporated into modern jazz.
|format7 = [[Ogg]]
}}

====Hard bop====
{{Main article|Hard bop}}
Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or "bop") music which incorporates influences from rhythm and blues, gospel music and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coalescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s and paralleled the rise of rhythm and blues. Miles Davis' 1954 performance of "Walkin'" at the first [[Newport Jazz Festival]] announced the style to the jazz world.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Natambu|first1=Kofi|title=Miles Davis: A New Revolution in Sound|journal=Black Renaissance/Renaissance Noire|date=2014|volume=2|page=39|accessdate=14 November 2017}}</ref> The quintet Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers, fronted by [[Art Blakey|Blakey]] and featuring pianist [[Horace Silver]] and trumpeter [[Clifford Brown]], were leaders in the hard bop movement along with Davis.

====Modal jazz====
{{Main article|Modal jazz}}
Modal jazz is a development which began in the later 1950s which takes the [[musical mode|mode]], or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a solo was meant to fit into a given [[chord progression]], but with modal jazz, the soloist creates a melody using one (or a small number of) modes. The emphasis is thus shifted from harmony to melody:<ref>{{harvnb|Litweiler|1984|pp=110–111}}</ref> "Historically, this caused a seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal approach (the scale),"<ref>{{harvnb|Levine|1995|p=30}}</ref> explained pianist [[Mark Levine (musician)|Mark Levine]].

The modal theory stems from a work by [[George Russell (composer)|George Russell]]. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater jazz world with ''[[Kind of Blue]]'' (1959), an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis' earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord progression and improvisation, ''Kind of Blue'' was composed as a series of modal sketches in which the musicians were given scales that defined the parameters of their improvisation and style.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yudkin|first1=Jeremy|title=The Naming of Names: "Flamenco Sketches" or "All Blues"? Identifying the Last Two Tracks on Miles Davis's Classic Album Kind of Blue|journal=Muscal Quarterly|date=2012|volume=95|issue=1|pages=15–35|accessdate=14 November 2017}}</ref>

"I didn't write out the music for ''Kind of Blue'', but brought in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play because I wanted a lot of spontaneity,"<ref>Davis, Miles (1989: 234). ''The Autobiography''. New York: Touchstone.</ref> recalled Davis. The track "So What" has only two chords: [[dominant seventh chord|D-7]] and E{{music|b}}-7.<ref>{{harvnb|Levine|1995|p=29}}</ref>

Other innovators in this style include [[Jackie McLean]],<ref>{{harvnb|Litweiler|1984|pp=120–123}}</ref> and two of the musicians who had also played on ''Kind of Blue'': John Coltrane and Bill Evans.

By the 1950s, Afro-Cuban jazz had been using modes for at least a decade, as much of it borrowed from Cuban popular dance forms which are structured around multiple ostinatos with only a few chords. A case in point is [[Mario Bauza]]'s "Tanga" (1943), the first Afro-Cuban jazz piece. Machito's Afro-Cubans recorded modal tunes in the 1940s, featuring jazz soloists such as [[Howard McGhee]], [[Brew Moore]], Charlie Parker, and [[Flip Phillips]]. However, there is no evidence that Davis or other mainstream jazz musicians were influenced by the use of modes in Afro-Cuban jazz, or other branches of [[Latin jazz]].{{clarify|those soloists played, but were not influenced? Or the other way round?|date=October 2013}}

====Free jazz====
{{Main article|Free jazz}}
[[File:John Coltrane 1963.jpg|{{largethumb}}|John Coltrane, 1963]]
Free jazz, and the related form of [[avant-garde jazz]], broke through into an open space of "free tonality" in which meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a range of [[world music]] from India, Africa, and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiastic style of playing.<ref>Joachim Berendt. ''The Jazz Book''. 1981. Page 21.</ref> While loosely inspired by bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this approach was first developed. The bassist [[Charles Mingus]] is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles and genres.

The first major stirrings came in the 1950s with the early work of [[Ornette Coleman]] (whose 1960 album ''[[Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation]]'' coined the term) and [[Cecil Taylor]]. In the 1960s, exponents included [[Albert Ayler]], [[Gato Barbieri]], [[Carla Bley]], [[Don Cherry]], [[Larry Coryell]], [[John Coltrane]], [[Bill Dixon]], [[Jimmy Giuffre]], [[Steve Lacy]], [[Michael Mantler]], [[Sun Ra]], [[Roswell Rudd]], [[Pharoah Sanders]], and [[John Tchicai]]. In developing his late style, Coltrane was especially influenced by the dissonance of Ayler's trio with bassist [[Gary Peacock]] and drummer [[Sunny Murray]], a rhythm section honed with [[Cecil Taylor]] as leader. In November 1961, Coltrane played a gig at the Village Vanguard, which resulted in the classic ''Chasin' the 'Trane'', which ''Down Beat'' magazine panned as "anti-jazz". On his 1961 tour of France, he was booed, but persevered, signing with the new [[Impulse! Records]] in 1960 and turning it into "the house that Trane built", while championing many younger free jazz musicians, notably [[Archie Shepp]], who often played with trumpeter [[Bill Dixon]], who organized the 4-day "October Revolution in Jazz" in Manhattan in 1964, the first free jazz festival.

A series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the first half of 1965 show Coltrane's playing becoming increasingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like [[multiphonics]], utilization of overtones, and playing in the [[altissimo]] register, as well as a mutated return to Coltrane's [[sheets of sound]]. In the studio, he all but abandoned his soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addition, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with increasing freedom. The group's evolution can be traced through the recordings ''[[The John Coltrane Quartet Plays]]'', ''[[Living Space (album)|Living Space]]'' and ''[[Transition (John Coltrane album)|Transition]]'' (both June 1965), ''[[New Thing at Newport]]'' (July 1965), ''[[Sun Ship]]'' (August 1965), and ''[[First Meditations]]'' (September 1965).

In June 1965, Coltrane and 10 other musicians recorded ''[[Ascension (John Coltrane album)|Ascension]]'', a 40-minute-long piece without breaks that included adventurous solos by young avante-garde musicians as well as Coltrane, and was controversial primarily for the collective improvisation sections that separated the solos. [[Dave Liebman]] later called it "the torch that lit the free jazz thing.". After recording with the quartet over the next few months, Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band in September 1965. While Coltrane used over-blowing frequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanders would opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a constant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range of the instrument.

=====Free jazz in Europe=====
[[File:Peter-broetzmann.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A shot from a 2006 performance by [[Peter Brötzmann]], a key figure in European free jazz]]
Free jazz quickly found a foothold in Europe, in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, [[Steve Lacy]] and [[Eric Dolphy]] spent extended periods there, and European musicians [[Michael Mantler]], [[John Tchicai]] et al. traveled to the U.S. to learn it firsthand. A distinctive European contemporary jazz (often incorporating elements of free jazz but not limited to it) also flourished because of the emergence of European musicians such as [[Peter Brötzmann]], [[John Surman]], [[Zbigniew Namysłowski]], [[Albert Mangelsdorff]], [[Kenny Wheeler]], and [[Mike Westbrook]], who were anxious to develop new approaches reflecting their national and regional musical cultures and contexts. Since the 1960s, various creative centers of jazz have developed in Europe, such as the creative jazz scene in Amsterdam. Following the work of veteran drummer [[Han Bennink]] and pianist [[Misha Mengelberg]], musicians started to explore free music by collectively improvising until a certain form (melody, rhythm, or even famous song) is found by the band. Jazz critic [[Kevin Whitehead]] documented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers Pool) orchestra in his book ''New Dutch Swing''. Since the 1990s [[Keith Jarrett]] has been prominent in defending free jazz from criticism by traditionalists.

===1960s and 1970s===
{{main article|1960s in jazz|1970s in jazz}}

====Latin jazz====
{{Main article|Latin jazz}}
Latin jazz is the term used to describe jazz which employs Latin American rhythms and is generally understood to have a more specific meaning than simply jazz from Latin America. A more precise term might be Afro-Latin jazz, as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either have a direct analog in Africa or exhibit an African rhythmic influence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other jazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz are [[Afro-Cuban jazz]] and Brazilian jazz.

In the 1960s and 1970s, many jazz musicians had only a basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian elements were often referred to as "Latin tunes", with no distinction between a Cuban [[son montuno]] and a Brazilian [[bossa nova]]. Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridley's ''Jazz Styles: History and Analysis'', a bossa nova bass line is referred to as a "Latin bass figure."<ref>Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 444). ''Jazz Styles: History and Analysis'', 7th ed.</ref> It was not uncommon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga playing a Cuban [[tumbao]] while the drumset and bass played a Brazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards such as "Manteca", "On Green Dolphin Street" and "Song for My Father" have a "Latin" A section and a swung B section. Typically, the band would only play an even-eighth "Latin" feel in the A section of the head and swing throughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists like [[Cal Tjader]] tended to be the exception. For example, on a 1959 live Tjader recording of "A Night in Tunisia", pianist [[Vince Guaraldi]] soloed through the entire form over an authentic [[mambo (music)|mambo]].<ref>Tjader, Cal (1959). ''Monterey Concerts''. Prestige CD. ASIN: B000000ZCY.</ref>

=====Afro-Cuban jazz=====
{{Main article|Afro-Cuban jazz}}
Afro-Cuban jazz often uses Afro-Cuban instruments such as [[conga]]s, [[timbales]], [[güiro]], and [[claves]], combined with piano, double bass, etc. Afro-Cuban jazz began with Machito's Afro-Cubans in the early 1940s, but took off and entered the mainstream in the late 1940s when bebop musicians such as [[Dizzy Gillespie]] and [[Billy Taylor]] began experimenting with Cuban rhythms. [[Mongo Santamaria]] and [[Cal Tjader]] further refined the genre in the late 1950s.

Although a great deal of Cuban-based Latin jazz is modal, Latin jazz is not always modal: it can be as harmonically expansive as post-bop jazz. For example, [[Tito Puente]] recorded an arrangement of "Giant Steps" done to an Afro-Cuban [[guaguancó]]. A Latin jazz piece may momentarily contract harmonically, as in the case of a percussion solo over a one or two-chord piano guajeo.

======Guajeos======
[[Guajeo]] is the name for the typical Afro-Cuban ostinato melodies which are commonly used motifs in Latin jazz compositions. They originated in the genre known as [[son (music)|son]]. Guajeos provide a rhythmic and melodic framework that may be varied within certain parameters, whilst still maintaining a repetitive - and thus "danceable" - structure. Most guajeos are rhythmically based on [[clave (rhythm)]].

Guajeos are one of the most important elements of the vocabulary of Afro-Cuban [[descarga]] (jazz-inspired instrumental jams), providing a means of tension and resolution and a sense of forward momentum, within a relatively simple harmonic structure. The use of multiple, contrapuntal guajeos in Latin jazz facilitates simultaneous collective improvisation based on theme variation. In a way, this polyphonic texture is reminiscent of the original New Orleans style of jazz.

======Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance======
For most of its history, Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of the 1970s, a new generation of New York City musicians had emerged who were fluent in both [[salsa (music)|salsa]] dance music and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and trumpet) and Andy (bass).<ref>Andy Gonzalez interviewed by Larry Birnbaum. Ed. Boggs, Vernon W. (1992: 297–298). ''Salsiology; Afro-Cuban Music and the Evolution of Salsa in New York City''. New York: Greenwood Press. {{ISBN|0-313-28468-7}}</ref> During 1974–1976, they were members of one of [[Eddie Palmieri]]'s most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City.

This occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba<ref>Acosta, Leonardo (2003). ''Cubano Be, Cubano Bop: One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba'', p. 59. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books. {{ISBN|1-58834-147-X}}</ref> The first Cuban band of this new wave was [[Irakere]]. Their "Chékere-son" (1976) introduced a style of "Cubanized" bebop-flavored horn lines that departed from the more angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was based on Charlie Parker's composition "Billie's Bounce", jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn lines.<ref>Moore, Kevin (2007) "History and Discography of Irakere". [http://www.timba.com/encyclopedia_pages/history-and-discography-of-irakere ''Timba.com''.]</ref> In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakere's Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion, their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz and in the jazzy and complex contemporary form of popular dance music known as [[timba]].

=====Afro-Brazilian jazz=====
[[File:Naná Vasconcelos.jpg|thumb|upright|Naná Vasconcelos playing the Afro-Brazilian [[Berimbau]]]]

Brazilian jazz such as [[bossa nova]] is derived from [[samba]], with influences from jazz and other 20th-century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English, whilst the related term jazz-samba describes an adaptation of street samba into jazz.

The bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians [[João Gilberto]] and [[Antônio Carlos Jobim]] and was made popular by [[Elizete Cardoso]]'s recording of "[[Chega de Saudade]]" on the ''[[Canção do Amor Demais]]'' LP. Gilberto's initial releases, and the 1959 film ''[[Black Orpheus]]'', achieved significant popularity in [[Latin America]]; this spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by [[Charlie Byrd]] and Stan Getz cemented bossa nova's popularity and led to a worldwide boom, with 1963's ''[[Getz/Gilberto]]'', numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as [[Ella Fitzgerald]] and [[Frank Sinatra]], and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music.

Brazilian percussionists such as [[Airto Moreira]] and [[Naná Vasconcelos]] also influenced jazz internationally by introducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater audience to them.<ref>{{cite web|last=Yanow|first=Scott|url={{Allmusic|class=artist|id=p36965/biography|pure_url=yes}}|title=Airto Moreira|publisher=AllMusic|date=August 5, 1941|accessdate=2011-10-22}}</ref><ref>[{{Allmusic|class=artist|id=p6300/biography|pure_url=yes}} Allmusic Biography]</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Palmer|first=Robert|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F01E6DF123BF93BA15755C0A964948260|title=Jazz Festival - Jazz Festival - A Study Of Folk-Jazz Fusion - Review|publisher=''New York Times''|date=1982-06-28|accessdate=2012-07-07}}</ref>

====Post-bop====
{{Main article|Post-bop}}
[[File:Bill Evans.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Bill Evans at the [[Montreux Jazz Festival]] with [[Marc Johnson (musician)|Marc Johnson]] on bass and [[Philly Joe Jones]] on drums, July 13, 1978]]
Post-bop jazz is a form of small-combo jazz derived from earlier bop styles. The genre's origins lie in seminal work by John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Bill Evans, Charles Mingus, [[Wayne Shorter]], and [[Herbie Hancock]]. Generally, the term post-bop is taken to mean jazz from the mid-sixties onwards that assimilates influences from [[hard bop]], [[modal jazz]], the [[avant-garde jazz|avant-garde]] and free jazz, without necessarily being immediately identifiable as any of the above.

Much post-bop was recorded for [[Blue Note Records]]. Key albums include ''[[Speak No Evil]]'' by Shorter; ''[[The Real McCoy (album)|The Real McCoy]]'' by [[McCoy Tyner]]; ''[[Maiden Voyage (Herbie Hancock album)|Maiden Voyage]]'' by Hancock; ''[[Miles Smiles]]'' by Davis; and ''[[Search for the New Land]]'' by [[Lee Morgan]] (an artist who is not typically associated with the post-bop genre). Most post-bop artists worked in other genres as well, with a particularly strong overlap with the later [[hard bop]].

====Soul jazz====
{{Main article|Soul jazz}}
Soul jazz was a development of [[hard bop]] which incorporated strong influences from [[blues]], [[Gospel music|gospel]] and [[rhythm and blues]] to create music for small groups, often the [[organ trio]] of [[Hammond organ]], drummer and tenor saxophonist. Unlike [[hard bop]], soul jazz generally emphasized repetitive [[Groove (music)|grooves]] and melodic hooks, and [[improvisation]]s were often less complex than in other jazz styles. It often had a steadier "funk" style groove, which was different from the swing rhythms typical of much hard bop.

[[Horace Silver]] had a large influence on the soul jazz style, with songs that used funky and often [[Gospel music|gospel]]-based piano [[Vamp (music)|vamps]]. Important soul jazz organists included [[Jimmy McGriff]], [[Jimmy Smith (musician)|Jimmy Smith]] and [[Johnny Hammond Smith]], and influential tenor [[saxophone]] players included [[Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis]] and [[Stanley Turrentine]].

====African-inspired====
[[File:Randy Weston.jpg|thumb|upright|Randy Weston]]

=====Themes=====
There was a resurgence of interest in jazz and other forms of African-American cultural expression during the [[Black Arts Movement]] and [[Black nationalism|Black nationalist]] period of the 1960s and 1970s. African themes became popular, and many new jazz compositions were given African-related titles: "Black Nile" ([[Wayne Shorter]]), "Blue Nile" ([[Alice Coltrane]]), "Obirin African" ([[Art Blakey]]), "Zambia" ([[Lee Morgan]]), "Appointment in Ghana" ([[Jackie McLean]]), "Marabi" ([[Cannonball Adderley]]), "Yoruba" ([[Hubert Laws]]), and many more. Pianist [[Randy Weston]]'s music incorporated African elements, such as in the large-scale suite "Uhuru Africa" (with the participation of poet [[Langston Hughes]]) and "Highlife: Music From the New African Nations." Both Weston and saxophonist [[Stanley Turrentine]] covered the Nigerian [[Bobby Benson]]'s piece "Niger Mambo", which features Afro-Caribbean and jazz elements within a West African [[Highlife]] style. Some musicians, including [[Pharoah Sanders]], Hubert Laws, and Wayne Shorter, began using African instruments such as [[kalimbas]], bells, beaded gourds and other instruments which were not traditional to jazz.

=====Rhythm=====
During this period, there was an increased use of the typical African 12/8 [[cross beat|cross-rhythmic]] structure in jazz. Herbie Hancock's "Succotash" on ''[[Inventions and Dimensions]]'' (1963) is an open-ended modal 12/8 improvised jam, in which Hancock's pattern of attack-points, rather than the pattern of pitches, is the primary focus of his improvisations, accompanied by [[Paul Chambers]] on bass, percussionist Osvaldo Martinez playing a traditional Afro-Cuban chekeré part and [[Willie Bobo]] playing an [[Abakuá]] bell pattern on a snare drum with brushes.

The first [[jazz standard]] composed by a non-Latino to use an overt African 12/8 cross-rhythm was Wayne Shorter's "[[Footprints (composition)|Footprints]]" (1967).<ref>"Footprints" ''Miles Smiles'' (Miles Davis). Columbia CD (1967).</ref> On the version recorded on ''Miles Smiles'' by Miles Davis, the bass switches to a 4/4 [[tresillo (rhythm)|tresillo]] figure at 2:20. "Footprints" is not, however, a Latin jazz tune: African rhythmic structures are accessed directly by [[Ron Carter]] (bass) and [[Tony Williams (drummer)|Tony Williams]] (drums) via the rhythmic sensibilities of [[Swing (jazz performance style)|swing]]. Throughout the piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are maintained as the temporal referent. In the example below, the main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads, which do not indicate bass notes.

[[File:FOOTPRINTS BASS LINES.tif|thumb|center|400px|Ron Carter's two main bass lines for "Footprints" by Wayner Shorter (1967). The main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads.]]

=====Pentatonic scales=====
The use of [[pentatonic scale]]s was another trend associated with Africa. The use of pentatonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of years.<ref>An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of ''pentatonic'' song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents ... reaches back perhaps thousands of years to early West African sorgum agriculturalists—Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 95). ''Africa and the Blues''. Jackson, MI: University Press of Mississippi.</ref>

[[McCoy Tyner]] perfected the use of the pentatonic scale in his solos,<ref>Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 270). ''Jazz Styles: History and Analysis'', 7th ed.</ref> and also used parallel fifths and fourths, which are common harmonies in West Africa.<ref>Map showing distribution of harmony in Africa. Jones, A.M. (1959). ''Studies in African Music.'' Oxford Press.</ref>

The minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by [[Joe Henderson]] on [[Horace Silver]]'s "African Queen" (1965).<ref>{{harvnb|Levine|1995|p=235}}</ref>

Jazz pianist, theorist, and educator [[Mark Levine (musician)|Mark Levine]] refers to the scale generated by beginning on the fifth step of a pentatonic scale as the ''V pentatonic scale''.<ref>Levine, Mark (1989: 127). ''The Jazz Piano Book''. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music. ASIN: B004532DEE</ref>

[[File:I IV V pentatonic.tiff|thumb|center|450px|C pentatonic scale beginning on the I (C pentatonic), IV (F pentatonic), and V (G pentatonic) steps of the scale.{{clarify|date=August 2012}}]]

Levine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all three chords of the standard II-V-I jazz progression.<ref>Levine (1989: 127).</ref> This is a very common progression, used in pieces such as Miles Davis' "Tune Up." The following example shows the V pentatonic scale over a II-V-I progression.<ref>After Mark Levine (1989: 127). ''The Jazz Piano Book''.</ref>

[[File:II V I.tiff|thumb|center|450px|V pentatonic scale over II-V-I chord progression.]]

Accordingly, John Coltrane's "[[Giant Steps]]" (1960), with its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three pentatonic scales. Coltrane studied [[Nicolas Slonimsky]]'s ''Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns'', which contains material that is virtually identical to portions of "Giant Steps".<ref>Bair, Jeff (2003: 5). ''Cyclic Patterns in John Coltrane's Melodic Vocabulary as Influenced by Nicolas Slonimsky's Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns: An Analysis of Selected Improvisations''. PhD Thesis. University of North Texas. Web. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4348/m2/1/high_res_d/dissertation.pdf</ref> The harmonic complexity of "Giant Steps" is on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music. Superimposing the pentatonic scale over "Giant Steps" is not merely a matter of harmonic simplification, but also a sort of "Africanizing" of the piece, which provides an alternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observes that when mixed in with more conventional "playing the changes", pentatonic scales provide "structure and a feeling of increased space."<ref>Levine, Mark (1995: 205). ''The Jazz Theory Book''. Sher Music. {{ISBN|1-883217-04-0}}</ref>

====Jazz fusion====
{{Main article|Jazz fusion}}
[[File:Miles Davis 24.jpg|thumb|right|Fusion trumpeter [[Miles Davis]] in 1989]]
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of jazz-rock [[Jazz fusion|fusion]] was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such as [[Jimi Hendrix]] and [[Frank Zappa]]. Jazz fusion often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex chords, and harmonies.

According to [[AllMusic]]:
<blockquote>...until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate. [However, ...] as rock became more creative and its musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz world became bored with [[hard bop]] and did not want to play strictly [[free jazz|avant-garde music]], the two different idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces."<ref>{{cite web|url={{Allmusic|class=explore|id=style/d299|pure_url=yes}}|title=Explore: Fusion|publisher=AllMusic|accessdate=November 7, 2010}}</ref></blockquote>

=====Miles Davis' new directions=====
In 1969, Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz with ''[[In a Silent Way]]'', which can be considered his first fusion album. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily by producer [[Teo Macero]], this quiet, static album would be equally influential to the development of [[ambient music]].

As Davis recalls:
<blockquote>The music I was really listening to in 1968 was [[James Brown]], the great guitar player [[Jimi Hendrix]], and a new group who had just come out with a hit record, "[[Dance to the Music (Sly and the Family Stone album)|Dance to the Music]]", [[Sly and the Family Stone]]... I wanted to make it more like rock. When we recorded ''In a Silent Way'' I just threw out all the chord sheets and told everyone to play off of that."<ref>Davis, Miles, with Quincy Troupe (1989: 298) ''The Autobiography''. New York: Simon and Schuster.</ref></blockquote>

Two contributors to ''In a Silent Way'' also joined organist [[Larry Young (musician)|Larry Young]] to create one of the early acclaimed fusion albums: [[Emergency! (album)|''Emergency!'']] by [[The Tony Williams Lifetime]].

=====Psychedelic-jazz=====

======''Bitches Brew''======
Davis' ''[[Bitches Brew]]'' (1970) album was his most successful of this era. Although inspired by rock and funk, Davis' fusion creations were original and brought about a new type of avant-garde, electronic, psychedelic-jazz, as far from pop music as any other Davis work.

======Herbie Hancock======
Pianist Herbie Hancock (a Davis alumnus) released four albums in the short-lived (1970–1973) psychedelic-jazz subgenre: ''[[Mwandishi]]'' (1972), ''[[Crossings (Herbie Hancock album)|Crossings]]'' (1973), and ''[[Sextant (album)|Sextant]]'' (1973). The rhythmic background was a mix of rock, funk, and African-type textures.

Musicians who had previously worked with Davis formed the four most influential fusion groups: [[Weather Report]] and [[Mahavishnu Orchestra]] emerged in 1971 and were soon followed by [[Return to Forever]] and [[The Headhunters]].

======Weather Report======
[[Weather Report]]'s self-titled electronic and psychedelic ''[[Weather Report (1971 album)|Weather Report]]'' debut album caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971, thanks to the pedigree of the group's members (including percussionist [[Airto Moreira]]), and their unorthodox approach to music. The album featured a softer sound than would be the case in later years (predominantly using acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing [[soprano saxophone]], and with no [[synthesizer]]s involved), but is still considered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avant-garde experiments which [[Joe Zawinul]] and Shorter had pioneered with Miles Davis on ''[[Bitches Brew]]'', including an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favour of continuous rhythm and movement – but took the music further. To emphasise the group's rejection of standard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable avant-garde atmospheric piece "Milky Way", which featured by Shorter's extremely muted saxophone inducing vibrations in Zawinul's piano strings while the latter pedalled the instrument. ''[[Down Beat]]'' described the album as "music beyond category", and awarded it Album of the Year in the magazine's polls that year.

[[Weather Report]]'s subsequent releases were creative funk-jazz works.<ref>Dan, Morgenstern (1971). ''Down Beat'' May 13.</ref>

=====Jazz-rock=====
Although some jazz purists protested against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock (such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful amplification, [[Distortion (music)|"fuzz" pedals]], [[wah-wah pedal]]s and other effects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, [[Eddie Harris]], keyboardists [[Joe Zawinul]], [[Chick Corea]], and Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist [[Gary Burton]], drummer [[Tony Williams (drummer)]], violinist [[Jean-Luc Ponty]], guitarists [[Larry Coryell]], [[Al Di Meola]], [[John McLaughlin (musician)|John McLaughlin]], and [[Frank Zappa]], saxophonist Wayne Shorter and bassists [[Jaco Pastorius]] and [[Stanley Clarke]]. Jazz fusion was also popular in Japan, where the band [[Casiopea]] released over thirty fusion albums.

According to jazz writer Stuart Nicholson, "just as free jazz appeared on the verge of creating a whole new musical language in the 1960s ... jazz-rock briefly suggested the promise of doing the same" with albums such as Williams' ''[[Emergency! (album)|Emergency!]]'' (1970) and Davis' ''[[Agharta (album)|Agharta]]'' (1975), which Nicholson said "suggested the potential of evolving into something that might eventually define itself as a wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and conventions of anything that had gone before." This development was stifled by commercialism, Nicholson said, as the genre "mutated into a peculiar species of jazz-inflected pop music that eventually took up residence on FM radio" at the end of the 1970s.<ref>{{cite book|page=614|last1=Harrison|first1=Max|last2=Thacker|first2=Eric|last3=Nicholson|first3=Stuart|title=The Essential Jazz Records: Modernism to Postmodernism|year=2000|publisher=[[A&C Black]]|isbn=0720118220}}</ref>

====Jazz-funk====
{{Main article|Jazz-funk}}
By the mid-1970s, the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strong [[beat (music)|back beat]] ([[Groove (music)|groove]]), electrified sounds<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rhapsody.com/jazz/jazzfunk/more.html |title=Free Jazz-Funk Music: Album, Track and Artist Charts |accessdate=2010-11-28 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920131709/http://www.rhapsody.com/jazz/jazzfunk/more.html |archivedate=2008-09-20 |df= }}, ''Rhapsody Online — Rhapsody.com'' (October 20, 2010).</ref> and, often, the presence of electronic [[analog synthesizers]]. Jazz-funk also draws influences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban rhythms and Jamaican [[reggae]], notably Kingston bandleader [[Sonny Bradshaw]]. Another feature is the shift of emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important. The integration of [[funk]], [[soul music|soul]], and [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]] music into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide and ranges from strong [[Musical improvisation#Jazz improvisation|jazz improvisation]] to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz [[riff]]s and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.<ref name=allmusic>{{cite web|url=http://allmusic.com/explore/style/d202 |title=Explore: Jazz-Funk |accessdate=2010-10-19 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019041451/http://allmusic.com/explore/style/d202 |archivedate=2010-10-19 |df= }}</ref>

Early examples are Herbie Hancock's [[The Headhunters|Headhunters]] band and Miles Davis' ''[[On the Corner]]'' album, which, in 1972, began Davis' foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed, an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz for [[rock and roll|rock]] and funk. While there is a discernible rock and funk influence in the [[timbre]]s of the instruments employed, other tonal and rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of the ''[[musique concrète]]'' approach that Davis and producer [[Teo Macero]] had begun to explore in the late 1960s.

====Other trends====
Jazz continued to expand and change, influenced by other types of music such as [[world music]], [[experimental music|avant garde classical music]] and rock and pop. Jazz musicians began to improvise on unusual instruments, such as the jazz [[harp]] ([[Alice Coltrane]]), the electrically amplified and wah-wah pedaled jazz violin ([[Jean-Luc Ponty]]) and the bagpipes ([[Rufus Harley]]). In 1966 jazz trumpeter [[Don Ellis]] and Indian sitar player [[Harihar Rao]] founded the Hindustani Jazz Sextet. In 1971, guitarist [[John McLaughlin (musician)|John McLaughlin]]'s [[Mahavishnu Orchestra]] began playing a mix of rock and jazz infused with [[Music of India|East Indian]] influences. In the 1970s the [[ECM (record label)|ECM]] record label began in Germany with artists including [[Keith Jarrett]], [[Paul Bley]], the [[Pat Metheny Group]], [[Jan Garbarek]], [[Ralph Towner]], [[Kenny Wheeler]], [[John Taylor (jazz)|John Taylor]], [[John Surman]], and [[Eberhard Weber]], establishing a new [[chamber music]] aesthetic which featured mainly acoustic instruments, occasionally incorporating elements of world music and folk.

===1980s===
{{main article|1980s in jazz}}
In 1987, the [[United States House of Representatives]] and Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Representative [[John Conyers Jr.]] to define jazz as a unique form of American music, stating:

<blockquote>... that jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated.</blockquote>

It passed in the House of Representatives on September 23, 1987, and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.<ref name=HR57>HR-57 Center [http://www.hr57.org/hconres57.html HR-57 Center for the Preservation of Jazz and Blues, with the six-point mandate.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918100538/http://www.hr57.org/hconres57.html |date=2008-09-18 }}</ref>

====Resurgence of traditionalism====
[[File:Wynton Marsalis 2009 09 13.jpg|thumb|right|Wynton Marsalis]]
The 1980s saw something of a reaction against the fusion and free jazz that had dominated the 1970s. Trumpeter [[Wynton Marsalis]] emerged early in the decade, and strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition, rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions of the small and large forms initially pioneered by artists such as [[Louis Armstrong]] and [[Duke Ellington]], as well as the hard bop of the 1950s. It is debatable whether Marsalis' critical and commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the reaction against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particularly [[modal jazz]] and [[post-bop]]); nonetheless there were many other manifestations of a resurgence of traditionalism, even if fusion and free jazz were by no means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve.

For example, several musicians who had been prominent in the [[Jazz fusion|fusion]] genre during the 1970s began to record acoustic jazz once more, including [[Chick Corea]] and [[Herbie Hancock]]. Other musicians who had experimented with electronic instruments in the previous decade had abandoned them by the 1980s; for example, [[Bill Evans]], [[Joe Henderson]], and [[Stan Getz]]. Even the 1980s music of [[Miles Davis]], although certainly still fusion, adopted a far more accessible and recognisably jazz-oriented approach than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return to a theme-and-solos approach.

The emergence of young jazz talent beginning to perform in older, established musicians' groups further impacted the resurgence of traditionalism in the jazz community. In the 1970s, the groups of [[Betty Carter]] and [[The Jazz Messengers|Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers]] retained their conservative jazz approaches in the midst of fusion and jazz- rock, and in addition to difficulty booking their acts, struggled to find younger generations of personnel to authentically play traditional styles such as [[hard bop]] and [[bebop]]. In the late 1970s, however, a resurgence of younger jazz players in Blakey's band began to occur. This movement included musicians such as [[Valery Ponomarev]] and [[Bobby Watson]], [[Dennis Irwin]] and [[James Williams (musician)|James Williams]].
In the 1980s, in addition to [[Wynton Marsalis|Wynton]] and [[Branford Marsalis]], the emergence of pianists in the Jazz Messengers such as [[Donald Brown (musician)|Donald Brown]], [[Mulgrew Miller]], and later, [[Bennie Green|Benny Green]], bassists such as [[Charles Fambrough]], [[Lonnie Plaxico]] (and later, [[Peter Washington]] and Essiet Essiet) horn players such as [[Bill Pierce (saxophonist)|Bill Pierce]], [[Donald Harrison]] and later [[Javon Jackson]] and [[Terence Blanchard]] emerged as talented jazz musicians, all of whom made significant contributions in later 1990s and 2000s jazz music.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

The young Jazz Messengers' contemporaries, including [[Roy Hargrove]], [[Marcus Roberts]], [[Wallace Roney]] and [[Mark Whitfield]] were also influenced by [[Wynton Marsalis]]'s emphasis toward jazz tradition. These younger rising stars rejected avant-garde approaches and instead championed the acoustic jazz sound of [[Charlie Parker]], [[Thelonious Monk]] and early recordings of the first [[Miles Davis]] quintet. This group of "Young Lions" sought to reaffirm jazz as a high art tradition comparable to the discipline of classical music.<ref name="Guilliatt, Richard">{{cite web|last1=Guilliatt|first1=Richard|title=Jazz: The Young Lions' Roar|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1992-09-13/entertainment/ca-1495_1_lincoln-center-jazz-orchestra|website=Los Angeles Times|accessdate=14 January 2018|date=13 September 1992}}</ref>

In addition, [[Betty Carter]]'s rotation of young musicians in her group foreshadowed many of New York's preeminent traditional jazz players later in their careers. Among these musicians were Jazz Messenger alumni [[Benny Green (pianist)|Benny Green]], [[Branford Marsalis]] and [[Ralph Peterson Jr.]], as well as [[Kenny Washington (musician)|Kenny Washington]], [[Lewis Nash]], [[Curtis Lundy]], [[Cyrus Chestnut]], [[Mark Shim]], [[Craig Handy]], Greg Hutchinson and [[Marc Cary]], [[Taurus Mateen]] and [[Geri Allen]].{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

[[Blue Note Records]]'s [[Out of the Blue (American band)|O.T.B.]] ensemble featured a rotation of young jazz musicians such as [[Kenny Garrett]], [[Steve Wilson (jazz musician)|Steve Wilson]], [[Kenny Davis (musician)|Kenny Davis]], [[Renee Rosnes]], [[Ralph Peterson Jr.]], [[Billy Drummond]], and [[Robert Hurst (musician)|Robert Hurst]].<ref name="Out">{{cite web|last1=Yanow|first1=Scott|title=Out of the Blue|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/out-of-the-blue-mn0000419825/biography|website=AllMusic|accessdate=14 January 2018}}</ref>

A similar reaction{{Vague|date=January 2018}} took place against free jazz. According to [[Ted Gioia]]:

<blockquote>the very leaders of the avant garde started to signal a retreat from the core principles of Free Jazz. [[Anthony Braxton]] began recording standards over familiar chord changes. [[Cecil Taylor]] played duets in concert with [[Mary Lou Williams]], and let her set out structured harmonies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his blistering keyboard attack. And the next generation of progressive players would be even more accommodating, moving inside and outside the changes without thinking twice. Musicians such as [[David Murray (saxophonist)|David Murray]] or [[Don Pullen]] may have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they never forgot all the other ways one could play African-American music for fun and profit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jazz.com/jazz-blog/2008/2/27/where-did-our-revolution-go-part-three |title=Where Did Our Revolution Go? (Part Three) – Jazz.com | Jazz Music – Jazz Artists – Jazz News |work=Jazz.com |accessdate=2013-10-02 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517181105/http://www.jazz.com/jazz-blog/2008/2/27/where-did-our-revolution-go-part-three |archivedate=2013-05-17 |df= }}</ref></blockquote>

Pianist [[Keith Jarrett]]—whose bands of the 1970s had played only original compositions with prominent free jazz elements—established his so-called 'Standards Trio' in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring collective improvisation, has primarily performed and recorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly began exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected them for the 1970s.

====Smooth jazz====
{{Main article|smooth jazz}}
[[File:David Sanborn 2008 2.jpg|thumb|upright|David Sanborn, 2008]]
In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called "pop fusion" or "smooth jazz" became successful, garnering significant radio airplay in "[[quiet storm]]" time slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S. This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists including [[Al Jarreau]], [[Anita Baker]], [[Chaka Khan]], and [[Sade Adu|Sade]], as well as saxophonists including [[Grover Washington Jr.]], [[Kenny G]], [[Kirk Whalum]], [[Boney James]], and [[David Sanborn]]. In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most widely played tracks are of 90–105 [[beats per minute]]), and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, especially soprano and tenor, and [[legato]] electric guitar are popular).

In his ''[[Newsweek]]'' article "The Problem With Jazz Criticism",<ref>{{cite web|title=Opinion: The Problem With Jazz Criticism|author=Stanley Crouch|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/58477|work=Newsweek|date=June 5, 2003|accessdate=April 9, 2010}}</ref> [[Stanley Crouch]] considers Miles Davis' playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth jazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often negative perceptions of smooth jazz, stating:
<blockquote>I challenge the prevalent marginalization and malignment of smooth jazz in the standard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfortunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical dialogues, performance practice, and reception.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9722/|title=Caught Between Jazz and Pop: The Contested Origins, Criticism, Performance Practice, and Reception of Smooth Jazz|work=Digital.library.unt.edu|date=October 23, 2010|accessdate=November 7, 2010}}</ref></blockquote>

====Acid jazz, nu jazz and jazz rap====

[[Acid jazz]] developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s, influenced by [[jazz-funk]] and [[electronic music|electronic dance music]]. Acid jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes including [[Sampling (music)]] or a live DJ cutting and [[scratching]]), but it is just as likely to be played live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation as part of their performance. Jazz-funk musicians such as [[Roy Ayers]] and [[Donald Byrd]] are often credited as the forerunners of acid jazz.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ginell|first=Richard S.|url={{Allmusic|class=artist|id=p6035|pure_url=yes}}|title=allmusic on Roy Ayers|work=Allmusic.com|accessdate=November 7, 2010}}{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref>

[[Nu jazz]] is influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It can be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in sound and concept. It ranges from the combination of live instrumentation with the beats of jazz [[house music|house]] (as exemplified by [[Saint Germain (musician)|St Germain]], [[Jazzanova]], and [[Fila Brazillia]]) to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements (for example, [[The Cinematic Orchestra]], [[Kobol (band)|Kobol]] and the Norwegian "future jazz" style pioneered by [[Bugge Wesseltoft]], [[Jaga Jazzist]], and [[Nils Petter Molvær]]).

[[Jazz rap]] developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s and incorporates jazz influences into [[hip hop]]. In 1988, [[Gang Starr]] released the debut single "Words I Manifest", which sampled [[Dizzy Gillespie]]'s 1962 "Night in Tunisia", and [[Stetsasonic]] released "Talkin' All That Jazz", which sampled [[Lonnie Liston Smith]]. Gang Starr's debut LP ''[[No More Mr. Nice Guy (Gang Starr album)|No More Mr. Nice Guy]]'' (1989) and their 1990 track "Jazz Thing" sampled [[Charlie Parker]] and [[Ramsey Lewis]]. The groups which made up the [[Native Tongues Posse]] tended toward jazzy releases: these include the [[Jungle Brothers]]' debut ''[[Straight Out the Jungle]]'' (1988), and [[A Tribe Called Quest]]'s ''[[People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm]]'' (1990) and ''[[The Low End Theory]]'' (1991). Rap duo [[Pete Rock & CL Smooth]] incorporated jazz influences on their 1992 debut ''[[Mecca and the Soul Brother]]''. Rapper [[Guru (rapper)|Guru]]'s [[Jazzmatazz, Vol. 1|Jazzmatazz]] series began in 1993, using jazz musicians during the studio recordings.

Though jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, Miles Davis' final album ''[[Doo-Bop]]'' (released posthumously in 1992) was based around hip hop beats and collaborations with producer [[Easy Mo Bee]]. Davis' ex-bandmate [[Herbie Hancock]] also absorbed hip-hop influences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album ''[[Dis Is Da Drum]]'' in 1994.

====Punk jazz and jazzcore====
[[File:John Zorn.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[John Zorn]] performing in 2006]]
The relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent with [[post-punk]] in London and New York City led to a new appreciation of jazz. In London, [[the Pop Group]] began to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk rock.<ref>Dave Lang, ''Perfect Sound Forever'', February 1999. {{cite web|url=http://www.furious.com/Perfect/popgroup.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-01-23 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/19990420123739/http://www.furious.com/perfect/popgroup.html |archivedate=1999-04-20 |df= }} Access date: November 15, 2008.</ref> In New York, [[No Wave]] took direct inspiration from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style include [[Lydia Lunch]]'s ''Queen of Siam'',<ref name=bangs>Bangs, Lester. "Free Jazz / Punk Rock". ''Musician Magazine'', 1979. [http://www.notbored.org/bangs.html] Access date: July 20, 2008.</ref> Gray, the work of [[James Chance and the Contortions]] (who mixed [[Soul music|Soul]] with free jazz and [[punk rock|punk]])<ref name=bangs/> and the [[Lounge Lizards]]<ref name=bangs/> (the first group to call themselves "[[punk jazz]]").

[[John Zorn]] took note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and incorporated this into free jazz with the release of the ''[[Spy vs Spy (album)|Spy vs. Spy]]'' album in 1986, a collection of [[Ornette Coleman]] tunes done in the contemporary [[thrashcore]] style.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonic.net/~goblin/8zorn.html |title="House Of Zorn", Goblin Archives, at |work=Sonic.net |accessdate=November 7, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019024244/http://sonic.net/~goblin/8zorn.html |archivedate=October 19, 2010 |df= }}</ref> In the same year, [[Sonny Sharrock]], [[Peter Brötzmann]], [[Bill Laswell]], and [[Ronald Shannon Jackson]] recorded the first album under the name [[Last Exit (free jazz band)]], a similarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.progressiveears.com/asp/reviews.asp?albumID=4193&bhcp=1 |title=Progressive Ears Album Reviews |work=Progressiveears.com |date=October 19, 2007 |accessdate=November 7, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607145159/http://www.progressiveears.com/asp/reviews.asp?albumID=4193&bhcp=1 |archivedate=June 7, 2011 |df= }}</ref> These developments are the origins of ''jazzcore'', the fusion of free jazz with [[hardcore punk]].

====M-Base====
{{Main article| M-Base}}
[[File:Steve Coleman 1611.JPG|thumb|Steve Coleman in Paris, July 2004]]
The [[M-Base]] movement started in the 1980s, when a loose collective of young African-American musicians in New York which included [[Steve Coleman]], [[Greg Osby]], and [[Gary Thomas (musician)|Gary Thomas]] developed a complex but grooving<ref>"... circular and highly complex polymetric patterns which preserve their danceable character of popular Funk-rhythms despite their internal complexity and asymmetries ..." (Musicologist and musician Ekkehard Jost, Sozialgeschichte des Jazz, 2003, p. 377)</ref> sound.

In the 1990s, most M-Base participants turned to more conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance with the M-Base concept.<ref name="allaboutjazz.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/musician.php?id=5820%5D|title=All About Jazz|first=All About|last=Jazz|publisher=}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Coleman's audience decreased, but his music and concepts influenced many musicians, according to pianist Vijay Iver and critic Ben Ratlifff of ''The New York Times''.<ref name="Blumenfeld">{{cite web|last1=Blumenfeld|first1=Larry|title=A Saxophonist's Reverberant Sound|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703302604575294532527380178|website=Wall Street Journal|accessdate=14 January 2018|date=11 June 2010|quote=It's hard to overstate [Coleman's] influence. He's affected more than one generation, as much as anyone since John Coltrane...It's not just that you can connect the dots by playing seven or 11 beats. What sits behind his influence is this global perspective on music and life. He has a point of view of what he does and why he does it.}}</ref><ref name="Undead">{{cite web|last1=Ratliff|first1=Ben|title=Undead Jazzfest Roams the West Village|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/15/arts/music/15undead.html?_r=1|website=The New York Times|accessdate=14 January 2018|date=14 June 2010|quote=His recombinant ideas about rhythm and form and his eagerness to mentor musicians and build a new vernacular have had a profound effect on American jazz.}}</ref>

M-Base changed from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman "school",<ref>{{cite web|author=Michael J. West|url=http://jazztimes.com/articles/26044-steve-coleman-vital-information|title=Jazz Articles: Steve Coleman: Vital Information|work=Jazztimes.com|date=June 2, 2010|accessdate=June 5, 2011}}</ref> with a much advanced but already originally implied concept.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.m-base.com/mbase_explanation.html|title=What Is M-Base?|work=M-base.com|accessdate=June 5, 2011}}</ref> [[Steve Coleman]]'s music and [[M-Base]] concept gained recognition as "next logical step" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, and Ornette Coleman.<ref>In 2014 drummer Billy Hart said that "Coleman has quietly influenced the whole jazz musical world," and is the "next logical step" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, and Ornette Coleman. (Source: Kristin E. Holmes, ''Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redefining jazz'', October 09, 2014, web portal ''Philly.com'', Philadelphia Media Network) Already in 2010 pianist Vijay Iyer (who was chosen as "Jazz Musician of the Year 2010" by the Jazz Journalists Association) said: "To me, Steve [Coleman] is as important as [John] Coltrane. He has contributed an equal amount to the history of the music. He deserves to be placed in the pantheon of pioneering artists." (Source: Larry Blumenfeld, ''A Saxophonist's Reverberant Sound'', June 11, 2010, ''The Wall Street Journal'') In September 2014, Coleman was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship (a.k.a. "Genius Grant") for "redefining the vocabulary and vernaculars of contemporary music." (Source: Kristin E. Holmes, ''Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redefining jazz'', October 09, 2014, web portal ''Philly.com'', Philadelphia Media Network)</ref>

===1990s–2010s===
Since the 1990s, jazz has been characterized by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide range of styles and genres are popular. Individual performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in the same performance. Pianist [[Brad Mehldau]] and [[The Bad Plus]] have explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music. A firm avant-garde or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players, such as saxophonists [[Greg Osby]] and [[Charles Gayle]], while others, such as [[James Carter (musician)|James Carter]], have incorporated free jazz elements into a more traditional framework.

[[Harry Connick Jr.]] began his career playing stride piano and the dixieland jazz of his home, New Orleans, beginning with his first recording when he was ten years old.<ref name="Bush">{{cite web|last1=Bush|first1=John|title=Harry Connick, Jr.|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/harry-connick-jr-mn0000949259/biography|website=AllMusic|accessdate=14 January 2018}}</ref> Some of his earliest lessons were at the home of pianist [[Ellis Marsalis Jr.|Ellis Marsalis]].<ref name="home">{{Cite episode| title =Branford Marsalis and Harry Connick Jr.| series =Finding Your Roots| first =Henry| last =Louis Gates Jr. (host)| network =PBS| date =July 17, 2010| season =1| number =1|type=DVD}}</ref> Connick had success on the pop charts after recording the soundtrack to the movie ''[[When Harry Met Sally]]'', which sold over two million copies.<ref name="Bush" /> Crossover success has also been achieved by [[Diana Krall]], [[Norah Jones]], [[Cassandra Wilson]], [[Kurt Elling]], and [[Jamie Cullum]].

A number of players who usually perform in largely [[straight-ahead jazz|straight-ahead]] settings have emerged since the 1990s, including pianists [[Jason Moran (musician)|Jason Moran]] and [[Vijay Iyer]], guitarist [[Kurt Rosenwinkel]], vibraphonist [[Stefon Harris]], trumpeters [[Roy Hargrove]] and [[Terence Blanchard]], saxophonists [[Chris Potter (jazz saxophonist)|Chris Potter]] and [[Joshua Redman]], clarinetist [[Ken Peplowski]] and bassist [[Christian McBride]].

Although [[jazz fusion|jazz-rock fusion]] reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the 1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach include [[Pat Metheny]], [[John Abercrombie (guitarist)|John Abercrombie]], [[John Scofield]] and the Swedish group [[Esbjörn Svensson Trio|e.s.t.]]

In 2001, [[Ken Burns]]'s documentary ''[[Jazz (TV series)|Jazz]]'' was premiered on [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]], featuring [[Wynton Marsalis]] and other experts reviewing the entire history of jazz to that time.

The mid-2010s have seen an increasing influence of R&B, hip-hop, and pop music on jazz. In 2015, [[Kendrick Lamar]] released his third studio album, ''[[To Pimp a Butterfly]]''. The album heavily featured prominent contemporary jazz artists such as [[Thundercat (musician)|Thundercat]]<ref name="booklet">{{cite AV media notes |title=To Pimp a Butterfly |url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/to-pimp-a-butterfly-mw0002835159/credits |publisher=[[Interscope Records]]}}</ref> and redefined jazz rap with a larger focus on improvisation and live soloing rather than simply sampling. In that same year, saxophonist [[Kamasi Washington]] released his nearly three-hour long debut, ''[[The Epic (album)|The Epic]]''. Its hip-hop inspired beats and R&B vocal interludes was not only acclaimed by critics for being innovative in keeping jazz relevant<ref>{{cite web|author=Russell Warfield|url=http://drownedinsound.com/releases/18781/reviews/4148955|title=The Epic|work=drownedinsound.com|date=May 5, 2015|accessdate=October 12, 2017}}</ref> but also sparked a small resurgence in jazz on the internet.

==See also==
{{Portal|African American|Jazz|Music}}
* [[List of jazz genres]]
* [[Jazz royalty]]
* [[List of jazz musicians]]
* [[List of jazz standards]]
* [[List of jazz venues in the United States]]
* [[List of jazz venues]]
* [[List of jazz festivals]]
* [[Bibliography of jazz]]
* [[Timeline of jazz education]]
* [[Victorian Jazz Archive]]
* [[Jazz (Henri Matisse)]]
{{Clear}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Litweiler|first=John|title=The Freedom Principle: Jazz After 1958|publisher=Da Capo|year=1984|isbn=0-306-80377-1|ref=harv}}
* Joachim Ernst Berendt, Günther Huesmann (Bearb.): ''Das Jazzbuch''. 7. Auflage. S. Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2005, {{ISBN|3-10-003802-9}}
* Burns, Ken, and Geoffrey C. Ward. 2000. ''Jazz—A History of America's Music''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Also: The Jazz Film Project, Inc.
* {{cite book|last1=Levine|first1=Mark|title=The Jazz theory book|year=1995|publisher=Sher Music|location=Petaluma, Calif.|isbn=1-883217-04-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iyNQpJ4oaMcC&lpg=PT6&ots=-InnWrZpvB&dq=isbn%201-883217-04-0&pg=PT6#v=onepage&q=isbn%201-883217-04-0&f=false|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Cooke|first=Mervyn|year=1999|title=Jazz|publication-place=London|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=0-500-20318-0|ref=harv}}.
* Carr, Ian. ''Music Outside: Contemporary Jazz in Britain.'' 2nd edition. London: Northway. {{ISBN|978-0-9550908-6-8}}
* Collier, James Lincoln. ''The Making of Jazz: A Comprehensive History'' (Dell Publishing Co., 1978)
* Dance, Stanley (1983). ''The World of Earl Hines''. Da Capo Press. {{ISBN|0-306-80182-5}}. Includes a 120-page interview with Hines plus many photos.
* [[Miles Davis|Davis, Miles]]. {{cite AV media|author=Miles Davis|title=Boplicity|publisher=Delta Music plc.|date=2005|id= UPC 4-006408-264637}}
* Downbeat (2009). ''The Great Jazz Interviews'': Frank Alkyer & Ed Enright (eds). Hal Leonard Books. {{ISBN|978-1-4234-6384-9}}
* Elsdon, Peter. 2003. "''The Cambridge Companion to Jazz'', Edited by Mervyn Cooke and David Horn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Review." ''Frankfürter Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft'' 6:159–75.
* Giddins, Gary. 1998. ''Visions of Jazz: The First Century''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-507675-3}}
* Gridley, Mark C. 2004. ''Concise Guide to Jazz'', fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. {{ISBN|0-13-182657-3}}
* Nairn, Charlie. 1975. ''Earl 'Fatha' HInes'': 1 hour 'solo' documentary made in "Blues Alley" Jazz Club, Washington DC, for ATV, England, 1975: produced/directed by Charlie Nairn: original 16mm film plus out-takes of additional tunes from that film archived in British Film Institute Library at bfi.org.uk and http://www.itvstudios.com: DVD copies with Jean Gray Hargrove Music Library [who hold The Earl Hines Collection/Archive], University of California, Berkeley: also University of Chicago, Hogan Jazz Archive Tulane University New Orleans and Louis Armstrong House Museum Libraries.
* {{cite book|last=Peñalosa|first=David|year=2010|title=The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins|location=Redway, CA|publisher=Bembe Inc.|isbn=1-886502-80-3|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Schuller|first=Gunther|author-link1=Gunther Schuller|year=1968|title=Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|ref=harv}} New printing 1986.
* Schuller, Gunther. 1991. ''The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930–1945''. Oxford University Press.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|lcheading=jazz}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Jazz}}
{{Wikivoyage|The Jazz Track}}
* [http://www.smithsonianjazz.org/ Jazz at the Smithsonian Museum]
* [http://www.jazzhall.com/ Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame website]
* [http://www.redhotjazz.com/ RedHotJazz.com]
* [http://www.jalc.org/ Jazz at Lincoln Center]
* [http://www.americanjazzmuseum.org/ American Jazz Museum] website
* [http://www.iajo.org/ The International Archives for the Jazz Organ]
* [http://jazzinternetradio.myradiotoolbar.com/ Classic and Contemporary Jazz Music]
* [https://archive.org/details/Free_20s_Jazz_Collection Free 1920s Jazz Collection] available for downloading at [[Archive.org]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170226024320/http://www.jazzhistorydatabase.com/ Jazz History Database]
* [http://flacit.com/albums/genre/Acid_Jazz Acid Jazz Database]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121016155701/http://www.downbeat.com/default.asp?sect=education&subsect=jazz ''DownBeat's'' Jazz 101 A Guide to the Music]
* [http://historyscoper.com/jazzscope.html The Historyscoper]

{{jazz}}
{{Louisianarootsmusic}}
{{Americanrootsmusic}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Jazz| ]]
[[Category:African-American history]]
[[Category:African-American music]]
[[Category:American styles of music]]
[[Category:Jazz terminology]]
[[Category:Musical improvisation]]
[[Category:Popular music]]
[[Category:Radio formats]]
[[Category:Traditional music]]

Himalayas

2018-01-30T08:51:21Z

85.19.179.17: /* Glaciers */

{{redirect2|Himalaya|Imaus|the genus of moth|Imaus (moth)|other uses|Himalaya (disambiguation)}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2013}}
{{Infobox mountain range
| name = Himalayas
| native_name =
| photo = Mount Everest as seen from Drukair2 PLW edit.jpg
| photo_caption = Aerial view of [[Mount Everest]] and surrounding landscape
| country1 = {{BHU}}
| country2 = {{CHN}}
| country3 = {{IND}}
| country4 = {{NPL}}
| country5 = {{PAK}}
| region_type =
| region = Asia
| border =
| highest = [[Mount Everest]]
| elevation_m = 8848
| highest_location = [[Nepal]] and [[China]]
| coordinates = {{coord|27|59|17|N|86|55|31|E|region:IN|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| range_coordinates =
| length_km = 2400
| geology =
| period =
| orogeny =
| map_image = Himalayas Map.png
| map_caption = The general location of the Himalayas mountain range
}}
[[File:Himalayas landsat 7.png|thumb|287px|right|A satellite image showing the arc of the Himalayas]]
The '''Himalayas''', or '''Himalaya''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|h|ɪ|m|ə|ˈ|l|eɪ|ə|,_|h|ɪ|ˈ|m|ɑː|l|ə|j|ə}}), form a [[mountain range]] in [[Asia]] separating the plains of the [[Indian subcontinent]] from the [[Tibetan Plateau]].

The Himalayan range has many of the Earth's highest peaks, including the highest, [[Mount Everest]]. The Himalayas include over [[List of highest mountains|fifty mountains]] exceeding {{Convert|7200|m|ft}} in elevation, including ten of the fourteen [[Eight-thousander|8,000-metre]] peaks. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia ([[Aconcagua]], in the [[Andes]]) is {{Convert|6961|m|ft}} tall.<ref>{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4q_XoMACOxkC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA23&dq=%22South+Tibet+Valley%22
|title=Himalayan Mountain System|publisher=|accessdate=30 July 2016
|isbn=9787508506654
|author1=Yang
|first1=Qinye
|last2=Zheng
|first2=Du
|year=2004}}</ref>

Lifted by the [[subduction]] of the [[Indian Plate|Indian tectonic plate]] under the [[Eurasian Plate]], the Himalayan mountain range runs, west-northwest to east-southeast, in an arc {{Convert|2400|km|mi}} long.<ref>Wadia, D. N. (1931). The syntaxis of the northwest Himalaya: its rocks, tectonics and orogeny. Record Geol. Survey of India 65(2): 189–220.</ref> Its western anchor, [[Nanga Parbat]], lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river. Its eastern anchor, [[Namcha Barwa]], is just west of the great bend of the Tsangpo river. The Himalayan range is bordered on the northwest by the [[Karakoram]] and [[Hindu Kush]] ranges, to the north, the chain is separated from the Tibetan Plateau by a {{Convert|50-60|km|mi}} wide tectonic valley called the Indus-Tsangpo Suture.<ref>Valdiya, K. S. (1998). Dynamic Himalaya . Hyderabad: Universities Press.</ref> Towards the south the arc of the Himalaya is ringed by the very low [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].<ref>Le Fort, P. (1975). Himalayas: The collided range. Present knowledge of the continental arc. American Journal Science 275A: 1–44. http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/1975/ajs_275A_1.pdf/1.pdf</ref> The range varies in width from {{Convert|350|km|mi}} in the west (Kashmir) to {{Convert|150|km|mi}} in the east (Arunachal Pradesh).<ref name="books.google.pl"/> The Himalayas are distinct from the other great ranges of central Asia, although sometimes the term Himalaya is loosely used to include the Karakoram and some of the other ranges.

The Himalayas are inhabited by 52.7 million people<ref name="books.google.pl">Apollo, M. (2017). The population of Himalayan regions – by the numbers: Past, present and future. [In:] R. Efe, M. Öztürk (eds.), Contemporary Studies in Environment and Tourism, Chapter: 9 (pp.143–159). Publisher: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=bmPXDgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA145&ots=oKLCNOveUc&sig=0K2GQrOSN9dMCGMPrR3ryj7Adgo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> and are spread across [[Himalayan states|five countries]]: [[Nepal]], [[India]], [[Bhutan]], [[China]] and [[Pakistan]], with the first four countries having sovereignty over most of the range.<ref name="bishop-britannica">{{cite web|last=Bishop|first=Barry|authorlink=Barry Bishop (mountaineer)|title=Himalayas (mountains, Asia)|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266037/Himalayas|accessdate=30 July 2016}}</ref> Some of the world's major [[river]]s, the [[Indus River|Indus]], the [[Ganges]] and the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River|Tsangpo]]-[[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], rise in the Himalayas, and their combined [[drainage basin]] is home to roughly 600 million people. The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the region, helping to keep the monsoon rains on the Indian plain and limiting rainfall on the Tibetan plateau. The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of the [[Indian subcontinent]]; many Himalayan peaks are sacred in [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]].

[[File:Falling_star_machhapuchhre.jpg|thumb|290px|Mount [[Machapuchare]] (Mount Fishtail) seen from [[Chomrong]], [[Kaski]], Nepal. Elevation: {{nowrap|6,993 m}} {{nowrap|(22,943 ft),}} prominence: {{nowrap|1,233 m}} {{nowrap|(4,045 ft)}}]]
{{anchor|Etymology}}

==Name==
The name of the range derives from the [[Sanskrit]] ''Himā-laya'' ({{lang|sa|{{linktext|हिमालय}}}}, "Abode of Snow"), from ''himá'' ({{lang|sa|{{linktext|हिम}}}}, "snow") and ''ā-laya'' ({{lang|sa|{{linktext|आलय}}}}, "receptacle, dwelling").<ref name=oed>{{cite web|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0378930#m_en_gb0378930|title=Definition of Himalayas|work=Oxford Dictionaries Online|accessdate=9 May 2011}}</ref> They are now known as the "{{nowrap|Himalaya Mountains}}", usually shortened to the "Himalayas". Formerly, they were described in the singular as the "''Himalaya''". This was also previously transcribed "'''Himmaleh'''", as in [[Emily Dickinson]]'s poetry<ref>{{citation |last=Dickinson |first=Emily |authorlink=Emily Dickinson |title=''"[[:s:The Himmaleh was known to stoop|The Himmaleh was known to stoop]]"'' }}.</ref> and [[Henry David Thoreau]]'s essays.<ref>{{citation |last=Thoreau |first=Henry David |authorlink=Henry David Thoreau |title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers |date=1849 }}.</ref>

The mountains are known as the ''Himālaya'' in [[Nepali language|Nepali]] and [[Hindi language|Hindi]] (both written {{lang|hi|{{linktext|हिमालय}}}}), the ''Himalaya'' ({{lang|bo|ཧི་མ་ལ་ཡ་}}) or 'The Land of Snow' ({{lang|bo|གངས་ཅན་ལྗོངས་}}) in [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]], the ''Hamaleh'' Mountain Range ({{lang|ur|سلسلہ کوہ ہمالیہ}}) in [[Urdu]] and the ''Ximalaya'' Mountain Range {{nowrap|([[traditional characters|t]] {{lang|zh|喜馬拉雅{{linktext|山脈}}}},}} {{nowrap|> ''Xǐmǎlāyǎ Shānmài'')}} in [[Chinese language|Chinese]].

==Geography and key features==
{{see also|List of Himalayan peaks and passes}}
In the middle of the great curve of the Himalayan mountains lie the 8000m peaks of [[Dhaulagiri]] and [[Annapurna]] in [[Nepal]], separated by the [[Kali Gandaki Gorge]]. The gorge splits the Himalayas into Western and Eastern sections both ecologically and orographically – the pass at the head of the Kali Gandaki, the [[Kora La]] is the lowest point on the ridgeline between Everest and K2. To the east of Annapurna are the 8000 m peaks of [[Manaslu]] and across the border in Tibet, [[Shishapangma]]. To the south of these lies [[Kathmandu]], the capital of Nepal and the largest city in the Himalayas. East of the [[Kathmandu Valley]] lies valley of the Bhote/[[Sun Kosi]] river which rises in Tibet and provides the main overland route between Nepal and China – the [[Araniko Highway]]/[[China National Highway 318]]. Further east is the [[Mahalangur Himal]] with four of the world's six highest mountains, including the highest: [[Cho Oyu]], [[Everest]], [[Lhotse]] and [[Makalu]]. The [[Khumbu]] region, popular for trekking, is found here on the south-western approaches to Everest. The [[Arun River, China-Nepal|Arun river]] drains the northern slopes of these mountains, before turning south and flowing through the range to the east of Makalu.

In the far east of Nepal the Himalayas rise to the [[Kanchenjunga]] massif on the border with India, the third highest mountain in the world, the most easterly 8000 m summit and the highest point of India. The eastern side of Kanchenjunga is in the Indian state of [[Sikkim]]. Formerly an independent Kingdom, it lies on the main route from India to [[Lhasa]], Tibet, which passes over the [[Nathu La]] pass into Tibet. East of Sikkim lies the ancient Buddhist Kingdom of [[Bhutan]]. The highest mountain in Bhutan is [[Gangkhar Puensum]], which is also a strong candidate for the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. The Himalayas here are becoming increasingly rugged with heavily forested steep valleys. The Himalayas continue, turning slightly north east, through the disputed Indian State of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] as well as Tibet, before reaching their easterly conclusion in the peak of [[Namche Barwa]], situated in Tibet inside the great bend of the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River|Yarlang Tsangpo]] river. On the other side of the Tsangpo, to the east, are the [[Kangri Garpo]] mountains. The high mountains to the north of the Tsangpo including [[Gyala Peri]], however, are also sometimes also included in the Himalayas.

Going west from Dhaulagiri, Western Nepal is somewhat remote and lacks major high mountains, but is home to [[Rara Lake]], the largest lake in Nepal. The [[Karnali River]] rises in Tibet but cuts through the centre of the region. Further west, the border with [[India]] follows the [[Sarda River]] and provides a trade route into China, where on the Tibetan plateau lies the high peak of [[Gurla Mandhata]]. Just across [[Lake Manasarovar]] from this lies the sacred [[Mount Kailash]], which stands close to the source of the four main rivers of Himalayas and is revered in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bonpo. In the newly created Indian state of [[Uttarkhand]], the Himalayas rise again as the Garwhal Himalayas with the high peaks of [[Nanda Devi]] and [[Kamet]]. The state is also an important pilgrimage destination, with the source of the Ganges at [[Gangotri]] and the Yamuna at [[Yamunotri]], and the temples at [[Badrinath]] and [[Kedarnath]].
{{wide image|Langtang range (64).JPG|560px|Panoramic view of Langtang Range in [[Nepal]]|65%|right}}

The next Himalayan Indian state, [[Himachal Pradesh]], lacks very high mountains, but is noted for its hill stations, particularly [[Shimla]], the summer capital of the [[British Raj]], and [[Dharmasala]], the centre of the Tibetan community in exile in India. This area marks the start of the Punjab Himalaya and the [[Sutlej river]], the most easterly of the five tributaries of the [[Indus]], cuts through the range here. Further west, the Himalayas form most of the southern portion of the disputed Indian State of [[Jammu & Kashmir]]. The twin peaks of [[Nun Kun]] are the only mountains over 7000 m in this part of the Himalayas. Beyond lies the renown [[Kashmir Valley]] and the town and lakes of [[Srinagar]]. Finally, the Himalayas cross the [[Line of Control]] into [[Pakistan]] and reach their western end in the dramatic 8000 m peak of [[Nanga Parbat]], which rises over 7000 m above the Indus valley and is the most westerly of the 8000 m summits.

==Geology==
[[File:Himalaya-formation.gif|thumb|The 6,000-kilometre-plus journey of the India landmass (Indian Plate) before its collision with Asia (Eurasian Plate) about 40 to 50 million [[Before Present|years ago]]<ref name=USGS/>]]
{{Main article|Geology of the Himalaya}}
The Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists mostly of uplifted [[sedimentary]] and [[metamorphic rock]]. According to the modern theory of [[plate tectonics]], its formation is a result of a [[continental collision]] or [[orogeny]] along the [[convergent boundary]] between the [[Indo-Australian Plate]] and the [[Eurasian Plate]]. The [[Arakan Yoma]] highlands in [[Burma|Myanmar]] and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] in the [[Bay of Bengal]] were also formed as a result of this collision.

During the [[Upper Cretaceous]], about 70 million years ago, the north-moving Indo-Australian plate (which has subsequently broken into the [[Indian Plate]] and the [[Australian plate]]<ref>[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/pr/95/18688.html (1995) Geologists Find: An Earth Plate Is Breaking in Two]</ref>) was moving at about 15 cm per year. About 50 million years ago this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the [[Tethys Ocean]], the existence of which has been determined by [[sedimentary rock]]s settled on the ocean floor and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since both plates were composed of low density [[continental crust]], they were [[thrust fault]]ed and [[Fold (geology)|folded]] into mountain ranges rather than subducting into the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] along an [[oceanic trench]].<ref name=USGS/> An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine [[limestone]] from this ancient ocean.<ref>[http://geology.about.com/library/bl/peaks/bleverest.htm A site which uses this dramatic fact first used in illustration of "deep time" in John McPhee's book '''Basin and Range''']</ref>

Today, the Indian plate continues to be driven horizontally at the Tibetan Plateau, which forces the plateau to continue to move upwards.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Plate-Tectonics/Chap3-Plate-Margins/Convergent/Continental-Collision|title=Plate Tectonics -The Himalayas |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |date= |website= |publisher=The Geological Society |access-date=13 September 2016}}</ref> The Indian plate is still moving at 67 mm per year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1,500 km into Asia. About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by [[Thrust fault|thrusting]] along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region [[seismic]]ally active, leading to earthquakes from time to time.

During the last [[ice age]], there was a connected ice stream of [[glacier]]s between [[Kangchenjunga]] in the east and [[Nanga Parbat]] in the west.<ref name=Kuhle2011/><ref>glacier maps [http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444534477/ downloadable]</ref> In the west, the glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the [[Karakoram]], and in the north, they joined with the former Tibetan inland ice. To the south, outflow glaciers came to an end below an elevation of {{convert|1000|-|2000|m|ft}}.<ref name=Kuhle2011/><ref name=Kuhle1987/> While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most {{convert|20|to|32|km|mi}} in length, several of the main valley glaciers were {{convert|60|to|112|km}} long during the ice age.<ref name=Kuhle2011/> The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and [[Ablation#Glaciology|ablation]] of a glacier are balanced) was about {{convert|1400|-|1660|m|ft|}} lower than it is today. Thus, the climate was at least {{convert|7.0|to|8.3|C-change|F-change}} colder than it is today.<ref name=Kuhle2005/>

==Hydrology==
[[File:13-10-08 217 CONFLUENCE OF INDUS RIVER N.jpg|thumb|[[Indus River]] in the Himalayas]]
[[File:yumthangnorth.jpg|thumb|The Himalayan range at Yumesongdong in [[Sikkim]], in the [[Yumthang]] River valley]]

Despite their scale the Himalayas do not form a major watershed, and a number of rivers cut through the range, particularly in the eastern part of the range. As a result, the main ridge of the Himalayas is not clearly defined, and mountain passes are not as significant for traversing the range as with other mountain ranges. The rivers of the Himalayas drain into two large river systems:
* The western rivers combine into the ''Indus Basin''. The [[Indus River|Indus]] itself forms the northern and western boundaries of the Himalayas. It begins in Tibet at the confluence of Sengge and Gar rivers and flows north-west through India into Pakistan before turning south-west to the [[Arabian Sea]]. It is fed by several major tributaries draining the southern slopes of the Himalayas, including the [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Beas River|Beas]] and [[Sutlej]] rivers, the five rivers of the [[Punjab]].
* The other Himalayan rivers drain the ''Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin''. Its main rivers are the [[Ganges]], the [[Brahmaputra]] and the [[Yamuna]], as well as other tributaries. The Brahmaputra originates as the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River (Tibet)|Yarlung Tsangpo River]] in western Tibet, and flows east through Tibet and west through the plains of [[Assam]]. The Ganges and the Brahmaputra meet in [[Bangladesh]] and drain into the [[Bay of Bengal]] through the world's largest river delta, the [[Sunderbans]].<ref name=gits4u/>

The northern slopes of [[Gyala Peri]] and the peaks beyond the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River|Tsangpo]], sometimes included in the Himalayas, drain into the [[Irrawaddy River]], which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south through Myanmar to drain into the [[Andaman Sea]]. The [[Salween]], [[Mekong]], [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] and [[Yellow River]] all originate from parts of the Tibetan Plateau that are geologically distinct from the Himalaya mountains and are therefore not considered true Himalayan rivers. Some geologists refer to all the rivers collectively as the ''circum-Himalayan rivers''.<ref name=circum/>

===Glaciers===

Tobias elsker prim ranges of central Asia, including the Himalayas, contain the third-largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after [[Antarctica]] and the [[Arctic]].<ref name=pbs_nature/> The Himalayan range encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about 12,000 km3 (3,000 cubic miles) of fresh water.<ref name=IPPC2007/> Its glaciers include the [[Gangotri Glacier|Gangotri]] and [[Yamunotri]] ([[Uttarakhand]]) and [[Khumbu Glacier|Khumbu]] glaciers ([[Mount Everest]] region), [[Langtang]] glacier ([[Langtang]] region) and [[Zemu Glacier|Zemu]] ([[Sikkim]]).

Owing to the mountains' latitude near the [[Tropic of Cancer]], the permanent [[snow line]] is among the highest in the world at typically around {{convert|5500|m|ft|-2}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shi |first1=Yafeng |last2=Xie |first2=Zizhu |last3=Zheng |first3=Benxing |last4=Li |first4=Qichun |url=http://itia.ntua.gr/hsj/redbooks/126/iahs_126_0111.pdf |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6CwdX03t7?url=https://itia.ntua.gr/hsj/redbooks/126/iahs_126_0111.pdf |archivedate=16 December 2012 |title=Distribution, Feature and Variations of Glaciers in China |journal=World Glacier Inventory |year=1978 |publisher=Riederalp Workshop |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In contrast, equatorial mountains in [[New Guinea]], the [[Rwenzoris]] and [[Colombia]] have a snow line some {{convert|900|m|ft|-1}} lower.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Henderson-Sellers|first1=Ann|last2=McGuffie|first2=Kendal|title=The Future of the World's Climate: A Modelling Perspective|pages=199–201|isbn=9780123869173}}</ref> The higher regions of the Himalayas are snowbound throughout the year, in spite of their proximity to the tropics, and they form the sources of several large [[perennial stream|perennial rivers]].

In recent years, scientists have monitored a notable increase in the rate of [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|glacier retreat]] across the region as a result of global climate change.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/42387/story.htm|title=Vanishing Himalayan Glaciers Threaten a Billion|date=5 June 2007|publisher=Planet Ark|accessdate=17 April 2009}}</ref> For example, glacial lakes have been forming rapidly on the surface of debris-covered glaciers in the Bhutan Himalaya during the last few decades. Although the effect of this will not be known for many years, it potentially could mean disaster for the hundreds of millions of people who rely on the glaciers to feed the rivers during the dry seasons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90781/90879/6222327.html|title=Glaciers melting at alarming speed|date=24 July 2007|publisher=People's Daily Online|accessdate=17 April 2009}}</ref>

===Lakes===
[[File:Tilicho Lake.jpg|thumb|Tilicho lake in [[Manang]], Nepal]]
The Himalayan region is dotted with hundreds of lakes. Most lakes are found at altitudes of less than 5,000 m, with the size of the lakes diminishing with altitude. [[Tilicho Lake]] in Nepal in the Annapurna massif is one of the highest lakes in the world. [[Pangong Tso]], which is spread across the border between India and China, and [[Yamdrok Tso]], located in central Tibet, are amongst the largest with surface areas of 700 km², and 638 km², respectively. Other notable lakes include [[Phoksundo Lake|She-Phoksundo Lake]] in the [[Shey Phoksundo National Park]] of Nepal, [[Gurudongmar Lake]], in [[North Sikkim]], [[Gokyo Lakes]] in [[Solukhumbu]] district of [[Nepal]] and [[Lake Tsongmo]], near the Indo-China border in Sikkim.

Some of the lakes present a danger of a [[glacial lake outburst flood]]. The [[Tsho Rolpa]] glacier lake in the [[Rolwaling Himal|Rowaling Valley]], in the [[Dolakha District]] of Nepal, is rated as the most dangerous. The lake, which is located at an altitude of {{convert|4580|m|ft|}} has grown considerably over the last 50 years due to glacial melting.<ref>[http://rolwaling.tripod.com/glof/ Photograph of Tsho Rolpa]</ref><ref>[[Glacial lake outburst flood#Monitoring|Tsho Rolpa]]</ref>

The mountain lakes are known to geographers as ''[[tarn (lake)|tarns]]'' if they are caused by glacial activity. Tarns are found mostly in the upper reaches of the Himalaya, above 5,500 metres.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highestlake.com/highest-lake-world.html|title=Highest Lake in the World|first=Carl|last=Drews|accessdate=14 November 2010}}</ref>

==Climate==
{{refimprove section|date=June 2017}}
The vast size, huge altitude range and complex topography of the Himalayas mean they experience a wide range of climates, from humid subtropical in the foothills to cold, dry desert conditions on the Tibetan side of the range.

For much of Himalayas – that on the south side of the high mountains, except in the furthest west, the most characteristic feature of the climate is the [[monsoon]]. Heavy rain arrives on the south-west monsoon in June and persists until September. The monsoon can seriously impact transport and cause major landslides. It restricts tourism – the trekking and mountaineering season is limited to either before the monsoon in April/May or after the monsoon in October/November (autumn). In Nepal and Sikkim, there are often considered to be five seasons: summer, [[monsoon]], autumn (or post-monsoon), winter and spring.

Using the [[Köppen climate classification]], the lower elevations of the Himalayas, reaching in mid elevations in central Nepal (including the Kathmandu valley), are classified as '''Cwa''', [[humid subtropical climate#South Asia|Humid subtropical climate]] with dry winters. Higher up, most of the Himalayas have a [[Oceanic climate#Subtropical highland variety|subtropical highland climate ('''Cwb''')]].

In the furthest west of the Himalayas, in the west of the Kashmir valley and the Indus valley, the South Asian monsoon is no longer a dominant factor and most precipitation falls in the spring. Srinagar receives around {{convert|723|mm|in|0}} around half the rainfall of locations such as Shimla and Kathmandu, with the wettest months being March and April.

The northern side of the Himalayas, also known as the Tibetan Himalaya, is dry, cold and generally wind swept particularly in the west where it has a [[Desert climate#Cold desert climates|cold desert climate]]. The vegetation is sparse and stunted and the winters are severely cold. Most of the precipitation in the region is in the form of snow during late winter and spring months.

Local impacts on climate are significant throughout the Himalayas. Temperatures fall by {{Convert|6.5|C-change|1}} for every 1000m rise in altitude. This gives rise to a variety of climates from nearly tropical in the foothills to [[tundra]] and permanent snow and ice. Local climate is also affected by the topography: The leeward side of the mountains receive less rain while the well exposed slopes get heavy rainfall and the [[rain shadow]] of large mountains can be significant, for example leading to near desert conditions in the [[Upper Mustang]] which is sheltered from the monsoon rains by the [[Annapurna]] and [[Dhaulagiri]] massifs and has annual precipitation of around 300mm, while [[Pokhara]] on the southern side of the massifs has substantial rainfall (3,900mm/year). Thus although annual precipitation is generally higher in east than the west, local variations are often more important.

The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and the Tibetan Plateau. They prevent frigid, dry winds from blowing south into the subcontinent, which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding [[temperate]] regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the [[Monsoon of Indian subcontinent|monsoon]] winds, keeping them from traveling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the [[Terai]] region. The Himalayas are also believed to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts, such as the [[Taklamakan]] and [[Gobi]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Devitt|first=Terry|title=Climate shift linked to rise of Himalayas, Tibetan Plateau|newspaper=University of Wisconsin–Madison News|date=3 May 2001|url=http://www.news.wisc.edu/6138|accessdate=1 November 2011}}</ref>

==Ecology==
{{main article|Ecology of the Himalayas}}
[[File:Lightmatter snowleopard.jpg|thumb|Captive snow leopard]]The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at the highest elevations. The amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall and soil conditions combined with the very high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant and animal communities. The extremes of high altitude (low atmospheric pressure) combined with extreme cold favor [[extremophile]] organisms.<ref>{{cite web|first=C. Michael|last=Hogan|year=2010|url=http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/160977/|title=Extremophile|editor1-first=E.|editor1-last=Monosson |work=Encyclopedia of Earth|publisher=National Council for Science and the Environment|location=Washington DC}}</ref>

[[File:Hemitragus jemlahicus Jharal.jpg|thumb|Male Himalayan Tahr in Nepal]]
[[file:RedPandaFullBody.JPG|thumb|Red Panda]] At high altitudes, the elusive and endangered [[snow leopard]] is the main predator. Its prey includes members of the goat family grazing on the alpine pastures and living on the rocky terrain, notably the endemic [[bharal]] or Himalayan blue sheep. The [[Himalayan musk deer]] is also found at high altitude. Hunted for its musk, it is now rare and endangered. Other endemic or near endemic herbivores include the [[Himalayan tahr]], the [[takin]], the [[Himalayan serow]], and the [[Himalayan goral]]. The critically endangered [[Himalayan brown bear|Himalayan]] subspecies of the [[brown bear]] is found sporadically across the range as is the [[Asian black bear]]. In the mountainous mixed deciduous and conifer forests of the eastern Himalayas, [[Red panda]] feed in the dense understories of bamboo. Lower down the forests of the foothills are inhabited by several different primates, including the endangered [[Gee's golden langur]] and the [[Kashmir gray langur]], with highly restricted ranges in the east and west of the Himalayas respectively.

The unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to [[climate change]]. [[Hydrangea hirta]] is an example of floral species that can be found in this area. The increase in temperature is shifting various species to higher elevations. The oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some tree species, especially [[rhododendron]], apple and ''[[Myrica esculenta|box myrtle]]''. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is ''[[Juniperus tibetica]]'' located at {{convert|4900|m|ft|-1}} in Southeastern Tibet.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.uni-marburg.de/fb19/personal/professoren/miehe/pdfs/20074.pdf|title=Highest Treeline in the Northern Hemisphere Found in Southern Tibet|first1=Georg|last1=Miehe|first2=Sabine|last2=Miehe|first3=Jonas|last3=Vogel|first4=Sonam|last4=Co|first5=La|last5=Duo|journal=Mountain Research and Development|volume=27|issue=2|date=May 2007|pages=169–173|doi=10.1659/mrd.0792|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606103046/http://www.uni-marburg.de/fb19/personal/professoren/miehe/pdfs/20074.pdf|archivedate=6 June 2013}}</ref>

== Culture ==
The Himalayan population belongs to four distinct cultural groups, who throughout history have systematically penetrated the isolated indigenous Himalayan population. Those migrating cultures – Hindu (Indian), Buddhist (Tibetan), Islamic (Afghanistan–Iran) and Animist (Burmese and south-eastern Asian) – without any doubt have created here their own individual and unique place.<ref>Apollo, M. (2017). The population of Himalayan regions – by the numbers: Past, present and future. [In:] R. Efe, M. Öztürk (eds.), Contemporary Studies in Environment and Tourism, Chapter: 9 (pp.143–159). Publisher: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=bmPXDgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA145&dq=related:FmViXjXaASwJ:scholar.google.com/&ots=oKLCNOteR9&sig=A83K5prI2vJp06Sz17E2P15wtRw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> Their current arrangement, though with a few exceptions, is linked to specific geographical regions, and the relative altitude at which they occur.

There are many cultural aspects of the Himalayas. For the Hindus, the Himalayas are personified as Himavath, the father of the goddess Parvati.<ref name=":1" /> The Himalayas is also considered to be the father of the river Ganges. The Mountain Kailash is a sacred peak to the Hindus and is where the Lord Shiva is believed to live.<ref name=":3" /> Two of the most sacred places of pilgrimage for the Hindus is the temple complex in Pashupatinath and Muktinath, also known as Saligrama because of the presence of the sacred black rocks called saligrams.<ref name=JEE/>

The Buddhists also lay a great deal of importance on the mountains of the Himalayas. Paro Taktsang is the holy place where Buddhism started in Bhutan.<ref name=":3" /> The Muktinath is also a place of pilgrimage for the Tibetan Buddhists. They believe that the trees in the poplar grove came from the walking sticks of eighty-four ancient Indian Buddhist magicians or ''mahasiddhas''. They consider the saligrams to be representatives of the Tibetan serpent deity known as Gawo Jagpa.<ref name=":4">Zurick, David, Julsun Pacheco, Basanta Raj. Shrestha, and Birendra Bajracharya. Illustrated Atlas of the Himalaya. Lexington: U of Kentucky, 2006. Google Books. The University Press of Kentucky. Web. 11 Nov. 2015.</ref>

The Himalayan people’s diversity shows in many different ways. It shows through their architecture, their languages and dialects, their beliefs and rituals, as well as their clothing.<ref name=":4" /> The shapes and materials of the people’s homes reflect their practical needs and the beliefs. Another example of the diversity amongst the Himalayan peoples is that handwoven textiles display colors and patterns unique to their ethnic backgrounds. Finally, some people place a great importance on jewellery. The Rai and Limbu women wear big gold earrings and nose rings to show their wealth through their jewellery.<ref name=":4" />

==Religions of the region==
[[File:Taktshang.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Paro Taktsang|Taktsang]] Monastery, [[Bhutan]], also known as the "Tiger's Nest"]]

Several places in the Himalayas are of religious significance in [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]]. A notable example of a religious site is [[Paro Taktsang]], where [[Padmasambhava]] is said to have founded Buddhism in Bhutan.<ref name="Pommaret">{{cite book|author=Pommaret, Francoise|title=Bhutan Himalayan Mountains Kingdom|edition=5th|publisher=Odyssey Books and Guides|year=2006|pages=136–7|isbn=978-9622178106}}</ref> Padmasambhava is also worshipped as the [[patron saint]] of [[Sikkim]]. There are also [[Muslim]] and Hindhu Shaivite [[Kashmiri Pandit]] in the area of [[Kashmir]].

In Hinduism, the Himalayas have been personified as the king of all Mountain – "Giriraj [[Himavat]]", father of [[Ganges in Hinduism|Ganga]] and [[Parvati]] (form of [[Adi Shakti]] [[Durga]]).<ref>{{cite book|title=Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend|isbn=0-500-51088-1|first=Anna|last=Dallapiccola|year=2002}}</ref>

A number of [[Vajrayana|Vajrayana Buddhist]] sites are situated in the Himalayas, in [[Tibet]], [[Bhutan]] and in the Indian regions of [[Ladakh]], Sikkim, [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Spiti Valley|Spiti]] and [[Darjeeling]]. There were over 6,000 [[List of Tibetan monasteries|monasteries]] in Tibet, including the residence of the [[Dalai Lama]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7307495.stm|title=Tibetan monks: A controlled life|publisher=BBC News|date=20 March 2008}}</ref> Bhutan, Sikkim and Ladakh are also dotted with numerous monasteries. The [[Tibetan Muslims]] have their own mosques in [[Lhasa]] and [[Shigatse]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200510/27/eng20051027_217176.html|title=Mosques in Lhasa, Tibet|newspaper=People's Daily Online|date=27 October 2005}}</ref>

== Resources ==
The Himalayas are home to a diversity of medicinal resources. Plants from the forests have been used for millennia to treat conditions ranging from simple coughs to snake bites.<ref name = JEE>{{cite web
|url= http://ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1746-4269-9-1
|title=Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India
|last= Jahangeer A. Bhat, Munesh Kumar and Rainer W. Bussmann
|date=2 January 2013
|website=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine
|publisher=BioMed Central
|access-date=22 January 2016}}</ref>
Different parts of the plants – root, flower, stem, leaves, and bark – are used as remedies for different ailments. For example, a bark extract from an ''abies pindrow'' tree is used to treat coughs and bronchitis. Leaf and stem paste from an ''arachne cordifolia'' is used for wounds and as an antidote for snake bites. The bark of a ''callicarpa arborea'' is used for skin ailments.<ref name=JEE /> Nearly a fifth of the [[gymnosperm]]s, [[Flowering plants|angiosperms]] and [[pteridophyte]]s in the Himalayas are found to have medicinal properties, and more are likely to be discovered.<ref name=JEE/>

Most of the population in some Asian and African countries depend on medicinal plants rather than prescriptions and such (Gupta and Sharma, vii).<ref name=":1">Gupta, Pankaj and Sharma, Vijay Kumar, Author. Healing Traditions of the Northwestern Himalayas. 2014. Print. SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science.</ref> Since so many people use medicinal plants as their only source of healing in the Himalayas, the plants are an important source of income. This contributes to economic and modern industrial development both inside and outside the region (Gupta and Sharma, 5).<ref name=":1" /> The only problem is that locals are rapidly clearing the forests on the Himalayas for wood, often illegally (Earth Island Journal, 2).<ref>"Himalayan Forests Disappearing." Earth Island Journal 21.4 (2006): 7–8. Academic Search Complete. Web. 2 Nov. 2015.</ref> This means that the number of medicinal plants is declining and that some of them might become rarer or, in some cases, go extinct.

Although locals are clearing out portions of the forests in the Himalayas, there is still a large amount of greenery ranging from the tropical forests to the Alpine forests. These forests provide wood for fuel and other raw materials for use by industries. There are also many pastures for animals to graze upon (Mohita, sec. Forest and Wealth).<ref name=":2">Mohita, Negi. "Himalayas: 10 Significance of the Himalaya Mountains to India (Notes)."YourArticleLibrarycom The Next Generation Library. N.p., 21 Nov. 2013. Web. 11 Nov. 2015.</ref> The many varieties of animals that live in these mountains do so based on the elevation. For example, elephants and rhinoceros live in the lower elevations of the Himalayas, also called the Terai region. Also, found in these mountains are the Kashmiri stag, black bears, musk deer, langur, and snow leopards. The Tibetan yak are also found on these mountains and are often used by the people for transportation. However, the populations of many of these animals and still others are declining and are on the verge of going extinct (Admin, sec. Flora and Fauna).<ref name=":3">Admin. "King of Mountains: The Himalayas." Knowledge Of India. N.p., 20 Mar. 2015. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.</ref>

The Himalayas are also a source of many minerals and precious stones. Amongst the tertiary rocks, are vast potentials of mineral oil. There is coal located in Kashmir, and precious stones located in the Himalayas. There is also gold, silver, copper, zinc, and many other such minerals and metals located in at least 100 different places in these mountains (Mohita, sec. Minerals).<ref name=":2" />

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=}}
* [[List of Himalayan topics]]
* [[Eastern Himalaya|Eastern]], [[Garhwal Himalaya|Garhwal]] and [[Western Himalaya]]
* [[List of Himalayan peaks and passes]] and [[List of Himalayan peaks of Uttarakhand|of Himalayan peaks of Uttarakhand]]
* [[Indian Himalayan Region]]
* [[List of mountains in India]], [[List of mountains in Pakistan|Pakistan]], [[Mountains of Bhutan|Bhutan]], [[List of mountains in Nepal|Nepal]] and [[List of mountains in China|China]]
* [[List of Ultras of the Himalayas]]
* [[Mahalangur Himal]]
* [[Trekking peak]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
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| last4=Dupré|first4 =B. | last5 =Allègre|first5 =C. J. | last6 =Li|first6 =W.
| last7=Zhao|first7 =J.
| url=http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EAE03/13617/EAE03-J-13617.pdf
| accessdate=4 November 2006| bibcode = 2003EAEJA....13617G }}</ref>
<ref name=gits4u>
{{cite web | url=http://www.gits4u.com/wb/wb6a.htm | title=Sunderbans the world's largest delta | publisher=gits4u.com | accessdate=3 January 2015 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103191637/http://www.gits4u.com/wb/wb6a.htm | archivedate=3 January 2015 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>
<ref name=IPPC2007>
{{cite web | url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch10s10-6-2.html
| title=the Himalayan Glaciers | date=2007 |website=Fourth assessment report on climate change
| publisher=IPPC|accessdate=22 January 2014}}</ref>
<ref name=Kuhle2011>
{{cite book | title=Quaternary Glaciation – Extent and Chronology, A Closer Look
| author = Kuhle, M. | year=2011
| chapter=The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and Last Glacial Maximum) Ice Cover of High and Central Asia, with a Critical Review of Some Recent OSL and TCN Dates
| editor1-last=Ehlers|editor1-first=J.|editor2-last=Gibbard|editor2-first=P.L.|editor3-last=Hughes|editor3-first=P.D.
| location=Amsterdam|publisher=Elsevier BV|pages=943–965}}</ref>
<ref name=Kuhle2005>
{{cite journal | last=Kuhle|first=M.|year=2005
| title=The maximum Ice Age (Würmian, Last Ice Age, LGM) glaciation of the Himalaya – a glaciogeomorphological investigation of glacier trim-lines, ice thicknesses and lowest former ice margin positions in the Mt. Everest-Makalu-Cho Oyu massifs (Khumbu- and Khumbakarna Himal) including informations on late-glacial-, neoglacial-, and historical glacier stages, their snow-line depressions and ages
| journal=GeoJournal|volume=62|location=Dordrecht|publisher=Kluwer|pages=193–650|issue=3–4|doi=10.1007/s10708-005-2338-6}}</ref>
<ref name=Kuhle1987>
{{cite journal
| title=Subtropical mountain- and highland-glaciation as ice age triggers and the waning of the glacial periods in the Pleistocene
| author = Kuhle, M. | year=1987 |journal=GeoJournal|volume=14|issue=4|pages=393–421|doi=10.1007/BF02602717}}</ref>
<ref name=pbs_nature>
{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/the-himalayas/himalayas-facts/6341/
| title=The Himalayas |work=Nature on PBS|accessdate=21 January 2014}}</ref>
<ref name=USGS>
{{cite web | url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/himalaya.html
| title = The Himalayas: Two continents collide | publisher = USGS | date = 5 May 1999 | accessdate = 3 January 2015}}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
* [[William McKay Aitken|Aitken, Bill]], ''Footloose in the Himalaya'', Delhi, Permanent Black, 2003. {{ISBN|81-7824-052-1}}
* Berreman, Gerald Duane, ''Hindus of the Himalayas: Ethnography and Change'', 2nd rev. ed., Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1997.
* Bisht, Ramesh Chandra, ''Encyclopedia of the Himalayas'', New Delhi, Mittal Publications, c2008.
* ''Everest'', the IMAX movie (1998). {{ISBN|0-7888-1493-1}}
* Fisher, James F., ''Sherpas: Reflections on Change in Himalayan Nepal'', 1990. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990. {{ISBN|0-520-06941-2}}
* [[Augusto Gansser-Biaggi|Gansser, Augusto]], [[Andreas Gruschke|Gruschke, Andreas]], Olschak, Blanche C., ''Himalayas. Growing Mountains, Living Myths, Migrating Peoples'', New York, Oxford: Facts On File, 1987. {{ISBN|0-8160-1994-0}} and New Delhi: Bookwise, 1987.
* Gupta, Raj Kumar, ''Bibliography of the Himalayas'', Gurgaon, Indian Documentation Service, 1981
* [[John Hunt, Baron Hunt|Hunt, John]], ''Ascent of Everest'', London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1956. {{ISBN|0-89886-361-9}}
* [[Maurice Isserman|Isserman, Maurice]] and Weaver, Stewart, ''Fallen Giants: The History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes''. Yale University Press, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-300-11501-7}}
* Ives, Jack D. and Messerli, Bruno, ''The Himalayan Dilemma: Reconciling Development and Conservation''. London / New York, Routledge, 1989. {{ISBN|0-415-01157-4}}
* Lall, J.S. (ed.) in association with Moddie, A.D., ''The Himalaya, Aspects of Change''. Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1981. {{ISBN|0-19-561254-X}}
* Nandy, S.N., Dhyani, P.P. and Samal, P.K., ''Resource Information Database of the Indian Himalaya'', Almora, GBPIHED, 2006.
* [[Michael Palin|Palin, Michael]], ''Himalaya'', London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson Illustrated, 2004. {{ISBN|0-297-84371-0}}
* [[Swami Sundaranand]], ''Himalaya: Through the Lens of a Sadhu''. Published by Tapovan Kuti Prakashan (August 2001). {{ISBN|81-901326-0-1}}
* Swami [[Tapovan Maharaj]], ''Wanderings in the Himalayas'', English Edition, Madras, Chinmaya Publication Trust, 1960. Translated by T.N. Kesava Pillai.
* [[Bill Tilman|Tilman, H. W.]], ''Mount Everest, 1938'', Cambridge University Press, 1948.
* 'The Mighty Himalaya: A Fragile Heritage,’ [[National Geographic Magazine|National Geographic]], 174:624–631 (November 1988).
* Turner, Bethan, et al. ''Seismicity of the Earth 1900–2010: Himalaya and Vicinity''. Denver, United States Geological Survey, 2013.

==External links==
{{Commons+cat|Himalayas}}
{{wikivoyage|Himalayas}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/ The Digital Himalaya research project at Cambridge and Yale]
* {{cite web |url=http://zanskar.geoheritage.ch/CHAPITRE2/page23.html |title=The making of the Himalaya and major tectonic subdivisions |work=The geology of Zanskar |author=Pierre Dèzes |year=1999}}
* [http://oak.ucc.nau.edu/wittke/Tibet/Himalaya.html Geology of the Himalayan mountains]
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/earth/birth.html Birth of the Himalaya]
* [http://snobear.colorado.edu/Markw/Mountains/03/week11.html Some notes on the formation of the Himalaya]
* [http://www.metacafe.com/watch/383729/the_annapurna_trek_in_5_minutes/ Pictures from a trek in Annapurna (film by Ori Liber)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120404073252/http://www.ranjan.net.np/ranjan/index.php/resources/geology-of-nepal Geology of Nepal Himalaya]
* [http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/asia/south-asias-troubled-waters South Asia's Troubled Waters] Journalistic project at the Pulitzer Centre for Crisis Reporting
* [http://www.himalaya-info.org/ Die Berge des Himalaya] The mountains of Himalaya (in German – easily translatable online)

{{GeoSouthAsia}}
{{Himalayan earthquakes}}
{{Physical geography topics}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Himalayas| ]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Asia]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of the Himalayas| 01]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Bhutan]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of China]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of India]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Nepal]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Tibet]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of the Tibet Autonomous Region]]
[[Category:Biodiversity hotspots]]
[[Category:Landforms of South Asia]]
[[Category:Physiographic divisions]]
[[Category:Tibetan Plateau]]

Himalayas

2018-01-30T08:50:28Z

85.19.179.17: /* Lakes */

{{redirect2|Himalaya|Imaus|the genus of moth|Imaus (moth)|other uses|Himalaya (disambiguation)}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2013}}
{{Infobox mountain range
| name = Himalayas
| native_name =
| photo = Mount Everest as seen from Drukair2 PLW edit.jpg
| photo_caption = Aerial view of [[Mount Everest]] and surrounding landscape
| country1 = {{BHU}}
| country2 = {{CHN}}
| country3 = {{IND}}
| country4 = {{NPL}}
| country5 = {{PAK}}
| region_type =
| region = Asia
| border =
| highest = [[Mount Everest]]
| elevation_m = 8848
| highest_location = [[Nepal]] and [[China]]
| coordinates = {{coord|27|59|17|N|86|55|31|E|region:IN|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| range_coordinates =
| length_km = 2400
| geology =
| period =
| orogeny =
| map_image = Himalayas Map.png
| map_caption = The general location of the Himalayas mountain range
}}
[[File:Himalayas landsat 7.png|thumb|287px|right|A satellite image showing the arc of the Himalayas]]
The '''Himalayas''', or '''Himalaya''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|h|ɪ|m|ə|ˈ|l|eɪ|ə|,_|h|ɪ|ˈ|m|ɑː|l|ə|j|ə}}), form a [[mountain range]] in [[Asia]] separating the plains of the [[Indian subcontinent]] from the [[Tibetan Plateau]].

The Himalayan range has many of the Earth's highest peaks, including the highest, [[Mount Everest]]. The Himalayas include over [[List of highest mountains|fifty mountains]] exceeding {{Convert|7200|m|ft}} in elevation, including ten of the fourteen [[Eight-thousander|8,000-metre]] peaks. By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia ([[Aconcagua]], in the [[Andes]]) is {{Convert|6961|m|ft}} tall.<ref>{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4q_XoMACOxkC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA23&dq=%22South+Tibet+Valley%22
|title=Himalayan Mountain System|publisher=|accessdate=30 July 2016
|isbn=9787508506654
|author1=Yang
|first1=Qinye
|last2=Zheng
|first2=Du
|year=2004}}</ref>

Lifted by the [[subduction]] of the [[Indian Plate|Indian tectonic plate]] under the [[Eurasian Plate]], the Himalayan mountain range runs, west-northwest to east-southeast, in an arc {{Convert|2400|km|mi}} long.<ref>Wadia, D. N. (1931). The syntaxis of the northwest Himalaya: its rocks, tectonics and orogeny. Record Geol. Survey of India 65(2): 189–220.</ref> Its western anchor, [[Nanga Parbat]], lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river. Its eastern anchor, [[Namcha Barwa]], is just west of the great bend of the Tsangpo river. The Himalayan range is bordered on the northwest by the [[Karakoram]] and [[Hindu Kush]] ranges, to the north, the chain is separated from the Tibetan Plateau by a {{Convert|50-60|km|mi}} wide tectonic valley called the Indus-Tsangpo Suture.<ref>Valdiya, K. S. (1998). Dynamic Himalaya . Hyderabad: Universities Press.</ref> Towards the south the arc of the Himalaya is ringed by the very low [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].<ref>Le Fort, P. (1975). Himalayas: The collided range. Present knowledge of the continental arc. American Journal Science 275A: 1–44. http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/1975/ajs_275A_1.pdf/1.pdf</ref> The range varies in width from {{Convert|350|km|mi}} in the west (Kashmir) to {{Convert|150|km|mi}} in the east (Arunachal Pradesh).<ref name="books.google.pl"/> The Himalayas are distinct from the other great ranges of central Asia, although sometimes the term Himalaya is loosely used to include the Karakoram and some of the other ranges.

The Himalayas are inhabited by 52.7 million people<ref name="books.google.pl">Apollo, M. (2017). The population of Himalayan regions – by the numbers: Past, present and future. [In:] R. Efe, M. Öztürk (eds.), Contemporary Studies in Environment and Tourism, Chapter: 9 (pp.143–159). Publisher: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=bmPXDgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA145&ots=oKLCNOveUc&sig=0K2GQrOSN9dMCGMPrR3ryj7Adgo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> and are spread across [[Himalayan states|five countries]]: [[Nepal]], [[India]], [[Bhutan]], [[China]] and [[Pakistan]], with the first four countries having sovereignty over most of the range.<ref name="bishop-britannica">{{cite web|last=Bishop|first=Barry|authorlink=Barry Bishop (mountaineer)|title=Himalayas (mountains, Asia)|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266037/Himalayas|accessdate=30 July 2016}}</ref> Some of the world's major [[river]]s, the [[Indus River|Indus]], the [[Ganges]] and the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River|Tsangpo]]-[[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], rise in the Himalayas, and their combined [[drainage basin]] is home to roughly 600 million people. The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the region, helping to keep the monsoon rains on the Indian plain and limiting rainfall on the Tibetan plateau. The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of the [[Indian subcontinent]]; many Himalayan peaks are sacred in [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]].

[[File:Falling_star_machhapuchhre.jpg|thumb|290px|Mount [[Machapuchare]] (Mount Fishtail) seen from [[Chomrong]], [[Kaski]], Nepal. Elevation: {{nowrap|6,993 m}} {{nowrap|(22,943 ft),}} prominence: {{nowrap|1,233 m}} {{nowrap|(4,045 ft)}}]]
{{anchor|Etymology}}

==Name==
The name of the range derives from the [[Sanskrit]] ''Himā-laya'' ({{lang|sa|{{linktext|हिमालय}}}}, "Abode of Snow"), from ''himá'' ({{lang|sa|{{linktext|हिम}}}}, "snow") and ''ā-laya'' ({{lang|sa|{{linktext|आलय}}}}, "receptacle, dwelling").<ref name=oed>{{cite web|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0378930#m_en_gb0378930|title=Definition of Himalayas|work=Oxford Dictionaries Online|accessdate=9 May 2011}}</ref> They are now known as the "{{nowrap|Himalaya Mountains}}", usually shortened to the "Himalayas". Formerly, they were described in the singular as the "''Himalaya''". This was also previously transcribed "'''Himmaleh'''", as in [[Emily Dickinson]]'s poetry<ref>{{citation |last=Dickinson |first=Emily |authorlink=Emily Dickinson |title=''"[[:s:The Himmaleh was known to stoop|The Himmaleh was known to stoop]]"'' }}.</ref> and [[Henry David Thoreau]]'s essays.<ref>{{citation |last=Thoreau |first=Henry David |authorlink=Henry David Thoreau |title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers |date=1849 }}.</ref>

The mountains are known as the ''Himālaya'' in [[Nepali language|Nepali]] and [[Hindi language|Hindi]] (both written {{lang|hi|{{linktext|हिमालय}}}}), the ''Himalaya'' ({{lang|bo|ཧི་མ་ལ་ཡ་}}) or 'The Land of Snow' ({{lang|bo|གངས་ཅན་ལྗོངས་}}) in [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]], the ''Hamaleh'' Mountain Range ({{lang|ur|سلسلہ کوہ ہمالیہ}}) in [[Urdu]] and the ''Ximalaya'' Mountain Range {{nowrap|([[traditional characters|t]] {{lang|zh|喜馬拉雅{{linktext|山脈}}}},}} {{nowrap|> ''Xǐmǎlāyǎ Shānmài'')}} in [[Chinese language|Chinese]].

==Geography and key features==
{{see also|List of Himalayan peaks and passes}}
In the middle of the great curve of the Himalayan mountains lie the 8000m peaks of [[Dhaulagiri]] and [[Annapurna]] in [[Nepal]], separated by the [[Kali Gandaki Gorge]]. The gorge splits the Himalayas into Western and Eastern sections both ecologically and orographically – the pass at the head of the Kali Gandaki, the [[Kora La]] is the lowest point on the ridgeline between Everest and K2. To the east of Annapurna are the 8000 m peaks of [[Manaslu]] and across the border in Tibet, [[Shishapangma]]. To the south of these lies [[Kathmandu]], the capital of Nepal and the largest city in the Himalayas. East of the [[Kathmandu Valley]] lies valley of the Bhote/[[Sun Kosi]] river which rises in Tibet and provides the main overland route between Nepal and China – the [[Araniko Highway]]/[[China National Highway 318]]. Further east is the [[Mahalangur Himal]] with four of the world's six highest mountains, including the highest: [[Cho Oyu]], [[Everest]], [[Lhotse]] and [[Makalu]]. The [[Khumbu]] region, popular for trekking, is found here on the south-western approaches to Everest. The [[Arun River, China-Nepal|Arun river]] drains the northern slopes of these mountains, before turning south and flowing through the range to the east of Makalu.

In the far east of Nepal the Himalayas rise to the [[Kanchenjunga]] massif on the border with India, the third highest mountain in the world, the most easterly 8000 m summit and the highest point of India. The eastern side of Kanchenjunga is in the Indian state of [[Sikkim]]. Formerly an independent Kingdom, it lies on the main route from India to [[Lhasa]], Tibet, which passes over the [[Nathu La]] pass into Tibet. East of Sikkim lies the ancient Buddhist Kingdom of [[Bhutan]]. The highest mountain in Bhutan is [[Gangkhar Puensum]], which is also a strong candidate for the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. The Himalayas here are becoming increasingly rugged with heavily forested steep valleys. The Himalayas continue, turning slightly north east, through the disputed Indian State of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] as well as Tibet, before reaching their easterly conclusion in the peak of [[Namche Barwa]], situated in Tibet inside the great bend of the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River|Yarlang Tsangpo]] river. On the other side of the Tsangpo, to the east, are the [[Kangri Garpo]] mountains. The high mountains to the north of the Tsangpo including [[Gyala Peri]], however, are also sometimes also included in the Himalayas.

Going west from Dhaulagiri, Western Nepal is somewhat remote and lacks major high mountains, but is home to [[Rara Lake]], the largest lake in Nepal. The [[Karnali River]] rises in Tibet but cuts through the centre of the region. Further west, the border with [[India]] follows the [[Sarda River]] and provides a trade route into China, where on the Tibetan plateau lies the high peak of [[Gurla Mandhata]]. Just across [[Lake Manasarovar]] from this lies the sacred [[Mount Kailash]], which stands close to the source of the four main rivers of Himalayas and is revered in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bonpo. In the newly created Indian state of [[Uttarkhand]], the Himalayas rise again as the Garwhal Himalayas with the high peaks of [[Nanda Devi]] and [[Kamet]]. The state is also an important pilgrimage destination, with the source of the Ganges at [[Gangotri]] and the Yamuna at [[Yamunotri]], and the temples at [[Badrinath]] and [[Kedarnath]].
{{wide image|Langtang range (64).JPG|560px|Panoramic view of Langtang Range in [[Nepal]]|65%|right}}

The next Himalayan Indian state, [[Himachal Pradesh]], lacks very high mountains, but is noted for its hill stations, particularly [[Shimla]], the summer capital of the [[British Raj]], and [[Dharmasala]], the centre of the Tibetan community in exile in India. This area marks the start of the Punjab Himalaya and the [[Sutlej river]], the most easterly of the five tributaries of the [[Indus]], cuts through the range here. Further west, the Himalayas form most of the southern portion of the disputed Indian State of [[Jammu & Kashmir]]. The twin peaks of [[Nun Kun]] are the only mountains over 7000 m in this part of the Himalayas. Beyond lies the renown [[Kashmir Valley]] and the town and lakes of [[Srinagar]]. Finally, the Himalayas cross the [[Line of Control]] into [[Pakistan]] and reach their western end in the dramatic 8000 m peak of [[Nanga Parbat]], which rises over 7000 m above the Indus valley and is the most westerly of the 8000 m summits.

==Geology==
[[File:Himalaya-formation.gif|thumb|The 6,000-kilometre-plus journey of the India landmass (Indian Plate) before its collision with Asia (Eurasian Plate) about 40 to 50 million [[Before Present|years ago]]<ref name=USGS/>]]
{{Main article|Geology of the Himalaya}}
The Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists mostly of uplifted [[sedimentary]] and [[metamorphic rock]]. According to the modern theory of [[plate tectonics]], its formation is a result of a [[continental collision]] or [[orogeny]] along the [[convergent boundary]] between the [[Indo-Australian Plate]] and the [[Eurasian Plate]]. The [[Arakan Yoma]] highlands in [[Burma|Myanmar]] and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] in the [[Bay of Bengal]] were also formed as a result of this collision.

During the [[Upper Cretaceous]], about 70 million years ago, the north-moving Indo-Australian plate (which has subsequently broken into the [[Indian Plate]] and the [[Australian plate]]<ref>[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/pr/95/18688.html (1995) Geologists Find: An Earth Plate Is Breaking in Two]</ref>) was moving at about 15 cm per year. About 50 million years ago this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the [[Tethys Ocean]], the existence of which has been determined by [[sedimentary rock]]s settled on the ocean floor and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since both plates were composed of low density [[continental crust]], they were [[thrust fault]]ed and [[Fold (geology)|folded]] into mountain ranges rather than subducting into the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] along an [[oceanic trench]].<ref name=USGS/> An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine [[limestone]] from this ancient ocean.<ref>[http://geology.about.com/library/bl/peaks/bleverest.htm A site which uses this dramatic fact first used in illustration of "deep time" in John McPhee's book '''Basin and Range''']</ref>

Today, the Indian plate continues to be driven horizontally at the Tibetan Plateau, which forces the plateau to continue to move upwards.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Plate-Tectonics/Chap3-Plate-Margins/Convergent/Continental-Collision|title=Plate Tectonics -The Himalayas |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |date= |website= |publisher=The Geological Society |access-date=13 September 2016}}</ref> The Indian plate is still moving at 67 mm per year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1,500 km into Asia. About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by [[Thrust fault|thrusting]] along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region [[seismic]]ally active, leading to earthquakes from time to time.

During the last [[ice age]], there was a connected ice stream of [[glacier]]s between [[Kangchenjunga]] in the east and [[Nanga Parbat]] in the west.<ref name=Kuhle2011/><ref>glacier maps [http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444534477/ downloadable]</ref> In the west, the glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the [[Karakoram]], and in the north, they joined with the former Tibetan inland ice. To the south, outflow glaciers came to an end below an elevation of {{convert|1000|-|2000|m|ft}}.<ref name=Kuhle2011/><ref name=Kuhle1987/> While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most {{convert|20|to|32|km|mi}} in length, several of the main valley glaciers were {{convert|60|to|112|km}} long during the ice age.<ref name=Kuhle2011/> The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and [[Ablation#Glaciology|ablation]] of a glacier are balanced) was about {{convert|1400|-|1660|m|ft|}} lower than it is today. Thus, the climate was at least {{convert|7.0|to|8.3|C-change|F-change}} colder than it is today.<ref name=Kuhle2005/>

==Hydrology==
[[File:13-10-08 217 CONFLUENCE OF INDUS RIVER N.jpg|thumb|[[Indus River]] in the Himalayas]]
[[File:yumthangnorth.jpg|thumb|The Himalayan range at Yumesongdong in [[Sikkim]], in the [[Yumthang]] River valley]]

Despite their scale the Himalayas do not form a major watershed, and a number of rivers cut through the range, particularly in the eastern part of the range. As a result, the main ridge of the Himalayas is not clearly defined, and mountain passes are not as significant for traversing the range as with other mountain ranges. The rivers of the Himalayas drain into two large river systems:
* The western rivers combine into the ''Indus Basin''. The [[Indus River|Indus]] itself forms the northern and western boundaries of the Himalayas. It begins in Tibet at the confluence of Sengge and Gar rivers and flows north-west through India into Pakistan before turning south-west to the [[Arabian Sea]]. It is fed by several major tributaries draining the southern slopes of the Himalayas, including the [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Beas River|Beas]] and [[Sutlej]] rivers, the five rivers of the [[Punjab]].
* The other Himalayan rivers drain the ''Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin''. Its main rivers are the [[Ganges]], the [[Brahmaputra]] and the [[Yamuna]], as well as other tributaries. The Brahmaputra originates as the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River (Tibet)|Yarlung Tsangpo River]] in western Tibet, and flows east through Tibet and west through the plains of [[Assam]]. The Ganges and the Brahmaputra meet in [[Bangladesh]] and drain into the [[Bay of Bengal]] through the world's largest river delta, the [[Sunderbans]].<ref name=gits4u/>

The northern slopes of [[Gyala Peri]] and the peaks beyond the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River|Tsangpo]], sometimes included in the Himalayas, drain into the [[Irrawaddy River]], which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south through Myanmar to drain into the [[Andaman Sea]]. The [[Salween]], [[Mekong]], [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] and [[Yellow River]] all originate from parts of the Tibetan Plateau that are geologically distinct from the Himalaya mountains and are therefore not considered true Himalayan rivers. Some geologists refer to all the rivers collectively as the ''circum-Himalayan rivers''.<ref name=circum/>

===Glaciers===

The great ranges of central Asia, including the Himalayas, contain the third-largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after [[Antarctica]] and the [[Arctic]].<ref name=pbs_nature/> The Himalayan range encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about 12,000 km3 (3,000 cubic miles) of fresh water.<ref name=IPPC2007/> Its glaciers include the [[Gangotri Glacier|Gangotri]] and [[Yamunotri]] ([[Uttarakhand]]) and [[Khumbu Glacier|Khumbu]] glaciers ([[Mount Everest]] region), [[Langtang]] glacier ([[Langtang]] region) and [[Zemu Glacier|Zemu]] ([[Sikkim]]).

Owing to the mountains' latitude near the [[Tropic of Cancer]], the permanent [[snow line]] is among the highest in the world at typically around {{convert|5500|m|ft|-2}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shi |first1=Yafeng |last2=Xie |first2=Zizhu |last3=Zheng |first3=Benxing |last4=Li |first4=Qichun |url=http://itia.ntua.gr/hsj/redbooks/126/iahs_126_0111.pdf |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6CwdX03t7?url=https://itia.ntua.gr/hsj/redbooks/126/iahs_126_0111.pdf |archivedate=16 December 2012 |title=Distribution, Feature and Variations of Glaciers in China |journal=World Glacier Inventory |year=1978 |publisher=Riederalp Workshop |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In contrast, equatorial mountains in [[New Guinea]], the [[Rwenzoris]] and [[Colombia]] have a snow line some {{convert|900|m|ft|-1}} lower.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Henderson-Sellers|first1=Ann|last2=McGuffie|first2=Kendal|title=The Future of the World's Climate: A Modelling Perspective|pages=199–201|isbn=9780123869173}}</ref> The higher regions of the Himalayas are snowbound throughout the year, in spite of their proximity to the tropics, and they form the sources of several large [[perennial stream|perennial rivers]].

In recent years, scientists have monitored a notable increase in the rate of [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|glacier retreat]] across the region as a result of global climate change.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/42387/story.htm|title=Vanishing Himalayan Glaciers Threaten a Billion|date=5 June 2007|publisher=Planet Ark|accessdate=17 April 2009}}</ref> For example, glacial lakes have been forming rapidly on the surface of debris-covered glaciers in the Bhutan Himalaya during the last few decades. Although the effect of this will not be known for many years, it potentially could mean disaster for the hundreds of millions of people who rely on the glaciers to feed the rivers during the dry seasons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90781/90879/6222327.html|title=Glaciers melting at alarming speed|date=24 July 2007|publisher=People's Daily Online|accessdate=17 April 2009}}</ref>

===Lakes===
[[File:Tilicho Lake.jpg|thumb|Tilicho lake in [[Manang]], Nepal]]
The Himalayan region is dotted with hundreds of lakes. Most lakes are found at altitudes of less than 5,000 m, with the size of the lakes diminishing with altitude. [[Tilicho Lake]] in Nepal in the Annapurna massif is one of the highest lakes in the world. [[Pangong Tso]], which is spread across the border between India and China, and [[Yamdrok Tso]], located in central Tibet, are amongst the largest with surface areas of 700 km², and 638 km², respectively. Other notable lakes include [[Phoksundo Lake|She-Phoksundo Lake]] in the [[Shey Phoksundo National Park]] of Nepal, [[Gurudongmar Lake]], in [[North Sikkim]], [[Gokyo Lakes]] in [[Solukhumbu]] district of [[Nepal]] and [[Lake Tsongmo]], near the Indo-China border in Sikkim.

Some of the lakes present a danger of a [[glacial lake and Tobias elsker prim flood]]. The [[Tsho Rolpa]] glacier lake in the [[Rolwaling Himal|Rowaling Valley]], in the [[Dolakha District]] of Nepal, is rated as the most dangerous. The lake, which is located at an altitude of {{convert|4580|m|ft|}} has grown considerably over the last 50 years due to glacial melting.<ref>[http://rolwaling.tripod.com/glof/ Photograph of Tsho Rolpa]</ref><ref>[[Glacial lake outburst flood#Monitoring|Tsho Rolpa]]</ref>

The mountain lakes are known to geographers as ''[[tarn (lake)|tarns]]'' if they are caused by glacial activity. Tarns are found mostly in the upper reaches of the Himalaya, above 5,500 metres.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highestlake.com/highest-lake-world.html|title=Highest Lake in the World|first=Carl|last=Drews|accessdate=14 November 2010}}</ref>

==Climate==
{{refimprove section|date=June 2017}}
The vast size, huge altitude range and complex topography of the Himalayas mean they experience a wide range of climates, from humid subtropical in the foothills to cold, dry desert conditions on the Tibetan side of the range.

For much of Himalayas – that on the south side of the high mountains, except in the furthest west, the most characteristic feature of the climate is the [[monsoon]]. Heavy rain arrives on the south-west monsoon in June and persists until September. The monsoon can seriously impact transport and cause major landslides. It restricts tourism – the trekking and mountaineering season is limited to either before the monsoon in April/May or after the monsoon in October/November (autumn). In Nepal and Sikkim, there are often considered to be five seasons: summer, [[monsoon]], autumn (or post-monsoon), winter and spring.

Using the [[Köppen climate classification]], the lower elevations of the Himalayas, reaching in mid elevations in central Nepal (including the Kathmandu valley), are classified as '''Cwa''', [[humid subtropical climate#South Asia|Humid subtropical climate]] with dry winters. Higher up, most of the Himalayas have a [[Oceanic climate#Subtropical highland variety|subtropical highland climate ('''Cwb''')]].

In the furthest west of the Himalayas, in the west of the Kashmir valley and the Indus valley, the South Asian monsoon is no longer a dominant factor and most precipitation falls in the spring. Srinagar receives around {{convert|723|mm|in|0}} around half the rainfall of locations such as Shimla and Kathmandu, with the wettest months being March and April.

The northern side of the Himalayas, also known as the Tibetan Himalaya, is dry, cold and generally wind swept particularly in the west where it has a [[Desert climate#Cold desert climates|cold desert climate]]. The vegetation is sparse and stunted and the winters are severely cold. Most of the precipitation in the region is in the form of snow during late winter and spring months.

Local impacts on climate are significant throughout the Himalayas. Temperatures fall by {{Convert|6.5|C-change|1}} for every 1000m rise in altitude. This gives rise to a variety of climates from nearly tropical in the foothills to [[tundra]] and permanent snow and ice. Local climate is also affected by the topography: The leeward side of the mountains receive less rain while the well exposed slopes get heavy rainfall and the [[rain shadow]] of large mountains can be significant, for example leading to near desert conditions in the [[Upper Mustang]] which is sheltered from the monsoon rains by the [[Annapurna]] and [[Dhaulagiri]] massifs and has annual precipitation of around 300mm, while [[Pokhara]] on the southern side of the massifs has substantial rainfall (3,900mm/year). Thus although annual precipitation is generally higher in east than the west, local variations are often more important.

The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and the Tibetan Plateau. They prevent frigid, dry winds from blowing south into the subcontinent, which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding [[temperate]] regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the [[Monsoon of Indian subcontinent|monsoon]] winds, keeping them from traveling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the [[Terai]] region. The Himalayas are also believed to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts, such as the [[Taklamakan]] and [[Gobi]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Devitt|first=Terry|title=Climate shift linked to rise of Himalayas, Tibetan Plateau|newspaper=University of Wisconsin–Madison News|date=3 May 2001|url=http://www.news.wisc.edu/6138|accessdate=1 November 2011}}</ref>

==Ecology==
{{main article|Ecology of the Himalayas}}
[[File:Lightmatter snowleopard.jpg|thumb|Captive snow leopard]]The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at the highest elevations. The amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall and soil conditions combined with the very high snow line supports a variety of distinct plant and animal communities. The extremes of high altitude (low atmospheric pressure) combined with extreme cold favor [[extremophile]] organisms.<ref>{{cite web|first=C. Michael|last=Hogan|year=2010|url=http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/160977/|title=Extremophile|editor1-first=E.|editor1-last=Monosson |work=Encyclopedia of Earth|publisher=National Council for Science and the Environment|location=Washington DC}}</ref>

[[File:Hemitragus jemlahicus Jharal.jpg|thumb|Male Himalayan Tahr in Nepal]]
[[file:RedPandaFullBody.JPG|thumb|Red Panda]] At high altitudes, the elusive and endangered [[snow leopard]] is the main predator. Its prey includes members of the goat family grazing on the alpine pastures and living on the rocky terrain, notably the endemic [[bharal]] or Himalayan blue sheep. The [[Himalayan musk deer]] is also found at high altitude. Hunted for its musk, it is now rare and endangered. Other endemic or near endemic herbivores include the [[Himalayan tahr]], the [[takin]], the [[Himalayan serow]], and the [[Himalayan goral]]. The critically endangered [[Himalayan brown bear|Himalayan]] subspecies of the [[brown bear]] is found sporadically across the range as is the [[Asian black bear]]. In the mountainous mixed deciduous and conifer forests of the eastern Himalayas, [[Red panda]] feed in the dense understories of bamboo. Lower down the forests of the foothills are inhabited by several different primates, including the endangered [[Gee's golden langur]] and the [[Kashmir gray langur]], with highly restricted ranges in the east and west of the Himalayas respectively.

The unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to [[climate change]]. [[Hydrangea hirta]] is an example of floral species that can be found in this area. The increase in temperature is shifting various species to higher elevations. The oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some tree species, especially [[rhododendron]], apple and ''[[Myrica esculenta|box myrtle]]''. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is ''[[Juniperus tibetica]]'' located at {{convert|4900|m|ft|-1}} in Southeastern Tibet.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.uni-marburg.de/fb19/personal/professoren/miehe/pdfs/20074.pdf|title=Highest Treeline in the Northern Hemisphere Found in Southern Tibet|first1=Georg|last1=Miehe|first2=Sabine|last2=Miehe|first3=Jonas|last3=Vogel|first4=Sonam|last4=Co|first5=La|last5=Duo|journal=Mountain Research and Development|volume=27|issue=2|date=May 2007|pages=169–173|doi=10.1659/mrd.0792|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606103046/http://www.uni-marburg.de/fb19/personal/professoren/miehe/pdfs/20074.pdf|archivedate=6 June 2013}}</ref>

== Culture ==
The Himalayan population belongs to four distinct cultural groups, who throughout history have systematically penetrated the isolated indigenous Himalayan population. Those migrating cultures – Hindu (Indian), Buddhist (Tibetan), Islamic (Afghanistan–Iran) and Animist (Burmese and south-eastern Asian) – without any doubt have created here their own individual and unique place.<ref>Apollo, M. (2017). The population of Himalayan regions – by the numbers: Past, present and future. [In:] R. Efe, M. Öztürk (eds.), Contemporary Studies in Environment and Tourism, Chapter: 9 (pp.143–159). Publisher: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=bmPXDgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA145&dq=related:FmViXjXaASwJ:scholar.google.com/&ots=oKLCNOteR9&sig=A83K5prI2vJp06Sz17E2P15wtRw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> Their current arrangement, though with a few exceptions, is linked to specific geographical regions, and the relative altitude at which they occur.

There are many cultural aspects of the Himalayas. For the Hindus, the Himalayas are personified as Himavath, the father of the goddess Parvati.<ref name=":1" /> The Himalayas is also considered to be the father of the river Ganges. The Mountain Kailash is a sacred peak to the Hindus and is where the Lord Shiva is believed to live.<ref name=":3" /> Two of the most sacred places of pilgrimage for the Hindus is the temple complex in Pashupatinath and Muktinath, also known as Saligrama because of the presence of the sacred black rocks called saligrams.<ref name=JEE/>

The Buddhists also lay a great deal of importance on the mountains of the Himalayas. Paro Taktsang is the holy place where Buddhism started in Bhutan.<ref name=":3" /> The Muktinath is also a place of pilgrimage for the Tibetan Buddhists. They believe that the trees in the poplar grove came from the walking sticks of eighty-four ancient Indian Buddhist magicians or ''mahasiddhas''. They consider the saligrams to be representatives of the Tibetan serpent deity known as Gawo Jagpa.<ref name=":4">Zurick, David, Julsun Pacheco, Basanta Raj. Shrestha, and Birendra Bajracharya. Illustrated Atlas of the Himalaya. Lexington: U of Kentucky, 2006. Google Books. The University Press of Kentucky. Web. 11 Nov. 2015.</ref>

The Himalayan people’s diversity shows in many different ways. It shows through their architecture, their languages and dialects, their beliefs and rituals, as well as their clothing.<ref name=":4" /> The shapes and materials of the people’s homes reflect their practical needs and the beliefs. Another example of the diversity amongst the Himalayan peoples is that handwoven textiles display colors and patterns unique to their ethnic backgrounds. Finally, some people place a great importance on jewellery. The Rai and Limbu women wear big gold earrings and nose rings to show their wealth through their jewellery.<ref name=":4" />

==Religions of the region==
[[File:Taktshang.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Paro Taktsang|Taktsang]] Monastery, [[Bhutan]], also known as the "Tiger's Nest"]]

Several places in the Himalayas are of religious significance in [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]]. A notable example of a religious site is [[Paro Taktsang]], where [[Padmasambhava]] is said to have founded Buddhism in Bhutan.<ref name="Pommaret">{{cite book|author=Pommaret, Francoise|title=Bhutan Himalayan Mountains Kingdom|edition=5th|publisher=Odyssey Books and Guides|year=2006|pages=136–7|isbn=978-9622178106}}</ref> Padmasambhava is also worshipped as the [[patron saint]] of [[Sikkim]]. There are also [[Muslim]] and Hindhu Shaivite [[Kashmiri Pandit]] in the area of [[Kashmir]].

In Hinduism, the Himalayas have been personified as the king of all Mountain – "Giriraj [[Himavat]]", father of [[Ganges in Hinduism|Ganga]] and [[Parvati]] (form of [[Adi Shakti]] [[Durga]]).<ref>{{cite book|title=Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend|isbn=0-500-51088-1|first=Anna|last=Dallapiccola|year=2002}}</ref>

A number of [[Vajrayana|Vajrayana Buddhist]] sites are situated in the Himalayas, in [[Tibet]], [[Bhutan]] and in the Indian regions of [[Ladakh]], Sikkim, [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Spiti Valley|Spiti]] and [[Darjeeling]]. There were over 6,000 [[List of Tibetan monasteries|monasteries]] in Tibet, including the residence of the [[Dalai Lama]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7307495.stm|title=Tibetan monks: A controlled life|publisher=BBC News|date=20 March 2008}}</ref> Bhutan, Sikkim and Ladakh are also dotted with numerous monasteries. The [[Tibetan Muslims]] have their own mosques in [[Lhasa]] and [[Shigatse]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200510/27/eng20051027_217176.html|title=Mosques in Lhasa, Tibet|newspaper=People's Daily Online|date=27 October 2005}}</ref>

== Resources ==
The Himalayas are home to a diversity of medicinal resources. Plants from the forests have been used for millennia to treat conditions ranging from simple coughs to snake bites.<ref name = JEE>{{cite web
|url= http://ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1746-4269-9-1
|title=Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India
|last= Jahangeer A. Bhat, Munesh Kumar and Rainer W. Bussmann
|date=2 January 2013
|website=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine
|publisher=BioMed Central
|access-date=22 January 2016}}</ref>
Different parts of the plants – root, flower, stem, leaves, and bark – are used as remedies for different ailments. For example, a bark extract from an ''abies pindrow'' tree is used to treat coughs and bronchitis. Leaf and stem paste from an ''arachne cordifolia'' is used for wounds and as an antidote for snake bites. The bark of a ''callicarpa arborea'' is used for skin ailments.<ref name=JEE /> Nearly a fifth of the [[gymnosperm]]s, [[Flowering plants|angiosperms]] and [[pteridophyte]]s in the Himalayas are found to have medicinal properties, and more are likely to be discovered.<ref name=JEE/>

Most of the population in some Asian and African countries depend on medicinal plants rather than prescriptions and such (Gupta and Sharma, vii).<ref name=":1">Gupta, Pankaj and Sharma, Vijay Kumar, Author. Healing Traditions of the Northwestern Himalayas. 2014. Print. SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science.</ref> Since so many people use medicinal plants as their only source of healing in the Himalayas, the plants are an important source of income. This contributes to economic and modern industrial development both inside and outside the region (Gupta and Sharma, 5).<ref name=":1" /> The only problem is that locals are rapidly clearing the forests on the Himalayas for wood, often illegally (Earth Island Journal, 2).<ref>"Himalayan Forests Disappearing." Earth Island Journal 21.4 (2006): 7–8. Academic Search Complete. Web. 2 Nov. 2015.</ref> This means that the number of medicinal plants is declining and that some of them might become rarer or, in some cases, go extinct.

Although locals are clearing out portions of the forests in the Himalayas, there is still a large amount of greenery ranging from the tropical forests to the Alpine forests. These forests provide wood for fuel and other raw materials for use by industries. There are also many pastures for animals to graze upon (Mohita, sec. Forest and Wealth).<ref name=":2">Mohita, Negi. "Himalayas: 10 Significance of the Himalaya Mountains to India (Notes)."YourArticleLibrarycom The Next Generation Library. N.p., 21 Nov. 2013. Web. 11 Nov. 2015.</ref> The many varieties of animals that live in these mountains do so based on the elevation. For example, elephants and rhinoceros live in the lower elevations of the Himalayas, also called the Terai region. Also, found in these mountains are the Kashmiri stag, black bears, musk deer, langur, and snow leopards. The Tibetan yak are also found on these mountains and are often used by the people for transportation. However, the populations of many of these animals and still others are declining and are on the verge of going extinct (Admin, sec. Flora and Fauna).<ref name=":3">Admin. "King of Mountains: The Himalayas." Knowledge Of India. N.p., 20 Mar. 2015. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.</ref>

The Himalayas are also a source of many minerals and precious stones. Amongst the tertiary rocks, are vast potentials of mineral oil. There is coal located in Kashmir, and precious stones located in the Himalayas. There is also gold, silver, copper, zinc, and many other such minerals and metals located in at least 100 different places in these mountains (Mohita, sec. Minerals).<ref name=":2" />

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=}}
* [[List of Himalayan topics]]
* [[Eastern Himalaya|Eastern]], [[Garhwal Himalaya|Garhwal]] and [[Western Himalaya]]
* [[List of Himalayan peaks and passes]] and [[List of Himalayan peaks of Uttarakhand|of Himalayan peaks of Uttarakhand]]
* [[Indian Himalayan Region]]
* [[List of mountains in India]], [[List of mountains in Pakistan|Pakistan]], [[Mountains of Bhutan|Bhutan]], [[List of mountains in Nepal|Nepal]] and [[List of mountains in China|China]]
* [[List of Ultras of the Himalayas]]
* [[Mahalangur Himal]]
* [[Trekking peak]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name=circum>
{{cite journal
| title=Geochemistry of the Suspended Sediments of Circum-Himalayan Rivers and Weathering Budgets over the Last 50 Myrs
| journal = Geophysical Research Abstracts | year=2003 |volume = 5 |id=Abstract 13617| publisher = European Geophysical Society
| last1=Gaillardet | first1=J. | last2 =Métivier|first2 =F. | last3 =Lemarchand|first3 =D.
| last4=Dupré|first4 =B. | last5 =Allègre|first5 =C. J. | last6 =Li|first6 =W.
| last7=Zhao|first7 =J.
| url=http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EAE03/13617/EAE03-J-13617.pdf
| accessdate=4 November 2006| bibcode = 2003EAEJA....13617G }}</ref>
<ref name=gits4u>
{{cite web | url=http://www.gits4u.com/wb/wb6a.htm | title=Sunderbans the world's largest delta | publisher=gits4u.com | accessdate=3 January 2015 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103191637/http://www.gits4u.com/wb/wb6a.htm | archivedate=3 January 2015 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>
<ref name=IPPC2007>
{{cite web | url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch10s10-6-2.html
| title=the Himalayan Glaciers | date=2007 |website=Fourth assessment report on climate change
| publisher=IPPC|accessdate=22 January 2014}}</ref>
<ref name=Kuhle2011>
{{cite book | title=Quaternary Glaciation – Extent and Chronology, A Closer Look
| author = Kuhle, M. | year=2011
| chapter=The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and Last Glacial Maximum) Ice Cover of High and Central Asia, with a Critical Review of Some Recent OSL and TCN Dates
| editor1-last=Ehlers|editor1-first=J.|editor2-last=Gibbard|editor2-first=P.L.|editor3-last=Hughes|editor3-first=P.D.
| location=Amsterdam|publisher=Elsevier BV|pages=943–965}}</ref>
<ref name=Kuhle2005>
{{cite journal | last=Kuhle|first=M.|year=2005
| title=The maximum Ice Age (Würmian, Last Ice Age, LGM) glaciation of the Himalaya – a glaciogeomorphological investigation of glacier trim-lines, ice thicknesses and lowest former ice margin positions in the Mt. Everest-Makalu-Cho Oyu massifs (Khumbu- and Khumbakarna Himal) including informations on late-glacial-, neoglacial-, and historical glacier stages, their snow-line depressions and ages
| journal=GeoJournal|volume=62|location=Dordrecht|publisher=Kluwer|pages=193–650|issue=3–4|doi=10.1007/s10708-005-2338-6}}</ref>
<ref name=Kuhle1987>
{{cite journal
| title=Subtropical mountain- and highland-glaciation as ice age triggers and the waning of the glacial periods in the Pleistocene
| author = Kuhle, M. | year=1987 |journal=GeoJournal|volume=14|issue=4|pages=393–421|doi=10.1007/BF02602717}}</ref>
<ref name=pbs_nature>
{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/the-himalayas/himalayas-facts/6341/
| title=The Himalayas |work=Nature on PBS|accessdate=21 January 2014}}</ref>
<ref name=USGS>
{{cite web | url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/himalaya.html
| title = The Himalayas: Two continents collide | publisher = USGS | date = 5 May 1999 | accessdate = 3 January 2015}}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
* [[William McKay Aitken|Aitken, Bill]], ''Footloose in the Himalaya'', Delhi, Permanent Black, 2003. {{ISBN|81-7824-052-1}}
* Berreman, Gerald Duane, ''Hindus of the Himalayas: Ethnography and Change'', 2nd rev. ed., Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1997.
* Bisht, Ramesh Chandra, ''Encyclopedia of the Himalayas'', New Delhi, Mittal Publications, c2008.
* ''Everest'', the IMAX movie (1998). {{ISBN|0-7888-1493-1}}
* Fisher, James F., ''Sherpas: Reflections on Change in Himalayan Nepal'', 1990. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990. {{ISBN|0-520-06941-2}}
* [[Augusto Gansser-Biaggi|Gansser, Augusto]], [[Andreas Gruschke|Gruschke, Andreas]], Olschak, Blanche C., ''Himalayas. Growing Mountains, Living Myths, Migrating Peoples'', New York, Oxford: Facts On File, 1987. {{ISBN|0-8160-1994-0}} and New Delhi: Bookwise, 1987.
* Gupta, Raj Kumar, ''Bibliography of the Himalayas'', Gurgaon, Indian Documentation Service, 1981
* [[John Hunt, Baron Hunt|Hunt, John]], ''Ascent of Everest'', London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1956. {{ISBN|0-89886-361-9}}
* [[Maurice Isserman|Isserman, Maurice]] and Weaver, Stewart, ''Fallen Giants: The History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes''. Yale University Press, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-300-11501-7}}
* Ives, Jack D. and Messerli, Bruno, ''The Himalayan Dilemma: Reconciling Development and Conservation''. London / New York, Routledge, 1989. {{ISBN|0-415-01157-4}}
* Lall, J.S. (ed.) in association with Moddie, A.D., ''The Himalaya, Aspects of Change''. Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1981. {{ISBN|0-19-561254-X}}
* Nandy, S.N., Dhyani, P.P. and Samal, P.K., ''Resource Information Database of the Indian Himalaya'', Almora, GBPIHED, 2006.
* [[Michael Palin|Palin, Michael]], ''Himalaya'', London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson Illustrated, 2004. {{ISBN|0-297-84371-0}}
* [[Swami Sundaranand]], ''Himalaya: Through the Lens of a Sadhu''. Published by Tapovan Kuti Prakashan (August 2001). {{ISBN|81-901326-0-1}}
* Swami [[Tapovan Maharaj]], ''Wanderings in the Himalayas'', English Edition, Madras, Chinmaya Publication Trust, 1960. Translated by T.N. Kesava Pillai.
* [[Bill Tilman|Tilman, H. W.]], ''Mount Everest, 1938'', Cambridge University Press, 1948.
* 'The Mighty Himalaya: A Fragile Heritage,’ [[National Geographic Magazine|National Geographic]], 174:624–631 (November 1988).
* Turner, Bethan, et al. ''Seismicity of the Earth 1900–2010: Himalaya and Vicinity''. Denver, United States Geological Survey, 2013.

==External links==
{{Commons+cat|Himalayas}}
{{wikivoyage|Himalayas}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/ The Digital Himalaya research project at Cambridge and Yale]
* {{cite web |url=http://zanskar.geoheritage.ch/CHAPITRE2/page23.html |title=The making of the Himalaya and major tectonic subdivisions |work=The geology of Zanskar |author=Pierre Dèzes |year=1999}}
* [http://oak.ucc.nau.edu/wittke/Tibet/Himalaya.html Geology of the Himalayan mountains]
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/earth/birth.html Birth of the Himalaya]
* [http://snobear.colorado.edu/Markw/Mountains/03/week11.html Some notes on the formation of the Himalaya]
* [http://www.metacafe.com/watch/383729/the_annapurna_trek_in_5_minutes/ Pictures from a trek in Annapurna (film by Ori Liber)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120404073252/http://www.ranjan.net.np/ranjan/index.php/resources/geology-of-nepal Geology of Nepal Himalaya]
* [http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/asia/south-asias-troubled-waters South Asia's Troubled Waters] Journalistic project at the Pulitzer Centre for Crisis Reporting
* [http://www.himalaya-info.org/ Die Berge des Himalaya] The mountains of Himalaya (in German – easily translatable online)

{{GeoSouthAsia}}
{{Himalayan earthquakes}}
{{Physical geography topics}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Himalayas| ]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Asia]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of the Himalayas| 01]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Bhutan]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of China]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of India]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Nepal]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Tibet]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of the Tibet Autonomous Region]]
[[Category:Biodiversity hotspots]]
[[Category:Landforms of South Asia]]
[[Category:Physiographic divisions]]
[[Category:Tibetan Plateau]]

Mia

2017-11-02T09:24:04Z

85.19.179.17:

Mia er kul {{wiktionary|MIA|Mia|mia}}
'''Mia''', '''MIA''', or '''M.I.A.''' may refer to:

{{TOC right}}

==Airports==
* [[Miami International Airport]] (with IATA code MIA), Miami, Florida, U.S.
** [[MIA Mover]], people mover at Miami International Airport
* [[Macau International Airport]], Macau special administrative region, China
* [[Malta International Airport]], Luqa, Malta
* [[Manila International Airport]], Manila, Philippines
* [[Memphis International Airport]], Memphis, Tennessee, U.S.
* [[Manchester Airport station]], railway station at Manchester Airport, U.K.
* [[Aden Adde International Airport|Mogadishu International Airport]], Somalia

==Government and politics==
* [[Macedonian Information Agency]], a public information service from the Republic of Macedonia
* [[Marxists Internet Archive]], a volunteer based non-profit organization that maintains a multi-lingual Internet archive of Marxist writers and other similar authors (socialists, anarchists, etc.)
* [[Missing in action]], a military term for a soldier, pilot or sailor who is in war, or the status of a missing combatant
** [[Missing in action (disambiguation)]]

==Music==

===Artists===
* [[M.I.A. (rapper)]] (born 1975), British-Tamil musician and visual artist
* [[M.I.A. (band)]], 1980s punk rock band from Orange County, California
* [[Mia (singer)]] (born 1983), Lithuanian singer and television presenter
* [[MIA.]], a German rock/pop band formed in 1997

===Songs===
* [[Mía (Armando Manzanero song)|"Mía" (Armando Manzanero song)]], later covered by other artists
* "Mia", by Chevelle on the album ''[[Point No. 1]]''
* [[Mía (Paulina Rubio song)|"Mía" (Paulina Rubio song)]], by Paulina Rubio on the album ''Pau-Latina''
* [[Mía (Tito El Bambino song)|"Mía" (Tito El Bambino song)]], by Tito el Bambino on the album ''Top of the Line''
* "Mia", by Aerosmith on the album ''[[Night in the Ruts]]''
* "Mia", by Emmy the Great on the album ''[[First Love (Emmy the Great album)|First Love]]''
* "Mia", by [[Gorki (band)|Gorki]] on the album ''Gorky'', 1992
* "Mia", by South Korean singer [[IU (singer)]]
* "Mia", by [[Sergio Bruni]], 1967
* "M.I.A.", by 7 Year Bitch on the album ''[[¡Viva Zapata!]]''
* "M.I.A.", by Avenged Sevenfold on the album ''[[City of Evil]]''
* "M.I.A.", by the Foo Fighters on the album ''[[There Is Nothing Left to Lose]]''
* "M.I.A.", by M.I.A. on the album ''[[Arular]]''
* "Le Mia", by the French rap band [[IAM (band)|IAM]]
* "Listed M.I.A.", by Rancid on the album ''[[...And Out Come the Wolves]]''


===Awards===
* MIA, abbreviation for a (Belgian) [[Music Industry Awards|Music Industry Award]]

==Organizations==
* [[Malaysian Institute of Accountants]], a statutory body responsible to regulate and develop the accountancy profession in Malaysia
* [[Messianic Israel Alliance]], serves the Messianic community as an organization for Messianic Jews and other Christians
* [[Michigan Islamic Academy]], an Islamic private day school in Ann Arbor, Michigan
* [[Minneapolis Institute of Arts]], Minnesota
* [[Montgomery Improvement Association]], Alabama
* [[Museum of Islamic Art (disambiguation)]], several independent museums housing collections of Islamic art and artefacts
* [[Mutual Improvement Association (disambiguation)|Mutual Improvement Association]], one of two youth programs operated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

==People==
* [[Mia (given name)]] (and people with the name)

==Other uses==
* [[Mia-dong]], a neighbourhood (''dong'') in Seoul, South Korea
* [[Mia (game)]], a dice game
* Mia, a common nickname for [[Miami]], United States
** [[Miami Dolphins]], a professional American football team
** [[Miami Heat]], a professional basketball team
* [[Mia electric]], an electric car
* [[Mia Milia]], a suburb of the city of Nicosia, Cyprus
* [[Mia Station]], a subway station in Seoul, South Korea
* [[Magnetic immunoassay]], a biochemical test
* [[Master of International Affairs]], a graduate degree
* [[Medically indigent adult]], a person without medical coverage
* [[The Misfits In Action]], a professional wrestling stable
* [[Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area]], New South Wales
* [[Museum of Islamic Art, Doha]], Qatar
* ''[[Mia Gracia]]'', a Philippine television series
* [[Mía Novoa]], a character in the television series ''{{lang|es|Grachi}}''
* [[Mia Shaheb Moidan]], a building in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* ''[[Mia and Roman]]'', a 1968 documentary film about Mia Farrow and Roman Polanski

{{Disambiguation}}

Mia

2017-11-02T09:23:31Z

85.19.179.17:

{{wiktionary|MIA|Mia|mia}}
'''Mia''', '''MIA''', or '''M.I.A.''' may refer to:

{{TOC right}}
Mia er kul

==Airports==
* [[Miami International Airport]] (with IATA code MIA), Miami, Florida, U.S.
** [[MIA Mover]], people mover at Miami International Airport
* [[Macau International Airport]], Macau special administrative region, China
* [[Malta International Airport]], Luqa, Malta
* [[Manila International Airport]], Manila, Philippines
* [[Memphis International Airport]], Memphis, Tennessee, U.S.
* [[Manchester Airport station]], railway station at Manchester Airport, U.K.
* [[Aden Adde International Airport|Mogadishu International Airport]], Somalia

==Government and politics==
* [[Macedonian Information Agency]], a public information service from the Republic of Macedonia
* [[Marxists Internet Archive]], a volunteer based non-profit organization that maintains a multi-lingual Internet archive of Marxist writers and other similar authors (socialists, anarchists, etc.)
* [[Missing in action]], a military term for a soldier, pilot or sailor who is in war, or the status of a missing combatant
** [[Missing in action (disambiguation)]]

==Music==

===Artists===
* [[M.I.A. (rapper)]] (born 1975), British-Tamil musician and visual artist
* [[M.I.A. (band)]], 1980s punk rock band from Orange County, California
* [[Mia (singer)]] (born 1983), Lithuanian singer and television presenter
* [[MIA.]], a German rock/pop band formed in 1997

===Songs===
* [[Mía (Armando Manzanero song)|"Mía" (Armando Manzanero song)]], later covered by other artists
* "Mia", by Chevelle on the album ''[[Point No. 1]]''
* [[Mía (Paulina Rubio song)|"Mía" (Paulina Rubio song)]], by Paulina Rubio on the album ''Pau-Latina''
* [[Mía (Tito El Bambino song)|"Mía" (Tito El Bambino song)]], by Tito el Bambino on the album ''Top of the Line''
* "Mia", by Aerosmith on the album ''[[Night in the Ruts]]''
* "Mia", by Emmy the Great on the album ''[[First Love (Emmy the Great album)|First Love]]''
* "Mia", by [[Gorki (band)|Gorki]] on the album ''Gorky'', 1992
* "Mia", by South Korean singer [[IU (singer)]]
* "Mia", by [[Sergio Bruni]], 1967
* "M.I.A.", by 7 Year Bitch on the album ''[[¡Viva Zapata!]]''
* "M.I.A.", by Avenged Sevenfold on the album ''[[City of Evil]]''
* "M.I.A.", by the Foo Fighters on the album ''[[There Is Nothing Left to Lose]]''
* "M.I.A.", by M.I.A. on the album ''[[Arular]]''
* "Le Mia", by the French rap band [[IAM (band)|IAM]]
* "Listed M.I.A.", by Rancid on the album ''[[...And Out Come the Wolves]]''


===Awards===
* MIA, abbreviation for a (Belgian) [[Music Industry Awards|Music Industry Award]]

==Organizations==
* [[Malaysian Institute of Accountants]], a statutory body responsible to regulate and develop the accountancy profession in Malaysia
* [[Messianic Israel Alliance]], serves the Messianic community as an organization for Messianic Jews and other Christians
* [[Michigan Islamic Academy]], an Islamic private day school in Ann Arbor, Michigan
* [[Minneapolis Institute of Arts]], Minnesota
* [[Montgomery Improvement Association]], Alabama
* [[Museum of Islamic Art (disambiguation)]], several independent museums housing collections of Islamic art and artefacts
* [[Mutual Improvement Association (disambiguation)|Mutual Improvement Association]], one of two youth programs operated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

==People==
* [[Mia (given name)]] (and people with the name)

==Other uses==
* [[Mia-dong]], a neighbourhood (''dong'') in Seoul, South Korea
* [[Mia (game)]], a dice game
* Mia, a common nickname for [[Miami]], United States
** [[Miami Dolphins]], a professional American football team
** [[Miami Heat]], a professional basketball team
* [[Mia electric]], an electric car
* [[Mia Milia]], a suburb of the city of Nicosia, Cyprus
* [[Mia Station]], a subway station in Seoul, South Korea
* [[Magnetic immunoassay]], a biochemical test
* [[Master of International Affairs]], a graduate degree
* [[Medically indigent adult]], a person without medical coverage
* [[The Misfits In Action]], a professional wrestling stable
* [[Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area]], New South Wales
* [[Museum of Islamic Art, Doha]], Qatar
* ''[[Mia Gracia]]'', a Philippine television series
* [[Mía Novoa]], a character in the television series ''{{lang|es|Grachi}}''
* [[Mia Shaheb Moidan]], a building in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* ''[[Mia and Roman]]'', a 1968 documentary film about Mia Farrow and Roman Polanski

{{Disambiguation}}

Khudadad Khan

2017-11-02T09:22:05Z

85.19.179.17:

{{Use Indian English|date=October 2013}}
{{Infobox military person
|name=Khudadad Khan
|birth_date={{birth date|df=yes|1888|10|20}}
|death_date={{Death date and age|df=yes|1971|03|08|1888|10|20}}
|image=Action by Sepoy Khudadad Khan VC Ypres.jpg
|caption=Depiction of Khudadad Khan manning machine gun on 31 October 1914.
|nickname=
|work=
|birth_place=[[Dab, Pakistan|Dab]], in [[Chakwal District]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]])
|death_place=[[Mandi Bahauddin]], Punjab
|allegiance=[[British India]]
|branch=[[British Indian Army]]
|serviceyears=
|rank=[[Subedar]]
|unit=[[129th Duke of Connaught's Own Baluchis]]
|commands=
|battles=[[First World War]]
|awards=[[Victoria Cross]]
|relations=
|laterwork=
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}} HIS best friend was Gavrilo Princip!!!!!

'''Khudadad Khan Minhas''', [[Victoria Cross|VC]] (20 October 1888 – 8 March 1971) was the first [[Indian people|Indian]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/foreverindia/stories/khudadad-khan-ghulam-haider-hollebke-east-africa.php |title=Khudadad Khan and Ghulam Haider of the 129th (Duke of Connaught's Own) Baluchis |website=[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]] |accessdate=31 August 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815032105/http://www.cwgc.org/foreverindia/stories/khudadad-khan-ghulam-haider-hollebke-east-africa.php |archivedate=15 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/untoldlives/2014/10/award-of-victoria-cross-to-khudadad-khan-1.html |first=Margaret |last=Makepeace |title=Award of Victoria Cross to Khudadad Khan |work=Untold lives blog |publisher=[[British Library]] |date=31 October 2014 |accessdate=7 August 2017}}</ref> recipient of the [[Victoria Cross]], the highest military award for gallantry in the face of the enemy given to [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] forces. On 31 October 1914, at [[Hollebeke]], [[Belgium]], 26-year-old Khan, then serving in the [[British Indian Army]], performed an act of bravery for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross during the [[First World War]].

A statue of Khudadad Khan Minhas is at the entrance of the [[Pakistan Army Museum]] in Rawalpindi.<ref name="PMM">{{cite web |url=http://www.museum.com/jb/showdia?id=2235 |title=Subedar Khuda Dad Khan |work=Pakistan Army Museum Collections |accessdate=27 February 2012}}</ref>

==Details==
Born on 20 October 1888 into a Minhas [[Rajput]] family<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.emel.com/article?id=65&a_id=2197 |title=Medals of Honour |website=[[Emel (magazine)|Emel]] |issue=62 |date=November 2009 |accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> in the village of [[Dab, Pakistan|Dab]] in [[Chakwal District]] of the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]], [[British Raj|British India]] (now [[Pakistan]]), Khudadad Khan was a [[Sepoy]] in the [[129th Duke of Connaught's Own Baluchis]], [[British Indian Army]] (now 11th Battalion The [[Baloch Regiment]] of [[Pakistan Army]]). The battalion formed part of the [[Indian Corps]], which was sent to [[France]] in 1914, to shore up the British forces fighting on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] during the [[First World War]].

In October 1914, the Germans launched a major offensive in northern [[Belgium]], in order to capture the vital ports of [[Boulogne]] in France and [[Nieuport]] in Belgium. In what came to be known as the [[First Battle of Ypres]], the newly arrived 129th Baluchis were rushed to the frontline to support the hard-pressed British troops. On 31 October, two companies of the Baluchis bore the brunt of the main German attack near the village of Gheluvelt in [[Hollebeke]] Sector. The out-numbered Baluchis fought gallantly but were overwhelmed after suffering heavy casualties. Sepoy Khudadad Khan’s machine-gun team, along with one other, kept their guns in action throughout the day; preventing the Germans from making the final breakthrough. The other gun was disabled by a shell and eventually Khudadad Khan’s own team was overrun. All the men were killed by bullets or bayonets except Khudadad Khan who, despite being badly wounded, had continued working his gun. He was left for dead by the enemy but despite his wounds he managed to crawl back to his regiment during the night. Thanks to his bravery, and that of his fellow Baluchis, the Germans were held up just long enough for Indian and British reinforcements to arrive. They strengthened the line, and prevented the German Army from reaching the vital ports. For his matchless feat of courage and gallantry, Sepoy Khudadad Khan was awarded the Victoria Cross.{{sfnp|Thatcher|1932|pp=13–17}}{{sfnp|Ahmed|1998|pp=173–178}}

Khudadad Khan retired as a [[Subedar]]. He died in 1971 and is buried in Chak No. 25, [[Mandi Bahauddin]]. His Victoria Cross is on display at his ancestral house in Village Dab (Chakwal), Pakistan.{{refn|group=note|There is some controversy as to whether the medal on display is genuine. According to contemporary newspaper reports Khudadad Khan's original VC was stolen from him in Rawalpindi in 1950, and a police report was lodged at that time but the medal was never recovered. In 2011, there were reports in Pakistan that the original VC was 'for confidential sale' with a jeweller in [[Haripur, Pakistan|Haripur]] area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://haripur.olx.com.pk/medal-victoria-cross-1914-for-sale-iid-68882112 |title=Victoria Cross 1914 for sale |work=[[OLX]] |accessdate=25 April 2012}}{{dead link|date=August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://omrite.blogspot.co.uk/2011/03/national-treasure-for-sale.html |title=National Treasure for Sale |work=omrite.blogspot |date=11 March 2011 |accessdate=25 April 2012}}</ref>}}

In 2016 a play by [[Ishy Din]], ''Wipers'', about Khudadad Khan's feat was put on in [[Leicester]].

== Official citation ==
{{quote|[[George V of the United Kingdom|His Majesty the KING-EMPEROR]] has been graciously pleased to approve of the grant of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned soldier of the Indian Army for conspicuous bravery whilst serving with the Indian Army Corps, British Expeditionary Force: —

4050, Sepoy Khudadad, 129th Duke of Connaught's Own Baluchis.

On 31st October, 1914, at [[Hollebeke]], [[Belgium]], the British Officer in charge of the detachment having been wounded, and the other gun put out of action by a shell, Sepoy Khudadad, though himself wounded, remained working his gun until all the other five men of the gun detachment had been killed.|London Gazette, 7 December 1914.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=28999 |page=10425 |supp=y |date=7 December 1914}}</ref>}}

He was awarded the medal on the same day as [[Darwan Singh Negi]] VC; but is regarded as the first Indian recipient, as the latter's VC action was of later date.

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
;Citations
{{Reflist}}
;Bibliography
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=The Fourth Battalion, Duke of Connaught's Own, Tenth Baluch Regiment in the Great War |first=W. S. |last=Thatcher |year=1932 |location=Cambridge |publisher=The University Press |isbn=1-84734-752-5}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=History of the Baloch Regiment 1820-1939 |first=Maj.-Gen. Rafiuddin |last=Ahmed |year=1998 |location=Abbottabad |publisher=The Baloch Regimental Centre |isbn=1-84734-130-6}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=History of 11th Battalion, the Baluch Regiment |first=Lt.-Col. I. A. |last=Qureshi |year=1966 |location=Lahore |publisher=The Allied Press}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Harvey |first=David |authorlink=David Charles Harvey |title=[[Monuments to Courage]] |year=1999 |publisher=Kevin & Kay Patience}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=[[The Register of the Victoria Cross]] |edition=3rd |year=1997 |publisher=This England |isbn=978-0-906324-27-1}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=[[VCs of the First World War - 1914]] |first=Gerald |last=Gliddon |publisher=Budding Books |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-84015-006-3}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |url=http://faculty.winthrop.edu/haynese/india/medals/VC/1KDKhan.html |title=Sepoy Khuda Dad Khan |work=The Victoria Cross (in India) (1912–1947) |publisher=[[Winthrop University]] |location=[[Rock Hill, South Carolina]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930024151/http://faculty.winthrop.edu/haynese/india/medals/VC/1KDKhan.html |archivedate=30 September 2007}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Khudadad}}
[[Category:Indian World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross]]
[[Category:British Indian Army officers]]
[[Category:1888 births]]
[[Category:1971 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Chakwal District]]
[[Category:Indian Army personnel of World War I]]

Khudadad Khan

2017-11-02T09:20:18Z

85.19.179.17:

HIS best friend was Gavrilo Princip !,!!!!{{Use Indian English|date=October 2013}}
{{Infobox military person
|name=Khudadad Khan
|birth_date={{birth date|df=yes|1888|10|20}}
|death_date={{Death date and age|df=yes|1971|03|08|1888|10|20}}
|image=Action by Sepoy Khudadad Khan VC Ypres.jpg
|caption=Depiction of Khudadad Khan manning machine gun on 31 October 1914.
|nickname=
|work=
|birth_place=[[Dab, Pakistan|Dab]], in [[Chakwal District]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]])
|death_place=[[Mandi Bahauddin]], Punjabh
|allegiance=[[British India]]
|branch=[[British Indian Army]]
|serviceyears=
|rank=[[Subedar]]
|unit=[[129th Duke of Connaught's Own Baluchis]]
|commands=
|battles=[[First World War]]
|awards=[[Victoria Cross]]
|relations=
|laterwork=
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}}

'''Khudadad Khan Minhas''', [[Victoria Cross|VC]] (20 October 1888 – 8 March 1971) was the first [[Indian people|Indian]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/foreverindia/stories/khudadad-khan-ghulam-haider-hollebke-east-africa.php |title=Khudadad Khan and Ghulam Haider of the 129th (Duke of Connaught's Own) Baluchis |website=[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]] |accessdate=31 August 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815032105/http://www.cwgc.org/foreverindia/stories/khudadad-khan-ghulam-haider-hollebke-east-africa.php |archivedate=15 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/untoldlives/2014/10/award-of-victoria-cross-to-khudadad-khan-1.html |first=Margaret |last=Makepeace |title=Award of Victoria Cross to Khudadad Khan |work=Untold lives blog |publisher=[[British Library]] |date=31 October 2014 |accessdate=7 August 2017}}</ref> recipient of the [[Victoria Cross]], the highest military award for gallantry in the face of the enemy given to [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] forces. On 31 October 1914, at [[Hollebeke]], [[Belgium]], 26-year-old Khan, then serving in the [[British Indian Army]], performed an act of bravery for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross during the [[First World War]].

A statue of Khudadad Khan Minhas is at the entrance of the [[Pakistan Army Museum]] in Rawalpindi.<ref name="PMM">{{cite web |url=http://www.museum.com/jb/showdia?id=2235 |title=Subedar Khuda Dad Khan |work=Pakistan Army Museum Collections |accessdate=27 February 2012}}</ref>

==Details==
Born on 20 October 1888 into a Minhas [[Rajput]] family<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.emel.com/article?id=65&a_id=2197 |title=Medals of Honour |website=[[Emel (magazine)|Emel]] |issue=62 |date=November 2009 |accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> in the village of [[Dab, Pakistan|Dab]] in [[Chakwal District]] of the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]], [[British Raj|British India]] (now [[Pakistan]]), Khudadad Khan was a [[Sepoy]] in the [[129th Duke of Connaught's Own Baluchis]], [[British Indian Army]] (now 11th Battalion The [[Baloch Regiment]] of [[Pakistan Army]]). The battalion formed part of the [[Indian Corps]], which was sent to [[France]] in 1914, to shore up the British forces fighting on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] during the [[First World War]].

In October 1914, the Germans launched a major offensive in northern [[Belgium]], in order to capture the vital ports of [[Boulogne]] in France and [[Nieuport]] in Belgium. In what came to be known as the [[First Battle of Ypres]], the newly arrived 129th Baluchis were rushed to the frontline to support the hard-pressed British troops. On 31 October, two companies of the Baluchis bore the brunt of the main German attack near the village of Gheluvelt in [[Hollebeke]] Sector. The out-numbered Baluchis fought gallantly but were overwhelmed after suffering heavy casualties. Sepoy Khudadad Khan’s machine-gun team, along with one other, kept their guns in action throughout the day; preventing the Germans from making the final breakthrough. The other gun was disabled by a shell and eventually Khudadad Khan’s own team was overrun. All the men were killed by bullets or bayonets except Khudadad Khan who, despite being badly wounded, had continued working his gun. He was left for dead by the enemy but despite his wounds he managed to crawl back to his regiment during the night. Thanks to his bravery, and that of his fellow Baluchis, the Germans were held up just long enough for Indian and British reinforcements to arrive. They strengthened the line, and prevented the German Army from reaching the vital ports. For his matchless feat of courage and gallantry, Sepoy Khudadad Khan was awarded the Victoria Cross.{{sfnp|Thatcher|1932|pp=13–17}}{{sfnp|Ahmed|1998|pp=173–178}}

Khudadad Khan retired as a [[Subedar]]. He died in 1971 and is buried in Chak No. 25, [[Mandi Bahauddin]]. His Victoria Cross is on display at his ancestral house in Village Dab (Chakwal), Pakistan.{{refn|group=note|There is some controversy as to whether the medal on display is genuine. According to contemporary newspaper reports Khudadad Khan's original VC was stolen from him in Rawalpindi in 1950, and a police report was lodged at that time but the medal was never recovered. In 2011, there were reports in Pakistan that the original VC was 'for confidential sale' with a jeweller in [[Haripur, Pakistan|Haripur]] area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://haripur.olx.com.pk/medal-victoria-cross-1914-for-sale-iid-68882112 |title=Victoria Cross 1914 for sale |work=[[OLX]] |accessdate=25 April 2012}}{{dead link|date=August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://omrite.blogspot.co.uk/2011/03/national-treasure-for-sale.html |title=National Treasure for Sale |work=omrite.blogspot |date=11 March 2011 |accessdate=25 April 2012}}</ref>}}

In 2016 a play by [[Ishy Din]], ''Wipers'', about Khudadad Khan's feat was put on in [[Leicester]].

== Official citation ==
{{quote|[[George V of the United Kingdom|His Majesty the KING-EMPEROR]] has been graciously pleased to approve of the grant of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned soldier of the Indian Army for conspicuous bravery whilst serving with the Indian Army Corps, British Expeditionary Force: —

4050, Sepoy Khudadad, 129th Duke of Connaught's Own Baluchis.

On 31st October, 1914, at [[Hollebeke]], [[Belgium]], the British Officer in charge of the detachment having been wounded, and the other gun put out of action by a shell, Sepoy Khudadad, though himself wounded, remained working his gun until all the other five men of the gun detachment had been killed.|London Gazette, 7 December 1914.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=28999 |page=10425 |supp=y |date=7 December 1914}}</ref>}}

He was awarded the medal on the same day as [[Darwan Singh Negi]] VC; but is regarded as the first Indian recipient, as the latter's VC action was of later date.

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
;Citations
{{Reflist}}
;Bibliography
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=The Fourth Battalion, Duke of Connaught's Own, Tenth Baluch Regiment in the Great War |first=W. S. |last=Thatcher |year=1932 |location=Cambridge |publisher=The University Press |isbn=1-84734-752-5}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=History of the Baloch Regiment 1820-1939 |first=Maj.-Gen. Rafiuddin |last=Ahmed |year=1998 |location=Abbottabad |publisher=The Baloch Regimental Centre |isbn=1-84734-130-6}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=History of 11th Battalion, the Baluch Regiment |first=Lt.-Col. I. A. |last=Qureshi |year=1966 |location=Lahore |publisher=The Allied Press}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Harvey |first=David |authorlink=David Charles Harvey |title=[[Monuments to Courage]] |year=1999 |publisher=Kevin & Kay Patience}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=[[The Register of the Victoria Cross]] |edition=3rd |year=1997 |publisher=This England |isbn=978-0-906324-27-1}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=[[VCs of the First World War - 1914]] |first=Gerald |last=Gliddon |publisher=Budding Books |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-84015-006-3}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |url=http://faculty.winthrop.edu/haynese/india/medals/VC/1KDKhan.html |title=Sepoy Khuda Dad Khan |work=The Victoria Cross (in India) (1912–1947) |publisher=[[Winthrop University]] |location=[[Rock Hill, South Carolina]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930024151/http://faculty.winthrop.edu/haynese/india/medals/VC/1KDKhan.html |archivedate=30 September 2007}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Khudadad}}
[[Category:Indian World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross]]
[[Category:British Indian Army officers]]
[[Category:1888 births]]
[[Category:1971 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Chakwal District]]
[[Category:Indian Army personnel of World War I]]

Khudadad Khan

2017-11-02T09:18:51Z

85.19.179.17:

{{Use Indian English|date=October 2013}}
{{Infobox military person
|name=Khudadad Khan
|birth_date={{birth date|df=yes|1888|10|20}}
|death_date={{Death date and age|df=yes|1971|03|08|1888|10|20}}
|image=Action by Sepoy Khudadad Khan VC Ypres.jpg
|caption=Depiction of Khudadad Khan manning machine gun on 31 October 1914.
|nickname=
|work=
|birth_place=[[Dab, Pakistan|Dab]], in [[Chakwal District]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]])
|death_place=[[Mandi Bahauddin]], Punjabh
|allegiance=[[British India]]
|branch=[[British Indian Army]]
|serviceyears=
|rank=[[Subedar]]
|unit=[[129th Duke of Connaught's Own Baluchis]]
|commands=
|battles=[[First World War]]
|awards=[[Victoria Cross]]
|relations=
|laterwork=
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}}

'''Khudadad Khan Minhas''', [[Victoria Cross|VC]] (20 October 1888 – 8 March 1971) was the first [[Indian people|Indian]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/foreverindia/stories/khudadad-khan-ghulam-haider-hollebke-east-africa.php |title=Khudadad Khan and Ghulam Haider of the 129th (Duke of Connaught's Own) Baluchis |website=[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]] |accessdate=31 August 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815032105/http://www.cwgc.org/foreverindia/stories/khudadad-khan-ghulam-haider-hollebke-east-africa.php |archivedate=15 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/untoldlives/2014/10/award-of-victoria-cross-to-khudadad-khan-1.html |first=Margaret |last=Makepeace |title=Award of Victoria Cross to Khudadad Khan |work=Untold lives blog |publisher=[[British Library]] |date=31 October 2014 |accessdate=7 August 2017}}</ref> recipient of the [[Victoria Cross]], the highest military award for gallantry in the face of the enemy given to [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] forces. On 31 October 1914, at [[Hollebeke]], [[Belgium]], 26-year-old Khan, then serving in the [[British Indian Army]], performed an act of bravery for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross during the [[First World War]].

A statue of Khudadad Khan Minhas is at the entrance of the [[Pakistan Army Museum]] in Rawalpindi.<ref name="PMM">{{cite web |url=http://www.museum.com/jb/showdia?id=2235 |title=Subedar Khuda Dad Khan |work=Pakistan Army Museum Collections |accessdate=27 February 2012}}</ref>

==Details==
Born on 20 October 1888 into a Minhas [[Rajput]] family<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.emel.com/article?id=65&a_id=2197 |title=Medals of Honour |website=[[Emel (magazine)|Emel]] |issue=62 |date=November 2009 |accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> in the village of [[Dab, Pakistan|Dab]] in [[Chakwal District]] of the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]], [[British Raj|British India]] (now [[Pakistan]]), Khudadad Khan was a [[Sepoy]] in the [[129th Duke of Connaught's Own Baluchis]], [[British Indian Army]] (now 11th Battalion The [[Baloch Regiment]] of [[Pakistan Army]]). The battalion formed part of the [[Indian Corps]], which was sent to [[France]] in 1914, to shore up the British forces fighting on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] during the [[First World War]].

In October 1914, the Germans launched a major offensive in northern [[Belgium]], in order to capture the vital ports of [[Boulogne]] in France and [[Nieuport]] in Belgium. In what came to be known as the [[First Battle of Ypres]], the newly arrived 129th Baluchis were rushed to the frontline to support the hard-pressed British troops. On 31 October, two companies of the Baluchis bore the brunt of the main German attack near the village of Gheluvelt in [[Hollebeke]] Sector. The out-numbered Baluchis fought gallantly but were overwhelmed after suffering heavy casualties. Sepoy Khudadad Khan’s machine-gun team, along with one other, kept their guns in action throughout the day; preventing the Germans from making the final breakthrough. The other gun was disabled by a shell and eventually Khudadad Khan’s own team was overrun. All the men were killed by bullets or bayonets except Khudadad Khan who, despite being badly wounded, had continued working his gun. He was left for dead by the enemy but despite his wounds he managed to crawl back to his regiment during the night. Thanks to his bravery, and that of his fellow Baluchis, the Germans were held up just long enough for Indian and British reinforcements to arrive. They strengthened the line, and prevented the German Army from reaching the vital ports. For his matchless feat of courage and gallantry, Sepoy Khudadad Khan was awarded the Victoria Cross.{{sfnp|Thatcher|1932|pp=13–17}}{{sfnp|Ahmed|1998|pp=173–178}}

Khudadad Khan retired as a [[Subedar]]. He died in 1971 and is buried in Chak No. 25, [[Mandi Bahauddin]]. His Victoria Cross is on display at his ancestral house in Village Dab (Chakwal), Pakistan.{{refn|group=note|There is some controversy as to whether the medal on display is genuine. According to contemporary newspaper reports Khudadad Khan's original VC was stolen from him in Rawalpindi in 1950, and a police report was lodged at that time but the medal was never recovered. In 2011, there were reports in Pakistan that the original VC was 'for confidential sale' with a jeweller in [[Haripur, Pakistan|Haripur]] area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://haripur.olx.com.pk/medal-victoria-cross-1914-for-sale-iid-68882112 |title=Victoria Cross 1914 for sale |work=[[OLX]] |accessdate=25 April 2012}}{{dead link|date=August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://omrite.blogspot.co.uk/2011/03/national-treasure-for-sale.html |title=National Treasure for Sale |work=omrite.blogspot |date=11 March 2011 |accessdate=25 April 2012}}</ref>}}

In 2016 a play by [[Ishy Din]], ''Wipers'', about Khudadad Khan's feat was put on in [[Leicester]].

== Official citation ==
{{quote|[[George V of the United Kingdom|His Majesty the KING-EMPEROR]] has been graciously pleased to approve of the grant of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned soldier of the Indian Army for conspicuous bravery whilst serving with the Indian Army Corps, British Expeditionary Force: —

4050, Sepoy Khudadad, 129th Duke of Connaught's Own Baluchis.

On 31st October, 1914, at [[Hollebeke]], [[Belgium]], the British Officer in charge of the detachment having been wounded, and the other gun put out of action by a shell, Sepoy Khudadad, though himself wounded, remained working his gun until all the other five men of the gun detachment had been killed.|London Gazette, 7 December 1914.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=28999 |page=10425 |supp=y |date=7 December 1914}}</ref>}}

He was awarded the medal on the same day as [[Darwan Singh Negi]] VC; but is regarded as the first Indian recipient, as the latter's VC action was of later date.

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
;Citations
{{Reflist}}
;Bibliography
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=The Fourth Battalion, Duke of Connaught's Own, Tenth Baluch Regiment in the Great War |first=W. S. |last=Thatcher |year=1932 |location=Cambridge |publisher=The University Press |isbn=1-84734-752-5}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=History of the Baloch Regiment 1820-1939 |first=Maj.-Gen. Rafiuddin |last=Ahmed |year=1998 |location=Abbottabad |publisher=The Baloch Regimental Centre |isbn=1-84734-130-6}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=History of 11th Battalion, the Baluch Regiment |first=Lt.-Col. I. A. |last=Qureshi |year=1966 |location=Lahore |publisher=The Allied Press}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Harvey |first=David |authorlink=David Charles Harvey |title=[[Monuments to Courage]] |year=1999 |publisher=Kevin & Kay Patience}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=[[The Register of the Victoria Cross]] |edition=3rd |year=1997 |publisher=This England |isbn=978-0-906324-27-1}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=[[VCs of the First World War - 1914]] |first=Gerald |last=Gliddon |publisher=Budding Books |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-84015-006-3}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |url=http://faculty.winthrop.edu/haynese/india/medals/VC/1KDKhan.html |title=Sepoy Khuda Dad Khan |work=The Victoria Cross (in India) (1912–1947) |publisher=[[Winthrop University]] |location=[[Rock Hill, South Carolina]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930024151/http://faculty.winthrop.edu/haynese/india/medals/VC/1KDKhan.html |archivedate=30 September 2007}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Khudadad}}
[[Category:Indian World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross]]
[[Category:British Indian Army officers]]
[[Category:1888 births]]
[[Category:1971 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Chakwal District]]
[[Category:Indian Army personnel of World War I]]

Khudadad Khan

2017-11-02T09:18:22Z

85.19.179.17:

{{Use Indian English|date=October 2013}}
{{Infobox military person
|name=Khudadad Khan
|birth_date={{birth date|df=yes|1888|10|20}}
|death_date={{Death date and age|df=yes|1971|03|08|1888|10|20}}
|image=Action by Sepoy Khudadad Khan VC Ypres.jpg
|caption=Depiction of Khudadad Khan manning machine gun on 31 October 1914.
|nickname=
|work=
|birth_place=[[Dab, Pakistan|Dab]], in [[Chakwal District]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]])
|death_place=[[Mandi Bahauddin]], Punjabh
|allegiance=[[British India]]
|branch=[[British Indian Army]]
|serviceyears=
|rank=[[Subedar]]
|unit=[[129th Duke of Connaught's Own Baluchis]]
|commands=
|battles=[[First World War]]
|awards=[[Victoria Cross]]
|relations=
|laterwork=
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}}

'''Khudadad Khan Minhas''', [[Victoria Cross|VC]] (20 October 1888 – 8 March 1971) was the first [[Indian people|Indian]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/foreverindia/stories/khudadad-khan-ghulam-haider-hollebke-east-africa.php |title=Khudadad Khan and Ghulam Haider of the 129th (Duke of Connaught's Own) Baluchis |website=[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]] |accessdate=31 August 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815032105/http://www.cwgc.org/foreverindia/stories/khudadad-khan-ghulam-haider-hollebke-east-africa.php |archivedate=15 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/untoldlives/2014/10/award-of-victoria-cross-to-khudadad-khan-1.html |first=Margaret |last=Makepeace |title=Award of Victoria Cross to Khudadad Khan |work=Untold lives blog |publisher=[[British Library]] |date=31 October 2014 |accessdate=7 August 2017}}</ref> recipient of the [[Victoria Cross]], the highest military award for gallantry in the face of the enemy given to [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] forces. On 31 October 1914, at [[Hollebeke]], [[Belgium]], 26-year-old Khan, then serving in the [[British Indian Army]], performed an act of bravery for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross during the [[First World War]].

A statue of Khudadad Khan Minhas is at the entrance of the [[Pakistan Army Museum]] in Rawalpindi.<ref name="PMM">{{cite web |url=http://www.museum.com/jb/showdia?id=2235 |title=Subedar Khuda Dad Khan |work=Pakistan Army Museum Collections |accessdate=27 February 2012}}</ref>
Hei

==Details==
Born on 20 October 1888 into a Minhas [[Rajput]] family<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.emel.com/article?id=65&a_id=2197 |title=Medals of Honour |website=[[Emel (magazine)|Emel]] |issue=62 |date=November 2009 |accessdate=13 September 2014}}</ref> in the village of [[Dab, Pakistan|Dab]] in [[Chakwal District]] of the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]], [[British Raj|British India]] (now [[Pakistan]]), Khudadad Khan was a [[Sepoy]] in the [[129th Duke of Connaught's Own Baluchis]], [[British Indian Army]] (now 11th Battalion The [[Baloch Regiment]] of [[Pakistan Army]]). The battalion formed part of the [[Indian Corps]], which was sent to [[France]] in 1914, to shore up the British forces fighting on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] during the [[First World War]].

In October 1914, the Germans launched a major offensive in northern [[Belgium]], in order to capture the vital ports of [[Boulogne]] in France and [[Nieuport]] in Belgium. In what came to be known as the [[First Battle of Ypres]], the newly arrived 129th Baluchis were rushed to the frontline to support the hard-pressed British troops. On 31 October, two companies of the Baluchis bore the brunt of the main German attack near the village of Gheluvelt in [[Hollebeke]] Sector. The out-numbered Baluchis fought gallantly but were overwhelmed after suffering heavy casualties. Sepoy Khudadad Khan’s machine-gun team, along with one other, kept their guns in action throughout the day; preventing the Germans from making the final breakthrough. The other gun was disabled by a shell and eventually Khudadad Khan’s own team was overrun. All the men were killed by bullets or bayonets except Khudadad Khan who, despite being badly wounded, had continued working his gun. He was left for dead by the enemy but despite his wounds he managed to crawl back to his regiment during the night. Thanks to his bravery, and that of his fellow Baluchis, the Germans were held up just long enough for Indian and British reinforcements to arrive. They strengthened the line, and prevented the German Army from reaching the vital ports. For his matchless feat of courage and gallantry, Sepoy Khudadad Khan was awarded the Victoria Cross.{{sfnp|Thatcher|1932|pp=13–17}}{{sfnp|Ahmed|1998|pp=173–178}}

Khudadad Khan retired as a [[Subedar]]. He died in 1971 and is buried in Chak No. 25, [[Mandi Bahauddin]]. His Victoria Cross is on display at his ancestral house in Village Dab (Chakwal), Pakistan.{{refn|group=note|There is some controversy as to whether the medal on display is genuine. According to contemporary newspaper reports Khudadad Khan's original VC was stolen from him in Rawalpindi in 1950, and a police report was lodged at that time but the medal was never recovered. In 2011, there were reports in Pakistan that the original VC was 'for confidential sale' with a jeweller in [[Haripur, Pakistan|Haripur]] area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://haripur.olx.com.pk/medal-victoria-cross-1914-for-sale-iid-68882112 |title=Victoria Cross 1914 for sale |work=[[OLX]] |accessdate=25 April 2012}}{{dead link|date=August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://omrite.blogspot.co.uk/2011/03/national-treasure-for-sale.html |title=National Treasure for Sale |work=omrite.blogspot |date=11 March 2011 |accessdate=25 April 2012}}</ref>}}

In 2016 a play by [[Ishy Din]], ''Wipers'', about Khudadad Khan's feat was put on in [[Leicester]].

== Official citation ==
{{quote|[[George V of the United Kingdom|His Majesty the KING-EMPEROR]] has been graciously pleased to approve of the grant of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned soldier of the Indian Army for conspicuous bravery whilst serving with the Indian Army Corps, British Expeditionary Force: —

4050, Sepoy Khudadad, 129th Duke of Connaught's Own Baluchis.

On 31st October, 1914, at [[Hollebeke]], [[Belgium]], the British Officer in charge of the detachment having been wounded, and the other gun put out of action by a shell, Sepoy Khudadad, though himself wounded, remained working his gun until all the other five men of the gun detachment had been killed.|London Gazette, 7 December 1914.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=28999 |page=10425 |supp=y |date=7 December 1914}}</ref>}}

He was awarded the medal on the same day as [[Darwan Singh Negi]] VC; but is regarded as the first Indian recipient, as the latter's VC action was of later date.

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
;Citations
{{Reflist}}
;Bibliography
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=The Fourth Battalion, Duke of Connaught's Own, Tenth Baluch Regiment in the Great War |first=W. S. |last=Thatcher |year=1932 |location=Cambridge |publisher=The University Press |isbn=1-84734-752-5}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=History of the Baloch Regiment 1820-1939 |first=Maj.-Gen. Rafiuddin |last=Ahmed |year=1998 |location=Abbottabad |publisher=The Baloch Regimental Centre |isbn=1-84734-130-6}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=History of 11th Battalion, the Baluch Regiment |first=Lt.-Col. I. A. |last=Qureshi |year=1966 |location=Lahore |publisher=The Allied Press}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Harvey |first=David |authorlink=David Charles Harvey |title=[[Monuments to Courage]] |year=1999 |publisher=Kevin & Kay Patience}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=[[The Register of the Victoria Cross]] |edition=3rd |year=1997 |publisher=This England |isbn=978-0-906324-27-1}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=[[VCs of the First World War - 1914]] |first=Gerald |last=Gliddon |publisher=Budding Books |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-84015-006-3}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |url=http://faculty.winthrop.edu/haynese/india/medals/VC/1KDKhan.html |title=Sepoy Khuda Dad Khan |work=The Victoria Cross (in India) (1912–1947) |publisher=[[Winthrop University]] |location=[[Rock Hill, South Carolina]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930024151/http://faculty.winthrop.edu/haynese/india/medals/VC/1KDKhan.html |archivedate=30 September 2007}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Khudadad}}
[[Category:Indian World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross]]
[[Category:British Indian Army officers]]
[[Category:1888 births]]
[[Category:1971 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Chakwal District]]
[[Category:Indian Army personnel of World War I]]

Shamanism

2017-10-24T07:30:05Z

85.19.179.17: Fixed typo

{{Redirect2|Shaman|Shamans}}
{{Anthropology of religion|Basic|image=[[File:Khagdaev1.JPG|center|300px]]|caption= [[Buryats|Buryat]] shaman on [[Olkhon Island]], [[Siberia]]}}
'''Shamanism''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|ɑː|m|ə|n}} {{respell|SHAH|men}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|eɪ|m|ə|n}} {{respell|SHAYSHAY|mən}}) is a practice that involves a practitioner reaching [[altered state of consciousness|altered states of consciousness]] in order to perceive and interact with a spirit world and channel these transcendental energies into this world.<ref>[[#Hop87|Hoppál 1987]]. p. 76.</ref>

A '''shaman''' is someone who is regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of [[evocation|benevolent and malevolent spirits]], who typically enters into a [[magical place|Wonder land]] during a [[ritual]], and practices [[divination]] and [[healing]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/shaman?view=uk|title=Oxford Dictionaries - Dictionary, Thesaurus, & Grammar|publisher=}}</ref> The word "shaman" probably originates from the [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] [[Evenki language]] of [[North Asia]]. According to ethnolinguist [[Juha Janhunen]], "the word is attested in all of the Tungusic idioms" such as [[Negidal language|Negidal]], [[Lamut language|Lamut]], [[Udege language|Udehe]]/[[Oroch language|Orochi]], [[Nanai language|Nanai]], Ilcha, [[Orok language|Orok]], [[Manchu language|Manchu]] and [[Ulch language|Ulcha]], and "nothing seems to contradict the assumption that the meaning 'shaman' also derives from Proto-Tungusic" and may have roots that extend back in time at least two millennia.<ref>Juha Janhunen, Siberian shamanistic terminology, ''Suomalais-ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia/ Memoires de la Société finno-ougrienne,'' 1986, 194: 97–98</ref> The term was introduced to the west after [[Russia]]n forces [[Siege of Kazan|conquered]] the shamanistic [[Khanate of Kazan]] in 1552.

The term "shamanism" was first applied by [[Western world|Western]] anthropologists as outside observers of the ancient religion of the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and [[Mongols]], as well as those of the neighbouring [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] and [[Samoyedic languages|Samoyedic]]-speaking peoples. Upon observing more religious traditions across the world, some Western anthropologists began to also use the term in a very broad sense, to describe unrelated magico-religious practices found within the [[ethnic religion]]s of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and even completely unrelated parts of the Americas, as they believed these practices to be similar to one another.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Shamanism, Discourse, Modernity |last=Alberts |first=Thomas |publisher=Ashgate |year=2015 |isbn=9781472439864|location=Farnham|pages=73–79}}</ref>

[[Mircea Eliade]] writes, "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = 'technique of [[religious ecstasy]]'."<ref name = Eli72>Mircea Eliade, ''Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy'', Bollingen Series LXXVI, Princeton University Press 1972, pp. 3–7.</ref> Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters [[otherworld|supernatural realms]] or [[Plane (esotericism)|dimensions]] to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the spiritual world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment.<ref name = Eli72/>

Beliefs and practices that have been categorised this way as "shamanic" have attracted the interest of scholars from a wide variety of disciplines, including anthropologists, archaeologists, historians, religious studies scholars, philosophers and psychologists. Hundreds of books and [[Academic publishing#Scholarly paper|academic paper]]s on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. In the 20th century, many Westerners involved in the counter-cultural movement have created modern magico-religious practices influenced by their ideas of indigenous religions from across the world, creating what has been termed [[neoshamanism]] or the neoshamanic movement.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gredig|first1=Florian|title=Finding New Cosmologies|date=2009|publisher=Lit Verlag Dr. W. Hopf|location=Berlin}}</ref> It has affected the development of many [[Neopaganism|neopagan]] practices, as well as faced a backlash and accusations of [[cultural appropriation]],<ref name="Waveland Press">{{cite book|last1=Kehoe|first1=Alice Beck|title=Shamans and religion : an anthropological exploration in critical thinking|date=2000|publisher=Waveland Press|location=Prospect Heights, Ill.|isbn=1577661621}}</ref> exploitation and misrepresentation when outside observers have tried to represent cultures they do not belong to.<ref name="Wernitznig2">Wernitznig, Dagmar, ''Europe's Indians, Indians in Europe: European Perceptions and Appropriations of Native American Cultures from Pocahontas to the Present''. University Press of America, 2007: p.132. "What happens further in the [[Plastic Shaman]]'s [fictitious] story is highly irritating from a perspective of cultural hegemony. The Injun elder does not only willingly share their spirituality with the white intruder but, in fact, must come to the conclusion that this intruder is as good an Indian as they are themselves. Regarding Indian spirituality, the Plastic Shaman even out-Indians the actual ones. The messianic element, which Plastic Shamanism financially draws on, is installed in the Yoda-like elder themselves. They are the ones – while melodramatically parting from their spiritual offshoot – who urge the Plastic Shaman to share their gift with the rest of the world. Thus Plastic Shamans wipe their hands clean of any megalomaniac or missionizing undertones. Licensed by the authority of an Indian elder, they now have every right to spread their wisdom, and if they make (quite more than) a buck with it, then so be it.—The neocolonial ideology attached to this scenario leaves less room for cynicism."</ref><ref name="Hobson">G. Hobson, "The Rise of the White Shaman as a New Version of Cultural Imperialism." in: Hobson, Gary, ed. ''The Remembered Earth''. Albuquerque, NM: Red Earth Press; 1978: 100-108.</ref>

==Terminology==

===Etymology===
[[File:Witsen's Shaman.JPG|thumb|The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, drawn by the Dutch explorer [[Nicolaes Witsen]], who wrote an account of his travels among Samoyedic- and Tungusic-speaking peoples in 1692. Witsen labelled the illustration as a "Priest of the Devil," giving this figure clawed feet to express what he thought were demonic qualities.<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. p. 32.</ref>]]

The word "shaman" probably originates from the [[Evenki language|Evenki]] word "''šamán,''" most likely from the southwestern dialect spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples.<ref>Juha Janhunan, Siberian shamanistic terminology, ''Memoires de la Societe finno-ougrienne'' 1986, 194:97.</ref> The Tungusic term was subsequently adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman [[Avvakum]].<ref>Written before 1676, first printed in 1861; see [[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. p. vii.</ref>

The word was brought to Western Europe in the late 17th century by the Dutch traveler [[Nicolaes Witsen]], who reported his stay and journeys among the Tungusic and Samoyedic-speaking indigenous peoples of Siberia in his book ''Noord en Oost Tataryen'' (1692).<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]], p. 32.</ref> [[Adam Brand (explorer)|Adam Brand]], a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China; a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word ''shaman'' to English speakers.<ref>Adam Brand, ''Driejaarige Reize naar China'', Amsterdam 1698; transl. ''A Journal of an Ambassy'', London 1698; see Laufer B., "Origin of the Word Shaman," ''American Anthropologist,'' 19 (1917): 361–71 and Bremmer J., "Travelling souls? Greek shamanism reconsidered", in Bremmer J.N. (ed.), ''The Rise and Fall of the Afterlife,'' London: Routledge, 2002, pp. 7–40. ([http://theol.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2002/594/c3.pdf PDF])</ref>

The etymology of the Evenki word is sometimes connected to a Tungus root ''ša-'' "to know".<ref name="cogmap">Hoppál 2005: 15</ref><ref name="Diószegi 1962:13">Diószegi 1962: 13</ref> This has been questioned on linguistic grounds: "The possibility cannot be completely rejected, but neither should it be accepted without reservation since the assumed derivational relationship is phonologically irregular (note especially the vowel quantities)."<ref>Januhnan, 1986: 98.</ref> Other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the [[Manchu language]], and as such would be the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language.<ref>{{cite book|last=Crossley|first=Pamela Kyle|title=The Manchus|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|year=1996|isbn=1557865604}}</ref>

However, [[Mircea Eliade]] noted that the [[Sanskrit]] word ''[[sramana|śramaṇa]],'' designating a wandering monastic or holy figure, has spread to many Central Asian languages along with [[Buddhism]] and could be the ultimate origin of the Tungusic word.<ref>{{cite book |last=Eliade |first=Mircea |author-link=Mircea Eliade |year=1989 |title=Shamanism |publisher=Arkana Books |page =495}}</ref> This proposal has been thoroughly critiqued since 1917. Ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen regards it as an "anachronism" and an "impossibility" that is nothing more than a "far-fetched etymology."<ref>Janhunen, 1986:98.</ref>

21st-century anthropologist and archeologist Shane Dawson argues that by the mid-1600s, many Europeans applied the Arabic term ''shaitan,'' meaning "devil," to the non-Christian practices and beliefs of indigenous peoples beyond the Ural Mountains.<ref>Tomaskova, 2013, 76–78, 104–105.</ref> She suggests that ''shaman'' may have entered the various Tungus dialects as a corruption of this term, and then been told to Christian missionaries, explorers, soldiers and colonial administrators with whom the people had increasing contact for centuries. Ethnolinguists did not develop as a discipline nor achieve contact with these communities until the late 19th century, and may have mistakenly "read backward" in time for the origin of this word.

===Definitions===
[[File:SB - Altay shaman with drum.jpg|thumb|Russian postcard based on a photo taken in 1908 by S.I. Borisov, showing a female shaman, of probable [[Khakas people|Khakas]] ethnicity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |authorlink= |title=Sámánok Eurázsiában |year=2005 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-05-8295-3}} pp. 77, 287; {{cite book |last=Znamensky |first=Andrei A. |chapter=Az ősiség szépsége: altáji török sámánok a szibériai regionális gondolkodásban (1860–1920) |pages=117–134 |editor=Molnár, Ádám |title=Csodaszarvas. Őstörténet, vallás és néphagyomány. Vol. I |publisher=Molnár Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2005 |isbn=963-218-200-6 |language=Hungarian}}, p. 128</ref>]]

There is no single agreed-upon definition for the word "shamanism" among anthropologists. The English historian [[Ronald Hutton]] noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, there were four separate definitions of the term which appeared to be in use. The first of these uses the term to refer to "anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness." The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness at the behest of others. The third definition attempts to distinguish shamans from other magico-religious specialists who are believed to contact spirits, such as "[[mediumship|medium]]s", "[[witch doctor]]s", "spiritual healers" or "prophets," by claiming that shamans undertake some particular technique not used by the others. Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be. The fourth definition identified by Hutton uses "shamanism" to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia.<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. pp. vii–viii.</ref> According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, the Evenk word ''shaman'' would more accurately be translated as "priest".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tengerism.org/table_of_contents.html|title = Circle of Tengerism}}</ref>

==Initiation and learning==
Shamans are normally "called" by dreams or signs which require lengthy training. However, shamanic powers may be "inherited".

Turner and colleagues<ref>Turner et al., p. 440</ref> mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a [[rite of passage]] for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can be found in the detailed case history of [[Oroqen people|Chuonnasuan]], the last master shaman among the Tungus peoples in Northeast China.<ref>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]] (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref>

The [[wounded healer]] is an [[archetype]] for a shamanic trial and journey. This process is important to the young shaman. S/he undergoes a type of sickness that pushes her or him to the brink of death. This happens for two reasons:
# The shaman crosses over to the underworld. This happens so the shaman can venture to its depths to bring back vital information for the sick, and the tribe.
# The shaman must become sick to understand sickness. When the shaman overcomes his or her own sickness, s/he will hold the cure to heal all that suffer. This is the uncanny mark of the wounded healer.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Halifax | first = Joan |authorlink = Joan Halifax |title = Shaman: The Wounded Healer |publisher = [[Thames & Hudson]] |year = 1982 |location = London |isbn = 9780500810293 |oclc = 8800269}}</ref>

== Roles ==
{{Anthropology of religion}}

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een shamaan op Zuid-Boeroe bezweert boze geesten de kinderen te verlaten waarbij hij een geldstuk en een sirihnoot offert TMnr 10001031.jpg|thumb|[[Maluku Islands|South Moluccan]] Shaman exorcising evil spirits occupying children, [[Buru]], [[Indonesia]]. (1920)]]

Shamans claim to gain knowledge and the power to heal by entering into the [[Spirit world (Spiritualism)|spiritual world]] or dimension. Most shamans have [[dream]]s or [[Vision (spirituality)|visions]] that convey certain messages. The shaman may have or acquire many [[spirit guides]], who often guide and direct the shaman in his/her travels in the spirit world. These spirit guides are always present within the shaman, although others encounter them only when the shaman is in a [[trance]]. The spirit guide energizes the shaman, enabling him/her to enter the spiritual dimension. The shaman heals within the spiritual dimension by returning 'lost' parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. The shaman also cleanses excess negative energies, which confuse or pollute the soul.

Shamans act as [[Mediation|mediators]] in their culture. <ref name=mediator>Hoppál 2005: 45</ref><ref name=mediator2>Boglár 2001: 24</ref> The shaman communicates with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the deceased. The shaman communicates with both living and dead to alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver gifts to the spirits.

Among the [[Selkup people|Selkups]], the [[Merginae|sea duck]] is a spirit animal. Ducks fly in the air and dive in the water. Thus ducks are believed to belong to both the upper world and the world below.<ref name="Hoppal_a">Hoppál 2005: 94</ref> Among other Siberian peoples, these characteristics are attributed to water fowl in general.<ref>Vitebsky 1996: 46</ref> The upper world is the afterlife primarily associated with deceased humans and is believed to be accessed by soul journeying through a portal in the sky. The lower world or "world below" is the afterlife primarily associated with animals and is believed to be accessed by soul journeying through a portal in the earth.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ingerman |first=Sandra |date=2004 |title=Shamanic Journeying: A Beginner's Guide |url=https://www.amazon.com/Shamanic-Journeying-Beginners-Sandra-Ingerman/dp/1591799430 |publisher= Sounds True |isbn=9781591799436}}</ref> In shamanic cultures many animals are regarded as spirit animals.

Shamans perform a variety of functions depending upon their respective cultures; <ref name=multfunc>Hoppál 2005: 25</ref> healing,<ref name=sem-shamheal>{{cite web |last=Sem |first=Tatyana |url=http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html |title=Shamanic Healing Rituals |publisher=Russian Museum of Ethnography}}</ref><ref>Hoppál 2005: 27–28</ref> leading a [[sacrifice]],<ref>Hoppál 2005: 28–33</ref> preserving the [[tradition]] by [[storytelling]] and songs,<ref name=memory>Hoppál 2005: 37</ref> [[fortune-telling]],<ref>Hoppál 2005: 34–35</ref> and acting as a [[psychopomp]] (literal meaning, "guide of souls").<ref name=psychopomp>Hoppál 2005: 36</ref> A single shaman may fulfill several of these functions.<ref name="multfunc" />

The functions of a shaman may include either guiding to their proper abode the souls of the dead (which may be guided either one-at-a-time or in a cumulative group, depending on culture), and/or curing (healing) of ailments. The ailments may be either purely physical afflictions—such as disease, which may be cured by gifting, flattering, threatening, or wrestling the disease-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may be completed by displaying a supposedly extracted token of the disease-spirit (displaying this, even if "fraudulent", is supposed to impress the disease-spirit that it has been, or is in the process of being, defeated, so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient's body), or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions—such as persistent terror (on account of a frightening experience), which may be likewise cured by similar methods. In most languages a different term other than the one translated "shaman" is usually applied to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may be more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), however, in the case of an interpreter of omens or of dreams.

There are distinct types of shaman who perform more specialized functions. For example, among the [[Nani people]], a distinct kind of shaman acts as a [[psychopomp]].<ref>Hoppál 2005:36164</ref> Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the [[Nenets people|Nenets]], [[Enets people|Enets]], and [[Selkup people|Selkup]] shaman.<ref>Hoppál 2005: 87–95</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm|title=Shamanism in Siberia: Part III. Religion: Chapter IX. Types of Shamans|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> Among the [[Huichol people|Huichol]],<ref name=Mexico>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/Peyote.html |title=Lost souls of the Peyote Trail |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure }}</ref> there are two categories of shaman. This demonstrates the differences among shamans within a single tribe.

Among the [[Hmong people]], the shaman or the ''Ntxiv Neej'' (Tee-Neng), acts as healer. The Ntxiv Neej also performs rituals/ceremonies (soul retrievals) designed to call the soul back from its many travels to the physical human body. A Ntxiv Neej may use several shamanistic tools such as swords, divinity horns, a gong (drum), or finger bells/jingles. All tools serve to protect the spirits from the eyes of the unknown, thus enabling the Ntxiv Neej to deliver souls back to their proper owner. The Ntxiv Neej may wear a white, red, or black veil to disguise the soul from its attackers in the spiritual dimension.

Boundaries between the shaman and laity are not always clearly defined. Among the [[Barasana]] of Brazil, there is no absolute difference between those recognized as shamans and those who are not.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} At the lowest level, most adults have abilities as shamans and will carry out the same functions as those who have a widespread reputation for their powers and knowledge. The Barasana shaman knows more [[Mythology|myth]]s and understands their meaning better, nonetheless the majority of adults also know many myths.<ref name=barasana-myths>Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980: 32</ref>

Among [[Inuit]] peoples the laity have experiences which are commonly attributed to the [[Shamanism among Eskimo peoples#Shamanism in various Eskimo groups|shamans of those Inuit groups]]. [[Daydream]], reverie, and [[trance]] are not restricted to shamans.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/> Control over / alliance with helping spirits is the primary characteristic attributed to shamans. The laity usually employ [[amulet]]s, spells, formulas, songs.<ref name="Mer-BecHalfHid"/><ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 8–10</ref> Among the [[Greenland Inuit]], the laity have greater capacity to relate with spiritual beings. These people are often apprentice shamans who failed to complete their initiations.<ref name="failed-shaman" />

The assistant of an [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] shaman (called ''jardalanin'', or "second spirit") knows many things about the associated beliefs. He or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behavior of the shaman.<ref name=Guan_Kouni>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]]: 10, footnote 10 (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref> Despite these functions, the jardalanin is ''not'' a shaman. For this interpretative assistant, it would be unwelcome to fall into trance.<ref name=interpreter>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]]: 8–9 (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref>

==Ecological aspect==
Among the [[Tucano people]], a sophisticated system exists for [[environmental resources management]] and for avoiding resource depletion through overhunting. This system is conceptualized mythologically and symbolically by the belief that breaking hunting restrictions may cause illness. As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading role in this [[Ecology|ecological]] management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. The shaman is able to "release" game animals, or their souls, from their hidden abodes.<ref name=eco>Reichel-Dolmatoff 1997</ref><ref>Vitebsky 1996: 107</ref> The [[Piaroa people]] have ecological concerns related to shamanism.<ref name=ecopia/> Among the [[Inuit]], shamans fetch the souls of game from remote places,<ref>Merkur 1985: 5</ref><ref>Vitebsky 1996: 108</ref> or [[soul travel]] to ask for game from mythological beings like the [[Sedna (mythology)|Sea Woman]].<ref>Kleivan & Sonne: 27–28</ref>

==Economics==
The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies across cultures. In many Inuit groups, they provide services for the community and get a "due payment" (cultures),{{who|date=February 2012}} believe the payment is given to the helping spirits<ref name=mshare/> but these goods are only "welcome addenda." They are not enough to enable shamanizing as a full-time activity. Shamans live like any other member of the group, as a hunter or housewife. Due to the popularity of [[ayahuasca tourism]] in South America, there are practitioners in areas frequented by backpackers who make a living from leading ceremonies.<ref name="failed-shaman">Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24</ref><ref name=mshare>Merkur 1985: 3</ref>

==Beliefs==
There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, but several common beliefs are shared by all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified by [[Mircea Eliade|Eliade]] (1972)<ref name = Eli72/> are the following:

* Spirits exist and they play important roles both in individual lives and in human society.
* The shaman can communicate with the spirit world.
* Spirits can be benevolent or malevolent.
* The shaman can treat sickness caused by malevolent spirits.
* The shaman can employ [[trance]] inducing techniques to incite visionary ecstasy and go on [[vision quest]]s.
* The shaman's spirit can leave the body to enter the [[supernatural]] world to search for answers.
* The shaman evokes animal images as [[spirit guides]], [[omen]]s, and message-bearers.
* The shaman can perform other varied forms of [[divination]], [[scry]], throw bones/[[runes]], and sometimes foretell of future events.

Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which affect the lives of the living.<ref name=Peru>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/Peru.html |title=Hell and Back |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure }}</ref> Although the causes of disease lie in the spiritual realm, inspired by malicious spirits, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman "enters the body" of the patient to confront the spiritual infirmity and heals by banishing the infectious spirit.

Many shamans have expert knowledge of medicinal plants native to their area, and an herbal treatment is often prescribed. In many places shamans learn directly from the plants, harnessing their effects and healing properties, after obtaining permission from the indwelling or patron spirits. In the Peruvian Amazon Basin, shamans and ''[[curandero]]s'' use medicine songs called ''[[icaro]]s'' to evoke spirits. Before a spirit can be summoned it must teach the shaman its song.<ref name="Peru" /> The use of [[totem]]ic items such as rocks with special powers and an [[Animism|animating spirit]] is common.

Such practices are presumably very ancient. [[Plato]] wrote in his ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'' that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that those who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth".

Belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as ''[[brujería]]'' in Latin America, exists in many societies. Other societies assert all shamans have the power to both cure and kill. Those with shamanic knowledge usually enjoy great power and prestige in the community,{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} but they may also be regarded suspiciously or fearfully as potentially harmful to others.

By engaging in their work, a shaman is exposed to significant personal risk, from the spirit world, from enemy shamans, or from the means employed to alter the shaman's [[state of consciousness]]. Shamanic plant materials can be toxic or fatal if misused. Failure to return from an [[Astral projection|out-of-body journey]] can lead to death.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} [[Spell (paranormal)|Spell]]s are commonly used to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is often very highly ritualized.

===Soul and spirit concepts===
The variety of functions described above may seem like distinct tasks, but they may be united by underlying soul and spirit concepts.

;[[Soul (spirit)|Soul]]
:This concept can generally explain more, seemingly unassociated phenomena in shamanism:<ref name=all-soul>[[#Mer85|Merkur 1985]]: 4</ref><ref>[[#Vit96|Vitebsky 1996]]: 11, 12–14, 107</ref><ref name=soulsham>[[#Hop05|Hoppál 2005]]: 27, 30, 36</ref>

;[[Healing]]
:This concept may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief system of the people served by the shaman.<ref name=sem-shamheal/> It may consist of retrieving the lost soul of the ill person.<ref name=resoul>Hoppál 2005: 27</ref> See also the [[soul dualism]] concept.

;[[Scarcity]] of hunted game
:This problem can be solved by "releasing" the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Besides that, many [[taboo]]s may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, so that the souls of the animals do not feel angry or hurt, or the pleased soul of the already killed prey can tell the other, still living animals, that they can allow themselves to be caught and killed.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 7, 19–21</ref><ref name=Gab-KarEszk>Gabus, Jean: A karibu eszkimók. Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 1970. (Hungarian translation of the original: Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous, Libraire Payot Lausanne, 1944.) It describes the life of Caribou Eskimo groups.</ref> For the ecological aspects of shamanistic practice, and related beliefs, see below.

;[[Infertility]] of women
:This problem can be cured by obtaining the soul of the expected child.

;[[Spirit]]s
:Beliefs related to [[spirit]]s can explain many different phenomena.<ref>[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 18</ref> For example, the importance of [[storytelling]], or acting as a singer, can be understood better if we examine the whole belief system. A person who can memorize long texts or songs, and play an instrument, may be regarded as the beneficiary of contact with the spirits (e.g. [[Khanty people]]).<ref name=singtellplay>Hoppál 2005: 99</ref>

==Practice==
{{See also|Religious ecstasy}}
Generally, the shaman traverses the [[axis mundi]] and enters the spirit world by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an [[Religious ecstasy|ecstatic]] [[trance]], either [[Autosuggestion|autohypnotically]] or through the use of [[entheogen]]s. The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together.

===Entheogens===
[[File:Flowering San Pedro cactus.jpg|thumb|alt=text|Flowering [[Echinopsis pachanoi|San Pedro]], an entheogenic cactus that has been used for over 3,000 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mescaline.com/sanpedro/|title=A Brief History of the San Pedro Cactus|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> Today the vast majority of extracted mescaline is from columnar cacti, not vulnerable [[peyote]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/151962/0|title=Lophophora williamsii|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref>]]

An entheogen ("generating the divine within")<ref>{{citation |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/entheogen | title=Entheogen | publisher=[dictionary.com] |accessdate=2012-03-13}}</ref> is a [[psychoactive]] substance used in a [[religion|religious]], shamanic, or [[spirituality|spiritual]] context.<ref>
{{cite web
| url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-89132008000500010&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en
| title=Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology – Jurema-Preta (Mimosa tenuiflora [Willd.] Poir.): a review of its traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacology
| publisher=www.scielo.br
| accessdate=2009-01-14
| last=
| first=
}}</ref> Entheogens have been used in a [[ritual]]ized context for thousands of years; their religious significance is well established in anthropological and modern evidences. Examples of traditional entheogens include: [[peyote]], [[psilocybin mushroom]]s, uncured [[tobacco]], [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], [[ayahuasca]], ''[[Salvia divinorum]]'', ''[[Tabernanthe iboga]]'', ''[[Ipomoea tricolor]]'', and ''[[Amanita muscaria]]''.

Some shamans observe dietary or customary restrictions particular to their tradition. These restrictions are more than just cultural. For example, the diet followed by shamans and apprentices prior to participating in an [[ayahuasca]] ceremony includes foods rich in [[tryptophan]] (a biosynthetic precursor to [[serotonin]]) as well as avoiding foods rich in [[tyramine]], which could induce [[hypertensive crisis]] if ingested with [[MAOI]]s such as are found in ayahuasca brews as well as abstinence from alcohol or sex.<ref name="Peru" />

===Music and songs===
{{See also|Shamanic music|Imitation of sounds in shamanism}}
Just like shamanism itself,<ref name="cogmap"/> music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse, far from being alike. In several instances, songs related to shamanism are intended to imitate [[natural sounds]], via [[onomatopoeia]].<ref name=onom>{{cite web|url=http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf |title=healthCheck |publisher= |accessdate=6 June 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402105719/http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf |archivedate=2 April 2015 |df= }}</ref>

[[Sound mimesis in various cultures]] may serve other functions not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals as luring game in the hunt;<ref name = natt/> or entertainment ([[Inuit throat singing]]).<ref name=natt>Nattiez: 5</ref><ref name=desch>{{cite web|url=http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm|title=Inuit Throat-Singing|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref>

===Other practices===
* [[Dancing]]
* [[Singing]]
* [[Icaro]]s / Medicine Songs<ref name="Peru" />
* [[Vigil]]s
* [[Fasting]]
* [[Sweat lodge]]
* [[Vision quests]]
* [[Mariri]]
* Sword fighting / [[Bladesmithing]]

===Paraphernalia===
[[File:Raven Rattle, 19th century, 05.588.7292.jpg|thumbnail|Raven Rattle, 19th century, [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
Shamans may have various kinds of paraphernalia in different cultures.
[[File:Goldes shaman priest in his regalia.png|thumb|[[Golds (ethnic group)|Goldes]] shaman priest in his regalia]]


* '''Drum''' – The [[drum]] is used by shamans of several peoples in Siberia, the Inuit, and many other cultures all over the world,<ref>Barüske 1969: 24, 50–51</ref> although its usage for shamanistic [[seance]]s may be lacking among the Inuit of Canada.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 25</ref> The beating of the drum allows the shaman to achieve an altered state of consciousness or to travel on a journey between the physical and spiritual worlds.<ref name="Maxfield, Melinda 1994">Maxfield, Melinda. [https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=95141255 "The journey of the drum."] ''ReVision'' 16.4 (1994): 157.</ref> Much fascination surrounds the role that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman. Shaman drums are generally constructed of an animal-skin stretched over a bent wooden hoop, with a handle across the hoop.
* '''Feathers''' – In numerous North and South American cultures, as well as in Europe and Asia, birds are seen as messengers of the spirits. Feathers are often used in ceremonies and in individual healing rituals.
* '''Rattle''' – Found mostly among South American<ref name=rattle-south>Vitebsky 1996: 49</ref> and African peoples. Also used in ceremonies among the [[Navajo people|Navajo]] and in traditional ways in their blessings and ceremonies.
* '''Gong''' – Often found through South East Asia, Far Eastern peoples.
* '''Pipe''' – Used for smoking various tobaccos and psychoactive herbs (e.g. tobacco in North and South America, cannabis in Eurasia).
* '''Sword''' – In [[Hmong customs and culture#Shamanism|Hmong Shamanism]], a holy sword will always be used in the practice to protect the shaman from wandering "evil" spirits as he travels to the spirit world.
* '''Shake''' – Found mostly in Hmong Shamanism, the shaman begins his practice by rattling, which turns into a shake. It is the process of communicating with his shamanistic spirits to guide him to the spirit world.
* '''Long Table''' – A flexible wooden table, approximately nine by two feet, is used in Hmong Shamanism; the table transforms into a "flying horse" in the spirit world.
* '''Rooster''' – A rooster is often used in Hmong Shamanism. A shaman uses a rooster when he journeys to the unknown. It is said that the rooster shields the shaman from wandering "evil" spirits by making him invisible; thus, the evil spirits only see the rooster's useless spirit.

==Academic study==
[[File:Shaman.jpg|thumb|[[Sami people|Sami]] shaman with his drum]]

===Cognitive, semiotic, hermeneutic approaches===
As mentioned, a (debated) approach explains the etymology of the word "shaman" as meaning "one who knows".<ref name="Diószegi 1962:13" /><ref name="Hoppál 2005:14">Hoppál 2005: 14</ref> Functionally, the shaman is a person who is an expert in keeping together the multiple [[code]]s of the society. Accordingly, the society's codes are the manifestation of the society's underlying complex belief system. Thus to be effective, shamans maintain a comprehensive view in their mind which gives them certainty of [[knowledge]].<ref name="cogmap"/> The shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple [[code]]s. Shamans express meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects such as [[amulet]]s.<ref name="Hoppál 2005:14"/>

The shaman knows the [[culture]] of his or her community well,<ref name="mediator2" /><ref>[[#Pen95|Pentikäinen 1995]]: 270</ref><ref name=knowncult>Hoppál 2005: 25–26,43</ref> and acts accordingly. Thus, their audience knows the used [[symbol]]s and meanings—that is why shamanism can be efficient: people in the audience trust it.<ref name=knowncult/> For example, the shaman's [[drum]]ming can appear to its members as certainty of ''[[knowledge]]''—this explains the above described etymology for the word "shaman" as meaning "one who knows."<ref name=etym2>Hoppál 2004: 14</ref>

There are [[Semiotics|semiotic]] theoretical approaches to shamanism,<ref name=semi>Hoppál 2005: 13–15, 58, 197</ref><ref>Hoppál 2006a: 11</ref><ref>Hoppál 2006b: 175</ref> ("[[ethnosemiotics]]"). The symbols on the shaman's costume and drum can refer to [[Power animal]]s, or to the rank of the shaman.

There are also examples of "mutually opposing symbols", distinguishing a "white" shaman who contacts sky spirits for good aims by day, from a "black" shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims by night.<ref name=semiotics_of_shamanism>[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 24–25</ref> (Series of such opposing symbols referred to a world-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammar arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, also this formed a cognitive map).<ref name="cogmap" /><ref name=hop-natworsib>Hoppál, Mihály: [http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol4/hoppal.htm Nature worship in Siberian shamanism]</ref> Shaman's lore is rooted in the folklore of the community, which provides a "mythological mental map".<ref>[[#Hop07b|Hoppál 2007b]]: 12–13</ref><ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25">[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 25</ref> [[Juha Pentikäinen]] uses the concept ''"grammar of mind"''.<ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25"/><ref>[[#Pen95|Pentikäinen 1995]]: 270–271</ref> Linking to a Sami example, Kathleen Osgood Dana writes:

{{quote|Juha Pentikäinen, in his introduction to Shamanism and Northern Ecology, explains how the Sámi drum embodies Sámi worldviews. He considers shamanism to be a ''‘grammar of mind’'' (10), because shamans need to be experts in the folklore of their cultures (11).<ref name=dan-aill>{{harvnb|Dana|2004}}: 18 (see [http://uit.no/getfile.php?PageId=977&FileId=183#search=%22Juha%20Pentik%C3%A4inen%20grammar%20of%20mind%22 online])</ref>}}

Armin Geertz coined and introduced the [[hermeneutics]],<ref>Merkur 1985: v</ref> "ethnohermeneutics",<ref name=hop-natworsib/> approaches to the practice of interpretation. Hoppál extended the term to include not only the interpretation of oral and written texts, but that of "visual texts as well (including motions, gestures and more complex ritual, and ceremonies performed for instance by shamans)".<ref name=ethnohermeneutics>[[#Hop07b|Hoppál 2007b]]: 13</ref> It not only reveals the [[Animism|animistic]] views hiding behind shamanism, but also conveys their relevance for the contemporary world, where ecological problems have validated paradigms about balance and protection.<ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25"/>

===Ecological approaches, systems theory===
Other [[fieldwork]]s use [[systems theory]] concepts and ecological considerations to understand the shaman's [[Folklore|lore]]. Desana and [[Tucano people|Tucano]] Indians have developed a sophisticated symbolism and concepts of "energy" flowing between people and animals in cyclic paths. [[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]] relates these concepts to developments in the ways that modern science (systems theory, ecology, new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats [[causality]] in a less linear fashion.<ref name=eco/> He also suggests a cooperation of modern science and indigenous lore.<ref name=coop>[[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]]: [http://www.theecologist.info/page9.html A View from the Headwaters]. The Ecologist, Vol. 29 No. 4, July 1999.</ref>

===Hypotheses on origins===
Shamanic practices may originate as early as the [[Paleolithic]], predating all organized religions,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/clottes/page7.php |title=Shamanism in Prehistory |author=Jean Clottes |accessdate=2008-03-11 |work=Bradshaw foundation }}</ref><ref name=Narr>{{cite web |url=http://concise.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=109434&fullArticle=true&tocId=52333 |author=Karl J. Narr
|title=Prehistoric religion |accessdate=2008-03-28 |work=Britannica online encyclopedia 2008 }}</ref> and certainly as early as the [[Neolithic]] period.<ref name=Narr/> The earliest known undisputed burial of a shaman (and by extension the earliest undisputed evidence of shamans and shamanic practices) dates back to the early [[Upper Paleolithic|Upper Paleolithic era]] (c. 30,000 BP) in what is now the Czech Republic.<ref>Tedlock, Barbara. 2005. The Woman in the Shaman's Body: Reclaiming the Feminine in Religion and Medicine. New York: Bantam</ref>

Sanskrit scholar and comparative mythologist [[Michael Witzel]] proposes that all of the world's mythologies, and also the concepts and practices of shamans, can be traced to the migrations of two prehistoric populations: the "Gondwana" type (of circa 65,000 years ago) and the "Laurasian" type (of circa 40,000 years ago).<ref>Witzel, 2011.</ref> The more recent Laurasian types of myths and forms of shamanism are found in Eurasian and North and South America and are later cultural elaborations based upon the earlier Gondwana types of myths and shamanism, both of which probably derived from an earlier human source population. Witzel argues that survivals of the older, original forms of shamanism are therefore to be found in the southern hemisphere among peoples such as the San Bushmen of Botswana, the Andamanese of the Andaman Islands off the coast of Burma, and the Aborigines of Australia. The so-called "classical" shamanism of Siberia and the Americas reflect a further cultural evolutionary development at the local levels.

Early anthropological studies theorize that shamanism developed as a magic practice to ensure a successful hunt or gathering of food. Evidence in caves and drawings on walls support indications that shamanism started during the Paleolithic era. One such picture featured a half-animal, with the face and legs of a man, with antlers and a tail of a stag.<ref>Winkelman, Michael. Shamanism: a Biopsychosocial Paradigm of Consciousness and Healing. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010. Print.</ref>

Archaeological evidence exists for [[Mesolithic]] shamanism. The oldest known shaman grave in the world is located in the Czech Republic at Dolni Vestonice (National Geographic No 174 October 1988). This grave site was evidence of a female shaman.

In November 2008, researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in [[Pre-history of the Southern Levant|Israel]] that is perceived as one of the earliest known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on the head, pelvis and arms. Among her unusual [[grave goods]] were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 graves at the site, located in a cave in lower [[Galilee]] and belonging to the [[Natufian culture]], but is said to be unlike any other among the Epipaleolithic Natufians or in the Paleolithic period.<ref>"Earliest known shaman grave site found: study", reported by [[Reuters]] via [[Yahoo! News]], November 4, 2008, [https://www.webcitation.org/5c5MCHK7R?url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20081104/sc_nm/us_shaman_israel/print archived.] see ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences''.</ref>

[[Robert Sapolsky]] has theorized that shamanism is practiced by [[schizotypal]] individuals.<ref>{{YouTube|4WwAQqWUkpI|Dr. Robert Sapolsky's lecture about Biological Underpinnings of Religiosity}}</ref>

===Historical-anthropological school of folkloristics===
Folklorists have evaluated the presence of remnants of shamanism and shamanic practice in [[Folklore|folktale]]s from around the world. Michael Berman identified the genre of the [[Shamanic Story|shamanic story]], examples of which are only produced by folk groups with shamanic cosmology or a shamanic world view. Kultkrantz points out that, "in areas where shamanism has long been a thing of the past, many tales contain only vague, piecemeal or inaccurate recollections of shamans and their like."<ref>1993, p. 51</ref> The presence of distinctive characteristics and features of shamanic stories help folklorists and anthropologists reconstruct a culture’s practice of shamanism.<ref>Berman, Shamanic Journeys Through Daghestan, 2008, p. 22</ref>

==Decline and revitalization / tradition-preserving movements==
Shamanism is believed to be declining around the world, possibly due to other organised religious influences, like Christianity, that want people who practice shamanism to convert to their own system and doctrine. Another reason is western views of shamanism as 'primitive', 'superstitious', backward and outdated. Whalers who frequently interact with Inuit tribes are one source of this decline in that region.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Oosten|first1=Jarich|first2=Frederic |last2=Laugrand|first3=Cornelius |last3=Remie|title=Perceptions of Decline: Inuit Shamanism in the Canadian Arctic|journal=American Society for Ethnohistory|year=2006|pages=445–477|doi=10.1215/00141801-2006-001|ref=harv}}</ref>

[[File:Kyzyl Shaman.jpg|thumb|A recent photograph: shaman doctor of [[Kyzyl]], 2005. (Details missing). Attempts are being made to preserve and revitalize [[Tuvans|Tuvan]] shamanism:<ref name=tuva>Hoppál 2005: 117</ref> former authentic shamans have begun to practice again, and young apprentices are being educated in an organized way.<ref name=authentic-revitalization-tuva>Hoppál 2005: 259</ref>]]

In many areas, former shamans ceased to fulfill the functions in the community they used to, as they felt mocked by their own community,<ref>Boglár 2001: 19–20</ref> or regarded their own past as deprecated and are unwilling to talk about it to an ethnographer.<ref name=shamed>Diószegi 1960: 37–39</ref>

Moreover, besides personal communications of former shamans, folklore texts may narrate directly about a deterioration process. For example, a [[Buryats|Buryat]] epic text details the wonderful deeds of the ancient "first shaman" Kara-Gürgän:<ref name=Kara-Gurgan>[[#Eli01|Eliade 2001]]: 76 (Chpt 3 about obtaining shamanic capabilities)</ref> he could even compete with God, create life, steal back the soul of the sick from God without his consent. A subsequent text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like [[omnividence]],<ref name=flatland>Omnividence: A word created by Edwin A. Abbott in his book titled [[Flatland]]</ref> fortune-telling even for decades in the future, moving as fast as a bullet.<ref name=deter>Diószegi 1960: 88–89</ref>

In most affected areas, shamanic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans dying and their personal experiences dying with them. The loss of memories is not always lessened by the fact the shaman is not always the only person in a community who knows the beliefs and motives related to the local shaman-hood (laics know myths as well, among Barasana, even though less;<ref name=barasana-myths/> there are former shaman apprentices unable to complete the learning among Greenlandic Inuit peoples,<ref name="failed-shaman"/> moreover, even laics can have trance-like experiences among the Inuit;<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/> the assistant of a shaman can be extremely knowledgeable among [[Dagara people|Dagara]]).<ref name=Guan_Kouni/><ref name=interpreter/> Although the shaman is often believed and trusted precisely because s/he "accommodates" to the "grammar" of the beliefs of the community,<ref name=knowncult/> several parts of the knowledge related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman (illness), or root in his/her family life (the interpretation of the symbolics of his/her drum),<ref name=drum-symbols>Hoppál 2005: 224</ref> thus, those are lost with his/her death. Besides that, in many cultures, the entire traditional belief system has become endangered (often together with a partial or total [[language shift]]), the other people of the community remembering the associated beliefs and practices (or the language at all) grew old or died, many folklore memories (songs, texts) were forgotten – which may threaten even such peoples who could preserve their isolation until the middle of the 20th century, like the [[Nganasan people|Nganasan]].<ref>Nagy 1998: 232</ref>

Some areas could enjoy a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness.
* Variants of [[shamanism among Inuit peoples]] were once a widespread (and very diverse) phenomenon, but today are rarely practiced, as well as already having been in decline among many groups, even while the first major ethnological research was being done,<ref>Merkur 1985: 132</ref> e.g. among Polar Inuit, at the end of the 19th century, [[Sagloq]], the last shaman who was believed to be able to travel to the sky and under the sea died—and many other former shamanic capacities were lost during that time as well, like [[ventriloquism]] and [[sleight-of-hand]].<ref>Merkur 1985: 134</ref>
* The isolated location of [[Nganasan people]] allowed shamanism to be a living phenomenon among them even at the beginning of the 20th century,<ref name=hop>Hoppál 2005: 92</ref> the last notable Nganasan shaman's ceremonies could be recorded on film in the 1970s.<ref name="Hoppal">Hoppál 1994: 62</ref>

After exemplifying the general decline even in the most remote areas, it should be noted that there are revitalization or tradition-preserving efforts as a response. Besides collecting the memories,<ref name=collect>Hoppál 2005: 88</ref> there are also tradition-preserving<ref>Hoppál 2005: 93</ref> and even revitalization efforts,<ref>Hoppál 2005: 111, 117–119, 128, 132, 133–134, 252–263</ref> led by authentic former shamans (for example among [[Sakha people]]<ref name=authentic-revitalization-sakha>Hoppál 2005: 257–258</ref> and [[Tuvans]]).<ref name=authentic-revitalization-tuva/> However, according to Richard L. Allen, Research & Policy Analyst for the Cherokee Nation, they are overwhelmed with [[plastic shaman|fraudulent shamans]], also known as plastic medicine people.<ref>Hagan, Helene E. [http://www.sonomacountyfreepress.com/features/spirg-hagan.html "The Plastic Medicine People Circle."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305155048/http://www.sonomacountyfreepress.com/features/spirg-hagan.html |date=2013-03-05 }} ''Sonoma Free County Press.'' Accessed 31 Jan 2013.</ref> "One may assume that anyone claiming to be a Cherokee 'shaman, spiritual healer, or pipe-carrier', is equivalent to a modern day medicine show and snake-oil vendor."<ref name=RG>{{cite web | title = Pseudo Shamans Cherokee Statement| url = http://www.thepeoplespaths.net/Articles2001/RLAllen-CherokeeStatement-Shamans.htm| accessdate = 2008-06-23}}</ref> One indicator of a plastic shaman might be someone who discusses "Native American spirituality" but does not mention any specific [[federally recognized tribes|Native American tribe]]. The "New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans" website discusses potentially plastic shamans.<ref>Lupa 37</ref>

Besides tradition-preserving efforts, there are also [[Neoshamanism|neoshamanistic]] movements, these may differ from many traditional shamanistic practice and beliefs in several points.<ref name=neoshaman>Vitebsky 1996: 150–153</ref> Admittedly,{{According to whom|date=February 2012}} several traditional beliefs systems indeed have ecological considerations (for example, many Inuit peoples), and among [[Tukano people]], the shaman indeed has direct resource-protecting roles, see details in section [[#Ecological aspect|Ecological aspect]].

Today, shamanism survives primarily among [[indigenous people]]s. Shamanic practices continue today in the tundras, jungles, deserts, and other rural areas, and even in cities, towns, suburbs, and shantytowns all over the world. This is especially true for Africa and South America, where "[[mestizo]] shamanism" is widespread.

==Regional variations==

===Asia===

====Hmong shamanism====
{{Main article|Hmong customs and culture#Shamanism}}
The Hmong people,<ref>[[Hmong people]]</ref> as an ancient people of China with a 5,000-year history, continue to maintain and practice its form of shamanism known as "Ua Neeb" in mainland Asia. At the end of the Vietnam War, some 300,000 Hmong have been settled across the globe. They have continued to practice Ua Neeb in various countries in North and South America, Europe and Australia. In the U.S., the Hmong shaman practitioner is known as "Txiv Neeb" has been licensed by many hospitals in California as being part of the medical health team to treat patients in hospital. This revival of Ua Neeb in the West has been brought great success and has been hailed in the media as "Doctor for the disease, shaman for the soul".

Being a Hmong shaman represents a true vocation, chosen by the shaman God "Sivyis".<ref>http://www.lexicon.net/drpao/shaman/sivyis/</ref>
The Shaman's main job is to bring harmony to the individual, their family, and their community within their environment by performing various rituals (usually through trance).

[[Animal sacrifice]] has been part of the Hmong shamanic practice for the past 5,000 years. Contrary to the belief of many Westerners, the Hmong practice of using animals in shamanic practice is performed with great respect. After the Vietnam War, over 200,000 Hmong were resettled in the United States and shamanism is still part of the Hmong culture. Due the colliding of culture and the law, as Professor Alison Dundes Renteln, a political science professor at the University of Southern California and author of The Cultural Defense, a book that examines the influence of such cases on U.S. courts, once said, "We say that as a society we welcome diversity, and in fact that we embrace it ... In practice, it's not that easy".<ref name="usatoday.com">{{cite news| url=https://www.usatoday.com/educate/firstamendment/religion_052504.html |author=Richard Willing |title=Courts asked to consider culture An act defined as crime in USA may be common in other places. Should justice system take that into account? | work=USA Today |accessdate=2004-11-01 }}</ref>

The Hmong believe that all things on Earth have a soul (or multiple souls) and those souls are treated as equal and can be considered interchangeable. When a person is sick due to his soul being lost, or captured by wild spirit, it is necessary to ask for and receive permission of that animal, whether it is a chicken, pig, dog, goat or any other animals required, to use its soul for an exchange with the afflicted person's soul for a period of 12 months. At the end of that period, during the Hmong New Year, the shaman would perform a special ritual to release the soul of that animal and send it off to the world beyond. As part of his service to mankind, the animal soul is sent off to be reincarnated into a higher form of animal, or even to become a member of a god's family (ua Fuab Tais Ntuj tus tub, tus ntxhais) to live a life of luxury, free of the suffering as an animal. Hence, being asked to perform this duty (what is known in the West as "animal sacrifice") is one of the greatest honors for that animal, to be able to serve mankind. The Hmong of Southeast Guizhou will cover the [[rooster|cock]] with a piece of red cloth and then hold it up to worship and sacrifice to the Heaven and the Earth before the [[Rooster#Religion and spiritual belief systems|Sacred cockfight]].<ref>Southeast Guizhou Travel Tips – China Highlights, a division of CITS Guilin, a full service China travel agency providing China Tours</ref> In a 2010 trial of a Sheboygan Wisconsin Hmong who was charged with staging a cockfight, it was stated that the roosters were "kept for both food and religious purposes",<ref name="Midwest Communications Inc">{{cite web|url=http://whbl.com/news/articles/2010/apr/08/day-one-cockfighting-trial-books/|title=Day One of Cockfighting Trial Concludes|author=Midwest Communications Inc.|work=whbl|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> and the case was followed by an acquittal.<ref name="Midwest Communications Inc"/>

In addition to the spiritual dimension, Hmong shaman attempt to treat many physical illnesses through use of the text of sacred words (khawv koob).

====Indonesia====
{{Main article|Dukun}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een dukun tijdens de bereiding van zijn geneesmiddelen TMnr 60027035.jpg|thumb|Indonesian [[Dukun]]]]
Throughout the villages and towns of [[Indonesia]], local healers known as [[dukun]] practice diverse activities from massage, bonesetting, midwivery, herbal medicine, spirit mediumship and divination.

====Japan====
{{Main article|Miko}}
{{Further information|Shinto|Ainu religion|Ryukyuan religion}}
Shamanism is part of the indigenous Ainu religion and Japanese religion of [[Shinto]], although Shinto is distinct in that it is shamanism for an agricultural society. Since the early middle-ages Shinto has been influenced by and [[syncretism|syncretized]] with Buddhism and other elements of continental East Asian culture. The book "''Occult Japan: Shinto, Shamanism and the Way of the Gods''" by Percival Lowell delves further into researching Japanese shamanism or Shintoism.<ref>Percival Lowell, Occult Japan: Shinto, Shamanism and the Way of the Gods, Inner Traditions International (April 1990), Rochester Vt</ref> The book ''Japan Through the Looking Glass: Shaman to Shinto'' uncovers the extraordinary aspects of Japanese beliefs.<ref>Alan Mcfarlane, ''Japan Through the Looking Glass: Shaman to Shinto'', Profile Books Ltd, Aug 2007, London England</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fb20071007a1.html|title=The Japan Times – News on Japan, Business News, Opinion, Sports, Entertainment and More|work=The Japan Times|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref>

====Korea====
{{Main article|Korean shamanism}}
Shamanism is still practiced in [[North Korea|North]] and [[South Korea]]. In the south, shaman women are known as ''mudangs'', while male shamans are referred to as ''baksoo mudangs''.

A person can become a shaman through hereditary title or through natural ability. Shamans are consulted in contemporary society for financial and marital decisions.

====Malaysia====
{{main article|Bobohizan|Bomoh|Pawang}}
[[File:Bobohizans.jpeg|thumb|right|''[[Bobohizan]]'' of [[North Borneo]], circa 1921.]]
Shamanism were also practiced among the Malay community in [[Malay Peninsula]] and indigenous people in [[Sabah]] and [[Sarawak]]. People who practice shamanism in the country are generally called as ''bomoh'' or ''pawang'' in the Peninsula.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Graham Harvey|author2=Robert J. Wallis|title=Historical Dictionary of Shamanism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQOyAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA129|date=5 February 2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6459-7|pages=129–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Montague Summers|title=The Vampire: His Kith and Kin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpaCCyGuMqwC&pg=PA221|year=1928|publisher=University Books|isbn=978-1-60506-566-3|pages=221–}}</ref> In Sabah, the [[Bobohizan]] is the main shaman among the [[Kadazan-Dusun]] indigenous community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/features/article/bobohizans-the-shamans-of-sabah-teeter-between-old-and-new-worlds|title=Bobohizans: The shamans of Sabah teeter between old and new worlds|author=Julia Chan|publisher=The Malay Mail|date=8 June 2016|accessdate=11 November 2016}}</ref>

====Mongolia====
{{main article|Mongolian shamanism}}
Mongolian classics, such as ''[[The Secret History of the Mongols]]'', provide details about male and female shamans serving as exorcists, healers, rainmakers, oneiromancers, soothsayers, and officials. Shamanic practices continue in present-day Mongolian culture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://website.leidenuniv.nl/~haarbjter/shamanism.htm|title=Universiteit Leiden, Hanno E. Lecher|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/bender4/eall131/EAHReadings/module03/local_beliefs.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-12-30 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106035207/http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/bender4/eall131/EAHReadings/module03/local_beliefs.html |archivedate=2012-11-06 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/5288|title=Aurélie Névot, Comme le sel, je suis le cours de l'eau: le chamanisme à écriture des Yi du Yunnan (Chine) (Like salt, I follow the current: The literate Shamanism of the Yi of Yunnan)|author=Gros, Stéphane|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/seacrn/asia_members.htm|title=ACLS: Collaborative Research Network|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hangartner|first1=judith|title=The resurgence of Darhad shamanism: Legitimisation Strategies of Rural Practitioners in mongolia|journal=TSANTSA|date=May 2006|volume=11|pages=111-114|url=http://www.tsantsa.ch/en/previous-issues/tsantsa/2015-10-20-15-49-38/content-11-2006/205-recherches/466-the-resurgence-of-darhad-shamanism.html}}</ref>

The spiritual hierarchy in clan-based Mongolian society was complex. The highest group consisted of 99 ''tngri'' (55 of them benevolent or "white" and 44 terrifying or "black"), 77 ''natigai'' or "earth-mothers", besides others. The ''tngri'' were called upon only by leaders and great shamans and were common to all the clans. After these, three groups of ancestral spirits dominated. The "Lord-Spirits" were the souls of clan leaders to whom any member of a clan could appeal for physical or spiritual help. The "Protector-Spirits" included the souls of great shamans (''ĵigari'') and shamanesses (''abĵiya''). The "Guardian-Spirits" were made up of the souls of smaller shamans (''böge'') and shamanesses (''idugan'') and were associated with a specific locality (including mountains, rivers, etc.) in the clan's territory.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hesse|first=Klaus|year=1987|title=On the History of Mongolian Shamanism in Anthropological Perspective|journal=Anthropos|volume=82|issue=4–6|pages=403–13|jstor=40463470}}</ref>

In the 1990s, a form of Mongolian neo-shamanism was created which has given a more modern approach to shamanism. Among the Buryat Mongols, who live in Mongolia and Russia, the proliferation of shamans since 1990 is a core aspect of a larger struggle for the Buryats to reestablish their historical and genetic roots, as has been documented extensively by [[Ippei Shimamura]], an anthropologist at the University of Shiga Prefecture in Japan.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shimamura|first1=Ippei|title=The Roots seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Among the Mongol Buryats|date=2014|location=Kanagawa, Japan|isbn=978-4-86110-397-1}}</ref> Some Mongolian shamans are now making a business out of their profession and even have offices in the larger towns. At these businesses, a shaman generally heads the organization and performs services such as healing, fortunetelling, and solving all kinds of problems.<ref>Balogh, Matyas. "Contemporary Shamanisms in Mongolia." ''Asian Ethnicity'' 11.2 (2010): 229–38.</ref> Although the initial enthusiasm for the revival of Mongol shamanism in the post-communist/post-1990 era led to an openness to all interested visitors, the situation has changed among those Mongols seeking to protect the essential ethnic or national basis of their practices. In recent years many associations of Mongol shamans have become wary of Western "core" or "neo" or "New Age" shamans and have restricted access to only to Mongols and Western scholars. One such event, organized by Jargalsaichan, the head of the Corporate Union of Mongolian Shamans, was the 21 June 2017 Ulaan Tergel (summer solstice) celebration held near midnight on the steppes about 20km outside Ulaanbaatar. Although a private event, two Western psychologist scholars of shamanism, [[Richard Noll]] and [[Leonard George]] were allowed to observe, photograph and post video of the event to YouTube.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Noll|first1=Richard|title=Mongol shamans summer solstice fire ritual 21 June 2017|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5g1XTL8XbhY|website=You Tube|accessdate=4 July 2017}}</ref>

====Philippines====
The Shaman in the Philippines is considered as a priest- sacrifice, healer, and intermediary with the spirit world. Shamans are also considered as prophets and seers. The magician or sorcerer can either be a white magician or a medicine man whose actions are for the good of others, while the black magician or witchdoctors can either do well or harm to people, but mostly harm for a fee.
Shamans in the Philippines deal with various kinds of spirits and learn how to summon and control them. Once someone is declared a Shaman, he is declared to be a sick man, but not just any type of sick man. He or she is special because the shaman is able to learn how to cure himself. An epilepsy attack is the initiation of the Shaman; it is equivalent to them being cured.
<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lieban|first1=Richard|title=Cebuano Sorcery:Malign Magic in the Philippines|journal=University of California Press|date=1967|pages=52–58|url=http://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-11-02-1973/demetrio-philippine%20shamanism%20southeast%20asian%20parallels%20.pdf|accessdate=August 22, 2016}}</ref>

====Siberia and North Asia====
{{Main article|Shamanism in Siberia|Shamanism in the Qing dynasty|l2=the Qing Dynasty}}
[[File:AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg|thumb|[[Iomante|Ainu bear sacrifice]]. Japanese scroll painting, circa 1870.]]
[[File:Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the Oroqen, in July 1994 (Photo by Richard Noll).jpg|thumb|[[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] shaman of northern [[China]].]]

[[Siberia]] is regarded as the ''locus classicus'' of shamanism.<ref name=locclass>Hoppál 2005: 13</ref> The area is inhabited by many different ethnic groups, and many of its peoples observe shamanistic practices, even in modern times. Many classical ethnographic sources of "shamanism" were recorded among Siberian peoples.

[[Manchu people|Manchu]] Shamanism is one of very few Shamanist traditions which held official status into the modern era, by becoming one of the imperial cults of the [[Qing Dynasty]] of [[China]] (alongside [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]] and traditional [[Heaven worship]]). The [[Palace of Earthly Tranquility]], one of the principal halls of the [[Forbidden City]] in [[Beijing]], was partly dedicated to Shamanistic rituals. The ritual set-up is still preserved ''in situ'' today.

Among the Siberian [[Chukchis]] peoples, a shaman is interpreted as someone who is [[Spirit possession|possessed]] by a spirit, who demands that someone assume the shamanic role for their people. Among the Buryat, there is a ritual known as "shanar"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://texts.00.gs/Shanar.htm|title=S^anar [Buryat]|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> whereby a candidate is consecrated as shaman by another, already-established shaman.

Among several [[Samoyedic peoples]] shamanism was a living tradition also in modern times, especially at groups living in isolation, until recent times ([[Nganasan people|Nganasan]]s).<ref name=ngan>Hoppál 2005: 92–93</ref> The last notable Nganasan shaman's seances could be recorded on film in the 1970s.<ref name="Hoppal" /><ref name=ngan/>

When the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949 and the border with Russian Siberia was formally sealed, many nomadic Tungus groups (including the Evenki) that practiced shamanism were confined in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. The last shaman of the Oroqen, Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), died in October 2000.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Noll|first1=Richard|title=The Last Shaman of the Orqen of Northeast China|url=https://www.academia.edu/8520174/The_last_shaman_of_the_Oroqen_people_of_Northeast_China._Shaman_Journal_of_the_International_Society_for_Shamanistic_Research_2009_17_1_and_2_117-140|website=Academia.edu|publisher=Shaman 2009}}</ref>

In many other cases, shamanism was in decline even at the beginning of 20th century ([[Romani people|Roma]]).<ref name="Hoppal_a" />

====Central Asia====

=====Geographic influences on Central Asian shamanism=====
Geographical factors heavily influence the character and development of the religion, myths, rituals and epics of Central Asia. While in other parts of the world, religious rituals are primarily used to promote agricultural prosperity, here they were used to ensure success in hunting and breeding livestock. Animals are one of the most important elements of indigenous religion in Central Asia because of the role they play in the survival of the nomadic civilizations of the steppes as well as sedentary populations living on land not conducive to agriculture. Shamans wore animal skins and feathers and underwent transformations into animals during spiritual journeys. In addition, animals served as humans' guides, rescuers, ancestors, totems and sacrificial victims.<ref>Julian Baldick, ''Animal and Shaman: Ancient Religions of Central Asia'' (New York: University Press, 2000), 3–35</ref> As a religion of nature, shamanism throughout Central Asia held particular reverence for the relations between sky, earth and water and believed in the mystical importance of trees and mountains. Shamanism in Central Asia also places a strong emphasis on the opposition between summer and winter, corresponding to the huge differences in temperature common in the region. The harsh conditions and poverty caused by the extreme temperatures drove Central Asian nomads throughout history to pursue militaristic goals against their sedentary neighbors. This military background can be seen in the reverence for horses and warriors within many indigenous religions.<ref>Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer, ''Shamanism: Soviet Studies of Traditional Religion in Siberia and Central Asia'' (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1990), 113</ref>

=====Common shamanic practices and beliefs shared among Central Asians=====
Central Asian shamans served as sacred intermediaries between the human and spirit world. In this role they took on tasks such as healing, divination, appealing to ancestors, manipulating the elements, leading lost souls and officiating public religious rituals. The shamanic séance served as a public display of the shaman's journey to the spirit world and usually involved intense trances, drumming, dancing, chanting, elaborate costumes, miraculous displays of physical strength, and audience involvement. The goal of these séances ranged from recovering the lost soul of a sick patient and divining the future to controlling the weather and finding a lost person or thing. The use of sleight-of-hand tricks, ventriloquism, and hypnosis were common in these rituals but did not explain the more impressive feats and actual cures accomplished by shamans.<ref>Nora K. Chadwick, "Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia," ''The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'', Vol. 66, (Jan–Jun 1936): 97–99</ref>

Shamans perform in a "state of ecstasy" deliberately induced by an effort of will. Reaching this altered state of consciousness required great mental exertion, concentration and strict self-discipline. Mental and physical preparation included long periods of silent meditation, fasting, and smoking. In this state, skilled shamans employ capabilities that the human organism cannot accomplish in the ordinary state. Shamans in ecstasy displayed unusual physical strength, the ability to withstand extreme temperatures, the bearing of stabbing and cutting without pain, and the heightened receptivity of the sense organs. Shamans made use of intoxicating substances and hallucinogens, especially mukhomor mushrooms and alcohol, as a means of hastening the attainment of ecstasy.<ref>Balzer, ''Shamanism'', 12–21</ref>

The use of purification by fire is an important element of the shamanic tradition dating back as early as the 6th century. People and things connected with the dead had to be purified by passing between fires. These purifications were complex exorcisms while others simply involved the act of literally walking between two fires while being blessed by the Shaman. Shamans in literature and practice were also responsible for using special stones to manipulate weather. Rituals are performed with these stones to attract rain or repel snow, cold or wind. This "rain-stone" was used for many occasions including bringing an end to drought as well as producing hailstorms as a means of warfare.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Andrew Boyle | first1 = John | year = 1972 | title = Turkish and Mongol Shamanism in the Middle Ages | url = | journal = Folklore | volume = 83 | issue = | pages = 183–185 | doi=10.1080/0015587x.1972.9716468}}</ref>
Despite distinctions between various types of shamans and specific traditions, there is a uniformity throughout the region manifested in the personal beliefs, objectives, rituals, symbols and the appearance of shamans.

=====Shamanic rituals as artistic performance=====
The shamanic ceremony is both a religious ceremony and an artistic performance. The fundamental purpose of the dramatic displays seen during shamanic ceremonies is not to draw attention or to create a spectacle for the audience as many Westerners have come to believe, but to lead the tribe in a solemn ritualistic process.

In general, all performances consist of four elements: dance, music, poetry and dramatic or mimetic action. The use of these elements serves the purpose of outwardly expressing his mystical communion with nature and the spirits for the rest of the tribe. The true shaman can make the journey to the spirit world at any time and any place, but shamanic ceremonies provide a way for the rest of the tribe to share in this religious experience. The shaman changes his voice mimetically to represent different persons, gods, and animals while his music and dance change to show his progress in the spirit world and his different spiritual interactions. Many shamans practice ventriloquism and make use of their ability to accurately imitate the sounds of animals, nature, humans and other noises in order to provide the audience with the ambiance of the journey. Elaborate dances and recitations of songs and poetry are used to make the shamans spiritual adventures into a matter of living reality to his audience.<ref>Chadwick, ''Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia'': 93–101</ref>

=====Costume and accessories=====
The shaman's attire varies throughout the region but his chief accessories are his coat, cap, and tambourine or drum. The transformation into an animal is an important aspect of the journey into the spirit world undertaken during shamanic rituals so the coat is often decorated with birds feathers and representations of animals, coloured handkerchiefs, bells and metal ornaments. The cap is usually made from the skin of a bird with the feathers and sometimes head, still attached.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRyCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=Costume+and+accessories+of+central+asian+shamanism&source=bl&ots=EoDH2Aw3ZR&sig=GS2s5_Y4ZZ26GVhaooATrCrMfdM&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJm4y_5YrUAhXF7RQKHfHtCJEQ6AEIQjAE#v=onepage&q=Costume%20and%20accessories%20of%20central%20asian%20shamanism&f=false|title=The Archaeology of Shamanism|last=Price|first=Neil|date=2003-12-16|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134527694|language=en}}</ref>

The drum or tambourine is the essential means of communicating with spirits and enabling the shaman to reach altred states of consciousness on his journey. The drum, representing the universe in epitome, is often divided into equal halves to represent the earth and lower realms. Symbols and natural objects are added to the drum representing natural forces and heavenly bodies.<ref>Chadwick, ''Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia'': 85–87</ref>

=====Shamanism in Tsarist and Soviet Russia=====
In Soviet Central Asia, the Soviet government persecuted and denounced shamans as practitioners of fraudulent medicine and perpetuators of outdated religious beliefs in the new age of science and logic. The radical transformations occurring after the October Socialist Revolution led to a sharp decrease in the activity of shamans. Shamans represented an important component in the traditional culture of Central Asians and because of their important role in society, Soviet organizations and campaigns targeted shamans in their attempt to eradicate traditional influences in the lives of the indigenous peoples. Along with persecution under the tsarist and Soviet regimes, the spread of Christianity and Islam had a role in the disintegration of native faith throughout central Asia. Poverty, political instability and foreign influence are also detrimental to a religion that requires publicity and patronage to flourish.
By the 1980s most shamans were discredited in the eyes of their people by Soviet officials and physicians.<ref>Balzer, ''Shamanism'', 42–49</ref>

====Other Asian traditions====
{{Further information|Wu (shaman)}}
{{Synthesis|section|date=October 2009}}
"[[Jhakri]]" is the common name used for shamans in [[Sikkim]], [[India]] and [[Nepal]]. They exist in the [[Limbu]], [[Sunuwar]], [[Rai people|Rai]], [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]], [[Kami]], [[Tamang]], [[Gurung]] and [[Lepcha people|Lepcha]] communities.<ref>{{harvnb |Gulia |2005 | |pp=153–54 }}</ref> They are inflluenced by [[Hinduism]], Tibetan Buddhism, [[Mun (religion)|Mun]] and Bön rites.<ref>{{harvnb |Gulia |2005 | |p=168 }}</ref>

Shamanism is still widely practiced in the [[Ryukyu Islands]] ([[Okinawa]], [[Japan]]), where shamans are known as 'Noro' (all women) and 'Yuta'. 'Noro' generally administer public or communal ceremonies while 'Yuta' focus on civil and private matters. Shamanism is also practiced in a few rural areas in Japan proper. It is commonly believed that the [[Shinto]] religion is the result of the transformation of a shamanistic tradition into a religion.
Forms of practice vary somewhat in the several Ryukyu islands, so that there is, for example, a distinct '''Miyako''' shamanism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://texts.00.gs/Miyako_Shamanism.htm|title=Miyako shamanism|publisher=}}</ref>

Shamanism practices seem to have been preserved in the Catholic religious traditions of aborigines in [[Taiwan]].<ref>O. Lardenois, [http://www.erenlai.com/media/downloads/TheologicalShamanismLardenois.pdf Shamanism and Catholic Indigenous Communities in Taiwan]</ref>

In [[Vietnam]], shamans conduct rituals in many of the religious traditions that co-mingle in the majority and minority populations. In their rituals, music, dance, special garments and offerings are part of the performance that surround the spirit journey.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/vietnam/07_other/ |title=Journeys to Other Worlds: The Rites of Shamans |last= |first= |publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}</ref>

===Europe===
[[File:Sami shamanic drum.JPG|thumb|[[Noaidi|Sami shamanic drum]] in the [[Arktikum Science Museum]], in [[Rovaniemi]], Finland]]
{{main article|Shamanism in Europe}}
{{further information|Noaidi|Sami shamanism|Finnish mythology}}
{{further information|Hungarian mythology|Shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore}}
{{further information|Magic in the Greco-Roman world|European witchcraft}}
{{further information|Astuvansalmi|Astuvansalmi rock paintings}}
Some of the prehistoric peoples who once lived in Siberia have dispersed and migrated into other regions, bringing aspects of their cultures with them. For example, many Uralic peoples live now outside Siberia, however the original location of the [[Proto-Uralic language|Proto-Uralic]] peoples (and its extent) is debated. Combined [[Phytogeography|phytogeographical]] and linguistic considerations (distribution of various tree species and the presence of their names in various Uralic languages) suggest that this area was north of Central [[Ural Mountains]] and on lower and middle parts of [[Ob River]].<ref name=ancloc>Hajdú 1975: 35</ref> The ancestors of [[Hungarian people]] or Magyars have wandered from their ancestral proto-Uralic area to the [[Pannonian Basin]]. Shamanism has played an important role in [[Altaic mythologies (disambiguation)|Turko-Mongol mythology]].{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} [[Tengriism]] - the major ancient belief among [[Xiongnu]], Mongol and [[Turkic peoples]], [[Magyars]] and [[Bulgars]] - incorporates elements of shamanism. Shamanism is no more a living practice among Hungarians, but remnants have been reserved as fragments of folklore, in folktales, customs.<ref>Diószegi 1998</ref>

Some historians of the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern period have argued that traces of shamanistic traditions can be seen in the popular folk belief of this period. Most prominent among these was the Italian [[Carlo Ginzburg]], who claimed shamanistic elements in the ''[[benandanti]]'' custom of 16th century Italy,<ref>[[#Gin83|Ginzburg 1983 [1966]]].</ref> the Hungarian [[Éva Pócs]], who identified them in the ''[[táltos]]'' tradition of Hungary,<ref>[[#Poc99|Pócs 1999]].</ref> and the Frenchman [[Claude Lecouteux]], who has argued that Medieval traditions regarding the soul are based on earlier shamanic ideas.<ref>[[#Lec03|Lecouteux 2003]].</ref> Ginzburg in particular has argued that some of these traditions influenced the conception of [[witchcraft]] in Christendom, in particular ideas regarding the [[witches' sabbath]], leading to the events of the [[witch trials in the Early Modern period]].<ref>[[#Gin90|Ginzburg 1990]].</ref> Some of these Italian traditions survived into the 20th and early 21st centuries, allowing Italian-American sociologist Sabina Magliocco to make a brief study of them (2009).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/171083/Italain_Cunning_Craft_Some_Preliminary_Observations|title=Italian Cunning Craft: Some Preliminary Observations|author=Sabina Magliocco|publisher=}}</ref>

===Circumpolar shamanism===

====Inuit and Yupik cultures====
[[File:Yupik shaman Nushagak.jpg|thumb|Yup'ik shaman exorcising evil spirits from a sick boy, [[Nushagak, Alaska]], 1890s.<ref>Fienup-Riordan, Ann. 1994: 206</ref> Nushagak, located on [[Nushagak Bay]] of the Bering Sea in southwest [[Alaska]], is part of the territory of the [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik|Yup'ik]], speakers of the [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language]]]]
{{Main article|Shamanism among Eskimo peoples}}
[[Eskimo]] groups inhabit a huge area stretching from [[Eastern Siberia]] through Alaska and Northern Canada (including [[Labrador Peninsula]]) to [[Greenland]]. Shamanistic practice and beliefs have been recorded at several parts of this vast area crosscutting continental borders.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid>Merkur 1985</ref><ref name=Gab-KarEszk/><ref name=KleiSon-Esk>Kleivan & Sonne 1985</ref>
{{IPA notice}}

When speaking of "shamanism" in various Eskimo groups, we must remember that (as mentioned above) the term "shamanism" can cover certain characteristics of ''various'' different cultures.<ref name="cogmap"/> [[#Mediator|Mediation]] is regarded often as an important aspect of shamanism in general.<ref name=med>Hoppál 2005: 45–50</ref> Also in most Eskimo groups, the role of mediator is known well:<ref name=menmed>Menovščikov 1996: 442</ref> the person filling it in is actually believed to be able to contact the beings who populate the belief system. Term "shaman" is used in several English-language publications also in relation to Eskimos.<ref name="Mer-BecHalfHid"/><ref name=KleiSon-Esk/><ref>Vitebsky 1996</ref><ref>Freuchen 1961: 32</ref> Also the ''alignalghi'' ({{IPA-iu|aˈliɣnalʁi|IPA}}) of the Asian Eskimos is translated as "shaman" in the Russian<ref>Рубцова 1954: 203, 209</ref> and English<ref name=menmed/> literature.

The belief system assumes specific links between the living people, the souls of hunted animals, and those of dead people.<ref>Both death of a person and successfully hunted game require that cutting, sewing etc. be tabooed, so that the invisible soul does not get hurt accidentally (Kleivan & Sonne, pp. 18–21). In Greenland, the transgression of death tabu could turn the soul of the dead into a ''tupilak'', a restless ghost which scared game away (Kleivan & Sonne 1985, p. 23). Animals fled from hunter in case of taboo breaches, e.g. birth taboo, death taboo (Kleivan & Sonne, pp. 12–13)</ref> The [[Soul (spirit)|soul]] concepts of several groups are specific examples of [[soul dualism]] (showing variability in details in the various cultures).

Unlike the majority of shamanisms the careers of most Eskimo shamans lack the motivation of ''force'': becoming a shaman is usually a result of deliberate consideration, not a necessity forced by the spirits.<ref name="failed-shaman"/>

====Diversity, with similarities====
Another possible concern: do the belief systems of various Eskimo groups have such common features at all, that would justify any mentioning them together? There was no political structure above the groups, their languages were relative, but differed more or less, often forming [[language continuum]]s.<ref name=complink>[http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/yupik_inuit.html Lawrence Kaplan: Comparative Yupik and Inuit] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306132554/http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/yupik_inuit.html |date=2008-03-06 }} (found on the site of [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/index.html Alaska Native Language Center] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123172349/http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/index.html |date=2009-01-23 }})</ref>

There are similarities in the cultures of the Eskimo groups<ref>Kleivan 1985: 8</ref><ref>Rasmussen 1965: 366 (ch. XXIII)</ref><ref>Rasmussen 1965: 166 (ch. XIII)</ref><ref name=padlgreen>Rasmussen 1965: 110 (ch. VIII)</ref><ref name=Mau-Mor>Mauss 1979</ref> together with diversity, far from homogeneity.<ref>Kleivan 1985: 26</ref>

The Russian linguist Menovshikov (Меновщиков), an expert of [[Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]] and [[Sireniki Eskimo language]]s (while admitting that he is not a specialist in ethnology)<ref>Menovščikov 1996 [1968]: 433</ref> mentions, that the shamanistic seances of those [[Siberian Yupik]] and [[Sirenik Eskimos|Sireniki]] groups he has seen have many similarities to those of Greenland Inuit groups described by [[Fridtjof Nansen]],<ref>Menovščikov 1996 [1968]: 442</ref> although a large distance separates Siberia and Greenland. There may be certain similarities also in Asiatic groups with North American ones.<ref>Vitebsky 1996: 42 (ch. ''North America'')</ref> Also the usage of a specific shaman's language is documented among several Eskimo groups, used mostly for talking to spirits.<ref>Merkur 1985:7</ref><ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 14</ref> Also the Ungazighmiit (belonging to [[Siberian Yupik]]s) had a special [[Allegory|allegoric]] usage of some expressions.<ref>Rubcova 1954: 128</ref>

The local cultures showed great diversity. The myths concerning the role of shaman had several variants, and also the name of their protagonists varied from culture to culture. For example, a mythological figure, usually referred to in the literature by the collective term [[Sedna (mythology)|Sea Woman]], has factually many local names: Nerrivik "meat dish" among Polar Inuit, Nuliayuk "lubricous" among [[Netsilingmiut]], Sedna "the nether one" among Baffin Land Inuit.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 27</ref> Also the soul conceptions, e.g. the details of the [[soul dualism]] showed great variability, ranging from guardianship to a kind of [[reincarnation]]. Conceptions of spirits or other beings had also many variants (see e.g. the [[tupilaq]] concept).<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 30–31</ref>

===Americas===

====North America====
{{Main article|Medicine man|Native American religion}}
[[File:White indian conjuror.jpg|thumb|[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] "conjuror" in a 1590 engraving]]
[[File:Hamatsa shaman2.jpg|thumb|[[Hamatsa]] ritualist, 1914]]
[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] and [[First Nations]] cultures have diverse religious beliefs and there was never one universal Native American religion or spiritual system. Although many Native American cultures have traditional healers, ritualists, singers, [[Mysticism|mystics]], lore-keepers and [[Medicine man|Medicine people]], none of them ever used, or use, the term "shaman" to describe these religious leaders. Rather, like other indigenous cultures the world over, their spiritual functionaries are described by words in their own languages, and in many cases are not taught to outsiders.

Many of these indigenous religions have been grossly misrepresented by outside observers and anthropologists, even to the extent of superficial or seriously mistaken anthropological accounts being taken as more authentic than the accounts of actual members of the cultures and religions in question. Often these accounts suffer from "[[Noble savage|Noble Savage]]"-type romanticism and [[racism]]. Some contribute to the fallacy that Native American cultures and religions are something that only existed in the past, and which can be mined for data despite the opinions of Native communities.<ref>Jones, Peter N. 2008 Shamans and Shamanism: A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Terms Use in North America. Boulder, Colorado: Bauu Press.</ref>

Not all Indigenous communities have roles for specific individuals who mediate with the spirit world on behalf of the community. Among those that do have this sort of religious structure, spiritual methods and beliefs may have some commonalities, though many of these commonalities are due to some nations being closely related, from the same region, or through post-Colonial governmental policies leading to the combining of formerly independent nations on reservations. This can sometimes lead to the impression that there is more unity among belief systems than there was in antiquity.

With the arrival of European settlers and colonial administration, the practice of Native American traditional beliefs was discouraged and Christianity was imposed<ref>{{cite web|title=Beneath the Underdog: Race, Religion, and the Trail of Tears|url=http://www.us-data.org/us/minges/underdog.html|quote=The missionaries, and especially those of the American Board, established a basic position of neutrality "between two fires" and as the Bible did not explicitly condemn slavery, they accepted "all to our communion who give evidence that they love the Lord Jesus Christ."}}</ref> upon the indigenous people. In most communities, the traditions were not completely eradicated, but rather went underground, and were practiced secretly until the prohibitive laws were repealed.<ref>{{cite book|title=Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School|page=104|author=Celia Haig-Brown|quote=we were all talking Shuswap. ... She said to us, 'You're never to get caught talking your language ... You'll get whipped;you'll really get punished' ... So we were careful after that not to be caught speaking. ... When we were way out there, we'd talk together in our language.}}</ref>

Up until and during the last hundred years, thousands of Native American and [[First Nations]] children from many different communities were sent into the [[Canadian Indian residential school system]], and [[Indian boarding school]]s in an effort to destroy tribal languages, cultures and beliefs. The [[Trail of Tears]], in the US, forced Native Americans to relocate from their traditional homes. Canadian laws enacted in 1982, and henceforth, have attempted to reverse previous attempts at extinguishing Native culture.<ref>{{cite web|title=Christian Aboriginal Infrastructure Developments|url=http://caid.ca/assimilation_policy.html}}</ref>

====Mesoamerica====
{{Further information|Maya religion}}
[[File:Mayan priest performing healing.jpg|thumb|right|[[Maya priesthood|Maya priest]] performing a healing ritual at [[Tikal]].]]
=====Maya=====
{{Main article|Maya priesthood}}

=====Aztec=====
{{Further information|Aztec astrology|Aztec religion}}

====South America====
[[File:Body of Maroon child brought before medicine man, 1955.jpg|thumb|Body of Ndyuka [[Maroon (people)|Maroon]] child brought before [[medicine man]], [[Suriname River]], [[Suriname]], South America]]
* The [[Urarina]] of the [[Peruvian Amazon]] have an elaborate cosmological system predicated on the [[ritual]] consumption of [[ayahuasca]], which is a key feature of their society.<ref name="upf.com">[http://www.upf.com/book.asp?id=DEANXS07 Dean, Bartholomew 2009 ''Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia'', Gainesville: University Press of Florida] {{ISBN|978-0-8130-3378-5}}</ref>
* [[Santo Daime]] and [[União do Vegetal]] ( abbreviated to [[UDV]]) are syncretic religions with which use an [[entheogen]] called ayahuasca in an attempt to connect with the spirit realm and receive divine guidance.<ref name="Peru" />

=====Amazonia=====
[[File:Chaman amazonie 5 06.jpg|thumb|left|Shaman from the shuara culture in [[Ecuador]] [[Amazonian forest]], June 2006]]
[[File:Urarina shaman B Dean.jpg|thumb|left|[[Urarina]] shaman, 1988]]
In the Peruvian [[Amazon basin]] and north coastal regions of the country, the healers are known as [[curandero]]s. ''Ayahuasqueros'' are Peruvians who specialize in the use of [[ayahuasca]].<ref name="upf.com"/> ''Ayahuasqueros'' have become popular among Western spiritual seekers, who claim that the ''ayauasqueros'' and their ayahuasca brews have cured them of everything from depression to addiction to cancer.<ref name="Peru" />

In addition to ''curanderos'' use of ayahuasca and their ritualized ingestion of [[mescaline]]-bearing [[San Pedro cactus]]es (Trichocereus pachanoi) for the [[divination]] and diagnosis of [[Maleficium (sorcery)|sorcery]], north-coastal shamans are famous throughout the region for their intricately complex and symbolically dense healing [[altar]]s called mesas (tables).{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} [[Douglas Sharon|Sharon]] (1993) has argued that the mesas symbolize the dualistic ideology underpinning the practice and experience of north-coastal shamanism.<ref>Joralemen, D. and [[Douglas Sharon|D. Sharon]] 1993 Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.</ref> For Sharon, the mesas are the, "physical embodiment of the supernatural opposition between benevolent and malevolent energies" (Dean 1998: 61).<ref>Dean, Bartholomew 1998 "Review of Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru" American Ethnologist. 25(1): 61–62.</ref>

In several tribes living in the [[Amazon rainforest]], the spiritual leaders also act as managers of scarce ecological resources<ref name=eco/><ref name=ecopia>Boglár 2001: 26</ref><ref name=coop/> The rich symbolism in [[Tukano people|Tukano]] culture has been documented in [[field work]]s<ref name="eco"/><ref name=Hug-FrMilkRiv>Christine Hugh-Jones 1980</ref><ref name=Hug-PalmPlei>Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980</ref> even in the last decades of the 20th century.

The ''yaskomo'' of the [[Wai-Wai people|Waiwai]] is believed to be able to perform a [[soul travel|soul flight]]. The soul flight can serve several functions:
* healing
* flying to the sky to consult cosmological beings (the moon or the brother of the moon) to get a name for a newborn baby
* flying to the cave of ''peccaries' mountains'' to ask the ''father of peccaries'' for abundance of game
* flying deep down in a river, to achieve the help of other beings.
Thus, a yaskomo is believed to be able to reach sky, earth, and water.<ref name="yaskomo soul flight">Fock 1963: 16</ref>

=====Mapuche=====
Among the [[Mapuche]] people of [[Chile]], ''[[Machi (Shaman)|Machi]]'' is usually a woman who serves the community by performing ceremonies to cure diseases, ward off evil, influence the weather and harvest, and by practicing other forms of healing such as herbalism.

=====Aymara=====
For the [[Aymara people|Aymara]] people of South America the [[Yatiri]] is a healer who heals the body and the soul, they serve the community and do the rituals for [[Pachamama]].

Part of the healing power attributed to shamanic practices depends of the use of plant alkaloids taken during the therapeutic sessions [[(Trance and Shamanic Cure on the South American Continent: Psychopharmalogical and Neurobiological Interpretations, Anthropology of Consciousness, Vol.21, Issue 1, pp. 83-105, ISSN 1053-4202, 2010)]].

=====Fuegians=====
{{IPA notice}}
Although [[Fuegians]] (the indigenous peoples of [[Tierra del Fuego]]) were all [[hunter-gatherer]]s,<ref>Gusinde 1966, pp. 6–7</ref> they did not share a common culture. The material culture was not homogenous, either: the big island and the archipelago made two different adaptations possible. Some of the cultures were coast-dwelling, others were land-oriented.<ref name=Ser-Hun>Service, Elman: The Hunter. Prentice-Hall, 1966.</ref><ref name=ExtAnc>{{cite web|url=http://www.trivia-library.com/c/extinct-ancient-societies-tierra-del-fuegians.htm|title=Extinct Ancient Societies Tierra del Fuegians|publisher=}}</ref>

Both [[Selk'nam]] and [[Yámana]] had persons filling in shaman-like roles.
The Selk'nams believed their {{IPA|/xon/}}s to have supernatural capabilities, e.g. to control weather.<ref>Gusinde 1966: 175</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victory-cruises.com/ona_indian.html|title=Patagonia, Tierra Del Fuego, cruising; The Yagan and Ona Indians|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> The figure of {{IPA|/xon/}} appeared in myths, too.<ref>Gusinde 1966: 15</ref> The Yámana {{IPA|/jekamuʃ/}}<ref>Gusinde 1966: 156</ref> corresponds to the Selknam {{IPA|/xon/}}.<ref>Gusinde 1966: 186</ref>

===Oceania===
{{See also|Umbarra|Tunggal panaluan}}
On the island of [[Papua New Guinea]], indigenous tribes believe that illness and calamity are caused by dark spirits, or ''masalai'', which cling to a person's body and [[poison]] them. Shamans are summoned in order to purge the unwholesome spirits from a person.<ref name=FourCorners_Amazon_entry>{{cite web|url=https://www.amazon.com/Four-Corners-Journey-Heart-Guinea/dp/0792274172/ref=pd_bxgy_b_img_b |title=Amazon.com listing for the "Four Corners: A Journey into the Heart of Papua New Guinea" }}</ref><ref name=FourCornersWeb>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/FourCorners.html |title=Kira Salak's official webpage on "Four Corners" |last=Salak |first=Kira }}</ref> Shamans also perform [[rainmaking]] ceremonies and can allegedly improve a hunter's ability to catch animals.<ref name=MakingRain>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/MakingRain.html |title=MAKING RAIN—from Four Corners |last=Salak |first=Kira }}</ref>

In Australia various aboriginal groups refer to their shamans as "clever men" and "clever women" also as ''kadji''. These aboriginal shamans use ''[[maban]]'' or ''mabain'', the material that is believed to give them their purported magical powers. Besides healing, contact with spiritual beings, involvement in initiation and other secret ceremonies, they are also enforcers of tribal laws, keepers of special knowledge and may "[[Curse|hex]]" to death one who breaks a social taboo by singing a song only known to the "clever men".

===Africa===
{{See also|African traditional religion|Traditional healers of South Africa|Witch doctor|Sangoma}}
[[File:Sangoma performing a Baptism.jpg|thumb|[[Traditional Healers of South Africa|Sangoma/Inyanga]] performing a traditional baptism on a baby in order to protect the spirit of the baby, Johannesburg, South Africa]]

In [[Mali]], [[Dogon people|Dogon]] sorcerers (both male and female) communicate with a spirit named Amma, who advises them on healing and divination practices.

The classical meaning of shaman as a person who, after recovering from a mental illness (or insanity) takes up the professional calling of socially recognized religious practitioner, is exemplified among the [[Sisala]] (of northern Gold Coast) : "the fairies "seized" him and made him insane for several months. Eventually, though, he learned to control their power, which he now uses to divine."<ref>Eugene L. Mendonsa : ''The Politics of Divination : a Processual View of Reactions to Illness and Deviance among the Sisala''. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1982. p. 112</ref>

The term ''[[sangoma]]'', as employed in [[Zulu people|Zulu]] and congeneric languages, is effectively equivalent to shaman. Sangomas are highly revered and respected in their society, where illness is thought to be caused by [[witchcraft]],<ref>David M Cumes "Africa in my bones" p. 14</ref> pollution (contact with impure objects or occurrences), bad spirits, or the ancestors themselves,<ref>Susan Schuster Campbell "Called to Heal" p. 38</ref> either malevolently, or through neglect if they are not respected, or to show an individual her calling to become a sangoma (''thwasa'').<ref>Susan Schuster Campbell "Called to Heal" p. 79</ref> For harmony between the living and the dead, vital for a trouble-free life, the ancestors must be shown respect through ritual and animal sacrifice.<ref>David M Cumes "Africa in my bones" p. 10</ref>

The term ''[[inyanga]]'' also employed by the [[Nguni people|Nguni]] cultures is equivalent to 'herbalist' as used by the Zulu people and a variation used by the [[Shona people|Karanga]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://texts.00.gs/Karanga_shamanism.htm|title=Karanga mythology [Zimbabwe]|publisher=}}</ref> among whom remedies (locally known as [[muti]]) for ailments are discovered by the inyanga being informed in a dream, of the herb able to effect the cure and also of where that herb is to be found. The majority of the herbal knowledge base is passed down from one ''inyanga'' to the next, often within a particular family circle in any one village.

Shamanism is known among the Nuba of Kordofan in Sudan.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nadel | first1 = S.F. | year = 1941 | title = A Shaman Cult in the Nuba Mountains | url = | journal = Sudan Notes and Records | volume = 24 | issue = 1| pages = 85–112 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nadel | first1 = S.F. | year = 1946 | title = A Study of Shamanism in the Nuba Mountains | url = | journal = Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute | volume = 76 | issue = | pages = 25–37 | doi=10.2307/2844307}}</ref>

===Contemporary Western shamanism===
{{Main article|Neoshamanism}}
There is an endeavor in some contemporary [[occultism|occult]] and [[esotericism|esoteric]] circles to reinvent shamanism in a modern form, often drawing from [[core shamanism]]—a set of beliefs and practices synthesized by [[Michael Harner]]—centered on the use of ritual drumming and dance, and Harner's interpretations of various indigenous religions. Harner has faced criticism for taking pieces of diverse religions out of their cultural contexts and synthesising a set of universal shamanic techniques. Some neoshamans focus on the ritual use of [[entheogens]],{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} and also embrace the philosophies of [[chaos magic]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} while others (such as [[Jan Fries]])<ref>Visual Magic:A Manual of Freestyle Shamanism:Jan Fries {{ISBN|1-869928-57-1}}</ref> have created their own forms of shamanism.

European-based neoshamanic traditions are focused upon the researched or imagined traditions of ancient Europe, where many [[mystical]] practices and belief systems were suppressed by the Christian church. Some of these practitioners express a desire to practice a system that is based upon their own ancestral traditions. Some anthropologists and practitioners have discussed the impact of such neoshamanism as "giving extra pay" (Harvey, 1997 and elsewhere) to indigenous American traditions, particularly as many pagan or heathen shamanic practitioners do not call themselves shamans, but instead use specific names derived from the European traditions—they work within such as ''[[völva]]'' or ''seidkona'' ([[seiðr|seid-woman]]) of the [[sagas]] (see Blain 2002, Wallis 2003).

Many spiritual seekers travel to Peru to work with ''ayahuasqueros'', shamans who engage in the ritual use of [[ayahuasca]], a psychedelic tea which has been documented to cure everything from depression to addiction. When taking ayahuasca, participants frequently report meeting spirits, and receiving divine revelations.<ref name="Peru" /> Shamanistic techniques have also been used in New Age therapies which use enactment and association with other realities as an intervention.<ref>[http://www.ull.es/congresos/conmirel/YORK.html ULL – Universidad de La Laguna] {{es icon}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nlpuniversitypress.com/html/CaCom08.html|title=Ca-Com|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref>

==Criticism of the term==
{{Further information|medicine man}}
[[File:Shaman tableau.png|thumb|A tableau presenting figures of various cultures filling in mediator-like roles, often being termed as "shaman" in the literature. The tableau presents the diversity of this concept.]]
The anthropologist [[Alice Kehoe]] criticizes the term "shaman" in her book ''Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking''. Part of this criticism involves the notion of [[cultural appropriation]].<ref name="Waveland Press"/> This includes criticism of [[New Age]] and modern Western forms of shamanism, which, according to Kehoe, misrepresent or dilute indigenous practices. Alice Kehoe also believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such as the [[Noble Savage]].

Kehoe is highly critical of [[Mircea Eliade]]'s work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research. To Kehoe, citing that ritualistic practices (most notably drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogens, spirit communication and healing) as being definitive of shamanism is poor practice. Such citations ignore the fact that those practices exist outside of what is defined as shamanism and play similar roles even in non-shamanic cultures (such as the role of chanting in [[Judeo-Christian]] and Islamic rituals) and that in their expression are unique to each culture that uses them. Such practices cannot be generalized easily, accurately, or usefully into a global religion of shamanism. Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of the hypothesis that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the [[Paleolithic]] period.<ref name="Waveland Press"/>

Anthropologist [[Mihály Hoppál]] also discusses whether the term "shamanism" is appropriate. He notes that for many readers, "-ism" implies a particular dogma, like Buddhism or Judaism. He recommends using the term "shamanhood"<ref name=summer/> or "shamanship"<ref>Hoppál & Szathmári & Takács 2006: 14</ref> (a term used in old Russian and German [[ethnography|ethnographic]] reports at the beginning of the 20th century) for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. He believes that this places more stress on the local variations<ref name="cogmap" /> and emphasizes that shamanism is not a religion of sacred [[dogma]]s, but linked to the everyday life in a practical way.<ref>Hoppál 1998: 40</ref> Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary paradigm shift.<ref name=summer>[http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/coming.html ISSR, 2001 Summer], abstract online in 2nd half of 2nd paragraph</ref> [[Piers Vitebsky]] also mentions that, despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although, as for the past, their existence is not impossible).<ref>Vitebsky 1996: 11</ref> Norwegian social anthropologist Hakan Rydving has likewise argued for the abandonment of the terms "shaman" and "shamanism" as "scientific illusions."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rydving|first1=Hakan|title=Le chamanisme aujourd'hui: constructions et deconstructions d'une illusion scientifique|journal=Etudes mongoles et siberiennes, centrasiatiques et tibetaines|date=2011|volume=42|doi=10.4000/emscat.1815|url=/index1815.html|accessdate=20 December 2011}}</ref>

Dulam Bumochir has affirmed the above critiques of "shamanism" as a Western construct created for comparative purposes and, in an extensive article, has documented the role of Mongols themselves, particularly "the partnership of scholars and shamans in the reconstruction of shamanism" in post-1990/post-communist Mongolia.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bumochir|first1=Dulam|title=Institutionalization of Mongolian shamanism: from primitivism to civilization|journal=Asian Ethnicity|date=2014|volume=15|issue=4|pages=473-491|accessdate=4 July 2017}}</ref> This process has also been documented by Swiss anthropologist Judith Hangartner in her landmark study of Darhad shamans in Mongolia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hangartner|first1=Judith|title=The Constitution and Contestation of Darhad Shamans' Power in Contemporary Mongolia|date=2011|publisher=Global Oriental|location=Leiden|isbn=9781906876111}}</ref> Historian Karena Kollmar-Polenz argues that the social construction and reification of shamanism as a religious "other" actually began with the 18th century writings of Tibetan Buddhist monks in Mongolia and later "probably influenced the formation of European discourse on Shamanism".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kollmar-Paulenz|first1=Karenina|title=The Invention of "Shamanism" in 18th Century Mongolian Elite Discourse|journal=Rocznik Orientalistyczny|date=2012|volume=LXV|issue=1|pages=90-106}}</ref>

==See also==
{{colbegin||16em}}
* [[Carlos Castaneda]]
* [[Folk healer]]
* [[Folk magic]]
* [[Itako]]
* [[Neoshamanism]]
* [[Neuroanthropology]]
* [[Neurotheology]]
* [[Paganism]]
* [[Panentheism]]
* [[Prehistoric medicine]]
* [[Seiðr]]
* [[Soul catcher]]
* [[Spirit spouse]]
* [[Terence McKenna]]
* [[Tlamatini]]
* [[Zduhać]]
{{colend}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}

* {{cite book |last=Barüske |first=Heinz |title=Eskimo Märchen |series=Die Märchen der Weltliteratur |publisher=Eugen Diederichs Verlag |location=Düsseldorf • Köln |year=1969 |language=German}} The title means: "Eskimo tales", the series means: "The tales of world literature".
* {{cite book |last=Boglár |first=Lajos |title=A kultúra arcai. Mozaikok a kulturális antropológia köreiből |publisher=Napvilág Kiadó |series=TÁRStudomány|location=Budapest |year=2001 |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9082-94-5}} The title means "The faces of culture. Mosaics from the area of cultural anthropology".
* {{cite journal |last=Bolin |first=Hans |title=Animal Magic: The mythological significance of elks, boats and humans in north Swedish rock art |journal=[[Journal of Material Culture]] |volume= 5 |issue= 2 |pages= 153–176 |year=2000 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Czaplicka |first=M.A. |others=preface by Marett, R.R. |chapter=Types of shaman |chapterurl=http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm |title=Shamanism in Siberia. Aboriginal Siberia. A study in social anthropology |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis00.htm |publisher=Sommerville College, University of Oxford, Clarendon Press |year=1914 |isbn=1-60506-060-7}}
* {{cite journal |last=Dana |first=Kathleen Osgood |title=Áillohaš and his image drum: the native poet as shaman |journal=Nordlit |volume=15 |date=Summer 2004 |publisher=Faculty of Humanities, University of Tromsø |format=PDF |url=http://uit.no/getfile.php?PageId=977&FileId=183#search=%22Juha%20Pentik%C3%A4inen%20grammar%20of%20mind%22 |ref={{harvid|Dana|2004}}}}
* {{cite web |last=Deschênes |first=Bruno |title=Inuit Throat-Singing |work=Musical Traditions |publisher=The Magazine for Traditional Music Throughout the World |year=2002 |url=http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm}}
*{{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=Tracing shamans in Siberia. The story of an ethnographical research expedition |others=Translated from Hungarian by Anita Rajkay Babó |publisher=Anthropological Publications |location=Oosterhout |year=1968}}
* {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=Samanizmus |publisher=Gondolat |series=Élet és Tudomány Kiskönyvtár |location=Budapest |year=1962 |url=http://mek.oszk.hu/01600/01639/ |language=Hungarian}} The title means: "Shamanism".
* {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=A sámánhit emlékei a magyar népi műveltségben |origyear=1958 |edition=first reprint |year=1998 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-05-7542-6}} The title means: "Remnants of shamanistic beliefs in Hungarian folklore".
* {{cite book |last=Fienup-Riordan |first=Ann |authorlink=Ann Fienup-Riordan |title=Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup'ik Eskimo Oral Tradition |location=Norman, Oklahoma |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-585-12190-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Fock |first=Niels |title=Waiwai. Religion and society of an Amazonian tribe |series=Nationalmuseets skrifter, Etnografisk Række (Ethnographical series), VIII |publisher=The National Museum of Denmark |location=Copenhagen |year=1963}}
* {{cite book |last=Freuchen |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Freuchen |title=Book of the Eskimos |publisher=The World Publishing Company |location=Cleveland • New York |year=1961 |isbn=0-449-30802-2}}
* {{Cite book |first=Kuldip Singh |last=Gulia |year=2005 |title=Human Ecology of Sikkim – A Case Study of Upper Rangit Basin |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |place=Delhi, India |isbn=81-7835-325-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4aDVQ1KVZYC | ref = harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Hajdú |first=Péter |editor=Hajdú, Péter |title=Uráli népek. Nyelvrokonaink kultúrája és hagyományai |year=1975 |publisher=Corvina Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-13-0900-2 |chapter=A rokonság nyelvi háttere}} The title means: "Uralic peoples. Culture and traditions of our linguistic relatives"; the chapter means "Linguistical background of the relationship".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Sámánok, lelkek és jelképek |publisher=Helikon Kiadó |location= Budapest |year=1994 |isbn=963-208-298-2 |language=Hungarian}} The title means "Shamans, souls and symbols".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Folklór és közösség |publisher=Széphalom Könyvműhely |location=Budapest |year=1998 |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9028-14-2 |chapter=A honfoglalók hitvilága és a magyar samanizmus |pages=40–45}} The title means "The belief system of Hungarians when they entered the Pannonian Basin, and their shamanism".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Sámánok Eurázsiában |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2005 |isbn=963-05-8295-3 |language=Hungarian |ref=Hop05}} The title means "Shamans in Eurasia", the book is published also in German, Estonian and Finnish. [http://www.akkrt.hu/main.php?folderID=906&pn=2&cnt=31&catID=&prodID=17202&pdetails=1 Site of publisher with short description on the book (in Hungarian)].
* {{cite book |editor=Hoppál, Mihály |editor2=Szathmári, Botond |editor3=Takács, András |title=Sámánok és kultúrák |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |chapter=Sámánok, kultúrák és kutatók az ezredfordulón |pages=9–25 |publisher=Gondolat |location=Budapest |year=2006a |isbn=963-9450-28-6}} The chapter title means "Shamans, cultures and researchers in the millenary", the book title means "Shamans and cultures".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13) |series=Bibliotheca Shamanistica |chapter=Is Shamanism a Folk Religion? |pages=11–16 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2007b |isbn=978-963-05-8521-7 |ref=Hop07b}}
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13) |series=Bibliotheca Shamanistica |chapter=Eco-Animism of Siberian Shamanhood |pages=17–26 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2007c |isbn=978-963-05-8521-7 |ref=Hop07c}}
* Janhunen, Juha. Siberian shamanistic terminology. ''Memoires de la Societe finno-ougrienne,'' 1986, 194: 97–117.
* {{cite book |first=Christine |last=Hugh-Jones |title=From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia |series=Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |isbn=0-521-22544-2}}
* {{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Hugh-Jones |title=The Palm and the Pleiades. Initiation and Cosmology in Northwest Amazonia |series=Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |isbn=0-521-21952-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Kleivan |first=Inge |author2=B. Sonne |title=Eskimos: Greenland and Canada |year=1985 |publisher=Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |series=Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2 |isbn=90-04-07160-1}}
* Lupa. [https://books.google.com/books?id=XfkRR25whnsC&lpg=PP1&dq=New%20Paths%20to%20Animal%20Totems&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false ''New Paths to Animal Totems.''] Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn Worldwide, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0-7387-3337-1}}.
* {{cite book |last=Menovščikov |first=G. A. (= Г. А. Меновщиков) |chapter=Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes |editor=Diószegi, Vilmos |title=Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=1968}}
* {{cite book |last=Nagy |first=Beáta Boglárka |chapter=Az északi szamojédok |pages=221–234 |editor=Csepregi, Márta |title=Finnugor kalauz |series=Panoráma |publisher=Medicina Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |year=1998 |isbn=963-243-813-2 |language=Hungarian}} The chapter means "Northern Samoyedic peoples", the title means ''Finno-Ugric guide''.
* {{Cite book |last=Nattiez |first=Jean Jacques |author-link=Jean-Jacques Nattiez |title=Inuit Games and Songs • Chants et Jeux des Inuit |series=Musiques & musiciens du monde • Musics & musicians of the world |publisher=Research Group in [[Music semiology|Musical Semiotics]], Faculty of Music, University of Montreal |place=Montreal}}. The songs are online available<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ubu.com/ethno/soundings/inuit.html|title=U B U W E B :: Canada Inuit Games and Songs|publisher=}}</ref> from the [[ethnopoetics]] website curated by [[Jerome Rothenberg]].
* {{Cite news
| last =Noll
| first =Richard
| author-link =Richard Noll
| last2 =Shi
| first2 =Kun
| publication-date =2004
| title =Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China
| periodical =韓國宗敎硏究 (Journal of Korean Religions)
| series =
| publication-place =Seoul KR
| place =
| publisher =西江大學校. 宗教硏究所 (Sŏgang Taehakkyo. Chonggyo Yŏnʾguso.)
| volume =6
| issue =
| pages =135–162
| url =http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf
|format=PDF| issn =
| doi =
| oclc =
| accessdate =2008-07-30
| ref=NoSh04}}. It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] of Northeast China.
* Reinhard, Johan (1976) "Shamanism and Spirit Possession: The Definition Problem." In ''Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas'', J. Hitchcock & R. Jones (eds.), New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pp. 12–20.
* [[Ippei Shimamura|Shimamura, Ippei]] ''The roots Seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Among the Mongol Buryats.'' Yokohama, Japan: Shumpusha, 2014.
* Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu, Francis G. (1995) ''Religious or Spiritual Problem. A Culturally Sensitive Diagnostic Category in the DSM-IV''. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol.183, No. 7, pp. 435–444
* {{cite book |last=Voigt |first=Miklós |title=Világnak kezdetétől fogva. Történeti folklorisztikai tanulmányok |chapter=Sámán – a szó és értelme |pages=41–45 |year=2000 |publisher=Universitas Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9104-39-6}} The chapter discusses the etymology and meaning of word "shaman".
{{refend}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Witzel | first1 = Michael | year = 2011 | title = Shamanism in Northern and Southern Eurasia: their distinctive methods and change of consciousness | url = | journal = Social Science Information | volume = 50 | issue = 1| pages = 39–61 | doi=10.1177/0539018410391044}}

==Further reading==

{{refbegin|2}}
* [[Joseph Campbell]], ''The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology.'' 1959; reprint, New York and London: Penguin Books, 1976. {{ISBN|0-14-019443-6}}
* Harner, Michael, ''The Way of the Shaman: A Guide to Power and Healing,'' Harper & Row Publishers, NY 1980
* Richard de Mille, ed. ''The Don Juan Papers: Further Castaneda Controversies.'' Santa Barbara, California: Ross-Erikson, 1980.
* George Devereux, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/667052 "Shamans as Neurotics"], [[American Anthropologist]], New Series, Vol. 63, No. 5, Part 1. (Oct. 1961), pp. 1088–1090.
* Jay Courtney Fikes, ''Carlos Castaneda: Academic Opportunism and the Psychedelic Sixties'', Millennia Press, Canada, 1993 {{ISBN|0-9696960-0-0}}
* Åke Hultkrantz (Honorary Editor in Chief): [http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/about.htm Shaman]. Journal of the [http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/ International Society for Shamanistic Research]
* Philip Jenkins, ''Dream Catchers: How Mainstream America Discovered Native Spirituality.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-19-516115-7}}
* Alice Kehoe, ''Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking.'' 2000. London: Waveland Press. {{ISBN|1-57766-162-1}}
* [[David Charles Manners]], ''In the Shadow of Crows''. (contains first-hand accounts of the Nepalese jhankri tradition) Oxford: Signal Books, 2011. {{ISBN|1-904955-92-4}}.
* Jordan D. Paper, ''The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion'', Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1995. {{ISBN|0-7914-2315-8}}.
* Smith, Frederick M. (2006). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CuB7K3bDWDsC The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature]''. Columbia University Press, U.S. {{ISBN|0-231-13748-6}}. pp. 195–202.
* [[Barbara Tedlock]], ''Time and the Highland Maya'', U. of New Mexico Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-8263-1358-2}}
* Silvia Tomášková, ''Wayward Shamans: the prehistory of an idea'', University of California Press, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-520-27532-4}}
* [[Michel Weber]], « [https://www.academia.edu/6011320/_Shamanism_and_proto-consciousness_2015_ Shamanism and proto-consciousness] », in René Lebrun, Julien De Vos et É. Van Quickelberghe (éds), ''Deus Unicus''. Actes du colloque « Aux origines du monothéisme et du scepticisme religieux » organisé à Louvain-la-Neuve les 7 et 8 juin 2013 par le Centre d’histoire des Religions Cardinal Julien Ries [Cardinalis Julien Ries et Pierre Bordreuil in memoriam], Turnhout, Brepols, coll. Homo Religiosus série II, 14, 2015, pp. 247–260.
* Andrei Znamenski, ''Shamanism in Siberia: Russian Records of Siberian Spirituality.'' Dordrech and Boston: Kluwer/Springer, 2003. {{ISBN|1-4020-1740-5}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
{{Commons category|Shamanism}}

* [http://www.akhathai.org AFECT] A charitable organization protecting traditional cultures in northern Thailand
* [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf Chuonnasuan] (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] of Northeast China, by Richard Noll and Kun Shi
* [http://newagefraud.org/ New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans], an organization devoted to alerting seekers about fraudulent teachers, and helping them avoid being exploited or participating in exploitation
* [http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html Shamanic Healing Rituals] by Tatyana Sem, Russian Museum of Ethnography
* [http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol10/pdf/teuton.pdf Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn] by A. Asbjorn Jon
* [http://www.krupar.com/index.php?file=www/en/gallery/gallery.html&cat=5 Shamanism in Siberia] – photographs by Standa Krupar
* [http://haldjas.folklore.ee/~aado/ Studies in Siberian Shamanism and Religions of the Finno-Ugrian Peoples] by Aado Lintrop, Folk Belief and Media Group of the Estonian Literary Museum
* [http://www.theecologist.info/page9.html A View from the Headwaters] by Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff Amazonian Indigenous Peoples and ecology

{{philosophy of religion}}
{{witchcraft}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Alternative medical systems]]
[[Category:Anthropology of religion]]
[[Category:Shamanism| ]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Supernatural healing]]

Shamanism

2017-10-24T07:27:55Z

85.19.179.17: /* Etymology */Fixed typo

{{Redirect2|Shaman|Shamans}}
{{Anthropology of religion|Basic|image=[[File:Khagdaev1.JPG|center|300px]]|caption= [[Buryats|Buryat]] shaman on [[Olkhon Island]], [[Siberia]]}}
'''Shamanism''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|ɑː|m|ə|n}} {{respell|SHAH|men}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|eɪ|m|ə|n}} {{respell|SHAYSHAY|mən}}) is a practice that involves a practitioner reaching [[altered state of consciousness|altered states of consciousness]] in order to perceive and interact with a spirit world and channel these transcendental energies into this world.<ref>[[#Hop87|Hoppál 1987]]. p. 76.</ref>

A '''shaman''' is someone who is regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of [[evocation|benevolent and malevolent spirits]], who typically enters into a [[trance|trance state]] during a [[ritual]], and practices [[divination]] and [[healing]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/shaman?view=uk|title=Oxford Dictionaries - Dictionary, Thesaurus, & Grammar|publisher=}}</ref> The word "shaman" probably originates from the [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] [[Evenki language]] of [[North Asia]]. According to ethnolinguist [[Juha Janhunen]], "the word is attested in all of the Tungusic idioms" such as [[Negidal language|Negidal]], [[Lamut language|Lamut]], [[Udege language|Udehe]]/[[Oroch language|Orochi]], [[Nanai language|Nanai]], Ilcha, [[Orok language|Orok]], [[Manchu language|Manchu]] and [[Ulch language|Ulcha]], and "nothing seems to contradict the assumption that the meaning 'shaman' also derives from Proto-Tungusic" and may have roots that extend back in time at least two millennia.<ref>Juha Janhunen, Siberian shamanistic terminology, ''Suomalais-ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia/ Memoires de la Société finno-ougrienne,'' 1986, 194: 97–98</ref> The term was introduced to the west after [[Russia]]n forces [[Siege of Kazan|conquered]] the shamanistic [[Khanate of Kazan]] in 1552.

The term "shamanism" was first applied by [[Western world|Western]] anthropologists as outside observers of the ancient religion of the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and [[Mongols]], as well as those of the neighbouring [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] and [[Samoyedic languages|Samoyedic]]-speaking peoples. Upon observing more religious traditions across the world, some Western anthropologists began to also use the term in a very broad sense, to describe unrelated magico-religious practices found within the [[ethnic religion]]s of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and even completely unrelated parts of the Americas, as they believed these practices to be similar to one another.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Shamanism, Discourse, Modernity |last=Alberts |first=Thomas |publisher=Ashgate |year=2015 |isbn=9781472439864|location=Farnham|pages=73–79}}</ref>

[[Mircea Eliade]] writes, "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = 'technique of [[religious ecstasy]]'."<ref name = Eli72>Mircea Eliade, ''Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy'', Bollingen Series LXXVI, Princeton University Press 1972, pp. 3–7.</ref> Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters [[otherworld|supernatural realms]] or [[Plane (esotericism)|dimensions]] to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the spiritual world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment.<ref name = Eli72/>

Beliefs and practices that have been categorised this way as "shamanic" have attracted the interest of scholars from a wide variety of disciplines, including anthropologists, archaeologists, historians, religious studies scholars, philosophers and psychologists. Hundreds of books and [[Academic publishing#Scholarly paper|academic paper]]s on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. In the 20th century, many Westerners involved in the counter-cultural movement have created modern magico-religious practices influenced by their ideas of indigenous religions from across the world, creating what has been termed [[neoshamanism]] or the neoshamanic movement.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gredig|first1=Florian|title=Finding New Cosmologies|date=2009|publisher=Lit Verlag Dr. W. Hopf|location=Berlin}}</ref> It has affected the development of many [[Neopaganism|neopagan]] practices, as well as faced a backlash and accusations of [[cultural appropriation]],<ref name="Waveland Press">{{cite book|last1=Kehoe|first1=Alice Beck|title=Shamans and religion : an anthropological exploration in critical thinking|date=2000|publisher=Waveland Press|location=Prospect Heights, Ill.|isbn=1577661621}}</ref> exploitation and misrepresentation when outside observers have tried to represent cultures they do not belong to.<ref name="Wernitznig2">Wernitznig, Dagmar, ''Europe's Indians, Indians in Europe: European Perceptions and Appropriations of Native American Cultures from Pocahontas to the Present''. University Press of America, 2007: p.132. "What happens further in the [[Plastic Shaman]]'s [fictitious] story is highly irritating from a perspective of cultural hegemony. The Injun elder does not only willingly share their spirituality with the white intruder but, in fact, must come to the conclusion that this intruder is as good an Indian as they are themselves. Regarding Indian spirituality, the Plastic Shaman even out-Indians the actual ones. The messianic element, which Plastic Shamanism financially draws on, is installed in the Yoda-like elder themselves. They are the ones – while melodramatically parting from their spiritual offshoot – who urge the Plastic Shaman to share their gift with the rest of the world. Thus Plastic Shamans wipe their hands clean of any megalomaniac or missionizing undertones. Licensed by the authority of an Indian elder, they now have every right to spread their wisdom, and if they make (quite more than) a buck with it, then so be it.—The neocolonial ideology attached to this scenario leaves less room for cynicism."</ref><ref name="Hobson">G. Hobson, "The Rise of the White Shaman as a New Version of Cultural Imperialism." in: Hobson, Gary, ed. ''The Remembered Earth''. Albuquerque, NM: Red Earth Press; 1978: 100-108.</ref>

==Terminology==

===Etymology===
[[File:Witsen's Shaman.JPG|thumb|The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, drawn by the Dutch explorer [[Nicolaes Witsen]], who wrote an account of his travels among Samoyedic- and Tungusic-speaking peoples in 1692. Witsen labelled the illustration as a "Priest of the Devil," giving this figure clawed feet to express what he thought were demonic qualities.<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. p. 32.</ref>]]

The word "shaman" probably originates from the [[Evenki language|Evenki]] word "''šamán,''" most likely from the southwestern dialect spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples.<ref>Juha Janhunan, Siberian shamanistic terminology, ''Memoires de la Societe finno-ougrienne'' 1986, 194:97.</ref> The Tungusic term was subsequently adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman [[Avvakum]].<ref>Written before 1676, first printed in 1861; see [[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. p. vii.</ref>

The word was brought to Western Europe in the late 17th century by the Dutch traveler [[Nicolaes Witsen]], who reported his stay and journeys among the Tungusic and Samoyedic-speaking indigenous peoples of Siberia in his book ''Noord en Oost Tataryen'' (1692).<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]], p. 32.</ref> [[Adam Brand (explorer)|Adam Brand]], a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China; a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word ''shaman'' to English speakers.<ref>Adam Brand, ''Driejaarige Reize naar China'', Amsterdam 1698; transl. ''A Journal of an Ambassy'', London 1698; see Laufer B., "Origin of the Word Shaman," ''American Anthropologist,'' 19 (1917): 361–71 and Bremmer J., "Travelling souls? Greek shamanism reconsidered", in Bremmer J.N. (ed.), ''The Rise and Fall of the Afterlife,'' London: Routledge, 2002, pp. 7–40. ([http://theol.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2002/594/c3.pdf PDF])</ref>

The etymology of the Evenki word is sometimes connected to a Tungus root ''ša-'' "to know".<ref name="cogmap">Hoppál 2005: 15</ref><ref name="Diószegi 1962:13">Diószegi 1962: 13</ref> This has been questioned on linguistic grounds: "The possibility cannot be completely rejected, but neither should it be accepted without reservation since the assumed derivational relationship is phonologically irregular (note especially the vowel quantities)."<ref>Januhnan, 1986: 98.</ref> Other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the [[Manchu language]], and as such would be the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language.<ref>{{cite book|last=Crossley|first=Pamela Kyle|title=The Manchus|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|year=1996|isbn=1557865604}}</ref>

However, [[Mircea Eliade]] noted that the [[Sanskrit]] word ''[[sramana|śramaṇa]],'' designating a wandering monastic or holy figure, has spread to many Central Asian languages along with [[Buddhism]] and could be the ultimate origin of the Tungusic word.<ref>{{cite book |last=Eliade |first=Mircea |author-link=Mircea Eliade |year=1989 |title=Shamanism |publisher=Arkana Books |page =495}}</ref> This proposal has been thoroughly critiqued since 1917. Ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen regards it as an "anachronism" and an "impossibility" that is nothing more than a "far-fetched etymology."<ref>Janhunen, 1986:98.</ref>

21st-century anthropologist and archeologist Shane Dawson argues that by the mid-1600s, many Europeans applied the Arabic term ''shaitan,'' meaning "devil," to the non-Christian practices and beliefs of indigenous peoples beyond the Ural Mountains.<ref>Tomaskova, 2013, 76–78, 104–105.</ref> She suggests that ''shaman'' may have entered the various Tungus dialects as a corruption of this term, and then been told to Christian missionaries, explorers, soldiers and colonial administrators with whom the people had increasing contact for centuries. Ethnolinguists did not develop as a discipline nor achieve contact with these communities until the late 19th century, and may have mistakenly "read backward" in time for the origin of this word.

===Definitions===
[[File:SB - Altay shaman with drum.jpg|thumb|Russian postcard based on a photo taken in 1908 by S.I. Borisov, showing a female shaman, of probable [[Khakas people|Khakas]] ethnicity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |authorlink= |title=Sámánok Eurázsiában |year=2005 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-05-8295-3}} pp. 77, 287; {{cite book |last=Znamensky |first=Andrei A. |chapter=Az ősiség szépsége: altáji török sámánok a szibériai regionális gondolkodásban (1860–1920) |pages=117–134 |editor=Molnár, Ádám |title=Csodaszarvas. Őstörténet, vallás és néphagyomány. Vol. I |publisher=Molnár Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2005 |isbn=963-218-200-6 |language=Hungarian}}, p. 128</ref>]]

There is no single agreed-upon definition for the word "shamanism" among anthropologists. The English historian [[Ronald Hutton]] noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, there were four separate definitions of the term which appeared to be in use. The first of these uses the term to refer to "anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness." The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness at the behest of others. The third definition attempts to distinguish shamans from other magico-religious specialists who are believed to contact spirits, such as "[[mediumship|medium]]s", "[[witch doctor]]s", "spiritual healers" or "prophets," by claiming that shamans undertake some particular technique not used by the others. Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be. The fourth definition identified by Hutton uses "shamanism" to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia.<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. pp. vii–viii.</ref> According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, the Evenk word ''shaman'' would more accurately be translated as "priest".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tengerism.org/table_of_contents.html|title = Circle of Tengerism}}</ref>

==Initiation and learning==
Shamans are normally "called" by dreams or signs which require lengthy training. However, shamanic powers may be "inherited".

Turner and colleagues<ref>Turner et al., p. 440</ref> mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a [[rite of passage]] for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can be found in the detailed case history of [[Oroqen people|Chuonnasuan]], the last master shaman among the Tungus peoples in Northeast China.<ref>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]] (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref>

The [[wounded healer]] is an [[archetype]] for a shamanic trial and journey. This process is important to the young shaman. S/he undergoes a type of sickness that pushes her or him to the brink of death. This happens for two reasons:
# The shaman crosses over to the underworld. This happens so the shaman can venture to its depths to bring back vital information for the sick, and the tribe.
# The shaman must become sick to understand sickness. When the shaman overcomes his or her own sickness, s/he will hold the cure to heal all that suffer. This is the uncanny mark of the wounded healer.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Halifax | first = Joan |authorlink = Joan Halifax |title = Shaman: The Wounded Healer |publisher = [[Thames & Hudson]] |year = 1982 |location = London |isbn = 9780500810293 |oclc = 8800269}}</ref>

== Roles ==
{{Anthropology of religion}}

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een shamaan op Zuid-Boeroe bezweert boze geesten de kinderen te verlaten waarbij hij een geldstuk en een sirihnoot offert TMnr 10001031.jpg|thumb|[[Maluku Islands|South Moluccan]] Shaman exorcising evil spirits occupying children, [[Buru]], [[Indonesia]]. (1920)]]

Shamans claim to gain knowledge and the power to heal by entering into the [[Spirit world (Spiritualism)|spiritual world]] or dimension. Most shamans have [[dream]]s or [[Vision (spirituality)|visions]] that convey certain messages. The shaman may have or acquire many [[spirit guides]], who often guide and direct the shaman in his/her travels in the spirit world. These spirit guides are always present within the shaman, although others encounter them only when the shaman is in a [[trance]]. The spirit guide energizes the shaman, enabling him/her to enter the spiritual dimension. The shaman heals within the spiritual dimension by returning 'lost' parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. The shaman also cleanses excess negative energies, which confuse or pollute the soul.

Shamans act as [[Mediation|mediators]] in their culture. <ref name=mediator>Hoppál 2005: 45</ref><ref name=mediator2>Boglár 2001: 24</ref> The shaman communicates with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the deceased. The shaman communicates with both living and dead to alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver gifts to the spirits.

Among the [[Selkup people|Selkups]], the [[Merginae|sea duck]] is a spirit animal. Ducks fly in the air and dive in the water. Thus ducks are believed to belong to both the upper world and the world below.<ref name="Hoppal_a">Hoppál 2005: 94</ref> Among other Siberian peoples, these characteristics are attributed to water fowl in general.<ref>Vitebsky 1996: 46</ref> The upper world is the afterlife primarily associated with deceased humans and is believed to be accessed by soul journeying through a portal in the sky. The lower world or "world below" is the afterlife primarily associated with animals and is believed to be accessed by soul journeying through a portal in the earth.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ingerman |first=Sandra |date=2004 |title=Shamanic Journeying: A Beginner's Guide |url=https://www.amazon.com/Shamanic-Journeying-Beginners-Sandra-Ingerman/dp/1591799430 |publisher= Sounds True |isbn=9781591799436}}</ref> In shamanic cultures many animals are regarded as spirit animals.

Shamans perform a variety of functions depending upon their respective cultures; <ref name=multfunc>Hoppál 2005: 25</ref> healing,<ref name=sem-shamheal>{{cite web |last=Sem |first=Tatyana |url=http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html |title=Shamanic Healing Rituals |publisher=Russian Museum of Ethnography}}</ref><ref>Hoppál 2005: 27–28</ref> leading a [[sacrifice]],<ref>Hoppál 2005: 28–33</ref> preserving the [[tradition]] by [[storytelling]] and songs,<ref name=memory>Hoppál 2005: 37</ref> [[fortune-telling]],<ref>Hoppál 2005: 34–35</ref> and acting as a [[psychopomp]] (literal meaning, "guide of souls").<ref name=psychopomp>Hoppál 2005: 36</ref> A single shaman may fulfill several of these functions.<ref name="multfunc" />

The functions of a shaman may include either guiding to their proper abode the souls of the dead (which may be guided either one-at-a-time or in a cumulative group, depending on culture), and/or curing (healing) of ailments. The ailments may be either purely physical afflictions—such as disease, which may be cured by gifting, flattering, threatening, or wrestling the disease-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may be completed by displaying a supposedly extracted token of the disease-spirit (displaying this, even if "fraudulent", is supposed to impress the disease-spirit that it has been, or is in the process of being, defeated, so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient's body), or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions—such as persistent terror (on account of a frightening experience), which may be likewise cured by similar methods. In most languages a different term other than the one translated "shaman" is usually applied to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may be more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), however, in the case of an interpreter of omens or of dreams.

There are distinct types of shaman who perform more specialized functions. For example, among the [[Nani people]], a distinct kind of shaman acts as a [[psychopomp]].<ref>Hoppál 2005:36164</ref> Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the [[Nenets people|Nenets]], [[Enets people|Enets]], and [[Selkup people|Selkup]] shaman.<ref>Hoppál 2005: 87–95</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm|title=Shamanism in Siberia: Part III. Religion: Chapter IX. Types of Shamans|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> Among the [[Huichol people|Huichol]],<ref name=Mexico>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/Peyote.html |title=Lost souls of the Peyote Trail |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure }}</ref> there are two categories of shaman. This demonstrates the differences among shamans within a single tribe.

Among the [[Hmong people]], the shaman or the ''Ntxiv Neej'' (Tee-Neng), acts as healer. The Ntxiv Neej also performs rituals/ceremonies (soul retrievals) designed to call the soul back from its many travels to the physical human body. A Ntxiv Neej may use several shamanistic tools such as swords, divinity horns, a gong (drum), or finger bells/jingles. All tools serve to protect the spirits from the eyes of the unknown, thus enabling the Ntxiv Neej to deliver souls back to their proper owner. The Ntxiv Neej may wear a white, red, or black veil to disguise the soul from its attackers in the spiritual dimension.

Boundaries between the shaman and laity are not always clearly defined. Among the [[Barasana]] of Brazil, there is no absolute difference between those recognized as shamans and those who are not.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} At the lowest level, most adults have abilities as shamans and will carry out the same functions as those who have a widespread reputation for their powers and knowledge. The Barasana shaman knows more [[Mythology|myth]]s and understands their meaning better, nonetheless the majority of adults also know many myths.<ref name=barasana-myths>Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980: 32</ref>

Among [[Inuit]] peoples the laity have experiences which are commonly attributed to the [[Shamanism among Eskimo peoples#Shamanism in various Eskimo groups|shamans of those Inuit groups]]. [[Daydream]], reverie, and [[trance]] are not restricted to shamans.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/> Control over / alliance with helping spirits is the primary characteristic attributed to shamans. The laity usually employ [[amulet]]s, spells, formulas, songs.<ref name="Mer-BecHalfHid"/><ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 8–10</ref> Among the [[Greenland Inuit]], the laity have greater capacity to relate with spiritual beings. These people are often apprentice shamans who failed to complete their initiations.<ref name="failed-shaman" />

The assistant of an [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] shaman (called ''jardalanin'', or "second spirit") knows many things about the associated beliefs. He or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behavior of the shaman.<ref name=Guan_Kouni>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]]: 10, footnote 10 (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref> Despite these functions, the jardalanin is ''not'' a shaman. For this interpretative assistant, it would be unwelcome to fall into trance.<ref name=interpreter>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]]: 8–9 (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref>

==Ecological aspect==
Among the [[Tucano people]], a sophisticated system exists for [[environmental resources management]] and for avoiding resource depletion through overhunting. This system is conceptualized mythologically and symbolically by the belief that breaking hunting restrictions may cause illness. As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading role in this [[Ecology|ecological]] management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. The shaman is able to "release" game animals, or their souls, from their hidden abodes.<ref name=eco>Reichel-Dolmatoff 1997</ref><ref>Vitebsky 1996: 107</ref> The [[Piaroa people]] have ecological concerns related to shamanism.<ref name=ecopia/> Among the [[Inuit]], shamans fetch the souls of game from remote places,<ref>Merkur 1985: 5</ref><ref>Vitebsky 1996: 108</ref> or [[soul travel]] to ask for game from mythological beings like the [[Sedna (mythology)|Sea Woman]].<ref>Kleivan & Sonne: 27–28</ref>

==Economics==
The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies across cultures. In many Inuit groups, they provide services for the community and get a "due payment" (cultures),{{who|date=February 2012}} believe the payment is given to the helping spirits<ref name=mshare/> but these goods are only "welcome addenda." They are not enough to enable shamanizing as a full-time activity. Shamans live like any other member of the group, as a hunter or housewife. Due to the popularity of [[ayahuasca tourism]] in South America, there are practitioners in areas frequented by backpackers who make a living from leading ceremonies.<ref name="failed-shaman">Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24</ref><ref name=mshare>Merkur 1985: 3</ref>

==Beliefs==
There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, but several common beliefs are shared by all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified by [[Mircea Eliade|Eliade]] (1972)<ref name = Eli72/> are the following:

* Spirits exist and they play important roles both in individual lives and in human society.
* The shaman can communicate with the spirit world.
* Spirits can be benevolent or malevolent.
* The shaman can treat sickness caused by malevolent spirits.
* The shaman can employ [[trance]] inducing techniques to incite visionary ecstasy and go on [[vision quest]]s.
* The shaman's spirit can leave the body to enter the [[supernatural]] world to search for answers.
* The shaman evokes animal images as [[spirit guides]], [[omen]]s, and message-bearers.
* The shaman can perform other varied forms of [[divination]], [[scry]], throw bones/[[runes]], and sometimes foretell of future events.

Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which affect the lives of the living.<ref name=Peru>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/Peru.html |title=Hell and Back |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure }}</ref> Although the causes of disease lie in the spiritual realm, inspired by malicious spirits, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman "enters the body" of the patient to confront the spiritual infirmity and heals by banishing the infectious spirit.

Many shamans have expert knowledge of medicinal plants native to their area, and an herbal treatment is often prescribed. In many places shamans learn directly from the plants, harnessing their effects and healing properties, after obtaining permission from the indwelling or patron spirits. In the Peruvian Amazon Basin, shamans and ''[[curandero]]s'' use medicine songs called ''[[icaro]]s'' to evoke spirits. Before a spirit can be summoned it must teach the shaman its song.<ref name="Peru" /> The use of [[totem]]ic items such as rocks with special powers and an [[Animism|animating spirit]] is common.

Such practices are presumably very ancient. [[Plato]] wrote in his ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'' that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that those who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth".

Belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as ''[[brujería]]'' in Latin America, exists in many societies. Other societies assert all shamans have the power to both cure and kill. Those with shamanic knowledge usually enjoy great power and prestige in the community,{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} but they may also be regarded suspiciously or fearfully as potentially harmful to others.

By engaging in their work, a shaman is exposed to significant personal risk, from the spirit world, from enemy shamans, or from the means employed to alter the shaman's [[state of consciousness]]. Shamanic plant materials can be toxic or fatal if misused. Failure to return from an [[Astral projection|out-of-body journey]] can lead to death.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} [[Spell (paranormal)|Spell]]s are commonly used to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is often very highly ritualized.

===Soul and spirit concepts===
The variety of functions described above may seem like distinct tasks, but they may be united by underlying soul and spirit concepts.

;[[Soul (spirit)|Soul]]
:This concept can generally explain more, seemingly unassociated phenomena in shamanism:<ref name=all-soul>[[#Mer85|Merkur 1985]]: 4</ref><ref>[[#Vit96|Vitebsky 1996]]: 11, 12–14, 107</ref><ref name=soulsham>[[#Hop05|Hoppál 2005]]: 27, 30, 36</ref>

;[[Healing]]
:This concept may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief system of the people served by the shaman.<ref name=sem-shamheal/> It may consist of retrieving the lost soul of the ill person.<ref name=resoul>Hoppál 2005: 27</ref> See also the [[soul dualism]] concept.

;[[Scarcity]] of hunted game
:This problem can be solved by "releasing" the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Besides that, many [[taboo]]s may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, so that the souls of the animals do not feel angry or hurt, or the pleased soul of the already killed prey can tell the other, still living animals, that they can allow themselves to be caught and killed.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 7, 19–21</ref><ref name=Gab-KarEszk>Gabus, Jean: A karibu eszkimók. Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 1970. (Hungarian translation of the original: Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous, Libraire Payot Lausanne, 1944.) It describes the life of Caribou Eskimo groups.</ref> For the ecological aspects of shamanistic practice, and related beliefs, see below.

;[[Infertility]] of women
:This problem can be cured by obtaining the soul of the expected child.

;[[Spirit]]s
:Beliefs related to [[spirit]]s can explain many different phenomena.<ref>[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 18</ref> For example, the importance of [[storytelling]], or acting as a singer, can be understood better if we examine the whole belief system. A person who can memorize long texts or songs, and play an instrument, may be regarded as the beneficiary of contact with the spirits (e.g. [[Khanty people]]).<ref name=singtellplay>Hoppál 2005: 99</ref>

==Practice==
{{See also|Religious ecstasy}}
Generally, the shaman traverses the [[axis mundi]] and enters the spirit world by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an [[Religious ecstasy|ecstatic]] [[trance]], either [[Autosuggestion|autohypnotically]] or through the use of [[entheogen]]s. The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together.

===Entheogens===
[[File:Flowering San Pedro cactus.jpg|thumb|alt=text|Flowering [[Echinopsis pachanoi|San Pedro]], an entheogenic cactus that has been used for over 3,000 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mescaline.com/sanpedro/|title=A Brief History of the San Pedro Cactus|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> Today the vast majority of extracted mescaline is from columnar cacti, not vulnerable [[peyote]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/151962/0|title=Lophophora williamsii|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref>]]

An entheogen ("generating the divine within")<ref>{{citation |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/entheogen | title=Entheogen | publisher=[dictionary.com] |accessdate=2012-03-13}}</ref> is a [[psychoactive]] substance used in a [[religion|religious]], shamanic, or [[spirituality|spiritual]] context.<ref>
{{cite web
| url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-89132008000500010&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en
| title=Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology – Jurema-Preta (Mimosa tenuiflora [Willd.] Poir.): a review of its traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacology
| publisher=www.scielo.br
| accessdate=2009-01-14
| last=
| first=
}}</ref> Entheogens have been used in a [[ritual]]ized context for thousands of years; their religious significance is well established in anthropological and modern evidences. Examples of traditional entheogens include: [[peyote]], [[psilocybin mushroom]]s, uncured [[tobacco]], [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], [[ayahuasca]], ''[[Salvia divinorum]]'', ''[[Tabernanthe iboga]]'', ''[[Ipomoea tricolor]]'', and ''[[Amanita muscaria]]''.

Some shamans observe dietary or customary restrictions particular to their tradition. These restrictions are more than just cultural. For example, the diet followed by shamans and apprentices prior to participating in an [[ayahuasca]] ceremony includes foods rich in [[tryptophan]] (a biosynthetic precursor to [[serotonin]]) as well as avoiding foods rich in [[tyramine]], which could induce [[hypertensive crisis]] if ingested with [[MAOI]]s such as are found in ayahuasca brews as well as abstinence from alcohol or sex.<ref name="Peru" />

===Music and songs===
{{See also|Shamanic music|Imitation of sounds in shamanism}}
Just like shamanism itself,<ref name="cogmap"/> music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse, far from being alike. In several instances, songs related to shamanism are intended to imitate [[natural sounds]], via [[onomatopoeia]].<ref name=onom>{{cite web|url=http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf |title=healthCheck |publisher= |accessdate=6 June 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402105719/http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf |archivedate=2 April 2015 |df= }}</ref>

[[Sound mimesis in various cultures]] may serve other functions not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals as luring game in the hunt;<ref name = natt/> or entertainment ([[Inuit throat singing]]).<ref name=natt>Nattiez: 5</ref><ref name=desch>{{cite web|url=http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm|title=Inuit Throat-Singing|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref>

===Other practices===
* [[Dancing]]
* [[Singing]]
* [[Icaro]]s / Medicine Songs<ref name="Peru" />
* [[Vigil]]s
* [[Fasting]]
* [[Sweat lodge]]
* [[Vision quests]]
* [[Mariri]]
* Sword fighting / [[Bladesmithing]]

===Paraphernalia===
[[File:Raven Rattle, 19th century, 05.588.7292.jpg|thumbnail|Raven Rattle, 19th century, [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
Shamans may have various kinds of paraphernalia in different cultures.
[[File:Goldes shaman priest in his regalia.png|thumb|[[Golds (ethnic group)|Goldes]] shaman priest in his regalia]]


* '''Drum''' – The [[drum]] is used by shamans of several peoples in Siberia, the Inuit, and many other cultures all over the world,<ref>Barüske 1969: 24, 50–51</ref> although its usage for shamanistic [[seance]]s may be lacking among the Inuit of Canada.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 25</ref> The beating of the drum allows the shaman to achieve an altered state of consciousness or to travel on a journey between the physical and spiritual worlds.<ref name="Maxfield, Melinda 1994">Maxfield, Melinda. [https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=95141255 "The journey of the drum."] ''ReVision'' 16.4 (1994): 157.</ref> Much fascination surrounds the role that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman. Shaman drums are generally constructed of an animal-skin stretched over a bent wooden hoop, with a handle across the hoop.
* '''Feathers''' – In numerous North and South American cultures, as well as in Europe and Asia, birds are seen as messengers of the spirits. Feathers are often used in ceremonies and in individual healing rituals.
* '''Rattle''' – Found mostly among South American<ref name=rattle-south>Vitebsky 1996: 49</ref> and African peoples. Also used in ceremonies among the [[Navajo people|Navajo]] and in traditional ways in their blessings and ceremonies.
* '''Gong''' – Often found through South East Asia, Far Eastern peoples.
* '''Pipe''' – Used for smoking various tobaccos and psychoactive herbs (e.g. tobacco in North and South America, cannabis in Eurasia).
* '''Sword''' – In [[Hmong customs and culture#Shamanism|Hmong Shamanism]], a holy sword will always be used in the practice to protect the shaman from wandering "evil" spirits as he travels to the spirit world.
* '''Shake''' – Found mostly in Hmong Shamanism, the shaman begins his practice by rattling, which turns into a shake. It is the process of communicating with his shamanistic spirits to guide him to the spirit world.
* '''Long Table''' – A flexible wooden table, approximately nine by two feet, is used in Hmong Shamanism; the table transforms into a "flying horse" in the spirit world.
* '''Rooster''' – A rooster is often used in Hmong Shamanism. A shaman uses a rooster when he journeys to the unknown. It is said that the rooster shields the shaman from wandering "evil" spirits by making him invisible; thus, the evil spirits only see the rooster's useless spirit.

==Academic study==
[[File:Shaman.jpg|thumb|[[Sami people|Sami]] shaman with his drum]]

===Cognitive, semiotic, hermeneutic approaches===
As mentioned, a (debated) approach explains the etymology of the word "shaman" as meaning "one who knows".<ref name="Diószegi 1962:13" /><ref name="Hoppál 2005:14">Hoppál 2005: 14</ref> Functionally, the shaman is a person who is an expert in keeping together the multiple [[code]]s of the society. Accordingly, the society's codes are the manifestation of the society's underlying complex belief system. Thus to be effective, shamans maintain a comprehensive view in their mind which gives them certainty of [[knowledge]].<ref name="cogmap"/> The shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple [[code]]s. Shamans express meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects such as [[amulet]]s.<ref name="Hoppál 2005:14"/>

The shaman knows the [[culture]] of his or her community well,<ref name="mediator2" /><ref>[[#Pen95|Pentikäinen 1995]]: 270</ref><ref name=knowncult>Hoppál 2005: 25–26,43</ref> and acts accordingly. Thus, their audience knows the used [[symbol]]s and meanings—that is why shamanism can be efficient: people in the audience trust it.<ref name=knowncult/> For example, the shaman's [[drum]]ming can appear to its members as certainty of ''[[knowledge]]''—this explains the above described etymology for the word "shaman" as meaning "one who knows."<ref name=etym2>Hoppál 2004: 14</ref>

There are [[Semiotics|semiotic]] theoretical approaches to shamanism,<ref name=semi>Hoppál 2005: 13–15, 58, 197</ref><ref>Hoppál 2006a: 11</ref><ref>Hoppál 2006b: 175</ref> ("[[ethnosemiotics]]"). The symbols on the shaman's costume and drum can refer to [[Power animal]]s, or to the rank of the shaman.

There are also examples of "mutually opposing symbols", distinguishing a "white" shaman who contacts sky spirits for good aims by day, from a "black" shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims by night.<ref name=semiotics_of_shamanism>[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 24–25</ref> (Series of such opposing symbols referred to a world-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammar arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, also this formed a cognitive map).<ref name="cogmap" /><ref name=hop-natworsib>Hoppál, Mihály: [http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol4/hoppal.htm Nature worship in Siberian shamanism]</ref> Shaman's lore is rooted in the folklore of the community, which provides a "mythological mental map".<ref>[[#Hop07b|Hoppál 2007b]]: 12–13</ref><ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25">[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 25</ref> [[Juha Pentikäinen]] uses the concept ''"grammar of mind"''.<ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25"/><ref>[[#Pen95|Pentikäinen 1995]]: 270–271</ref> Linking to a Sami example, Kathleen Osgood Dana writes:

{{quote|Juha Pentikäinen, in his introduction to Shamanism and Northern Ecology, explains how the Sámi drum embodies Sámi worldviews. He considers shamanism to be a ''‘grammar of mind’'' (10), because shamans need to be experts in the folklore of their cultures (11).<ref name=dan-aill>{{harvnb|Dana|2004}}: 18 (see [http://uit.no/getfile.php?PageId=977&FileId=183#search=%22Juha%20Pentik%C3%A4inen%20grammar%20of%20mind%22 online])</ref>}}

Armin Geertz coined and introduced the [[hermeneutics]],<ref>Merkur 1985: v</ref> "ethnohermeneutics",<ref name=hop-natworsib/> approaches to the practice of interpretation. Hoppál extended the term to include not only the interpretation of oral and written texts, but that of "visual texts as well (including motions, gestures and more complex ritual, and ceremonies performed for instance by shamans)".<ref name=ethnohermeneutics>[[#Hop07b|Hoppál 2007b]]: 13</ref> It not only reveals the [[Animism|animistic]] views hiding behind shamanism, but also conveys their relevance for the contemporary world, where ecological problems have validated paradigms about balance and protection.<ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25"/>

===Ecological approaches, systems theory===
Other [[fieldwork]]s use [[systems theory]] concepts and ecological considerations to understand the shaman's [[Folklore|lore]]. Desana and [[Tucano people|Tucano]] Indians have developed a sophisticated symbolism and concepts of "energy" flowing between people and animals in cyclic paths. [[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]] relates these concepts to developments in the ways that modern science (systems theory, ecology, new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats [[causality]] in a less linear fashion.<ref name=eco/> He also suggests a cooperation of modern science and indigenous lore.<ref name=coop>[[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]]: [http://www.theecologist.info/page9.html A View from the Headwaters]. The Ecologist, Vol. 29 No. 4, July 1999.</ref>

===Hypotheses on origins===
Shamanic practices may originate as early as the [[Paleolithic]], predating all organized religions,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/clottes/page7.php |title=Shamanism in Prehistory |author=Jean Clottes |accessdate=2008-03-11 |work=Bradshaw foundation }}</ref><ref name=Narr>{{cite web |url=http://concise.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=109434&fullArticle=true&tocId=52333 |author=Karl J. Narr
|title=Prehistoric religion |accessdate=2008-03-28 |work=Britannica online encyclopedia 2008 }}</ref> and certainly as early as the [[Neolithic]] period.<ref name=Narr/> The earliest known undisputed burial of a shaman (and by extension the earliest undisputed evidence of shamans and shamanic practices) dates back to the early [[Upper Paleolithic|Upper Paleolithic era]] (c. 30,000 BP) in what is now the Czech Republic.<ref>Tedlock, Barbara. 2005. The Woman in the Shaman's Body: Reclaiming the Feminine in Religion and Medicine. New York: Bantam</ref>

Sanskrit scholar and comparative mythologist [[Michael Witzel]] proposes that all of the world's mythologies, and also the concepts and practices of shamans, can be traced to the migrations of two prehistoric populations: the "Gondwana" type (of circa 65,000 years ago) and the "Laurasian" type (of circa 40,000 years ago).<ref>Witzel, 2011.</ref> The more recent Laurasian types of myths and forms of shamanism are found in Eurasian and North and South America and are later cultural elaborations based upon the earlier Gondwana types of myths and shamanism, both of which probably derived from an earlier human source population. Witzel argues that survivals of the older, original forms of shamanism are therefore to be found in the southern hemisphere among peoples such as the San Bushmen of Botswana, the Andamanese of the Andaman Islands off the coast of Burma, and the Aborigines of Australia. The so-called "classical" shamanism of Siberia and the Americas reflect a further cultural evolutionary development at the local levels.

Early anthropological studies theorize that shamanism developed as a magic practice to ensure a successful hunt or gathering of food. Evidence in caves and drawings on walls support indications that shamanism started during the Paleolithic era. One such picture featured a half-animal, with the face and legs of a man, with antlers and a tail of a stag.<ref>Winkelman, Michael. Shamanism: a Biopsychosocial Paradigm of Consciousness and Healing. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010. Print.</ref>

Archaeological evidence exists for [[Mesolithic]] shamanism. The oldest known shaman grave in the world is located in the Czech Republic at Dolni Vestonice (National Geographic No 174 October 1988). This grave site was evidence of a female shaman.

In November 2008, researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in [[Pre-history of the Southern Levant|Israel]] that is perceived as one of the earliest known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on the head, pelvis and arms. Among her unusual [[grave goods]] were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 graves at the site, located in a cave in lower [[Galilee]] and belonging to the [[Natufian culture]], but is said to be unlike any other among the Epipaleolithic Natufians or in the Paleolithic period.<ref>"Earliest known shaman grave site found: study", reported by [[Reuters]] via [[Yahoo! News]], November 4, 2008, [https://www.webcitation.org/5c5MCHK7R?url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20081104/sc_nm/us_shaman_israel/print archived.] see ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences''.</ref>

[[Robert Sapolsky]] has theorized that shamanism is practiced by [[schizotypal]] individuals.<ref>{{YouTube|4WwAQqWUkpI|Dr. Robert Sapolsky's lecture about Biological Underpinnings of Religiosity}}</ref>

===Historical-anthropological school of folkloristics===
Folklorists have evaluated the presence of remnants of shamanism and shamanic practice in [[Folklore|folktale]]s from around the world. Michael Berman identified the genre of the [[Shamanic Story|shamanic story]], examples of which are only produced by folk groups with shamanic cosmology or a shamanic world view. Kultkrantz points out that, "in areas where shamanism has long been a thing of the past, many tales contain only vague, piecemeal or inaccurate recollections of shamans and their like."<ref>1993, p. 51</ref> The presence of distinctive characteristics and features of shamanic stories help folklorists and anthropologists reconstruct a culture’s practice of shamanism.<ref>Berman, Shamanic Journeys Through Daghestan, 2008, p. 22</ref>

==Decline and revitalization / tradition-preserving movements==
Shamanism is believed to be declining around the world, possibly due to other organised religious influences, like Christianity, that want people who practice shamanism to convert to their own system and doctrine. Another reason is western views of shamanism as 'primitive', 'superstitious', backward and outdated. Whalers who frequently interact with Inuit tribes are one source of this decline in that region.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Oosten|first1=Jarich|first2=Frederic |last2=Laugrand|first3=Cornelius |last3=Remie|title=Perceptions of Decline: Inuit Shamanism in the Canadian Arctic|journal=American Society for Ethnohistory|year=2006|pages=445–477|doi=10.1215/00141801-2006-001|ref=harv}}</ref>

[[File:Kyzyl Shaman.jpg|thumb|A recent photograph: shaman doctor of [[Kyzyl]], 2005. (Details missing). Attempts are being made to preserve and revitalize [[Tuvans|Tuvan]] shamanism:<ref name=tuva>Hoppál 2005: 117</ref> former authentic shamans have begun to practice again, and young apprentices are being educated in an organized way.<ref name=authentic-revitalization-tuva>Hoppál 2005: 259</ref>]]

In many areas, former shamans ceased to fulfill the functions in the community they used to, as they felt mocked by their own community,<ref>Boglár 2001: 19–20</ref> or regarded their own past as deprecated and are unwilling to talk about it to an ethnographer.<ref name=shamed>Diószegi 1960: 37–39</ref>

Moreover, besides personal communications of former shamans, folklore texts may narrate directly about a deterioration process. For example, a [[Buryats|Buryat]] epic text details the wonderful deeds of the ancient "first shaman" Kara-Gürgän:<ref name=Kara-Gurgan>[[#Eli01|Eliade 2001]]: 76 (Chpt 3 about obtaining shamanic capabilities)</ref> he could even compete with God, create life, steal back the soul of the sick from God without his consent. A subsequent text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like [[omnividence]],<ref name=flatland>Omnividence: A word created by Edwin A. Abbott in his book titled [[Flatland]]</ref> fortune-telling even for decades in the future, moving as fast as a bullet.<ref name=deter>Diószegi 1960: 88–89</ref>

In most affected areas, shamanic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans dying and their personal experiences dying with them. The loss of memories is not always lessened by the fact the shaman is not always the only person in a community who knows the beliefs and motives related to the local shaman-hood (laics know myths as well, among Barasana, even though less;<ref name=barasana-myths/> there are former shaman apprentices unable to complete the learning among Greenlandic Inuit peoples,<ref name="failed-shaman"/> moreover, even laics can have trance-like experiences among the Inuit;<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/> the assistant of a shaman can be extremely knowledgeable among [[Dagara people|Dagara]]).<ref name=Guan_Kouni/><ref name=interpreter/> Although the shaman is often believed and trusted precisely because s/he "accommodates" to the "grammar" of the beliefs of the community,<ref name=knowncult/> several parts of the knowledge related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman (illness), or root in his/her family life (the interpretation of the symbolics of his/her drum),<ref name=drum-symbols>Hoppál 2005: 224</ref> thus, those are lost with his/her death. Besides that, in many cultures, the entire traditional belief system has become endangered (often together with a partial or total [[language shift]]), the other people of the community remembering the associated beliefs and practices (or the language at all) grew old or died, many folklore memories (songs, texts) were forgotten – which may threaten even such peoples who could preserve their isolation until the middle of the 20th century, like the [[Nganasan people|Nganasan]].<ref>Nagy 1998: 232</ref>

Some areas could enjoy a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness.
* Variants of [[shamanism among Inuit peoples]] were once a widespread (and very diverse) phenomenon, but today are rarely practiced, as well as already having been in decline among many groups, even while the first major ethnological research was being done,<ref>Merkur 1985: 132</ref> e.g. among Polar Inuit, at the end of the 19th century, [[Sagloq]], the last shaman who was believed to be able to travel to the sky and under the sea died—and many other former shamanic capacities were lost during that time as well, like [[ventriloquism]] and [[sleight-of-hand]].<ref>Merkur 1985: 134</ref>
* The isolated location of [[Nganasan people]] allowed shamanism to be a living phenomenon among them even at the beginning of the 20th century,<ref name=hop>Hoppál 2005: 92</ref> the last notable Nganasan shaman's ceremonies could be recorded on film in the 1970s.<ref name="Hoppal">Hoppál 1994: 62</ref>

After exemplifying the general decline even in the most remote areas, it should be noted that there are revitalization or tradition-preserving efforts as a response. Besides collecting the memories,<ref name=collect>Hoppál 2005: 88</ref> there are also tradition-preserving<ref>Hoppál 2005: 93</ref> and even revitalization efforts,<ref>Hoppál 2005: 111, 117–119, 128, 132, 133–134, 252–263</ref> led by authentic former shamans (for example among [[Sakha people]]<ref name=authentic-revitalization-sakha>Hoppál 2005: 257–258</ref> and [[Tuvans]]).<ref name=authentic-revitalization-tuva/> However, according to Richard L. Allen, Research & Policy Analyst for the Cherokee Nation, they are overwhelmed with [[plastic shaman|fraudulent shamans]], also known as plastic medicine people.<ref>Hagan, Helene E. [http://www.sonomacountyfreepress.com/features/spirg-hagan.html "The Plastic Medicine People Circle."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305155048/http://www.sonomacountyfreepress.com/features/spirg-hagan.html |date=2013-03-05 }} ''Sonoma Free County Press.'' Accessed 31 Jan 2013.</ref> "One may assume that anyone claiming to be a Cherokee 'shaman, spiritual healer, or pipe-carrier', is equivalent to a modern day medicine show and snake-oil vendor."<ref name=RG>{{cite web | title = Pseudo Shamans Cherokee Statement| url = http://www.thepeoplespaths.net/Articles2001/RLAllen-CherokeeStatement-Shamans.htm| accessdate = 2008-06-23}}</ref> One indicator of a plastic shaman might be someone who discusses "Native American spirituality" but does not mention any specific [[federally recognized tribes|Native American tribe]]. The "New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans" website discusses potentially plastic shamans.<ref>Lupa 37</ref>

Besides tradition-preserving efforts, there are also [[Neoshamanism|neoshamanistic]] movements, these may differ from many traditional shamanistic practice and beliefs in several points.<ref name=neoshaman>Vitebsky 1996: 150–153</ref> Admittedly,{{According to whom|date=February 2012}} several traditional beliefs systems indeed have ecological considerations (for example, many Inuit peoples), and among [[Tukano people]], the shaman indeed has direct resource-protecting roles, see details in section [[#Ecological aspect|Ecological aspect]].

Today, shamanism survives primarily among [[indigenous people]]s. Shamanic practices continue today in the tundras, jungles, deserts, and other rural areas, and even in cities, towns, suburbs, and shantytowns all over the world. This is especially true for Africa and South America, where "[[mestizo]] shamanism" is widespread.

==Regional variations==

===Asia===

====Hmong shamanism====
{{Main article|Hmong customs and culture#Shamanism}}
The Hmong people,<ref>[[Hmong people]]</ref> as an ancient people of China with a 5,000-year history, continue to maintain and practice its form of shamanism known as "Ua Neeb" in mainland Asia. At the end of the Vietnam War, some 300,000 Hmong have been settled across the globe. They have continued to practice Ua Neeb in various countries in North and South America, Europe and Australia. In the U.S., the Hmong shaman practitioner is known as "Txiv Neeb" has been licensed by many hospitals in California as being part of the medical health team to treat patients in hospital. This revival of Ua Neeb in the West has been brought great success and has been hailed in the media as "Doctor for the disease, shaman for the soul".

Being a Hmong shaman represents a true vocation, chosen by the shaman God "Sivyis".<ref>http://www.lexicon.net/drpao/shaman/sivyis/</ref>
The Shaman's main job is to bring harmony to the individual, their family, and their community within their environment by performing various rituals (usually through trance).

[[Animal sacrifice]] has been part of the Hmong shamanic practice for the past 5,000 years. Contrary to the belief of many Westerners, the Hmong practice of using animals in shamanic practice is performed with great respect. After the Vietnam War, over 200,000 Hmong were resettled in the United States and shamanism is still part of the Hmong culture. Due the colliding of culture and the law, as Professor Alison Dundes Renteln, a political science professor at the University of Southern California and author of The Cultural Defense, a book that examines the influence of such cases on U.S. courts, once said, "We say that as a society we welcome diversity, and in fact that we embrace it ... In practice, it's not that easy".<ref name="usatoday.com">{{cite news| url=https://www.usatoday.com/educate/firstamendment/religion_052504.html |author=Richard Willing |title=Courts asked to consider culture An act defined as crime in USA may be common in other places. Should justice system take that into account? | work=USA Today |accessdate=2004-11-01 }}</ref>

The Hmong believe that all things on Earth have a soul (or multiple souls) and those souls are treated as equal and can be considered interchangeable. When a person is sick due to his soul being lost, or captured by wild spirit, it is necessary to ask for and receive permission of that animal, whether it is a chicken, pig, dog, goat or any other animals required, to use its soul for an exchange with the afflicted person's soul for a period of 12 months. At the end of that period, during the Hmong New Year, the shaman would perform a special ritual to release the soul of that animal and send it off to the world beyond. As part of his service to mankind, the animal soul is sent off to be reincarnated into a higher form of animal, or even to become a member of a god's family (ua Fuab Tais Ntuj tus tub, tus ntxhais) to live a life of luxury, free of the suffering as an animal. Hence, being asked to perform this duty (what is known in the West as "animal sacrifice") is one of the greatest honors for that animal, to be able to serve mankind. The Hmong of Southeast Guizhou will cover the [[rooster|cock]] with a piece of red cloth and then hold it up to worship and sacrifice to the Heaven and the Earth before the [[Rooster#Religion and spiritual belief systems|Sacred cockfight]].<ref>Southeast Guizhou Travel Tips – China Highlights, a division of CITS Guilin, a full service China travel agency providing China Tours</ref> In a 2010 trial of a Sheboygan Wisconsin Hmong who was charged with staging a cockfight, it was stated that the roosters were "kept for both food and religious purposes",<ref name="Midwest Communications Inc">{{cite web|url=http://whbl.com/news/articles/2010/apr/08/day-one-cockfighting-trial-books/|title=Day One of Cockfighting Trial Concludes|author=Midwest Communications Inc.|work=whbl|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> and the case was followed by an acquittal.<ref name="Midwest Communications Inc"/>

In addition to the spiritual dimension, Hmong shaman attempt to treat many physical illnesses through use of the text of sacred words (khawv koob).

====Indonesia====
{{Main article|Dukun}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een dukun tijdens de bereiding van zijn geneesmiddelen TMnr 60027035.jpg|thumb|Indonesian [[Dukun]]]]
Throughout the villages and towns of [[Indonesia]], local healers known as [[dukun]] practice diverse activities from massage, bonesetting, midwivery, herbal medicine, spirit mediumship and divination.

====Japan====
{{Main article|Miko}}
{{Further information|Shinto|Ainu religion|Ryukyuan religion}}
Shamanism is part of the indigenous Ainu religion and Japanese religion of [[Shinto]], although Shinto is distinct in that it is shamanism for an agricultural society. Since the early middle-ages Shinto has been influenced by and [[syncretism|syncretized]] with Buddhism and other elements of continental East Asian culture. The book "''Occult Japan: Shinto, Shamanism and the Way of the Gods''" by Percival Lowell delves further into researching Japanese shamanism or Shintoism.<ref>Percival Lowell, Occult Japan: Shinto, Shamanism and the Way of the Gods, Inner Traditions International (April 1990), Rochester Vt</ref> The book ''Japan Through the Looking Glass: Shaman to Shinto'' uncovers the extraordinary aspects of Japanese beliefs.<ref>Alan Mcfarlane, ''Japan Through the Looking Glass: Shaman to Shinto'', Profile Books Ltd, Aug 2007, London England</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fb20071007a1.html|title=The Japan Times – News on Japan, Business News, Opinion, Sports, Entertainment and More|work=The Japan Times|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref>

====Korea====
{{Main article|Korean shamanism}}
Shamanism is still practiced in [[North Korea|North]] and [[South Korea]]. In the south, shaman women are known as ''mudangs'', while male shamans are referred to as ''baksoo mudangs''.

A person can become a shaman through hereditary title or through natural ability. Shamans are consulted in contemporary society for financial and marital decisions.

====Malaysia====
{{main article|Bobohizan|Bomoh|Pawang}}
[[File:Bobohizans.jpeg|thumb|right|''[[Bobohizan]]'' of [[North Borneo]], circa 1921.]]
Shamanism were also practiced among the Malay community in [[Malay Peninsula]] and indigenous people in [[Sabah]] and [[Sarawak]]. People who practice shamanism in the country are generally called as ''bomoh'' or ''pawang'' in the Peninsula.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Graham Harvey|author2=Robert J. Wallis|title=Historical Dictionary of Shamanism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQOyAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA129|date=5 February 2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6459-7|pages=129–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Montague Summers|title=The Vampire: His Kith and Kin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpaCCyGuMqwC&pg=PA221|year=1928|publisher=University Books|isbn=978-1-60506-566-3|pages=221–}}</ref> In Sabah, the [[Bobohizan]] is the main shaman among the [[Kadazan-Dusun]] indigenous community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/features/article/bobohizans-the-shamans-of-sabah-teeter-between-old-and-new-worlds|title=Bobohizans: The shamans of Sabah teeter between old and new worlds|author=Julia Chan|publisher=The Malay Mail|date=8 June 2016|accessdate=11 November 2016}}</ref>

====Mongolia====
{{main article|Mongolian shamanism}}
Mongolian classics, such as ''[[The Secret History of the Mongols]]'', provide details about male and female shamans serving as exorcists, healers, rainmakers, oneiromancers, soothsayers, and officials. Shamanic practices continue in present-day Mongolian culture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://website.leidenuniv.nl/~haarbjter/shamanism.htm|title=Universiteit Leiden, Hanno E. Lecher|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/bender4/eall131/EAHReadings/module03/local_beliefs.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-12-30 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106035207/http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/bender4/eall131/EAHReadings/module03/local_beliefs.html |archivedate=2012-11-06 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/5288|title=Aurélie Névot, Comme le sel, je suis le cours de l'eau: le chamanisme à écriture des Yi du Yunnan (Chine) (Like salt, I follow the current: The literate Shamanism of the Yi of Yunnan)|author=Gros, Stéphane|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/seacrn/asia_members.htm|title=ACLS: Collaborative Research Network|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hangartner|first1=judith|title=The resurgence of Darhad shamanism: Legitimisation Strategies of Rural Practitioners in mongolia|journal=TSANTSA|date=May 2006|volume=11|pages=111-114|url=http://www.tsantsa.ch/en/previous-issues/tsantsa/2015-10-20-15-49-38/content-11-2006/205-recherches/466-the-resurgence-of-darhad-shamanism.html}}</ref>

The spiritual hierarchy in clan-based Mongolian society was complex. The highest group consisted of 99 ''tngri'' (55 of them benevolent or "white" and 44 terrifying or "black"), 77 ''natigai'' or "earth-mothers", besides others. The ''tngri'' were called upon only by leaders and great shamans and were common to all the clans. After these, three groups of ancestral spirits dominated. The "Lord-Spirits" were the souls of clan leaders to whom any member of a clan could appeal for physical or spiritual help. The "Protector-Spirits" included the souls of great shamans (''ĵigari'') and shamanesses (''abĵiya''). The "Guardian-Spirits" were made up of the souls of smaller shamans (''böge'') and shamanesses (''idugan'') and were associated with a specific locality (including mountains, rivers, etc.) in the clan's territory.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hesse|first=Klaus|year=1987|title=On the History of Mongolian Shamanism in Anthropological Perspective|journal=Anthropos|volume=82|issue=4–6|pages=403–13|jstor=40463470}}</ref>

In the 1990s, a form of Mongolian neo-shamanism was created which has given a more modern approach to shamanism. Among the Buryat Mongols, who live in Mongolia and Russia, the proliferation of shamans since 1990 is a core aspect of a larger struggle for the Buryats to reestablish their historical and genetic roots, as has been documented extensively by [[Ippei Shimamura]], an anthropologist at the University of Shiga Prefecture in Japan.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shimamura|first1=Ippei|title=The Roots seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Among the Mongol Buryats|date=2014|location=Kanagawa, Japan|isbn=978-4-86110-397-1}}</ref> Some Mongolian shamans are now making a business out of their profession and even have offices in the larger towns. At these businesses, a shaman generally heads the organization and performs services such as healing, fortunetelling, and solving all kinds of problems.<ref>Balogh, Matyas. "Contemporary Shamanisms in Mongolia." ''Asian Ethnicity'' 11.2 (2010): 229–38.</ref> Although the initial enthusiasm for the revival of Mongol shamanism in the post-communist/post-1990 era led to an openness to all interested visitors, the situation has changed among those Mongols seeking to protect the essential ethnic or national basis of their practices. In recent years many associations of Mongol shamans have become wary of Western "core" or "neo" or "New Age" shamans and have restricted access to only to Mongols and Western scholars. One such event, organized by Jargalsaichan, the head of the Corporate Union of Mongolian Shamans, was the 21 June 2017 Ulaan Tergel (summer solstice) celebration held near midnight on the steppes about 20km outside Ulaanbaatar. Although a private event, two Western psychologist scholars of shamanism, [[Richard Noll]] and [[Leonard George]] were allowed to observe, photograph and post video of the event to YouTube.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Noll|first1=Richard|title=Mongol shamans summer solstice fire ritual 21 June 2017|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5g1XTL8XbhY|website=You Tube|accessdate=4 July 2017}}</ref>

====Philippines====
The Shaman in the Philippines is considered as a priest- sacrifice, healer, and intermediary with the spirit world. Shamans are also considered as prophets and seers. The magician or sorcerer can either be a white magician or a medicine man whose actions are for the good of others, while the black magician or witchdoctors can either do well or harm to people, but mostly harm for a fee.
Shamans in the Philippines deal with various kinds of spirits and learn how to summon and control them. Once someone is declared a Shaman, he is declared to be a sick man, but not just any type of sick man. He or she is special because the shaman is able to learn how to cure himself. An epilepsy attack is the initiation of the Shaman; it is equivalent to them being cured.
<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lieban|first1=Richard|title=Cebuano Sorcery:Malign Magic in the Philippines|journal=University of California Press|date=1967|pages=52–58|url=http://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-11-02-1973/demetrio-philippine%20shamanism%20southeast%20asian%20parallels%20.pdf|accessdate=August 22, 2016}}</ref>

====Siberia and North Asia====
{{Main article|Shamanism in Siberia|Shamanism in the Qing dynasty|l2=the Qing Dynasty}}
[[File:AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg|thumb|[[Iomante|Ainu bear sacrifice]]. Japanese scroll painting, circa 1870.]]
[[File:Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the Oroqen, in July 1994 (Photo by Richard Noll).jpg|thumb|[[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] shaman of northern [[China]].]]

[[Siberia]] is regarded as the ''locus classicus'' of shamanism.<ref name=locclass>Hoppál 2005: 13</ref> The area is inhabited by many different ethnic groups, and many of its peoples observe shamanistic practices, even in modern times. Many classical ethnographic sources of "shamanism" were recorded among Siberian peoples.

[[Manchu people|Manchu]] Shamanism is one of very few Shamanist traditions which held official status into the modern era, by becoming one of the imperial cults of the [[Qing Dynasty]] of [[China]] (alongside [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]] and traditional [[Heaven worship]]). The [[Palace of Earthly Tranquility]], one of the principal halls of the [[Forbidden City]] in [[Beijing]], was partly dedicated to Shamanistic rituals. The ritual set-up is still preserved ''in situ'' today.

Among the Siberian [[Chukchis]] peoples, a shaman is interpreted as someone who is [[Spirit possession|possessed]] by a spirit, who demands that someone assume the shamanic role for their people. Among the Buryat, there is a ritual known as "shanar"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://texts.00.gs/Shanar.htm|title=S^anar [Buryat]|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> whereby a candidate is consecrated as shaman by another, already-established shaman.

Among several [[Samoyedic peoples]] shamanism was a living tradition also in modern times, especially at groups living in isolation, until recent times ([[Nganasan people|Nganasan]]s).<ref name=ngan>Hoppál 2005: 92–93</ref> The last notable Nganasan shaman's seances could be recorded on film in the 1970s.<ref name="Hoppal" /><ref name=ngan/>

When the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949 and the border with Russian Siberia was formally sealed, many nomadic Tungus groups (including the Evenki) that practiced shamanism were confined in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. The last shaman of the Oroqen, Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), died in October 2000.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Noll|first1=Richard|title=The Last Shaman of the Orqen of Northeast China|url=https://www.academia.edu/8520174/The_last_shaman_of_the_Oroqen_people_of_Northeast_China._Shaman_Journal_of_the_International_Society_for_Shamanistic_Research_2009_17_1_and_2_117-140|website=Academia.edu|publisher=Shaman 2009}}</ref>

In many other cases, shamanism was in decline even at the beginning of 20th century ([[Romani people|Roma]]).<ref name="Hoppal_a" />

====Central Asia====

=====Geographic influences on Central Asian shamanism=====
Geographical factors heavily influence the character and development of the religion, myths, rituals and epics of Central Asia. While in other parts of the world, religious rituals are primarily used to promote agricultural prosperity, here they were used to ensure success in hunting and breeding livestock. Animals are one of the most important elements of indigenous religion in Central Asia because of the role they play in the survival of the nomadic civilizations of the steppes as well as sedentary populations living on land not conducive to agriculture. Shamans wore animal skins and feathers and underwent transformations into animals during spiritual journeys. In addition, animals served as humans' guides, rescuers, ancestors, totems and sacrificial victims.<ref>Julian Baldick, ''Animal and Shaman: Ancient Religions of Central Asia'' (New York: University Press, 2000), 3–35</ref> As a religion of nature, shamanism throughout Central Asia held particular reverence for the relations between sky, earth and water and believed in the mystical importance of trees and mountains. Shamanism in Central Asia also places a strong emphasis on the opposition between summer and winter, corresponding to the huge differences in temperature common in the region. The harsh conditions and poverty caused by the extreme temperatures drove Central Asian nomads throughout history to pursue militaristic goals against their sedentary neighbors. This military background can be seen in the reverence for horses and warriors within many indigenous religions.<ref>Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer, ''Shamanism: Soviet Studies of Traditional Religion in Siberia and Central Asia'' (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1990), 113</ref>

=====Common shamanic practices and beliefs shared among Central Asians=====
Central Asian shamans served as sacred intermediaries between the human and spirit world. In this role they took on tasks such as healing, divination, appealing to ancestors, manipulating the elements, leading lost souls and officiating public religious rituals. The shamanic séance served as a public display of the shaman's journey to the spirit world and usually involved intense trances, drumming, dancing, chanting, elaborate costumes, miraculous displays of physical strength, and audience involvement. The goal of these séances ranged from recovering the lost soul of a sick patient and divining the future to controlling the weather and finding a lost person or thing. The use of sleight-of-hand tricks, ventriloquism, and hypnosis were common in these rituals but did not explain the more impressive feats and actual cures accomplished by shamans.<ref>Nora K. Chadwick, "Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia," ''The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'', Vol. 66, (Jan–Jun 1936): 97–99</ref>

Shamans perform in a "state of ecstasy" deliberately induced by an effort of will. Reaching this altered state of consciousness required great mental exertion, concentration and strict self-discipline. Mental and physical preparation included long periods of silent meditation, fasting, and smoking. In this state, skilled shamans employ capabilities that the human organism cannot accomplish in the ordinary state. Shamans in ecstasy displayed unusual physical strength, the ability to withstand extreme temperatures, the bearing of stabbing and cutting without pain, and the heightened receptivity of the sense organs. Shamans made use of intoxicating substances and hallucinogens, especially mukhomor mushrooms and alcohol, as a means of hastening the attainment of ecstasy.<ref>Balzer, ''Shamanism'', 12–21</ref>

The use of purification by fire is an important element of the shamanic tradition dating back as early as the 6th century. People and things connected with the dead had to be purified by passing between fires. These purifications were complex exorcisms while others simply involved the act of literally walking between two fires while being blessed by the Shaman. Shamans in literature and practice were also responsible for using special stones to manipulate weather. Rituals are performed with these stones to attract rain or repel snow, cold or wind. This "rain-stone" was used for many occasions including bringing an end to drought as well as producing hailstorms as a means of warfare.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Andrew Boyle | first1 = John | year = 1972 | title = Turkish and Mongol Shamanism in the Middle Ages | url = | journal = Folklore | volume = 83 | issue = | pages = 183–185 | doi=10.1080/0015587x.1972.9716468}}</ref>
Despite distinctions between various types of shamans and specific traditions, there is a uniformity throughout the region manifested in the personal beliefs, objectives, rituals, symbols and the appearance of shamans.

=====Shamanic rituals as artistic performance=====
The shamanic ceremony is both a religious ceremony and an artistic performance. The fundamental purpose of the dramatic displays seen during shamanic ceremonies is not to draw attention or to create a spectacle for the audience as many Westerners have come to believe, but to lead the tribe in a solemn ritualistic process.

In general, all performances consist of four elements: dance, music, poetry and dramatic or mimetic action. The use of these elements serves the purpose of outwardly expressing his mystical communion with nature and the spirits for the rest of the tribe. The true shaman can make the journey to the spirit world at any time and any place, but shamanic ceremonies provide a way for the rest of the tribe to share in this religious experience. The shaman changes his voice mimetically to represent different persons, gods, and animals while his music and dance change to show his progress in the spirit world and his different spiritual interactions. Many shamans practice ventriloquism and make use of their ability to accurately imitate the sounds of animals, nature, humans and other noises in order to provide the audience with the ambiance of the journey. Elaborate dances and recitations of songs and poetry are used to make the shamans spiritual adventures into a matter of living reality to his audience.<ref>Chadwick, ''Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia'': 93–101</ref>

=====Costume and accessories=====
The shaman's attire varies throughout the region but his chief accessories are his coat, cap, and tambourine or drum. The transformation into an animal is an important aspect of the journey into the spirit world undertaken during shamanic rituals so the coat is often decorated with birds feathers and representations of animals, coloured handkerchiefs, bells and metal ornaments. The cap is usually made from the skin of a bird with the feathers and sometimes head, still attached.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRyCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=Costume+and+accessories+of+central+asian+shamanism&source=bl&ots=EoDH2Aw3ZR&sig=GS2s5_Y4ZZ26GVhaooATrCrMfdM&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJm4y_5YrUAhXF7RQKHfHtCJEQ6AEIQjAE#v=onepage&q=Costume%20and%20accessories%20of%20central%20asian%20shamanism&f=false|title=The Archaeology of Shamanism|last=Price|first=Neil|date=2003-12-16|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134527694|language=en}}</ref>

The drum or tambourine is the essential means of communicating with spirits and enabling the shaman to reach altred states of consciousness on his journey. The drum, representing the universe in epitome, is often divided into equal halves to represent the earth and lower realms. Symbols and natural objects are added to the drum representing natural forces and heavenly bodies.<ref>Chadwick, ''Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia'': 85–87</ref>

=====Shamanism in Tsarist and Soviet Russia=====
In Soviet Central Asia, the Soviet government persecuted and denounced shamans as practitioners of fraudulent medicine and perpetuators of outdated religious beliefs in the new age of science and logic. The radical transformations occurring after the October Socialist Revolution led to a sharp decrease in the activity of shamans. Shamans represented an important component in the traditional culture of Central Asians and because of their important role in society, Soviet organizations and campaigns targeted shamans in their attempt to eradicate traditional influences in the lives of the indigenous peoples. Along with persecution under the tsarist and Soviet regimes, the spread of Christianity and Islam had a role in the disintegration of native faith throughout central Asia. Poverty, political instability and foreign influence are also detrimental to a religion that requires publicity and patronage to flourish.
By the 1980s most shamans were discredited in the eyes of their people by Soviet officials and physicians.<ref>Balzer, ''Shamanism'', 42–49</ref>

====Other Asian traditions====
{{Further information|Wu (shaman)}}
{{Synthesis|section|date=October 2009}}
"[[Jhakri]]" is the common name used for shamans in [[Sikkim]], [[India]] and [[Nepal]]. They exist in the [[Limbu]], [[Sunuwar]], [[Rai people|Rai]], [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]], [[Kami]], [[Tamang]], [[Gurung]] and [[Lepcha people|Lepcha]] communities.<ref>{{harvnb |Gulia |2005 | |pp=153–54 }}</ref> They are inflluenced by [[Hinduism]], Tibetan Buddhism, [[Mun (religion)|Mun]] and Bön rites.<ref>{{harvnb |Gulia |2005 | |p=168 }}</ref>

Shamanism is still widely practiced in the [[Ryukyu Islands]] ([[Okinawa]], [[Japan]]), where shamans are known as 'Noro' (all women) and 'Yuta'. 'Noro' generally administer public or communal ceremonies while 'Yuta' focus on civil and private matters. Shamanism is also practiced in a few rural areas in Japan proper. It is commonly believed that the [[Shinto]] religion is the result of the transformation of a shamanistic tradition into a religion.
Forms of practice vary somewhat in the several Ryukyu islands, so that there is, for example, a distinct '''Miyako''' shamanism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://texts.00.gs/Miyako_Shamanism.htm|title=Miyako shamanism|publisher=}}</ref>

Shamanism practices seem to have been preserved in the Catholic religious traditions of aborigines in [[Taiwan]].<ref>O. Lardenois, [http://www.erenlai.com/media/downloads/TheologicalShamanismLardenois.pdf Shamanism and Catholic Indigenous Communities in Taiwan]</ref>

In [[Vietnam]], shamans conduct rituals in many of the religious traditions that co-mingle in the majority and minority populations. In their rituals, music, dance, special garments and offerings are part of the performance that surround the spirit journey.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/vietnam/07_other/ |title=Journeys to Other Worlds: The Rites of Shamans |last= |first= |publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}</ref>

===Europe===
[[File:Sami shamanic drum.JPG|thumb|[[Noaidi|Sami shamanic drum]] in the [[Arktikum Science Museum]], in [[Rovaniemi]], Finland]]
{{main article|Shamanism in Europe}}
{{further information|Noaidi|Sami shamanism|Finnish mythology}}
{{further information|Hungarian mythology|Shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore}}
{{further information|Magic in the Greco-Roman world|European witchcraft}}
{{further information|Astuvansalmi|Astuvansalmi rock paintings}}
Some of the prehistoric peoples who once lived in Siberia have dispersed and migrated into other regions, bringing aspects of their cultures with them. For example, many Uralic peoples live now outside Siberia, however the original location of the [[Proto-Uralic language|Proto-Uralic]] peoples (and its extent) is debated. Combined [[Phytogeography|phytogeographical]] and linguistic considerations (distribution of various tree species and the presence of their names in various Uralic languages) suggest that this area was north of Central [[Ural Mountains]] and on lower and middle parts of [[Ob River]].<ref name=ancloc>Hajdú 1975: 35</ref> The ancestors of [[Hungarian people]] or Magyars have wandered from their ancestral proto-Uralic area to the [[Pannonian Basin]]. Shamanism has played an important role in [[Altaic mythologies (disambiguation)|Turko-Mongol mythology]].{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} [[Tengriism]] - the major ancient belief among [[Xiongnu]], Mongol and [[Turkic peoples]], [[Magyars]] and [[Bulgars]] - incorporates elements of shamanism. Shamanism is no more a living practice among Hungarians, but remnants have been reserved as fragments of folklore, in folktales, customs.<ref>Diószegi 1998</ref>

Some historians of the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern period have argued that traces of shamanistic traditions can be seen in the popular folk belief of this period. Most prominent among these was the Italian [[Carlo Ginzburg]], who claimed shamanistic elements in the ''[[benandanti]]'' custom of 16th century Italy,<ref>[[#Gin83|Ginzburg 1983 [1966]]].</ref> the Hungarian [[Éva Pócs]], who identified them in the ''[[táltos]]'' tradition of Hungary,<ref>[[#Poc99|Pócs 1999]].</ref> and the Frenchman [[Claude Lecouteux]], who has argued that Medieval traditions regarding the soul are based on earlier shamanic ideas.<ref>[[#Lec03|Lecouteux 2003]].</ref> Ginzburg in particular has argued that some of these traditions influenced the conception of [[witchcraft]] in Christendom, in particular ideas regarding the [[witches' sabbath]], leading to the events of the [[witch trials in the Early Modern period]].<ref>[[#Gin90|Ginzburg 1990]].</ref> Some of these Italian traditions survived into the 20th and early 21st centuries, allowing Italian-American sociologist Sabina Magliocco to make a brief study of them (2009).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/171083/Italain_Cunning_Craft_Some_Preliminary_Observations|title=Italian Cunning Craft: Some Preliminary Observations|author=Sabina Magliocco|publisher=}}</ref>

===Circumpolar shamanism===

====Inuit and Yupik cultures====
[[File:Yupik shaman Nushagak.jpg|thumb|Yup'ik shaman exorcising evil spirits from a sick boy, [[Nushagak, Alaska]], 1890s.<ref>Fienup-Riordan, Ann. 1994: 206</ref> Nushagak, located on [[Nushagak Bay]] of the Bering Sea in southwest [[Alaska]], is part of the territory of the [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik|Yup'ik]], speakers of the [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language]]]]
{{Main article|Shamanism among Eskimo peoples}}
[[Eskimo]] groups inhabit a huge area stretching from [[Eastern Siberia]] through Alaska and Northern Canada (including [[Labrador Peninsula]]) to [[Greenland]]. Shamanistic practice and beliefs have been recorded at several parts of this vast area crosscutting continental borders.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid>Merkur 1985</ref><ref name=Gab-KarEszk/><ref name=KleiSon-Esk>Kleivan & Sonne 1985</ref>
{{IPA notice}}

When speaking of "shamanism" in various Eskimo groups, we must remember that (as mentioned above) the term "shamanism" can cover certain characteristics of ''various'' different cultures.<ref name="cogmap"/> [[#Mediator|Mediation]] is regarded often as an important aspect of shamanism in general.<ref name=med>Hoppál 2005: 45–50</ref> Also in most Eskimo groups, the role of mediator is known well:<ref name=menmed>Menovščikov 1996: 442</ref> the person filling it in is actually believed to be able to contact the beings who populate the belief system. Term "shaman" is used in several English-language publications also in relation to Eskimos.<ref name="Mer-BecHalfHid"/><ref name=KleiSon-Esk/><ref>Vitebsky 1996</ref><ref>Freuchen 1961: 32</ref> Also the ''alignalghi'' ({{IPA-iu|aˈliɣnalʁi|IPA}}) of the Asian Eskimos is translated as "shaman" in the Russian<ref>Рубцова 1954: 203, 209</ref> and English<ref name=menmed/> literature.

The belief system assumes specific links between the living people, the souls of hunted animals, and those of dead people.<ref>Both death of a person and successfully hunted game require that cutting, sewing etc. be tabooed, so that the invisible soul does not get hurt accidentally (Kleivan & Sonne, pp. 18–21). In Greenland, the transgression of death tabu could turn the soul of the dead into a ''tupilak'', a restless ghost which scared game away (Kleivan & Sonne 1985, p. 23). Animals fled from hunter in case of taboo breaches, e.g. birth taboo, death taboo (Kleivan & Sonne, pp. 12–13)</ref> The [[Soul (spirit)|soul]] concepts of several groups are specific examples of [[soul dualism]] (showing variability in details in the various cultures).

Unlike the majority of shamanisms the careers of most Eskimo shamans lack the motivation of ''force'': becoming a shaman is usually a result of deliberate consideration, not a necessity forced by the spirits.<ref name="failed-shaman"/>

====Diversity, with similarities====
Another possible concern: do the belief systems of various Eskimo groups have such common features at all, that would justify any mentioning them together? There was no political structure above the groups, their languages were relative, but differed more or less, often forming [[language continuum]]s.<ref name=complink>[http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/yupik_inuit.html Lawrence Kaplan: Comparative Yupik and Inuit] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306132554/http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/yupik_inuit.html |date=2008-03-06 }} (found on the site of [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/index.html Alaska Native Language Center] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123172349/http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/index.html |date=2009-01-23 }})</ref>

There are similarities in the cultures of the Eskimo groups<ref>Kleivan 1985: 8</ref><ref>Rasmussen 1965: 366 (ch. XXIII)</ref><ref>Rasmussen 1965: 166 (ch. XIII)</ref><ref name=padlgreen>Rasmussen 1965: 110 (ch. VIII)</ref><ref name=Mau-Mor>Mauss 1979</ref> together with diversity, far from homogeneity.<ref>Kleivan 1985: 26</ref>

The Russian linguist Menovshikov (Меновщиков), an expert of [[Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]] and [[Sireniki Eskimo language]]s (while admitting that he is not a specialist in ethnology)<ref>Menovščikov 1996 [1968]: 433</ref> mentions, that the shamanistic seances of those [[Siberian Yupik]] and [[Sirenik Eskimos|Sireniki]] groups he has seen have many similarities to those of Greenland Inuit groups described by [[Fridtjof Nansen]],<ref>Menovščikov 1996 [1968]: 442</ref> although a large distance separates Siberia and Greenland. There may be certain similarities also in Asiatic groups with North American ones.<ref>Vitebsky 1996: 42 (ch. ''North America'')</ref> Also the usage of a specific shaman's language is documented among several Eskimo groups, used mostly for talking to spirits.<ref>Merkur 1985:7</ref><ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 14</ref> Also the Ungazighmiit (belonging to [[Siberian Yupik]]s) had a special [[Allegory|allegoric]] usage of some expressions.<ref>Rubcova 1954: 128</ref>

The local cultures showed great diversity. The myths concerning the role of shaman had several variants, and also the name of their protagonists varied from culture to culture. For example, a mythological figure, usually referred to in the literature by the collective term [[Sedna (mythology)|Sea Woman]], has factually many local names: Nerrivik "meat dish" among Polar Inuit, Nuliayuk "lubricous" among [[Netsilingmiut]], Sedna "the nether one" among Baffin Land Inuit.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 27</ref> Also the soul conceptions, e.g. the details of the [[soul dualism]] showed great variability, ranging from guardianship to a kind of [[reincarnation]]. Conceptions of spirits or other beings had also many variants (see e.g. the [[tupilaq]] concept).<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 30–31</ref>

===Americas===

====North America====
{{Main article|Medicine man|Native American religion}}
[[File:White indian conjuror.jpg|thumb|[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] "conjuror" in a 1590 engraving]]
[[File:Hamatsa shaman2.jpg|thumb|[[Hamatsa]] ritualist, 1914]]
[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] and [[First Nations]] cultures have diverse religious beliefs and there was never one universal Native American religion or spiritual system. Although many Native American cultures have traditional healers, ritualists, singers, [[Mysticism|mystics]], lore-keepers and [[Medicine man|Medicine people]], none of them ever used, or use, the term "shaman" to describe these religious leaders. Rather, like other indigenous cultures the world over, their spiritual functionaries are described by words in their own languages, and in many cases are not taught to outsiders.

Many of these indigenous religions have been grossly misrepresented by outside observers and anthropologists, even to the extent of superficial or seriously mistaken anthropological accounts being taken as more authentic than the accounts of actual members of the cultures and religions in question. Often these accounts suffer from "[[Noble savage|Noble Savage]]"-type romanticism and [[racism]]. Some contribute to the fallacy that Native American cultures and religions are something that only existed in the past, and which can be mined for data despite the opinions of Native communities.<ref>Jones, Peter N. 2008 Shamans and Shamanism: A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Terms Use in North America. Boulder, Colorado: Bauu Press.</ref>

Not all Indigenous communities have roles for specific individuals who mediate with the spirit world on behalf of the community. Among those that do have this sort of religious structure, spiritual methods and beliefs may have some commonalities, though many of these commonalities are due to some nations being closely related, from the same region, or through post-Colonial governmental policies leading to the combining of formerly independent nations on reservations. This can sometimes lead to the impression that there is more unity among belief systems than there was in antiquity.

With the arrival of European settlers and colonial administration, the practice of Native American traditional beliefs was discouraged and Christianity was imposed<ref>{{cite web|title=Beneath the Underdog: Race, Religion, and the Trail of Tears|url=http://www.us-data.org/us/minges/underdog.html|quote=The missionaries, and especially those of the American Board, established a basic position of neutrality "between two fires" and as the Bible did not explicitly condemn slavery, they accepted "all to our communion who give evidence that they love the Lord Jesus Christ."}}</ref> upon the indigenous people. In most communities, the traditions were not completely eradicated, but rather went underground, and were practiced secretly until the prohibitive laws were repealed.<ref>{{cite book|title=Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School|page=104|author=Celia Haig-Brown|quote=we were all talking Shuswap. ... She said to us, 'You're never to get caught talking your language ... You'll get whipped;you'll really get punished' ... So we were careful after that not to be caught speaking. ... When we were way out there, we'd talk together in our language.}}</ref>

Up until and during the last hundred years, thousands of Native American and [[First Nations]] children from many different communities were sent into the [[Canadian Indian residential school system]], and [[Indian boarding school]]s in an effort to destroy tribal languages, cultures and beliefs. The [[Trail of Tears]], in the US, forced Native Americans to relocate from their traditional homes. Canadian laws enacted in 1982, and henceforth, have attempted to reverse previous attempts at extinguishing Native culture.<ref>{{cite web|title=Christian Aboriginal Infrastructure Developments|url=http://caid.ca/assimilation_policy.html}}</ref>

====Mesoamerica====
{{Further information|Maya religion}}
[[File:Mayan priest performing healing.jpg|thumb|right|[[Maya priesthood|Maya priest]] performing a healing ritual at [[Tikal]].]]
=====Maya=====
{{Main article|Maya priesthood}}

=====Aztec=====
{{Further information|Aztec astrology|Aztec religion}}

====South America====
[[File:Body of Maroon child brought before medicine man, 1955.jpg|thumb|Body of Ndyuka [[Maroon (people)|Maroon]] child brought before [[medicine man]], [[Suriname River]], [[Suriname]], South America]]
* The [[Urarina]] of the [[Peruvian Amazon]] have an elaborate cosmological system predicated on the [[ritual]] consumption of [[ayahuasca]], which is a key feature of their society.<ref name="upf.com">[http://www.upf.com/book.asp?id=DEANXS07 Dean, Bartholomew 2009 ''Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia'', Gainesville: University Press of Florida] {{ISBN|978-0-8130-3378-5}}</ref>
* [[Santo Daime]] and [[União do Vegetal]] ( abbreviated to [[UDV]]) are syncretic religions with which use an [[entheogen]] called ayahuasca in an attempt to connect with the spirit realm and receive divine guidance.<ref name="Peru" />

=====Amazonia=====
[[File:Chaman amazonie 5 06.jpg|thumb|left|Shaman from the shuara culture in [[Ecuador]] [[Amazonian forest]], June 2006]]
[[File:Urarina shaman B Dean.jpg|thumb|left|[[Urarina]] shaman, 1988]]
In the Peruvian [[Amazon basin]] and north coastal regions of the country, the healers are known as [[curandero]]s. ''Ayahuasqueros'' are Peruvians who specialize in the use of [[ayahuasca]].<ref name="upf.com"/> ''Ayahuasqueros'' have become popular among Western spiritual seekers, who claim that the ''ayauasqueros'' and their ayahuasca brews have cured them of everything from depression to addiction to cancer.<ref name="Peru" />

In addition to ''curanderos'' use of ayahuasca and their ritualized ingestion of [[mescaline]]-bearing [[San Pedro cactus]]es (Trichocereus pachanoi) for the [[divination]] and diagnosis of [[Maleficium (sorcery)|sorcery]], north-coastal shamans are famous throughout the region for their intricately complex and symbolically dense healing [[altar]]s called mesas (tables).{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} [[Douglas Sharon|Sharon]] (1993) has argued that the mesas symbolize the dualistic ideology underpinning the practice and experience of north-coastal shamanism.<ref>Joralemen, D. and [[Douglas Sharon|D. Sharon]] 1993 Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.</ref> For Sharon, the mesas are the, "physical embodiment of the supernatural opposition between benevolent and malevolent energies" (Dean 1998: 61).<ref>Dean, Bartholomew 1998 "Review of Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru" American Ethnologist. 25(1): 61–62.</ref>

In several tribes living in the [[Amazon rainforest]], the spiritual leaders also act as managers of scarce ecological resources<ref name=eco/><ref name=ecopia>Boglár 2001: 26</ref><ref name=coop/> The rich symbolism in [[Tukano people|Tukano]] culture has been documented in [[field work]]s<ref name="eco"/><ref name=Hug-FrMilkRiv>Christine Hugh-Jones 1980</ref><ref name=Hug-PalmPlei>Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980</ref> even in the last decades of the 20th century.

The ''yaskomo'' of the [[Wai-Wai people|Waiwai]] is believed to be able to perform a [[soul travel|soul flight]]. The soul flight can serve several functions:
* healing
* flying to the sky to consult cosmological beings (the moon or the brother of the moon) to get a name for a newborn baby
* flying to the cave of ''peccaries' mountains'' to ask the ''father of peccaries'' for abundance of game
* flying deep down in a river, to achieve the help of other beings.
Thus, a yaskomo is believed to be able to reach sky, earth, and water.<ref name="yaskomo soul flight">Fock 1963: 16</ref>

=====Mapuche=====
Among the [[Mapuche]] people of [[Chile]], ''[[Machi (Shaman)|Machi]]'' is usually a woman who serves the community by performing ceremonies to cure diseases, ward off evil, influence the weather and harvest, and by practicing other forms of healing such as herbalism.

=====Aymara=====
For the [[Aymara people|Aymara]] people of South America the [[Yatiri]] is a healer who heals the body and the soul, they serve the community and do the rituals for [[Pachamama]].

Part of the healing power attributed to shamanic practices depends of the use of plant alkaloids taken during the therapeutic sessions [[(Trance and Shamanic Cure on the South American Continent: Psychopharmalogical and Neurobiological Interpretations, Anthropology of Consciousness, Vol.21, Issue 1, pp. 83-105, ISSN 1053-4202, 2010)]].

=====Fuegians=====
{{IPA notice}}
Although [[Fuegians]] (the indigenous peoples of [[Tierra del Fuego]]) were all [[hunter-gatherer]]s,<ref>Gusinde 1966, pp. 6–7</ref> they did not share a common culture. The material culture was not homogenous, either: the big island and the archipelago made two different adaptations possible. Some of the cultures were coast-dwelling, others were land-oriented.<ref name=Ser-Hun>Service, Elman: The Hunter. Prentice-Hall, 1966.</ref><ref name=ExtAnc>{{cite web|url=http://www.trivia-library.com/c/extinct-ancient-societies-tierra-del-fuegians.htm|title=Extinct Ancient Societies Tierra del Fuegians|publisher=}}</ref>

Both [[Selk'nam]] and [[Yámana]] had persons filling in shaman-like roles.
The Selk'nams believed their {{IPA|/xon/}}s to have supernatural capabilities, e.g. to control weather.<ref>Gusinde 1966: 175</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victory-cruises.com/ona_indian.html|title=Patagonia, Tierra Del Fuego, cruising; The Yagan and Ona Indians|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> The figure of {{IPA|/xon/}} appeared in myths, too.<ref>Gusinde 1966: 15</ref> The Yámana {{IPA|/jekamuʃ/}}<ref>Gusinde 1966: 156</ref> corresponds to the Selknam {{IPA|/xon/}}.<ref>Gusinde 1966: 186</ref>

===Oceania===
{{See also|Umbarra|Tunggal panaluan}}
On the island of [[Papua New Guinea]], indigenous tribes believe that illness and calamity are caused by dark spirits, or ''masalai'', which cling to a person's body and [[poison]] them. Shamans are summoned in order to purge the unwholesome spirits from a person.<ref name=FourCorners_Amazon_entry>{{cite web|url=https://www.amazon.com/Four-Corners-Journey-Heart-Guinea/dp/0792274172/ref=pd_bxgy_b_img_b |title=Amazon.com listing for the "Four Corners: A Journey into the Heart of Papua New Guinea" }}</ref><ref name=FourCornersWeb>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/FourCorners.html |title=Kira Salak's official webpage on "Four Corners" |last=Salak |first=Kira }}</ref> Shamans also perform [[rainmaking]] ceremonies and can allegedly improve a hunter's ability to catch animals.<ref name=MakingRain>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/MakingRain.html |title=MAKING RAIN—from Four Corners |last=Salak |first=Kira }}</ref>

In Australia various aboriginal groups refer to their shamans as "clever men" and "clever women" also as ''kadji''. These aboriginal shamans use ''[[maban]]'' or ''mabain'', the material that is believed to give them their purported magical powers. Besides healing, contact with spiritual beings, involvement in initiation and other secret ceremonies, they are also enforcers of tribal laws, keepers of special knowledge and may "[[Curse|hex]]" to death one who breaks a social taboo by singing a song only known to the "clever men".

===Africa===
{{See also|African traditional religion|Traditional healers of South Africa|Witch doctor|Sangoma}}
[[File:Sangoma performing a Baptism.jpg|thumb|[[Traditional Healers of South Africa|Sangoma/Inyanga]] performing a traditional baptism on a baby in order to protect the spirit of the baby, Johannesburg, South Africa]]

In [[Mali]], [[Dogon people|Dogon]] sorcerers (both male and female) communicate with a spirit named Amma, who advises them on healing and divination practices.

The classical meaning of shaman as a person who, after recovering from a mental illness (or insanity) takes up the professional calling of socially recognized religious practitioner, is exemplified among the [[Sisala]] (of northern Gold Coast) : "the fairies "seized" him and made him insane for several months. Eventually, though, he learned to control their power, which he now uses to divine."<ref>Eugene L. Mendonsa : ''The Politics of Divination : a Processual View of Reactions to Illness and Deviance among the Sisala''. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1982. p. 112</ref>

The term ''[[sangoma]]'', as employed in [[Zulu people|Zulu]] and congeneric languages, is effectively equivalent to shaman. Sangomas are highly revered and respected in their society, where illness is thought to be caused by [[witchcraft]],<ref>David M Cumes "Africa in my bones" p. 14</ref> pollution (contact with impure objects or occurrences), bad spirits, or the ancestors themselves,<ref>Susan Schuster Campbell "Called to Heal" p. 38</ref> either malevolently, or through neglect if they are not respected, or to show an individual her calling to become a sangoma (''thwasa'').<ref>Susan Schuster Campbell "Called to Heal" p. 79</ref> For harmony between the living and the dead, vital for a trouble-free life, the ancestors must be shown respect through ritual and animal sacrifice.<ref>David M Cumes "Africa in my bones" p. 10</ref>

The term ''[[inyanga]]'' also employed by the [[Nguni people|Nguni]] cultures is equivalent to 'herbalist' as used by the Zulu people and a variation used by the [[Shona people|Karanga]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://texts.00.gs/Karanga_shamanism.htm|title=Karanga mythology [Zimbabwe]|publisher=}}</ref> among whom remedies (locally known as [[muti]]) for ailments are discovered by the inyanga being informed in a dream, of the herb able to effect the cure and also of where that herb is to be found. The majority of the herbal knowledge base is passed down from one ''inyanga'' to the next, often within a particular family circle in any one village.

Shamanism is known among the Nuba of Kordofan in Sudan.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nadel | first1 = S.F. | year = 1941 | title = A Shaman Cult in the Nuba Mountains | url = | journal = Sudan Notes and Records | volume = 24 | issue = 1| pages = 85–112 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nadel | first1 = S.F. | year = 1946 | title = A Study of Shamanism in the Nuba Mountains | url = | journal = Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute | volume = 76 | issue = | pages = 25–37 | doi=10.2307/2844307}}</ref>

===Contemporary Western shamanism===
{{Main article|Neoshamanism}}
There is an endeavor in some contemporary [[occultism|occult]] and [[esotericism|esoteric]] circles to reinvent shamanism in a modern form, often drawing from [[core shamanism]]—a set of beliefs and practices synthesized by [[Michael Harner]]—centered on the use of ritual drumming and dance, and Harner's interpretations of various indigenous religions. Harner has faced criticism for taking pieces of diverse religions out of their cultural contexts and synthesising a set of universal shamanic techniques. Some neoshamans focus on the ritual use of [[entheogens]],{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} and also embrace the philosophies of [[chaos magic]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} while others (such as [[Jan Fries]])<ref>Visual Magic:A Manual of Freestyle Shamanism:Jan Fries {{ISBN|1-869928-57-1}}</ref> have created their own forms of shamanism.

European-based neoshamanic traditions are focused upon the researched or imagined traditions of ancient Europe, where many [[mystical]] practices and belief systems were suppressed by the Christian church. Some of these practitioners express a desire to practice a system that is based upon their own ancestral traditions. Some anthropologists and practitioners have discussed the impact of such neoshamanism as "giving extra pay" (Harvey, 1997 and elsewhere) to indigenous American traditions, particularly as many pagan or heathen shamanic practitioners do not call themselves shamans, but instead use specific names derived from the European traditions—they work within such as ''[[völva]]'' or ''seidkona'' ([[seiðr|seid-woman]]) of the [[sagas]] (see Blain 2002, Wallis 2003).

Many spiritual seekers travel to Peru to work with ''ayahuasqueros'', shamans who engage in the ritual use of [[ayahuasca]], a psychedelic tea which has been documented to cure everything from depression to addiction. When taking ayahuasca, participants frequently report meeting spirits, and receiving divine revelations.<ref name="Peru" /> Shamanistic techniques have also been used in New Age therapies which use enactment and association with other realities as an intervention.<ref>[http://www.ull.es/congresos/conmirel/YORK.html ULL – Universidad de La Laguna] {{es icon}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nlpuniversitypress.com/html/CaCom08.html|title=Ca-Com|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref>

==Criticism of the term==
{{Further information|medicine man}}
[[File:Shaman tableau.png|thumb|A tableau presenting figures of various cultures filling in mediator-like roles, often being termed as "shaman" in the literature. The tableau presents the diversity of this concept.]]
The anthropologist [[Alice Kehoe]] criticizes the term "shaman" in her book ''Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking''. Part of this criticism involves the notion of [[cultural appropriation]].<ref name="Waveland Press"/> This includes criticism of [[New Age]] and modern Western forms of shamanism, which, according to Kehoe, misrepresent or dilute indigenous practices. Alice Kehoe also believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such as the [[Noble Savage]].

Kehoe is highly critical of [[Mircea Eliade]]'s work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research. To Kehoe, citing that ritualistic practices (most notably drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogens, spirit communication and healing) as being definitive of shamanism is poor practice. Such citations ignore the fact that those practices exist outside of what is defined as shamanism and play similar roles even in non-shamanic cultures (such as the role of chanting in [[Judeo-Christian]] and Islamic rituals) and that in their expression are unique to each culture that uses them. Such practices cannot be generalized easily, accurately, or usefully into a global religion of shamanism. Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of the hypothesis that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the [[Paleolithic]] period.<ref name="Waveland Press"/>

Anthropologist [[Mihály Hoppál]] also discusses whether the term "shamanism" is appropriate. He notes that for many readers, "-ism" implies a particular dogma, like Buddhism or Judaism. He recommends using the term "shamanhood"<ref name=summer/> or "shamanship"<ref>Hoppál & Szathmári & Takács 2006: 14</ref> (a term used in old Russian and German [[ethnography|ethnographic]] reports at the beginning of the 20th century) for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. He believes that this places more stress on the local variations<ref name="cogmap" /> and emphasizes that shamanism is not a religion of sacred [[dogma]]s, but linked to the everyday life in a practical way.<ref>Hoppál 1998: 40</ref> Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary paradigm shift.<ref name=summer>[http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/coming.html ISSR, 2001 Summer], abstract online in 2nd half of 2nd paragraph</ref> [[Piers Vitebsky]] also mentions that, despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although, as for the past, their existence is not impossible).<ref>Vitebsky 1996: 11</ref> Norwegian social anthropologist Hakan Rydving has likewise argued for the abandonment of the terms "shaman" and "shamanism" as "scientific illusions."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rydving|first1=Hakan|title=Le chamanisme aujourd'hui: constructions et deconstructions d'une illusion scientifique|journal=Etudes mongoles et siberiennes, centrasiatiques et tibetaines|date=2011|volume=42|doi=10.4000/emscat.1815|url=/index1815.html|accessdate=20 December 2011}}</ref>

Dulam Bumochir has affirmed the above critiques of "shamanism" as a Western construct created for comparative purposes and, in an extensive article, has documented the role of Mongols themselves, particularly "the partnership of scholars and shamans in the reconstruction of shamanism" in post-1990/post-communist Mongolia.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bumochir|first1=Dulam|title=Institutionalization of Mongolian shamanism: from primitivism to civilization|journal=Asian Ethnicity|date=2014|volume=15|issue=4|pages=473-491|accessdate=4 July 2017}}</ref> This process has also been documented by Swiss anthropologist Judith Hangartner in her landmark study of Darhad shamans in Mongolia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hangartner|first1=Judith|title=The Constitution and Contestation of Darhad Shamans' Power in Contemporary Mongolia|date=2011|publisher=Global Oriental|location=Leiden|isbn=9781906876111}}</ref> Historian Karena Kollmar-Polenz argues that the social construction and reification of shamanism as a religious "other" actually began with the 18th century writings of Tibetan Buddhist monks in Mongolia and later "probably influenced the formation of European discourse on Shamanism".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kollmar-Paulenz|first1=Karenina|title=The Invention of "Shamanism" in 18th Century Mongolian Elite Discourse|journal=Rocznik Orientalistyczny|date=2012|volume=LXV|issue=1|pages=90-106}}</ref>

==See also==
{{colbegin||16em}}
* [[Carlos Castaneda]]
* [[Folk healer]]
* [[Folk magic]]
* [[Itako]]
* [[Neoshamanism]]
* [[Neuroanthropology]]
* [[Neurotheology]]
* [[Paganism]]
* [[Panentheism]]
* [[Prehistoric medicine]]
* [[Seiðr]]
* [[Soul catcher]]
* [[Spirit spouse]]
* [[Terence McKenna]]
* [[Tlamatini]]
* [[Zduhać]]
{{colend}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}

* {{cite book |last=Barüske |first=Heinz |title=Eskimo Märchen |series=Die Märchen der Weltliteratur |publisher=Eugen Diederichs Verlag |location=Düsseldorf • Köln |year=1969 |language=German}} The title means: "Eskimo tales", the series means: "The tales of world literature".
* {{cite book |last=Boglár |first=Lajos |title=A kultúra arcai. Mozaikok a kulturális antropológia köreiből |publisher=Napvilág Kiadó |series=TÁRStudomány|location=Budapest |year=2001 |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9082-94-5}} The title means "The faces of culture. Mosaics from the area of cultural anthropology".
* {{cite journal |last=Bolin |first=Hans |title=Animal Magic: The mythological significance of elks, boats and humans in north Swedish rock art |journal=[[Journal of Material Culture]] |volume= 5 |issue= 2 |pages= 153–176 |year=2000 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Czaplicka |first=M.A. |others=preface by Marett, R.R. |chapter=Types of shaman |chapterurl=http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm |title=Shamanism in Siberia. Aboriginal Siberia. A study in social anthropology |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis00.htm |publisher=Sommerville College, University of Oxford, Clarendon Press |year=1914 |isbn=1-60506-060-7}}
* {{cite journal |last=Dana |first=Kathleen Osgood |title=Áillohaš and his image drum: the native poet as shaman |journal=Nordlit |volume=15 |date=Summer 2004 |publisher=Faculty of Humanities, University of Tromsø |format=PDF |url=http://uit.no/getfile.php?PageId=977&FileId=183#search=%22Juha%20Pentik%C3%A4inen%20grammar%20of%20mind%22 |ref={{harvid|Dana|2004}}}}
* {{cite web |last=Deschênes |first=Bruno |title=Inuit Throat-Singing |work=Musical Traditions |publisher=The Magazine for Traditional Music Throughout the World |year=2002 |url=http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm}}
*{{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=Tracing shamans in Siberia. The story of an ethnographical research expedition |others=Translated from Hungarian by Anita Rajkay Babó |publisher=Anthropological Publications |location=Oosterhout |year=1968}}
* {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=Samanizmus |publisher=Gondolat |series=Élet és Tudomány Kiskönyvtár |location=Budapest |year=1962 |url=http://mek.oszk.hu/01600/01639/ |language=Hungarian}} The title means: "Shamanism".
* {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=A sámánhit emlékei a magyar népi műveltségben |origyear=1958 |edition=first reprint |year=1998 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-05-7542-6}} The title means: "Remnants of shamanistic beliefs in Hungarian folklore".
* {{cite book |last=Fienup-Riordan |first=Ann |authorlink=Ann Fienup-Riordan |title=Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup'ik Eskimo Oral Tradition |location=Norman, Oklahoma |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-585-12190-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Fock |first=Niels |title=Waiwai. Religion and society of an Amazonian tribe |series=Nationalmuseets skrifter, Etnografisk Række (Ethnographical series), VIII |publisher=The National Museum of Denmark |location=Copenhagen |year=1963}}
* {{cite book |last=Freuchen |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Freuchen |title=Book of the Eskimos |publisher=The World Publishing Company |location=Cleveland • New York |year=1961 |isbn=0-449-30802-2}}
* {{Cite book |first=Kuldip Singh |last=Gulia |year=2005 |title=Human Ecology of Sikkim – A Case Study of Upper Rangit Basin |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |place=Delhi, India |isbn=81-7835-325-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4aDVQ1KVZYC | ref = harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Hajdú |first=Péter |editor=Hajdú, Péter |title=Uráli népek. Nyelvrokonaink kultúrája és hagyományai |year=1975 |publisher=Corvina Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-13-0900-2 |chapter=A rokonság nyelvi háttere}} The title means: "Uralic peoples. Culture and traditions of our linguistic relatives"; the chapter means "Linguistical background of the relationship".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Sámánok, lelkek és jelképek |publisher=Helikon Kiadó |location= Budapest |year=1994 |isbn=963-208-298-2 |language=Hungarian}} The title means "Shamans, souls and symbols".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Folklór és közösség |publisher=Széphalom Könyvműhely |location=Budapest |year=1998 |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9028-14-2 |chapter=A honfoglalók hitvilága és a magyar samanizmus |pages=40–45}} The title means "The belief system of Hungarians when they entered the Pannonian Basin, and their shamanism".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Sámánok Eurázsiában |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2005 |isbn=963-05-8295-3 |language=Hungarian |ref=Hop05}} The title means "Shamans in Eurasia", the book is published also in German, Estonian and Finnish. [http://www.akkrt.hu/main.php?folderID=906&pn=2&cnt=31&catID=&prodID=17202&pdetails=1 Site of publisher with short description on the book (in Hungarian)].
* {{cite book |editor=Hoppál, Mihály |editor2=Szathmári, Botond |editor3=Takács, András |title=Sámánok és kultúrák |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |chapter=Sámánok, kultúrák és kutatók az ezredfordulón |pages=9–25 |publisher=Gondolat |location=Budapest |year=2006a |isbn=963-9450-28-6}} The chapter title means "Shamans, cultures and researchers in the millenary", the book title means "Shamans and cultures".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13) |series=Bibliotheca Shamanistica |chapter=Is Shamanism a Folk Religion? |pages=11–16 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2007b |isbn=978-963-05-8521-7 |ref=Hop07b}}
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13) |series=Bibliotheca Shamanistica |chapter=Eco-Animism of Siberian Shamanhood |pages=17–26 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2007c |isbn=978-963-05-8521-7 |ref=Hop07c}}
* Janhunen, Juha. Siberian shamanistic terminology. ''Memoires de la Societe finno-ougrienne,'' 1986, 194: 97–117.
* {{cite book |first=Christine |last=Hugh-Jones |title=From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia |series=Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |isbn=0-521-22544-2}}
* {{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Hugh-Jones |title=The Palm and the Pleiades. Initiation and Cosmology in Northwest Amazonia |series=Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |isbn=0-521-21952-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Kleivan |first=Inge |author2=B. Sonne |title=Eskimos: Greenland and Canada |year=1985 |publisher=Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |series=Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2 |isbn=90-04-07160-1}}
* Lupa. [https://books.google.com/books?id=XfkRR25whnsC&lpg=PP1&dq=New%20Paths%20to%20Animal%20Totems&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false ''New Paths to Animal Totems.''] Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn Worldwide, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0-7387-3337-1}}.
* {{cite book |last=Menovščikov |first=G. A. (= Г. А. Меновщиков) |chapter=Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes |editor=Diószegi, Vilmos |title=Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=1968}}
* {{cite book |last=Nagy |first=Beáta Boglárka |chapter=Az északi szamojédok |pages=221–234 |editor=Csepregi, Márta |title=Finnugor kalauz |series=Panoráma |publisher=Medicina Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |year=1998 |isbn=963-243-813-2 |language=Hungarian}} The chapter means "Northern Samoyedic peoples", the title means ''Finno-Ugric guide''.
* {{Cite book |last=Nattiez |first=Jean Jacques |author-link=Jean-Jacques Nattiez |title=Inuit Games and Songs • Chants et Jeux des Inuit |series=Musiques & musiciens du monde • Musics & musicians of the world |publisher=Research Group in [[Music semiology|Musical Semiotics]], Faculty of Music, University of Montreal |place=Montreal}}. The songs are online available<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ubu.com/ethno/soundings/inuit.html|title=U B U W E B :: Canada Inuit Games and Songs|publisher=}}</ref> from the [[ethnopoetics]] website curated by [[Jerome Rothenberg]].
* {{Cite news
| last =Noll
| first =Richard
| author-link =Richard Noll
| last2 =Shi
| first2 =Kun
| publication-date =2004
| title =Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China
| periodical =韓國宗敎硏究 (Journal of Korean Religions)
| series =
| publication-place =Seoul KR
| place =
| publisher =西江大學校. 宗教硏究所 (Sŏgang Taehakkyo. Chonggyo Yŏnʾguso.)
| volume =6
| issue =
| pages =135–162
| url =http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf
|format=PDF| issn =
| doi =
| oclc =
| accessdate =2008-07-30
| ref=NoSh04}}. It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] of Northeast China.
* Reinhard, Johan (1976) "Shamanism and Spirit Possession: The Definition Problem." In ''Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas'', J. Hitchcock & R. Jones (eds.), New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pp. 12–20.
* [[Ippei Shimamura|Shimamura, Ippei]] ''The roots Seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Among the Mongol Buryats.'' Yokohama, Japan: Shumpusha, 2014.
* Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu, Francis G. (1995) ''Religious or Spiritual Problem. A Culturally Sensitive Diagnostic Category in the DSM-IV''. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol.183, No. 7, pp. 435–444
* {{cite book |last=Voigt |first=Miklós |title=Világnak kezdetétől fogva. Történeti folklorisztikai tanulmányok |chapter=Sámán – a szó és értelme |pages=41–45 |year=2000 |publisher=Universitas Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9104-39-6}} The chapter discusses the etymology and meaning of word "shaman".
{{refend}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Witzel | first1 = Michael | year = 2011 | title = Shamanism in Northern and Southern Eurasia: their distinctive methods and change of consciousness | url = | journal = Social Science Information | volume = 50 | issue = 1| pages = 39–61 | doi=10.1177/0539018410391044}}

==Further reading==

{{refbegin|2}}
* [[Joseph Campbell]], ''The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology.'' 1959; reprint, New York and London: Penguin Books, 1976. {{ISBN|0-14-019443-6}}
* Harner, Michael, ''The Way of the Shaman: A Guide to Power and Healing,'' Harper & Row Publishers, NY 1980
* Richard de Mille, ed. ''The Don Juan Papers: Further Castaneda Controversies.'' Santa Barbara, California: Ross-Erikson, 1980.
* George Devereux, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/667052 "Shamans as Neurotics"], [[American Anthropologist]], New Series, Vol. 63, No. 5, Part 1. (Oct. 1961), pp. 1088–1090.
* Jay Courtney Fikes, ''Carlos Castaneda: Academic Opportunism and the Psychedelic Sixties'', Millennia Press, Canada, 1993 {{ISBN|0-9696960-0-0}}
* Åke Hultkrantz (Honorary Editor in Chief): [http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/about.htm Shaman]. Journal of the [http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/ International Society for Shamanistic Research]
* Philip Jenkins, ''Dream Catchers: How Mainstream America Discovered Native Spirituality.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-19-516115-7}}
* Alice Kehoe, ''Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking.'' 2000. London: Waveland Press. {{ISBN|1-57766-162-1}}
* [[David Charles Manners]], ''In the Shadow of Crows''. (contains first-hand accounts of the Nepalese jhankri tradition) Oxford: Signal Books, 2011. {{ISBN|1-904955-92-4}}.
* Jordan D. Paper, ''The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion'', Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1995. {{ISBN|0-7914-2315-8}}.
* Smith, Frederick M. (2006). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CuB7K3bDWDsC The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature]''. Columbia University Press, U.S. {{ISBN|0-231-13748-6}}. pp. 195–202.
* [[Barbara Tedlock]], ''Time and the Highland Maya'', U. of New Mexico Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-8263-1358-2}}
* Silvia Tomášková, ''Wayward Shamans: the prehistory of an idea'', University of California Press, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-520-27532-4}}
* [[Michel Weber]], « [https://www.academia.edu/6011320/_Shamanism_and_proto-consciousness_2015_ Shamanism and proto-consciousness] », in René Lebrun, Julien De Vos et É. Van Quickelberghe (éds), ''Deus Unicus''. Actes du colloque « Aux origines du monothéisme et du scepticisme religieux » organisé à Louvain-la-Neuve les 7 et 8 juin 2013 par le Centre d’histoire des Religions Cardinal Julien Ries [Cardinalis Julien Ries et Pierre Bordreuil in memoriam], Turnhout, Brepols, coll. Homo Religiosus série II, 14, 2015, pp. 247–260.
* Andrei Znamenski, ''Shamanism in Siberia: Russian Records of Siberian Spirituality.'' Dordrech and Boston: Kluwer/Springer, 2003. {{ISBN|1-4020-1740-5}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
{{Commons category|Shamanism}}

* [http://www.akhathai.org AFECT] A charitable organization protecting traditional cultures in northern Thailand
* [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf Chuonnasuan] (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] of Northeast China, by Richard Noll and Kun Shi
* [http://newagefraud.org/ New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans], an organization devoted to alerting seekers about fraudulent teachers, and helping them avoid being exploited or participating in exploitation
* [http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html Shamanic Healing Rituals] by Tatyana Sem, Russian Museum of Ethnography
* [http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol10/pdf/teuton.pdf Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn] by A. Asbjorn Jon
* [http://www.krupar.com/index.php?file=www/en/gallery/gallery.html&cat=5 Shamanism in Siberia] – photographs by Standa Krupar
* [http://haldjas.folklore.ee/~aado/ Studies in Siberian Shamanism and Religions of the Finno-Ugrian Peoples] by Aado Lintrop, Folk Belief and Media Group of the Estonian Literary Museum
* [http://www.theecologist.info/page9.html A View from the Headwaters] by Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff Amazonian Indigenous Peoples and ecology

{{philosophy of religion}}
{{witchcraft}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Alternative medical systems]]
[[Category:Anthropology of religion]]
[[Category:Shamanism| ]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Supernatural healing]]

Shamanism

2017-10-24T07:26:02Z

85.19.179.17: Fixed typo

{{Redirect2|Shaman|Shamans}}
{{Anthropology of religion|Basic|image=[[File:Khagdaev1.JPG|center|300px]]|caption= [[Buryats|Buryat]] shaman on [[Olkhon Island]], [[Siberia]]}}
'''Shamanism''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|ɑː|m|ə|n}} {{respell|SHAH|men}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|eɪ|m|ə|n}} {{respell|SHAYSHAY|mən}}) is a practice that involves a practitioner reaching [[altered state of consciousness|altered states of consciousness]] in order to perceive and interact with a spirit world and channel these transcendental energies into this world.<ref>[[#Hop87|Hoppál 1987]]. p. 76.</ref>

A '''shaman''' is someone who is regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of [[evocation|benevolent and malevolent spirits]], who typically enters into a [[trance|trance state]] during a [[ritual]], and practices [[divination]] and [[healing]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/shaman?view=uk|title=Oxford Dictionaries - Dictionary, Thesaurus, & Grammar|publisher=}}</ref> The word "shaman" probably originates from the [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] [[Evenki language]] of [[North Asia]]. According to ethnolinguist [[Juha Janhunen]], "the word is attested in all of the Tungusic idioms" such as [[Negidal language|Negidal]], [[Lamut language|Lamut]], [[Udege language|Udehe]]/[[Oroch language|Orochi]], [[Nanai language|Nanai]], Ilcha, [[Orok language|Orok]], [[Manchu language|Manchu]] and [[Ulch language|Ulcha]], and "nothing seems to contradict the assumption that the meaning 'shaman' also derives from Proto-Tungusic" and may have roots that extend back in time at least two millennia.<ref>Juha Janhunen, Siberian shamanistic terminology, ''Suomalais-ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia/ Memoires de la Société finno-ougrienne,'' 1986, 194: 97–98</ref> The term was introduced to the west after [[Russia]]n forces [[Siege of Kazan|conquered]] the shamanistic [[Khanate of Kazan]] in 1552.

The term "shamanism" was first applied by [[Western world|Western]] anthropologists as outside observers of the ancient religion of the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and [[Mongols]], as well as those of the neighbouring [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] and [[Samoyedic languages|Samoyedic]]-speaking peoples. Upon observing more religious traditions across the world, some Western anthropologists began to also use the term in a very broad sense, to describe unrelated magico-religious practices found within the [[ethnic religion]]s of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and even completely unrelated parts of the Americas, as they believed these practices to be similar to one another.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Shamanism, Discourse, Modernity |last=Alberts |first=Thomas |publisher=Ashgate |year=2015 |isbn=9781472439864|location=Farnham|pages=73–79}}</ref>

[[Mircea Eliade]] writes, "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = 'technique of [[religious ecstasy]]'."<ref name = Eli72>Mircea Eliade, ''Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy'', Bollingen Series LXXVI, Princeton University Press 1972, pp. 3–7.</ref> Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters [[otherworld|supernatural realms]] or [[Plane (esotericism)|dimensions]] to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the spiritual world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment.<ref name = Eli72/>

Beliefs and practices that have been categorised this way as "shamanic" have attracted the interest of scholars from a wide variety of disciplines, including anthropologists, archaeologists, historians, religious studies scholars, philosophers and psychologists. Hundreds of books and [[Academic publishing#Scholarly paper|academic paper]]s on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. In the 20th century, many Westerners involved in the counter-cultural movement have created modern magico-religious practices influenced by their ideas of indigenous religions from across the world, creating what has been termed [[neoshamanism]] or the neoshamanic movement.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gredig|first1=Florian|title=Finding New Cosmologies|date=2009|publisher=Lit Verlag Dr. W. Hopf|location=Berlin}}</ref> It has affected the development of many [[Neopaganism|neopagan]] practices, as well as faced a backlash and accusations of [[cultural appropriation]],<ref name="Waveland Press">{{cite book|last1=Kehoe|first1=Alice Beck|title=Shamans and religion : an anthropological exploration in critical thinking|date=2000|publisher=Waveland Press|location=Prospect Heights, Ill.|isbn=1577661621}}</ref> exploitation and misrepresentation when outside observers have tried to represent cultures they do not belong to.<ref name="Wernitznig2">Wernitznig, Dagmar, ''Europe's Indians, Indians in Europe: European Perceptions and Appropriations of Native American Cultures from Pocahontas to the Present''. University Press of America, 2007: p.132. "What happens further in the [[Plastic Shaman]]'s [fictitious] story is highly irritating from a perspective of cultural hegemony. The Injun elder does not only willingly share their spirituality with the white intruder but, in fact, must come to the conclusion that this intruder is as good an Indian as they are themselves. Regarding Indian spirituality, the Plastic Shaman even out-Indians the actual ones. The messianic element, which Plastic Shamanism financially draws on, is installed in the Yoda-like elder themselves. They are the ones – while melodramatically parting from their spiritual offshoot – who urge the Plastic Shaman to share their gift with the rest of the world. Thus Plastic Shamans wipe their hands clean of any megalomaniac or missionizing undertones. Licensed by the authority of an Indian elder, they now have every right to spread their wisdom, and if they make (quite more than) a buck with it, then so be it.—The neocolonial ideology attached to this scenario leaves less room for cynicism."</ref><ref name="Hobson">G. Hobson, "The Rise of the White Shaman as a New Version of Cultural Imperialism." in: Hobson, Gary, ed. ''The Remembered Earth''. Albuquerque, NM: Red Earth Press; 1978: 100-108.</ref>

==Terminology==

===Etymology===
[[File:Witsen's Shaman.JPG|thumb|The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, drawn by the Dutch explorer [[Nicolaes Witsen]], who wrote an account of his travels among Samoyedic- and Tungusic-speaking peoples in 1692. Witsen labelled the illustration as a "Priest of the Devil," giving this figure clawed feet to express what he thought were demonic qualities.<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. p. 32.</ref>]]

The word "shaman" probably originates from the [[Evenki language|Evenki]] word "''šamán,''" most likely from the southwestern dialect spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples.<ref>Juha Janhunan, Siberian shamanistic terminology, ''Memoires de la Societe finno-ougrienne'' 1986, 194:97.</ref> The Tungusic term was subsequently adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman [[Avvakum]].<ref>Written before 1676, first printed in 1861; see [[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. p. vii.</ref>

The word was brought to Western Europe in the late 17th century by the Dutch traveler [[Nicolaes Witsen]], who reported his stay and journeys among the Tungusic and Samoyedic-speaking indigenous peoples of Siberia in his book ''Noord en Oost Tataryen'' (1692).<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]], p. 32.</ref> [[Adam Brand (explorer)|Adam Brand]], a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China; a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word ''shaman'' to English speakers.<ref>Adam Brand, ''Driejaarige Reize naar China'', Amsterdam 1698; transl. ''A Journal of an Ambassy'', London 1698; see Laufer B., "Origin of the Word Shaman," ''American Anthropologist,'' 19 (1917): 361–71 and Bremmer J., "Travelling souls? Greek shamanism reconsidered", in Bremmer J.N. (ed.), ''The Rise and Fall of the Afterlife,'' London: Routledge, 2002, pp. 7–40. ([http://theol.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2002/594/c3.pdf PDF])</ref>

The etymology of the Evenki word is sometimes connected to a Tungus root ''ša-'' "to know".<ref name="cogmap">Hoppál 2005: 15</ref><ref name="Diószegi 1962:13">Diószegi 1962: 13</ref> This has been questioned on linguistic grounds: "The possibility cannot be completely rejected, but neither should it be accepted without reservation since the assumed derivational relationship is phonologically irregular (note especially the vowel quantities)."<ref>Januhnan, 1986: 98.</ref> Other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the [[Manchu language]], and as such would be the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language.<ref>{{cite book|last=Crossley|first=Pamela Kyle|title=The Manchus|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|year=1996|isbn=1557865604}}</ref>

However, [[Mircea Eliade]] noted that the [[Sanskrit]] word ''[[sramana|śramaṇa]],'' designating a wandering monastic or holy figure, has spread to many Central Asian languages along with [[Buddhism]] and could be the ultimate origin of the Tungusic word.<ref>{{cite book |last=Eliade |first=Mircea |author-link=Mircea Eliade |year=1989 |title=Shamanism |publisher=Arkana Books |page =495}}</ref> This proposal has been thoroughly critiqued since 1917. Ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen regards it as an "anachronism" and an "impossibility" that is nothing more than a "far-fetched etymology."<ref>Janhunen, 1986:98.</ref>

21st-century anthropologist and archeologist Silvia Tomaskova argues that by the mid-1600s, many Europeans applied the Arabic term ''shaitan,'' meaning "devil," to the non-Christian practices and beliefs of indigenous peoples beyond the Ural Mountains.<ref>Tomaskova, 2013, 76–78, 104–105.</ref> She suggests that ''shaman'' may have entered the various Tungus dialects as a corruption of this term, and then been told to Christian missionaries, explorers, soldiers and colonial administrators with whom the people had increasing contact for centuries. Ethnolinguists did not develop as a discipline nor achieve contact with these communities until the late 19th century, and may have mistakenly "read backward" in time for the origin of this word.

===Definitions===
[[File:SB - Altay shaman with drum.jpg|thumb|Russian postcard based on a photo taken in 1908 by S.I. Borisov, showing a female shaman, of probable [[Khakas people|Khakas]] ethnicity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |authorlink= |title=Sámánok Eurázsiában |year=2005 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-05-8295-3}} pp. 77, 287; {{cite book |last=Znamensky |first=Andrei A. |chapter=Az ősiség szépsége: altáji török sámánok a szibériai regionális gondolkodásban (1860–1920) |pages=117–134 |editor=Molnár, Ádám |title=Csodaszarvas. Őstörténet, vallás és néphagyomány. Vol. I |publisher=Molnár Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2005 |isbn=963-218-200-6 |language=Hungarian}}, p. 128</ref>]]

There is no single agreed-upon definition for the word "shamanism" among anthropologists. The English historian [[Ronald Hutton]] noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, there were four separate definitions of the term which appeared to be in use. The first of these uses the term to refer to "anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness." The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness at the behest of others. The third definition attempts to distinguish shamans from other magico-religious specialists who are believed to contact spirits, such as "[[mediumship|medium]]s", "[[witch doctor]]s", "spiritual healers" or "prophets," by claiming that shamans undertake some particular technique not used by the others. Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be. The fourth definition identified by Hutton uses "shamanism" to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia.<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. pp. vii–viii.</ref> According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, the Evenk word ''shaman'' would more accurately be translated as "priest".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tengerism.org/table_of_contents.html|title = Circle of Tengerism}}</ref>

==Initiation and learning==
Shamans are normally "called" by dreams or signs which require lengthy training. However, shamanic powers may be "inherited".

Turner and colleagues<ref>Turner et al., p. 440</ref> mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a [[rite of passage]] for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can be found in the detailed case history of [[Oroqen people|Chuonnasuan]], the last master shaman among the Tungus peoples in Northeast China.<ref>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]] (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref>

The [[wounded healer]] is an [[archetype]] for a shamanic trial and journey. This process is important to the young shaman. S/he undergoes a type of sickness that pushes her or him to the brink of death. This happens for two reasons:
# The shaman crosses over to the underworld. This happens so the shaman can venture to its depths to bring back vital information for the sick, and the tribe.
# The shaman must become sick to understand sickness. When the shaman overcomes his or her own sickness, s/he will hold the cure to heal all that suffer. This is the uncanny mark of the wounded healer.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Halifax | first = Joan |authorlink = Joan Halifax |title = Shaman: The Wounded Healer |publisher = [[Thames & Hudson]] |year = 1982 |location = London |isbn = 9780500810293 |oclc = 8800269}}</ref>

== Roles ==
{{Anthropology of religion}}

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een shamaan op Zuid-Boeroe bezweert boze geesten de kinderen te verlaten waarbij hij een geldstuk en een sirihnoot offert TMnr 10001031.jpg|thumb|[[Maluku Islands|South Moluccan]] Shaman exorcising evil spirits occupying children, [[Buru]], [[Indonesia]]. (1920)]]

Shamans claim to gain knowledge and the power to heal by entering into the [[Spirit world (Spiritualism)|spiritual world]] or dimension. Most shamans have [[dream]]s or [[Vision (spirituality)|visions]] that convey certain messages. The shaman may have or acquire many [[spirit guides]], who often guide and direct the shaman in his/her travels in the spirit world. These spirit guides are always present within the shaman, although others encounter them only when the shaman is in a [[trance]]. The spirit guide energizes the shaman, enabling him/her to enter the spiritual dimension. The shaman heals within the spiritual dimension by returning 'lost' parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. The shaman also cleanses excess negative energies, which confuse or pollute the soul.

Shamans act as [[Mediation|mediators]] in their culture. <ref name=mediator>Hoppál 2005: 45</ref><ref name=mediator2>Boglár 2001: 24</ref> The shaman communicates with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the deceased. The shaman communicates with both living and dead to alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver gifts to the spirits.

Among the [[Selkup people|Selkups]], the [[Merginae|sea duck]] is a spirit animal. Ducks fly in the air and dive in the water. Thus ducks are believed to belong to both the upper world and the world below.<ref name="Hoppal_a">Hoppál 2005: 94</ref> Among other Siberian peoples, these characteristics are attributed to water fowl in general.<ref>Vitebsky 1996: 46</ref> The upper world is the afterlife primarily associated with deceased humans and is believed to be accessed by soul journeying through a portal in the sky. The lower world or "world below" is the afterlife primarily associated with animals and is believed to be accessed by soul journeying through a portal in the earth.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ingerman |first=Sandra |date=2004 |title=Shamanic Journeying: A Beginner's Guide |url=https://www.amazon.com/Shamanic-Journeying-Beginners-Sandra-Ingerman/dp/1591799430 |publisher= Sounds True |isbn=9781591799436}}</ref> In shamanic cultures many animals are regarded as spirit animals.

Shamans perform a variety of functions depending upon their respective cultures; <ref name=multfunc>Hoppál 2005: 25</ref> healing,<ref name=sem-shamheal>{{cite web |last=Sem |first=Tatyana |url=http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html |title=Shamanic Healing Rituals |publisher=Russian Museum of Ethnography}}</ref><ref>Hoppál 2005: 27–28</ref> leading a [[sacrifice]],<ref>Hoppál 2005: 28–33</ref> preserving the [[tradition]] by [[storytelling]] and songs,<ref name=memory>Hoppál 2005: 37</ref> [[fortune-telling]],<ref>Hoppál 2005: 34–35</ref> and acting as a [[psychopomp]] (literal meaning, "guide of souls").<ref name=psychopomp>Hoppál 2005: 36</ref> A single shaman may fulfill several of these functions.<ref name="multfunc" />

The functions of a shaman may include either guiding to their proper abode the souls of the dead (which may be guided either one-at-a-time or in a cumulative group, depending on culture), and/or curing (healing) of ailments. The ailments may be either purely physical afflictions—such as disease, which may be cured by gifting, flattering, threatening, or wrestling the disease-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may be completed by displaying a supposedly extracted token of the disease-spirit (displaying this, even if "fraudulent", is supposed to impress the disease-spirit that it has been, or is in the process of being, defeated, so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient's body), or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions—such as persistent terror (on account of a frightening experience), which may be likewise cured by similar methods. In most languages a different term other than the one translated "shaman" is usually applied to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may be more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), however, in the case of an interpreter of omens or of dreams.

There are distinct types of shaman who perform more specialized functions. For example, among the [[Nani people]], a distinct kind of shaman acts as a [[psychopomp]].<ref>Hoppál 2005:36164</ref> Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the [[Nenets people|Nenets]], [[Enets people|Enets]], and [[Selkup people|Selkup]] shaman.<ref>Hoppál 2005: 87–95</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm|title=Shamanism in Siberia: Part III. Religion: Chapter IX. Types of Shamans|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> Among the [[Huichol people|Huichol]],<ref name=Mexico>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/Peyote.html |title=Lost souls of the Peyote Trail |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure }}</ref> there are two categories of shaman. This demonstrates the differences among shamans within a single tribe.

Among the [[Hmong people]], the shaman or the ''Ntxiv Neej'' (Tee-Neng), acts as healer. The Ntxiv Neej also performs rituals/ceremonies (soul retrievals) designed to call the soul back from its many travels to the physical human body. A Ntxiv Neej may use several shamanistic tools such as swords, divinity horns, a gong (drum), or finger bells/jingles. All tools serve to protect the spirits from the eyes of the unknown, thus enabling the Ntxiv Neej to deliver souls back to their proper owner. The Ntxiv Neej may wear a white, red, or black veil to disguise the soul from its attackers in the spiritual dimension.

Boundaries between the shaman and laity are not always clearly defined. Among the [[Barasana]] of Brazil, there is no absolute difference between those recognized as shamans and those who are not.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} At the lowest level, most adults have abilities as shamans and will carry out the same functions as those who have a widespread reputation for their powers and knowledge. The Barasana shaman knows more [[Mythology|myth]]s and understands their meaning better, nonetheless the majority of adults also know many myths.<ref name=barasana-myths>Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980: 32</ref>

Among [[Inuit]] peoples the laity have experiences which are commonly attributed to the [[Shamanism among Eskimo peoples#Shamanism in various Eskimo groups|shamans of those Inuit groups]]. [[Daydream]], reverie, and [[trance]] are not restricted to shamans.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/> Control over / alliance with helping spirits is the primary characteristic attributed to shamans. The laity usually employ [[amulet]]s, spells, formulas, songs.<ref name="Mer-BecHalfHid"/><ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 8–10</ref> Among the [[Greenland Inuit]], the laity have greater capacity to relate with spiritual beings. These people are often apprentice shamans who failed to complete their initiations.<ref name="failed-shaman" />

The assistant of an [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] shaman (called ''jardalanin'', or "second spirit") knows many things about the associated beliefs. He or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behavior of the shaman.<ref name=Guan_Kouni>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]]: 10, footnote 10 (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref> Despite these functions, the jardalanin is ''not'' a shaman. For this interpretative assistant, it would be unwelcome to fall into trance.<ref name=interpreter>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]]: 8–9 (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref>

==Ecological aspect==
Among the [[Tucano people]], a sophisticated system exists for [[environmental resources management]] and for avoiding resource depletion through overhunting. This system is conceptualized mythologically and symbolically by the belief that breaking hunting restrictions may cause illness. As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading role in this [[Ecology|ecological]] management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. The shaman is able to "release" game animals, or their souls, from their hidden abodes.<ref name=eco>Reichel-Dolmatoff 1997</ref><ref>Vitebsky 1996: 107</ref> The [[Piaroa people]] have ecological concerns related to shamanism.<ref name=ecopia/> Among the [[Inuit]], shamans fetch the souls of game from remote places,<ref>Merkur 1985: 5</ref><ref>Vitebsky 1996: 108</ref> or [[soul travel]] to ask for game from mythological beings like the [[Sedna (mythology)|Sea Woman]].<ref>Kleivan & Sonne: 27–28</ref>

==Economics==
The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies across cultures. In many Inuit groups, they provide services for the community and get a "due payment" (cultures),{{who|date=February 2012}} believe the payment is given to the helping spirits<ref name=mshare/> but these goods are only "welcome addenda." They are not enough to enable shamanizing as a full-time activity. Shamans live like any other member of the group, as a hunter or housewife. Due to the popularity of [[ayahuasca tourism]] in South America, there are practitioners in areas frequented by backpackers who make a living from leading ceremonies.<ref name="failed-shaman">Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24</ref><ref name=mshare>Merkur 1985: 3</ref>

==Beliefs==
There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, but several common beliefs are shared by all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified by [[Mircea Eliade|Eliade]] (1972)<ref name = Eli72/> are the following:

* Spirits exist and they play important roles both in individual lives and in human society.
* The shaman can communicate with the spirit world.
* Spirits can be benevolent or malevolent.
* The shaman can treat sickness caused by malevolent spirits.
* The shaman can employ [[trance]] inducing techniques to incite visionary ecstasy and go on [[vision quest]]s.
* The shaman's spirit can leave the body to enter the [[supernatural]] world to search for answers.
* The shaman evokes animal images as [[spirit guides]], [[omen]]s, and message-bearers.
* The shaman can perform other varied forms of [[divination]], [[scry]], throw bones/[[runes]], and sometimes foretell of future events.

Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which affect the lives of the living.<ref name=Peru>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/Peru.html |title=Hell and Back |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure }}</ref> Although the causes of disease lie in the spiritual realm, inspired by malicious spirits, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman "enters the body" of the patient to confront the spiritual infirmity and heals by banishing the infectious spirit.

Many shamans have expert knowledge of medicinal plants native to their area, and an herbal treatment is often prescribed. In many places shamans learn directly from the plants, harnessing their effects and healing properties, after obtaining permission from the indwelling or patron spirits. In the Peruvian Amazon Basin, shamans and ''[[curandero]]s'' use medicine songs called ''[[icaro]]s'' to evoke spirits. Before a spirit can be summoned it must teach the shaman its song.<ref name="Peru" /> The use of [[totem]]ic items such as rocks with special powers and an [[Animism|animating spirit]] is common.

Such practices are presumably very ancient. [[Plato]] wrote in his ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'' that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that those who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth".

Belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as ''[[brujería]]'' in Latin America, exists in many societies. Other societies assert all shamans have the power to both cure and kill. Those with shamanic knowledge usually enjoy great power and prestige in the community,{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} but they may also be regarded suspiciously or fearfully as potentially harmful to others.

By engaging in their work, a shaman is exposed to significant personal risk, from the spirit world, from enemy shamans, or from the means employed to alter the shaman's [[state of consciousness]]. Shamanic plant materials can be toxic or fatal if misused. Failure to return from an [[Astral projection|out-of-body journey]] can lead to death.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} [[Spell (paranormal)|Spell]]s are commonly used to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is often very highly ritualized.

===Soul and spirit concepts===
The variety of functions described above may seem like distinct tasks, but they may be united by underlying soul and spirit concepts.

;[[Soul (spirit)|Soul]]
:This concept can generally explain more, seemingly unassociated phenomena in shamanism:<ref name=all-soul>[[#Mer85|Merkur 1985]]: 4</ref><ref>[[#Vit96|Vitebsky 1996]]: 11, 12–14, 107</ref><ref name=soulsham>[[#Hop05|Hoppál 2005]]: 27, 30, 36</ref>

;[[Healing]]
:This concept may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief system of the people served by the shaman.<ref name=sem-shamheal/> It may consist of retrieving the lost soul of the ill person.<ref name=resoul>Hoppál 2005: 27</ref> See also the [[soul dualism]] concept.

;[[Scarcity]] of hunted game
:This problem can be solved by "releasing" the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Besides that, many [[taboo]]s may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, so that the souls of the animals do not feel angry or hurt, or the pleased soul of the already killed prey can tell the other, still living animals, that they can allow themselves to be caught and killed.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 7, 19–21</ref><ref name=Gab-KarEszk>Gabus, Jean: A karibu eszkimók. Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 1970. (Hungarian translation of the original: Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous, Libraire Payot Lausanne, 1944.) It describes the life of Caribou Eskimo groups.</ref> For the ecological aspects of shamanistic practice, and related beliefs, see below.

;[[Infertility]] of women
:This problem can be cured by obtaining the soul of the expected child.

;[[Spirit]]s
:Beliefs related to [[spirit]]s can explain many different phenomena.<ref>[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 18</ref> For example, the importance of [[storytelling]], or acting as a singer, can be understood better if we examine the whole belief system. A person who can memorize long texts or songs, and play an instrument, may be regarded as the beneficiary of contact with the spirits (e.g. [[Khanty people]]).<ref name=singtellplay>Hoppál 2005: 99</ref>

==Practice==
{{See also|Religious ecstasy}}
Generally, the shaman traverses the [[axis mundi]] and enters the spirit world by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an [[Religious ecstasy|ecstatic]] [[trance]], either [[Autosuggestion|autohypnotically]] or through the use of [[entheogen]]s. The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together.

===Entheogens===
[[File:Flowering San Pedro cactus.jpg|thumb|alt=text|Flowering [[Echinopsis pachanoi|San Pedro]], an entheogenic cactus that has been used for over 3,000 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mescaline.com/sanpedro/|title=A Brief History of the San Pedro Cactus|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> Today the vast majority of extracted mescaline is from columnar cacti, not vulnerable [[peyote]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/151962/0|title=Lophophora williamsii|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref>]]

An entheogen ("generating the divine within")<ref>{{citation |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/entheogen | title=Entheogen | publisher=[dictionary.com] |accessdate=2012-03-13}}</ref> is a [[psychoactive]] substance used in a [[religion|religious]], shamanic, or [[spirituality|spiritual]] context.<ref>
{{cite web
| url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-89132008000500010&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en
| title=Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology – Jurema-Preta (Mimosa tenuiflora [Willd.] Poir.): a review of its traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacology
| publisher=www.scielo.br
| accessdate=2009-01-14
| last=
| first=
}}</ref> Entheogens have been used in a [[ritual]]ized context for thousands of years; their religious significance is well established in anthropological and modern evidences. Examples of traditional entheogens include: [[peyote]], [[psilocybin mushroom]]s, uncured [[tobacco]], [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], [[ayahuasca]], ''[[Salvia divinorum]]'', ''[[Tabernanthe iboga]]'', ''[[Ipomoea tricolor]]'', and ''[[Amanita muscaria]]''.

Some shamans observe dietary or customary restrictions particular to their tradition. These restrictions are more than just cultural. For example, the diet followed by shamans and apprentices prior to participating in an [[ayahuasca]] ceremony includes foods rich in [[tryptophan]] (a biosynthetic precursor to [[serotonin]]) as well as avoiding foods rich in [[tyramine]], which could induce [[hypertensive crisis]] if ingested with [[MAOI]]s such as are found in ayahuasca brews as well as abstinence from alcohol or sex.<ref name="Peru" />

===Music and songs===
{{See also|Shamanic music|Imitation of sounds in shamanism}}
Just like shamanism itself,<ref name="cogmap"/> music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse, far from being alike. In several instances, songs related to shamanism are intended to imitate [[natural sounds]], via [[onomatopoeia]].<ref name=onom>{{cite web|url=http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf |title=healthCheck |publisher= |accessdate=6 June 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402105719/http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf |archivedate=2 April 2015 |df= }}</ref>

[[Sound mimesis in various cultures]] may serve other functions not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals as luring game in the hunt;<ref name = natt/> or entertainment ([[Inuit throat singing]]).<ref name=natt>Nattiez: 5</ref><ref name=desch>{{cite web|url=http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm|title=Inuit Throat-Singing|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref>

===Other practices===
* [[Dancing]]
* [[Singing]]
* [[Icaro]]s / Medicine Songs<ref name="Peru" />
* [[Vigil]]s
* [[Fasting]]
* [[Sweat lodge]]
* [[Vision quests]]
* [[Mariri]]
* Sword fighting / [[Bladesmithing]]

===Paraphernalia===
[[File:Raven Rattle, 19th century, 05.588.7292.jpg|thumbnail|Raven Rattle, 19th century, [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
Shamans may have various kinds of paraphernalia in different cultures.
[[File:Goldes shaman priest in his regalia.png|thumb|[[Golds (ethnic group)|Goldes]] shaman priest in his regalia]]


* '''Drum''' – The [[drum]] is used by shamans of several peoples in Siberia, the Inuit, and many other cultures all over the world,<ref>Barüske 1969: 24, 50–51</ref> although its usage for shamanistic [[seance]]s may be lacking among the Inuit of Canada.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 25</ref> The beating of the drum allows the shaman to achieve an altered state of consciousness or to travel on a journey between the physical and spiritual worlds.<ref name="Maxfield, Melinda 1994">Maxfield, Melinda. [https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=95141255 "The journey of the drum."] ''ReVision'' 16.4 (1994): 157.</ref> Much fascination surrounds the role that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman. Shaman drums are generally constructed of an animal-skin stretched over a bent wooden hoop, with a handle across the hoop.
* '''Feathers''' – In numerous North and South American cultures, as well as in Europe and Asia, birds are seen as messengers of the spirits. Feathers are often used in ceremonies and in individual healing rituals.
* '''Rattle''' – Found mostly among South American<ref name=rattle-south>Vitebsky 1996: 49</ref> and African peoples. Also used in ceremonies among the [[Navajo people|Navajo]] and in traditional ways in their blessings and ceremonies.
* '''Gong''' – Often found through South East Asia, Far Eastern peoples.
* '''Pipe''' – Used for smoking various tobaccos and psychoactive herbs (e.g. tobacco in North and South America, cannabis in Eurasia).
* '''Sword''' – In [[Hmong customs and culture#Shamanism|Hmong Shamanism]], a holy sword will always be used in the practice to protect the shaman from wandering "evil" spirits as he travels to the spirit world.
* '''Shake''' – Found mostly in Hmong Shamanism, the shaman begins his practice by rattling, which turns into a shake. It is the process of communicating with his shamanistic spirits to guide him to the spirit world.
* '''Long Table''' – A flexible wooden table, approximately nine by two feet, is used in Hmong Shamanism; the table transforms into a "flying horse" in the spirit world.
* '''Rooster''' – A rooster is often used in Hmong Shamanism. A shaman uses a rooster when he journeys to the unknown. It is said that the rooster shields the shaman from wandering "evil" spirits by making him invisible; thus, the evil spirits only see the rooster's useless spirit.

==Academic study==
[[File:Shaman.jpg|thumb|[[Sami people|Sami]] shaman with his drum]]

===Cognitive, semiotic, hermeneutic approaches===
As mentioned, a (debated) approach explains the etymology of the word "shaman" as meaning "one who knows".<ref name="Diószegi 1962:13" /><ref name="Hoppál 2005:14">Hoppál 2005: 14</ref> Functionally, the shaman is a person who is an expert in keeping together the multiple [[code]]s of the society. Accordingly, the society's codes are the manifestation of the society's underlying complex belief system. Thus to be effective, shamans maintain a comprehensive view in their mind which gives them certainty of [[knowledge]].<ref name="cogmap"/> The shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple [[code]]s. Shamans express meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects such as [[amulet]]s.<ref name="Hoppál 2005:14"/>

The shaman knows the [[culture]] of his or her community well,<ref name="mediator2" /><ref>[[#Pen95|Pentikäinen 1995]]: 270</ref><ref name=knowncult>Hoppál 2005: 25–26,43</ref> and acts accordingly. Thus, their audience knows the used [[symbol]]s and meanings—that is why shamanism can be efficient: people in the audience trust it.<ref name=knowncult/> For example, the shaman's [[drum]]ming can appear to its members as certainty of ''[[knowledge]]''—this explains the above described etymology for the word "shaman" as meaning "one who knows."<ref name=etym2>Hoppál 2004: 14</ref>

There are [[Semiotics|semiotic]] theoretical approaches to shamanism,<ref name=semi>Hoppál 2005: 13–15, 58, 197</ref><ref>Hoppál 2006a: 11</ref><ref>Hoppál 2006b: 175</ref> ("[[ethnosemiotics]]"). The symbols on the shaman's costume and drum can refer to [[Power animal]]s, or to the rank of the shaman.

There are also examples of "mutually opposing symbols", distinguishing a "white" shaman who contacts sky spirits for good aims by day, from a "black" shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims by night.<ref name=semiotics_of_shamanism>[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 24–25</ref> (Series of such opposing symbols referred to a world-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammar arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, also this formed a cognitive map).<ref name="cogmap" /><ref name=hop-natworsib>Hoppál, Mihály: [http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol4/hoppal.htm Nature worship in Siberian shamanism]</ref> Shaman's lore is rooted in the folklore of the community, which provides a "mythological mental map".<ref>[[#Hop07b|Hoppál 2007b]]: 12–13</ref><ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25">[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 25</ref> [[Juha Pentikäinen]] uses the concept ''"grammar of mind"''.<ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25"/><ref>[[#Pen95|Pentikäinen 1995]]: 270–271</ref> Linking to a Sami example, Kathleen Osgood Dana writes:

{{quote|Juha Pentikäinen, in his introduction to Shamanism and Northern Ecology, explains how the Sámi drum embodies Sámi worldviews. He considers shamanism to be a ''‘grammar of mind’'' (10), because shamans need to be experts in the folklore of their cultures (11).<ref name=dan-aill>{{harvnb|Dana|2004}}: 18 (see [http://uit.no/getfile.php?PageId=977&FileId=183#search=%22Juha%20Pentik%C3%A4inen%20grammar%20of%20mind%22 online])</ref>}}

Armin Geertz coined and introduced the [[hermeneutics]],<ref>Merkur 1985: v</ref> "ethnohermeneutics",<ref name=hop-natworsib/> approaches to the practice of interpretation. Hoppál extended the term to include not only the interpretation of oral and written texts, but that of "visual texts as well (including motions, gestures and more complex ritual, and ceremonies performed for instance by shamans)".<ref name=ethnohermeneutics>[[#Hop07b|Hoppál 2007b]]: 13</ref> It not only reveals the [[Animism|animistic]] views hiding behind shamanism, but also conveys their relevance for the contemporary world, where ecological problems have validated paradigms about balance and protection.<ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25"/>

===Ecological approaches, systems theory===
Other [[fieldwork]]s use [[systems theory]] concepts and ecological considerations to understand the shaman's [[Folklore|lore]]. Desana and [[Tucano people|Tucano]] Indians have developed a sophisticated symbolism and concepts of "energy" flowing between people and animals in cyclic paths. [[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]] relates these concepts to developments in the ways that modern science (systems theory, ecology, new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats [[causality]] in a less linear fashion.<ref name=eco/> He also suggests a cooperation of modern science and indigenous lore.<ref name=coop>[[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]]: [http://www.theecologist.info/page9.html A View from the Headwaters]. The Ecologist, Vol. 29 No. 4, July 1999.</ref>

===Hypotheses on origins===
Shamanic practices may originate as early as the [[Paleolithic]], predating all organized religions,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/clottes/page7.php |title=Shamanism in Prehistory |author=Jean Clottes |accessdate=2008-03-11 |work=Bradshaw foundation }}</ref><ref name=Narr>{{cite web |url=http://concise.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=109434&fullArticle=true&tocId=52333 |author=Karl J. Narr
|title=Prehistoric religion |accessdate=2008-03-28 |work=Britannica online encyclopedia 2008 }}</ref> and certainly as early as the [[Neolithic]] period.<ref name=Narr/> The earliest known undisputed burial of a shaman (and by extension the earliest undisputed evidence of shamans and shamanic practices) dates back to the early [[Upper Paleolithic|Upper Paleolithic era]] (c. 30,000 BP) in what is now the Czech Republic.<ref>Tedlock, Barbara. 2005. The Woman in the Shaman's Body: Reclaiming the Feminine in Religion and Medicine. New York: Bantam</ref>

Sanskrit scholar and comparative mythologist [[Michael Witzel]] proposes that all of the world's mythologies, and also the concepts and practices of shamans, can be traced to the migrations of two prehistoric populations: the "Gondwana" type (of circa 65,000 years ago) and the "Laurasian" type (of circa 40,000 years ago).<ref>Witzel, 2011.</ref> The more recent Laurasian types of myths and forms of shamanism are found in Eurasian and North and South America and are later cultural elaborations based upon the earlier Gondwana types of myths and shamanism, both of which probably derived from an earlier human source population. Witzel argues that survivals of the older, original forms of shamanism are therefore to be found in the southern hemisphere among peoples such as the San Bushmen of Botswana, the Andamanese of the Andaman Islands off the coast of Burma, and the Aborigines of Australia. The so-called "classical" shamanism of Siberia and the Americas reflect a further cultural evolutionary development at the local levels.

Early anthropological studies theorize that shamanism developed as a magic practice to ensure a successful hunt or gathering of food. Evidence in caves and drawings on walls support indications that shamanism started during the Paleolithic era. One such picture featured a half-animal, with the face and legs of a man, with antlers and a tail of a stag.<ref>Winkelman, Michael. Shamanism: a Biopsychosocial Paradigm of Consciousness and Healing. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010. Print.</ref>

Archaeological evidence exists for [[Mesolithic]] shamanism. The oldest known shaman grave in the world is located in the Czech Republic at Dolni Vestonice (National Geographic No 174 October 1988). This grave site was evidence of a female shaman.

In November 2008, researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in [[Pre-history of the Southern Levant|Israel]] that is perceived as one of the earliest known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on the head, pelvis and arms. Among her unusual [[grave goods]] were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 graves at the site, located in a cave in lower [[Galilee]] and belonging to the [[Natufian culture]], but is said to be unlike any other among the Epipaleolithic Natufians or in the Paleolithic period.<ref>"Earliest known shaman grave site found: study", reported by [[Reuters]] via [[Yahoo! News]], November 4, 2008, [https://www.webcitation.org/5c5MCHK7R?url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20081104/sc_nm/us_shaman_israel/print archived.] see ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences''.</ref>

[[Robert Sapolsky]] has theorized that shamanism is practiced by [[schizotypal]] individuals.<ref>{{YouTube|4WwAQqWUkpI|Dr. Robert Sapolsky's lecture about Biological Underpinnings of Religiosity}}</ref>

===Historical-anthropological school of folkloristics===
Folklorists have evaluated the presence of remnants of shamanism and shamanic practice in [[Folklore|folktale]]s from around the world. Michael Berman identified the genre of the [[Shamanic Story|shamanic story]], examples of which are only produced by folk groups with shamanic cosmology or a shamanic world view. Kultkrantz points out that, "in areas where shamanism has long been a thing of the past, many tales contain only vague, piecemeal or inaccurate recollections of shamans and their like."<ref>1993, p. 51</ref> The presence of distinctive characteristics and features of shamanic stories help folklorists and anthropologists reconstruct a culture’s practice of shamanism.<ref>Berman, Shamanic Journeys Through Daghestan, 2008, p. 22</ref>

==Decline and revitalization / tradition-preserving movements==
Shamanism is believed to be declining around the world, possibly due to other organised religious influences, like Christianity, that want people who practice shamanism to convert to their own system and doctrine. Another reason is western views of shamanism as 'primitive', 'superstitious', backward and outdated. Whalers who frequently interact with Inuit tribes are one source of this decline in that region.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Oosten|first1=Jarich|first2=Frederic |last2=Laugrand|first3=Cornelius |last3=Remie|title=Perceptions of Decline: Inuit Shamanism in the Canadian Arctic|journal=American Society for Ethnohistory|year=2006|pages=445–477|doi=10.1215/00141801-2006-001|ref=harv}}</ref>

[[File:Kyzyl Shaman.jpg|thumb|A recent photograph: shaman doctor of [[Kyzyl]], 2005. (Details missing). Attempts are being made to preserve and revitalize [[Tuvans|Tuvan]] shamanism:<ref name=tuva>Hoppál 2005: 117</ref> former authentic shamans have begun to practice again, and young apprentices are being educated in an organized way.<ref name=authentic-revitalization-tuva>Hoppál 2005: 259</ref>]]

In many areas, former shamans ceased to fulfill the functions in the community they used to, as they felt mocked by their own community,<ref>Boglár 2001: 19–20</ref> or regarded their own past as deprecated and are unwilling to talk about it to an ethnographer.<ref name=shamed>Diószegi 1960: 37–39</ref>

Moreover, besides personal communications of former shamans, folklore texts may narrate directly about a deterioration process. For example, a [[Buryats|Buryat]] epic text details the wonderful deeds of the ancient "first shaman" Kara-Gürgän:<ref name=Kara-Gurgan>[[#Eli01|Eliade 2001]]: 76 (Chpt 3 about obtaining shamanic capabilities)</ref> he could even compete with God, create life, steal back the soul of the sick from God without his consent. A subsequent text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like [[omnividence]],<ref name=flatland>Omnividence: A word created by Edwin A. Abbott in his book titled [[Flatland]]</ref> fortune-telling even for decades in the future, moving as fast as a bullet.<ref name=deter>Diószegi 1960: 88–89</ref>

In most affected areas, shamanic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans dying and their personal experiences dying with them. The loss of memories is not always lessened by the fact the shaman is not always the only person in a community who knows the beliefs and motives related to the local shaman-hood (laics know myths as well, among Barasana, even though less;<ref name=barasana-myths/> there are former shaman apprentices unable to complete the learning among Greenlandic Inuit peoples,<ref name="failed-shaman"/> moreover, even laics can have trance-like experiences among the Inuit;<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/> the assistant of a shaman can be extremely knowledgeable among [[Dagara people|Dagara]]).<ref name=Guan_Kouni/><ref name=interpreter/> Although the shaman is often believed and trusted precisely because s/he "accommodates" to the "grammar" of the beliefs of the community,<ref name=knowncult/> several parts of the knowledge related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman (illness), or root in his/her family life (the interpretation of the symbolics of his/her drum),<ref name=drum-symbols>Hoppál 2005: 224</ref> thus, those are lost with his/her death. Besides that, in many cultures, the entire traditional belief system has become endangered (often together with a partial or total [[language shift]]), the other people of the community remembering the associated beliefs and practices (or the language at all) grew old or died, many folklore memories (songs, texts) were forgotten – which may threaten even such peoples who could preserve their isolation until the middle of the 20th century, like the [[Nganasan people|Nganasan]].<ref>Nagy 1998: 232</ref>

Some areas could enjoy a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness.
* Variants of [[shamanism among Inuit peoples]] were once a widespread (and very diverse) phenomenon, but today are rarely practiced, as well as already having been in decline among many groups, even while the first major ethnological research was being done,<ref>Merkur 1985: 132</ref> e.g. among Polar Inuit, at the end of the 19th century, [[Sagloq]], the last shaman who was believed to be able to travel to the sky and under the sea died—and many other former shamanic capacities were lost during that time as well, like [[ventriloquism]] and [[sleight-of-hand]].<ref>Merkur 1985: 134</ref>
* The isolated location of [[Nganasan people]] allowed shamanism to be a living phenomenon among them even at the beginning of the 20th century,<ref name=hop>Hoppál 2005: 92</ref> the last notable Nganasan shaman's ceremonies could be recorded on film in the 1970s.<ref name="Hoppal">Hoppál 1994: 62</ref>

After exemplifying the general decline even in the most remote areas, it should be noted that there are revitalization or tradition-preserving efforts as a response. Besides collecting the memories,<ref name=collect>Hoppál 2005: 88</ref> there are also tradition-preserving<ref>Hoppál 2005: 93</ref> and even revitalization efforts,<ref>Hoppál 2005: 111, 117–119, 128, 132, 133–134, 252–263</ref> led by authentic former shamans (for example among [[Sakha people]]<ref name=authentic-revitalization-sakha>Hoppál 2005: 257–258</ref> and [[Tuvans]]).<ref name=authentic-revitalization-tuva/> However, according to Richard L. Allen, Research & Policy Analyst for the Cherokee Nation, they are overwhelmed with [[plastic shaman|fraudulent shamans]], also known as plastic medicine people.<ref>Hagan, Helene E. [http://www.sonomacountyfreepress.com/features/spirg-hagan.html "The Plastic Medicine People Circle."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305155048/http://www.sonomacountyfreepress.com/features/spirg-hagan.html |date=2013-03-05 }} ''Sonoma Free County Press.'' Accessed 31 Jan 2013.</ref> "One may assume that anyone claiming to be a Cherokee 'shaman, spiritual healer, or pipe-carrier', is equivalent to a modern day medicine show and snake-oil vendor."<ref name=RG>{{cite web | title = Pseudo Shamans Cherokee Statement| url = http://www.thepeoplespaths.net/Articles2001/RLAllen-CherokeeStatement-Shamans.htm| accessdate = 2008-06-23}}</ref> One indicator of a plastic shaman might be someone who discusses "Native American spirituality" but does not mention any specific [[federally recognized tribes|Native American tribe]]. The "New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans" website discusses potentially plastic shamans.<ref>Lupa 37</ref>

Besides tradition-preserving efforts, there are also [[Neoshamanism|neoshamanistic]] movements, these may differ from many traditional shamanistic practice and beliefs in several points.<ref name=neoshaman>Vitebsky 1996: 150–153</ref> Admittedly,{{According to whom|date=February 2012}} several traditional beliefs systems indeed have ecological considerations (for example, many Inuit peoples), and among [[Tukano people]], the shaman indeed has direct resource-protecting roles, see details in section [[#Ecological aspect|Ecological aspect]].

Today, shamanism survives primarily among [[indigenous people]]s. Shamanic practices continue today in the tundras, jungles, deserts, and other rural areas, and even in cities, towns, suburbs, and shantytowns all over the world. This is especially true for Africa and South America, where "[[mestizo]] shamanism" is widespread.

==Regional variations==

===Asia===

====Hmong shamanism====
{{Main article|Hmong customs and culture#Shamanism}}
The Hmong people,<ref>[[Hmong people]]</ref> as an ancient people of China with a 5,000-year history, continue to maintain and practice its form of shamanism known as "Ua Neeb" in mainland Asia. At the end of the Vietnam War, some 300,000 Hmong have been settled across the globe. They have continued to practice Ua Neeb in various countries in North and South America, Europe and Australia. In the U.S., the Hmong shaman practitioner is known as "Txiv Neeb" has been licensed by many hospitals in California as being part of the medical health team to treat patients in hospital. This revival of Ua Neeb in the West has been brought great success and has been hailed in the media as "Doctor for the disease, shaman for the soul".

Being a Hmong shaman represents a true vocation, chosen by the shaman God "Sivyis".<ref>http://www.lexicon.net/drpao/shaman/sivyis/</ref>
The Shaman's main job is to bring harmony to the individual, their family, and their community within their environment by performing various rituals (usually through trance).

[[Animal sacrifice]] has been part of the Hmong shamanic practice for the past 5,000 years. Contrary to the belief of many Westerners, the Hmong practice of using animals in shamanic practice is performed with great respect. After the Vietnam War, over 200,000 Hmong were resettled in the United States and shamanism is still part of the Hmong culture. Due the colliding of culture and the law, as Professor Alison Dundes Renteln, a political science professor at the University of Southern California and author of The Cultural Defense, a book that examines the influence of such cases on U.S. courts, once said, "We say that as a society we welcome diversity, and in fact that we embrace it ... In practice, it's not that easy".<ref name="usatoday.com">{{cite news| url=https://www.usatoday.com/educate/firstamendment/religion_052504.html |author=Richard Willing |title=Courts asked to consider culture An act defined as crime in USA may be common in other places. Should justice system take that into account? | work=USA Today |accessdate=2004-11-01 }}</ref>

The Hmong believe that all things on Earth have a soul (or multiple souls) and those souls are treated as equal and can be considered interchangeable. When a person is sick due to his soul being lost, or captured by wild spirit, it is necessary to ask for and receive permission of that animal, whether it is a chicken, pig, dog, goat or any other animals required, to use its soul for an exchange with the afflicted person's soul for a period of 12 months. At the end of that period, during the Hmong New Year, the shaman would perform a special ritual to release the soul of that animal and send it off to the world beyond. As part of his service to mankind, the animal soul is sent off to be reincarnated into a higher form of animal, or even to become a member of a god's family (ua Fuab Tais Ntuj tus tub, tus ntxhais) to live a life of luxury, free of the suffering as an animal. Hence, being asked to perform this duty (what is known in the West as "animal sacrifice") is one of the greatest honors for that animal, to be able to serve mankind. The Hmong of Southeast Guizhou will cover the [[rooster|cock]] with a piece of red cloth and then hold it up to worship and sacrifice to the Heaven and the Earth before the [[Rooster#Religion and spiritual belief systems|Sacred cockfight]].<ref>Southeast Guizhou Travel Tips – China Highlights, a division of CITS Guilin, a full service China travel agency providing China Tours</ref> In a 2010 trial of a Sheboygan Wisconsin Hmong who was charged with staging a cockfight, it was stated that the roosters were "kept for both food and religious purposes",<ref name="Midwest Communications Inc">{{cite web|url=http://whbl.com/news/articles/2010/apr/08/day-one-cockfighting-trial-books/|title=Day One of Cockfighting Trial Concludes|author=Midwest Communications Inc.|work=whbl|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> and the case was followed by an acquittal.<ref name="Midwest Communications Inc"/>

In addition to the spiritual dimension, Hmong shaman attempt to treat many physical illnesses through use of the text of sacred words (khawv koob).

====Indonesia====
{{Main article|Dukun}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een dukun tijdens de bereiding van zijn geneesmiddelen TMnr 60027035.jpg|thumb|Indonesian [[Dukun]]]]
Throughout the villages and towns of [[Indonesia]], local healers known as [[dukun]] practice diverse activities from massage, bonesetting, midwivery, herbal medicine, spirit mediumship and divination.

====Japan====
{{Main article|Miko}}
{{Further information|Shinto|Ainu religion|Ryukyuan religion}}
Shamanism is part of the indigenous Ainu religion and Japanese religion of [[Shinto]], although Shinto is distinct in that it is shamanism for an agricultural society. Since the early middle-ages Shinto has been influenced by and [[syncretism|syncretized]] with Buddhism and other elements of continental East Asian culture. The book "''Occult Japan: Shinto, Shamanism and the Way of the Gods''" by Percival Lowell delves further into researching Japanese shamanism or Shintoism.<ref>Percival Lowell, Occult Japan: Shinto, Shamanism and the Way of the Gods, Inner Traditions International (April 1990), Rochester Vt</ref> The book ''Japan Through the Looking Glass: Shaman to Shinto'' uncovers the extraordinary aspects of Japanese beliefs.<ref>Alan Mcfarlane, ''Japan Through the Looking Glass: Shaman to Shinto'', Profile Books Ltd, Aug 2007, London England</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fb20071007a1.html|title=The Japan Times – News on Japan, Business News, Opinion, Sports, Entertainment and More|work=The Japan Times|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref>

====Korea====
{{Main article|Korean shamanism}}
Shamanism is still practiced in [[North Korea|North]] and [[South Korea]]. In the south, shaman women are known as ''mudangs'', while male shamans are referred to as ''baksoo mudangs''.

A person can become a shaman through hereditary title or through natural ability. Shamans are consulted in contemporary society for financial and marital decisions.

====Malaysia====
{{main article|Bobohizan|Bomoh|Pawang}}
[[File:Bobohizans.jpeg|thumb|right|''[[Bobohizan]]'' of [[North Borneo]], circa 1921.]]
Shamanism were also practiced among the Malay community in [[Malay Peninsula]] and indigenous people in [[Sabah]] and [[Sarawak]]. People who practice shamanism in the country are generally called as ''bomoh'' or ''pawang'' in the Peninsula.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Graham Harvey|author2=Robert J. Wallis|title=Historical Dictionary of Shamanism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQOyAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA129|date=5 February 2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6459-7|pages=129–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Montague Summers|title=The Vampire: His Kith and Kin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpaCCyGuMqwC&pg=PA221|year=1928|publisher=University Books|isbn=978-1-60506-566-3|pages=221–}}</ref> In Sabah, the [[Bobohizan]] is the main shaman among the [[Kadazan-Dusun]] indigenous community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/features/article/bobohizans-the-shamans-of-sabah-teeter-between-old-and-new-worlds|title=Bobohizans: The shamans of Sabah teeter between old and new worlds|author=Julia Chan|publisher=The Malay Mail|date=8 June 2016|accessdate=11 November 2016}}</ref>

====Mongolia====
{{main article|Mongolian shamanism}}
Mongolian classics, such as ''[[The Secret History of the Mongols]]'', provide details about male and female shamans serving as exorcists, healers, rainmakers, oneiromancers, soothsayers, and officials. Shamanic practices continue in present-day Mongolian culture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://website.leidenuniv.nl/~haarbjter/shamanism.htm|title=Universiteit Leiden, Hanno E. Lecher|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/bender4/eall131/EAHReadings/module03/local_beliefs.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-12-30 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106035207/http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/bender4/eall131/EAHReadings/module03/local_beliefs.html |archivedate=2012-11-06 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/5288|title=Aurélie Névot, Comme le sel, je suis le cours de l'eau: le chamanisme à écriture des Yi du Yunnan (Chine) (Like salt, I follow the current: The literate Shamanism of the Yi of Yunnan)|author=Gros, Stéphane|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/seacrn/asia_members.htm|title=ACLS: Collaborative Research Network|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hangartner|first1=judith|title=The resurgence of Darhad shamanism: Legitimisation Strategies of Rural Practitioners in mongolia|journal=TSANTSA|date=May 2006|volume=11|pages=111-114|url=http://www.tsantsa.ch/en/previous-issues/tsantsa/2015-10-20-15-49-38/content-11-2006/205-recherches/466-the-resurgence-of-darhad-shamanism.html}}</ref>

The spiritual hierarchy in clan-based Mongolian society was complex. The highest group consisted of 99 ''tngri'' (55 of them benevolent or "white" and 44 terrifying or "black"), 77 ''natigai'' or "earth-mothers", besides others. The ''tngri'' were called upon only by leaders and great shamans and were common to all the clans. After these, three groups of ancestral spirits dominated. The "Lord-Spirits" were the souls of clan leaders to whom any member of a clan could appeal for physical or spiritual help. The "Protector-Spirits" included the souls of great shamans (''ĵigari'') and shamanesses (''abĵiya''). The "Guardian-Spirits" were made up of the souls of smaller shamans (''böge'') and shamanesses (''idugan'') and were associated with a specific locality (including mountains, rivers, etc.) in the clan's territory.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hesse|first=Klaus|year=1987|title=On the History of Mongolian Shamanism in Anthropological Perspective|journal=Anthropos|volume=82|issue=4–6|pages=403–13|jstor=40463470}}</ref>

In the 1990s, a form of Mongolian neo-shamanism was created which has given a more modern approach to shamanism. Among the Buryat Mongols, who live in Mongolia and Russia, the proliferation of shamans since 1990 is a core aspect of a larger struggle for the Buryats to reestablish their historical and genetic roots, as has been documented extensively by [[Ippei Shimamura]], an anthropologist at the University of Shiga Prefecture in Japan.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shimamura|first1=Ippei|title=The Roots seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Among the Mongol Buryats|date=2014|location=Kanagawa, Japan|isbn=978-4-86110-397-1}}</ref> Some Mongolian shamans are now making a business out of their profession and even have offices in the larger towns. At these businesses, a shaman generally heads the organization and performs services such as healing, fortunetelling, and solving all kinds of problems.<ref>Balogh, Matyas. "Contemporary Shamanisms in Mongolia." ''Asian Ethnicity'' 11.2 (2010): 229–38.</ref> Although the initial enthusiasm for the revival of Mongol shamanism in the post-communist/post-1990 era led to an openness to all interested visitors, the situation has changed among those Mongols seeking to protect the essential ethnic or national basis of their practices. In recent years many associations of Mongol shamans have become wary of Western "core" or "neo" or "New Age" shamans and have restricted access to only to Mongols and Western scholars. One such event, organized by Jargalsaichan, the head of the Corporate Union of Mongolian Shamans, was the 21 June 2017 Ulaan Tergel (summer solstice) celebration held near midnight on the steppes about 20km outside Ulaanbaatar. Although a private event, two Western psychologist scholars of shamanism, [[Richard Noll]] and [[Leonard George]] were allowed to observe, photograph and post video of the event to YouTube.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Noll|first1=Richard|title=Mongol shamans summer solstice fire ritual 21 June 2017|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5g1XTL8XbhY|website=You Tube|accessdate=4 July 2017}}</ref>

====Philippines====
The Shaman in the Philippines is considered as a priest- sacrifice, healer, and intermediary with the spirit world. Shamans are also considered as prophets and seers. The magician or sorcerer can either be a white magician or a medicine man whose actions are for the good of others, while the black magician or witchdoctors can either do well or harm to people, but mostly harm for a fee.
Shamans in the Philippines deal with various kinds of spirits and learn how to summon and control them. Once someone is declared a Shaman, he is declared to be a sick man, but not just any type of sick man. He or she is special because the shaman is able to learn how to cure himself. An epilepsy attack is the initiation of the Shaman; it is equivalent to them being cured.
<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lieban|first1=Richard|title=Cebuano Sorcery:Malign Magic in the Philippines|journal=University of California Press|date=1967|pages=52–58|url=http://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-11-02-1973/demetrio-philippine%20shamanism%20southeast%20asian%20parallels%20.pdf|accessdate=August 22, 2016}}</ref>

====Siberia and North Asia====
{{Main article|Shamanism in Siberia|Shamanism in the Qing dynasty|l2=the Qing Dynasty}}
[[File:AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg|thumb|[[Iomante|Ainu bear sacrifice]]. Japanese scroll painting, circa 1870.]]
[[File:Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the Oroqen, in July 1994 (Photo by Richard Noll).jpg|thumb|[[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] shaman of northern [[China]].]]

[[Siberia]] is regarded as the ''locus classicus'' of shamanism.<ref name=locclass>Hoppál 2005: 13</ref> The area is inhabited by many different ethnic groups, and many of its peoples observe shamanistic practices, even in modern times. Many classical ethnographic sources of "shamanism" were recorded among Siberian peoples.

[[Manchu people|Manchu]] Shamanism is one of very few Shamanist traditions which held official status into the modern era, by becoming one of the imperial cults of the [[Qing Dynasty]] of [[China]] (alongside [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]] and traditional [[Heaven worship]]). The [[Palace of Earthly Tranquility]], one of the principal halls of the [[Forbidden City]] in [[Beijing]], was partly dedicated to Shamanistic rituals. The ritual set-up is still preserved ''in situ'' today.

Among the Siberian [[Chukchis]] peoples, a shaman is interpreted as someone who is [[Spirit possession|possessed]] by a spirit, who demands that someone assume the shamanic role for their people. Among the Buryat, there is a ritual known as "shanar"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://texts.00.gs/Shanar.htm|title=S^anar [Buryat]|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> whereby a candidate is consecrated as shaman by another, already-established shaman.

Among several [[Samoyedic peoples]] shamanism was a living tradition also in modern times, especially at groups living in isolation, until recent times ([[Nganasan people|Nganasan]]s).<ref name=ngan>Hoppál 2005: 92–93</ref> The last notable Nganasan shaman's seances could be recorded on film in the 1970s.<ref name="Hoppal" /><ref name=ngan/>

When the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949 and the border with Russian Siberia was formally sealed, many nomadic Tungus groups (including the Evenki) that practiced shamanism were confined in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. The last shaman of the Oroqen, Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), died in October 2000.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Noll|first1=Richard|title=The Last Shaman of the Orqen of Northeast China|url=https://www.academia.edu/8520174/The_last_shaman_of_the_Oroqen_people_of_Northeast_China._Shaman_Journal_of_the_International_Society_for_Shamanistic_Research_2009_17_1_and_2_117-140|website=Academia.edu|publisher=Shaman 2009}}</ref>

In many other cases, shamanism was in decline even at the beginning of 20th century ([[Romani people|Roma]]).<ref name="Hoppal_a" />

====Central Asia====

=====Geographic influences on Central Asian shamanism=====
Geographical factors heavily influence the character and development of the religion, myths, rituals and epics of Central Asia. While in other parts of the world, religious rituals are primarily used to promote agricultural prosperity, here they were used to ensure success in hunting and breeding livestock. Animals are one of the most important elements of indigenous religion in Central Asia because of the role they play in the survival of the nomadic civilizations of the steppes as well as sedentary populations living on land not conducive to agriculture. Shamans wore animal skins and feathers and underwent transformations into animals during spiritual journeys. In addition, animals served as humans' guides, rescuers, ancestors, totems and sacrificial victims.<ref>Julian Baldick, ''Animal and Shaman: Ancient Religions of Central Asia'' (New York: University Press, 2000), 3–35</ref> As a religion of nature, shamanism throughout Central Asia held particular reverence for the relations between sky, earth and water and believed in the mystical importance of trees and mountains. Shamanism in Central Asia also places a strong emphasis on the opposition between summer and winter, corresponding to the huge differences in temperature common in the region. The harsh conditions and poverty caused by the extreme temperatures drove Central Asian nomads throughout history to pursue militaristic goals against their sedentary neighbors. This military background can be seen in the reverence for horses and warriors within many indigenous religions.<ref>Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer, ''Shamanism: Soviet Studies of Traditional Religion in Siberia and Central Asia'' (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1990), 113</ref>

=====Common shamanic practices and beliefs shared among Central Asians=====
Central Asian shamans served as sacred intermediaries between the human and spirit world. In this role they took on tasks such as healing, divination, appealing to ancestors, manipulating the elements, leading lost souls and officiating public religious rituals. The shamanic séance served as a public display of the shaman's journey to the spirit world and usually involved intense trances, drumming, dancing, chanting, elaborate costumes, miraculous displays of physical strength, and audience involvement. The goal of these séances ranged from recovering the lost soul of a sick patient and divining the future to controlling the weather and finding a lost person or thing. The use of sleight-of-hand tricks, ventriloquism, and hypnosis were common in these rituals but did not explain the more impressive feats and actual cures accomplished by shamans.<ref>Nora K. Chadwick, "Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia," ''The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'', Vol. 66, (Jan–Jun 1936): 97–99</ref>

Shamans perform in a "state of ecstasy" deliberately induced by an effort of will. Reaching this altered state of consciousness required great mental exertion, concentration and strict self-discipline. Mental and physical preparation included long periods of silent meditation, fasting, and smoking. In this state, skilled shamans employ capabilities that the human organism cannot accomplish in the ordinary state. Shamans in ecstasy displayed unusual physical strength, the ability to withstand extreme temperatures, the bearing of stabbing and cutting without pain, and the heightened receptivity of the sense organs. Shamans made use of intoxicating substances and hallucinogens, especially mukhomor mushrooms and alcohol, as a means of hastening the attainment of ecstasy.<ref>Balzer, ''Shamanism'', 12–21</ref>

The use of purification by fire is an important element of the shamanic tradition dating back as early as the 6th century. People and things connected with the dead had to be purified by passing between fires. These purifications were complex exorcisms while others simply involved the act of literally walking between two fires while being blessed by the Shaman. Shamans in literature and practice were also responsible for using special stones to manipulate weather. Rituals are performed with these stones to attract rain or repel snow, cold or wind. This "rain-stone" was used for many occasions including bringing an end to drought as well as producing hailstorms as a means of warfare.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Andrew Boyle | first1 = John | year = 1972 | title = Turkish and Mongol Shamanism in the Middle Ages | url = | journal = Folklore | volume = 83 | issue = | pages = 183–185 | doi=10.1080/0015587x.1972.9716468}}</ref>
Despite distinctions between various types of shamans and specific traditions, there is a uniformity throughout the region manifested in the personal beliefs, objectives, rituals, symbols and the appearance of shamans.

=====Shamanic rituals as artistic performance=====
The shamanic ceremony is both a religious ceremony and an artistic performance. The fundamental purpose of the dramatic displays seen during shamanic ceremonies is not to draw attention or to create a spectacle for the audience as many Westerners have come to believe, but to lead the tribe in a solemn ritualistic process.

In general, all performances consist of four elements: dance, music, poetry and dramatic or mimetic action. The use of these elements serves the purpose of outwardly expressing his mystical communion with nature and the spirits for the rest of the tribe. The true shaman can make the journey to the spirit world at any time and any place, but shamanic ceremonies provide a way for the rest of the tribe to share in this religious experience. The shaman changes his voice mimetically to represent different persons, gods, and animals while his music and dance change to show his progress in the spirit world and his different spiritual interactions. Many shamans practice ventriloquism and make use of their ability to accurately imitate the sounds of animals, nature, humans and other noises in order to provide the audience with the ambiance of the journey. Elaborate dances and recitations of songs and poetry are used to make the shamans spiritual adventures into a matter of living reality to his audience.<ref>Chadwick, ''Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia'': 93–101</ref>

=====Costume and accessories=====
The shaman's attire varies throughout the region but his chief accessories are his coat, cap, and tambourine or drum. The transformation into an animal is an important aspect of the journey into the spirit world undertaken during shamanic rituals so the coat is often decorated with birds feathers and representations of animals, coloured handkerchiefs, bells and metal ornaments. The cap is usually made from the skin of a bird with the feathers and sometimes head, still attached.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRyCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=Costume+and+accessories+of+central+asian+shamanism&source=bl&ots=EoDH2Aw3ZR&sig=GS2s5_Y4ZZ26GVhaooATrCrMfdM&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJm4y_5YrUAhXF7RQKHfHtCJEQ6AEIQjAE#v=onepage&q=Costume%20and%20accessories%20of%20central%20asian%20shamanism&f=false|title=The Archaeology of Shamanism|last=Price|first=Neil|date=2003-12-16|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134527694|language=en}}</ref>

The drum or tambourine is the essential means of communicating with spirits and enabling the shaman to reach altred states of consciousness on his journey. The drum, representing the universe in epitome, is often divided into equal halves to represent the earth and lower realms. Symbols and natural objects are added to the drum representing natural forces and heavenly bodies.<ref>Chadwick, ''Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia'': 85–87</ref>

=====Shamanism in Tsarist and Soviet Russia=====
In Soviet Central Asia, the Soviet government persecuted and denounced shamans as practitioners of fraudulent medicine and perpetuators of outdated religious beliefs in the new age of science and logic. The radical transformations occurring after the October Socialist Revolution led to a sharp decrease in the activity of shamans. Shamans represented an important component in the traditional culture of Central Asians and because of their important role in society, Soviet organizations and campaigns targeted shamans in their attempt to eradicate traditional influences in the lives of the indigenous peoples. Along with persecution under the tsarist and Soviet regimes, the spread of Christianity and Islam had a role in the disintegration of native faith throughout central Asia. Poverty, political instability and foreign influence are also detrimental to a religion that requires publicity and patronage to flourish.
By the 1980s most shamans were discredited in the eyes of their people by Soviet officials and physicians.<ref>Balzer, ''Shamanism'', 42–49</ref>

====Other Asian traditions====
{{Further information|Wu (shaman)}}
{{Synthesis|section|date=October 2009}}
"[[Jhakri]]" is the common name used for shamans in [[Sikkim]], [[India]] and [[Nepal]]. They exist in the [[Limbu]], [[Sunuwar]], [[Rai people|Rai]], [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]], [[Kami]], [[Tamang]], [[Gurung]] and [[Lepcha people|Lepcha]] communities.<ref>{{harvnb |Gulia |2005 | |pp=153–54 }}</ref> They are inflluenced by [[Hinduism]], Tibetan Buddhism, [[Mun (religion)|Mun]] and Bön rites.<ref>{{harvnb |Gulia |2005 | |p=168 }}</ref>

Shamanism is still widely practiced in the [[Ryukyu Islands]] ([[Okinawa]], [[Japan]]), where shamans are known as 'Noro' (all women) and 'Yuta'. 'Noro' generally administer public or communal ceremonies while 'Yuta' focus on civil and private matters. Shamanism is also practiced in a few rural areas in Japan proper. It is commonly believed that the [[Shinto]] religion is the result of the transformation of a shamanistic tradition into a religion.
Forms of practice vary somewhat in the several Ryukyu islands, so that there is, for example, a distinct '''Miyako''' shamanism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://texts.00.gs/Miyako_Shamanism.htm|title=Miyako shamanism|publisher=}}</ref>

Shamanism practices seem to have been preserved in the Catholic religious traditions of aborigines in [[Taiwan]].<ref>O. Lardenois, [http://www.erenlai.com/media/downloads/TheologicalShamanismLardenois.pdf Shamanism and Catholic Indigenous Communities in Taiwan]</ref>

In [[Vietnam]], shamans conduct rituals in many of the religious traditions that co-mingle in the majority and minority populations. In their rituals, music, dance, special garments and offerings are part of the performance that surround the spirit journey.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/vietnam/07_other/ |title=Journeys to Other Worlds: The Rites of Shamans |last= |first= |publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}</ref>

===Europe===
[[File:Sami shamanic drum.JPG|thumb|[[Noaidi|Sami shamanic drum]] in the [[Arktikum Science Museum]], in [[Rovaniemi]], Finland]]
{{main article|Shamanism in Europe}}
{{further information|Noaidi|Sami shamanism|Finnish mythology}}
{{further information|Hungarian mythology|Shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore}}
{{further information|Magic in the Greco-Roman world|European witchcraft}}
{{further information|Astuvansalmi|Astuvansalmi rock paintings}}
Some of the prehistoric peoples who once lived in Siberia have dispersed and migrated into other regions, bringing aspects of their cultures with them. For example, many Uralic peoples live now outside Siberia, however the original location of the [[Proto-Uralic language|Proto-Uralic]] peoples (and its extent) is debated. Combined [[Phytogeography|phytogeographical]] and linguistic considerations (distribution of various tree species and the presence of their names in various Uralic languages) suggest that this area was north of Central [[Ural Mountains]] and on lower and middle parts of [[Ob River]].<ref name=ancloc>Hajdú 1975: 35</ref> The ancestors of [[Hungarian people]] or Magyars have wandered from their ancestral proto-Uralic area to the [[Pannonian Basin]]. Shamanism has played an important role in [[Altaic mythologies (disambiguation)|Turko-Mongol mythology]].{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} [[Tengriism]] - the major ancient belief among [[Xiongnu]], Mongol and [[Turkic peoples]], [[Magyars]] and [[Bulgars]] - incorporates elements of shamanism. Shamanism is no more a living practice among Hungarians, but remnants have been reserved as fragments of folklore, in folktales, customs.<ref>Diószegi 1998</ref>

Some historians of the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern period have argued that traces of shamanistic traditions can be seen in the popular folk belief of this period. Most prominent among these was the Italian [[Carlo Ginzburg]], who claimed shamanistic elements in the ''[[benandanti]]'' custom of 16th century Italy,<ref>[[#Gin83|Ginzburg 1983 [1966]]].</ref> the Hungarian [[Éva Pócs]], who identified them in the ''[[táltos]]'' tradition of Hungary,<ref>[[#Poc99|Pócs 1999]].</ref> and the Frenchman [[Claude Lecouteux]], who has argued that Medieval traditions regarding the soul are based on earlier shamanic ideas.<ref>[[#Lec03|Lecouteux 2003]].</ref> Ginzburg in particular has argued that some of these traditions influenced the conception of [[witchcraft]] in Christendom, in particular ideas regarding the [[witches' sabbath]], leading to the events of the [[witch trials in the Early Modern period]].<ref>[[#Gin90|Ginzburg 1990]].</ref> Some of these Italian traditions survived into the 20th and early 21st centuries, allowing Italian-American sociologist Sabina Magliocco to make a brief study of them (2009).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/171083/Italain_Cunning_Craft_Some_Preliminary_Observations|title=Italian Cunning Craft: Some Preliminary Observations|author=Sabina Magliocco|publisher=}}</ref>

===Circumpolar shamanism===

====Inuit and Yupik cultures====
[[File:Yupik shaman Nushagak.jpg|thumb|Yup'ik shaman exorcising evil spirits from a sick boy, [[Nushagak, Alaska]], 1890s.<ref>Fienup-Riordan, Ann. 1994: 206</ref> Nushagak, located on [[Nushagak Bay]] of the Bering Sea in southwest [[Alaska]], is part of the territory of the [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik|Yup'ik]], speakers of the [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language]]]]
{{Main article|Shamanism among Eskimo peoples}}
[[Eskimo]] groups inhabit a huge area stretching from [[Eastern Siberia]] through Alaska and Northern Canada (including [[Labrador Peninsula]]) to [[Greenland]]. Shamanistic practice and beliefs have been recorded at several parts of this vast area crosscutting continental borders.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid>Merkur 1985</ref><ref name=Gab-KarEszk/><ref name=KleiSon-Esk>Kleivan & Sonne 1985</ref>
{{IPA notice}}

When speaking of "shamanism" in various Eskimo groups, we must remember that (as mentioned above) the term "shamanism" can cover certain characteristics of ''various'' different cultures.<ref name="cogmap"/> [[#Mediator|Mediation]] is regarded often as an important aspect of shamanism in general.<ref name=med>Hoppál 2005: 45–50</ref> Also in most Eskimo groups, the role of mediator is known well:<ref name=menmed>Menovščikov 1996: 442</ref> the person filling it in is actually believed to be able to contact the beings who populate the belief system. Term "shaman" is used in several English-language publications also in relation to Eskimos.<ref name="Mer-BecHalfHid"/><ref name=KleiSon-Esk/><ref>Vitebsky 1996</ref><ref>Freuchen 1961: 32</ref> Also the ''alignalghi'' ({{IPA-iu|aˈliɣnalʁi|IPA}}) of the Asian Eskimos is translated as "shaman" in the Russian<ref>Рубцова 1954: 203, 209</ref> and English<ref name=menmed/> literature.

The belief system assumes specific links between the living people, the souls of hunted animals, and those of dead people.<ref>Both death of a person and successfully hunted game require that cutting, sewing etc. be tabooed, so that the invisible soul does not get hurt accidentally (Kleivan & Sonne, pp. 18–21). In Greenland, the transgression of death tabu could turn the soul of the dead into a ''tupilak'', a restless ghost which scared game away (Kleivan & Sonne 1985, p. 23). Animals fled from hunter in case of taboo breaches, e.g. birth taboo, death taboo (Kleivan & Sonne, pp. 12–13)</ref> The [[Soul (spirit)|soul]] concepts of several groups are specific examples of [[soul dualism]] (showing variability in details in the various cultures).

Unlike the majority of shamanisms the careers of most Eskimo shamans lack the motivation of ''force'': becoming a shaman is usually a result of deliberate consideration, not a necessity forced by the spirits.<ref name="failed-shaman"/>

====Diversity, with similarities====
Another possible concern: do the belief systems of various Eskimo groups have such common features at all, that would justify any mentioning them together? There was no political structure above the groups, their languages were relative, but differed more or less, often forming [[language continuum]]s.<ref name=complink>[http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/yupik_inuit.html Lawrence Kaplan: Comparative Yupik and Inuit] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306132554/http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/yupik_inuit.html |date=2008-03-06 }} (found on the site of [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/index.html Alaska Native Language Center] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123172349/http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/index.html |date=2009-01-23 }})</ref>

There are similarities in the cultures of the Eskimo groups<ref>Kleivan 1985: 8</ref><ref>Rasmussen 1965: 366 (ch. XXIII)</ref><ref>Rasmussen 1965: 166 (ch. XIII)</ref><ref name=padlgreen>Rasmussen 1965: 110 (ch. VIII)</ref><ref name=Mau-Mor>Mauss 1979</ref> together with diversity, far from homogeneity.<ref>Kleivan 1985: 26</ref>

The Russian linguist Menovshikov (Меновщиков), an expert of [[Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]] and [[Sireniki Eskimo language]]s (while admitting that he is not a specialist in ethnology)<ref>Menovščikov 1996 [1968]: 433</ref> mentions, that the shamanistic seances of those [[Siberian Yupik]] and [[Sirenik Eskimos|Sireniki]] groups he has seen have many similarities to those of Greenland Inuit groups described by [[Fridtjof Nansen]],<ref>Menovščikov 1996 [1968]: 442</ref> although a large distance separates Siberia and Greenland. There may be certain similarities also in Asiatic groups with North American ones.<ref>Vitebsky 1996: 42 (ch. ''North America'')</ref> Also the usage of a specific shaman's language is documented among several Eskimo groups, used mostly for talking to spirits.<ref>Merkur 1985:7</ref><ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 14</ref> Also the Ungazighmiit (belonging to [[Siberian Yupik]]s) had a special [[Allegory|allegoric]] usage of some expressions.<ref>Rubcova 1954: 128</ref>

The local cultures showed great diversity. The myths concerning the role of shaman had several variants, and also the name of their protagonists varied from culture to culture. For example, a mythological figure, usually referred to in the literature by the collective term [[Sedna (mythology)|Sea Woman]], has factually many local names: Nerrivik "meat dish" among Polar Inuit, Nuliayuk "lubricous" among [[Netsilingmiut]], Sedna "the nether one" among Baffin Land Inuit.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 27</ref> Also the soul conceptions, e.g. the details of the [[soul dualism]] showed great variability, ranging from guardianship to a kind of [[reincarnation]]. Conceptions of spirits or other beings had also many variants (see e.g. the [[tupilaq]] concept).<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 30–31</ref>

===Americas===

====North America====
{{Main article|Medicine man|Native American religion}}
[[File:White indian conjuror.jpg|thumb|[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] "conjuror" in a 1590 engraving]]
[[File:Hamatsa shaman2.jpg|thumb|[[Hamatsa]] ritualist, 1914]]
[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] and [[First Nations]] cultures have diverse religious beliefs and there was never one universal Native American religion or spiritual system. Although many Native American cultures have traditional healers, ritualists, singers, [[Mysticism|mystics]], lore-keepers and [[Medicine man|Medicine people]], none of them ever used, or use, the term "shaman" to describe these religious leaders. Rather, like other indigenous cultures the world over, their spiritual functionaries are described by words in their own languages, and in many cases are not taught to outsiders.

Many of these indigenous religions have been grossly misrepresented by outside observers and anthropologists, even to the extent of superficial or seriously mistaken anthropological accounts being taken as more authentic than the accounts of actual members of the cultures and religions in question. Often these accounts suffer from "[[Noble savage|Noble Savage]]"-type romanticism and [[racism]]. Some contribute to the fallacy that Native American cultures and religions are something that only existed in the past, and which can be mined for data despite the opinions of Native communities.<ref>Jones, Peter N. 2008 Shamans and Shamanism: A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Terms Use in North America. Boulder, Colorado: Bauu Press.</ref>

Not all Indigenous communities have roles for specific individuals who mediate with the spirit world on behalf of the community. Among those that do have this sort of religious structure, spiritual methods and beliefs may have some commonalities, though many of these commonalities are due to some nations being closely related, from the same region, or through post-Colonial governmental policies leading to the combining of formerly independent nations on reservations. This can sometimes lead to the impression that there is more unity among belief systems than there was in antiquity.

With the arrival of European settlers and colonial administration, the practice of Native American traditional beliefs was discouraged and Christianity was imposed<ref>{{cite web|title=Beneath the Underdog: Race, Religion, and the Trail of Tears|url=http://www.us-data.org/us/minges/underdog.html|quote=The missionaries, and especially those of the American Board, established a basic position of neutrality "between two fires" and as the Bible did not explicitly condemn slavery, they accepted "all to our communion who give evidence that they love the Lord Jesus Christ."}}</ref> upon the indigenous people. In most communities, the traditions were not completely eradicated, but rather went underground, and were practiced secretly until the prohibitive laws were repealed.<ref>{{cite book|title=Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School|page=104|author=Celia Haig-Brown|quote=we were all talking Shuswap. ... She said to us, 'You're never to get caught talking your language ... You'll get whipped;you'll really get punished' ... So we were careful after that not to be caught speaking. ... When we were way out there, we'd talk together in our language.}}</ref>

Up until and during the last hundred years, thousands of Native American and [[First Nations]] children from many different communities were sent into the [[Canadian Indian residential school system]], and [[Indian boarding school]]s in an effort to destroy tribal languages, cultures and beliefs. The [[Trail of Tears]], in the US, forced Native Americans to relocate from their traditional homes. Canadian laws enacted in 1982, and henceforth, have attempted to reverse previous attempts at extinguishing Native culture.<ref>{{cite web|title=Christian Aboriginal Infrastructure Developments|url=http://caid.ca/assimilation_policy.html}}</ref>

====Mesoamerica====
{{Further information|Maya religion}}
[[File:Mayan priest performing healing.jpg|thumb|right|[[Maya priesthood|Maya priest]] performing a healing ritual at [[Tikal]].]]
=====Maya=====
{{Main article|Maya priesthood}}

=====Aztec=====
{{Further information|Aztec astrology|Aztec religion}}

====South America====
[[File:Body of Maroon child brought before medicine man, 1955.jpg|thumb|Body of Ndyuka [[Maroon (people)|Maroon]] child brought before [[medicine man]], [[Suriname River]], [[Suriname]], South America]]
* The [[Urarina]] of the [[Peruvian Amazon]] have an elaborate cosmological system predicated on the [[ritual]] consumption of [[ayahuasca]], which is a key feature of their society.<ref name="upf.com">[http://www.upf.com/book.asp?id=DEANXS07 Dean, Bartholomew 2009 ''Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia'', Gainesville: University Press of Florida] {{ISBN|978-0-8130-3378-5}}</ref>
* [[Santo Daime]] and [[União do Vegetal]] ( abbreviated to [[UDV]]) are syncretic religions with which use an [[entheogen]] called ayahuasca in an attempt to connect with the spirit realm and receive divine guidance.<ref name="Peru" />

=====Amazonia=====
[[File:Chaman amazonie 5 06.jpg|thumb|left|Shaman from the shuara culture in [[Ecuador]] [[Amazonian forest]], June 2006]]
[[File:Urarina shaman B Dean.jpg|thumb|left|[[Urarina]] shaman, 1988]]
In the Peruvian [[Amazon basin]] and north coastal regions of the country, the healers are known as [[curandero]]s. ''Ayahuasqueros'' are Peruvians who specialize in the use of [[ayahuasca]].<ref name="upf.com"/> ''Ayahuasqueros'' have become popular among Western spiritual seekers, who claim that the ''ayauasqueros'' and their ayahuasca brews have cured them of everything from depression to addiction to cancer.<ref name="Peru" />

In addition to ''curanderos'' use of ayahuasca and their ritualized ingestion of [[mescaline]]-bearing [[San Pedro cactus]]es (Trichocereus pachanoi) for the [[divination]] and diagnosis of [[Maleficium (sorcery)|sorcery]], north-coastal shamans are famous throughout the region for their intricately complex and symbolically dense healing [[altar]]s called mesas (tables).{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} [[Douglas Sharon|Sharon]] (1993) has argued that the mesas symbolize the dualistic ideology underpinning the practice and experience of north-coastal shamanism.<ref>Joralemen, D. and [[Douglas Sharon|D. Sharon]] 1993 Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.</ref> For Sharon, the mesas are the, "physical embodiment of the supernatural opposition between benevolent and malevolent energies" (Dean 1998: 61).<ref>Dean, Bartholomew 1998 "Review of Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru" American Ethnologist. 25(1): 61–62.</ref>

In several tribes living in the [[Amazon rainforest]], the spiritual leaders also act as managers of scarce ecological resources<ref name=eco/><ref name=ecopia>Boglár 2001: 26</ref><ref name=coop/> The rich symbolism in [[Tukano people|Tukano]] culture has been documented in [[field work]]s<ref name="eco"/><ref name=Hug-FrMilkRiv>Christine Hugh-Jones 1980</ref><ref name=Hug-PalmPlei>Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980</ref> even in the last decades of the 20th century.

The ''yaskomo'' of the [[Wai-Wai people|Waiwai]] is believed to be able to perform a [[soul travel|soul flight]]. The soul flight can serve several functions:
* healing
* flying to the sky to consult cosmological beings (the moon or the brother of the moon) to get a name for a newborn baby
* flying to the cave of ''peccaries' mountains'' to ask the ''father of peccaries'' for abundance of game
* flying deep down in a river, to achieve the help of other beings.
Thus, a yaskomo is believed to be able to reach sky, earth, and water.<ref name="yaskomo soul flight">Fock 1963: 16</ref>

=====Mapuche=====
Among the [[Mapuche]] people of [[Chile]], ''[[Machi (Shaman)|Machi]]'' is usually a woman who serves the community by performing ceremonies to cure diseases, ward off evil, influence the weather and harvest, and by practicing other forms of healing such as herbalism.

=====Aymara=====
For the [[Aymara people|Aymara]] people of South America the [[Yatiri]] is a healer who heals the body and the soul, they serve the community and do the rituals for [[Pachamama]].

Part of the healing power attributed to shamanic practices depends of the use of plant alkaloids taken during the therapeutic sessions [[(Trance and Shamanic Cure on the South American Continent: Psychopharmalogical and Neurobiological Interpretations, Anthropology of Consciousness, Vol.21, Issue 1, pp. 83-105, ISSN 1053-4202, 2010)]].

=====Fuegians=====
{{IPA notice}}
Although [[Fuegians]] (the indigenous peoples of [[Tierra del Fuego]]) were all [[hunter-gatherer]]s,<ref>Gusinde 1966, pp. 6–7</ref> they did not share a common culture. The material culture was not homogenous, either: the big island and the archipelago made two different adaptations possible. Some of the cultures were coast-dwelling, others were land-oriented.<ref name=Ser-Hun>Service, Elman: The Hunter. Prentice-Hall, 1966.</ref><ref name=ExtAnc>{{cite web|url=http://www.trivia-library.com/c/extinct-ancient-societies-tierra-del-fuegians.htm|title=Extinct Ancient Societies Tierra del Fuegians|publisher=}}</ref>

Both [[Selk'nam]] and [[Yámana]] had persons filling in shaman-like roles.
The Selk'nams believed their {{IPA|/xon/}}s to have supernatural capabilities, e.g. to control weather.<ref>Gusinde 1966: 175</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victory-cruises.com/ona_indian.html|title=Patagonia, Tierra Del Fuego, cruising; The Yagan and Ona Indians|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> The figure of {{IPA|/xon/}} appeared in myths, too.<ref>Gusinde 1966: 15</ref> The Yámana {{IPA|/jekamuʃ/}}<ref>Gusinde 1966: 156</ref> corresponds to the Selknam {{IPA|/xon/}}.<ref>Gusinde 1966: 186</ref>

===Oceania===
{{See also|Umbarra|Tunggal panaluan}}
On the island of [[Papua New Guinea]], indigenous tribes believe that illness and calamity are caused by dark spirits, or ''masalai'', which cling to a person's body and [[poison]] them. Shamans are summoned in order to purge the unwholesome spirits from a person.<ref name=FourCorners_Amazon_entry>{{cite web|url=https://www.amazon.com/Four-Corners-Journey-Heart-Guinea/dp/0792274172/ref=pd_bxgy_b_img_b |title=Amazon.com listing for the "Four Corners: A Journey into the Heart of Papua New Guinea" }}</ref><ref name=FourCornersWeb>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/FourCorners.html |title=Kira Salak's official webpage on "Four Corners" |last=Salak |first=Kira }}</ref> Shamans also perform [[rainmaking]] ceremonies and can allegedly improve a hunter's ability to catch animals.<ref name=MakingRain>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/MakingRain.html |title=MAKING RAIN—from Four Corners |last=Salak |first=Kira }}</ref>

In Australia various aboriginal groups refer to their shamans as "clever men" and "clever women" also as ''kadji''. These aboriginal shamans use ''[[maban]]'' or ''mabain'', the material that is believed to give them their purported magical powers. Besides healing, contact with spiritual beings, involvement in initiation and other secret ceremonies, they are also enforcers of tribal laws, keepers of special knowledge and may "[[Curse|hex]]" to death one who breaks a social taboo by singing a song only known to the "clever men".

===Africa===
{{See also|African traditional religion|Traditional healers of South Africa|Witch doctor|Sangoma}}
[[File:Sangoma performing a Baptism.jpg|thumb|[[Traditional Healers of South Africa|Sangoma/Inyanga]] performing a traditional baptism on a baby in order to protect the spirit of the baby, Johannesburg, South Africa]]

In [[Mali]], [[Dogon people|Dogon]] sorcerers (both male and female) communicate with a spirit named Amma, who advises them on healing and divination practices.

The classical meaning of shaman as a person who, after recovering from a mental illness (or insanity) takes up the professional calling of socially recognized religious practitioner, is exemplified among the [[Sisala]] (of northern Gold Coast) : "the fairies "seized" him and made him insane for several months. Eventually, though, he learned to control their power, which he now uses to divine."<ref>Eugene L. Mendonsa : ''The Politics of Divination : a Processual View of Reactions to Illness and Deviance among the Sisala''. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1982. p. 112</ref>

The term ''[[sangoma]]'', as employed in [[Zulu people|Zulu]] and congeneric languages, is effectively equivalent to shaman. Sangomas are highly revered and respected in their society, where illness is thought to be caused by [[witchcraft]],<ref>David M Cumes "Africa in my bones" p. 14</ref> pollution (contact with impure objects or occurrences), bad spirits, or the ancestors themselves,<ref>Susan Schuster Campbell "Called to Heal" p. 38</ref> either malevolently, or through neglect if they are not respected, or to show an individual her calling to become a sangoma (''thwasa'').<ref>Susan Schuster Campbell "Called to Heal" p. 79</ref> For harmony between the living and the dead, vital for a trouble-free life, the ancestors must be shown respect through ritual and animal sacrifice.<ref>David M Cumes "Africa in my bones" p. 10</ref>

The term ''[[inyanga]]'' also employed by the [[Nguni people|Nguni]] cultures is equivalent to 'herbalist' as used by the Zulu people and a variation used by the [[Shona people|Karanga]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://texts.00.gs/Karanga_shamanism.htm|title=Karanga mythology [Zimbabwe]|publisher=}}</ref> among whom remedies (locally known as [[muti]]) for ailments are discovered by the inyanga being informed in a dream, of the herb able to effect the cure and also of where that herb is to be found. The majority of the herbal knowledge base is passed down from one ''inyanga'' to the next, often within a particular family circle in any one village.

Shamanism is known among the Nuba of Kordofan in Sudan.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nadel | first1 = S.F. | year = 1941 | title = A Shaman Cult in the Nuba Mountains | url = | journal = Sudan Notes and Records | volume = 24 | issue = 1| pages = 85–112 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nadel | first1 = S.F. | year = 1946 | title = A Study of Shamanism in the Nuba Mountains | url = | journal = Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute | volume = 76 | issue = | pages = 25–37 | doi=10.2307/2844307}}</ref>

===Contemporary Western shamanism===
{{Main article|Neoshamanism}}
There is an endeavor in some contemporary [[occultism|occult]] and [[esotericism|esoteric]] circles to reinvent shamanism in a modern form, often drawing from [[core shamanism]]—a set of beliefs and practices synthesized by [[Michael Harner]]—centered on the use of ritual drumming and dance, and Harner's interpretations of various indigenous religions. Harner has faced criticism for taking pieces of diverse religions out of their cultural contexts and synthesising a set of universal shamanic techniques. Some neoshamans focus on the ritual use of [[entheogens]],{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} and also embrace the philosophies of [[chaos magic]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} while others (such as [[Jan Fries]])<ref>Visual Magic:A Manual of Freestyle Shamanism:Jan Fries {{ISBN|1-869928-57-1}}</ref> have created their own forms of shamanism.

European-based neoshamanic traditions are focused upon the researched or imagined traditions of ancient Europe, where many [[mystical]] practices and belief systems were suppressed by the Christian church. Some of these practitioners express a desire to practice a system that is based upon their own ancestral traditions. Some anthropologists and practitioners have discussed the impact of such neoshamanism as "giving extra pay" (Harvey, 1997 and elsewhere) to indigenous American traditions, particularly as many pagan or heathen shamanic practitioners do not call themselves shamans, but instead use specific names derived from the European traditions—they work within such as ''[[völva]]'' or ''seidkona'' ([[seiðr|seid-woman]]) of the [[sagas]] (see Blain 2002, Wallis 2003).

Many spiritual seekers travel to Peru to work with ''ayahuasqueros'', shamans who engage in the ritual use of [[ayahuasca]], a psychedelic tea which has been documented to cure everything from depression to addiction. When taking ayahuasca, participants frequently report meeting spirits, and receiving divine revelations.<ref name="Peru" /> Shamanistic techniques have also been used in New Age therapies which use enactment and association with other realities as an intervention.<ref>[http://www.ull.es/congresos/conmirel/YORK.html ULL – Universidad de La Laguna] {{es icon}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nlpuniversitypress.com/html/CaCom08.html|title=Ca-Com|publisher=|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref>

==Criticism of the term==
{{Further information|medicine man}}
[[File:Shaman tableau.png|thumb|A tableau presenting figures of various cultures filling in mediator-like roles, often being termed as "shaman" in the literature. The tableau presents the diversity of this concept.]]
The anthropologist [[Alice Kehoe]] criticizes the term "shaman" in her book ''Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking''. Part of this criticism involves the notion of [[cultural appropriation]].<ref name="Waveland Press"/> This includes criticism of [[New Age]] and modern Western forms of shamanism, which, according to Kehoe, misrepresent or dilute indigenous practices. Alice Kehoe also believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such as the [[Noble Savage]].

Kehoe is highly critical of [[Mircea Eliade]]'s work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research. To Kehoe, citing that ritualistic practices (most notably drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogens, spirit communication and healing) as being definitive of shamanism is poor practice. Such citations ignore the fact that those practices exist outside of what is defined as shamanism and play similar roles even in non-shamanic cultures (such as the role of chanting in [[Judeo-Christian]] and Islamic rituals) and that in their expression are unique to each culture that uses them. Such practices cannot be generalized easily, accurately, or usefully into a global religion of shamanism. Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of the hypothesis that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the [[Paleolithic]] period.<ref name="Waveland Press"/>

Anthropologist [[Mihály Hoppál]] also discusses whether the term "shamanism" is appropriate. He notes that for many readers, "-ism" implies a particular dogma, like Buddhism or Judaism. He recommends using the term "shamanhood"<ref name=summer/> or "shamanship"<ref>Hoppál & Szathmári & Takács 2006: 14</ref> (a term used in old Russian and German [[ethnography|ethnographic]] reports at the beginning of the 20th century) for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. He believes that this places more stress on the local variations<ref name="cogmap" /> and emphasizes that shamanism is not a religion of sacred [[dogma]]s, but linked to the everyday life in a practical way.<ref>Hoppál 1998: 40</ref> Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary paradigm shift.<ref name=summer>[http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/coming.html ISSR, 2001 Summer], abstract online in 2nd half of 2nd paragraph</ref> [[Piers Vitebsky]] also mentions that, despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although, as for the past, their existence is not impossible).<ref>Vitebsky 1996: 11</ref> Norwegian social anthropologist Hakan Rydving has likewise argued for the abandonment of the terms "shaman" and "shamanism" as "scientific illusions."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rydving|first1=Hakan|title=Le chamanisme aujourd'hui: constructions et deconstructions d'une illusion scientifique|journal=Etudes mongoles et siberiennes, centrasiatiques et tibetaines|date=2011|volume=42|doi=10.4000/emscat.1815|url=/index1815.html|accessdate=20 December 2011}}</ref>

Dulam Bumochir has affirmed the above critiques of "shamanism" as a Western construct created for comparative purposes and, in an extensive article, has documented the role of Mongols themselves, particularly "the partnership of scholars and shamans in the reconstruction of shamanism" in post-1990/post-communist Mongolia.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bumochir|first1=Dulam|title=Institutionalization of Mongolian shamanism: from primitivism to civilization|journal=Asian Ethnicity|date=2014|volume=15|issue=4|pages=473-491|accessdate=4 July 2017}}</ref> This process has also been documented by Swiss anthropologist Judith Hangartner in her landmark study of Darhad shamans in Mongolia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hangartner|first1=Judith|title=The Constitution and Contestation of Darhad Shamans' Power in Contemporary Mongolia|date=2011|publisher=Global Oriental|location=Leiden|isbn=9781906876111}}</ref> Historian Karena Kollmar-Polenz argues that the social construction and reification of shamanism as a religious "other" actually began with the 18th century writings of Tibetan Buddhist monks in Mongolia and later "probably influenced the formation of European discourse on Shamanism".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kollmar-Paulenz|first1=Karenina|title=The Invention of "Shamanism" in 18th Century Mongolian Elite Discourse|journal=Rocznik Orientalistyczny|date=2012|volume=LXV|issue=1|pages=90-106}}</ref>

==See also==
{{colbegin||16em}}
* [[Carlos Castaneda]]
* [[Folk healer]]
* [[Folk magic]]
* [[Itako]]
* [[Neoshamanism]]
* [[Neuroanthropology]]
* [[Neurotheology]]
* [[Paganism]]
* [[Panentheism]]
* [[Prehistoric medicine]]
* [[Seiðr]]
* [[Soul catcher]]
* [[Spirit spouse]]
* [[Terence McKenna]]
* [[Tlamatini]]
* [[Zduhać]]
{{colend}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}

* {{cite book |last=Barüske |first=Heinz |title=Eskimo Märchen |series=Die Märchen der Weltliteratur |publisher=Eugen Diederichs Verlag |location=Düsseldorf • Köln |year=1969 |language=German}} The title means: "Eskimo tales", the series means: "The tales of world literature".
* {{cite book |last=Boglár |first=Lajos |title=A kultúra arcai. Mozaikok a kulturális antropológia köreiből |publisher=Napvilág Kiadó |series=TÁRStudomány|location=Budapest |year=2001 |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9082-94-5}} The title means "The faces of culture. Mosaics from the area of cultural anthropology".
* {{cite journal |last=Bolin |first=Hans |title=Animal Magic: The mythological significance of elks, boats and humans in north Swedish rock art |journal=[[Journal of Material Culture]] |volume= 5 |issue= 2 |pages= 153–176 |year=2000 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Czaplicka |first=M.A. |others=preface by Marett, R.R. |chapter=Types of shaman |chapterurl=http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm |title=Shamanism in Siberia. Aboriginal Siberia. A study in social anthropology |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis00.htm |publisher=Sommerville College, University of Oxford, Clarendon Press |year=1914 |isbn=1-60506-060-7}}
* {{cite journal |last=Dana |first=Kathleen Osgood |title=Áillohaš and his image drum: the native poet as shaman |journal=Nordlit |volume=15 |date=Summer 2004 |publisher=Faculty of Humanities, University of Tromsø |format=PDF |url=http://uit.no/getfile.php?PageId=977&FileId=183#search=%22Juha%20Pentik%C3%A4inen%20grammar%20of%20mind%22 |ref={{harvid|Dana|2004}}}}
* {{cite web |last=Deschênes |first=Bruno |title=Inuit Throat-Singing |work=Musical Traditions |publisher=The Magazine for Traditional Music Throughout the World |year=2002 |url=http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm}}
*{{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=Tracing shamans in Siberia. The story of an ethnographical research expedition |others=Translated from Hungarian by Anita Rajkay Babó |publisher=Anthropological Publications |location=Oosterhout |year=1968}}
* {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=Samanizmus |publisher=Gondolat |series=Élet és Tudomány Kiskönyvtár |location=Budapest |year=1962 |url=http://mek.oszk.hu/01600/01639/ |language=Hungarian}} The title means: "Shamanism".
* {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=A sámánhit emlékei a magyar népi műveltségben |origyear=1958 |edition=first reprint |year=1998 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-05-7542-6}} The title means: "Remnants of shamanistic beliefs in Hungarian folklore".
* {{cite book |last=Fienup-Riordan |first=Ann |authorlink=Ann Fienup-Riordan |title=Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup'ik Eskimo Oral Tradition |location=Norman, Oklahoma |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-585-12190-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Fock |first=Niels |title=Waiwai. Religion and society of an Amazonian tribe |series=Nationalmuseets skrifter, Etnografisk Række (Ethnographical series), VIII |publisher=The National Museum of Denmark |location=Copenhagen |year=1963}}
* {{cite book |last=Freuchen |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Freuchen |title=Book of the Eskimos |publisher=The World Publishing Company |location=Cleveland • New York |year=1961 |isbn=0-449-30802-2}}
* {{Cite book |first=Kuldip Singh |last=Gulia |year=2005 |title=Human Ecology of Sikkim – A Case Study of Upper Rangit Basin |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |place=Delhi, India |isbn=81-7835-325-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4aDVQ1KVZYC | ref = harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Hajdú |first=Péter |editor=Hajdú, Péter |title=Uráli népek. Nyelvrokonaink kultúrája és hagyományai |year=1975 |publisher=Corvina Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-13-0900-2 |chapter=A rokonság nyelvi háttere}} The title means: "Uralic peoples. Culture and traditions of our linguistic relatives"; the chapter means "Linguistical background of the relationship".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Sámánok, lelkek és jelképek |publisher=Helikon Kiadó |location= Budapest |year=1994 |isbn=963-208-298-2 |language=Hungarian}} The title means "Shamans, souls and symbols".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Folklór és közösség |publisher=Széphalom Könyvműhely |location=Budapest |year=1998 |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9028-14-2 |chapter=A honfoglalók hitvilága és a magyar samanizmus |pages=40–45}} The title means "The belief system of Hungarians when they entered the Pannonian Basin, and their shamanism".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Sámánok Eurázsiában |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2005 |isbn=963-05-8295-3 |language=Hungarian |ref=Hop05}} The title means "Shamans in Eurasia", the book is published also in German, Estonian and Finnish. [http://www.akkrt.hu/main.php?folderID=906&pn=2&cnt=31&catID=&prodID=17202&pdetails=1 Site of publisher with short description on the book (in Hungarian)].
* {{cite book |editor=Hoppál, Mihály |editor2=Szathmári, Botond |editor3=Takács, András |title=Sámánok és kultúrák |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |chapter=Sámánok, kultúrák és kutatók az ezredfordulón |pages=9–25 |publisher=Gondolat |location=Budapest |year=2006a |isbn=963-9450-28-6}} The chapter title means "Shamans, cultures and researchers in the millenary", the book title means "Shamans and cultures".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13) |series=Bibliotheca Shamanistica |chapter=Is Shamanism a Folk Religion? |pages=11–16 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2007b |isbn=978-963-05-8521-7 |ref=Hop07b}}
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13) |series=Bibliotheca Shamanistica |chapter=Eco-Animism of Siberian Shamanhood |pages=17–26 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2007c |isbn=978-963-05-8521-7 |ref=Hop07c}}
* Janhunen, Juha. Siberian shamanistic terminology. ''Memoires de la Societe finno-ougrienne,'' 1986, 194: 97–117.
* {{cite book |first=Christine |last=Hugh-Jones |title=From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia |series=Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |isbn=0-521-22544-2}}
* {{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Hugh-Jones |title=The Palm and the Pleiades. Initiation and Cosmology in Northwest Amazonia |series=Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |isbn=0-521-21952-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Kleivan |first=Inge |author2=B. Sonne |title=Eskimos: Greenland and Canada |year=1985 |publisher=Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |series=Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2 |isbn=90-04-07160-1}}
* Lupa. [https://books.google.com/books?id=XfkRR25whnsC&lpg=PP1&dq=New%20Paths%20to%20Animal%20Totems&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false ''New Paths to Animal Totems.''] Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn Worldwide, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0-7387-3337-1}}.
* {{cite book |last=Menovščikov |first=G. A. (= Г. А. Меновщиков) |chapter=Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes |editor=Diószegi, Vilmos |title=Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=1968}}
* {{cite book |last=Nagy |first=Beáta Boglárka |chapter=Az északi szamojédok |pages=221–234 |editor=Csepregi, Márta |title=Finnugor kalauz |series=Panoráma |publisher=Medicina Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |year=1998 |isbn=963-243-813-2 |language=Hungarian}} The chapter means "Northern Samoyedic peoples", the title means ''Finno-Ugric guide''.
* {{Cite book |last=Nattiez |first=Jean Jacques |author-link=Jean-Jacques Nattiez |title=Inuit Games and Songs • Chants et Jeux des Inuit |series=Musiques & musiciens du monde • Musics & musicians of the world |publisher=Research Group in [[Music semiology|Musical Semiotics]], Faculty of Music, University of Montreal |place=Montreal}}. The songs are online available<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ubu.com/ethno/soundings/inuit.html|title=U B U W E B :: Canada Inuit Games and Songs|publisher=}}</ref> from the [[ethnopoetics]] website curated by [[Jerome Rothenberg]].
* {{Cite news
| last =Noll
| first =Richard
| author-link =Richard Noll
| last2 =Shi
| first2 =Kun
| publication-date =2004
| title =Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China
| periodical =韓國宗敎硏究 (Journal of Korean Religions)
| series =
| publication-place =Seoul KR
| place =
| publisher =西江大學校. 宗教硏究所 (Sŏgang Taehakkyo. Chonggyo Yŏnʾguso.)
| volume =6
| issue =
| pages =135–162
| url =http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf
|format=PDF| issn =
| doi =
| oclc =
| accessdate =2008-07-30
| ref=NoSh04}}. It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] of Northeast China.
* Reinhard, Johan (1976) "Shamanism and Spirit Possession: The Definition Problem." In ''Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas'', J. Hitchcock & R. Jones (eds.), New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pp. 12–20.
* [[Ippei Shimamura|Shimamura, Ippei]] ''The roots Seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Among the Mongol Buryats.'' Yokohama, Japan: Shumpusha, 2014.
* Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu, Francis G. (1995) ''Religious or Spiritual Problem. A Culturally Sensitive Diagnostic Category in the DSM-IV''. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol.183, No. 7, pp. 435–444
* {{cite book |last=Voigt |first=Miklós |title=Világnak kezdetétől fogva. Történeti folklorisztikai tanulmányok |chapter=Sámán – a szó és értelme |pages=41–45 |year=2000 |publisher=Universitas Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9104-39-6}} The chapter discusses the etymology and meaning of word "shaman".
{{refend}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Witzel | first1 = Michael | year = 2011 | title = Shamanism in Northern and Southern Eurasia: their distinctive methods and change of consciousness | url = | journal = Social Science Information | volume = 50 | issue = 1| pages = 39–61 | doi=10.1177/0539018410391044}}

==Further reading==

{{refbegin|2}}
* [[Joseph Campbell]], ''The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology.'' 1959; reprint, New York and London: Penguin Books, 1976. {{ISBN|0-14-019443-6}}
* Harner, Michael, ''The Way of the Shaman: A Guide to Power and Healing,'' Harper & Row Publishers, NY 1980
* Richard de Mille, ed. ''The Don Juan Papers: Further Castaneda Controversies.'' Santa Barbara, California: Ross-Erikson, 1980.
* George Devereux, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/667052 "Shamans as Neurotics"], [[American Anthropologist]], New Series, Vol. 63, No. 5, Part 1. (Oct. 1961), pp. 1088–1090.
* Jay Courtney Fikes, ''Carlos Castaneda: Academic Opportunism and the Psychedelic Sixties'', Millennia Press, Canada, 1993 {{ISBN|0-9696960-0-0}}
* Åke Hultkrantz (Honorary Editor in Chief): [http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/about.htm Shaman]. Journal of the [http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/ International Society for Shamanistic Research]
* Philip Jenkins, ''Dream Catchers: How Mainstream America Discovered Native Spirituality.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-19-516115-7}}
* Alice Kehoe, ''Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking.'' 2000. London: Waveland Press. {{ISBN|1-57766-162-1}}
* [[David Charles Manners]], ''In the Shadow of Crows''. (contains first-hand accounts of the Nepalese jhankri tradition) Oxford: Signal Books, 2011. {{ISBN|1-904955-92-4}}.
* Jordan D. Paper, ''The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion'', Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1995. {{ISBN|0-7914-2315-8}}.
* Smith, Frederick M. (2006). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CuB7K3bDWDsC The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature]''. Columbia University Press, U.S. {{ISBN|0-231-13748-6}}. pp. 195–202.
* [[Barbara Tedlock]], ''Time and the Highland Maya'', U. of New Mexico Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-8263-1358-2}}
* Silvia Tomášková, ''Wayward Shamans: the prehistory of an idea'', University of California Press, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-520-27532-4}}
* [[Michel Weber]], « [https://www.academia.edu/6011320/_Shamanism_and_proto-consciousness_2015_ Shamanism and proto-consciousness] », in René Lebrun, Julien De Vos et É. Van Quickelberghe (éds), ''Deus Unicus''. Actes du colloque « Aux origines du monothéisme et du scepticisme religieux » organisé à Louvain-la-Neuve les 7 et 8 juin 2013 par le Centre d’histoire des Religions Cardinal Julien Ries [Cardinalis Julien Ries et Pierre Bordreuil in memoriam], Turnhout, Brepols, coll. Homo Religiosus série II, 14, 2015, pp. 247–260.
* Andrei Znamenski, ''Shamanism in Siberia: Russian Records of Siberian Spirituality.'' Dordrech and Boston: Kluwer/Springer, 2003. {{ISBN|1-4020-1740-5}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
{{Commons category|Shamanism}}

* [http://www.akhathai.org AFECT] A charitable organization protecting traditional cultures in northern Thailand
* [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf Chuonnasuan] (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] of Northeast China, by Richard Noll and Kun Shi
* [http://newagefraud.org/ New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans], an organization devoted to alerting seekers about fraudulent teachers, and helping them avoid being exploited or participating in exploitation
* [http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html Shamanic Healing Rituals] by Tatyana Sem, Russian Museum of Ethnography
* [http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol10/pdf/teuton.pdf Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn] by A. Asbjorn Jon
* [http://www.krupar.com/index.php?file=www/en/gallery/gallery.html&cat=5 Shamanism in Siberia] – photographs by Standa Krupar
* [http://haldjas.folklore.ee/~aado/ Studies in Siberian Shamanism and Religions of the Finno-Ugrian Peoples] by Aado Lintrop, Folk Belief and Media Group of the Estonian Literary Museum
* [http://www.theecologist.info/page9.html A View from the Headwaters] by Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff Amazonian Indigenous Peoples and ecology

{{philosophy of religion}}
{{witchcraft}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Alternative medical systems]]
[[Category:Anthropology of religion]]
[[Category:Shamanism| ]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Supernatural healing]]

Supreme Court of the United States

2017-10-19T06:59:36Z

85.19.179.17: /* Tenure */

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{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox high court
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| image = Seal of the United States Supreme Court.svg
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| positions = 9, [[#Size of the Court|by statute]]
| website = {{URL|https://www.supremecourt.gov}}
| chiefjudgetitle = [[Chief Justice of the United States]]
| chiefjudgename = [[John Roberts|John G. Roberts]]
| termstart = September 29, 2005
}}
{{SCOTUS series}}

The '''Supreme Court of the United States''' is the [[Supreme court|highest]] [[Federal judiciary of the United States|federal court of the United States]]. Established pursuant to [[Article Three of the United States Constitution]] in 1789, it has ultimate (and largely [[Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States|discretionary]]) [[appellate jurisdiction]] over all federal courts and [[State court (United States)|state court]] cases involving issues of [[U.S. federal law|federal law]] plus [[original jurisdiction]] over a small range of cases. In the [[Law of the United States|legal system of the United States]], the Supreme Court is generally the final interpreter of [[law of the United States|federal law]] including the [[United States Constitution]], but it may act only within the context of a case, in which it has jurisdiction. The Court does not have power to decide [[political question]]s, and [[United States Marshals Service|its enforcement arm]] is in the executive rather than judicial branch of government.

According to federal statute, the Court normally consists of the [[Chief Justice of the United States]] and eight [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States|associate justices]] who are nominated by the [[President of the United States|President]] and confirmed by the [[United States Senate|Senate]]. Once appointed, justices have [[life tenure|lifetime tenure]] unless they resign, retire, or are removed after [[Impeachment in the United States|impeachment]] (though no justice has ever been removed).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/institution.aspx|title=The Court as an Institution – Supreme Court of the United States|website=www.supremecourt.gov|access-date=February 1, 2017}}</ref> In modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having [[Conservatism in the United States#Courts|conservative]], [[moderate]], or [[Liberalism in the United States#Courts|liberal]] [[Philosophy of law|philosophies of law]] and of [[judicial interpretation]]. Each justice has one vote, and it is worth noting while a far greater number of cases in recent history have been decided unanimously, decisions in cases of the highest profile have come down to just one single vote, thereby exposing the justices' ideological beliefs that track with those philosophical or political categories. The Court meets in the [[United States Supreme Court Building|Supreme Court Building]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]

The Supreme Court is sometimes colloquially referred to as ''SCOTUS'' ('''''S'''''upreme '''''C'''''ourt '''''o'''''f '''''t'''''he '''''U'''''nited '''''S'''''tates) similar to and in line with other [[acronyms]] such as ''[[President of the United States|POTUS]]'' ('''''P'''''resident '''''o'''''f '''''t'''''he '''''U'''''nited '''''S'''''tates).<ref>Safire, William, [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/12/magazine/on-language-potus-and-flotus.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm "On language: POTUS and FLOTUS," New York Times, October 12, 1997]. Retrieved August 27, 2013.</ref>

==History==
{{Main article|History of the Supreme Court of the United States}}
[[File:Oblique facade 2, US Supreme Court.jpg|thumb|260 px|Supreme Court of the United States]]
The ratification of the [[United States Constitution]] established the Supreme Court in 1789. Its powers are detailed in [[Article Three of the United States Constitution|Article Three of the Constitution]]. The Supreme Court was the only court specifically established by the Constitution while all other federal courts were created by [[United States Congress|Congress]]. Congress is also responsible for conferring the title of "justice" to its members, who are known to scold lawyers for inaccurately referring to them as "judge", even though it is the term used in the Constitution.<ref>Johnson, Barnabas. ''Almanac of the Federal Judiciary'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=jNdFAQAAIAAJ&q=%22judge+instead+of+justice%22+constitution&dq=%22judge+instead+of+justice%22+constitution&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jyIdUrvTL5CusQSgz4CoCQ&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA p. 25] (Aspen Law & Business, 1988).</ref>

The Court first convened on February 2, 1790<ref name="overview">{{cite web|url={{SCOTUS URL|about/briefoverview.pdf}} |title=A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court|format=PDF|publisher=United States Supreme Court|accessdate=December 31, 2009}}</ref> with six judges where only five of its six initial positions were filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session: "[T]he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the [[Royal Exchange, New York|Royal Exchange Building]] on Broad Street, a few steps from Federal Hall. Symbolically, the moment was pregnant with promise for the republic, this birth of a new national institution whose future power, admittedly, still existed only in the eyes and minds of just a few visionary Americans. Impressively bewigged and swathed in their robes of office, Chief Justice John Jay and three associate justices — William Cushing of Massachusetts, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, and John Blair of Virginia — sat augustly before a throng of spectators and waited for something to happen. Nothing did. They had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, and everyone went home."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bordewich|first1=Fergus|title=The First Congress: How James Madison, George Washington, and a Group of Extraordinary Men Invented the Government|date=2016|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=1451691939|page=195}}</ref>

The sixth member, [[James Iredell]], was not confirmed until May 12, 1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was also made by two-thirds (voting four to two).<ref>Shugerman, Jed. "A Six-Three Rule: Reviving Consensus and Deference on the Supreme Court", ''[[University of Georgia School of Law#Journals|Georgia Law Review]]'', Vol. 37, p. 893 (2002–03).</ref> However, Congress has always allowed less than the Court's full membership to make decisions, starting with a [[quorum]] of four justices in 1789.<ref>Irons, Peter. ''A People's History of the Supreme Court'', p. 101 (Penguin 2006).</ref>

===Earliest beginnings to Marshall===
{{Main article|Jay Court|Rutledge Court|Ellsworth Court|Marshall Court}}
Under Chief Justices [[John Jay|Jay]], [[John Rutledge|Rutledge]], and [[Oliver Ellsworth|Ellsworth]] (1789–1801), the Court heard few cases; its first decision was ''[[West v. Barnes]]'' (1791), a case involving a procedural issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/datesofdecisions.pdf|title=Dates of Supreme Court decisions and arguments, United States Reports volumes 2–107 (1791–82)|last=Ashmore|first=Anne|date=August 2006|publisher=Library, Supreme Court of the United States|format=PDF|accessdate=April 26, 2009}}</ref> The Court lacked a home of its own and had little prestige,<ref name=tws31oct01>{{cite news | author = Scott Douglas Gerber (editor) | title = Seriatim: The Supreme Court Before John Marshall | quote = (page 3) Finally many scholars cite the absence of a separate Supreme Court building as evidence that the early Court lacked prestige. | publisher = New York University Press | year = 1998 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0tEkU5LiYsQC&pg=PA1 | isbn = 0-8147-3114-7| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref> a situation not helped by the highest-profile case of the era, ''[[Chisholm v. Georgia]]'' (1793), which was reversed within two years by the adoption of the [[Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eleventh Amendment]].<ref>{{cite journal| last=Manning| first=John F.| year=2004| title=The Eleventh Amendment and the Reading of Precise Constitutional Texts| journal=Yale Law Journal| volume=113| issue=8| pages=1663–1750| doi=10.2307/4135780| authorlink=John F. Manning}}</ref>

[[File:Chief Justice John Marshall.jpeg|thumb|200px|Chief Justice Marshall]]The Court's power and prestige grew substantially during the [[John Marshall|Marshall]] Court (1801–35).<ref name=tws31oct02>{{cite news| first= Garrett|last= Epps| title = Don't Do It, Justices| quote = The court's prestige has been hard-won. In the early 1800s, Chief Justice John Marshall made the court respected| newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]| date=October 24, 2004| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A56446-2004Oct23.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref> Under Marshall, the Court established the power of [[Judicial review in the United States|judicial review]] over acts of Congress,<ref>The Supreme Court had first used the power of judicial review in the case ''[[Ware v. Hylton]]'', (1796), wherein it overturned a state law that conflicted with a treaty between the United States and Great Britain.</ref> including specifying itself as the supreme expositor of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] (''[[Marbury v. Madison]]'')<ref name=tws31oct05>{{cite news| first= Jeffrey|last= Rosen |format= book review of ''Packing the Court'' by James MacGregor Burns| title = Black Robe Politics| quote = From the beginning, Burns continues, the Court has established its "supremacy" over the president and Congress because of Chief Justice John Marshall's "brilliant political coup" in Marbury v. Madison (1803): asserting a power to strike down unconstitutional laws.| work =The Washington Post| date = July 5, 2009| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/02/AR2009070202033.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref><ref name="tws31oct09">{{cite news|url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page19.htm|title=The People's Vote: 100 Documents that Shaped America – Marbury v. Madison (1803)|work=[[U.S. News & World Report]]|year=2003|quote=With his decision in Marbury v. Madison, Chief Justice John Marshall established the principle of judicial review, an important addition to the system of "checks and balances" created to prevent any one branch of the Federal Government from becoming too powerful...A Law repugnant to the Constitution is void.|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030920031130/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page19.htm|archivedate=September 20, 2003|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref> and made several important constitutional rulings giving shape and substance to the [[Balance of power (federalism)|balance of power]] between the federal government and the states (prominently, ''[[Martin v. Hunter's Lessee]]'', ''[[McCulloch v. Maryland]]'' and ''[[Gibbons v. Ogden]]'').<ref name=tws31oct03>{{cite news| first1= Cliff |last1=Sloan |first2= David |last2=McKean| title = Why Marbury V. Madison Still Matters| quote = More than 200 years after the high court ruled, the decision in that landmark case continues to resonate.| work = Newsweek| date = February 21, 2009| url = http://www.newsweek.com/id/185803| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref><ref name="tws31oct08">{{cite news| url=https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9D0CEFDE1031E033A25754C2A9649C94629ED7CF| title=The Constitution In Law: Its Phases Construed by the Federal Supreme Court| date=February 27, 1893| format=PDF| quote=The decision … in Martin vs. Hunter's Lessee is the authority on which lawyers and Judges have rested the doctrine that where there is in question, in the highest court of a State, and decided adversely to the validity of a State statute... such claim is reviewable by the Supreme Court ...|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref><ref name="tws31oct04">{{cite journal| date=December 13, 2000|title=Dissenting opinions in Bush v. Gore| url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/vote2000/pres246.htm| quote=Rarely has this Court rejected outright an interpretation of state law by a state high court … The Virginia court refused to obey this Court's Fairfax's Devisee mandate to enter judgment for the British subject's successor in interest. That refusal led to the Court's pathmarking decision in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, 1 Wheat. 304 (1816).| author=Justices Ginsburg, Stevens, Souter, Breyer| work=[[USA Today]]| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref><ref name="tws31oct06">{{cite news| url=https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9E03EED8133EE333A25750C0A9649C946097D6CF| title=Decisions of the Supreme Court – Historic Decrees Issued in One Hundred an Eleven Years| date=February 3, 1901| work=The New York Times| format=PDF| quote=Very important also was the decision in Martin vs. Hunter's lessee, in which the court asserted its authority to overrule, within certain limits, the decisions of the highest State courts.| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref>

The Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion ''[[seriatim]]'',<ref name="tws31oct11">{{cite news| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A58066-2000Oct2&notFound=true| archive-url=https://archive.is/20120530060153/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A58066-2000Oct2&notFound=true|dead-url=yes| archive-date=May 30, 2012| title=The Supreme Quiz| date=October 2, 2000| quote=According to the Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, Marshall's most important innovation was to persuade the other justices to stop seriatim opinions – each issuing one – so that the court could speak in a single voice. Since the mid-1940s, however, there's been a significant increase in individual "concurring" and "dissenting" opinions.| newspaper=The Washington Post| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref> a remnant of British tradition,<ref name="tws31oct10">{{cite news| url=https://blogs.wsj.com/law/2008/04/18/justice-stevens-on-the-death-penalty-a-promise-of-fairness-unfulfilled/| title=Justice Stevens on the Death Penalty: A Promise of Fairness Unfulfilled| last=Slater| first=Dan| date=April 18, 2008| quote=The first Chief Justice, John Marshall set out to do away with seriatim opinions–a practice originating in England in which each appellate judge writes an opinion in ruling on a single case. (You may have read old tort cases in law school with such opinions). Marshall sought to do away with this practice to help build the Court into a coequal branch.| newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref> and instead issuing a single majority opinion.<ref name=tws31oct11 /> Also during Marshall's tenure, although beyond the Court's control, the impeachment and acquittal of Justice [[Samuel Chase]] in 1804–05 helped cement the principle of [[judicial independence]].<ref name="tws31oct12">{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1867783,00.html|title=A Brief History Of Impeachment| last=Suddath| first=Claire| date=December 19, 2008| work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]| quote=Congress tried the process again in 1804, when it voted to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase on charges of bad conduct. As a judge, Chase was overzealous and notoriously unfair … But Chase never committed a crime — he was just incredibly bad at his job. The Senate acquitted him on every count.|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref><ref name="tws31oct13">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/04/10/us/rehnquist-joins-fray-on-rulings-defending-judicial-independence.html| title=Rehnquist Joins Fray on Rulings, Defending Judicial Independence| last=Greenhouse| first=Linda|date=April 10, 1996| work=The New York Times| quote=the 1805 Senate trial of Justice Samuel Chase, who had been impeached by the House of Representatives … This decision by the Senate was enormously important in securing the kind of judicial independence contemplated by Article III" of the Constitution, Chief Justice Rehnquist said| accessdate=October 31, 2009| authorlink=Linda Greenhouse}}</ref>

===From Taney to Taft===
{{Main|Taney Court|Chase Court|Waite Court|Fuller Court|White Court (judges)|l5=White Court|Taft Court}}
The [[Roger B. Taney|Taney]] Court (1836–64) made several important rulings, such as ''[[Sheldon v. Sill]]'', which held that while Congress may not limit the subjects the Supreme Court may hear, it may limit the jurisdiction of the lower federal courts to prevent ''them'' from hearing cases dealing with certain subjects.<ref name=tws31oct16>{{cite news| author1=Edward Keynes |author2=with Randall K. Miller | title=The Court vs. Congress: Prayer, Busing, and Abortion
| quote=(page 115)... Grier maintained that Congress has plenary power to limit the federal courts' jurisdiction.| publisher=Duke University Press| year=1989| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Ebb2wsxkF4C&pg=PA115| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref> Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'',<ref name="tws31oct21">{{cite news| url=https://www.usnews.com/articles/opinion/2009/05/27/sotomayors-great-legal-mind-long-ago-defeated-race-gender-nonsense.html| title=Sotomayor's Great Legal Mind Long Ago Defeated Race, Gender Nonsense| last=Ifill| first=Sherrilyn A.| date=May 27, 2009| work=U.S. News & World Report| quote=But his decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford doomed thousands of black slaves and freedmen to a stateless existence within the United States until the passage of the 14th Amendment. Justice Taney's coldly self-fulfilling statement in Dred Scott, that blacks had "no rights which the white man [was] bound to respect", has ensured his place in history—not as a brilliant jurist, but as among the most insensitive| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref> which helped precipitate the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]].<ref name=tws4494>{{cite book| last1=Irons| first1=Peter| title=A People's History of the Supreme Court: The Men and Women Whose Cases and Decisions Have Shaped Our Constitution| publisher=Penguin Books| year=2006| location=United States| pages=176–177| quote=The rhetorical battle that followed the Dred Scott decision, as we know, later erupted into the gunfire and bloodshed of the Civil War (p.176)... his opinion (Taney's) touched off an explosive reaction on both sides of the slavery issue... (p.177)| isbn=0-14-303738-2}}</ref> In the [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction era]], the [[Salmon P. Chase|Chase]], [[Morrison Waite|Waite]], and [[Melville Fuller|Fuller]] Courts (1864–1910) interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution<ref name=tws31oct06 /> and developed the doctrine of [[substantive due process]] (''[[Lochner v. New York]]'';<ref name="tws31oct24">{{cite news| url=http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/libertyofk.htm| title=Liberty of Contract?|date=October 31, 2009| publisher=Exploring Constitutional Conflicts| quote=The term "substantive due process" is often used to describe the approach first used in Lochner—the finding of liberties not explicitly protected by the text of the Constitution to be impliedly protected by the liberty clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In the 1960s, long after the Court repudiated its Lochner line of cases, substantive due process became the basis for protecting personal rights such as the right of privacy, the right to maintain intimate family relationships.| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref> ''[[Adair v. United States]]'').<ref name=tws31oct100>{{cite news| title=Adair v. United States 208 U.S. 161| quote=No. 293 Argued: October 29, 30, 1907 --- Decided: January 27, 1908
| publisher = Cornell University Law School| year = 1908| url = https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/208/161| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref>

Under the [[Edward Douglass White|White]] and [[William Howard Taft|Taft]] Courts (1910–30), the Court held that the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] had [[Incorporation (Bill of Rights)|incorporated]] some guarantees of the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]] against the states (''[[Gitlow v. New York]]''),<ref name="twsff4frj">{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/?id=L-_9mFCeBSIC&pg=PA245| title=The Bill of Rights in modern America|last=Bodenhamer|first=David J.|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-253-35159-3|location=Bloomington, Indiana|page=245|quote=… of what eventually became the 'incorporation doctrine,' by which various federal Bill of Rights guarantees were held to be implicit in the Fourteenth Amendment due process or equal protection.|author2=James W. Ely}}</ref> grappled with the new [[antitrust]] statutes (''[[Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States]]''), upheld the constitutionality of [[Conscription in the United States|military conscription]] (''[[Selective Draft Law Cases]]'')<ref>{{cite web|url=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=245&invol=366 | title=Opinion for the Court, Arver v. U.S. 245 U.S. 366 |first=Edward Douglass |last=White|authorlink=Edward Douglass White|quote=Finally, as we are unable to conceive upon what theory the exaction by government from the citizen of the performance of his supreme and noble duty of contributing to the defense of the rights and honor of the nation, as the result of a war declared by the great representative body of the people, can be said to be the imposition of involuntary servitude in violation of the prohibitions of the Thirteenth Amendment, we are constrained to the conclusion that the contention to that effect is refuted by its mere statement.}}</ref> and brought the substantive due process doctrine to its first apogee (''[[Adkins v. Children's Hospital]]'').<ref name=tws31oct101>{{cite book| first= Bernard H. | last= Siegan
| title = The Supreme Court's Constitution| quote = In the 1923 case of Adkins v. Children's Hospital, the court invalidated a classification based on gender as inconsistent with the substantive due process requirements of the fifth amendment. At issue was congressional legislation providing for the fixing of minimum wages for women and minors in the District of Columbia. (p.146)| publisher = Transaction Publishers| year = 1987| url = https://books.google.com/?id=XABdIe1foccC&pg=PA146| accessdate = October 31, 2009| isbn = 978-0-88738-671-8| page = 146}}</ref>

===The New Deal era===
{{Main|Hughes Court|Stone Court (judges)|l2=Stone Court|Vinson Court}}
During the [[Charles Evans Hughes|Hughes]], [[Harlan Fiske Stone|Stone]], and [[Fred M. Vinson|Vinson]] Courts (1930–53), the Court gained [[United States Supreme Court building|its own accommodation]] in 1935<ref name=tws31oct>{{cite news| first= Joan |last=Biskupic| title = Supreme Court gets makeover
| quote = The building is getting its first renovation since its completion in 1935.| work = USA Today| url = https://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/2005-03-28-high-court-makeover_x.htm| accessdate=October 31, 2009| date=March 29, 2005| authorlink = Joan Biskupic}}</ref> and [[The switch in time that saved nine|changed its interpretation of the Constitution]], giving a broader reading to the powers of the federal government to facilitate President [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]] (most prominently ''[[West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish]], [[Wickard v. Filburn]]'', ''[[United States v. Darby]]'' and ''[[United States v. Butler]]'').<ref name="tws31oct103">{{cite news|url=http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&safe=off&client=firefox-a&rls=com.ubuntu%3Aen-US%3Aunofficial&q=%22west+coast+hotel+co.+v.+parrish%22+(site%3Anewsweek.com+OR+site%3Apost-gazette.com+OR+site%3Ausatoday.com+OR+site%3Awashingtonpost.com+OR+site%3Atime.com+OR+site%3Areuters.com+OR+site%3Aeconomist.com+OR+site%3Amiamiherald.com+OR+site%3Alatimes.com+OR+site%3Asfgate.com+OR+site%3Achicagotribune.com+OR+site%3Anytimes.com+OR+site%3Awsj.com+OR+site%3Ausnews.com+OR+site%3Amsnbc.com+OR+site%3Anj.com+OR+site%3Atheatlantic.com)&aq=o&oq=&aqi=|title=Responses of Judge John G. Roberts, Jr. to the Written Questions of Senator Joseph R. Biden| date=September 21, 2005| work=The Washington Post|quote=I agree that West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish correctly overruled Adkins. [[Lochner era]] cases – Adkins in particular – evince an expansive view of the judicial role inconsistent with what I believe to be the appropriately more limited vision of the Framers.|author=Justice Roberts|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}{{dead link|date=January 2011}}</ref><ref name="tws31oct107">{{cite news|url=https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB20001424052748704597704574486242417039358|title=All the News That's Fit to Subsidize|last=Lipsky|first=Seth|date=October 22, 2009|work=Wall Street Journal|quote=He was a farmer in Ohio … during the 1930s, when subsidies were brought in for farmers. With subsidies came restrictions on how much wheat one could grow—even, Filburn learned in a landmark Supreme Court case, Wickard v. Filburn (1942), wheat grown on his modest farm.|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref><ref name="tws31oct109">{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/14/opinion/14tue4.html|title=What's New in the Legal World? A Growing Campaign to Undo the New Deal| last=Cohen| first=Adam| date=December 14, 2004|work=The New York Times|quote=Some prominent states' rights conservatives were asking the court to overturn Wickard v. Filburn, a landmark ruling that laid out an expansive view of Congress's power to legislate in the public interest. Supporters of states' rights have always blamed Wickard … for paving the way for strong federal action...|accessdate=October 31, 2009|authorlink=Adam Cohen (journalist)}}</ref> During [[World War II]], the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens (''[[Korematsu v. United States]]'') and the mandatory pledge of allegiance (''[[Minersville School District v. Gobitis]]''). Nevertheless, ''Gobitis'' was soon repudiated (''[[West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette]]''), and the ''[[Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer|Steel Seizure Case]]'' restricted the pro-government trend.

===Warren and Burger===
{{Main article|Warren Court|Burger Court}}
The [[Earl Warren|Warren]] Court (1953–69) dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional [[civil liberties]].<ref name=tws31oct110>{{cite news| author = United Press International| title = Justice Black Dies at 85; Served on Court 34 Years| quote = Justice Black developed his controversial theory, first stated in a lengthy, scholarly dissent in 1947, that the due process clause applied the first eight amendments of the Bill of Rights to the states.| work =The New York Times| date = September 25, 1971| url = https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0227.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009
}}</ref> It held that [[desegregation|segregation in public schools]] violates [[equal protection clause|equal protection]] (''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'', ''[[Bolling v. Sharpe]]'' and ''[[Green v. County School Board of New Kent County|Green v. County School Bd.]]'')<ref name="tws31oct113">{{cite news| url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page87.htm| title=100 Documents that Shaped America Brown v. Board of Education (1954)|date=May 17, 1954|work=U.S. News & World Report|quote=On May 17, 1954, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren delivered the unanimous ruling in the landmark civil rights case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. State-sanctioned segregation of public schools was a violation of the 14th amendment and was therefore unconstitutional. This historic decision marked the end of the "separate but equal" … and served as a catalyst for the expanding civil rights movement...|accessdate=October 31, 2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091106035101/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page87.htm|archivedate=November 6, 2009}}</ref> and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote (''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]''). It created a general right to privacy (''[[Griswold v. Connecticut]]''),<ref name=tws31oct114>{{cite news| title = Essay: In defense of privacy| quote = The biggest legal milestone in this field was last year's Supreme Court decision in Griswold v. Connecticut, which overthrew the state's law against the use of contraceptives as an invasion of marital privacy, and for the first time declared the "right of privacy" to be derived from the Constitution itself.| work=Time| date = July 15, 1966| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,836012-3,00.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref> limited the role of religion in public school (most prominently ''[[Engel v. Vitale]]'' and ''[[Abington School District v. Schempp]]''),<ref name=tws31oct120>{{cite news| first= Nancy |last=Gibbs| title = America's Holy War| quote = In the landmark 1962 case Engel v. Vitale, the high court threw out a brief nondenominational prayer composed by state officials that was recommended for use in New York State schools. "It is no part of the business of government", ruled the court, "to compose official prayers for any group of the American people to recite."| work = Time| date = December 9, 1991| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,974430,00.html
| accessdate = October 31, 2009| authorlink = Nancy Gibbs}}</ref><ref name="tws31oct121">{{cite news| url=http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/08/column-teach-the-bible-of-course-.html| title=Teach the Bible? Of course.| date=August 17, 2009|work=USA Today|last2=Trinko|first2=Katrina|quote=Public schools need not proselytize — indeed, must not — in teaching students about the Good Book … In Abington School District v. Schempp, decided in 1963, the Supreme Court stated that "study of the Bible or of religion, when presented objectively as part of a secular program of education", was permissible under the First Amendment.|first1=William R., Jr| last1=Mattox| accessdate=October 31, 2009| deadurl=yes| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090820030545/http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/08/column-teach-the-bible-of-course-.html| archivedate=August 20, 2009}}</ref> [[Incorporation of the Bill of Rights|incorporated]] most guarantees of the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]] against the States—prominently ''[[Mapp v. Ohio]]'' (the [[exclusionary rule]]) and ''[[Gideon v. Wainwright]]'' ([[public defender|right to appointed counsel]]),<ref name="tws31oct131">{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898882,00.html|title=The Law: The Retroactivity Riddle|date=June 18, 1965|work=Time Magazine|quote=Last week, in a 7 to 2 decision, the court refused for the first time to give retroactive effect to a great Bill of Rights decision—Mapp v. Ohio (1961).|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref><ref name="tws31oct203">{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,841844,00.html| title=The Supreme Court: Now Comes the Sixth Amendment| date=April 16, 1965| work=Time| quote=Sixth Amendment's right to counsel (Gideon v. Wainwright in 1963). … the court said flatly in 1904: 'The Sixth Amendment does not apply to proceedings in state criminal courts." But in the light of Gideon … ruled Black, statements 'generally declaring that the Sixth Amendment does not apply to states can no longer be regarded as law.'|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref>—and required that criminal suspects be apprised of all these rights by police (''[[Miranda v. Arizona]]'');<ref name=tws31oct132>{{cite news| title = Guilt and Mr. Meese
| quote = 1966 Miranda v. Arizona decision. That's the famous decision that made confessions inadmissible as evidence unless an accused person has been warned by police of the right to silence and to a lawyer, and waived it.| work =The New York Times| date = January 31, 1987| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/31/opinion/guilt-and-mr-meese.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref> At the same time, however, the Court limited [[defamation]] suits by public figures (''[[New York Times v. Sullivan]]'') and supplied the government with an unbroken run of antitrust victories.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fed-soc.org/doclib/20090107_GragliaEngage93.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-02-06 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621023852/http://www.fed-soc.org/doclib/20090107_GragliaEngage93.pdf |archivedate=June 21, 2017 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

The [[Warren E. Burger|Burger]] Court (1969–86) marked a conservative shift.<ref>Earl M. Maltz, ''The Coming of the Nixon Court: The 1972 Term and the Transformation of Constitutional Law'' (University Press of Kansas; 2016)</ref> It also expanded ''Griswold'''s right to privacy to strike down abortion laws (''[[Roe v. Wade]]''),<ref name=tws31oct204>{{cite news| first=Karen |last=O'Connor| title=Roe v. Wade: On Anniversary, Abortion Is out of the Spotlight
| quote=The shocker, however, came in 1973, when the Court, by a vote of 7 to 2, relied on Griswold's basic underpinnings to rule that a Texas law prohibiting abortions in most situations was unconstitutional, invalidating the laws of most states. Relying on a woman's right to privacy...| work=U.S. News & World Report| date=January 22, 2009| url=https://www.usnews.com/articles/opinion/2009/01/22/roe-v-wade-on-anniversary-abortion-is-out-of-the-spotlight.html
| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref> but divided deeply on [[affirmative action]] (''[[Regents of the University of California v. Bakke]]'')<ref name="tws31oct205">{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,946798,00.html| title=Bakke Wins, Quotas Lose| date=July 10, 1978| work=Time| quote=Split almost exactly down the middle, the Supreme Court last week offered a Solomonic compromise. It said that rigid quotas based solely on race were forbidden, but it also said that race might legitimately be an element in judging students for admission to universities. It thus approved the principle of 'affirmative action'…| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref> and campaign finance regulation (''[[Buckley v. Valeo]]''),<ref name=tws31oct207>{{cite news| title=Time to Rethink Buckley v. Valeo| quote=...Buckley v. Valeo. The nation's political system has suffered ever since from that decision, which held that mandatory limits on campaign spending unconstitutionally limit free speech. The decision did much to promote the explosive growth of campaign contributions from special interests and to enhance the advantage incumbents enjoy over underfunded challengers.| work =The New York Times| date = November 12, 1998| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/12/opinion/time-to-rethink-buckley-v-valeo.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref> and dithered on the [[death penalty in the United States|death penalty]], ruling first that most applications were defective (''[[Furman v. Georgia]]''),<ref name="tws31oct208">{{cite news| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/rehnquist/rehnquist_key_decisions.html| title=Supreme Court Justice Rehnquist's Key Decisions| date=June 29, 1972| work=The Washington Post|quote=Furman v. Georgia … Rehnquist dissents from the Supreme Court conclusion that many state laws on capital punishment are capricious and arbitrary and therefore unconstitutional.|author=Staff writer|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref> then that the death penalty itself was ''not'' unconstitutional (''[[Gregg v. Georgia]]'').<ref name=tws31oct208 /><ref name="history1">History of the Court, in Hall, Ely Jr., Grossman, and Wiecek (eds) ''The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States.'' [[Oxford University Press]], 1992, {{ISBN|0-19-505835-6}}</ref><ref name=tws31oct2122>{{cite news| title = A Supreme Revelation| quote = Thirty-two years ago, Justice John Paul Stevens sided with the majority in a famous "never mind" ruling by the Supreme Court. Gregg v. Georgia, in 1976, overturned Furman v. Georgia, which had declared the death penalty unconstitutional only four years earlier.|work=The Wall Street Journal| date = April 19, 2008| url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB120856145124627875?mod=opinion_main_review_and_outlooks| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref>

===Rehnquist and Roberts===
{{Main article|Rehnquist Court|Roberts Court}}
The [[William Rehnquist|Rehnquist]] Court (1986–2005) was noted for its revival of judicial enforcement of [[federalism]],<ref name=tws31oct2brn2b>{{cite news
| first=Linda |last=Greenhouse| title=The Chief Justice on the Spot| quote = The federalism issue at the core of the new case grows out of a series of cases from 1997 to 2003 in which the Rehnquist court applied a new level of scrutiny to Congressional action enforcing the guarantees of the Reconstruction amendments.|work=The New York Times| date=January 8, 2009| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/09/opinion/09greenhouse.html| accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref> emphasizing the limits of the Constitution's affirmative grants of power (''[[United States v. Lopez]]'') and the force of its restrictions on those powers (''[[Seminole Tribe v. Florida]]'', ''[[City of Boerne v. Flores]]'').<ref name=tws31octrtr45>{{cite news| first= Linda |last=Greenhouse| title = William H. Rehnquist, Chief Justice of Supreme Court, Is Dead at 80| quote = United States v. Lopez in 1995 raised the stakes in the debate over federal authority even higher. The decision declared unconstitutional a Federal law, the Gun Free School Zones Act of 1990, that made it a federal crime to carry a gun within 1,000 feet of a school.| work=The New York Times| date=September 4, 2005| url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E01E2DF1531F937A3575AC0A9639C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=5| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref><ref name=tws31oct309>{{cite news| first= Linda |last=Greenhouse| title = The Rehnquist Court and Its Imperiled States' Rights Legacy| quote = Intrastate activity that was not essentially economic was beyond Congress's reach under the Commerce Clause, Chief Justice Rehnquist wrote for the 5-to-4 majority in United States v. Morrison.|work=The New York Times| date=June 12, 2005| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/12/weekinreview/12green.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref><ref name=tws31oct310>{{cite news
| first= Linda |last=Greenhouse| title = Inmates Who Follow Satanism and Wicca Find Unlikely Ally| quote = His (Rehnquist's) reference was to a landmark 1997 decision, City of Boerne v. Flores, in which the court ruled that the predecessor to the current law, the Religious Freedom Restoration Act, exceeded Congress's authority and was unconstitutional as applied to the states.|work=The New York Times| date = March 22, 2005| url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A02E6DC1F3CF931A15750C0A9639C8B63| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref><ref name=tws31oct4004>{{cite news| first= Vikram David |last=Amar| title = Casing John Roberts| quote = SEMINOLE TRIBE v. FLORIDA (1996) In this seemingly technical 11th Amendment dispute about whether states can be sued in federal courts, Justice O'Connor joined four others to override Congress's will and protect state prerogatives, even though the text of the Constitution contradicts this result.| work=The New York Times| date = July 27, 2005| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/27/opinion/27amar.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009| authorlink = Vikram David Amar}}</ref><ref name="tws31oct555">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/01/us/justices-seem-ready-to-tilt-more-toward-states-in-federalism.html|title=Justices Seem Ready to Tilt More Toward States in Federalism|last=Greenhouse| first=Linda| date=April 1, 1999| work=The New York Times| quote=The argument in this case, Alden v. Maine, No. 98-436, proceeded on several levels simultaneously. On the surface … On a deeper level, the argument was a continuation of the Court's struggle over an even more basic issue: the Government's substantive authority over the states.|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref> It struck down single-sex state schools as a violation of equal protection (''[[United States v. Virginia]]''), laws against [[sodomy]] as violations of [[substantive due process]] (''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]''),<ref name=tws31oct34654>{{cite news| first= Michael A. |last=Lindenberger| title = The Court's Gay Rights Legacy| quote = The decision in the Lawrence v. Texas case overturned convictions against two Houston men, whom police had arrested after busting into their home and finding them engaged in sex. And for the first time in their lives, thousands of gay men and women who lived in states where sodomy had been illegal were free to be gay without being criminals.|work=Time | url = http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1818504,00.html| accessdate = October 31, 2009}}</ref> and the [[line item veto]] (''[[Clinton v. New York]]''), but upheld [[school vouchers]] (''[[Zelman v. Simmons-Harris]]'') and reaffirmed ''Roe'''s restrictions on abortion laws (''[[Planned Parenthood v. Casey]]'').<ref name="tws31octffsfs">{{cite news| url=http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/07/retire-the-ginsburg-rule-.html|title=Retire the 'Ginsburg rule' – The 'Roe' recital| date=July 16, 2009| work=USA Today| quote=The court's decision in Planned Parenthood v. Casey reaffirmed the court holding of Roe. That is the precedent of the court and settled, in terms of the holding of the court.| author=Justice Sotomayor| accessdate=October 31, 2009| deadurl=yes| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822073852/http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/07/retire-the-ginsburg-rule-.html| archivedate=August 22, 2009}}</ref> The Court's decision in ''[[Bush v. Gore]]'', which ended the electoral recount during the [[United States presidential election, 2000|presidential election of 2000]], was especially controversial.<ref name="rds21nov12">{{cite news| url=http://www.salon.com/2001/07/05/dershowitz_2/|title=Against the Law| last=Kamiya| first=Gary| date=July 4, 2001| work=[[Salon (website)|Salon]]| quote=...the remedy was far more harmful than the problem. By stopping the recount, the high court clearly denied many thousands of voters who cast legal votes, as defined by established Florida law, their constitutional right to have their votes counted. … It cannot be a legitimate use of law to disenfranchise legal voters when recourse is available. …|accessdate=November 21, 2012}}</ref><ref name="tws31oct44454">{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,998788,00.html|title=The Winner in Bush v. Gore?|last=Krauthammer|first=Charles| date=December 18, 2000| work=Time| quote=Re-enter the Rehnquist court. Amid the chaos, somebody had to play Daddy. … the Supreme Court eschewed subtlety this time and bluntly stopped the Florida Supreme Court in its tracks—and stayed its willfulness. By, mind you, …|accessdate=October 31, 2009}}</ref>

The [[John G. Roberts|Roberts]] Court (2005–present) is regarded by some as more conservative than the Rehnquist Court.<ref name=tws1nov01>{{cite news
| first1= Charles|last1= Babington |first2= Peter|last2= Baker| title = Roberts Confirmed as 17th Chief Justice| quote = John Glover Roberts Jr. was sworn in yesterday as the 17th chief justice of the United States, enabling President Bush to put his stamp on the Supreme Court for decades to come, even as he prepares to name a second nominee to the nine-member court.| work=The Washington Post| date = September 30, 2005| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/09/29/AR2005092900859.html| accessdate = November 1, 2009}}</ref><ref name="tws1nov02">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/01/washington/01scotus.html|title=In Steps Big and Small, Supreme Court Moved Right| last=Greenhouse| first=Linda| date=July 1, 2007| work=The New York Times| quote=It was the Supreme Court that conservatives had long yearned for and that liberals feared … This was a more conservative court, sometimes muscularly so, sometimes more tentatively, its majority sometimes differing on methodology but agreeing on the outcome in cases big and small.| accessdate=November 1, 2009}}</ref> Some of its major rulings have concerned [[federal preemption]] (''[[Wyeth v. Levine]]''), civil procedure (''[[Bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly|Twombly]]-[[Ashcroft v. Iqbal|Iqbal]]''), [[abortion]] (''[[Gonzales v. Carhart]]''),<ref name="tws1nov04">{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/15/us/politics/15abortion.html| title=Respecting Precedent, or Settled Law, Unless It's Not Settled| last=Savage| first=Charlie| date=July 14, 2009| work=The New York Times| quote=Gonzales v. Carhart — in which the Supreme Court narrowly upheld a federal ban on the late-term abortion procedure opponents call "partial birth abortion" — to be settled law.|accessdate=November 1, 2009|authorlink=Charlie Savage}}</ref> [[climate change]] (''[[Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency|Massachusetts v. EPA]]''), [[Same-sex marriage in the United States|same-sex marriage]] (''[[United States v. Windsor]]'' and ''[[Obergefell v. Hodges]]'') and the Bill of Rights, notably in ''[[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission]]'' ([[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]),<ref>{{cite web |title=A Bad Day for Democracy |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2010/0122/Supreme-Court-s-campaign-ruling-a-bad-day-for-democracy| accessdate=January 22, 2010}}</ref> ''[[District of Columbia v. Heller|Heller]]-[[McDonald v. Chicago|McDonald]]'' ([[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Second Amendment]])<ref name=tws1nov13>{{cite news| first=Robert |last=Barnes| title=Justices to Decide if State Gun Laws Violate Rights| quote=The landmark 2008 decision to strike down the District of Columbia's ban on handgun possession was the first time the court had said the amendment grants an individual right to own a gun for self-defense. But the 5 to 4 opinion in District of Columbia v. Heller...| work=The Washington Post| date=October 1, 2009| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/09/30/AR2009093001723.html| accessdate = November 1, 2009}}</ref> and ''[[Baze v. Rees]]'' ([[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighth Amendment]]).<ref name=tws1nov21>{{cite news| first=Linda |last=Greenhouse| title=Justice Stevens Renounces Capital Punishment| quote=His renunciation of capital punishment in the lethal injection case, Baze v. Rees, was likewise low key and undramatic.| work=The New York Times| date=April 18, 2008| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/18/washington/18memo.html| accessdate = November 1, 2009}}</ref><ref name="tws1nov22">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/26/washington/26scotuscnd.html|title=Supreme Court Rejects Death Penalty for Child Rape| last=Greenhouse| first=Linda| date=June 26, 2008| work=The New York Times| quote=The death penalty is unconstitutional as a punishment for the rape of a child, a sharply divided Supreme Court ruled Wednesday … The 5-to-4 decision overturned death penalty laws in Louisiana and five other states.|accessdate=November 1, 2009}}</ref>

==Composition==

===Size of the Court===
Article III of the [[United States Constitution]] does not specify the number of justices. The [[Judiciary Act of 1789]] called for the appointment of six "judges". Although an [[Midnight Judges Act|1801 act]] would have reduced the size of the court to five members upon its next vacancy, an [[Judiciary Act of 1802|1802 act]] promptly negated the 1801 act, legally restoring the court's size to six members before any such vacancy occurred. As the nation's boundaries grew, Congress added justices to correspond with the growing number of judicial circuits: [[Seventh Circuit Act of 1807|seven in 1807]], [[Eighth and Ninth Circuits Act of 1837|nine in 1837]], and [[Tenth Circuit Act of 1863|ten in 1863]].<ref>[http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=12 ''Federal Judiciary Act (1789)''], [[National Archives and Records Administration]], retrieved 2017-09-12</ref>

In 1866, at the behest of Chief Justice [[Salmon P. Chase|Chase]], Congress passed [[Judicial Circuits Act|an act]] providing that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced, which would thin the bench to seven justices by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. In 1869, however, the [[Judiciary Act of 1869|Circuit Judges Act]] returned the number of justices to nine,<ref>{{usstat|16|44}}</ref> where it has since remained.

President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] attempted to expand the Court in 1937. His proposal envisioned appointment of one additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years 6 months and refused retirement, up to a maximum bench of 15 justices. The proposal was ostensibly to ease the burden of the docket on elderly judges, but the actual purpose was widely understood as an effort to "pack" the Court with justices who would support Roosevelt's [[New Deal]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Mintz |first=S. |title=The New Deal in Decline |work=Digital History |publisher=University of Houston |year=2007 |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=479 |accessdate=October 27, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080505032845/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=479 |archivedate=May 5, 2008 }}</ref> The plan, usually called the "[[Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937|court-packing plan]]", failed in Congress.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hodak |first=George |title=February 5, 1937: FDR Unveils Court Packing Plan |work=ABAjournal.com |publisher=American Bar Association |year=2007 |url=http://abajournal.com/magazine/article/february_5_1937/ |accessdate=January 29, 2009}}</ref> Nevertheless, the Court's balance began to shift within months when Justice [[Willis Van Devanter|van Devanter]] retired and was replaced by Senator [[Hugo Black]]. By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven justices and elevated [[Harlan Fiske Stone]] to Chief Justice.<ref>"Justices, Number of", in Hall, Ely Jr., Grossman, and Wiecek (editors), ''The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States.'' Oxford University Press 1992, {{ISBN|0-19-505835-6}}</ref>

===Appointment and confirmation===
{{Main article|Appointment and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States}}
[[File:Supreme Court of the United States - Roberts Court 2017.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The Roberts Court (April 2017 – present). Front row (left to right): [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]], [[Anthony Kennedy]], [[John Roberts]] (Chief Justice), [[Clarence Thomas]], and [[Stephen Breyer]]. Back row (left to right): [[Elena Kagan]], [[Samuel A. Alito]], [[Sonia Sotomayor]], and [[Neil Gorsuch]].]]
The U.S. Constitution states that the President "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the [[United States Senate|Senate]], shall appoint Judges of the Supreme Court."<ref>''See'' [[Article Two of the United States Constitution]].</ref> Most presidents nominate candidates who broadly share their ideological views, although a justice's decisions may end up being contrary to a president's expectations. Because the Constitution sets no qualifications for service as a justice, a president may nominate anyone to serve, subject to Senate confirmation.

In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from the press and advocacy groups, which [[lobbying|lobby]] senators to confirm or to reject a nominee depending on whether their track record aligns with the group's views. The [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee]] conducts hearings and votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report. The committee's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent. The first nominee to appear before the committee was [[Harlan Fiske Stone]] in 1925, who sought to quell concerns about his links to [[Wall Street]], and the modern practice of questioning began with [[John Marshall Harlan II]] in 1955.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Nominations.htm| title=United States Senate. "Nominations"}}</ref> Once the committee reports out the nomination, the full Senate considers it. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected [[List of failed nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States|twelve]] Supreme Court nominees, most recently [[Robert Bork]], nominated by President Ronald Reagan in 1987.

Although Senate rules do not necessarily allow a negative vote in committee to block a nomination, prior to 2017 a nomination could be blocked by [[filibuster]] once debate had begun in the full Senate. President [[Lyndon Johnson]]'s nomination of sitting Associate Justice [[Abe Fortas]] to succeed [[Earl Warren]] as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas's ethics. President [[Donald Trump]]'s nomination of [[Neil Gorsuch]] to the seat vacated by Antonin Scalia was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against [[Cloture#United States|cloture]] on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority's prior refusal to take up President [[Barack Obama]]'s [[Merrick Garland Supreme Court nomination|nomination of Merrick Garland]] to fill the vacancy.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/politics/sen-patty-murray-will-oppose-neil-gorsuch-for-supreme-court/ |title=Sen. Patty Murray will oppose Neil Gorsuch for Supreme Court |work=[[The Seattle Times]] |author=Jim Brunner |date=24 March 2017| access-date=9 April 2017|quote=In a statement Friday morning, Murray cited Republicans' refusal to confirm or even seriously consider President Obama's nomination of Judge Merrick Garland, a similarly well-qualified jurist — and went on to lambaste President Trump's conduct in his first few months in office. [...] And Murray added she's "deeply troubled" by Gorsuch's "extreme conservative perspective on women's health," citing his "inability" to state a clear position on Roe v. Wade, the landmark abortion-legalization decision, and his comments about the "Hobby Lobby" decision allowing employers to refuse to provide birth-control coverage.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://medium.com/senator-claire-mccaskill/gorsuch-good-for-corporations-bad-for-working-people-400de6ec8b8b |last=McCaskill| first=Claire| publisher=[[Medium (website)|Medium]]| title=Gorsuch: Good for corporations, bad for working people| date=31 March 2017| access-date=9 April 2017| quote=I cannot support Judge Gorsuch because a study of his opinions reveal a rigid ideology that always puts the little guy under the boot of corporations. He is evasive, but his body of work isn't. Whether it is a freezing truck driver or an autistic child, he has shown a stunning lack of humanity. And he has been an activist – for example, writing a dissent on a case that had been settled, in what appears to be an attempt to audition for his current nomination.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.theblaze.com/news/2017/03/23/schumer-democrats-will-filibuster-scotus-nominee-neil-gorsuch/| title=Schumer: Democrats will filibuster SCOTUS nominee Neil Gorsuch| last=Schallhorn| first=Kaitlyn| work=[[TheBlaze]]| date=23 March 2017| accessdate=7 April 2017| quote=Schumer added that Gorsuch's record shows he has a "deep-seated conservative ideology" and "groomed by the Federalist Society," a conservative nonprofit legal organization.}}</ref> This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/06/us/politics/neil-gorsuch-supreme-court-senate.html | publisher=The New York Times | date=6 April 2017| author=Matt Flegenheimer |title=Senate Republicans Deploy 'Nuclear Option' to Clear Path for Gorsuch| quote=After Democrats held together Thursday morning and filibustered President Trump's nominee, Republicans voted to lower the threshold for advancing Supreme Court nominations from 60 votes to a simple majority.}}</ref>

Not every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with the nomination of [[Harriet Miers]] in 2006. The Senate may also fail to act on a nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President [[Dwight Eisenhower]]'s first nomination of [[John Marshall Harlan II]] in November, 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, as previously noted, the Senate failed to act on the March 2016 nomination of [[Merrick Garland]]; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President [[Donald Trump|Trump]]'s appointment of [[Neil Gorsuch]].<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/nominations/Nominations.htm |title=U.S. Senate: Supreme Court Nominations, Present-1789 |publisher=United States Senate| access-date=8 April 2017}}</ref>

Once the Senate confirms a nomination, the president must prepare and sign a commission, to which the Seal of the [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] must be affixed, before the new justice can take office.<ref>''See'' {{usc|5|2902}}.</ref> The seniority of an associate justice is based on the commissioning date, not the confirmation or swearing-in date.<ref>{{usc|28|4}}. If two justices are commissioned on the same date, then the oldest one has precedence.</ref>

Before 1981, the approval process of justices was usually rapid. From the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] through [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] administrations, justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. Some believe this is because Congress sees justices as playing a more political role than in the past.<ref>{{cite web|last=Balkin |first=Jack M. |url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forum/symposium-jc/balkin.php |title=The passionate intensity of the confirmation process |accessdate=February 13, 2008 |publisher=Jurist |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218235804/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forum/symposium-jc/balkin.php |archivedate=December 18, 2007 }}</ref> According to the [[Congressional Research Service]], the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months).<ref>{{cite news| title=The Stakes Of The 2016 Election Just Got Much, Much Higher| url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/2016-supreme-court_us_56bfaee3e4b0c3c55051ad0c| work=[[The Huffington Post]] |access-date=February 14, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44234.pdf| title=Supreme Court Appointment Process: Senate Debate and Confirmation Vote| date=October 19, 2015| access-date=February 14, 2016| website=Congressional Research Service| publisher = |last=McMillion| first=Barry J.}}</ref>

====Recess appointments====
When the Senate is in recess, a president may make temporary appointments to fill vacancies. [[recess appointment|Recess appointees]] hold office only until the end of the next Senate session (less than two years). The Senate must confirm the nominee for them to continue serving; of the two chief justices and eleven associate justices who have received recess appointments, only Chief Justice [[John Rutledge]] was not subsequently confirmed.<ref>{{cite book| title=Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States|publisher=Oxford University Press| year=1992| isbn=0-19-505835-6|editor-last=Hall| editor-first=Kermit L.| pages=965–971|chapter=Appendix Two}}</ref>

No president since [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] has made a recess appointment to the Court, and the practice has become rare and controversial even in lower federal courts.<ref>See, e.g., Evans v. Stephens, 387 F.3d 1220 (11th Cir. 2004), which concerned the recess appointment of [[William H. Pryor, Jr.|William Pryor]]. Concurring in denial of certiorari, Justice Stevens observed that the case involved "the first such appointment of an Article III judge in nearly a half century" 544 U.S. 942 (2005) (Stevens, J., concurring in denial of cert) (internal quotation marks deleted).</ref> In 1960, after Eisenhower had made three such appointments, the Senate passed a "sense of the Senate" resolution that recess appointments to the Court should only be made in "unusual circumstances."<ref name="recessapp">{{cite journal| last=Fisher| first=Louis| date=September 5, 2001| title=Recess Appointments of Federal Judges|url=http://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL31112.pdf|format=PDF|journal=CRSN Report for Congress|series=Congressional Research Service| publisher=The Library of Congress| volume=RL31112| page=16| quote=''Resolved'', That it is the sense of the Senate that the making of recess appointments to the Supreme Court of the United States may not be wholly consistent with the best interests of the Supreme Court, the nominee who may be involved, the litigants before the Court, nor indeed the people of the United States, and that such appointments, therefore, should not be made except under unusual circumstances and for the purpose of preventing or ending a demonstrable breakdown in the administration of the Court's business.|accessdate=August 6, 2010}}</ref> Such resolutions are not legally binding but are an expression of Congress's views in the hope of guiding executive action.<ref name="recessapp" /><ref>The resolution passed by a vote of 48 to 37, mainly along party lines; Democrats supported the resolution 48–4, and Republicans opposed it 33–0.</ref>

The 2014 Supreme Court ruling in [[National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning]] limited the ability of the President to make recess appointments (including appointments to the Supreme Court), ruling that the Senate decides when the Senate is in session (or in recess). Justice [[Stephen Breyer|Breyer]] writing for the Court, stated, "We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business." <ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/13pdf/12-1281_mc8p.pdf| title=National Relations Board v. Noel Canning et al| format=PDF| pages=34, 35}} In the opinion for the Court, Breyer states "In our view, however, the pro forma sessions count as sessions, not as periods of recess. We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business. The Senate met that standard here." Later, the opinion states: "For these reasons, we conclude that we must give great weight to the Senate's own determination of when it is and when it is not in session. But our deference to the Senate cannot be absolute. When the Senate is without the capacity to act, under its own rules, it is not in session even if it so declares."</ref> This ruling allows the Senate to prevent recess appointments through the use of [[Pro forma#United States|pro-forma sessions]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/02/15/466849025/white-house-seems-to-rule-out-recess-appointment-to-replace-scalia| title=Obama Won't Appoint Scalia Replacement While Senate Is Out This Week| newspaper=[[NPR]]| language=en| access-date=January 25, 2017}}</ref>

===Tenure===
The Constitution provides that justices "shall hold their offices during good behavior" (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior" is understood to mean justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, unless they are [[Impeachment|impeached and convicted]] by Congress, [[Resignation|resign]], or retire.<ref>{{cite web | title=How the Federal Courts Are Organized: Can a federal judge be fired? |url=http://www.fjc.gov/federal/courts.nsf/autoframe?OpenForm&nav=menu3c&page=/federal/courts.nsf/page/A783011AF949B6BF85256B35004AD214?opendocument |publisher=[[Federal Judicial Center]]. fjc.gov |accessdate=March 18, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915143136/http://www.fjc.gov/federal/courts.nsf/autoframe?OpenForm&nav=menu3c&page=%2Ffederal%2Fcourts.nsf%2Fpage%2FA783011AF949B6BF85256B35004AD214%3Fopendocument |archivedate=September 15, 2012 |df= }}</ref> Only one justice has been impeached by the House of Representatives ([[Samuel Chase]], March 1804), but he was acquitted in the Senate (March 1805).<ref>{{cite web| title=History of the Federal Judiciary: Impeachments of Federal Judges| url=http://www.fjc.gov/history/home.nsf/page/judges_impeachments.html| publisher=[[Federal Judicial Center]] fjc.gov| accessdate=March 18, 2012}}</ref> Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, [[William O. Douglas]] was the subject of hearings twice, in 1953 and again in 1970; and [[Abe Fortas]] resigned while hearings were being organized in 1969), but they did not reach a vote in the House. No mechanism exists for removing a justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, but unable (or unwilling) to resign.<ref name="hufpost">{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jacob-m-appel/anticipating-the-incapaci_b_266179.html| title=Anticipating the Incapacitated Justice|last=Appel|first=Jacob M.|date=August 22, 2009| work=The Huffington Post|accessdate=August 23, 2009}}</ref>

Because justices have indefinite tenure, timing of vacancies can be unpredictable. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when [[Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr.]] and William Rehnquist were nominated to replace [[Hugo Black]] and [[John Marshall Harlan II]], who retired within a week of each other. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations, such as the eleven years between [[Stephen Breyer]]'s nomination in 1994 to succeed [[Harry Blackmun]] and the nomination of [[John Roberts]] in 2005 to fill the seat of [[Sandra Day O'Connor]] (though Roberts' nomination was withdrawn and resubmitted for the role of Chief Justice after Rehnquist died).

Despite the variability, all but four presidents have been able to appoint at least one justice. [[William Henry Harrison]] died a month after taking office, though his successor ([[John Tyler]]) made an appointment during that presidential term. Likewise, [[Zachary Taylor]] died 16 months after taking office, but his successor ([[Millard Fillmore]]) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. [[Andrew Johnson]], who became president after the [[assassination of Abraham Lincoln]], was denied the opportunity to appoint a justice by a reduction in the [[#Size of the Court|size of the Court]]. [[Jimmy Carter]] is the only person elected president to have left office after at least one full term without having the opportunity to appoint a justice. Somewhat similarly, presidents [[James Monroe]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and [[George W. Bush]] each served a full term without an opportunity to appoint a justice, but made appointments during their subsequent terms in office. No president who has served more than one full term has gone without at least one opportunity to make an appointment.

Therese presidents have appointed justices who together served more than a century. [[Andrew Jackson]], [[Abraham Lincoln]], and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].<ref name="congressorg">{{cite web |url=http://www.congress.org/news/2010/06/16/how_presidents_influence_the_court |title=How Presidents Influence the Court |last=Ali |first=Ambreen |date=June 16, 2010 |work=Congress.org |accessdate=June 16, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618174203/http://www.congress.org/news/2010/06/16/how_presidents_influence_the_court |archivedate=June 18, 2010 }}</ref>

==Membership==
{{See also|List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States}}

===Current justices===

The court is currently filled with nine justices. The most recent justice to join to the court was [[Neil Gorsuch]], who was nominated by President [[Donald Trump]] on January 31, 2017, and confirmed on April 7, 2017, by the Senate.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Name
! Date of birth
! Appointed by
! Senate confirmation vote
! Age at appointment
! Current age
! First day / Length of service
! class="unsortable"|Previous positions
! Succeeded
|-
| [[File:File-Official roberts CJ cropped.jpg|100px|Roberts]]
'''{{Sortname|John |Roberts}}''' ([[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]])
|{{dts|1955|1|27}} [[Buffalo, New York]]
| {{Sortname|George W.|Bush}}
| [[John Roberts Supreme Court nomination#Full Senate vote|78–22]]
| 50
| {{age nts|1955|1|27}}
| style="white-space:nowrap"|{{dts|2005|9|29}} {{age in years and months|2005|9|29}}
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit]] (2003–2005); [[United States Solicitor General|Principal Deputy Solicitor General]] (1989–1993); [[White House Counsel|Associate Counsel to the President]] (1982–1986)
| [[William Rehnquist]]
|-
| [[File:Anthony Kennedy official SCOTUS portrait crop.jpg|100px|Kennedy]]
'''{{Sortname|Anthony|Kennedy}}'''
| {{dts|1936|7|23}} [[Sacramento, California]]
| {{Sortname|Ronald|Reagan}}
| [[Anthony Kennedy Supreme Court nomination#Appointment to Supreme Court|97–0]]
| 51
| {{age nts|1936|7|23}}
| {{dts|1988|2|18}} {{age in years and months|1988|2|18}}
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]] (1975–1988); Private practice (1963–1975)
| [[Lewis F. Powell Jr.|Lewis Powell]]
|-
| [[File:Clarence Thomas, official SCOTUS portrait, crop.jpg|100px|Thomas]]
'''{{Sortname|Clarence|Thomas}}'''
| {{dts|1948|6|23}} [[Pin Point, Georgia]]
| {{Sortname|George H. W.|Bush}}
| [[Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination#Senate confirmation|52–48]]
| 43
| {{age nts|1948|6|23}}
| {{dts|1991|10|23}} {{age in years and months|1991|10|23}}
| Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit (1990–1991); Chairman, [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] (1982–1990); [[Missouri Attorney General|Assistant Attorney General]] in [[Missouri]] under [[State Attorney General]] [[John Danforth]] (1974–1977)
| [[Thurgood Marshall]]
|-
| [[File:Ruth Bader Ginsburg, official SCOTUS portrait, crop.jpg|100px|Ginsburg]]
'''{{Sortname|Ruth Bader|Ginsburg}}'''
| {{dts|1933|3|15}} [[Brooklyn|Brooklyn, New York]]
| rowspan="2" | {{Sortname|Bill|Clinton}}
| [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg#Nomination and confirmation|96–3]]
| 60
| {{age nts|1933|3|15}}
| {{dts|1993|8|10}} {{age in years and months|1993|8|10}}
| Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit (1980–1993); General Counsel, [[American Civil Liberties Union]] (1973–1980)
| [[Byron White]]
|-
| [[File:Stephen Breyer official SCOTUS portrait crop.jpg|100px|Breyer]]
'''{{Sortname|Stephen|Breyer}}'''
| {{dts|1938|8|15}} [[San Francisco|San Francisco, California]]
| [[Stephen Breyer#Judicial career|87–9]]
| 55
| {{age nts|1938|8|15}}
| {{dts|1994|8|3}} {{age in years and months|1994|8|3}}
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit|Chief Judge, Court of Appeals for the First Circuit]] (1990–1994); [[United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit|Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the First Circuit]] (1980–1990)
| [[Harry Blackmun]]
|-
| [[File:010 alito cropped.jpg|100px|Alito]]
'''{{Sortname|Samuel|Alito}}'''
| {{dts|1950|4|1}} [[Trenton, New Jersey]]
| George W. Bush
| [[Samuel Alito Supreme Court nomination#Full Senate|58–42]]
| 55
| {{age nts|1950|4|1}}
| {{dts|2006|1|31}} {{age in years and months|2006|1|31}}
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit|Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]] (1990–2006); [[United States Attorney|U.S. Attorney]] for the District of New Jersey (1987–1990); [[United States Assistant Attorney General|Deputy Assistant Attorney General]] (1985–1987); [[United States Solicitor General|Assistant to the Solicitor General]] (1981–1985)
| [[Sandra Day O'Connor]]
|-
| [[File:Sonia Sotomayor in SCOTUS robe crop.jpg|100px|Sotomayor]]
'''{{Sortname|Sonia|Sotomayor}}'''
| {{dts|1954|6|25}} [[The Bronx|The Bronx, New York]]
| rowspan="2" | {{Sortname|Barack|Obama}}
| [[Sonia Sotomayor Supreme Court nomination#Full Senate|68–31]]
| 55
| {{age nts|1954|6|25}}
| {{dts|2009|8|8}} {{age in years and months|2009|8|8}}
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit|Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]] (1998–2009); [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York|District Judge, District Court for the Southern District of New York]] (1992–1998)
| [[David Souter]]
|-
| [[File:Elena Kagan-1-1.jpg|100px|Kagan]]
'''{{Sortname|Elena|Kagan}}'''
| {{dts|1960|4|28}} [[Manhattan|Manhattan, New York]]
| [[Elena Kagan Supreme Court nomination#Full Senate|63–37]]
| 50
| {{age nts|1960|4|28}}
| {{dts|2010|8|7}} {{age in years and months|2010|8|5}}
| [[Solicitor General of the United States]] (2009–2010); [[Dean of Harvard Law School]] (2003–2009); Associate [[White House Counsel]] (1995–1999); Deputy Director of the [[Domestic Policy Council]] (1995–1999);
| [[John Paul Stevens]]
|-
| [[File:Associate Justice Neil Gorsuch Official Portrait (cropped 2).jpg|100px|Gorsuch]]
'''{{Sortname|Neil|Gorsuch}}'''
| {{dts|1967|8|29}} [[Denver|Denver, Colorado]]
| {{Sortname|Donald|Trump}}
| [[Neil Gorsuch Supreme Court nomination#Confirmation vote|54–45]]
| 49
| {{age nts|1967|8|29}}
| {{dts|2017|4|10}} {{age in years, months and days|2017|4|10|show unit=full}}
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit|Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit]] (2006–2017); [[United States Associate Attorney General|Principal Deputy Associate Attorney General and Acting Associate Attorney General]] (2005–2006);
| [[Antonin Scalia]]
|}

===Court demographics===

{{Main article|Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States}}

The Court currently has six men and three women justices. Among the nine justices, there is one African-American (Justice Thomas) and one Hispanic (Justice Sotomayor). Two of the justices were born to at least one immigrant parent: Justice Alito's parents were born in Italy,<ref>{{cite web| last1=Walthr| first1=Matthew| title=Sam Alito: A Civil Man| url=https://spectator.org/58731_sam-alito-civil-man/| work=[[The American Spectator]]| accessdate=15 June 2017| date=April 21, 2014| via=The ANNOTICO Reports}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| last1=DeMarco|first1=Megan|title=Growing up Italian in Jersey: Alito reflects on ethnic heritage| url=http://www.italystl.com/ra/3788.htm|accessdate=15 June 2017| work=[[The Times (Trenton)|The Times]]| location=Trenton, New Jersey| date=February 14, 2008}}</ref> and Justice Ginsburg's father was born in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Halberstam| first1=Malvina| title=Ruth Bader Ginsburg|url=https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/ginsburg-ruth-bader| website=Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia| publisher=Jewish Women's Archive| accessdate=15 June 2017|date=1 March 2009}}</ref>
At least five justices are [[Roman Catholics]] and three are [[Judaism|Jewish]]; it is unclear whether Neil Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian.<ref name=gorsuchreligion>Neil Gorsuch was raised Catholic, but attends an Episcopalian church. It is unclear if he considers himself a Catholic or a Protestant. {{cite news| url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/03/18/politics/neil-gorsuch-religion/| publisher=[[CNN]]| title=What is Neil Gorsuch's religion? It's complicated| first=Daniel| last=Burke| date=March 22, 2017 |quote=Springer said she doesn't know whether Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian. "I have no evidence that Judge Gorsuch considers himself an Episcopalian, and likewise no evidence that he does not." Gorsuch's younger brother, J.J., said he too has "no idea how he would fill out a form. He was raised in the Catholic Church and confirmed in the Catholic Church as an adolescent, but he has been attending Episcopal services for the past 15 or so years."}}</ref> The average age is 67 years and 4 months. Every current justice has an [[Ivy League]] background.<ref>{{cite news| last=Baker| first=Peter| title=Kagan Is Sworn in as the Fourth Woman, and 112th Justice, on the Supreme Court| work=The New York Times| date=August 7, 2010| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/08/us/08kagan.html| accessdate=August 8, 2010}}</ref> Four justices are from the state of New York, two from California, one from New Jersey, one from Georgia, and one from Colorado.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}}

In the 19th century, every justice was a man of European descent (usually Northern European), and almost always Protestant. Concerns about diversity focused on geography, to represent all [[Regionalism (politics)|regions]] of the country, rather than religious, ethnic, or gender diversity.<ref name=obrien46>{{cite book|last=O'Brien | first=David M.|title=Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics |edition=6th |year=2003 |page=46 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=0-393-93218-4}}</ref>

Most justices have been Protestants, including 36 [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopalians]], 19 [[Presbyterian]]s, 10 [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]], 5 [[Methodist]]s, and 3 [[Baptists]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/adh_sc.html|title = Religion of the Supreme Court|publisher=adherents.com|date=January 31, 2006|accessdate=July 9, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| first1=Jeffrey A.| last1=Segal| first2=Harold J.| last2=Spaeth| title=The Supreme Court and the Attitudinal Model Revisited |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press. |year=2002|isbn=0-521-78971-0|page=183}}</ref> The first [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] justice was Roger Taney in 1836,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia| last1=Schumacher| first1=Alvin| title=Roger B. Taney| url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Roger-B-Taney| encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]| accessdate=3 May 2017| quote=He was the first Roman Catholic to serve on the Supreme Court.}}</ref> and 1916 saw the appointment of the first Jewish justice, [[Louis Brandeis]].<ref name="SCOTUS FAQ"/> Several Catholic and Jewish justices have since been appointed, and in recent years the situation has reversed. The Court currently has at least five Catholic justices.<ref name=gorsuchreligion />

Racial, ethnic, and gender diversity began to increase in the late 20th century. [[Thurgood Marshall]] became the first [[African American]] justice in 1967.<ref name="SCOTUS FAQ"/> [[Sandra Day O'Connor]] became the first female justice in 1981.<ref name="SCOTUS FAQ"/> Marshall was succeeded by African-American [[Clarence Thomas]] in 1991.<ref>{{cite news| last1=de Vogue| first1=Ariane| title=Clarence Thomas' Supreme Court legacy| url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/10/22/politics/clarence-thomas-supreme-court-25-years/| accessdate=3 May 2017| work=CNN| date=October 22, 2016}}</ref> O'Connor was joined by [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]] in 1993.<ref name="Four Justices"/> After O'Connor's retirement Ginsburg was joined in 2009 by [[Sonia Sotomayor]], the first [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Latina]] justice;<ref name="SCOTUS FAQ"/> and in 2010 by [[Elena Kagan]], for a total of four female justices in the Court's history.<ref name="Four Justices">{{cite web| title=The Four Justices| url=http://npg.si.edu/exhibition/four-justices| website=Smithsonian Institution| accessdate=3 May 2017| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820153726/http://npg.si.edu/exhibition/four-justices| archivedate=August 20, 2016| dead-url=no}}</ref>

There have been six foreign-born justices in the Court's history: [[James Wilson]] (1789–1798), born in [[Ceres, Fife|Caskardy]], [[Scotland]]; [[James Iredell]] (1790–1799), born in [[Lewes]], [[England]]; [[William Paterson (judge)|William Paterson]] (1793–1806), born in [[County Antrim]], [[Ireland]]; [[David Josiah Brewer|David Brewer]] (1889–1910), born in [[Smyrna]], [[Turkey]]; [[George Sutherland]] (1922–1939), born in [[Buckinghamshire]], England; and [[Felix Frankfurter]] (1939–1962), born in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]].<ref name="SCOTUS FAQ">{{cite web| title=Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)| url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/faq_justices.aspx#faqjustice12| publisher=Supreme Court of the United States| accessdate=3 May 2017}}</ref>

===Retired justices===

There are currently three living retired justices of the Supreme Court of the United States: [[John Paul Stevens]], [[Sandra Day O'Connor]] and [[David Souter]]. As retired justices, they no longer participate in the work of the Supreme Court, but may be designated for temporary assignments to sit on lower federal courts, usually the [[United States Courts of Appeals]]. Such assignments are formally made by the [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]], on request of the [[Chief Judge|chief judge]] of the lower court and with the consent of the retired justice. In recent years, Justice O'Connor has sat with several Courts of Appeals around the country, and Justice Souter has frequently sat on the [[First Circuit]], the court of which he was briefly a member before joining the Supreme Court.

The status of a retired justice is analogous to that of a circuit or district court judge who has taken [[senior status]], and eligibility of a supreme court justice to assume retired status (rather than simply resign from the bench) is governed by the same age and service criteria.

In recent times, justices tend to strategically plan their decisions to leave the bench with personal, institutional, ideological, partisan and sometimes even political factors playing a role.<ref>David N. Atkinson, ''Leaving the Bench'' (University Press of Kansas 1999) {{ISBN|0-7006-0946-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/09/09/an-invisible-chief-justice/| title=An Invisible Chief Justice| last=Greenhouse| first=Linda| date=September 9, 2010| work=The New York Times| quote=Had [O'Connor] anticipated that the chief justice would not serve out the next Supreme Court term, she told me after his death, she would have delayed her own retirement for a year rather than burden the court with two simultaneous vacancies. […] Her reason for leaving was that her husband, suffering from Alzheimer's disease, needed her care at home.| authorlink=Linda Greenhouse| accessdate=September 9, 2010}}</ref> The fear of mental decline and death often motivates justices to step down. The desire to maximize the Court's strength and legitimacy through one retirement at a time, when the Court is in recess, and during non-presidential election years suggests a concern for institutional health. Finally, especially in recent decades, many justices have timed their departure to coincide with a philosophically compatible president holding office, to ensure that a like-minded successor would be appointed.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Ward
|first=Artemus
|title= Deciding to Leave: The Politics of Retirement from the United States Supreme Court
|publisher=SUNY Press
|isbn= 978-0-7914-5651-4
|year=2003
|page=358
|url= http://www.sunypress.edu/p-3721-deciding-to-leave.aspx
|quote=One byproduct of the increased [retirement benefit] provisions [in 1954], however has been a dramatic rise in the number of justices engaging in succession politics by trying to time their departures to coincide with a compatible president. The most recent departures have been partisan, some more blatantly than others, and have bolstered arguments to reform the process. A second byproduct has been an increase in justices staying on the Court past their ability to adequately contribute.[http://www.sunypress.edu/pdf/60710.pdf] p. 9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| last2=Lindgren| first2=James| date=May 2010| title=Retirement and Death in Office of U.S. Supreme Court Justices| journal=[[Demography (journal)|Demography]]| volume=47| issue=2| pages=269–298| doi=10.1353/dem.0.0100|pmc=3000028| pmid=20608097| quote=If the incumbent president is of the same party as the president who nominated the justice to the Court, and if the incumbent president is in the first two years of a four-year presidential term, then the justice has odds of resignation that are about 2.6 times higher than when these two conditions are not met.| last1=Stolzenberg| first1=Ross M.}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Name
! Date of birth
! Appointed by
! Retired under
! Confirmation vote
! Age at appointment
! Current age
! First day
! Date of retirement
! Length of service
|-
| [[File:John Paul Stevens official SCOTUS portrait crop.jpg|100px|Stevens]]
'''[[John Paul Stevens]]'''
| {{dts|1920|4|20}} [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]]
| [[Gerald Ford]]
| [[Barack Obama]]
| 98–0
| 55
| {{age nts|1920|4|20}}
| December 19, 1975
| June 29, 2010
| {{age in years, months and days|1975|12|19|2010|06|29}}
|-
| [[File:Sandra Day O'Connor.jpg|100px|O'Connor]]
'''[[Sandra Day O'Connor]]'''
| {{dts|1930|3|26}} [[El Paso, Texas]]
| [[Ronald Reagan]]
| [[George W. Bush]]
| 99–0
| 51
| {{age nts|1930|3|26}}
| September 25, 1981
| January 31, 2006
| {{age in years, months and days|1981|09|25|2006|01|31}}
|-
| [[File:DavidSouter.jpg|100px|Souter]]
'''[[David Souter]]'''
| {{dts|1939|9|17}} [[Melrose, Massachusetts]]
| [[George H. W. Bush]]
| [[Barack Obama]]
| 90–9
| 51
| {{age nts|1939|9|17}}
| {{dts|1990|10|9}}
| June 29, 2009
| {{age in years, months and days|1990|10|9|2009|06|29}}
|}

===Seniority and seating===
Many of the internal operations of the Court are organized by [[seniority]] of justices; the chief justice is considered the most senior member of the court, regardless of the length of his or her service. The associate justices are then ranked by the length of their service.

[[File:Inside the United States Supreme Court.jpg|thumb|left|alt=The interior of the United States Supreme Court|The interior of the United States Supreme Court]]
During Court sessions, the justices sit according to seniority, with the Chief Justice in the center, and the Associate Justices on alternating sides, with the most senior Associate Justice on the Chief Justice's immediate right, and the most junior Associate Justice seated on the left farthest away from the Chief Justice. Therefore, the current court sits as follows from left to right, from the perspective of those facing the Court: Kagan, Alito, Ginsburg, Kennedy (most senior Associate Justice), Roberts (Chief Justice), Thomas, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Gorsuch. In the official yearly Court photograph, justices are arranged similarly, with the five most senior members sitting in the front row in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (The most recent photograph includes Ginsburg, Kennedy, Roberts, Thomas, Breyer), and the four most junior justices standing behind them, again in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (Kagan, Alito, Sotomayor, Gorsuch).

In the justices' private conferences, current practice is for them to speak and vote in order of seniority to begin with the chief justice first and end with the most junior associate justice. The most junior associate justice in these conferences charged with any menial tasks the justices may require as they convene alone, such as answering the door of their conference room, serving beverages and transmitting orders of the court to the clerk.<ref>See for example ''Sandra Day O'Connor:How the first woman on the Supreme Court became its most influential justice'', by [[Joan Biskupic]], Harper Collins, 2005, p. 105. Also ''Rookie on the Bench: The Role of the Junior Justice'' by Clare Cushman, Journal of Supreme Court History '''32''' no. 3 (2008), pp. 282–296.</ref>
Justice [[Joseph Story]] served the longest as junior justice, from February 3, 1812, to September 1, 1823, for a total of 4,228 days. Justice [[Stephen Breyer]] follows very closely behind with less than a month or just 29 days less at 4,199 days when Justice [[Samuel Alito]] was confirmed to the court on January 31, 2006.<ref name="juniorjustice">{{cite web| url=http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1199873130560| title= Breyer Just Missed Record as Junior Justice| accessdate=January 11, 2008}}</ref>

===Salary===
{{Main article|Federal judge salaries in the United States}}
As of 2017, associate justices are paid $251,800 and the chief justice $263,300.<ref name="salary">{{cite web| url=http://www.uscourts.gov/judges-judgeships/judicial-compensation| title=Judicial Compensation| work=United States Courts| accessdate=May 15, 2017|df=}}</ref> [[Compensation Clause|Article III, Section 1]] of the U.S. Constitution prohibits Congress from reducing the pay for incumbent justices. Once a justice meets [[United States federal judge#Retirement|age and service requirements]], the justice may retire. Judicial pensions are based on the same formula used for federal employees, but a justice's pension, as with other federal courts judges, can never be less than their salary at the time of retirement.

===Judicial leanings===
{{See also|Ideological leanings of U.S. Supreme Court justices}}
Although justices are nominated by the president in power, justices do not represent or receive official endorsements from political parties, as is accepted practice in the legislative and executive branches. Jurists are, however, informally categorized in legal and political circles as being judicial conservatives, moderates, or liberals. Such leanings, however, generally refer to legal outlook rather than a political or legislative one. The nominations of justices are endorsed by individual politicians in the legislative branch who vote their approval or disapproval of the nominated justice.

Following the confirmation of Neil Gorsuch in 2017, the Court consists of five justices appointed by Republican presidents and four appointed by Democratic presidents. It is popularly accepted that Chief Justice [[John Roberts|Roberts]] and associate justices [[Clarence Thomas|Thomas]] and [[Samuel Alito|Alito]] (appointed by Republican presidents) comprise the Court's conservative wing. Justices [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg|Ginsburg]], [[Stephen Breyer|Breyer]], [[Sonia Sotomayor|Sotomayor]] and [[Elena Kagan|Kagan]] (appointed by Democratic presidents) comprise the Court's liberal wing. Justice [[Anthony Kennedy|Kennedy]] (appointed by [[Ronald Reagan|President Reagan]]) is generally considered "a conservative who has occasionally voted with liberals",<ref name="Lane2006">{{cite news| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/30/AR2006013001356.html| title=''Kennedy Seen as The Next Justice In Court's Middle''| last=Lane| first=Charles| date=January 31, 2006| quote=If, as many expect, Alito forms a four-vote conservative bloc with Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. and Justices Antonin Scalia and Clarence Thomas, that would leave Justice Anthony M. Kennedy – a conservative who has occasionally voted with liberals on gay rights, the death penalty and abortion – as the court's least predictable member.| newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> and up until Justice Scalia's death, he was often the [[swing vote]] that determined the outcome of cases divided between the conservative and liberal wings.<ref name=Toobin2007>{{cite book
|first=Jeffrey
|last=Toobin
|title=[[The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court]]
|publisher=Doubleday
|year=2007
|isbn=0-385-51640-1}}</ref><ref name="SCOTUSblog30June2012">{{cite news| url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/SCOTUSblog_Summary_Memo_OT11.pdf| title=End-of-Term Statistical Analysis – October Term 2011| date=June 30, 2012| publisher=Supreme Court of the United States Blog (SCOTUSblog)| quote=Justice Kennedy is, for the fourth consecutive Term, the Justice most likely to appear in the majority.}}</ref><ref name=StatPack>See also SCOTUSblog's Stat Pack: {{cite web
|title=Final October Term 2011 Stat Pack and Summary Memo
|first=Kedar
|last=Bhatia
|date=June 30, 2012
|url=http://www.scotusblog.com/2012/06/final-october-term-2011-stat-pack-and-summary-memo/
}}</ref> Gorsuch had a track record as a reliably conservative judge in the 10th circuit.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/03/20/take-look-through-neil-gorsuchs-judicial-record.html| title=Take a look through Neil Gorsuch's judicial record|date=March 20, 2017| work=[[Fox News]] | first=Bill| last=Mears| quote=A Fox News analysis of that record – including some 3,000 rulings he has been involved with – reveals a solid, predictable conservative philosophy, something President Trump surely was attuned to when he nominated him to fill the open ninth seat. The record in many ways mirrors the late Justice Antonin Scalia's approach to constitutional and statutory interpretation.}}</ref>

[[Tom Goldstein]] argued in an article in [[SCOTUSblog]] in 2010, that the popular view of the Supreme Court as sharply divided along ideological lines and each side pushing an agenda at every turn is "in significant part a caricature designed to fit certain preconceptions."<ref name=Goldstein2010>{{cite web| url=http://www.scotusblog.com/2010/06/everything-you-read-about-the-supreme-court-is-wrong/| last=Goldstein| first=Tom| authorlink=Tom Goldstein| title=Everything you read about the Supreme Court is wrong (except here, maybe) |publisher=[[SCOTUSblog]] |date=June 30, 2010 |accessdate=July 7, 2010}}</ref> He pointed out that in the 2009 term, almost half the cases were decided unanimously, and only about 20% were decided by a 5-to-4 vote. Barely one in ten cases involved the narrow liberal/conservative divide (fewer if the cases where Sotomayor recused herself are not included). He also pointed to several cases that defied the popular conception of the ideological lines of the Court.<ref>Among the examples mentioned by Goldstein for the [[2009 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States|2009 term]] were:
* ''Dolan v. United States'', which interpreted judges' prerogatives broadly, typically a "conservative" result. The majority consisted of the five junior Justices: Thomas, Ginsburg, Breyer, Alito, and Sotomayor.
* ''Magwood v. Patterson'', which expanded habeas corpus petitions, a "liberal" result, in an opinion by Thomas, joined by Stevens, Scalia, Breyer, and Sotomayor.
* ''Shady Grove Orthopedic Associates v. [[Allstate]] Insurance Co.'', which yielded a pro-plaintiff result in an opinion by Scalia joined by Roberts, Stevens, Thomas, and Sotomayor.

Goldstein notes that in the 2009 term, the justice most consistently pro-government was Alito, and not the commonly perceived "arch-conservatives" Scalia and Thomas.</ref>
Goldstein further argued that the large number of pro-criminal-defendant [[Summary judgment|summary dismissals]] (usually cases where the justices decide that the lower courts significantly misapplied precedent and reverse the case without briefing or argument) were an illustration that the conservative justices had not been aggressively ideological. Likewise, Goldstein stated that the critique that the liberal justices are more likely to invalidate acts of Congress, show inadequate deference to the political process, and be disrespectful of precedent, also lacked merit: Thomas has most often called for overruling prior precedent (even if long standing) that he views as having been wrongly decided, and during the 2009 term Scalia and Thomas voted most often to invalidate legislation.

According to statistics compiled by SCOTUSblog, in the twelve terms from 2000 to 2011, an average of 19 of the opinions on major issues (22%) were decided by a 5–4 vote, with an average of 70% of those split opinions decided by a Court divided along the traditionally perceived ideological lines (about 15% of all opinions issued). Over that period, the conservative bloc has been in the majority about 62% of the time that the Court has divided along ideological lines, which represents about 44% of all the 5–4 decisions.<ref name=2011fivefour>{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/SB_five-to-four_OT11_final.pdf |title=October 2011 Term, Five to Four Decisions |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 30, 2012 |accessdate=July 2, 2012 |format=PDF}}</ref>

In the October 2010 term, the Court decided 86 cases, including 75 signed opinions and 5 summary reversals (where the Court reverses a lower court without arguments and without issuing an opinion on the case).<ref name=scotusblogstatpack>{{cite web| url=http://www.scotusblog.com/2011/06/final-october-term-2010-stat-pack-available/| title=Final October 2010 Stat Pack available| publisher=SCOTUSblog| date=June 27, 2011| accessdate=June 28, 2011}}</ref><ref name="scotusblogmemo">{{cite web| url=http://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/SB_Summary_Memo_OT10.pdf|title=End of Term statistical analysis – October 2010| date=July 1, 2011| publisher=SCOTUSblog| format=PDF| accessdate=July 2, 2011}}</ref> Four were decided with unsigned opinions, two cases affirmed by [[Supreme Court of the United States#Decision|an equally divided Court]], and two cases were dismissed as improvidently granted. Justice Kagan [[Judicial disqualification|recused]] herself from 26 of the cases due to her prior role as [[United States Solicitor General]]. Of the 80 cases, 38 (about 48%, the highest percentage since the October 2005 term) were decided unanimously (9–0 or 8–0), and 16 decisions were made by a 5–4 vote (about 20%, compared to 18% in the October 2009 term, and 29% in the October 2008 term).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_votesplit_OT10_final.pdf |title=Cases by Vote Split |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 27, 2011 |accessdate =June 28, 2011 |format=PDF}}</ref> However, in fourteen of the sixteen 5–4 decisions, the Court divided along the traditional ideological lines (with Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan on the liberal side, and Roberts, Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on the conservative, and Kennedy providing the "swing vote"). This represents 87% of those 16 cases, the highest rate in the past 10 years. The conservative bloc, joined by Kennedy, formed the majority in 63% of the 5–4 decisions, the highest cohesion rate of that bloc in the Roberts court.<ref name=scotusblogstatpack /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_agreement_highs_and_lows_OT10_final.pdf| title=Justice agreement – Highs and Lows |date=June 27, 2011 |publisher=SCOTUSblog |format=PDF |accessdate=June 28, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_agreement_OT10_final.pdf |title=Justice agreement |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 27, 2011 |accessdate=June 28, 2011 |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_frequency_OT10_final.pdf |title=Frequency in the majority |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 27, 2011 |accessdate=June 28, 2011 |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_five-to-four_OT10_final.pdf |title=Five-to-Four cases |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 27, 2011 |accessdate=June 28, 2011 |format=PDF}}</ref>

In the October 2011 term, the Court decided 75 cases. Of these, 33 (44%) were decided unanimously, and 15 (20%, the same percentage as in the previous term) were decided by a vote of 5–4. Of the latter 15, the Court divided along the perceived ideological lines 10 times with Justice Kennedy joining the conservative justices (Roberts, Scalia, Thomas and Alito) five times and with the liberal justices (Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan) five times.<ref name=2011fivefour /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/SB_votesplit_OT11_final.pdf |title=October 2011 term, Cases by votes split |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 30, 2012 |accessdate=July 2, 2012 |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/SB_strength_of_the_majority_OT11_final.pdf |title=October 22011 term, Strength of the Majority |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 30, 2012 |accessdate=July 2, 2012 |format=PDF}}</ref>

In the October 2012 term, the Court decided 78 cases. Five of them were decided [[Per curiam decision|in unsigned opinions]]. 38 out of the 78 decisions (representing 49% of the decisions) were unanimous in judgement, with 24 decisions being completely unanimous (a single opinion with every justice that participated joining it). This was the largest percentage of unanimous decisions that the Court had in ten years, since the October 2002 term (when 51% of the decisions handed down were unanimous). The Court split 5–4 in 23 cases (29% of the total); of these, 16 broke down along the traditionally perceived ideological lines, with Chief Justice Roberts and Justices Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on one side, Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan on the other, and Justice Kennedy holding the balance. Of these 16 cases, Justice Kennedy sided with the conservatives on 10 cases, and with the liberals on 6. Three cases were decided by an interesting alignment of justices, with Chief Justice Roberts joined by Justices Kennedy, Thomas, Breyer and Alito in the majority, with Justices Scalia, Ginsburg, Sotomayor, and Kagan in the minority. The greatest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Kagan, who agreed on 72 of the 75 (96%) cases, in which both voted; the lowest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Alito, who agreed only on 45 out of 77 (54%) cases, in which they both participated.
Justice Kennedy was in the majority of 5–4 decisions on 20 out of 24 (83%) cases, and in 71 of 78 (91%) cases during the term, in line with his position as the "swing vote" of the Court.<ref name=stats2012>{{cite web |url= http://www.scotusblog.com/2013/06/october-term-2012-summary-memo/ |title=October Term 2012 summary memo |first=Kedar |last=Bhatia |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 29, 2013 |accessdate=June 29, 2013 }}</ref><ref name=stapack2012>{{cite web |url=http://scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/SCOTUSblog_Stat_Pack_OT12.pdf |title=Final October Term 2012 Stat Pack |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=June 27, 2013 |accessdate=June 27, 2013 |format=PDF}}</ref>

==Facilities==
[[File:Panorama of United States Supreme Court Building at Dusk.jpg|thumb|[[United States Supreme Court building|The present U.S. Supreme Court building]] as viewed from the front]]
[[File:SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg|thumb|From the 1860s until the 1930s, the court sat in the [[Old Senate Chamber]] of the [[U.S. Capitol]].]]
{{Main article|United States Supreme Court Building}}
The Supreme Court first met on February 1, 1790, at the Merchants' Exchange Building in [[New York City]]. When Philadelphia became the capital, the Court met briefly in [[Independence Hall]] before settling in [[Old City Hall (Philadelphia)|Old City Hall]] from 1791 until 1800. After the government moved to Washington, D.C., the Court occupied various spaces in the [[United States Capitol]] building until 1935, when it moved into its own purpose-built home. The four-story building was designed by [[Cass Gilbert]] in a classical style sympathetic to the surrounding buildings of the [[United States Capitol|Capitol]] and [[Library of Congress]], and is clad in marble. The building includes the courtroom, justices' chambers, an extensive [[law library]], various meeting spaces, and auxiliary services including a gymnasium. The Supreme Court building is within the ambit of the [[Architect of the Capitol]], but maintains its [[Supreme Court Police|own police force]] separate from the [[United States Capitol Police|Capitol Police]].<ref name=tws24oct204 />

Located across First Street from the [[United States Capitol]] at One First Street NE and Maryland Avenue,<ref name=tws24oct201 /><ref name=tws24oct211>{{cite web |title=Visiting-Capitol-Hill |publisher=docstoc |date=October 24, 2009 |url=http://www.docstoc.com/docs/11663498/Visiting-Capitol-Hill |accessdate=October 24, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821011148/http://www.docstoc.com/docs/11663498/Visiting-Capitol-Hill |archivedate=August 21, 2016 }}</ref> the building is open to the public from 9 am to 4:30 pm weekdays but closed on weekends and [[federal holidays in the United States|holidays]].<ref name=tws24oct201>{{cite web| title=Visiting the Court| publisher=Supreme Court of the United States| date=March 18, 2010| url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/visiting/visiting.aspx| accessdate=March 19, 2010}}</ref> Visitors may not tour the actual courtroom unaccompanied. There is a cafeteria, a gift shop, exhibits, and a half-hour informational film.<ref name=tws24oct204 /> When the Court is not in session, lectures about the courtroom are held hourly from 9:30 am to 3:30 pm and reservations are not necessary.<ref name=tws24oct204 /> When the Court is in session the public may attend oral arguments, which are held twice each morning (and sometimes afternoons) on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays in two-week intervals from October through late April, with breaks during December and February. Visitors are seated on a first-come first-served basis. One estimate is there are about 250 seats available.<ref name=tws24oct209>{{cite web
| title=How The Court Works| publisher=The [[Supreme Court Historical Society]]| date = October 24, 2009| url=http://www.supremecourthistory.org/how-the-court-works/how-the-court-work/visiting-the-court/| accessdate=January 31, 2014}}</ref> The number of open seats varies from case to case; for important cases, some visitors arrive the day before and wait through the night. From mid-May until the end of June, the court releases orders and opinions beginning at 10 am, and these 15 to 30-minute sessions are open to the public on a similar basis.<ref name=tws24oct204>{{cite news| title=Plan Your Trip (quote:) "In mid-May, after the oral argument portion of the Term has concluded, the Court takes the Bench Mondays at 10AM for the release of orders and opinions."| publisher=US Senator John McCain| date=October 24, 2009| url=http://mccain.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=VisitingWashingtonDC.PlanYourTrip#supremecourt| accessdate=October 24, 2009}}</ref> Supreme Court Police are available to answer questions.<ref name=tws24oct201 />

==Jurisdiction==
[[File:Marbury v Madison John Marshall by Swatjester crop.jpg|thumb|Inscription on the wall of the Supreme Court Building from ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]'', in which Chief Justice John Marshall outlined the concept of judicial review]]
{{Main article|Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States}}

Congress is authorized by Article III of the federal Constitution to regulate the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has [[original jurisdiction|original]] and exclusive jurisdiction over cases between two or more states,<ref>{{USCSub|28|1251|a}}</ref> but may decline to hear such cases.<ref>{{cite news| last1=Liptak| first1=Adam| title=Supreme Court Declines to Hear Challenge to Colorado's Marijuana Laws| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/22/us/politics/supreme-court-declines-to-hear-challenge-to-colorados-marijuana-laws.html?_r=0| accessdate=27 April 2017| work=The New York Times| date=March 21, 2016}}</ref> It also possesses original, but not exclusive, jurisdiction to hear "all actions or proceedings to which ambassadors, other public ministers, consuls, or vice consuls of foreign states are parties; all controversies between the United States and a State; and all actions or proceedings by a State against the citizens of another State or against aliens."<ref>{{USCSub|28|1251|b}}</ref>

In 1906, the Court asserted its original jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for [[contempt of court]] in ''[[United States v. Shipp]]''.<ref>{{cite court |litigants=[[United States v. Shipp]] |vol=203 |reporter=U.S. |opinion=563 |pinpoint= |court=Supreme Court of the United States |date=1906 |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/203/563 |accessdate= |quote=}}</ref> The resulting proceeding remains the only contempt proceeding and only criminal trial in the Court's history.<ref name="ABA Journal: US v. Shipp">{{cite web|last1=Curriden|first1=Mark|title=A Supreme Case of Contempt|url=http://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/a_supreme_case_of_contempt|website=ABA Journal|publisher=[[American Bar Association]]|accessdate=27 April 2017|date=June 2, 2009|quote=On May 28, [U.S. Attorney General William] Moody did something unprecedented, then and now. He filed a petition charging Sheriff Shipp, six deputies and 19 leaders of the lynch mob with contempt of the Supreme Court. The justices unanimously approved the petition and agreed to retain original jurisdiction in the matter. ... May 24, 1909, stands out in the annals of the U.S. Supreme Court. On that day, the court announced a verdict after holding the first and only criminal trial in its history.}}</ref><ref name="Humanities">{{cite journal| last1=Hindley| first1=Meredith| title=Chattanooga versus the Supreme Court: The Strange Case of Ed Johnson| journal=Humanities| date=November 2014| volume=35| issue=6| url=https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2014/novemberdecember/feature/chattanooga-versus-the-supreme-court| accessdate=27 April 2017| publisher=[[National Endowment for the Humanities]]| quote=United States v. Shipp stands out in the history of the Supreme Court as an anomaly. It remains the only time the Court has conducted a criminal trial.}}</ref> The contempt proceeding arose from the [[lynching of Ed Johnson]] in [[Chattanooga]], [[Tennessee]] the evening after Justice [[John Marshall Harlan]] granted Johnson a stay of execution to allow his lawyers to file an appeal. Johnson was removed from his jail cell by a lynch mob—aided by the local sheriff who left the prison virtually unguarded—and hung from a bridge, after which a deputy sheriff pinned a note on Johnson's body reading: "To Justice Harlan. Come get your nigger now."<ref name="ABA Journal: US v. Shipp"/> The local sheriff, John Shipp, cited the Supreme Court's intervention as the rationale for the lynching. The Court appointed its deputy clerk as [[special master]] to preside over the trial in Chattanooga with closing arguments made in Washington before the Supreme Court justices, who found nine individuals guilty of contempt, sentencing three to 90 days in jail and the rest to 60 days in jail.<ref name="ABA Journal: US v. Shipp"/><ref name="Humanities"/><ref>{{cite web| last1=Linder| first1=Douglas| title=United States v. Shipp (U.S. Supreme Court, 1909)| url=http://www.famous-trials.com/sheriffshipp/1117-shippcase| website=Famous Trials| accessdate=27 April 2017}}</ref>

In all other cases, however, the Court has only appellate jurisdiction, including the ability to issue [[writ of mandamus|writs of mandamus]] and [[writ of prohibition|writs of prohibition]] to lower courts. It considers cases based on its original jurisdiction very rarely; almost all cases are brought to the Supreme Court on appeal. In practice, the only original jurisdiction cases heard by the Court are disputes between two or more states.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

The Court's appellate jurisdiction consists of appeals from [[United States courts of appeals|federal courts of appeal]] (through [[certiorari]], [[certiorari before judgment]], and [[Certified question#Certification of questions to the United States Supreme Court|certified questions]]),<ref>{{USC|28|1254}}</ref> the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces]] (through certiorari),<ref>{{USC|28|1259}}</ref> the [[Supreme Court of Puerto Rico]] (through certiorari),<ref>{{USC|28|1258}}</ref> the [[Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands]] (through certiorari),<ref>{{USC|28|1260}}</ref> the [[District of Columbia Court of Appeals]] (through certiorari),<ref name="USC|28|1257">{{USC|28|1257}}</ref> and "final judgments or decrees rendered by the highest court of a State in which a decision could be had" (through certiorari).<ref name="USC|28|1257"/> In the last case, an appeal may be made to the Supreme Court from a lower state court if the state's highest court declined to hear an appeal or lacks jurisdiction to hear an appeal. For example, a decision rendered by one of the [[Florida District Courts of Appeal]] can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court if (a) the [[Supreme Court of Florida]] declined to grant certiorari, e.g. ''[[Florida Star v. B. J. F.]]'', or (b) the district court of appeal issued a [[per curiam decision|per curiam]] decision simply affirming the lower court's decision without discussing the merits of the case, since the Supreme Court of Florida lacks jurisdiction to hear appeals of such decisions.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Brannock| first1=Steven| last2=Weinzierl| first2=Sarah| title=Confronting a PCA: Finding a Path Around a Brick Wall| journal=[[Stetson University College of Law|Stetson Law Review]]| date=2003| volume=XXXII| pages=368–369, 387–390| url=http://www.stetson.edu/law/lawreview/media/confronting-a-pca-finding-a-path-around-a-brick-wall.pdf| accessdate=27 April 2017}}</ref> The power of the Supreme Court to consider appeals from state courts, rather than just federal courts, was created by the [[Judiciary Act of 1789]] and upheld early in the Court's history, by its rulings in ''[[Martin v. Hunter's Lessee]]'' (1816) and ''[[Cohens v. Virginia]]'' (1821). The Supreme Court is the only federal court that has jurisdiction over direct appeals from state court decisions, although there are several devices that permit so-called "collateral review" of state cases. It has to be noted that this "collateral review" often only applies to individuals on death row and not through the regular judicial system.<ref>[http://supreme.justia.com/us/489/288/case.html Teague v. Lane, 489 U.S. 288, 306 (1989)]</ref>

Since Article Three of the United States Constitution stipulates that federal courts may only entertain "cases" or "controversies", the Supreme Court cannot decide cases that are moot and it does not render [[advisory opinion]]s, as the supreme courts of some states may do. For example, in ''[[DeFunis v. Odegaard]]'', {{ussc|416|312|1974}}, the Court dismissed a lawsuit challenging the constitutionality of a law school affirmative action policy because the plaintiff student had graduated since he began the lawsuit, and a decision from the Court on his claim would not be able to redress any injury he had suffered. However, the Court recognizes some circumstances where it is appropriate to hear a case that is seemingly moot. If an issue is "capable of repetition yet evading review", the Court will address it even though the party before the Court would not himself be made whole by a favorable result. In ''Roe v. Wade'', {{ussc|410|113|1973}}, and other abortion cases, the Court addresses the merits of claims pressed by pregnant women seeking abortions even if they are no longer pregnant because it takes longer than the typical human gestation period to appeal a case through the lower courts to the Supreme Court. Another mootness exception is voluntary cessation of unlawful conduct, in which the Court considers the probability of recurrence and plaintiff's need for relief.<ref>{{cite web| last1=Gutman| first1=Jeffrey| title=Federal Practice Manual for Legal Aid Attorneys: 3.3 Mootness| url=http://federalpracticemanual.org/chapter3/section3| website=Federal Practice Manual for Legal Aid Attorneys| publisher=Sargent Shriver National Center on Poverty Law| accessdate=27 April 2017}}</ref>

===Justices as Circuit Justices===
The United States is divided into thirteen [[United States court of appeals|circuit courts of appeals]], each of which is assigned a "circuit justice" from the Supreme Court. Although this concept has been in continuous existence throughout the history of the republic, its meaning has changed through time.

Under the [[Judiciary Act of 1789]], each justice was required to "ride circuit", or to travel within the assigned circuit and consider cases alongside local judges. This practice encountered opposition from many justices, who cited the difficulty of travel. Moreover, there was a potential for a conflict of interest on the Court if a justice had previously decided the same case while riding circuit. Circuit riding was abolished in 1891.

Today, the circuit justice for each circuit is responsible for dealing with certain types of applications that, under the Court's rules, may be addressed by a single justice. These include applications for emergency stays (including stays of execution in death-penalty cases) and injunctions pursuant to the [[All Writs Act]] arising from cases within that circuit, as well as routine requests such as requests for extensions of time. In the past, circuit justices also sometimes ruled on motions for [[bail]] in criminal cases, writs of [[habeas corpus]], and applications for [[writ of error|writs of error]] granting permission to appeal. Ordinarily, a justice will resolve such an application by simply endorsing it "granted" or "denied" or entering a standard form of order. However, the justice may elect to write an opinion—referred to as an [[in-chambers opinion]]—in such matters if he or she wishes.

A circuit justice may sit as a judge on the [[Court of Appeals]] of that circuit, but over the past hundred years, this has rarely occurred. A circuit justice sitting with the Court of Appeals has seniority over the chief judge of the circuit.

The chief justice has traditionally been assigned to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Fourth Circuit (which includes Maryland and Virginia, the states surrounding the District of Columbia), and since it was established, the [[Federal Circuit]]. Each associate justice is assigned to one or two judicial circuits.

As of June 27, 2017, the allotment of the justices among the circuits is:<ref>[https://www.supremecourt.gov/orders/courtorders/062717zr1_5426.pdf Allotment Order dated June 27, 2017].</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Circuit !! Justice
|-
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|District of Columbia Circuit]] || Chief Justice Roberts
|-
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit|First Circuit]] || Justice Breyer
|-
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit|Second Circuit]] || Justice Ginsburg
|-
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit|Third Circuit]] || Justice Alito
|-
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit|Fourth Circuit]] || Chief Justice Roberts
|-
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit|Fifth Circuit]] || Justice Alito
|-
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit|Sixth Circuit]] || Justice Kagan
|-
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit|Seventh Circuit]] || Justice Kagan
|-
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit|Eighth Circuit]] || Justice Gorsuch
|-
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|Ninth Circuit]] || Justice Kennedy
|-
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit|Tenth Circuit]] || Justice Sotomayor
|-
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit|Eleventh Circuit]] || Justice Thomas
|-
| [[United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit|Federal Circuit]] || Chief Justice Roberts
|}

Four of the current justices are assigned to circuits on which they previously sat as circuit judges: Chief Justice Roberts (D.C. Circuit), Justice Breyer (First Circuit), Justice Alito (Third Circuit), and Justice Kennedy (Ninth Circuit).

==Process==
{{Main article|Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States}}

A term of the Supreme Court commences on the first Monday of each October, and continues until June or early July of the following year. Each term consists of alternating periods of around two weeks known as "sittings" and "recesses." Justices hear cases and deliver rulings during sittings; they discuss cases and write opinions during recesses.

===Case selection===
Nearly all cases come before the court by way of petitions for writs of [[certiorari#United States law|certiorari]], commonly referred to as "cert". The Court may review any case in the federal courts of appeals "by writ of ''certiorari'' granted upon the petition of any party to any civil or criminal case."<ref>{{usc|28|1254}}</ref> The Court may only review "final judgments rendered by the highest court of a state in which a decision could be had" if those judgments involve a question of federal statutory or constitutional law.<ref>{{usc|28|1257}}; see also [[Adequate and independent state grounds]]</ref> The party that appealed to the Court is the ''[[petitioner]]'' and the non-mover is the ''[[Defendant|respondent]]''. All case names before the Court are styled ''petitioner'' v. ''respondent'', regardless of which party initiated the lawsuit in the trial court. For example, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the state and against an individual, as in ''State of Arizona v. Ernesto Miranda''. If the defendant is convicted, and his conviction then is affirmed on appeal in the [[state supreme court]], when he petitions for cert the name of the case becomes ''[[Miranda v. Arizona]]''.

There are situations where the Court has original jurisdiction, such as when two states have a dispute against each other, or when there is a dispute between the United States and a state. In such instances, a case is filed with the Supreme Court directly. Examples of such cases include ''[[United States v. Texas]]'', a case to determine whether a parcel of land belonged to the United States or to Texas, and ''[[Virginia v. Tennessee]]'', a case turning on whether an incorrectly drawn boundary between two states can be changed by a state court, and whether the setting of the correct boundary requires Congressional approval. Although it has not happened since 1794 in the case of ''[[Georgia v. Brailsford (1794)|Georgia v. Brailsford]]'',<ref>{{cite journal| last=James| first=Robert A.| title=Instructions in Supreme Court Jury Trials| journal=[[The Green Bag]]| year=1998| volume=1| series=2d| issue=4| url=http://www.greenbag.org/v1n4/v1n4_articles_james.pdf| accessdate=February 5, 2013| page=378| format=PDF}}</ref> parties in an action at law in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction may request that a [[jury]] determine issues of fact.<ref>{{usc|28|1872}} ''See'' ''[[Georgia v. Brailsford (1794)|Georgia v. Brailsford]]'', {{ussc|3|1|1794}}, in which the Court conducted a jury trial.</ref> Two other original jurisdiction cases involve colonial era borders and rights under navigable waters in ''[[New Jersey v. Delaware]]'', and water rights between riparian states upstream of navigable waters in ''[[Kansas v. Colorado]]''.

A cert petition is voted on at a session of the court called a ''conference''. A conference is a private meeting of the nine Justices by themselves; the public and the Justices' clerks are excluded. If four Justices vote to grant the petition, the case proceeds to the briefing stage; otherwise, the case ends. Except in [[death penalty]] cases and other cases in which the Court orders briefing from the respondent, the respondent may, but is not required to, file a response to the cert petition.

The court grants a petition for cert only for "compelling reasons", spelled out in the court's Rule 10. Such reasons include:
* Resolving a conflict in the interpretation of a federal law or a provision of the federal Constitution
* Correcting an egregious departure from the accepted and usual course of judicial proceedings
* Resolving an important question of federal law, or to expressly review a decision of a lower court that conflicts directly with a previous decision of the Court.
When a conflict of interpretations arises from differing interpretations of the same law or constitutional provision issued by different federal circuit courts of appeals, lawyers call this situation a "circuit split." If the court votes to deny a cert petition, as it does in the vast majority of such petitions that come before it, it does so typically without comment. A denial of a cert petition is not a judgment on the merits of a case, and the decision of the lower court stands as the final ruling in the case.

To manage the high volume of cert petitions received by the Court each year (of the more than 7,000 petitions the Court receives each year, it will usually request briefing and hear oral argument in 100 or fewer), the Court employs an internal case management tool known as the "[[cert pool]]." Currently, all justices except for Justices Alito and Gorsuch participate in the cert pool.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1129799113829| title=Roberts Dips Toe Into Cert Pool| first=Tony| last=Mauro| work=[[ALM (company)|Legal Times]]| date=October 21, 2005| accessdate=October 31, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1144330162287| title=Justice Alito Joins Cert Pool Party| first=Tony| last=Mauro| work=Legal Times| date=July 4, 2006|accessdate=October 31, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/26/washington/26memo.html?ex=1380168000&en=d58acbfb583fd4f2&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink| title=A Second Justice Opts Out of a Longtime Custom: The 'Cert. Pool'| first=Adam | last=Liptak| work=The New York Times| date=September 25, 2008| accessdate=October 17, 2008}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/01/us/politics/gorsuch-supreme-court-labor-pool-clerks.html| title=Gorsuch, in sign of independence, is out of Supreme Court's clerical pool| first=Adam| last=Liptak| work=The New York Times| date=May 1, 2017| accessdate=May 2, 2017}}</ref>

===Oral argument===
When the Court grants a cert petition, the case is set for oral argument. Both parties will file briefs on the merits of the case, as distinct from the reasons they may have argued for granting or denying the cert petition. With the consent of the parties or approval of the Court, ''[[amicus curiae|amici curiae]]'', or "friends of the court", may also file briefs. The Court holds two-week oral argument sessions each month from October through April. Each side has thirty minutes to present its argument (the Court may choose to give more time, though this is rare),<ref>For example, the arguments on the constitutionality of the [[Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act]] took place over three days and lasted over six hours, covering several issues; the arguments for [[Bush v. Gore]] were 90 minutes long; oral arguments in [[United States v. Nixon]] lasted three hours; and [[New York Times v. United States|the Pentagon papers case]] was given a two-hour argument. {{cite web |url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/itsallpolitics/2011/11/15/142363047/obamacare-will-rank-among-the-longest-supreme-court-arguments-ever |title='Obamacare' will rank among the longest Supreme Court arguments ever |last=Christy |first=Andrew |date=November 15, 2011 |accessdate=March 31, 2011 |publisher=NPR}}
The longest modern-day oral arguments were in the case of [[California v. Arizona]], in which oral arguments lasted over sixteen hours over four days in 1962.{{cite web
|url=http://talkingpointsmemo.com/livewire/oral-arguments-on-health-care-reform-longest-in-45-years |title=Oral arguments on health reform longest in 45 years |last=Bobic |first=Igor
|date=March 26, 2012 |accessdate=January 31, 2014 |publisher=Talking Points Memo}}</ref> and during that time, the Justices may interrupt the advocate and ask questions. The petitioner gives the first presentation, and may reserve some time to rebut the respondent's arguments after the respondent has concluded. ''Amici curiae'' may also present oral argument on behalf of one party if that party agrees. The Court advises counsel to assume that the Justices are familiar with and have read the briefs filed in a case.

===Supreme Court bar===
In order to plead before the court, an attorney must first be admitted to the court's bar. Approximately 4,000 lawyers join the bar each year. The bar contains an estimated 230,000 members. In reality, pleading is limited to several hundred attorneys. The rest join for a one-time fee of $200, earning the court about $750,000 annually. Attorneys can be admitted as either individuals or as groups. The group admission is held before the current justices of the Supreme Court, wherein the Chief Justice approves a motion to admit the new attorneys.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.floridabar.org/divcom/jn/jnjournal01.nsf/Articles/0616A0059B6778BB85256ADB005D6106| title=Joining the Bar of the U.S. Supreme Court| publisher=Florida Bar Journal| work=Volume LXXI, No. 2| date=February 1997| accessdate=February 3, 2014| last1=Glazer| first1=Eric M.| last2=Zachary| first2=Michael| page=63}}</ref> Lawyers commonly apply for the cosmetic value of a certificate to display in their office or on their resume. They also receive access to better seating if they wish to attend an oral argument.<ref>{{cite news |first=Jessica |last=Gresko |title=For lawyers, the Supreme Court bar is vanity trip |url=http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory/lawyers-supreme-court-bar-vanity-trip-18778432#.UU-ctDf75QI |newspaper=[[Florida Today]] |location=[[Melbourne, Florida]] |pages=2A |date=March 24, 2013 |id= |accessdate= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130323073447/http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory/lawyers-supreme-court-bar-vanity-trip-18778432 |archivedate=March 23, 2013 }}</ref> Members of the Supreme Court Bar are also granted access to the collections of the Supreme Court Library.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.supremecourthistory.org/how-the-court-works/how-the-court-work/library-support/| title=How The Court Works; Library Support| publisher=The Supreme Court Historical Society| accessdate=February 3, 2014}}</ref>

===Decision===
At the conclusion of oral argument, the case is submitted for decision. Cases are decided by majority vote of the Justices. It is the Court's practice to issue decisions in all cases argued in a particular Term by the end of that Term. Within that Term, however, the Court is under no obligation to release a decision within any set time after oral argument. At the conclusion of oral argument, the Justices retire to another conference at which the preliminary votes are tallied, and the most senior Justice in the majority assigns the initial draft of the Court's opinion to a Justice on his or her side. Drafts of the Court's opinion, as well as any [[concurring opinion|concurring]] or [[dissenting opinion]]s,<ref>''See generally'', [[Mark Tushnet|Tushnet, Mark, ed.]] (2008) ''I Dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases'', Malaysia: Beacon Press, pp. 256, {{ISBN|978-0-8070-0036-6}}</ref> circulate among the Justices until the Court is prepared to announce the judgment in a particular case. Since recording devices are banned inside the courtroom of the [[United States Supreme Court Building]], the delivery of the decision to the media is done via paper copies and is known as the [[Running of the Interns]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kessler|first1=Robert|title=Why Aren't Cameras Allowed at the Supreme Court Again?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/03/case-allowing-cameras-supreme-court-proceedings/316876/|publisher=[[The Atlantic]]|accessdate=March 24, 2017}}</ref><ref name="IJR 2016">{{cite web| last1=Johnson| first1=Benny| title=The 2016 Running of the Interns| url=http://ijr.com/2016/06/637664-the-2016-running-of-the-interns/| publisher=[[Independent Journal Review]]| accessdate=March 24, 2017}}</ref>

It is possible that, through recusals or vacancies, the Court divides evenly on a case. If that occurs, then the decision of the court below is affirmed, but does not establish binding precedent. In effect, it results in a return to the ''[[status quo]] ante''. For a case to be heard, there must be a quorum of at least six justices.<ref name="28 USC 1">{{usc|28|1}}</ref> If a quorum is not available to hear a case and a majority of qualified justices believes that the case cannot be heard and determined in the next term, then the judgment of the court below is affirmed as if the Court had been evenly divided. For cases brought to the Supreme Court by direct appeal from a United States District Court, the Chief Justice may order the case remanded to the appropriate U.S. Court of Appeals for a final decision there.<ref>{{usc|28|2109}}</ref> This has only occurred once in U.S. history, in the case of ''[[United States v. Alcoa]]'' (1945).<ref>{{cite book| title=Industrial Organization: Contemporary Theory and Practice| last2=Richards| first2=Daniel L.| last3=Norman| first3=George| publisher=South-Western College Publishing| year=1999| location=Cincinnati| pages=11–12| last1=Pepall| first1=Lynne}}</ref>

===Published opinions===
The Court's opinions are published in three stages. First, a slip opinion is made available on the Court's web site and through other outlets. Next, several opinions and lists of the court's orders are bound together in paperback form, called a preliminary print of ''[[United States Reports]]'', the official series of books in which the final version of the Court's opinions appears. About a year after the preliminary prints are issued, a final bound volume of ''U.S. Reports'' is issued. The individual volumes of ''U.S. Reports'' are numbered so that users may cite this set of reports—or a competing version published by another commercial legal publisher but containing parallel citations—to allow those who read their pleadings and other briefs to find the cases quickly and easily.

{{As of|2016|10|alt=As of the beginning of October Term 2016|url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/boundvolumes.aspx}}, there are:
* 564 final bound volumes of ''U.S. Reports'', covering cases through the end of October Term 2010, which ended on September 28, 2011.<ref>{{cite journal| title=Cases adjudged in the Supreme Court at October Term, 2010| journal=United States Reports| date=October 2016| volume=564| url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/boundvolumes/564bv.pdf| accessdate=May 15, 2017|publisher=[[Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States]]| location=Washington D.C.| format=PDF}}</ref>

* 16 volumes' worth of opinions available in [[slip opinion]] form (volumes 565–580)<ref name=sliplists>{{cite web|title=Sliplists|url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/sliplists.aspx|publisher=Supreme Court of the United States|accessdate=May 15, 2017}}</ref>

{{As of|2012|3|df=US}}, the ''U.S. Reports'' have published a total of 30,161 Supreme Court opinions, covering the decisions handed down from February 1790 to March 2012.{{citation needed|reason=is there a URL that can be added to the "as of" template?|date=October 2014}} This figure does not reflect the number of cases the Court has taken up, as several cases can be addressed by a single opinion (see, for example, ''[[Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1|Parents v. Seattle]]'', where ''[[Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education]]'' was also decided in the same opinion; by a similar logic, ''[[Miranda v. Arizona]]'' actually decided not only ''Miranda'' but also three other cases: ''Vignera v. New York'', ''Westover v. United States'', and ''California v. Stewart''). A more unusual example is [[The Telephone Cases]], which comprise a single set of interlinked opinions that take up the entire 126th volume of the ''U.S. Reports''.

Opinions are also collected and published in two unofficial, parallel reporters: ''[[Supreme Court Reporter]]'', published by [[West (publisher)|West]] (now a part of [[Thomson Reuters]]), and ''[[United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers' Edition]]'' (simply known as ''Lawyers' Edition''), published by [[LexisNexis]]. In court documents, legal periodicals and other legal media, case citations generally contain cites from each of the three reporters; for example, citation to ''[[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission]]'' is presented as ''Citizens United v. Federal Election Com'n'', 585 U.S. 50, 130 S. Ct. 876, 175 L. Ed. 2d 753 (2010), with "S. Ct." representing the ''Supreme Court Reporter'', and "L. Ed." representing the ''Lawyers' Edition''.<ref>{{cite web| title=Supreme Court Research Guide| url=http://www.law.georgetown.edu/library/research/guides/supreme_court.cfm| work=law.georgetown.edu| publisher=Georgetown Law Library| accessdate=August 22, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=How to Cite Cases: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions| url=http://lib.guides.umd.edu/content.php?pid=128265&sid=1100770| work=lib.guides.umd.edu| publisher=[[University of Maryland]] University Libraries| accessdate=August 22, 2012}}</ref>

====Citations to published opinions====
{{Main article|Case citation#Supreme Court of the United States}}
Lawyers use an abbreviated format to cite cases, in the form "{{varserif|vol}} U.S. {{varserif|page}}, {{varserif|pin}} ({{varserif|year}})", where {{varserif|vol}} is the volume number, {{varserif|page}} is the page number on which the opinion begins, and {{varserif|year}} is the year in which the case was decided. Optionally, {{varserif|pin}} is used to "pinpoint" to a specific page number within the opinion. For instance, the citation for ''Roe v. Wade'' is 410 U.S. 113 (1973), which means the case was decided in 1973 and appears on page 113 of volume 410 of ''U.S. Reports''. For opinions or orders that have not yet been published in the preliminary print, the volume and page numbers may be replaced with "___".

==Institutional powers and constraints==
{{refimprove section|date=January 2017}}
{{Politics of the United States}}
The Federal court system and the judicial authority to interpret the Constitution received little attention in the debates over the drafting and ratification of the Constitution. The power of [[judicial review]], in fact, is nowhere mentioned in it. Over the ensuing years, the question of whether the power of judicial review was even intended by the drafters of the Constitution was quickly frustrated by the lack of evidence bearing on the question either way.<ref name="google118"/> Nevertheless, the power of judiciary to overturn laws and executive actions it determines are unlawful or unconstitutional is a well-established precedent. Many of the [[Founding Fathers]] accepted the notion of judicial review; in [[Federalist No. 78]], [[Alexander Hamilton]] wrote: "A Constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute."

The Supreme Court firmly established its power to declare laws unconstitutional in ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]'' (1803), consummating the American system of [[checks and balances]]. In explaining the power of judicial review, Chief Justice [[John Marshall]] stated that the authority to interpret the law was the particular province of the courts, part of the ''duty of the judicial department to say what the law is.'' His contention was not that the Court had privileged insight into constitutional requirements, but that it was the constitutional duty of the judiciary, as well as the other branches of government, to read and obey the dictates of the Constitution.<ref name="google118">{{cite book| title=Institutions of American Democracy: The Judicial Branch| year=2005| publisher=Oxford University Press| location=New York City| isbn=978-0-19-530917-1| pages=117–118| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6rWCaMAdUzgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Institutions+of+American+Democracy:+The+Judicial+Branch&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8Q7gUrDCKujisATrhYDYDA&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Institutions%20of%20American%20Democracy%3A%20The%20Judicial%20Branch&f=false| editor1-first=Kermit L.| editor1-last=Hall| editor2-first=Kevin T.| editor2-last=McGuire}}</ref>

Since the founding of the republic, there has been a tension between the practice of judicial review and the [[democratic ideals]] of egalitarianism, self-government, self-determination and freedom of conscience. At one pole are those who view the Federal Judiciary and especially the Supreme Court as being "the most separated and least checked of all branches of government."<ref>{{cite book| last=Mendelson| first=Wallace| year=1992| contribution=Separation of Powers| editor-last=Hall| editor-first=Kermit L.| editor-link=Kermit L. Hall| title=The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States| publisher=Oxford University Press| page=775| isbn=0-19-505835-6}}</ref> Indeed, federal judges and justices on the Supreme Court are not required to stand for election by virtue of their tenure "during good behavior", and their pay may "not be diminished" while they hold their position ([[Article Three of the United States Constitution#Section 1: Federal courts|Section 1 of Article Three]]). Though subject to the process of impeachment, only one Justice has ever been impeached and no Supreme Court Justice has been removed from office. At the other pole are those who view the judiciary as the least dangerous branch, with little ability to resist the exhortations of the other branches of government.<ref name="google118" /> The Supreme Court, it is noted, cannot directly enforce its rulings; instead, it relies on respect for the Constitution and for the law for adherence to its judgments. One notable instance of [[nonacquiescence]] came in 1832, when the state of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] ignored the Supreme Court's decision in ''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]''. President [[Andrew Jackson]], who sided with the Georgia courts, is supposed to have remarked, "[[John Marshall]] has made his decision; now let him enforce it!";<ref>The American Conflict by Horace Greeley (1873), p. 106; also in The Life of Andrew Jackson (2001) by Robert Vincent Remini</ref> however, this alleged quotation has been disputed. Some state governments in the [[Southern United States|South]] also resisted the desegregation of public schools after the 1954 judgment ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]''. More recently, many feared that President Nixon would refuse to comply with the Court's order in ''[[United States v. Nixon]]'' (1974) to surrender the [[Watergate tapes]]. Nixon, however, ultimately complied with the Supreme Court's ruling.

Supreme Court decisions can be (and have been) purposefully overturned by constitutional amendment, which has happened on five occasions:
* ''[[Chisholm v. Georgia]]'' (1793) – overturned by the [[Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eleventh Amendment]] (1795)
* ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' (1857) – overturned by the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] (1865) and the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] (1868)
* ''[[Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.]]'' (1895) – overturned by the [[Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sixteenth Amendment]] (1913)
* ''[[Minor v. Happersett]]'' (1875) – overturned by the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Nineteenth Amendment]] (1920)
* ''[[Oregon v. Mitchell]]'' (1970) – overturned by the [[Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-sixth Amendment]] (1971)

When the Court rules on matters involving the interpretation of laws rather than of the Constitution, simple legislative action can reverse the decisions (for example, in 2009 Congress passed the [[Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009|Lilly Ledbetter act]], superseding the limitations given in ''[[Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.]]'' in 2007). Also, the Supreme Court is not immune from political and institutional consideration: lower federal courts and state courts sometimes resist doctrinal innovations, as do law enforcement officials.<ref>{{cite book| last=Vile| first=John R.|year=1992|contribution=Court curbing| editor-last=Hall| editor-first=Kermit L.
|editor-link=Kermit L. Hall| title=The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States| publisher=Oxford University Press| page=202| isbn=0-19-505835-6}}</ref>

In addition, the other two branches can restrain the Court through other mechanisms. Congress can increase the number of justices, giving the President power to influence future decisions by appointments (as in Roosevelt's Court Packing Plan discussed above). Congress can pass legislation that restricts the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and other federal courts over certain topics and cases: this is suggested by language in [[Article 3 (U.S. Constitution)#Section 2: Federal jurisdiction and trial by jury|Section 2]] of Article Three, where the appellate jurisdiction is granted ''"with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make."'' The Court sanctioned such congressional action in the [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] case ''[[ex parte McCardle]]'' (1869), though it rejected Congress' power to dictate how particular cases must be decided in ''[[United States v. Klein]]'' (1871).

On the other hand, through its power of judicial review, the Supreme Court has defined the scope and nature of the powers and separation between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government; for example, in ''[[United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.]]'' (1936), ''[[Dames & Moore v. Regan]]'' (1981), and notably in ''[[Goldwater v. Carter]]'' (1979), (where it effectively gave the Presidency the power to terminate ratified treaties without the consent of Congress or the Senate). The Court's decisions can also impose limitations on the scope of Executive authority, as in ''[[Humphrey's Executor v. United States]]'' (1935), the ''[[Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer|Steel Seizure Case]]'' (1952), and ''United States v. Nixon'' (1974).

==Law clerks==
{{See also|Law clerk | List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States}}
Each Supreme Court justice hires several [[Law clerk#Federal clerkships|law Clerks]] to review petitions for writ of [[certiorari]], [[Legal research|research]] them, prepare [[bench memorandum]]s, and draft [[Legal opinion|opinions]]. Associate justices are allowed four clerks. The chief justice is allowed five clerks, but Chief Justice Rehnquist hired only three per year, and Chief Justice Roberts usually hires only four.<ref name="Peppers2006">{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/?id=NxiMWr730EcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false| title=Courtiers of the Marble Palace: The Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk| last=Peppers| first=Todd C.| publisher=Stanford University Press| year=2006| isbn=978-0-8047-5382-1| pages=195, 1, 20, 22, and 22–24 respectively}}</ref> Generally, law clerks serve a term of one to two years.

The first law clerk was hired by Associate Justice [[Horace Gray]] in 1882.<ref name=Peppers2006 /><ref name= Weiden2006>{{cite book| first1=David| last1=Weiden| first2=Artemus| last2=Ward| year=2006| title=Sorcerers' Apprentices: 100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court| publisher=NYU Press| isbn=978-0-8147-9404-3| url=http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780814784648?auth=0}}</ref> [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]] and [[Louis Brandeis]] were the first Supreme Court justices to use recent [[law school]] graduates as clerks, rather than hiring a "stenographer-secretary".<ref name=Chace2007>{{cite book| first=James | last=Chace| title=Acheson: The Secretary of State Who Created the American World| publication-place=New York City| publisher=Simon & Schuster| year=2007| publication-date=1998| isbn= 978-0-684-80843-7| url=https://books.google.com/?id=8Jf32GR7t3IC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false| page=44}}</ref> Most law clerks are recent law school graduates.

The first female clerk was [[Lucile Lomen]], hired in 1944 by Justice [[William O. Douglas]].<ref name=Peppers2006 /> The first African-American, [[William T. Coleman, Jr.]], was hired in 1948 by Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]].<ref name=Peppers2006 /> A disproportionately large number of law clerks have obtained law degrees from elite law schools, especially Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, Columbia, and Stanford. From 1882 to 1940, 62% of law clerks were graduates of Harvard Law School.<ref name=Peppers2006 /> Those chosen to be Supreme Court law clerks usually have graduated in the top of their law school class and were often an editor of the [[law review]] or a member of the [[moot court]] board. By the mid-1970s, clerking previously for a judge in a [[United States Courts of Appeals|federal court of appeals]] had also become a prerequisite to clerking for a Supreme Court justice.<ref>[[List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States]]</ref>

Seven Supreme Court justices previously clerked for other justices: [[Byron White]] for [[Frederick M. Vinson]], [[John Paul Stevens]] for [[Wiley Rutledge]], [[William H. Rehnquist]] for [[Robert H. Jackson]], [[Stephen Breyer]] for [[Arthur Goldberg]], [[John G. Roberts, Jr.]] for [[William H. Rehnquist]], [[Elena Kagan]] for [[Thurgood Marshall]] and [[Neil Gorsuch]] for both [[Byron White]] and [[Anthony Kennedy]]. Gorsuch is the first justice to serve alongside a justice for whom he or she clerked.

Several current Supreme Court justices have also clerked in the federal courts of appeals: [[John G. Roberts, Jr.]] for Judge [[Henry Friendly]] of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]], Justice [[Samuel Alito]] for Judge [[Leonard I. Garth]] of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]], [[Elena Kagan]] for Judge [[Abner J. Mikva]] of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]], and [[Neil Gorsuch]] for Judge [[David B. Sentelle]] of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia]].

===Politicization of the Court===

Clerks hired by each of the justices of the Supreme Court are often given considerable leeway in the opinions they draft. "Supreme Court clerkship appeared to be a nonpartisan institution from the 1940s into the 1980s", according to a study published in 2009 by the law review of Vanderbilt University Law School.<ref name=nyt090710>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/07/us/politics/07clerks.html?pagewanted=1&hpw |title=Polarization of Supreme Court Is Reflected in Justices' Clerks |first=Adam |last=Liptak |work=The New York Times |date=September 7, 2010 |accessdate=September 7, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vanderbiltlawreview.org/articles/2009/11/Nelson-et-al.-Supreme-Court-Clerkships-62-Vand.-L.-Rev.-1749-2009.pdf |title=The Liberal Tradition of the Supreme Court Clerkship: Its Rise, Fall, and Reincarnation? |author1=William E. Nelson |author2=Harvey Rishikof |author3=I. Scott Messinger |author4=Michael Jo |work=Vanderbilt Law Review |volume=62 |issue=6 |page=1749 |date=November 2009 |accessdate=September 7, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727110418/http://www.vanderbiltlawreview.org/articles/2009/11/Nelson-et-al.-Supreme-Court-Clerkships-62-Vand.-L.-Rev.-1749-2009.pdf |archivedate=July 27, 2010 }}</ref> "As law has moved closer to mere politics, political affiliations have naturally and predictably become proxies for the different political agendas that have been pressed in and through the courts", former federal court of appeals judge [[J. Michael Luttig]] said.<ref name=nyt090710 /> [[David J. Garrow]], professor of history at the [[University of Cambridge]], stated that the Court had thus begun to mirror the political branches of government. "We are getting a composition of the clerk workforce that is getting to be like the House of Representatives", Professor Garrow said. "Each side is putting forward only ideological purists."<ref name=nyt090710 />

According to the ''Vanderbilt Law Review'' study, this politicized hiring trend reinforces the impression that the Supreme Court is "a superlegislature responding to ideological arguments rather than a legal institution responding to concerns grounded in the rule of law."<ref name=nyt090710 /> A poll conducted in June 2012 by ''The New York Times'' and CBS News showed just 44% of Americans approve of the job the Supreme Court is doing. Three-quarters said justices' decisions are sometimes influenced by their political or personal views.<ref>Liptak and Kopicki, ''The New York Times'', June 7, 2012 [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/08/us/politics/44-percent-of-americans-approve-of-supreme-court-in-new-poll.html?smid=pl-share Approval Rating for Justices Hits Just 44% in New Poll]</ref>

==Criticism==
The court has been the object of criticisms on a range of issues. Among them:

===Judicial activism===
The Supreme Court has been criticized for not keeping within Constitutional bounds by engaging in [[judicial activism]], rather than merely interpreting law and exercising [[judicial restraint]]. Claims of judicial activism are not confined to any particular ideology.<ref name="judicialactivismOxford">See for example "Judicial activism" in ''The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States'', edited by Kermit Hall; article written by Gary McDowell</ref> An often cited example of [[conservatism|conservative]] judicial activism is the 1905 decision in ''[[Lochner v. New York]]'', which has been criticized by many prominent thinkers, including [[Robert Bork]], Justice [[Antonin Scalia]], and Chief Justice [[John Roberts]],<ref name="judicialactivismOxford" /><ref name=tws23oct20>{{cite news
| first= Damon W. |last=Root
| title = Lochner and Liberty
| work = The Wall Street Journal
| date = September 21, 2009
| url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204488304574427193229878748
| accessdate = October 23, 2009
| authorlink = Damon W. Root
}}</ref> and which was reversed in the 1930s.<ref>Bernstein, David. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSZnwNF7aAoC&pg=PA100 Only One Place of Redress: African Americans, Labor Regulations, and the Courts from Reconstruction to the New Deal]'', p. 100 (Duke University Press, 2001): "The Court also directly overturned Lochner by adding that it is no 'longer open to question that it is within the legislative power to fix maximum hours.'"</ref><ref>Dorf, Michael and Morrison, Trevor. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OsxMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 Constitutional Law]'', p. 18 (Oxford University Press, 2010).</ref><ref>Patrick, John. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gSniBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT362 The Supreme Court of the United States: A Student Companion]'', p. 362 (Oxford University Press, 2006).</ref> An often cited example of [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberal]] judicial activism is ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' (1973), which legalized abortion in part on the basis of the "right to privacy" inferred from the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]], a reasoning that some critics argued was circuitous.<ref name="judicialactivismOxford" /> Legal scholars,<ref name=tws22oct08>{{cite news
| first= Peter|last= Steinfels
| title = 'A Church That Can and Cannot Change': Dogma
| work = The New York Times: Books
| date = May 22, 2005
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/22/books/review/22STEINFE.html
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
}}</ref><ref name=tws23oct05>{{cite news
|first=David G.
|last=Savage
|title=Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions?
|quote=a lack of judicial authority to enter an inherently political question that had previously been left to the states
|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]
|date=October 23, 2008
|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/oct/23/nation/na-scotus23
|accessdate=October 23, 2009
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023193212/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-scotus23-2008oct23%2C0%2C1693757.story
|archivedate=October 23, 2008
|deadurl=yes
|df=
}}</ref> justices,<ref name=tws22oct10>{{cite news
| first= Neil A. |last= Lewis
| title = Judicial Nominee Says His Views Will Not Sway Him on the Bench
| quote = he has written scathingly of Roe v. Wade
| work = The New York Times
| date = September 19, 2002
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/19/us/judicial-nominee-says-his-views-will-not-sway-him-on-the-bench.html
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
| authorlink = Neil A. Lewis
}}</ref> and presidential candidates<ref name=tws22oct03>{{cite news
| title = Election Guide 2008: The Issues: Abortion
| work = The New York Times
| year = 2008
| url = http://politics.nytimes.com/election-guide/2008/issues/abortion.html
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
}}</ref> have criticized the Roe decision. The progressive ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' decision has been criticized by conservatives such as [[Patrick Buchanan]]<ref name=tws23oct71>{{cite web
| first= Pat| last= Buchanan
| title = The judges war: an issue of power
| quote = The Brown decision of 1954, desegregating the schools of 17 states and the District of Columbia, awakened the nation to the court's new claim to power.
| publisher = Townhall.com
| date = July 6, 2005
| url = http://townhall.com/columnists/PatBuchanan/2005/07/06/the_judges_war_an_issue_of_power
| accessdate = October 23, 2009
}}</ref> and former presidential contender [[Barry Goldwater]].<ref name=tws22oct33>{{cite news
| first= Adam |last=Clymer
| title = Barry Goldwater, Conservative and Individualist, Dies at 89
| work = The New York Times
| date = May 29, 1998
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/books/01/04/01/specials/goldwater-obit.html
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
| authorlink = Adam Clymer
}}</ref> More recently, ''[[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission]]'' was criticized for expanding upon the precedent in ''[[First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti]]'' (1978) that the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] applies to corporations.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stone|first=Geoffrey R.|date=March 26, 2012|title=''Citizens United'' and conservative judicial activism|url=http://illinoislawreview.org/wp-content/ilr-content/articles/2012/2/Stone.pdf|format=PDF|journal=University of Illinois Law Review|publisher=University of Illinois|volume=2012|issue=2|pages=485–500}}</ref> [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] warned, referring to the ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford|Dred Scott]]'' decision, that if government policy became "irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court...the people will have ceased to be their own rulers."<ref name=tws23oct50>{{cite news
| first= Abraham |last=Lincoln
| title = First Inaugural Address
| quote = At the same time, the candid citizen must confess that if the policy of the Government upon vital questions affecting the whole people is to be irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court, the instant they are made in ordinary litigation between parties in personal actions the people will have ceased to be their own rulers, having to that extent practically resigned their Government into the hands of that eminent tribunal.
| publisher = National Center
| date = March 4, 1861
| url = http://www.nationalcenter.org/LincolnFirstInaugural.html
| accessdate = October 23, 2009
}}</ref> Former justice [[Thurgood Marshall]] justified judicial activism with these words: "You do what you think is right and let the law catch up."<ref name=tws22oct02>{{cite news
| first= George F. |last=Will
| title = Identity Justice: Obama's Conventional Choice
| quote = Thurgood Marshall quote taken from the Stanford Law Review, summer 1992
| work=The Washington Post
| date = May 27, 2009
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/26/AR2009052602348.html
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
}}</ref> During different historical periods, the Court has leaned in different directions.<ref>Irons, Peter. ''A People's History of the Supreme Court''. London: Penguin, 1999. {{ISBN|0-670-87006-4}}</ref><ref name=tws23oct44>{{cite news
| first= Adam |last=Liptak
| title = To Nudge, Shift or Shove the Supreme Court Left
| quote = Every judge who's been appointed to the court since Lewis Powell...in 1971...has been more conservative than his or her predecessor
| work = The New York Times
| date = January 31, 2009
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/01/weekinreview/01liptak.html
| accessdate = October 23, 2009
}}</ref> Critics from both sides complain that activist-judges abandon the Constitution and substitute their own views instead.<ref name=tws22oct21>{{cite news
| first= Charles|last= Babington
| title = Senator Links Violence to 'Political' Decisions
| work=The Washington Post
| date = April 5, 2005
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A26236-2005Apr4.html
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
}}</ref><ref name=tws22oct18>{{cite news
| first= Adam |last=Liptak
| title = A Court Remade in the Reagan Era's Image
| work = The New York Times
| date = February 2, 2006
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/02/politics/politicsspecial1/02conservatives.html?pagewanted=print
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
}}</ref><ref name=tws22oct05>{{cite news
| first= David G.|last= Savage
| title = Supreme Court finds history is a matter of opinions
| work=Los Angeles Times
| date = July 13, 2008
| url = http://articles.latimes.com/2008/jul/13/nation/na-scotus13
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
}}</ref> Critics include writers such as [[Andrew Napolitano]],<ref name=tws23oct59>{{cite news
| author = Andrew P. Napolitano
| title = No Defense
| work = The New York Times
| date = February 17, 2005
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/17/opinion/17napolitano.html
| accessdate = October 23, 2009
}}</ref> [[Phyllis Schlafly]],<ref name=tws23oct60>{{cite news
| first1= Thomas B. |last1=Edsall| first2= Michael A.|last2= Fletcher
| title = Again, Right Voices Concern About Gonzales
| work=The Washington Post
| date = September 5, 2005
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/09/04/AR2005090401338.html
| accessdate = October 23, 2009
}}</ref> [[Mark Levin|Mark R. Levin]],<ref name=tws23oct61>{{cite news
| first= Charles |last=Lane
| title = Conservative's Book on Supreme Court Is a Bestseller
| work=The Washington Post
| date = March 20, 2005
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50246-2005Mar19.html
| accessdate = October 23, 2009
}}</ref> Mark I. Sutherland,<ref name=tws484ki>{{cite book
| author1= Mark I. Sutherland
| author2= Dave Meyer
| author3= William J. Federer
| author4= Alan Keyes
| author5=Ed Meese
| author6=Phyllis Schlafly
| author7=Howard Phillips
| author8= Alan E. Sears
| author9=Ben DuPre
| author10= Rev. Rick Scarborough
| author11=David C. Gibbs III
| author12=Mathew D. Staver
| author13=Don Feder
| author14= Herbert W. Titus
| title = Judicial Tyranny: The New Kings of America
| publisher = Amerisearch Inc.
| year = 2005
| location = St. Louis, Missouri
| page = 242
| url = https://books.google.com/?id=VBrjcQkzV94C&pg=PA96
| isbn = 0-9753455-6-7}}</ref> and [[James MacGregor Burns]].<ref name=tws27oct304>{{cite news
| first= Michiko |last=Kakutani
| title = Appointees Who Really Govern America
| work = The New York Times
| date = July 6, 2009
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/07/books/07kaku.html
| accessdate = October 27, 2009
| authorlink = Michiko Kakutani
}}</ref><ref name=tws27oct303>{{cite news
| author= Emily Bazelon
| title = The Supreme Court on Trial: James MacGregor Burns takes aim at the bench.
| work = [[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]
| date = July 6, 2009
| url = http://www.slate.com/id/2222028/
| accessdate = October 27, 2009
}}</ref> Past presidents from both parties have attacked judicial activism, including [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], Richard Nixon, and Ronald Reagan.<ref>Special keynote address by President Ronald Reagan, November 1988, at the second annual lawyers convention of the [[Federalist Society]], Washington, D.C.</ref><ref name=tws23oct48>{{cite news
| author = Stuart Taylor Jr.
| title = Reagan Points to a Critic, Who Points Out It Isn't So
| work = The New York Times
| date = October 15, 1987
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/15/us/reagan-points-to-a-critic-who-points-out-it-isn-t-so.html
| accessdate = October 23, 2009
| authorlink = Stuart Taylor Jr.
}}</ref> Failed Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork wrote: "What judges have wrought is a coup d'état, – slow-moving and genteel, but a coup d'état nonetheless."<ref name="tws23oct53">{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,97117,00.html|title=Judge Bork: Judicial Activism Is Going Global|date=September 11, 2003|publisher=Fox News|quote=What judges have wrought is a coup d'état – slow moving and genteel, but a coup d'état nonetheless.|author=Kelley Beaucar Vlahos|accessdate=October 23, 2009}}</ref> Senator [[Al Franken]] quipped that when politicians talk about judicial activism, "their definition of an activist judge is one who votes differently than they would like."<ref name=tws22oct11>{{cite news
| author = Naftali Bendavid
| title = Franken: 'An Incredible Honor to Be Here'
| work = The Wall Street Journal
| date = July 13, 2009
| url = https://blogs.wsj.com/washwire/2009/07/13/franken-an-incredible-honor-to-be-here/
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
}}</ref> One law professor claimed in a 1978 article that the Supreme Court is in some respects "certainly a legislative body."<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1978–79 |title=Supreme Court as a Legislature |url=http://heinonlinebackup.com/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/clqv64&section=7 |publisher=Cornell L. Rev. |volume=64 |page=1 |postscript= |author=Hazard, Geoffrey C. Jr. |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429053343/http://heinonlinebackup.com/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals%2Fclqv64&section=7 |archivedate=April 29, 2011 |df= }}</ref>

===Failing to protect individual rights===
Court decisions have been criticized for failing to protect individual rights: the ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford|Dred Scott]]'' (1857) decision upheld slavery;<ref name=tws22oct16>{{cite news
| author = William Safire
| title = Dog Whistle
| work = New York Times Magazine
| date = April 24, 2005
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/24/magazine/24ONLANGUAGE.html
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
| authorlink = William Safire
}}</ref> ''[[Plessy v Ferguson]]'' (1896) upheld [[Racial segregation in the United States|segregation]] under the doctrine of ''[[separate but equal]]'';<ref name=tws23oct04>{{cite news
|author=David G. Savage
|title=Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions?
|work=Los Angeles Times
|date=October 23, 2008
|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/oct/23/nation/na-scotus23
|accessdate=October 23, 2009
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023193212/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-scotus23-2008oct23%2C0%2C1693757.story
|archivedate=October 23, 2008
|deadurl=yes
|df=
}}</ref> ''[[Kelo v. City of New London]]'' (2005) was criticized by prominent politicians, including [[New Jersey]] governor [[Jon Corzine]], as undermining property rights.<ref name=tws22oct24>{{cite news
| author = Laura Mansnerus
| title = Diminished Eminence In a Changed Domain
| work = The New York Times
| date = October 16, 2005
| url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802EED9173FF935A25753C1A9639C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
}}</ref><ref name=tws22oct26>{{cite news
| author = Ronald Smothers
| title = In Long Branch, No Olive Branches
| work = The New York Times
| date = October 16, 2005
| url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A03EED9173FF935A25753C1A9639C8B63
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
}}</ref> Some critics suggest the 2009 bench with a conservative majority has "become increasingly hostile to voters" by siding with Indiana's voter identification laws which tend to "disenfranchise large numbers of people without driver's licenses, especially poor and minority voters", according to one report.<ref name="tws23oct10">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/15/opinion/15tue4.html|title=Editorial Observer – A Supreme Court Reversal: Abandoning the Rights of Voters|date=January 15, 2008|work=New York Times|author=Adam Cohen|accessdate=October 23, 2009}}</ref> Senator [[Al Franken]] criticized the Court for "eroding individual rights."<ref name="tws22oct11" /> However, others argue that the Court is ''too protective'' of some individual rights, particularly those of people accused of crimes or in detention. For example, Chief Justice [[Warren Burger]] was an outspoken critic of the exclusionary rule, and Justice [[Antonin Scalia|Scalia]] criticized the Court's decision in ''[[Boumediene v. Bush]]'' for being ''too protective'' of the rights of [[Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp|Guantanamo]] detainees, on the grounds that [[habeas corpus]] was "limited" to sovereign territory.<ref name="tws30oct05">{{cite news| url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/jul/13/nation/na-scotus13|title=Supreme Court finds history is a matter of opinions| date=July 13, 2008| work=Los Angeles Times| quote=This suggests that the right of habeas corpus was not limited to English subjects … protects people who are captured … at Guantanamo … Wrong, Justice Antonin Scalia wrote in dissent. He said English history showed that the writ of habeas corpus was limited to sovereign English territory|author=David G. Savage|accessdate=October 30, 2009}}</ref>

===Supreme Court has too much power===
This criticism is related to complaints about judicial activism. [[George Will]] wrote that the Court has an "increasingly central role in American governance."<ref name=tws22oct01>{{cite news
| author = George F. Will
| title = Identity Justice: Obama's Conventional Choice
| work=The Washington Post
| date = May 27, 2009
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/26/AR2009052602348.html
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
}}</ref> It was criticized for intervening in bankruptcy proceedings regarding ailing carmaker [[Chrysler Corporation]] in 2009.<ref name=tws22oct04 /> A reporter wrote that "Justice [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]]'s intervention in the Chrysler bankruptcy" left open the "possibility of further judicial review" but argued overall that the intervention was a proper use of Supreme Court power to check the executive branch.<ref name=tws22oct04>{{cite news
| author = James Taranto
| title = Speaking Ruth to Power
| work = The Wall Street Journal
| date = June 9, 2009
| url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124456827959598503
| accessdate = October 22, 2009
}}</ref> Warren E. Burger, before becoming [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]], argued that since the Supreme Court has such "unreviewable power" it is likely to "self-indulge itself" and unlikely to "engage in dispassionate analysis".<ref name=twsvsfs32>{{cite book
| last = Woodward
| first = Bob
|author2=Scott Armstrong
| title = The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court
| quote = A court which is final and unreviewable needs more careful scrutiny than any other
| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| year = 1979
| location = United States of America
| page = 541
| url = https://books.google.com/?id=6JtJ23GmD3AC| isbn = 978-0-7432-7402-9}}</ref> [[Larry Sabato]] wrote "excessive authority has accrued to the federal courts, especially the Supreme Court."<ref name=tws23oct16>{{cite news
| author = Larry Sabato
| title = It's Time to Reshape the Constitution and Make America a Fairer Country
|work=The Huffington Post
| date = September 26, 2007
| url = http://www.huffingtonpost.com/larry-sabato/its-time-to-reshape-the-c_b_66030.html
| accessdate = October 23, 2009
}}</ref>

===Courts are poor check on executive power===
British constitutional scholar [[Adam Tomkins]] sees flaws in the American system of having courts (and specifically the Supreme Court) act as checks on the Executive and Legislative branches; he argues that because the courts must wait, sometimes for years, for cases to navigate their way through the system, their ability to restrain other branches is severely weakened.<ref name="tws23oct77">{{cite journal| url=http://reviewcanada.ca/essays/2008/11/01/our-canadian-republic/| title=Our Canadian Republic – Do we display too much deference to authority … or not enough?| date=November 1, 2008| work=Literary Review of Canada| author=[[Christopher Moore (Canadian historian)|Christopher Moore]]| accessdate=October 23, 2009}}</ref><ref name=tws2nov02>{{cite news |title = In Defence of the Political Constitution |first = Adam |last = Tomkins |publisher = 22 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 157 |location = United Kingdom |year = 2002 |quote = Bush v. Gore }}</ref> In contrast, the [[Federal Constitutional Court of Germany]] for example, can directly declare a law unconstitutional upon request.

===Federal versus state power===
There has been debate throughout American history about the boundary between federal and state power. While Framers such as [[James Madison]]<ref name=tws24oct22>{{cite news
| first= James |last= Madison
| title = The Federalist Papers/No. 45 The Alleged Danger From the Powers of the Union to the State Governments Considered
| quote = the States will retain, under the proposed Constitution, a very extensive portion of active sovereignty
| publisher = Wikisource
| year = 1789
| url = http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers/No._45
| accessdate = October 24, 2009
}}</ref> and [[Alexander Hamilton]]<ref name=tws24oct47>{{cite news
| author = Alexander Hamilton (aka Publius)
| title = Federalist No. 28
| quote = Power being almost always the rival of power; the General Government will at all times stand ready to check the usurpations of the state government; and these will have the same disposition toward the General Government.
| publisher = Independent Journal
| year = 1789
| url = http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed28.asp
| accessdate = October 24, 2009
}}</ref> argued in ''[[The Federalist Papers]]'' that their then-proposed Constitution would not infringe on the power of state governments,<ref name=tws27oct501>{{cite news
| first= James |last= Madison
| title = ''The Federalist''
| issue = 44 (quote: 8th para)
| quote = seems well calculated at once to secure to the States a reasonable discretion in providing for the conveniency of their imports and exports, and to the United States a reasonable check against the abuse of this discretion.
| work = Independent Journal
| date = January 25, 1788
| url = http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa44.htm
| accessdate = October 27, 2009
}}</ref><ref name=tws27oct502>{{cite news
| first= James |last= Madison
| title = ''The Federalist'' No. 56 (quote: 6th para)
| quote = In every State there have been made, and must continue to be made, regulations on this subject which will, in many cases, leave little more to be done by the federal legislature, than to review the different laws, and reduce them in one general act.
| publisher = Independent Journal
| date = February 16, 1788
| url = http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa56.htm
| accessdate = October 27, 2009
}}</ref><ref name=tws27oct503>{{cite news
| author = Alexander Hamilton
| title = ''The Federalist'' No. 22 (quote: 4th para)
| quote = The interfering and unneighborly regulations of some States, contrary to the true spirit of the Union, have, in different instances, given just cause of umbrage and complaint to others, and it is to be feared that examples of this nature, if not restrained by a national control, would be multiplied and extended till they became not less serious sources of animosity and discord than injurious impediments to the intercourse between the different parts of the Confederacy.
| publisher = New York Packet
| date = December 14, 1787
| url = http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa22.htm
| accessdate = October 27, 2009
}}</ref><ref name=tws27oct504>{{cite news
| first= James |last= Madison
| title = ''The Federalist Papers''
| quote = The regulation of commerce with the Indian tribes is very properly unfettered from two limitations in the articles of Confederation, which render the provision obscure and contradictory. The power is there restrained to Indians, not members of any of the States, and is not to violate or infringe the legislative right of any State within its own limits.
| publisher = New York Packet
| date = January 22, 1788
| url = http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed42.asp
| accessdate = October 27, 2009
}}</ref> others argue that expansive [[federal power]] is good and consistent with the Framers' wishes.<ref name="tws24oct10">{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/a/amar-rights.html|title=The Bill of Rights – Creation and Reconstruction| work=The New York Times: Books| year=1998| quote=many lawyers embrace a tradition that views state governments as the quintessential threat to individual and minority rights, and federal officials—especially federal courts—as the special guardians of those rights.| author=Akhil Reed Amar| accessdate=October 24, 2009|authorlink=Akhil Reed Amar}}</ref> The [[Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] explicitly grants "powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." The Supreme Court has been criticized for giving the [[Federal Government of the United States|federal government]] too much power to interfere with state authority. One criticism is that it has allowed the federal government to misuse the [[Commerce Clause]] by upholding regulations and legislation which have little to do with interstate commerce, but that were enacted under the guise of regulating interstate commerce; and by voiding state legislation for allegedly interfering with interstate commerce. For example, the Commerce Clause was used by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals to uphold the Endangered Species Act, thus protecting six endemic species of insect near Austin, Texas, despite the fact that the insects had no commercial value and did not travel across state lines; the Supreme Court let that ruling stand without comment in 2005.<ref name=tws30oct08>{{cite news
| author = Scott Gold
| title = Justices Swat Down Texans' Effort to Weaken Species Protection Law
| quote = Purcell filed a $60-million lawsuit against the U.S. government in 1999, arguing that cave bugs could not be regulated through the commerce clause because they had no commercial value and did not cross state lines. 'I'm disappointed,' Purcell said.
| work=Los Angeles Times
| date = June 14, 2005
| url = http://articles.latimes.com/2005/jun/14/nation/na-cavebugs14
| accessdate = March 24, 2012
}}</ref> Chief Justice [[John Marshall]] asserted Congress's power over interstate commerce was "complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations, other than are prescribed in the Constitution."<ref name=tws27oct505>{{cite news |author=Robert B. Reich| title=The Commerce Clause; The Expanding Economic Vista
| work = New York Times Magazine| date = September 13, 1987| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1987/09/13/magazine/the-commerce-clause-the-expanding-economic-vista.html| accessdate = October 27, 2009}}</ref> Justice [[Samuel Alito|Alito]] said congressional authority under the [[Commerce Clause]] is "quite broad."<ref name="tws30oct09">{{cite news| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/10/AR2006011001087.html| title=U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on Judge Samuel Alito's Nomination to the Supreme Court| date=January 10, 2006| work=The Washington Post| quote=I don't think there's any question at this point in our history that Congress' power under the commerce clause is quite broad, and I think that reflects a number of things, including the way in which our economy and our society has developed and all of the foreign and interstate activity that takes place – Samuel Alito| author=FDCH e-Media| accessdate=October 30, 2009}}</ref> Modern day theorist [[Robert B. Reich]] suggests debate over the [[Commerce Clause]] continues today.<ref name=tws27oct505 /> Advocates of [[states' rights]] such as constitutional scholar [[Kevin Gutzman]] have also criticized the Court, saying it has misused the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] to undermine state authority. Justice [[Louis Brandeis|Brandeis]], in arguing for allowing the states to operate without federal interference, suggested that states should be [[laboratories of democracy]].<ref name=tws30oct03>{{cite news | first= Adam |last=Cohen | title = Editorial Observer; Brandeis's Views on States' Rights, and Ice-Making, Have New Relevance | quote = But Brandeis's dissent contains one of the most famous formulations in American law: that the states should be free to serve as ''laboratories'' of democracy |work=The New York Times | date = December 7, 2003 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/07/opinion/editorial-observer-brandeis-s-views-states-rights-ice-making-have-new-relevance.html | accessdate = October 30, 2009}}</ref> One critic wrote "the great majority of Supreme Court rulings of unconstitutionality involve state, not federal, law."<ref name=tws23oct15>{{cite news |first=Lino |last=Graglia |title=Altering 14th Amendment would curb court's activist tendencies |publisher=University of Texas School of Law |date=July 19, 2005 |url=http://www.utexas.edu/law/news/2005/071905_court.html |accessdate=October 23, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204214859/http://www.utexas.edu/law/news/2005/071905_court.html |archivedate=December 4, 2010 }}</ref> However, others see the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] as a positive force that extends "protection of those rights and guarantees to the state level."<ref name=tws30oct02>{{cite news
| first= Jacob C.| last= Hornberger
| title = Freedom and the Fourteenth Amendment
| quote = Fourteenth Amendment. Some argue that it is detrimental to the cause of freedom because it expands the power of the federal government. Others contend that the amendment expands the ambit of individual liberty. I fall among those who believe that the Fourteenth Amendment has been a positive force for freedom.
| publisher = The Future of Freedom Foundation
| date = October 30, 2009
| url = http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&safe=off&client=firefox-a&rls=com.ubuntu%3Aen-US%3Aunofficial&q=%22misused+the+fourteenth+amendment%22&aq=f&oq=&aqi=
| accessdate = October 30, 2009
}}</ref>

===Secretive proceedings===
The Court has been criticized for keeping its deliberations hidden from public view.<ref name=tws23oct02>{{cite news
| author = James Vicini
| title = Justice Scalia defends Bush v. Gore ruling
| quote = The nine-member Supreme Court conducts its deliberations in secret and the justices traditionally won't discuss pending cases in public
| agency = [[Reuters]]
| date = April 24, 2008
| url = https://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSN2443345820080424
| accessdate = October 23, 2009
}}</ref> According to a review of [[Jeffrey Toobin]]'s expose ''[[The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court]]''; "Its inner workings are difficult for reporters to cover, like a closed "cartel", only revealing itself through "public events and printed releases, with nothing about its inner workings".<ref name="tws23oct12"/> The reviewer writes: "few (reporters) dig deeply into court affairs. It all works very neatly; the only ones hurt are the American people, who know little about nine individuals with enormous power over their lives."<ref name=tws23oct12 /> [[Larry Sabato]] complains about the Court's "insularity."<ref name="tws23oct16" /> A [[Fairleigh Dickinson University]] poll conducted in 2010 found that 61% of American voters agreed that [[Cameras in the Supreme Court of the United States|televising Court hearings]] would "be good for democracy", and 50% of voters stated they would watch Court proceedings if they were televised.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://publicmind.fdu.edu/courttv/
|title=Public Says Televising Court Is Good for Democracy
|work=PublicMind.fdu.edu
|date=March 9, 2010
|accessdate=December 14, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1202445941834
|title = Poll Shows Public Support for Cameras at the High Court
|author=Mauro, Tony
|work=[[The National Law Journal]]
|date=March 9, 2010
|accessdate=December 18, 2010}}</ref> In recent years, many justices have appeared on television, written books and made public statements to journalists.<ref name="CSPAN SCW">{{cite web
| publisher = CSPAN
| title = C-SPAN Supreme Court Week
| date = October 4, 2009
| accessdate = October 25, 2009
| url = http://supremecourt.c-span.org
}}</ref><ref name=tws23oct03>{{cite news
| author = James Vicini
| title = Justice Scalia defends Bush v. Gore ruling
| quote = Scalia was interviewed for the CBS News show "60 Minutes
| agency = Reuters
| date = April 24, 2008
| url = https://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSN2443345820080424
| accessdate = October 23, 2009
}}</ref> In a 2009 interview on ''C-SPAN'', journalists [[Joan Biskupic]] (of ''[[USA Today]]'') and [[Lyle Denniston]] (of ''[[SCOTUSblog]]'') argued that the Court is a "very open" institution with only the justices' private conferences inaccessible to others.<ref name="CSPAN SCW" /> In October 2010, the Court began the practice of posting on its website recordings and transcripts of oral arguments on the Friday after they occur.

===Judicial interference in political disputes===
Some Court decisions have been criticized for injecting the Court into the political arena, and deciding questions that are the purview of the other two branches of government. The ''[[Bush v. Gore]]'' decision, in which the Supreme Court intervened in the 2000 presidential election and effectively chose [[George W. Bush]] over [[Al Gore]], has been criticized extensively, particularly by [[Liberalism|liberals]].<ref name="tws23oct12">{{cite news
| first= David| last=Margolick
| title = Meet the Supremes
| quote = Beat reporters and academics initially denounced the court's involvement in that case, its hastiness to enter the political thicket and the half-baked and strained decision that resulted.
| work = The New York Times
| date = September 23, 2007
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/23/books/review/Margolick-t.html?pagewanted=print
| accessdate = October 23, 2009
}}</ref><ref name=tws23oct07>{{cite news
|author=David G. Savage
|title=Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions?
|quote=UC Berkeley law professor Goodwin Liu described the decision as 'utterly lacking in any legal principle" and added that the court was "remarkably unashamed to say so explicitly.'
|work=Los Angeles Times
|date=October 23, 2008
|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/oct/23/nation/na-scotus23
|accessdate=October 23, 2009
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023193212/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-scotus23-2008oct23%2C0%2C1693757.story
|archivedate=October 23, 2008
|deadurl=yes
|df=
}}</ref><ref name="tws22oct40">{{cite web |url=http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5105&context=uclrev |title=Two-and-a-Half Cheers for Bush v Gore |date=June 1, 2001 |author=McConnell, Michael W. |work=University of Chicago Law Review |accessdate=February 16, 2016}}</ref><ref name=tws23oct01>{{cite news
| author = CQ Transcriptions (Senator Kohl)
| title = Key Excerpt: Sotomayor on Bush v. Gore
| quote = Many critics saw the Bush v. Gore decision as an example of the judiciary improperly injecting itself into a political dispute"
| work=The Washington Post
| date = July 14, 2009
| url = http://voices.washingtonpost.com/supreme-court/2009/07/key_excerpt_sotomayor_on_bush.html
| accessdate = October 23, 2009
}}</ref><ref name=tws23oct08>{{cite news |author=Adam Cohen (Opinion section) |title=Justice Rehnquist Writes on Hayes vs. Tilden, With His Mind on Bush v. Gore |quote=The Bush v. Gore majority, made up of Mr. Rehnquist and his fellow conservatives, interpreted the equal protection clause in a sweeping way they had not before, and have not since. And they stated that the interpretation was 'limited to the present circumstances,' words that suggest a raw exercise of power, not legal analysis. |work=The New York Times |date=March 21, 2004 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/21/opinion/21SUN4.html |accessdate=October 23, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511111524/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/21/opinion/21SUN4.html |archivedate=May 11, 2011 }}</ref><ref name="tws23june3">{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/04/opinion/lweb04douthat.html| title=Letters – Supreme Court Activism?| date=June 3, 2009| work=The New York Times| author=Kevin McNamara (letter to the editor)|accessdate=October 23, 2009}}</ref> Another example are Court decisions on apportionment and [[Gerrymandering|re-districting]]: in ''[[Baker v. Carr]]'', the court decided it could rule on apportionment questions; Justice [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] in a "scathing dissent" argued against the court wading into so-called [[political question]]s.<ref name=tws28oct876>{{cite news
| author = CQ Transcriptions
| title = U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on Judge Samuel Alito's Nomination to the Supreme Court
| quote = ...Baker v. Carr, the reapportionment case. We heard Justice Frankfurter who delivered a scathing dissent in that...
| work=The Washington Post
| date = January 13, 2006
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/13/AR2006011300802.html
| accessdate = October 28, 2009
}}</ref>

===Not choosing enough cases to review===
Senator [[Arlen Specter]] said the Court should "decide more cases".<ref name="tws22oct11" /> On the other hand, although Justice [[Antonin Scalia|Scalia]] acknowledged in a 2009 interview that the number of cases that the Court hears now is smaller today than when he first joined the Supreme Court, he also stated that he has not changed his standards for deciding whether to review a case, nor does he believe his colleagues have changed their standards. He attributed the high volume of cases in the late 1980s, at least in part, to an earlier flurry of new federal legislation that was making its way through the courts.<ref name="CSPAN SCW" />

===Lifetime tenure===
Critic [[Larry Sabato]] wrote: "The insularity of lifetime tenure, combined with the appointments of relatively young attorneys who give long service on the bench, produces senior judges representing the views of past generations better than views of the current day."<ref name="tws23oct16" /> [[Sanford Levinson]] has been critical of justices who stayed in office despite medical deterioration based on longevity.<ref name=tws10oct12>{{cite news
| author = Linda Greenhouse
| title = New Focus on the Effects of Life Tenure
| work = The New York Times
| date = September 10, 2007
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/10/washington/10scotus.html
| accessdate = October 10, 2009
}}</ref> [[James MacGregor Burns]] stated lifelong tenure has "produced a critical time lag, with the Supreme Court institutionally almost always behind the times."<ref name=tws27oct304 /> Proposals to solve these problems include [[term limit]]s for justices, as proposed by Levinson<ref name="tws10octxx">{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2009/feb/09/supreme-court-ruth-bader-ginsburg|title=Supreme court prognosis – Ruth Bader Ginsburg's surgery for pancreatic cancer highlights why US supreme court justices shouldn't serve life terms|date=February 9, 2009| work=[[The Guardian]]| location=Manchester| first=Sanford| last=Levinson| accessdate=October 10, 2009}}</ref> and Sabato<ref name="tws23oct16" /><ref>See also Arthur D. Hellman, "Reining in the Supreme Court: Are Term Limits the Answer?", in Roger C. Cramton and Paul D. Carrington, eds., ''Reforming the Court: Term Limits for Supreme Court Justices'' ([[Carolina Academic Press]], 2006), p. 291.</ref> as well as a mandatory retirement age proposed by [[Richard Allen Epstein|Richard Epstein]],<ref>[[Richard Allen Epstein|Richard Epstein]], "Mandatory Retirement for Supreme Court Justices", in Roger C. Cramton and Paul D. Carrington, eds., ''Reforming the Court: Term Limits for Supreme Court Justices'' ([[Carolina Academic Press]], 2006), p. 415.</ref> among others.<ref>Brian Opeskin, ''Models of Judicial Tenure: Reconsidering Life Limits, Age Limits and Term Limits for Judges'', Oxford J Legal Studies 2015 35: 627–663.</ref> However, others suggest lifetime tenure brings substantial benefits, such as impartiality and freedom from political pressure. [[Alexander Hamilton]] in ''[[Federalist 78]]'' wrote "nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office."<ref name=tws28oct707>{{cite news
| author = Alexander Hamilton
| title = The Federalist No. 78
| quote = and that as nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office, this quality may therefore be justly regarded as an indispensable ingredient in its constitution, and, in a great measure, as the citadel of the public justice and the public security.
| publisher = Independent Journal
| date = June 14, 1788
| url = http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa78.htm
| accessdate = October 28, 2009}}</ref>

===Accepting gifts===
The 21st century has seen increased scrutiny of justices accepting expensive gifts and travel. All of the members of the Roberts Court have accepted travel or gifts. In 2012, Justice Sonia Sotomayor received $1.9 million in advances from her publisher Knopf Doubleday.<ref>{{cite news| title=Justice Obscured: Supreme court justices earn quarter-million in cash on the side| url=https://www.publicintegrity.org/2014/06/20/14981/supreme-court-justices-earn-quarter-million-cash-side| first=Reity| last=O'Brien| publisher=[[Center for Public Integrity]]| date=June 20, 2014}}</ref> Justice Scalia and others took dozens of expensive trips to exotic locations paid for by private donors.<ref name="NYT226">{{cite news| title=Scalia Took Dozens of Trips Funded by Private Sponsors| first=Eric| last=Lipton| work=The New York Times| date=February 26, 2016| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/27/us/politics/scalia-led-court-in-taking-trips-funded-by-private-sponsors.html?_r=0}}</ref> Private events sponsored by partisan groups that are attended by both the justices and those who have an interest in their decisions have raised concerns about access and inappropriate communications.<ref>{{cite news| title=Why Justice Scalia was staying for free at a Texas resort| first1=Mark| last1=Berman| first2=Jerry| last2=Markon| work=The Washington Post| date=February 17, 2016| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2016/02/17/justice-scalias-death-and-questions-about-who-pays-for-supreme-court-justices-to-visit-remote-resorts/}}</ref> Stephen Spaulding, the legal director at [[Common Cause]], said: "There are fair questions raised by some of these trips about their commitment to being impartial."<ref name="NYT226" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Supreme Court of the United States|Government of the United States|Law}}
{{div col||28em}}
* [[Donald Trump Supreme Court candidates]]
* [[Federal judicial appointment history]]
* [[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States]]
** [[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by court composition|by court composition]]
** [[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by seat|by seat]]
** [[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by time in office|by time in office]]
* [[List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States]]
* [[List of law schools attended by United States Supreme Court Justices]]
* [[List of United States Chief Justices by time in office]]
* [[Lists of United States Supreme Court cases]]
* [[Oyez Project]]
* [[Segal–Cover score]]
* [[Unsuccessful nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States]]
* Landmark Supreme Court decisions (selection)
** ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]'' (1803, judicial review)
** ''[[McCulloch v. Maryland]]'' (1819, implied powers)
** ''[[Gibbons v. Ogden]]'' (1824, interstate commerce)
** ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' (1857, slavery)
** ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' (1896, separate but equal treatment of races)
** ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' (1954, school segregation of races)
** ''[[Engel v. Vitale]]'' (1962, state-sponsored prayers in [[State school|public schools]])
** ''[[Abington School District v. Schempp]]'' (1963, [[Bible]] readings and recitation of the [[Lord's prayer]] in U.S. public schools)
** ''[[Gideon v. Wainwright]]'' (1963, right to an attorney)
** ''[[Griswold v. Connecticut]]'' (1965, privacy in [[marriage]])
** ''[[Miranda v. Arizona]]'' (1966, rights of those detained by police)
** ''[[In re Gault]]'' (1967, rights of juvenile suspects)
** ''[[Loving v. Virginia]]'' (1967, interracial marriage)
** ''[[Lemon v. Kurtzman]]'' (1971, religious activities in public schools)
** ''[[New York Times Co. v. United States]]'' (1971, freedom of the press)
** ''[[Eisenstadt v. Baird]]'' (1972, privacy for [[unmarried]] people)
** ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' (1973, abortion)
** ''[[Miller v. California]]'' (1973, obscenity)
** ''[[United States v. Nixon]]'' (1974, executive privilege)
** ''[[Buckley v. Valeo]]'' (1976, campaign finance)
** ''[[Bowers v. Hardwick]]'' (1986, sodomy)
** ''[[Bush v. Gore]]'' (2000, presidential election)
** ''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]'' (2003, sodomy, privacy)
** ''[[District of Columbia v. Heller]]'' (2008, gun rights)
** ''[[Citizens United v. FEC]]'' (2010, campaign finance)
** ''[[United States v. Windsor]]'' (2013, same-sex marriage)
** ''[[Shelby County v. Holder]]'' (2013, voting rights)
** ''[[Obergefell v. Hodges]]'' (2015, same-sex marriage)
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* ''Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court of the United States'', 5 vols., Detroit [etc.] : Macmillan Reference USA, 2008
* [https://www.supremecourt.gov/ctrules/2013RulesoftheCourt.pdf The Rules of the Supreme Court of the United States] (2013 ed.) (PDF).
* [[Joan Biskupic|Biskupic, Joan]] and Elder Witt. (1997). ''[[Congressional Quarterly]]'s Guide to the U.S. Supreme Court.'' Washington, D.C.: [[Congressional Quarterly]]. {{ISBN|1-56802-130-5}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Hall |editor-first=Kermit L. |title=The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1992 |location=New York |isbn=0-19-505835-6}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Hall |editor-first1=Kermit L. |editor-last2=McGuire |editor-first2=Kevin T. |title=Institutions of American Democracy: The Judicial Branch|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York, New York|isbn=978-0-19-530917-1}}
* [[Harvard Law Review]] Assn., (2000). ''[[Bluebook|The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation]]'', 17th ed. [18th ed., 2005. {{ISBN|978-600-01-4329-9}}]
* [[Peter H. Irons|Irons]], Peter. (1999). ''A People's History of the Supreme Court''. New York: [[Viking Press]]. {{ISBN|0-670-87006-4}}.
* [[William Rehnquist|Rehnquist]], William. (1987). ''The Supreme Court.'' New York: [[Alfred A. Knopf]]. {{ISBN|0-375-40943-2}}.
* Skifos, Catherine Hetos. (1976).[https://web.archive.org/web/20020607011454/http://supremecourthistory.org/04_library/subs_volumes/04_c01_e.html "The Supreme Court Gets a Home"], ''Supreme Court Historical Society 1976 Yearbook.'' [in 1990, renamed ''The Journal of Supreme Court History'' (ISSN 1059-4329)]
* [[Charles Warren (U.S. author)|Warren]], Charles. (1924). ''The Supreme Court in United States History.'' (3 volumes). Boston: [[Little, Brown and Co.]]
* [[Bob Woodward|Woodward, Bob]] and [[Scott Armstrong (journalist)|Armstrong, Scott]]. ''[[The Brethren (non-fiction)|The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court]]'' (1979). {{ISBN|978-0-7432-7402-9}}.
* {{cite web|url={{SCOTUS URL|about/courtbuilding.pdf}} |title=The Court Building|format=PDF|accessdate=February 13, 2008|author=Supreme Court Historical Society}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Abraham |first=Henry J. |title=Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court |edition=1st |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1992 |location=New York |isbn=0-19-506557-3}}
* [[Charles A. Beard|Beard]], Charles A. (1912). ''The Supreme Court and the Constitution.'' New York: Macmillan Company. Reprinted [[Dover Publications]], 2006. {{ISBN|0-486-44779-0}}.
* Corley, Pamela C.; Steigerwalt, Amy; Ward, Artemus. (2013). ''The Puzzle of Unanimity: Consensus on the United States Supreme Court''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8047-8472-6}}.
* Cushman, Barry. (1998). ''Rethinking the [[New Deal]] Court''. Oxford University Press.
* {{cite book |last=Cushman |first=Clare |title=The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 |edition=2nd |publisher=(Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books) |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-56802-126-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Frank |first=John P. |editor-last=Friedman |editor-first=Leon |editor2-last=Israel |editor2-first=Fred L. |title=The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions |publisher=Chelsea House Publishers |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-56802-126-3}}
* [[Bryan A. Garner|Garner, Bryan A.]] (2004). ''[[Black's Law Dictionary]].'' Deluxe 8th ed. [[Thomson West]]. {{ISBN|0-314-15199-0}}.
* [[Jan Crawford Greenburg|Greenburg, Jan Crawford]], Jan. (2007). ''Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control for the United States Supreme Court.'' New York: [[Penguin Press]]. {{ISBN|978-1-59420-101-1}}.
* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=Fenton S. |author2=Goehlert, Robert U. |title=The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography |publisher=Congressional Quarterly Books |year=1990 |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-87187-554-3}}
* McCloskey, Robert G. (2005). ''The American Supreme Court.'' 4th ed. Chicago: [[University of Chicago Press]]. {{ISBN|0-226-55682-4}}.
* {{cite book |last=O'Brien |first=David M. |title=Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics |edition=8th |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2008 |location=New York |isbn=0-393-93218-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Spaeth |first=Harold J. |title=Supreme Court Policy Making: Explanation and Prediction |edition=3rd |publisher=W.H.Freeman & Co Ltd|year=1979 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7167-1012-7}}
* [[Jeffrey Toobin|Toobin]], Jeffrey. ''The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court.'' [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]], 2007. {{ISBN|0-385-51640-1}}.
* Urofsky, Melvin and [[Paul Finkelman|Finkelman, Paul]]. (2001). ''A March of Liberty: A Constitutional History of the United States''. 2 vols. New York: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-19-512637-8}} & {{ISBN|0-19-512635-1}}.
* {{cite book |last=Urofsky |first=Melvin I. |title=The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary |publisher=Garland Publishing |year=1994 |location=New York |page=590 |isbn=0-8153-1176-1}}
* {{cite web|url={{SCOTUS URL|about/courtbuilding.pdf}} |title=The Court Building|format=PDF|accessdate=February 13, 2008|author=Supreme Court Historical Society|authorlink=Supreme Court Historical Society}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Supreme Court of the United States.ogg|2006-08-05}}
* {{Official website}}
* [http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/ Supreme Court decisions from World Legal Information Institution] (contains no advertisements)
* [https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/index.html Supreme Court Collection] from the [[Legal Information Institute]]
* [http://www.findlaw.com/casecode/supreme.html Supreme Court Opinions] from [[FindLaw]]
* [http://www.justia.us/ U.S. Supreme Court Decisions (v. 1+)] from ''Justia, Oyez and U.S. Court Forms''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070719195848/http://library.lawschool.cornell.edu/WhatWeHave/SpecialCollections/Supreme-Court.cfm Supreme Court Records and Briefs] from ''[[Cornell University Library|Cornell Law Library]]''
* [http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0101289.html Milestone Cases in Supreme Court History] from ''InfoPlease''
* [http://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/nominations/Nominations.htm Supreme Court Nominations, present-1789]
* [http://backstoryradio.org/the-supremes/ ''Scales of Justice: The History of Supreme Court Nominations''] – Radio program explores history of appointments and confirmations
* [http://www.supremecourthistory.org/ Supreme Court Historical Society]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110430042054/http://www.docstoc.com/collection/684/Supreme-Court-Of-The-United-States Complete/Searchable 1991–2004 Opinions and Orders]
* [http://scdb.wustl.edu/ The Supreme Court Database] A research database with information about cases from 1946 to 2011
* [https://www.oyez.org/ The Oyez Project] – audio recordings of oral arguments
* {{NYTtopic|organizations/s/supreme_court|U.S. Supreme Court}}
* [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/linkset/2005/03/24/LI2005032400136.html U.S. Supreme Court] collected news and commentary at ''[[The Washington Post]]''
* [http://supremecourt.c-span.org/ C-SPAN's ''The Supreme Court: Home to America's Highest Court'']
* [http://www.americanbar.org/publications/preview_home/alphabetical.html Supreme Court Briefs Hosted by the American Bar Association]
* {{Gutenberg author | id=United+States.+Supreme+Court}}
* {{Internet Archive author |search=("Supreme Court of the United States" OR "United States Supreme Court" OR "SCOTUS")}}
* {{Librivox author |id=4323}}

{{SCOTUS horizontal}}
{{Navboxes
|list1 =
{{North America topic|Supreme Court of|title=Supreme Courts of North America|countries_only=yes}}
{{Start U.S. Supreme Court composition |CJ=[[John G. Roberts|Roberts]]|}}
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}}

[[Category:Supreme Court of the United States| ]]
[[Category:Constitutional courts|United States]]
[[Category:National supreme courts|United States, Supreme Court of the]]
[[Category:1789 establishments in the United States]]

Boat

2017-09-27T08:55:38Z

85.19.179.17:

{{confuse|ship}}
[[File:lifeboat.17-31.underway.arp.jpg|thumb|At 17 metres long, the [[Severn-class lifeboat]]s are the largest class of UK [[Lifeboat (rescue)|lifeboat]].]]
A '''boat''' is a [[watercraft]] of a large range of sizes designed to float, [[Planing (boat)|plane]], [[boating|work or travel on water]]. Small boats are typically found on inland waterways (e.g. [[river]]s and [[lake]]s) or in protected coastal areas. However, boats such as the [[whaleboat]] were designed for operation from a [[ship]] in an offshore environment. In modern [[Navy|naval]] terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard another vessel (a ship). An older tradition is that a ship has a weather deck fully enclosing the hull space, while a boat lacks a full weather deck; this is suggested as the reason why submarines are referred to as 'boats' rather than 'ships', as a cylindrical hull has interior decks but no weatherdeck. Another definition is a vessel that can be lifted out of the water. Some definitions do not make a distinction in size, as bulk freighters {{convert|1000|ft|m}} long on the Great Lakes are called [[lake freighter|oreboats]]. Ships are generally distinguished from boats based on their larger size, shape and cargo or passenger capacity.

Boats have a wide variety of shapes, sizes and construction methods due to their intended purpose, available materials or local traditions. [[Canoe]]-type boats have been used since prehistoric times and various versions are used throughout the world for transportation, fishing or sport. [[Fishing boat]]s vary widely in style partly to match local conditions. [[Pleasure boat]]s include [[ski boat]]s, [[Pontoon (boat)|pontoon boats]], and [[sailboat]]s. [[House boat]]s may be used for vacationing or long-term housing. Small boats can provide transport or convey cargo ([[lightering]]) to and from large ships. [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|Lifeboat]]s have rescue and safety functions. Boats can be powered by human power (e.g. [[rowboat]]s), wind power (e.g. [[sailboat]]s) and motor power (e.g. [[pLddldpøøwøwwøwøøsøsøøsåsæsøsøslwøwøøw

== History ==
[[File:Dołbanka.jpg|thumb|right|A Ukrainian [[Dugout (boat)|dugout]] (dowbanka) dating from the end of the 19th century. [[Radomysl Castle]], [[Ukraine]]<ref>Bogomolets O. Radomysl Castle-Museum on the Royal Road Via Regia. Kyiv, 2013 {{ISBN|978-617-7031-15-3}}</ref>]]
Dugouts are the oldest type of boats found by archaeologists,<ref>{{cite book|author= Roger Francis Bridgman|title= 1000 Inventions and Discoveries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPlQAAAACAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Children's|isbn=978-1-4053-1419-0}}</ref>
and boats have served as [[boating|transportation]] since the earliest times.<ref name=d1>{{cite book|title= World system history: The social science of long-term change|year= 2000|publisher= Routledge|location= London [u.a.]|isbn= 0-415-23276-7|edition= 1|editor= Robert A. Denemark|page= 208}}</ref> Circumstantial evidence, such as the [[Early human migrations#South Asia and Australia|early settlement of Australia]] over 40,000 years ago, findings in [[Crete]] dated 130,000 years ago,<ref name="Plakias2010" >{{cite web
| title = Plakias Survey Finds Mesolithic and Palaeolithic Artifacts on Crete
| publisher = www.ascsa.edu.gr
| url = http://www.ascsa.edu.gr/index.php/news/newsDetails/plakias-survey-finds-stone-age-tools-on-crete/
| accessdate = 2011-10-28
}}</ref> and findings in Flores dated to 900,000 years ago,<ref>[http://archive.archaeology.org/9805/newsbriefs/mariners.html First Mariners – Archaeology Magazine Archive]. Archive.archaeology.org. Retrieved on 2013-11-16.</ref> suggest that boats have been used since prehistoric times. The earliest boats are thought to have been [[Dugout (boat)|logboats]],<ref name=McGrail11>
{{cite book
| last = McGrail
| first = Sean
| title = Boats of the World
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 2001
| location = Oxford, UK
| page = 11
| isbn = 0-19-814468-7}}
</ref> and the oldest boats found by archaeological excavation date from around 7,000–10,000 years ago. The oldest recovered boat in the world is the [[Pesse canoe]], a dugout made from the hollowed tree trunk of a ''[[Pinus sylvestris]]'' and constructed somewhere between 8200 and 7600 BC. This [[canoe]] is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen, Netherlands.<ref name="Van der Heide">{{cite book
| last = Van der Heide
| first = G.D.
| title = Scheepsarcheologie in Nederland (Archeology of Ships in the Netherlands).
| publisher = Strengholt
| year = 1974
| location = Naarden, Netherlands
| page = 507
| isbn =
}}</ref><ref name="Boat of Pesse">{{cite web
| title = World's oldest boat
| publisher =
| url = http://www.drentsmuseum.nl/collections/archaeology.html
| accessdate = 2013-11-08
}}</ref> Other very old dugout boats have also been recovered.<ref name="chinaorg2002">{{cite web
|title=Oldest Boat Unearthed
|publisher=China.org.cn
|url=http://lanzhou.china.com.cn/english/travel/50131.htm
|accessdate=2008-05-05
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090102183359/http://lanzhou.china.com.cn/english/travel/50131.htm
|archivedate=2009-01-02
|df=
}}</ref><ref name=McGrail431 >{{cite book
| last = McGrail
| first = Sean
| title = Boats of the World
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 2001
| location = Oxford, UK
| page = 431
| isbn = 0-19-814468-7
}}</ref><ref name="italy2005" >{{cite web
| title = 8,000-year-old dug out canoe on show in Italy
| publisher = Stone Pages Archeo News
| url = http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/001511.html
| accessdate = 2008-08-17
}}
</ref>
Rafts have operated for at least 8,000 years.<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Pohjanpalo
| first1 = Jorma
| title = The sea and man
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=l5YZAQAAIAAJ
| others = Translated by Diana Tullberg
| location = New York
| isbn = 0812813030
| publisher = Stein and Day
| publication-date = 1970
| page = 25
| accessdate = 2015-11-05
| quote = The oldest raft structures known are at least 8,000 years old.
}}
</ref>
A 7,000-year-old seagoing [[reed boat]] has been found in [[Kuwait]].<ref name="Lawler2002">{{cite journal
| last = Lawler
| first = Andrew
| title = Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early Trade Routes
| journal = Science
| volume = 296
| issue = 5574
| pages = 1791–1792
| publisher = [[American Association for the Advancement of Science|AAAS]]
| date = June 7, 2002
| url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/296/5574/1791
| doi = 10.1126/science.296.5574.1791
| accessdate = 2008-05-05
| pmid = 12052936
}}</ref>
Boats were used between 4000 and 3000 BC in [[Sumer]],<ref name=d1/> [[ancient Egypt]]<ref name=McGrail17 >{{cite book
| last = McGrail
| first = Sean
| title = Boats of the World
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 2001
| location = Oxford, UK
| pages = 17–18
| isbn = 0-19-814468-7
}}</ref> and in the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name=d1 />

Boats played an important role in the commerce between the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name=McGrail251 >{{cite book|last=McGrail|first=Seán|title=Boats of the world: From the Stone Age to medieval times|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-927186-0|edition=Paperback|page=251}}</ref> Evidence of varying models of boats has also been discovered at various Indus Valley archaeological sites.<ref name=McGrail/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://historicalleys.blogspot.com/2009/02/dhows-of-beypore.html |title=Beypore History – The Dhows of Beypore|publisher=historicalleys.blogspot.com|date=6 February 2009}}</ref>
[[Uru (boat)|Uru]] craft originate in [[Beypore]], a village in south [[Kozhikode|Calicut]], [[Kerala]], in southwestern [[India]]. This type of mammoth wooden ship was constructed{{when?|date=November 2015}} using teak, without any iron, and had a transport capacity of 400 tonnes. The ancient Arabs and Greeks used such boats as trading vessels.{{cn|date=November 2015}}

The historians [[Herodotus]], [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Strabo]] record the use of boats for commerce, travel, and military purposes.<ref name=McGrail >
{{cite book
|last= McGrail|first= Seán
|title= Boats of the world : From the Stone Age to medieval times|year= 2004
|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= Oxford|isbn= 0-19-927186-0
|edition= Paperback|pages= 50–51
}}
</ref>

==Types==
[[File:সারি সারি পাল তোলা নৌকা.jpg|thumb|right|Boats with sails in Bangladesh.]]
{{main|List of boat types}}
Boats can be categorized into three main types:
# Unpowered or human-powered boats. Unpowered boats include [[raft]]s and floats meant for one-way downstream travel. Human-powered boats include [[canoe]]s, [[kayak]]s, [[gondola]]s and boats propelled by poles like a [[Punt (boat)|punt]].
# [[Sailboat]]s, which are propelled solely by means of [[sail]]s.
# [[Motorboat]]s, which are propelled by mechanical means, such as engines.

==Parts and terminology==
{{details|Glossary of nautical terms}}
Several key components make up the main structure of most boats. The [[hull (watercraft)|hull]] is the main structural component of the boat and provides buoyancy. The [[Gunnel (ship element)|gunnel]], which make up the sides of the boat, offers protection from water and makes the boat harder to sink. The roughly horizontal, chambered structures spanning the hull of the boat are referred to as the deck. A ship often has several decks, but a boat is unlikely to have more than one, if any. Above the deck are the [[Superstructure (ship)|superstructures]]. The underside of a deck is the deck head.

An enclosed space on a boat is referred to as a cabin. Several structures make up a cabin, including a coach-roof, which is a lightweight structure which spans a raised cabin. The "floor" of a cabin is properly known as the sole, but is more likely to be called the floor (a floor is properly, a structural member which ties a frame to the keelson and keel). The vertical surfaces dividing the internal space are bulkheads.

The [[keel]] is a lengthwise structural member to which the frames are fixed (sometimes referred to as a "backbone").

The front (or fore end) of a boat is called the bow. Boats of earlier times often featured a [[Figurehead (object)|figurehead]] protruding from the bow. The rear (or aft end) of the boat is called the stern. The right side (facing forward) is starboard and the left side is port.

Nearly every boat is given a name by the owner, and this is how the boat is referred to in the boating community, and in some cases, in legal or title paperwork. Boat names vary from whimsical to humorous to serious.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Boat Name Game|url=http://www.popyachts.com/Page/Site-Post-List/119/The-Boat-Name-Game.html | accessdate = 2014-10-08}}</ref>

== Building materials ==
{{see also|Boat building}}
Until the mid-19th century most boats were made of natural materials, primarily wood, although [[Reed (plant)|reed]], bark and animal skins were also used. Early boats include the bound-reed style of boat seen in Ancient Egypt, the [[birch bark]] [[canoe]], the animal hide-covered [[kayak]] and [[coracle]] and the [[dugout canoe]] made from a single log.

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een Toba Batak prauw met houtsnijwerk op de voorsteven TMnr 60011149.jpg|thumb|Traditional Toba [[Batak]] boat (circa 1870), photograph by [[Kristen Feilberg]]]]
[[File:Boats at Bhimili beach in Visakhapatnam.jpg|thumb|Fishing Boats in [[Visakhapatnam]]]]
Bill Streever describes a boat made by the native [[Inupiat people]] in [[Barrow, Alaska]] as "a skin boat, an ''umiaq'', built from the stitched hides of [[bearded seal]]s and used to hunt [[bowhead whale]]s in the open-water leads during spring...".<ref>{{cite book |last= Streever |first= Bill |title= Cold: Adventures in the World's Frozen Places |location= New York |publisher= Little, Brown and Company |year= 2009 |page= 154}}</ref>

By the mid-19th century, many boats had been built with iron or steel frames but still planked in wood. In 1855 ferro-cement boat construction was patented by the French, who coined the name "ferciment". This is a system by which a steel or iron wire framework is built in the shape of a boat's hull and covered ([[trowell]]ed) over with cement. Reinforced with bulkheads and other internal structure, it is strong but heavy, easily repaired, and, if sealed properly, will not leak or corrode. These materials and methods were copied all over the world and have faded in and out of popularity to the present time. As the forests of Britain and Europe continued to be over-harvested to supply the keels of larger wooden boats, and the [[Bessemer process]] ([[patent]]ed in 1855) cheapened the cost of steel, steel ships and boats began to be more common. By the 1930s boats built entirely of steel from frames to plating were seen replacing wooden boats in many industrial uses, also for fishing fleets. Private recreational boats of steel are however uncommon. In 1895 WH Mullins produced steel boats of galvanized iron and by 1930 became the world's largest producer of pleasure boats. Mullins also offered boats in aluminum from 1895 through 1899 and once again in the 1920's<ref>WH Mullins boat history, Salem Ohio</ref> In the mid-20th century [[aluminium]] gained popularity. Though much more expensive than steel, there are now aluminum alloys available that do not corrode in salt water, and an aluminium boat built to similar load carrying standards is lighter in weight than the steel equivalent .
Around the mid-1960s, boats made of [[glass-reinforced plastic]], more commonly known as [[fibreglass]], became popular, especially for recreational boats. The [[United States Coast Guard]] refers to such boats as 'FRP' (for fibre-reinforced plastic) boats.

Fibreglass boats are strong, and do not rust (iron oxide), corrode, or rot. They are, however susceptible to structural degradation from sunlight and extremes in temperature over their lifespan. Fibreglass provides structural strength, especially when long woven strands are laid, sometimes from bow to stern, and then soaked in epoxy or polyester resin to form the hull. Whether hand laid or built in a mould, [[Fibre-reinforced plastic]] (FRP) boats usually have an outer coating of [[gelcoat]], which is a thin solid colored layer of polyester resin that adds no structural strength, but does create a smooth surface which can be buffed to a high shine and also acts as a protective layer against sunlight. FRP structures can be made stiffer with sandwich panels, where the FRP encloses a lightweight core such as balsa or foam. Cored FRP is most often found in decking, which helps keep down weight that will be carried above the waterline. The addition of wood makes the cored structure of the boat susceptible to rotting, which puts a greater emphasis on not allowing damaged sandwich structures to go unrepaired. Plastic based foam cores are less vulnerable. The phrase 'advanced composites' in FRP construction may indicate the addition of carbon fibre, [[Kevlar]] or other similar materials, but it may also indicate methods designed to introduce less expensive and, by at least one [[yacht]] surveyor's eyewitness accounts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yachtsurvey.com/Fiberglass_Boats.htm |title=Are They Fiberglass Boats Anymore? by David Pascoe, Marine Surveyor |publisher=Yachtsurvey.com |date=2000-01-12 |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> less structurally sound materials.

Cold moulding is similar to FRP in as much as it involves the use of epoxy or polyester resins, but the structural component is wood instead of fibreglass. In cold moulding very thin strips of wood are layered over a form or mould. Each layer is coated with resin and another directionally alternating layer is laid on top. In some processes the subsequent layers are stapled or otherwise mechanically fastened to the previous layers, but in other processes the layers are weighted or even vacuum bagged to hold them together while the resin sets. Layers are built up until the required hull thickness is achieved.

Boats or watercraft have also been made of materials such as [[Extruded polystyrene|foam]] or plastic, but most homebuilts today are built of plywood and either painted or covered with a layer of fibreglass and resin.

==Propulsion==
{{See also|Marine propulsion}}
The most common means of boat propulsion are as follows:
* Engine powered [[propeller]]s
** [[Inboard motor|Inboard]]
** [[Stern drive|Inboard/outboard]] (stern drive)
** [[Outboard motor|Outboard]]
** [[Paddle steamer|Paddle wheel]]
** Water jet ([[personal water craft]], [[jetboat]])
** Air fans ([[hovercraft]], [[air boat]])
* Human power ([[Watercraft rowing|rowing]], [[Watercraft paddling|paddling]], [[setting pole]] etc.)
* Wind power ([[Sails|sail]]ing)

An early, uncommon means of boat propulsion is represented by the [[water caterpillar]]. This boat was moved by a series of paddles on chains along the bottom to propel it over the water and preceded the development of [[tracked vehicle]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bonnier Corporation|title=The Caterpillar Is Now Being Applied to Ships|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EikDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA68|series=Popular Science|date=December 1918|publisher=Bonnier Corporation|page=68}}</ref>

==Buoyancy==
{{see also|Buoyancy}}

A floating boat [[displacement (fluid)|displaces]] its weight in water. The material of the boat hull may be denser than water, but if this is the case then it forms only the outer layer. If the boat floats, the mass of the boat (plus contents) ''as a whole'' divided by the volume ''below the waterline'' is equal to the [[density]] of water (1 kg/l). If weight is added to the boat, the volume below the waterline will increase to keep the weight balance equal, and so the boat sinks a little to compensate.

==Image gallery==
<gallery>
File:Canoe-01.jpg|Plastic molded boat.
Yacht and Sails.JPG|Anchored boats in [[Portovenere]], Italy
File:BOUALAML.the boat south mediterranean-Maghrebis.2.jpg|wooden boat in Morocco
EgyptTombOarboat.jpg|A boat in an Egyptian tomb, painted around 1450 BC
Historic Center of Quito - World Heritage Site by UNESCO - Photo 437.jpg|These [[Dugout (boat)|dugout boats]] were photographed in the courtyard of the Old Military Hospital in the [[Historic Center of Quito]]
A boat in India.JPG|A boat on the [[Ganges River]]
Babur crossing the river Son.jpg|Babur crossing river Son; folio from an illustrated manuscript of ‘Babur-Namah’, Mughal, [[Akbar]] Period, AD 1598
Tug Boat NY 1.jpg|A [[tugboat]] is used for towing or pushing another, larger [[Ship|vessel]]
Oldboats.JPG|Aluminum [[flat-bottomed boat]]s ashore for storage
DerelictBoatFollyIs.jpg|A ship's derelict [[lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]], built of steel, rusting away in the wetlands of [[Folly Island]], [[South Carolina]], United States
File:The boat south mediterranean-Maghrebis.jpg|wooden boat In a small Moroccan village
Boating in fair weather.jpg|A wooden boat operating near shore
Jiajing Emperor on his state barge.jpg|[[Ming Dynasty]] Chinese painting of the [[Wanli Emperor]] enjoying a boat ride on a river with an entourage of guards and courtiers
Sauce Bottle - geograph.org.uk - 13422.jpg|A boat shaped like a sauce bottle that was sailed across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] by [[Tom McClean]]
File:Bootsverleih hat Winterpause (23281842472).jpg|Boats rental, [[Germany]]
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
* [[Abora]]
* [[Barge]]
* [[Cabin cruiser]]
* [[Dory]]
* [[Fishing boat]]
* [[Halkett boat]]
* [[Inflatable boat]]
{{Col-break}}
* [[Launch (boat)]]
* [[Log canoe]]
* [[Narrowboat]]
* [[Naval architecture]]
* [[Panga (boat)]]
* [[Pirogue]]
{{Col-break}}
* [[Rescue craft]]
* [[Sampan]]
* [[Ship's boat]]
* [[Skiff]]
* [[Super yacht]]
* [[Traditional fishing boats]]
* [[Watercraft rowing]]
{{Col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
{{Wikiquote|Boats}}
{{Wiktionary|boat}}
* University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – [http://content.lib.washington.edu/fishweb/index.html Freshwater and Marine Image Bank], (enter search term "vessels" for images of boats and vessels.)

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Boats| ]]
[[Category:Watercraft]]
[[Category:Fishing equipment]]

Boat

2017-09-27T08:54:52Z

85.19.179.17:

{{confuse|ship}}
[[File:lifeboat.17-31.underway.arp.jpg|thumb|At 17 metres long, the [[Severn-class lifeboat]]s are the largest class of UK [[Lifeboat (rescue)|lifeboat]].]]
A '''boat''' is a [[watercraft]] of a large range of sizes designed to float, [[Planing (boat)|plane]], [[boating|work or travel on water]]. Small boats are typically found on inland waterways (e.g. [[river]]s and [[lake]]s) or in protected coastal areas. However, boats such as the [[whaleboat]] were designed for operation from a [[ship]] in an offshore environment. In modern [[Navy|naval]] terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard another vessel (a ship). An older tradition is that a ship has a weather deck fully enclosing the hull space, while a boat lacks a full weather deck; this is suggested as the reason why submarines are referred to as 'boats' rather than 'ships', as a cylindrical hull has interior decks but no weatherdeck. Another definition is a vessel that can be lifted out of the water. Some definitions do not make a distinction in size, as bulk freighters {{convert|1000|ft|m}} long on the Great Lakes are called [[lake freighter|oreboats]]. Ships are generally distinguished from boats based on their larger size, shape and cargo or passenger capacity.

Boats have a wide variety of shapes, sizes and construction methods due to their intended purpose, available materials or local traditions. [[Canoe]]-type boats have been used since prehistoric times and various versions are used throughout the world for transportation, fishing or sport. [[Fishing boat]]s vary widely in style partly to match local conditions. [[Pleasure boat]]s include [[ski boat]]s, [[Pontoon (boat)|pontoon boats]], and [[sailboat]]s. [[House boat]]s may be used for vacationing or long-term housing. Small boats can provide transport or convey cargo ([[lightering]]) to and from large ships. [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|Lifeboat]]s have rescue and safety functions. Boats can be powered by human power (e.g. [[rowboat]]s), wind power (e.g. [[sailboat]]s) and motor power (e.g. [[propellor]]-driven motorboats driven by [[gasoline]] or [[diesel engine|diesel]] engines).

== History ==
[[File:Dołbanka.jpg|thumb|right|A Ukrainian [[Dugout (boat)|dugout]] (dowbanka) dating from the end of the 19th century. [[Radomysl Castle]], [[Ukraine]]<ref>Bogomolets O. Radomysl Castle-Museum on the Royal Road Via Regia. Kyiv, 2013 {{ISBN|978-617-7031-15-3}}</ref>]]
Dugouts are the oldest type of boats found by archaeologists,<ref>{{cite book|author= Roger Francis Bridgman|title= 1000 Inventions and Discoveries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPlQAAAACAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Children's|isbn=978-1-4053-1419-0}}</ref>
and boats have served as [[boating|transportation]] since the earliest times.<ref name=d1>{{cite book|title= World system history: The social science of long-term change|year= 2000|publisher= Routledge|location= London [u.a.]|isbn= 0-415-23276-7|edition= 1|editor= Robert A. Denemark|page= 208}}</ref> Circumstantial evidence, such as the [[Early human migrations#South Asia and Australia|early settlement of Australia]] over 40,000 years ago, findings in [[Crete]] dated 130,000 years ago,<ref name="Plakias2010" >{{cite web
| title = Plakias Survey Finds Mesolithic and Palaeolithic Artifacts on Crete
| publisher = www.ascsa.edu.gr
| url = http://www.ascsa.edu.gr/index.php/news/newsDetails/plakias-survey-finds-stone-age-tools-on-crete/
| accessdate = 2011-10-28
}}</ref> and findings in Flores dated to 900,000 years ago,<ref>[http://archive.archaeology.org/9805/newsbriefs/mariners.html First Mariners – Archaeology Magazine Archive]. Archive.archaeology.org. Retrieved on 2013-11-16.</ref> suggest that boats have been used since prehistoric times. The earliest boats are thought to have been [[Dugout (boat)|logboats]],<ref name=McGrail11>
{{cite book
| last = McGrail
| first = Sean
| title = Boats of the World
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 2001
| location = Oxford, UK
| page = 11
| isbn = 0-19-814468-7}}
</ref> and the oldest boats found by archaeological excavation date from around 7,000–10,000 years ago. The oldest recovered boat in the world is the [[Pesse canoe]], a dugout made from the hollowed tree trunk of a ''[[Pinus sylvestris]]'' and constructed somewhere between 8200 and 7600 BC. This [[canoe]] is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen, Netherlands.<ref name="Van der Heide">{{cite book
| last = Van der Heide
| first = G.D.
| title = Scheepsarcheologie in Nederland (Archeology of Ships in the Netherlands).
| publisher = Strengholt
| year = 1974
| location = Naarden, Netherlands
| page = 507
| isbn =
}}</ref><ref name="Boat of Pesse">{{cite web
| title = World's oldest boat
| publisher =
| url = http://www.drentsmuseum.nl/collections/archaeology.html
| accessdate = 2013-11-08
}}</ref> Other very old dugout boats have also been recovered.<ref name="chinaorg2002">{{cite web
|title=Oldest Boat Unearthed
|publisher=China.org.cn
|url=http://lanzhou.china.com.cn/english/travel/50131.htm
|accessdate=2008-05-05
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090102183359/http://lanzhou.china.com.cn/english/travel/50131.htm
|archivedate=2009-01-02
|df=
}}</ref><ref name=McGrail431 >{{cite book
| last = McGrail
| first = Sean
| title = Boats of the World
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 2001
| location = Oxford, UK
| page = 431
| isbn = 0-19-814468-7
}}</ref><ref name="italy2005" >{{cite web
| title = 8,000-year-old dug out canoe on show in Italy
| publisher = Stone Pages Archeo News
| url = http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/001511.html
| accessdate = 2008-08-17
}}
</ref>
Rafts have operated for at least 8,000 years.<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Pohjanpalo
| first1 = Jorma
| title = The sea and man
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=l5YZAQAAIAAJ
| others = Translated by Diana Tullberg
| location = New York
| isbn = 0812813030
| publisher = Stein and Day
| publication-date = 1970
| page = 25
| accessdate = 2015-11-05
| quote = The oldest raft structures known are at least 8,000 years old.
}}
</ref>
A 7,000-year-old seagoing [[reed boat]] has been found in [[Kuwait]].<ref name="Lawler2002">{{cite journal
| last = Lawler
| first = Andrew
| title = Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early Trade Routes
| journal = Science
| volume = 296
| issue = 5574
| pages = 1791–1792
| publisher = [[American Association for the Advancement of Science|AAAS]]
| date = June 7, 2002
| url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/296/5574/1791
| doi = 10.1126/science.296.5574.1791
| accessdate = 2008-05-05
| pmid = 12052936
}}</ref>
Boats were used between 4000 and 3000 BC in [[Sumer]],<ref name=d1/> [[ancient Egypt]]<ref name=McGrail17 >{{cite book
| last = McGrail
| first = Sean
| title = Boats of the World
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 2001
| location = Oxford, UK
| pages = 17–18
| isbn = 0-19-814468-7
}}</ref> and in the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name=d1 />

Boats played an important role in the commerce between the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name=McGrail251 >{{cite book|last=McGrail|first=Seán|title=Boats of the world: From the Stone Age to medieval times|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-927186-0|edition=Paperback|page=251}}</ref> Evidence of varying models of boats has also been discovered at various Indus Valley archaeological sites.<ref name=McGrail/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://historicalleys.blogspot.com/2009/02/dhows-of-beypore.html |title=Beypore History – The Dhows of Beypore|publisher=historicalleys.blogspot.com|date=6 February 2009}}</ref>
[[Uru (boat)|Uru]] craft originate in [[Beypore]], a village in south [[Kozhikode|Calicut]], [[Kerala]], in southwestern [[India]]. This type of mammoth wooden ship was constructed{{when?|date=November 2015}} using teak, without any iron, and had a transport capacity of 400 tonnes. The ancient Arabs and Greeks used such boats as trading vessels.{{cn|date=November 2015}}

The historians [[Herodotus]], [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Strabo]] record the use of boats for commerce, travel, and military purposes.<ref name=McGrail >
{{cite book
|last= McGrail|first= Seán
|title= Boats of the world : From the Stone Age to medieval times|year= 2004
|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= Oxford|isbn= 0-19-927186-0
|edition= Paperback|pages= 50–51
}}
</ref>

==Types==
[[File:সারি সারি পাল তোলা নৌকা.jpg|thumb|right|Boats with sails in Bangladesh.]]
{{main|List of boat types}}
Boats can be categorized into three main types:
# Unpowered or human-powered boats. Unpowered boats include [[raft]]s and floats meant for one-way downstream travel. Human-powered boats include [[canoe]]s, [[kayak]]s, [[gondola]]s and boats propelled by poles like a [[Punt (boat)|punt]].
# [[Sailboat]]s, which are propelled solely by means of [[sail]]s.
# [[Motorboat]]s, which are propelled by mechanical means, such as engines.

==Parts and terminology==
{{details|Glossary of nautical terms}}
Several key components make up the main structure of most boats. The [[hull (watercraft)|hull]] is the main structural component of the boat and provides buoyancy. The [[Gunnel (ship element)|gunnel]], which make up the sides of the boat, offers protection from water and makes the boat harder to sink. The roughly horizontal, chambered structures spanning the hull of the boat are referred to as the deck. A ship often has several decks, but a boat is unlikely to have more than one, if any. Above the deck are the [[Superstructure (ship)|superstructures]]. The underside of a deck is the deck head.

An enclosed space on a boat is referred to as a cabin. Several structures make up a cabin, including a coach-roof, which is a lightweight structure which spans a raised cabin. The "floor" of a cabin is properly known as the sole, but is more likely to be called the floor (a floor is properly, a structural member which ties a frame to the keelson and keel). The vertical surfaces dividing the internal space are bulkheads.

The [[keel]] is a lengthwise structural member to which the frames are fixed (sometimes referred to as a "backbone").

The front (or fore end) of a boat is called the bow. Boats of earlier times often featured a [[Figurehead (object)|figurehead]] protruding from the bow. The rear (or aft end) of the boat is called the stern. The right side (facing forward) is starboard and the left side is port.

Nearly every boat is given a name by the owner, and this is how the boat is referred to in the boating community, and in some cases, in legal or title paperwork. Boat names vary from whimsical to humorous to serious.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Boat Name Game|url=http://www.popyachts.com/Page/Site-Post-List/119/The-Boat-Name-Game.html | accessdate = 2014-10-08}}</ref>

== Building materials ==
{{see also|Boat building}}
Until the mid-19th century most boats were made of natural materials, primarily wood, although [[Reed (plant)|reed]], bark and animal skins were also used. Early boats include the bound-reed style of boat seen in Ancient Egypt, the [[birch bark]] [[canoe]], the animal hide-covered [[kayak]] and [[coracle]] and the [[dugout canoe]] made from a single log.

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een Toba Batak prauw met houtsnijwerk op de voorsteven TMnr 60011149.jpg|thumb|Traditional Toba [[Batak]] boat (circa 1870), photograph by [[Kristen Feilberg]]]]
[[File:Boats at Bhimili beach in Visakhapatnam.jpg|thumb|Fishing Boats in [[Visakhapatnam]]]]
Bill Streever describes a boat made by the native [[Inupiat people]] in [[Barrow, Alaska]] as "a skin boat, an ''umiaq'', built from the stitched hides of [[bearded seal]]s and used to hunt [[bowhead whale]]s in the open-water leads during spring...".<ref>{{cite book |last= Streever |first= Bill |title= Cold: Adventures in the World's Frozen Places |location= New York |publisher= Little, Brown and Company |year= 2009 |page= 154}}</ref>

By the mid-19th century, many boats had been built with iron or steel frames but still planked in wood. In 1855 ferro-cement boat construction was patented by the French, who coined the name "ferciment". This is a system by which a steel or iron wire framework is built in the shape of a boat's hull and covered ([[trowell]]ed) over with cement. Reinforced with bulkheads and other internal structure, it is strong but heavy, easily repaired, and, if sealed properly, will not leak or corrode. These materials and methods were copied all over the world and have faded in and out of popularity to the present time. As the forests of Britain and Europe continued to be over-harvested to supply the keels of larger wooden boats, and the [[Bessemer process]] ([[patent]]ed in 1855) cheapened the cost of steel, steel ships and boats began to be more common. By the 1930s boats built entirely of steel from frames to plating were seen replacing wooden boats in many industrial uses, also for fishing fleets. Private recreational boats of steel are however uncommon. In 1895 WH Mullins produced steel boats of galvanized iron and by 1930 became the world's largest producer of pleasure boats. Mullins also offered boats in aluminum from 1895 through 1899 and once again in the 1920's<ref>WH Mullins boat history, Salem Ohio</ref> In the mid-20th century [[aluminium]] gained popularity. Though much more expensive than steel, there are now aluminum alloys available that do not corrode in salt water, and an aluminium boat built to similar load carrying standards is lighter in weight than the steel equivalent .
Around the mid-1960s, boats made of [[glass-reinforced plastic]], more commonly known as [[fibreglass]], became popular, especially for recreational boats. The [[United States Coast Guard]] refers to such boats as 'FRP' (for fibre-reinforced plastic) boats.

Fibreglass boats are strong, and do not rust (iron oxide), corrode, or rot. They are, however susceptible to structural degradation from sunlight and extremes in temperature over their lifespan. Fibreglass provides structural strength, especially when long woven strands are laid, sometimes from bow to stern, and then soaked in epoxy or polyester resin to form the hull. Whether hand laid or built in a mould, [[Fibre-reinforced plastic]] (FRP) boats usually have an outer coating of [[gelcoat]], which is a thin solid colored layer of polyester resin that adds no structural strength, but does create a smooth surface which can be buffed to a high shine and also acts as a protective layer against sunlight. FRP structures can be made stiffer with sandwich panels, where the FRP encloses a lightweight core such as balsa or foam. Cored FRP is most often found in decking, which helps keep down weight that will be carried above the waterline. The addition of wood makes the cored structure of the boat susceptible to rotting, which puts a greater emphasis on not allowing damaged sandwich structures to go unrepaired. Plastic based foam cores are less vulnerable. The phrase 'advanced composites' in FRP construction may indicate the addition of carbon fibre, [[Kevlar]] or other similar materials, but it may also indicate methods designed to introduce less expensive and, by at least one [[yacht]] surveyor's eyewitness accounts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yachtsurvey.com/Fiberglass_Boats.htm |title=Are They Fiberglass Boats Anymore? by David Pascoe, Marine Surveyor |publisher=Yachtsurvey.com |date=2000-01-12 |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> less structurally sound materials.

Cold moulding is similar to FRP in as much as it involves the use of epoxy or polyester resins, but the structural component is wood instead of fibreglass. In cold moulding very thin strips of wood are layered over a form or mould. Each layer is coated with resin and another directionally alternating layer is laid on top. In some processes the subsequent layers are stapled or otherwise mechanically fastened to the previous layers, but in other processes the layers are weighted or even vacuum bagged to hold them together while the resin sets. Layers are built up until the required hull thickness is achieved.

Boats or watercraft have also been made of materials such as [[Extruded polystyrene|foam]] or plastic, but most homebuilts today are built of plywood and either painted or covered with a layer of fibreglass and resin.

==Propulsion==
{{See also|Marine propulsion}}
The most common means of boat propulsion are as follows:
* Engine powered [[propeller]]s
** [[Inboard motor|Inboard]]
** [[Stern drive|Inboard/outboard]] (stern drive)
** [[Outboard motor|Outboard]]
** [[Paddle steamer|Paddle wheel]]
** Water jet ([[personal water craft]], [[jetboat]])
** Air fans ([[hovercraft]], [[air boat]])
* Human power ([[Watercraft rowing|rowing]], [[Watercraft paddling|paddling]], [[setting pole]] etc.)
* Wind power ([[Sails|sail]]ing)

An early, uncommon means of boat propulsion is represented by the [[water caterpillar]]. This boat was moved by a series of paddles on chains along the bottom to propel it over the water and preceded the development of [[tracked vehicle]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bonnier Corporation|title=The Caterpillar Is Now Being Applied to Ships|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EikDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA68|series=Popular Science|date=December 1918|publisher=Bonnier Corporation|page=68}}</ref>

==Buoyancy==
{{see also|Buoyancy}}

A floating boat [[displacement (fluid)|displaces]] its weight in water. The material of the boat hull may be denser than water, but if this is the case then it forms only the outer layer. If the boat floats, the mass of the boat (plus contents) ''as a whole'' divided by the volume ''below the waterline'' is equal to the [[density]] of water (1 kg/l). If weight is added to the boat, the volume below the waterline will increase to keep the weight balance equal, and so the boat sinks a little to compensate.

==Image gallery==
<gallery>
File:Canoe-01.jpg|Plastic molded boat.
Yacht and Sails.JPG|Anchored boats in [[Portovenere]], Italy
File:BOUALAML.the boat south mediterranean-Maghrebis.2.jpg|wooden boat in Morocco
EgyptTombOarboat.jpg|A boat in an Egyptian tomb, painted around 1450 BC
Historic Center of Quito - World Heritage Site by UNESCO - Photo 437.jpg|These [[Dugout (boat)|dugout boats]] were photographed in the courtyard of the Old Military Hospital in the [[Historic Center of Quito]]
A boat in India.JPG|A boat on the [[Ganges River]]
Babur crossing the river Son.jpg|Babur crossing river Son; folio from an illustrated manuscript of ‘Babur-Namah’, Mughal, [[Akbar]] Period, AD 1598
Tug Boat NY 1.jpg|A [[tugboat]] is used for towing or pushing another, larger [[Ship|vessel]]
Oldboats.JPG|Aluminum [[flat-bottomed boat]]s ashore for storage
DerelictBoatFollyIs.jpg|A ship's derelict [[lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]], built of steel, rusting away in the wetlands of [[Folly Island]], [[South Carolina]], United States
File:The boat south mediterranean-Maghrebis.jpg|wooden boat In a small Moroccan village
Boating in fair weather.jpg|A wooden boat operating near shore
Jiajing Emperor on his state barge.jpg|[[Ming Dynasty]] Chinese painting of the [[Wanli Emperor]] enjoying a boat ride on a river with an entourage of guards and courtiers
Sauce Bottle - geograph.org.uk - 13422.jpg|A boat shaped like a sauce bottle that was sailed across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] by [[Tom McClean]]
File:Bootsverleih hat Winterpause (23281842472).jpg|Boats rental, [[Germany]]
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
* [[Abora]]
* [[Barge]]
* [[Cabin cruiser]]
* [[Dory]]
* [[Fishing boat]]
* [[Halkett boat]]
* [[Inflatable boat]]
{{Col-break}}
* [[Launch (boat)]]
* [[Log canoe]]
* [[Narrowboat]]
* [[Naval architecture]]
* [[Panga (boat)]]
* [[Pirogue]]
{{Col-break}}
* [[Rescue craft]]
* [[Sampan]]
* [[Ship's boat]]
* [[Skiff]]
* [[Super yacht]]
* [[Traditional fishing boats]]
* [[Watercraft rowing]]
{{Col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
{{Wikiquote|Boats}}
{{Wiktionary|boat}}
* University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – [http://content.lib.washington.edu/fishweb/index.html Freshwater and Marine Image Bank], (enter search term "vessels" for images of boats and vessels.)

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Boats| ]]
[[Category:Watercraft]]
[[Category:Fishing equipment]]

Netherlands

2017-04-18T11:46:30Z

85.19.179.17: Typo

{{about|the constituent country|the sovereign state and constitutional monarchy|Kingdom of the Netherlands|other uses}}
{{distinguish2|the region of [[Holland]], or the [[Low Countries]] (''de Nederlanden'')}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox country
|coordinates = {{Coord|52|22|N|4|53|E|type:city}}
|languages_type = {{ubl| • National| • Regional}}
|languages2_type = Recognised regional languages
|leader_name2 = [[Mark Rutte]]
|conventional_long_name = Netherlands 
|native_name = {{native name|nl|Nederland}}
|image_flag = Flag of the Netherlands.svg
|image_coat = State coat of arms of the Netherlands.svg
|common_name = the Netherlands
|national_motto = {{native phrase|fr|"[[Je maintiendrai]]"|italics=off}} {{native phrase|nl|"Ik zal handhaven"|italics=off}} {{small|"I will uphold"}}{{ref label|aaa|a}}
{{collapsible list
|title = ''{{nobold|historic/other mottos  }} ''
|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.15em;
|liststyle = text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;
|{{native phrase|la|"[[concordia res parvae crescunt]]"|italics=off}} {{small|}} {{native phrase|nl|"Eendracht maakt macht"|italics=off}} {{small|"Unity makes strength"}}
|{{native phrase|la|"Si Deus nobiscum quis contra nos"|italics=off}}{{ref label|bbb|b}} {{small|"If God be with us who can be against us"}}
}}
|national_anthem = {{native name|nl|"[[Wilhelmus]]"|nolink=yes|italics=off}} {{small|"'William"}} <center>[[File:United States Navy Band - Het Wilhelmus.ogg|noicon|center]]</center>
|image_map = EU-Netherlands.svg
|map_width = 250px
|map_caption = {{map caption |countryprefix=the |country=<nowiki>European Netherlands</nowiki> |location_color=dark green |region=Europe |region_color=dark grey |subregion=the [[European Union]] |subregion_color=green}}
|image_map2 = BES islands location map.svg
|map2_width = 250px
|map_caption2 = {{map caption |countryprefix=the |country= [[Caribbean Netherlands|Dutch special municipalities]] |location_color=green}}
|capital = [[Amsterdam]]{{ref label|ccc|c}}
|largest_city = capital
|official_languages = 
|languages = {{ubl|[[Dutch language|Dutch]]|[[West Frisian language|Frisian]]|[[English in the Netherlands|English]]|[[Papiamento]]{{ref label|ddd|d}}}}
|languages_sub = yes
|languages2 = [[Limburgish language|Limburgish]], [[Dutch Low Saxon]]{{ref label|ccc|c}}
|ethnic_groups =
{{unbulleted list
| 78.3% [[Dutch people|Dutch]]
| 5.9% other [[Europeans]]
| 2.3% [[Turks in the Netherlands|Turks]]
| 2.2% [[Dutch-Moroccans|Moroccans]]
| 2.1% [[Indo people|Indo]]
| 2.0% [[Surinamese people in the Netherlands|Surinamese]]
| 0.8% [[Caribbean Netherlands|Caribbean]]
| 6.4% others
}}
|ethnic_groups_year = 2015<ref>[http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37325&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=a&D6=l&VW=T Official CBS website containing all Dutch demographic statistics]. Cbs.nl. Retrieved on 30 October 2014.</ref>
|demonym = Dutch
|membership = {{flag|Kingdom of the Netherlands}}
|membership_type = Sovereign state
|government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]]
|leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of the Netherlands|Monarch]]
|leader_name1 = [[Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands|Willem-Alexander]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands|Prime Minister]]
|legislature = [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]]
|upper_house = [[Senate (Netherlands)|Senate]]
|lower_house = [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|House of Representatives]]
|established_event1 = [[Act of Abjuration|Proclaimed]]
|sovereignty_type = Independence {{nobold|from [[Spanish Empire]]}}
|established_event2 = [[Peace of Münster|Recognised]]
|established_date1 = 26 July 1581
|established_event3 = Kingdom established
|established_date2 = 30 January 1648
|established_event4 = [[Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands|Constituent country]]
|established_event5= Incorporation of [[Caribbean Netherlands]]
|established_date3 = 16 March 1815
|established_date4 = 15 December 1954
|established_date5 = 10 October 2010
|area_km2 = 41,543
|area_rank = 134th
|area_sq_mi = 16,033 
|percent_water = 18.41
|population_estimate = 17,100,475<ref name="pop-cbs">{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.nl/en-GB/menu/themas/bevolking/cijfers/extra/bevolkingsteller.htm |title=Population counter |work=Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek |date=2017 |accessdate= 13 February 2017}}</ref>
|population_census =
|population_estimate_year = 2017
|population_estimate_rank = 65th
|population_census_year = 2011
|population_density_km2 = {{#expr:{{Data Netherlands|poptoday}} / 41526 round 1}}
|population_density_rank= 31st
|population_density_sq_mi = {{#expr:{{Data Netherlands|poptoday}} / 16033 round 1}} 
|GDP_PPP = $865.908 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=92&pr.y=17&sy=2016&ey=2021&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=138&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Netherlands |date=April 2016 |publisher=International Monetary Fund }}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_year = 2016
|GDP_PPP_rank = 27th
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $50,846
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 15th
|GDP_nominal = $769.930 billion<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_year = 2016
|GDP_nominal_rank = 17th
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $45,210
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 15th
|Gini = 26.2 
|Gini_year = 2015
|Gini_change = increase
|Gini_ref = <ref name=eurogini>{{cite web|title=Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income (source: SILC)|url=http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=ilc_di12|publisher=Eurostat Data Explorer|accessdate=4 December 2015}}</ref>
|Gini_rank = 9th
|HDI = 0.924 
|HDI_year = 2015
|HDI_change = increase 
|HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2016_human_development_report.pdf |title=2016 Human Development Report |date=2016 |accessdate=21 March 2017 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme }}</ref>
|HDI_rank = 7th
|currency = {{unbulleted list |[[Euro]] ([[ISO 4217|EUR]]) |{{nowrap|[[United States dollar|US dollar]] (USD) ([[Caribbean Netherlands|Caribbean Netherlands]] only){{ref label|eee|e}}}}}}
|time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] ([[UTC]]+1){{ref label|fff|f}} [[Atlantic Standard Time|AST]]
|utc_offset =-4
|utc_offset_DST =-4
|time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] ([[UTC]]+2) [[Atlantic Standard Time|AST]]
|date_format = dd-mm-yyyy
|drives_on = right
|calling_code = {{unbulleted list |[[Telephone numbers in the Netherlands|+31]] |[[Telephone numbers in Curaçao and the Caribbean Netherlands|+599]]{{ref label|ggg|g}}}}
|iso3166code = NL
|cctld = [[.nl]], [[.bq]]{{ref label|hhh|h}}
| footnote_a = {{note|aaa}} The official motto is in French. The literal translation into English is "I will maintain"; a better translation, however, is "I will hold firm" or "I will uphold" (namely, the integrity and independence of the territory).{{original research inline|date=January 2013}}
| footnote_b = {{note|bbb}} {{native phrase|nl|In 1816 the motto was abbreviated to "[[God zij met ons]]"|italics=off}}. (Used on the edges of coins.)
| footnote_c = {{note|ccc}} While [[Amsterdam]] is the constitutional capital, [[The Hague]] is the seat of the government.
| footnote_d = {{note|ddd}} [[West Frisian language|West Frisian]] has official status in [[Friesland]].<big><ref>{{cite web |url=http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0002219/tekst_bevat_Fries/geldigheidsdatum_25-10-2010 |title=Wet gebruik Friese taal in het rechtsverkeer |publisher=wetten.nl |accessdate=25 October 2010 |language=Dutch}}</ref></big> [[Dutch Low Saxon]] and [[Limburgish language|Limburgish]] are recognised as [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages|regional languages]] by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. [[Papiamento]] is recognised by the Dutch government in relation to [[Bonaire]], and [[English language|English]] in relation to both [[Sint Eustatius]] and [[Saba]].<big><ref name=languages>{{cite web|url=http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0028063/tekst_bevat_taal%2Bin%2Bhet%2Bbestuurlijk%2Bverkeer/geldigheidsdatum_01-01-2011 |title=Invoeringswet openbare lichamen Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba |language=Dutch |publisher=wetten.nl |accessdate=1 January 2011}}</ref></big>
| footnote_e = {{note|eee}} The euro is used in the European part of the Netherlands and replaced the [[Dutch guilder]] in 2002. The US dollar is used in the [[Caribbean Netherlands]] and replaced the [[Netherlands Antillean guilder]] in 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0028551 |title=Wet geldstelsel BES |publisher=Dutch government |date=30 September 2010 |accessdate=11 January 2014}}</ref>
| footnote_f = {{note|fff}} CET and CEST are used in the European Netherlands, and AST is used in the Caribbean Netherlands.
| footnote_g = {{note|ggg}} 599 was the country code designated for the now dissolved [[Netherlands Antilles]]. The Caribbean Netherlands still use 599–7 (Bonaire), 599–3 (Sint Eustatius) and 599–4 (Saba).
| footnote_h = {{note|hhh}} [[.nl]] is the common internet top level domain name for the Netherlands. The [[.eu]] domain is also used, as it is shared with other [[European Union]] member states. [[.bq]] is designated, but not in use, for the [[Caribbean Netherlands]].
|country_code = [[NLD]]
}}

The '''Netherlands''', informally also known as '''Holland''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Netherlands.ogg|ˈ|n|ɛ|ð|ər|l|ə|n|d|z}}; {{lang-nl|Nederland}} {{IPA-nl|ˈneːdərˌlɑnt||Nl-Nederland.ogg}}; {{lang-fy|Nederlân}}) is the main [[Kingdom of the Netherlands#Countries|constituent country]] of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. It is a densely populated country located in [[Western Europe]] with [[Caribbean Netherlands|three island territories]] in the [[Caribbean]].<ref group="nb">designated [[Bonaire]], [[Sint Eustatius]] and [[Saba]] within [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] [http://www.iso.org/iso/newsletter_vi-9_fiji-myanmar_and_other_minor_corrections-incl_bulgaria.pdf ISO 3166-1].</ref> The European part of the Netherlands borders [[Germany]] to the east, [[Belgium]] to the south, and the [[North Sea]] to the northwest, sharing [[Maritime boundary|maritime border]]s with Belgium, the [[United Kingdom]], and Germany.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defensie.nl/english/topics/hydrography/contents/maritime-zones-and-boundaries/netherlands-boundaries-in-the-north-sea |title=Netherlands boundaries in the North Sea |publisher=Ministry of Defence |accessdate=15 August 2014}}</ref>

The three largest cities in the Netherlands are [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]] and [[The Hague]]. Amsterdam is the [[capital of the Netherlands|country's capital]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Dutch Wikisource |title=Grondwet voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden |language=Dutch |url=http://nl.wikisource.org/wiki/Grondwet_voor_het_Koninkrijk_der_Nederlanden |at=[http://nl.wikisource.org/wiki/Nederlandse_grondwet/Hoofdstuk_2#Artikel_32 Chapter 2, Article 32] |quote=''...de hoofdstad Amsterdam...'' |accessdate=3 July 2013}}</ref> while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of [[States General of the Netherlands|parliament]] and [[Cabinet of the Netherlands|government]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://netherlandsmission.org/article.asp?articleref=AR00000154EN&categoryvalue=netherlands&subcategoryvalue=nlgeneralinfo |author=Permanent Mission of the Netherlands to the UN |title=General Information |accessdate=26 June 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005025411/http://netherlandsmission.org/article.asp?articleref=AR00000154EN&categoryvalue=netherlands&subcategoryvalue=nlgeneralinfo |archivedate=5 October 2013 }}</ref> The [[port of Rotterdam]] is the world's largest port outside East-Asia, and the largest port in Europe.<ref>{{cite press release |date=1 June 2014 |title=Port Statistics 2013 |url=https://www.portofrotterdam.com/sites/default/files/Port-statistics-2013.pdf |page=8 |publisher=Rotterdam Port Authority |accessdate=28 June 2014}}</ref> The name ''[[Holland]]'' is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands.<ref group="nb">Formally 'Holland' refers only to two of the country's twelve provinces: ''North Holland'' and ''South Holland''.</ref>

"Netherlands" literally means "[[Lower Countries|lower countries]]", influenced by its low land and flat geography, with only about 50% of its land exceeding one metre [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]].<ref name="Eupedia">{{cite web|url=http://www.eupedia.com/netherlands/trivia.shtml |title=Netherlands Guide – Interesting facts about the Netherlands |publisher=Eupedia |date=19 April 1994 |accessdate=29 April 2010}}</ref> Most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas ([[polder]]s) have been [[land reclamation|reclaimed]] from the sea and lakes, amounting to nearly 17% of the country's current land mass. With a [[population density]] of 412 people per km2 – 507 (January 2017) if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by population density|very densely populated country]]. Only [[Bangladesh]], [[South Korea]], and [[Taiwan]] have both a larger population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the world's second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products, after the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freshplaza.com/article/133941/Netherlands-Agricultural-exports-top-80-billion-Euros|title=Netherlands: Agricultural exports top 80 billion Euros|publisher=}}</ref><ref name="hollandtrade.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.hollandtrade.com/sector-information/agriculture-and-food/?bstnum=4909|title=Agriculture and food|first=Netherlands Enterprise Agency|last=(RVO)|work=hollandtrade.com|accessdate=26 August 2016}}</ref> This is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. The Netherlands was the third country in the world to have an elected [[parliament]], and since 1848 it has been governed as a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[democracy]] and a [[constitutional monarchy]], organised as a [[unitary state]]. The Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and is generally regarded as a [[liberalism|liberal]] country, having legalised [[Abortion in the Netherlands|abortion]], [[Prostitution in the Netherlands|prostitution]] and [[Euthanasia in the Netherlands|euthanasia]], while maintaining a progressive [[drug policy of the Netherlands|drugs policy]]. In 2001, it became the world's first country to legalise [[same-sex marriage in the Netherlands|same-sex marriage]].

The Netherlands is a founding member of the [[European Union|EU]], [[Eurozone]], [[Group of Ten (economic)|G-10]], [[NATO]], [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] and [[World Trade Organization|WTO]]; as well as being a part of the [[Schengen Area]] and the trilateral [[Benelux]] Union. The country is host to the [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] and five international courts: the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]], the [[International Court of Justice]], the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]], the [[International Criminal Court]] and the [[Special Tribunal for Lebanon]]. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EU's criminal intelligence agency [[Europol]] and judicial co-operation agency [[Eurojust]]. This has led to the city being dubbed "the world's legal capital."<ref>{{Cite book|last = van Krieken|first = Peter J.|author2=David McKay|title = The Hague: Legal Capital of the World|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year= 2005|isbn = 90-6704-185-8}}, specifically, ''"In the 1990s, during his term as United Nations Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali started calling The Hague the world's legal capital."''</ref> The country also ranks second highest in the world's 2016 [[Press Freedom Index]], as published by [[Reporters Without Borders]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170201195036/https://rsf.org/en/ranking 2016 World Press Freedom Index – RSF (archived)]</ref>

The Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the [[Index of Economic Freedom]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/index/country/netherlands |title=Netherlands |accessdate=10 May 2013 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510115657/http://www.heritage.org/index/country/netherlands |archivedate=10 May 2013 |df=dmy }}, [[Index of Economic Freedom]]. heritage.org</ref> It had the [[list of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|thirteenth-highest]] per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the [[International Monetary Fund]]. In 2013, the [[United Nations]] [[World Happiness Report]] ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Helliwell |first=John |author2=Layard |first2=Richard |author3=Sachs |first3=Jeffrey |url=http://unsdsn.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/WorldHappinessReport2013_online.pdf |title=World Happiness Report 2013 |publisher=United Nations Sustainable Development Solutions Network |date=9 September 2013 |accessdate=29 June 2014}}</ref> The Netherlands also ranks [[List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI|joint third highest]] in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, along with [[Australia]].

==Etymology==

{{see also|Netherlands (terminology)}}
The Netherlands in its entirety is often referred to by the much older designation "[[Holland]]" (meaning ''holt land'', or wood land). This term strictly speaking refers only to [[North Holland|North]] and [[South Holland]], two of the nation's twelve provinces, formerly a single province and earlier the [[County of Holland]]. This originally [[Franks|Frankish]] county emerged from the dissolved [[Frisian Kingdom]] and was – after the decline of [[Duchy of Brabant]] and [[County of Flanders]] – economically and politically the most important county in the [[Low Countries]] region. Because of this importance, and the emphasis on Holland during the formation of the [[Dutch Republic]], the [[Eighty Years' War]] and later the [[Anglo-Dutch Wars]] in the 16th, 17th and 18th century, Holland served as a ''[[pars pro toto]]'' for the entire country, and is nowadays considered either incorrect,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://handbook.reuters.com/index.php?title=H#Holland|title=The Reuters Style Guide|accessdate=31 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.media.uoa.gr/lectures/linguistic_archives/academic_papers0506/notes/stylesheets_3.pdf|title=The BBC News Styleguide|accessdate=31 March 2014}}</ref> informal,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/topics/about-us/style-book/1435302/Telegraph-style-book-places-and-peoples.html|title=Telegraph style book: places and peoples|accessdate=31 March 2014 | location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=12 April 2008}}</ref> or on occasion opprobrious, depending on the context, but is widely used when referring to the [[Netherlands national football team|national football team]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/Guardian/documents/2004/07/15/styleguidepdfjuly2004.pdf|title=The Guardian style guide|accessdate=31 March 2014 | location=London}}</ref>

The "region" called Low Countries (comprising [[Belgium]], the Netherlands and [[Luxembourg]]) and the "country" of the Netherlands have the same [[toponymy]]. Place names with ''Neder'' (or ''lage''), ''Nieder'', ''Nether'' (or ''low'') and ''Nedre'' (in [[Germanic languages]]) and ''Bas'' or ''Inferior'' (in [[Romance languages]]) are in use in places all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a [[deictic]] relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as ''Upper'', ''Boven'', ''Oben'', ''Superior'' or ''Haut''. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the ''lower'' region has been more or less downstream and near the sea. The geographical location of the upper region, however, changed over time tremendously. The [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream [[Germania Inferior]] (nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands) and upstream [[Germania Superior]] (nowadays part of Germany). The designation 'Low' to refer to the region returns again in the 10th century Duchy of [[Lower Lorraine]], that covered much of the Low Countries.<ref name="Franks (Columbia Encyclopedia)">{{cite web | url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Franks.aspx | title=Franks | publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] | work=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]] | year=2013 | accessdate=1 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://nobhist.narod.ru/lorraine.html | title=Lotharingia / Lorraine (Lothringen) | date=5 September 2013 | accessdate=1 February 2014}}</ref> But this time the corresponding ''Upper'' region is [[Upper Lorraine]], in nowadays Northern France.

The [[Dukes of Burgundy]], who ruled the Low Countries in the 15th century, used the term ''les pays de par deçà'' (~ the lands over here) for the Low Countries as opposed to ''les pays de par delà'' (~ the lands over there) for their original homeland: [[Burgundy]] in present-day east-central France.<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=0Foy9GGgdcgC&pg=PA85&dq=duke+pays+de+par+deçà&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAWoVChMIs5LjwoHJxwIVgjkaCh1JGgSb#v=onepage&q=duke%20pays%20de%20par%20deçà&f=false</ref> Under [[Habsburg Netherlands|Habsburg rule]], ''Les pays de par deçà'' developed in ''pays d'embas'' (lands down-here),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59Pae06JSiUC&lpg=PP1&dq=The%20New%20Cambridge%20Modern%20History%3A%20Volume%202%2C%20The%20Reformation%2C%201520-1559&hl=nl&pg=PA342#v=onepage&q=The%20New%20Cambridge%20Modern%20History:%20Volume%202,%20The%20Reformation,%201520-1559&f=false|title=The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 2, The Reformation, 1520–1559|publisher=}}</ref> a deictic expression in relation to other Habsburg possessions in Europe. This was translated as ''Neder-landen'' in contemporary Dutch official documents.<ref name=Lem>{{cite web|last=Van der Lem|first=Anton|title=De Opstand in de Nederlanden 1555–1609;De landen van herwaarts over|url=http://www.dutchrevolt.leiden.edu/dutch/verhaal/Pages/verhaal01.aspx|accessdate=11 March 2013}}</ref> From a regional point of view, ''Niderlant'' was also the area between the [[Meuse (river)|Meuse]] and the lower [[Rhine]] in the late Middle Ages. The area known as ''Oberland'' (High country) was in this deictic context considered to begin approximately at the nearby higher located [[Cologne]].

From the mid-sixteenth century on, "the Low Countries" and "the Netherlands" lost their original deictic meaning, and were – besides [[Flanders]] – probably the most commonly used names. The [[Eighty Years' War]] (1568–1648) divided the Low Countries into an independent northern [[Dutch Republic]] (or [[Latinisation of names|Latinised]] ''Belgica Foederata'', "Federated Netherlands", the precursor state of the Netherlands) and a Spanish controlled [[Southern Netherlands]] (Latinised ''Belgica Regia'', "Royal Netherlands", the precursor state of Belgium). The Low Countries today is a designation that includes the countries the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, although in most [[Romance languages]], the term "Low Countries" is used as the name for the Netherlands specifically. It is used synonymous with the more neutral and geopolitical term [[Benelux]].

==History==
{{Main article|History of the Netherlands}}

===Prehistory (before 500 BC)===
[[File:5500vc ex leg.jpg|thumb|upright|left|upright|The Netherlands in 5500 BC]]
[[File:500vc ex leg copy.jpg|thumb|upright|left|upright|The Netherlands in 500 BC]]
[[File:Mannetje van Willemstad.jpg|thumb|right|upright=.6|An oak figurine found in [[Willemstad, North Brabant]] (4500 BC)]]

The prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by the sea and the rivers that constantly shifted the low-lying geography. The oldest human ([[Neanderthal]]) traces in the Netherlands were found in higher soils, near [[Maastricht]], from what is believed to be about 250,000 years ago. After the end of the Ice Age, various [[Paleolithic]] groups inhabited the area, and around 8000 BC [[Mesolithic]] tribes resided in Friesland and Drenthe, where the [[Pesse canoe|oldest canoe]] in the world was recovered.<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Van Zeist | first1 = W. | title = De steentijd van Nederland | journal=Nieuwe Drentse Volksalmanak | volume = 75 | pages = 4–11 | year = 1957}}</ref> Autochthonous [[hunter-gatherers]] from the [[Swifterbant culture]] are attested from around 5600 BC onwards.<ref name=Kooijmans1998>Louwe Kooijmans, L.P., "[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/1108/171_060.pdf?sequence=1 Trijntje van de Betuweroute, Jachtkampen uit de Steentijd te Hardinxveld-Giessendam]", 1998, ''Spiegel Historiael'' 33, pp. 423–428</ref> They are strongly linked to rivers and open water and were related to the southern Scandinavian [[Ertebølle culture]] (5300–4000 BC). To the west, the same tribes might have built hunting camps to hunt winter game. People made the switch to [[animal husbandry]] sometime between 4800 BC and 4500 BC. Agricultural transformation took place very gradually, between 4300 BC and 4000 BC.<ref>Volkskrant 24 August 2007 "[http://www.volkskrant.nl/wetenschap/article455140.ece/Prehistorische_akker_gevonden_bij_Swifterbant Prehistoric agricultural field found in Swifterbant, 4300–4000BC] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919141403/http://www.volkskrant.nl/wetenschap/article455140.ece/Prehistorische_akker_gevonden_bij_Swifterbant |date=19 September 2009 }}"</ref> The farming [[Funnelbeaker culture]] extended from Denmark through northern Germany into the northern Netherlands, and erected the [[dolmens]], large stone grave monuments found in [[Drenthe]] (built between 4100 BC and 3200 BC). To the southwest, the [[Vlaardingen culture]] (around 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers survived well into the [[Neolithic]] period. Around 2950 BC there was a quick and smooth transition from the [[Funnelbeaker]] farming culture to the pan-European [[Corded Ware]] pastoralist culture.<ref name=Bloemers>{{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}}, {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}, in J.H.F. Bloemers & T. van Dorp (Eds), ''Pre- & protohistorie van de lage landen''. De Haan/Open Universiteit, 1991. ISBN 90-269-4448-9, NUGI 644</ref> The [[Bell Beaker culture]], also present in the Netherlands, apparently rose out of the Corded Ware culture.<ref name=Lanting>Lanting, J.N. & J.D. van der Waals, (1976), "Beaker culture relations in the Lower Rhine Basin", {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}, in Lanting et al. (Eds) ''Glockenbechersimposion Oberried 1974''. Bussum-Haarlem: Uniehoek N.V.</ref><ref>{{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}}, p. 93, in J. P. Mallory and John Q. Adams (Eds), ''The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture'', Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997.</ref>

Discoveries of copper artifacts imply trade with other parts of Europe, as the metal is not normally found in Dutch soil. The [[Bronze Age]] probably started somewhere around 2000 BC and lasted until around 800 BC. The many finds in [[Drenthe]] of rare and valuable objects, suggest that it was a trading centre in the Bronze Age. The [[Beaker culture|Bell Beaker cultures]] (2700–2100 BC) locally developed into the Bronze Age Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC). In the second millennium BC, the region was the boundary between the [[Atlantic Bronze Age|Atlantic]] and [[Nordic Bronze Age|Nordic]] horizons, roughly divided by the course of the [[Rhine]]. In the north, the [[Elp culture]] (c. 1800 BC to 800 BC)<ref>According to "Het Archeologisch Basisregister" (ABR), version 1.0 November 1992, [http://www.racm.nl/content/documenten%5Cabr%20website.pdf] , ''Elp Kümmerkeramik'' is dated BRONSMA (early MBA) to BRONSL (LBA) and this has been standardised by "De Rijksdienst voor Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten" (RACM)" as being at the period starting at 1800 BC and ending at 800 BC.{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=October 2011}} was a [[Bronze Age]] archaeological culture having [[earthenware]] pottery of low quality as a marker. The initial phase was characterised by [[tumulus|tumuli]] (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia, and were apparently related to the [[Tumulus culture]] (1600–1200 BC) in central Europe. This phase was followed by a subsequent change featuring [[Urnfield]] ([[cremation]]) burial customs (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the [[Hilversum culture]] (1800–800 BC), which apparently inherited cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture.

The [[Iron Age]] brought a measure of prosperity. Iron ore was available throughout the country, including [[bog iron]] extracted from the [[ore]] in [[peat bogs]] in the north, the natural iron-bearing balls found in the [[Veluwe]] and the red iron ore near the rivers in Brabant. [[Blacksmith|Smiths]] travelled from small settlement to settlement with [[bronze]] and iron, fabricating tools on demand, including [[axe]]s, [[Knife|knives]], [[pins]], [[arrowheads]] and [[sword]]s. Some evidence even suggests the making of [[Damascus steel]] [[sword]]s using an advanced method of [[forging]] that combined the flexibility of iron with the strength of steel. The [[Vorstengraf (Oss)|King's grave of Oss]] dating from around 500 BC was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in western Europe and containing an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral.

===Germanic groups and Romans (500 BC – 410 AD)===
{{Main article|Celts|Germanic peoples|Romans in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Germanic dialects ca. AD 1.png|upright|thumb|left|Germanic dialects around 1 AD
{{legend|Blue|[[:w:North Germanic languages|North Germanic]]}}
{{legend|Red|[[:w:North Sea Germanic|North Sea Germanic]]}}
{{legend|Orange|[[:w:Weser-Rhine Germanic|Weser-Rhine Germanic]]}}
{{legend|Yellow|[[:w:Elbe Germanic|Elbe Germanic]]}}
{{legend|Green|[[:w:East Germanic languages|East Germanic]]}}]]

[[File:Celtic expansion in Europe.png|thumb|{{legend|#FFFF43|[[Diachronic linguistics|Diachronic]] distribution of Celtic peoples from 500 BC}}{{legend|#97FFB6|expansion into the southern Low Countries by 270 BC}}]]
The deteriorating climate in Scandinavia around 850 BC, that further deteriorated around 650 BC, might have triggered migration of [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged.<ref>''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'', 15th edition, 22:641–642</ref><ref name="Verhaal">de Vries, Jan W., Roland Willemyns and Peter Burger, ''Het verhaal van een taal'', Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2003, pp. 12, 21–27</ref> The [[North Sea Germanic]] [[Ingvaeones]] inhabited the northern part of the [[Low Countries]]. They would later develop into the [[Frisii]] and the early [[Saxons]].<ref name="Verhaal"/> A second grouping, the [[Weser-Rhine Germanic]] (or [[Istvaeones]]), extended along the middle Rhine and [[Weser]] and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers. This group consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the [[Salian Franks]].<ref name="Verhaal"/> Also the [[Celts|Celtic]] [[La Tène culture]] (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest) had expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the [[Low Countries]]. Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period, the Iron Age [[Nordwestblock]] culture,<ref>Hachmann, Rolf, Georg Kossack and Hans Kuhn, ''Völker zwischen Germanen und Kelten'', 1986, pp. 183–212</ref><ref name="Lendering">Lendering, Jona, [http://www.livius.org/ga-gh/germania/inferior.htm "Germania Inferior"], Livius.org. Retrieved 6 October 2011.</ref> that eventually was being absorbed by the [[Celts]] to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east.

[[File:Germania 70.svg|thumb|Rhine Frontier of around 70 AD]]
During the [[Gallic Wars]], the area south of the [[Oude Rijn (Utrecht and South Holland)|Oude Rijn]] and west of the [[Rhine]] was conquered by [[Roman Empire|Roman forces]] under [[Julius Caesar]] from 57 BC to 53 BC.<ref name="Lendering"/> Caesar describes two main tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands: the [[Menapii]] and the [[Eburones]]. The Rhine became fixed as Rome's northern frontier around 12 AD. Notable towns would arise along the [[Limes Germanicus]]: [[Nijmegen]] and [[Voorburg]]. At first part of [[Gallia Belgica]], the area south of the Limes became part of the [[Roman province]] of [[Germania Inferior]]. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule (but not its presence and control), while the border tribes [[Batavi (Germanic tribe)|Batavi]] and [[Cananefates]] served in the [[Ala (Roman military)|Roman cavalry]].<ref>Roymans, Nico, ''Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power: The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire'', Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2005, pp 226–227</ref> The Batavi rose against the Romans in the [[Batavian rebellion]] of 69AD, but were eventually defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the [[Salian Franks]], whose identity emerged at the first half of the third century.<ref name="Previté-Orton">Previté-Orton, Charles, ''The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History'', vol. I, pp. 51–52, 151</ref> Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies. The Salian Franks were forced by the confederation of the [[Saxons]] from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in West Flanders and the Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the [[English Channel]]. Roman forces pacified the region, but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of [[Julian the Apostate]] (358), when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as ''[[foederati]]'' in [[Toxandria]].<ref name="Previté-Orton"/> After deteriorating climate conditions and the Romans withdrawal, the [[Frisii]] disappeared from the northern Netherlands, probably forced to resettle within Roman territory as ''[[laeti]]'' in c. 296. Coastal lands remained largely unpopulated for the next two centuries.<ref>{{Citation|last=Grane|first=Thomas|year=2007|contribution=From Gallienus to Probus – Three decades of turmoil and recovery|title=The Roman Empire and Southern Scandinavia–a Northern Connection! (PhD thesis)|publisher=University of Copenhagen|publication-date=2007|publication-place=Copenhagen|page=109}}</ref>

===Early Middle Ages (411–1000)===
{{Main article|Frankish Kingdom|Frisian Kingdom}}
[[File:Frisia 716-la.svg|thumb|upright|left|Franks, Frisians and Saxons (c. 716 AD)]]

After [[Roman Empire|Roman]] government in the area collapsed, the Franks expanded their territories in numerous kingdoms. By the 490s, [[Clovis I]] had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one [[Frankish kingdom]], and from there continued his conquests into [[Gaul]]. During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south eventually adopted the [[Vulgar Latin]] of the local population.<ref name="Verhaal"/> A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north (i.e. southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking [[Old Frankish]], which by the ninth century had evolved into [[Old Low Franconian]] or [[Old Dutch]].<ref name="Verhaal"/> A Dutch-French language boundary came into existence.<ref name="Verhaal"/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j10lCgAAQBAJ|title=History of the Low Countries|last=Blom|first=J. C. H.|date=30 June 2006|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=|isbn=9781845452728|location=|pages=6–18|language=en|via=}}</ref>

[[File:Franks expansion.gif|upright|thumb|left|Frankish expansion (481 to 870 AD)]]

To the north of the Franks, climatic conditions on the coast improved, and during the [[Migration Period]] the abandoned land was resettled again, mostly by [[Saxons]], but also by the closely related [[Angles]], [[Jutes]] and ancient [[Frisii]].<ref name="Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity">{{Citation |last=Bazelmans |first=Jos |year=2009 |editor1-last=Derks |editor1-first=Ton |editor2-last=Roymans |editor2-first=Nico |contribution=The early-medieval use of ethnic names from classical antiquity: The case of the Frisians |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fM_cmuhmSbIC&pg=PA321 |title=Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition |publisher=Amsterdam University |publication-date=2009 |publication-place=Amsterdam |pages=321–337 |url= |isbn=978-90-8964-078-9 }}</ref> Many moved on to [[England]] and came to be known as [[Anglo-Saxons]], but those who stayed would be referred to as [[Frisians]] and their language as [[Frisian languages|Frisian]], named after the land that was once inhabited by Frisii.<ref name="Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity"/> Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast, and it is still the language most closely related to English among the living languages of continental Europe. By the seventh century a [[Frisian Kingdom]] (650–734) under King [[Aldegisel]] and King [[Redbad, King of the Frisians|Redbad]] emerged with [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] as its centre of power,<ref name="Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity"/><ref>[http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html Frisii en Frisiaevones, 25–08–02 (Dutch)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003101550/http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html |date=3 October 2011 }}, Bertsgeschiedenissite.nl. Retrieved 6 October 2011</ref> while [[Dorestad]] was a flourishing trading place.<ref>Willemsen, A. (2009), ''Dorestad. Een wereldstad in de middeleeuwen'', Walburg Pers, Zutphen, pp. 23–27, ISBN 978-90-5730-627-3</ref><ref name="Atlas">{{cite book | title=Atlas of Medieval Europe| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q50IyzCMQxgC&pg=PA57&lpg=PA57&dq=dorestad&source=web&ots=9QwTxPRjE0&sig=Dp6j3MXFmBcYNe_F_vNNrxvl6rk#PPA57,M1| last=MacKay| first=Angus|author2=David Ditchburn| year=1997| page=57| publisher=[[Routledge]]| isbn=0-415-01923-0}}</ref> Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the [[Battle of the Boarn]], the Frisians were defeated after a [[Frisian–Frankish wars|series of wars]]. With the approval of the Franks, the [[Anglo-Saxon mission|Anglo-Saxon]] missionary [[Willibrord]] converted the Frisian people to [[Christianity]]. He established the [[Archdiocese of Utrecht (695–1580)|Archdiocese of Utrecht]] and became bishop of the Frisians. However, his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in [[Dokkum]], in 754.
[[File:800nc ex leg.jpg|thumb|upright|Geography of the Netherlands c. 800AD]]

[[File:Rorik by H. W. Koekkoek.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Rorik of Dorestad]], [[Viking]] ruler of [[Friesland]] (romantic 1912 depiction)]]

The Frankish [[Carolingian empire]] modeled itself after the Roman Empire and controlled much of Western Europe. However, as of 843, it was divided into three parts—[[East Francia|East]], [[Middle Francia|Middle]], and [[West Francia]]. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of [[Middle Francia]], which was a weak kingdom and subject of numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprises territories from [[Frisia]] in the north to the [[Kingdom of Italy (medieval)|Kingdom of Italy]] in the south. When the middle kingdom was partitioned, the lands north of the [[Alps]] passed to [[Lothair II of Lotharingia|Lothair II]] and consecutively were named [[Lotharingia]]. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into [[Upper Lotharingia|Upper]] and [[Lower Lotharingia]], the latter part comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of [[East Francia]] in 870, although it was effectively under the control of Vikings, who raided the largely defenceless [[Frisians|Frisian]] and [[Franks|Frankish]] towns lying on the Frisian coast and along the rivers. Around 850, [[Lothair I]] acknowledged the Viking [[Rorik of Dorestad]] as ruler of most of Frisia.<ref>Baldwin, Stephen, [http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/GEN-MEDIEVAL/2002-09/1031544685 "Danish Haralds in 9th Century Frisia"]. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref> Around 879, another Viking raided the Frisian lands, [[Godfrid, Duke of Frisia]]. The Viking raids made the sway of French and German lords in the area weak. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that lay the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was [[Gerolf of Holland]], who assumed lordship in Frisia after he helped to assassinate Godfrid, and Viking rule came to an end.

===High Middle Ages (1000–1384)===
{{Main article|History of urban centers in the Low Countries}}
The [[Holy Roman Empire]] (the successor state of East Francia) ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century, but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms, that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor. [[County of Holland|Holland]], [[County of Hainaut|Hainaut]], [[County of Flanders|Flanders]], [[Duchy of Gelre|Gelre]], [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabant]], and the [[Bishopric of Utrecht|Utrecht]] were in a state of almost continual war or paradoxically formed personal unions. The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the County of Holland were originally [[Frisia]]n. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became [[Old Low Franconian]] (or [[Old Dutch]]). The rest of [[Frisia]] in the north (now [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]]) continued to maintain its independence and had its own institutions (collectively called the "[[Frisian freedom]]") and resented the imposition of the feudal system.

Around 1000 AD, due to several agricultural developments, the economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen. Towns grew around [[monasteries]] and [[castles]], and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders and later also Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain [[City rights in the Low Countries|privileges]] for themselves from the [[monarch|sovereign]]. In practice, this meant that [[Brugge]] and [[Antwerp]] became quasi-independent republics in their own right and would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.

Around 1100 AD, farmers from [[County of Flanders|Flanders]] and [[Bishopric of Utrecht|Utrecht]] began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, and made the emergence of the County of Holland as center of power possible. The title of [[Count of Holland]] were fought over in the [[Hook and Cod Wars]] ({{lang-nl|Hoekse en Kabeljauwse twisten}}) between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited the Duke [[Philip the Good]] of Burgundy – who was also Count of Flanders – to conquer Holland.

===Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands (1384–1581)===
{{Main article|Burgundian Netherlands|Habsburg Netherlands}}
[[File:Van Soest, Four Days Battle.jpg|thumb|left|''The [[Four Days' Battle]], 1–4 June 1666'', during the [[Second Anglo–Dutch War]].]]
[[File:Political map of the Low Countries (1350)-NL.svg|thumb|upright|The Low Countries in the late 14th century]]

Most of the [[Holy Roman Empire|Imperial]] and [[France in the Middle Ages|French]] fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a [[personal union]] by Philip the Good, duke of [[Duchy of Burgundy|Burgundy]] in 1433. The [[House of Valois-Burgundy]] and their [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] heirs would rule the Low Countries in the period from 1384 to 1581. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in or their local duchy or county. The Burgundian period is when the road to nationhood began. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests, which then developed rapidly. The fleets of the [[County of Holland]] defeated the fleets of the [[Hanseatic League]] several times. [[Amsterdam]] grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the [[Baltic region]]. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital, because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the [[peat]] of the former [[wetland]]s to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.

[[File:William I, Prince of Orange by Adriaen Thomasz. Key Rijksmuseum Amsterdam SK-A-3148.jpg|thumb|right|upright|William I, Prince of Orange ([[William the Silent]]), leader of the [[Dutch Revolt]].]]

Under Habsburg [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], ruler of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and King of [[Spanish Empire|Spain]], all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the [[Seventeen Provinces]], which also included most of present-day [[Belgium]], Luxembourg, and some adjacent land in what is now France and Germany. In 1568, the [[Eighty Years' War]] between the Provinces and their [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] ruler began. In 1579, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the [[Union of Utrecht]] in which they committed to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army.<ref>Motley, John Lothrop (1855). [https://books.google.com/books?id=8isNLCXfNycC&pg=PA411 ''The Rise of the Dutch Republic''] Vol. III, Harper Bros.: New York, p. 411.</ref> The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands. In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the [[Act of Abjuration]], the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed [[Philip II of Spain]] as reigning monarch in the northern provinces.<ref>Motley, John Lothrop (1855). [https://books.google.com/books?id=8isNLCXfNycC&pg=PA508 ''The Rise of the Dutch Republic''] Vol. III, Harper Bros.: New York, p. 508.</ref>

The [[Protestant]] Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]] sympathised with the Dutch struggle against the Spanish, and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid the Dutch in their war with the Catholic Spanish.<ref>Willson, David Harris (1972). ''History of England'', Holt, Rinehart & Winston: New York, p. 294.</ref> The English army under command of [[Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester]] was of no real benefit to the Dutch rebellion.<ref>Motley, John Lothrop (1855). [https://books.google.com/books?id=8isNLCXfNycC&pg=PA411 ''The Rise of the Dutch Republic''] Vol. III, Harper Bros.: New York</ref> Philip II, the son of Charles V, was not prepared to let them go easily, and war continued until 1648, when Spain under King [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]] finally recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the [[Peace of Münster]]. Parts of the southern provinces became ''de facto'' colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire.

===Dutch Republic (1581–1795)===
{{Main article|Dutch Republic|Evolution of the Dutch Empire}}
After declaring their independence, the provinces of [[County of Holland|Holland]], [[County of Zeeland|Zeeland]], [[Lordship of Groningen|Groningen]], [[Lordship of Friesland|Friesland]], [[Lordship of Utrecht|Utrecht]], [[Lordship of Overijssel|Overijssel]], and [[Duchy of Gelderland|Gelderland]] formed a [[confederation]]. All these duchies, lordships and counties were autonomous and had their own government, the [[States-Provincial]]. The [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]], the confederal government, were seated in [[The Hague]] and consisted of representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of [[Lordship of Drenthe|Drenthe]] was part of the republic too, although it was not considered one of the provinces. Moreover, the Republic had come to occupy during the [[Eighty Years' War]] a number of so-called [[Generality Lands]] in [[County of Flanders|Flanders]], [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabant]] and [[Duchy of Limburg|Limburg]]. Their population was mainly Roman Catholic, and these areas did not have a governmental structure of their own, and were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled [[Southern Netherlands]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}

[[File:Hendrick Avercamp - Winterlandschap met schaatsers bij de stad Kampen.jpg|thumb|Winter landscape with skaters c. 1625]]
[[File:Johannes Lingelbach 001.jpg|thumb|[[Amsterdam]]'s [[Dam Square]] in 1656]]

In the [[Dutch Golden Age]], spanning much of the 17th century, the [[Dutch Empire]] grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers. Science, military, and art (especially [[Dutch Golden Age painting|painting]]) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650, the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display_printable.cfm?HHID=682 |title="The Middle Colonies: New York" |accessdate=14 January 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114182245/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display_printable.cfm?HHID=682 |archivedate=14 January 2012 |df=dmy }} Digital History.</ref> The [[Dutch East India Company]] and the [[Dutch West India Company]] established [[colonization|colonies]] and [[trading post]]s all over the world, including ruling the northern parts of [[Taiwan]] between [[Taiwan under Dutch rule|1624–1662 and 1664–1667]]. The [[New Netherland|Dutch settlement in North America]] began with the founding of [[New Amsterdam]] on the southern part of [[Manhattan]] in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the [[Cape Colony]] in 1652. [[Dutch colonisation of the Guianas|Dutch colonies in South America]] were established along the many rivers in the fertile [[Guyana]] plains, among them [[Surinam (Dutch colony)|Colony of Surinam]] (now [[Suriname]]). In Asia, the Dutch established the [[Dutch East Indies]] (now [[Indonesia]]), and the only western trading post in Japan, [[Dejima]].

Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly [[capitalism|capitalist]] country in the world. In early modern Europe it had the wealthiest trading city ([[Amsterdam]]) and the first full-time [[Amsterdam Stock Exchange|stock exchange]]. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the [[Boom and bust|boom-bust cycle]], the world's first [[Asset price inflation|asset-inflation bubble]], the [[tulip mania]] of 1636–1637, and the world's first [[bear raid]]er, [[Isaac le Maire]], who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v23/n07/murray-sayle/japan-goes-dutch|title=Japan Goes Dutch|journal=London Review of Books|date=5 April 2001|author=Sayle, Murray |volume=23|issue=7|pages=3–7}}</ref> In 1672 – known in Dutch history as the [[Rampjaar]] (Disaster Year) – the Dutch Republic was in war with France, England and three German Bishoprics simultaneously. At sea it could successfully prevent the English and French navy entering the western shores. On land, however, it was almost taken over interlay by the advancing French and German armies coming from the east. It could however turn the tide by [[Hollandic Water Line|inundating parts of Holland]], but could never recover to its former glory again and went into a state of general decline in the 18th century, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican [[Dutch States Party|''Staatsgezinden'']] and the supporters of the [[stadtholder]] the [[Orangism (Netherlands)|''Prinsgezinden'']], as main [[political faction]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Koopmans|first1=Joop W.|title=Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9781442255937|pages=233|url=https://books.google.nl/books?id=GU-xCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA271&dq=main+political+factions+dutch+society+18th+century&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE_7qK-vXQAhVDWxoKHQOkB8AQ6AEIUTAH#v=onepage&q=orangism&f=false|language=en}}</ref>

===Batavian Republic and kingdom (1795–1890)===
{{Main article|Batavian Republic|Kingdom of Holland|United Kingdom of the Netherlands|Kingdom of the Netherlands}}
With the armed support of [[French Revolution|revolutionary France]], [[Patriots (Dutch Republic)|Dutch republicans]] proclaimed the [[Batavian Republic]], modelled after the [[French First Republic|French Republic]] and rendering the Netherlands a [[unitary state]] on 19 January 1795. The [[stadtholder]] [[William V of Orange]] had fled to England. But from 1806 to 1810, the [[Kingdom of Holland]] was set up by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother [[Louis Bonaparte]] to control the Netherlands more effectively. However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until the autumn of 1813, when Napoleon was defeated in the [[Battle of Leipzig]].[[File:Dutch Empire35.PNG|thumb|A map of the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch colonial empire]]. Light green: territories administered by or originating from territories administered by the [[Dutch East India Company]]; dark green: the [[Dutch West India Company]]. In yellow the territories occupied later, during the 19th century.]] [[William I of the Netherlands|William Frederick]], son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself [[Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands|Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands]]. Two years later, the [[Congress of Vienna]] added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands|United Netherlands]] to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself [[William I of the Netherlands|King William I]]. In addition, William became hereditary [[Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg|Grand Duke of Luxembourg]] in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and [[Belgian Revolution|rebelled]]. The south gained independence in 1830 as [[Belgium]], while the [[personal union]] between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when [[William III of the Netherlands|William III]] died with no surviving male heirs. [[Salic Law|Ascendancy laws]] prevented his daughter [[Wilhelmina of the Netherlands|Queen Wilhelmina]] from becoming the next Grand Duchess.

[[File:Nicolaas Pieneman - The Submission of Prince Dipo Negoro to General De Kock.jpg|thumb|The submission of [[Diponegoro]] to [[Hendrik Merkus de Kock|General De Kock]] at the end of the [[Java War]] in 1830; [[The Submission of Prince Dipo Negoro to General De Kock|painting]] by [[Nicolaas Pieneman]]]]

The Belgian Revolution at home and the [[Java War]] in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the [[Cultivation System]] was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient. On the other hand, the colonies in the West Indies ([[Surinam (Dutch colony)|Dutch Guiana]] and [[Curaçao and Dependencies]]), relied heavily on [[Atlantic slave trade|African slaves]] in which the Dutch part is estimated at 5–7 percent, or more than half a million Africans. The Netherlands abolished slavery in 1863.<ref>Finkelman and Miller, ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery'' 2:637</ref> Furthermore, slaves in [[Suriname]] would be fully free only in 1873, since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ascleiden.nl/content/webdossiers/dutch-involvement-transatlantic-slave-trade-and-abolition|title=Dutch involvement in the transatlantic slave trade and abolition|work=ascleiden.nl}}</ref> The Dutch were also one of the last European countries to [[Industrial Revolution|industrialise]], in the second half of the 19th century.

===World wars and beyond (1890–present)===
{{Main article|History of the Netherlands (1900–present)|The Netherlands in World War I|Netherlands in World War II}}
[[File:Rotterdam, Laurenskerk, na bombardement van mei 1940.jpg|thumb|left|[[Rotterdam]] after [[Rotterdam Blitz|German air raids]] in 1940.]]

The Netherlands were able to remain neutral during [[World War I]], in part because the import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival, until the blockade by the British Royal Navy in 1916.<ref name="Abbenhuis">Abbenhuis, Maartje M. (2006) [https://books.google.com/books?id=5gMCfhUR6Y0C&printsec=frontcover The Art of Staying Neutral]. Amsterdam University Press, ISBN 90-5356-818-2.</ref> That changed in [[World War II]], when [[Nazi Germany]] [[Battle of the Netherlands|invaded the Netherlands]] on 10 May 1940. The [[Rotterdam Blitz]] forced the main element of the Dutch army to surrender four days later. During the occupation, over 100,000 [[History of the Jews in the Netherlands|Dutch Jews]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kampwesterbork.nl/site1.2/English/KAMP/k08.html |title=93 trains |accessdate=7 December 2004 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041207064440/http://www.kampwesterbork.nl/site1.2/English/KAMP/k08.html |archivedate=7 December 2004 |df=dmy }}. kampwesterbork.nl</ref> were rounded up and transported to Nazi [[extermination camp]]s of whom only a few survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, [[Dutch resistance|civilians who resisted]] were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists [[23rd SS Volunteer Panzer Grenadier Division Nederland|joined the Waffen SS]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.waffen-ss.nl/main.php|title=Nederlanders in de Waffen-SS|publisher=}}</ref> fighting on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]].<ref>{{cite web|author=MOOXE from Close Combat Series |url=http://www.closecombatseries.net/CCS/modules.php?name=Forums&file=viewtopic&t=7686&highlight= |title=Indonesian SS Volunteers |publisher=Closecombatseries.net |accessdate=28 October 2011}}</ref> Political [[Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II|collaborators]] were members of the [[Fascism|fascist]] [[National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands|NSB]], the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the [[Dutch government-in-exile]] in London declared war on Japan,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1941/411208c.html |title=The Kingdom of the Netherlands declares war with Japan |publisher=ibiblio |accessdate=2 October 2009}}</ref> but could not prevent [[Japanese occupation of Indonesia|the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia)]].<ref>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+id0029) Library of Congress, 1992, "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45"] Access date: 9 February 2007.</ref> In 1944–45, the [[First Canadian Army]], which included Canadian, [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|British]] and [[1st Armoured Division (Poland)|Polish]] troops, was responsible for liberating much of the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite video| year =1944| title =Video: Allies Set For Offensive| url =https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.39141| publisher =[[Universal Newsreel]]| accessdate =21 February 2012}}</ref> But soon after [[VE day]], the Dutch fought a [[Indonesian National Revolution|colonial war against the new republic of Indonesia]].

[[File:Tratado de Lisboa 13 12 2007 (081).jpg|thumb|The Netherlands became a co-founder of the [[European Union]] predecessors (1993), introduced the [[Euro]] currency (2002), and signed the [[Lisbon Treaty]] in 2007 (pictured).]]

In 1954, the [[Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands]] reformed the political structure of the Netherlands, which was a result of international pressure to carry out [[decolonisation]]. The Dutch colonies of [[Surinam (Dutch colony)|Surinam]] and [[Curaçao and Dependencies]] and the European country all became countries within the Kingdom, on a basis of equality. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945 (recognised in 1949), and thus was never part of the reformed Kingdom. [[Suriname]] followed in 1975. After the war the Netherlands left behind also an era of neutrality and gained closer ties with neighboring states. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of the [[Benelux]], the [[NATO]], [[Euratom]] and the [[European Coal and Steel Community]], which would evolve into the [[European Economic Community|EEC]] ([[Common Market]]) and later the [[European Union]].

Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce [[population density]] prompted some 500,000 [[Dutch people]] to leave the country after the war.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409956/Netherlands |title=Netherlands |work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |accessdate=8 September 2012}}</ref> The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid ''[[pillarization|ontzuiling]]'' (literally: depillarisation), a term that describes the decay of the old divisions along political and religious lines. Youths, and students in particular, rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as [[women's rights]], [[Human sexuality|sexuality]], [[disarmament]] and [[environmental issues]]. On 10 October 2010, the [[Netherlands Antilles]] was [[Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles|dissolved]]. Referendums were held on each island to determine their future status. As a result, the islands of [[Bonaire]], [[Sint Eustatius]] and [[Saba]] (the BES islands) were to obtain closer ties with the Netherlands. This led to the incorporation of these three islands into the country of the Netherlands as ''[[Special municipality (Netherlands)|special municipalities]]'' upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the [[Caribbean Netherlands]].

==Geography==
{{Main article|Geography of the Netherlands}}
[[File:2012-NL-prov-relief-3000.jpg|thumb|A relief map of the Netherlands.]]

The European area of the Netherlands lies between [[latitudes]] [[50th parallel north|50°]] and [[54th parallel north|54° N]], and longitudes [[3rd meridian east|3°]] and [[8th meridian east|8° E]].

The Netherlands is geographically a very low and flat country, with about 26% of its area<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Schiermeier|first1=Quirin|title=Few fishy facts found in climate report|journal=Nature|date=5 July 2010|volume=466|issue=170|doi=10.1038/466170a|url=http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100705/full/466170a.html|pmid=20613812}}</ref> and 21% of its population<ref name=milrek>{{cite web|title = Milieurekeningen 2008|publisher=[[Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek]]|url = http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/D2CE63F9-D210-4006-B68B-98BE079EA9B6/0/2008c167pub.pdf|accessdate =4 February 2010}}</ref> located below sea level, and only about 50% of its land exceeding one metre [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]].<ref name="Eupedia"/> The country is for the most part flat, with the exception of foothills in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 321 metres, and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are man-made, caused by [[peat]] extraction or achieved through [[land reclamation]]. Since the late 16th century, large [[polder]] areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include [[dike (construction)|dikes]], canals and pumping stations. Nearly 17% of the country's land area is reclaimed from the sea and from lakes.

Much of the country was originally formed by the [[estuary|estuaries]] of three large European rivers: the [[Rhine]] (''Rijn''), the [[Meuse River|Meuse]] (''Maas'') and the [[Scheldt]] (''Schelde''), as well as their [[tributary|tributaries]]. The south-western part of the Netherlands is to this day a [[river delta]] of these three rivers, the [[Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta]].

The Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the [[Waal (river)|Waal]], its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. In the past these rivers functioned as a natural barrier between [[fief]]doms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their "Great Rivers" (''de Grote Rivieren''). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the [[IJssel]] river, discharges into [[IJsselmeer|Lake IJssel]], the former [[Zuiderzee]] ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak [[Dutch Low Saxon]] dialects (except for the province of [[Friesland]], which has its own language).<ref name="international2000">Welschen, Ad: Course ''Dutch Society and Culture'', International School for Humanities and Social Studies ISHSS, Universiteit van Amsterdam, 2000–2005.</ref>

===Floods===
{{Main article|Flood control in the Netherlands|Floods in the Netherlands|North Sea flood of 1953|Storm tides of the North Sea}}
[[File:Christmas flood 1717.jpg|thumb|The [[Christmas flood of 1717]] was the result of a northwesterly storm. In total, approximately 14,000 people drowned.]]

Over the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention. Most notable in terms of land loss was the storm of 1134, which created the [[archipelago]] of [[Zeeland]] in the south-west.

On 14 December 1287, [[St. Lucia's flood]] affected the Netherlands and Germany killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1485002/Zuiderzee-floods Zuiderzee floods (Netherlands history)]. Britannica Online Encyclopedia.</ref> The [[St. Elizabeth's flood (1421)|St. Elizabeth flood]] of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed [[polder]], replacing it with the {{convert|72|km2|mi2|0|sing=on}} ''[[Biesbosch]]'' tidal floodplains in the south-centre. The huge [[North Sea flood of 1953|North Sea flood of early February 1953]] caused the collapse of several dikes in the south-west of the Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned in the flood. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the "[[Deltawerken|Delta Works]]", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than thirty years.

[[File:The Netherlands compared to sealevel.png|thumb|left|Map illustrating areas of the Netherlands below sea level]]
The impact of disasters was to an extent increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying [[swamp]]land was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile [[peat]] to contract and ground levels to drop, upon which groundwater levels were lowered to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Centuries of extensive and poorly controlled [[peat]] extraction lowered an already low land surface by several metres. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging.

Because of the flooding, farming was difficult, which encouraged foreign trade, the result of which was that the Dutch were involved in world affairs since the early 14th/15th century.<ref>Duplessis, Robert S. (1997) ''Transitions to Capitalism in Early Modern Europe'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39773-1</ref>

To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium [[AD]], villages and farmhouses were built on man-made hills called ''terps''. Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called ''"[[Water board (Netherlands)|waterschappen]]"'' ("water boards") or ''"[[Water board (Netherlands)|hoogheemraadschappen]]"'' ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century [[windmill]]s had come into use to pump water out of areas below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous [[polder]]s.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}

[[File:Netherlands, Zoetermeer, Zoetermeerse Meerpolder (1).JPG|thumb|A polder at 5.53 metres below sea level.]]
In 1932 the ''[[Afsluitdijk]]'' ("Closure Dike") was completed, blocking the former ''[[Zuiderzee]]'' (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the [[IJsselmeer]] ([[IJssel]] Lake). It became part of the larger [[Zuiderzee Works]] in which four polders totalling {{convert|2500|km2|mi2|0}} were reclaimed from the sea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/gemeentes/gem533nh.htm |publisher=sdu.nl |title=Kerngegevens gemeente Wieringermeer |accessdate=21 January 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106163025/http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/gemeentes/gem533nh.htm |archivedate=6 January 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/PROVINCIES/flevoland.htm |publisher=sdu.nl |title=Kerngegevens procincie Flevoland |accessdate=21 January 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226115958/http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/PROVINCIES/flevoland.htm |archivedate=26 December 2007 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}</ref>

The Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from [[climate change]]. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Nickerson |first=Colin |title=Netherlands relinquishes some of itself to the waters |work=Boston Globe |date=5 December 2005 |url=http://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2005/12/05/holland_goes_beyond_holding_back_the_tide/ |accessdate=10 October 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060630210923/http://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2005/12/05/holland_goes_beyond_holding_back_the_tide/ |archivedate=30 June 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Olsthoorn |first=A.A. |author2=Richard S.J. Tol |title=Floods, flood management and climate change in The Netherlands |journal=Institute for Environmental Studies |publisher=Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit |date=February 2001 |url=http://de.scientificcommons.org/16816958 |accessdate=10 October 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022043234/http://de.scientificcommons.org/16816958 |archivedate=22 October 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tol |first1=Richard S. J. |last2=van der Grijp |first2=Nicolien |last3=Olsthoorn |first3=Alexander A. |last4=van der Werff |first4=Peter E. |title=Adapting to Climate: A Case Study on Riverine Flood Risks in the Netherlands |journal=Risk Analysis |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=575–583 |year=2003 |doi=10.1111/1539-6924.00338 |pmid=12836850}}</ref>

===Delta works===
{{Main article|Delta Works}}
[[File:Deltawerken na.png|thumb|left|The [[Delta Works]] are located in the provinces of [[South Holland]] and [[Zeeland]].]]
After the [[North Sea Flood of 1953|1953 disaster]], the [[Delta Works]] were constructed, a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the [[Maeslantkering]]. New projects have been periodically started since to renovate and renew the Delta Works. A main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland to once per 10,000 years (compared to 1 per 4000 years for the rest of the country). This was achieved by raising {{convert|3000|km|mi|0}} of outer sea-dykes and {{convert|10000|km|mi|0}} of inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea [[estuary|estuaries]] of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dyke reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] as one of the [[American Society of Civil Engineers#World wonders|seven wonders of the modern world]].<ref>[http://www.asce.org/Content.aspx?id=2147487305 Seven Wonders] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100802000000/http://www.asce.org/Content.aspx?id=2147487305 |date=2 August 2010 }}. Asce.org (19 July 2010). Retrieved on 21 August 2012.</ref>

It is anticipated that [[global warming]] in the 21st century will result in a rise in [[sea level]]. The Netherlands is actively preparing for a sea level rise (see [[Flood control in the Netherlands]]). A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea level rise of {{convert|1.10|m|ft}} and a simultaneous land height decline of {{convert|10|cm|in}}. The plan encompasses the reinforcement of the existing coastal defenses like [[Levee|dikes]] and [[dune]]s with {{convert|1.30|m|ft}} of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the sea side, but could also alter rain fall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another program is already being executed. The [[Room for the River (Netherlands)|Room for the River plan]] grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called "overflow areas" have been moved to higher ground, with some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels.<ref name=NYT021313>{{cite news|title=Going With the Flow|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/17/arts/design/flood-control-in-the-netherlands-now-allows-sea-water-in.html|accessdate=19 February 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=13 February 2013|author=Kimmelman, Michael}}</ref>

===Climate===
The predominant wind direction in the Netherlands is southwest, which causes a moderate [[Oceanic climate|maritime climate]], with warm summers and cool winters, and typically high humidity. This is especially true close to the Dutch coastline, where the difference in temperature between summer and winter, as well as between day and night is noticeably smaller than it is in the southeast of the country.

The following tables are based on mean measurements by the [[KNMI (institute)|KNMI]] weather station in [[De Bilt]] between 1981 and 2010:

{{Weather box
|location = De Bilt (1981–2010 averages), all KNMI locations (1901–2011 extremes), snowy days: (1971–2000 averages).
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan record high C = 17.2
|Feb record high C = 20.4
|Mar record high C = 25.6
|Apr record high C = 32.2
|May record high C = 35.6
|Jun record high C = 38.4
|Jul record high C = 38.2
|Aug record high C = 38.6
|Sep record high C = 35.2
|Oct record high C = 30.1
|Nov record high C = 22.0
|Dec record high C = 17.8
|year record high C = 38.6
|Jan high C = 5.6
|Feb high C = 6.4
|Mar high C = 10.0
|Apr high C = 14.0
|May high C = 18.0
|Jun high C = 20.4
|Jul high C = 22.8
|Aug high C = 22.6
|Sep high C = 19.1
|Oct high C = 14.6
|Nov high C = 9.6
|Dec high C = 6.1
|year high C = 14.1
|Jan mean C = 3.1
|Feb mean C = 3.3
|Mar mean C = 6.2
|Apr mean C = 9.2
|May mean C = 13.1
|Jun mean C = 15.6
|Jul mean C = 17.9
|Aug mean C = 17.5
|Sep mean C = 14.5
|Oct mean C = 10.7
|Nov mean C = 6.7
|Dec mean C = 3.7
|year mean C = 10.1
|Jan low C = 0.3
|Feb low C = 0.2
|Mar low C = 2.3
|Apr low C = 4.1
|May low C = 7.8
|Jun low C = 10.5
|Jul low C = 12.8
|Aug low C = 12.3
|Sep low C = 9.9
|Oct low C = 6.9
|Nov low C = 3.6
|Dec low C = 1.0
|year low C = 6.0
|Jan record low C = -27.4
|Feb record low C = -26.8
|Mar record low C = -20.7
|Apr record low C = -9.4
|May record low C = -5.4
|Jun record low C = -1.2
|Jul record low C = 0.7
|Aug record low C = 1.3
|Sep record low C = -3.7
|Oct record low C = -8.5
|Nov record low C = -14.4
|Dec record low C = -22.3
|year record low C = -27.4
|Jan precipitation mm = 69.6
|Feb precipitation mm = 55.8
|Mar precipitation mm = 66.8
|Apr precipitation mm = 42.3
|May precipitation mm = 61.9
|Jun precipitation mm = 65.6
|Jul precipitation mm = 81.1
|Aug precipitation mm = 72.9
|Sep precipitation mm = 78.1
|Oct precipitation mm = 82.8
|Nov precipitation mm = 79.8
|Dec precipitation mm = 75.8
|year precipitation mm = 832.5
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan humidity= 87
|Feb humidity= 84
|Mar humidity= 81
|Apr humidity= 75
|May humidity= 75
|Jun humidity= 76
|Jul humidity= 77
|Aug humidity= 79
|Sep humidity= 84
|Oct humidity= 86
|Nov humidity= 89
|Dec humidity= 89
|year humidity= 82
|unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 17
|Feb precipitation days = 14
|Mar precipitation days = 17
|Apr precipitation days = 13
|May precipitation days = 14
|Jun precipitation days = 14
|Jul precipitation days = 14
|Aug precipitation days = 14
|Sep precipitation days = 15
|Oct precipitation days = 16
|Nov precipitation days = 18
|Dec precipitation days = 17
|year precipitation days = 184
|unit snow days = 0 cm
|Jan snow days = 6
|Feb snow days = 6
|Mar snow days = 4
|Apr snow days = 2
|May snow days = 0
|Jun snow days = –
|Jul snow days = –
|Aug snow days = –
|Sep snow days = –
|Oct snow days = 0
|Nov snow days = 2
|Dec snow days = 5
|year snow days = 25
|Jan sun = 62.3
|Feb sun = 85.7
|Mar sun = 121.6
|Apr sun = 173.6
|May sun = 207.2
|Jun sun = 193.9
|Jul sun = 206.0
|Aug sun = 187.7
|Sep sun = 138.3
|Oct sun = 112.9
|Nov sun = 63.0
|Dec sun = 49.3
|year sun = 1601.5
|date=December 2011
|source 1 = Knmi.nl<ref name="knmi">{{cite web| url = http://www.knmi.nl/|title = Knmi.nl| accessdate =25 December 2011|language = Dutch}}</ref>
}}

Ice days (maximum temperature below {{convert|0|C|F|0}}) usually occur from December until February, with the occasional rare ice day prior to or after that period. Freezing days (minimum temperature below {{convert|0|C|F|0}}) occur much more often, usually ranging from mid-November to late March, but not rarely measured as early as mid-October and as late as mid-May. If one chooses the height of measurement to be {{convert|10|cm|0|abbr=on}} above ground instead of {{convert|150|cm|0|abbr=on}}, one may even find such temperatures in the middle of the summer. On average, snow can occur from November to April, but sometimes occurs in May or October too.

[[File:Nijlânnermolen Workum.jpg|thumb|[[Friesland]]]]

Warm days (maximum temperature above {{convert|20|C|F|0}}) in De Bilt are usually found in April to October, but in some parts of the country these warm days can also occur in March, or even sometimes in November or February (usually not in De Bilt, however). Summer days (maximum temperature above {{convert|25|C|F|0}}) are usually measured in De Bilt from May until September, tropical days (maximum temperature above {{convert|30|C|F|0}}) are rare and usually occur only in June to August.

Precipitation throughout the year is distributed relatively equally each month. Summer and autumn months tend to gather a little more precipitation than the other months, mainly because of the intensity of the rainfall rather than the frequency of rain days (this is especially the case in summer, when lightning is also much more frequent).
[[File:Netherlands Grote Peel lake.jpg|thumb|[[De Groote Peel National Park]] in [[North Brabant]].]]
The number of sunshine hours is affected by the fact that because of the geographical latitude, the length of the days varies between barely eight hours in December and nearly 17 hours in June.

===Nature===
{{Further information|List of national parks of the Netherlands|List of extinct animals of the Netherlands}}
The Netherlands has 20 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves, that include [[lake]]s, [[heathland]], [[Woodland|woods]], [[dune]]s and other habitats. Most of these are owned by [[Staatsbosbeheer]], the national department for [[forestry]] and [[Habitat conservation|nature conservation]] and [[Vereniging Natuurmonumenten|Natuurmonumenten]] (literally 'Natures monuments'), a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves. The Dutch part of the [[Wadden Sea]] in the north, with its [[tidal flat]]s and [[wetland]]s, is rich in [[biodiversity|biological diversity]], and was declared a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage Nature Site]] in 2009.

[[File:Phoca vitulina Terschelling.jpg|thumb|right|[[Harbor seal|Common seals]] on [[Terschelling]], a [[Wadden Sea]] island]]

The [[Oosterschelde]], formerly the northeast [[estuary]] of the river [[Scheldt]] was designated a national park in 2002, thereby making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of {{convert|370|km2|sqmi}}. It consists primarily of the salt waters of the Oosterschelde, but also includes mud flats, meadows, and shoals. Because of the large variety of sea life, including unique regional species, the park is popular with [[Scuba diving|Scuba divers]]. Other activities include sailing, fishing, cycling, and bird watching.

[[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], the Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the [[Circumboreal Region]] within the [[Boreal Kingdom]]. According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]], the territory of the Netherlands belongs to the [[ecoregion]] of Atlantic mixed forests. In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down, and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like [[Scots pine]] and trees that are not native to the Netherlands.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} These woods were planted on [[heath (habitat)#Anthropogenic heaths|anthropogenic heaths]] and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) ([[Veluwe]]).

===Caribbean islands===
{{Main article|Bonaire|Saba|Sint Eustatius}}
The [[Caribbean Netherlands]] are three islands designated as special municipalities of the Netherlands. The islands are part of the [[Lesser Antilles]]. The islands have maritime borders with [[France]] ([[Saint Barthélemy]] and [[Collectivity of Saint Martin|Saint Martin]]), the [[United Kingdom]] ([[Anguilla]]), [[Venezuela]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]] and the [[United States]] ([[US Virgin Islands]]).<ref>https://www.defensie.nl/english/topics/hydrography/contents/maritime-zones-and-boundaries/maritime-boundaries-of-the-caribbean-part-of-the-kingdom</ref> 
Within this island group,
[[File:Bonaire 1.jpg|thumb|right|View of the coast of [[Bonaire]]]]

* '''Bonaire''' is part of the [[ABC islands (Lesser Antilles)|ABC islands]] within the [[Leeward Antilles]] island chain off the [[Venezuela]]n coast. The Leeward Antilles have a mixed volcanic and coral origin.
* '''Saba''' and '''Sint Eustatius''' are part of the [[SSS islands]]. They are located east of [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[Virgin Islands]]. Although in the English language they are considered part of the [[Leeward Islands]], French, Spanish, [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and the English spoken locally consider them part of the [[Windward Islands]]. The Windward Islands are all of volcanic origin and hilly, leaving little ground suitable for [[agriculture]]. The highest point is [[Mount Scenery]], {{convert|887|m|ft|0}}, on [[Saba]]. This is the highest point in the country, and is also the highest point of the entire [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]].

The islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a [[tropical]] [[climate]] with warm weather all year round. The Leeward Antilles are warmer and drier than the Windward islands. In summer, the Windward Islands can be subject to [[hurricanes]].

==Politics==
[[File:Den Haag Binnenhof.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Binnenhof]], where the lower and upper houses of the States General meet]]

The Netherlands has been a [[constitutional monarchy]] since 1815 and a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary democracy]] since 1848. The Netherlands is described as a [[consociational state]]. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole. In 2010, ''[[The Economist]]'' ranked the Netherlands as the 10th [[Democracy Index|most democratic country in the world]].
The [[Dutch monarchy|monarch]] is the [[head of state]], at present [[King Willem-Alexander]]. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with limited powers.  By law, the king (the title queen has no constitutional significance) has the right to be periodically briefed and consulted on government affairs. Depending on the personalities and relationships of the king and the ministers, the king might have ''influence'' beyond the ''power'' granted by the constitution.

[[File:Willem-Alexander (Royal Wedding in Stockholm, 2010) cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands|Willem-Alexander]], King of the Netherlands since 2013]]

The [[executive (government)|executive power]] is formed by the [[Council of Ministers of the Netherlands|council of Ministers]], the deliberative council of the [[Cabinet of the Netherlands|Dutch cabinet]]. The cabinet usually consists of 13 to 16 ministers and a varying number of [[State Secretary (Netherlands)|state secretaries]]. One to three ministers are [[minister without portfolio|ministers without portfolio]]. The [[head of government]] is the [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]], who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. The Prime Minister is a ''[[primus inter pares]]'', with no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. [[Mark Rutte]] has been Prime Minister since October 2010; the Prime Minister had been the leader of the largest party continuously since 1973.

The cabinet is [[ministerial responsibility|responsible]] to the [[bicameralism|bicameral]] parliament, the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]], which also has [[legislative|legislative powers]]. The 150 members of the [[House of Representatives of the Netherlands|House of Representatives]], the [[Lower House]], are elected in [[direct election]]s on the basis of [[party-list proportional representation]]. These are held every four years, or sooner in case the cabinet falls (for example: when one of the chambers carries a [[motion of no confidence]], the cabinet offers its resignation to the monarch). The [[States-Provincial]] are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the [[Senate of the Netherlands|Senate]], the [[upper house]], which has the power to reject laws, but not propose or amend them.

===Political culture===
Both trade unions and [[employers organisation]]s are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with government in the [[Social-Economic Council]]. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily.

The Netherlands has a long tradition of [[Toleration|social tolerance]]. In the 18th century, while the [[Dutch Reformed Church]] was the [[state religion]], [[Roman Catholicism in the Netherlands|Catholicism]], other forms of Protestantism, such as Baptists and Lutherans, and [[History of the Jews in the Netherlands|Judaism]] were tolerated but discriminated against.

In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of [[pillarisation]], in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance influences Dutch [[criminal justice system of the Netherlands|criminal justice]] policies on [[Drug policy of the Netherlands|recreational drugs]], [[Prostitution in the Netherlands|prostitution]], [[LGBT rights in the Netherlands|LGBT rights]], [[euthanasia]], and [[abortion in the Netherlands|abortion]], which are among the most liberal in the world.

===Political parties===
{{Main article|Political parties of the Netherlands|Politics of the Netherlands}}
[[File:Mark Rutte-4.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mark Rutte]], Prime Minister of the Netherlands since October 2010]]

Because of the [[political parties of the Netherlands|multi-party system]], no single party has held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, and [[coalition government|coalition cabinets]] had to be formed. Since [[suffrage]] became universal in 1919, the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: the strongest of which were the [[Christian democracy|Christian democrats]], currently represented by the [[Christian Democratic Appeal]] (CDA); second were the [[social democracy|social democrats]], represented by the [[Dutch Labour Party|Labour Party]] (PvdA); and third were the [[liberalism in the Netherlands|liberals]], of which the right wing [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy]] (VVD) is the main representative.

These parties co-operated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian democrats had always been a partner: so either a [[centre-left]] coalition of the Christian democrats and social democrats was ruling or a [[centre-right]] coalition of Christian democrats and liberals. In the 1970s, the [[party system]] became more volatile: the Christian democratic parties lost seats, while new parties became successful, such as the [[radicalism (historical)|radical]] democrat and [[progressivism|progressive]] liberal [[D'66|D66]].

In the [[Dutch general election, 1994|1994 election]], the CDA lost its dominant position. A "[[purple (government)|purple]]" cabinet was formed by VVD, D66, and PvdA. In the [[Dutch general election, 2002|2002 elections]], this cabinet lost its majority, because of an increased support for the CDA and the rise of the right [[Lijst Pim Fortuyn|LPF]], a new political party, around [[Pim Fortuyn]], who was assassinated a week before the elections. A short-lived [[First Balkenende cabinet|cabinet]] was formed by CDA, VVD, and LPF, which was led by the CDA leader [[Jan Peter Balkenende]]. After the [[Dutch general election, 2003|2003 elections]], in which the LPF lost most of its seats, a [[Balkenende II|cabinet]] was formed by CDA, VVD, and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious programme of reforming the [[welfare state]], the [[Healthcare in the Netherlands|healthcare system]], and [[immigration policy]].

In June 2006, the cabinet fell after D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against the [[Ministry of Security and Justice (Netherlands)|Minister of Immigration and Integration]], [[Rita Verdonk]], who had instigated an investigation of the asylum procedure of [[Ayaan Hirsi Ali]], a VVD [[Member of parliament|MP]]. A [[Balkenende III|caretaker cabinet]] was formed by CDA and VVD, and [[Dutch general election, 2006|general elections]] were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections, the CDA remained the largest party and the [[Socialist Party (Netherlands)|Socialist Party]] made the largest gains. The [[2006–07 Dutch cabinet formation|formation of a new cabinet]] took three months, resulting in a [[Netherlands cabinet Balkenende-4|coalition]] of CDA, PvdA, and [[ChristianUnion]].

On 20 February 2010, the cabinet fell when the PvdA refused to prolong the involvement of the Dutch Army in [[Uruzgan]], Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kabinet valt over Uruzgan-besluit |publisher=[[De Volkskrant]] |date=20 February 2010 |url=http://www.volkskrant.nl/binnenland/article1350355.ece/Kabinet_valt_over_Uruzgan-besluit |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100223041947/http://www.volkskrant.nl/binnenland/article1350355.ece/Kabinet_valt_over_Uruzgan-besluit |archivedate=23 February 2010 |accessdate=20 February 2010 |author1=Dirks, Bart |author2=Koelé, Theo |lastauthoramp=yes |language=Dutch |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}</ref> [[Snap election]]s were held on [[Dutch general election, 2010|9 June 2010]], with devastating results for the previously largest party, the CDA, which lost about half of its seats, resulting in 21 seats. The VVD became the largest party with 31 seats, closely followed by the PvdA with 30 seats. The big winner of the 2010 elections was [[Geert Wilders]], whose right wing [[Party for Freedom|PVV]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/dutch-parliamentary-elections-will-far-right-freedom-party-defy-polls-again-780833 |title=Dutch Parliamentary Elections: Will Far-Right Freedom Party Defy Polls Again? |publisher=International Business Times |date=12 September 2012 |accessdate=26 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/w/geert_wilders/index.html |title=Times Topics: Geert Wilders |publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=26 March 2013|first1=Stephen|last1=Castle|first2=Steven|last2=Erlanger}}</ref> the ideological successor to the [[Pim Fortuyn List|LPF]], more than doubled its number of seats.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20100610-netherlands-government-coalition-elections-party-for-freedom-anti-islam |title=Lengthy coalition talks loom after far-right gain in Dutch elections |publisher=[[France24]] |accessdate=12 June 2010}}</ref> [[2010 Dutch cabinet formation|Negotiation talks for a new government]] resulted in a [[minority government]], led by VVD (a first) in coalition with CDA, which was sworn in on 14 October 2010. This unprecedented minority government was supported by PVV, but proved ultimately to be unstable,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/0,1518,722177,00.html |title=Neue niederländische Regierung formiert sich |work=Der Spiegel |date=8 October 2010|language=de}}</ref> when on 21 April 2012, Wilders, leader of PVV, unexpectedly 'torpedoed seven weeks of austerity talks' on new austerity measures, paving the way for early elections.<ref>{{cite news|title=Dutch prime minister says government austerity talks collapse |agency=[[Associated Press]] |url=http://www.boston.com/business/articles/2012/04/21/dutch_prime_minister_says_austerity_talks_collapse/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=21 April 2012 |author=Corder, Mike |accessdate=21 April 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710060135/http://www.boston.com/business/articles/2012/04/21/dutch_prime_minister_says_austerity_talks_collapse/ |archivedate=10 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Dutch prime minister lays blame squarely with Geert Wilders|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/apr/23/eurozone-crisis-austerity-dutch-government | location=London | work=The Guardian |first=Graeme |last=Wearden |date=23 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nwaonline.com/news/2012/apr/21/dutch-prime-minister-says-austerity-talks-collapse/ | title=Dutch prime minister says austerity talks collapse | work=[[NWADG]] | date=21 April 2012 | accessdate=12 March 2017 | agency=The Associated Press}}</ref>

VVD and PvdA were the big winners of the elections. Since 5 November 2012 they have formed the [[second Rutte cabinet]].

==Government==

{{Main article|Government of the Netherlands}}

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main article|Provinces of the Netherlands|Municipalities of the Netherlands|Water board (Netherlands)|Public body (Netherlands)|Caribbean Netherlands}}

[[File:Map provinces Netherlands-en.svg|thumb|330px|[[Provinces of the Netherlands|Provinces]] and [[Special municipality (Netherlands)|special municipalities]] of the Netherlands.]]
The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each under a Commissioner of the King (''Commissaris van de Koning''), except for [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg province]] where the position is named Governor (''Gouverneur''). All provinces are divided into [[Municipalities of the Netherlands|municipalities]] (''gemeenten''), of which there are 388 (2017).<ref name=MUNICPS>{{cite web |url = http://www.cbs.nl/nl-NL/menu/methoden/classificaties/overzicht/gemeentelijke-indeling/2014/default.htm |title = Gemeentelijke indeling op 1 januari 2014 |trans_title = Municipalities on 1 January 2014 |language = Dutch |author =  |date = 1 January 2014 |work = CBS Classifications |publisher = [[Statistics Netherlands|CBS]] |accessdate = 7 January 2014}}</ref>

The country is also subdivided into 24 water districts, governed by a [[Water board (Netherlands)|water board]] (''waterschap'' or ''hoogheemraadschap''), each having authority in matters concerning water management.<ref name=WATER>{{cite web|url=http://www.uvw.nl/de-waterschappen.html |title=De waterschappen |language=Dutch |accessdate=7 June 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103064157/http://www.uvw.nl/de-waterschappen.html |archivedate=3 November 2013 }}</ref> The creation of water boards actually pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. The Dutch water boards are among the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Direct elections of the water boards take place every 4 years.

The administrative structure on the 3 BES islands, collectively known as the [[Caribbean Netherlands]], is different. These islands have the status of ''openbare lichamen ([[Public body (Netherlands)|public bodies]])'' rather than municipalities and as administrative units are generally referred to as ''special municipalities''. They are not part of a province.<ref name=WOLBES>{{cite web|url=http://www.eerstekamer.nl/wetsvoorstel/31954_wet_openbare_lichamen|title=31.954, Wet openbare lichamen Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba|language=Dutch|publisher=Eerste kamer der Staten-Generaal|quote=De openbare lichamen vallen rechtstreeks onder het Rijk omdat zij geen deel uitmaken van een provincie. "Through the establishment of the BES islands as public bodies, rather than communities, the BES islands' rules may deviate from the rules in the European part of the Netherlands. The Dutch legislation will be introduced gradually. The public bodies fall directly under the central government because they are not part of a province."|accessdate=15 October 2010}}</ref>

The Netherlands has several Belgian [[Enclave and exclave|exclaves]] <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.exclave.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4&Itemid=10|title=Baarle-Hertog and Baarle Nassau|website=www.exclave.eu|access-date=21 November 2016}}</ref> and within those even several enclaves which are still part of the province of [[North Brabant]]. Because the Netherlands and [[Belgium]] are both in the [[Schengen Area]], citizens of respective countries can easily travel through these enclaves.

{| style="background:none;" cellspacing="2px"
|
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:left;"
|-
! style="width:40px;" class="unsortable"| [[Flag]]
! style="width:110px;"| Province
! style="width:120px;"| Capital
! style="width:100px;"| Largest city
! style="width:60px;"| Area<ref name="ProvArea">{{cite web|url=http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?VW=T&DM=SLNL&PA=70072ned&D1=224&D2=5-16&D3=l&HD=081103-1603&HDR=T&STB=G1,G2|language=Dutch|publisher=[[Statistics Netherlands]]|year=2007|accessdate=13 October 2007|title=Regionale Kerncijfers Nederland}}</ref> (km2)
! style="width:90px;"| Population<ref>{{cite web|url=http://statline.cbs.nl/Statweb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37230ned&D1=0-2,4-5,7-8,13-15,17&D2=0-1,5-16,313&D3=163-167,169-177&HDR=G2&STB=G1,T&VW=T|title=CBS StatLine – Bevolkingsontwikkeling; regio per maand|publisher=}}</ref> 31-08-2015
! style="width:80px;"|Density (per km2)
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|Drenthe|size=27px}} || [[Drenthe]] || [[Assen]] || [[Assen]] || style="text-align:right"|2,639|| style="text-align:right"|488,871|| style="text-align:right"|185
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|Flevoland|size=27px}} || [[Flevoland]] || [[Lelystad]] || [[Almere]] || style="text-align:right"|1,415|| style="text-align:right"|403,280|| style="text-align:right"|285
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|Friesland|size=27px}} || [[Friesland]] || [[Leeuwarden]] || [[Leeuwarden]] || style="text-align:right"|3,340|| style="text-align:right"|646,092|| style="text-align:right"|193
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|Gelderland|size=27px}} || [[Gelderland]] || [[Arnhem]] || [[Nijmegen]] || style="text-align:right"|4,970|| style="text-align:right"|2,031,123|| style="text-align:right"|409
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|Groningen|size=27px}} || [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] || [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]] || [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]] || style="text-align:right"|2,325|| style="text-align:right"|582,649|| style="text-align:right"|250
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|Limburg (Netherlands)|size=27px}} || [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]] || [[Maastricht]] || [[Maastricht]] || style="text-align:right"|2,150|| style="text-align:right"|1,115,805|| style="text-align:right"|519
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|North Brabant|size=27px}} || [[North Brabant]]|| [['s-Hertogenbosch]] || [[Eindhoven]] || style="text-align:right"|4,914|| style="text-align:right"|2,495,107|| style="text-align:right"|507
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|North Holland|size=27px}} || [[North Holland]] || [[Haarlem]] || [[Amsterdam]] || style="text-align:right"|2,665|| style="text-align:right"|2,775,617|| style="text-align:right"|1,039
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|Overijssel|size=27px}} || [[Overijssel]] || [[Zwolle]] || [[Enschede]] || style="text-align:right"|3,324|| style="text-align:right"|1,142,360|| style="text-align:right"|344
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|Utrecht|size=27px}} || [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]] || [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] || [[Utrecht]] || style="text-align:right"|1,383|| style="text-align:right"|1,268,489|| style="text-align:right"|916
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|Zeeland|size=27px}} || [[Zeeland]] || [[Middelburg]] || [[Middelburg]] || style="text-align:right"|1,784|| style="text-align:right"|381,182|| style="text-align:right"|213
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|South Holland|size=27px}} || [[South Holland]] || [[The Hague]] || [[Rotterdam]] || style="text-align:right"|2,808|| style="text-align:right"|3,607,150|| style="text-align:right"|1,282
|- class="sortbottom"
! colspan="4" style="text-align:right;"| Total
! style="text-align:right;"| 33,718
! style="text-align:right;"| 16,922,460
! style="text-align:right;"| 512
|}
|}

[[File:Saba's Government House (6549997737).jpg|thumb|right|Government House, [[Saba]]]]

{| style="background:none;" cellspacing="2px"
|
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:left;"
|-
! style="width:40px;" class="unsortable"| [[Flag]]
! style="width:110px;"| Name
! style="width:120px;"| Capital
! style="width:100px;"| Largest city
! style="width:60px;"| Area<ref name="BESArea">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbs.an/area_climate/area_a1.asp |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706074026/http://www.cbs.an/area_climate/area_a1.asp |archivedate=6 July 2011 |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics (Netherlands Antilles) |year=2010 |accessdate=11 June 2013 |title=Statistical Info: Area and Climate |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}</ref> (km2)
! style="width:90px;"| Population<ref>{{cite web|url=http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=80539ned&D1=0-1,9-10&D2=a&D3=a&HDR=T&STB=G1,G2&CHARTTYPE=1&VW=T|publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics|year=2012|accessdate=18 October 2013|title=Bevolkingsontwikkeling Caribisch Nederland; geboorte, sterfte, migratie|language=Dutch}}</ref> 31-12-2012
! style="width:80px;"|Density (per km2)
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|Bonaire|size=27px}} || [[Bonaire]] || [[Kralendijk]] || [[Kralendijk]] || style="text-align:right"|288|| style="text-align:right"|17,408|| style="text-align:right"|60
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|Sint Eustatius|size=27px}} || [[Sint Eustatius]] || [[Oranjestad, Sint Eustatius|Oranjestad]] || [[Oranjestad, Sint Eustatius|Oranjestad]] || style="text-align:right"|21|| style="text-align:right"|3,897|| style="text-align:right"|186
|-
| style="text-align:center"|{{flagicon|Saba|size=27px}} || [[Saba]] || [[The Bottom]] || [[The Bottom]] || style="text-align:right"|13|| style="text-align:right"|1,991|| style="text-align:right"|153
|- class="sortbottom"
! colspan="4" style="text-align:right;"| Total
! style="text-align:right;"| 322
! style="text-align:right;"| 23,296
! style="text-align:right;"| 72
|}
|}

===Foreign relations===
[[File:International Court of Justice.jpg|thumb|The [[Peace Palace]] (''Vredespaleis''), [[The Hague]]]]
{{Main article|Foreign relations of the Netherlands}}

The history of [[foreign relations of the Netherlands|Dutch foreign policy]] has been characterised by its [[neutral state|neutrality]]. Since World War II, the Netherlands has become a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, [[NATO]] and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies strongly on [[international trade]].

The [[foreign policy]] of the Netherlands is based on four basic commitments: to [[atlanticism|Atlantic co-operation]], to [[European integration]], to [[international development]] and to [[international law]]. One of the more controversial international issues surrounding the Netherlands is its [[drug policy of the Netherlands|liberal policy towards soft drugs]].

During and after the [[Dutch Golden Age]], the Dutch people built up a commercial and colonial empire. The most important colonies were present-day [[Suriname]] and [[Indonesia]]. Indonesia became independent after the [[Indonesian National Revolution]] in the 1940s following a war of independence, international pressure and several [[UN Security Council Resolutions]]. Suriname became independent in 1975. The historical ties inherited from its colonial past still influence the foreign relations of the Netherlands. In addition, many people from these countries are living permanently in the Netherlands.

===Military===
{{Main article|Armed forces of the Netherlands}}

The Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in Europe; it was first established as such by [[Maurice of Nassau]]. The Dutch army was used throughout the [[Dutch Empire]]. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a [[conscription]] army. The army was unsuccessfully deployed during the [[Belgian Revolution]] in 1830. After 1830, it was deployed mainly in the Dutch colonies, as the Netherlands remained neutral in European wars (including the First World War), until the [[Battle of the Netherlands|Netherlands was invaded in World War II]] and quickly defeated by the Wehrmacht in May 1940.

[[File:HNLMS Holland.jpg|thumb|''Zr. Ms. Holland'', a [[Royal Dutch Navy]] [[offshore patrol vessel]]]]

The Netherlands abandoned its neutrality in 1948 when it signed the [[Treaty of Brussels]], and became a founding member of [[NATO]] in 1949. The Dutch military was therefore part of the NATO strength in [[Cold War]] Europe, deploying its army to several bases in Germany. More than 3,000 Dutch soldiers were assigned to the [[2nd Infantry Division (United States)|2nd Infantry Division]] of the [[United States Army]] during the [[Korean War]]. In 1996 conscription was suspended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the [[Bosnian War]] and the [[Kosovo War]], it held a province in [[Iraq]] after the defeat of [[Saddam Hussein]], and it was engaged in [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Afghanistan]].

The military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix ''Koninklijke'' (Royal):

* ''Koninklijke Landmacht'' (KL), the [[Royal Netherlands Army]]
* ''Koninklijke Marine'' (KM), the [[Royal Netherlands Navy]], including the Naval Air Service and Marine Corps
* ''Koninklijke Luchtmacht'' (KLu), the [[Royal Netherlands Air Force]]
* ''Koninklijke Marechaussee'' (KMar), the [[Royal Marechaussee]] (Military Police), tasks include military police and border control

General [[Tom Middendorp]] is the current Commander of the Netherlands armed forces.
The [[Koninklijke Marine#Submarine service|submarine service]] are open to women as of 1 January 2017. [[Korps Commandotroepen|The Korps Commandotroepen]], the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is almost impossible for women to become a commando.<ref>[http://www.korpscommandotroepen.nl/index.php?l=nl&p=118 KCT. Official website of the Dutch Commando Foundation] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205094656/http://www.korpscommandotroepen.nl/index.php?l=nl&p=118 |date=5 February 2011 }}. Korpscommandotroepen.nl (14 April 2010). Retrieved on 21 August 2012.</ref> The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs more than 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilians and over 50,000 military personnel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defensie.nl/onderwerpen/werken_bij_defensie |title=Ministerie van defensie – Werken bij Defensie |publisher=Mindef.nl |accessdate=29 April 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811142105/http://www.defensie.nl/onderwerpen/werken_bij_defensie |archivedate=11 August 2011 }}</ref> In April 2011 the government announced a major reduction in its military because of a cut in government expenditure, including a decrease in the number of tanks, fighter aircraft, naval ships and senior officials.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defensie.nl/actueel/nieuws/2011/04/08/46180709/Defensie_hard_getroffen_door_bezuinigingen_video |title=Defensie hard getroffen door bezuinigingen |publisher=Ministry of Defence |accessdate=26 April 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807071458/http://www.defensie.nl/actueel/nieuws/2011/04/08/46180709/Defensie_hard_getroffen_door_bezuinigingen_video |archivedate=7 August 2011 }}</ref>

==Economy==
{{Main article|Economy of the Netherlands}}
[[File:Amazonehaven.JPG|thumb|The [[Port of Rotterdam]] is Europe's largest port.]]

The Netherlands has a developed economy and has been playing a special role in the European economy for many centuries. Since the 16th century, shipping, fishing, agriculture, trade, and banking have been leading sectors of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has [[List of countries by economic freedom|a high level of economic freedom]]. The Netherlands is one of the top countries in the [[Global Enabling Trade Report]] (3rd in 2014).

{{As of|2013}}, the key trading partners of the Netherlands were Germany, Belgium, UK, United States, France, Italy, China and Russia.<ref>{{cite web|title = The World Factbook|url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nl.html|website = www.cia.gov|accessdate = 22 April 2015}}</ref> The Netherlands is one of the world's 10 leading exporting countries. Foodstuffs form the largest industrial sector. Other major industries include chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, trade, services and tourism. Examples of international Dutch companies operating in Netherlands include [[Randstad Holding|Randstad]], [[Unilever]], [[Heineken International|Heineken]], [[KLM]], financial services ([[ING Group|ING]], [[ABN AMRO]], [[Rabobank]]), chemicals ([[DSM (company)|DSM]], [[AkzoNobel|AKZO]]), petroleum refining ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), electronical machinery ([[Philips]], [[ASML Holding|ASML]]), and car navigation ([[TomTom]]).

The Netherlands has the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|17th-largest economy in the world]], and [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|ranks 10th in GDP (nominal) per capita]]. Between 1997 and 2000 annual economic growth (GDP) averaged nearly 4%, well above the European average. Growth slowed considerably from 2001 to 2005 with the global economic slowdown, but accelerated to 4.1% in the third quarter of 2007. In May 2013, inflation was at 2.8% per year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Inflation up to 2.8 percent|url=http://www.cbs.nl/en-GB/menu/themas/dossiers/conjunctuur/publicaties/artikelen/archief/2013/2013-042-pb.htm|publisher=Statistics Netherlands|accessdate=11 June 2013|date=6 June 2013}}</ref> In April 2013, unemployment was at 8.2% (or 6.7% following the [[International Labour Organization|ILO]] definition) of the [[labour force]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbs.nl/en-GB/menu/themas/dossiers/conjunctuur/publicaties/artikelen/archief/2013/2013-035-pb.htm|title=Unemployment further up|accessdate=10 June 2013|date=15 May 2013|publisher=Statistics Netherlands}}</ref> In January 2017, this was reduced to 5.3%.{{citation needed|date=February 2017}}

In [[Quarter (time)|Q3]] and Q4 2011, the Dutch economy contracted by 0.4% and 0.7%, respectively, because of European Debt Crisis, while in Q4 the Eurozone economy shrunk by 0.3%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/afp_world_business/view/1183178/1/.html |title=Eurozone economy shrinks 0.3% in Q4 |date=15 February 2012|work=channelnewsasia.com}}</ref> The Netherlands also has a relatively low [[Gini coefficient|GINI coefficient]] of 0.326. Despite ranking 7th in [[GDP per capita]], [[UNICEF]] ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/media/files/ChildPovertyReport.pdf|title=Child Poverty Report Study by UNICEF 2007|format=PDF|work=unicef.org}}</ref> On the [[Index of Economic Freedom]] Netherlands is the 13th most [[free market]] capitalist economy out of 157 surveyed countries.

[[Amsterdam]] is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands.<ref name="ez">{{cite web|url=http://www.ez.amsterdam.nl/page.php?menu=24&page=6 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205161807/http://www.ez.amsterdam.nl/page.php?menu=24&page=6 |archivedate=5 December 2008 |title=Amsterdam – Economische Zaken |language=Dutch |accessdate=22 May 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}</ref> The [[Amsterdam Stock Exchange]] (AEX), part of [[Euronext]], is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near [[Dam Square]] in the city's centre. As a founding member of the [[euro]], the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the "gulden" ([[Dutch guilder|guilder]]), on 1 January 1999, along with 15 other adopters of the euro. Actual [[euro coins]] and [[euro banknotes|banknotes]] followed on 1 January 2002. One euro was equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. In the [[Caribbean Netherlands]], the [[United States dollar]] is used instead of the euro.

[[File:BlueEurozone.svg|thumb|left|The Netherlands is part of a monetary union, the [[eurozone]] (dark blue), and of the [[Internal Market (European Union)|EU single market]].]]

The Dutch location gives it prime access to markets in the UK and Germany, with the [[port of Rotterdam]] being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are [[international trade]] (Dutch colonialism started with co-operative private enterprises such as the [[Dutch East India Company|VOC]]), banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th-busiest tourist destination in Europe with more than 4.2 million international visitors.<ref name="42milvisitors">{{cite web|url=http://www.ez.amsterdam.nl/page.php?page=9&menu=27 |title=Amsterdam en de wereld: Toerisme en congreswezen |accessdate=15 February 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215160103/http://www.ez.amsterdam.nl/page.php?page=9&menu=27 |archivedate=15 February 2009 |df=dmy }}. ez.amsterdam.nl</ref> Since the enlargement of the EU large numbers of [[migrant worker]]s have arrived in the Netherlands from [[Central Europe|central]] and [[eastern Europe]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/02/10/uk-dutch-immigrants-idUKTRE8191ML20120210 |title= Dutch allow Wilders' anti-Pole website, EU critical | publisher= Reuters | date=10 February 2012 |first=Gilbert |last=Kreijger}}</ref>

Of economic importance is [[BrabantStad]], a partnership between the municipalities of [[Breda]], [[Eindhoven]], [[Helmond]], [['s-Hertogenbosch]] and [[Tilburg]] and the province of North Brabant. BrabantStad is the fastest growing economic region in the Netherlands, with [[Brainport (Netherlands)|Brainport]] as one of the three national top regions. The region lies within the [[Eindhoven]]-[[Leuven]]-[[Aachen]] Triangle (ELAT).<ref name="ref608454752">{{cite web|url=http://www.sre.nl/|title=- De factor SRE|publisher=sre.nl|accessdate=19 February 2014}}</ref> The partnership aims to form an urban network and to make North Brabant explicitly known as a leading knowledge region within Europe. With a total of 1.5 million people and 20% of the industrial production in the Netherlands is BrabantStad one of the major economical important, metropolitan regions of the Netherlands. Of all the money that goes to research and development in the Netherlands, one third is spent in [[Eindhoven]]. A quarter of the jobs in the region are in technology and ICT.<ref name="ref-213874478">{{cite web|url=http://www.eindhoven.nl/web/show|title=Eindhoven – Eindhoven|publisher=eindhoven.nl|accessdate=19 February 2014}}</ref>

Of all European patent applications in the field of physics and electronics about eight per cent is from North Brabant.<ref name="ref-601915138">{{cite web|url=http://www.brabantstad.nl/index.php|title=Welkom | BrabantStad, een sterk internationaal concurrerend en duurzaam groeiend stedelijk netwerk.|publisher=brabantstad.nl|accessdate=19 February 2014}}</ref> In the extended region, BrabantStad is part of the [[Eindhoven]]-[[Leuven]]-[[Aachen]] Triangle (ELAT). This economic cooperation agreement between three cities in three countries has created one of the most innovative regions in the European Union (measured in terms of money invested in [[technology]] and [[knowledge economy]]).<ref name="ref1983490620">{{cite web|url=http://www.elat.org/|title=Elat|publisher=elat.org|accessdate=19 February 2014}}</ref> The economic success of this region is important for the international competitiveness of the Netherlands; Together [[Amsterdam]] ([[Amsterdam Airport Schiphol|airport]]), [[Rotterdam]] ([[Port of Rotterdam|seaport]]), and [[Eindhoven]] form the foundation of the Dutch economy.<ref name="ref1367203750">{{cite web|url=http://www.brainport.nl/over-brainport|title=Over Brainport|publisher=brainport.nl|accessdate=19 February 2014}}</ref>

The Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005, but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. The Netherlands is the fifth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the [[World Economic Forum]]'s [[Global Competitiveness Report]].<ref name="wefcomp">{{cite web|url=http://www.weforum.org/issues/global-competitiveness |title=Global Competitiveness Report 2012–2013 |publisher=World Economic Forum |date=5 September 2012 |accessdate=11 June 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210040419/http://www.weforum.org/issues/global-competitiveness |archivedate=10 December 2014 }}</ref>

===Natural gas===
[[File:Natural gas NL.png|thumb|Natural gas concessions in the Netherlands. Today the Netherlands accounts for more than 25% of all Natural Gas reserves in the EU]]
Beginning in the 1950s, the Netherlands discovered huge natural gas resources. The sale of natural gas generated enormous revenues for the Netherlands for decades to come, adding hundreds of billions of euros to the government's budget.<ref name="vorige.nrc.nl">[http://vorige.nrc.nl//international/article2274261.ece/The_Dutch_curse_how_billions_from_natural_gas_went_up_in_smoke The Dutch curse: how billions from natural gas went up in smoke] LEES MEER, 17 June 2009</ref> However, the unforeseen consequences of the country's huge energy wealth impacted the competitiveness of other sectors of the economy, leading to the theory of [[Dutch disease]].<ref name="vorige.nrc.nl"/>

Apart from coal and gas, the country has no mining resources. The last coal mine was closed in 1974. The [[Groningen gas field]], one of the largest [[natural gas field]]s in the world, is situated near [[Slochteren]]. Exploitation of this field has resulted in €159 billion in revenue since the mid-1970s.<ref name="geo">{{cite web|url=http://www.geoexpro.com/article/The_Groningen_Gas_Field/bf349ab1.aspx|title=The Groningen Gas Field|year=2009|publisher=''GEO ExPro Magazine''|accessdate=11 June 2013}}</ref> The field is operated by government-owned Gasunie and output is jointly exploited by the government, Royal Dutch Shell, and Exxon Mobil through NAM (Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij). "Gas extraction has resulted in increasingly strong earth tremors, some measuring as much as 3.6 on the Richter magnitude scale. The cost of damage repairs, structural improvements to buildings, and compensation for home value decreases has been estimated at 6.5 billion euros. Around 35,000 homes are said to be affected."<ref>UPDATE 2-Dutch gas field earthquake dangers ignored for decades -Safety Board Wed 18 February 2015,By Anthony Deutsch,18 Feb (Reuters)</ref> The Netherlands have an estimated 25% of natural gas reserves in the EU.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ebn.nl/oil-and-gas-in-the-netherlands/?lang=en|title=The hunt for gas and oil reserves that are more difficult to extract|publisher=EBN}}</ref>

===Agriculture===
[[File:Bollenvelden bij De Zilk.ogv|thumb|Dutch flower fields near De Zilk]]

The Dutch agricultural sector is highly mechanised, and has a strong focus on international exports. It employs about 4% of the Dutch labour force but produces large surpluses for the food-processing industry and accounts for 21 percent of the Dutch total export value.<ref>https://www.hollandalumni.nl/files/documents/career/factsheets-key-sectors/factsheet-agri-food</ref> The Dutch rank second worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind only the United States.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Farming in the Netherlands: Polder and wiser |url=http://www.economist.com/news/business/21613356-dutch-farmers-add-sustainability-their-enviable-productivity-polder-and-wiser |newspaper=The Economist |location=Sevenum |publisher=The Economist Group |date=23 August 2014 |accessdate=29 August 2014}}</ref> with exports earning €80.7 billion in 2014,<ref name="government.nl">{{cite web|url=http://www.government.nl/news/2015/01/16/dutch-agricultural-exports-top-80-billion-euros.html |title=Dutch agricultural exports top 80 billion Euros |publisher=}}</ref> up from €75.4 billion in 2012.<ref name="hollandtrade.com"/>

The Netherlands has, at some time in recent history, supplied one quarter of all of the world's exported tomatoes, and trade of one-third of the world's exports of [[Capsicum|chilis]], tomatoes and cucumbers goes through the country. The Netherlands also exports one-fifteenth of the world's apples.<ref name="USDA Foreign Agriculture Service"/>

Aside from that, a significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports consists of fresh-cut plants, flowers, and flower bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total.<ref name="USDA Foreign Agriculture Service">{{cite web|url = http://www.fas.usda.gov/gainfiles/200501/146118432.pdf#search=%22netherlands%20main%20agriculture%20export%20flowers%22|title = Netherlands: Agricultural situation|accessdate =20 June 2007|publisher=USDA Foreign Agriculture Service}}</ref>

===Transport===
[[File:NederlandA15.jpg|thumb|right|Highway A15 / A16 [[Overpass|flyover]]]]
{{Main article|Transport in the Netherlands}}

Mobility on Dutch roads has grown continuously since the 1950s and now exceeds 200 billion km travelled per year,<ref>{{cite press release |title=SWOV Fact sheet | Mobility on Dutch roads |url=http://www.swov.nl/rapport/Factsheets/UK/FS_Mobility.pdf |location=Leidschendam, the Netherlands |publisher=SWOV, Dutch Institute for Road Safety Research |date=July 2013 |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref> three quarters of which are done by car.<ref name="OECD-ITF">{{cite journal |last1=Waard |first1=Jan van der |last2=Jorritsma |first2=Peter |last3=Immers |first3=Ben |date=October 2012 |title=New Drivers in Mobility: What Moves the Dutch in 2012 and Beyond? |url=http://www.internationaltransportforum.org/jtrc/DiscussionPapers/DP201215.pdf |journal= |location=Delft, the Netherlands |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] International Transport Forum |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref> Around half of all trips in the Netherlands are made by car, 25% by bicycle, 20% walking, and 5% by public transport.<ref name="OECD-ITF"/> With a total [[Roads in the Netherlands|road network]] of 139,295 km, which includes 2,758 km of expressways,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2085.html#nl |title=CIA World Factbook | Field listing: Roadways |date=2012 |website=www.cia.gov |publisher=U.S. Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref> the Netherlands has one of the densest road networks in the world—much denser than [[Germany]] and [[France]], but still not as dense as [[Belgium]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IS.ROD.DNST.K2?order=wbapi_data_value_2011%20wbapi_data_value%20wbapi_data_value-last&sort=desc |title=Road density (km of road per 100 sq. km of land area) | Data | Table |author= |date=2014 |website=data.worldbank.org |publisher=The World Bank Group |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref>

About 13% of all distance is travelled by public transport, the majority of which by train.<ref name="OECD-ITF"/> [[List of countries by rail transport network size|Like in many other European countries]], the Dutch rail network of 3,013 route km is also rather dense.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2121.html#nl |title=CIA World Factbook | Field listing: Railways |date=2012 |website=www.cia.gov |publisher=U.S. Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=7 July 2014}}</ref> The network is mostly focused on passenger rail services and connects virtually all major towns and cities. Trains are frequent, with one or two trains per hour on lesser lines, two to four trains per hour on average, and up to eight trains an hour on the busiest lines.

[[File:Fietsstraat.jpg|thumb|A [[Cycling in the Netherlands#Fietsstraat (bike street)|''fietsstraat'']] (bike street) where cyclists have priority and cars are "guests" and must yield.]]

[[Cycling in the Netherlands|Cycling]] is a ubiquitous mode of transport in the Netherlands. Almost as many kilometres are covered by bicycle as by train.<ref name="OECD-ITF"/> The Dutch are estimated to have at least 18 million bicycles,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hollandtrade.com/media/features/feature-stories/?bstnum=4960|title=Holland Publications|first=Netherlands Enterprise Agency|last=(RVO)|work=hollandtrade.com|accessdate=26 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iamexpat.nl/expat-page/survival-kit/cycling/general-information|title=Cycling in the Netherlands – General information|publisher=}}</ref> which makes more than one per capita, and twice as many as the c. 9 million motor vehicles on the road.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?VW=T&DM=SLEN&PA=70071ENG&D1=0-12&D2=0&D3=a&HD=100315-1508&LA=EN&HDR=G1,G2&STB=T|title=CBS StatLine – Motor vehicles; general overview per period and technological features|publisher=}}</ref> In 2013, the [[European Cyclists' Federation]] ranked both the Netherlands and [[Denmark]] as the most bike-friendly countries in Europe,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecf.com/news/the-first-eu-wide-ecf-cycling-barometer-launched/ |title=European Cyclists' Federation – The first EU wide ECF Cycling Barometer launched |publisher= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714151023/http://www.ecf.com/news/the-first-eu-wide-ecf-cycling-barometer-launched/ |archivedate=14 July 2014 }}</ref> but more of the Dutch (36%) than of the Danes (23%) list the bike as their most frequent mode of transport on a typical day.<ref>{{Cite report|author= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=December 2014 |title=Quality of Transport report |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_422a_en.pdf |publisher=[[European Commission]] |page=11 |docket= |accessdate=29 December 2016 |quote= |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908145406/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_422a_en.pdf |archivedate=8 September 2015 }}</ref>{{#tag:ref| Up from 31% vs. 19% naming the bike their main mode of transport for daily activities in 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-23587916 |title=Why is cycling so popular in the Netherlands? |publisher=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307050642/http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-23587916 |archive-date=7 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report|date=March 2011 |title=Future of Transport report |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash/fl_312_en.pdf |publisher=[[European Commission]] |page=8 |docket= |accessdate=11 July 2015 |quote= |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205185930/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash/fl_312_en.pdf |archivedate=5 February 2015 }}</ref>|group="nb"}} [[Cycling infrastructure]] is comprehensive. Busy roads have received some 35,000 km of [[Segregated cycle facilities|dedicated cycle tracks]], physically segregated from motorised traffic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fietsberaad.nl/index.cfm?lang=nl&section=nieuws&mode=newsArticle&repository=The+Netherlands+boast+almost+35.000+km+of+cycling+paths|title=CROW Fietsberaad|publisher=}}</ref> Busy junctions are often equipped with bicycle-specific traffic lights. There are large bicycle parking facilities, particularly in city centres and at train stations.

[[Rotterdam]] has the largest port in Europe, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the [[hinterland]] upstream reaching to [[Basel]], Switzerland, and into France. {{As of|2013}}, Rotterdam was the world's eighth largest [[container port]] handling 440.5 million metric tonnes of cargo annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.portofrotterdam.com/en/Port/port-statistics/Documents/Port-statistics-2013/index.html#8 |title=Port of Rotterdam Statistics 2013 |publisher=Port of Rotterdam |accessdate=1 June 2014}}</ref> The port's main activities are [[petrochemical]] industries and general cargo handling and [[transshipment]]. The harbour functions as an important transit point for [[bulk material handling|bulk materials]] and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. In 2007, the [[Betuweroute]], a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed.

[[Amsterdam Airport Schiphol|Schiphol airport]], just southwest of Amsterdam, is the main [[international airport]] in the Netherlands, and the [[List of the busiest airports in Europe|third busiest airport in Europe]] in terms of passengers. In 2016, the [[Schiphol Group]] airports handled 70 million passengers.<ref name="NOS Schiphol64">{{cite web |url=http://nos.nl/artikel/2152140-bijna-64-miljoen-zo-veel-passagiers-zag-schiphol-nog-nooit.html |title=Bijna 64 miljoen—zo veel passagiers zag Schiphol nog nooit – NOS |language=Dutch |trans_title=Almost 64 million—Schiphol never saw so many passengers – NOS |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109153121/http://nos.nl/artikel/2152140-bijna-64-miljoen-zo-veel-passagiers-zag-schiphol-nog-nooit.html |date=9 January 2017 |website=NOS.nl |publisher=[[Nederlandse Omroep Stichting]] |accessdate=9 January 2017| archivedate=9 January 2017}}</ref>

As part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Dutch government initiated a plan to establish over 200 recharging stations for electric vehicles across the country by 2015. The rollout will be undertaken by Switzerland-based power and automation company ABB and Dutch startup Fastned, and will aim to provide at least one station within a 50-kilometre radius (30 miles) from every home in the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web|title=Every Dutch citizen will live within 31 miles of an electric vehicle charging station by 2015|url=http://www.theverge.com/2013/7/10/4509962/netherlands-nationwide-electric-vehicle-charging-network-abb-fastned|work=The Verge|publisher=Vox Media, Inc|accessdate=11 July 2013|last=Toor |first=Amar |date=10 July 2013}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main article|Demographics of the Netherlands}}
[[File:Population of the Netherlands 1900-2000.png|thumb|The Population of the Netherlands from 1900 to 2000.]]

The Netherlands had an estimated population of 17,093,000 as of January 2017.<ref name="cbs-counter">{{cite web|title=Population and population dynamics; month, quarter and year|url=http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?VW=T&DM=SLEN&PA=37943eng&LA=EN|publisher=Statistics Netherlands|accessdate=12 June 2013}}</ref> It is the [[List of European countries by population|most populous country in Europe]] by size, except for very small city countries like [[Monaco]], [[Vatican City]], etc. and the [[List of countries by population|63rd most populous country]] in the world. Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population almost doubled from 5.1 to 10 million. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased, to 15.9 million, though this represented a lower rate of [[population growth]].<ref>[http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLEN&PA=37556ENG&D1=0-44,53-60&D2=1,11,21,31,41,51,61,71,81,91,101&LA=EN&VW=T CBS Statline – Population; history]. [[Statistics Netherlands]]. Retrieved on 8 March 2009.</ref> The estimated growth rate {{As of|2013|alt=in 2013}} is 0.44%.<ref name="cia-worldfactbook-nl">{{cite web|title=The World Factbook – Netherlands|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nl.html|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|accessdate=11 June 2013}}</ref>

The [[fertility rate]] in the Netherlands is 1.78 children per woman (2013 est.<ref name="cia-worldfactbook-nl"/>), which is high compared with many other European countries, but [[sub-replacement fertility|below the rate of 2.1 children per woman required for natural population replacement]]. [[Life expectancy]] is high in the Netherlands: 83.21 years for newborn girls and 78.93 for boys (2013 est.<ref name="cia-worldfactbook-nl"/>). The country has a [[Human migration|migration]] rate of 1.99 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year.<ref name="cia-worldfactbook-nl"/>

The majority of the population of the Netherlands is ethnically [[Dutch people|Dutch]]. According to a 2005 estimate, the population was 80.9% Dutch, 2.4% [[Indonesia]]n, 2.4% [[Germans|German]], 2.2% [[Turkish-Dutch|Turkish]], 2.0% [[Surinamese people|Surinamese]], 1.9% [[Morocco|Moroccan]], 0.8% [[Netherlands Antilles|Antillean]] and [[Aruba]]n, and 7.4% others.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/CCD504EA-9D41-40C2-AE28-BFB0A51C2045/0/2005k3b15p096art.pdf|title=Demografie van de allochtonen in Nederland|publisher=[[Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek]]|author=Garssen, Joop, Han Nicolaas and Arno Sprangers|year=2005|language=Dutch|format=PDF|accessdate=2 July 2011}}</ref> Some 150,000 to 200,000 people living in the Netherlands are [[expatriate]]s, mostly concentrated in and around [[Amsterdam]] and [[The Hague]], now constituting almost 10% of the population of these cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.verhurenaanexpats.nl/verhuren-aan-expats/expats-de-feiten/|title=Expats in Nederland|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onsamsterdam.nl/tijdschrift/jaargang-2011/1158-nummer-11-12-november-december-2011.html?start=4|title=Feiten en cijfers over immigratie – Pagina 5|work=Ons Amsterdam}}</ref>

The [[Dutch people|Dutch]] are the tallest people in the world,<ref name="Science 2015-04-07">{{cite news|last=Enserink|first=Martin|date=7 April 2015|title=Did natural selection make the Dutch the tallest people on the planet?|url=http://news.sciencemag.org/biology/2015/04/did-natural-selection-make-dutch-tallest-people-planet|newspaper=[[Science (journal)|''Science'']]|location=Amsterdam|access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> with an average [[Human height|height]] of {{convert|1.81|m|ftin|1|abbr=out}} for adult males and {{convert|1.67|m|ftin|1|abbr=out}} for adult females in 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?VW=T&DM=SLNL&PA=03799&D1=242,254,267-270&D2=0-17&HD=081103-1603&HDR=T.&STB=G1|publisher=Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek|title=Reported health and lifestyle|accessdate=12 August 2012}}</ref> People in the south are on average about {{convert|2|cm|1|abbr=in}} shorter than those in the north.

[[File:Grote drukte zomercarnaval Rotterdam.jpg|thumb|In [[Rotterdam]] almost half the population has an immigrant background.]]
According to [[Eurostat]], in 2010 there were 1.8 million [[Foreign born|foreign-born residents]] in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1.4 million (8.5%) were born outside the EU and 0.428 million (2.6%) were born in another EU Member State.<ref>Vasileva, Katya (2011) [http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-SF-11-034/EN/KS-SF-11-034-EN.PDF 6.5% of the EU population are foreigners and 9.4% are born abroad] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128101046/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-SF-11-034/EN/KS-SF-11-034-EN.PDF |date=28 January 2012 }}, Eurostat, Statistics in focus vol. 34.</ref> On 21 November 2016, there were 3.8 million residents in the Netherlands with at least one foreign-born parent ("migration background").<ref>"[https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/news/2016/47/migration-background-still-plays-a-role Migration background still plays a role]". Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (CBS). 21 November 2016.</ref> Over half the young people in Amsterdam and Rotterdam have a non-western background.<ref>"[https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/news/2006/31/half-of-young-big-city-dwellers-have-non-western-background Half of young big-city dwellers have non-western background]". Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (CBS). 1 August 2006.</ref> Dutch people, or [[Dutch diaspora|descendants of Dutch people]], are also found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[South Africa]] and [[the United States]]. According to the 2006 US Census, more than 5 million Americans claim total or partial [[Dutch American|Dutch]] ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|author=American FactFinder, United States Census Bureau |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_%2526amp%253B-_lang%253Den%2526amp%253B-_caller%253Dgeoselect%2526amp%253B-format%253D |title=Census 2006 ACS Ancestry estimates |publisher=Factfinder.census.gov |accessdate=29 April 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428095854/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_%2526amp%253B-_lang%253Den%2526amp%253B-_caller%253Dgeoselect%2526amp%253B-format%253D |archivedate=28 April 2011 }}</ref> There are close to 3 million Dutch-descended [[Afrikaner]]s living in South Africa.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/49.htm South Africa – Afrikaans Speakers]. ''Library of Congress.''</ref> In 1940, there were 290,000 Europeans and Eurasians in Indonesia,<ref>[http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1077&context=ies A Hidden Language – Dutch in Indonesia] (PDF). Institute of European Studies (University of California, Berkeley).</ref> but most have since left the country.<ref>[http://www.kitlv.nl/pdf_documents/asia-migrations.pdf Dutch colonialism, migration and cultural heritage] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428094931/http://www.kitlv.nl/pdf_documents/asia-migrations.pdf |date=28 April 2011 }} (PDF). Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asia and Caribbean Studies.</ref>

The Netherlands is the 24th [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by population density|most densely populated]] country in the world, with {{convert|408.53|PD/sqkm|sigfig=4}} or – if only the land area is counted ({{convert|33883|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=comma}}) – {{convert|500.89|PD/sqkm|sigfig=4}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.nl/nl-NL/menu/themas/bevolking/cijfers/extra/bevolkingsteller.htm |title=Bevolkingsteller |publisher=CBS |accessdate=23 November 2015}}</ref> When the land area of the provinces only is counted ({{convert|33718|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=comma}}), a number of {{convert|500|PD/sqkm|sigfig=4}} was reached in the first half of 2014. The [[Randstad]] is the country's largest [[conurbation]] located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam in the province [[North Holland]], [[Rotterdam]] and [[The Hague]] in the province [[South Holland]], and [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] in the province [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]]. The Randstad has a population of 7 million inhabitants and is the [[List of metropolitan areas in Europe by population|6th largest]] [[metropolitan area]] in Europe. According to Dutch Central Statistics Bureau, in 2015, 28 percent of Dutch population had a spendable income above 40 thousand EUR.<ref>{{cite web|title = CBS – Income distribution – Extra|url = http://www.cbs.nl/en-GB/menu/themas/inkomen-bestedingen/cijfers/extra/inkomensverdeling.htm|website = www.cbs.nl|accessdate = 15 September 2015}}</ref>

{{Largest cities of the Netherlands}}

===Functional urban areas===
<ref>http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=urb_lpop1&lang=en</ref>
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:left;"
|-style="font-size:100%; text-align:center;"
!align=center|[[Larger urban zone|Functional urban areas]]

!align=center|Population 2011
|-
| '''[[Amsterdam]]'''
| align=right|2,502,000
|-
| '''[[Rotterdam]]'''
| align=right|1,419,000
|-
| '''[[The Hague]]'''
| align=right|850,000
|-
| '''[[Utrecht]]'''
| align=right|770,000
|-
| '''[[Eindhoven]]'''
| align=right|695,000
|-
| '''[[Groningen]]'''
| align=right|482,000
|-
| '''[[Enschede]]'''
| align=right|402,000
|-
|}

===Language===
{{Main article|Languages of the Netherlands}}

[[File:Foreign languages Netherlands, 2005.png|thumb|350px|Knowledge of foreign languages in the Netherlands, in percent of the population over 15, 2006. Data taken from an EU survey. [http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf ebs_243_en.pdf] (europa.eu)]]
The official language is [[Dutch language|Dutch]], which is spoken by the vast majority of the inhabitants. Besides Dutch, [[West Frisian language|West Frisian]] is recognised as a second official language in the northern province of [[Friesland]] (''Fryslân'' in West Frisian).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/erkende-talen/talen-in-nederland |title=Talen in Nederland – Erkende talen |publisher=rijksoverheid.nl |accessdate=12 August 2014}}</ref> West Frisian has a formal status for government correspondence in that province. In the European part of the Netherlands two other regional languages are recognised under the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2098.html |title=CIA World Factbook: Official languages per country |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=23 April 2011}}</ref>

The first of these regional languages is [[Dutch Low Saxon|Low Saxon]] (''Nedersaksisch'' in Dutch) is recognised. Low Saxon consists of several dialects spoken in the north and east, like [[Twents]] in the region of [[Twente]], and [[Drents]] in the province of [[Drenthe]]. Secondly, [[Limburgish]] is also recognised as a regional language. It consists of Dutch varieties of [[Meuse-Rhenish]] [[Franconian languages]] and is spoken in the south-eastern province of [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]].<ref name="international2000"/> The dialects most spoken in the Netherlands are the [[Brabantian]]-[[Hollandic]] dialects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taalcanon.nl/vragen/hoeveel-dialecten-heeft-het-nederlands/ |title=Hoeveel dialecten heeft het Nederlands? | Taalcanon |publisher=Taalcanon.nl |accessdate=23 April 2014}}</ref>

[[Ripuarian language]], which is spoken in [[Kerkrade]] and [[Vaals]] in the form of, respectively, the [[Kerkrade dialect]] and the [[Vaals dialect]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Gemeente Kerkrade {{!}} Kirchröadsj Plat|url=http://www.kerkrade.nl/de_stad_kerkrade/kerkrade_toen_en_nu/kirchroadsj_plat|accessdate=10 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vaals.nl/voor-inwoners/cittaslow-gemeente_3683/|title=Cittaslow Vaals: verrassend, veelzijdig, veelkleurig|accessdate=9 September 2015}} The PDF file can be accessed at the bottom of the page. The relevant citation is on the page 13: "De enige taal waarin Vaals echt te beschrijven en te bezingen valt is natuurlijk het Völser dialect. Dit dialect valt onder het zogenaamde Ripuarisch."</ref> is not recognised as a regional language of the Netherlands.

[[English in the Netherlands|English]] has a formal status in the special municipalities of [[Saba]] and [[Sint Eustatius]]. It is widely spoken on these islands. [[Papiamento]] has a formal status in the special municipality of [[Bonaire]]. [[Yiddish]] and the [[Romani language]] were recognised in 1996 as non-territorial languages.<ref>"The Kingdom of the Netherlands further declares that the principles enumerated in Part II of the Charter will be applied to the Lower-Saxon languages used in the Netherlands, and, in accordance with Article 7, paragraph 5, to Yiddish and the Romanes languages." [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=148&CM=8&DF=23/01/05&CL=ENG&VL=1 Netherlands: Declaration contained in the instrument of acceptance, deposited on 2 May 1996 – Or. Engl.], List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148 – [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]</ref>

The Netherlands has a tradition of learning foreign languages, formalised in Dutch education laws. Some 90% of the total population indicate [[English in the Netherlands|they are able to converse in English]], 70% in German, and 29% in French.<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_237.en.pdf European Union survey]</ref> English is a mandatory course in all secondary schools.<ref name=xyz>{{cite web|title=Foreign languages in secondary education |work=Wat is het aanbod aan vreemde talen in de onderbouw van het voortgezet onderwijs (vo)? |publisher=Rijksoverheid |url=http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/documenten-en-publicaties/vragen-en-antwoorden/wat-is-het-aanbod-aan-vreemde-talen-in-de-onderbouw-van-het-voortgezet-onderwijs-vo.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429185145/http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/documenten-en-publicaties/vragen-en-antwoorden/wat-is-het-aanbod-aan-vreemde-talen-in-de-onderbouw-van-het-voortgezet-onderwijs-vo.html |archivedate=29 April 2011 |accessdate=3 May 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}{{nl icon}}</ref> In most lower level secondary school educations (''[[voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs|vmbo]]''), one additional modern foreign language is mandatory during the first two years.<ref name="Schedule of the Central Exams of 2009">[http://www.examenblad.nl/9336000/1/j9vvhinitagymgn_m7mvh57glpdohx6_n11vg41h1h4i9qe/vhl5jftd1sx8 Schedule of the Central Exams of 2009], Examenblad</ref>

In higher level secondary schools (''[[hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs|havo]]'' and ''[[voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs|vwo]]''), two additional modern foreign languages are mandatory during the first three years. Only during the last three years in ''vwo'' one foreign language is mandatory. Besides English, the standard modern languages are French and German, although schools can replace one of these modern languages with Spanish, [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Arabic]], or Russian.<ref name="Schedule of the Central Exams of 2009"/> Additionally, schools in Friesland teach and have exams in [[West Frisian language|Frisian]], and schools across the country teach and have exams in classical Greek and Latin for secondary school (called gymnasium or vwo+).

===Religion===
{{Main article|Religion in the Netherlands}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religions in the Netherlands (2015)<ref name="BerntsA"/>
|label1 = [[Irreligion|No affiliation]]
|value1 = 67.8
|color1 = Gold
|label2 = [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]
|value2 = 11.7
|color2 = DarkOrchid
|label3 = [[Protestant Church in the Netherlands]]
|value3 = 8.6
|color3 = DodgerBlue
|label5 = [[Islam in the Netherlands|Islam]]
|value5 = 5.8
|color5 = Green
|label4 = Other Christian denominations
|value4 = 4.2
|color4 = Red
|label6 = [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]]
|value6 = 2.0
|color6 = Turquoise
}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Beliefs in the Netherlands (2015), based on in-depth interviewing by [[Radboud University]] and [[Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam]] <ref name="BerntsA"/>
|label1 = [[Atheism]]
|value1 = 24
|color1 = DeepSkyBlue
|label2 = [[Agnosticism]]
|value2 = 34
|color2 = PowderBlue
|label3 = [[Ietsism]]
|value3 = 28
|color3 = LightCoral
|label4 = [[Theism]]
|value4 = 14
|color4 = FireBrick
}}

Religion in the Netherlands was predominantly [[Christianity]] until late into the 20th century. Although religious diversity remains, there has been a decline of religious adherence. In 2006, 34% of the Dutch population identified as Christian,<ref name="nos.nl">{{cite news|title=Hoe God (bijna) verdween uit Nederland|url=http://nos.nl/artikel/2092498-hoe-god-bijna-verdween-uit-nederland.html|accessdate=3 April 2016|publisher=NOS|date=13 March 2016}}</ref> decreasing till in 2015 almost 25% of the population adhered to one of the Christian faiths (11.7% Roman Catholic, 8.6% PKN, 4.2% other small Christian denominations), 5% is Muslim and 2% adheres to Hinduism or Buddhism, based on independent in-depth interviewing by [[Radboud University]] and [[Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam]].<ref name="BerntsA"/> Approximately 67.8% of the population in 2015 has [[irreligion|no religious affiliation]], up from 61% in 2006, 53% in 1996, 43% 1979 and 33% in 1966.<ref name="BerntsA"/> The Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau (Social and Cultural Planning Agency, SCP) expects the number of non-affiliated Dutch to be at 72% in 2020.<ref>Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau, God in Nederland (2006/2007)</ref>

A large majority of the Dutch population believes that religion should not have a determining role to play in politics and education. Religion is also decreasingly seen as a social binder,<ref name="nos.nl"/> and is generally considered a personal matter which should not be propagated in public.<ref>Donk, W.B.H.J. van de; Jonkers, A.P.; Kronjee, G.J.; Plum, R.J.J.M. (2006)</ref>
The Dutch constitution guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Roman Catholic and various Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament, ([[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]], and two small parties, [[ChristianUnion]] and [[Reformed Political Party|SGP]]) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, [[Pentecost]] and the [[Ascension of Jesus]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beleven.org/feesten/lijsten/landen.php?land=Nederland |title=Feestdagen Nederland |publisher=Beleven.org |accessdate=27 January 2010}}</ref> In the 20th century the major religions began to decline as secularism grew; in the 1960s and 1970s Protestantism and Catholicism began to decline. There is one major exception: Islam which grew considerably as the result of [[Demographics of the Netherlands#Im- and Emigration|immigration]]. Since the year 2000 there has been raised awareness of religion, mainly due to [[Muslim extremism]].<ref>Knippenberg, Hans "The Changing Religious Landscape of Europe" edited by Knippenberg published by Het Spinhuis, Amsterdam 2005 ISBN 90-5589-248-3, pages 102-104</ref> In 2013 a Catholic became [[Queen consort]].

From a December 2014 survey by the VU University Amsterdam it was concluded that for the first time there are more atheists (25%) than theists (17%) in the Netherlands. The majority of the population being agnostic (31%) or [[ietsism|ietsistic]] (27%).<ref name="trouw.nl">{{cite news|last1=van Beek|first1=Marije|title=Ongelovigen halen de gelovigen in|url=http://www.trouw.nl/tr/nl/5091/Religie/article/detail/3830831/2015/01/16/Ongelovigen-halen-de-gelovigen-in.dhtml|accessdate=21 April 2015|work=Dossier Relige|publisher=der Verdieping Trouw|date=16 January 2015}}</ref> [[Atheism]], [[agnosticism]] and [[Christian atheism]] are on the rise and are widely accepted and considered to be non-controversial. Among those who adhere to Christianity there are high percentages of atheists, agnostics and ietsists, since affiliation with a Christian denomination is also used in a way of [[Cultural identity|cultural identification]] in the different parts of the Netherlands.<ref name="KnippenbergA">H. Knippenberg, "The Changing Religious Landscape of Europe", Het Spinhuis, Amsterdam 2005 ISBN 90-5589-248-3</ref>
In 2015, a vast majority of the inhabitants of the Netherlands (82%) said they had never or almost never visited a church, and 59% stated that they had never been to a church of any kind. Of all the people questioned, 24% saw themselves as atheist, an increase of 11% compared to the previous study done in 2006.<ref name="BerntsA">{{cite book|last1=Bernts|first1=Tom|last2=Berghuijs|first2=Joantine|title=God in Nederland 1966-2015|date=2016|publisher=Ten Have|isbn=9789025905248}}</ref> The expected rise of spirituality (ietsism) has come to a halt according to research in 2015. In 2006 40% of respondents considered themselves spiritual, in 2015 this has dropped to 31%. The number who believed in the existence of a higher power fell from 36% to 28% over the same period.<ref name="nos.nl"/>

[[Christianity]] is currently the largest religion in the Netherlands. The provinces of [[North Brabant]] and [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]] have historically been strongly Roman Catholic, and some of their people might consider the Catholic Church as a base for their [[Cultural Christian|cultural identity]]. Protestantism in the Netherlands consists of a number of churches within various traditions. The largest of these is the [[Protestant Church in the Netherlands]] (PKN), a [[United and uniting churches|United]] church which is [[Reformed]] and [[Lutheran]] in orientation.<ref name="CBS 2009">{{cite news |url=http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37944&D1=0-5,10&D2=29-40&VW=T |title=Kerkelijke gezindte en kerkbezoek; vanaf 1849; 18 jaar of ouder |date=15 October 2010}}</ref> It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the [[Dutch Reformed Church]], the [[Reformed Churches in the Netherlands]] and [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands|a smaller Lutheran Church]]. Several orthodox Reformed and liberal churches did not merge into the PKN. Although in the Netherlands as a whole Christianity has become a minority, the Netherlands contains a [[Bible Belt (Netherlands)|Bible Belt]] from [[Zeeland]] to the northern parts of the province [[Overijssel]], in which Protestant (particularly Reformed) beliefs remain strong, and even has majorities in municipal councils.

[[Islam]] is the second largest religion in the state. In 2012, there were about 825,000 [[Islam in the Netherlands|Muslims]] in the Netherlands (5% of the population).<ref name=CBS2>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbs.nl/nl-NL/menu/themas/vrije-tijd-cultuur/publicaties/artikelen/archief/2012/2012-3759-wm.htm|title=Een op de zes bezoekt regelmatig kerk of moskee|work=Central Bureau of Statistics, Netherlands|year=2012|accessdate=30 March 2014}}</ref> Muslim numbers increased from the 1960 as a consequence of large numbers of [[Demographics of the Netherlands#Im- and Emigration|migrant workers]]. This included migrants from former [[Dutch Empire|Dutch colonies]], such as [[Surinam]] and [[Indonesia]], but mainly migrant workers from [[Turkey]] and [[Morocco]]. During the 1990s, [[Muslim refugees]] arrived from countries like [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Somalia]], and [[Afghanistan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scp.nl/publicaties/boeken/9037702597/Godsdienstige_veranderingen.pdf |title=Godsdienstige veranderingen in Nederland |format=PDF |accessdate=17 May 2010 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070125142251/http://www.scp.nl/publicaties/boeken/9037702597/Godsdienstige_veranderingen.pdf |archivedate = 25 January 2007}}</ref>

Other religions account for some 6% of the Dutch people. Hinduism is a minority religion in the Netherlands, with around 215,000 adherents (slightly over 1% of the population). Most of these are [[Indo-Surinamese]]. There are also sizable populations of Hindu immigrants from [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]], and some Western adherents of [[Hinduism in the West|Hinduism-oriented new religious movements]] such as [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishnas]]. The Netherlands has an estimated 250,000 [[Buddhism in the Netherlands|Buddhists]] or people strongly attracted to this religion, mainly ethnic Dutch people. There are about 45,000 [[History of the Jews in the Netherlands|Jews]] in the Netherlands.

===Education===
{{Main article|Education in the Netherlands}}
Education in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16 when HAVO, VWO or MBO level 2 or higher completed or 18.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/leerplicht|title=Leerplicht|publisher=}}</ref>

All children in the Netherlands usually attend elementary school from (on average) ages 4 to 12. It comprises eight grades, the first of which is facultative. Based on an aptitude test, the 8th grade teacher's recommendation and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers, a choice is made for one of the three main streams of secondary education (after completing a particular stream, a pupil may still continue in the penultimate year of the next stream):
* The [[voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs|vmbo]] has 4 grades and is subdivided over several levels. Successfully completing the vmbo results in a low-level vocational degree that grants access to the mbo.
** MBO ("middle-level applied education"). This form of education primarily focuses on teaching a practical trade, or a vocational degree. With the MBO certification, a student can apply for the HBO.
* The [[hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs|havo]] has 5 grades and allows for admission to the hbo.
** HBO ("higher professional education"), are [[vocational university|universities of professional education]] (or applied sciences) that award professional bachelor's degrees; similar to polytechnic degrees. A HBO degrees gives access to the university system.
* The [[voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs|vwo]] (comprising [[Atheneum (school)|atheneum]] and [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]]) has 6 grades and prepares for studying at a (research) university.
** Universities offer of a three-year bachelor's degree, followed by a one-, two- or three year master's degree, which in turn can be followed by a four-year [[doctoral degree]] program. Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are generally non-tenured employees of a university.

===Healthcare===
{{Main article|Healthcare in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). Natuurkundige te Delft Rijksmuseum SK-A-957.jpeg|thumb|Portrait of [[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]] (1632–1723) by [[Jan Verkolje]].]]
[[File:UMC Utrecht.jpg|thumb|[[University Medical Center Utrecht]].]]

In 2015 the Netherlands has maintained its number one position at the top of the annual [[Euro health consumer index]] (EHCI), which compares healthcare systems in Europe, scoring 916 of a maximum 1,000 points. The Netherlands has been in the top three countries in each report published since 2005. On 48 indicators such as patient rights and information, accessibility, prevention and outcomes, the Netherlands secured its top position among 37 European countries for the sixth year in a row.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.healthpowerhouse.com|title=Health Consumer Powerhouse|work=healthpowerhouse.com|accessdate=26 August 2016}}</ref>
The Netherlands was ranked first in a study in 2009 comparing the [[health care system]]s of the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany and New Zealand.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE65M0SU20100623 | work=Reuters | title=U.S. scores dead last again in healthcare study | date=23 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.healthaffairs.org/content/26/6/w717.full.pdf+html|title=Toward Higher-Performance Health Systems: Adults' Health Care Experiences In Seven Countries, 2007|publisher=}}</ref>

Ever since a major reform of the health care system in 2006, the Dutch system received more points in the Index each year. According to the HCP ([[Health Consumer Powerhouse]]), the Netherlands has 'a chaos system', meaning patients have a great degree of freedom from where to buy their health insurance, to where they get their healthcare service. But the difference between the Netherlands and other countries is that the chaos is managed. Healthcare decisions are being made in a dialogue between the patients and healthcare professionals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.healthpowerhouse.com/index.php?Itemid=55|title=Euro Health Consumer Index|publisher=}}</ref>

Health insurance in the Netherlands is mandatory. Healthcare in the Netherlands is covered by two statutory forms of insurance:
*Zorgverzekeringswet (Zvw), often called "basic insurance", covers common medical care.
*Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten (AWBZ) covers long-term nursing and care. While Dutch residents are automatically insured by the government for AWBZ, everyone has to take out their own basic healthcare insurance (basisverzekering), except those under 18 who are automatically covered under their parents' premium. If you don't take out insurance, you risk a fine. Insurers have to offer a universal package for everyone over the age of 18 years, regardless of age or state of health – it's illegal to refuse an application or impose special conditions. In contrast to many other European systems, the Dutch government is responsible for the accessibility and quality of the healthcare system in the Netherlands, but not in charge of its management.

Healthcare in the Netherlands can be divided in several ways: three echelons, in somatic and mental health care and in 'cure' (short term) and 'care' (long term). Home doctors (''huisartsen'', comparable to [[General practitioner|General Practitioner]]s) form the largest part of the first echelon. Being referenced by a member of the first echelon is mandatory for access to the second and third echelon.<ref name="Boot">J.M. Boot, 'De Nederlandse Gezondheidszorg', Bohn Stafleu van Loghum 2011</ref> The health care system is in comparison to other Western countries quite effective but not the most cost-effective.<ref name=BCG>Boston Consulting Group, 'Zorg voor Waarde', 2011</ref>

Healthcare in the Netherlands is financed by a dual system that came into effect in January 2006. Long-term treatments, especially those that involve semi-permanent hospitalization, and also disability costs such as wheelchairs, are covered by a state-controlled mandatory insurance. This is laid down in the ''[[AWBZ|Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten]]'' ("General Law on Exceptional Healthcare Costs") which first came into effect in 1968. In 2009 this insurance covered 27% of all health care expenses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=71914ned&D1=37-43&D2=a&HDR=G1&STB=T&VW=T|title=Zorgrekeningen; uitgaven (in lopende en constante prijzen) en financiering|date=20 May 2010|publisher=Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek: StatLine|language=Dutch|accessdate=16 May 2011}}</ref>

For all regular (short-term) medical treatment, there is a system of obligatory [[health insurance]], with private health insurance companies. These insurance companies are obliged to provide a package with a defined set of insured treatments.<ref name="minvws.nl">{{cite web|url=http://www.minvws.nl/en/themes/health-insurance-system/|title=Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport|first=Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en|last=Sport|work=minvws.nl|accessdate=26 August 2016}}</ref> This insurance covers 41% of all health care expenses.<ref name="statline.cbs.nl">CBS StatLine accessed 16 August 2010 http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=71914ned&D1=37-43&D2=a&HDR=G1&STB=T&VW=T</ref>

Other sources of health care payment are taxes (14%), out of pocket payments (9%), additional optional health insurance packages (4%) and a range of other sources (4%).<ref name="statline.cbs.nl"/> Affordability is guaranteed through a system of income-related allowances and individual and employer-paid income-related premiums.

A key feature of the Dutch system is that premiums may not be related to health status or age. Risk variances between private health insurance companies due to the different risks presented by individual policy holders are compensated through [[risk equalization]] and a common [[risk pool]]. Funding for all short-term health care is 50% from employers, 45% from the insured person and 5% by the government. Children under 18 are covered for free. Those on low incomes receive compensation to help them pay their insurance. Premiums paid by the insured are about 100 € per month (about US$127 in August 2010 and in 2012 €150 or US$196,) with variation of about 5% between the various competing insurers, and deductible a year €220 US$288.

==Culture==
{{Main article|Culture of the Netherlands}}
[[File:Hollande04.jpg|thumb|320px|Symbols and icons of Dutch culture]]

===Art, philosophy and literature===
{{Main article|Dutch art|Dutch literature}}
The Netherlands has had many well-known painters. The 17th century, in which the Dutch Republic was prosperous, was the age of the "Dutch Masters", such as [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt van Rijn]], [[Johannes Vermeer]], [[Jan Steen]], [[Jacob van Ruisdael]] and many others. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century were [[Vincent van Gogh]] and [[Piet Mondrian|Piet Mondriaan]]. [[M. C. Escher]] is a well-known graphics artist. [[Willem de Kooning]] was born and trained in [[Rotterdam]], although he is considered to have reached acclaim as an American artist.

The Netherlands is the country of philosophers [[Erasmus|Erasmus of Rotterdam]] and [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]]. All of [[René Descartes|Descartes]]' major work was done in the Netherlands. The Dutch scientist [[Christiaan Huygens]] (1629–1695) discovered [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], argued that light travelled as waves, invented the [[pendulum clock]] and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. [[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]] was the first to observe and describe [[microorganism|single-celled organisms]] with a [[microscope]].
[[File:Holbein-erasmus.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Erasmus]].]]
In the [[Dutch Golden Age]], literature flourished as well, with [[Joost van den Vondel]] and [[Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft|P. C. Hooft]] as the two most famous writers. In the 19th century, [[Multatuli]] wrote about the poor treatment of the natives in the Dutch colony, the current Indonesia. Important 20th century authors include [[Godfried Bomans]], [[Harry Mulisch]], [[Jan Wolkers]], [[Simon Vestdijk]], [[Hella S. Haasse]], [[Cees Nooteboom]], [[Gerard van het Reve|Gerard (van het) Reve]] and [[Willem Frederik Hermans]]. [[Anne Frank]]'s [[The Diary of a Young Girl|''Diary of a Young Girl'']] was published after she died in the Holocaust and translated from Dutch to all major languages.

The traditional Dutch architecture is especially valuated in Amsterdam, [[Delft]] and [[Leiden]], with 17 and 18th century buildings along the canals. Smaller village architecture with wooden houses is found in [[Zaandam]] and [[Marken]]. Replicas of Dutch buildings can be found in [[Huis Ten Bosch (theme park)|Huis Ten Bosch]], [[Nagasaki]], Japan. A similar Holland Village is being built in [[Shenyang]], China. [[Windmill]]s, [[tulip]]s, [[Clog (shoe)|wooden shoes]], cheese, [[Delftware]] pottery, and [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] are among the items associated with the Netherlands by tourists.

The Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and today is regarded as a liberal country, considering [[drug policy of the Netherlands|its drug policy]] and its legalisation of [[euthanasia]]. On 1 April 2001, the Netherlands became the first nation to legalise [[same-sex marriage in the Netherlands|same-sex marriage]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0104/01/sm.10.html|title=Same-Sex Marriage Legalized in Amsterdam|date=1 April 2001|work=[[CNN]]|accessdate=11 March 2016}}</ref>

===Dutch value system and etiquette===
[[File:PvdAboot op de Amsterdam Gay Parade 2014 (14823067801).jpg|thumb|[[Amsterdam Gay Pride]] 2004.]]

The Dutch have a [[Dutch customs and etiquette|code of etiquette]] which governs social behaviour and is considered important. Because of the international position of the Netherlands, many books have been written on the subject. Some customs may not be true in all regions and they are never absolute. In addition to those specific to the Dutch, many general points of [[etiquette in Europe|European etiquette]] apply to the Dutch as well.<ref name="Colin White 1995"/>

Dutch society is [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]], individualistic and modern. The people tend to view themselves as modest, independent and self-reliant. They value ability over dependency. The Dutch have an aversion to the non-essential.<ref name="Colin White 1995"/>

Ostentatious behaviour is to be avoided. Accumulating money is fine, but public spending of large amounts of money is considered something of a [[vice]] and associated with being a show-off. A high lifestyle is considered wasteful and suspect with most people. The Dutch are proud of their [[cultural heritage]], rich history in art and involvement in [[international relations|international affairs]].<ref name="Colin White 1995"/>

[[File:Queensday 2011 Amsterdam 26.jpg|thumb|left|Dutch people in orange celebrating [[Koningsdag|King's Day]] in Amsterdam.]]

Dutch manners are open and direct with a no-nonsense attitude; informality combined with adherence to basic behaviour. According to a humorous source on Dutch culture, "Their directness gives many the impression that they are rude and crude—attributes they prefer to call 'openness.'"<ref name="Colin White 1995">Colin White & Laurie Boucke (1995). The UnDutchables: An observation of the Netherlands, its culture and its inhabitants (3rd Ed.). White-Boucke Publishing.</ref>

A well known more serious source on Dutch etiquette is "Dealing with the Dutch" from Jacob Vossestein: "Dutch egalitarianism is the idea that people are equal, especially from a moral point of view, and accordingly, causes the somewhat ambiguous stance the Dutch have towards hierarchy and status."<ref>J. Vossenstein, Dealing with the Dutch, 9789460220791</ref> As always, manners differ between groups. Asking about basic rules will not be considered impolite. "What may strike you as being blatantly blunt topics and comments are no more embarrassing or unusual to the Dutch than discussing the weather."<ref name="Colin White 1995"/>

The majority of the Dutch are [[irreligious]] and religion is in the Netherlands generally considered as a very personal matter which is not supposed to be propagated in public.<ref name="Becker, Jos and Joep de Hart 2006">{{cite book|title=Godsdienstige veranderingen in Nederland|language=Dutch|author1=Becker, Jos |author2=Joep de Hart |lastauthoramp=yes |isbn=90-377-0259-7|year=2006|publisher=Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau|oclc=84601762}}</ref>

===Dutch people and ecology===
The Netherlands has the [[reputation]] of the [[Leadership|leader]] [[country]] in [[environmental science|environmental]] and [[Management|population management]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iamexpat.nl/read-and-discuss/expat-page/news/amsterdam-and-rotterdam-among-worlds-most-sustainable-cities-2015|title=IAMEXPAT News|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref> In 2015, Amsterdam and Rotterdam were, respectively, at the 4th and the 5th position on the [[Arcadis NV|Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/arcadis-whitepaper/arcadis-sustainable-cities-index-report.pdf|title=Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index Report|last=|first=|date=2015|work=|access-date=15 June 2016|via=https://s3.amazonaws.com/arcadis-whitepaper/arcadis-sustainable-cities-index-report.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sustainablecitiesindex.com/|title=Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index|website=www.sustainablecitiesindex.com|access-date=15 June 2016}}</ref>

[[Sustainability]] is a concept important for the [[Dutch people|Dutch]]. The goal of the [[Politics of the Netherlands|Dutch Government]] is to have a [[Sustainability|sustainable]], reliable and affordable energy system, by 2050, in which [[Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere|CO2 emissions]] have been halved and 40 percent of [[electricity]] is derived from [[Sustainability|sustainable sources]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://english.rvo.nl/topics/sustainability|title=Sustainable enterprise {{!}} RVO.nl|website=english.rvo.nl|access-date=15 June 2016}}</ref>

The [[government]] is investing billions of euros in [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]], [[sustainable energy]] and [[Carbon dioxide|CO2 reduction]]. The Kingdom also encourage Dutch [[companies]] to build [[sustainable business]]/[[project]]s/[[Facility management|facilities]], with [[Subsidy|financial aids]] from the state to the companies or [[individual]]s who are active in making the [[country]] more [[Sustainability|sustainable]].<ref name=":0" />

===Music===
{{Main article|Music of the Netherlands||Music of the former Netherlands Antilles}}

The Netherlands has multiple [[music]] traditions. Traditional Dutch music is a genre known as "[[Levenslied]]", meaning ''Song of life'', to an extent comparable to a French [[Chanson]] or a German [[Schlager music|Schlager]]. These songs typically have a simple melody and rhythm, and a straightforward structure of couplets and refrains. Themes can be light, but are often sentimental and include [[love]], [[death]] and [[loneliness]]. Traditional musical instruments such as the [[accordion]] and the [[barrel organ]] are a staple of levenslied music, though in recent years many artists also use synthesizers and guitars. Artists in this genre include [[Jan Smit (singer)|Jan Smit]], [[Frans Bauer]] and [[André Hazes]].

[[File:Anouk at fesival mundial 2008.JPG|thumb|upright|Pop singer [[Anouk (singer)|Anouk]] at {{Interlanguage link multi|Festival Mundial|nl}}<ref>[http://www.festivalmundial.nl/en/ Festival Mundial]</ref> in 2008]]

Contemporary Dutch [[Rock music|rock]] and [[pop music]] ([[Nederpop]]) originated in the 1960s, heavily influenced by popular music from the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. In the 1960s and 1970s the lyrics were mostly in English, and some tracks were instrumental. Bands such as [[Shocking Blue]], [[Golden Earring]], [[Tee Set]], [[George Baker Selection]] and [[Focus (band)|Focus]] enjoyed international success. As of the 1980s, more and more pop musicians started working in the Dutch language, partly inspired by the huge success of the band [[Doe Maar]]. Today Dutch rock and pop music thrives in both languages, with some artists recording in both.

Current [[symphonic metal]] bands [[Epica (band)|Epica]], [[Delain]], [[ReVamp]], [[The Gathering (band)|The Gathering]], [[Asrai]], [[Autumn]], [[Ayreon]] and [[Within Temptation]] as well as [[jazz]] / pop singer [[Caro Emerald]] are having international success. Also metalbands like [[Hail of Bullets]], [[God Dethroned]], [[Izegrim]], [[Asphyx]], [[Textures (band)|Textures]], [[Present Danger]], [[Heidevolk]] and [[Slechtvalk]] are popular guests at the biggest [[metal festivals]] in Europe.
Contemporary local heroes include pop singer [[Anouk (singer)|Anouk]], country pop singer [[Ilse DeLange]], in [[South Guelderish]] dialect singing folk band [[Rowwen Hèze]], rock band [[BLØF]] and Dutch language duo [[Nick & Simon]].

Early 1990s Dutch and [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[house music]] came together in [[Eurodance]] project [[2 Unlimited]]. Selling 18 million records,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allmusic.com/artist/2-unlimited-mn0000431439/biography |title=2 Unlimited | Biography | AllMusic |website=[[AllMusic]] |accessdate=30 June 2014}}</ref> the two singers in the band are the most successful Dutch music artists to this day. Tracks like "[[Get Ready for This]]" are still popular themes of U.S. sports events, like the [[NHL]]. In the mid 1990s Dutch language [[Hip hop music|rap and hip hop]] (''[[Dutch hip hop|Nederhop]]'') also came to fruition and has become popular in the Netherlands and Belgium. Artists with North African, Caribbean or Middle Eastern origins have strongly influenced this genre.

Since the 1990s Dutch [[Electronic dance music|electronic dance music (EDM)]] conquered the world in many forms, from [[trance]], [[techno]] and [[gabber]] to [[hardstyle]]. Some of the world's best dance music DJs hail from the Netherlands, including [[Armin van Buuren]], [[Tiësto]], [[Hardwell]], [[Martin Garrix]], [[Dash Berlin]], [[Nicky Romero]], [[W&W]] and [[Afrojack]]; the first four of which have been ranked as best in the world by [[DJ Mag Top 100 DJs]]. The [[Amsterdam dance event]] (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.local-life.com/amsterdam/articles/amsterdam-dance-event|title=Amsterdam Dance Event – ADE – Amsterdam Life|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dutchdailynews.com/the-international-dance-industry-assembles-in-amsterdam-next-week/|title=The international Dance industry assembles in Amsterdam next week|work=Dutch Daily News}}</ref> These DJs also contribute to the world's mainstream pop music, as they frequently collaborate and produce for high-profile international artists.

In [[classical music]], [[Jan Sweelinck]] ranks as the Dutch most famous composer, with [[Louis Andriessen]] amongst the best known living Dutch classical composers. [[Ton Koopman]] is a Dutch conductor, organist and harpsichordist. He is also professor at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. Notable violinists are [[Janine Jansen]] and [[André Rieu]]. The latter, together with his [[Johann Strauss Orchestra]], has taken classical and [[waltz (music)|waltz music]] on worldwide concert tours, the size and revenue of which are otherwise only seen from the world's biggest rock and pop music acts. The most famous Dutch classical composition is "Canto Ostinato" by Simeon ten Holt. A minimalistic composition for multiple instruments.<ref>http://www.canto-ostinato.com/canto/index.html</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://press.andrerieu.com/tag/international/page/2/|title=international Archives » Page 2 of 3 » Andre Rieu|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/266418/top-25-tours-of-2009|title=Top 25 Tours of 2009|date=11 December 2009|work=Billboard}}</ref> Acclaimed harpist [[Lavinia Meijer]] in 2012 released an album with works from [[Philip Glass]] that she transcribed for harp, with approval of Glass himself.<ref>[http://www.allmusic.com/album/philip-glass-metamorphosis-the-hours-mw0002435025 Lavinia Meijer – Philip Glass : Metamorphosis & The Hours], Allmusic.com</ref> The [[Concertgebouw]] (completed in 1888) in Amsterdam is home to the [[Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra]], considered one of the world's finest orchestras.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=97291390|title=Chicago Symphony Tops U.S. Orchestras|date=21 November 2008|work=NPR.org}}</ref>

===Film and television===
{{Main article|Cinema of the Netherlands|Television in the Netherlands}}
[[File:The Voice Of .jpg|thumb|[[The Voice (TV series)|The Voice franchise]] originated in the Netherlands]]

Some Dutch films – mainly by director [[Paul Verhoeven]] – have received international distribution and recognition, such as ''[[Turkish Delight (1973 film)|Turkish Delight]]'' ("''Turks Fruit''") (1973), ''[[Soldier of Orange]]'' ("''Soldaat van Oranje''") (1975), ''[[Spetters]]'' (1980) and ''[[The Fourth Man (1983 film)|The Fourth Man]]'' ("''De Vierde Man''") (1983). Verhoeven then went on to direct big [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] movies like ''[[RoboCop]]'', ''[[Total Recall (1990 film)|Total Recall (1990)]]'' and ''[[Basic Instinct]]'', and returned with Dutch film [[Black Book (film)|Black Book]] in 2006.

Other well-known Dutch film directors are [[Jan de Bont]] (''[[Speed (1994 film)|Speed]]''), [[Anton Corbijn]] (''[[A Most Wanted Man (film)|A Most wanted Man]]''), [[Dick Maas]] (''[[De Lift]]''), [[Fons Rademakers]] (''[[The Assault (film)|The Assault]]''), documentary maker [[Bert Haanstra]] and [[Joris Ivens]]. Film director [[Theo van Gogh (film director)|Theo van Gogh]] achieved international notoriety in 2004 when he was murdered in the streets of [[Amsterdam]] after directing the short film [[Submission (2004 film)|Submission]].

Internationally successful Dutch actors include [[Famke Janssen]] ([[X-Men (film series)|''X-Men'' films]]), [[Carice van Houten]] (''[[Game of Thrones]]''), [[Michiel Huisman]] (''[[Game of Thrones]]''), [[Rutger Hauer]] (''[[Blade Runner]]''), [[Jeroen Krabbé]] (''[[The Living Daylights]]'') and [[Derek de Lint]].

The Netherlands has a well developed television market, with both multiple commercial and non-commercial broadcasters. Imported TV programmes, as well as interviews with responses in a foreign language, are virtually always shown with the original sound, and subtitled. The only exception are shows for children.

TV exports from the Netherlands mostly take the form of specific formats and franchises, most notably through internationally active TV production conglomerate [[Endemol]], founded by Dutch [[Mass media|media]] [[Business magnate|tycoons]] [[John de Mol, Jr.|John de Mol]] and [[Joop van den Ende]]. Headquartered in [[Amsterdam]], Endemol has around 90 companies in over 30 countries. Endemol and its subsidiaries create and run reality, talent, and game show franchises worldwide, including ''[[Big Brother (TV series)|Big Brother]]'' and ''[[Deal or No Deal]]''. John de Mol later started his own company [[Tien (TV channel)|Talpa]] which created show franchises like [[The Voice (TV series)|''The Voice'']] and ''[[Utopia (U.S. reality TV series)|Utopia]]''.

===Sports===
{{Main article|Sports in the Netherlands}}
[[File:NED-DEN Euro 2012 (10).jpg|thumb|Dutch star football players [[Arjen Robben]] and [[Robin van Persie]] in a match in 2012]]

Approximately 4.5 million of the 16.8 million people in the Netherlands are registered to one of the 35,000 sports clubs in the country. About two-thirds of the population between 15 and 75 participates in sports weekly.<ref>{{nl icon}}{{cite web|url=http://s2.ned.univie.ac.at/NoN/landeskunde/nl/h11/index.htm |title=Sport in Nederland |accessdate=21 August 2012 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925042514/http://s2.ned.univie.ac.at/NoN/landeskunde/nl/h11/index.htm |archivedate=25 September 2008 |df=dmy }} . ned.univie.ac.at</ref> [[Association football|Football]] is the most popular participant sport in the Netherlands, before [[field hockey]] and [[volleyball]] as the second and third most popular team sports. Tennis, gymnastics and golf are the three most widely engaged in individual sports.<ref name="sport">{{nl icon}} {{cite web |url=http://www.sport.nl/content/nieuwsartikelen/nocnsf/223198?channel=nocnsf |title=Ledental sportbonden opnieuw gestegen |accessdate=1 June 2016}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}{{Dead link|date=April 2014}}. sport.nl. 24 July 2006</ref>

Organisation of sports began at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Federations for sports were established (such as the speed skating federation in 1882), rules were unified and sports clubs came into existence. A Dutch National Olympic Committee was established in 1912. Thus far, the nation has won 266 medals at the [[Summer Olympic Games]] and another 110 medals at the [[Winter Olympic Games]].

In international competition Dutch national teams and athletes are dominant in several fields of sport. The [[Netherlands women's national field hockey team|Netherlands women's field hockey team]] is the most successful team in [[Women's Hockey World Cup|World Cup]] history. The [[Netherlands national baseball team|Netherlands baseball team]] have won the [[European Baseball Championship|European championship]] 20 times out of 32 events. Dutch [[K-1]] [[Kickboxing|kickboxers]] have won the [[K-1 World Grand Prix]] 15 times out of 19 tournaments.

The Dutch [[Speed skating|speed skaters']] performance at the [[2014 Winter Olympics]], where they won 8 out of 12 events, 23 out of 36 medals, including 4 clean sweeps, is the most dominant performance in a single sport in Olympic history.

Motorcycle racing at the TT Assen Circuit has a long history. Assen is the only venue to have held a round of the Motorcycle World Championship every year since its creation in 1949. The circuit was purpose built for the Dutch TT in 1954, with previous events having been held on public roads.

Limburger [[Max Verstappen]] currently races in [[Formula One]], and [[2016 Spanish Grand Prix|was the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix]]. The coastal resort of [[Circuit Park Zandvoort|Zandvoort]] hosted the [[Dutch Grand Prix]] from 1958 to 1985.

The [[Netherlands men's national volleyball team|Volleyball national men's team]] has also been successful, winning the silver medal at the [[Volleyball at the 1992 Summer Olympics|1992 Summer Olympics]] and the gold medal [[Volleyball at the 1996 Summer Olympics|four years later]] in [[Atlanta]]. The biggest success of the [[Netherlands women's national volleyball team|women's national team]] was winning the [[1995 Women's European Volleyball Championship|European Championship in 1995]] and the [[2007 FIVB Volleyball World Grand Prix|World Grand Prix in 2007]].

===Cuisine===
[[File:Simple Dutch meal.JPG|thumb|An example of traditional Dutch dinner: [[Brussels sprout]]s, boiled potatoes and sausage, including its gravy.]]
{{Main article|Dutch cuisine}}

Originally, the country's cuisine was shaped by the practices of [[fishing]] and [[farming]], including the cultivation of the soil for growing crops and raising domesticated animals. Dutch cuisine is simple and straightforward, and contains many dairy products. Breakfast and lunch are typically bread with toppings, with cereal for breakfast as an alternative. Traditionally, dinner consists of potatoes, a portion of meat, and (seasonal) vegetables. The Dutch diet was relatively high in carbohydrates and fat, reflecting the dietary needs of the labourers whose culture moulded the country. Without many refinements, it is best described as rustic, though many holidays are still celebrated with special foods. In the course of the twentieth century this diet changed and became much more [[Multiculturalism|cosmopolitan]], with most [[global cuisine]]s being represented in the major cities.

Modern culinary writers distinguish between three general regional forms of Dutch cuisine. The regions in the northeast of the Netherlands, roughly the provinces of [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], [[Friesland]], [[Drenthe]], [[Overijssel]] and [[Gelderland]] north of the [[Grote rivieren|great rivers]] are the least populated area of the Netherlands. The late (18th century) introduction of large scale agriculture means that the cuisine is generally known for its many kinds of meats. The relative lack of farms allowed for an abundance of [[game (meat)|game]] and [[Animal husbandry|husbandry]], though dishes near the coastal regions of Friesland, Groningen and the parts of Overijssel bordering the [[IJsselmeer]] also include a large amount of fish. The various dried sausages, belonging to the [[metworst]]-family of Dutch sausages are found throughout this region and are highly prized for their often very strong taste. Also smoked sausages are common, of which (''Gelderse'') ''[[rookworst]]'' is the most renowned. The sausage contains a lot of fat and is very juicy. Larger sausages are often eaten alongside ''[[stamppot]]'', ''[[hutspot]]'' or ''zuurkool'' ([[sauerkraut]]); whereas smaller ones are often eaten as a [[street food]]. The provinces are also home to hard textured [[rye bread]], pastries and cookies, the latter heavily spiced with [[ginger]] or [[succade]] or contain small bits of meat. Various kinds of ''Kruidkoek'' (such as [[:nl:Groninger koek|Groninger koek]]), ''[[:nl:Fryske dúmkes|Fryske dúmkes]]'' and ''[[:nl:spekdik|spekdikken]]'' (small savory pancakes cooked in a waffle iron) are considered typical. Notable characteristics of ''Fries roggebrood'' (Frisian rye bread) is its long baking time (up to 20 hours), resulting in a sweet taste and a deep dark colour.<ref>http://www.warenkennis.nl/graan/soorten.htm</ref> In terms of alcoholic beverages, the region is renowned for its many [[bitters]] (such as ''[[Beerenburg]]'') and other high-proof liquors rather than beer, which is, apart from ''[[Jenever]]'', typical for the rest of the country. As a coastal region, Friesland is home to low-lying grasslands, and thus has a cheese production in common with the Western cuisine. ''Friese Nagelkaas'' ([[Friesian Clove]]) is a notable example.

The provinces of [[North Holland]], [[South Holland]], [[Zeeland]], [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]] and the Gelderlandic region of [[Betuwe]] are the parts of the Netherlands which make up the region in which western Dutch cuisine is found. Because of the abundance of water and flat grass lands that are found here, the area is known for its many dairy products, which includes prominent cheeses such as [[Gouda (cheese)|Gouda]], [[Leyden cheese|Leyden]] (spiced cheese with cumin), [[Edam (cheese)|Edam]] (traditionally in small spheres) as well as [[Leerdammer]] and [[Beemster Cheese|Beemster]], while the adjacent [[Zaanstreek]] in [[North Holland]] is since the 16th century known for its [[mayonnaise]], typical whole-grain [[mustard (condiment)|mustard]]s<ref>[http://www.smulweb.nl/blog/tonia/718/de-geschiedenis-van-de-mosterd History of Mostard]</ref> and [[chocolate]] industry. Zeeland and South Holland produce a lot of butter, which contains a larger amount of [[milkfat]] than most other European butter varieties. A by-product of the butter-making process, ''karnemelk'' ([[buttermilk]]), is also considered typical for this region. [[Seafood]] such as [[soused herring]], [[Blue mussel|mussels]] (called ''Zeeuwse Mossels'', since all Dutch mussels for consumption are cleaned in Zeeland's [[Oosterschelde]]), [[European eel|eels]], [[oyster]]s and [[shrimp]]s are widely available and typical for the region. ''[[:nl:Kibbeling|Kibbeling]]'', once a local delicacy consisting of small chunks of battered [[Whitefish (fisheries term)|white fish]], has become a national [[fast food]], just as [[:nl:Lekkerbekje|lekkerbek]]. Pastries in this area tend to be quite doughy, and often contain large amounts of sugar; either caramelised, powdered or crystallised. The ''[[oliebol]]'' (in its modern form) and ''[[Zeeuwse bolus]]'' are good examples. Cookies are also produced in great number and tend to contain a lot of butter and sugar, like ''[[stroopwafel]]'', as well as a filling of some kind, mostly almond, like ''[[:nl:Gevulde koek|gevulde koek]]''. The traditional alcoholic beverages of this region are [[beer]] (strong pale lager) and ''[[Jenever]]'', a high proof [[juniper]]-flavored spirit, that came to be known in England as [[gin]]. A noted exception within the traditional Dutch alcoholic landscape, ''[[Advocaat]]'', a rich and creamy liqueur made from eggs, sugar and brandy, is also native to this region.

The Southern Dutch cuisine consists of the cuisines of the Dutch provinces of [[North Brabant]] and [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]] and the [[Flemish Region]] in [[Belgium]]. It is renowned for its many rich pastries, soups, stews and vegetable dishes and is often called Burgundian which is a Dutch idiom invoking the rich Burgundian court which ruled the Low Countries in the Middle Ages, renowned for its splendor and great feasts. It is the only Dutch culinary region that developed an [[haute cuisine]]. Pastries are abundant, often with rich fillings of cream, custard or fruits. Cakes, such as the ''[[Vlaai]]'' from Limburg and the ''Moorkop'' and ''[[Bossche Bol]]'' from Brabant, are typical pastries. Savoury pastries also occur, with the ''worstenbroodje'' (a roll with a sausage of [[ground beef]], literally translates into sausage bread) being the most popular. The traditional alcoholic beverage of the region is beer. There are many local brands, ranging from ''[[Trappist beer|Trappist]]'' to ''[[Kriek lambic|Kriek]]''. 5 of the 10 ''International Trappist Association'' recognised breweries in the world, are located in the Southern Dutch cultural area. Beer, like wine in French cuisine, is also used in cooking; often in stews.

In early 2014, [[Oxfam]] ranked the Netherlands as the country with the most nutritious, plentiful and healthy food, in a comparison of 125 countries.<ref>{{cite news |last=Reaney |first=Patricia |date=14 January 2014 |title=Netherlands is country with most plentiful, healthy food: Oxfam |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/15/us-food-countries-idUSBREA0E01S20140115 |newspaper= |location=New York |publisher=Reuters U.S. |accessdate=1 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |author= |title=Good Enough to Eat – Media Briefing|format=PDF|url=http://www.oxfamamerica.org/static/media/files/Good_Enough_To_Eat_Media_brief_FINAL.pdf |location=Boston, MA |publisher=[[Oxfam]] America |agency= |date=14 January 2013 |accessdate=1 September 2014}}</ref>

===Colonial heritage===
{{Main article|Dutch Empire}}
{{further information|Dutch East Indies|Indos in the Dutch East Indies}}
[[File:GezichtOpNieuwAmsterdam.jpg|thumb|[[New Amsterdam]] as it appeared in 1664. Under British rule it became known as [[New York City|New York]].]]

From the exploitations of the [[Dutch East India Company]] in the 17th century, to the [[New Imperialism|colonisations]] in the 19th century, [[Dutch Empire|Dutch imperial possessions]] continued to expand, reaching their greatest extent by establishing a hegemony of the [[Dutch East Indies]] in the early 20th century. The Dutch East Indies, which later formed modern-day Indonesia, was one of the most valuable European colonies in the world and the most important one for the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hart, Jonathan |title=Empires and Colonies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LnevC1FYdnEC&pg=PA201 |accessdate=21 August 2012 |year=2008|publisher=Polity |isbn=978-0-7456-2614-7 |pages=201–}}</ref> Over 350 years of mutual heritage has left a significant cultural mark on the Netherlands.

In the [[Dutch Golden Age]] of the 17th century, the Netherlands urbanised considerably, mostly financed by corporate revenue from the Asian trade monopolies. Social status was based on merchants' income, which reduced [[feudalism]] and considerably changed the dynamics of Dutch society. When the [[Dutch Royal Family]] was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from Colonial trade.<ref>To this day the Dutch Royal family is in fact the wealthiest family of the Netherlands. One of the foundations of its wealth was the colonial trade.{{cite news|url=http://www.forbes.com/2007/08/30/worlds-richest-royals-biz-royals07-cx_lk_0830royalintro_slide_15.html?thisSpeed=30000 |title=In Pictures: The World's Richest Royals |work=Forbes |date=30 August 2007 |accessdate=5 March 2010 |first1=Devon |last1=Pendleton |first2=Tatiana |last2=Serafin}}</ref>

Universities such as the Royal [[Leiden University]], founded in the 16th century, have developed into leading knowledge centres for [[Southeast Asia]]n and Indonesian studies.<ref>Some of the university faculties still include: Indonesian Languages and Cultures; South-east Asia and Oceania Languages and Cultures; Cultural Anthropology</ref> Leiden University has produced leading academics such as [[Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje]], and still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. Leiden University and in particular [[KITLV]] are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam [[Tropenmuseum]], an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een Europeaan vaccineert Indonesische patiënten met neosalvarsaan tegen de ziekte framboesia TMnr 10006691.jpg|thumb|A European doctor vaccinates [[Indonesian people|Indonesian]] patients]]

The traditions of the [[Royal Dutch East Indies Army]] (KNIL) are maintained by the [[Regiment Van Heutsz]] of the modern [[Royal Netherlands Army]]. A dedicated ''[[Bronbeek]] Museum'', a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in [[Arnhem]] to this day.

A specific segment of Dutch literature called [[Dutch Indies literature]] still exists and includes established authors, such as [[Louis Couperus]], the writer of "The Hidden Force", taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration.<ref>Nieuwenhuys, Rob ''Mirror of the Indies: A History of Dutch Colonial Literature'' translated from Dutch by E. M. Beekman (Publisher: Periplus, 1999) [http://dannyreviews.com/h/Mirror_Indies.html Book review.]</ref> One of the great masterpieces of [[Dutch literature]] is the book "[[Max Havelaar]]", written by [[Multatuli]] in 1860.<ref>Etty, Elsbeth (July 1998). [http://retro.nrc.nl/W2/Lab/Profiel/Nederland/novels.html "Novels: Coming to terms with Calvinism, colonies and the war."] NRC Handelsblad</ref>

The majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are [[Indo people|Indo]] (Eurasian), native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community.<ref>Bosma U., Raben R. (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C ''Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 1500–1920''], University of Michigan, NUS Press, ISBN 9971-69-373-9</ref> In Dutch they are referred to as ''Indische Nederlanders'' or as Indo (short for Indo-European).<ref>Note: Of the 296,200 so-called Dutch 'repatriants' only 92,200 were expatriate Dutchmen born in the Netherlands. Willems, Wim (2001). ''De uittocht uit Indie 1945–1995''. Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, pp. 12–13. ISBN 90-351-2361-1</ref>

Including their second generation descendants, Indos are currently the largest foreign-born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch Central Bureau for Statistics (CBS)<ref>[http://www.cbs.nl/nl-NL/menu/themas/bevolking/cijfers/default.htm Official CBS website containing all Dutch demographic statistics]. Cbs.nl. Retrieved on 21 August 2012.</ref> registered 387,000 first- and second-generation Indos living in the Netherlands.<ref>De Vries, Marlene (2009). [https://books.google.com/books?id=PNo0ZYamYsUC ''Indisch is een gevoel, de tweede en derde generatie Indische Nederlanders.''] Amsterdam University Press, ISBN 978-90-8964-125-0, p. 369</ref> Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture.

Practically every town in the Netherlands has a "Toko" (Dutch Indonesian Shop) or an Indonesian restaurant<ref>[http://indisch-eten.startpagina.nl/ Overview website (incomplete)]. Indisch-eten.startpagina.nl. Retrieved on 21 August 2012.</ref> and many '[[Pasar Malam]]' (Night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year. Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Netherlands. [[Rijsttafel]], a colonial culinary concept, and dishes such as [[Nasi goreng]] and [[satay]] are very popular in the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dutchfood.about.com/od/mainmeals/Main_Meals.htm |title=Dutch Food – Main Meals |publisher=about.com |accessdate=19 May 2012}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Outline of the Netherlands]]
{{Portal bar|Netherlands|European Union|Europe}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
; Geography and environment
* Burke, Gerald L. ''The making of Dutch towns: A study in urban development from the 10th–17th centuries'' (1960)
* Lambert, Audrey M. ''The Making of the Dutch Landscape: An Historical Geography of the Netherlands'' (1985); focus on the history of land reclamation
* Meijer, Henk. ''Compact geography of the Netherlands'' (1985)
* Riley, R. C., and G. J. Ashworth. ''Benelux: An Economic Geography of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg'' (1975) [http://www.questia.com/read/85882918/benelux-an-economic-geography-of-belgium-the-netherlands online]

; History
* Paul Arblaster. ''A History of the Low Countries''. Palgrave Essential Histories Series New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 298 pp. ISBN 1-4039-4828-3.
* J. C. H. Blom and E. Lamberts, eds. ''History of the Low Countries'' (1998)
* Jonathan Israel. ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806'' (1995)
* J. A. Kossmann-Putto and E. H. Kossmann. ''The Low Countries: History of the Northern and Southern Netherlands'' (1987)

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Netherlands|voy=Netherlands}}
; Articles
* {{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1043423.stm|title=Netherlands profiles – Overview|accessdate=4 December 2015 |publisher=BBC News |date=3 March 2010}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3204.htm|title=U.S. Relations With the Netherlands|accessdate=4 December 2015|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]}}

; General information
* {{CIA World Factbook link|nl|Netherlands}}
* [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/netherlands.htm Netherlands] from UCB Libraries GovPubs
* {{dmoz|Regional/Europe/Netherlands}}
* [http://www.iamexpat.nl/expat-page/the-netherlands/general-information I am Expat – General information about the Netherlands]
* [http://www.infoplease.com/country/netherlands.html?pageno=1 Netherlands: Map, History, Government, Culture & Facts | Infoplease.com]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17740800 Netherlands profile] from the [[BBC News]]
* {{Wikiatlas|Netherlands}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|47796}}
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=NL Key Development Forecasts for the Netherlands] from [[International Futures]]

; Government
* [http://overheid.nl/english/ Overheid.nl] – official Dutch government portal
* [http://www.government.nl/ Government.nl] – official Dutch government web site
* [http://www.cbs.nl/en-GB/menu/home/default.htm Statistics Netherlands] (CBS) – Key figures from the Dutch bureau of statistics
* {{Statoids|id=unl|title=Provinces of Netherlands}}

; Travel
{{wikivoyage|Netherlands}}
* [http://www.holland.com/ Holland.com] – English website of the Netherlands tourist office
* [http://www.nbtc.nl/en/homepage.htm nbtc.nl] – Organisation responsible for promoting the Netherlands nationally and internationally

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History of Asia

2017-03-28T07:54:13Z

85.19.179.17: Fixed typo

{{incomplete|date=January 2017|reason=this article is missing information about the history of Southeast Asia}}
[[File:Chinese silk, 4th Century BC.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Detail of Chinese [[silk]] from the 4th century BCE. The characteristic trade of silk through the [[Silk Road]] connected various regions from China, India, Central Asia, and the Middle East to Europe and Africa.]]

The '''history of Asian people''' can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions such as, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian [[steppe]].

The coastal periphery was the home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, with each of the three regions developing early civilizations around fertile river valleys. These valleys were fertile because the soil there was rich and could bear many root crops. The civilizations in [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Indus Valley]], and [[China]] shared many similarities and likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as [[mathematics]] and the [[wheel]]. Other notions such as that of writing likely developed individually in each area. Cities, states and then empires developed in these lowlands.

The steppe region had long been inhabited by mounted nomads, and from the central steppes they could reach all areas of the Asian continent. The northern part of the continent, covering much of [[Siberia]] was also inaccessible to the steppe nomads due to the dense forests and the [[tundra]]. These areas in Siberia were very sparsely populated.

The centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and deserts. The [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]], [[Himalayas|Himalaya]], [[Karakum Desert]], and [[Gobi Desert]] formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could only cross with difficulty. While technologically and culturally the city dwellers were more advanced, they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force. Thus the nomads who conquered states in the Middle East were soon forced to adapt to the local societies.

Asia's history would feature major developments seen in other parts of the world, as well as events that would affect those other regions. These include the trade of the [[Silk Road]], which spread cultures, languages, religion, and disease throughout Afro-Eurasian trade. Another major advancement was the innovation of [[gunpowder]] in medieval China, which led to advanced warfare through the use of [[gun]]s.

{{TOC limit|limit=3}}

==Prehistory==
{{main|Prehistory of Asia}}
A report by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari on Lahuradewa, [[India]] shows new C14 datings that range between 9000 and 8000 BCE associated with rice, making Lahuradewa the earliest Neolithic site in entire South Asia.<ref name="archae">{{cite web
|url=http://www.uparchaeology.org/archae.pdf
|title=Second preliminary report of the excavations at Lahuradewa district
|publisher=Directorate of Archaeology (U.P,India)
}}
</ref>

The [[prehistoric Beifudi site]] near Yixian in [[Hebei]] Province, China, contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the [[Cishan culture|Cishan]] and [[Xinglongwa culture|Xinglongwa]] cultures of about 8000–7000 BCE, neolithic cultures east of the [[Taihang Mountains]], filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and the collection of neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases.<ref name="archdis">{{cite web
|url=http://www.kaogu.cn/en/detail.asp?ProductID=982
|title=New Archaeological Discoveries and Researches in 2004 — The Fourth Archaeology Forum of CASS
|publisher=Institute of Archaeology — Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
|accessdate=2007-09-18
}}
</ref>

Around 5500 BCE the [[Tel Halaf|Halafian]] culture appeared in the Levant, Lebanon, [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Syria]], Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia, based upon dryland agriculture.

In southern Mesopotamia were the alluvial plains of [[Sumer]] and [[Elam]]. Since there was little rainfall, [[irrigation]] systems were necessary. The [[Ubaid period|Ubaid]] culture flourished from 5500 BCE.

==Ancient history==
===Bronze Age===
{{Main|Ancient Near East|Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures}}
The [[Chalcolithic]] period (or Copper Age) began about 4500 BCE, then the [[Bronze Age]] began about 3500 BCE, replacing the Neolithic cultures.

The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) which was centered mostly in the western part of the Indian Subcontinent; it is considered that an early form of Hinduism was performed during this civilization. Some of the great cities of this civilization include [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]], which had a high level of town planning and arts. The cause of the destruction of these regions around 1700 BCE is debatable, although evidence suggests it was caused by natural disasters (especially flooding).<ref>{{cite web|title=The Indus Valley Civilisation|url=http://library.thinkquest.org/11372/data/history.htm|work=ThinkQuest|accessdate=9 February 2013}}</ref> This era marks [[Vedic period]] in India, which lasted from roughly 1500 to 500 BCE. During this period, the [[Sanskrit]] language developed and the [[Vedas]] were written, epic hymns that told tales of gods and wars. This was the basis for the Vedic religion, which would eventually sophisticate and develop into [[Hinduism]], a religion based on the [[Caste system in India|caste system]] of class (which consisted of the four [[Varna (Hinduism)|varnas]]), the [[Vedic priest|brahman]] priesthood, and the developing semi-[[monotheism]].{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=68}}

China and [[Vietnam]] were also centres of metalworking. Dating back to the Neolithic Age, the first bronze drums, called the Dong Son drums have been uncovered in and around the Red River Delta regions of Vietnam and Southern China. These relate to the prehistoric Dong Son Culture of Vietnam.
Song Da bronze drum's surface, Dong Son culture, Vietnam

In Ban Chiang, Thailand (Southeast Asia), bronze artifacts have been discovered dating to 2100 BCE.

In Nyaunggan, Burma bronze tools have been excavated along with ceramics and stone artifacts. Dating is still currently broad (3500–500 BCE).
{{Expand section|date=December 2009}}

===Iron Age===
{{Main|Iron Age}}
{{Further|Axial Age}}

The Iron Age saw the widespread use of iron tools, weaponry, and armor throughout the major civilizations of Asia.

====Middle East====
The [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid dynasty]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]], founded by [[Cyrus the Great]], ruled an area from [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] to the [[Indus River]] and Central Asia during the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. Persian politics included a tolerance for other cultures, a highly [[centralized government]], and significant infrastructure developments. Later, in [[Darius I|Darius the Great]]'s rule, the territories were integrated, a bureaucracy was developed, nobility were assigned military positions, tax collection was carefully organized, and spies were used to ensure the loyalty of regional officials. The primary religion of Persia at this time was [[Zoroastrianism]], developed by the philosopher [[Zoroaster]]. It introduced an early form of [[monotheism]] to the area. The religion banned animal sacrifice and the use of intoxicants in rituals; and introduced the concept of spiritual salvation through personal moral action, an [[end time]], and both [[General judgment|general]] and [[Particular judgment]] with a [[heaven]] or [[hell]]. These concepts would heavily influence later emperors and the masses. More importantly, Zoroastrianism would be an important precursor for the [[Abrahamic religions]] such as Christianity, Islam, or Judaism. The Persian Empire was successful in establishing peace and stability throughout the Middle East and were a major influence in art, politics (affecting Hellenistic leaders), and religion.

[[Alexander the Great]] conquered this dynasty in the 4th century BCE, creating the brief [[Hellenistic period]]. He was unable to establish stability and after his death, Persia broke into small, weak dynasties including the [[Seleucid Empire]], followed by the [[Parthian Empire]]. By the end of the Classical age, Persia had been reconsolidated into the [[Sassanid Empire]], also known as the second Persian Empire.

The [[Roman Empire]] would later control parts of Western Asia. The [[Seleucid]], [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and [[Sassanid]] dynasties of Persia dominated Western Asia for centuries.

====India====
The Maurya and Gupta empires are called the Golden Age of India and were marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, art, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Indian culture. The religions of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], which began in Indian sub-continent, were an important influence on South, East and Southeast Asia.

By 600 BCE, India had been divided into sixteen regional states that would occasionally feud amongst themselves. In 327 BCE, [[Alexander the Great]] came to India with a vision of conquering the whole world. He crossed northwestern India and created the province [[Bactria]] but could not move further because his army was afraid of the foot soldiers of India. Shortly prior, the soldier [[Chandragupta Maurya]] began to take control of the Ganges river and soon established the [[Maurya Empire]]. The Maurya Empire (Sanskrit: मौर्य राजवंश, Maurya Rājavanśha) was the geographically extensive and powerful empire in ancient India, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BCE. It was one of the world's largest empires in its time, stretching to the [[Himalayas]] in the north, what is now [[Assam]] in the east, probably beyond modern [[Pakistan]] in the west, and annexing [[Balochistan]] and much of what is now [[Afghanistan]], at its greatest extent. South of Mauryan empire was the [[Tamilakam]] an independent country dominated by three dynasties, the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyans]], [[Cholas]] and [[Cheras]]. The government established by Chandragupta was led by an autocratic king, who primarily relied on the military to assert his power.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=65}} It also applied the use of a bureaucracy and even sponsored a postal service.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=65}} Chandragupta's grandson, [[Ashoka]], greatly extended the empire by conquering most of modern-day India (save for the southern tip). He eventually converted to Buddhism, though, and began a peaceful life where he promoted the religion as well as humane methods throughout India. The Maurya Empire would disintegrate soon after Ashoka's death and was conquered by the Kushan invaders from the northwest, establishing the [[Kushan Empire]]. Their conversion to Buddhism caused the religion to be associated with foreigners and therefore a decline in its popularity occurred.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=65}}

The Kushan Empire would fall apart by 220 CE, creating more political turmoil in India. Then in 320, the [[Gupta Empire]] (Sanskrit: गुप्त राजवंश, Gupta Rājavanśha) was established and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent. Founded by [[Maharaja Sri-Gupta]], the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization. Gupta kings united the area primarily through negotiation of local leaders and families as well as strategical intermarriage.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=66}} Their rule covered less land than the Maurya Empire, but established the greatest stability.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=66}} In 535, the empire ended when India was overrun by the [[Huns]].

====Classical China====

=====Zhou Dynasty=====
{{main|Zhou Dynasty}}
Since 1029 BCE, the [[Zhou Dynasty]] ({{zh|c=周朝|p=Zhōu Cháo|w=Chou Ch'ao}} {{IPA-cmn|tʂóʊ tʂʰɑ̌ʊ|}}), had existed in China and it would continue to until 258 BCE.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=43}} The Zhou dynasty had been using a [[Feudalism|feudal system]] by giving power to local nobility and relying on their loyalty in order to control its large territory.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=43}} As a result, the Chinese government at this time tended to be very decentralized and weak, and there was often little the emperor could do to resolve national issues. Nonetheless, the government was able to retain its position with the creation of the [[Mandate of Heaven]], which could establish an emperor as divinely chosen to rule. The Zhou additionally discouraged the [[human sacrifice]] of the preceding eras and unified the [[Chinese language]]. Finally, the Zhou government encouraged settlers to move into the [[Yangtze River]] valley, thus creating the Chinese Middle Kingdom.

But by 500 BCE, its political stability began to decline due to repeated nomadic incursions{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=43}} and internal conflict derived from the fighting princes and families. This was lessened by the many philosophical movements, starting with the life of [[Confucius]]. His philosophical writings (called [[Confucianism]]) concerning the respect of elders and of the state would later be popularly used in the Han Dynasty. Additionally, [[Laozi]]'s concepts of [[Taoism]], including [[yin and yang]] and the innate duality and balance of nature and the universe, became popular throughout this period. Nevertheless, the Zhou Dynasty eventually disintegrated as the local nobles began to gain more power and their conflict devolved into the [[Warring States period]], from 402 to 201 BCE.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=44}}

=====Qin Dynasty=====
{{main|Qin Dynasty}}
One leader eventually came on top, [[Qin Shi Huang]] ({{zh|c=始皇帝}}, ''Shǐ Huángdì''), who overthrew the last Zhou emperor and established the Qin dynasty.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=43}} The [[Qin Dynasty]] (Chinese: 秦朝; pinyin: Qín Cháo) was the first ruling dynasty of Imperial China, lasting from 221 to 207 BCE.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=42}} The new Emperor abolished the feudal system and directly appointed a bureaucracy that would rely on him for power. Huang's imperial forces crushed any regional resistance, and they furthered the Chinese empire by expanding down to the [[South China Sea]] and northern [[Vietnam]]. Greater organization brought a uniform tax system, a national census, regulated road building (and cart width), standard measurements, standard coinage, and an official written and spoken language.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=45}} Further reforms included new irrigation projects, the encouragement of [[silk]] manufacturing,{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=45}} and (most famously) the beginning of the construction of the Great Wall of China—designed to keep out the nomadic raiders who'd constantly badger the Chinese people. However, Shi Huang was infamous for his tyranny, forcing laborers to build the Wall, ordering heavy taxes, and severely punishing all who opposed him. He oppressed Confucians and promoted [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], the idea that people were inherently evil, and that a strong, forceful government was needed to control them. Legalism was infused with realistic, logical views and rejected the pleasures of educated conversation as frivolous. All of this made Shi Huang extremely unpopular with the people. As the Qin began to weaken, various factions began to fight for control of China.

=====Han Dynasty=====
{{main|Han Dynasty}}
The [[Han Dynasty]] (simplified Chinese: 汉朝; traditional Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàn Cháo ;206 BCE – 220 CE) was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms (220–265 CE). Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han Dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. One of the Han Dynasty's greatest emperors, [[Emperor Wu of Han]], established a peace throughout China comparable to the [[Pax Romana]] seen in the Mediterranean a hundred years later.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=45}} To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the "Han people". The Han Dynasty was established when two peasants succeeded in rising up against Shi Huang's significantly weaker successor-son. The new Han government retained the centralization and bureaucracy of the Qin, but greatly reduced the repression seen before. They expanded their territory into [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]], and [[Central Asia]], creating an even larger empire than the Qin.

The Han developed contacts with the Persian Empire in the Middle East and the Romans, through the [[Silk Road]], with which they were able to trade many commodities—primarily silk. Many ancient civilizations were influenced by the [[Silk Road]], which connected China, [[India]], the Middle East and Europe. Han emperors like Wu also promoted Confucianism as the national "religion" (although it is debated by theologians as to whether it is defined as such or as a philosophy). Shrines devoted to Confucius were built and Confucian philosophy was taught to all scholars who entered the Chinese bureaucracy. The bureaucracy was further improved with the introduction of an examination system that selected scholars of high merit. These bureaucrats were often upper-class people educated in special schools, but whose power was often checked by the lower-class brought into the bureaucracy through their skill. The Chinese imperial bureaucracy was very effective and highly respected by all in the realm and would last over 2,000 years. The Han government was highly organized and it commanded the military, judicial law (which used a system of courts and strict laws), agricultural production, the economy, and the general lives of its people. The government also promoted intellectual philosophy, scientific research, and detailed historical records.

However, despite all of this impressive stability, central power began to lose control by the turn of the [[Common Era]]. As the Han Dynasty declined, many factors continued to pummel it into submission until China was left in a state of chaos. By 100 CE, philosophical activity slowed, and corruption ran rampant in the bureaucracy. Local landlords began to take control as the scholars neglected their duties, and this resulted in heavy taxation of the peasantry. Taoists began to gain significant ground and protested the decline. They started to proclaim magical powers and promised to save China with them; the Taoist [[Yellow Turban Rebellion]] in 184 (led by rebels in yellow scarves) failed but was able to weaken the government. The aforementioned Huns combined with diseases killed up to half of the population and officially ended the Han Dynasty by 220. The ensuing period of chaos was so terrible it lasted for three centuries, where many weak regional rulers and dynasties failed to establish order in China. This period of chaos and attempts at order is commonly known as that of the [[Six Dynasties]]. The first part of this included the [[Three Kingdoms]] which started in 220 and describes the brief and weak successor "dynasties" that followed the Han. In 265, the [[Jin dynasty (265–420)|Jin dynasty]] of China was started and this soon split into two different empires in control of northwestern and southeastern China. In 420, the conquest and abdication of those two dynasties resulted in the first of the [[Southern and Northern Dynasties]]. The Northern and Southern Dynasties passed through until finally, by 557, the [[Northern Zhou Dynasty]] ruled the north and the [[Chen Dynasty]] ruled the south.

==Medieval history==
{{further|Postclassical Era}}
During this period, the [[Eastern world]] empires continued to expand through trade, migration and conquests of neighboring areas. Gunpowder was widely used as early as the 11th century and they were using moveable type printing five hundred years before Gutenberg created his press. Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism were the dominant philosophies of the Far East during the Middle Ages. Marco Polo was not the first Westerner to travel to the Orient and return with amazing stories of this different culture, but his accounts published in the late 13th and early 14th centuries were the first to be widely read throughout Europe.

===Islamic Middle East===
{{See also|Islamic culture|Science in the medieval Islamic world}}
The Islamic [[Caliphate]] and other [[Islamic state]]s took over the Middle East, [[Caucasus]] and Central Asia during the [[Muslim conquests]] of the 7th century, and later expanded into the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Malay archipelago]].

At the beginning of the Medieval Age in 500, the Middle East was separated into small, weak states; the two most prominent were the [[Sassanid Empire]] in Persia (modern-day Iran), and the Byzantine Empire in Turkey. In the Arabian peninsula (now [[Saudi Arabia]]), the nomadic [[Bedouin]] tribes dominated the desert, where they worshipped idols and remained in small clans tied together by kinship.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=138}} Urbanization and agriculture was very limited, save for a few regions near the coast. [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]] were two of these cites that were important hubs for trade between Africa and Eurasia. This commerce was central to city-life, where most inhabitants were merchants.

[[File:Muhammad 11.jpg|thumb|left|190px|Muhammad is shown here in a mosque and without exposing any part of his body.]]

====Early Islamic Empire====
{{main|Umayyad Caliphate}}
From 613 to 630, [[Muhammad]] spread the faith of Islam in the Arabian desert, culminating in his victory at [[Mecca]]. He then unified the tribes into an Islamic Empire, ruled by a religious and political leader, the [[caliph]]. They would proceed to conquer the Sassanids, and modern-day [[Syria]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Egypt]], and [[Libya]].{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=148=149}} An Arabic navy was created that soon dominated the Mediterranean, crippled the Byzantine Empire, and put it under siege for centuries to come.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=148-149}} Issues in deciding the caliphs to succeed Muhammad led to the [[Ridda wars]] and eventually the [[Sunni]]-[[Shia]] split, two different sects of Islam; the Sunni eventually became dominant and established the [[Umayyad Caliphate]].{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=148-149}}

The Umayyad were centered at their capital, [[Damascus]] in what's now Syria. With the Umayyad came more conquest, giving them rule over central Asia, most of northern [[Africa]], and from there, the [[Iberian Peninsula]] (modern-day [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]). Little conversion occurred at this time due to the disrespect non-Arab Muslims, or mawali ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: موالي), received from the Umayyad. [[Christians]] and [[Jews]] were treated with more respect as dhimmi ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ذمي), specifically the Ahl al-Kitab ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: أهل الكتاب) or "people of the book," referring to the [[Holy Bible]] which they all shared. During the Umayyad age, women's position also improved from that of pre-Islamic Arabia; Muhammad's teachings banned adultery, encouraged marriage and kindness to wives and daughters, and proclaimed equality of women and men "in the eyes of God."{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=151}}

====Abbasid Empire====
{{main|Abbasid Caliphate}}
[[File:Abbasid Caliphate most extant.png|230px|thumb|The Abbasid Empire at its greatest extent]]

The Umayyad Empire began to decline in the early 8th century when its leaders became more and more detached from their people, especially the warriors who had fought for their conquest.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=151}} A new political group, the Abbasids, joined the upset warriors, Shia, and mawali, and overthrew the Umayyad in 750 during the [[Battle of the Zab]]. The remaining Umayyads fled to [[Iberia]], and established the independent, Muslim [[Caliphate of Córdoba]]. The establishment of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] started with moving the capital to [[Baghdad]] in Persia (now Iraq) in 762 and with this came the application of certain Persian political institutions. This included the creation of an absolute monarchy, which ruled without question, as well as an improved bureaucracy, led by the [[Vizier|wazir]] who took most of the political and administrative responsibilities the caliph previously had.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=154}} The Abbasid also experienced a boom in trade, specifically that at sea, sending [[dhow]]s that continued expansion, first by sending merchants and missionaries to [[India]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. Eventually conflict would arise due to a piracy issue in India, and the Abbasid would begin to conquer the western area of India which they traded with. The first expedition was led by [[Turkish people|Turkish]] general [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak]] and established the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi)|Mamluk Sultanate]] in 1206, ruled by the sultan ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: سلطان) which means "authority."

[[File:Saladin in Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Christian Crusaders before Saladin in Jerusalem]]

However, the Abbasid government soon fell to the same vices as the Umayyad. Different factions in the royal court would fight for power, especially various groups of the [[Turkic peoples]]. The caliph began to rely on advisors from wealthy families, which would sometimes render him a mere puppet. This happened when the Persian [[Buyid dynasty]] was established in 934. The Shia government lasted only a little over a century. They were quickly overpowered by the Turkish people who would create the [[Seljuq dynasty]] by 1051, reestablishing the Sunni government. Nevertheless, succession issues and the squabbling factions would continue through the [[First Crusade]], launched by Christian western Europeans in 1095, which was largely ignored by the more powerful Muslim princes{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=167}} despite its success at capturing [[Jerusalem]]. The next eight [[Crusades]] would succeed to varying degrees, and the Christians would lose considerable ground when the Muslims were united under [[Saladin]] in the late 12th century.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=167}} By 1291, after the [[Ninth Crusade|final crusade]] and the fall of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], the Christians had lost all of the territory they originally gained.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=167}}

The increasingly divided regions of the Abbasid caliphate would face new challenges in the early 13th century, during the invasion of the [[central Asia]]n nomadic peoples, the [[Mongols]]; led by the infamous [[Genghis Khan]], the Mongols raided much of the eastern empire.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=172|chapter=7|quote=Another central Asian nomadic people, the Mongols, united under their great commander, Chinggis Khan, first raided in the 1220s and then smashed the Turko-Persian kingdoms that had developed in the regions to the east of Baghdad.}} In 1258, Genghis Khan's grandson [[Hulegu Khan]] would finish his grandfather's work with the sacking of Baghdad and the death of the caliph.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=172|chapter=7|quote=In 1258, the Abbasid capital at Baghdad was taken by the Mongols and much of it was sacked. The 37th and last Abbasid caliph was put to death by the Mongols.}} The Mongols eventually retreated, but the chaos that ensued throughout the empire deposed the Seljuq Turks. In 1401, the weak and limping caliphate was further plagued by the Turko-Mongol, [[Timur]], and his ferocious raids. By then, another group of Turks had arisen as well, the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]]. Based in [[Anatolia]], by 1566 they would conquer the [[Mesopotamia]] region, the Balkans, Greece, Byzantium, most of Egypt, most of north Africa, and parts of Arabia, unifying them under the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The rule of the Ottoman sultans marked the end of the Postclassical Era in the Middle East, and of the caliphate.

===India===
The Indian early medieval age, 600 to 1200, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity. When [[Harsha]] of [[Kannauj]], who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]] ruler of the Deccan. When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the [[Pala Empire|Pala]] king of [[Bengal]]. When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the [[Pallava]]s from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the [[Pandyas]] and the [[Cholas]] from still farther south. The Cholas could under the rule of [[Raja Raja Chola]] defeat their rivals and rise to a regional power. Cholas expanded northward and defeated [[Eastern Chalukya]], [[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Kalinga]] and the [[Pala Empire|Pala]]. Under [[Rajendra Chola]] the Cholas created the first notable navy of Indian subcontinent. The [[Chola navy]] extended the influence of Chola empire to [[southeast asia]]. During this time, pastoral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.<ref>{{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|date=16 June 1998|title=A History of India|edition=1st|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-0-631-20546-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXdVS0SzQSAC|pages=119–122}}</ref>

The [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]] mainly took place from the 12th century onwards, though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into the region, beginning during the period of the ascendancy of the [[Rajput]] Kingdoms in North India, although [[Sindh]] and Multan were captured in 8th century.

===Medieval China===
Postclassical China saw the rise and fall of the Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties and therefore improvements in its bureaucracy, the spread of [[Buddhism]], and the advent of [[Neo-Confucianism]]. The Middle Ages were an unsurpassed era for Chinese ceramics and painting. Medieval architectural masterpieces the Great South Gate in Todaiji, Japan, and the Tien-ning Temple in Peking, China are some of the surviving constructs from this era.

[[File:Tang Dynasty circa 700 CE.png|230px|thumb|Tang dynasty c. 700]]

====Sui Dynasty====
{{main|Sui Dynasty}}
A new powerful dynasty began to rise in the 580s, amongst the divided factions of China. This was started when an aristocrat named Yang Jian married his daughter into the Northern Zhou Dynasty. He proclaimed himself [[Emperor Wen of Sui]] and appeased the nomadic military by abandoning the Confucian scholar-gentry. Emperor Wen soon led the conquest of the southern Chen Dynasty and united China once more under the [[Sui Dynasty]]. The emperor lowered taxes and constructed granaries that he used to prevent famine and control the market. Later Wen's son would murder him for the throne and declare himself [[Emperor Yang of Sui]]. Emperor Yang revived the Confucian scholars and the bureaucracy, much to anger of the aristocrats and nomadic military leaders. Yang became an excessive leader who overused China's resources for personal luxury and perpetuated exhaustive attempts to reconquer Korea. His military failures and neglect of the empire forced his own ministers to assassinate him in 618, ending the Sui Dynasty.

[[File:Tang buddha 6.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Miniature statue of Buddha from the Tang dynasty]]

====Tang dynasty====
{{main|Tang dynasty}}
Fortunately, one of Yang's most respectable advisors, Li Yuan, was able to claim the throne quickly, preventing a chaotic collapse. He proclaimed himself [[Emperor Gaozu of Tang|Emperor Gaozu]], and established the [[Tang dynasty]] in 623. The Tang saw expansion of China through conquest to Tibet in the west, [[Vietnam]] in the south, and Manchuria in the north. Tang emperors also improved the education of scholars in the Chinese bureaucracy. A Ministry of Rites was established and the examination system was improved to better qualify scholars for their jobs.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=270|chapter=12|quote=In the Tang and Song periods, the examination system was greatly expanded, and the pattern of advancement in the civil service was much more regularized. This meant that in the political realm more than any previous political system (and those yet to come for centuries), the Chinese connected merit as measured by tested skills with authority and status.}} In addition, Buddhism became popular in China with two different strains between the peasantry and the elite, the [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]] and [[Zen]] strains, respectively.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|pages=271–272|chapter=12|quote=Among the masses, the salvationist pure land strain of Mahayana Buddhism won widespread conversions because it seemed to provide a refuge from an age of war and turmoil. Members of the elite class, on the other hand, were more attracted to the Chan variant of Buddhism, or Zen as it is known in Japan and the West.}} Greatly supporting the spread of Buddhism was [[Wu Zetian|Empress Wu]], who additionally claimed an unofficial "Zhou Dynasty" and displayed China's tolerance of a woman ruler, which was rare at the time. However, Buddhism would also experience some backlash, especially from Confucianists and Taoists. This would usually involve criticism about how it was costing the state money, since the government was unable to tax Buddhist monasteries, and additionally sent many grants and gifts to them.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=273|chapter=12|quote=Because monastic lands and resources were not taxed, the Tang regime lost huge amounts of revenue as a result of imperial grants or the gifts of wealthy families to Buddhist monasteries.}}

The Tang dynasty began to decline under the rule of [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Emperor Xuanzong]], who began to neglect the economy and military and caused unrest amongst the court officials due to the excessive influence of his concubine, [[Yang Guifei]], and her family.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=274|chapter=12|quote=The arrogance and excessive ambition of Yang Guifei and her family angered members of the rival cliques at court, who took every opportunity to turn Yang's excesses into a cause for popular unreast.}} This eventually sparked a revolt in 755.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=274|chapter=12|quote=The deepening crisis came to a head in 755 when one of [Xuanzong]'s main military leaders ... led a widely supported revolt with the aim of founding a new dynasty to supplant the Tang.}} Although the revolt failed, subduing it required involvement with the unruly nomadic tribes outside of China and distributing more power to local leaders—leaving the government and economy in a degraded state. The Tang dynasty officially ended in 907 and various factions led by the aforementioned nomadic tribes and local leaders would fight for control of China in the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period]].

====Song dynasty====
{{main|Song dynasty}}
By 960, most of China had been reunited under the [[Song dynasty]], although it lost territories in the north and could not defeat one of the nomadic tribes there—the [[Liao dynasty]] of the highly sinicized [[Khitan people]]. From then on, the Song would have to pay tribute to avoid invasion and thus set the precedent for other nomadic kingdoms to oppress them. The Song also saw the revival of Confucianism in the form of [[Neo-Confucianism]]. This had the effect of putting the Confucian scholars at a higher status than aristocrats or Buddhists and also intensified the reduction of power in women. The infamous practice of [[foot binding]] developed in this period as a result. Eventually the Liao dynasty in the north was overthrown by the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] of the Manchu-related [[Jurchen people]]. The new Jin kingdom [[Jin campaigns against the Song dynasty|invaded northern China]], leaving the Song to flee farther south and creating the [[Southern Song dynasty]] in 1126. There, cultural life flourished.

====Yuan Dynasty====
{{main|Yuan Dynasty}}
By 1227, the Mongols had conquered the [[Western Xia]] kingdom northwest of China. Soon the Mongols incurred upon the Jin empire of the Jurchens. Chinese cities were soon besieged by the Mongol hordes that showed little mercy for those who resisted and the Southern Song Chinese were quickly losing territory. In 1271 the current great khan, [[Kublai Khan]], claimed himself Emperor of China and officially established the Yuan Dynasty. By 1290, all of China was under control of the Mongols, marking the first time they were ever completely conquered by a foreign invader; the new capital was established at [[Khanbaliq]] (modern-day [[Beijing]]). Kublai Khan segregated Mongol culture from Chinese culture by discouraging interactions between the two peoples, separating living spaces and places of worship, and reserving top administrative positions to Mongols, thus preventing Confucian scholars to continue the bureaucratic system. Nevertheless, Kublai remained fascinated with Chinese thinking, surrounding himself with Chinese Buddhist, Taoist, or Confucian advisors.

Mongol women displayed a contrasting independent nature compared to the Chinese women who continued to be suppressed. Mongol women often rode out on hunts or even to war. Kublai's wife, [[Chabi]], was a perfect example of this; Chabi advised her husband on several political and diplomatic matters; she convinced him that the Chinese were to be respected and well-treated in order to make them easier to rule.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=327|chapter=14|quote=[Chabi] convinced Kubilai that the harsh treatment of the survivors of the defeated Song imperial family would only anger the peoples of north China and make them more difficult to rule.}} However this was not enough to affect Chinese women's position, and the increasingly Neo-Confucian successors of Kublai further repressed Chinese and even Mongol women.

The Black Death, which would later ravage Western Europe, had its beginnings in Asia, where it wiped out large populations in China in 1331.

===Japan===
During this time period [[Japan]] went under the process of [[sinicization]], or the impression of Chinese cultural and political ideas. Japan sinicized mostly because the emperor and other leaders at the time were largely impressed by China's bureaucracy. The major influences China had on this region were the spread of Confucianism, the spread of Buddhism, and the establishment of a bureaucracy (although it was vulnerable to favoritism towards the wealthy). In Japan, these later medieval centuries saw a return to the traditional Shinto faith and the continuing popularity of Zen Buddhism.

Medieval Japan is marked by the beginning of the [[Asuka period]]. During this time, [[Imperial House of Japan|Yamato dynasty]] is established, along with the beginning of recorded Japanese history and a capital in the southern [[Nara Prefecture|Nara]] region. In 600, the Japanese send their first diplomatic mission to China, catalyzing the process of adoption of Chinese culture. The Yamato establish their power with a Chinese-based bureaucracy and encourage the spread of Buddhism, discovered through China. The latter was achieved particularly through the construction of Buddhist temples in cities and the countryside.{{sfn|Bowman|2000}}

===Mongol Empire===
The [[Mongol Empire]] conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. Medieval Asia was the kingdom of the Khans. Never before had any person controlled as much land as [[Genghis Khan]]. He built his power unifying separate Mongol tribes before expanding his kingdom south and west. He and his grandson, Kublai Khan, controlled lands in China, Burma, Central Asia, Russia, Iran, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe. Estimates are that the Mongol armies reduced the population of China by nearly a third. Genghis Khan was a pagan who tolerated nearly every religion, and their culture often suffered the harshest treatment from Mongol armies. The Khan armies pushed as far west as Jerusalem before being defeated in 1260.

==Early modern period==
{{further|Early modern period}}
[[File:Fort St. George, Chennai.jpg|thumb|left|250 px|A view of the [[Fort St George]] in 18th Century [[Madras]].]]

The [[Russian Empire]] began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of [[Siberia]] and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The [[Ottoman Empire]] controlled Anatolia, the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the 16th century onwards. In the 17th century, the [[Manchu people|Manchu]] conquered China and established the [[Qing Dynasty]]. In the 16th century, the [[Mughal Empire]] controlled much of India and initiated the second golden age for India. China was the largest economy in the world for much of the time, followed by India until the 18th century.

===Ming China===

By 1368, [[Zhu Yuanzhang]] had claimed himself [[Hongwu Emperor]] and established the Ming Dynasty of China. Immediately, the new emperor and his followers drove the Mongols and their culture out of China and beyond the Great Wall.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=503|chapter=22|quote=Immediately after he seized the throne, Zhu launched an effort to rid China of all traces of the "barbarian" Mongols. Mongol dress was discarded, Mongol names were dropped by those who had adopted them and were removed from buildings and court records, and Mongol palaces and administrative buildings in some areas were raided and sacked. The nomads themselves fled or were driven beyond the Great Wall, where military expeditions pursued them on several occasions.}} The new emperor was somewhat suspicious of the scholars that dominated China's bureaucracy, for he had been born a peasant and was uneducated.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=503|chapter=22|quote=Because the Hongwu emperor, like the founder of the earlier Han dynasty, was from a peasant family and thus poorly educated, he viewed the scholar-gentry with some suspicion.}} Nevertheless, Confucian scholars were necessary to China's bureaucracy and were reestablished as well as reforms that would improve the exam systems and make them more important in entering the bureaucracy than ever before. The exams became more rigorous, cut down harshly on cheating, and those who excelled were more highly appraised. Finally, Hongwu also directed more power towards the role of emperor so as to end the corrupt influences of the bureaucrats.

====Society and economy====
The Hongwu emperor, perhaps for his sympathy of the common-folk, had built many irrigation systems and other public projects that provided help for the peasant farmers.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=504|chapter=22|quote=Perhaps because his lowly origins and personal suffering made him sensitive to the plight of the peasantry, Hongwu introduced measures that would improve the lot of the common people. Like most strong emperors, he promoted public works projects, including dike building and the extension of irrigation systems aimed at improving the farmers' yields.}} They were also allowed to cultivate and claim unoccupied land without having to pay any taxes and labor demands were lowered.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=504|chapter=22|quote=... Hongwu decreed that unoccupied lands would become the tax-exempt property of those who cleared and cultivated them. He lowered forced labor demands on the peasantry by both the government and members of the gentry class.}} However, none of this was able to stop the rising landlord class that gained many privileges from the government and slowly gained control of the peasantry. Moneylenders foreclosed on peasant debt in exchange for mortgages and bought up farmer land, forcing them to become the landlords' tenants or to wander elsewhere for work.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=505|chapter=22}} Also during this time, [[Neo-Confucianism]] intensified even more than the previous two dynasties (the Song and Yuan). Focus on the superiority of elders over youth, men over women, and teachers over students resulted in minor discrimination of the "inferior" classes. The fine arts grew in the Ming era, with improved techniques in brush painting that depicted scenes of court, city or country life; people such as scholars or travelers; or the beauty of mountains, lakes, or marshes. The Chinese novel fully developed in this era, with such classics written such as ''[[Water Margin]]'', ''[[Journey to the West]]'', and ''[[Jin Ping Mei]]''.

Economics grew rapidly in the Ming Dynasty as well. The introduction of American crops such as [[maize]], [[sweet potatoes]], and [[peanut]]s allowed for cultivation of crops in infertile land and helped prevent famine. The population boom that began in the Song dynasty accelerated until China's population went from 80 or 90 million to 150 million in three centuries, culminating in 1600.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=507|chapter=22|quote=By 1600 the population of China had risen to as many as 150 million from 80 to 90 million in the 14th century.}} This paralleled the market economy that was growing both internally and externally. Silk, tea, ceramics, and lacquer-ware were produced by artisans that traded them in Asia and to Europeans. Westerners began to trade (with some Chinese-assigned limits), primarily in the port-towns of [[Macau]] and [[Guangzhou|Canton]]. Although merchants benefited greatly from this, land remained the primary symbol of wealth in China and traders' riches were often put into acquiring more land.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=507|chapter=22|quote=Much of the merchants' wealth was invested in land rather than plowed back into trade or manufacturing, because land owning, not commerce, remained the surest route to social status in China.}} Therefore, little of these riches were used in private enterprises that could've allowed for China to develop the [[market economy]] that often accompanied the highly-successful Western countries.

====Foreign interests====
In the interest of national glory, the Chinese began sending impressive [[Junk (ship)|junk]] ships across the [[South China Sea]] and the [[Indian Ocean]]. From 1403 to 1433, the [[Yongle Emperor]] commissioned [[Treasure voyages|expeditions]] led by the admiral [[Zheng He]], a Muslim [[eunuch]] from China. Chinese junks carrying hundreds of soldiers, goods, and animals for zoos, traveled to Southeast Asia, Persia, southern Arabia, and east Africa to show off Chinese power. Their prowess exceeded that of current Europeans at the time, and had these expeditions not ended, the world economy may be different from today.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=339|chapter=15|quote=There is no question that the course of world history might have been changed dramatically had the Chinese thrust continued, for the tiny European expeditions that began to creep down the western coast of Africa at about the same time would have been no match for this combination of merchant and military organization.}} In 1433, the Chinese government decided that the cost of a navy was an unnecessary expense. The Chinese navy was slowly dismantled and focus on interior reform and military defense began. It was China's longstanding priority that they protect themselves from nomads and they have accordingly returned to it. The growing limits on the Chinese navy would leave them vulnerable to foreign invasion by sea later on.

[[File:Schall-von-bell.jpg|thumb|Here a Jesuit, Adam Schall von Bell (1592–1666), is dressed as an official of the Chinese Department of Astronomy.]]

As was inevitable, Westerners arrived on the Chinese east coast, primarily [[Jesuit]] missionaries which reached the mainland in 1582. They attempted to [[Jesuit China missions|convert the Chinese people to Christianity]] by first converting the top of the social hierarchy and allowing the lower classes to subsequently convert. To further gain support, many Jesuits adopted Chinese dress, customs, and language.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=508|chapter=22|quote=The Jesuits believed that the best way to convert a great civilization such as China was to adopt the dress, customs, language and manners of its elite.}} Some Chinese scholars were interested in certain Western teachings and especially in Western technology. By the 1580s, Jesuit scholars like [[Matteo Ricci]] and [[Adam Schall]] amazed the Chinese elite with technological advances such as European clocks, improved calendars and cannons, and the accurate prediction of eclipses.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=508|chapter=22|quote=Beginning in the 1580s, a succession of brilliant Jesuit scholars ... spent most of their time in the imperial city, correcting faulty calendars, forging cannons, fixing clocks imported from Europe, and astounding the Chinese scholar-gentry with the accuracy of their instruments and their ability to predict eclipses.}} Although some the scholar-gentry converted, many were suspicious of the Westerners whom they called "barbarians" and even resented them for the embarrassment they received at the hand of Western correction. Nevertheless, a small group of Jesuit scholars remained at the court to impress the emperor and his advisors.

====Decline====
Near the end of the 1500s, the extremely centralized government that gave so much power to the emperor had begun to fail as more incompetent rulers took the mantle. Along with these weak rulers came increasingly corrupt officials who took advantage of the decline. Once more the public projects fell into disrepair due to neglect by the bureaucracy and resulted in floods, drought, and famine that rocked the peasantry. The famine soon became so terrible that some peasants resorted to selling their children to slavery to save them from starvation, or to eating bark, the feces of geese, or [[Cannibalism|other people]].{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=509|chapter=22|quote=Peasants in afflicted districts were reduced to eating the bark from trees or the excrement of wild geese. Some peasants sold their children into slavery to keep them from starving, and peasants in some areas resorted to cannibalism.}} Many landlords abused the situation by building large estates where desperate farmers would work and be exploited. In turn, many of these farmers resorted to flight, banditry, and open rebellion.

[[Image:Batavia, C. de Jonghe (1740).jpg|thumb|left|160px|Dutch Batavia in the 17th century, built in what is now [[North Jakarta]]]]

All of this corresponded with the usual dynastic decline of China seen before, as well as the growing foreign threats. In the mid-16th century, Japanese and ethnic Chinese pirates began to raid the southern coast, and neither the bureaucracy nor the military were able to stop them.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=510|chapter=22|quote=One of the early signs of the seriousness of imperial deterioration was the inability of Chinese bureaucrats and military forces to put an end to the epidemic of Japanese (and ethnic Chinese) pirate attacks that ravaged the southern coast in the mid-16th century.}} The threat of the northern [[Manchu people]] also grew. The Manchu were an already large state north of China, when in the early 17th century a local leader named [[Nurhaci]] suddenly united them under the [[Eight Banners]]—armies that the opposing families were organized into. The Manchus adopted many Chinese customs, specifically taking after their bureaucracy. Nevertheless, the Manchus still remained a Chinese [[vassal]]. In 1644 Chinese administration became so weak, the 16th and last emperor, the [[Chongzhen Emperor]], did not respond to the severity of an ensuing rebellion by local dissenters until the enemy had invaded the [[Forbidden City]] (his personal estate). He soon hanged himself in the imperial gardens.{{sfn|Stearns|2011|page=510|chapter=22|quote=By [1644], the administrative apparatus had become so feeble that the last Ming emperor, Chongzhen, did not realize how serious the rebel advance was until enemy soldiers were scaling the walls of the forbidden city. ... the ill-fated Chongzhen retreated to the imperial gardens and hanged himself rather than face capture.}} For a brief amount of time, the [[Shun Dynasty]] was claimed, until a loyalist Ming official called support from the Manchus to put down the new dynasty. The Shun Dynasty ended within a year and the Manchu were now within the Great Wall. Taking advantage of the situation, the Manchus marched on the Chinese capital of Beijing. [[Manchu conquest of China|Within two decades]] all of China belonged to the Manchu and the [[Qing Dynasty]] was established.

==Late modern period==
{{further|Modern history#Late modern period}}

===Qing China===
{{Main|Qing Dynasty}}

By 1644, the northern [[Manchu people]] had conquered China and established a foreign dynasty—the [[Qing Dynasty]]—once more. The Manchu Qing emperors, especially Confucian scholar [[Kangxi Emperor|Kangxi]], remained largely conservative—retaining the bureaucracy and the scholars within it, as well as the Confucian ideals present in Chinese society. However, changes in the economy and new attempts at resolving certain issues occurred too. These included increased trade with Western countries that brought large amounts of silver into the Chinese economy in exchange for tea, [[porcelain]], and silk textiles. This allowed for a new merchant-class, the [[comprador]]s, to develop. In addition, repairs were done on existing [[Levee|dikes]], canals, roadways, and [[irrigation]] works. This, combined with the lowering of taxes and government-assigned labor, was supposed to calm peasant unrest. However, the Qing failed to control the growing landlord class which had begun to exploit the peasantry and abuse their position.

By the late 18th century, both internal and external issues began to arise in Qing China's politics, society, and economy. The exam system with which scholars were assigned into the bureaucracy became increasingly corrupt; bribes and other forms of cheating allowed for inexperienced and inept scholars to enter the bureaucracy and this eventually caused rampant neglect of the peasantry, military, and the previously mentioned infrastructure projects. Poverty and banditry steadily rose, especially in rural areas, and mass migrations looking for work throughout China occurred. The perpetually conservative government refused to make reforms that could resolve these issues.

====Opium War====
{{Main|First Opium War}}

China saw its status reduced by what it perceived as parasitic trade with Westerners. Originally, European traders were at a disadvantage because the Chinese cared little for their goods, while European demand for Chinese commodities such as tea and porcelain only grew. In order to tip the trade imbalance in their favor, British merchants began to sell Indian [[opium]] to the Chinese. Not only did this sap Chinese bullion reserves, it also led to widespread drug addiction amongst the [[scholar official|bureaucracy]] and society in general. A ban was placed on opium as early as 1729 by the [[Yongzheng Emperor]], but little was done to enforce it. By the early 19th century, under the new [[Daoguang Emperor]], the government began serious efforts to eradicate opium from Chinese society. Leading this endeavour were respected scholar-officials including [[Imperial Commissioner (China)|Imperial Commissioner]] [[Lin Zexu]].

After Lin [[Destruction of opium at Humen|destroyed more than 20,000 chests of opium]] in the summer of 1839, Europeans demanded compensation for what they saw as unwarranted Chinese interference in their affairs. When it was not paid, the British declared war later the same year, starting what became known as the [[First Opium War]]. The outdated Chinese [[Junk (ship)|junks]] were no match for the advanced British gunboats, and soon the [[Yangzi River]] region came under threat of British bombardment and invasion. The emperor had no choice but to sue for peace, resulting in the exile of Lin and the [[Treaty of Nanking]], which ceded the British control of [[Hong Kong]] and opened up trade and diplomacy with other European countries, including Germany, France, and the USA.

==Contemporary history==
{{further|Contemporary history}}
The European powers had control of other parts of Asia by the early 20th century, such as [[British Raj|British India]], [[French Indochina]], [[Spanish East Indies]], and Portuguese [[Macau]] and [[Goa]]. The [[Great Game]] between Russia and Britain was the struggle for power in the Central Asian region in the nineteenth century. The [[Trans-Siberian Railway]], crossing Asia by train, was complete by 1916. Parts of Asia remained free from European control, although not influence, such as [[Persia]], [[Thailand]] and most of China. In the twentieth century, [[Imperial Japan]] expanded into China and Southeast Asia during the [[Second World War]]. After the war, many Asian countries became independent from European powers. During the [[Cold War]], the northern parts of Asia were communist controlled with the [[Soviet Union]] and People's Republic of China, while western allies formed pacts such as [[CENTO]] and [[SEATO]]. Conflicts such as the [[Korean War]], [[Vietnam War]] and [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] were fought between communists and anti-communists. In the decades after the Second World War, a massive restructuring plan drove Japan to become the world's second-largest economy, a phenomenon known as the [[Japanese post-war economic miracle]]. The [[Arab–Israeli conflict]] has dominated much of the recent history of the Middle East. After the [[Soviet Union]]'s collapse in 1991, there were many new independent nations in Central Asia.

===China===
{{main|History of the Republic of China|History of the People's Republic of China}}
Prior to [[World War II]], China faced a civil war between [[Mao Zedong]]'s Communist party and [[Chiang Kai-shek]]'s nationalist party; the nationalists appeared to be in the lead. However, once the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Japanese invaded]] in 1937, the two parties were forced to form a temporary cease-fire in order to defend China. The nationalists faced many military failures that caused them to lose territory and subsequently, respect from the Chinese masses. In contrast, the communists' use of guerilla warfare (led by [[Lin Biao]]) proved effective against the Japanese's conventional methods and put the Communist Party on top by 1945. They also gained popularity for the reforms they were already applying in controlled areas, including land redistribution, education reforms, and widespread health care. For the next four years, the nationalists would be forced to retreat to the small island east of China, known as [[Taiwan]] (formerly known as Formosa), where they remain today. In mainland China, the [[People's Republic of China]] was established by the Communist Party, with [[Mao Zedong]] as its [[President of the People's Republic of China|state chairman]].

The communist government in China was defined by the party [[Professional revolutionaries|cadres]]. These hard-line officers controlled the [[People's Liberation Army]], which itself controlled large amounts of the bureaucracy. This system was further controlled by the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of China|Central Committee]], which additionally supported the state chairman who was considered the head of the government. The People's Republic's foreign policies included the repressing of [[secession]] attempts in Mongolia and Tibet and supporting of [[North Korea]] and [[North Vietnam]] in the [[Korean War]] and [[Vietnam War]], respectively. Additionally, by 1960 China began to cut off its connections with the Soviet Union due to border disputes and an increasing Chinese sense of superiority, especially the personal feeling of Mao over the Russian premier, [[Nikita Khrushchev]].

Today China, India, South Korea, Japan and [[Russia]] play important roles in world economics and politics. China today is the world's second largest economy and the second fastest growing economy. Indian economy is the seventh-largest in the world by nominal GDP and the third-largest by purchasing power parity and is the fastest growing economy.

==See also==
* [[List of historians]], inclusive of most major historians
* [[List of history journals#Europe]]
* [[Prehistoric Asia]]
* [[History of Southeast Asia]]
* [[Ancient Asian history]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{citation|last=Bowman|first=John S.|title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture|year=2000|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|location=New York City|isbn=0-231-50004-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYoHOqC7Yx4C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
* Holcombe, Charles. ''A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century'' (2010).
* Ludden, David. ''India and South Asia: A Short History'' (2013).
* Mansfield, Peter, and Nicolas Pelham, ''A History of the Middle East'' (4th ed, 2013).
* Murphey, Rhoads. ''A History of Asia'' (7th ed, 2016) [https://www.amazon.com/History-Asia-Rhoads-Murphey/dp/0205168558/ excerpt]
*{{citation|last=Stearns|first=Peter N.|title=World Civilizations: The Global Experience|year=2011|publisher=[[Longman]]|location=One Lake St., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458|isbn=978-0-13-136020-4|edition=6th |author2=[[Michael Adas]] |author3=[[Stuart B. Schwartz]] |author4=Marc Jason Gilbert|authorlink=Peter Stearns|type=Textbook |ref=CITEREFStearns2011}}
{{Refend}}

{{Navboxes
|list =
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[[Category:History of Asia| ]]

Australia (continent)

2017-03-23T08:42:52Z

85.19.179.17: Fixed typo

{{redirect|Australia Plate|the continental plates|Australian Plate|and|Indo-Australian Plate}}
{{Distinguish|Oceania|Australasia}}
{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox continent
|title = Australia
|image = [[File:Australia-New Guinea (orthographic projection).svg|200px]]
|area = {{Convert|7692000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} (7th)
|population = 36,000,000 (estimated population of [[Australia]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Papua, Indonesia|Papua]], [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]], [[Maluku Islands]], [[Timor]], [[Halmahera]], etc. for 2009, [[List of continents by population|6th]])
|density = {{convert|4.2|/km2|abbr=on}}
|demonym = [[Australian (disambiguation)|Australian]]
|countries = 4 ([[Australia]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[East Timor]]* and portions of [[Indonesia]])
|list_countries =
|dependencies =
|unrecognized =
|languages = [[Australian English|English]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Tok Pisin]], [[Hiri Motu language|Hiri Motu]], 269 indigenous [[Papuan languages|Papuan]] and [[Austronesian languages]], [[Mandarin Chinese]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Cantonese]] and about 70 [[Indigenous Australian languages]]
|time = GMT+10, GMT+9.30, GMT+8
|internet = [[.au]], [[.pg]], [[.tl]], [[.tp]] and [[.id]]
|cities = [[List of cities in Australia by population]] [[List of cities and towns in Papua New Guinea by population]]
{{Collapsible list
| list_style = text-align:left;
| 1 = [[Sydney]] | 2 = [[Melbourne]] | 3 = [[Brisbane]] | 4 = [[Perth]] | 5 = [[Adelaide]] | 6 = [[Gold Coast, Queensland|Gold Coast]]-[[Tweed Heads, New South Wales|Tweed]] | 7 = [[List of suburbs in Greater Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]] | 8 = [[Canberra]]-[[Queanbeyan, New South Wales|Queanbeyan]] | 9 = [[Wollongong]]| 10 = [[Port Moresby]] 
}}
 
<nowiki>*</nowiki> Often considered part of [[Asia]] ([[Southeast Asia]]).
}}

'''Australia''', sometimes known in technical contexts by the names '''Sahul''', '''Australinea''' or '''Meganesia''', to distinguish it from the [[Australian mainland]], is a [[continent]] comprising mainland [[Australia]], [[Tasmania]], [[New Guinea]], [[Seram Island|Seram]], possibly [[Timor]], and neighbouring islands.

It is the smallest of the seven traditional continents in the [[English language|English]] conception. The continent lies on a [[continental shelf]] overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the [[Arafura Sea]] and [[Torres Strait]] between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and [[Bass Strait]] between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When [[sea level]]s were lower during the [[quaternary glaciation|Pleistocene ice age]], including the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into today's low-lying [[arid]] to [[semi-arid]] mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. Geologically, a continent extends to the edge of its continental shelf, so the now-separate islands are considered part of the continent.<ref name="JohnsonPage12">{{cite book | last = Johnson | first = David Peter | year = 2004 | title = The Geology of Australia | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | location = Port Melbourne, Victoria | id = | page = 12}}</ref> Due to the spread of animals, fungi and plants across the single Pleistocene landmass the separate lands have a related [[biota (ecology)|biota]].

[[New Zealand]] is not part of the continent of Australia, but of the separate, submerged continent of [[Zealandia (continent)|Zealandia]].<ref name="Te Ara">{{cite web|author=Keith Lewis|author2= Scott D. Nodder and Lionel Carter|url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/OceanStudyAndConservation/SeaFloorGeology/1/en |title=Zealandia: the New Zealand continent|work=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]]|date=2007-01-11|accessdate=2007-02-22}}</ref> New Zealand and Australia are both part of the wider regions known as [[Australasia]] and [[Oceania]]. The term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model.

==Geography and name==
{{Main|Geography of Australia}}
[[File:Australia New Guinea continent.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Mainland Australia]] showing the continental [[Sahul Shelf]] (light blue) extending to the islands of New Guinea in the north, the island of Timor in the northwest, and Tasmania in the south]]

With a total land area of {{convert|8.56|e6km2|sqmi}}, the Australian continent is the smallest and lowest human inhabited continent on [[Earth]].<ref name="Mocomi">{{cite web|author=Mocomi|publisher=Mocomi|url= http://mocomi.com/continents-of-the-world/ |title=Continents of the World|accessdate=2014-10-28}}</ref> The [[continental shelf]] connecting the islands, half of which is less than {{convert|50|m|ft}} deep, covers some {{convert|2.5|e6km2|sqmi}}, including the [[Sahul Shelf]]<ref name="aims">{{cite web | year = 2001 | url = http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/reflib/bigbank/pages/bb-04.html | title = Big Bank Shoals of the Timor Sea: An environmental resource atlas | publisher = Australian Institute of Marine Science | accessdate = 2006-08-28| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060908082408/http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/reflib/bigbank/pages/bb-04.html| archivedate= 8 September 2006 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="wirantaprawira">{{cite web | last = Wirantaprawira | first = Dr Willy | year = 2003 | url = http://www.wirantaprawira.net/indon/land.html | title = Republik Indonesia | publisher = Dr Willy Wirantaprawira | accessdate = 2006-08-28}}</ref> and [[Bass Strait]].
As the country of Australia is mostly on a single landmass, and comprises most of the continent, it is sometimes informally referred to as an island continent, surrounded by oceans.<ref>{{cite book |last=Löffler |first=Ernst |author2=A.J. Rose, Anneliese Löffler & Denis Warner |title=Australia:Portrait of a Continent |year=1983 |publisher=Hutchinson Group |location=Richmond, Victoria |page=17 |isbn=0-09-130460-1 }}</ref>

[[File:Map of Sunda and Sahul.png|thumb|300px|The [[Sahul Shelf|Sahul]] continent]]
Archaeological terminology for this region has changed repeatedly. Prior to the 1970s, the single Pleistocene landmass was called ''Australasia'',<ref name=ballard>{{cite conference |first=Chris |last=Ballard |title=Stimulating minds to fantasy? A critical etymology for Sahul |booktitle=Sahul in review: Pleistocene archaeology in Australia, New Guinea and island Melanesia |pages=19–20 |publisher=Australian National University | location= Canberra |year=1993 |isbn=0-7315-1540-4 }}</ref> derived from the [[Latin]] ''australis'', meaning "southern", although this word is most often used for a wider region that includes lands like New Zealand that are not on the same continental shelf. In the early 1970s, the term ''Greater Australia'' was introduced for the Pleistocene continent.<ref name=ballard/> Then at a 1975 conference and consequent publication,<ref>{{cite book |last=Allen |first=J. |author2=J. Golson and R. Jones (eds) |others= |title=Sunda and Sahul: Prehistorical studies in Southeast Asia, Melanesia and Australia |year=1977 |publisher=Academic Press |location=London |isbn=0-12-051250-5 |pages= |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> the name ''Sahul'' was extended from its previous use for just the [[Sahul Shelf]] to cover the continent.<ref name=ballard/>

In 1984 W. Filewood suggested the name ''Meganesia'', meaning "great island" or "great island-group", for both the Pleistocene continent and the present-day lands,<ref>{{cite conference |first=W. |last=Filewood |title=The Torres connection: Zoogeography of New Guinea |booktitle=Vertebrate zoogeography in Australasia |pages=1124–1125 |publisher=Hesperian Press | location=Carlisle, W.A. |year=1984 |isbn=0-85905-036-X }}</ref> and this name has been widely accepted by biologists.<ref>e.g. {{cite book |last=Flannery |first=Timothy Fridtjof |authorlink=Tim Flannery |title=The future eaters: An ecological history of the Australasian lands and people |year=1994 |publisher=Reed |location=Chatswood, NSW |isbn=0-7301-0422-2 |pages=42, 67 |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> Others have used ''Meganesia'' with different meanings: travel writer [[Paul Theroux]] included New Zealand in his definition<ref>{{cite book |last=Theroux |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Theroux |title=The happy isles of Oceania: Paddling the Pacific |year=1992 |publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=0-14-015976-2 |pages= |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> and others have used it for Australia, New Zealand and [[Hawaii]].<ref>{{cite journal |quotes= |last=Wareham |first=Evelyn |date=September 2002 |title=From Explorers to Evangelists: Archivists, Recordkeeping, and Remembering in the Pacific Islands |journal=Archival Science |volume=2 |issue=3–4 |pages=187–207 |doi=10.1007/BF02435621 }}</ref> Another biologist, [[Richard Dawkins]], coined the name ''Australinea'' in 2004.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=The ancestor's tale: A pilgrimage to the dawn of evolution |year=2004 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |isbn=0-618-00583-8 |page=224 |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> ''Australia-New Guinea'' has also been used.<ref>e.g. {{Cite book
| contribution=Pre-LGM Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea) and the Archaeology of Early Modern Humans
| last=O'Connell
| first=James F.
| last2=Allen
| first2=Jim
| title=Rethinking the Human Revolution
| editor-last=Mellars
| editor-first=P.
| editor2-last=Boyle
| editor2-first=K.
| editor3-last=Bar-Yosef
| editor3-first=O.
| editor4-last=Stringer
| editor4-first=C.

| year=2007
| pages=395–410
| place=Cambridge
| publisher=McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research
| contribution-url=http://www.anthro.utah.edu/PDFs/joc/32o_conn.pdf
| postscript=
}}</ref>

==Geology==
{{Main|Geology of Australia}}
The continent primarily sits on the [[Indo-Australian Plate]]. Because of its central location on its tectonic plate Australia doesn't have any active volcanic regions, the only continent with this distinction.<ref name="aeppp">{{cite book |title=Australian Environments: Place, Pattern and Process |last=Barrett |author2=Dent |year=1996 |publisher=Macmillan Education AU |isbn=0732931207 |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AUcU_35C9sC |accessdate=13 June 2014}}</ref> The lands were joined with [[Antarctica]] as part of the southern supercontinent [[Gondwana]] until the plate began to drift north about 96 million years ago. For most of the time since then, Australia–New Guinea remained a continuous landmass. When the [[last glacial period]] ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed [[Bass Strait]], separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating New Guinea, the [[Aru Islands]], and the Australian mainland.

A northern arc consisting of the [[New Guinea Highlands]], the [[Raja Ampat Islands]], and [[Halmahera]] was uplifted by the northward migration of Australia and subduction of the Pacific Plate. The [[Outer Banda Arc]] was accreted along the northwestern edge the continent; it includes the islands of [[Timor]], [[Tanimbar]], and [[Seram Island|Seram]].<ref>MG Audley-Charles, 1986, "Timor–Tanimbar Trough: the foreland basin of the evolving Banda orogen", ''Spec. Publs int. Ass. Sediment'', 8:91–102</ref>

==Biogeography==
{{See also|Fauna of Australia|Flora of Australia|Fungi of Australia}}
As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, a unique [[Fauna (animals)|fauna]], [[Flora (plants)|flora]] and [[Fungi|mycobiota]] developed. [[Marsupial]]s and [[monotreme]]s also existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out-compete the [[Placentalia|placental]] [[mammals]] and come to dominate. [[Aves|Bird]] life also flourished — in particular, the [[songbird]]s (order [[Passerine|Passeriformes]], suborder Passeri) are thought to have evolved 50 million years ago in the part of [[Gondwana]] that later became [[Australia]], New Zealand, [[New Guinea]], and [[Antarctica]], before radiating into a great number of different forms and then spreading around the globe.<ref name=Low>{{Citation
| last1 = Low
| first1 = T.
| title = Where Song Began: Australia's Birds and How They Changed the World
| publisher = Penguin Australia
| place = Tyre
| year = 2014
}}</ref> Among the fungi, the remarkable association between ''[[Cyttaria]]'' ''gunnii'' (one of the "golf-ball" fungi) and its associated trees in the genus ''[[Nothofagus]]'' is evidence of that drift: the only other places where this association is known are New Zealand and southern [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]].<ref>Korf, R.P. ''Cyttaria'' (Cyttariales): coevolution with ''Nothofagus'', and evolutionary relationship to the Boedijnpezizeae (Pezizales, Sarcoscyphaceae). pp. 77–87 in K.A. Pirozynski & J. Walker [eds] Pacific Mycogeography: a Preliminary Approach. ''Australian Journal of Botany'' Supplementary Series No. 10, 172 pp. (1983).</ref>

Animal groups such as [[Macropodidae|macropods]], [[monotremes]], and [[Cassowary|cassowaries]] are endemic to Australia. There were three main reasons for the enormous diversity that developed in animal, fungal and plant life.

* While much of the rest of the world underwent significant cooling and thus loss of species diversity, Australia–New Guinea was drifting north at such a pace that the overall global cooling effect was roughly equalled by its gradual movement toward the [[equator]]. [[Temperature]]s in Australia–New Guinea, in other words, remained reasonably constant for a very long time, and a vast number of different animal, fungal and plant species were able to evolve to fit particular [[ecological niche]]s.
* Because the continent was more isolated than any other, very few outside species arrived to colonise, and unique native forms developed unimpeded.
* Finally, despite the fact that the continent was already very old and thus relatively infertile, there are dispersed areas of high fertility. Where other continents had [[Volcanism|volcanic]] activity and/or massive [[Glacier|glaciation]] events to turn over fresh, unleached [[Rock (geology)|rock]]s rich in [[mineral]]s, the rocks and [[soil]]s of Australia–New Guinea were left largely untouched except by gradual [[erosion]] and deep [[weathering]]. In general, fertile soils produce a profusion of life, and a relatively large number of species/level of biodiversity. This is because where [[nutrient]]s are plentiful, competition is largely a matter of outcompeting rival species, leaving great scope for innovative [[co-evolution]] as is witnessed in tropical, fertile ecosystems. In contrast, infertile soils tend to induce competition on an abiotic basis meaning individuals all face constant environmental pressures, leaving less scope for divergent evolution, a process instrumental in creating new species.

For about 40 million years Australia–New Guinea was almost completely isolated. During this time, the continent experienced numerous changes in climate, but the overall trend was towards greater aridity. When [[South America]] eventually separated from Antarctica, the development of the cold [[Antarctic Circumpolar Current]] changed weather patterns across the world. For Australia–New Guinea, it brought a marked intensification of the drying trend. The great inland seas and lakes dried out. Much of the long-established broad-leaf [[deciduous]] forest began to give way to the distinctive hard-leaved [[sclerophyllous]] plants that characterise the modern Australian landscape.

For many species, the primary refuge was the relatively cool and well-watered [[Great Dividing Range]]. Even today, pockets of remnant vegetation remain in the cool uplands, some species not much changed from the Gondwanan forms of 60 or 90 million years ago.

Eventually, the Australia–New Guinea tectonic plate collided with the [[Eurasian plate]] to the north. The collision caused the northern part of the continent to buckle upwards, forming the high and rugged mountains of New Guinea and, by reverse (downwards) buckling, the [[Torres Strait]] that now separates the two main landmasses. The collision also pushed up the islands of [[Wallacea]], which served as island 'stepping-stones' that allowed plants from [[Southeast Asia]]'s rainforests to colonise New Guinea, and some plants from Australia–New Guinea to move into Southeast Asia. The ocean straits between the islands were narrow enough to allow plant dispersal, but served as an effective barrier to exchange of land mammals between Australia–New Guinea and Asia.

Although New Guinea is the most northerly part of the continent, and could be expected to be the most tropical in climate, the altitude of the New Guinea highlands is such that a great many animals and plants that were once common across Australia–New Guinea now survive only in the tropical highlands where they are severely threatened by [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]] pressures.

== Human habitation ==
Humans first populated eastern [[Wallacea]] (including [[Timor]], which at the time was separated from mainland Sahul), the rest of Sahul, and the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] from [[Sunda Shelf|Sunda]] around 45,000 years ago, by a founding population estimated to have been at least several hundred, and having had relatively sophisticated water craft.<ref>{{Cite book
| contribution=Getting from Sunda to Sahul
| last=Allen
| first=Jim
| last2=O'Connell
| first2=James F.
| title=Islands of Inquiry: Colonisation, seafaring and the archaeology of maritime landscapes
| editor-last=Clark
| editor-first=Geoffrey
| editor2-last=Leach
| editor2-first=Foss
| editor3-last=O'Connor
| editor3-first=Sue
| year=2008
| pages=31–46
| place=Canberra
| publisher=ANU Press}}</ref> There was little subsequent population mixing between Wallacea and Sahul for about 30,000 years, and indeed relatively little mixing between the north and south and the east and west of Sahul after the initial dispersal of the population.

==See also==
{{Portal|Australia|Geography}}
* [[Outline of Australia]]
* [[Pacific Islands]]
* [[Paleoclimatology]]
* [[Plate tectonics]]
* [[Mainland Australia]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Continents of the world}}
{{Regions of the world}}
{{Australia topics}}

{{coord|26|S|141|E|source:placeopedia|display=title}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Australia (continent)| ]]
[[Category:Continents]]

[[es:Sahul]]
[[la:Australia (continens)]]

Australia (continent)

2017-03-23T08:40:45Z

85.19.179.17: Fixed typo

{{redirect|Australia Plate|the continental plates|Australian Plate|and|Indo-Australian Plate}}
{{Distinguish|Oceania|Australasia}}
{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox continent
|title = Australia
|image = [[File:Australia-New Guinea (orthographic projection).svg|200px]]
|area = {{Convert|69911|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} (7th)
|population = 36,000,000 (estimated population of [[Australia]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Papua, Indonesia|Papua]], [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]], [[Maluku Islands]], [[Timor]], [[Halmahera]], etc. for 2009, [[List of continents by population|6th]])
|density = {{convert|4.2|/km2|abbr=on}}
|demonym = [[Australian (disambiguation)|Australian]]
|countries = 4 ([[Australia]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[East Timor]]* and portions of [[Indonesia]])
|list_countries =
|dependencies =
|unrecognized =
|languages = [[Australian English|English]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Tok Pisin]], [[Hiri Motu language|Hiri Motu]], 269 indigenous [[Papuan languages|Papuan]] and [[Austronesian languages]], [[Mandarin Chinese]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Cantonese]] and about 70 [[Indigenous Australian languages]]
|time = GMT+10, GMT+9.30, GMT+8
|internet = [[.au]], [[.pg]], [[.tl]], [[.tp]] and [[.id]]
|cities = [[List of cities in Australia by population]] [[List of cities and towns in Papua New Guinea by population]]
{{Collapsible list
| list_style = text-align:left;
| 1 = [[Sydney]] | 2 = [[Melbourne]] | 3 = [[Brisbane]] | 4 = [[Perth]] | 5 = [[Adelaide]] | 6 = [[Gold Coast, Queensland|Gold Coast]]-[[Tweed Heads, New South Wales|Tweed]] | 7 = [[List of suburbs in Greater Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]] | 8 = [[Canberra]]-[[Queanbeyan, New South Wales|Queanbeyan]] | 9 = [[Wollongong]]| 10 = [[Port Moresby]] 
}}
 
<nowiki>*</nowiki> Often considered part of [[Asia]] ([[Southeast Asia]]).
}}

'''Australia''', sometimes known in technical contexts by the names '''Sahul''', '''Australinea''' or '''Meganesia''', to distinguish it from the [[Australian mainland]], is a [[continent]] comprising mainland [[Australia]], [[Tasmania]], [[New Guinea]], [[Seram Island|Seram]], possibly [[Timor]], and neighbouring islands.

It is the smallest of the seven traditional continents in the [[English language|English]] conception. The continent lies on a [[continental shelf]] overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the [[Arafura Sea]] and [[Torres Strait]] between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and [[Bass Strait]] between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When [[sea level]]s were lower during the [[quaternary glaciation|Pleistocene ice age]], including the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into today's low-lying [[arid]] to [[semi-arid]] mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. Geologically, a continent extends to the edge of its continental shelf, so the now-separate islands are considered part of the continent.<ref name="JohnsonPage12">{{cite book | last = Johnson | first = David Peter | year = 2004 | title = The Geology of Australia | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | location = Port Melbourne, Victoria | id = | page = 12}}</ref> Due to the spread of animals, fungi and plants across the single Pleistocene landmass the separate lands have a related [[biota (ecology)|biota]].

[[New Zealand]] is not part of the continent of Australia, but of the separate, submerged continent of [[Zealandia (continent)|Zealandia]].<ref name="Te Ara">{{cite web|author=Keith Lewis|author2= Scott D. Nodder and Lionel Carter|url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/OceanStudyAndConservation/SeaFloorGeology/1/en |title=Zealandia: the New Zealand continent|work=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]]|date=2007-01-11|accessdate=2007-02-22}}</ref> New Zealand and Australia are both part of the wider regions known as [[Australasia]] and [[Oceania]]. The term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model.

==Geography and name==
{{Main|Geography of Australia}}
[[File:Australia New Guinea continent.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Mainland Australia]] showing the continental [[Sahul Shelf]] (light blue) extending to the islands of New Guinea in the north, the island of Timor in the northwest, and Tasmania in the south]]

With a total land area of {{convert|8.56|e6km2|sqmi}}, the Australian continent is the smallest and lowest human inhabited continent on [[Earth]].<ref name="Mocomi">{{cite web|author=Mocomi|publisher=Mocomi|url= http://mocomi.com/continents-of-the-world/ |title=Continents of the World|accessdate=2014-10-28}}</ref> The [[continental shelf]] connecting the islands, half of which is less than {{convert|50|m|ft}} deep, covers some {{convert|2.5|e6km2|sqmi}}, including the [[Sahul Shelf]]<ref name="aims">{{cite web | year = 2001 | url = http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/reflib/bigbank/pages/bb-04.html | title = Big Bank Shoals of the Timor Sea: An environmental resource atlas | publisher = Australian Institute of Marine Science | accessdate = 2006-08-28| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060908082408/http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/reflib/bigbank/pages/bb-04.html| archivedate= 8 September 2006 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="wirantaprawira">{{cite web | last = Wirantaprawira | first = Dr Willy | year = 2003 | url = http://www.wirantaprawira.net/indon/land.html | title = Republik Indonesia | publisher = Dr Willy Wirantaprawira | accessdate = 2006-08-28}}</ref> and [[Bass Strait]].
As the country of Australia is mostly on a single landmass, and comprises most of the continent, it is sometimes informally referred to as an island continent, surrounded by oceans.<ref>{{cite book |last=Löffler |first=Ernst |author2=A.J. Rose, Anneliese Löffler & Denis Warner |title=Australia:Portrait of a Continent |year=1983 |publisher=Hutchinson Group |location=Richmond, Victoria |page=17 |isbn=0-09-130460-1 }}</ref>

[[File:Map of Sunda and Sahul.png|thumb|300px|The [[Sahul Shelf|Sahul]] continent]]
Archaeological terminology for this region has changed repeatedly. Prior to the 1970s, the single Pleistocene landmass was called ''Australasia'',<ref name=ballard>{{cite conference |first=Chris |last=Ballard |title=Stimulating minds to fantasy? A critical etymology for Sahul |booktitle=Sahul in review: Pleistocene archaeology in Australia, New Guinea and island Melanesia |pages=19–20 |publisher=Australian National University | location= Canberra |year=1993 |isbn=0-7315-1540-4 }}</ref> derived from the [[Latin]] ''australis'', meaning "southern", although this word is most often used for a wider region that includes lands like New Zealand that are not on the same continental shelf. In the early 1970s, the term ''Greater Australia'' was introduced for the Pleistocene continent.<ref name=ballard/> Then at a 1975 conference and consequent publication,<ref>{{cite book |last=Allen |first=J. |author2=J. Golson and R. Jones (eds) |others= |title=Sunda and Sahul: Prehistorical studies in Southeast Asia, Melanesia and Australia |year=1977 |publisher=Academic Press |location=London |isbn=0-12-051250-5 |pages= |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> the name ''Sahul'' was extended from its previous use for just the [[Sahul Shelf]] to cover the continent.<ref name=ballard/>

In 1984 W. Filewood suggested the name ''Meganesia'', meaning "great island" or "great island-group", for both the Pleistocene continent and the present-day lands,<ref>{{cite conference |first=W. |last=Filewood |title=The Torres connection: Zoogeography of New Guinea |booktitle=Vertebrate zoogeography in Australasia |pages=1124–1125 |publisher=Hesperian Press | location=Carlisle, W.A. |year=1984 |isbn=0-85905-036-X }}</ref> and this name has been widely accepted by biologists.<ref>e.g. {{cite book |last=Flannery |first=Timothy Fridtjof |authorlink=Tim Flannery |title=The future eaters: An ecological history of the Australasian lands and people |year=1994 |publisher=Reed |location=Chatswood, NSW |isbn=0-7301-0422-2 |pages=42, 67 |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> Others have used ''Meganesia'' with different meanings: travel writer [[Paul Theroux]] included New Zealand in his definition<ref>{{cite book |last=Theroux |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Theroux |title=The happy isles of Oceania: Paddling the Pacific |year=1992 |publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=0-14-015976-2 |pages= |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> and others have used it for Australia, New Zealand and [[Hawaii]].<ref>{{cite journal |quotes= |last=Wareham |first=Evelyn |date=September 2002 |title=From Explorers to Evangelists: Archivists, Recordkeeping, and Remembering in the Pacific Islands |journal=Archival Science |volume=2 |issue=3–4 |pages=187–207 |doi=10.1007/BF02435621 }}</ref> Another biologist, [[Richard Dawkins]], coined the name ''Australinea'' in 2004.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=The ancestor's tale: A pilgrimage to the dawn of evolution |year=2004 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |isbn=0-618-00583-8 |page=224 |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> ''Australia-New Guinea'' has also been used.<ref>e.g. {{Cite book
| contribution=Pre-LGM Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea) and the Archaeology of Early Modern Humans
| last=O'Connell
| first=James F.
| last2=Allen
| first2=Jim
| title=Rethinking the Human Revolution
| editor-last=Mellars
| editor-first=P.
| editor2-last=Boyle
| editor2-first=K.
| editor3-last=Bar-Yosef
| editor3-first=O.
| editor4-last=Stringer
| editor4-first=C.

| year=2007
| pages=395–410
| place=Cambridge
| publisher=McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research
| contribution-url=http://www.anthro.utah.edu/PDFs/joc/32o_conn.pdf
| postscript=
}}</ref>

==Geology==
{{Main|Geology of Australia}}
The continent primarily sits on the [[Indo-Australian Plate]]. Because of its central location on its tectonic plate Australia doesn't have any active volcanic regions, the only continent with this distinction.<ref name="aeppp">{{cite book |title=Australian Environments: Place, Pattern and Process |last=Barrett |author2=Dent |year=1996 |publisher=Macmillan Education AU |isbn=0732931207 |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AUcU_35C9sC |accessdate=13 June 2014}}</ref> The lands were joined with [[Antarctica]] as part of the southern supercontinent [[Gondwana]] until the plate began to drift north about 96 million years ago. For most of the time since then, Australia–New Guinea remained a continuous landmass. When the [[last glacial period]] ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed [[Bass Strait]], separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating New Guinea, the [[Aru Islands]], and the Australian mainland.

A northern arc consisting of the [[New Guinea Highlands]], the [[Raja Ampat Islands]], and [[Halmahera]] was uplifted by the northward migration of Australia and subduction of the Pacific Plate. The [[Outer Banda Arc]] was accreted along the northwestern edge the continent; it includes the islands of [[Timor]], [[Tanimbar]], and [[Seram Island|Seram]].<ref>MG Audley-Charles, 1986, "Timor–Tanimbar Trough: the foreland basin of the evolving Banda orogen", ''Spec. Publs int. Ass. Sediment'', 8:91–102</ref>

==Biogeography==
{{See also|Fauna of Australia|Flora of Australia|Fungi of Australia}}
As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, a unique [[Fauna (animals)|fauna]], [[Flora (plants)|flora]] and [[Fungi|mycobiota]] developed. [[Marsupial]]s and [[monotreme]]s also existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out-compete the [[Placentalia|placental]] [[mammals]] and come to dominate. [[Aves|Bird]] life also flourished — in particular, the [[songbird]]s (order [[Passerine|Passeriformes]], suborder Passeri) are thought to have evolved 50 million years ago in the part of [[Gondwana]] that later became [[Australia]], New Zealand, [[New Guinea]], and [[Antarctica]], before radiating into a great number of different forms and then spreading around the globe.<ref name=Low>{{Citation
| last1 = Low
| first1 = T.
| title = Where Song Began: Australia's Birds and How They Changed the World
| publisher = Penguin Australia
| place = Tyre
| year = 2014
}}</ref> Among the fungi, the remarkable association between ''[[Cyttaria]]'' ''gunnii'' (one of the "golf-ball" fungi) and its associated trees in the genus ''[[Nothofagus]]'' is evidence of that drift: the only other places where this association is known are New Zealand and southern [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]].<ref>Korf, R.P. ''Cyttaria'' (Cyttariales): coevolution with ''Nothofagus'', and evolutionary relationship to the Boedijnpezizeae (Pezizales, Sarcoscyphaceae). pp. 77–87 in K.A. Pirozynski & J. Walker [eds] Pacific Mycogeography: a Preliminary Approach. ''Australian Journal of Botany'' Supplementary Series No. 10, 172 pp. (1983).</ref>

Animal groups such as [[Macropodidae|macropods]], [[monotremes]], and [[Cassowary|cassowaries]] are endemic to Australia. There were three main reasons for the enormous diversity that developed in animal, fungal and plant life.

* While much of the rest of the world underwent significant cooling and thus loss of species diversity, Australia–New Guinea was drifting north at such a pace that the overall global cooling effect was roughly equalled by its gradual movement toward the [[equator]]. [[Temperature]]s in Australia–New Guinea, in other words, remained reasonably constant for a very long time, and a vast number of different animal, fungal and plant species were able to evolve to fit particular [[ecological niche]]s.
* Because the continent was more isolated than any other, very few outside species arrived to colonise, and unique native forms developed unimpeded.
* Finally, despite the fact that the continent was already very old and thus relatively infertile, there are dispersed areas of high fertility. Where other continents had [[Volcanism|volcanic]] activity and/or massive [[Glacier|glaciation]] events to turn over fresh, unleached [[Rock (geology)|rock]]s rich in [[mineral]]s, the rocks and [[soil]]s of Australia–New Guinea were left largely untouched except by gradual [[erosion]] and deep [[weathering]]. In general, fertile soils produce a profusion of life, and a relatively large number of species/level of biodiversity. This is because where [[nutrient]]s are plentiful, competition is largely a matter of outcompeting rival species, leaving great scope for innovative [[co-evolution]] as is witnessed in tropical, fertile ecosystems. In contrast, infertile soils tend to induce competition on an abiotic basis meaning individuals all face constant environmental pressures, leaving less scope for divergent evolution, a process instrumental in creating new species.

For about 40 million years Australia–New Guinea was almost completely isolated. During this time, the continent experienced numerous changes in climate, but the overall trend was towards greater aridity. When [[South America]] eventually separated from Antarctica, the development of the cold [[Antarctic Circumpolar Current]] changed weather patterns across the world. For Australia–New Guinea, it brought a marked intensification of the drying trend. The great inland seas and lakes dried out. Much of the long-established broad-leaf [[deciduous]] forest began to give way to the distinctive hard-leaved [[sclerophyllous]] plants that characterise the modern Australian landscape.

For many species, the primary refuge was the relatively cool and well-watered [[Great Dividing Range]]. Even today, pockets of remnant vegetation remain in the cool uplands, some species not much changed from the Gondwanan forms of 60 or 90 million years ago.

Eventually, the Australia–New Guinea tectonic plate collided with the [[Eurasian plate]] to the north. The collision caused the northern part of the continent to buckle upwards, forming the high and rugged mountains of New Guinea and, by reverse (downwards) buckling, the [[Torres Strait]] that now separates the two main landmasses. The collision also pushed up the islands of [[Wallacea]], which served as island 'stepping-stones' that allowed plants from [[Southeast Asia]]'s rainforests to colonise New Guinea, and some plants from Australia–New Guinea to move into Southeast Asia. The ocean straits between the islands were narrow enough to allow plant dispersal, but served as an effective barrier to exchange of land mammals between Australia–New Guinea and Asia.

Although New Guinea is the most northerly part of the continent, and could be expected to be the most tropical in climate, the altitude of the New Guinea highlands is such that a great many animals and plants that were once common across Australia–New Guinea now survive only in the tropical highlands where they are severely threatened by [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]] pressures.

== Human habitation ==
Humans first populated eastern [[Wallacea]] (including [[Timor]], which at the time was separated from mainland Sahul), the rest of Sahul, and the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] from [[Sunda Shelf|Sunda]] around 45,000 years ago, by a founding population estimated to have been at least several hundred, and having had relatively sophisticated water craft.<ref>{{Cite book
| contribution=Getting from Sunda to Sahul
| last=Allen
| first=Jim
| last2=O'Connell
| first2=James F.
| title=Islands of Inquiry: Colonisation, seafaring and the archaeology of maritime landscapes
| editor-last=Clark
| editor-first=Geoffrey
| editor2-last=Leach
| editor2-first=Foss
| editor3-last=O'Connor
| editor3-first=Sue
| year=2008
| pages=31–46
| place=Canberra
| publisher=ANU Press}}</ref> There was little subsequent population mixing between Wallacea and Sahul for about 30,000 years, and indeed relatively little mixing between the north and south and the east and west of Sahul after the initial dispersal of the population.

==See also==
{{Portal|Australia|Geography}}
* [[Outline of Australia]]
* [[Pacific Islands]]
* [[Paleoclimatology]]
* [[Plate tectonics]]
* [[Mainland Australia]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Continents of the world}}
{{Regions of the world}}
{{Australia topics}}

{{coord|26|S|141|E|source:placeopedia|display=title}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Australia (continent)| ]]
[[Category:Continents]]

[[es:Sahul]]
[[la:Australia (continens)]]

Australia (continent)

2017-03-23T08:39:51Z

85.19.179.17: Files typo

{{redirect|Australia Potet|the continental plates|Australian Plate|and|Indo-Australian Plate}}
{{Distinguish|Oceania|Australasia}}
{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox continent
|title = Australia
|image = [[File:Australia-New Guinea (orthographic projection).svg|200px]]
|area = {{Convert|8600000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} (7th)
|population = 36,000,000 (estimated population of [[Australia]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Papua, Indonesia|Papua]], [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]], [[Maluku Islands]], [[Timor]], [[Halmahera]], etc. for 2009, [[List of continents by population|6th]])
|density = {{convert|4.2|/km2|abbr=on}}
|demonym = [[Australian (disambiguation)|Australian]]
|countries = 4 ([[Australia]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[East Timor]]* and portions of [[Indonesia]])
|list_countries =
|dependencies =
|unrecognized =
|languages = [[Australian English|English]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Tok Pisin]], [[Hiri Motu language|Hiri Motu]], 269 indigenous [[Papuan languages|Papuan]] and [[Austronesian languages]], [[Mandarin Chinese]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Cantonese]] and about 70 [[Indigenous Australian languages]]
|time = GMT+10, GMT+9.30, GMT+8
|internet = [[.au]], [[.pg]], [[.tl]], [[.tp]] and [[.id]]
|cities = [[List of cities in Australia by population]] [[List of cities and towns in Papua New Guinea by population]]
{{Collapsible list
| list_style = text-align:left;
| 1 = [[Sydney]] | 2 = [[Melbourne]] | 3 = [[Brisbane]] | 4 = [[Perth]] | 5 = [[Adelaide]] | 6 = [[Gold Coast, Queensland|Gold Coast]]-[[Tweed Heads, New South Wales|Tweed]] | 7 = [[List of suburbs in Greater Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]] | 8 = [[Canberra]]-[[Queanbeyan, New South Wales|Queanbeyan]] | 9 = [[Wollongong]]| 10 = [[Port Moresby]] 
}}
 
<nowiki>*</nowiki> Often considered part of [[Asia]] ([[Southeast Asia]]).
}}

'''Australia''', sometimes known in technical contexts by the names '''Sahul''', '''Australinea''' or '''Meganesia''', to distinguish it from the [[Australian mainland]], is a [[continent]] comprising mainland [[Australia]], [[Tasmania]], [[New Guinea]], [[Seram Island|Seram]], possibly [[Timor]], and neighbouring islands.

It is the smallest of the seven traditional continents in the [[English language|English]] conception. The continent lies on a [[continental shelf]] overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the [[Arafura Sea]] and [[Torres Strait]] between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and [[Bass Strait]] between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When [[sea level]]s were lower during the [[quaternary glaciation|Pleistocene ice age]], including the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into today's low-lying [[arid]] to [[semi-arid]] mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. Geologically, a continent extends to the edge of its continental shelf, so the now-separate islands are considered part of the continent.<ref name="JohnsonPage12">{{cite book | last = Johnson | first = David Peter | year = 2004 | title = The Geology of Australia | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | location = Port Melbourne, Victoria | id = | page = 12}}</ref> Due to the spread of animals, fungi and plants across the single Pleistocene landmass the separate lands have a related [[biota (ecology)|biota]].

[[New Zealand]] is not part of the continent of Australia, but of the separate, submerged continent of [[Zealandia (continent)|Zealandia]].<ref name="Te Ara">{{cite web|author=Keith Lewis|author2= Scott D. Nodder and Lionel Carter|url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/OceanStudyAndConservation/SeaFloorGeology/1/en |title=Zealandia: the New Zealand continent|work=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]]|date=2007-01-11|accessdate=2007-02-22}}</ref> New Zealand and Australia are both part of the wider regions known as [[Australasia]] and [[Oceania]]. The term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model.

==Geography and name==
{{Main|Geography of Australia}}
[[File:Australia New Guinea continent.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Mainland Australia]] showing the continental [[Sahul Shelf]] (light blue) extending to the islands of New Guinea in the north, the island of Timor in the northwest, and Tasmania in the south]]

With a total land area of {{convert|8.56|e6km2|sqmi}}, the Australian continent is the smallest and lowest human inhabited continent on [[Earth]].<ref name="Mocomi">{{cite web|author=Mocomi|publisher=Mocomi|url= http://mocomi.com/continents-of-the-world/ |title=Continents of the World|accessdate=2014-10-28}}</ref> The [[continental shelf]] connecting the islands, half of which is less than {{convert|50|m|ft}} deep, covers some {{convert|2.5|e6km2|sqmi}}, including the [[Sahul Shelf]]<ref name="aims">{{cite web | year = 2001 | url = http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/reflib/bigbank/pages/bb-04.html | title = Big Bank Shoals of the Timor Sea: An environmental resource atlas | publisher = Australian Institute of Marine Science | accessdate = 2006-08-28| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060908082408/http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/reflib/bigbank/pages/bb-04.html| archivedate= 8 September 2006 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="wirantaprawira">{{cite web | last = Wirantaprawira | first = Dr Willy | year = 2003 | url = http://www.wirantaprawira.net/indon/land.html | title = Republik Indonesia | publisher = Dr Willy Wirantaprawira | accessdate = 2006-08-28}}</ref> and [[Bass Strait]].
As the country of Australia is mostly on a single landmass, and comprises most of the continent, it is sometimes informally referred to as an island continent, surrounded by oceans.<ref>{{cite book |last=Löffler |first=Ernst |author2=A.J. Rose, Anneliese Löffler & Denis Warner |title=Australia:Portrait of a Continent |year=1983 |publisher=Hutchinson Group |location=Richmond, Victoria |page=17 |isbn=0-09-130460-1 }}</ref>

[[File:Map of Sunda and Sahul.png|thumb|300px|The [[Sahul Shelf|Sahul]] continent]]
Archaeological terminology for this region has changed repeatedly. Prior to the 1970s, the single Pleistocene landmass was called ''Australasia'',<ref name=ballard>{{cite conference |first=Chris |last=Ballard |title=Stimulating minds to fantasy? A critical etymology for Sahul |booktitle=Sahul in review: Pleistocene archaeology in Australia, New Guinea and island Melanesia |pages=19–20 |publisher=Australian National University | location= Canberra |year=1993 |isbn=0-7315-1540-4 }}</ref> derived from the [[Latin]] ''australis'', meaning "southern", although this word is most often used for a wider region that includes lands like New Zealand that are not on the same continental shelf. In the early 1970s, the term ''Greater Australia'' was introduced for the Pleistocene continent.<ref name=ballard/> Then at a 1975 conference and consequent publication,<ref>{{cite book |last=Allen |first=J. |author2=J. Golson and R. Jones (eds) |others= |title=Sunda and Sahul: Prehistorical studies in Southeast Asia, Melanesia and Australia |year=1977 |publisher=Academic Press |location=London |isbn=0-12-051250-5 |pages= |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> the name ''Sahul'' was extended from its previous use for just the [[Sahul Shelf]] to cover the continent.<ref name=ballard/>

In 1984 W. Filewood suggested the name ''Meganesia'', meaning "great island" or "great island-group", for both the Pleistocene continent and the present-day lands,<ref>{{cite conference |first=W. |last=Filewood |title=The Torres connection: Zoogeography of New Guinea |booktitle=Vertebrate zoogeography in Australasia |pages=1124–1125 |publisher=Hesperian Press | location=Carlisle, W.A. |year=1984 |isbn=0-85905-036-X }}</ref> and this name has been widely accepted by biologists.<ref>e.g. {{cite book |last=Flannery |first=Timothy Fridtjof |authorlink=Tim Flannery |title=The future eaters: An ecological history of the Australasian lands and people |year=1994 |publisher=Reed |location=Chatswood, NSW |isbn=0-7301-0422-2 |pages=42, 67 |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> Others have used ''Meganesia'' with different meanings: travel writer [[Paul Theroux]] included New Zealand in his definition<ref>{{cite book |last=Theroux |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Theroux |title=The happy isles of Oceania: Paddling the Pacific |year=1992 |publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=0-14-015976-2 |pages= |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> and others have used it for Australia, New Zealand and [[Hawaii]].<ref>{{cite journal |quotes= |last=Wareham |first=Evelyn |date=September 2002 |title=From Explorers to Evangelists: Archivists, Recordkeeping, and Remembering in the Pacific Islands |journal=Archival Science |volume=2 |issue=3–4 |pages=187–207 |doi=10.1007/BF02435621 }}</ref> Another biologist, [[Richard Dawkins]], coined the name ''Australinea'' in 2004.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=The ancestor's tale: A pilgrimage to the dawn of evolution |year=2004 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |isbn=0-618-00583-8 |page=224 |chapter= |quote = }}</ref> ''Australia-New Guinea'' has also been used.<ref>e.g. {{Cite book
| contribution=Pre-LGM Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea) and the Archaeology of Early Modern Humans
| last=O'Connell
| first=James F.
| last2=Allen
| first2=Jim
| title=Rethinking the Human Revolution
| editor-last=Mellars
| editor-first=P.
| editor2-last=Boyle
| editor2-first=K.
| editor3-last=Bar-Yosef
| editor3-first=O.
| editor4-last=Stringer
| editor4-first=C.

| year=2007
| pages=395–410
| place=Cambridge
| publisher=McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research
| contribution-url=http://www.anthro.utah.edu/PDFs/joc/32o_conn.pdf
| postscript=
}}</ref>

==Geology==
{{Main|Geology of Australia}}
The continent primarily sits on the [[Indo-Australian Plate]]. Because of its central location on its tectonic plate Australia doesn't have any active volcanic regions, the only continent with this distinction.<ref name="aeppp">{{cite book |title=Australian Environments: Place, Pattern and Process |last=Barrett |author2=Dent |year=1996 |publisher=Macmillan Education AU |isbn=0732931207 |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AUcU_35C9sC |accessdate=13 June 2014}}</ref> The lands were joined with [[Antarctica]] as part of the southern supercontinent [[Gondwana]] until the plate began to drift north about 96 million years ago. For most of the time since then, Australia–New Guinea remained a continuous landmass. When the [[last glacial period]] ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed [[Bass Strait]], separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating New Guinea, the [[Aru Islands]], and the Australian mainland.

A northern arc consisting of the [[New Guinea Highlands]], the [[Raja Ampat Islands]], and [[Halmahera]] was uplifted by the northward migration of Australia and subduction of the Pacific Plate. The [[Outer Banda Arc]] was accreted along the northwestern edge the continent; it includes the islands of [[Timor]], [[Tanimbar]], and [[Seram Island|Seram]].<ref>MG Audley-Charles, 1986, "Timor–Tanimbar Trough: the foreland basin of the evolving Banda orogen", ''Spec. Publs int. Ass. Sediment'', 8:91–102</ref>

==Biogeography==
{{See also|Fauna of Australia|Flora of Australia|Fungi of Australia}}
As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, a unique [[Fauna (animals)|fauna]], [[Flora (plants)|flora]] and [[Fungi|mycobiota]] developed. [[Marsupial]]s and [[monotreme]]s also existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out-compete the [[Placentalia|placental]] [[mammals]] and come to dominate. [[Aves|Bird]] life also flourished — in particular, the [[songbird]]s (order [[Passerine|Passeriformes]], suborder Passeri) are thought to have evolved 50 million years ago in the part of [[Gondwana]] that later became [[Australia]], New Zealand, [[New Guinea]], and [[Antarctica]], before radiating into a great number of different forms and then spreading around the globe.<ref name=Low>{{Citation
| last1 = Low
| first1 = T.
| title = Where Song Began: Australia's Birds and How They Changed the World
| publisher = Penguin Australia
| place = Tyre
| year = 2014
}}</ref> Among the fungi, the remarkable association between ''[[Cyttaria]]'' ''gunnii'' (one of the "golf-ball" fungi) and its associated trees in the genus ''[[Nothofagus]]'' is evidence of that drift: the only other places where this association is known are New Zealand and southern [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]].<ref>Korf, R.P. ''Cyttaria'' (Cyttariales): coevolution with ''Nothofagus'', and evolutionary relationship to the Boedijnpezizeae (Pezizales, Sarcoscyphaceae). pp. 77–87 in K.A. Pirozynski & J. Walker [eds] Pacific Mycogeography: a Preliminary Approach. ''Australian Journal of Botany'' Supplementary Series No. 10, 172 pp. (1983).</ref>

Animal groups such as [[Macropodidae|macropods]], [[monotremes]], and [[Cassowary|cassowaries]] are endemic to Australia. There were three main reasons for the enormous diversity that developed in animal, fungal and plant life.

* While much of the rest of the world underwent significant cooling and thus loss of species diversity, Australia–New Guinea was drifting north at such a pace that the overall global cooling effect was roughly equalled by its gradual movement toward the [[equator]]. [[Temperature]]s in Australia–New Guinea, in other words, remained reasonably constant for a very long time, and a vast number of different animal, fungal and plant species were able to evolve to fit particular [[ecological niche]]s.
* Because the continent was more isolated than any other, very few outside species arrived to colonise, and unique native forms developed unimpeded.
* Finally, despite the fact that the continent was already very old and thus relatively infertile, there are dispersed areas of high fertility. Where other continents had [[Volcanism|volcanic]] activity and/or massive [[Glacier|glaciation]] events to turn over fresh, unleached [[Rock (geology)|rock]]s rich in [[mineral]]s, the rocks and [[soil]]s of Australia–New Guinea were left largely untouched except by gradual [[erosion]] and deep [[weathering]]. In general, fertile soils produce a profusion of life, and a relatively large number of species/level of biodiversity. This is because where [[nutrient]]s are plentiful, competition is largely a matter of outcompeting rival species, leaving great scope for innovative [[co-evolution]] as is witnessed in tropical, fertile ecosystems. In contrast, infertile soils tend to induce competition on an abiotic basis meaning individuals all face constant environmental pressures, leaving less scope for divergent evolution, a process instrumental in creating new species.

For about 40 million years Australia–New Guinea was almost completely isolated. During this time, the continent experienced numerous changes in climate, but the overall trend was towards greater aridity. When [[South America]] eventually separated from Antarctica, the development of the cold [[Antarctic Circumpolar Current]] changed weather patterns across the world. For Australia–New Guinea, it brought a marked intensification of the drying trend. The great inland seas and lakes dried out. Much of the long-established broad-leaf [[deciduous]] forest began to give way to the distinctive hard-leaved [[sclerophyllous]] plants that characterise the modern Australian landscape.

For many species, the primary refuge was the relatively cool and well-watered [[Great Dividing Range]]. Even today, pockets of remnant vegetation remain in the cool uplands, some species not much changed from the Gondwanan forms of 60 or 90 million years ago.

Eventually, the Australia–New Guinea tectonic plate collided with the [[Eurasian plate]] to the north. The collision caused the northern part of the continent to buckle upwards, forming the high and rugged mountains of New Guinea and, by reverse (downwards) buckling, the [[Torres Strait]] that now separates the two main landmasses. The collision also pushed up the islands of [[Wallacea]], which served as island 'stepping-stones' that allowed plants from [[Southeast Asia]]'s rainforests to colonise New Guinea, and some plants from Australia–New Guinea to move into Southeast Asia. The ocean straits between the islands were narrow enough to allow plant dispersal, but served as an effective barrier to exchange of land mammals between Australia–New Guinea and Asia.

Although New Guinea is the most northerly part of the continent, and could be expected to be the most tropical in climate, the altitude of the New Guinea highlands is such that a great many animals and plants that were once common across Australia–New Guinea now survive only in the tropical highlands where they are severely threatened by [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]] pressures.

== Human habitation ==
Humans first populated eastern [[Wallacea]] (including [[Timor]], which at the time was separated from mainland Sahul), the rest of Sahul, and the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] from [[Sunda Shelf|Sunda]] around 45,000 years ago, by a founding population estimated to have been at least several hundred, and having had relatively sophisticated water craft.<ref>{{Cite book
| contribution=Getting from Sunda to Sahul
| last=Allen
| first=Jim
| last2=O'Connell
| first2=James F.
| title=Islands of Inquiry: Colonisation, seafaring and the archaeology of maritime landscapes
| editor-last=Clark
| editor-first=Geoffrey
| editor2-last=Leach
| editor2-first=Foss
| editor3-last=O'Connor
| editor3-first=Sue
| year=2008
| pages=31–46
| place=Canberra
| publisher=ANU Press}}</ref> There was little subsequent population mixing between Wallacea and Sahul for about 30,000 years, and indeed relatively little mixing between the north and south and the east and west of Sahul after the initial dispersal of the population.

==See also==
{{Portal|Australia|Geography}}
* [[Outline of Australia]]
* [[Pacific Islands]]
* [[Paleoclimatology]]
* [[Plate tectonics]]
* [[Mainland Australia]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Continents of the world}}
{{Regions of the world}}
{{Australia topics}}

{{coord|26|S|141|E|source:placeopedia|display=title}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Australia (continent)| ]]
[[Category:Continents]]

[[es:Sahul]]
[[la:Australia (continens)]]

1932 College Football All-America Team

2017-01-13T08:59:45Z

85.19.179.17: /* Consensus All-Americans */

The '''1932 College Football All-America team''' is composed of [[college football]] players who were selected as [[All-America]]ns by various organizations and writers that chose [[College Football All-America Team]]s in 1932. The eight selectors recognized by the [[NCAA]] as "official" for the 1932 season are (1) ''[[Collier's Weekly]]'', as selected by [[Grantland Rice]], (2) the [[Associated Press]], (3) the [[United Press]], (4) the All-America Board, (5) the [[Football Writers Association of America]] (FWAA); (6) the [[International News Service]] (INS), (7) ''[[Liberty (general interest magazine)|Liberty]]'' magazine, and (8) the [[Newspaper Enterprise Association]] (NEA).

==Consensus All-Americans==
For the year 1932, the NCAA recognizes eight published All-American teams as "official" designations for purposes of its consensus determinations. The following chart identifies the NCAA-recognized consensus All-Americans and displays which first-team designations they received.

{|border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! bgcolor="F" width="15%" | Name
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="10%" | Position
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="10%" | School
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="7%" | Number
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="25%" | Official
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="25%" | Other
|-align="left"
|[[Paul Moss (American football)|Paul Moss]]||End||Purdue||8/8||AAB, AP, CO, FWAA, INS, LIB, NEA, UP||CP, NYS, NYT, PD, PM, TR, WC
|-align="left"
|[[Harry Newman]]||Quarterback||Michigan||8/8||AAB, AP, CO, FWAA, INS, LIB, NEA, UP||CP, NYS, NYT, PD, PM, TR, WC
|-align="left"
|[[Joe Kurth]]||Tackle||Notre Dame||8/8||AAB, AP, CO, FWAA, INS, LIB, NEA, UP||CP, NYS, NYT, PM, TR, WC
|-align="left"
|[[Ernie Smith (tackle)|Ernie Smith]]||Tackle||USC||8/8||AAB, AP, CO, FWAA, INS, LIB, NEA, UP||CP, NYS, NYT, TR, WC
|-align="left"
|[[Warren Heller]]||Halfback||Pittsburgh||8/8||AAB, AP, CO, FWAA, INS, LIB, NEA, UP||CP, NYS, PM, TR
|-align="left"
|[[Milton Summerfelt]]||Guard||Army||6/8||AP, CO, FWAA, INS, NEA, UP||CP, NYS, NYT, TR, PD, PM
|-align="left"
|[[Jimmy Hitchcock]]||Halfback||Auburn||6/8||AAB, AP, CO, FWAA, INS, NEA||NYT, WC, TR, PD, PM
|-align="left"
|[[Bill Corbus]]||Guard||Stanford||4/8||AAB, CO, NEA, UP||NYS, TR, WC
|-align="left"
|[[Don Zimmerman (halfback)|Don Zimmerman]]||Halfback||Tulane||4/8||AP, CO, LIB, UP||CP, NYT
|-align="left"
|[[Joe Skladany]]||End||Pittsburgh||4/8||FWAA, INS, NEA, UP||TR
|-align="left"
|''[[Lawrence Ely]]''<ref>The NCAA does not recognize Lawrence Ely as a consensus first-team All-American even though he had three official first-team designations; Clarence Gracey is recognized as the consensus center although he received only two first-team designations.</ref>||Center||Nebraska||3/8||AAB, AP, CO||NYS
|-align="left"
|[[Clarence Gracey]]||Center||Vanderbilt||2/8||LIB, UP||NYT, PD, TR
|-align="left"
|}

==All-American selections for 1932==
===Ends===
*'''[[Paul Moss (American football)|Paul Moss]]''', Purdue (AP-1; UP-1; CO-1; AAB-1; NEA-1; INS-1; CP-1; NYS-1; NYT-1; WC-1; FWAA; LIB; TR-1; PD; PM)
*'''[[Joe Skladany]]''', Pittsburgh (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-2; UP-1; NEA-1; INS-1; CP-2; FWAA; TR-1)
*[[Ted Petoskey]], Michigan (UP-3; WC-1; AAB-1; INS-3; NYS-2)
*[[Jose Martinez-Zorilla]], Cornell (AP-1)
*[[David Ariail]], Auburn (NEA-2; CP-1)
*[[Dick King (American football)|Richard King]], Army (AP-2; UP-3; NEA-2; INS-2; NYS-1)
*[[Dave Nisbet]], Washington (AP-3; CO-1; INS-2; LIB)
*[[Clary Anderson]], Colgate (NEA-3; NYT-1)
*[[Frank Meadow]], Brown (AP-3)
*Edwin Kosky, Notre Dame (UP-2)
*[[Virgil Rayburn]], Tennessee (NYS-2)
*[[Red Matal]], Columbia (UP-2; NEA-3; PM)
*Francis "Hands" Slavich, Santa Clara (INS-3)
*[[Sid Gillman]], Ohio State (PD)
*[[Ivy Williamson]], Michigan (CP-2)
*Ford Palmer, USC (CP-3)
*Madison Pruitt, TCU (CP-3)

===Tackles===
*'''[[Joe Kurth]]''', Notre Dame (AP-1; UP-1; CO-1; AAB-1; NEA-1; INS-1; CP-1; NYS-1; NYT-1; WC-1; FWAA; LIB; TR-1; PM)
*'''[[Ernie Smith (tackle)|Ernie Smith]]''', USC (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-1; UP-1; CO-1; AAB-1; NEA-1; INS-1; CP-1; NYS-2; NYT-1; WC-1; FWAA; LIB; TR-1; PD)
*[[Edward Krause]], Notre Dame (AP-2; UP-3; NEA-2; INS-2; CP-2)
*[[Fred Crawford (American football)|Fred Crawford]], Duke (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-2; UP-2; CP-3)
*Raymond Brown, USC (AP-3; UP-3; NEA-2; INS-2; CP-3; NYS-1; PM)
*[[Howard Colehower]], Penn (AP-3; UP-2; NEA-3; INS-3; CP-2)
*L. Brown, Brown (NEA-3)
*[[Ted Rosequist]], Ohio State (INS-3)
*John Wilbur, Yale (NYS-2)
*Irad Hardy, Harvard (PD)

===Guards===
*'''[[Milton Summerfelt]]''', Army (AP-1; UP-1; CO-1; NEA-1; INS-1; CP-1; NYS-1; FWAA; NYT-1; TR-1; PD; PM)
*'''[[Bill Corbus]]''', Stanford (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-3; UP-1; CO-1; AAB-1; NEA-1; CP-2; NYS-1; WC-1; TR-1)
*Robert Smith, Colgate (AP-2; UP-2; AAB-1; NEA-2; INS-1; CP-1; NYS-2; WC-1; LIB; PD)
*[[Aaron Rosenberg]], USC (College Football Hall of Fame) (UP-3; INS-2; FWAA; LIB)
*[[Johnny Vaught]], TCU (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-1; UP-2; INS-3; CP-3; NYT-1)
*[[Joseph Gailus]], Ohio State (AP-2; UP-3; NEA-2; INS-2; CP-3; NYS-2; PM)
*[[Mike Steponovich]], St. Mary's (AP-3; NEA-3)
*James Harris, Notre Dame (NEA-3)
*[[Greg Kabat]], Wisconsin (INS-3)
*[[Thomas Hupke]], Alabama (CP-2)

===Centers===
*'''[[Clarence Gracey]]''', Vanderbilt (AP-2; UP-1; NEA-2; INS-2; NYS-2; NYT-1; TR-1, CP-3; LIB; PD)
*[[Lawrence Ely]], Nebraska (AP-1; UP-2; CO-1; AAB-1; INS-3; NYS-1)
*[[Chuck Bernard]], Michigan (AP-3; NEA-1; INS-1; CP-2; FWAA)
*[[Cap Oehler]], Purdue (NEA-3)
*[[Tom Gilbane]], Brown (CP-1)
*[[Art Krueger]], Marquette (WC-1; PM)
*Joe Tormey, Pitt (UP-3)

===Quarterbacks===
*'''[[Harry Newman]]''', Michigan (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-1; UP-1; CO-1; AAB-1; NEA-1; INS-1; CP-1; NYS-1; NYT-1; WC-1; FWAA; LIB; TR-1; PD; PM)
*[[Cliff Montgomery]], Columbia (AP-2; UP-3; INS-2; NYS-2)
*[[Felix Vidal]], Army (AP-3)
*[[Bob Monnett]], Michigan State (NEA-2)
*[[Johnny Cain]], Alabama (College Football Hall of Fame) (NEA-3)
*Robert Ramsay Chase, Brown (INS-3; CP-2; NYS-1 [fb])
*[[Charles R. Soleau]], Colgate (UP-3)
*William "Bill" Beasley, St. Mary's (CP-3)

===Halfbacks===
*'''[[Warren Heller]]''', Pittsburgh (AP-1; UP-1; CO-1 [fb]; AAB-1; NEA-1; INS-1; CP-1; NYS-1; WC-1; FWAA; LIB; TR-1; PM)
*'''[[Jimmy Hitchcock]]''', Auburn (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-1; UP-2; CO-1; AAB-1; NEA-1; INS-1; CP-2; NYS-2; NYT-1; WC-1; FWAA; TR-1; PD; PM)
*'''[[Don Zimmerman (halfback)|Don Zimmerman]]''', Tulane (AP-1 [fb]; UP-1; CO-1; NEA-3; INS-2; CP-1; LIB; NYT-1)
*[[Harrison Stafford]], Texas (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-2)
*George Sanders, Washington State (AP-2; UP-3; NEA-2; NYS-2)
*[[Beattie Feathers]], Tennessee (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-3; UP-3; INS-3)
*[[John Crickard]], Harvard (AP-3)
*Gil Berry, Illinois (NEA-2; CP-3)
*[[Frank Christensen]], Utah (NEA-3)
*[[Johnny Cain]], Alabama (College Football Hall of Fame) (INS-2)
*Whitey Ask, Colgate (INS-3)
*Robert Lassiter, Yale (PD)
*Bohn Hilliard, Texas (CP-2)
*Henry "Hank" Schaldach, California (CP-3)

===Fullbacks===
*[[Roy Horstmann]], Purdue (UP-2; AAB-1; NEA-1; INS-1; CP-2; NYS-1 [hb]; NYT-1; WC-1; TR-1; PM)
*[[Frank Christensen]], Utah (UP-1; CP-3)
*[[George Melinkovich]], Notre Dame (UP-2 [halfback]; NEA-2; INS-2; LIB; PD)
*[[Jack Manders]], Minnesota (CP-1; INS-3)
*[[Bart Viviano]], Cornell (AP-2; NYS-2)
*[[Duane Purvis]], Purdue (AP-3)
*[[Angelo Brovelli]], St. Mary's (UP-3; NEA-3; FWAA)

==Key==
* '''Bold''' – Consensus All-American<ref>{{cite web|title=2014 NCAA Football Records: Consensus All-America Selections|publisher=National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)|year=2014|accessdate=August 16, 2014|page=5|url=http://fs.ncaa.org/Docs/stats/football_records/2014/Awards.pdf}}</ref>
* -1 – First-team selection
* -2 – Second-team selection
* -3 – Third-team selection

===Official selectors===
* AAB = All America Board selected by Christy Walsh in collaboration with [[Glenn Warner]], W.A. Alexander, Jesse C. Harper, Edward L. Casey<ref>{{cite news|author=Christy Walsh|title=All America Board Honors Capt. Bob Smith of Colgate|work=Syracuse Herald|date=1932-12-11}}</ref>
* AP = [[Associated Press]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Four Midwest Stars Voted Places on 1932 All-American Football Team|work=Evening Independent|location=Masillon, Ohio|date=1932-12-03}}</ref>
* CO = ''Collier's Weekly'', selected by [[Grantland Rice]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Big Ten Gets Two Players On Rice's All American|work=Evening Tribune|location=MN|date=1932-12-16}}</ref>
* INS = INS (Hearst) newspaper syndicate<ref>{{cite news|title=Hearst's Men Select Teams|work=San Antonio Light|date=1932-12-04}}</ref>
* LIB = ''Liberty'' magazine<ref name=ESPN/>
* NANA = [[North American Newspaper Alliance]]<ref name=ESPN/>
* NEA = NEA Sports Syndicate<ref>{{cite news|author=Bill Braucher|title=NEA Names Its All-American Football Team for 1932 Season|work=The Daily News|location=Frederick, MD|date=1932-12-02}}</ref>
* UP = [[United Press]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Name United Press 1932 All-American Grid Team|work=Stevens Point Daily Journal|date=1932-11-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Two Big Ten Stars Named on U. P. All-America: NEWMAN AND MOSS ONLY PLAYERS IN BIG TEN ON TEAM|newspaper=Brainerd Daily Dispatch|date=1932-11-28}}</ref>

===Other selectors===
* CP = [[Central Press Association]], the captains' poll<ref>{{cite news|author=William Ritt|title=Middle West and East Lead in Central Press' All-American Selections: Mythical Eleven Is Named By Football Captains of U.S.|work=Evening Independent|location=Massillon, Ohio|date=1932-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=William Ritt|title=Players Pick Own All-American: MID WEST-EAST PLACE FOUR ON MYTHICAL TEAM; Newman of Michigan Is Unanimous Selection For Quarterback|newspaper=Burlington Hawk Eye|date=1932-12-07}}</ref>
* NYS = ''New York Sun''<ref>{{cite news|title=An All American Team: New York Sun Selects Two Players from Army and Purdue|work=Emporia Gazette|date=1932-11-26}}</ref>
* WC = [[Walter Camp Football Foundation]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Walter Camp Football Foundation All-American Selections|url=http://waltercamp.org/index.php/teams_and_awards/|publisher=Walter Camp Football Foundation}}</ref>
*FWAA = Football Writers Association of America<ref name=ESPN>{{cite book|title=ESPN College Football Encyclopedia|page=1164|publisher=ESPN Books|year=2005|isbn=1401337031}}</ref>
* NYW = ''New York World-Telegram''<ref>{{cite news|title=Purdue Places Pair on World All-America|work=Middletown Times Herald|date=1932-11-26}}</ref>
* TR = Ted A. Ramsay, an attempt to create a consensus All-American team using the selections of the six most prominent selectors: the All-America Board, NEA, UP, AP, ''New York Sun'' and ''New York World''. Three players, Moss, Kurth and Newman were unanimously selected by all six.<ref>{{cite news|author=Ted A. Ramsay|title=Consensus All America Shows Most Outstanding Stars of 1932|work=Charleston Daily Mail|date=1932-12-11}}</ref>
* PD = [[Parke H. Davis]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Parke Davis Picks All-American Team|newspaper=The Hartford Courant|date=1932-11-26}}</ref>
* PM = Philip Martin<ref>{{cite news|author=Philip Marin|title=Newman, Michigan; Heller, Pitt; Brown, Southern California, and Kurth, Notre Dame, Rate Berths on Martin's 1932 All-America|newspaper=Indian Journal|location=Eufaula, OK|date=1932-12-01}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[1932 All-Big Six Conference football team]]
* [[1932 All-Big Ten Conference football team]]
* [[1932 All-Pacific Coast Conference football team]]
* [[1932 College Football All-Southern Team|1930 All-Southern football team]]
* [[1932 All-Southwest Conference football team]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{1932 College Football Consensus All-Americans}}
{{College Football All-America Teams}}

[[Category:1932 NCAA football season|All-America Team]]
[[Category:College Football All-America Teams]]

Hanukkah

2016-12-05T10:01:09Z

85.19.179.17: It was my birthday

{{About||the village Hanaka, in Iran|Honeg-e Pain|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox holiday
|image = Hanuka-Menorah-by-Gil-Dekel-2014.jpg
|caption = A Hanukkah menorah, or Hanukkiah
|holiday_name = Hanukkah
|official_name = {{lang-he-n|חֲנֻכָּה}} or {{lang|he|חנוכה}} English translation: "Establishing" or "Dedication" (of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]])
|nickname =
|observedby = [[Jews]]
|begins = 25 [[Kislev]]
|ends = 2 [[Tevet]] or 3 [[Tevet]]
|celebrations = Lighting [[candle]]s each night. Singing special songs, such as [[Ma'oz Tzur]]. Reciting [[Hallel]] prayer. Eating foods fried in oil, such as [[latke]]s and [[sufganiyot]], and dairy foods. Playing the ''[[Hanukkah#Dreidel|dreidel]]'' game, and giving [[Hanukkah#Gelt|Hanukkah ''gelt'']]
|type = Jewish
|significance = The [[Maccabees]] successfully [[Maccabean Revolt|rebelled]] against [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]]. According to the [[Talmud]], a late text, the Temple was purified and the [[Miracle of the cruse of oil|wicks of the menorah miraculously burned for eight days]], even though there was only enough sacred oil for one day's lighting.
|relatedto = [[Purim]], as a [[rabbi]]nically decreed holiday.
|date2014 = Sunset, 16 December to nightfall, 24 December
|date2015 = Sunset, 6 December to nightfall, 14 December MIN BURSDAG
|date2016 = Sunset, 24 December to nightfall, 1 January NIGHTBLUE3
}}
[[File:Chanukkah2007 pic (1)c.JPG|thumb|Hanukkah table]]

'''Hanukkah''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɑː|n|ə|k|ə}} {{respell|HAH|nə-kə}}; {{lang-he-n|חֲנֻכָּה}} ''{{transl|he|khanuká}}'', [[Tiberian Hebrew|Tiberian]]: ''{{transl|he|khanuká}}'', usually spelled {{lang|he|חנוכה}}, pronounced {{IPA-he|χanuˈka|}} in [[Modern Hebrew]], {{IPA-he|ˈχanukə|}} or {{IPA-he|ˈχanikə|}} in [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]; a transliteration also romanized as '''Chanukah''' or '''Ḥanukah''') is a [[Jewish holiday]] commemorating the rededication of the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Holy Temple]] (the [[Second Temple]]) in [[Jerusalem]] at the time of the [[Maccabean Revolt]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]]. Hanukkah is observed for eight nights and days, starting on the 25th day of [[Kislev]] according to the [[Hebrew calendar]], which may occur at any time from late November to late December in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. It is also known as the '''Festival of Lights''' and the '''Feast of Dedication'''.

The festival is observed by the kindling of the lights of a unique [[candelabrum]], the nine-branched ''[[Menorah (Hanukkah)|menorah]]'' (also called a ''Chanukiah''/''Hanukiah''), one additional light on each night of the holiday, progressing to eight on the final night. The typical menorah consists of eight branches with an additional visually distinct branch. The extra light, with which the others are lit, is called a ''[[gabbai|shamash]]'' ({{lang-he|שמש}}, "attendant") and is given a distinct location, usually above or below the rest.<ref>[http://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/article_cdo/aid/103868/ Menorah Lighting Guide].</ref> Other Hanukkah festivities include playing [[Hanukkah#Dreidel|dreidel]] and eating oil-based foods such as doughnuts and [[Potato pancake#Hanukkah tradition|latkes]]. Since the 1970s, the worldwide [[Chabad]] [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] movement has initiated public menorah lightings in open public places in many countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://joi.org/bloglinks/JTA%20NEWS%20Chanuka%20Chabad.htm|title=JTA NEWS|publisher=}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The name "Hanukkah" derives from the Hebrew verb "{{lang|he|חנך}}", meaning "to dedicate". On Hanukkah, the Maccabean Jews regained control of Jerusalem and rededicated the Temple.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/religion/judaism/hanukkah.shtml|title=BBC - Schools - Religion - Judaism|publisher=}}</ref><ref>Being Jewish: The Spiritual and Cultural Practice of Judaism Today, Ari L. Goldman, Simon and Schuster, pg141</ref>
Many [[Homiletics|homiletical]] explanations have been given for the name:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.torah.org/features/holydays/originchanukah.html|title=Origin of the Name Chanukah|first=Nosson|last=Scherman|publisher=Torah.org}}</ref>
* The name can be broken down into {{lang|he|חנו כ"ה}}, "[they] rested [on the] twenty-fifth", referring to the fact that the Jews ceased fighting on the 25th day of [[Kislev]], the day on which the holiday begins.<ref>[[Nissim of Gerona|Ran]] Shabbat 9b ({{cite web|url= http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=14314&pgnum=542 |title=Hebrew text }})</ref>
* {{lang|he|חנוכה}} (Hanukkah) is also the Hebrew [[acronym]] for {{lang|he|'''ח''' '''נ'''רות '''ו'''הלכה '''כ'''בית '''ה'''לל}} — "Eight candles, and the [[halakha]] is like the House of Hillel". This is a reference to the disagreement between two rabbinical schools of thought — the [[Hillel the Elder|House of Hillel]] and the [[Shammai|House of Shammai]] — on the proper order in which to light the Hanukkah flames. Shammai opined that eight candles should be lit on the first night, seven on the second night, and so on down to one on the last night (because the miracle was greatest on the first day). Hillel argued in favor of starting with one candle and lighting an additional one every night, up to eight on the eighth night (because the miracle grew in greatness each day). [[Jewish law]] adopted the position of Hillel.<ref>Orthodox Union, [http://www.ou.org/holidays/chanukah/laws/ The Lights of Chanukah – Laws and Customs]. 9 April 2014.</ref>

=== Alternative spellings ===
[[File:Hanukkah.png|thumb|Spelling variations due to transliteration of Hebrew ''Chet Nun Vav Kaf Hey'']]
In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the word Hanukkah is written {{Hebrew|חֲנֻכָּה}} or {{lang|he|חנוכה}} ({{transl|he|Ḥănukkāh}}). It is most commonly transliterated to English as ''{{transl|he|Chanukah}}'' or ''Hanukkah'', the former because the sound represented by "CH" ({{IPAblink|χ}}, similar to the [[Scots language|Scottish]] pronunciation of "[[loch]]") does not exist in the English language. Furthermore, the letter "[[heth|ḥet]]" ({{lang|he|ח}}), which is the first letter in the Hebrew spelling, is pronounced differently in modern Hebrew ([[voiceless uvular fricative]]) from in classical Hebrew ([[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]] {{IPAblink|ħ}}), and neither of those sounds is unambiguously representable in English spelling. Moreover, the 'kaf' consonant is [[geminate]] in classical (but not modern) Hebrew. Adapting the classical Hebrew pronunciation with the geminate and pharyngeal {{transl|he|Ḥeth}} can lead to the spelling "Hanukkah"; while adapting the modern Hebrew pronunciation with no gemination and uvular {{transl|he|Ḥeth}} leads to the spelling "{{transl|he|Chanukah}}". It has also been spelled as "Hannukah".

== Historical sources ==

=== Maccabees, Mishna and Talmud ===
{{See also|Mishnah#Omissions}}

The story of Hanukkah is preserved in the books of the [[First Maccabees|First]] and [[Second Maccabees]], which describe in detail the re-dedication of the Temple in Jerusalem and the lighting of the menorah. These books are not part of the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible) which came from the Palestinian canon; however, they were part of the Alexandrian canon which is also called the [[Septuagint]] (sometimes abbreviated LXX).<ref name="Carson 2005">{{cite book |title= Hermeneutics, Authority, and Canon |last= Carson |first= D. A. |year= 2005 |publisher= Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn= 9781597521185 |quote= E. AN ALEXANDRIAN CANON? Some assert that the Greek translation of the Old Testament (called the Septuagint or LXX) offers evidence that the canon of diaspora Judaism |page=307}}</ref> Both books are included in the [[Old Testament]] used by the Catholic and Orthodox Churches,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.orthodoxchristian.info/pages/old_testament.html|title=The Old Testament|publisher=}}</ref> since those churches consider the books deuterocanonical. They are not included in the [[Old Testament]] books in most [[Protestant]] Bibles, since most Protestants consider the books apocryphal. Multiple references to Hanukkah are also made in the [[Mishna]] (Bikkurim 1:6, Rosh HaShanah 1:3, Taanit 2:10, Megillah 3:4 and 3:6, Moed Katan 3:9, and Bava Kama 6:6), though specific laws are not described. The miracle of the one-day supply of oil miraculously lasting eight days is first described in the [[Talmud]], committed to writing about 600 years after the events described in the books of Maccabees.<ref>{{cite news|last=Dolanksy|first=Shawna|title=The Truth(s) About Hanukkah|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/shawna-dolansky/the-truth-about-hanukah_b_1165708.html|newspaper=Huffington Post|date=23 December 2011}}</ref>

[[Nissim Ben Jacob|Rav Nissim Gaon]] postulates in his ''Hakdamah Le'mafteach Hatalmud'' that information on the holiday was so commonplace that the Mishna felt no need to explain it. A modern-day scholar [[Reuvein Margolies]]<ref>''Yesod Hamishna Va'arichatah'' pp. 25–28 ({{cite web|url= http://www.hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=20976&pgnum=24 |title=Hebrew text }})</ref> suggests that as the Mishnah was redacted after the [[Bar Kochba revolt]], its editors were reluctant to include explicit discussion of a holiday celebrating another relatively recent revolt against a foreign ruler, for fear of antagonizing the Romans.

[[File:Hanukkah2.jpg|thumb|upright|Hanukkah lamp unearthed near Jerusalem about 1900]]

The [[Gemara]] ([[Talmud]]), in tractate ''Shabbat,'' page 21b, focuses on [[Shabbat candles]] and moves to Hanukkah candles and says that after the forces of [[Antiochus IV]] had been driven from the Temple, the Maccabees discovered that almost all of the ritual olive oil had been profaned. They found only a single container that was still [[seal (device)|sealed]] by the [[Kohen Gadol|High Priest]], with enough oil to keep the menorah in the Temple lit for a single day. They used this, yet it burned for eight days (the time it took to have new oil pressed and made ready).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Talmud/shabbat2.html |title=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |access-date=25 December 2011}}</ref>

The Talmud presents three options:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.come-and-hear.com/shabbath/shabbath_21.html#PARTb|title=Babylonian Talmud: Shabbath 21|author=Atenebris Adsole|date=25 December 2002|publisher=}}</ref>
# The law requires only one light each night per household,
# A better practice is to light one light each night for each member of the household
# The most preferred practice is to vary the number of lights each night.

In [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic]] families, the head of the household lights the candles, while in [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazic]] families, all family members light.{{Citation needed|date=November 2014}}

Except in times of danger, the lights were to be placed outside one's door, on the opposite side of the [[mezuza]], or in the window closest to the street. [[Rashi]], in a note to ''Shabbat 21b,'' says their purpose is to publicize the miracle. The blessings for Hanukkah lights are discussed in tractate ''Succah,'' p. 46a.

=== Narrative of Josephus ===
The Jewish historian [[Josephus|Titus Flavius Josephus]] narrates in his book, [[Antiquities of the Jews|Jewish Antiquities]] XII, how the victorious [[Judas Maccabeus]] ordered lavish yearly eight-day festivities after rededicating the Temple in Jerusalem that had been profaned by [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Josephus|access-date=1 July 2016|title=Jewish Antiquities|url=http://www.loebclassics.com/view/josephus-jewish_antiquities/1930/pb_LCL365.167.xml?result=2&rskey=cyZg7g |doi=10.4159/DLCL.josephus-jewish_antiquities.1930}} {{Subscription needed|via=[[Loeb Classical Library|digital Loeb Classical Library]]}}</ref> Josephus does not say the festival was called Hanukkah but rather the "Festival of Lights":

:"Now Judas celebrated the festival of the restoration of the sacrifices of the temple for eight days, and omitted no sort of pleasures thereon; but he feasted them upon very rich and splendid sacrifices; and he honored God, and delighted them by hymns and psalms. Nay, they were so very glad at the revival of their customs, when, after a long time of intermission, they unexpectedly had regained the freedom of their worship, that they made it a law for their posterity, that they should keep a festival, on account of the restoration of their temple worship, for eight days. And from that time to this we celebrate this festival, and call it Lights. I suppose the reason was, because this liberty beyond our hopes appeared to us; and that thence was the name given to that festival. Judas also rebuilt the walls round about the city, and reared towers of great height against the incursions of enemies, and set guards therein. He also fortified the city [[Beth-zur|Bethsura]], that it might serve as a citadel against any distresses that might come from our enemies."<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=J.+AJ+12.287 Perseus.tufts.edu], ''Jewish Antiquities'' xii. 7, § 7, #323</ref>

=== Other ancient sources ===
The story of Hanukkah is alluded to in the book of [[1 Maccabees]] and [[2 Maccabees]]. The eight-day rededication of the temple is described in 1 Maccabees 4:36 ''et seq'', though the name of the festival and the miracle of the lights do not appear here. A story similar in character, and obviously older in date, is the one alluded to in 2 Maccabees 1:18 ''et seq'' according to which the relighting of the altar fire by [[Nehemiah]] was due to a miracle which occurred on the 25th of Kislev, and which appears to be given as the reason for the selection of the same date for the rededication of the altar by Judah Maccabee.

Another source is the [[Megillat Antiochus]]. This work (also known as "Megillat Benei Ḥashmonai", "Megillat Hanukkah" or "Megillat Yevanit") is extant in both the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] languages; the Hebrew version is a literal translation from the Aramaic original. Recent scholarship dates it to somewhere between the 2nd and 5th Centuries, probably in the 2nd century,<ref>{{cite web|first=Benjamin|last=Zvieli|title=The Scroll of Antiochus|url= http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/eng/miketz/zev.html| access-date=28 January 2007}}</ref> with the Hebrew dating to the 7th century.<ref name = "pvgsyw">{{cite web|url=http://customerservant.com/2006/12/16/the-scroll-of-the-hasmoneans/|title=The Scroll Of The Hasmoneans| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528035707/http://customerservant.com/2006/12/16/the-scroll-of-the-hasmoneans/|archive-date=28 May 2007}}</ref> It was published for the first time in [[Mantua]] in 1557. [[Saadia Gaon]], who translated it into [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in the 9th century, ascribed it to the elders of the [[School of Shammai]] and the [[School of Hillel]].<ref>Saadia Gaon, ''Introduction to Sefer Ha-Iggaron'' (ed. Abraham Firkovich), Odessa 1868 (Hebrew); See also [http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/eng/miketz/zev.html The Scroll of Antiochus] and [http://www.oztorah.com/2007/11/the-unknown-chanukah-mgillah/ The Unknown Chanukah Megillah]</ref> The Hebrew text with an English translation can be found in the [[Siddur]] of [[Philip Birnbaum]].

The ''Scroll of Antiochus'' concludes with the following words:

{{Quote|...After this, the sons of Israel went up to the Temple and rebuilt its gates and purified the Temple from the dead bodies and from the defilement. And they sought after pure [[olive oil]] to light the lamps therewith, but could not find any, except one bowl that was sealed with the signet ring of the High Priest from the days of Samuel the prophet and they knew that it was pure. There was in it [enough oil] to light [the lamps therewith] for one day, but the God of heaven whose name dwells there put therein his blessing and they were able to light from it eight days. Therefore, the sons of Ḥashmonai made this covenant and took upon themselves a solemn vow, they and the sons of Israel, all of them, to publish amongst the sons of Israel, [to the end] that they might observe these eight days of joy and honour, as the days of the feasts written in [the book of] the Law; [even] to light in them so as to make known to those who come after them that their God wrought for them salvation from heaven. In them, it is not permitted to mourn, neither to decree a fast [on those days], and anyone who has a vow to perform, let him perform it.}}
[[File:Section_from_Aramaic_Scroll_of_Antiochus,_April_2015.jpg|thumb|right|Section from the Aramaic Scroll of Antiochus in [[Babylonian supralinear punctuation]], with an Arabic translation]]

Original language (Aramaic):
{{Quote|בָּתַר דְּנָּא עָלוּ בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל לְבֵית מַקְדְּשָׁא וּבְנוֹ תַּרְעַיָּא וְדַכִּיאוּ בֵּית מַקְדְּשָׁא מִן קְטִילַיָּא וּמִן סְאוֹבֲתָא. וּבעוֹ מִשְׁחָא דְּזֵיתָא דָּכְיָא לְאַדְלָקָא בּוֹצִנַיָּא וְלָא אַשְׁכַּחוּ אֵלָא צְלוֹחִית חֲדָא דַּהֲוָת חֲתִימָא בְּעִזְקָת כָּהֲנָא רַבָּא מִיּוֹמֵי שְׁמוּאֵל נְבִיָּא וִיַדְעוּ דְּהִיא דָּכְיָא. בְּאַדְלָקוּת יוֹמָא חֲדָא הֲוָה בַּהּ וַאֲלָה שְׁמַיָּא דִּי שַׁכֵין שְׁמֵיהּ תַּמָּן יְהַב בַּהּ בִּרְכְּתָא וְאַדְלִיקוּ מִנַּהּ תְּמָנְיָא יוֹמִין. עַל כֵּן קַיִּימוּ בְּנֵי חַשְׁמוּנַּאי הָדֵין קְיָימָא וַאֲסַרוּ הָדֵין אֲסָּרָא אִנּוּן וּבְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל כּוּלְּהוֹן. לְהוֹדָעָא לִבְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל לְמֶעֲבַד הָדֵין תְּמָנְיָא יוֹמִין חַדְוָא וִיקָר כְּיּוֹמֵי מוֹעֲדַיָּא דִּכְתִיבִין בְּאוֹרָיְתָא לְאַדְלָקָא בְּהוֹן לְהוֹדָעָא לְמַן דְּיֵּיתֵי מִבַּתְרֵיהוֹן אֲרֵי עֲבַד לְהוֹן אֱלָהֲהוֹן פּוּרְקָנָא מִן שְׁמַיָּא. בְּהוֹן לָא לְמִסְפַּד וְלָא לְמִגְזַר צוֹמָא וְכָל דִּיהֵי עֲלוֹהִי נִדְרָא יְשַׁלְּמִנֵּיהּ<ref>{{cite web|last=Hubarah|first=Yosef|title=''Sefer Ha-Tiklāl'' (''Tiklal Qadmonim'')|publisher=Jerusalem 1964, pp. 75b–79b, s.v. מגלת בני חשמונאי (Hebrew)}}</ref>}}

In the [[Christian Greek Scriptures]], it is stated that Jesus walked in [[Solomon's Porch]] at the [[Jerusalem Temple]] during "the Feast of Dedication and it was winter", in John 10:22–23. The Greek term that is used is "the renewals" (Greek ''ta engkainia'' τὰ ἐγκαίνια).<ref>This is the first reference to the Feast of Dedication by this name (ta egkainia, ta enkainia [a typical “festive plural”]) in Jewish literature (Hengel 1999: 317). "</ref> [[Josephus]] refers to the festival as "lights."<ref>''Mercer Dictionary of the Bible'' ed. Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard – 1990 -"Hence Hanukkah also is called the Feast of Lights, an alternate title Josephus confirms with this rationale: "And from that time to this we celebrate this festival, and call it 'Lights.' I suppose the reason was, because this liberty beyond our hopes appeared to us; and that thence was the name given to that festival." (per ''The works of Flavius Josephus'' translated by William Whiston)</ref>

== Story ==

=== Background ===
{{Further information|Coele-Syria}}
[[File:Jerusalem Modell BW 2.JPG|thumb|[[Holyland Model of Jerusalem|A model]] of [[Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period]]]]
[[Judea]] was part of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] of Egypt until 200 [[Before Christ|BC]] when King [[Antiochus III the Great]] of [[Syria]] defeated King [[Ptolemy V Epiphanes]] of Egypt at the [[Battle of Panium]]. Judea then became part of the [[Seleucid Empire]] of Syria. King [[Antiochus III the Great]] wanting to conciliate his new Jewish subjects guaranteed their right to "live according to their ancestral customs" and to continue to practice their religion in the Temple of Jerusalem. However, in 175 BC, [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]], the son of Antiochus III, invaded Judea, at the request of the sons of Tobias.<ref>[http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=1:section=31 Old.perseus.tufts.edu]
''Jewish War'' i. 31</ref> The [[Tobiads]], who led the [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenizing Jewish faction]] in Jerusalem, were expelled to Syria around 170 BC when the high priest [[Menelaus (High Priest)|Onias]] and his pro-Egyptian faction wrested control from them. The exiled Tobiads lobbied Antiochus IV Epiphanes to recapture Jerusalem. As the ancient Jewish historian Flavius Josephus tells us:
{{quote|The king being thereto disposed beforehand, complied with them, and came upon the Jews with a great army, and took their city by force, and slew a great multitude of those that favored Ptolemy, and sent out his soldiers to plunder them without mercy. He also spoiled the temple, and put a stop to the constant practice of offering a daily sacrifice of expiation for three years and six months.|source=''[[The Jewish War]]''}}

=== Traditional view ===
When the [[Second Temple]] in Jerusalem was looted and services stopped, [[Judaism]] was outlawed. In 167 BC [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes|Antiochus]] ordered an altar to [[Zeus]] erected in the Temple. He banned [[brit milah]] (circumcision) and ordered pigs to be sacrificed at the altar of the temple .<ref>[http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=1:section=31 Old.perseus.tufts.edu], ''Jewish War'' i. 34</ref>

Antiochus's actions provoked a large-scale [[Maccabean Revolt|revolt]]. [[Mattathias]] (Mattityahu), a [[Kohen|Jewish priest]], and his five sons [[Johanan Maccabeus|Jochanan]], [[Simon Maccabaeus|Simeon]], [[Eleazar Maccabeus|Eleazar]], [[Jonathan Maccabaeus|Jonathan]], and [[Judas Maccabeus|Judah]] led a rebellion against Antiochus starting with Mattathias killing first a Jew who wanted to comply with Antiochus's order to sacrifice to Zeus and then a Greek official who was to enforce the government's behest (1 Mac. 2, 24-25<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/1maccabees.html|title=1 Maccabees|publisher=}}</ref>). Judah became known as Yehuda HaMakabi ("Judah the Hammer"). By 166 BC Mattathias had died, and Judah took his place as leader. By 165 BC the Jewish revolt against the Seleucid monarchy was successful. The Temple was liberated and rededicated. The festival of Hanukkah was instituted to celebrate this event.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/1MA/1MA4.HTM#59|title=1 Macc. iv. 59|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040627184847/http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/1MA/1MA4.HTM|archive-date=27 June 2004}}</ref> Judah ordered the Temple to be cleansed, a new altar to be built in place of the polluted one and new holy vessels to be made. According to the Talmud, unadulterated and undefiled pure olive oil with the seal of the [[High Priest (Judaism)|kohen gadol]] (high priest) was needed for the menorah in the Temple, which was required to burn throughout the night every night. The story goes that one flask was found with only enough oil to burn for one day, yet it burned for eight days, the time needed to prepare a fresh supply of [[Kashrut|kosher]] oil for the menorah. An eight-day festival was declared by the Jewish sages to commemorate this miracle.

The version of the story in 1 Maccabees states that an eight-day celebration of songs and sacrifices was proclaimed upon re-dedication of the altar, and makes no specific mention of the miracle of the oil.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/1MA/1MA4.HTM#36|title=1 Macc. iv. 36|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116193601/http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/1MA/1MA4.HTM#36|archive-date=16 January 2008}}</ref>

=== Academic sources ===
[[File:Hanukkah-US-Military-GITMO-Dec-28-08.jpg|thumb|[[US Navy]] personnel light candles on Hanukkah]]
Some modern scholars argue that the king was intervening in an internal [[civil war]] between the [[Maccabean]] Jews and the [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenized]] Jews in Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book |title= Jewish Literacy: The Most Important Things to Know about the Jewish Religion, Its People, and Its History|last=Telushkin |first=Joseph |year= 1991|publisher= W. Morrow|isbn= 0-688-08506-7|page=114}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide|last=Johnston |first=Sarah Iles |year=2004 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=0-674-01517-7 |page= 186}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= The Jewish Way: Living the Holidays|last= Greenberg|first=Irving |year=1993 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn= 0-671-87303-2|page= 29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Judaism and the Gentile Faiths: Comparative Studies in Religion |last=Schultz |first=Joseph P. |year= 1981|publisher=[[Fairleigh Dickinson University Press]] |isbn= 0-8386-1707-7|page= 155|quote=Modern scholarship on the other hand considers the Maccabean revolt less as an uprising against foreign oppression than as a civil war between the orthodox and reformist parties in the Jewish camp}}</ref>

These competed violently over who would be the High Priest, with traditionalists with Hebrew/Aramaic names like [[Onias III|Onias]] contesting with Hellenizing High Priests with Greek names like [[Jason (high priest)|Jason]] and [[Menelaus (High Priest)|Menelaus]].<ref>{{cite book |title= A Survey of the New Testament|last=Gundry |first=Robert H. |year=2003 |publisher=[[Zondervan]] |isbn= 0-310-23825-0|page= 9}}</ref> In particular Jason's Hellenistic reforms would prove to be a decisive factor leading to eventual conflict within the ranks of Judaism.<ref>{{cite book |title= Judaic Religion in the Second Temple Period: Belief and Practice from the Exile to Yavneh|last= Grabbe|first=Lester L. |year= 2000|publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-21250-2 |page= 59}}</ref> Other authors point to possible socioeconomic reasons in addition to the religious reasons behind the civil war.<ref>{{cite book |title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |last=Freedman |first= David Noel|author2=Allen C. Myers |author3=Astrid B. Beck |year=2000 |publisher= Wm. B. [[Eerdmans Publishing]]|isbn=0-8028-2400-5 |page= 837}}</ref>

What began in many respects as a civil war escalated when the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria sided with the [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenizing Jews]] in their conflict with the traditionalists.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Survey of Israel's History |last=Wood |first=Leon James |year= 1986|publisher= Zondervan|isbn= 0-310-34770-X|page=357}}</ref> As the conflict escalated, Antiochus took the side of the Hellenizers by prohibiting the religious practices the traditionalists had rallied around. This may explain why the king, in a total departure from Seleucid practice in all other places and times, banned a traditional religion.<ref>{{cite book |title=Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews |last=Tcherikover |first=Victor |year= 1999|origyear=1959|publisher=Baker Academic |isbn= 0-8010-4785-4}}</ref>

The miracle of the oil is widely regarded as a legend and its authenticity has been questioned since the Middle Ages.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia Judaica, Volume 9 |last=Skolnik, Berenbaum |first=Fred, Michael |year=2007|publisher=Granite Hill Publishers, pg 332}}</ref> However, by virtue of the famous question Rabbi [[Yosef Karo]] posed concerning why Hanukah is celebrated for eight days when the miracle was only for seven days (since there was enough oil for one day), it was clear that he believed it was a historical event, and this belief has been adopted by most of Orthodox Judaism, in as much as Rabbi Karo's ''[[Shulchan Aruch]]'' is a main Code of Jewish Law.

=== Timeline ===
{{Further information|Second Temple period}}
[[File:Judea Simon Makk.PNG|thumb|[[Hasmonean Kingdom]], 143 BCE]]
[[File:'קברות המכבים'.jpg|thumb|Tombs of the Maccabees, [[Modi'in]], [[Israel]]]]
* 198 BCE: Armies of the Seleucid King [[Antiochus III]] (Antiochus the Great) oust [[Ptolemy V Epiphanes|Ptolemy V]] from [[Judea]] and [[Samaria]].
* 175 BCE: [[Antiochus IV]] (Epiphanes) ascends the Seleucid throne.
* 168 BCE: Under the reign of Antiochus IV, the [[second Temple]] is looted, Jews are massacred, and [[Judaism]] is outlawed.
* 167 BCE: Antiochus orders an altar to [[Zeus]] erected in the Temple. [[Mattathias]], and his five sons John, [[Simon Maccabeus|Simon]], [[Eleazar Maccabeus|Eleazar]], [[Jonathan Apphus|Jonathan]], and [[Judas Maccabeus|Judah]] lead [[Maccabean Revolt|a rebellion]] against Antiochus. Judah becomes known as Judah Maccabee ("Judah the Hammer").
* 166 BCE: Mattathias dies, and Judah takes his place as leader. The [[Hasmonean dynasty|Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom]] begins; It lasts until 63 BCE
* 165 BCE: The Jewish revolt against the [[Seleucid]] monarchy is successful in recapturing the Temple, which is liberated and rededicated (Hanukkah).
* 142 BCE: Re-establishment of the [[Second Temple period|Second Jewish Commonwealth]]. The Seleucids recognize Jewish autonomy. The Seleucid kings have a formal overlordship, which the Hasmoneans acknowledged. This inaugurates a period of population growth, and religious, cultural and social development. This included the conquest of the areas now covered by [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]], [[Samaria]], [[Galilee]], and [[Idumea]] (also known as [[Edom]]), and the forced conversion of Idumeans to the Jewish religion, including circumcision.<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/ant-13.htm Josephus, ''Ant.'' xiii, 9:1., via]</ref>
* 139 BCE: The [[Roman Senate]] recognizes Jewish autonomy.
* 134 BCE: [[Antiochus VII Sidetes]] besieges [[Jerusalem]]. The Jews under [[John Hyrcanus]] become Seleucid vassals, but retain religious autonomy.<ref>{{cite web|title=Antiochus VII Sidetes |url=http://virtualreligion.net/iho/antiochus_7.html |last=Smith |first=Mahlon H.}}</ref>
* 129 BCE: Antiochus VII dies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1592-antiochus-vii-sidetes |title=Antiochus VII., Sidetes |last=Ginzburg |first=Louis |work=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]] |year=1901}}</ref> The [[Hasmonean]] Jewish Kingdom throws off Syrian rule completely
* 96 BCE: Beginning of an eight-year civil war between Hasmonean [[Sadducee]] king [[Alexander Yanai]] and the [[Pharisees]].
* 83 BCE: Consolidation of the Kingdom in territory east of the [[Jordan River]].
* 63 BCE: The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom comes to an end because of rivalry between the brothers [[Aristobulus II]] and [[Hyrcanus II]], both of whom appeal to the [[Roman Republic]] to intervene and settle the power struggle on their behalf. The Roman general [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] (Pompey the Great) is dispatched to the area. 12 thousand Jews are massacred in Roman [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)|Siege of Jerusalem]]. The Priests of the Temple are struck down at the Altar. Rome annexes Judea.

=== Battles of the Maccabean Revolt ===
{{Main article|Maccabean Revolt}}
[[File:Knesset Menorah P5200009 Mac.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Maccabees]] on the [[Knesset Menorah]]]]
Key battles between the [[Maccabees]] and the Seleucid Syrian-Greeks:
* [[Battle of Adasa]] ([[Judas Maccabeus]] leads the Jews to victory against the forces of Nicanor.)
* [[Battle of Beth Horon (166 BCE)|Battle of Beth Horon]] (Judas Maccabeus defeats the forces of Seron.)
* [[Battle of Beth-zechariah]] ([[Eleazar Avaran|Elazar]] the Maccabee is killed in battle. Lysias has success in battle against the Maccabess, but allows them temporary freedom of worship.)
* [[Battle of Beth Zur]] (Judas Maccabeus defeats the army of [[Lysias (Syrian chancellor)|Lysias]], recapturing Jerusalem.)
* [[Dathema]] (A Jewish fortress saved by Judas Maccabeus.)
* [[Battle of Elasa]] (Judas Maccabeus dies in battle against the army of [[Demetrius I Soter|King Demetrius]] and [[Bacchides (general)|Bacchides]]. He is succeeded by [[Jonathan Maccabaeus]] and [[Simon Maccabaeus]] who continue to lead the Jews in battle.)
* [[Battle of Emmaus]] (Judas Maccabeus fights the forces of [[Lysias (Syrian chancellor)|Lysias]] and [[Gorgias (Syrian general)|Georgias]]).
* [[Battle of Wadi Haramia]].

=== Characters and heroes ===
{{Main article|Maccabees}}
[[File:Peter Paul Rubens and workshop 002.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Triumph of [[Judas Maccabeus]]'', [[Rubens]]]]
* [[Mattathias|Matisyahu the High Priest]], also referred to as Mattathias and Mattathias ben Johanan. Matisyahu was a Jewish High Priest, who together with his five sons, played a central role in the story of Hanukkah.
* [[Judas Maccabeus|Judah the Maccabee]], also referred to as Judas Maccabeus and Y'hudhah HaMakabi. Judah was the eldest son of Matisyahu and is acclaimed as one of the greatest warriors in Jewish history alongside [[Joshua]], [[Gideon]], and [[David]].
* [[Eleazar Avaran|Eleazar the Maccabee]], also referred to as Eleazar Avaran, Eleazar Maccabeus and Eleazar Hachorani/Choran.
* [[Simon Thassi|Simon the Maccabee]], also referred to as Simon Maccabeus and Simon Thassi.
* [[John Gaddi|Johanan the Maccabee]], also referred to as Johanan Maccabeus and John Gaddi.
* [[Jonathan Apphus|Jonathan the Maccabee]], also referred to as Jonathan Apphus.
* [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]].
* [[Book of Judith|Judith]]. Acclaimed for her heroism in the assassination of [[Holofernes]].
* [[Woman with seven sons|Hannah and her seven sons]]. Arrested, tortured and killed one by one, by [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] for refusing to bow to an idol.

== Rituals ==
[[File:Donetsk hanuka.jpg|thumb|upright|[[public menorah|Public Hanukkah menorah]] in [[Donetsk, Ukraine]]]]
[[File:Hanukkah sign Nicosia Republic of Cyprus.JPG|thumb|[[public menorah|Public Hanukkah menorah]] in [[Nicosia]], [[Cyprus]]]]
[[File:Chanuka Sejm 2015.JPG|thumb|Hanukkah celebrated in the [[Sejm|Polish Sejm]], [[Warsaw]]]]
Hanukkah is celebrated with a series of rituals that are performed every day throughout the 8-day holiday, some are family-based and others communal. There are special additions to the [[List of Jewish prayers and blessings#Hanukkah|daily prayer service]], and a section is added to the [[Birkat Hamazon|blessing after meals]].

Hanukkah is not a "Sabbath-like" holiday, and there is no obligation to refrain from [[39 categories of activity prohibited on Shabbat|activities that are forbidden on the Sabbath]], as specified in the ''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]''.<ref>''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'' ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' 670:1</ref> Adherents go to work as usual, but may leave early in order to be home to kindle the lights at nightfall. There is no religious reason for schools to be closed, although, in Israel, schools close from the second day for the whole week of Hanukkah. Many families exchange gifts each night, such as books or games and "Hanukkah Gelt" is often given to children. Fried foods (such as latkes [[potato pancakes]], jelly doughnuts [[Sufganiyah|sufganiyot]] and Sephardic Bimuelos) are eaten to commemorate the importance of oil during the celebration of Hanukkah. Some also have a custom to eat dairy products to remember [[Judith]] and how she overcame [[Holofernes]] by feeding him cheese, which made him thirsty, and giving him wine to drink. When Holofernes became very drunk, Judith [[Judith beheading Holofernes|cut off his head]].

=== Kindling the Hanukkah lights ===
{{Further information|Menorah (Hanukkah)|Miracle of the cruse of oil}}
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 146 Hanukka חנוכה.Jpg|thumb|Boy in front of a menorah]]
Each night, throughout the 8 day holiday, a candle or oil-based light, is lit. As a universally practiced "beautification" ([[hiddur mitzvah]]) of the [[mitzvah]], the number of lights lit is increased by one each night.<ref>''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'' ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' 671:2</ref> An extra light called a ''shamash'', meaning "attendant" or "sexton,"<ref>[http://www.chabad.org/103868/ Menorah Lighting Guide].</ref> is also lit each night, and is given a distinct location, usually higher, lower, or to the side of the others. While linguistically incorrect, the word ''shamus'' (Yiddish slang for "police" or "private investigator") has often been used as a reference to the extra candle.

The purpose of the extra light is to adhere to the prohibition, specified in the Talmud (Tracate Shabbat 21b–23a), against using the Hanukkah lights for anything other than publicizing and meditating on the Hanukkah miracle. This differs from [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] candles which are meant to be used for illumination and lighting. Hence, if one were to need extra illumination on Hanukkah, the ''shamash'' candle would be available, and one would avoid using the prohibited lights. Some, especially Ashkenazim, light the ''shamash'' candle first and then use it to light the others.<ref name = "lonorw">''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'' ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' 673:1</ref> So altogether, including the ''shamash'', two lights are lit on the first night, three on the second and so on, ending with nine on the last night, for a total of 44 (36, excluding the ''shamash''). It is Sephardic custom not to light the shamash first and use it to light the rest. Instead, the shamash candle is the last to be lit, and a different candle or a match is used to light all the candles. Some Hasidic Jews follow this Sephardic custom as well.

The lights can be candles or oil lamps.<ref name = "lonorw"/> Electric lights are sometimes used and are acceptable in places where open flame is not permitted, such as a hospital room, or for the very elderly and infirm, however those who permit reciting a blessing over electric lamps only allow it if it is incandescent and battery operated (an incandescent flashlight would be acceptable for this purpose), however a blessing may not be recited over a plug-in menorah or lamp. Most Jewish homes have a special [[candelabrum]] referred to as either a ''Chanukiah'' (the Sephardi and Israeli term), or a ''menorah'' (the traditional Ashkenazi name); Many families use an oil lamp (traditionally filled with olive oil) for Hanukkah. Like the candle Chanukiah, it has eight wicks to light plus the additional ''shamash'' light.

Hanukkah became more widely celebrated beginning from the 1970s, when Rabbi [[Menachem M. Schneerson]] called for public awareness and observance of the festival and encouraged the lighting of [[public menorah]]s.<ref>Joshua Eli Plaut, ''A Kosher Christmas: 'Tis the Season to be Jewish''. Rutgers University Press, 2012. Page 167.</ref><ref>Jonathan D. Sarna, [http://forward.com/articles/120124/how-hanukkah-came-to-the-white-house/ How Hanukkah Came To The White House]. Forward, 2 December 2009.</ref><ref>Joseph Telushkin, ''[[Rebbe: The Life and Teachings of Menachem M. Schneerson, the Most Influential Rabbi in Modern History]]''. HarperCollins, 2014. Page 269.</ref><ref>Menachem Posner, [http://www.chabad.org/2778619/ 40 Years Later: How the Chanukah Menorah Made Its Way to the Public sphere]. 1 December 2014.</ref> Diane Ashton attributed the popularization of Hanukkah by some of the American Jewish community as a way to adapt to American life, because they could celebrate Hannukkah which occurs at around the same time as [[Christmas]].<ref name=Ashton/>

The reason for the Hanukkah lights is not for the "lighting of the house within", but rather for the "illumination of the house without," so that passersby should see it and be reminded of the holiday's miracle (i.e. the triumph of the few over the many and of the pure over the impure). Accordingly, lamps are set up at a prominent window or near the door leading to the street. It is customary amongst some [[Ashkenazi Jews]] to have a separate menorah for each family member (customs vary), whereas most [[Sephardi Jews]] light one for the whole household. Only when there was danger of [[Antisemitism|antisemitic persecution]] were lamps supposed to be hidden from public view, as was the case in [[Iran|Persia]] under the rule of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]], or in parts of Europe before and during World War II. However, most [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] groups light lamps near an inside doorway, not necessarily in public view. According to this tradition, the lamps are placed on the opposite side from the ''[[mezuzah]]'', so that when one passes through the door s/he is surrounded by the holiness of ''[[Mitzvah|mitzvot]]'' (the [[613 commandments|commandments]]).

Generally women are exempt in Jewish law from time-bound positive commandments, although the Talmud requires that women engage in the mitzvah of lighting Hanukkah candles “for they too were involved in the miracle.”<ref>Babylonian Talmud: Shabbat 23a</ref> In practice, only the male members of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] households are obliged to light the menorah. In practice, some Sephardi households involve everyone in the candle lighting, with the head of the household lighting the first candle each night, the wife the second candle, and the children, eldest first, lighting the subsequent candles.

The Menorah is also lit in synagogue between Minchah and Maariv prayers, with the blessings, to publicize the miracle. However, it also must be lit at home, and even the one who recited the blessings in the synagogue must recite the blessings again at home. For this reason, some congregations, particularly in certain Hasidic communities, have a custom to throw things, such as towels, at whoever lights the menorah in synagogue, to show that he must light again at home. But when a Rebbe lights in the synagogue before eating a meal there with the congregation, no towels are thrown. Some people disagree with the custom of throwing towels, as they see it as disrespectful to the synagogue, but it was the practice among many Hasidic masters. The Menorah is also lit in the day time in synagogue during the Shacharith prayers, but no blessings are recited, and towels are not thrown.

=== Candle-lighting time ===
[[File:Bialahanukabp.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Biala (Hasidic dynasty)|Biala]] [[Rebbe#The Ḥasidic Rebbe|Rebbe]] lights the menorah]]
Hanukkah lights should usually burn for at least half an hour after it gets dark.<ref name="ChabadHowTo">{{Cite web |url=http://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/article_cdo/aid/603798/jewish/Chanukah-Guide.htm |title=Chanukah Guide |quote=the menorah must contain enough fuel at the time of the lighting to burn until 30 minutes after nightfall |access-date=December 4, 2015}}</ref> The custom of many is to light at sundown, although most Hasidim light later.<ref name="ChabadHowTo"/> Many Hasidic [[Rebbes]] light much later to fulfill the obligation of publicizing the miracle by the presence of their Hasidim when they kindle the lights.{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}}

Inexpensive small wax candles sold for Hanukkah burn for approximately half an hour, so should be lit no earlier than nightfall.<ref name="ChabadHowTo"/> Friday night presents a problem, however. Since candles may not be lit on [[Shabbat]] itself, the candles must be lit before sunset.<ref name="ChabadHowTo"/> However, they must remain lit through the lighting of the Shabbat candles. Therefore, the Hanukkah menorah is lit first with larger candles than usual,<ref name="ChabadHowTo"/> followed by the [[Shabbat candles]]. At the end of the Shabbat, there are those who light the Hanukkah lights before [[havdalah]], and those who make havdalah before the lighting Hanukkah lights.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://sites.google.com/site/tiferetisraelorg/our-rabbi/halacha-tidbits/ctilawsandcustomsofchanukah-december16-232014 |title=CTI Laws and Customs of Chanukah |access-date=December 4, 2015}}</ref>

If for whatever reason one didn't light at sunset or nightfall, the lights should be kindled later, as long as there are people in the streets.<ref name="ChabadHowTo"/> Later than that, the lights should still be kindled, but the blessings should be recited only if there is at least somebody else awake in the house and present at the lighting of the Hannukah lights.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://njop.org/resources/holidays/complete-guide-to-holidays/chanukah/what-to-do-on-chanukah/ |title=What to do on Chanukah |access-date=December 4, 2015}}</ref>

=== Blessings over the candles ===
Typically three blessings (''brachot''; singular: ''brachah'') are recited during this eight-day festival when lighting the candles:

On the first night of Hanukkah, Jews recite all three blessings; on all subsequent nights, they recite only the first two.<ref>''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'' ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' 676:1–2</ref>

The blessings are said before or after the candles are lit depending on tradition. On the first night of Hanukkah one light (candle or oil) is lit on the right side of the menorah, on the following night a second light is placed to the left of the first but it is lit first, and so on, proceeding from placing candles right to left but lighting them from left to right over the eight nights.

For the full text of the blessings, see [[List of Jewish prayers and blessings#Hanukkah|List of Jewish prayers and blessings: Hanukkah]].

==== ''Hanerot Halalu'' ====
After the lights are kindled the hymn ''Hanerot Halalu'' is recited. There are several different versions; the version presented here is recited in many Ashkenazic communities:<ref>''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'' ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' 676:4</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Ashkenazi version:
! scope-"col" | Hebrew
! scope="col" | Transliteration
! scope="col" | English
|-
|{{rtl-para|he|הנרות הללו אנו מדליקין על הנסים ועל הנפלאות ועל התשועות ועל המלחמות שעשית לאבותינו בימים ההם, בזמן הזה על ידי כהניך הקדושים. וכל שמונת ימי חנוכה הנרות הללו קודש הם, ואין לנו רשות להשתמש בהם אלא להאיר אותם בלבד כדי להודות ולהלל לשמך הגדול על נסיך ועל נפלאותיך ועל ישועותיך.}}
|{{transl|he|Hanneirot hallalu anu madlikin 'al hannissim ve'al hanniflaot 'al hatteshu'ot ve'al hammilchamot she'asita laavoteinu bayyamim haheim, (u)bazzeman hazeh 'al yedei kohanekha hakkedoshim. Vekhol-shemonat yemei Hanukkah hanneirot hallalu kodesh heim, ve-ein lanu reshut lehishtammesh baheim ella lir'otam bilvad kedei lehodot ul'halleil leshimcha haggadol 'al nissekha ve'al nifleotekha ve'al yeshu'otekha.}}
|We kindle these lights for the miracles and the wonders, for the redemption and the battles that you made for our forefathers, in those days at this season, through your [[Kohen|holy priests]]. During all eight days of Hanukkah these lights are sacred, and we are not permitted to make ordinary use of them except for to look at them in order to express thanks and praise to Your great Name for Your miracles, Your wonders and Your salvations.
|}

=== ''Maoz Tzur'' ===
{{Main article|Ma'oz Tzur}}
In the Ashkenazi tradition, each night after the lighting of the candles, the hymn [[Ma'oz Tzur]] is sung. The song contains six stanzas. The first and last deal with general themes of divine salvation, and the middle four deal with events of persecution in [[Jewish history]], and praises God for survival despite these tragedies ([[the exodus]] from Egypt, the [[Babylonian captivity]], the miracle of the holiday of [[Purim]], the [[Hasmonean]] victory), and a longing for the days when Judea will finally triumph over [[Ancient Rome|Rome]].

The song was composed in the thirteenth century by a poet only known through the acrostic found in the first letters of the original five stanzas of the song: Mordechai. The familiar tune is most probably a derivation of a German Protestant church hymn or a popular folk song.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Jewish_Holidays/Hanukkah/At_Home/Candlelighting/Maoz_Tzur.shtml|title=Maoz Tzur: Rock of Ages|work=My Jewish Learning}}</ref>

=== Other customs ===
After lighting the candles and Ma'oz Tzur, singing other Hanukkah songs is customary in many Jewish homes. Some [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] and [[Sephardic Jews|Sephardi]] Jews recite [[Psalms]], such as {{bibleverse||Psalms|30|HE}}, {{bibleverse||Psalms|67|HE}}, and {{bibleverse||Psalms|91|HE}}. In North America and in Israel it is common to exchange presents or give children presents at this time. In addition, many families encourage their children to give [[tzedakah]] (charity) in lieu of presents for themselves.

=== Special additions to daily prayers ===
{{quote box|align=right|width=30%|quote="We thank You also for the miraculous deeds and for the redemption and for the mighty deeds and the saving acts wrought by You, as well as for the wars which You waged for our ancestors in ancient days at this season. In the days of the Hasmonean Mattathias, son of Johanan the high priest, and his sons, when the iniquitous Greco-Syrian kingdom rose up against Your people Israel, to make them forget Your Torah and to turn them away from the ordinances of Your will, then You in your abundant mercy rose up for them in the time of their trouble, pled their cause, executed judgment, avenged their wrong, and delivered the strong into the hands of the weak, the many into the hands of few, the impure into the hands of the pure, the wicked into the hands of the righteous, and insolent ones into the hands of those occupied with Your Torah. Both unto Yourself did you make a great and holy name in Thy world, and unto Your people did You achieve a great deliverance and redemption. Whereupon your children entered the sanctuary of Your house, cleansed Your temple, purified Your sanctuary, kindled lights in Your holy courts, and appointed these eight days of Hanukkah in order to give thanks and praises unto Your holy name."|source=Translation of ''Al ha-Nissim''}}

An addition is made to the "''hoda'ah''" (thanksgiving) benediction in the [[Amidah]] (thrice-daily prayers), called ''Al ha-Nissim'' ("On/about the Miracles").<ref>''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'' ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' 682:1</ref> This addition refers to the victory achieved over the Syrians by the Hasmonean Mattathias and his sons.

The same prayer is added to the grace after meals. In addition, the ''[[Hallel]]'' (praise) ({{bibleverse||Psalms|113|HE}} - {{bibleverse||Psalms|118|HE}}) are sung during each morning service and the ''[[Tachanun]]'' penitential prayers are omitted.

The Torah is read every day in the [[shacharit]] morning services in [[synagogue]], on the first day beginning from {{bibleverse||Numbers|6:22|HE}} (according to some customs, {{bibleverse||Numbers|7:1|HE}}), and the last day ending with {{bibleverse||Numbers|8:4|HE}}. Since Hanukkah lasts eight days it includes at least one, and sometimes two, [[Shabbat|Jewish Sabbaths]] (Saturdays). The weekly [[Parsha|Torah portion]] for the first Sabbath is almost always ''[[Miketz]]'', telling of [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]]'s dream and his enslavement in [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]. The ''[[Haftarah]]'' reading for the first Sabbath Hanukkah is {{bibleverse||Zechariah|2:14|HE}} – {{bibleverse||Zechariah|4:7|HE}}. When there is a second Sabbath on Hanukkah, the ''Haftarah'' reading is from {{bibleverse||1Kings|7:40|HE}} - {{bibleverse||1Kings|7:50|HE}}.

The Hanukkah ''menorah'' is also kindled daily in the synagogue, at night with the blessings and in the morning without the blessings.

The menorah is not lit during Shabbat, but rather prior to the beginning of Shabbat as described above and not at all during the day.
During the [[Middle Ages]] "[[Megillat Antiochus]]" was read in the [[Italian Jews#Italian rite Jews|Italian]] synagogues on Hanukkah just as the [[Book of Esther]] is read on [[Purim]]. It still forms part of the liturgy of the [[Yemenite Jews]].<ref name = "pvgsyw"/>

=== ''Zot Hanukkah'' ===
The last day of Hanukkah is known as ''Zot Hanukkah'', from the verse read on this day in the synagogue {{bibleverse||Numbers|7:84|HE}}, ''Zot Hanukkat Hamizbe'ach'': "This was the dedication of the altar". According to the teachings of [[Kabbalah]] and [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidism]], this day is the final "seal" of the High Holiday season of [[Yom Kippur]], and is considered a time to repent out of love for God. In this spirit, many Hasidic Jews wish each other ''Gmar chatimah tovah'' ("may you be sealed totally for good"), a traditional greeting for the Yom Kippur season. It is taught in Hasidic and Kabbalistic literature that this day is particularly auspicious for the fulfillment of prayers.

=== Other related laws and customs ===
It is customary for women not to work for at least the first half-hour of the candles' burning, and some have the custom not to work for the entire time of burning. It is also forbidden to fast or to eulogize during Hanukkah.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ohr.edu/1304|title=The Laws of Chanukah|work=Ohr Somayach}}</ref>

== Customs ==

=== Music ===
{{Main article|Hanukkah music}}
[[File:מעוז צור ישועתי שירי חנוכה תווים רדומסק מבצע בעל התפילה יונתן שטנצל hanukkah songs maoz tzur yeshuati.pdf|thumb|upright|Radomsk Hasidic Ma'oz Tzur sheet music.]]
A large number of songs have been written on Hanukkah themes, perhaps more so than for any other Jewish holiday. Some of the best known are "''[[Ma'oz Tzur]]''" (Rock of Ages), "''Latke'le Latke'le''" (Yiddish song about cooking Latkes), "''Hanukkiah Li Yesh''" ("I Have a Hanukkah Menorah"), "''[[Ocho Kandelikas]]''" ("Eight Little Candles"), "''Kad Katan''" ("A Small Jug"), "''S'vivon Sov Sov Sov''" ("Dreidel, Spin and Spin"), ''Haneirot Halolu''" ("These Candles which we light"), "''Mi Yimalel''" ("Who can Retell") and "''Ner Li, Ner Li''" ("I have a Candle"). The most well known in English-speaking countries include "[[Dreidel, Dreidel, Dreidel]]" and "[[Oh Chanukah]]."

Among the Rebbes of the [[Nadvorna (Hasidic dynasty)|Nadvorna]] [[Hasidic]] dynasty, it is customary for the Rebbes to play [[violin]] after the menorah is lit.

[[Penina Moise]]'s Hannukah Hymn published in the 1842 ''Hymns Written for the Use of Hebrew Congregations'' was instrumental in the beginning of Americanization of Hanukkah.<ref name=Ashton>{{cite book|title=Hanukkah in America: A History|first=Dianne|last=Ashton|publisher=NYU Press|year=2013|isbn=9781479858958|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ISIrAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false|p=42–46|quote=Throughout the nineteenth century some Jews tried various ways to adapt Judaism to American life. As they began looking for images to help understand and explain what a proper response to American Challenges might be, Hanukkah became ripe for reinvention. In Charleston, South Carolina, one group of Jews made Hanukkah into a time for serious religious reflexion that responded to their evangelical Protestant milieu...[Moise's] poem gave Hanukkah a place in the emerging religious style of American culture that was dominated by the language of individualism and personal conscience derived from both Protestantism and the Enlightenment. However, neither the Talmud nor the Shulchan Aruch identifies Hanukkah as a special occasion to ask for the forgiveness of sins.}}</ref><ref>[[The Post and Courier]], [http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20111218/ARCHIVES/312189902 Celebrating Hanukkah, Adam Parker, Dec 18 2011]</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ashton|first=Dianne|title=Quick to the Party: The Americanization of Hanukkah and Southern Jewry|journal=Southern Jewish History|volume=12|pages=1–38}}</ref>

=== Foods ===
[[File:LatkeFry.JPG|thumb|left|Potato [[latke]] frying in hot [[olive oil]].]]
There is a custom of eating foods fried or baked in oil (preferably [[olive oil]]) to commemorate the miracle of a small flask of oil keeping the [[Second Temple]]'s [[Menorah (Temple)|Menorah]] alight for eight days.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pjvoice.com/v7/7900food.html |title=The Philadelphia Jewish Voice |publisher=Pjvoice.com |date=2006-01-07 |access-date=2011-12-25}}</ref> Traditional foods include [[potato pancake]]s, known as ''latkes'' in [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], especially among [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] families. Sephardi, [[History of Jews in Poland|Polish]] and [[Israeli Jews|Israeli]] families eat jam-filled [[doughnut]]s ({{lang-yi|פאנטשקעס}} ''[[Pączki|pontshkes]]''), [[Buñuelos|bimuelos]] (fritters) and [[Sufganiyah|sufganiyot]] which are [[Deep frying|deep-fried]] in oil. Hungarian Jews eat cheese pancakes known as "cheese latkes".

[[File:Classic Hanukkah sufganiyot.JPG|thumb|[[Sufganiyot]] / [[doughnut]]s filled with strawberry jelly]]
Latkes are not popular in Israel, having been largely replaced by [[Sufganiyah|sufganiyot]] due to local economic factors, convenience and the influence of trade unions.<ref>{{cite web |author=Jeffay, Nathan |title=Why Israel is a latke-free zone |url=http://www.thejc.com/lifestyle/food/25127/why-israel-a-latke-free-zone |work=thejc.com |date=December 17, 2009}}</ref> Bakeries in Israel have popularized many new types of fillings for ''sufganiyot'' besides the traditional strawberry jelly filling, including chocolate cream, vanilla cream, caramel, cappuccino and others.<ref>Gur, Jana, ''The Book of New Israeli Food: A Culinary Journey'', pp. 238–243, Schocken (2008) ISBN 0-8052-1224-8</ref> In recent years, downsized, "mini" sufganiyot containing half the calories of the regular, 400-to-600-calorie version, have become popular.<ref>[http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1260447411124 Minsberg, Tali and Lidman, Melanie. ''Love Me Dough'']. [[Jerusalem Post]], 10 December 2009. Retrieved 17 December 2009.</ref>

Rabbinic literature also records a tradition of eating cheese and other dairy products during Hanukkah.<ref>Benyamina Soloveitchik, [http://www.chabad.org/103095 Why All the Oil and Cheese?].</ref> This custom, as mentioned above, commemorates the heroism of [[Book of Judith|Judith]] during the Babylonian captivity of the Jews and reminds us that women also played an important role in the events of Hanukkah.<ref>[http://www.chabad.org/103019 Yehudit: The Woman Who Saved the Day].</ref> The [[deuterocanonical]] [[book of Judith]] (Yehudit or Yehudis in Hebrew), which is not part of the [[Tanakh]], records that [[Holofernes]], an Assyrian general, had surrounded the village of Bethulia as part of his campaign to conquer Judea. After intense fighting, the water supply of the Jews was cut off and the situation became desperate. Judith, a pious widow, told the city leaders that she had a plan to save the city. Judith went to the Assyrian camps and pretended to surrender. She met Holofernes, who was smitten by her beauty. She went back to his tent with him, where she plied him with cheese and wine. When he fell into a drunken sleep, Judith beheaded him and escaped from the camp, taking the severed head with her (the [[Judith Beheading Holofernes|beheading of Holofernes by Judith]] has historically been a popular theme in art). When Holofernes' soldiers found his corpse, they were overcome with fear; the Jews, on the other hand, were emboldened, and launched a successful counterattack. The town was saved, and the Assyrians defeated.<ref>[[Mishna Berurah]] 670:2:10</ref>

=== Dreidel ===
{{Main article|Dreidel}}
[[File:Colorful dreidels2.JPG|thumb|[[Dreidel]]s / [[Top|Spinning tops]] in a Jerusalem market]]
The [[dreidel]], or ''sevivon'' in Hebrew, is a four-sided spinning top that children play with during Hanukkah. Each side is imprinted with a Hebrew letter. These letters are an abbreviation for the Hebrew words {{lang|he|נס גדול היה שם}} ('''''N'''es '''G'''adol '''H'''aya '''S'''ham'', "A great miracle happened there"), referring to the miracle of the oil that took place in the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Beit Hamikdash]].
* {{lang|he|נ}} ''([[Nun (letter)|Nun]])''
* {{lang|he|ג}} ''([[Gimel (letter)|Gimel]])''
* {{lang|he|ה}} ''([[He (letter)|Hey]])''
* {{lang|he|ש}} ''([[Shin (letter)|Shin]])''

On dreidels sold in Israel, the fourth side is inscribed with the letter {{lang|he|פ}} ''([[Pe (letter)|Pe]])'', rendering the acronym {{lang|he|נס גדול היה פה}} ('''''N'''es '''G'''adol '''H'''aya '''P'''o'', "A great miracle happened here"), referring to the fact that the miracle occurred in the land of Israel, although this is a relatively recent innovation. Stores in [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] neighborhoods sell the traditional ''Shin'' dreidels as well, because they understand "there" to refer to the Temple and not the entire Land of Israel, and because the Hasidic Masters ascribe significance to the traditional letters.

Some Jewish commentators ascribe symbolic significance to the markings on the dreidel. One commentary, for example, connects the four letters with the four exiles to which the nation of Israel was historically subject: Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome.<ref>{{cite web|last=Yaakov |first=Rabbi |url=http://www.ohr.org.il/yhiy/article.php/1309 |title=Ohr Somayach :: Chanukah :: The Secret of the Dreidel |publisher=Ohr.org.il |access-date=25 December 2011}}</ref>

After lighting the Hanukkah menorah, it is customary in many homes to play the dreidel game: Each player starts out with 10 or 15 coins (real or of chocolate), nuts, raisins, candies or other markers, and places one marker in the "pot." The first player spins the dreidel, and depending on which side the dreidel falls on, either wins a marker from the pot or gives up part of his stash. The code (based on a [[Yiddish Language|Yiddish]] version of the game) is as follows:
* Nun–''nisht'', "nothing"–nothing happens and the next player spins
* Gimel–''gants'', "all"–the player takes the entire pot
* Hey–''halb'', "half"–the player takes half of the pot. If there are an odd number of markers, usually the player takes the extra one too.
* Shin–''shtel ayn'', "put in"–the player puts one marker in the pot

Another version differs:
* Nun–''nem'', "take"–the player takes one from the pot
* Gimel–''gib'', "give"–the player puts one in the pot
* Hey–''halb'', "half"–the player takes half of the pot
* Shin–''shtil'', "still" (as in "stillness")–nothing happens and the next player spins

The game may last until one person has won everything.

Tradition has it that the reason the dreidel game is played is to commemorate a game devised by the Jews to camouflage the fact that they were [[Torah study|studying Torah]], which was outlawed by the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]]. The Jews would gather in caves to study, posting a lookout to alert the group to the presence of [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] soldiers. If soldiers were spotted, the Jews would hide their scrolls and spin tops, so the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]] thought they were gambling, not studying.<ref>[http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=2604&pgnum=95&hilite= Otzar Kol Minhagei Yeshurun 19:4]</ref>

The historical context may be from the time of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt|Bar-Kohba war]], 132-135 C.E. when the penalty for teaching Torah was death, so decreed by Rome. Others trace the ''dreidel'' itself to the children's top game [[Teetotum]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://parsha.blogspot.com/2008/12/why-we-should-ban-playing-dreidel-pt-ii.html |title=parshablog: Why we should ban playing dreidel, pt ii |publisher=Parsha.blogspot.com |date=28 December 2008 |access-date=6 July 2013}}</ref> However, the dreidel game as we know it arose among the Ashkenazim. It is not a Sephardi tradition, though, of course, just like the singing of Maos Tzur, it has been adopted by other, non-Ashkenazi families.
* Dreidel gelt (dreidel money): The Eastern European game of dreidel (including the letters nun, gimmel, hey, shin) is like the German equivalent of the totum game: N = Nichts = nothing; G = Ganz = all; H = Halb = half; and S = Stell ein = put in. In German, the spinning top was called a "torrel" or "trundl," and in Yiddish it was called a "dreidel," a "fargl," a "varfl" [= something thrown], "shtel ein" [= put in], and "gor, gorin" [= all]. When Hebrew was revived as a spoken language, the dreidel was called, among other names, a ''sevivon'', which is the one that caught on.

Some Hasidic Rebbes may play the dreidel game at their [[Tish (Hasidic celebration)|Tish]], and often spiritual significance is attributed to this practice.

Some Hasidic children play with regular spinning tops on Hanukah, and also call them by the Yiddish name "dreidel".

=== Hanukkah gelt ===
{{Main article|Hanukkah gelt}}
[[File:Chocolate-Gold-Coins.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hanukkah gelt|Chocolate gelt]]]]
[[Chanukkah gelt]] ([[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] for "money") known as ''dmei Hanukkah'' in Israel, is often distributed to children during the festival of Hanukkah. The giving of Hanukkah gelt also adds to the holiday excitement. The amount is usually in small coins, although grandparents or relatives may give larger sums. The tradition of giving Chanukah ''gelt'' dates back to a long-standing East European custom of children presenting their teachers with a small sum of money at this time of year as a token of gratitude.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

== Dates ==
{{Further information|Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000–2050}}
The dates of Hanukkah are determined by the [[Hebrew calendar]]. Hanukkah begins at the 25th day of [[Kislev]], and concludes on the 2nd or 3rd day of [[Tevet]] (Kislev can have 29 or 30 days). The Jewish day begins at sunset, whereas the [[Gregorian calendar]] begins the day at midnight. Hanukkah begins at sunset of the date listed.

{{Div col}}
* 27 November 2013
* 16 December 2014
* 6 December 2015
* 24 December 2016
* 12 December 2017
* 2 December 2018
* 22 December 2019
* 10 December 2020
{{Div col end}}

In 2013, on 28 November, the American holiday of [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]] fell during Hanukkah for only the third time since Thanksgiving was declared a national holiday by President [[Abraham Lincoln]]. The last time was 1899; and due to the Gregorian and Jewish calendars being slightly out of sync with each other, it will not happen again in the foreseeable future.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/dr-joel-hoffman/hanukkah-and-thanskgiving_b_4312207.html | title=Why Hanukkah and Thanksgiving Will Never Again Coincide | publisher=Huffington Post | date=24 November 2013 | access-date=2 December 2013 | author=Hoffman, Joel}}</ref> This convergence prompted the creation of the [[portmanteau]] [[neologism]] [[Thanksgivukkah]].<ref name="jpost">{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/Jewish-World/Jewish-Features/Thanksgivukka-Please-pass-the-turkey-stuffed-doughnuts-331952|work=Jerusalem Post|title= Thanksgivukka: Please pass the turkey-stuffed doughnuts|author=Amy Spiro|date=17 November 2013|access-date=22 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Christine Byrne |url=http://www.buzzfeed.com/christinebyrne/thanksgivukkah |title=How To Celebrate Thanksgivukkah, The Best Holiday Of All Time |publisher=Buzzfeed |date=2 October 2013 |access-date=10 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Stu Bykofsky |url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/20131011_Thanks_for_Thanukkah_.html |title=Thanks for Thanukkah! |publisher=Philly.com |date=22 October 2012 |access-date=11 October 2013}}</ref>

== Symbolic importance ==
{{Refimprove section|date=December 2014}}
[[File:Jerusalem Hannukah 021210.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Second night of Hannukah at Jerusalem's [[Western Wall]]]]
Many people define major Jewish holidays as those that feature traditional holiday meals, kiddush, holiday candle-lighting, etc., and when all forms of work are forbidden. Only biblical holidays fit these criteria, and Chanukah was instituted some two centuries after the Bible was completed and canonized. Nevertheless, though Chanukah is of rabbinic origin, it is traditionally celebrated in a major and very public fashion. The requirement to position the menorah, or Chanukiah, at the door or window symbolizes the desire to give the Chanukah miracle a high-profile.<ref>[http://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/article_cdo/aid/789857/jewish/Chanukah-FAQs.htm#q6 Is Hanukkah a major Jewish Holiday?]</ref>

Some Jewish historians suggest a different explanation for the rabbinic reluctance to laud the militarism. First, the rabbis wrote after Hasmonean leaders had led Judea into Rome’s grip and so may not have wanted to offer the family much praise. Second, they clearly wanted to promote a sense of dependence on God, urging Jews to look toward the divine for protection. They likely feared inciting Jews to another revolt that might end in disaster, like the 135 C.E. experience.<ref>Dianne Ashton, ''Hanukkah in America: A History'', New York: New York University Press, 2013; pg. 29.</ref>

With the advent of Zionism and the state of Israel, however, these themes were reconsidered. In modern Israel, the national and military aspects of Hanukkah became, once again, more dominant.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

[[File:Carter Menorah.jpg|thumb|upright|US President [[Jimmy Carter]] attends Menorah Lighting, [[President's Park|Lafayette Park]], [[Washington, D.C.]], 1979]]
In North America especially, Hanukkah gained increased importance with many Jewish families in the latter part of the 20th century, including among large numbers of [[Secular Jewish culture|secular Jews]], who wanted a Jewish alternative to the [[Christmas]] celebrations that often overlap with Hanukkah.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} Though it was traditional among Ashkenazi Jews to give "gelt" or money to children during Hanukkah, in many families this has been supplemented with other gifts, so that Jewish children can enjoy gifts just as their Christmas-celebrating peers do.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

While Hanukkah is a relatively minor Jewish holiday, as indicated by the lack of religious restrictions on work other than a few minutes after lighting the candles, in North America, Hanukkah in the 21st century has taken a place equal to [[Passover]] as a symbol of Jewish identity.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}} Both the Israeli and North American versions of Hanukkah emphasize resistance, focusing on some combination of national liberation and religious freedom as the defining meaning of the holiday.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

Some Jews in North America and Israel have taken up environmental concerns in relation to Hanukkah's "miracle of the oil", emphasizing reflection on [[energy conservation]] and [[North American energy independence|energy independence]]. An example of this is the Coalition on the Environment and Jewish Life's renewable energy campaign.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theshalomcenter.org/node/1315 |title=Shalom Center on Hannukah and the environment |publisher=Theshalomcenter.org |date=16 November 2007 |access-date=25 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Hoffman |first=Gil |url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1195546797524&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |title=Jerusalem Post: Green Hanukkia' campaign sparks ire |publisher=Fr.jpost.com |date=4 December 2007 |access-date=25 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Dobb |first=Rabbi Fred Scherlinder |url=http://coejl.org/advocacy-and-policy-issues/pastcampaigns/cfl-installation-hanukkah/ |title=CFL Hannukah Installation ceremony |publisher=Coalition on Environment and Jewish Life (COEJL) |date=6 July 2011 |access-date=28 November 2013}}</ref>

== Hanukkah in the White House ==
{{Main article|White House Hanukkah Party}}
[[File:Truman receives menorah.jpg|thumb|President [[Harry S. Truman]] (left, back turned to camera) in the [[Oval Office]], receiving a Hanukkah Menorah as a gift from the Prime Minister of Israel, [[David Ben-Gurion]] (center). To the right is [[Abba Eban]], the Ambassador of Israel to the United States.]]

The United States has a history of recognizing and celebrating Hanukkah in a number of ways.

The earliest Hanukkah link with the White House occurred in 1951, when Israeli Prime Minister [[David Ben-Gurion]] presented United States President [[Harry Truman]] with a Hanukkah Menorah. In 1979 president [[Jimmy Carter]] took part in the first public Hanukkah candle-lighting ceremony of the [[National Menorah]] held across the White House lawn. In 1989, President [[George H.W. Bush]] displayed a menorah in the White House. In 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] invited a group of schoolchildren to the Oval Office for a small ceremony.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://forward.com/articles/120124/how-hanukkah-came-to-the-white-house/#ixzz3K7D7vjmH|title=How Hanukkah Came to the White House|date=2 December 2009|work=The Jewish Daily Forward}}</ref>

The [[United States Postal Service]] has released several Hanukkah themed [[postage stamps]]. In 1996 the [[United States Postal Service]] (USPS) issued a 32 [[Cent (currency)|cent]] Hanukkah [[Postage stamp|stamp]] as a [[joint issue]] with [[Israel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1996/10/Israeli-American%20Hanukkah%20Stamp |title=Israeli-American Hanukkah Stamp |publisher=Mfa.gov.il |date=22 October 1996 |access-date=17 January 2013}}</ref> In 2004 after 8 years of reissuing the menorah design, the USPS issued a dreidel design for the Hanukkah stamp. The dreidel design was used through 2008. In 2009 a Hanukkah stamp was issued with a design featured a photograph of a menorah with nine lit candles.

In 2001, President [[George W. Bush]] held an official Hanukkah reception in the White House in conjunction with the candle-lighting ceremony, and since then this ceremony has become an annual tradition attended by Jewish leaders from around the country. In 2008, George Bush linked the occasion to the 1951 gift by using that menorah for the ceremony, with a grandson of Ben-Gurion and a grandson of Truman lighting the candles.

In December 2014, two Hanukkah celebrations were held at the White House. The [[White House]] commissioned a menorah made by students at the Max Rayne school in Israel and invited two of its students to join U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] and First Lady [[Michelle Obama]] as they welcomed over 500 guests to the celebration. The students' school in Israel had been subjected to arson by extremists.<ref>"'Jerusalem school hit by arson creates menorah used at White House Hanukka event' (19 Dec 2014) jerusalem Post" http://www.jpost.com/International/Jerusalem-school-hit-by-arson-attack-creates-menorah-for-White-House-Hanukka-event</ref> President Obama said these "students teach us an important lesson for this time in our history. The light of hope must outlast the fires of hate. That’s what the Hanukkah story teaches us. It’s what our young people can teach us— that one act of faith can make a miracle, that love is stronger than hate, that peace can triumph over conflict.”<ref>"Arab-Jewish school's menorah lights up White House Hanukkah party | The Times of Israel" http://www.timesofisrael.com/hand-in-hand-schools-menorah-lights-up-white-house-hanukkah-party/</ref> Rabbi [[Angela Warnick Buchdahl]], in leading prayers at the ceremony commented on the how special the scene was, asking the President if he believed America's founding fathers could possibly have pictured that a female Asian-American rabbi would one day be at the White House leading Jewish prayers in front of the African-American president.<ref>"jane Eisner 'A Most Inspiring Hanukkah at the White House' (18 Dec 2014) The Jewish Daily Forward" http://blogs.forward.com/forward-thinking/211168/a-most-inspiring-hanukkah-at-the-white-house/?</ref>

== Gallery ==
An entire room of Paris's [[Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme|Museum of Jewish Art and History]] is dedicated to Hanukkah, through an exceptional collection of Hanukkiyot, in a variety of shapes and designs, origins and periods. This panorama stands as a metaphor for the great diversity of Jewish customs throughout the world.

<gallery class="center" >
File:14th century Hannukah lamp (hanukiah), France - Musée d'art et d'histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|France, 14th century
File:16th century Hannukah lamp from France (Comtat Venaissin) - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|France, 16th century
File:17th century Hanukkah lamp by Johann Michael Schüler, Frankfurt, Germany - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Germany, 17th century
File:18th century Hannukah lamp from Italy - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Italy, 18th century
File:18th century Hanukkah lamp from Breslau, Germany (today Wroclaw, Poland) - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Poland, 18th century
File:Hanukkah lamp from Eastern France (Alsace-Lorraine), end of the 19th century - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|France, 19th century
File:Early 19th century Hanukkah lamp from Central Europe - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Europe, 19th century
File:20th century Hannukah lamp from Yemen - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Yemen, 20th century
File:20th century Hanukkah lamp from Tunisia - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Tunisia, 20th century
File:20th century Hanukkah lamp by Luigi Del Monte, Israël - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Israel, 20th century
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Judaism}}
* [[Hanukkah bush]]
* [[Hasmonean kingdom]]
* [[Jewish greetings#Holidays|Jewish greetings]]
* [[John 10]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |first=Dianne |last=Ashton |title=Hanukkah in America: A History |location=New York |publisher=New York University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8147-0739-5}}

== External links ==
{{Prone to spam|date=December 2015}}
{{Z148}}
{{Sister project links |n=no |s=no |v=no}}
* [http://judaism.about.com/od/holidays/a/hanukkah.htm Hanukkah] at [[About.com]]
* [http://www.history.com/topics/holidays/hanukkah Hanukkah] at the [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History channel]]
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7233-hanukkah Hanukkah] at the ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]''
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/holiday7.html Hanukkah] at the [[Jewish Virtual Library]]
* [http://www.jewishagency.org/hanukkah/content/23838 Hanukkah] at the [[Jewish Agency for Israel]]
* [http://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/default_cdo/jewish/Hanukkah.htm Hanukkah] at [[Chabad.org]]
* [http://www.aish.com/h/c/ Hanukkah] at [[Aish HaTorah]]
* {{Dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Judaism/Holidays_and_Observances/Chanukkah}}

{{Hanukkah footer}}
{{Jewish and Israeli holidays}}
{{Public holidays in the United States}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hanukkah| ]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of the Maccabees]]
[[Category:Jewish holy days]]
[[Category:Non-Gregorian December observances]]
[[Category:Non-Gregorian November observances]]
[[Category:Observances set by the Hebrew calendar]]

Hanukkah

2016-12-05T09:58:48Z

85.19.179.17: Sendes facts

{{About||the village Hanaka, in Iran|Honeg-e Pain|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox holiday
|image = Hanuka-Menorah-by-Gil-Dekel-2014.jpg
|caption = A Hanukkah menorah, or Hanukkiah
|holiday_name = Hanukkah
|official_name = {{lang-he-n|חֲנֻכָּה}} or {{lang|he|חנוכה}} English translation: "Establishing" or "Dedication" (of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]])
|nickname =
|observedby = [[Jews]]
|begins = 25 [[Kislev]]
|ends = 2 [[Tevet]] or 3 [[Tevet]]
|celebrations = Lighting [[candle]]s each night. Singing special songs, such as [[Ma'oz Tzur]]. Reciting [[Hallel]] prayer. Eating foods fried in oil, such as [[latke]]s and [[sufganiyot]], and dairy foods. Playing the ''[[Hanukkah#Dreidel|dreidel]]'' game, and giving [[Hanukkah#Gelt|Hanukkah ''gelt'']]
|type = Jewish
|significance = The [[Maccabees]] successfully [[Maccabean Revolt|rebelled]] against [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]]. According to the [[Talmud]], a late text, the Temple was purified and the [[Miracle of the cruse of oil|wicks of the menorah miraculously burned for eight days]], even though there was only enough sacred oil for one day's lighting.
|relatedto = [[Purim]], as a [[rabbi]]nically decreed holiday.
|date2014 = Sunset, 16 December to nightfall, 24 December
|date2015 = Sunset, 6 December to nightfall, 14 December
|date2016 = Sunset, 24 December to nightfall, 1 January NIGHTBLUE3
}}
[[File:Chanukkah2007 pic (1)c.JPG|thumb|Hanukkah table]]

'''Hanukkah''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɑː|n|ə|k|ə}} {{respell|HAH|nə-kə}}; {{lang-he-n|חֲנֻכָּה}} ''{{transl|he|khanuká}}'', [[Tiberian Hebrew|Tiberian]]: ''{{transl|he|khanuká}}'', usually spelled {{lang|he|חנוכה}}, pronounced {{IPA-he|χanuˈka|}} in [[Modern Hebrew]], {{IPA-he|ˈχanukə|}} or {{IPA-he|ˈχanikə|}} in [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]; a transliteration also romanized as '''Chanukah''' or '''Ḥanukah''') is a [[Jewish holiday]] commemorating the rededication of the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Holy Temple]] (the [[Second Temple]]) in [[Jerusalem]] at the time of the [[Maccabean Revolt]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]]. Hanukkah is observed for eight nights and days, starting on the 25th day of [[Kislev]] according to the [[Hebrew calendar]], which may occur at any time from late November to late December in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. It is also known as the '''Festival of Lights''' and the '''Feast of Dedication'''.

The festival is observed by the kindling of the lights of a unique [[candelabrum]], the nine-branched ''[[Menorah (Hanukkah)|menorah]]'' (also called a ''Chanukiah''/''Hanukiah''), one additional light on each night of the holiday, progressing to eight on the final night. The typical menorah consists of eight branches with an additional visually distinct branch. The extra light, with which the others are lit, is called a ''[[gabbai|shamash]]'' ({{lang-he|שמש}}, "attendant") and is given a distinct location, usually above or below the rest.<ref>[http://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/article_cdo/aid/103868/ Menorah Lighting Guide].</ref> Other Hanukkah festivities include playing [[Hanukkah#Dreidel|dreidel]] and eating oil-based foods such as doughnuts and [[Potato pancake#Hanukkah tradition|latkes]]. Since the 1970s, the worldwide [[Chabad]] [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] movement has initiated public menorah lightings in open public places in many countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://joi.org/bloglinks/JTA%20NEWS%20Chanuka%20Chabad.htm|title=JTA NEWS|publisher=}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The name "Hanukkah" derives from the Hebrew verb "{{lang|he|חנך}}", meaning "to dedicate". On Hanukkah, the Maccabean Jews regained control of Jerusalem and rededicated the Temple.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/religion/judaism/hanukkah.shtml|title=BBC - Schools - Religion - Judaism|publisher=}}</ref><ref>Being Jewish: The Spiritual and Cultural Practice of Judaism Today, Ari L. Goldman, Simon and Schuster, pg141</ref>
Many [[Homiletics|homiletical]] explanations have been given for the name:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.torah.org/features/holydays/originchanukah.html|title=Origin of the Name Chanukah|first=Nosson|last=Scherman|publisher=Torah.org}}</ref>
* The name can be broken down into {{lang|he|חנו כ"ה}}, "[they] rested [on the] twenty-fifth", referring to the fact that the Jews ceased fighting on the 25th day of [[Kislev]], the day on which the holiday begins.<ref>[[Nissim of Gerona|Ran]] Shabbat 9b ({{cite web|url= http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=14314&pgnum=542 |title=Hebrew text }})</ref>
* {{lang|he|חנוכה}} (Hanukkah) is also the Hebrew [[acronym]] for {{lang|he|'''ח''' '''נ'''רות '''ו'''הלכה '''כ'''בית '''ה'''לל}} — "Eight candles, and the [[halakha]] is like the House of Hillel". This is a reference to the disagreement between two rabbinical schools of thought — the [[Hillel the Elder|House of Hillel]] and the [[Shammai|House of Shammai]] — on the proper order in which to light the Hanukkah flames. Shammai opined that eight candles should be lit on the first night, seven on the second night, and so on down to one on the last night (because the miracle was greatest on the first day). Hillel argued in favor of starting with one candle and lighting an additional one every night, up to eight on the eighth night (because the miracle grew in greatness each day). [[Jewish law]] adopted the position of Hillel.<ref>Orthodox Union, [http://www.ou.org/holidays/chanukah/laws/ The Lights of Chanukah – Laws and Customs]. 9 April 2014.</ref>

=== Alternative spellings ===
[[File:Hanukkah.png|thumb|Spelling variations due to transliteration of Hebrew ''Chet Nun Vav Kaf Hey'']]
In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the word Hanukkah is written {{Hebrew|חֲנֻכָּה}} or {{lang|he|חנוכה}} ({{transl|he|Ḥănukkāh}}). It is most commonly transliterated to English as ''{{transl|he|Chanukah}}'' or ''Hanukkah'', the former because the sound represented by "CH" ({{IPAblink|χ}}, similar to the [[Scots language|Scottish]] pronunciation of "[[loch]]") does not exist in the English language. Furthermore, the letter "[[heth|ḥet]]" ({{lang|he|ח}}), which is the first letter in the Hebrew spelling, is pronounced differently in modern Hebrew ([[voiceless uvular fricative]]) from in classical Hebrew ([[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]] {{IPAblink|ħ}}), and neither of those sounds is unambiguously representable in English spelling. Moreover, the 'kaf' consonant is [[geminate]] in classical (but not modern) Hebrew. Adapting the classical Hebrew pronunciation with the geminate and pharyngeal {{transl|he|Ḥeth}} can lead to the spelling "Hanukkah"; while adapting the modern Hebrew pronunciation with no gemination and uvular {{transl|he|Ḥeth}} leads to the spelling "{{transl|he|Chanukah}}". It has also been spelled as "Hannukah".

== Historical sources ==

=== Maccabees, Mishna and Talmud ===
{{See also|Mishnah#Omissions}}

The story of Hanukkah is preserved in the books of the [[First Maccabees|First]] and [[Second Maccabees]], which describe in detail the re-dedication of the Temple in Jerusalem and the lighting of the menorah. These books are not part of the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible) which came from the Palestinian canon; however, they were part of the Alexandrian canon which is also called the [[Septuagint]] (sometimes abbreviated LXX).<ref name="Carson 2005">{{cite book |title= Hermeneutics, Authority, and Canon |last= Carson |first= D. A. |year= 2005 |publisher= Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn= 9781597521185 |quote= E. AN ALEXANDRIAN CANON? Some assert that the Greek translation of the Old Testament (called the Septuagint or LXX) offers evidence that the canon of diaspora Judaism |page=307}}</ref> Both books are included in the [[Old Testament]] used by the Catholic and Orthodox Churches,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.orthodoxchristian.info/pages/old_testament.html|title=The Old Testament|publisher=}}</ref> since those churches consider the books deuterocanonical. They are not included in the [[Old Testament]] books in most [[Protestant]] Bibles, since most Protestants consider the books apocryphal. Multiple references to Hanukkah are also made in the [[Mishna]] (Bikkurim 1:6, Rosh HaShanah 1:3, Taanit 2:10, Megillah 3:4 and 3:6, Moed Katan 3:9, and Bava Kama 6:6), though specific laws are not described. The miracle of the one-day supply of oil miraculously lasting eight days is first described in the [[Talmud]], committed to writing about 600 years after the events described in the books of Maccabees.<ref>{{cite news|last=Dolanksy|first=Shawna|title=The Truth(s) About Hanukkah|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/shawna-dolansky/the-truth-about-hanukah_b_1165708.html|newspaper=Huffington Post|date=23 December 2011}}</ref>

[[Nissim Ben Jacob|Rav Nissim Gaon]] postulates in his ''Hakdamah Le'mafteach Hatalmud'' that information on the holiday was so commonplace that the Mishna felt no need to explain it. A modern-day scholar [[Reuvein Margolies]]<ref>''Yesod Hamishna Va'arichatah'' pp. 25–28 ({{cite web|url= http://www.hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=20976&pgnum=24 |title=Hebrew text }})</ref> suggests that as the Mishnah was redacted after the [[Bar Kochba revolt]], its editors were reluctant to include explicit discussion of a holiday celebrating another relatively recent revolt against a foreign ruler, for fear of antagonizing the Romans.

[[File:Hanukkah2.jpg|thumb|upright|Hanukkah lamp unearthed near Jerusalem about 1900]]

The [[Gemara]] ([[Talmud]]), in tractate ''Shabbat,'' page 21b, focuses on [[Shabbat candles]] and moves to Hanukkah candles and says that after the forces of [[Antiochus IV]] had been driven from the Temple, the Maccabees discovered that almost all of the ritual olive oil had been profaned. They found only a single container that was still [[seal (device)|sealed]] by the [[Kohen Gadol|High Priest]], with enough oil to keep the menorah in the Temple lit for a single day. They used this, yet it burned for eight days (the time it took to have new oil pressed and made ready).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Talmud/shabbat2.html |title=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |access-date=25 December 2011}}</ref>

The Talmud presents three options:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.come-and-hear.com/shabbath/shabbath_21.html#PARTb|title=Babylonian Talmud: Shabbath 21|author=Atenebris Adsole|date=25 December 2002|publisher=}}</ref>
# The law requires only one light each night per household,
# A better practice is to light one light each night for each member of the household
# The most preferred practice is to vary the number of lights each night.

In [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic]] families, the head of the household lights the candles, while in [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazic]] families, all family members light.{{Citation needed|date=November 2014}}

Except in times of danger, the lights were to be placed outside one's door, on the opposite side of the [[mezuza]], or in the window closest to the street. [[Rashi]], in a note to ''Shabbat 21b,'' says their purpose is to publicize the miracle. The blessings for Hanukkah lights are discussed in tractate ''Succah,'' p. 46a.

=== Narrative of Josephus ===
The Jewish historian [[Josephus|Titus Flavius Josephus]] narrates in his book, [[Antiquities of the Jews|Jewish Antiquities]] XII, how the victorious [[Judas Maccabeus]] ordered lavish yearly eight-day festivities after rededicating the Temple in Jerusalem that had been profaned by [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Josephus|access-date=1 July 2016|title=Jewish Antiquities|url=http://www.loebclassics.com/view/josephus-jewish_antiquities/1930/pb_LCL365.167.xml?result=2&rskey=cyZg7g |doi=10.4159/DLCL.josephus-jewish_antiquities.1930}} {{Subscription needed|via=[[Loeb Classical Library|digital Loeb Classical Library]]}}</ref> Josephus does not say the festival was called Hanukkah but rather the "Festival of Lights":

:"Now Judas celebrated the festival of the restoration of the sacrifices of the temple for eight days, and omitted no sort of pleasures thereon; but he feasted them upon very rich and splendid sacrifices; and he honored God, and delighted them by hymns and psalms. Nay, they were so very glad at the revival of their customs, when, after a long time of intermission, they unexpectedly had regained the freedom of their worship, that they made it a law for their posterity, that they should keep a festival, on account of the restoration of their temple worship, for eight days. And from that time to this we celebrate this festival, and call it Lights. I suppose the reason was, because this liberty beyond our hopes appeared to us; and that thence was the name given to that festival. Judas also rebuilt the walls round about the city, and reared towers of great height against the incursions of enemies, and set guards therein. He also fortified the city [[Beth-zur|Bethsura]], that it might serve as a citadel against any distresses that might come from our enemies."<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=J.+AJ+12.287 Perseus.tufts.edu], ''Jewish Antiquities'' xii. 7, § 7, #323</ref>

=== Other ancient sources ===
The story of Hanukkah is alluded to in the book of [[1 Maccabees]] and [[2 Maccabees]]. The eight-day rededication of the temple is described in 1 Maccabees 4:36 ''et seq'', though the name of the festival and the miracle of the lights do not appear here. A story similar in character, and obviously older in date, is the one alluded to in 2 Maccabees 1:18 ''et seq'' according to which the relighting of the altar fire by [[Nehemiah]] was due to a miracle which occurred on the 25th of Kislev, and which appears to be given as the reason for the selection of the same date for the rededication of the altar by Judah Maccabee.

Another source is the [[Megillat Antiochus]]. This work (also known as "Megillat Benei Ḥashmonai", "Megillat Hanukkah" or "Megillat Yevanit") is extant in both the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] languages; the Hebrew version is a literal translation from the Aramaic original. Recent scholarship dates it to somewhere between the 2nd and 5th Centuries, probably in the 2nd century,<ref>{{cite web|first=Benjamin|last=Zvieli|title=The Scroll of Antiochus|url= http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/eng/miketz/zev.html| access-date=28 January 2007}}</ref> with the Hebrew dating to the 7th century.<ref name = "pvgsyw">{{cite web|url=http://customerservant.com/2006/12/16/the-scroll-of-the-hasmoneans/|title=The Scroll Of The Hasmoneans| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528035707/http://customerservant.com/2006/12/16/the-scroll-of-the-hasmoneans/|archive-date=28 May 2007}}</ref> It was published for the first time in [[Mantua]] in 1557. [[Saadia Gaon]], who translated it into [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in the 9th century, ascribed it to the elders of the [[School of Shammai]] and the [[School of Hillel]].<ref>Saadia Gaon, ''Introduction to Sefer Ha-Iggaron'' (ed. Abraham Firkovich), Odessa 1868 (Hebrew); See also [http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/eng/miketz/zev.html The Scroll of Antiochus] and [http://www.oztorah.com/2007/11/the-unknown-chanukah-mgillah/ The Unknown Chanukah Megillah]</ref> The Hebrew text with an English translation can be found in the [[Siddur]] of [[Philip Birnbaum]].

The ''Scroll of Antiochus'' concludes with the following words:

{{Quote|...After this, the sons of Israel went up to the Temple and rebuilt its gates and purified the Temple from the dead bodies and from the defilement. And they sought after pure [[olive oil]] to light the lamps therewith, but could not find any, except one bowl that was sealed with the signet ring of the High Priest from the days of Samuel the prophet and they knew that it was pure. There was in it [enough oil] to light [the lamps therewith] for one day, but the God of heaven whose name dwells there put therein his blessing and they were able to light from it eight days. Therefore, the sons of Ḥashmonai made this covenant and took upon themselves a solemn vow, they and the sons of Israel, all of them, to publish amongst the sons of Israel, [to the end] that they might observe these eight days of joy and honour, as the days of the feasts written in [the book of] the Law; [even] to light in them so as to make known to those who come after them that their God wrought for them salvation from heaven. In them, it is not permitted to mourn, neither to decree a fast [on those days], and anyone who has a vow to perform, let him perform it.}}
[[File:Section_from_Aramaic_Scroll_of_Antiochus,_April_2015.jpg|thumb|right|Section from the Aramaic Scroll of Antiochus in [[Babylonian supralinear punctuation]], with an Arabic translation]]

Original language (Aramaic):
{{Quote|בָּתַר דְּנָּא עָלוּ בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל לְבֵית מַקְדְּשָׁא וּבְנוֹ תַּרְעַיָּא וְדַכִּיאוּ בֵּית מַקְדְּשָׁא מִן קְטִילַיָּא וּמִן סְאוֹבֲתָא. וּבעוֹ מִשְׁחָא דְּזֵיתָא דָּכְיָא לְאַדְלָקָא בּוֹצִנַיָּא וְלָא אַשְׁכַּחוּ אֵלָא צְלוֹחִית חֲדָא דַּהֲוָת חֲתִימָא בְּעִזְקָת כָּהֲנָא רַבָּא מִיּוֹמֵי שְׁמוּאֵל נְבִיָּא וִיַדְעוּ דְּהִיא דָּכְיָא. בְּאַדְלָקוּת יוֹמָא חֲדָא הֲוָה בַּהּ וַאֲלָה שְׁמַיָּא דִּי שַׁכֵין שְׁמֵיהּ תַּמָּן יְהַב בַּהּ בִּרְכְּתָא וְאַדְלִיקוּ מִנַּהּ תְּמָנְיָא יוֹמִין. עַל כֵּן קַיִּימוּ בְּנֵי חַשְׁמוּנַּאי הָדֵין קְיָימָא וַאֲסַרוּ הָדֵין אֲסָּרָא אִנּוּן וּבְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל כּוּלְּהוֹן. לְהוֹדָעָא לִבְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל לְמֶעֲבַד הָדֵין תְּמָנְיָא יוֹמִין חַדְוָא וִיקָר כְּיּוֹמֵי מוֹעֲדַיָּא דִּכְתִיבִין בְּאוֹרָיְתָא לְאַדְלָקָא בְּהוֹן לְהוֹדָעָא לְמַן דְּיֵּיתֵי מִבַּתְרֵיהוֹן אֲרֵי עֲבַד לְהוֹן אֱלָהֲהוֹן פּוּרְקָנָא מִן שְׁמַיָּא. בְּהוֹן לָא לְמִסְפַּד וְלָא לְמִגְזַר צוֹמָא וְכָל דִּיהֵי עֲלוֹהִי נִדְרָא יְשַׁלְּמִנֵּיהּ<ref>{{cite web|last=Hubarah|first=Yosef|title=''Sefer Ha-Tiklāl'' (''Tiklal Qadmonim'')|publisher=Jerusalem 1964, pp. 75b–79b, s.v. מגלת בני חשמונאי (Hebrew)}}</ref>}}

In the [[Christian Greek Scriptures]], it is stated that Jesus walked in [[Solomon's Porch]] at the [[Jerusalem Temple]] during "the Feast of Dedication and it was winter", in John 10:22–23. The Greek term that is used is "the renewals" (Greek ''ta engkainia'' τὰ ἐγκαίνια).<ref>This is the first reference to the Feast of Dedication by this name (ta egkainia, ta enkainia [a typical “festive plural”]) in Jewish literature (Hengel 1999: 317). "</ref> [[Josephus]] refers to the festival as "lights."<ref>''Mercer Dictionary of the Bible'' ed. Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard – 1990 -"Hence Hanukkah also is called the Feast of Lights, an alternate title Josephus confirms with this rationale: "And from that time to this we celebrate this festival, and call it 'Lights.' I suppose the reason was, because this liberty beyond our hopes appeared to us; and that thence was the name given to that festival." (per ''The works of Flavius Josephus'' translated by William Whiston)</ref>

== Story ==

=== Background ===
{{Further information|Coele-Syria}}
[[File:Jerusalem Modell BW 2.JPG|thumb|[[Holyland Model of Jerusalem|A model]] of [[Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period]]]]
[[Judea]] was part of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] of Egypt until 200 [[Before Christ|BC]] when King [[Antiochus III the Great]] of [[Syria]] defeated King [[Ptolemy V Epiphanes]] of Egypt at the [[Battle of Panium]]. Judea then became part of the [[Seleucid Empire]] of Syria. King [[Antiochus III the Great]] wanting to conciliate his new Jewish subjects guaranteed their right to "live according to their ancestral customs" and to continue to practice their religion in the Temple of Jerusalem. However, in 175 BC, [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]], the son of Antiochus III, invaded Judea, at the request of the sons of Tobias.<ref>[http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=1:section=31 Old.perseus.tufts.edu]
''Jewish War'' i. 31</ref> The [[Tobiads]], who led the [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenizing Jewish faction]] in Jerusalem, were expelled to Syria around 170 BC when the high priest [[Menelaus (High Priest)|Onias]] and his pro-Egyptian faction wrested control from them. The exiled Tobiads lobbied Antiochus IV Epiphanes to recapture Jerusalem. As the ancient Jewish historian Flavius Josephus tells us:
{{quote|The king being thereto disposed beforehand, complied with them, and came upon the Jews with a great army, and took their city by force, and slew a great multitude of those that favored Ptolemy, and sent out his soldiers to plunder them without mercy. He also spoiled the temple, and put a stop to the constant practice of offering a daily sacrifice of expiation for three years and six months.|source=''[[The Jewish War]]''}}

=== Traditional view ===
When the [[Second Temple]] in Jerusalem was looted and services stopped, [[Judaism]] was outlawed. In 167 BC [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes|Antiochus]] ordered an altar to [[Zeus]] erected in the Temple. He banned [[brit milah]] (circumcision) and ordered pigs to be sacrificed at the altar of the temple .<ref>[http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0148:book=1:section=31 Old.perseus.tufts.edu], ''Jewish War'' i. 34</ref>

Antiochus's actions provoked a large-scale [[Maccabean Revolt|revolt]]. [[Mattathias]] (Mattityahu), a [[Kohen|Jewish priest]], and his five sons [[Johanan Maccabeus|Jochanan]], [[Simon Maccabaeus|Simeon]], [[Eleazar Maccabeus|Eleazar]], [[Jonathan Maccabaeus|Jonathan]], and [[Judas Maccabeus|Judah]] led a rebellion against Antiochus starting with Mattathias killing first a Jew who wanted to comply with Antiochus's order to sacrifice to Zeus and then a Greek official who was to enforce the government's behest (1 Mac. 2, 24-25<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/1maccabees.html|title=1 Maccabees|publisher=}}</ref>). Judah became known as Yehuda HaMakabi ("Judah the Hammer"). By 166 BC Mattathias had died, and Judah took his place as leader. By 165 BC the Jewish revolt against the Seleucid monarchy was successful. The Temple was liberated and rededicated. The festival of Hanukkah was instituted to celebrate this event.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/1MA/1MA4.HTM#59|title=1 Macc. iv. 59|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040627184847/http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/1MA/1MA4.HTM|archive-date=27 June 2004}}</ref> Judah ordered the Temple to be cleansed, a new altar to be built in place of the polluted one and new holy vessels to be made. According to the Talmud, unadulterated and undefiled pure olive oil with the seal of the [[High Priest (Judaism)|kohen gadol]] (high priest) was needed for the menorah in the Temple, which was required to burn throughout the night every night. The story goes that one flask was found with only enough oil to burn for one day, yet it burned for eight days, the time needed to prepare a fresh supply of [[Kashrut|kosher]] oil for the menorah. An eight-day festival was declared by the Jewish sages to commemorate this miracle.

The version of the story in 1 Maccabees states that an eight-day celebration of songs and sacrifices was proclaimed upon re-dedication of the altar, and makes no specific mention of the miracle of the oil.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/1MA/1MA4.HTM#36|title=1 Macc. iv. 36|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116193601/http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/1MA/1MA4.HTM#36|archive-date=16 January 2008}}</ref>

=== Academic sources ===
[[File:Hanukkah-US-Military-GITMO-Dec-28-08.jpg|thumb|[[US Navy]] personnel light candles on Hanukkah]]
Some modern scholars argue that the king was intervening in an internal [[civil war]] between the [[Maccabean]] Jews and the [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenized]] Jews in Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book |title= Jewish Literacy: The Most Important Things to Know about the Jewish Religion, Its People, and Its History|last=Telushkin |first=Joseph |year= 1991|publisher= W. Morrow|isbn= 0-688-08506-7|page=114}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide|last=Johnston |first=Sarah Iles |year=2004 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=0-674-01517-7 |page= 186}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= The Jewish Way: Living the Holidays|last= Greenberg|first=Irving |year=1993 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn= 0-671-87303-2|page= 29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Judaism and the Gentile Faiths: Comparative Studies in Religion |last=Schultz |first=Joseph P. |year= 1981|publisher=[[Fairleigh Dickinson University Press]] |isbn= 0-8386-1707-7|page= 155|quote=Modern scholarship on the other hand considers the Maccabean revolt less as an uprising against foreign oppression than as a civil war between the orthodox and reformist parties in the Jewish camp}}</ref>

These competed violently over who would be the High Priest, with traditionalists with Hebrew/Aramaic names like [[Onias III|Onias]] contesting with Hellenizing High Priests with Greek names like [[Jason (high priest)|Jason]] and [[Menelaus (High Priest)|Menelaus]].<ref>{{cite book |title= A Survey of the New Testament|last=Gundry |first=Robert H. |year=2003 |publisher=[[Zondervan]] |isbn= 0-310-23825-0|page= 9}}</ref> In particular Jason's Hellenistic reforms would prove to be a decisive factor leading to eventual conflict within the ranks of Judaism.<ref>{{cite book |title= Judaic Religion in the Second Temple Period: Belief and Practice from the Exile to Yavneh|last= Grabbe|first=Lester L. |year= 2000|publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-21250-2 |page= 59}}</ref> Other authors point to possible socioeconomic reasons in addition to the religious reasons behind the civil war.<ref>{{cite book |title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |last=Freedman |first= David Noel|author2=Allen C. Myers |author3=Astrid B. Beck |year=2000 |publisher= Wm. B. [[Eerdmans Publishing]]|isbn=0-8028-2400-5 |page= 837}}</ref>

What began in many respects as a civil war escalated when the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria sided with the [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenizing Jews]] in their conflict with the traditionalists.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Survey of Israel's History |last=Wood |first=Leon James |year= 1986|publisher= Zondervan|isbn= 0-310-34770-X|page=357}}</ref> As the conflict escalated, Antiochus took the side of the Hellenizers by prohibiting the religious practices the traditionalists had rallied around. This may explain why the king, in a total departure from Seleucid practice in all other places and times, banned a traditional religion.<ref>{{cite book |title=Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews |last=Tcherikover |first=Victor |year= 1999|origyear=1959|publisher=Baker Academic |isbn= 0-8010-4785-4}}</ref>

The miracle of the oil is widely regarded as a legend and its authenticity has been questioned since the Middle Ages.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia Judaica, Volume 9 |last=Skolnik, Berenbaum |first=Fred, Michael |year=2007|publisher=Granite Hill Publishers, pg 332}}</ref> However, by virtue of the famous question Rabbi [[Yosef Karo]] posed concerning why Hanukah is celebrated for eight days when the miracle was only for seven days (since there was enough oil for one day), it was clear that he believed it was a historical event, and this belief has been adopted by most of Orthodox Judaism, in as much as Rabbi Karo's ''[[Shulchan Aruch]]'' is a main Code of Jewish Law.

=== Timeline ===
{{Further information|Second Temple period}}
[[File:Judea Simon Makk.PNG|thumb|[[Hasmonean Kingdom]], 143 BCE]]
[[File:'קברות המכבים'.jpg|thumb|Tombs of the Maccabees, [[Modi'in]], [[Israel]]]]
* 198 BCE: Armies of the Seleucid King [[Antiochus III]] (Antiochus the Great) oust [[Ptolemy V Epiphanes|Ptolemy V]] from [[Judea]] and [[Samaria]].
* 175 BCE: [[Antiochus IV]] (Epiphanes) ascends the Seleucid throne.
* 168 BCE: Under the reign of Antiochus IV, the [[second Temple]] is looted, Jews are massacred, and [[Judaism]] is outlawed.
* 167 BCE: Antiochus orders an altar to [[Zeus]] erected in the Temple. [[Mattathias]], and his five sons John, [[Simon Maccabeus|Simon]], [[Eleazar Maccabeus|Eleazar]], [[Jonathan Apphus|Jonathan]], and [[Judas Maccabeus|Judah]] lead [[Maccabean Revolt|a rebellion]] against Antiochus. Judah becomes known as Judah Maccabee ("Judah the Hammer").
* 166 BCE: Mattathias dies, and Judah takes his place as leader. The [[Hasmonean dynasty|Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom]] begins; It lasts until 63 BCE
* 165 BCE: The Jewish revolt against the [[Seleucid]] monarchy is successful in recapturing the Temple, which is liberated and rededicated (Hanukkah).
* 142 BCE: Re-establishment of the [[Second Temple period|Second Jewish Commonwealth]]. The Seleucids recognize Jewish autonomy. The Seleucid kings have a formal overlordship, which the Hasmoneans acknowledged. This inaugurates a period of population growth, and religious, cultural and social development. This included the conquest of the areas now covered by [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]], [[Samaria]], [[Galilee]], and [[Idumea]] (also known as [[Edom]]), and the forced conversion of Idumeans to the Jewish religion, including circumcision.<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/ant-13.htm Josephus, ''Ant.'' xiii, 9:1., via]</ref>
* 139 BCE: The [[Roman Senate]] recognizes Jewish autonomy.
* 134 BCE: [[Antiochus VII Sidetes]] besieges [[Jerusalem]]. The Jews under [[John Hyrcanus]] become Seleucid vassals, but retain religious autonomy.<ref>{{cite web|title=Antiochus VII Sidetes |url=http://virtualreligion.net/iho/antiochus_7.html |last=Smith |first=Mahlon H.}}</ref>
* 129 BCE: Antiochus VII dies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1592-antiochus-vii-sidetes |title=Antiochus VII., Sidetes |last=Ginzburg |first=Louis |work=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]] |year=1901}}</ref> The [[Hasmonean]] Jewish Kingdom throws off Syrian rule completely
* 96 BCE: Beginning of an eight-year civil war between Hasmonean [[Sadducee]] king [[Alexander Yanai]] and the [[Pharisees]].
* 83 BCE: Consolidation of the Kingdom in territory east of the [[Jordan River]].
* 63 BCE: The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom comes to an end because of rivalry between the brothers [[Aristobulus II]] and [[Hyrcanus II]], both of whom appeal to the [[Roman Republic]] to intervene and settle the power struggle on their behalf. The Roman general [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] (Pompey the Great) is dispatched to the area. 12 thousand Jews are massacred in Roman [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)|Siege of Jerusalem]]. The Priests of the Temple are struck down at the Altar. Rome annexes Judea.

=== Battles of the Maccabean Revolt ===
{{Main article|Maccabean Revolt}}
[[File:Knesset Menorah P5200009 Mac.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Maccabees]] on the [[Knesset Menorah]]]]
Key battles between the [[Maccabees]] and the Seleucid Syrian-Greeks:
* [[Battle of Adasa]] ([[Judas Maccabeus]] leads the Jews to victory against the forces of Nicanor.)
* [[Battle of Beth Horon (166 BCE)|Battle of Beth Horon]] (Judas Maccabeus defeats the forces of Seron.)
* [[Battle of Beth-zechariah]] ([[Eleazar Avaran|Elazar]] the Maccabee is killed in battle. Lysias has success in battle against the Maccabess, but allows them temporary freedom of worship.)
* [[Battle of Beth Zur]] (Judas Maccabeus defeats the army of [[Lysias (Syrian chancellor)|Lysias]], recapturing Jerusalem.)
* [[Dathema]] (A Jewish fortress saved by Judas Maccabeus.)
* [[Battle of Elasa]] (Judas Maccabeus dies in battle against the army of [[Demetrius I Soter|King Demetrius]] and [[Bacchides (general)|Bacchides]]. He is succeeded by [[Jonathan Maccabaeus]] and [[Simon Maccabaeus]] who continue to lead the Jews in battle.)
* [[Battle of Emmaus]] (Judas Maccabeus fights the forces of [[Lysias (Syrian chancellor)|Lysias]] and [[Gorgias (Syrian general)|Georgias]]).
* [[Battle of Wadi Haramia]].

=== Characters and heroes ===
{{Main article|Maccabees}}
[[File:Peter Paul Rubens and workshop 002.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Triumph of [[Judas Maccabeus]]'', [[Rubens]]]]
* [[Mattathias|Matisyahu the High Priest]], also referred to as Mattathias and Mattathias ben Johanan. Matisyahu was a Jewish High Priest, who together with his five sons, played a central role in the story of Hanukkah.
* [[Judas Maccabeus|Judah the Maccabee]], also referred to as Judas Maccabeus and Y'hudhah HaMakabi. Judah was the eldest son of Matisyahu and is acclaimed as one of the greatest warriors in Jewish history alongside [[Joshua]], [[Gideon]], and [[David]].
* [[Eleazar Avaran|Eleazar the Maccabee]], also referred to as Eleazar Avaran, Eleazar Maccabeus and Eleazar Hachorani/Choran.
* [[Simon Thassi|Simon the Maccabee]], also referred to as Simon Maccabeus and Simon Thassi.
* [[John Gaddi|Johanan the Maccabee]], also referred to as Johanan Maccabeus and John Gaddi.
* [[Jonathan Apphus|Jonathan the Maccabee]], also referred to as Jonathan Apphus.
* [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]].
* [[Book of Judith|Judith]]. Acclaimed for her heroism in the assassination of [[Holofernes]].
* [[Woman with seven sons|Hannah and her seven sons]]. Arrested, tortured and killed one by one, by [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] for refusing to bow to an idol.

== Rituals ==
[[File:Donetsk hanuka.jpg|thumb|upright|[[public menorah|Public Hanukkah menorah]] in [[Donetsk, Ukraine]]]]
[[File:Hanukkah sign Nicosia Republic of Cyprus.JPG|thumb|[[public menorah|Public Hanukkah menorah]] in [[Nicosia]], [[Cyprus]]]]
[[File:Chanuka Sejm 2015.JPG|thumb|Hanukkah celebrated in the [[Sejm|Polish Sejm]], [[Warsaw]]]]
Hanukkah is celebrated with a series of rituals that are performed every day throughout the 8-day holiday, some are family-based and others communal. There are special additions to the [[List of Jewish prayers and blessings#Hanukkah|daily prayer service]], and a section is added to the [[Birkat Hamazon|blessing after meals]].

Hanukkah is not a "Sabbath-like" holiday, and there is no obligation to refrain from [[39 categories of activity prohibited on Shabbat|activities that are forbidden on the Sabbath]], as specified in the ''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]''.<ref>''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'' ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' 670:1</ref> Adherents go to work as usual, but may leave early in order to be home to kindle the lights at nightfall. There is no religious reason for schools to be closed, although, in Israel, schools close from the second day for the whole week of Hanukkah. Many families exchange gifts each night, such as books or games and "Hanukkah Gelt" is often given to children. Fried foods (such as latkes [[potato pancakes]], jelly doughnuts [[Sufganiyah|sufganiyot]] and Sephardic Bimuelos) are eaten to commemorate the importance of oil during the celebration of Hanukkah. Some also have a custom to eat dairy products to remember [[Judith]] and how she overcame [[Holofernes]] by feeding him cheese, which made him thirsty, and giving him wine to drink. When Holofernes became very drunk, Judith [[Judith beheading Holofernes|cut off his head]].

=== Kindling the Hanukkah lights ===
{{Further information|Menorah (Hanukkah)|Miracle of the cruse of oil}}
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 146 Hanukka חנוכה.Jpg|thumb|Boy in front of a menorah]]
Each night, throughout the 8 day holiday, a candle or oil-based light, is lit. As a universally practiced "beautification" ([[hiddur mitzvah]]) of the [[mitzvah]], the number of lights lit is increased by one each night.<ref>''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'' ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' 671:2</ref> An extra light called a ''shamash'', meaning "attendant" or "sexton,"<ref>[http://www.chabad.org/103868/ Menorah Lighting Guide].</ref> is also lit each night, and is given a distinct location, usually higher, lower, or to the side of the others. While linguistically incorrect, the word ''shamus'' (Yiddish slang for "police" or "private investigator") has often been used as a reference to the extra candle.

The purpose of the extra light is to adhere to the prohibition, specified in the Talmud (Tracate Shabbat 21b–23a), against using the Hanukkah lights for anything other than publicizing and meditating on the Hanukkah miracle. This differs from [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] candles which are meant to be used for illumination and lighting. Hence, if one were to need extra illumination on Hanukkah, the ''shamash'' candle would be available, and one would avoid using the prohibited lights. Some, especially Ashkenazim, light the ''shamash'' candle first and then use it to light the others.<ref name = "lonorw">''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'' ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' 673:1</ref> So altogether, including the ''shamash'', two lights are lit on the first night, three on the second and so on, ending with nine on the last night, for a total of 44 (36, excluding the ''shamash''). It is Sephardic custom not to light the shamash first and use it to light the rest. Instead, the shamash candle is the last to be lit, and a different candle or a match is used to light all the candles. Some Hasidic Jews follow this Sephardic custom as well.

The lights can be candles or oil lamps.<ref name = "lonorw"/> Electric lights are sometimes used and are acceptable in places where open flame is not permitted, such as a hospital room, or for the very elderly and infirm, however those who permit reciting a blessing over electric lamps only allow it if it is incandescent and battery operated (an incandescent flashlight would be acceptable for this purpose), however a blessing may not be recited over a plug-in menorah or lamp. Most Jewish homes have a special [[candelabrum]] referred to as either a ''Chanukiah'' (the Sephardi and Israeli term), or a ''menorah'' (the traditional Ashkenazi name); Many families use an oil lamp (traditionally filled with olive oil) for Hanukkah. Like the candle Chanukiah, it has eight wicks to light plus the additional ''shamash'' light.

Hanukkah became more widely celebrated beginning from the 1970s, when Rabbi [[Menachem M. Schneerson]] called for public awareness and observance of the festival and encouraged the lighting of [[public menorah]]s.<ref>Joshua Eli Plaut, ''A Kosher Christmas: 'Tis the Season to be Jewish''. Rutgers University Press, 2012. Page 167.</ref><ref>Jonathan D. Sarna, [http://forward.com/articles/120124/how-hanukkah-came-to-the-white-house/ How Hanukkah Came To The White House]. Forward, 2 December 2009.</ref><ref>Joseph Telushkin, ''[[Rebbe: The Life and Teachings of Menachem M. Schneerson, the Most Influential Rabbi in Modern History]]''. HarperCollins, 2014. Page 269.</ref><ref>Menachem Posner, [http://www.chabad.org/2778619/ 40 Years Later: How the Chanukah Menorah Made Its Way to the Public sphere]. 1 December 2014.</ref> Diane Ashton attributed the popularization of Hanukkah by some of the American Jewish community as a way to adapt to American life, because they could celebrate Hannukkah which occurs at around the same time as [[Christmas]].<ref name=Ashton/>

The reason for the Hanukkah lights is not for the "lighting of the house within", but rather for the "illumination of the house without," so that passersby should see it and be reminded of the holiday's miracle (i.e. the triumph of the few over the many and of the pure over the impure). Accordingly, lamps are set up at a prominent window or near the door leading to the street. It is customary amongst some [[Ashkenazi Jews]] to have a separate menorah for each family member (customs vary), whereas most [[Sephardi Jews]] light one for the whole household. Only when there was danger of [[Antisemitism|antisemitic persecution]] were lamps supposed to be hidden from public view, as was the case in [[Iran|Persia]] under the rule of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]], or in parts of Europe before and during World War II. However, most [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] groups light lamps near an inside doorway, not necessarily in public view. According to this tradition, the lamps are placed on the opposite side from the ''[[mezuzah]]'', so that when one passes through the door s/he is surrounded by the holiness of ''[[Mitzvah|mitzvot]]'' (the [[613 commandments|commandments]]).

Generally women are exempt in Jewish law from time-bound positive commandments, although the Talmud requires that women engage in the mitzvah of lighting Hanukkah candles “for they too were involved in the miracle.”<ref>Babylonian Talmud: Shabbat 23a</ref> In practice, only the male members of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] households are obliged to light the menorah. In practice, some Sephardi households involve everyone in the candle lighting, with the head of the household lighting the first candle each night, the wife the second candle, and the children, eldest first, lighting the subsequent candles.

The Menorah is also lit in synagogue between Minchah and Maariv prayers, with the blessings, to publicize the miracle. However, it also must be lit at home, and even the one who recited the blessings in the synagogue must recite the blessings again at home. For this reason, some congregations, particularly in certain Hasidic communities, have a custom to throw things, such as towels, at whoever lights the menorah in synagogue, to show that he must light again at home. But when a Rebbe lights in the synagogue before eating a meal there with the congregation, no towels are thrown. Some people disagree with the custom of throwing towels, as they see it as disrespectful to the synagogue, but it was the practice among many Hasidic masters. The Menorah is also lit in the day time in synagogue during the Shacharith prayers, but no blessings are recited, and towels are not thrown.

=== Candle-lighting time ===
[[File:Bialahanukabp.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Biala (Hasidic dynasty)|Biala]] [[Rebbe#The Ḥasidic Rebbe|Rebbe]] lights the menorah]]
Hanukkah lights should usually burn for at least half an hour after it gets dark.<ref name="ChabadHowTo">{{Cite web |url=http://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/article_cdo/aid/603798/jewish/Chanukah-Guide.htm |title=Chanukah Guide |quote=the menorah must contain enough fuel at the time of the lighting to burn until 30 minutes after nightfall |access-date=December 4, 2015}}</ref> The custom of many is to light at sundown, although most Hasidim light later.<ref name="ChabadHowTo"/> Many Hasidic [[Rebbes]] light much later to fulfill the obligation of publicizing the miracle by the presence of their Hasidim when they kindle the lights.{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}}

Inexpensive small wax candles sold for Hanukkah burn for approximately half an hour, so should be lit no earlier than nightfall.<ref name="ChabadHowTo"/> Friday night presents a problem, however. Since candles may not be lit on [[Shabbat]] itself, the candles must be lit before sunset.<ref name="ChabadHowTo"/> However, they must remain lit through the lighting of the Shabbat candles. Therefore, the Hanukkah menorah is lit first with larger candles than usual,<ref name="ChabadHowTo"/> followed by the [[Shabbat candles]]. At the end of the Shabbat, there are those who light the Hanukkah lights before [[havdalah]], and those who make havdalah before the lighting Hanukkah lights.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://sites.google.com/site/tiferetisraelorg/our-rabbi/halacha-tidbits/ctilawsandcustomsofchanukah-december16-232014 |title=CTI Laws and Customs of Chanukah |access-date=December 4, 2015}}</ref>

If for whatever reason one didn't light at sunset or nightfall, the lights should be kindled later, as long as there are people in the streets.<ref name="ChabadHowTo"/> Later than that, the lights should still be kindled, but the blessings should be recited only if there is at least somebody else awake in the house and present at the lighting of the Hannukah lights.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://njop.org/resources/holidays/complete-guide-to-holidays/chanukah/what-to-do-on-chanukah/ |title=What to do on Chanukah |access-date=December 4, 2015}}</ref>

=== Blessings over the candles ===
Typically three blessings (''brachot''; singular: ''brachah'') are recited during this eight-day festival when lighting the candles:

On the first night of Hanukkah, Jews recite all three blessings; on all subsequent nights, they recite only the first two.<ref>''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'' ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' 676:1–2</ref>

The blessings are said before or after the candles are lit depending on tradition. On the first night of Hanukkah one light (candle or oil) is lit on the right side of the menorah, on the following night a second light is placed to the left of the first but it is lit first, and so on, proceeding from placing candles right to left but lighting them from left to right over the eight nights.

For the full text of the blessings, see [[List of Jewish prayers and blessings#Hanukkah|List of Jewish prayers and blessings: Hanukkah]].

==== ''Hanerot Halalu'' ====
After the lights are kindled the hymn ''Hanerot Halalu'' is recited. There are several different versions; the version presented here is recited in many Ashkenazic communities:<ref>''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'' ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' 676:4</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Ashkenazi version:
! scope-"col" | Hebrew
! scope="col" | Transliteration
! scope="col" | English
|-
|{{rtl-para|he|הנרות הללו אנו מדליקין על הנסים ועל הנפלאות ועל התשועות ועל המלחמות שעשית לאבותינו בימים ההם, בזמן הזה על ידי כהניך הקדושים. וכל שמונת ימי חנוכה הנרות הללו קודש הם, ואין לנו רשות להשתמש בהם אלא להאיר אותם בלבד כדי להודות ולהלל לשמך הגדול על נסיך ועל נפלאותיך ועל ישועותיך.}}
|{{transl|he|Hanneirot hallalu anu madlikin 'al hannissim ve'al hanniflaot 'al hatteshu'ot ve'al hammilchamot she'asita laavoteinu bayyamim haheim, (u)bazzeman hazeh 'al yedei kohanekha hakkedoshim. Vekhol-shemonat yemei Hanukkah hanneirot hallalu kodesh heim, ve-ein lanu reshut lehishtammesh baheim ella lir'otam bilvad kedei lehodot ul'halleil leshimcha haggadol 'al nissekha ve'al nifleotekha ve'al yeshu'otekha.}}
|We kindle these lights for the miracles and the wonders, for the redemption and the battles that you made for our forefathers, in those days at this season, through your [[Kohen|holy priests]]. During all eight days of Hanukkah these lights are sacred, and we are not permitted to make ordinary use of them except for to look at them in order to express thanks and praise to Your great Name for Your miracles, Your wonders and Your salvations.
|}

=== ''Maoz Tzur'' ===
{{Main article|Ma'oz Tzur}}
In the Ashkenazi tradition, each night after the lighting of the candles, the hymn [[Ma'oz Tzur]] is sung. The song contains six stanzas. The first and last deal with general themes of divine salvation, and the middle four deal with events of persecution in [[Jewish history]], and praises God for survival despite these tragedies ([[the exodus]] from Egypt, the [[Babylonian captivity]], the miracle of the holiday of [[Purim]], the [[Hasmonean]] victory), and a longing for the days when Judea will finally triumph over [[Ancient Rome|Rome]].

The song was composed in the thirteenth century by a poet only known through the acrostic found in the first letters of the original five stanzas of the song: Mordechai. The familiar tune is most probably a derivation of a German Protestant church hymn or a popular folk song.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Jewish_Holidays/Hanukkah/At_Home/Candlelighting/Maoz_Tzur.shtml|title=Maoz Tzur: Rock of Ages|work=My Jewish Learning}}</ref>

=== Other customs ===
After lighting the candles and Ma'oz Tzur, singing other Hanukkah songs is customary in many Jewish homes. Some [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] and [[Sephardic Jews|Sephardi]] Jews recite [[Psalms]], such as {{bibleverse||Psalms|30|HE}}, {{bibleverse||Psalms|67|HE}}, and {{bibleverse||Psalms|91|HE}}. In North America and in Israel it is common to exchange presents or give children presents at this time. In addition, many families encourage their children to give [[tzedakah]] (charity) in lieu of presents for themselves.

=== Special additions to daily prayers ===
{{quote box|align=right|width=30%|quote="We thank You also for the miraculous deeds and for the redemption and for the mighty deeds and the saving acts wrought by You, as well as for the wars which You waged for our ancestors in ancient days at this season. In the days of the Hasmonean Mattathias, son of Johanan the high priest, and his sons, when the iniquitous Greco-Syrian kingdom rose up against Your people Israel, to make them forget Your Torah and to turn them away from the ordinances of Your will, then You in your abundant mercy rose up for them in the time of their trouble, pled their cause, executed judgment, avenged their wrong, and delivered the strong into the hands of the weak, the many into the hands of few, the impure into the hands of the pure, the wicked into the hands of the righteous, and insolent ones into the hands of those occupied with Your Torah. Both unto Yourself did you make a great and holy name in Thy world, and unto Your people did You achieve a great deliverance and redemption. Whereupon your children entered the sanctuary of Your house, cleansed Your temple, purified Your sanctuary, kindled lights in Your holy courts, and appointed these eight days of Hanukkah in order to give thanks and praises unto Your holy name."|source=Translation of ''Al ha-Nissim''}}

An addition is made to the "''hoda'ah''" (thanksgiving) benediction in the [[Amidah]] (thrice-daily prayers), called ''Al ha-Nissim'' ("On/about the Miracles").<ref>''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'' ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' 682:1</ref> This addition refers to the victory achieved over the Syrians by the Hasmonean Mattathias and his sons.

The same prayer is added to the grace after meals. In addition, the ''[[Hallel]]'' (praise) ({{bibleverse||Psalms|113|HE}} - {{bibleverse||Psalms|118|HE}}) are sung during each morning service and the ''[[Tachanun]]'' penitential prayers are omitted.

The Torah is read every day in the [[shacharit]] morning services in [[synagogue]], on the first day beginning from {{bibleverse||Numbers|6:22|HE}} (according to some customs, {{bibleverse||Numbers|7:1|HE}}), and the last day ending with {{bibleverse||Numbers|8:4|HE}}. Since Hanukkah lasts eight days it includes at least one, and sometimes two, [[Shabbat|Jewish Sabbaths]] (Saturdays). The weekly [[Parsha|Torah portion]] for the first Sabbath is almost always ''[[Miketz]]'', telling of [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]]'s dream and his enslavement in [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]. The ''[[Haftarah]]'' reading for the first Sabbath Hanukkah is {{bibleverse||Zechariah|2:14|HE}} – {{bibleverse||Zechariah|4:7|HE}}. When there is a second Sabbath on Hanukkah, the ''Haftarah'' reading is from {{bibleverse||1Kings|7:40|HE}} - {{bibleverse||1Kings|7:50|HE}}.

The Hanukkah ''menorah'' is also kindled daily in the synagogue, at night with the blessings and in the morning without the blessings.

The menorah is not lit during Shabbat, but rather prior to the beginning of Shabbat as described above and not at all during the day.
During the [[Middle Ages]] "[[Megillat Antiochus]]" was read in the [[Italian Jews#Italian rite Jews|Italian]] synagogues on Hanukkah just as the [[Book of Esther]] is read on [[Purim]]. It still forms part of the liturgy of the [[Yemenite Jews]].<ref name = "pvgsyw"/>

=== ''Zot Hanukkah'' ===
The last day of Hanukkah is known as ''Zot Hanukkah'', from the verse read on this day in the synagogue {{bibleverse||Numbers|7:84|HE}}, ''Zot Hanukkat Hamizbe'ach'': "This was the dedication of the altar". According to the teachings of [[Kabbalah]] and [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidism]], this day is the final "seal" of the High Holiday season of [[Yom Kippur]], and is considered a time to repent out of love for God. In this spirit, many Hasidic Jews wish each other ''Gmar chatimah tovah'' ("may you be sealed totally for good"), a traditional greeting for the Yom Kippur season. It is taught in Hasidic and Kabbalistic literature that this day is particularly auspicious for the fulfillment of prayers.

=== Other related laws and customs ===
It is customary for women not to work for at least the first half-hour of the candles' burning, and some have the custom not to work for the entire time of burning. It is also forbidden to fast or to eulogize during Hanukkah.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ohr.edu/1304|title=The Laws of Chanukah|work=Ohr Somayach}}</ref>

== Customs ==

=== Music ===
{{Main article|Hanukkah music}}
[[File:מעוז צור ישועתי שירי חנוכה תווים רדומסק מבצע בעל התפילה יונתן שטנצל hanukkah songs maoz tzur yeshuati.pdf|thumb|upright|Radomsk Hasidic Ma'oz Tzur sheet music.]]
A large number of songs have been written on Hanukkah themes, perhaps more so than for any other Jewish holiday. Some of the best known are "''[[Ma'oz Tzur]]''" (Rock of Ages), "''Latke'le Latke'le''" (Yiddish song about cooking Latkes), "''Hanukkiah Li Yesh''" ("I Have a Hanukkah Menorah"), "''[[Ocho Kandelikas]]''" ("Eight Little Candles"), "''Kad Katan''" ("A Small Jug"), "''S'vivon Sov Sov Sov''" ("Dreidel, Spin and Spin"), ''Haneirot Halolu''" ("These Candles which we light"), "''Mi Yimalel''" ("Who can Retell") and "''Ner Li, Ner Li''" ("I have a Candle"). The most well known in English-speaking countries include "[[Dreidel, Dreidel, Dreidel]]" and "[[Oh Chanukah]]."

Among the Rebbes of the [[Nadvorna (Hasidic dynasty)|Nadvorna]] [[Hasidic]] dynasty, it is customary for the Rebbes to play [[violin]] after the menorah is lit.

[[Penina Moise]]'s Hannukah Hymn published in the 1842 ''Hymns Written for the Use of Hebrew Congregations'' was instrumental in the beginning of Americanization of Hanukkah.<ref name=Ashton>{{cite book|title=Hanukkah in America: A History|first=Dianne|last=Ashton|publisher=NYU Press|year=2013|isbn=9781479858958|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ISIrAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false|p=42–46|quote=Throughout the nineteenth century some Jews tried various ways to adapt Judaism to American life. As they began looking for images to help understand and explain what a proper response to American Challenges might be, Hanukkah became ripe for reinvention. In Charleston, South Carolina, one group of Jews made Hanukkah into a time for serious religious reflexion that responded to their evangelical Protestant milieu...[Moise's] poem gave Hanukkah a place in the emerging religious style of American culture that was dominated by the language of individualism and personal conscience derived from both Protestantism and the Enlightenment. However, neither the Talmud nor the Shulchan Aruch identifies Hanukkah as a special occasion to ask for the forgiveness of sins.}}</ref><ref>[[The Post and Courier]], [http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20111218/ARCHIVES/312189902 Celebrating Hanukkah, Adam Parker, Dec 18 2011]</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ashton|first=Dianne|title=Quick to the Party: The Americanization of Hanukkah and Southern Jewry|journal=Southern Jewish History|volume=12|pages=1–38}}</ref>

=== Foods ===
[[File:LatkeFry.JPG|thumb|left|Potato [[latke]] frying in hot [[olive oil]].]]
There is a custom of eating foods fried or baked in oil (preferably [[olive oil]]) to commemorate the miracle of a small flask of oil keeping the [[Second Temple]]'s [[Menorah (Temple)|Menorah]] alight for eight days.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pjvoice.com/v7/7900food.html |title=The Philadelphia Jewish Voice |publisher=Pjvoice.com |date=2006-01-07 |access-date=2011-12-25}}</ref> Traditional foods include [[potato pancake]]s, known as ''latkes'' in [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], especially among [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] families. Sephardi, [[History of Jews in Poland|Polish]] and [[Israeli Jews|Israeli]] families eat jam-filled [[doughnut]]s ({{lang-yi|פאנטשקעס}} ''[[Pączki|pontshkes]]''), [[Buñuelos|bimuelos]] (fritters) and [[Sufganiyah|sufganiyot]] which are [[Deep frying|deep-fried]] in oil. Hungarian Jews eat cheese pancakes known as "cheese latkes".

[[File:Classic Hanukkah sufganiyot.JPG|thumb|[[Sufganiyot]] / [[doughnut]]s filled with strawberry jelly]]
Latkes are not popular in Israel, having been largely replaced by [[Sufganiyah|sufganiyot]] due to local economic factors, convenience and the influence of trade unions.<ref>{{cite web |author=Jeffay, Nathan |title=Why Israel is a latke-free zone |url=http://www.thejc.com/lifestyle/food/25127/why-israel-a-latke-free-zone |work=thejc.com |date=December 17, 2009}}</ref> Bakeries in Israel have popularized many new types of fillings for ''sufganiyot'' besides the traditional strawberry jelly filling, including chocolate cream, vanilla cream, caramel, cappuccino and others.<ref>Gur, Jana, ''The Book of New Israeli Food: A Culinary Journey'', pp. 238–243, Schocken (2008) ISBN 0-8052-1224-8</ref> In recent years, downsized, "mini" sufganiyot containing half the calories of the regular, 400-to-600-calorie version, have become popular.<ref>[http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1260447411124 Minsberg, Tali and Lidman, Melanie. ''Love Me Dough'']. [[Jerusalem Post]], 10 December 2009. Retrieved 17 December 2009.</ref>

Rabbinic literature also records a tradition of eating cheese and other dairy products during Hanukkah.<ref>Benyamina Soloveitchik, [http://www.chabad.org/103095 Why All the Oil and Cheese?].</ref> This custom, as mentioned above, commemorates the heroism of [[Book of Judith|Judith]] during the Babylonian captivity of the Jews and reminds us that women also played an important role in the events of Hanukkah.<ref>[http://www.chabad.org/103019 Yehudit: The Woman Who Saved the Day].</ref> The [[deuterocanonical]] [[book of Judith]] (Yehudit or Yehudis in Hebrew), which is not part of the [[Tanakh]], records that [[Holofernes]], an Assyrian general, had surrounded the village of Bethulia as part of his campaign to conquer Judea. After intense fighting, the water supply of the Jews was cut off and the situation became desperate. Judith, a pious widow, told the city leaders that she had a plan to save the city. Judith went to the Assyrian camps and pretended to surrender. She met Holofernes, who was smitten by her beauty. She went back to his tent with him, where she plied him with cheese and wine. When he fell into a drunken sleep, Judith beheaded him and escaped from the camp, taking the severed head with her (the [[Judith Beheading Holofernes|beheading of Holofernes by Judith]] has historically been a popular theme in art). When Holofernes' soldiers found his corpse, they were overcome with fear; the Jews, on the other hand, were emboldened, and launched a successful counterattack. The town was saved, and the Assyrians defeated.<ref>[[Mishna Berurah]] 670:2:10</ref>

=== Dreidel ===
{{Main article|Dreidel}}
[[File:Colorful dreidels2.JPG|thumb|[[Dreidel]]s / [[Top|Spinning tops]] in a Jerusalem market]]
The [[dreidel]], or ''sevivon'' in Hebrew, is a four-sided spinning top that children play with during Hanukkah. Each side is imprinted with a Hebrew letter. These letters are an abbreviation for the Hebrew words {{lang|he|נס גדול היה שם}} ('''''N'''es '''G'''adol '''H'''aya '''S'''ham'', "A great miracle happened there"), referring to the miracle of the oil that took place in the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Beit Hamikdash]].
* {{lang|he|נ}} ''([[Nun (letter)|Nun]])''
* {{lang|he|ג}} ''([[Gimel (letter)|Gimel]])''
* {{lang|he|ה}} ''([[He (letter)|Hey]])''
* {{lang|he|ש}} ''([[Shin (letter)|Shin]])''

On dreidels sold in Israel, the fourth side is inscribed with the letter {{lang|he|פ}} ''([[Pe (letter)|Pe]])'', rendering the acronym {{lang|he|נס גדול היה פה}} ('''''N'''es '''G'''adol '''H'''aya '''P'''o'', "A great miracle happened here"), referring to the fact that the miracle occurred in the land of Israel, although this is a relatively recent innovation. Stores in [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] neighborhoods sell the traditional ''Shin'' dreidels as well, because they understand "there" to refer to the Temple and not the entire Land of Israel, and because the Hasidic Masters ascribe significance to the traditional letters.

Some Jewish commentators ascribe symbolic significance to the markings on the dreidel. One commentary, for example, connects the four letters with the four exiles to which the nation of Israel was historically subject: Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome.<ref>{{cite web|last=Yaakov |first=Rabbi |url=http://www.ohr.org.il/yhiy/article.php/1309 |title=Ohr Somayach :: Chanukah :: The Secret of the Dreidel |publisher=Ohr.org.il |access-date=25 December 2011}}</ref>

After lighting the Hanukkah menorah, it is customary in many homes to play the dreidel game: Each player starts out with 10 or 15 coins (real or of chocolate), nuts, raisins, candies or other markers, and places one marker in the "pot." The first player spins the dreidel, and depending on which side the dreidel falls on, either wins a marker from the pot or gives up part of his stash. The code (based on a [[Yiddish Language|Yiddish]] version of the game) is as follows:
* Nun–''nisht'', "nothing"–nothing happens and the next player spins
* Gimel–''gants'', "all"–the player takes the entire pot
* Hey–''halb'', "half"–the player takes half of the pot. If there are an odd number of markers, usually the player takes the extra one too.
* Shin–''shtel ayn'', "put in"–the player puts one marker in the pot

Another version differs:
* Nun–''nem'', "take"–the player takes one from the pot
* Gimel–''gib'', "give"–the player puts one in the pot
* Hey–''halb'', "half"–the player takes half of the pot
* Shin–''shtil'', "still" (as in "stillness")–nothing happens and the next player spins

The game may last until one person has won everything.

Tradition has it that the reason the dreidel game is played is to commemorate a game devised by the Jews to camouflage the fact that they were [[Torah study|studying Torah]], which was outlawed by the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]]. The Jews would gather in caves to study, posting a lookout to alert the group to the presence of [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] soldiers. If soldiers were spotted, the Jews would hide their scrolls and spin tops, so the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]] thought they were gambling, not studying.<ref>[http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=2604&pgnum=95&hilite= Otzar Kol Minhagei Yeshurun 19:4]</ref>

The historical context may be from the time of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt|Bar-Kohba war]], 132-135 C.E. when the penalty for teaching Torah was death, so decreed by Rome. Others trace the ''dreidel'' itself to the children's top game [[Teetotum]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://parsha.blogspot.com/2008/12/why-we-should-ban-playing-dreidel-pt-ii.html |title=parshablog: Why we should ban playing dreidel, pt ii |publisher=Parsha.blogspot.com |date=28 December 2008 |access-date=6 July 2013}}</ref> However, the dreidel game as we know it arose among the Ashkenazim. It is not a Sephardi tradition, though, of course, just like the singing of Maos Tzur, it has been adopted by other, non-Ashkenazi families.
* Dreidel gelt (dreidel money): The Eastern European game of dreidel (including the letters nun, gimmel, hey, shin) is like the German equivalent of the totum game: N = Nichts = nothing; G = Ganz = all; H = Halb = half; and S = Stell ein = put in. In German, the spinning top was called a "torrel" or "trundl," and in Yiddish it was called a "dreidel," a "fargl," a "varfl" [= something thrown], "shtel ein" [= put in], and "gor, gorin" [= all]. When Hebrew was revived as a spoken language, the dreidel was called, among other names, a ''sevivon'', which is the one that caught on.

Some Hasidic Rebbes may play the dreidel game at their [[Tish (Hasidic celebration)|Tish]], and often spiritual significance is attributed to this practice.

Some Hasidic children play with regular spinning tops on Hanukah, and also call them by the Yiddish name "dreidel".

=== Hanukkah gelt ===
{{Main article|Hanukkah gelt}}
[[File:Chocolate-Gold-Coins.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hanukkah gelt|Chocolate gelt]]]]
[[Chanukkah gelt]] ([[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] for "money") known as ''dmei Hanukkah'' in Israel, is often distributed to children during the festival of Hanukkah. The giving of Hanukkah gelt also adds to the holiday excitement. The amount is usually in small coins, although grandparents or relatives may give larger sums. The tradition of giving Chanukah ''gelt'' dates back to a long-standing East European custom of children presenting their teachers with a small sum of money at this time of year as a token of gratitude.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

== Dates ==
{{Further information|Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000–2050}}
The dates of Hanukkah are determined by the [[Hebrew calendar]]. Hanukkah begins at the 25th day of [[Kislev]], and concludes on the 2nd or 3rd day of [[Tevet]] (Kislev can have 29 or 30 days). The Jewish day begins at sunset, whereas the [[Gregorian calendar]] begins the day at midnight. Hanukkah begins at sunset of the date listed.

{{Div col}}
* 27 November 2013
* 16 December 2014
* 6 December 2015
* 24 December 2016
* 12 December 2017
* 2 December 2018
* 22 December 2019
* 10 December 2020
{{Div col end}}

In 2013, on 28 November, the American holiday of [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]] fell during Hanukkah for only the third time since Thanksgiving was declared a national holiday by President [[Abraham Lincoln]]. The last time was 1899; and due to the Gregorian and Jewish calendars being slightly out of sync with each other, it will not happen again in the foreseeable future.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/dr-joel-hoffman/hanukkah-and-thanskgiving_b_4312207.html | title=Why Hanukkah and Thanksgiving Will Never Again Coincide | publisher=Huffington Post | date=24 November 2013 | access-date=2 December 2013 | author=Hoffman, Joel}}</ref> This convergence prompted the creation of the [[portmanteau]] [[neologism]] [[Thanksgivukkah]].<ref name="jpost">{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/Jewish-World/Jewish-Features/Thanksgivukka-Please-pass-the-turkey-stuffed-doughnuts-331952|work=Jerusalem Post|title= Thanksgivukka: Please pass the turkey-stuffed doughnuts|author=Amy Spiro|date=17 November 2013|access-date=22 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Christine Byrne |url=http://www.buzzfeed.com/christinebyrne/thanksgivukkah |title=How To Celebrate Thanksgivukkah, The Best Holiday Of All Time |publisher=Buzzfeed |date=2 October 2013 |access-date=10 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Stu Bykofsky |url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/20131011_Thanks_for_Thanukkah_.html |title=Thanks for Thanukkah! |publisher=Philly.com |date=22 October 2012 |access-date=11 October 2013}}</ref>

== Symbolic importance ==
{{Refimprove section|date=December 2014}}
[[File:Jerusalem Hannukah 021210.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Second night of Hannukah at Jerusalem's [[Western Wall]]]]
Many people define major Jewish holidays as those that feature traditional holiday meals, kiddush, holiday candle-lighting, etc., and when all forms of work are forbidden. Only biblical holidays fit these criteria, and Chanukah was instituted some two centuries after the Bible was completed and canonized. Nevertheless, though Chanukah is of rabbinic origin, it is traditionally celebrated in a major and very public fashion. The requirement to position the menorah, or Chanukiah, at the door or window symbolizes the desire to give the Chanukah miracle a high-profile.<ref>[http://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/article_cdo/aid/789857/jewish/Chanukah-FAQs.htm#q6 Is Hanukkah a major Jewish Holiday?]</ref>

Some Jewish historians suggest a different explanation for the rabbinic reluctance to laud the militarism. First, the rabbis wrote after Hasmonean leaders had led Judea into Rome’s grip and so may not have wanted to offer the family much praise. Second, they clearly wanted to promote a sense of dependence on God, urging Jews to look toward the divine for protection. They likely feared inciting Jews to another revolt that might end in disaster, like the 135 C.E. experience.<ref>Dianne Ashton, ''Hanukkah in America: A History'', New York: New York University Press, 2013; pg. 29.</ref>

With the advent of Zionism and the state of Israel, however, these themes were reconsidered. In modern Israel, the national and military aspects of Hanukkah became, once again, more dominant.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

[[File:Carter Menorah.jpg|thumb|upright|US President [[Jimmy Carter]] attends Menorah Lighting, [[President's Park|Lafayette Park]], [[Washington, D.C.]], 1979]]
In North America especially, Hanukkah gained increased importance with many Jewish families in the latter part of the 20th century, including among large numbers of [[Secular Jewish culture|secular Jews]], who wanted a Jewish alternative to the [[Christmas]] celebrations that often overlap with Hanukkah.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} Though it was traditional among Ashkenazi Jews to give "gelt" or money to children during Hanukkah, in many families this has been supplemented with other gifts, so that Jewish children can enjoy gifts just as their Christmas-celebrating peers do.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

While Hanukkah is a relatively minor Jewish holiday, as indicated by the lack of religious restrictions on work other than a few minutes after lighting the candles, in North America, Hanukkah in the 21st century has taken a place equal to [[Passover]] as a symbol of Jewish identity.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}} Both the Israeli and North American versions of Hanukkah emphasize resistance, focusing on some combination of national liberation and religious freedom as the defining meaning of the holiday.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

Some Jews in North America and Israel have taken up environmental concerns in relation to Hanukkah's "miracle of the oil", emphasizing reflection on [[energy conservation]] and [[North American energy independence|energy independence]]. An example of this is the Coalition on the Environment and Jewish Life's renewable energy campaign.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theshalomcenter.org/node/1315 |title=Shalom Center on Hannukah and the environment |publisher=Theshalomcenter.org |date=16 November 2007 |access-date=25 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Hoffman |first=Gil |url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1195546797524&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |title=Jerusalem Post: Green Hanukkia' campaign sparks ire |publisher=Fr.jpost.com |date=4 December 2007 |access-date=25 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Dobb |first=Rabbi Fred Scherlinder |url=http://coejl.org/advocacy-and-policy-issues/pastcampaigns/cfl-installation-hanukkah/ |title=CFL Hannukah Installation ceremony |publisher=Coalition on Environment and Jewish Life (COEJL) |date=6 July 2011 |access-date=28 November 2013}}</ref>

== Hanukkah in the White House ==
{{Main article|White House Hanukkah Party}}
[[File:Truman receives menorah.jpg|thumb|President [[Harry S. Truman]] (left, back turned to camera) in the [[Oval Office]], receiving a Hanukkah Menorah as a gift from the Prime Minister of Israel, [[David Ben-Gurion]] (center). To the right is [[Abba Eban]], the Ambassador of Israel to the United States.]]

The United States has a history of recognizing and celebrating Hanukkah in a number of ways.

The earliest Hanukkah link with the White House occurred in 1951, when Israeli Prime Minister [[David Ben-Gurion]] presented United States President [[Harry Truman]] with a Hanukkah Menorah. In 1979 president [[Jimmy Carter]] took part in the first public Hanukkah candle-lighting ceremony of the [[National Menorah]] held across the White House lawn. In 1989, President [[George H.W. Bush]] displayed a menorah in the White House. In 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] invited a group of schoolchildren to the Oval Office for a small ceremony.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://forward.com/articles/120124/how-hanukkah-came-to-the-white-house/#ixzz3K7D7vjmH|title=How Hanukkah Came to the White House|date=2 December 2009|work=The Jewish Daily Forward}}</ref>

The [[United States Postal Service]] has released several Hanukkah themed [[postage stamps]]. In 1996 the [[United States Postal Service]] (USPS) issued a 32 [[Cent (currency)|cent]] Hanukkah [[Postage stamp|stamp]] as a [[joint issue]] with [[Israel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1996/10/Israeli-American%20Hanukkah%20Stamp |title=Israeli-American Hanukkah Stamp |publisher=Mfa.gov.il |date=22 October 1996 |access-date=17 January 2013}}</ref> In 2004 after 8 years of reissuing the menorah design, the USPS issued a dreidel design for the Hanukkah stamp. The dreidel design was used through 2008. In 2009 a Hanukkah stamp was issued with a design featured a photograph of a menorah with nine lit candles.

In 2001, President [[George W. Bush]] held an official Hanukkah reception in the White House in conjunction with the candle-lighting ceremony, and since then this ceremony has become an annual tradition attended by Jewish leaders from around the country. In 2008, George Bush linked the occasion to the 1951 gift by using that menorah for the ceremony, with a grandson of Ben-Gurion and a grandson of Truman lighting the candles.

In December 2014, two Hanukkah celebrations were held at the White House. The [[White House]] commissioned a menorah made by students at the Max Rayne school in Israel and invited two of its students to join U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] and First Lady [[Michelle Obama]] as they welcomed over 500 guests to the celebration. The students' school in Israel had been subjected to arson by extremists.<ref>"'Jerusalem school hit by arson creates menorah used at White House Hanukka event' (19 Dec 2014) jerusalem Post" http://www.jpost.com/International/Jerusalem-school-hit-by-arson-attack-creates-menorah-for-White-House-Hanukka-event</ref> President Obama said these "students teach us an important lesson for this time in our history. The light of hope must outlast the fires of hate. That’s what the Hanukkah story teaches us. It’s what our young people can teach us— that one act of faith can make a miracle, that love is stronger than hate, that peace can triumph over conflict.”<ref>"Arab-Jewish school's menorah lights up White House Hanukkah party | The Times of Israel" http://www.timesofisrael.com/hand-in-hand-schools-menorah-lights-up-white-house-hanukkah-party/</ref> Rabbi [[Angela Warnick Buchdahl]], in leading prayers at the ceremony commented on the how special the scene was, asking the President if he believed America's founding fathers could possibly have pictured that a female Asian-American rabbi would one day be at the White House leading Jewish prayers in front of the African-American president.<ref>"jane Eisner 'A Most Inspiring Hanukkah at the White House' (18 Dec 2014) The Jewish Daily Forward" http://blogs.forward.com/forward-thinking/211168/a-most-inspiring-hanukkah-at-the-white-house/?</ref>

== Gallery ==
An entire room of Paris's [[Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme|Museum of Jewish Art and History]] is dedicated to Hanukkah, through an exceptional collection of Hanukkiyot, in a variety of shapes and designs, origins and periods. This panorama stands as a metaphor for the great diversity of Jewish customs throughout the world.

<gallery class="center" >
File:14th century Hannukah lamp (hanukiah), France - Musée d'art et d'histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|France, 14th century
File:16th century Hannukah lamp from France (Comtat Venaissin) - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|France, 16th century
File:17th century Hanukkah lamp by Johann Michael Schüler, Frankfurt, Germany - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Germany, 17th century
File:18th century Hannukah lamp from Italy - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Italy, 18th century
File:18th century Hanukkah lamp from Breslau, Germany (today Wroclaw, Poland) - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Poland, 18th century
File:Hanukkah lamp from Eastern France (Alsace-Lorraine), end of the 19th century - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|France, 19th century
File:Early 19th century Hanukkah lamp from Central Europe - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Europe, 19th century
File:20th century Hannukah lamp from Yemen - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Yemen, 20th century
File:20th century Hanukkah lamp from Tunisia - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Tunisia, 20th century
File:20th century Hanukkah lamp by Luigi Del Monte, Israël - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme.jpg|Israel, 20th century
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Judaism}}
* [[Hanukkah bush]]
* [[Hasmonean kingdom]]
* [[Jewish greetings#Holidays|Jewish greetings]]
* [[John 10]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |first=Dianne |last=Ashton |title=Hanukkah in America: A History |location=New York |publisher=New York University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8147-0739-5}}

== External links ==
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{{Sister project links |n=no |s=no |v=no}}
* [http://judaism.about.com/od/holidays/a/hanukkah.htm Hanukkah] at [[About.com]]
* [http://www.history.com/topics/holidays/hanukkah Hanukkah] at the [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History channel]]
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7233-hanukkah Hanukkah] at the ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]''
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/holiday7.html Hanukkah] at the [[Jewish Virtual Library]]
* [http://www.jewishagency.org/hanukkah/content/23838 Hanukkah] at the [[Jewish Agency for Israel]]
* [http://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/default_cdo/jewish/Hanukkah.htm Hanukkah] at [[Chabad.org]]
* [http://www.aish.com/h/c/ Hanukkah] at [[Aish HaTorah]]
* {{Dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Judaism/Holidays_and_Observances/Chanukkah}}

{{Hanukkah footer}}
{{Jewish and Israeli holidays}}
{{Public holidays in the United States}}
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[[Category:Hanukkah| ]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of the Maccabees]]
[[Category:Jewish holy days]]
[[Category:Non-Gregorian December observances]]
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[[Category:Observances set by the Hebrew calendar]]

Yellowstone National Park

2016-10-19T07:15:26Z

85.19.179.17: /* History */

{{Redirect|Yellowstone}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2013}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Yellowstone National Park
| iucn_category = II
| photo = YellowstonefallJUN05.JPG
| photo_caption = Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone
| photo_width =
| location = {{USA}} 
* [[Park County, Wyoming]]
* [[Teton County, Wyoming]]
* [[Gallatin County, Montana]]
* [[Park County, Montana]]
* [[Fremont County, Idaho]]
| map = Locator_of_Yellowstone.jpg
| map_caption = Location of Yellowstone National Park
| lat_d = 44 | lat_m = 36 | lat_s = | lat_NS = N
| long_d = 110 | long_m = 30 | long_s = | long_EW = W
| region = US-WY
| established = {{start date|1872|March|1}}
| area = {{convert|2219791|acre|sqmi ha km2}}<ref name="acres">{{NPS area |year=2011 |accessdate=2012-03-08}}</ref>
| visitation_num =4,097,710
| visitation_year = 2015
| visitation_ref =<ref name="visits">{{NPS visitation |accessdate=2016-06-10}}</ref>
| governing_body = U.S. [[National Park Service]]
| website = {{Official website}}
| embedded1 = {{designation list | embed = yes
| designation1 = WHS
| designation1_type = Natural
| designation1_criteria = vii, viii, ix, x
| designation1_number = [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/28 28]<ref name=whs>{{cite web |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/28 |title=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref>
| designation1_date = 1978 (2nd [[World Heritage Committee|session]])
| designation1_free1name = Region
| designation1_free1value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in the Americas|The Americas]]
| designation1_free3name = [[List of World Heritage in Danger|Endangered]]
| designation1_free3value = 1995–2003
}}
}}

'''Yellowstone National Park''' is a [[national park]] located primarily in the U.S. state of [[Wyoming]], although it also extends into [[Montana]] and [[Idaho]]. It was established by the [[U.S. Congress]] and signed into law by President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] on March 1, 1872.<ref>{{cite web |title=Yellowstone, the First National Park |url=http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gmdhtml/yehtml/yeabout.html}}</ref><ref name="memory.loc.gov">{{cite web|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/consrvbib:@field(NUMBER+@band(amrvl+vl002))|title=U.S. Statutes at Large, Vol. 17, Chap. 24, pp. 32-33. "An Act to set apart a certain Tract of Land lying near the Head-waters of the Yellowstone River as a public Park." [S. 392]|publisher=}}</ref> Yellowstone was the first National Park in the U.S. and is also widely held to be the first national park in the world.<ref name=UNESCO>{{cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/biores.asp?code=USA+26&mode=all |title=Biosphere Reserve Information – United States – Yellowstone |work=UNESCO – MAB Biosphere Reserves Directory |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |date=August 17, 2000 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804045827/http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/biores.asp?mode=all&code=USA+26 |archivedate=August 4, 2007 |accessdate=August 14, 2016 }}</ref> The park is known for its wildlife and its many [[Geothermal areas of Yellowstone|geothermal features]], especially [[Old Faithful Geyser]], one of its most popular features.<ref name="facts">{{cite web |title=Park Facts |publisher=National Park Service |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/parkfacts.htm |date=December 22, 2015 |accessdate=2015-12-27}}</ref> It has many types of [[ecosystem]]s, but the [[subalpine]] forest is the most abundant. It is part of the [[South Central Rockies forests]] ecoregion.

Native Americans have lived in the Yellowstone region for at least 11,000 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/historyculture/index.htm |publisher=National Park Service|title=Yellowstone, History and Culture|accessdate=2011-05-08}}</ref> Aside from visits by [[mountain man|mountain men]] during the early-to-mid-19th century, organized exploration did not begin until the late 1860s. Management and control of the park originally fell under the jurisdiction of the [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]], the first being [[Columbus Delano]]. However, the [[U.S. Army]] was subsequently commissioned to oversee management of Yellowstone for a 30-year period between 1886 and 1916.<ref>{{cite web|title=Records of the National Park Service [NPS]|url=http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/079.html#79.7.16|website=National Archives|accessdate=9 January 2016}}</ref> In 1917, administration of the park was transferred to the [[National Park Service]], which had been created the previous year. Hundreds of structures have been built and are protected for their architectural and historical significance, and researchers have examined more than 1,000 archaeological sites.

Yellowstone National Park spans an area of {{convert|3468.4|sqmi|km2}},<ref name="acres"/> comprising lakes, canyons, rivers and [[mountain range]]s.<ref name="facts"/> [[Yellowstone Lake]] is one of the largest high-elevation lakes in North America and is centered over the [[Yellowstone Caldera]], the largest [[supervolcano]] on the continent. The [[caldera]] is considered an active volcano. It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/about/faq/faqhistory.php |publisher=United States Geological Survey, Yellowstone Volcano Observatory|title=Questions About Yellowstone Volcanic History|accessdate=2011-05-06}}</ref> Half of the world's geothermal features are in Yellowstone, fueled by this ongoing volcanism.<ref name="geothermal">{{cite web |title=Geothermal Features and How They Work |publisher=National Park Service |date=February 17, 2007 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geothermal.htm|accessdate=2007-04-08}}</ref> [[Lava]] flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the land area of Yellowstone. The park is the centerpiece of the [[Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem]], the largest remaining nearly-intact ecosystem in the Earth's northern temperate zone.<ref name="ecosystem">{{cite web |last=Schullery |first=Paul |url=http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/noframe/r114.htm |title=The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem |work=Our Living Resources |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |accessdate=2007-03-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925064249/http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/noframe/r114.htm |archivedate=September 25, 2006}}</ref>

Hundreds of species of mammals, birds, fish and reptiles have been documented, including several that are either [[endangered species|endangered]] or [[threatened species|threatened]].<ref name="facts"/> The vast forests and grasslands also include unique species of plants. Yellowstone Park is the largest and most famous [[megafauna]] location in the [[Continental United States]]. [[Grizzly bear]]s, [[gray wolf|wolves]], and free-ranging herds of [[American bison|bison]] and [[elk]] live in the park. The [[Yellowstone Park bison herd]] is the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States. [[Forest fire]]s occur in the park each year; in the [[Yellowstone fires of 1988|large forest fires of 1988]], nearly one third of the park was burnt. Yellowstone has numerous recreational opportunities, including hiking, [[camping]], [[boating]], fishing and sightseeing. Paved roads provide close access to the major geothermal areas as well as some of the lakes and waterfalls. During the winter, visitors often access the park by way of guided tours that use either [[snow coach]]es or [[snowmobile]]s.

== History ==
[[File:Yellowstone National Park by Wellge, 1904.jpg|thumb|Detailed pictorial map from 1904]]
The park is at the headwaters of the [[Yellowstone River]], from which it takes its historical name. Near the end of the 18th century, [[Coureur des bois|French trappers]] named the river "Roche Jaune", which is probably a translation of the [[Hidatsa]] name "''Mi tsi a-da-zi''" (Rock Yellow River).<ref name="Macdonald">{{cite web |last=Macdonald |first=James S., Jr. |title=History of Yellowstone as a Place Name |date=December 27, 2006 |url=http://www.yellowstone-online.com/history/yhtwo2.html |accessdate=2008-12-14}}
</ref> Later, American trappers rendered the French name in English as "Yellow Stone". Although it is commonly believed that the river was named for the yellow rocks seen in the [[Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone]], the Native American name source is unclear.<ref name="naming">{{cite web |title=Yellowstone: A Brief History of the Park |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/upload/Yell257.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080414040117/http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/upload/Yell257.pdf |archivedate=April 14, 2008}}</ref>

Suck sickThe human history of the park begins at least 11,000 years ago when Native Americans began to hunt and fish in the region. During the construction of the post office in [[Gardiner, Montana]], in the 1950s, an [[obsidian]] projectile point of [[Clovis culture|Clovis]] origin was found that dated from approximately 11,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book |title=Homeland: An archaeologist's view of Yellowstone Country's past |author=Lahren, Larry |publisher=Cayuse Press |year=2006 |page=161 |isbn=0-9789251-0-6}}</ref> These [[Paleo-Indians]], of the Clovis culture, used the significant amounts of obsidian found in the park to make [[cutting tool]]s and [[weapon]]s. [[Arrowhead]]s made of Yellowstone obsidian have been found as far away as the [[Mississippi Valley]], indicating that a regular obsidian trade existed between local tribes and tribes farther east.<ref name="Janetski">{{cite book |last=Janetski |first=Joel C. |title=Indians in Yellowstone National Park |publisher=University of Utah Press |year=1987 |location=Salt Lake City, Utah |isbn=0-87480-724-7}}</ref> By the time [[White people|white]] [[Exploration|explorers]] first entered the region during the [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] in 1805, they encountered the [[Nez Perce (tribe)|Nez Perce]], [[Crow Indians|Crow]], and [[Shoshone]] tribes. While passing through present day Montana, the expedition members heard of the Yellowstone region to the south, but they did not investigate it.<ref name="Janetski"/>

In 1806, [[John Colter]], a member of the [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]], left to join a group of fur trappers. After splitting up with the other trappers in 1807, Colter passed through a portion of what later became the park, during the winter of 1807–1808. He observed at least one [[Geothermal (geology)|geothermal]] area in the northeastern section of the park, near [[Tower Fall]].<ref name="Haines">{{cite web |last=Haines |first=Aubrey L. |title=The Lewis and Clark Era (1805–1814) |work=Yellowstone National Park: Its Exploration and Establishment |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior |url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/haines1/iee1a.htm |year=2000 |accessdate=2006-11-14 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015000223/http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/haines1/iee1a.htm |archivedate=October 15, 2006}}</ref> After surviving wounds he suffered in a battle with members of the Crow and [[Blackfoot]] tribes in 1809, Colter described a place of "[[fire and brimstone]]" that most people dismissed as delirium; the supposedly imaginary place was nicknamed "[[Colter's Hell]]". Over the next 40 years, numerous reports from mountain men and trappers told of boiling mud, steaming rivers, and [[Petrifaction|petrified]] trees, yet most of these reports were believed at the time to be myth.<ref name="Haines2">{{cite web |last=Haines |first=Aubrey L. |title=The Fur Trade Era (1818–42) |work=Yellowstone National Park: Its Exploration and Establishment |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior |year=2000 |url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/haines1/iee1b.htm |accessdate=2006-11-15 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015000323/http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/haines1/iee1b.htm |archivedate=October 15, 2006}}</ref>

After an 1856 exploration, mountain man [[Jim Bridger]] (also believed to be the first or second European American to have seen the [[Great Salt Lake]]) reported observing boiling springs, spouting water, and a mountain of glass and yellow rock. These reports were largely ignored because Bridger was a known "spinner of yarns". In 1859, a U.S. Army Surveyor named Captain [[William F. Raynolds]] embarked on a [[Raynolds Expedition|two-year survey]] of the northern Rockies. After wintering in Wyoming, in May 1860, Raynolds and his party – which included naturalist [[Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden]] and guide Jim Bridger – attempted to cross the [[Continental Divide]] over [[Parting of the Waters|Two Ocean Plateau]] from the [[Wind River (Wyoming)|Wind River]] drainage in northwest Wyoming. Heavy spring snows prevented their passage, but had they been able to traverse the divide, the party would have been the first organized survey to enter the Yellowstone region.<ref>{{cite web |last=Baldwin |first=Kenneth H. |title=Enchanted Enclosure-Historic Roads in the National Park System-Chapter 2-The Raynolds Expedition of 1860 |year=1976 |publisher=Historical Division, Office of the Chief Of Engineers, United States Army |url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/baldwin/chap2.htm |accessdate=2011-05-07}}</ref> The [[American Civil War]] hampered further organized explorations until the late 1860s.<ref name="Haines3">{{cite web |last=Haines |first=Aubrey L. |title=The Exploring Era (1851–63) |work=Yellowstone National Park: Its Exploration and Establishment |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior |year=1975 |url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/haines1/iee1c.htm |accessdate=2006-11-14 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015000255/http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/haines1/iee1c.htm |archivedate=October 15, 2006}}</ref>
[[Image:Hayden.JPG|thumb|upright|Ferdinand V. Hayden {{nowrap|(1829 – 1887)}} American geologist who convinced Congress to make Yellowstone a National Park in 1872.]]

The first detailed expedition to the Yellowstone area was the [[Cook–Folsom–Peterson Expedition]] of 1869, which consisted of three privately funded explorers. The Folsom party followed the Yellowstone River to Yellowstone Lake.<ref name="Haines4">{{cite web |last=Haines |first=Aubrey L. |title=The Folsom Party (1869) |work=Yellowstone National Park: Its Exploration and Establishment |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior |year=2000 |url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/haines1/iee2b.htm |accessdate=2007-10-09 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611045003/http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/haines1/iee2b.htm |archivedate=June 11, 2007}}</ref> The members of the Folsom party kept a journal and based on the information it reported, a party of Montana residents organized the [[Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition]] in 1870. It was headed by the surveyor-general of Montana [[Henry D. Washburn|Henry Washburn]], and included [[Nathaniel P. Langford]] (who later became known as "National Park" Langford) and a U.S. Army detachment commanded by Lt. [[Gustavus Cheyney Doane|Gustavus Doane]].

The expedition spent about a month exploring the region, collecting specimens and naming sites of interest. A Montana writer and lawyer named Cornelius Hedges, who had been a member of the Washburn expedition, proposed that the region should be set aside and protected as a national park; he wrote detailed articles about his observations for the ''Helena Herald'' newspaper between 1870 and 1871. Hedges essentially restated comments made in October 1865 by acting Montana Territorial Governor [[Thomas Francis Meagher]], who had previously commented that the region should be protected.<ref name="Haines5">{{cite web |last=Haines |first=Aubrey L. |title=Cornelius Hedges |work=Yellowstone National Park: Its Exploration and Establishment |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior |year=2000 |url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/haines1/iee4a.htm#hedges |accessdate=2007-10-09 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610131353/http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/haines1/iee4a.htm |archivedate=June 10, 2007 |deadurl=yes}}</ref> Others made similar suggestions. In an 1871 letter from [[Jay Cooke]] to Ferdinand V. Hayden, Cooke wrote that his friend, Congressman [[William D. Kelley]] had also suggested "[[United States Congress|Congress]] pass a bill reserving the Great Geyser Basin as a public park forever".<ref name="Cooke">{{cite web |title=The Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone |work=American Studies at the University of Virginia |publisher=University of Virginia |url=http://xroads.virginia.edu/~MA96/RAILROAD/ystone.html |accessdate=2007-05-16}}</ref>

=== Park creation ===
{{See also|Expeditions and the protection of Yellowstone (1869–1890)}}
[[File:Yellowstone 1871b.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=An old contour map showing mountainous terrain and a large lake|Ferdinand V. Hayden's map of Yellowstone National Park, 1871]]

In 1871, eleven years after his failed first effort, [[Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden|Ferdinand V. Hayden]] was finally able to explore the region. With government sponsorship, he returned to the region with a second, larger expedition, the [[Hayden Geological Survey of 1871]]. He compiled a comprehensive report, including large-format photographs by [[William Henry Jackson]] and paintings by [[Thomas Moran]]. The report helped to convince the U.S. Congress to withdraw this region from [[public auction]]. On March 1, 1872, President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] signed ''The Act of Dedication''<ref name="memory.loc.gov"/> law that created Yellowstone National Park.<ref name="grant">{{cite web |title=History & Culture |work=General Grant National Memorial |publisher=National Park Service |date=July 25, 2006 |url=http://www.nps.gov/gegr/historyculture/index.htm |accessdate=2007-04-23}}</ref>

Hayden, while not the only person to have thought of creating a park in the region, was its first and most enthusiastic advocate.<ref name="Merrill, Marlene Deahl 1999">{{cite book|author=Marlene Deahl Merrill|title=Yellowstone and the Great West: Journals, Letters, and Images from the 1871 Hayden Expedition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5im5iAPqy3UC|accessdate=June 11, 2012|date=September 1, 2003|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-8289-6|page=208}}</ref> He believed in "setting aside the area as a pleasure ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people" and warned that there were those who would come and "make merchandise of these beautiful specimens".<ref name="Merrill, Marlene Deahl 1999"/> Worrying the area could face the same fate as [[Niagara Falls]], he concluded the site should "be as free as the air or Water."<ref name="Merrill, Marlene Deahl 1999"/> In his report to the Committee on Public Lands, he concluded that if the bill failed to become law, "the vandals who are now waiting to enter into this wonder-land, will in a single season despoil, beyond recovery, these remarkable curiosities, which have required all the cunning skill of nature thousands of years to prepare".<ref>{{cite book|author=Marlene Deahl Merrill|title=Yellowstone and the Great West: Journals, Letters, and Images from the 1871 Hayden Expedition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5im5iAPqy3UC|accessdate=June 11, 2012|date=September 1, 2003|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-8289-6|pages=210–211}}</ref><ref name=Chittenden>{{cite book |last=Chittenden |first=Hiram Martin |authorlink=Hiram M. Chittenden |title=The Yellowstone National Park-Historical and Descriptive |publisher=Stewart and Kidd Co |location=Cincinnati |pages=77–78 |url=https://archive.org/details/yellowstonenati02chitgoog }}</ref>

Hayden and his 1871 party recognized Yellowstone as a priceless treasure that would become rarer with time. He wished for others to see and experience it as well. Eventually the railroads and, some time after that, the automobile would make that possible. The Park was not set aside strictly for ecological purposes; however, the designation "pleasure ground" was not an invitation to create an amusement park. Hayden imagined something akin to the scenic resorts and baths in England, Germany, and Switzerland.<ref name="Merrill, Marlene Deahl 1999"/>

<blockquote>
'''THE ACT OF DEDICATION'''<ref name="Chittenden"/>
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
AN ACT to set apart a certain tract of land lying near the headwaters of the Yellowstone River as a public park. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the tract of land in the Territories of Montana and Wyoming ... is hereby reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or sale under the laws of the United States, and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people; and all persons who shall locate, or settle upon, or occupy the same or any part thereof, except as hereinafter provided, shall be considered trespassers and removed there from ...
 
Approved March 1, 1872.
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
Signed by:
* [[James G. Blaine|JAMES G. BLAINE]], Speaker of the House.
* [[Schuyler Colfax|SCHUYLER COLFAX]], Vice-President of the United States and President of the Senate.
* [[Ulysses S. Grant|ULYSSES S. GRANT]], President of the United States.
</blockquote>

[[File:NathanielPLangford.JPG|thumb|left|upright|alt=A middle-aged man in formal attire with a beard|(1870) Portrait of Nathaniel P. Langford, the first superintendent of the park<ref>{{cite book|last=Wheeler|first=Olin Dunbar|title=Enlarge Image Nathaniel Pitt Langford: The Vigilante, the Explorer, the Expounder and First Superintendent of the Yellowstone Park|year=2010|publisher=Nabu Press|isbn=978-1-177-37550-4}}</ref>]]

There was considerable local opposition to the Yellowstone National Park during its early years. Some of the locals feared that the regional economy would be unable to thrive if there remained strict federal prohibitions against resource development or settlement within park boundaries and local entrepreneurs advocated reducing the size of the park so that mining, hunting, and logging activities could be developed.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Political Geography of National Parks |last=Dilsaver |first=Lary M. |author2=William Wyckoff |date=May 2005 |work=The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 74, No. 2 |publisher=University of California Press |pages=237–266}}</ref> To this end, numerous bills were introduced into Congress by Montana representatives who sought to remove the federal land-use restrictions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newwest.net/topic/article/nrepa_local_interests_and_conservation_history/C73/L38/ |title=NREPA: Local Interests and Conservation History |last=Wuerthner, 11-15-07 |first=George |date=November 15, 2007 |work=George Wuerthner's On the Range |publisher=NewWest |accessdate=2010-02-20}}</ref>

After the park's official formation, Nathaniel Langford was appointed as the park's first superintendent in 1872 by Secretary of Interior [[Columbus Delano]]. Langford served for five years but was denied a salary, funding, and staff. Langford lacked the means to improve the land or properly protect the park, and without formal policy or regulations, he had few legal methods to enforce such protection. This left Yellowstone vulnerable to poachers, vandals, and others seeking to raid its resources. He addressed the practical problems park administrators faced in the 1872 Report to the Secretary of the Interior<ref>{{cite web|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/consrvbib:@field(SUBJ+@band(Yellowstone+National+Park--Periodicals+))|title=Report of the Superintendent of the Yellowstone National Park to the Secretary of the Interior for the year 1872.|publisher=}}</ref> and correctly predicted that Yellowstone would become a major international attraction deserving the continuing stewardship of the government. In 1874, both Langford and Delano advocated the creation of a federal agency to protect the vast park, but Congress refused. In 1875, Colonel [[William Ludlow]], who had previously explored areas of Montana under the command of [[George Armstrong Custer]], was assigned to organize and lead an expedition to Montana and the newly established Yellowstone Park. Observations about the lawlessness and exploitation of park resources were included in Ludlow's ''Report of a Reconnaissance to the Yellowstone National Park''. The report included letters and attachments by other expedition members, including naturalist and mineralogist [[George Bird Grinnell]]. [[File:Great Falls of the Yellowstone, near view. Yellowstone National Park. - NARA - 517650.jpg|thumb|upright|Great Falls of the Yellowstone", U.S. Geological and Geographic Survey of the Territories (1874 - 1879) Photographer: William Henry Jackson]]Grinnell documented the poaching of buffalo, deer, elk, and antelope for hides. "It is estimated that during the winter of 1874–1875, not less than 3,000 buffalo and mule deer suffer even more severely than the elk, and the antelope nearly as much."<ref name="Punke">{{cite book |last=Punke |first=Michael |title=Last Stand: George Bird Grinnell, the Battle to Save the Buffalo, and the Birth of the New West |publisher=Smithsonian Books |year=2007 |page=102 |url=|id=|isbn=978-0-06-089782-6}}</ref>

As a result, Langford was forced to step down in 1877.<ref name="langford">{{cite web |title=Yellowstone National Park's First 130 Years |work=Yellowstone History |publisher=National Park Service |url=http://windowsintowonderland.org/history/army&nps/page3.htm |accessdate=2007-02-28}}</ref><ref name="norris">{{cite web |last=Rydell |first=Kiki Leigh |author2=Mary Shivers Culpin |title=The Administrations of Nathaniel Langford and Philetus Norris |work=A History of Administrative Development in Yellowstone National Park, 1872–1965 |publisher=Yellowstone National Park |url=http://64.241.25.110/yell/pdfs/history/administration/chapter1.pdf |format=PDF |date=July 5, 2006 |accessdate=2007-04-01}}</ref>
Having traveled through Yellowstone and witnessed land management problems first hand, [[Philetus Norris]] volunteered for the position following Langford's exit. Congress finally saw fit to implement a salary for the position, as well as to provide a minimal funding to operate the park. Norris used these funds to expand access to the park, building numerous crude roads and facilities.<ref name="norris"/>

In 1880, [[Harry Yount]] was appointed as a gamekeeper to control poaching and vandalism in the park. Yount had previously spent decades exploring the mountain country of present-day Wyoming, including the [[Grand Tetons]], after joining [[Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden|F V. Hayden]]'s Geological Survey in 1873.<ref>{{cite book |last=Griske |first=Michael |title=The Diaries of John Hunton |publisher=Heritage Books |year=2005 |pages=121, 122 |url= |isbn=0-7884-3804-2 }}</ref> Yount is the first national park ranger,<ref name="yount">{{cite web |title=Yellowstone National Park's First 130 Years |work=Yellowstone History |publisher=National Park Service |url=http://windowsintowonderland.org/history/army&nps/page6.htm |accessdate=2007-04-01}}</ref> and Yount's Peak, at the head of the Yellowstone River, was named in his honor.<ref>Griske, [[op. cit.]], p. 122</ref> However, these measures still proved to be insufficient in protecting the park, as neither Norris, nor the three superintendents who followed, were given sufficient manpower or resources.
[[File:Fort Yellowstone-750px.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A group of buildings with trees and hills in background|Fort Yellowstone, formerly a U.S. Army post, now serves as park headquarters.]]
The [[Northern Pacific Railroad]] built a train station in [[Livingston, Montana]], connecting to the northern entrance in the early 1880s, which helped to increase visitation from 300 in 1872 to 5,000 in 1883.<ref name="tour">{{cite web |title=Yellowstone National Park's First 130 Years |work=Yellowstone History |publisher=National Park Service |url=http://windowsintowonderland.org/history/army&nps/page16.htm |accessdate=2007-04-01}}</ref> Visitors in these early years faced poor roads and limited services, and most access into the park was on horse or via [[stagecoach]]. By 1908 visitation increased enough to attract a [[Union Pacific Railroad]] connection to West Yellowstone, though rail visitation fell off considerably by [[World War II]] and ceased around the 1960s. Much of the railroad line was converted to nature trails, among them the Yellowstone Branch Line Trail.
[[File:Thomas Moran-Tower Creek, 1871.jpeg|thumb|Thomas Moran painted Tower Creek, Yellowstone, while on the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871]]
During the 1870s and 1880s Native American tribes were effectively excluded from the national park. Under a half-dozen tribes had made seasonal use of the Yellowstone area, but the only year-round residents were small bands of [[Eastern Shoshone]] known as "[[Sheepeaters]]". They left the area under the assurances of a treaty negotiated in 1868, under which the Sheepeaters ceded their lands but retained the right to hunt in Yellowstone. The United States never ratified the treaty and refused to recognize the claims of the Sheepeaters or any other tribe that had used Yellowstone.<ref name=merchant>{{cite book |last=Merchant |first=Carolyn |title=The Columbia Guide to American Environmental History |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-231-11232-1 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=QQQximQsxSgC |page=148}}</ref>

The [[Nez Perce (tribe)|Nez Perce]] band associated with [[Chief Joseph]], numbering about 750 people, passed through Yellowstone National Park in thirteen days during late August 1877. They were being pursued by the U.S. Army and entered the national park about two weeks after the [[Battle of the Big Hole]]. Some of the Nez Perce were friendly to the tourists and other people they encountered in the park; some were not. Nine park visitors were briefly taken captive. Despite Joseph and other chiefs ordering that no one should be harmed, at least two people were killed and several wounded.<ref name=chittenden/><ref name=duncan>{{cite book |last=Duncan |first=Dayton |author2=Ken Burns |title=The National Parks: America's Best Idea |publisher=Alred A. Knopf |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-307-26896-9 |pages=37–38}}</ref> One of the areas where encounters occurred was in Lower Geyser Basin and east along a branch of the [[Firehole River]] to Mary Mountain and beyond.<ref name=chittenden>{{cite book |last=Chittenden |first=Hiram Martin |authorlink=Hiram M. Chittenden |title=The Yellowstone National Park: historical and descriptive |publisher=The R. Clarke Company |year=1895 |oclc=3015335 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=lRN6AAAAMAAJ |pages=111–122}}</ref> That stream is still known as Nez Perce Creek.<ref>{{cite gnis|1592026|Nez Perce Creek}}</ref> A group of [[Bannock (tribe)|Bannocks]] entered the park in 1878, alarming park Superintendent [[Philetus Norris]]. In the aftermath of the [[Sheepeater Indian War]] of 1879, Norris built a fort to prevent Native Americans from entering the national park.<ref name=merchant/><ref name=duncan/>

Ongoing poaching and destruction of natural resources continued unabated until the U.S. Army arrived at [[Mammoth Hot Springs]] in 1886 and built Camp Sheridan. Over the next 22 years the army constructed permanent structures, and Camp Sheridan was renamed [[Fort Yellowstone]].<ref name="army">{{cite web |last=Rydell |first=Kiki Leigh |author2=Mary Shivers Culpin |title=The United States Army Takes Control of Yellowstone National Park 1886–1906 |work=A History of Administrative Development in Yellowstone National Park, 1872–1965 |publisher=Yellowstone National Park |date=July 5, 2006 |url=http://64.241.25.110/yell/pdfs/history/administration/chapter3.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-04-01}}</ref> On May 7, 1894, the [[Boone and Crockett Club]], acting through the personality of George G. Vest, Arnold Hague, William Hallett Phillips, W. A. Wadsworth, Archibald Rogers, [[Theodore Roosevelt]], and [[George Bird Grinnell]] were successful in carrying through the Park Protection Act, which so saved the Park.<ref>{{cite book|last=Grinnell|first=George Bird|title=The History of the Boone and Crockett Club|date=1910|publisher=Forest and Stream Publishing Company|location=New York City|pages=10–21}}</ref> The Lacey Act of 1900 provided legal support for the officials prosecuting poachers. With the funding and manpower necessary to keep a diligent watch, the army developed their own policies and regulations that permitted public access while protecting park wildlife and natural resources. When the National Park Service was created in 1916, many of the management principles developed by the army were adopted by the new agency.<ref name="army"/> The army turned control over to the National Park Service on October 31, 1918.<ref name="nps2">{{cite web |last=Rydell |first=Kiki Leigh |author2=Mary Shivers Culpin |title=The National Park Service in Yellowstone National Park 1917–1929 |work=A History of Administrative Development in Yellowstone National Park, 1872–1965 |publisher=Yellowstone National Park |date=July 5, 2006 |url=http://64.241.25.110/yell/pdfs/history/administration/chapter5.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-04-01}}</ref>

=== Later history ===
[[File:Bear dinner 1922.jpg|thumb|Park Superintendent Horace M. Albright and dinner guests, 1922. The feeding of "tame" black bears was popular with tourists in the early days of the park, but led to 527 injuries between 1931 and 1939.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OsAgDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA37&lpg=PA37|title=Engineering Eden|author=Jordan Fisher Smith|publisher=Crown/Archetype|page=37}}</ref>]]
By 1915, 1,000 automobiles per year were entering the park, resulting in conflicts with horses and horse-drawn transportation. Horse travel on roads was eventually prohibited.<ref name="cars">{{cite web |title=Yellowstone National Park's First 130 Years |work=Yellowstone History |publisher=National Park Service |url=http://windowsintowonderland.org/history/army&nps/page17.htm |accessdate=2007-04-01}}</ref>

The [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] (CCC), a [[New Deal]] relief agency for young men, played a major role between 1933 and 1942 in developing Yellowstone facilities. CCC projects included reforestation, campground development of many of the park's trails and campgrounds, trail construction, fire hazard reduction, and fire-fighting work. The CCC built the majority of the early visitor centers, campgrounds and the current system of park roads.<ref>Matthew A. Redinger, "The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Development of Glacier and Yellowstone Parks, 1933–1942," ''Pacific Northwest Forum,'' 1991, Vol. 4 Issue 2, pp 3–17</ref>

During [[World War II]], tourist travel fell sharply, staffing was cut, and many facilities fell into disrepair.<ref name="ww">{{cite web |last=Rydell |first=Kiki Leigh |author2=Mary Shivers Culpin |title=Mission 66 in Yellowstone National Park 1941–1965 |work=A History of Administrative Development in Yellowstone National Park, 1872–1965 |publisher=Yellowstone National Park |date=July 5, 2006 |url=http://64.241.25.110/yell/pdfs/history/administration/chapter7.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-04-01}}</ref> By the 1950s, visitation increased tremendously in Yellowstone and other national parks. To accommodate the increased visitation, park officials implemented [[Mission 66]], an effort to modernize and expand park service facilities. Planned to be completed by 1966, in honor of the 50th anniversary of the founding of the National Park Service, Mission 66 construction diverged from the traditional log cabin style with design features of a modern style.<ref name="Allaback">{{cite web |last=Allaback |first=Sarah |title=Mission 66 Visitor Centers |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior |year=2000 |url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/allaback/ |accessdate=2007-02-28}}</ref> During the late 1980s, most construction styles in Yellowstone reverted to the more traditional designs. After the enormous forest fires of 1988 damaged much of Grant Village, structures there were rebuilt in the traditional style. The visitor center at Canyon Village, which opened in 2006, incorporates a more traditional design as well.<ref name="center">{{cite web |title=Canyon Area NPS Visitor Facilities |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior|date=August 22, 2006 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/canyonvc.htm |accessdate=2007-04-08}}</ref>

[[File:Yellowstone North Gate.jpg|thumb|alt=A large arch made of irregular-shaped natural stone over a road|right|The Roosevelt Arch is located in Gardiner, Montana at the North Entrance]]
The [[1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake]] just west of Yellowstone at [[Hebgen Lake]] damaged roads and some structures in the park. In the northwest section of the park, new geysers were found, and many existing hot springs became turbid.<ref name="earthquake">{{cite web |url=http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/states/events/1959_08_18.php |title=Largest Earthquake in Montana |work=Historic Earthquakes |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |date=January 24, 2007 |accessdate=2007-03-20}}</ref> It was the most powerful earthquake to hit the region in recorded history.

In 1963, after several years of public controversy regarding the forced reduction of the elk population in Yellowstone, United States Secretary of the Interior [[Stewart Udall]] appointed an advisory board to collect scientific data to inform future wildlife management of the national parks. In a paper known as the [[Leopold Report]], the committee observed that culling programs at other national parks had been ineffective, and recommended management of Yellowstone's elk population.<ref>{{cite web |last=Leopold |first=A. Starker |year=1963 |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/leopold/leopold4.htm |title=The Goal of Park Management in the United States |work=Wildlife Management in the National Parks |publisher=National Park Service |accessdate=2009-09-19|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

The [[wildfire]]s during the summer of 1988 were the largest in the history of the park. Approximately {{convert|793880|acre|ha sqmi|0}} or 36% of the parkland was impacted by the fires, leading to a systematic re-evaluation of fire management policies. The fire season of 1988 was considered normal until a combination of drought and heat by mid-July contributed to an extreme fire danger. On "Black Saturday", August 20, 1988, strong winds expanded the fires rapidly, and more than {{convert|150000|acre|ha sqmi}} burned.<ref name="fires">{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/fire.htm |title=Wildland Fire in Yellowstone |publisher=National Park Service |date=July 26, 2006 |accessdate=2007-02-28 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007110423/http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/fire.htm |archivedate=October 7, 2006}}</ref>

The expansive cultural history of the park has been documented by the 1,000 [[archeology|archeological]] sites that have been discovered. The park has 1,106 [[National Register of Historic Places listings in Yellowstone National Park|historic structures]] and features, and of these [[Obsidian Cliff]] and five buildings have been designated [[National Historic Landmarks]].<ref name="facts"/> Yellowstone was designated an [[International Biosphere Reserve]] on October 26, 1976, and a UN [[World Heritage Site]] on September 8, 1978. The park was placed on the [[List of World Heritage in Danger]] from 1995 to 2003 due to the effects of tourism, infection of wildlife, and issues with [[invasive species]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/activity-43-2.pdf|title=The State of Conservation of World Heritage Forests|last=Patry|first=Marc|author2=Bassett, Clare |author3=Leclerq, Benedicte |date=March 11–13, 2003|publisher=Proceedings of the 2nd World Heritage Forest Meeting|accessdate=2012-03-24}}</ref> In 2010, Yellowstone National Park was honored with its own [[Quarter (United States coin)|quarter]] under the America the Beautiful Quarters Program.<ref name="quarters">{{cite web |url=http://www.americathebeautifulquarters.gov/coins/2010/yellowstone |title=Yellowstone Quarter Introduced |publisher=United States Mint}}</ref>

Justin Ferrell explores three moral sensibilities that motivated activists in dealing with Yellowstone. First came the utilitarian vision of maximum exploitation of natural resources, characteristic of developers in the late 19th century. Second was the spiritual vision of nature inspired by the Romanticism and the transcendentalists the mid-19th century. The twentieth century saw the biocentric moral vision that focuses on the health of the ecosystem as theorized by [[Aldo Leopold]], which leds to the expansion of federally protected areas and to the surrounding ecosystems.<ref> Justin Farrell, ''The Battle for Yellowstone: Morality and the Sacred Roots of Environmental Conflict'' (Princeton UP, 2015).</ref>

=== Heritage and Research Center ===
The Heritage and Research Center is located at [[Gardiner, Montana]], near the north entrance to the park.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/historyculture/collections.htm |publisher=National Park Service |title=Heritage and Research Center |accessdate=2009-11-24}}</ref> The center is home to the Yellowstone National Park's museum collection, archives, research library, historian, archeology lab, and [[herbarium]]. The Yellowstone National Park Archives maintain collections of historical records of Yellowstone and the National Park Service. The collection includes the administrative records of Yellowstone, as well as resource management records, records from major projects, and donated manuscripts and personal papers. The archives are affiliated with the [[National Archives and Records Administration]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/historyculture/archives.htm |title=Yellowstone National Park Archives |publisher=National Park Service |accessdate=November 20, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.gov/locations/affiliated-archives.html |title=Affiliated Archives |publisher=National Archives |accessdate=2009-11-20}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{See also|Mountains and mountain ranges of Yellowstone National Park|Waterfalls in Yellowstone National Park|Plateaus of Yellowstone National Park}}
[[File:Yellowstone National Park Map.png|thumb|upright|Official Park Map]]
Approximately 96 percent of the land area of Yellowstone National Park is located within the state of Wyoming.<ref>http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/parkfacts.htm</ref> Another three percent is within Montana, with the remaining one percent in Idaho. The park is {{convert|63|mi|km}} north to south, and {{convert|54|mi|km}} west to east by air. Yellowstone is {{convert|2219789|acre|ha sqmi}}<ref name="acres"/> in area, larger than the states of [[Rhode Island]] or [[Delaware]]. Rivers and lakes cover five percent of the land area, with the largest water body being Yellowstone Lake at {{convert|87040|acre|ha sqmi}}. Yellowstone Lake is up to {{convert|400|ft|m}} deep and has {{convert|110|mi|km}} of shoreline. At an elevation of {{convert|7733|ft|m}} above sea level, Yellowstone Lake is the largest high altitude lake in North America. Forests comprise 80 percent of the land area of the park; most of the rest is [[prairie|grassland]].<ref name="facts"/>

The [[Continental Divide]] of North America runs diagonally through the southwestern part of the park. The divide is a [[topography|topographic]] feature that separates Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean water drainages. About one third of the park lies on the west side of the divide. The origins of the Yellowstone and [[Snake River]]s are near each other but on opposite sides of the divide. As a result, the waters of the Snake River flow to the Pacific Ocean, while those of the Yellowstone find their way to the Atlantic Ocean via the [[Gulf of Mexico]].

[[File:Yellowstone-TF.jpg|thumb|left|Aerial view, 3D computer generated image]]

The park sits on the [[Yellowstone Plateau]], at an average elevation of {{convert|8000|ft|m}} above sea level. The plateau is bounded on nearly all sides by [[mountain range]]s of the [[Rocky Mountains|Middle Rocky Mountains]], which range from {{convert|9000|to|11000|ft|m}} in elevation. The highest point in the park is atop [[Eagle Peak (Wyoming)|Eagle Peak]] ({{convert|11358|ft|m|disp=or}}) and the lowest is along Reese Creek ({{convert|5282|ft|m|disp=or}}).<ref name="facts"/> Nearby mountain ranges include the [[Gallatin Range]] to the northwest, the [[Beartooth Mountains]] in the north, the [[Absaroka Range]] to the east, and the [[Teton Range]] and the [[Madison Range]] to the southwest and west. The most prominent summit on the Yellowstone Plateau is [[Mount Washburn]] at {{convert|10243|ft|m}}.

Yellowstone National Park has one of the world's largest [[petrified wood|petrified forests]], trees which were long ago buried by ash and soil and transformed from wood to mineral materials. This ash and other volcanic debris are believed to have come from the park area itself. This is largely because Yellowstone is actually a massive caldera of a supervolcano. There are 290 [[waterfall]]s of at least {{convert|15|ft|m}} in the park, the highest being the [[Yellowstone Falls|Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River]] at {{convert|308|ft|m}}.<ref name="facts"/>

Three deep canyons are located in the park, cut through the volcanic tuff of the Yellowstone Plateau by rivers over the last 640,000 years. The [[Lewis River (Wyoming)|Lewis River]] flows through [[Lewis Canyon]] in the south, and the [[Yellowstone River]] has carved two colorful canyons, the [[Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone]] and the Black Canyon of the Yellowstone in its journey north.

== Geology ==
{{Main|Geothermal areas of Yellowstone|Yellowstone Caldera|Supervolcano}}

=== History ===
[[File:Columnar basalt closeup near Tower Fall in Yellowstone.JPG|thumb|Columnar basalt near Tower Falls; large floods of basalt and other lava types preceded mega-eruptions of superheated ash and pumice]]
Yellowstone is at the northeastern end of the [[Snake River Plain]], a great U-shaped arc through the mountains that extends from [[Boise, Idaho]] some {{Convert|400|mi|km|-1}} to the west. This feature traces the route of the [[North American Plate]] over the last 17 million years as it was transported by [[plate tectonics]] across a stationary [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot]]. The landscape of present-day Yellowstone National Park is the most recent manifestation of this hotspot below the [[crust (geology)|crust]] of the Earth.<ref name="snake">{{cite web |url=http://tapestry.usgs.gov/features/34snakeriver.html |title=The Snake River Plain |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |date=March 12, 2001 |accessdate=2007-03-12 }}</ref>

The [[Yellowstone Caldera]] is the largest volcanic system in North America. It has been termed a "[[supervolcano]]" because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions. The [[magma chamber]] that lies under Yellowstone is estimated to be a single connected chamber, about {{convert|37|mi|km}} long, {{convert|18|mi|km}} wide, and 3 to 7 miles (5 to 12 km) deep.<ref name=Oskin>{{cite news|last=Oskin|first=Becky|title=Yellowstone's Volcano Bigger Than Thought|url=http://www.livescience.com/28821-yellowstone-supervolcano-bigger-plume.html|accessdate=11 August 2013|newspaper=[[LiveScience]]|date=April 17, 2013}}</ref> The current [[caldera]] was created by a cataclysmic eruption that occurred 640,000 years ago, which released more than 240 cubic miles (1,000 km³) of ash, rock and [[pyroclast]]ic materials.<ref name="640ka">{{cite web|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/pp729g |title=The Quaternary and Pliocene Yellowstone Plateau Volcanic Field of Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |date=August 27, 2001 |accessdate=2013-05-11 }}/</ref> This eruption was more than 1,000 times larger than the [[1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens]].<ref name="volcanic">{{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs100-03/ |title=Tracking Changes in Yellowstone's Restless Volcanic System |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |date=January 19, 2006 |accessdate=2007-03-12}}</ref> It produced a caldera nearly five eighths of a mile (1 km) deep and {{convert|45|by|28|mi|km}} in area and deposited the [[Lava Creek Tuff]], a [[welded tuff]] [[geologic formation]]. The most violent known eruption, which occurred 2.1 million years ago, ejected 588 cubic miles (2,450 km³) of volcanic material and created the rock formation known as the [[Huckleberry Ridge Tuff]] and created the [[Island Park Caldera]].<ref name="volcanic history">{{cite web |url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/history.html |title=Volcanic History of the Yellowstone Plateau Volcanic Field |work=Yellowstone Volcano Observatory |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |date=February 2, 2007 |accessdate=2007-03-12}}</ref> A smaller eruption ejected 67 cubic miles (280 km³) of material 1.3 million years ago, forming the [[Henry's Fork Caldera]] and depositing the [[Mesa Falls Tuff]].<ref name="volcanic"/>

Each of the three climactic eruptions released vast amounts of ash that blanketed much of central North America, falling many hundreds of miles away. The amount of ash and gases released into the atmosphere probably caused significant impacts to world weather patterns and led to the [[extinction]] of some species, primarily in North America.<ref name="sciamerican">{{cite web |last=Bindeman |first=Ilya N. |title=The Secrets of Supervolcanoes |work=Scientific American |url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=1&articleID=0006E0BF-BB43-146C-BB4383414B7F0000 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016204122/http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=1&articleID=0006E0BF-BB43-146C-BB4383414B7F0000 |archivedate=October 16, 2007 |date=June 2006 |accessdate=2011-08-24}}</ref>
[[File:Grand prismatic spring.jpg|left|thumb|Wooden walkways allow visitors to closely approach the Grand Prismatic Spring.]]

A subsequent caldera-forming eruption occurred about 160,000 years ago. It formed the relatively small caldera that contains the [[West Thumb]] of Yellowstone Lake. Since the last supereruption, a series of smaller eruptive cycles between 640,000 and 70,000 years ago, has nearly filled in the Yellowstone Caldera with >80 different eruptions of [[rhyolite|rhyolitic]] lavas such as those that can be seen at [[Obsidian Cliff]]s and [[basalt]]ic lavas which can be viewed at [[Sheepeater Cliff]]. Lava strata are most easily seen at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, where the Yellowstone River continues to carve into the ancient lava flows. The canyon is a classic [[V-shaped valley]], indicative of river-type erosion rather than erosion caused by [[glacier|glaciation]].<ref name="volcanic history"/>

Each eruption is part of an eruptive cycle that climaxes with the partial collapse of the roof of the volcano's partially emptied magma chamber. This creates a collapsed depression, called a caldera, and releases vast amounts of volcanic material, usually through fissures that ring the caldera. The time between the last three cataclysmic eruptions in the Yellowstone area has ranged from 600,000 to 800,000 years, but the small number of such climactic eruptions cannot be used to make an accurate prediction for future volcanic events.<ref name="time">{{cite web |url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/faqsfactivity.html#eruptagain |title=Questions About Future Volcanic Activity |work=Yellowstone Volcano Observatory |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |date=February 2, 2007 |accessdate=2007-04-08}}</ref>

===Geysers and the hydrothermal system===
[[File:Old Faithful Geyser Yellowstone National Park.jpg|thumb|Old Faithful Geyser erupts approximately every 91 minutes.]]

The most famous [[geyser]] in the park, and perhaps the world, is [[Old Faithful Geyser]], located in [[Upper Geyser Basin]]. [[Castle Geyser]], [[Lion Geyser]] and [[Beehive Geyser]] are in the same basin. The park contains the largest active geyser in the world—[[Steamboat Geyser]] in the [[Norris Geyser Basin]]. A study that was completed in 2011 found that at least 1283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone. Of these, an average of 465 are active in a given year.<ref>Cross, Jeff. "How many geysers are found in Yellowstone?" Program and Abstracts, The 11th Biennial Scientific Conference on the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. October 8–10, 2012, Mammoth Hot Springs Hotel, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming.</ref><ref>Lundquist, Laura. "Dormant Yellowstone geyser erupts." The Bozeman Daily Chronicle, August 02, 2013.</ref> Yellowstone contains at least 10,000 geothermal features altogether. Half the geothermal features and two-thirds of the world's geysers are concentrated in Yellowstone.<ref name="un">{{cite web |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/28 |title=Yellowstone National Park |work=World Heritage Sites |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |date=April 23, 2007 |accessdate=2007-04-23}}</ref>

[[File:Beehive Geyser Erupting.JPG|thumb|left|Beehive Geyser erupting]]

In May 2001, the [[U.S. Geological Survey]], Yellowstone National Park, and the [[University of Utah]] created the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO), a partnership for long-term monitoring of the geological processes of the Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field, for disseminating information concerning the potential hazards of this geologically active region.<ref name="yvo">{{cite web |url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/yvo.html |title=Information about the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory |work=Yellowstone Volcano Observatory |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |date=February 2, 2007 |accessdate=2007-03-12}}</ref>

[[File:Steamboat Geyser Major Eruption in 2005.jpg|thumb|upright|Steamboat Geyser is the worlds largest active geyser]]

In 2003, changes at the Norris Geyser Basin resulted in the temporary closure of some trails in the basin. New [[fumarole]]s were observed, and several geysers showed enhanced activity and increasing water temperatures. Several geysers became so hot that they were transformed into purely steaming features; the water had become superheated and they could no longer erupt normally.<ref name="geyserbasin">{{cite web |url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/2003/NorrisTherm03.html |title=Notable Changes in Thermal Activity at Norris Geyser Basin Provide Opportunity to Study Hydrothermal System |work=Yellowstone Volcano Observatory |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |date=March 16, 2005 |accessdate=2007-03-12}}</ref> This coincided with the release of reports of a multiple year United States Geological Survey research project which mapped the bottom of Yellowstone Lake and identified a structural dome that had uplifted at some time in the past. Research indicated that these uplifts posed no immediate threat of a volcanic eruption, since they may have developed long ago, and there had been no temperature increase found near the uplifts.<ref name="uplift">{{cite web |url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/new.html |title=Frequently asked questions about recent findings at Yellowstone Lake |work=Yellowstone Volcano Observatory |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |accessdate=2007-03-12}}</ref> On March 10, 2004, a biologist discovered 5 dead bison which apparently had inhaled toxic geothermal gases trapped in the Norris Geyser Basin by a seasonal atmospheric inversion. This was closely followed by an upsurge of earthquake activity in April 2004.<ref name="news">{{cite web |url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/NewsArchive.html |title=Archive of Stories About the Yellowstone Volcanic System |work=Yellowstone Volcano Observatory |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |date=February 2, 2007 |accessdate=2007-03-12 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210050433/http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/NewsArchive.html |archivedate=February 10, 2007}}</ref> In 2006, it was reported that the Mallard Lake Dome and the Sour Creek Dome— areas that have long been known to show significant changes in their ground movement— had risen at a rate of {{convert|1.5|to|2.4|in|cm}} per year from mid–2004 through 2006. As of late 2007, the uplift has continued at a reduced rate.<ref>{{cite news |title=Earthquake Swarms at Yellowstone Continue |publisher=Inland Park News |date=December 19, 2008 |url=http://www.islandparknews.com/atf.php?sid=5600&current_edition=2008-12-19 |accessdate=2011-08-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Robert B. |author2=Wu-Lung Chang|author3=Lee Siegel |title=Yellowstone rising: Volcano inflating with molten rock at record rate |work=Press release, University of Utah Public Relations |publisher=EurekAlert! (American Association for the Advancement of Science) |date=November 8, 2007 |url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-11/uou-yr103007.php |accessdate=2007-11-09 }}</ref> These events inspired a great deal of media attention and speculation about the geologic future of the region. Experts responded to the conjecture by informing the public that there was no increased risk of a volcanic eruption in the near future.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lowenstern |first=Jake |title=Truth, fiction and everything in between at Yellowstone |journal=Geotimes |publisher=American Geologic Institute |date=June 2005 |url=http://www.agiweb.org/geotimes/june05/feature_supervolcano.html |accessdate=2007-03-12}}</ref> However, these changes demonstrate the dynamic nature of the Yellowstone hydrothermal system.

=== Earthquakes ===
[[File:Mammoth Hot Springs - Terracing - August 2011.JPG|thumb|Main terraces of [[Mammoth Hot Springs]]]]
Yellowstone experiences thousands of small earthquakes every year, virtually all of which are undetectable to people. There have been six earthquakes with at least [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] 6 or greater in historical times, including a 7.5‑magnitude quake that struck just outside the northwest boundary of the park in 1959. This quake triggered a huge [[landslide]], which caused a partial dam collapse on [[Hebgen Lake]]; immediately downstream, the [[sediment]] from the landslide dammed the river and created a new lake, known as [[Quake Lake|Earthquake Lake]]. Twenty-eight people were killed, and property damage was extensive in the immediate region. The earthquake caused some geysers in the northwestern section of the park to erupt, large cracks in the ground formed and emitted steam, and some hot springs that normally have clear water turned muddy.<ref name="earthquake"/> A 6.1‑magnitude earthquake struck inside the park on June 30, 1975, but damage was minimal.
[[File:Upper Terraces of Mammoth Hot Springs.jpg|thumb|Upper Terraces of Mammoth Hot Springs]]
For three months in 1985, 3,000 minor earthquakes were detected in the northwestern section of the park, during what has been referred to as an [[earthquake swarm]], and has been attributed to minor subsidence of the Yellowstone caldera.<ref name="volcanic"/> Beginning on April 30, 2007, 16 small earthquakes with magnitudes up to 2.7 occurred in the Yellowstone Caldera for several days. These swarms of earthquakes are common, and there have been 70 such swarms between 1983 and 2008.<ref name="swarms">{{cite news |title=More Than A Dozen Earthquakes Shake Yellowstone |publisher=KUTV News |date=May 6, 2007 |url=http://kutv.com/national/local_story_126175405.html |accessdate=2007-05-07 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070526111246/http://kutv.com/national/local_story_126175405.html |archivedate=May 26, 2007}}</ref> In December 2008, over 250 earthquakes were measured over a four-day span under Yellowstone Lake, the largest measuring a magnitude of 3.9.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/activity/archive/2008.php |title=Archive of Yellowstone Updates for 2008 |publisher=Yellowstone Volcanic Observatory |accessdate=2008-12-31}}</ref> In January 2010, more than 250 earthquakes were detected over a two-day period.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.denverpost.com/ci_14216212#ixzz0d0TCeanj |title=Yellowstone hit by swarm of earthquakes|work=Denver Post|date=January 18, 2010}}</ref> Seismic activity in Yellowstone National Park continues and is reported hourly by the Earthquake Hazards Program of the U.S. Geological Survey.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/recenteqsus/Maps/special/Yellowstone.php|publisher=United States Geological Survey|title=Latest Earthquakes – US » Yellowstone Region}}</ref>

On March 30, 2014, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck almost the very middle of Yellowstone near the Norris Basin at 6.34am; reports indicated no damage. This was the largest earthquake to hit the park since February 22, 1980.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://guardianlv.com/2014/03/4-8-magnitude-earthquake-hits-yellowstone-national-park/|title=4.8 Magnitude Earthquake Hits Yellowstone National Park|publisher=Liberty Voice|date=30 March 2014|accessdate=31 March 2014}}</ref>

== Biology and ecology ==
{{Main|Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem|Ecology of the Rocky Mountains}}
[[File:Beautiful Meadow in Yellowstone National Park.JPG|thumb|Meadow in Yellowstone National Park]]
Yellowstone National Park is the centerpiece of the 20 million acre/31,250 square-mile (8,093,712 ha/80,937 km2) Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, a region that includes [[Grand Teton National Park]], adjacent [[United States National Forest|National Forests]] and expansive [[wilderness]] areas in those forests. The ecosystem is the largest remaining continuous stretch of mostly undeveloped pristine land in the continental United States, considered the world's largest intact ecosystem in the northern temperate zone.<ref name="ecosystem" /> With the successful [[wolf reintroduction]] program, which began in the 1990s, virtually all the original faunal species known to inhabit the region when white explorers first entered the area can still be found there.

=== Flora ===
Over 1,700 [[species]] of trees and other [[vascular plant]]s are native to the park. Another 170 species are considered to be [[exotic species]] and are non-native. Of the eight [[conifer]] tree species documented, [[Lodgepole Pine]] forests cover 80% of the total forested areas.<ref name="facts"/> Other conifers, such as [[Subalpine Fir]], [[Engelmann Spruce]], [[Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir]] and [[Whitebark Pine]], are found in scattered groves throughout the park. As of 2007, the whitebark pine is threatened by a fungus known as [[Cronartium ribicola|white pine blister rust]]; however, this is mostly confined to forests well to the north and west. In Yellowstone, about seven percent of the whitebark pine species have been impacted with the fungus, compared to nearly complete infestations in northwestern Montana.<ref name="whitebark">{{cite web |last=Kendall |first=Katherine |
url=http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/wm147.htm |title=Whitebark Pine |work=Our Living Resources |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |accessdate=2007-03-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927145101/http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/wm147.htm |archivedate=September 27, 2006}}</ref> [[Quaking Aspen]] and [[willow]]s are the most common species of [[deciduous]] trees. The aspen forests have declined significantly since the early 20th century, but scientists at Oregon State University attribute recent recovery of the aspen to the reintroduction of wolves which has changed the grazing habits of local elk.<ref name="aspen">{{cite web |title=Presence Of Wolves Allows Aspen Recovery In Yellowstone |url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/07/070726150904.htm |accessdate=2007-08-01}}</ref>
[[File:Abronia ammophila.jpg|thumb|Yellowstone sand verbena are endemic to Yellowstone's lakeshores.]]
There are dozens of species of flowering plants that have been identified, most of which bloom between the months of May and September.<ref name="flowers">{{cite web |
url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/upload/286wildflowers.pdf |format=PDF |title=Where Are the Bloomin' Wildflowers? |publisher=National Park Service |date=February 2004 |accessdate=2007-03-13}}</ref> The [[Abronia ammophila|Yellowstone Sand Verbena]] is a rare flowering plant found only in Yellowstone. It is closely related to species usually found in much warmer climates, making the sand verbena an enigma. The estimated 8,000 examples of this rare flowering plant all make their home in the sandy soils on the shores of Yellowstone Lake, well above the waterline.<ref name="verbena">{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/verbena.htm |title=Yellowstone Sand Verbena |work=Nature and Science |publisher=National Park Service |date=July 20, 2006 |accessdate=2007-03-13}}</ref>

In Yellowstone's hot waters, bacteria form mats of bizarre shapes consisting of trillions of individuals. These bacteria are some of the most primitive life forms on earth. Flies and other [[arthropod]]s live on the mats, even in the middle of the bitterly cold winters. Initially, scientists thought that microbes there gained sustenance only from [[sulfur]]. In 2005 researchers from the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]] discovered that the sustenance for at least some of the diverse [[Hyperthermophile|hyperthermophilic]] species is [[hydrogen|molecular hydrogen]].<ref name="bacteria">{{cite web |url=http://www.colorado.edu/news/releases/2005/30.html |title=Microbes In Colorful Yellowstone Hot Springs Fueled By Hydrogen, CU-Boulder Researchers Say |publisher=University of Colorado at Boulder |date=January 24, 2005 |accessdate=2007-03-13}}</ref>

''[[Thermus aquaticus]]'' is a [[Bacteria|bacterium]] found in the Yellowstone hot springs that produces an important enzyme (Taq polymerase) that is easily replicated in the lab and is useful in replicating [[DNA]] as part of the [[polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR) process. The retrieval of these bacteria can be achieved with no impact to the ecosystem. Other bacteria in the Yellowstone hot springs may also prove useful to scientists who are searching for cures for various diseases.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Yellowstone Thermophiles Conservation Project |publisher=World Foundation for Environment and Development |url=http://www.wfed.org/projects/yellowstone/project.htm |date=April 27, 2004 |accessdate=2007-03-15}}</ref> In 2016, researchers from Uppsala University reported the discovery of a class of thermophiles, [[Hadesarchaea]], in Yellowstone's Culex Basin. These organisms are capable of converting carbon monoxide and water to carbon dioxide and oxygen.<ref name=Baker>{{cite journal | last =Baker | first =Brett J.|last2=Saw|first2=Jimmy H.|last3=Lind|first3=Anders E.|last4=Lazar|first4=Cassandra Sara|last5=Hinrichs|first5=Kai-Uwe|last6=Teske|first6=Andreas P.|last7=Ettema|first7=Thijs J.G. | author-link = | title =Genomic inference of the metabolism of cosmopolitan subsurface Archaea, Hadesarchaea | journal =Nature Microbiology | volume =1 | issue = | pages = | publisher =| location = | date =February 16, 2016| language =English | url =http://www.nature.com/articles/nmicrobiol20162 | jstor = | issn = | doi =10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.2 | id = | mr = | zbl = | jfm = | access-date = February 25, 2016}}</ref><ref name=IBTimes>{{cite web|last=Atherton| first=Matt|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/god-underworld-microbes-hadesarchaea-discovered-living-toxic-gas-deep-below-yellowstone-hot-1543919|title=God of the underworld microbes Hadesarchaea discovered living on toxic gas deep below Yellowstone hot springs|work=IB Times|date=February 15, 2016|accessdate=February 25, 2016}}</ref>

Non-native plants sometimes threaten native species by using up nutrient resources. Though exotic species are most commonly found in areas with the greatest human visitation, such as near roads and at major tourist areas, they have also spread into the backcountry. Generally, most exotic species are controlled by pulling the plants out of the soil or by spraying, both of which are time consuming and expensive.<ref name="exotic">{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/upload/ExoticVeg_2_1_06.pdf |format=PDF |title=Exotic Vegetation Management in Yellowstone National Park |work=Nature and Science |publisher=National Park Service |date=February 1, 2006 |accessdate=2007-03-13}}</ref>

=== Fauna ===
{{Main|Animals of Yellowstone|Birds of Yellowstone National Park|Wolf reintroduction|History of wolves in Yellowstone|Yellowstone Park Bison Herd|Small mammals of Yellowstone National Park|Fishes of Yellowstone National Park|Amphibians and reptiles of Yellowstone National Park}}
Yellowstone is widely considered to be the finest [[megafauna]] wildlife habitat in the [[contiguous United States|lower 48 states]]. There are almost 60 species of [[mammal]]s in the park, including the [[northwestern wolf|gray wolf]], [[mountain coyote|coyote]], the [[threatened species|threatened]] [[Canada lynx|Canadian lynx]], and [[grizzly bear]]s.<ref name="facts"/> Other large mammals include the [[American bison|bison]] (often referred to as buffalo), [[American black bear|black bear]], [[elk]], [[moose]], [[mule deer]], [[white-tailed deer]], [[mountain goat]], [[pronghorn]], [[bighorn sheep]], and [[North American cougar|cougar]].

[[File:Bison near a hot spring in Yellowstone.JPG|thumb|[[American Bison|Bison]] graze near a hot spring]]
The [[Yellowstone Park bison herd]] is the largest public herd of [[American bison]] in the United States. The relatively large bison populations are a concern for ranchers, who fear that the species can transmit [[bovine]] diseases to their domesticated cousins. In fact, about half of Yellowstone's bison have been exposed to [[brucellosis]], a bacterial disease that came to North America with European cattle that may cause cattle to [[miscarriage|miscarry]]. The disease has little effect on park bison, and no reported case of transmission from wild bison to domestic livestock has been filed. However, the [[Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service]] (APHIS) has stated that bison are the "likely source" of the spread of the disease in cattle in Wyoming and [[North Dakota]]. Elk also carry the disease and are believed to have transmitted the infection to horses and cattle.<ref name="aphis">{{cite web |title=Brucellosis and Yellowstone Bison |work=Brucellosis |publisher=Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service |url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/nahps/brucellosis/cattle.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228214304/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/nahps/brucellosis/cattle.htm |archivedate=February 28, 2007 |accessdate=2011-08-24}}</ref> Bison once numbered between 30 and 60 million individuals throughout North America, and Yellowstone remains one of their last strongholds. Their populations had increased from less than 50 in the park in 1902 to 4,000 by 2003. The Yellowstone Park bison herd reached a peak in 2005 with 4,900 animals. Despite a summer estimated population of 4,700 in 2007, the number dropped to 3,000 in 2008 after a harsh winter and controversial brucellosis management sending hundreds to slaughter.<ref name="bison2">{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions About Bison |work=Nature and Science |publisher=National Park Service |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/bisonqa.htm |date=August 9, 2006 |accessdate=2007-04-01}}</ref> The Yellowstone Park bison herd is believed to be one of only four free roaming and genetically pure herds on public lands in North America. The other three herds are the [[Henry Mountains bison herd]] of [[Utah]], at [[Wind Cave National Park]] in [[South Dakota]] and in [[Elk Island National Park]] in [[Alberta]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Prettyman |first=Brett |title=Moving Bison |publisher=[[Salt Lake Tribune]] |date=January 10, 2008 |url=http://www.sltrib.com//ci_7924854?IADID=Search-www.sltrib.com-www.sltrib.com |accessdate=2008-01-12 }}</ref>

[[File:Mother Elk Nursing Her Calf.JPG|thumb|Elk Mother Nursing Her Calf]]To combat the perceived threat of [[brucellosis]] transmission to cattle, national park personnel regularly harass bison herds back into the park when they venture outside of the area's borders. During the winter of 1996–97, the bison herd was so large that 1,079 bison that had exited the park were shot or sent to slaughter.<ref name="aphis"/> [[Animal rights]] activists argue that this is a cruel practice and that the possibility for disease transmission is not as great as some ranchers maintain. Ecologists point out that the bison are merely traveling to seasonal grazing areas that lie within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem that have been converted to cattle grazing, some of which are within National Forests and are leased to private ranchers. APHIS has stated that with vaccinations and other means, brucellosis can be eliminated from the bison and elk herds throughout Yellowstone.<ref name="aphis"/>

[[File:WolfRunningInSnow.jpg|left|thumb|A reintroduced wolf in Yellowstone National Park]]
Starting in 1914, in an effort to protect elk populations, the U.S. Congress appropriated funds to be used for the purposes of "destroying wolves, [[prairie dog]]s, and other animals injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry" on public lands. Park Service hunters carried out these orders, and by 1926 they had killed 136 wolves, and wolves were virtually eliminated from Yellowstone.<ref name="dow">{{cite web |title=Defenders of Wildlife |work=A Yellowstone Chronology |url=http://www.defenders.org/wildlife/wolf/ynpchro.html |accessdate=2007-03-19 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607214843/http://www.defenders.org/wildlife/wolf/ynpchro.html |archivedate=June 7, 2007}}</ref> Further exterminations continued until the National Park Service ended the practice in 1935. With the passing of the [[Endangered Species Act]] in 1973, the wolf was one of the first mammal species listed.<ref name="dow"/> After the wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone, the [[coyote]] then became the park's top canine predator. However, the coyote is not able to bring down large animals, and the result of this lack of a top predator on these populations was a marked increase in lame and sick megafauna.

[[File:Bison in Yellowstone National Park.JPG|thumb|Bison in Yellowstone National Park]]By the 1990s, the Federal government had reversed its views on wolves. In a controversial decision by the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] (which oversees threatened and endangered species), northwestern wolves imported from Canada were reintroduced into the park. Reintroduction efforts have been successful with populations remaining relatively stable. A survey conducted in 2005 reported that there were 13 wolf packs, totaling 118 individuals in Yellowstone and 326 in the entire ecosystem. These park figures were lower than those reported in 2004 but may be attributable to wolf migration to other nearby areas as suggested by the substantial increase in the Montana population during that interval.<ref name="rmw">{{cite web |title=Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery 2005 Interagency Annual Report |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Nez Perce Tribe, National Park Service, Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Idaho Fish and Game, and USDA Wildlife Services |url=http://www.fws.gov/mountain-prairie/species/mammals/wolf/annualrpt05/2005_WOLF_REPORT_TOTAL.pdf |format=PDF |year=2006 |accessdate=2007-03-19}}</ref> Almost all the wolves documented were descended from the 66 wolves reintroduced in 1995–96.<ref name="rmw"/> The recovery of populations throughout the states of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho has been so successful that on February 27, 2008, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service removed the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf population from the endangered species list.<ref name="delisting">{{cite web |title=Final Rule Designating the Northern Rocky Mountain Population of Gray Wolf as a Distinct Population Segment and Removing This Distinct Population Segment From the Federal List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |date=February 27, 2008 |url=http://www.regulations.gov/fdmspublic/component/main?main=DocumentDetail&o=09000064803cae39 |accessdate=2008-06-11}}</ref>

[[File:A033, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA, black bears, 2001.jpg|thumb|Black bear and cubs in the Tower-Roosevelt area]]
An estimated 600 grizzly bears live in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, with more than half of the population living within Yellowstone. The grizzly is currently listed as a threatened species, however the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has announced that they intend to take it off the endangered species list for the Yellowstone region but will likely keep it listed in areas where it has not yet recovered fully. Opponents of delisting the grizzly are concerned that states might once again allow hunting and that better conservation measures need to be implemented to ensure a sustainable population.<ref name="geographic">{{cite news |last=Mott |first=Maryann |title=Bald Eagle, Grizzly: U.S. Icons Endangered No More? |publisher=National Geographic News |date=July 2, 2004 |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/06/0628_040628_baldeagle.html |accessdate=2007-03-19}}</ref> [[American black bear|Black bear]]s are common in the park and were a park symbol due to visitor interaction with the bears starting in 1910. Feeding and close contact with bears has not been permitted since the 1960s to reduce their desire for human foods.<ref name="bbears">{{cite web |title=Black Bears |publisher=National Park Service |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/bbears.htm |date=March 31, 2014 |accessdate=2014-04-16}}</ref> Yellowstone is one of the few places in the United States where black bears can be seen coexisting with grizzly bears.<ref name="bbears" /> Black bear observations occur most often in the park's northern ranges and in the Bechler area which is in the park's southwestern corner.<ref name="bbinfo">{{cite web |title=Black Bear Information Continued |publisher=National Park Service |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/bbinfo.htm |date=April 3, 2014 |accessdate=2014-04-16}}</ref>

[[File:Bull Elk herd.jpg|left|thumb|Elk]]
Population figures for elk are in excess of 30,000—the largest population of any large mammal species in Yellowstone. The northern herd has decreased enormously since the mid‑1990s; this has been attributed to wolf predation and causal effects such as elk using more forested regions to evade predation, consequently making it harder for researchers to accurately count them.<ref name="elk count">{{cite news |title=2006–2007 Winter Count of Northern Yellowstone Elk |publisher=National Park Service |date=January 16, 2007 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/parknews/nycwwg.htm |accessdate=2007-03-19}}</ref> The northern herd migrates west into southwestern Montana in the winter. The southern herd migrates southward, and the majority of these elk winter on the [[National Elk Refuge]], immediately southeast of Grand Teton National Park. The southern herd migration is the largest mammalian migration remaining in the U.S. outside of Alaska.

[[File:Antilocapra americana.jpg|thumb|Pronghorn are commonly found on the grasslands in the park.]]
In 2003 the tracks of one female lynx and her cub were spotted and followed for over {{convert|2|mi|km}}. Fecal material and other evidence obtained were tested and confirmed to be those of a lynx. No visual confirmation was made, however. Lynx have not been seen in Yellowstone since 1998, though [[DNA]] taken from hair samples obtained in 2001 confirmed that lynx were at least transient to the park.<ref name="lynx">{{cite web |last=Potter |first=Tiffany |title=Reproduction of Canada Lynx Discovered in Yellowstone |work=Nature: Year in Review |publisher=National Park Service |date=April 13, 2004 |url=http://www2.nature.nps.gov/YearinReview/yir2003/07_E.html |accessdate=2007-03-19}}</ref> Other less commonly seen mammals include the mountain lion and [[wolverine]]. The mountain lion has an estimated population of only 25 individuals parkwide.<ref name="lion">{{cite web |title=Mountain Lions |publisher=National Park Service |date=July 26, 2006 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/mtlions.htm |accessdate=2007-03-19}}</ref> The wolverine is another rare park mammal, and accurate population figures for this species are not known.<ref name="wolverine">{{cite journal|last=Marquis|first=Amy Leinbach|title=Out of Sight, Out of Mind|work=National Parks|volume=80|issue=3|pages=20–21|publisher=National Parks Conservation Association|date=Summer 2006}}</ref> These uncommon and rare mammals provide insight into the health of protected lands such as Yellowstone and help managers make determinations as to how best to preserve habitats.

Eighteen species of fish live in Yellowstone, including the core range of the [[Yellowstone cutthroat trout]]—a fish highly sought by [[fishing|anglers]].<ref name="facts"/><ref name="fish">{{cite web |title=Fishing in Yellowstone National Park |publisher=National Park Service |date=April 4, 2007 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/fishing.htm |accessdate=2007-03-19}}</ref> The Yellowstone cutthroat trout has faced several threats since the 1980s, including the suspected illegal introduction into Yellowstone Lake of [[lake trout]], an [[invasive species]] which consume the smaller cutthroat trout.<ref name="lake trout">{{cite web |title=The Yellowstone Lake Crisis: Confronting a Lake Trout Invasion |publisher=National Park Service |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/upload/laketrout2.pdf |format=PDF |year=1995 |accessdate=2007-03-19}}</ref> Although lake trout were established in [[Shoshone Lake|Shoshone]] and [[Lewis Lake (Wyoming)|Lewis]] lakes in the Snake River drainage from U.S. Government stocking operations in 1890, it was never officially introduced into the Yellowstone River drainage.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kendall |first=W. C. |title=The Fishes of the Yellowstone National Park |publisher=Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries |location=Washington D.C. |pages=22–23 |year=1915 }}</ref> The cutthroat trout has also faced an ongoing drought, as well as the accidental introduction of a parasite—[[Myxobolus cerebralis|whirling disease]]—which causes a terminal nervous system disease in younger fish. Since 2001, all native sport fish species caught in Yellowstone waterways are subject to a catch and release law.<ref name="fish"/> Yellowstone is also home to six species of [[reptiles]], such as the [[painted turtle]] and [[Crotalus viridis|Prairie rattlesnake]], and four species of [[amphibians]], including the [[Boreal Chorus Frog]].<ref name="reptiles">{{cite web |title=Vital Habitats: Wetlands and Wildlife |publisher=National Park Service |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/upload/vitalhabitats.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-03-19}}</ref>

311 species of birds have been reported, almost half of which nest in Yellowstone.<ref name="facts"/> As of 1999, twenty-six pairs of nesting bald eagles have been documented. Extremely rare sightings of [[whooping crane]]s have been recorded, however only three examples of this species are known to live in the Rocky Mountains, out of 385 known worldwide.<ref name="eagle">{{cite web |title=Threatened and Endangered Species |publisher=National Park Service |date=July 26, 2006 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/endangeredbirds.htm |accessdate=2007-03-19 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013103610/http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/endangeredbirds.htm |archivedate=October 13, 2007 |deadurl=yes}}</ref> Other birds, considered to be species of special concern because of their rarity in Yellowstone, include the [[common loon]], [[harlequin duck]], [[osprey]], [[peregrine falcon]] and the [[trumpeter swan]].<ref name="concern">{{cite web |title=Species of Special Concern |publisher=National Park Service |date=July 28, 2006 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/specialconcern.htm |accessdate=2007-03-19}}</ref>

== Forest fires ==
{{See also|Yellowstone fires of 1988|1988 North American drought}}
[[File:Yellowstonefire.jpg|thumb|Fire in Yellowstone National Park]]
As [[wildfire]] is a natural part of most ecosystems, plants that are [[Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] to Yellowstone have adapted in a variety of ways. [[Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir|Douglas-fir]] have a thick bark which protects the inner section of the tree from most fires. [[Lodgepole Pine]]s —the most common tree species in the park— generally have cones that are only opened by the heat of fire. Their seeds are held in place by a tough resin, and fire assists in melting the resin, allowing the seeds to disperse. Fire clears out dead and downed wood, providing fewer obstacles for lodgepole pines to flourish. [[Subalpine Fir]], [[Engelmann Spruce]], [[Whitebark Pine]], and other species tend to grow in colder and moister areas, where fire is less likely to occur. [[Populus tremuloides|Aspen]] trees sprout new growth from their roots, and even if a severe fire kills the tree above ground, the roots often survive unharmed because they are insulated from the heat by soil.<ref name="fireecology">{{cite web |title=Fire Ecology |work=Yellowstone Wildland Fire |publisher=National Park Service |date=October 25, 2006 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209144441rn_1/www.nps.gov/archive/yell/technical/fire/ecology.htm |accessdate=2007-03-21}}</ref> The National Park Service estimates that in natural conditions, grasslands in Yellowstone burned an average of every 20 to 25 years, while forests in the park would experience fire about every 300 years.<ref name="fireecology"/>

About thirty-five natural forest fires are ignited each year by [[lightning]], while another six to ten are started by people— in most cases by accident. Yellowstone National Park has three [[fire lookout|fire lookout towers]], each staffed by trained fire fighters. The easiest one to reach is atop Mount Washburn, though it is closed to the public. The park also monitors fire from the air and relies on visitor reports of smoke and/or flames.<ref name="firelookout">{{cite web |title=Yellowstone Lookouts |work=Yellowstone Wildland Fire |publisher=National Park Service |date=October 25, 2006 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061216095608rn_1/www.nps.gov/archive/yell/technical/fire/Suppression/Lookouts.htm |accessdate=2007-03-21}}</ref> Fire towers are staffed almost continuously from late June to mid-September— the primary fire season. Fires burn with the greatest intensity in the late afternoon and evening. Few fires burn more than {{convert|100|acre|ha}}, and the vast majority of fires reach only a little over an acre (0.5 ha) before they burn themselves out.<ref name="firefacts">{{cite web |title=Fire Facts |work=Yellowstone Wildland Fire |publisher=National Park Service |date=October 25, 2006 |url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/yell/technical/fire/factoid.htm |accessdate=2007-03-21 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070425202112/http://www.nps.gov/archive/yell/technical/fire/factoid.htm |archivedate=April 25, 2007}}</ref> Fire management focuses on monitoring dead and down wood quantities, soil and tree moisture, and the weather, to determine those areas most vulnerable to fire should one ignite. Current policy is to suppress all human caused fires and to evaluate natural fires, examining the benefit or detriment they may pose on the ecosystem. If a fire is considered to be an immediate threat to people and structures, or will burn out of control, then fire suppression is performed.<ref name="monitor">{{cite web |title=Fire Monitoring |work=Yellowstone Wildland Fire |publisher=National Park Service |date=October 25, 2006 |url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/yell/technical/fire/monitor.htm |accessdate=2007-03-21 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206135523/http://www.nps.gov/archive/yell/technical/fire/monitor.htm |archivedate=February 6, 2007}}</ref>
[[File:Wildfire in Yellowstone Natinal Park produces Pyrocumulus clouds1.jpg|Wildfire in Yellowstone National Park produces a pyrocumulus cloud|thumb|right]]
In an effort to minimize the chances of out of control fires and threats to people and structures, park employees do more than just monitor the potential for fire. [[Controlled burn]]s are prescribed fires which are deliberately started to remove dead timber under conditions which allow fire fighters an opportunity to carefully control where and how much wood is consumed. Natural fires are sometimes considered prescribed fires if they are left to burn. In Yellowstone, unlike some other parks, there have been very few fires deliberately started by employees as prescribed burns. However, over the last 30 years, over 300 natural fires have been allowed to burn naturally. In addition, fire fighters remove dead and down wood and other hazards from areas where they will be a potential fire threat to lives and property, reducing the chances of fire danger in these areas.<ref name="prescribed ">{{cite web |title=Prescribed Fire |work=Yellowstone Wildland Fire |publisher=National Park Service |date=October 25, 2006 |url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/yell/technical/fire/prescribed.htm |accessdate=2007-03-21 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610004917/http://www.nps.gov/archive/yell/technical/fire/prescribed.htm |archivedate=June 10, 2007}}</ref> Fire monitors also regulate fire through educational services to the public and have been known to temporarily ban campfires from campgrounds during periods of high fire danger. The common notion in early United States land management policies was that all forest fires were bad. Fire was seen as a purely destructive force and there was little understanding that it was an integral part of the ecosystem. Consequently, until the 1970s, when a better understanding of wildfire was developed, all fires were suppressed. This led to an increase in dead and dying forests, which would later provide the fuel load for fires that would be much harder, and in some cases, impossible to control. Fire Management Plans were implemented, detailing that natural fires should be allowed to burn if they posed no immediate threat to lives and property.

[[File:Crown fire Old Faithful.jpg|thumb|A crown fire approaches the Old Faithful complex on September 7, 1988.]]

1988 started with a wet spring season although by summer, drought began moving in throughout the northern Rockies, creating the driest year on record to that point. Grasses and plants which grew well in the early summer from the abundant spring moisture produced plenty of grass, which soon turned to dry tinder. The National Park Service began firefighting efforts to keep the fires under control, but the extreme drought made suppression difficult. Between July 15 and 21, 1988, fires quickly spread from {{convert|8500|acre|ha sqmi}} throughout the entire Yellowstone region, which included areas outside the park, to {{convert|99000|acre|ha sqmi}} on the park land alone. By the end of the month, the fires were out of control. Large fires burned together, and on August 20, 1988, the single worst day of the fires, more than {{convert|150000|acre|ha sqmi}} were consumed. Seven large fires were responsible for 95% of the {{convert|793000|acre|ha sqmi}} that were burned over the next couple of months. A total of 25,000 firefighters and U.S. military forces participated in the suppression efforts, at a cost of 120 million dollars. By the time winter brought snow that helped extinguish the last flames, the fires had destroyed 67 structures and caused several million dollars in damage.<ref name="fires"/> Though no civilian lives were lost, two personnel associated with the firefighting efforts were killed.

Contrary to media reports and speculation at the time, the fires killed very few park animals— surveys indicated that only about 345 elk (of an estimated 40,000–50,000), 36 deer, 12 moose, 6 black bears, and 9 bison had perished. Changes in fire management policies were implemented by land management agencies throughout the United States, based on knowledge gained from the 1988 fires and the evaluation of scientists and experts from various fields. By 1992, Yellowstone had adopted a new fire management plan which observed stricter guidelines for the management of natural fires.<ref name="fires"/>

== Climate ==
[[File:Yellowstonewinter.jpg|thumb|Winter scene in Yellowstone]]
Yellowstone climate is greatly influenced by altitude, with lower elevations generally found to be warmer year-round. The record high temperature was {{convert|99|°F|°C}} in 2002, while the coldest temperature recorded is {{convert|−66|°F|°C}} in 1933.<ref name="facts"/> During the summer months of June through early September, daytime highs are normally in the {{convert|70|to|80|F|C}} range, while night time lows can go to below freezing (0 °C) especially at higher altitudes. Summer afternoons are frequently accompanied by [[thunderstorm]]s. Spring and fall temperatures range between {{convert|30|and|60|F|C}} with nights in the teens to single digits (−5 to −20 °C). Winter in Yellowstone is accompanied by high temperatures usually between zero and 20 °F (−20 to −5 °C) and nighttime temperatures below 0  °F (−18 °C) for most of the winter.<ref name="weather">{{cite web |title=Weather |publisher=National Park Service |date=December 20, 2006 |url=http://nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/weather.htm |accessdate=2007-03-20}}</ref>

Precipitation in Yellowstone is highly variable and ranges from {{convert|15|in|mm}} annually near Mammoth Hot Springs, to {{convert|80|in|mm}} in the southwestern sections of the park. The precipitation of Yellowstone is greatly influenced by the moisture channel formed by the [[Snake River Plain]] to the west that was, in turn, formed by Yellowstone itself. Snow is possible in any month of the year, but most common between November and April, with averages of {{convert|150|in|mm}} annually around Yellowstone Lake, to twice that amount at higher elevations.<ref name="weather"/>

[[Tornado]]es in Yellowstone are rare; however, on July 21, 1987, the most powerful tornado recorded in Wyoming touched down in the [[Teton Wilderness]] of [[Bridger-Teton National Forest]] and hit Yellowstone National Park. Called the [[Teton–Yellowstone tornado]], it was classified as an [[Fujita Scale|F4]], with wind speeds estimated at between {{convert|207|and|260|mph|km/h}}. The tornado left a path of destruction {{convert|1|to|2|mi|km}} wide, and {{convert|24|mi|km}} long, and leveled {{convert|15000|acre|ha sqmi}} of mature pine forest.<ref name="tornado">{{cite web |title=Severe Weather |publisher=Wyoming Climate Office |date=March 14, 2007 |url=http://www.wrds.uwyo.edu/wrds/wsc/climateatlas/severe_weather.html |accessdate=2007-03-20}}</ref>

The climate at Yellowstone Lake is classified as [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] (Dfc), according to [[Köppen-Geiger climate classification system|Köppen-Geiger climate classification]], while at the park headquarters the classification is [[Semi-arid climate|cold semi-arid]] (BSk).
{{Weather box
|collapsed= yes
|location = Yellowstone Lake, elev. {{convert|7870|ft|0}}
|single line = yes
|Jan record high F = 46
|Feb record high F = 56
|Mar record high F = 61
|Apr record high F = 65
|May record high F = 78
|Jun record high F = 83
|Jul record high F = 92
|Aug record high F = 91
|Sep record high F = 83
|Oct record high F = 72
|Nov record high F = 63
|Dec record high F = 48
|year record high F = 92
|Jan high F = 24.4
|Feb high F = 28.0
|Mar high F = 36.2
|Apr high F = 43.3
|May high F = 51.9
|Jun high F = 61.6
|Jul high F = 71.6
|Aug high F = 71.4
|Sep high F = 61.6
|Oct high F = 47.8
|Nov high F = 33.5
|Dec high F = 24.3
|year high F = 46.4
|Jan low F = 1.2
|Feb low F = 1.2
|Mar low F = 9.2
|Apr low F = 18.0
|May low F = 28.0
|Jun low F = 35.4
|Jul low F = 41.6
|Aug low F = 39.9
|Sep low F = 31.8
|Oct low F = 23.7
|Nov low F = 13.8
|Dec low F = 5.0
|year low F = 20.8
|Jan record low F = −50
|Feb record low F = −50
|Mar record low F = −42
|Apr record low F = −26
|May record low F = −2
|Jun record low F = 14
|Jul record low F = 20
|Aug record low F = 17
|Sep record low F = −5
|Oct record low F = −13
|Nov record low F = −30
|Dec record low F = −43
|year record low F = −50
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation inch = 1.65
|Feb precipitation inch = 1.61
|Mar precipitation inch = 1.80
|Apr precipitation inch = 1.78
|May precipitation inch = 2.47
|Jun precipitation inch = 2.25
|Jul precipitation inch = 1.62
|Aug precipitation inch = 1.60
|Sep precipitation inch = 1.46
|Oct precipitation inch = 1.18
|Nov precipitation inch = 1.85
|Dec precipitation inch = 1.63
|year precipitation inch = 20.90

|Jan snow inch = 34.3
|Feb snow inch = 30.4
|Mar snow inch = 25.6
|Apr snow inch = 21.4
|May snow inch = 8.1
|Jun snow inch = 1.3
|Jul snow inch = 0
|Aug snow inch = 0
|Sep snow inch = 1.3
|Oct snow inch = 9.9
|Nov snow inch = 30.9
|Dec snow inch = 30.5
|year snow inch = 193.7
|unit precipitation days = 0.01 in
|Jan precipitation days = 16.8
|Feb precipitation days = 14.0
|Mar precipitation days = 13.7
|Apr precipitation days = 11.6
|May precipitation days = 11.5
|Jun precipitation days = 14.4
|Jul precipitation days = 11.0
|Aug precipitation days = 10.8
|Sep precipitation days = 9.7
|Oct precipitation days = 8.8
|Nov precipitation days = 13.1
|Dec precipitation days = 15.6
|year precipitation days =
|unit snow days = 0.1 in
|Jan snow days = 16.2
|Feb snow days = 13.4
|Mar snow days = 12.6
|Apr snow days = 9.5
|May snow days = 4.4
|Jun snow days = 0.9
|Jul snow days = 0
|Aug snow days = 0
|Sep snow days = 1.1
|Oct snow days = 5.8
|Nov snow days = 12.6
|Dec snow days = 14.9
|year snow days =
|source 1 = NOAA (normals, 1981–2010)<ref name= NCDC1 >{{cite web
| url = ftp://ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/1981-2010/products/station/USC00485345.normals.txt
| title = WY Lake Yellowstone
| publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]
| accessdate = June 19, 2013
}}</ref>
|source 2 = The Weather Channel (Records)<ref name= WC >{{cite web
| url = http://www.weather.com/outlook/travel/businesstraveler/wxclimatology/monthly/USWY0182
| title = Monthly Averages for Yellowstone Lake, Wyoming
| publisher = [[The Weather Channel]]
| accessdate = 2011-01-16}}</ref>
|date=February 2011}}

{{Weather box
|collapsed= yes
|location = Yellowstone Park Headquarters, elev. {{convert|6230|ft|0}}
|single line = yes
|Jan record high F = 52
|Feb record high F = 56
|Mar record high F = 66
|Apr record high F = 78
|May record high F = 86
|Jun record high F = 92
|Jul record high F = 99
|Aug record high F = 97
|Sep record high F = 92
|Oct record high F = 82
|Nov record high F = 66
|Dec record high F = 52
|year record high F = 99
|Jan high F = 30.2
|Feb high F = 33.4
|Mar high F = 40.8
|Apr high F = 48.9
|May high F = 59.0
|Jun high F = 68.6
|Jul high F = 79.3
|Aug high F = 78.6
|Sep high F = 67.4
|Oct high F = 52.8
|Nov high F = 37.7
|Dec high F = 28.7
|year high F = 52.1
|Jan low F = 12.0
|Feb low F = 13.0
|Mar low F = 20.1
|Apr low F = 26.7
|May low F = 34.8
|Jun low F = 42.3
|Jul low F = 48.3
|Aug low F = 46.7
|Sep low F = 38.4
|Oct low F = 29.4
|Nov low F = 19.8
|Dec low F = 11.3
|year low F = 28.6
|Jan record low F = −36
|Feb record low F = −35
|Mar record low F = −25
|Apr record low F = −4
|May record low F = 6
|Jun record low F = 20
|Jul record low F = 21
|Aug record low F = 24
|Sep record low F = 0
|Oct record low F = −8
|Nov record low F = −27
|Dec record low F = −35
|year record low F = −36
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation inch = 0.73
|Feb precipitation inch = 0.64
|Mar precipitation inch = 0.95
|Apr precipitation inch = 1.30
|May precipitation inch = 2.06
|Jun precipitation inch = 1.95
|Jul precipitation inch = 1.46
|Aug precipitation inch = 1.06
|Sep precipitation inch = 1.14
|Oct precipitation inch = 1.28
|Nov precipitation inch = 1.03
|Dec precipitation inch = 0.81
|year precipitation inch = 14.41

|Jan snow inch = 11.1
|Feb snow inch = 8.5
|Mar snow inch = 10.4
|Apr snow inch = 8.0
|May snow inch = 2.2
|Jun snow inch = 0.3
|Jul snow inch = 0
|Aug snow inch = 0
|Sep snow inch = 0.3
|Oct snow inch = 4.0
|Nov snow inch = 9.4
|Dec snow inch = 10.2
|year snow inch = 64.4
|unit precipitation days = 0.01 in
|Jan precipitation days = 9.8
|Feb precipitation days = 9.0
|Mar precipitation days = 9.1
|Apr precipitation days = 9.7
|May precipitation days = 12.8
|Jun precipitation days = 13.3
|Jul precipitation days = 9.9
|Aug precipitation days = 8.9
|Sep precipitation days = 8.2
|Oct precipitation days = 8.4
|Nov precipitation days = 9.8
|Dec precipitation days = 10.2
|year precipitation days =
|unit snow days = 0.1 in
|Jan snow days = 8.0
|Feb snow days = 7.1
|Mar snow days = 6.4
|Apr snow days = 4.8
|May snow days = 1.2
|Jun snow days = 0.1
|Jul snow days = 0
|Aug snow days = 0
|Sep snow days = 0.2
|Oct snow days = 2.6
|Nov snow days = 7.2
|Dec snow days = 8.3
|year snow days =
|source 1 = NOAA (normals, 1981–2010)<ref name= NCDC2 >{{cite web
| url = ftp://ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/1981-2010/products/station/USC00489905.normals.txt
| title = WY Yellowstone PK Mammoth
| publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]
| accessdate = June 19, 2013
}}</ref>
|source 2 = Western Regional Climate Center (extremes 1894–present)<ref name= WRCC >{{cite web
| url = http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?wy9905
| title = Yellowstone Park, Wyoming
| publisher = Western Regional Climate Center
| accessdate = June 19, 2013
}}</ref>
|date=February 2011}}

== Recreation ==
{{Main|Trails of Yellowstone National Park|Angling in Yellowstone National Park}}
[[File:Union Pacific Yellowstone National Park Brochure (1921).JPG|thumb|upright|Union Pacific Railroad Brochure Promoting Travel to Park (1921)]]
Yellowstone ranks among the most popular national parks in the United States. Since the mid-1960s, at least 2 million tourists have visited the park almost every year.<ref name="Visitation">{{cite web |title=Historical Annual Visitation Statistics |work=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/parkmgmt/historicstats.htm |date=August 10, 2006 |accessdate=2006-12-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014222808/http://www.nps.gov/yell/parkmgmt/historicstats.htm  |archivedate=October 14, 2006}}</ref> In 2010, a record number of visitors came to the park in July: 975,000. July is the busiest month for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/TRAVEL/08/04/yellowstone.visitor.record/index.html |title=Cool Yellowstone becoming hotter vacation spot |publisher=CNN Travel|date=August 4, 2010}}</ref> At peak summer levels, 3,700 employees work for Yellowstone National Park concessionaires. Concessionaires manage nine hotels and lodges, with a total of 2,238 hotel rooms and cabins available. They also oversee gas stations, stores and most of the campgrounds. Another 800 employees work either permanently or seasonally for the National Park Service.<ref name="facts"/>

Park service roads lead to major features; however, road reconstruction has produced temporary road closures. Yellowstone is in the midst of a long term road reconstruction effort, which is hampered by a short repair season. In the winter, all roads aside from the one which enters from [[Gardiner, Montana]], and extends to [[Cooke City, Montana]], are closed to wheeled vehicles.<ref name="roads">{{cite web |title=Road Construction Delays and Closures |publisher=National Park Service |date=April 9, 2007 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/roadclosures.htm |accessdate=2007-04-23}}</ref> Park roads are closed to wheeled vehicles from early November to mid April, but some park roads remain closed until mid-May.<ref name="hours">{{cite web |title=Operating Hours & Seasons |publisher=National Park Service |date=April 22, 2007 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/hours.htm |accessdate=2007-03-21}}</ref> The park has {{convert|310|mi|km}} of paved roads which can be accessed from five different entrances.<ref name="facts"/> There is no public transportation available inside the park, but several tour companies can be contacted for guided motorized transport. In the winter, concessionaires operate guided [[snowmobile]] and [[snow coach]] tours, though their numbers and access are based on quotas established by the National Park Service.<ref name="winter">{{cite web |title=Winter Services in Yellowstone |publisher=National Park Service |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/winterser.htm |accessdate=2007-03-21}}</ref> Facilities in the Old Faithful, Canyon and Mammoth Hot Springs areas of the park are very busy during the summer months. Traffic jams created by road construction or by people observing wildlife can result in long delays.
[[File:Old faithful inn.jpg|thumb|left|Old Faithful Inn]]
The National Park Service maintains 9 visitor centers and museums and is responsible for maintenance of historical structures and many of the other 2,000 buildings. These structures include National Historical Landmarks such as the [[Old Faithful Inn]] built from 1903 to 1904 and the entire [[Fort Yellowstone|Fort Yellowstone – Mammoth Hot Springs Historic District]]. An historical and educational tour is available at Fort Yellowstone which details the history of the National Park Service and the development of the park. Campfire programs, guided walks and other interpretive presentations are available at numerous locations in the summer, and on a limited basis during other seasons.

[[Camping]] is available at a dozen campgrounds with more than 2,000 campsites.<ref name="facts"/> Camping is also available in surrounding National Forests, as well as in Grand Teton National Park to the south. [[Backcountry]] campsites are accessible only by foot or by [[horseback riding|horseback]] and require a permit. There are {{convert|1100|mi|km}} of hiking trails available.<ref name="hikes">{{cite web |title=Hiking in the Park |publisher=National Park Service |date=August 17, 2006 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/hiking.htm |accessdate=2007-03-21}}</ref> The park is not considered to be a good destination for [[mountaineering]] because of the instability of volcanic rock which predominates. Visitors with pets are required to keep them on a leash at all times and are limited to areas near roadways and in "frontcountry" zones such as drive in campgrounds.<ref name="pets">{{cite web |title=Regulations Regarding Pets |publisher=National Park Service |date=July 12, 2006 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/pets.htm |accessdate=2007-03-21}}</ref> Around thermal features, wooden and paved trails have been constructed to ensure visitor safety, and most of these areas are handicapped accessible. The National Park Service maintains a year-round clinic at Mammoth Hot Springs and provides emergency services throughout the year.<ref name="safety">{{cite web |title=Information Every Visitor Needs to Know |publisher=National Park Service |date=March 6, 2007 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/yoursafety.htm |accessdate=2007-03-21}}</ref>

Hunting is not permitted, though it is allowed in the surrounding national forests during open season. Fishing is a popular activity, and a Yellowstone Park fishing license is required to fish in park waters.<ref name="fishing">{{cite web |title=Fishing in Yellowstone National Park |publisher=National Park Service |date=April 4, 2007 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/fishing.htm |accessdate=2007-03-21}}</ref> Many park waters are [[fly fishing]] only and all native fish species are [[catch and release]] only.<ref name=YNPFishReg>[http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/upload/fishreg06.pdf 2007 Yellowstone National Park Fishing Regulations]</ref> Boating is prohibited on rivers and creeks except for a {{convert|5|mi|km}} stretch of the Lewis River between Lewis and [[Shoshone Lake]], and it is open to non-motorized use only. Yellowstone Lake has a marina, and the lake is the most popular boating destination.<ref name="boating">{{cite web |title=Boating in Yellowstone National Park |publisher=National Park Service |date=September 18, 2006 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/boating.htm |accessdate=2007-03-21}}</ref>
[[File:YellowstoneBears.jpg|thumb|Vintage photo of human-habituated bears seeking food from visitors.]]

In the early history of the park, visitors were allowed, and sometimes even encouraged, to feed the bears. Visitors welcomed the chance to get their pictures taken with the bears, who had learned to beg for food. This led to numerous injuries to humans each year. In 1970, park officials changed their policy and started a vigorous program to educate the public on the dangers of close contact with bears, and to try to eliminate opportunities for bears to find food in campgrounds and trash collection areas. Although it has become more difficult to observe bears in recent years, the number of human injuries and deaths has taken a significant drop and visitors are in less danger.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/archive/yell/yellowstoneindepth/episode3transcript.htm National Park Service]</ref> The eighth recorded bear-related death in the park's history occurred in August 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/injuries.htm |title=Bear Inflicted Human Injuries and Fatalities in Yellowstone |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |date=2015-01-05 |accessdate=2015-12-23}}</ref>

Other protected lands in the region include [[Caribou-Targhee National Forest|Caribou-Targhee]], [[Gallatin National Forest|Gallatin]], [[Custer National Forest|Custer]], [[Shoshone National Forest|Shoshone]] and Bridger-Teton National Forests. The National Park Service's [[John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway]] is to the south and leads to Grand Teton National Park. The famed [[Beartooth Highway]] provides access from the northeast and has spectacular high altitude scenery. Nearby communities include [[West Yellowstone, Montana]]; [[Cody, Wyoming]]; [[Red Lodge, Montana]]; [[Ashton, Idaho]]; and [[Gardiner, Montana]]. The closest air transport is available by way of [[Bozeman, Montana]]; [[Billings, Montana]]; [[Jackson, Wyoming|Jackson]]; [[Cody, Wyoming]], or [[Idaho Falls, Idaho]].<ref name="directions">{{cite web |title=Directions |publisher=National Park Service |date=January 4, 2007 |url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/directions.htm |accessdate=2007-01-04}}</ref> [[Salt Lake City]], {{convert|320|mi|km}} to the south, is the closest large metropolitan area.

==Legal jurisdiction==
[[File:Yellowstone-area-map.png|thumb|upright|Street map of Yellowstone National Park at the northwest corner of Wyoming.]]

The entire park is within the jurisdiction of the [[United States District Court for the District of Wyoming]], making it the only federal court district that includes portions of more than one state (Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming). Law professor Brian C. Kalt has argued that it may be impossible to impanel a jury in compliance with the [[Vicinage Clause]] of the [[Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sixth Amendment]] for a crime committed solely in the unpopulated Idaho portion of the park (and that it would be difficult to do so for a crime committed solely in the lightly populated Montana portion).<ref>Brian C. Kalt, The Perfect Crime, 93 {{smallcaps|Geo. L.J.}} 675 (2005).</ref> One defendant, who was accused of a wildlife-related crime in the Montana portion of the park, attempted to raise this argument but eventually pleaded guilty.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://trib.com/news/state-and-regional/article_fcc6ddc2-b5f5-541b-a65f-a8fb00317047.html |title=The perfect place for the perfect crime |publisher=trib.com |accessdate=2011-07-18}}</ref><ref>''United States v. Belderrain'', 309 F. App'x 259 (10th Cir. 2009).</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|North America}}
{{div col|2}}
* [[List of national parks of the United States]]
* [[List of Yellowstone National Park-related articles]]
* [[Making North America (film)|''Making North America'' (2015 PBS film)]]
* [[Yellowstone-Teton Clean Energy Coalition]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* [[Bibliography of Yellowstone National Park]]

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|wikt=no|b=no|n=no|q=no|v=no |voy=Yellowstone National Park|species=no|d=no}}
* [http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/cgi-bin/search.cgi?seach_mode=exact&selection=Yellowstone+National+Park|Yellowstone+National+Park U.S. Geological Survey Photographic Library]
* [http://www.nps.gov/yell/ Yellowstone National Park Official site]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/yellowstone.html Act Establishing Yellowstone National Park] from the Library of Congress
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.93712|name=A Visit to Yellowstone National Park (c. 1932)}}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.52645|name=Four Seasons of Yellowstone (1970)}}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.ntis.ava04043vnb1|name=Fantastic Yellowstone (1997)}}
* [http://www.sciencemag.org/content/early/2015/04/22/science.aaa5648 The Yellowstone magmatic system from the mantle plume to the upper crust] (46,000 km3 magma reservoir below chamber)
* [http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/wild/wild-yellowstone/interactives/wild-yellowstone-360-video Yellowstone 360 degree panoramic video] [[National Geographic Channel]]
* [http://www.yellowstone-online.com/history/yhfour.html The Act of Dedication]

{{Protected areas of Wyoming}}
{{Protected areas of Montana}}
{{Protected areas of Idaho}}
{{National parks of the United States}}
{{World Heritage Sites in the United States of America}}
{{Idaho}}
{{Montana}}
{{Wyoming}}
{{featured article}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Yellowstone National Park| ]]
[[Category:National parks in Wyoming]]
[[Category:National parks in Montana]]
[[Category:National parks in Idaho]]
[[Category:National Parks of the Rocky Mountains]]
[[Category:Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem]]
[[Category:Yellowstone]]
[[Category:Regions of Wyoming]]
[[Category:History of the Rocky Mountains]]
[[Category:History of Wyoming]]
[[Category:Geysers of Wyoming]]
[[Category:Hot springs of Wyoming]]
[[Category:Hot springs of Teton County, Wyoming]]
[[Category:Landforms of Park County, Wyoming]]
[[Category:Landforms of Teton County, Wyoming]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Fremont County, Idaho]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Gallatin County, Montana]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Park County, Montana]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Park County, Wyoming]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Teton County, Wyoming]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 1872]]
[[Category:1872 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:1872 establishments in Colorado Territory]]
[[Category:Civilian Conservation Corps in Wyoming]]
[[Category:Civilian Conservation Corps in Montana]]
[[Category:Civilian Conservation Corps in Idaho]]
[[Category:Biosphere reserves of the United States]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in the United States]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Danger]]

Tyler Hoechlin

2016-10-11T09:44:51Z

85.19.179.17: I love him

{{pp-pc1}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Tyler Hoechlin and Ayan Hoechlin
| image = Tyler Hoechlin SDCC 2014 (cropped).jpg
| married to = Ayan Hoechlin
| imagesize =
| caption = Hoechlin at the 2014 [[San Diego Comic-Con International|Comic-Con]] in San Diego.
| birth_name = Tyler Lee Hoechlin
| birth_place = [[Corona, California]], United States
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1987|9|11}}
| years active = 1999–present
| occupation = Actor
}}

'''Tyler Lee Hoechlin''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɛ|k|l|ɪ|n}}; September 11, 1987) is an American actor. He got his big break starring as Michael Sullivan, Jr. in the film ''[[Road to Perdition]]'' (2002). For television he is known for playing the role of Martin Brewer on ''[[7th Heaven (TV series)|7th Heaven]]'' and the role of [[List of Teen Wolf characters#Derek Hale|Derek Hale]] on the [[MTV]] series ''[[Teen Wolf (2011 TV series)|Teen Wolf]]''.

==Early life and baseball==
Hoechlin was born in [[Corona, California]], to Lori and Don Hoechlin. He has two brothers, Tanner and Travis, and a sister, Carrie.<ref name=sli>{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink=|title=32 Tyler Hoechlin|publisher=The Sun Devils|date=|url=http://www.thesundevils.com/ViewArticle.dbml?SPSID=787548&SPID=126730&DB_LANG=C&DB_OEM_ID=30300&ATCLID=208245952|accessdate=2010-09-18}}</ref> Hoechlin began playing baseball at the age of seven. He played infield for [[Arizona State University]] and the [[Battle Creek Bombers]] of the Northwoods League.<ref>Arizona Sun Devils athletic department: [http://thesundevils.cstv.com/sports/m-basebl/mtt/hoechlin_tyler00.html Player bio."] Retrieved May 13, 2007. {{wayback|url=http://thesundevils.cstv.com/sports/m-basebl/mtt/hoechlin_tyler00.html |date=20061028125211 }}</ref> In 2008, he played infield for the [[UC Irvine]] Anteaters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucirvinesports.com/sports/m-basebl/mtt/hoechlin_tyler00.html |title=Anteaters Bio |publisher=Ucirvinesports.cstv.com |date= |accessdate=2011-07-07}}</ref>

==Career==
He began acting at the age of nine. His performance as Michael Sullivan, Jr. in ''[[Road to Perdition]]'' led to him getting the role of [[Martin Brewer]] in the show ''[[7th Heaven (TV series)|7th Heaven]]'' in 2003.<ref>[http://cwtv.com/shows/7th-heaven/cast/-hoechlin Tyler Hoechlin cast bio on The CW]{{dead link|date=July 2011}}</ref> Hoechlin was nominated for a 2004 [[Teen Choice Award]] for Breakout Male Star. He starred in the 2007 [[David DeCoteau]] film ''[[Grizzly Rage]]'' and was in the 2008 movie ''[[Solstice (film)|Solstice]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bloody-disgusting.com/news/18380|title=TV: 'Teen Wolf' Pilot Cast Revealed}}</ref> He also starred in an episode of ''[[Castle (TV series)|Castle]]'' in its second season. He appeared alongside [[Owen Wilson]] and [[Christina Applegate]] in the 2011 movie ''[[Hall Pass]]''. He also played werewolf Derek Hale in the television series ''[[Teen Wolf (2011 TV series)|Teen Wolf]]''.

[[BuddyTV]] ranked him #3 on its list of "TV's Sexiest Men of 2011".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buddytv.com/slideshows/white-collar/tvs-100-sexiest-men-of-2011-29104.aspx|title=TV's 100 Sexiest Men of 2011|publisher=[[BuddyTV]]|accessdate=January 13, 2012}}</ref>

In 2016, Hoechlin was cast as [[Superman]] on the CW show ''[[Supergirl (TV series)|Supergirl]]''. He will appear in the first two episodes of the show's second season.<ref>{{Cite news |first=Laura |last=Prudom |url=http://variety.com/2016/tv/news/supergirl-tyler-hoechlin-superman-season-2-the-cw-1201796796/ |title='Supergirl' Casts Tyler Hoechlin as Superman for Season 2 |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |date=2016-06-16 |accessdate=2016-06-16}}</ref>

==Filmography==
[[File:Tyler Hoechlin 2012.jpg|thumb|180px|Hoechlin at OnStage@Paley: Teen Wolf 2012.]]

===Film===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|1998
|''[[Disney Sing-Along Songs#Happy Haunting - Party at Disneyland! (1998)|Disney Sing Along Songs: Happy Haunting]]''
|Zach
|[[Disney Channel]] video, also released on September 2006 on DVD.
|-
|1999
|''Family Tree''
|Jeff Jo
|
|-
|2001
|''Train Quest''
|Billy
|
|-
|2002
|''[[Road to Perdition]]''
|Michael Sullivan Jr.
|
|-
|rowspan=2|2007
|''The Rapture of the Athlete Assumed Into Heaven''
|The Athlete
|Short film
|-
|''[[Grizzly Rage]]''
|Wes Harding
|
|-
|2008
|''[[Solstice (film)|Solstice]]''
|Nick
|
|-
|rowspan=3|2011
|''Open Gate''
|Kaleb
|
|-
|''[[Hall Pass]]''
|Gerry
|
|-
|''Charlie Brown: Blockhead's Revenge''
|Schroeder
|Short film
|-
|2012
|''Melvin Smarty''
|Ricky Hershey
|
|-
|2016
|''[[Everybody Wants Some!! (film)|Everybody Wants Some!!]]''
|Glen McReynolds
|
|-
|2016
|''[[Undrafted (film)|Undrafted]]''
|Dells
|
|-
|2016
|''[[Stratton: First Into Action]]''
|Marty
|In post-production
|-
|2017
|''[[Fifty Shades Darker (film)|Fifty Shades Darker]]''
|Boyce Fox
|In post-production<ref>[http://www.thewrap.com/teen-wolf-star-tyler-hoechlin-joins-fifty-shades-darker-exclusive/ "‘Teen Wolf’ Star Tyler Hoechlin Joins ‘Fifty Shades Darker’ (Exclusive)"], ''[[The Wrap]]'', February 27, 2016.</ref>
|-
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|2003–07
|''[[7th Heaven (TV series)|7th Heaven]]''
|Martin Brewer
|Main role (62 Episodes)
|-
|2007
|''[[CSI: Miami]]''
|Shawn Hodges
|Season 6, Episode 6: "Sunblock"
|-
|rowspan=3|2009
|''[[Lincoln Heights (TV series)|Lincoln Heights]]''
|Tad
|Season 4, Episodes 6 & 8
|-
|''[[My Boys]]''
|Owen Scott
|Season 3, Episode 9: "Spring Training"
|-
|''[[Castle (TV series)|Castle]]''
|Dylan Fulton
|Season 2, Episode 4: "Fool Me Once..."
|-
|2011–14
|''[[Teen Wolf (2011 TV series)|Teen Wolf]]''
|[[Derek Hale]]
|Main role (seasons 1–4)
|-
|2016
|''[[Supergirl (TV series)|Supergirl]]''
|[[Superman|Clark Kent / Superman]]
|Guest star (2 episodes)
|}

==Awards and nominations==
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="text-align:center;"
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|Year
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|Award
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|Category
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|Work
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|Result
|-
|rowspan=6|2003
|[[Young Artist Award]]
|[[24th Young Artist Awards#Best Performance in a Feature Film|Best Performance in a Feature Film - Leading Young Actor]]
|rowspan=6|''Road to Perdition''
|{{won}}
|-
|Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards
|Best Performance by a Youth in a Leading or Supporting Role - Male
|{{nom}}
|-
|Online Film & Television Association Awards
|Best Youth Performance
|{{nom}}
|-
|Las Vegas Film Critics Society Awards
|Youth in Film
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Broadcast Film Critics Association|Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards]]
|Best Young Actor/Actress
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Saturn Awards]]
|[[29th Saturn Awards|Best Performance by a Younger Actor]]
|{{won}}
|-
|2004
|rowspan=2|[[Teen Choice Awards]]
|Choice Breakout TV Star - Male
|rowspan=3|''7th Heaven''
|{{nom}}
|-
|rowspan=2|2005
|Choice TV Actor: Drama
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Young Artist Award]]
|Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy or Drama) - Leading Young Actor
|{{nom}}
|-
|2008
|Fright Meter Awards
|Best Supporting Actor
|''Solstice''
|{{nom}}
|-
|2013
|[[Young Hollywood Awards]]
|Best Ensemble (shared with [[Holland Roden]], [[Crystal Reed]], [[Dylan O'Brien]] and [[Tyler Posey]])
|rowspan=2|''Teen Wolf''
|{{won}}
|-
|2014
|[[Teen Choice Awards]]
|Choice TV: Male Scene Stealer
|{{won}}
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|2|}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{IMDb name|388382|Tyler Hoechlin}}
* {{Twitter}}
* [http://www.ucirvinesports.com/sports/m-basebl/mtt/hoechlin_tyler00.html UC Irvine player biography]
* [http://www.mtv.com/celebrity/tyler-hoechlin/#cast=teen_wolf Tyler Hoechlin] Profile on [[MTV]]

{{Navboxes
|title = Awards for Tyler Hoechlin
|list =
{{Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor}}
{{Young Artist Award for Best Leading Young Actor in a Feature Film (1991–2010)}}
}}
{{s-start}}
{{succession box | before = [[Henry Cavill]] | title = [[Superman|Actor to portray Clark Kent/Superman]] | years = 2016 | after = Incumbent}}
{{s-end}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hoechlin, Tyler}}
[[Category:1987 births]]
[[Category:20th-century American male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century American male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from California]]
[[Category:American male child actors]]
[[Category:American male film actors]]
[[Category:American male television actors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American Christians]]
[[Category:People from Corona, California]]
[[Category:Arizona State Sun Devils baseball players]]
[[Category:UC Irvine Anteaters baseball players]]
[[Category:Baseball players from California]]

Tyler Hoechlin

2016-10-11T09:43:55Z

85.19.179.17: I changed who he was married to

{{pp-pc1}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Tyler Hoechlin
| image = Tyler Hoechlin SDCC 2014 (cropped).jpg
| married to = Ayan Hoechlin
| imagesize =
| caption = Hoechlin at the 2014 [[San Diego Comic-Con International|Comic-Con]] in San Diego.
| birth_name = Tyler Lee Hoechlin
| birth_place = [[Corona, California]], United States
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1987|9|11}}
| years active = 1999–present
| occupation = Actor
}}

'''Tyler Lee Hoechlin''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɛ|k|l|ɪ|n}}; September 11, 1987) is an American actor. He got his big break starring as Michael Sullivan, Jr. in the film ''[[Road to Perdition]]'' (2002). For television he is known for playing the role of Martin Brewer on ''[[7th Heaven (TV series)|7th Heaven]]'' and the role of [[List of Teen Wolf characters#Derek Hale|Derek Hale]] on the [[MTV]] series ''[[Teen Wolf (2011 TV series)|Teen Wolf]]''.

==Early life and baseball==
Hoechlin was born in [[Corona, California]], to Lori and Don Hoechlin. He has two brothers, Tanner and Travis, and a sister, Carrie.<ref name=sli>{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink=|title=32 Tyler Hoechlin|publisher=The Sun Devils|date=|url=http://www.thesundevils.com/ViewArticle.dbml?SPSID=787548&SPID=126730&DB_LANG=C&DB_OEM_ID=30300&ATCLID=208245952|accessdate=2010-09-18}}</ref> Hoechlin began playing baseball at the age of seven. He played infield for [[Arizona State University]] and the [[Battle Creek Bombers]] of the Northwoods League.<ref>Arizona Sun Devils athletic department: [http://thesundevils.cstv.com/sports/m-basebl/mtt/hoechlin_tyler00.html Player bio."] Retrieved May 13, 2007. {{wayback|url=http://thesundevils.cstv.com/sports/m-basebl/mtt/hoechlin_tyler00.html |date=20061028125211 }}</ref> In 2008, he played infield for the [[UC Irvine]] Anteaters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucirvinesports.com/sports/m-basebl/mtt/hoechlin_tyler00.html |title=Anteaters Bio |publisher=Ucirvinesports.cstv.com |date= |accessdate=2011-07-07}}</ref>

==Career==
He began acting at the age of nine. His performance as Michael Sullivan, Jr. in ''[[Road to Perdition]]'' led to him getting the role of [[Martin Brewer]] in the show ''[[7th Heaven (TV series)|7th Heaven]]'' in 2003.<ref>[http://cwtv.com/shows/7th-heaven/cast/-hoechlin Tyler Hoechlin cast bio on The CW]{{dead link|date=July 2011}}</ref> Hoechlin was nominated for a 2004 [[Teen Choice Award]] for Breakout Male Star. He starred in the 2007 [[David DeCoteau]] film ''[[Grizzly Rage]]'' and was in the 2008 movie ''[[Solstice (film)|Solstice]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bloody-disgusting.com/news/18380|title=TV: 'Teen Wolf' Pilot Cast Revealed}}</ref> He also starred in an episode of ''[[Castle (TV series)|Castle]]'' in its second season. He appeared alongside [[Owen Wilson]] and [[Christina Applegate]] in the 2011 movie ''[[Hall Pass]]''. He also played werewolf Derek Hale in the television series ''[[Teen Wolf (2011 TV series)|Teen Wolf]]''.

[[BuddyTV]] ranked him #3 on its list of "TV's Sexiest Men of 2011".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buddytv.com/slideshows/white-collar/tvs-100-sexiest-men-of-2011-29104.aspx|title=TV's 100 Sexiest Men of 2011|publisher=[[BuddyTV]]|accessdate=January 13, 2012}}</ref>

In 2016, Hoechlin was cast as [[Superman]] on the CW show ''[[Supergirl (TV series)|Supergirl]]''. He will appear in the first two episodes of the show's second season.<ref>{{Cite news |first=Laura |last=Prudom |url=http://variety.com/2016/tv/news/supergirl-tyler-hoechlin-superman-season-2-the-cw-1201796796/ |title='Supergirl' Casts Tyler Hoechlin as Superman for Season 2 |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |date=2016-06-16 |accessdate=2016-06-16}}</ref>

==Filmography==
[[File:Tyler Hoechlin 2012.jpg|thumb|180px|Hoechlin at OnStage@Paley: Teen Wolf 2012.]]

===Film===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|1998
|''[[Disney Sing-Along Songs#Happy Haunting - Party at Disneyland! (1998)|Disney Sing Along Songs: Happy Haunting]]''
|Zach
|[[Disney Channel]] video, also released on September 2006 on DVD.
|-
|1999
|''Family Tree''
|Jeff Jo
|
|-
|2001
|''Train Quest''
|Billy
|
|-
|2002
|''[[Road to Perdition]]''
|Michael Sullivan Jr.
|
|-
|rowspan=2|2007
|''The Rapture of the Athlete Assumed Into Heaven''
|The Athlete
|Short film
|-
|''[[Grizzly Rage]]''
|Wes Harding
|
|-
|2008
|''[[Solstice (film)|Solstice]]''
|Nick
|
|-
|rowspan=3|2011
|''Open Gate''
|Kaleb
|
|-
|''[[Hall Pass]]''
|Gerry
|
|-
|''Charlie Brown: Blockhead's Revenge''
|Schroeder
|Short film
|-
|2012
|''Melvin Smarty''
|Ricky Hershey
|
|-
|2016
|''[[Everybody Wants Some!! (film)|Everybody Wants Some!!]]''
|Glen McReynolds
|
|-
|2016
|''[[Undrafted (film)|Undrafted]]''
|Dells
|
|-
|2016
|''[[Stratton: First Into Action]]''
|Marty
|In post-production
|-
|2017
|''[[Fifty Shades Darker (film)|Fifty Shades Darker]]''
|Boyce Fox
|In post-production<ref>[http://www.thewrap.com/teen-wolf-star-tyler-hoechlin-joins-fifty-shades-darker-exclusive/ "‘Teen Wolf’ Star Tyler Hoechlin Joins ‘Fifty Shades Darker’ (Exclusive)"], ''[[The Wrap]]'', February 27, 2016.</ref>
|-
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|2003–07
|''[[7th Heaven (TV series)|7th Heaven]]''
|Martin Brewer
|Main role (62 Episodes)
|-
|2007
|''[[CSI: Miami]]''
|Shawn Hodges
|Season 6, Episode 6: "Sunblock"
|-
|rowspan=3|2009
|''[[Lincoln Heights (TV series)|Lincoln Heights]]''
|Tad
|Season 4, Episodes 6 & 8
|-
|''[[My Boys]]''
|Owen Scott
|Season 3, Episode 9: "Spring Training"
|-
|''[[Castle (TV series)|Castle]]''
|Dylan Fulton
|Season 2, Episode 4: "Fool Me Once..."
|-
|2011–14
|''[[Teen Wolf (2011 TV series)|Teen Wolf]]''
|[[Derek Hale]]
|Main role (seasons 1–4)
|-
|2016
|''[[Supergirl (TV series)|Supergirl]]''
|[[Superman|Clark Kent / Superman]]
|Guest star (2 episodes)
|}

==Awards and nominations==
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="text-align:center;"
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|Year
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|Award
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|Category
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|Work
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|Result
|-
|rowspan=6|2003
|[[Young Artist Award]]
|[[24th Young Artist Awards#Best Performance in a Feature Film|Best Performance in a Feature Film - Leading Young Actor]]
|rowspan=6|''Road to Perdition''
|{{won}}
|-
|Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards
|Best Performance by a Youth in a Leading or Supporting Role - Male
|{{nom}}
|-
|Online Film & Television Association Awards
|Best Youth Performance
|{{nom}}
|-
|Las Vegas Film Critics Society Awards
|Youth in Film
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Broadcast Film Critics Association|Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards]]
|Best Young Actor/Actress
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Saturn Awards]]
|[[29th Saturn Awards|Best Performance by a Younger Actor]]
|{{won}}
|-
|2004
|rowspan=2|[[Teen Choice Awards]]
|Choice Breakout TV Star - Male
|rowspan=3|''7th Heaven''
|{{nom}}
|-
|rowspan=2|2005
|Choice TV Actor: Drama
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Young Artist Award]]
|Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy or Drama) - Leading Young Actor
|{{nom}}
|-
|2008
|Fright Meter Awards
|Best Supporting Actor
|''Solstice''
|{{nom}}
|-
|2013
|[[Young Hollywood Awards]]
|Best Ensemble (shared with [[Holland Roden]], [[Crystal Reed]], [[Dylan O'Brien]] and [[Tyler Posey]])
|rowspan=2|''Teen Wolf''
|{{won}}
|-
|2014
|[[Teen Choice Awards]]
|Choice TV: Male Scene Stealer
|{{won}}
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|2|}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{IMDb name|388382|Tyler Hoechlin}}
* {{Twitter}}
* [http://www.ucirvinesports.com/sports/m-basebl/mtt/hoechlin_tyler00.html UC Irvine player biography]
* [http://www.mtv.com/celebrity/tyler-hoechlin/#cast=teen_wolf Tyler Hoechlin] Profile on [[MTV]]

{{Navboxes
|title = Awards for Tyler Hoechlin
|list =
{{Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor}}
{{Young Artist Award for Best Leading Young Actor in a Feature Film (1991–2010)}}
}}
{{s-start}}
{{succession box | before = [[Henry Cavill]] | title = [[Superman|Actor to portray Clark Kent/Superman]] | years = 2016 | after = Incumbent}}
{{s-end}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hoechlin, Tyler}}
[[Category:1987 births]]
[[Category:20th-century American male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century American male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from California]]
[[Category:American male child actors]]
[[Category:American male film actors]]
[[Category:American male television actors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American Christians]]
[[Category:People from Corona, California]]
[[Category:Arizona State Sun Devils baseball players]]
[[Category:UC Irvine Anteaters baseball players]]
[[Category:Baseball players from California]]

Jane Seymour

2016-08-31T07:12:58Z

85.19.179.17:

{{other people}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2011}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Jane Seymour
| consort = yes
| image = Hans Holbein the Younger - Jane Seymour, Queen of England - Google Art Project.jpg
| caption =Portrait by [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Hans Holbein]], [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]]
| succession =[[List of English consorts|Queen consort of England]]
| reign =30 May 1536 – 24 October 1537
| coronation =4 June 1536
| cor-type = Proclamation
| spouse ={{marriage|[[Henry VIII of England]] |30 May 1536}}
| issue =[[Edward VI of England]]
| house = [[Seymour family|Seymour]]
| house-type = Family
| father =[[Sir John Seymour (1474-1536)|John Seymour]]
| mother =[[Margery Wentworth]]
| birth_date = {{circa|1508}}
| death_date = 24 October 1537 (aged 28)
| death_place =[[Hampton Court Palace]]
| burial_date = 12 November 1537
| burial_place = [[St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle]]
| signature =Jane Seynour Signature.svg
| religion = [[Church of England]] ''prev.'' [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]
}}
'''Jane Seymour''' (c. 1508{{spaced ndash}}24 October 1537) was [[List of English consorts|Queen of England]] from 1536 to 1537 as the third [[Wives of Henry VIII|wife]] of [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]]. She succeeded [[Anne Boleyn]] as [[queen consort]] following the latter's execution in May 1536. She died of postnatal complications less than two weeks after the birth of her only child, a son who became [[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]]. She was the only one of Henry's wives to receive a queen's funeral, and his only consort to be buried beside him in [[St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle|St. George's Chapel]], [[Windsor Castle]]. hei på deg

==Childhood==
Jane Seymour was likely born at [[Wulfhall]], [[Savernake Forest]], [[Wiltshire]], the daughter of [[John Seymour (1474–1536)|Sir John Seymour]] and [[Margery Wentworth]]. Through her maternal grandfather, she was a descendant of [[Edward III of England|King Edward III]]'s son [[Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence]].{{sfn|Norton|2009|p=[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=FiXjKTkR0QYC&pg=PA8 8]}} Because of this, she and King Henry VIII were fifth cousins. She shared a great-grandmother, [[Elizabeth Cheney, Lady Say|Elizabeth Cheney]], with his second and fifth wives, [[Anne Boleyn]] and [[Catherine Howard]].{{sfn|Norton|2009|p=[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=FiXjKTkR0QYC&pg=PA9 9]}}

She was not educated as highly as King Henry's previous wives, [[Catherine of Aragon]] and Anne Boleyn. She could read and write a little, but was much better at needlework and household management, which were considered much more necessary for women.{{sfn|Brown|2005|p=244}} Jane's needlework was reported to be beautiful and elaborate; some of her work survived as late as 1652, when it is recorded to have been given to the [[Seymour family]]. After her death, it was noted that Henry was an "enthusiastic embroiderer."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.royal-needlework.org.uk/content/129/henry_viii_embroiderer_king |title=Henry VIII – the Embroiderer King |publisher=Royal School of Needlework |accessdate=19 October 2009}}</ref>

She became a [[maid-of-honour]] in 1532 to Queen Catherine, but may have served her as early as 1527, and went on to serve Queen Anne. The first report of Henry VIII's interest in Jane Seymour was in early 1536, sometime before Anne's death.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

Jane was highly praised for her gentle, peaceful nature, being referred to as "gentle a lady as ever I knew" by John Russell and being named as "the Pacific" by the Imperial Ambassador [[Eustace Chapuys]] for her peacemaking efforts at court.<ref>David Starkey, Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII, p.585-586</ref> According to Chapuys, Jane was of middling stature and very pale; he also commented that she was not of much beauty. However, [[John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford|John Russell]] stated that Jane was "the fairest of all the King's wives."{{sfn|Norton|2009|p=[http://books.google.com/?id=FiXjKTkR0QYC&pg=PA65 65]}} [[Polydore Vergil]] commented that she was "a woman of the utmost charm in both character and appearance."{{sfn|Vergil|1950|p=337}} She was regarded as a meek, gentle, simple, and chaste woman, whose large family made her a suitable candidate to give birth to many children.

Her motto as a queen was "''Bound to obey and serve''."

== Marriage and birth of heir ==
Henry VIII was [[Engagement|betrothed]] to Jane on 20 May 1536, just one day after Anne Boleyn's execution. The couple were married at the [[Palace of Whitehall]], [[Whitehall]], [[London]], in the Queen's closet by [[Stephen Gardiner|Bishop Gardiner]]{{sfn|Weir|2007|p=344}} on 30 May 1536. As a wedding gift the King made her a grant of 104 manors in four counties as well as a number of forests and hunting chases for her jointure, the income to support her during their marriage.{{sfn|Weir|2007|p=344}} She was publicly proclaimed as queen consort on 4 June 1536. Jane’s well-publicised sympathy for the late Queen Catherine and the [[Mary I of England|Lady Mary]] showed her to be compassionate and made her a popular figure with the common people and most of the courtiers.{{sfn|Weir|2007|p=340}} She was never crowned because of [[Bubonic plague|plague]] in London, where the coronation was to take place. Henry may have been reluctant to crown Jane before she had fulfilled her duty as a queen consort by bearing him a son and a male heir.{{sfn|Wagner|2012|p=1000}}
As queen, Jane Seymour was said to be strict and formal.
She was close to her female relations, [[Anne Stanhope]] (her [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset|brother's]] wife) and her sister, [[Elizabeth Seymour, Marchioness of Winchester|Elizabeth]].{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} Jane was also close to the [[Honor Grenville|Lady Lisle]]{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} along with her sister-in-law the Lady Beauchamp. Jane considered Lisle's daughters as [[maids-of-honour]], and she left many of her possessions to Beauchamp. Jane would form a very close relationship with Mary Tudor. The lavish entertainments, gaiety, and extravagance of the Queen's household, which had reached its peak during the time of Anne Boleyn, was replaced by a strict enforcement of decorum. For example, she banned the French fashions that Anne Boleyn had introduced. Politically, Seymour appears to have been conservative.<ref name="JANE SEYMOUR:THIRD WIFE OF HENRY VIII OF ENGLAND">{{cite web|title=Jane Seymour: Third Wife of Henry VIII of England|url=http://www.a-london-tourist-guide.com/jane-seymour.html|publisher=A-london-tourist-guide.com|accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref> Her only reported involvement in national affairs, in 1536, was when she asked for pardons for participants in the [[Pilgrimage of Grace]]. Henry is said to have rejected this, reminding her of the fate her predecessor met with when she "meddled in his affairs".<ref name="PBShandbook">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/sixwives/meet/js_handbook_king.html|title= The Six Wives of Henry VIII: Jane Seymour|publisher=PBS|accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref>{{Better source|reason=PBS is not a Reliable Source, a historical work is needed here|date=May 2014}}

Jane put forth much effort to restore Henry's first child, Princess Mary, to court and to the royal succession, behind any children that Jane might have with Henry. Jane brought up the issue of Mary's restoration both before and after she became Queen. While Jane was unable to restore Mary to the line of succession, she was able to reconcile her with Henry.{{sfn|Wagner|2012|p=1000}} Eustace Chapuys wrote to [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] of Jane's compassion and efforts on behalf of Mary's return to favour. A letter from Mary to Jane shows that Mary was grateful to Jane. While it was Jane who first pushed for the restoration, Mary and [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]] were not reinstated to the succession until Henry's sixth wife, Queen [[Catherine Parr]], convinced him to do so.{{sfn|Farquhar|2001|p=72}}

In late 1536, Jane became pregnant. During her pregnancy, she developed a craving for [[quail]], which Henry ordered for her from [[Calais]] and [[Flanders]]. During the summer, she took no public engagements and led a relatively quiet life, being attended by the royal physicians and the best midwives in the kingdom.{{sfn|Weir|2007|p=[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=-UsWO_odsZAC&pg=PA362 362]}} She went into confinement in September 1537 and gave birth to the coveted male heir, the future [[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]], at two o'clock in the morning{{sfn|Weir|2007|p=[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=-UsWO_odsZAC&pg=PA367 367]}} on 12 October 1537 at [[Hampton Court Palace]].{{sfn|Seal|2001|p=129}} Edward was christened on 15 October 1537, without his mother in attendance, as was the custom. He was the only legitimate son of Henry VIII to survive infancy. Both of the King's daughters, [[Mary I of England|Mary]] and [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]], were present and carried the infant's train during the ceremony.{{sfn|Walder|1973|p=47}}

== Death and funeral ==
[[File:Jane Seymour - Cast Shadow Workshop.jpg|thumb|left|Shadow Cast Portrait of Queen Jane Seymour. Believed to be painted during her short reign as Queen.]] Jane Seymour's labour had been difficult, lasting two nights and three days, probably because the baby was not well positioned.{{sfn|Walsh|2009}} After the christening, it became clear that she was seriously ill.{{sfn|Norton|2009|p=[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=FiXjKTkR0QYC&pg=PA145 145]}} She died on 24 October 1537 at [[Hampton Court Palace]] at [[Kingston upon Thames]]. Within a few weeks of the death of Queen Jane, there were conflicting testimonies concerning the cause of her demise. In retrospect from the 21st century, there are various speculations that have been offered. According to King Edward's biographer, Jennifer Loach, Jane's death may have been due to an infection from a [[retained placenta]]. According to [[Alison Weir]], Jane may have succumbed to [[puerperal fever]] following a bacterial infection contracted during the birth.<ref name="JANE SEYMOUR:THIRD WIFE OF HENRY VIII OF ENGLAND" />

[[File:Coat of Arms of Jane Seymour.svg|thumb|Jane Seymour's arms as queen consort{{sfn|Boutell|1863|p=243}}
]]
Jane Seymour was buried on 12 November 1537 in [[St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle|St. George's Chapel]] at [[Windsor Castle]] after the funeral in which her stepdaughter, [[Mary I of England|Mary]], acted as chief [[mourner]]. A procession of 29 mourners followed Lady Mary, one for every year of Queen Jane’s life.{{sfn|Weir|2007|p=[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=-UsWO_odsZAC&pg=PA372 372]}} Jane was the only one of Henry's wives to receive a queen's funeral.<ref name="JANE SEYMOUR:THIRD WIFE OF HENRY VIII OF ENGLAND" />

The following inscription was above her grave for a time:

<blockquote><poem>Here lieth a Phoenix, by whose death
Another Phoenix life gave breath:
It is to be lamented much
The world at once ne'er knew two such.</poem></blockquote>

After her death, Henry wore black for the next three months and did not remarry for three years, although marriage negotiations were tentatively begun soon after her death. Moreover, he put on weight during his long widowerhood, becoming obese and swollen and developing diabetes and gout. Historians have speculated she was Henry's favourite wife because she gave birth to a male heir. When Henry died in 1547, he was buried beside her, on his request, in the grave he had made for her.<ref name="JANE SEYMOUR:THIRD WIFE OF HENRY VIII OF ENGLAND" />

== Legacy ==
{{Wives of Henry VIII}}
Jane gave the king the son he so desperately needed, helped to restore Lady Mary to the succession and her father’s affections, and used her influence to bring about the advancement of [[Seymour family|her family]].{{sfn|Weir|2007|p=[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=-UsWO_odsZAC&pg=PA373 373]}} Two of Jane's brothers, [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley|Thomas]] and [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset|Edward]], used her memory to improve their own fortunes.<ref name="JANE SEYMOUR:THIRD WIFE OF HENRY VIII OF ENGLAND"/> Thomas was rumoured to have been pursuing the future [[Elizabeth I]], but married the queen dowager [[Catherine Parr]] instead. In the reign of the young King [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]], Edward Seymour set himself up as Lord Protector and [[de facto]] ruler of the kingdom. Both brothers eventually fell from power, and were executed.<ref name="JANE SEYMOUR:THIRD WIFE OF HENRY VIII OF ENGLAND" />

== In popular culture ==

=== In film and on stage ===
* In 1933, [[Wendy Barrie]] played Seymour opposite [[Charles Laughton]]'s Henry VIII in [[Alexander Korda]]'s highly acclaimed film ''[[The Private Life of Henry VIII]]''.
*In 1969, Lesley Paterson portrayed Jane briefly in '[[Anne of the Thousand Days]]'
* As part of the 1970 [[BBC]] series ''[[The Six Wives of Henry VIII (BBC TV series)|The Six Wives of Henry VIII]]'', the episode entitled "Jane Seymour" presented her as a shy but honest introvert, devoted to her husband. Henry was played by [[Keith Michell]], and Seymour by [[Anne Stallybrass]]. The previous episode "Anne Boleyn" displayed Jane as fully knowing the damage her relationship with King Henry was doing.
* In 1972, this interpretation was repeated in the film ''[[Henry VIII and his Six Wives]]'', adapted from the BBC series, in which Keith Michell reprised his role as Henry; on this occasion Seymour was played by [[Jane Asher]].
* Seymour was played by Charlotte Roach in [[David Starkey]]'s documentary series on Henry's Queens in 2001.
* Seymour is a supporting character in the 2003 BBC television drama ''[[The Other Boleyn Girl (2003 film)|The Other Boleyn Girl]],'' played by Naomi Benson opposite [[Jared Harris]] as Henry VIII and [[Jodhi May]] as Anne Boleyn.
* In October 2003, in the two-part [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] drama ''[[Henry VIII (TV serial)|Henry VIII]],'' [[Ray Winstone]] starred as the King. Jane Seymour was played by [[Emilia Fox]].
* In ''[[The Simpsons]]'' 2004 episode "[[Margical History Tour]]," Seymour is portrayed by the shrill [[Miss Springfield]] during [[Marge Simpson|Marge]]'s retelling of Henry's reign. Henry (portrayed by [[Homer Simpson|Homer]]) quickly orders Seymour's beheading after hearing her annoying voice.
* [[Anita Briem]] portrayed Seymour as lady-in-waiting to Anne Boleyn in the second (2008) season of the television series ''[[The Tudors]]'', produced for [[Showtime (TV network)|Showtime]]. In the third season of the same series, when Jane Seymour becomes Queen and later dies, the part is played by [[Annabelle Wallis]].
* Kate Phillips, at her first professional role, plays Jane Seymour in the BBC2 adaptation of ''[[Wolf Hall (TV series)|Wolf Hall]]''.
* Jane Seymour is portrayed in the stage adaptation of [[Hilary Mantel]]'s ''[[Wolf Hall]]'' parts I and II, adapted by [[Mike Poulton]]. It was presented by the [[Royal Shakespeare Company]] in London's [[West End theatre|West End]] (2014) and on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] (2015).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibdb.com/production.php?id=498312|title=Wolf Hall Part One - IBDB: The official source for Broadway Information|first=The Broadway|last=League|publisher=}}</ref>
* Lucy Telleck played Jane opposite Charlie Clements as Henry VIII in Suzannah Lipscomb and Dan Jones 'Henry VIII and his Six Wives' on Channel 5.

=== In books ===
* Is the main character in [[Carolly Erickson]]'s novel ''The Favoured Queen'', which follows her from her appointment as lady-in-waiting to Catherine of Aragon right up to the time she herself becomes Henry's consort.
* Is the subject of the novel ''Plain Jane: A Novel of Jane Seymour'' (Tudor Women Series) by [[Laurien Gardner]] ([[Sarah Hoyt]]).
* Appears as a lady serving both Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn in ''[[Wolf Hall]]'' by [[Hilary Mantel]], which ends with hints of her coming prominence. The second novel in Mantel's series, ''[[Bring Up the Bodies]]'' focuses on the machinations that led to the execution of Anne Boleyn, Henry VIII's growing determination to replace her with Jane Seymour and the Seymour family's strategems to gain from the King's attraction to Jane. A planned third volume, ''The Mirror and the Light,'' is expected to tell Jane Seymour's story.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mares|first=Peter|title=Hilary Mantel's Wolf Hall|work=ABC Radio National|url=http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/bookshow/hilary-mantels-wolf-hall/3131120#transcript|publisher=Abc.net.au|date=18 June 2009|accessdate=27 January 2014}}</ref>
* The book " I, Jane", by Diane Haeger, tells of her growing up and, before catching the eye of King Henry, meeting a young man whose parents are well placed in court and look down on Jane and her family. Despite this, Jane and the son become close, and over the years she never forgets him.
*Jane is a minor character in Alison Weir's latest book Katherine of Aragon: The True Queen

=== In music ===
* As Giovanna Seymour, she appears in [[Gaetano Donizetti]]'s opera ''[[Anna Bolena]]''.
* [[Rick Wakeman]] recorded the piece "Jane Seymour" for his 1973 album ''[[The Six Wives of Henry VIII (album)|The Six Wives of Henry VIII]]''.
* The English ballad "[[The Death of Queen Jane]]" ([[Child Ballads|Child]] No. 170) is about the death of Jane Seymour following the birth of Prince Edward. The story as related in the ballad is historically inaccurate, but apparently reflects the popular view at the time of the events surrounding her death. The historical fact is that Prince Edward was born naturally, and that his mother succumbed to infection and died 12 days later. Most versions of the song end with the contrast between the joy of the birth of the Prince and the grief of the death of the Queen.

A setting of the ballad to a tune by Irish musician [[Dáithí Sproule]] was included on the [[Bothy Band]]'s 1979 album ''After Hours (Live in Paris)'' and their 2008 album ''Best of the Bothy Band''. The song also appears on [[Loreena McKennitt]]'s 2010 album ''[[The Wind That Shakes the Barley (album)|Barley]]'', and on Sproul's 2011 album ''Lost River: Vol. 1''; and it was performed by [[Oscar Isaac]] in the [[Coen brothers]]' 2013 film ''[[Inside Llewyn Davis]]''.
* The song "[[Lady Jane (song)|Lady Jane]]" by [[the Rolling Stones]] is rumoured to be about Jane Seymour and her relationship with Henry VIII.

== Ancestry ==
{{ahnentafel top|width=100%}}
<center>{{ahnentafel-compact5
|style=font-size: 90%; line-height: 140%;
|border=1
|boxstyle=padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0;
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. '''Jane Seymour'''
|2= 2. [[John Seymour (1474–1536)|Sir John Seymour of Wulfhall]]
|3= 3. [[Margery Wentworth|Margery or Margaret Wentworth]]
|4= 4. [[John Seymour (died 1491)|John Seymour of Wulfhall, of Stapleford, of Stitchcombe and of Huish]]
|5= 5. Elizabeth Darell or Darrell
|6= 6. [[Henry Wentworth|Sir Henry Wentworth of Nettlestead]]
|7= 7. Anne Say
|8= 8. [[John Seymour (1425–1463)|John Seymour of Stapleford]]
|9= 9. Elizabeth Coker or Croker
|10= 10. Sir George Darell or Darrell of Littlecote
|11= 11. Margaret Stourton of Littlecote
|12= 12. [[Philip Wentworth|Sir Philip Wentworth, Kt., of Nettlestead]]
|13= 13. Mary Clifford
|14= 14. [[John Say|Sir John Say of Baas, of Little Berkhamsted and Sawbridgeworth and of Lawford]]
|15= 15. [[Elizabeth Cheney, Lady Say|Elizabeth Cheney]]
|16= 16. [[John Seymour (died 1464)|Sir John Seymour of Wulfhall and of Hatch Beauchamp]]
|17= 17. Isabel William or Williams
|18= 18. Sir John Croker of Lineham<ref>or Sir Robert Coker of Lydeard St Lawrence</ref>
|19= 19. Elizabeth Fortescue
|20= 20. William Darell or Darrell
|21= 21. Elizabeth Calston
|22= 22. [[John Stourton, 1st Baron Stourton]] (1400–1462)
|23= 23. Margery or Marjory Wadham
|24= 24. Sir Roger Wentworth, Esq., then Kt., of Parlington and of Nettlestead
|25= 25. Margery or Margaret Despenser
|26= 26. [[John Clifford, 7th Baron de Clifford|Sir John de Clifford, 7th Lord Clifford]]
|27= 27. [[Lady Elizabeth Percy]]
|28= 28. John Say
|29= 29. Maud ...
|30= 30. Sir Laurence or Lawrence Cheney or Cheyne
|31= 31. Elizabeth Cokayn or Cokayne
}}</center>
{{ahnentafel bottom}}

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book|last=Boutell
|first=Charles
|authorlink=Charles Boutell
|title=A Manual of Heraldry, Historical and Popular
|year=1863
|publisher=Winsor & Newton
|url=https://archive.org/stream/amanualheraldry00boutgoog#page/n346/mode/2up
|location=London
|ref={{sfnref|Boutell|1863|pp=278}}
}}
* {{cite book|last=Brown
|first=Meg Lota
|last2=McBride
|first2=Kari Boyd
|title=Women's roles in the Renaissance
|location=Westport
|publisher=Greenwood Press
|isbn=0313322104
|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=6Zkbta_pjG0C&pg=PA244&lpg=PA244#v=onepage&q&f=false
|ref={{sfnref|Brown|2005|p=244}}
}}
* {{cite book|last=Farquhar
|first=Michael|title=A Treasure of Royal Scandals
|location=New York
|publisher=Penguin Books
|year=2001
|isbn=0-7394-2025-9
|ref={{sfnref|Farquhar|2001|p=72}}
}}
* {{cite book|last=Lancelot
|first=Francis
|title=Jane Seymour, Third Wife of Henry the Eighth: A Short Biography
|publisher=Shamrock Publishing
|year=2011
|ref={{Lancelot|2011||p=93}}
}}
* {{cite book|last=Norton
|first=Elizabeth
|author-link=Elizabeth Norton
|title=Jane Seymour: Henry VIII's True Love
|location=Chalford
|publisher=Amberley Publishing
|year=2009
|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=FiXjKTkR0QYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
|format=hardback
|isbn=9781848681026
|ref={{sfnref|Norton|2009}}
}}
* {{cite book|last=Seal
|first=Graham
|title=Encyclopedia of Folk Heroes
|location=Oxford
|publisher=ABC-CLIO
|year=2001
|isbn=9781576072165
|format=hardback
|page=129
|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=qfTcKDzzqvIC&pg=PA129&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
|ref={{sfnref|Seal|2001|p=129}}
}}
* {{Cite book|last=Vergil
|first=Polydore
|editor=Hay, Denys
|author-link=Polydore Vergil
|title=The Anglica historia of Polydore Vergil, A.D. 1485–1537. Edited with a translation by Denys Hay
|series=Camden third series
|volume=74
|year=1950
|publisher=Royal Historical Society
|page=337
|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=myMIAAAAIAAJ&hl=en
|ref={{sfnref|Vergil|1950|p=337}}
}}
* {{cite book|last=Wagner
|first=John A. and Schmid, Susan Walters
|title=Encyclopedia of Tudor England
|volume=3
|location=Santa Barbara
|publisher=ABC-CLIO
|year=2012
|format=hardback
|isbn=9781598842982
|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=EUCY3otvttEC&pg=PA1000&lpg=PA1000#v=onepage&q&f=false
|ref={{sfnref|Wagner|2012|p=1000}}
}}
* {{cite book|last=Walder
|first=John
|title=All Colour book of Henry VIII|location=London
|publisher=Octopus Books
|year=1973
|isbn=0706402324
|ref={{sfnref|Walder|1973|p=47}}
}}
* {{cite web|last=Walsh
|first=Andrew
|title=The death of Jane Seymour – a Midwife’s view
|work=Tudor Stuff: Tudor History From the Heart of England
|url=http://tudorstuff.wordpress.com/2009/03/21/the-death-of-jane-seymour-a-midwife's-view/
|date=21 March 2009
|publisher=Tudorstuff.wordpress.com
|accessdate=24 October 2010
|ref={{sfnref|Walsh|2009}}
}}
* {{cite book|last=Weir
|first=Alison
|author-link=Alison Weir
|title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII
|location=London
|publisher=Vintage
|year=2007
|isbn=9780099523628
|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=-UsWO_odsZAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
|ref={{sfnref|Weir|2007}}
}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Jane Seymour}}
* [http://histfam.familysearch.org/getperson.php?personID=I1428&tree=EuropeRoyalNobleHous Jane Seymour, Queen of England] Family tree
* {{cite web|title=Jane Seymour|url=http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1966|publisher= Find A Grave}}
* [http://tudorhistory.org/seymour/ A quick overview of Jane's life, with a good portrait gallery as well]
* [http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/seymour.html A more in-depth historical look at Jane's life and times]
* [http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showflat.php?Cat=0&Number=365164 A geo-biography tour] of the Six Wives of Henry VIII on Google Earth
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/child/ch170.htm The text of the ballad ''The Death of Queen Jane'']
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/mademoiselleboleyn/4199866501/in/photostream/ Photo of Seymour waxwork] Flickr
* [http://www.publications.bham.ac.uk/birmingham_magazine/b_magazine1996-99/pg22_96.htm A 1996 interview with Anne Boleyn's most respected academic biographer, E.W. Ives] in which he offers his interpretations of [[Anne Boleyn]] but also speculates on the role Jane played in Anne's downfall
* [http://www.irishexaminer.com/lifestyle/features/three-royal-births-that-werent-as-comfortable-as-kates-328635.html 2015 Irish Examiner article]

{{S-start}}
{{S-roy|en}}
|-
{{S-vac | last = [[Anne Boleyn]] }}
{{S-ttl| title = [[List of English consorts|Queen consort of England]] [[List of Irish consorts|Lady of Ireland]] | years = 30 May 1536 – 24 October 1537}}
{{S-vac| next = [[Anne of Cleves]]}}
{{End}}
{{English consort}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Seymour, Jane}}
[[Category:Jane Seymour]]
[[Category:1508 births]]
[[Category:1537 deaths]]
[[Category:16th-century English people]]
[[Category:16th-century women]]
[[Category:Burials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle]]
[[Category:Deaths in childbirth]]
[[Category:English Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:English royalty]]
[[Category:Irish royal consorts]]
[[Category:Ladies of the Privy Chamber]]
[[Category:Seymour family|J]]
[[Category:Wives of Henry VIII of England]]
[[Category:Women of the Tudor period]]

Model

2016-05-30T09:37:13Z

85.19.179.17:

den peneste jenta er Beyonce og den kjekkeste gutten er Drake

==Math, Science and Engineering==
* [[3D model]], a representation of any three-dimensional surface via specialized software
* [[Computer model]], a simulation to reproduce behavior of a system
* [[Conceptual model (computer science)]], a representation of entities and relationships between them
* [[Economic model]], a theoretical construct representing economic processes by a set of variables and a set of relationships between them.
* [[Mathematical model]], a representation of a system using mathematical concepts and language
* [[Model (mathematical logic)]], in model theory, a set along with a collection of finitary operations, and relations that are defined on it, satisfying a given collection of axioms
* [[Model organism]] is a [[non-human]] [[species]] that is extensively studied to understand particular [[biology|biological]] phenomena
* [[Model theory]], the study of mathematical structures using tools from mathematical logic
* [[Solid modeling]], a consistent set of principles for mathematical and computer modeling of three-dimensional solids
* [[Statistical model]], in applied statistics, a parameterized set of probability distributions

==People==
* [[Model (art)]], a person who poses for a visual artist as part of the creative process.
* [[Model (people)]], a person in a role to promote, display, or advertise commercial products or to serve as a visual aide for people who are creating works of art.
* [[Model (surname)]], various people with the name.
* [[Role model]], a person who serves as a behavioural or moral example to others.

=== Nickname ===
* [[Eddie Taubensee]] (born 1968), baseball player who was known as "The Model".
* [[Rick Martel]] (born 1956), professional wrestler known as "The Model".

==Arts and entertainment==
* [[Model (manhwa)|''Model'' (manhwa)]], a manhwa (comic book) series by Lee So Young
* [[Model (TV series)|''Model'' (TV series)]], a 1997 South Korean television series
* [[Model art]], painting, engraving or sculpture in much-smaller-than-usual sizes
* ''Models'', a 1999 film by [[Ulrich Seidl]]
* ''The Model'', a novel by Norwegian writer [[Lars Saabye Christensen]]

===Music===
* "[[Das Model]]", a song by the German band Kraftwerk
* [[Model (band)]], a rock group from Turkey
* ''Model'', a song by Simply Red from their 1991 album Stars
* "Model," a song by Avail from their 1994 [[Dixie (album)|''Dixie'' (album)]]
* [[Models (band)]], an alternative rock group from Australia
* [[The Models]], an English punk band

==Business==
* [[Business model]], a framework of the business logic of a firm
* [[Car model]], a particular brand of vehicle sold under a marque by a manufacturer
* [[Model (product)]], an identifier of a product given by its manufacturer (also called model number)

==Psychology and neurology==
* [[Internal model (motor control)]], a neural process that simulates the response of the motor system in order to estimate the outcome of a motor command
* [[Mental model]], someone's thought process about how something works
* [[Modelling (psychology)]], learning by imitating or observing a person's behavior

== Places ==
* [[Model, Colorado]], an unincorporated town in the United States
* [[Model, Masovian Voivodeship]], east-central Poland

==Other uses==
* [[Modeling (NLP)]], neurolinguistic programing process of adopting the behaviors and beliefs of another person
* [[MODEL]] or Movement for Democracy in Liberia, a rebel group in Liberia

==See also==
* {{lookfrom}}
* {{intitle}}
* [[Miniature faking]], a photograph of a life-size location or object made to look like a photograph of a miniature scale model
* [[Mode (disambiguation)]]
* [[Model-driven (disambiguation)]], especially in software design
* [[Modell (disambiguation)]]
* [[Remodeling (disambiguation)]]
* [[Standard model (disambiguation)]]
* [[System model (disambiguation)]]

{{disambiguation|geo|mathematics}}

Andy Griffiths (author)

2016-04-21T08:36:52Z

85.19.179.17: /* "Bad" books */

{{refimprove|date=October 2015}}

{{distinguish2|actor [[Andy Griffith]]}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2011}}
{{Use Australian English|date=August 2011}}
{{Infobox writer
|image = 
|imagesize = 10|
| name = Andy Griffiths
| caption = Writer
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1961|09|03|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Melbourne]], Australia
| genre = [[Humour]]
| movement =
| occupation = [[Author]]
| influenced =
| website = {{URL|http://www.andygriffiths.com.au/}}
|}}

'''Andrew Noel''' "'''Andy'''" '''Griffiths''' (born 3 September 1961) is an Australian children's book author and comedy writer. He is most notable for his ''Just!'' series, which was converted into an animated television series called ''[[What's with Andy?]]'' Previously a vocalist with '80s alternative rock bands [[Gothic Farmyard]]<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xXXIqbb3Too Mowing Tentacles and Weeding Giant Clams 1984 by Gothic Farmyard]</ref> and [[Skippy the Butcher]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-YBn70W4ppo |title=How Can I Stop The Leak by IVORY COAST (Skippy the Butcher) |publisher=YouTube |date=2010-06-26 |accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> in 1992 he turned to writing.

==Books written and published==

===Short story collections===

===="Bad" books====
* ''[[The Bad Book]]'' (1920)
* ''[[The Very Bad Book]]'' (2003)
* ''[[The Super Bad Book]]'' (1995)

===={{anchor|The Just.21 series}} "Just!" series====
* ''[[Just Tricking]]'' (2004) Published in the US as ''[[Just Joking!]]'', published in New Zealand as ''Just Kidding'''' (1998)
* ''Just Annoying'' (1997)
* ''Just Stupid!'' (1999)
* ''Just Crazy!'' (2000), published in the US as ''[[Just Wacky]]''
* ''[[Just Disgusting!]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Just Shocking!]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Just Macbeth!]]'' (July 2009)
* ''Just Doomed!'' (April 2012)
* ''Just Three for Free''- contains Playing Dead (''Just Tricking!''), In the Shower with Andy (''Just Annoying!'') and Runaway Pram (''Just Stupid!'').

==== Miscellaneous====
* ''[[Killer Koalas from Outer Space]]'' (2012)

===Novels===

===="Schooling Around" series====
*''[[Treasure Fever!]]'' (2008)
*''[[Pencil of Doom!]]'' (2008)
*''[[Mascot Madness!]]'' (2009)
*''[[Robot Riot!]]'' (2009)

===="Treehouse" series====
* ''[[The 13-Storey Treehouse]]'' (01 Sep 2011)
* ''The 26-Storey Treehouse'' (01 Sep 2012)
* ''The 39-Storey Treehouse'' (01 Sep 2013)
* ''The 52-Storey Treehouse'' (01 Sep 2014)
* ''The 65-Storey Treehouse'' (12 Aug 2015)
* ''The 78-Storey Treehouse'' (Jul – Sep 2016)

Please note: ''The 78-Storey Treehouse" has not been released yet.

All information correct as of 12 Aug 2015

===="Bum" series====
* ''[[The Day My Bum Went Psycho]]'' (2001), published in the US as ''The Day My Butt Went Psycho''
* ''[[Zombie Bums from Uranus]]'' (2003), published in the US as ''Zombie Butts From Uranus''
* ''[[Bumageddon: The Final Pongflict]]'' (2005) published in the US as ''Butt Wars: The Final Conflict''

===="A&T's World of Stupidity" series====
* ''[[What Bumosaur is That?]]'' (2007), published in the US as ''[[What Buttosaur is That?]]''
* ''What Body Part is That?'' (2011)

====Picture books====
* ''Stinky Stories'', illustrated by Jeff Raglus
* ''Fast Food and No Play Make Jack a Fat Boy'' (2006)
* ''The Naked Boy and the Crocodile'' (2011)
* ''Andypedia'' (2012)
* ''Once Upon a Slime'' (2013)
* ''The Cat, the Rat, and the Baseball Bat'' (2013)
* ''Ed and Ted and Ted’s Dog Fred'' (2014)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal |Children's literature}}
*[http://www.andygriffiths.com.au Official website]
*[http://us.macmillan.com/author/andygriffiths Griffiths profile on Macmillan.com]
*[http://splash.abc.net.au/home#!/livestream/2057200/meet-andy-griffiths Andy Griffiths discusses career and writing technique with Anna Burkey at State Library Victoria - ABC Splash]
* {{isfdb name|10392}}
* {{LCAuth|nr2001005609|Andy Griffiths|27|ue}}

{{Andy Griffiths}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Griffiths, Andy}}
[[Category:1961 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Australian comedy writers]]
[[Category:Australian children's writers]]
[[Category:Monash University alumni]]
[[Category:Deakin University alumni]]
[[Category:Victoria University, Australia alumni]]

Andy Griffiths (author)

2016-04-11T10:03:38Z

85.19.179.17: /* Books written and published */

{{refimprove|date=October 2015}}

{{distinguish2|actor [[Andy Griffith]]}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2011}}
{{Use Australian English|date=August 2011}}
{{Infobox writer
|image = 
|imagesize = 10|
| name = Andy Griffiths
| caption = Writer
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1961|09|03|df=yes}}
| birth_place = Melbourne, [[Australia]]
| genre = [[Humour]]
| movement =
| occupation = [[Author]]
| influenced =
| website = {{URL|http://www.andygriffiths.com.au/}}
|}}

'''Andrew Noel''' "'''Andy'''" '''Griffiths''' (born 3 September 1961) is an Australian children's book author and comedy writer. He is most notable for his ''Just!'' series, which was converted into an animated television series called ''[[What's with Andy?]]''. Originally a vocalist with 80s alternative rock bands such as "[[Gothic Farmyard]]"<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xXXIqbb3Too Mowing Tentacles and Weeding Giant Clams 1984 by Gothic Farmyard]</ref> and "[[Skippy the Butcher]]",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-YBn70W4ppo |title=How Can I Stop The Leak by IVORY COAST (Skippy the Butcher) |publisher=YouTube |date=2010-06-26 |accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> in 1992 he turned to serious writing.

==Books written and published==

===Short story collections===

===="Bad" books====
* ''[[The Bad Book]]'' (2001)
* ''[[The Very Bad Book]]'' (2003)
* ''[[The Super Bad Book]]'' (1995)

===={{anchor|The Just.21 series}} "Just!" series====
* ''[[Just Tricking]]'' (2004) Published in the US as ''[[Just Joking!]]'', published in New Zealand as ''Just Kidding'''' (1998)
* ''Just Annoying'' (1997)
* ''Just Stupid!'' (1999)
* ''Just Crazy!'' (2000), published in the US as ''[[Just Wacky]]''
* ''[[Just Disgusting!]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Just Shocking!]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Just Macbeth!]]'' (July 2009)
* ''Just Doomed!'' (April 2012)
* ''Just Three for Free''- contains Playing Dead (''Just Tricking!''), In the Shower with Andy (''Just Annoying!'') and Runaway Pram (''Just Stupid!'').

==== Miscellaneous====
* ''[[Killer Koalas from Outer Space]]'' (2012)

===Novels===

===="Schooling Around" series====
*''[[Treasure Fever!]]'' (2008)
*''[[Pencil of Doom!]]'' (2008)
*''[[Mascot Madness!]]'' (2009)
*''[[Robot Riot!]]'' (2009)

===="Treehouse" series====
* ''[[The 13-Storey Treehouse]]'' (01 Sep 2011)
* ''The 26-Storey Treehouse'' (01 Sep 2012)
* ''The 39-Storey Treehouse'' (01 Sep 2013)
* ''The 52-Storey Treehouse'' (01 Sep 2014)
* ''The 65-Storey Treehouse'' (12 Aug 2015)
* ''The 78-Storey Treehouse'' (Jul - Sep 2016)

Please Note: ''The 78-Storey Treehouse" has not been released yet.

All information correct as of 12 Aug 2015

===="Bum" series====
* ''[[The Day My Bum Went Psycho]]'' (2001), published in the US as ''The Day My Butt Went Psycho''
* ''[[Zombie Bums from Uranus]]'' (2003), published in the US as ''Zombie Butts From Uranus''
* ''[[Bumageddon: The Final Pongflict]]'' (2005) published in the US as ''Butt Wars: The Final Conflict''

===="A&T's World of Stupidity" series====
* ''[[What Bumosaur is That?]]'' (2007), published in the US as ''[[What Buttosaur is That?]]''
* ''What Body Part is That?'' (2011)

====Picture books====
* ''Stinky Stories'', illustrated by Jeff Raglus
* ''Fast Food and No Play Make Jack a Fat Boy'' (2006)
* ''The Naked Boy and the Crocodile'' (2011)
* ''Andypedia'' (2012)
* ''Once Upon a Slime'' (2013)
* ''The Cat, the Rat, and the Baseball Bat'' (2013)
* ''Ed and Ted and Ted’s Dog Fred'' (2014)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal |Children's literature}}
*[http://www.andygriffiths.com.au Official website]
*[http://us.macmillan.com/author/andygriffiths Griffiths profile on Macmillan.com]
*[http://splash.abc.net.au/home#!/livestream/2057200/meet-andy-griffiths Andy Griffiths discusses career and writing technique with Anna Burkey at State Library Victoria - ABC Splash]
* {{isfdb name|10392}}
* {{LCAuth|nr2001005609|Andy Griffiths|27|ue}}

{{Andy Griffiths}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Griffiths, Andy}}
[[Category:1961 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Australian comedy writers]]
[[Category:Australian children's writers]]
[[Category:Monash University alumni]]
[[Category:Deakin University alumni]]
[[Category:Victoria University, Australia alumni]]

History of Canada

2015-09-18T12:07:14Z

85.19.179.17:

{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{History of Canada}}
The '''history of [[Canada]] [[Paleo-Indians]] een y. Canada has been inhabited for millennia by distinctive groups of [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal peoples]], with distinct trade networks, spiritual beliefs, and [[social hierarchies]]. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first [[European colonization of the Americas|European arrivals]] and have been discovered through [[List of archaeological periods (North America)|archaeological]] investigations. Various [[Numbered Treaties|treaties]] and [[Canadian Aboriginal law|laws]] have been enacted between [[Former colonies and territories in Canada|European settlers]] and the Aboriginal populations.

Beginning in the late 15th century [[French colonization of the Americas|French]] and [[British colonization of the Americas|British]] expeditions explored, and later settled, along the [[East Coast of the United States|Atlantic Coast]]. France ceded nearly all of [[New France|its colonies in North America]] to Britain in 1763 after the [[Seven Years' War]]. In 1867, with the union of three [[British North America]]n colonies through [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]], Canada was formed as a [[federalism|federal]] [[dominion]] of four provinces. This began an [[Territorial evolution of Canada|accretion of provinces and territories]] and a process of increasing autonomy from the [[British Empire]], which became official with the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] of 1931 and completed in the [[Canada Act 1982|Canada Act]] of 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British parliament]].

Over centuries, elements of Aboriginal, French, British and more recent [[History of immigration to Canada|immigrant]] customs have combined to form a [[Culture of Canada|Canadian culture]]. Canadian culture has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic, geographic and economic neighbour, the [[History of the United States|United States]]. Since the conclusion of the Second World War, [[Canadians]] have supported multilateralism abroad and [[socioeconomic development]] domestically. Canada currently consists of [[Provinces and territories of Canada|ten provinces and three territories]] and is governed as a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary democracy]] and a [[constitutional monarchy]] with [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]] as its [[head of state]].

==Pre-colonization==

===Aboriginals===
{{Main|Aboriginal peoples in Canada#History |l1=Pre-colonization history of Canada}}
{{Further|List of years in Canada}}
[[File:Glacial lakes.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Great Lakes]] are estimated to have been formed at the end of the [[last glacial period]] (about 10,000 years ago), when the [[Laurentide ice sheet]] receded.]]

According to the [[List of archaeological periods (North America)|North American archeological]] and [[Indigenous Amerindian genetics|Aboriginal genetic]] evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world to have [[early human migrations|human habitation]].<ref name="Ph.D.2011">{{cite book|author=Alfred J. Andrea Ph.D.|title=World History Encyclopedia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LEqaIGsT8SsC&pg=PA99|year= 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-930-6|page=99}}</ref> During the [[Wisconsin glaciation]], 50,000{{spaced ndash}}17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge ([[Beringia]]) that joined [[Siberia]] to northwest North America ([[Alaska]]).<ref name=Goebel>{{cite journal| title=The Late Pleistocene Dispersal of Modern Humans in the Americas| author=Ted Goebel| url=http://www.centerfirstamericans.com/cfsa-publications/Science2008.pdf| format=Verbal tutorial possible| publisher=The Center for the Study of First Americans | year=2008| doi=10.1126/science.1153569| accessdate=February 5, 2010| pmid=18339930| volume=319| issue=5869| journal=Science| pages=1497–502| author2=and others| displayauthors=1| bibcode=2008Sci...319.1497G| last3=O'Rourke}}</ref> At that point, they were blocked by the [[Laurentide ice sheet]] that covered most of Canada, confining them to Alaska for thousands of years.<ref name="Wynn2007">{{cite book|author=Graeme Wynn|title=Canada And Arctic North America: An Environmental History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bxGFaFvo2oMC&pg=PA20|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-437-0|page=20}}</ref>

Around 16,000 years ago, the [[Last Glacial Maximum|glaciers began melting]], allowing people to move south and east into Canada.<ref name="Pritzker">{{cite book|author1=Bruce E. Johansen|author2=Barry M. Pritzker|title=Encyclopedia of American Indian History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sGKL6E9_J6IC&pg=PA83|year= 2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-818-7|page=83|authorlink1=Bruce E. Johansen}}</ref> The exact dates and routes of the peopling of the Americas are the subject of an ongoing debate.<ref name="Madsen2004">{{cite book|author=David B. Madsen|title=Entering America: Northeast Asia and Beringia Before the Last Glacial Maximum|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Dz2EVCRfBzAC&pg=PA125|year= 2004|publisher=University of Utah Press|isbn=978-0-87480-786-8|page=125}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=Introduction| work=Government of Canada| publisher=Parks Canada| url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/docs/r/pfa-fap/sec1.aspx| year=2009|accessdate=January 9, 2010| quote=Canada's oldest known home is a cave in Yukon occupied not 12,000 years ago as at U.S. sites, but at least 20,000 years ago}}</ref> The [[Queen Charlotte Islands]], [[Old Crow Flats]], and [[Bluefish Caves]] are some of the earliest archaeological sites of [[Paleo-Indians]] in Canada.<ref name="DirectorPresident1997">{{cite book|author1=Center for Archaeological Sciences Norman Herz Professor of Geology and Director|author2=Society of Archaelogical Sciences both at University of Georgia Ervan G. Garrison Associate Professor of Anthropology and Geology and President|title=Geological Methods for Archaeology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YSPkmV_mRvkC&pg=PA125|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-802511-5|page=125}}</ref><ref name="CarlsonBona1996">{{cite book|author1=Roy L. Carlson|author2=Luke Robert Dalla Bona|title=Early Human Occupation in British Columbia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KT4A5dHuiSgC&pg=PA152|year=1996|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-0535-3|page=152}}</ref><ref name="E.Ames1998">{{cite book|author1=Gibbon, Guy E.|author2=Kenneth M. Ames|title=Archaeology of prehistoric native America: an encyclopedia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_0u2y_SVnmoC&pg=PA682|year=1998|publisher=Garland Publishing, Incorporated|isbn=978-0-8153-0725-9|page=682}}</ref> Ice Age [[hunter-gatherer]]s left [[lithic flake]] fluted stone tools and the remains of large butchered mammals.

The North American climate stabilized around 8000 BCE (10,000 years ago). Climatic conditions were similar to modern patterns; however, the receding [[Last Glacial Maximum|glacial ice sheets]] still covered large portions of the land, creating lakes of meltwater.<ref name="icaage">{{cite book| last=Imbrie| first=J|author2=K.P.Imbrie| title=Ice Ages: Solving the Mystery | year=1979| publisher=Enslow Publishers| location=Short Hills NJ| isbn=0-226-66811-8}}</ref> Most population groups during the [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic period]]s were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers.<ref name=Fiedel/> However, individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally; thus with the passage of time, there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization (i.e.: [[Paleo-Arctic Tradition|Paleo-Arctic]], [[Plano cultures|Plano]] and [[Maritime Archaic]] traditions).<ref name=Fiedel>{{cite book|author=Stuart J. Fiedel|title=Prehistory of the Americas|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Yrhp8H0_l6MC&pg=PR5|year=1992|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-42544-5|page=5}}</ref>

{{Annotated image | float=right
| image=Hopewellsphere2 map HRoe 2008.jpg
| width=200
| imageleft=-150
|height=100
| caption=Great Lakes area of the [[Hopewell tradition|Hopewell Interaction Area]] PP{{=}}[[Point Peninsula Complex]]   S=[[Saugeen Complex]]   L=[[Laurel Complex]]
|image-width=200
| alt=A northerly section focusing on the Saugeen, Laurel and Point Peninsula complexes of the map showing south eastern United States and the Great Lakes area of Canada showing the Hopewell Interaction Sphere and in different colours the various local expressions of the Hopewell cultures, including the Laurel Complex, Saugeen Complex, Point Peninsula Complex, Marksville culture, Copena culture, Kansas City Hopewell, Swift Creek Culture, Goodall Focus, Crab Orchard culture and Havana Hopewell culture.
|float = left
|annotations=
{{Annotation|148|28|'''PP'''}}
{{Annotation|130|45|'''S'''}}
{{Annotation|115|10|'''L'''}}
}}
The [[Woodland period|Woodland cultural period]] dates from about 2000 BCE to 1000 CE and includes the Ontario, Quebec, and [[Maritimes|Maritime regions]].<ref name=Eras>{{cite web
|title=C. Prehistoric Periods (Eras of Adaptation)
|publisher=The University of Calgary (The Applied History Research Group)
|year=2000
|url=http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firstnations/periods.html
| accessdate = April 15, 2010}}</ref> The introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the previous Archaic-stage inhabitants. The [[St. Lawrence Iroquoians|Laurentian-related people]] of Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada.<ref name="prepre">{{cite book
|last=Fagan
|first=Brian M
|others=University of California
|title=People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory
|year=1992
|publisher=[[HarperCollins|Harper Collins]]
|isbn=0-321-01457-X
}}
</ref>

The [[Hopewell tradition]] is an Aboriginal culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE to 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the [[Hopewell Exchange System]] connected cultures and societies to the peoples on the Canadian shores of [[Lake Ontario]].<ref name="Lockard2010">{{cite book|author=Craig A. Lockard|title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History To 1500|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u4VOYN0dmqMC&pg=PA221|year=2010|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-4390-8535-6|page=221}}</ref> Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the [[Point Peninsula Complex|Point Peninsula]], [[Saugeen Complex|Saugeen]], and [[Laurel Complex|Laurel complexes]].<ref name="Hamilton2010">{{cite book|author=Michelle Hamilton|title=Collections and Objections: Aboriginal Material Culture in Southern Ontario|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=v3Wa8KkpJBMC&pg=PA24|year=2010|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-3754-5|page=24}}</ref>

The [[Eastern Woodlands tribes|eastern woodland areas]] of what became Canada were home to the [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquian]] and [[Iroquois|Iroquoian]] peoples. The Algonquian language is believed to have originated in the western plateau of Idaho or the plains of Montana and moved eastward,<ref name="FrancisFrancis2009">{{cite book|author1=R. Douglas Francis|author2=Richard Jones, Donald B. Smith, R. D. Francis|author3=Richard Jones|author4=Donald B. Smith|title=Journeys: A History of Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GbbZRIOKclsC&pg=PA11|year= 2009|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-17-644244-6|page=11}}</ref> eventually extending all the way from [[Hudson Bay]] to what is today [[Nova Scotia]] in the east and as far south as the [[Tidewater region of Virginia]].<ref name="Brandon2012">{{cite book|author=William Brandon|title=The Rise and Fall of North American Indians: From Prehistory through Geronimo|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VRsK40MuAY8C&pg=PA236|year=2012|publisher=Roberts Rinehart|isbn=978-1-57098-453-2|page=236}}</ref>

[[File:Algonquian langs.png|thumb|right|upright|Pre-Columbian distribution of [[Algonquian languages]] in North America.]]

Speakers of [[eastern Algonquian languages]] included the [[Mi'kmaq people|Mi'kmaq]] and [[Abenaki]] of the [[Maritimes|Maritime]] region of Canada and likely the extinct [[Beothuk]] of [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]].<ref name="Marshall1996">{{cite book|author=Ingeborg Marshall|title=History and Ethnography of the Beothuk|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ckOav3Szu7oC&pg=PA437|year=1996|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-6589-0|page=437}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|title=Maliseet and Mi'kmaq Languages
|url=http://www.gnb.ca/0016/wolastoqiyik/languages-e.asp
|publisher=Government of New Brunswick – Aboriginal Affairs Secretariat
|year=1995
|accessdate=April 15, 2010}}</ref> The [[Ojibwa]] and other [[Ojibwe language|Anishinaabe speakers]] of the [[central Algonquian languages]] retain an oral tradition of having moved to their lands around the western and central [[Great Lakes]] from the sea, likely the east coast.<ref name="JOHANSENPRITZKER2007">{{cite book|author1=Bruce J|author2=Bary P|title=Encyclopedia of American Indian History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sGKL6E9_J6IC&pg=PA10|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-818-7|page=10}}</ref> According to oral tradition, the Ojibwa formed the [[Council of Three Fires]] in 796 CE with the [[Odawa people|Odawa]] and the [[Potawatomi]].<ref>{{cite web
|title=Background 1: Ojibwa history
|url=http://csdt.rpi.edu/na/arcs/background1.html
|publisher=Department of Science and Technology Studies · The Center for Cultural Design
|year=2003
|accessdate=April 15, 2010}}</ref>

The [[Iroquois]] (Haudenosaunee) were centred from at least 1000 CE in northern New York, but their influence extended into what is now southern Ontario and the Montreal area of modern Quebec.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/iroquois/ |publisher=The Canadian Encyclopedia|title=Iroquois|year=2008|accessdate=November 27, 2013}}</ref> [[Iroquois#Formation of the League|The Iroquois Confederacy]], according to oral tradition, was formed in 1142 CE.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Johansen |first=Bruce |year=1995 |title=Dating the Iroquois Confederacy |journal=Akwesasne Notes New Series |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=62–63 |url=http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/DatingIC.html |accessdate=October 1, 2014}}</ref><ref name="JohansenMann2000">{{cite book|author1=Bruce E. Johansen|author2=Barbara A. Mann|title=Encyclopedia of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zibNDBchPkMC&pg=PR14|year=2000|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-30880-2|page=14}}</ref> On the [[Great Plains]] the [[Cree]] or ''Nēhilawē'' (who spoke a closely related [[Central Algonquian languages|Central Algonquian language]], the [[plains Cree language]]) depended on the vast herds of bison to supply food and many of their other needs.<ref name="Rees2004">{{cite book|author=Amanda Rees|title=The Great Plains Region|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=v0MpNai3xdMC&pg=PA76|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32733-9|page=76}}</ref> To the northwest were the peoples of the [[Na-Dene languages]], which include the [[Athapaskan languages|Athapaskan-speaking peoples]] and the [[Tlingit people|Tlingit]], who lived on the islands of southern Alaska and northern [[British Columbia]]. The Na-Dene language group is believed to be linked to the [[Yeniseian languages]] of Siberia.<ref name=BENGTSON/> The [[Dene]] of the western Arctic may represent a distinct wave of migration from Asia to North America.<ref name=BENGTSON>{{cite web|last=BENGTSON |first=J.D |year=2008 |url=http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/dene_gr.pdf|format=PDF |title=Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene-Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages – In Aspects of Comparative Linguistics|pages= v. 3, 45–118 |publisher=Moscow- RSUH|accessdate=April 11, 2010}}</ref>

[[File:Na-Dene langs.png|thumb|left|upright|Pre-Columbian distribution of [[Na-Dene languages]] in North America]]

The [[British Columbia Interior|Interior of British Columbia]] was home to the [[Salishan languages|Salishan language]] groups such as the [[Secwepemc|Shuswap (Secwepemc)]], [[Okanagan people|Okanagan]] and southern Athabaskan language groups, primarily the [[Dakelh]] (Carrier) and the [[Chilcotin people|Tsilhqot'in]].<ref name=Archives/> The inlets and valleys of the [[British Columbia Coast]] sheltered large, distinctive populations, such as the [[Haida people|Haida]], [[Kwakwaka'wakw]] and [[Nuu-chah-nulth people|Nuu-chah-nulth]], sustained by the region's abundant salmon and shellfish.<ref name=Archives/> These peoples developed [[Complex society|complex cultures]] dependent on the [[western red cedar]] that included wooden houses, seagoing whaling and war canoes and elaborately carved [[potlatch]] items and [[totem poles]].<ref name=Archives>{{cite web|url=http://www.bcarchives.gov.bc.ca/exhibits/timemach/galler07/frames/wc_peop.htm |publisher=B.C. Archives |title=First Nations – People of the Northwest Coast|year=1999|accessdate=April 11, 2010}}</ref>

In the [[Canadian Arctic Archipelago|Arctic archipelago]], the distinctive [[Paleo-Eskimo]]s known as [[Dorset culture|Dorset peoples]], whose culture has been traced back to around 500 BCE, were replaced by the ancestors of today's [[Inuit]] by 1500 CE.<ref name="WurmMühlhäusler1996">{{cite book|author1=Stephen Adolphe Wurm|author2=Peter Mühlhäusler|author3=Darrell T. Tyron|title=Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Maps|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=glU0vte5gSkC&pg=PA1065|year=1996|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-013417-9|page=1065}}</ref> This transition is supported by archaeological records and [[Inuit mythology]] that tells of having driven off the ''Tuniit'' or 'first inhabitants'.<ref name="Whitty2010">{{cite book|author=Julia Whitty|title=Deep Blue Home: An Intimate Ecology of Our Wild Ocean|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5PM8IHIKrqsC&pg=PA154|year=2010|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-547-48707-6|page=154}}</ref> [[Inuit#Traditional law|Inuit traditional laws]] are anthropologically different from [[Western law]]. ''[[Custom (law)|Customary law]]'' was non-existent in Inuit society before the introduction of the [[Law of Canada|Canadian legal system]].<ref name = tpm>{{cite web |url=http://nac.nu.ca/OnlineBookSite/vol2/introduction.html |title=Tirigusuusiit, Piqujait and Maligait: Inuit Perspectives on Traditional Law |publisher=Nunavut Arctic College|year=1999|accessdate=August 28, 2010}}</ref>

===European contact===
{{Further|Norse colonization of the Americas}}
[[File:L'Anse aux Meadows, recreated long house.jpg|right|230px|thumb|[[L'Anse aux Meadows]] on the island of Newfoundland, site of a [[Norsemen]] colony.]]

There are reports of contact made before the [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus#The voyages and events|1492 voyages]] of [[Christopher Columbus]] and the [[Age of Discovery|age of discovery]] between [[First Nations]], Inuit and those from other continents.
The earliest known documented European exploration of Canada is described in the [[Icelandic Sagas]], which recount the attempted [[Norse colonization of the Americas]].<ref name="CordellLightfoot2008">{{cite book|author1=Linda S. Cordell|author2=Kent Lightfoot|author3=Francis McManamon|author4=George Milner|title=Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=PA83|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-02189-3|page=83}}</ref><ref name="Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga">{{cite web|url=http://www.mnh.si.edu/vikings/voyage/subset/markland/history.html|title=Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga|publisher=National Museum of Natural History, Arctic Studies Center- (Smithsonian Institution)|year=2008|accessdate=August 11, 2010}}</ref> According to the Sagas, the first European to see Canada was [[Bjarni Herjólfsson]], who was blown off course en route from [[Iceland]] to [[Greenland]] in the summer of 985 or 986 CE.<ref name="Reeves2009">{{cite book|author=Arthur Middleton Reeves|title=The Norse Discovery of Americ|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HkoPUdPM3V8C&pg=PA7|year=2009|publisher=BiblioBazaar|isbn=978-0-559-05400-6|page=7}}</ref> Around the year 1001 CE, the Sagas then refer to [[Leif Ericson]]'s landing in three places to the west,<ref name="MagnussonPalsson1965">{{cite book|author1=Magnus Magnusson|author2=Hermann Palsson|title=Graenlendinga saga|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=m-4rb_GhQ5EC&pg=PA28|year=1965|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-0-14-044154-3|page=28}}</ref> the first two being [[Helluland]] (possibly [[Baffin Island]]) and [[Markland]] (possibly [[Labrador]]).<ref name="Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Collapse: how societies choose to fail or succeed|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QyzHKSCYSmsC&pg=PA207|year=2006|publisher=Viking Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-303655-5|page=207}}</ref> Leif's third landing was at a place he called [[Vinland]] (possibly Newfoundland).<ref name="JOHANSENPRITZKER2007as">{{cite book|author1=Bruce J|author2=Barry P|title=Encyclopedia of American Indian History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sGKL6E9_J6IC&pg=PA207|year= 2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-818-7|page=207}}</ref> Norsemen (often referred to as [[Viking]]s) attempted to colonize the new land; they were driven out by the local climate and harassment by the Indigenous populace.<ref name="Reeves2009"/> Archaeological evidence of a short-lived Norse settlement was found in [[L'Anse aux Meadows]], Newfoundland (carbon dating estimate 990 – 1050 CE).<ref name="CordellLightfoot2008">{{cite book|author1=Linda S. Cordell|author2=Kent Lightfoot|author3=Francis McManamon|author4=George Milner|title=Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=PA82|date=December 30, 2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-02189-3|pages=82–}}</ref><ref name="BrownIII2007">{{cite book|author1=Fred N. Brown|author2=Fred N. Brown, III|title=Rediscovering Vinland: Evidence of Ancient Viking Presence in America|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ci8SsrCIS2kC&pg=PA19|year=2007|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-43680-4|pages=19–}}</ref>

Based on the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], the [[List of Portuguese monarchs|Portuguese Crown]] claimed it had territorial rights in the area visited by [[John Cabot]] in 1497 and 1498 CE.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Cabot's voyage of 1498|url=http://www.heritage.nf.ca/exploration/cabot1498.html |publisher=Memorial University of Newfoundland (Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage)|year=2000|accessdate=April 12, 2010}}</ref> To that end, in 1499 and 1500, the Portuguese mariner [[João Fernandes Lavrador]] visited the north Atlantic coast, which accounts for the appearance of "Labrador" on topographical maps of the period.<ref name="Diffie1977">{{cite book|author=Bailey Bailey Wallys Diffie|title=Foundations of the Portuguese Empire: 1415–1580|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC&pg=PA464|year=1977|publisher=U of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0-8166-0782-2|page=464}}</ref> Subsequently, in 1501 and 1502 the [[Corte-Real (disambiguation)|Corte-Real]] brothers explored Newfoundland (Terra Nova) and Labrador claiming these lands as part of the [[Portuguese Empire]].<ref name="Diffie1977" /><ref name="RorabaughCritchlow2004">{{cite book|author1=William J. Rorabaugh|author2=Donald T. Critchlow|author3=Paula C. Baker|title=America's Promise: A Concise History of the United States|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VL_6X5zWOokC&pg=PA11|year=2004|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-1189-7|page=11}}</ref> In 1506, King [[Manuel I of Portugal]] created taxes for the cod fisheries in Newfoundland waters.<ref name="Sauer1975">{{cite book|author=Carlo Sauer|title=Sixteenth Century North America: The Land and the People as Seen by the Europeans|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EWXU6sjN9ZUC&pg=PA49|year=1975|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02777-0|page=49}}</ref> [[João Álvares Fagundes]] and [[Pêro de Barcelos]] established fishing outposts in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia around 1521 CE; however, these were later abandoned, with the [[Portuguese colonization of the Americas|Portuguese colonizers]] focusing their efforts on South America.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Chronology of world history: a calendar of principal events from 3000 BC to..
|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield
|year=1975
|page=387
|isbn=0-87471-765-5
|author=Freeman-Grenville}}</ref> The extent and nature of Portuguese activity on the Canadian mainland during the 16th century remains unclear and controversial.<ref name="Rompkey2005">{{cite book|author=Bill Rompkey|title=The Story of Labrador|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JkwIotsOMUAC&pg=PA20|year=2005|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-7121-1|page=20}}</ref><ref name=explorationp>{{cite web|title=The Portuguese Explorers|url=http://www.heritage.nf.ca/exploration/portuguese.html|publisher=Memorial University of Newfoundland|year=2004|accessdate=June 27, 2010}}</ref>

==English America, New France and colonization 1534–1763==
{{Main|New France|British America|Former colonies and territories in Canada}}
[[File:Port-Royal Nova-Scotia 1.jpg|thumb|left|Replica of Port Royal habitation, located at the [[Habitation at Port-Royal|Port-Royal National Historic Site of Canada]], Nova Scotia.<ref name=royal>{{cite web|title=Port-Royal National Historic Site of Canada|url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/lhn-nhs/ns/portroyal/natcul/histor.aspx|publisher=Parks Canada (Government of Canada)|year=2009|accessdate=June 27, 2010}}</ref>]]

French interest in the [[New World]] began with [[Francis I of France]], who in 1524 sponsored [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]] to navigate the region between Florida and Newfoundland in hopes of finding a route to the Pacific Ocean.<ref name="Litalien2004">{{cite book|author=Raymonde Litalien|title=Champlain: The Birth of French America|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZnE0tjj9MbgC&pg=PA61|year=2004|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-7256-0|page=61}}</ref> In 1534, [[Jacques Cartier]] planted a cross in the [[Gaspé Peninsula]] and claimed the land in the name of Francis I.<ref name="Loren2008">{{cite book|author=Diana Dipaolo Loren|title=In Contact: Bodies and Spaces in the Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-century Eastern Woodlands|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=G0cuFvBDl8YC&pg=PA38|year=2008|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0-7591-0661-1|page=38}}</ref> [[French colonization of the Americas|Earlier colonization attempts]] by Cartier at [[Charlesbourg-Royal]] in 1541, at [[Sable Island]] in 1598 by Marquis de La Roche-Mesgouez, and at [[Tadoussac, Quebec]] in 1600 by [[François Gravé Du Pont]] had failed.<ref name="Riendeau2007poi">{{cite book|author=Roger E. Riendeau|title=A Brief History of Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CFWy0EfzlX0C&pg=PA36|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0822-3|page=36}}</ref> Despite these initial failures, French fishing fleets began to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the [[St. Lawrence River]], trading and making alliances with First Nations.<ref name="PickettPickett2011">{{cite book|author1=Margaret F. Pickett|author2=Dwayne W. Pickett|title=The European Struggle to Settle North America: Colonizing Attempts by England, France and Spain, 1521–1608|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vTkyqDHcBvsC&pg=PA61|year=2011|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-6221-6|page=61}}</ref>

In 1604, a [[North American fur trade]] monopoly was granted to [[Pierre Dugua Sieur de Monts]].<ref name="Vaugeois">{{cite book|author=Raymonde Litalien|title=Champlain: The Birth of French America|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZnE0tjj9MbgC&pg=PA242|year=2004|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-7256-0|page=242}}</ref> The fur trade became one of the main economic ventures in North America.<ref name="Innis1999">{{cite book|author=Harold Adams Innis|title=The Fur Trade in Canada: An Introduction to Canadian Economic History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=eCgps70cHV4C&pg=PR6|year=1999|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8196-4|page=6}}</ref> Dugua led his first colonization expedition to an island located near the mouth of the [[Saint Croix River (Maine – New Brunswick)|St. Croix River]]. Among his lieutenants was a geographer named [[Samuel de Champlain]], who promptly carried out a major exploration of the northeastern coastline of what is now the United States.<ref name="Vaugeois"/> In the spring of 1605, under Samuel de Champlain, the new [[Saint Croix Island, Maine#St. Croix Settlement|St. Croix settlement]] was moved to [[Port Royal, Annapolis County, Nova Scotia|Port Royal]] (today's [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia]]).<ref name="IO">{{cite book|author=J. M. Bumsted|title=Canada's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Pb5AvfpCZZkC&pg=PA37|year=2003|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-672-9|page=37}}</ref>

[[File:Champlain Habitation de Quebec.jpg|thumb|Champlain's Quebec City habitation c. 1608|alt=The Quebec Settlement : A.—The Warehouse. B.—Pigeon-loft. C.—Detached Buildings where we keep our arms and for Lodging our Workmen. D.—Another Detached Building for the Workmen. E.—Sun-dial. F.—Another Detached Building where is the Smithy and where the Workmen are Lodged. G.—Galleries all around the Lodgings. H.—The Sieur de Champlain's Lodgings. I.—The door of the Settlement with a Draw-bridge. L Promenade around the Settlement ten feet in width to the edge of the Moat. M.—Moat the whole way around the Settlement. O.—The Sieur de Champlain's Garden. P.—The Kitchen. Q.—Space in front of the Settlement on the Shore of the River. R.—The great River St. Lawrence.]]

In 1608, Champlain founded what is now [[Quebec City]], which would become the first permanent settlement and the capital of [[New France]].<ref name="Kornwolf2002q">{{cite book|author=James D. Kornwolf|title=Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial North America|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=H_DV9DGUDzkC&pg=PR14|year=2002|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-5986-1|page=14}}</ref> He took personal administration over the city and its affairs, and sent out expeditions to explore the interior.<ref name="ConradFinkel2005">{{cite book|author1=Margaret Conrad|author2=Alvin Finkel|title=History of the Canadian Peoples|year=2005|publisher=Longman Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-321-27008-5|page=58}}</ref> Champlain himself discovered [[Lake Champlain]] in 1609. By 1615, he had travelled by canoe up the [[Ottawa River]] through [[Lake Nipissing]] and [[Georgian Bay]] to the centre of [[Wyandot people|Huron]] country near [[Lake Simcoe]].<ref name="R2002">{{cite book|author=Magocsi, Paul R|title=Aboriginal peoples of Canada: a short introduction|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GkAuYRVjlE8C&pg=PA15|year=2002|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8469-9|page=15}}</ref> During these voyages, Champlain aided the Wendat (aka 'Hurons') in their battles against the Iroquois Confederacy.<ref name="Hodge2003">{{cite book|author=Frederick Webb Hodge|title=Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=68ERQ9fkyTMC&pg=PA585|year= 2003|publisher=Digital Scanning Inc|isbn=978-1-58218-749-5|page=585}}</ref> As a result, the Iroquois would become enemies of the French and be involved in multiple conflicts (known as the [[Beaver Wars|French and Iroquois Wars]]) until the signing of the [[Great Peace of Montreal]] in 1701.<ref name="Havard2001v">{{cite book|author=Gilles Havard|title=The Great Peace of Montreal of 1701: French-native Diplomacy in the Seventeenth Century|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YOQE3_sDJP0C&pg=PA4|year=2001|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|isbn=978-0-7735-6934-8|page=4}}</ref>

The English, led by [[Humphrey Gilbert]], had claimed [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's, Newfoundland]], in 1583 as the first North American [[English overseas possessions|English colony]] by royal prerogative of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]].<ref name=DCgil>{{cite web|title=Gilbert (Gylberte, Jilbert), Sir Humphrey|work=Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online|publisher=University of Toronto|date=May 2, 2005|url=http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34374|accessdate=September 10, 2011}}</ref> In the reign of [[James I of England|King James I]], the English established additional colonies in [[Cupids, Newfoundland and Labrador|Cupids]] and [[Ferryland, Newfoundland and Labrador|Ferryland]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], and soon after established the first successful permanent settlements of [[Virginia]] to the south.<ref name=hornsby>{{cite book|last=Hornsby|first=Stephen J|title=British Atlantic, American frontier : spaces of power in early modern British America|year=2005|publisher=University Press of New England|isbn=978-1-58465-427-8|pages=14, 18–19, 22–23}}</ref> On September 29, 1621, a charter for the foundation of a New World [[Scottish colonization of the Americas|Scottish colony]] was granted by King James to Sir [[William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling|William Alexander]].<ref name=Michael>{{cite book| last =Fry| first=Michael|title=The Scottish Empire| publisher=Tuckwell Press| year =2001|isbn=1-84158-259-X|page=21}}</ref> In 1622, the first settlers left Scotland. They initially failed and permanent Nova Scotian settlements were not firmly established until 1629 during the end of the [[Anglo-French War (1627–1629)|Anglo-French War]].<ref name=Michael/> These colonies did not last long: in 1631, under [[Charles I of England]], the [[Treaty of Suza]] was signed, ending the war and returning Nova Scotia to the French.<ref>{{cite web|title=Charles Fort National Historic Site of Canada|url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/ns/charles/natcul/natcul3.aspx|year=2009|publisher=Parks Canada|accessdate=June 23, 2010}}</ref> New France was not fully restored to French rule until the 1632 [[Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1632)|Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye]].<ref name="Kingsford1888">{{cite book|author=William Kingsford|title=The History of Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IBUwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA109|year=1888|publisher=K. Paul, French, Trübner & Company|page=109}}</ref> This led to new French immigrants and the founding of [[Trois-Rivières]] in 1634, the second permanent settlement in New France.<ref name="Powell2009">{{cite book|author=John Powell|title=Encyclopedia of North American Immigration|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VNCX6UsdZYkC&pg=PA67|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1012-7|page=67}}</ref>

[[File:Shooting the Rapids 1879.jpg|thumb|left|Following the establishment of Quebec and then Trois-Rivières, [[coureurs des bois]] and [[voyageurs]] spread quickly through the [[Canadian canoe routes|many rivers and lakes to trade]] with local Aboriginals.]]
During this period, in contrast to the higher density and slower moving agricultural settlement development by the English inward from the east coast of the colonies, New France's interior frontier would eventually cover an immense area with a thin network centred on fur trade, conversion efforts by missionaries, establishing and claiming an empire, and military efforts to protect and further those efforts.<ref name="HineFaragher2007">{{cite book|author1=Robert V. Hine|author2=John Mack Faragher|title=Frontiers: A Short History of the American West|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VPv0qpR4HC0C&pg=PA20|year=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-11710-3|page=20}}</ref> The largest of these [[Canadian canoe routes|canoe networks]] covered much of present-day Canada and central present-day United States.<ref name = Eccles>''The Canadian Frontier 1534–1760'' by W.J. Eccles University of Toronto Published by University of New Mexico Press ISBN 0-8263-0705-1, 1969, revised 1983</ref>

After Champlain’s death in 1635, the [[Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery|Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Jesuit missions in North America|Jesuit establishment]] became the most dominant force in New France and hoped to establish a [[utopia]]n European and Aboriginal Christian community.<ref>{{cite book |first=Li|last= Shenwen|year= 2001|title= Stratégies missionnaires des Jésuites Français en Nouvelle-France et en Chine au XVIIieme siècle |publisher=Les Presses de l'Université Laval, L'Harmattan|page=44|isbn=2-7475-1123-5}}</ref> In 1642, the [[Sulpicians]] sponsored a group of settlers led by [[Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve]], who founded Ville-Marie, precursor to present-day [[Montreal]].<ref name="Miquelon">{{cite web|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/ville-marie-colony/|title=Ville-Marie (Colony)|last=Miquelon|first=Dale|publisher=The Canadian Encyclopedia|accessdate=November 27, 2013}}</ref> In 1663 the [[French crown]] took direct control of the colonies from the [[Company of New France]].<ref name="Hartz1969">{{cite book|author=Louis Hartz|title=The Founding of New Societies: Studies in the History of the United States, Latin America, South Africa, Canada, and Australia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=e7YFyzsBYnEC&pg=PT224|year=1969|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=0-547-97109-5|page=224}}</ref>

Although immigration rates to New France remained very low under direct French control,<ref name="Preston2009">{{cite book|author=David L. Preston|title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43|year=2009|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7|page=43}}</ref> most of the people were farmers, and the rate of population growth among the settlers themselves had been very high.<ref name="McIlwraithMuller2001">{{cite book|author1=Thomas F. McIlwraith|author2=Edward K. Muller|title=North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Fa--xLT_dRYC&pg=PA72|year=2001|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4616-3960-2|page=72}}</ref> The women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who remained in France.<ref name=Landry/> Yves Landry says, "Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time.<ref name=Landry/> This was due to the natural abundance of meat, fish, and pure water; the good food conservation conditions during the winter; and an adequate wheat supply in most years.<ref name=Landry>{{cite book|author=Yves Landry|title=Fertility in France and New France: The Distinguishing Characteristics of Canadian Behavior in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries|jstor=1171305|year=1993|publisher=Université de Montréal|pages=577–592, quote p 586}}</ref> The [[1666 census of New France]] was conducted by [[Intendant of New France|France's intendant]], [[Jean Talon]], in the winter of 1665–1666. The census showed a population count of 3,215 ''[[Acadians]]'' and ''[[habitants]]'' (French-Canadian farmers) in the administrative districts of [[Acadia]] and [[Canada (New France)|Canada]].<ref name=Talon>{{cite web|title=(Census of 1665–1666) Role-playing Jean Talon|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/kits-trousses/jt2-eng.htm|publisher=Statistics Canada|year=2009|accessdate=June 23, 2010}}</ref> The census also revealed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women.<ref name=Histories>{{cite web|title=Statistics for the 1666 Census|url=http://amicus.collectionscanada.gc.ca/aaweb-bin/aamain/itemdisp?sessionKey=999999999_142&l=0&d=2&v=0&lvl=1&itm=30327415|publisher=Library and Archives Canada|year=2006|accessdate=June 24, 2010}}</ref>

===Wars during the colonial era===
{{Further|French and Indian Wars}}
{{See also|Military history of Canada}}
[[File:QueenAnnesWarBefore.svg|thumb|340px|Map of North America in 1702 showing forts, towns and areas occupied by European settlements. Britain (pink), France (blue), and Spain (orange)]]

By the early 1700s the [[List of French forts in North America|New France settlers were well established]] along the shores of the [[Saint Lawrence River]] and parts of Nova Scotia, with a population around 16,000.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estimated population of Canada, 1605 to present|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/98-187-x/4151287-eng.htm|publisher=Statistics Canada|year=2009|accessdate=August 26, 2010}}</ref> However new arrivals stopped coming from France in the proceeding decades,<ref name="Powell2009">{{cite book|author=John Powell|title=Encyclopedia of North American Immigration|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VNCX6UsdZYkC&pg=PA203|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1012-7|page=203}}</ref><ref name="Dale2004">{{cite book|author=Ronald J. Dale|title=The Fall of New France: How the French Lost a North American Empire 1754–1763|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pZmpn3g3UFQC&pg=PR2|year=2004|publisher=James Lorimer & Company|isbn=978-1-55028-840-7|page=2}}</ref><ref name="FindlingThackeray2011">{{cite book|author1=John E. Findling|author2=Frank W. Thackeray|title=What Happened?: An Encyclopedia of Events that Changed America Forever|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=K2YSI904ZNsC&pg=PA38|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-621-8|page=38}}</ref> resulting in the English and Scottish settlers in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the southern [[Thirteen Colonies]] to vastly outnumber the French population approximately ten to one by the 1750s.<ref name="Preston2009"/><ref name="Hart-Davis2012">{{cite book|author=Adam Hart-Davis|title=History: From the Dawn of Civilization to the Present Day|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SCouMhrlDzYC&pg=PA483|year=2012|publisher=DK Publishing|isbn=978-0-7566-9858-4|page=483}}</ref> From 1670, through the [[Hudson's Bay Company]], the English also laid claim to [[Hudson Bay]] and its drainage basin known as [[Rupert's Land]] establishing [[List of Hudson's Bay Company trading posts|new trading posts and forts]], while continued to operate fishing settlements in Newfoundland.<ref name="Porter1994">{{cite book|author=Andrew Neil Porter|title=Atlas of British overseas expansion|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q8EOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA60|year= 1994|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-06347-0|page=60}}</ref> French expansion along the [[Canadian canoe routes]] challenged the Hudson's Bay Company claims, and in 1686, [[Pierre de Troyes, Chevalier de Troyes|Pierre Troyes]] led an [[Hudson Bay expedition (1686)|overland expedition from Montreal to the shore of the bay]], where they managed to capture a handful of outposts.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marsh|first=James|title=Pierre de Troyes|publisher=The Canadian Encyclopedia |url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/pierre-de-troyes/|year= 1988|page= Volume 4, p.2196|accessdate=November 27, 2013}}</ref> [[René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle|La Salle]]'s explorations gave France a claim to the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi River Valley]], where fur trappers and a few settlers set up [[List of French forts in North America#United States|scattered forts and settlements]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hbc.com/hbcheritage/history/people/explorers/samuelhearne.asp |title=Our History: People |accessdate=November 14, 2007 |publisher=Hudson's Bay Company}}</ref>

There were four [[French and Indian Wars]] and two additional wars in Acadia and Nova Scotia between the Thirteen American Colonies and [[New France]] from 1689 to 1763. During [[King William's War]] (1689 to 1697), military conflicts in Acadia included: [[Battle of Port Royal (1690)]]; a naval battle in the Bay of Fundy ([[Action of July 14, 1696]]); and the [[Raid on Chignecto (1696)]] .<ref name="Grenier2008">{{cite book|author=John Grenier|title=The Far Reaches Of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jVG5h6G5fWMC&pg=PA123|year=2008|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3876-3|page=123}}</ref> The [[Treaty of Ryswick]] in 1697 ended the war between the two colonial powers of England and France for a brief time.<ref name="ZuehlkeDaniel2006">{{cite book|author1=Mark Zuehlke|author2=C. Stuart Daniel|title=Canadian Military Atlas: Four Centuries of Conflict from New France to Kosovo|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KyNlm8SuplEC&pg=PA16|year= 2006|publisher=Douglas & McIntyre|isbn=978-1-55365-209-0|pages=16–}}</ref> During [[Queen Anne's War]] (1702 to 1713), the British [[Siege of Port Royal (1710)|Conquest of Acadia]] occurred in 1710,<ref name="Reid2004">{{cite book|author=John G. Reid|title=The "conquest" of Acadia, 1710: imperial, colonial, and aboriginal constructions|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MqJ9qFqWK4IC&pg=PA48|year=2004|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8538-2|pages=48–}}</ref> resulting in Nova Scotia, other than Cape Breton, being officially ceded to the British by the [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaty of Utrecht]] including Rupert's Land, which France had conquered in the late 17th century ([[Battle of Hudson's Bay]]).<ref name="Axelrod2007">{{cite book|author=Alan Axelrod|title=Blooding at Great Meadows: young George Washington and the battle that shaped the man|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7EBKOCt_P0EC&pg=PA62|year=2007|publisher=Running Press|isbn=978-0-7624-2769-7|pages=62–}}</ref> As an immediate result of this setback, France founded the powerful [[Fortress of Louisbourg]] on [[Cape Breton Island]].<ref name="Dale2004">{{cite book|author=Ronald J. Dale|title=The Fall of New France: How the French Lost a North American Empire 1754–1763|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pZmpn3g3UFQC&pg=PA13|year=2004|publisher=James Lorimer & Company|isbn=978-1-55028-840-7|page=13}}</ref>
[[File:A View of the Plundering and Burning of the City of Grymross, by Thomas Davies, 1758.JPG|240px|thumb|left|[[St. John River Campaign]]: ''Raid on Grimrose'' (present day [[Gagetown, New Brunswick]]). This is the only contemporaneous image of the [[Expulsion of the Acadians]]]]

Louisbourg was intended to serve as a year-round military and naval base for France's remaining North American empire and to protect the entrance to the St. Lawrence River. [[Father Rale's War]] resulted in both the fall of New France influence in present-day [[Maine]] and the British recognition of having to negotiate with the Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia. During [[King George's War]] (1744 to 1748), an army of New Englanders led by [[William Pepperrell]] mounted an expedition of 90 vessels and 4,000 men against Louisbourg in 1745.<ref name="Irvin2002">{{cite book|author=Benjamin Irvin|title=Samuel Adams: Son of Liberty, Father of Revolution|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uHeQH1k3HFMC&pg=PA32|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-513225-0|page=32}}</ref> Within three months the fortress surrendered. The return of Louisbourg to French control by the peace treaty prompted the British to found [[City of Halifax|Halifax]] in 1749 under [[Edward Cornwallis]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Thomas H |last=Raddall|title=Halifax, Warden of the North|publisher=McClelland and Stewart Limited|year=1971|pages= 18–21|url=http://www.ourroots.ca/page.aspx?id=1105466&qryID=56f6a64c-ac1e-45ad-85c1-f40e945f6a7e|isbn=1-55109-060-0|accessdate=January 13, 2011}}</ref> Despite the official cessation of war between the British and French empires with the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]]; the conflict in Acadia and Nova Scotia continued on as the [[Father Le Loutre's War]].<ref name="Grenier2008">{{cite book|author=John Grenier|title=The far reaches of empire: war in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jVG5h6G5fWMC&pg=PA138year=2008|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3876-3|pages=138–140|year=2008}}</ref>

The British ordered the Acadians expelled from their lands in 1755 during the [[French and Indian War]], an event called the [[Expulsion of the Acadians]] or ''le Grand Dérangement''.<ref name="Jobb2008">{{cite book|author=Dean W. Jobb|title=The Acadians: A People's Story of Exile and Triumph|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bzksi8dKPCsC&pg=PP296|year=2008|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-15772-5|page=296}}</ref> The "expulsion" resulted in approximately 12,000 Acadians being shipped to destinations throughout Britain's North American and to France, Quebec and the French Caribbean colony of [[Saint-Domingue]].<ref name="Lacoursière1996">{{cite book|author=Jacques Lacoursière|title=Histoire populaire du Québec: De 1841 à 1896. III|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hbrS3bYEzKoC&pg=PP270|year=1996|publisher=Les éditions du Septentrion|isbn=978-2-89448-066-3|page=270}}</ref> The first wave of the expulsion of the Acadians began with the [[Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755)]] and the second wave began after the final [[Siege of Louisbourg (1758)]]. Many of the Acadians settled in southern [[Louisiana]], creating the [[Cajun]] culture there.<ref name=Jacques>{{cite book|author=Jacques Lacoursière|title=Histoire populaire du Québec: De 1841 à 1896. III|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hbrS3bYEzKoC&pg=PA270|accessdate=May 21, 2013|year=1996|publisher=Les éditions du Septentrion|language=French|isbn=978-2-89448-066-3|page=270}}</ref> Some Acadians managed to hide and others eventually returned to Nova Scotia, but they were far outnumbered by a new migration of [[New England Planters]] who were settled on the former lands of the Acadians and transformed Nova Scotia from a colony of occupation for the British to a settled colony with stronger ties to New England.<ref name=Jacques/> Britain eventually gained control of Quebec City and Montreal after the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]] and [[Battle of Fort Niagara]] in 1759, and the [[Battle of the Thousand Islands]] and [[Battle of Sainte-Foy]] in 1760.<ref name="Fryer1993">{{cite book|author=Mary Beacock Fryer|title=More battlefields of Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=543kHhH_ZYQC&pg=PA161|year=1993|publisher=Dundurn Press Ltd.|isbn=978-1-55002-189-9|pages=161–}}</ref>

==Canada under British rule (1763–1867)==
{{Main|Canada under British rule (1763–1867)}}
[[File:NorthAmerica1762-83.png|thumb|right|340px|Map showing British territorial gains following the "Seven Years' War". [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] gains in pink, and Spanish territorial gains after the [[Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762)|Treaty of Fontainebleau]] in yellow.]]

With the end of the [[Seven Years' War]] and the signing of the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]], France ceded almost all of its territory in mainland North America, except for fishing rights off Newfoundland and two small islands where it could dry that fish. In turn France received the return of its sugar colony, Guadeloupe, which it considered more valuable than Canada.<ref name="(Peter)1987b">{{cite book|author=Kerr, Donald P. (Peter)|title=Historical Atlas of Canada [cartographic Material]|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=itsTLSnw8qgC&pg=PA171|year=1987|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-2495-4|page=171}}</ref> As of 2015, Guadeloupe remains a part of the [[French Republic]]. The two small fishing islands, named [[St. Pierre et Miquelon]], are less than 10 kilometers from the coast of [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], yet remain under French rule.

The new British rulers retained and protected most of the property, religious, political, and social culture of the French-speaking ''[[habitants]]'', guaranteeing the right of the ''Canadiens'' to practice the Catholic faith and to the use of [[Law of France|French civil law]] (now [[Quebec law]]) through the [[Quebec Act]] of 1774.<ref>{{cite web|title=Original text of The Quebec Act of 1774|url=http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/PreConfederation/qa_1774.html|publisher=Canadiana (Library and Archives Canada)|date=2004 (1774)|accessdate=April 11, 2010}}</ref> The [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]] had been issued in October, by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] following Great Britain's acquisition of French territory.<ref name=William>{{cite web|title=The Royal Proclamation|url=http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/PreConfederation/rp_1763.html|publisher=The Solon Law Archive|first=William F|last=Maton|year=1996|accessdate=April 11, 2010}}</ref> The proclamation organized [[British colonization of the Americas|Great Britain's new North American empire]] and stabilized relations between [[The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples|the British Crown and Aboriginal peoples]] through regulation of trade, settlement, and land purchases on the [[Frontier|western frontier]].<ref name=William/>

===American Revolution and the Loyalists===
{{Further|Invasion of Canada (1775)}}

During the [[American Revolution]], there was some sympathy for the [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|American cause]] among the [[Acadians]] and the New Englanders in Nova Scotia.<ref name=Kenneth/> Neither party joined the rebels, although several hundred individuals joined the revolutionary cause.<ref name=Kenneth>{{cite book|first=Kenneth |last=McNaught|title=The Pelican History of Canada|publisher=Pelican|page= 2d ed. 53|year=1976|isbn=0-14-021083-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Raddall |first=Thomas Head|title= Halifax Warden of the North|publisher=McClelland and Stewart|page=85|year=2003|isbn=1-55109-060-0}}</ref> An [[Invasion of Canada (1775)|invasion of Canada]] by the [[Continental Army]] in 1775, with a goal to take Quebec from British control, was halted at the [[Battle of Quebec (1775)|Battle of Quebec]] by [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|Guy Carleton]], with the assistance of local militias. The defeat of the British army during the [[Siege of Yorktown]] in October 1781 signaled the end of Britain's struggle to suppress the American Revolution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smuggling.co.uk/history_expansion.html |title=The expansion and final suppression of smuggling in Britain |publisher=Smuggling.co.uk |accessdate=August 23, 2010}}</ref>

[[File:American attack on Quebec.svg|left|thumb|Map of the routes taken by [[Benedict Arnold's expedition to Quebec|Arnold and Montgomery attack expeditions to Quebec]]]]

When the British evacuated [[History of New York City|New York City]] in 1783, they took many Loyalist refugees to Nova Scotia, while other Loyalists went to southwestern Quebec. So many Loyalists arrived on the shores of the [[Saint John River (New Brunswick)|St. John River]] that a separate colony—[[New Brunswick]]—was created in 1784;<ref>{{cite web|title=Territorial Evolution, 1867|url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/auth/english/maps/historical/territorialevolution/1867/1|publisher=Natural Resources Canada|year=2010|accessdate=April 12, 2010}}</ref> followed in 1791 by the division of Quebec into the largely French-speaking [[Lower Canada]] ([[French Canada]]) along the St. Lawrence River and Gaspé Peninsula and an anglophone Loyalist [[Upper Canada]], with its capital settled by 1796 in [[Toronto|York]], in present-day Toronto.<ref name="Armstrong1985">{{cite book|author=F. H. Armstrong|title=Handbook of Upper Canadian Chronology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZL9EJW4v2FYC&pg=PA2|year=1985|publisher=Dundurn|isbn=978-0-919670-92-1|page=2}}</ref> After 1790 most of the new settlers were American farmers searching for new lands; although generally favorable to republicanism, they were relatively non-political and stayed neutral in the [[War of 1812]].<ref>{{cite book|first= Fred |last=Landon |title=Western Ontario and the American Frontier|year=1941|publisher=Carleton University Press|pages=17–22|isbn=0-7710-9734-4}}</ref>

The signing of the [[Treaty of Paris 1783]] formally ended the war. Britain made several concessions to the Americans at the expense of the North American colonies.<ref name=Jones>{{cite book|author=Howard Jones|title=Crucible of power: a history of American foreign relations to 1913|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TFyLOUrdGFwC&pg=PA23|accessdate=September 17, 2011|year=2002|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8420-2916-2|page=23}}</ref> Notably, the [[Canada – United States border|borders between Canada and the United States]] were officially demarcated;<ref name=Jones/> all land south of the Great Lakes, which was formerly a part of the [[Province of Quebec (1763-1791)|Province of Quebec]] and included modern day Michigan, Illinois and Ohio, was ceded to the Americans. Fishing rights were also granted to the United States in the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] and on the coast of Newfoundland and the [[Grand Banks]].<ref name=Jones/> The British ignored part of the treaty and maintained their military outposts in the Great Lakes areas it had ceded to the U.S., and they continued to supply their native allies with munitions. The British evacuated the outposts with the [[Jay Treaty]] of 1795, but the continued supply of munitions irritated the Americans in the run-up to the War of 1812.<ref name="Willig2008">{{cite book|author=Timothy D. Willig|title=Restoring the chain of friendship: British policy and the Indians of the Great Lakes, 1783–1815|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FtzyNOrEjY8C&pg=PP1year=2008|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-4817-5|pages=243–44|year=2008}}</ref>

Lower emphasizes the positive benefits of the Revolution for Americans, making them an energetic people, while for English Canada the results were negative:
<blockquote>[English Canada] inherited, not the benefits, but the bitterness of the Revolution. It got no shining scriptures out of it. It got little release of energy and no new horizons of the spirit were opened up. It had been a calamity, pure and simple.<ref name="Lower1958"/> To take the place of the internal fire that was urging Americans westward across the continent, there was only melancholy contemplation of things as they might have been and dingy reflection of that ineffably glorious world across the stormy Atlantic. English Canada started its life with as powerful a nostalgic shove backward into the past as the Conquest had given to French Canada: two little peoples officially devoted to counter-revolution, to lost causes, to the tawdry ideals of a society of men and masters, and not to the self-reliant freedom alongside of them.<ref name="Lower1958">{{cite book|author=Arthur Reginald Marsden Lower|title=Canadians in the making: a social history of Canada|url=http://www.questia.com/read/982591/canadians-in-the-making-a-social-history-of-canada|year=1958|publisher=Longmans, Green|pages=135–36}}</ref></blockquote>
{{Clear}}

===War of 1812===
[[File:Laura Secord warns Fitzgibbons, 1813.jpg|thumb|240px|[[United Empire Loyalists|Loyalist]] [[Laura Secord]] warning the British ([[James FitzGibbon|Lieutenant – James FitzGibbon]]) and First Nations of an impending [[Battle of Beaver Dams|American attack at Beaver Dams]] June 1813. – by Lorne Kidd Smith, c. 1920]]
{{Main|War of 1812}}

The [[War of 1812]] was fought between the United States and the British, with the British North American colonies being heavily involved.<ref name="ThompsonRandall2002">{{cite book|author1=John Herd Thompson|author2=Stephen J. Randall|title=Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=UVGHdmbzUTwC&pg=PA19|year=2002|publisher=University of Georgia Press|isbn=978-0-8203-2403-6|page=19}}</ref> Greatly outgunned by the [[Royal Navy|British Royal Navy]], the American war plans focused on an invasion of Canada (especially what is today [[Eastern Ontario|eastern]] and [[Southwestern Ontario|western Ontario]]). The American frontier states voted for war to suppress the First Nations raids that frustrated settlement of the frontier.<ref name="ThompsonRandall2002"/> Another goal may have been the annexation of Canada.<ref name="Black2012">{{cite book|author=Jeremy Black|title=The War of 1812 in the Age of Napoleon|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5cFMIJ1gsgAC&pg=PA3|year=2012|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-8525-5|page=3}}</ref> The war on the border with the United States was characterized by a series of multiple failed invasions and fiascos on both sides. American forces took control of [[Lake Erie]] in 1813, driving the British out of western Ontario, killing the Native American leader [[Tecumseh]], and breaking the military power of [[Tecumseh's Confederacy|his confederacy]].<ref>{{cite web
| last = Allen
| first = Robert S
| title = Tecumseh
| publisher=The Canadian Encyclopedia
| year = 2009
| url = http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/search/?keyword=Tecumseh
| accessdate =November 27, 2010}}
</ref> The war was overseen by British army officers like [[Isaac Brock]] and [[Charles de Salaberry]] with the assistance of First Nations and loyalist informants, most notably [[Laura Secord]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Biography of Laura Secord |url=http://www.warof1812.ca/laurasecord.htm |publisher=University of Toronto – Université Laval (from the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online at Libraries and Archives Canada)|year=2000|accessdate=June 21, 2010}}</ref>

The War ended with the [[Treaty of Ghent]] of 1814, and the [[Rush–Bagot Treaty]] of 1817.<ref name="ThompsonRandall2002"/> A demographic result was the shifting of American migration from Upper Canada to [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]] and [[Michigan]].<ref name="ThompsonRandall2002"/> After the war, supporters of Britain tried to repress the [[republicanism in Canada|republicanism]] that was common among American [[Immigration to Canada|immigrants to Canada]].<ref name="ThompsonRandall2002"/> The troubling memory of the war and the American invasions etched itself into the consciousness of Canadians as a distrust of the intentions of the United States towards the British presence in North America.<ref name=Gwyn>{{cite book|author=Richard Gwyn|title=John A: The Man Who Made Us|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CHs8qlWcl4gC&pg=PP1|volume=1|year=2008|publisher=Random House of Canada|isbn=978-0-679-31476-9|page=1}}</ref>pp. 254–255

===Rebellions and the Durham Report===
{{Further|Rebellions of 1837}}

The [[rebellions of 1837]] against the [[British Empire|British colonial government]] took place in both Upper and Lower Canada. In Upper Canada, a band of Reformers under the leadership of [[William Lyon Mackenzie]] took up arms in a disorganized and ultimately unsuccessful series of small-scale skirmishes around Toronto, [[London, Ontario|London]], and [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]].<ref>[http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/scripts/explore.php?Lang=1&tableid=11&tablename=theme&elementid=2__true The 1837–1838 Rebellion in Lower Canada]. McCord Museum's collections. 1999. accessdate December 10, 2006</ref>

[[File:Incendie Parlement Montreal.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Burning of the Parliament Buildings in Montreal|Burning of the Parliament Buildings in Montreal −1849]], [[Joseph Légaré]], c.1849]]

In Lower Canada, a more substantial rebellion occurred against British rule. Both English- and French-Canadian rebels, sometimes using bases in the neutral United States, fought several skirmishes against the authorities. The towns of [[Chambly, Quebec|Chambly]] and [[Sorel, Quebec|Sorel]] were taken by the rebels, and Quebec City was isolated from the rest of the colony. Montreal rebel leader [[Robert Nelson (insurrectionist)|Robert Nelson]] read the "[[Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada]]" to a crowd assembled at the town of [[Napierville, Quebec|Napierville]] in 1838.<ref name=Elinor/> The rebellion of the ''[[Patriote movement]]'' was defeated after battles across Quebec. Hundreds were arrested, and several villages were burnt in reprisal.<ref name=Elinor>{{cite book|author=Allan Greer|title=The Patriots and the People: The Rebellion of the 1837 in Rural Lower Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MF8Im65MTqsC&pg=PA6|year=1993|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-6930-6|page=6}}</ref>

British Government then sent [[John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham|Lord Durham]] to examine the situation; he stayed in Canada only five months before returning to Britain and brought with him his [[Report on the Affairs of British North America (1839)|Durham Report]], which strongly recommended [[responsible government]].<ref name=Responsible/> A less well-received recommendation was the amalgamation of Upper and Lower Canada for the deliberate assimilation of the French-speaking population. [[The Canadas]] were merged into a single colony, the [[United Province of Canada]], by the 1840 [[Act of Union (1840)|Act of Union]], and responsible government was achieved in 1848, a few months after it was accomplished in Nova Scotia.<ref name=Responsible>{{cite web|title=1839–1849, Union and Responsible Government|url=http://www.canadiana.org/citm/themes/constitution/constitution11_e.html|publisher=Canada in the Making project|year=2005|accessdate=April 11, 2010}}</ref> The parliament of [[United Canada]] in Montreal was [[Burning of the Parliament Buildings in Montreal|set on fire by a mob of Tories]] in 1849 after the passing of an indemnity bill for the people who suffered losses during the rebellion in Lower Canada.<ref name="FrancisFrancis2009a">{{cite book|author1=R. D. Francis|author2=Richard Jones, Donald B. Smith, R. D. Francis|author3=Richard Jones|author4=Donald B. Smith|title=Journeys: A History of Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GbbZRIOKclsC&pg=PA147|year= 2009|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-17-644244-6|page=147}}</ref>

Between the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and 1850, some 800,000 immigrants came to the colonies of British North America, mainly from the [[British Isles]], as part of the [[Great Migration of Canada|great migration of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web | publisher=Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis | url = http://www.minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm | title = The Industrial Revolution | accessdate = November 14, 2007 | author=Robert Lucas, Jr. | year = 2003 | quote = it is fairly clear that up to 1800 or maybe 1750, no society had experienced sustained growth in per capita income. (Eighteenth century population growth also averaged one-third of 1 percent, the same as production growth.) That is, up to about two centuries ago, per capita [[real income|incomes]] in all societies were stagnated at around $400 to $800 per year. | authorlink = Robert Lucas, Jr.}}</ref> These included Gaelic-speaking [[Highland Scots]] displaced by the [[Highland Clearances]] to Nova Scotia and Scottish and English settlers to the Canadas, particularly Upper Canada. The Irish Famine of the 1840s significantly increased the pace of [[Irish Catholic]] immigration to British North America, with over 35,000 distressed Irish landing in Toronto alone in 1847 and 1848.<ref>{{cite book|first=Mark |last=McGowan|title=Death or Canada: the Irish Famine Migration to Toronto 1847|publisher=Novalis Publishing Inc|year= 2009|page= 97|isbn=2-89646-129-9}}</ref>

===Pacific colonies===
{{Further|History of British Columbia}}
[[File:Oregoncountry2.png|thumb|260px|Map of the [[Columbia District]], also referred to as [[Oregon Country]].]]

Spanish explorers had taken the lead in the [[Pacific Northwest|Pacific Northwest coast]], with the voyages of [[Juan José Pérez Hernández]] in 1774 and 1775.<ref name=Barman>{{cite book|author=Jean Barman|title=The West beyond the West: a history of British Columbia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_X_aK5pD5kgC&pg=PA20|year=1996|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-7185-9|page=20}}</ref> By the time the Spanish determined to build a fort on [[Vancouver Island]], the British navigator [[James Cook]] had visited [[Nootka Sound]] and charted the coast as far as Alaska, while British and American [[Maritime Fur Trade|maritime fur traders]] had begun a busy era of commerce with [[Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast|the coastal peoples]] to satisfy the brisk market for sea otter pelts in China, thereby launching what became known as the [[Old China Trade|China Trade]].<ref name=Sutton>{{cite book|author=John Sutton Lutz|title=Makúk: A New History of Aboriginal-White Relations|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=J2MNSaoAecIC&pg=PA44|year=2009|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-5827-4|page=44}}</ref>
In 1789 war threatened between Britain and Spain on their respective rights; the [[Nootka Crisis]] was resolved peacefully largely in favor of Britain, the much stronger naval power. In 1793 [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander MacKenzie]], a Canadian working for the [[North West Company]], crossed the continent and with his Aboriginal guides and French-Canadian crew, reached the mouth of the [[Bella Coola River]], completing the first continental crossing north of Mexico, missing [[George Vancouver]]'s charting expedition to the region by only a few weeks.<ref>{{cite book
|first=Margaret
|last=Ormsby
|authorlink = Margaret Ormsby
|title=British Coumbia: A History
|publisher=Macmillan
|year=1976
|url=http://www.questia.com/library/book/british-columbia-a-history-by-margaret-a-ormsby.jsp
|isbn=0-7581-8813-7
|page= 33
|accessdate=April 16, 2010}}</ref> In 1821, the North West Company and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined trading territory that was extended by a licence to the [[North-Western Territory]] and the [[Columbia District|Columbia]] and [[New Caledonia (Canada)|New Caledonia]] fur districts, which reached the Arctic Ocean on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the west.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Our History
|publisher=Hudson's Bay Company
|url=http://www.hbc.com/hbc/history/
|year=2009
|accessdate=April 16, 2010}}</ref>

The [[Colony of Vancouver Island]] was chartered in 1849, with the trading post at [[Fort Victoria (British Columbia)|Fort Victoria]] as the capital. This was followed by the [[Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands]] in 1853, and by the creation of the [[Colony of British Columbia]] in 1858 and the [[Stikine Territory]] in 1861, with the latter three being founded expressly to keep those regions from being overrun and annexed by American gold miners.<ref name=Barman2>{{cite book|author=Jean Barman|title=The West Beyond the West: A History of British Columbia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JbYe6fCOSTAC&pg=PA67|accessdate=September 8, 2013|year=2006|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-7185-9|page=67}}</ref> The Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands and most of the Stikine Territory were merged into the Colony of British Columbia in 1863 (the remainder, north of the 60th Parallel, became part of the [[North-Western Territory]]).<ref name=Barman2/>

===Confederation===
{{Main|Canadian Confederation}}
[[File:Fathers of Confederation LAC c001855.jpg|left|thumb|1885 photo of [[Robert Harris (painter)|Robert Harris']] 1884 painting, ''Conference at Quebec in 1864'', also known as '''[[Fathers of Confederation|The Fathers of Confederation]]'''. The scene is an amalgamation of the [[Charlottetown Conference|Charlottetown]] and [[Quebec Conference, 1864|Quebec City conference]] sites and attendees.]]

The [[Seventy-Two Resolutions]] from the [[Quebec Conference, 1864|1864 Quebec Conference]] and [[Charlottetown Conference]] laid out the framework for uniting British colonies in North America into a federation.<ref name=Confederation/> They had been adopted by the majority of the provinces of Canada and became the basis for the [[London Conference of 1866]], which led to the formation of the Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867.<ref name=Confederation>[[Library and Archives Canada|LAC]]. "[http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/confederation/index-e.html Canadian Confederation]", in the Web site of ''Library and Archives Canada'', January 9, 2006 (ISSN 1713-868X)</ref> The term [[Name of Canada#Adoption of Dominion|''dominion'' was chosen]] to indicate Canada's status as a self-governing colony of the British Empire, the first time it was used about a country.<ref name="Heard">{{cite web|title = Canadian Independence |author=Andrew Heard |url = http://www.sfu.ca/~aheard/324/Independence.html|publisher=Simon Fraser University |year = 1990 |accessdate=April 10, 2010}}</ref> With the coming into force of the [[British North America Act]] (enacted by the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]]), the [[Province of Canada]], New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia became a federated kingdom in its own right.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/101/102-eng.cfm| last=Department of Canadian Heritage| title=Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols Promotion > The crown in Canada| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| accessdate=February 19, 2009}}</ref><ref name=Buck1>{{cite web| url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchAndCommonwealth/Canada/Canada.aspx| last=The Royal Household| title=The Queen and the Commonwealth > Queen and Canada| publisher=Queen's Printer| accessdate=May 14, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.saintjohn.nbcc.nb.ca/heritage/CorporateSeal/heraldry.htm| title=Heritage Saint John > Canadian Heraldry| publisher=Heritage Resources of Saint John and New Brunswick Community College| accessdate=July 3, 2009}}</ref>

Federation emerged from multiple impulses: the British wanted Canada to defend itself; the Maritimes needed railroad connections, which were promised in 1867; British-[[Canadian nationalism]] sought to unite the lands into one country, dominated by the English language and British culture; many French-Canadians saw an opportunity to exert political control within a new largely French-speaking Quebec<ref name=Gwyn/>pp. 323–324 and fears of possible U.S. expansion northward.<ref name="Heard"/> On a political level, there was a desire for the expansion of responsible government and elimination of the legislative deadlock between Upper and Lower Canada, and their replacement with provincial legislatures in a federation.<ref name="Heard"/> This was especially pushed by the liberal [[Reform movement (pre-Confederation Canada)|Reform movement]] of Upper Canada and the French-Canadian ''[[Parti rouge]]'' in Lower Canada who favored a decentralized union in comparison to the Upper Canadian Conservative party and to some degree the French-Canadian ''[[Parti bleu]]'', which favored a centralized union.<ref name="Heard"/><ref>{{cite book|first=Paul |last=Romney|title=Getting it Wrong: How Canadians Forgot Their Past and Imperiled Confederation|year=1999 |page=78|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_7023/is_30/ai_n28817944/|accessdate=August 24, 2010}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Post-Confederation Canada 1867–1914==
[[File:Battle of Fish Creek.jpg|right|thumb|240px|The [[Battle of Fish Creek]], fought April 24, 1885, at [[Fish Creek (Saskatchewan)|Fish Creek, Saskatchewan]], was a major [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] victory over the [[Canada|Dominion of Canada]] forces attempting to quell [[Louis Riel]]'s [[North-West Rebellion]].]]
{{Main|Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914)}}
{{Further|Territorial evolution of Canada}}

In 1866, the Colony of British Columbia and the Colony of Vancouver Island merged into a [[United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia|single Colony of British Columbia]], until their incorporation into the Canadian Confederation in 1871.<ref name=Canadiana/> In 1873, [[Prince Edward Island]], the Maritime colony that had opted not to join Confederation in 1867, was admitted into the country.<ref name=Canadiana>{{cite web|title=1867–1931: Territorial Expansion|url=http://www.canadiana.org/citm/themes/constitution/constitution14_e.html|publisher=Canadiana (Canada in the Making)|year=2009|accessdate=April 11, 2010}}</ref> That year, [[John A. Macdonald]] ([[List of Prime Ministers of Canada|First Prime Minister of Canada]]) created the [[North-West Mounted Police]] (now the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]]) to help police the [[Northwest Territories]].<ref name=rcmp/> Specifically the Mounties were to assert Canadian sovereignty over possible American encroachments into the sparsely populated land.<ref name=rcmp>{{cite web|title=The RCMP's History |url=http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/hist/index-eng.htm|publisher=Royal Canadian Mounted Police|year=2009|accessdate=April 12, 2010}}</ref>

The Mounties' first large-scale mission was to suppress the second independence movement by [[Manitoba]]'s [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]], a [[mixed blood]] people of joint First Nations and European descent, who originated in the mid-17th century.<ref name=testt>{{cite web
| title = What to Search: Topics-Canadian Genealogy Centre-Library and Archives Canada
| work=Ethno-Cultural and Aboriginal Groups
| publisher=Government of Canada
| date = May 27, 2009
| url = http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/genealogie/022-905.004-e.html
| accessdate =October 2, 2009}}
</ref> The desire for independence erupted in the [[Red River Rebellion]] in 1869 and the later [[North-West Rebellion]] in 1885 led by [[Louis Riel]].<ref name=rcmp/><ref name=Boulton>Boulton, Charles A. (1886) [http://wsb.datapro.net/rebellions/index.html Reminiscences of the North-West Rebellions]. Toronto. 2008. Retrieved 2010.</ref> In 1905 when [[Saskatchewan]] and [[Alberta]] were admitted as provinces, they were growing rapidly thanks to [[Agriculture in Canada|abundant wheat crops]] that attracted immigration to the plains by [[Ukrainian Canadian|Ukrainians]] and Northern and Central Europeans and by settlers from the United States, Britain and eastern Canada.<ref name=AoC-dominion>{{cite web| title = Territorial evolution| work=Atlas of Canada | publisher=Natural Resources Canada | url =http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference/anniversary_maps/terr_evol | accessdate = October 9, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = Canada: History| work=Country Profiles | publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat | url =http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookInternal/145152/history/ | accessdate = October 9, 2007}}</ref>

[[File:Detroit Photographic Company (0946).jpg|left|thumb|A [[photochrome]] postcard showing downtown [[Montreal]], circa 1910. Canada's population became urbanized during the 20th century.]]

The [[Alaska boundary dispute]], simmering since the [[Alaska purchase]] of 1867, became critical when gold was discovered in the [[Yukon]] during the late 1890s, with the U.S. controlling all the possible ports of entry. Canada argued its boundary included the port of [[Skagway]]. The dispute went to arbitration in 1903, but the British delegate sided with the Americans, angering Canadians who felt the British had betrayed Canadian interests to curry favour with the U.S.<ref name="D.M.L.FARR">{{cite web|year=2009 |url = http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/alaska-boundary-dispute/|title = Alaska Boundary Dispute|publisher=The Canadian Encyclopedia| accessdate = November 27, 2013 | last=D.M.L. FARR}}</ref>

In 1893, legal experts codified a framework of civil and criminal law, culminating in the [[Criminal Code of Canada]]. This solidified the liberal ideal of "equality before the law" in a way that made an abstract principle into a tangible reality for every adult Canadian.<ref>Ian McKay, "The Liberal Order Framework: A Prospectus for a Reconnaissance of Canadian History" (2000)</ref> [[Wilfrid Laurier]] who served 1896–1911 as the Seventh Prime Minister of Canada felt Canada was on the verge of becoming a world power, and declared that the 20th century would "belong to Canada"<ref name=Herd>{{cite book|first=John Herd |last=Thompson |first2=Stephen J |last2=Randall|title=Canada and the United States: ambivalent allies|year=2008|page= 79|isbn= 0-8203-2403-5}}</ref>

Laurier signed a reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would lower tariffs in both directions. Conservatives under [[Robert Borden]] denounced it, saying it would integrate Canada's economy into that of the U.S. and loosen ties with Britain. The Conservative party won the [[Canadian federal election, 1911]].<ref>L. Ethan Ellis, ''Reciprocity, 1911: A Study in Canadian-American Relations'' (1939) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94573370 online]</ref>

==World Wars and Interwar Years 1914–1945==
[[File:Canada WWI Victory Bonds2.jpg|thumb|upright|World War I poster for 1918– [[war bond#Canada|Canadian victory bond]] drive, depicts three French women pulling a plow.]]
{{Main|Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years}}

===First World War===
{{main|Military history of Canada during World War I}}

The [[Canadian Forces]] and [[People of Canada|civilian]] participation in the First World War helped to foster a sense of [[Canada – United Kingdom relations|British-Canadian nationhood]]. The highpoints of [[Military history of Canada during the First World War|Canadian military achievement during the First World War]] came during the [[Battle of the Somme|Somme]], [[Battle of Vimy Ridge|Vimy]], [[Second Battle of Passchendaele|Passchendaele]] battles and what later became known as "[[Canada's Hundred Days]]".<ref name=cook>{{Cite journal|last = Cook|first = Tim| title = 'A Proper Slaughter': The March 1917 Gas Raid at Vimy| journal=Canadian Military History| volume = 8| issue = 2| pages = 7–24| publisher=Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies| year = 1999| url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%208/Issue%202/Cook%20-%20A%20Proper%20Slaughter%20-%20The%20March%201917%20Gas%20Attack%20at%20Vimy%20Ridge.pdf| accessdate = April 10, 2010|format=PDF|postscript = {{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> The reputation Canadian troops earned, along with the success of Canadian flying aces including [[William George Barker]] and [[Billy Bishop]], helped to give the [[Canadian identity|nation a new sense of identity]].<ref>Bashow, Lieutenant-Colonel David. [http://www.billybishop.net/incomparable.html "The Incomparable Billy Bishop: The Man and the Myths."] ''Canadian Military Journal'', Volume 3, Issue 4, Autumn 2002, pp. 55–60. Retrieved: September 1, 2008.</ref> The [[War Office]] in 1922 reported approximately 67,000 killed and 173,000 wounded during the war.<ref name="The War Office 1922 237"/> This excludes civilian deaths in war-time incidents like the [[Halifax Explosion]].<ref name="The War Office 1922 237">{{cite book |title=Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War 1914–1920|last=The War Office |authorlink=War Office |year=1922 |publisher=Reprinted by Naval & Military Press |isbn=1-84734-681-2 |page=237}}</ref>

Support for Great Britain during the First World War caused a major [[Conscription Crisis of 1917|political crisis over conscription]], with [[Francophones]], mainly from Quebec, [[Military Service Act (Canada)|rejecting national policies]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.histori.ca/peace/page.do?pageID=278 |title=The Conscription Crisis of 1917 |publisher=Histori.ca |date=August 29, 1917 |accessdate=August 10, 2010}}</ref> During the crisis, large numbers of enemy aliens (especially Ukrainians and Germans) were put under government controls.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lermuseum.org/ler/mh/wwi/homefront1917.html |title=Military History: First World War: Homefront, 1917 |publisher=Lermuseum.org |accessdate=August 10, 2010}}</ref> The [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal party]] was deeply split, with most of its [[English Canadian|Anglophone]] leaders joining the [[Unionist Party (Canada)|unionist government]] headed by Prime Minister [[Robert Borden]], the leader of the [[Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942)|Conservative party]].<ref name="Bothwell1998">{{cite book|author=Robert Bothwell|title=Canada and Quebec: one country, two histories|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IftRWNt_0bcC&pg=PA57|year=1998|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-0653-4|page=57}}</ref> The Liberals regained their influence after the war under the leadership of [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], who served as prime minister with three separate terms between 1921 and 1949.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Robert Craig |last1=Brown|first2= Ramsay |last2=Cook|title=Canada, 1896–1921 A Nation Transformed|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|year=1974|page= ch 13|isbn=0-7710-2268-9}}</ref>

===Woman suffrage===
{{further|History of Canadian women#Feminism and woman suffrage}}
{{See also|Canadian women during the world wars}}
[[File:Canadian nurses voting 1917.jpg|left|thumb|On September 20, 1917, women gained a limited right to vote. The nursing sisters at the [[Canadian women during the World Wars|Canadian hospital in France during World War I]] were among the first women to vote in any general election]]

Women's political status without the vote was vigorously promoted by the [[National Council of Women of Canada]] from 1894 to 1918. It promoted a vision of "transcendent citizenship" for women. The ballot was not needed, for citizenship was to be exercised through personal influence and moral suasion, through the election of men with strong moral character, and through raising public-spirited sons.<ref name=Marie/> The National Council position reflected its nation-building program that sought to uphold Canada as a White settler nation. While the woman suffrage movement was important for extending the political rights of White women, it was also authorized through race-based arguments that linked White women's enfranchisement to the need to protect the nation from "racial degeneration."<ref name=Marie>Anne-Marie. Kinahan, "Transcendent Citizenship: Suffrage, the National Council of Women of Canada, and the Politics of Organized Womanhood," ''Journal of Canadian Studies'' (2008) 42#3 pp 5–27</ref>

Women did have a local vote in some provinces, as in [[Canada West]] from 1850, where women owning land could vote for school trustees. By 1900 other provinces adopted similar provisions, and in 1916 Manitoba took the lead in extending full woman's suffrage.<ref>{{cite web|author=Susan Jackel |url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/womens-suffrage/ |title=Women's Suffrage |publisher=The Canadian Encyclopedia |accessdate=November 27, 2013}}</ref> Simultaneously suffragists gave strong support to the prohibition movement, especially in Ontario and the Western provinces.<ref>John H. Thompson, "'The Beginning of Our Regeneration': The Great War and Western Canadian Reform Movements," ''Canadian Historical Association Historical Papers'' (1972), pp 227–245.</ref><ref>Paul Voisey, "'The "Votes For Women' Movement," ''Alberta History'' (1975) 23#3 pp 10–23</ref>

The [[Military Voters Act]] of 1917 gave the vote to British women who were war widows or had sons or husbands serving overseas. [[Unionist Party (Canada)|Unionists]] Prime Minister Borden pledged himself during the 1917 campaign to equal suffrage for women. After his landslide victory, he introduced a bill in 1918 for extending the franchise to women. This passed without division, but did not apply to Quebec provincial and municipal elections. The women of Quebec gained full suffrage in 1940. The first woman elected to Parliament was [[Agnes Macphail]] of Ontario in 1921.<ref>Catherine Cleverdon, ''The woman suffrage movement in Canada: The Start of Liberation, 1900–20'' (2nd ed. 1974)</ref>

===Interwar===
[[File:League of Nations Anachronous Map.png|300px|thumb| Anachronous map of the world between 1920 and 1945 which shows The [[League of Nations]] and the world.]]

====On the world stage====
As a result of its contribution to Allied victory in the First World War, Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority. Convinced that Canada had proven itself the battlefields of Europe, Prime Minister [[Sir Robert Borden]] demanded that it have a separate seat at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] in 1919. This was initially opposed not only by Britain but also by the United States, which saw such a delegation as an extra British vote. Borden responded by pointing out that since Canada had lost nearly 60,000 men, a far larger proportion of its men, its right to equal status as a nation had been consecrated on the battlefield. British Prime Minister [[David Lloyd George]] eventually relented, and convinced the reluctant Americans to accept the presence of delegations from Canada, [[British Raj|India]], Australia, [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]], New Zealand and South Africa. These also received their own seats in the League of Nations.<ref>L.F. Fitzhardinge, "Hughes, Borden, and Dominion Representation at the Paris Peace Conference," ''Canadian Historical Review'' (1968) 49#2 pp 160–169.</ref> Canada asked for neither reparations nor mandates. It played only a modest role at Paris, but just having a seat was a matter of pride. It was cautiously optimistic about the new League of Nations, in which it played an active and independent role.<ref>Margaret McMillan, "Canada and the Peace Settlements," in David Mackenzie, ed., ''Canada and the First World War'' (2005) pp 379–408</ref>

In 1923 British Prime Minister, [[David Lloyd George]], appealed repeatedly for Canadian support in the [[Chanak crisis]], in which a war threatened between Britain and Turkey. Canada refused.<ref name="Dawson1959">{{cite book|author=Robert MacGregor Dawson|title=William Lyon Mackenzie King: 1874–1923|year=1959|publisher=University of Toronto Press|pages=401–22}}</ref> The [[Department of External Affairs (Canada)|Department of External Affairs]], which had been founded in 1909, was expanded and promoted Canadian autonomy as Canada reduced its reliance on British diplomats and used its own foreign service.<ref name="HillikerCanada1990">{{cite book|author1=John Hilliker|author2=Institute of Public Administration of Canada|title=Canada's Department of External Affairs: The early years, 1909–1946|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MZD0inJnMJQC&pg=PA3|year=1990|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-0751-7|page=3}}</ref> Thus began the careers of such important diplomats as [[Norman Robertson]] and [[Hume Wrong]], and future prime minister [[Lester Pearson]].<ref>John English, ''Shadown of Heaven: The Life of Lester Pearson'', volume one, (1992)</ref>

In 1931 the British Parliament passed the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] which gave each dominion the opportunity for almost complete legislative independence from London.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/federal/1931.htm|title=The Statute of Westminster|publisher=Marianopolis College|first=Claude |last=Bélanger|year=2001|accessdate = April 10, 2010}}</ref> While Newfoundland never adopted the statute, for Canada the Statute of Westminster became its declaration of independence.<ref>Norman Hillmer, ''Statute of Westminster: Canada's Declaration of Independence'', ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' Retrieved April 20, 2009.</ref>

====Domestic affairs====
In 1921 to 1926, [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]]'s Liberal government pursued a conservative domestic policy with the object of lowering wartime taxes and, especially, cooling wartime ethnic tensions, as well as defusing postwar labour conflicts. The Progressives refused to join the government, but did help the Liberals defeat non-confidence motions. King faced a delicate balancing act of reducing tariffs enough to please the Prairie-based Progressives, but not too much to alienate his vital support in industrial Ontario and Quebec, which needed tariffs to compete with American imports. King and Conservative leader [[Arthur Meighen]] sparred constantly and bitterly in Commons debates.<ref>Dawson (1958) ch 14, 15</ref> The Progressives gradually weakened. Their effective and passionate leader, [[Thomas Crerar]], resigned to return to his grain business, and was replaced by the more placid [[Robert Forke]]. The socialist reformer [[J.S. Woodsworth]] gradually gained influence and power among the Progressives, and he reached an accommodation with King on policy matters.<ref>Bruce Hutchison, ''The Incredible Canadian'' (1952), pp. 76–78.</ref>

In 1926 Prime Minister Mackenzie King advised the [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]], [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Lord Byng]], to dissolve Parliament and call another election, but Byng refused, the only time that the Governor General has exercised such a power. Instead Byng called upon Meighen, the Conservative Party leader, to form a government.<ref name="RussellSossin2009">{{cite book|author1=Peter H. Russell|author2=Lorne Sossin|title=Parliamentary Democracy in Crisis|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=f9uIZ12yh-UC&pg=PT232|year=2009|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-9337-1|page=232}}</ref> Meighen attempted to do so, but was unable to obtain a majority in the Commons and he, too, advised dissolution, which this time was accepted. The episode, the [[King-Byng Affair]], marks a constitutional crisis that was resolved by a new tradition of complete non-interference in Canadian political affairs on the part of the British government.<ref name="GillisR1986">{{cite book|author1=R. Peter Gillis|author2=Roach, Thomas R|title=Lost Initiatives: Canada's Forest Industries, Forest Policy, and Forest Conservation|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ctg3XjgBs3wC&pg=PA219|year=1986|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-25415-4|page=219}}</ref>

===Great Depression===
{{main|Great Depression in Canada}}
[[File:UnemployedMarch.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Unemployed men march in Toronto]]

Canada was hard hit by the worldwide [[Great Depression]] that began in 1929. Between 1929 and 1933, the gross national product dropped 40% (compared to 37% in the US). Unemployment reached 27% at the depth of the Depression in 1933.<ref name=f1/> Many businesses closed, as corporate profits of $396 million in 1929 turned into losses of $98 million in 1933. Canadian exports shrank by 50% from 1929 to 1933. Construction all but stopped (down 82%, 1929–33), and wholesale prices dropped 30%. Wheat prices plunged from 78c per bushel (1928 crop) to 29c in 1932.<ref name=f1>M.C. Urquhart, ed. ''Historical Statistics of Canada'' (1965) series F1-F13</ref>

Urban unemployment nationwide was 19%; Toronto's rate was 17%, according to the census of 1931. Farmers who stayed on their farms were not considered unemployed.<ref>Canada, Bureau of the Census, ''Unemployment'' Vol. VI (Ottawa 1931), pp. 1, 267</ref> By 1933, 30% of the labour force was out of work, and one fifth of the population became dependent on government assistance. Wages fell as did prices. Worst hit were areas dependent on primary industries such as farming, mining and logging, as prices fell and there were few alternative jobs. Most families had moderate losses and little hardship, though they too became pessimistic and their debts become heavier as prices fell. Some families saw most or all of their assets disappear, and suffered severely.<ref name="Berton2012">{{cite book|author=Pierre Berton|title=The Great Depression: 1929–1939|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vuVOyizWolgC&pg=PP1|year=2012|publisher=Doubleday Canada|isbn=978-0-307-37486-8|pages=2–613}}</ref><ref name="Neatby2003">{{cite book|author=H Blair Neatby|title=The Politics of Chaos : Canada in the Thirties|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MpmjZNrPqgoC&pg=PP1|year=2003|publisher=Dundurn|isbn=978-1-894908-01-6|pages=1–162}}</ref>

In 1930, in the first stage of the long depression, Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King|Mackenzie King]] believed that the crisis was a temporary swing of the business cycle and that the economy would soon recover without government intervention. He refused to provide unemployment relief or federal aid to the provinces, saying that if Conservative provincial governments demanded federal dollars, he would not give them "a five cent piece."<ref>Neatby, ''William Lyon Mackenzie King,'' 2:312, 318</ref> His blunt wisecrack was used to defeat the Liberals in the [[Canadian federal election, 1930|1930 election]]. The main issue was the rapid deterioration in the economy and whether the prime minister was out of touch with the hardships of ordinary people.<ref name="Berton2012b">{{cite book|author=Pierre Berton|title=The Great Depression: 1929–1939|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vuVOyizWolgC&pg=PP54|year=2012|publisher=Doubleday Canada|isbn=978-0-307-37486-8|page=54}}</ref><ref name="Morton1999">{{cite book|author=Desmond Morton|title=Working People: An Illustrated History of the Canadian Labour Movement|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=E_-19s_1NOYC&pg=PP139|year=1999|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-7554-7|page=139}}</ref> The winner of the 1930 election was [[Richard Bedford Bennett]] and the Conservatives. Bennett had promised high tariffs and large-scale spending, but as deficits increased, he became wary and cut back severely on Federal spending. With falling support and the depression getting only worse, Bennett attempted to introduce policies based on the [[New Deal]] of President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] (FDR) in the United States, but he got little passed. Bennett's government became a focus of popular discontent. For example, auto owners saved on gasoline by using horses to pull their cars, dubbing them [[Bennett Buggy|Bennett Buggies]]. The Conservative failure to restore prosperity led to the return of Mackenzie King's Liberals in the [[Canadian federal election, 1935|1935 election]].<ref>{{cite book|author=J. R. H. Wilbur|title=The Bennett New Deal: Fraud or Portent?|year=1968|publisher=Copp Clark |pages=78–112, 147–90}}</ref>

[[File:Kamloops on to Ottawa.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Strikers from unemployment relief camps climbing on boxcars in [[Kamloops, British Columbia]]]]

In 1935, the Liberals used the slogan "King or Chaos" to win a landslide in the [[Canadian federal election, 1935|1935 election]].<ref>H. Blair Neatby, ''William Lyon Mackenzie King: 1932–1939'' (1976) pp 143–48.</ref> Promising a much-desired trade treaty with the U.S., the Mackenzie King government passed the 1935 Reciprocal Trade Agreement. It marked the turning point in Canadian-American economic relations, reversing the disastrous trade war of 1930–31, lowering tariffs, and yielding a dramatic increase in trade.<ref>Marc T. Boucher, "The Politics of Economic Depression: Canadian-American Relations in the Mid-1930s." ''International Journal'' 1985–1986 41(1): 3–36</ref>

The worst of the Depression had passed by 1935, as Ottawa launched relief programs such as the National Housing Act and National Employment Commission. The [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] became a [[crown corporation]] in 1936. Trans-Canada Airlines (the precursor to [[Air Canada]]) was formed in 1937, as was the [[National Film Board of Canada]] in 1939. In 1938, Parliament transformed the [[Bank of Canada]] from a private entity to a crown corporation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bankofcanada.ca/about/who-we-are/ |title=Who we are |work=Bank of Canada |accessdate=June 9, 2011}}</ref>

One political response was a highly restrictive immigration policy and a rise in [[Nativism (politics)|nativism]].<ref>[http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/readings/CanadaandJewishRefugeesinthe1930s.html Claude Bélanger, "Why did Canada Refuse to Admit Jewish Refugees in 1930s?"]</ref>

Times were especially hard in western Canada, where a full recovery did not occur until the Second World War began in 1939. One response was the creation of new political parties such as the [[Canadian social credit movement|Social Credit movement]] and the [[Cooperative Commonwealth Federation]], as well as popular protest in the form of the [[On-to-Ottawa Trek]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The On-to-Ottawa Trek|url=http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/calgary/onottawa.html |publisher=The University of Calgary (The Applied History Research Group)|year=1997|accessdate=April 12, 2010}}</ref>

===Second World War===
{{Further|Military history of Canada during the Second World War}}
[[File:Crew of a Sherman-tank south of Vaucelles.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Canadian crew of a [[M4 Sherman|Sherman tank]] in [[Vaucelles]], France, after [[Normandy landings|D-day]] south of [[Juno Beach]], June 1944]]

[[Military history of Canada during the Second World War|Canada's involvement in the Second World War]] began when Canada declared war on [[Nazi Germany]] on September 10, 1939, delaying it one week after Britain acted to symbolically demonstrate independence. The war restored Canada's economic health and its self-confidence, as it played a major role in the Atlantic and in Europe. During the war, Canada became more closely linked to the U.S. The Americans took virtual control of [[Yukon]] in order to build the [[Alaska Highway]], and were a major presence in the British colony of [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]] with major airbases.<ref>Galen Roger Perras, ''Franklin Roosevelt and the Origins of the Canadian-American Security Alliance, 1933–1945: Necessary, but Not Necessary Enough'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=27381179 online edition]</ref>

Mackenzie King — and Canada — were largely ignored by [[Winston Churchill]] and the British government despite Canada's major role in supplying food, raw materials, munitions and money to the hard-pressed British economy, training airmen for the Commonwealth, guarding the western half of the [[North Atlantic Ocean]] against German U-boats, and providing combat troops for the invasions of Italy, France and Germany in 1943–45. The government successfully mobilized the economy for war, with impressive results in industrial and agricultural output. The depression ended, prosperity returned, and Canada's economy expanded significantly. On the political side, Mackenzie King rejected any notion of a government of national unity.<ref>{{cite book|author=J. L. Granatstein|title=Canada's war: the politics of the Mackenzie King government, 1939–1945|year=1975|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=206–7}}</ref> The [[Canadian federal election, 1940]] was held as normally scheduled, producing another majority for the Liberals.

Building up the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] was a high priority; it was kept separate from Britain's [[Royal Air Force]]. The [[British Commonwealth Air Training Plan]] Agreement, signed in December 1939, bound Canada, Britain, New Zealand, and Australia to a program that eventually trained half the airmen from those four nations in the Second World War.<ref>C. P. Stacey, ''Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada, 1939–1945'' (1970) pp 17–31</ref>

After the start of war with Japan in December 1941, the government, in cooperation with the U.S., began the [[Japanese-Canadian internment]], which sent 22,000 British Columbia residents of Japanese descent to relocation camps far from the coast. The reason was intense public demand for removal and fears of espionage or sabotage.<ref name="Barman2007">{{cite book|author=Jean Barman|title="The" West Beyond the West: A History of British Columbia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JbYe6fCOSTAC&pg=PA266|accessdate=May 21, 2013|year=2007|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-9309-7|pages=346–}}</ref> The government ignored reports from the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police|RCMP]] and Canadian military that most of the Japanese were law-abiding and not a threat.<ref>Major General Ken Stuart told Ottawa, "I cannot see that the Japanese Canadians constitute the slightest menace to national security." quoted in Ann Gomer Sunahara, ''The Politics of Racism: The Uprooting of Japanese Canadians During the Second World War,'' (1981) pg. 23.</ref>

[[File:KingPlebicite.jpg|thumb|upright|William Mackenzie King voting in the plebiscite on the introduction of conscription for overseas military service]]

The [[Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945)|Battle of the Atlantic]] began immediately, and from 1943 to 1945 was led by [[Leonard W. Murray]], from Nova Scotia. German [[U-boat]]s operated in Canadian and Newfoundland waters throughout the war, sinking many naval and merchant vessels, as Canada took charge of the defenses of the western Atlantic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://naval.review.cfps.dal.ca/archive/1131599-7568616/vol1num1art5.pdf|format=PDF|title=The Battle of the Atlantic|publisher=Canadian Naval Review|year=2005|accessdate=August 24, 2010}}</ref> The [[History of the Canadian Army|Canadian army]] was involved in the failed [[Battle of Hong Kong|defence of Hong Kong]], the unsuccessful [[Dieppe Raid]] in August 1942, the [[Allied invasion of Italy]], and the highly successful [[Invasion of Normandy|invasion of France and the Netherlands]] in 1944–45.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Brereton Greenhous, |author2=W. A. B. Douglas|title=Out of the Shadows: Canada in the Second World War|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VdRIRg_fLXwC|year=1996|publisher=Dundurn Press Ltd.|isbn=9781554882601}} chapters 4, 6–9</ref>

The [[Conscription Crisis of 1944]] greatly affected unity between French and English-speaking Canadians, though was not as politically intrusive as that of the First World War.<ref name="FrancisFrancis2009">{{cite book|author1=R. D. Francis|author2=Richard Jones, Donald B. Smith, R. D. Francis|author3=Richard Jones|author4=Donald B. Smith|title=Journeys: A History of Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GbbZRIOKclsC&pg=PA428|year=2009|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-17-644244-6|page=428}}</ref> Of a population of approximately 11.5 million, 1.1 million Canadians served in the armed forces in the Second World War. Many thousands more served with the [[Canadian Merchant Navy]].<ref name="Johnston2008">{{cite book|author=Mac Johnston|title=Corvettes Canada: Convoy Veterans of WWII Tell Their True Stories|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ig-A36yZ4rMC&pg=PT24|year=2008|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-0-470-15698-8|page=24}}</ref> In all, more than 45,000 died, and another 55,000 were wounded.<ref name=Sandler>{{cite book|author=Stanley Sandler|title=Ground Warfare: H-Q|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=L_xxOM85bD8C&pg=PA159|year=2002|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-344-5|page=159}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Office of the Premier |url=http://www2.news.gov.bc.ca/archive/2001-2005/2003OTP0034-000464.htm |title=PROVINCE DONATES $1 Million TO HONOUR WW II VETERANS |publisher=.news.gov.bc.ca |year=2003 |accessdate=August 8, 2010}}</ref>

==Post-war Era 1945–1960==
{{Main|History of Canada (1945–1960)}}

Prosperity returned to Canada during the Second World War and continued in the proceeding years, with the development of [[Health care in Canada|universal health care]], [[Canada Pension Plan|old-age pensions]], and [[Veterans Affairs Canada|veterans' pensions]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/second-world-war-wwii/#h3_jump_13 |title=World War II: Cost and Significance|publisher=The Canadian Encyclopedia|year=2009|accessdate=November 27, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/i11/2 |title=Migration | Multicultural Canada |publisher=Multicultural Canada |year=2008 |accessdate=August 23, 2010}}</ref> The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the [[Dominion of Newfoundland]] to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a [[Crown colony|crown colony ruled]] by a British governor.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dominion of Newfoundland|url=http://fcinternet.hwdsb.on.ca/~nathan.tidridge/S010EAA85.48/Dominion%20of%20Newfoundland.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board|year=1999|accessdate=April 13, 2010}}</ref> In 1948, the British government gave voters three [[Newfoundland referendums, 1948|Newfoundland Referendum]] choices: remaining a crown colony, returning to Dominion status (that is, independence), or joining Canada. Joining the United States was not made an option. After bitter debate Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Karl Mcneil | first1 = Earle | year =1998 | title = Cousins of a Kind: The Newfoundland and Labrador Relationship with the United States | url = | journal = American Review of Canadian Studies | volume = 28 | issue = | page = }}</ref>

[[File:DSC 6934 - Canadian Pride.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow]] (Recreation).]]

The foreign policy of [[Canada in the Cold War|Canada during the Cold War]] was closely tied to that of the United States. Canada was a founding member of [[NATO]] (which Canada wanted to be a transatlantic economic and political union as well<ref>The Economist, May 9–15, 2009, pg 80, "A 60-year-old dream
"</ref>). In 1950, Canada sent combat troops to Korea during the [[Canada in the Korean War|Korean War]] as part of the United Nations forces. The federal government's desire to assert its [[territorial claims in the Arctic]] during the Cold War manifested with the [[High Arctic relocation]], in which Inuit were moved from [[Nunavik]] (the northern third of Quebec) to barren [[Cornwallis Island (Nunavut)|Cornwallis Island]];<ref name="McGrath2009">{{cite book|author=Melanie McGrath|title=The Long Exile: A Tale of Inuit Betrayal and Survival in the High Arctic|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7p3rBU6aDb0C|accessdate=May 21, 2013|date=March 12, 2009|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-53786-7|pages=??}}</ref> this project was later the subject of a long investigation by the [[Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The High Arctic Relocation: A Report on the 1953–55 Relocation (Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples)|first1=René |last1=Dussault |first2=George |last2=Erasmus|publisher=Canadian Government Publishing |year=1994 |page=190 |url=http://www.fedpubs.com/subject/aborig/arctic_reloc.htm |accessdate=June 20, 2010}}</ref>

In 1956, the [[History of United Nations peacekeeping|United Nations responded]] to the [[Suez Crisis]] by convening a [[United Nations Emergency Force]] to supervise the withdrawal of invading forces. The peacekeeping force was initially conceptualized by [[Secretary of State for External Affairs (Canada)|Secretary of External Affairs]] and future Prime Minister [[Lester B. Pearson]].<ref name=nobel>{{cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1957/pearson.html |title=The Nobel Peace Prize 1957 |accessdate=April 12, 2010|publisher=Nobel Foundation}}</ref> Pearson was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1957 for his work in establishing the peacekeeping operation.<ref name=nobel/> Throughout the mid-1950s, [[Louis St. Laurent]] (12th Prime Minister of Canada) and his successor [[John Diefenbaker]] attempted to create a new, highly advanced jet fighter, the [[Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow|Avro Arrow]].<ref name=Avro>{{cite web|title=ADA-Avro Arrow Archives-AVRO CF-105 ARROW|url=http://www.avroarrow.org/AvroArrow/index.html|publisher=Arrow Digital Archives|year=2009|accessdate=April 13, 2010}}</ref> The controversial aircraft was cancelled by Diefenbaker in 1959. Diefenbaker instead purchased the [[BOMARC]] missile defense system and American aircraft. In 1958 Canada established (with the United States) the [[North American Aerospace Defense Command]] (NORAD).<ref>{{cite web|title=North American Aerospace Defence (NORAD)|url=http://www.airforce.forces.gc.ca/v2/hst/page-eng.asp?id=614|publisher=Canada's Air Force (National Defence)|year=2009|accessdate=April 13, 2010}}</ref>

==1960–1981==
{{Main|History of Canada (1960–1981)}}

In the 1960s, what became known as the [[Quiet Revolution]] took place in Quebec, overthrowing the old establishment which centred on the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quebec]] and led to modernizing of the economy and society.<ref name="AlexanderYoung2003">{{cite book|author1=Dickinson, John Alexander|author2=Brian J. Young|title=A short history of Quebec|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kRHmr-rDFrwC&pg=PA372|year=2003|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-7033-7|page=372}}</ref> [[Quebec nationalism|Québécois nationalists]] demanded independence, and tensions rose until violence erupted during the 1970 [[October Crisis]].<ref name=october>{{cite web |url=http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/chronos/october.htm |title=Chronology of the October Crisis, 1970, and its Aftermath – Quebec History |accessdate=April 13, 2008}}</ref> In 1976 the [[Parti Québécois]] was elected to power in Quebec, with a nationalist vision that included securing [[Charter of the French Language|French linguistic rights]] in the province and the pursuit of some form of [[Quebec sovereignty movement|sovereignty for Quebec]]. This culminated in the [[Quebec independence referendum, 1980|1980 referendum in Quebec]] on the question of [[sovereignty-association]], which was turned down by 59% of the voters.<ref name=october/>

[[File:Flag-of-Canada-Vanier-Park.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Flag of Canada|Canadian flag]], adopted in 1965.]]

In 1965, Canada adopted the [[flag of Canada|maple leaf flag]], although not without [[Great Canadian Flag Debate|considerable debate and misgivings]] among large number of English Canadians.<ref name="first flags">{{cite web|url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/df5-eng.cfm|title=First "Canadian flags"|date=September 24, 2007|publisher=[[Department of Canadian Heritage]]|accessdate=December 16, 2008}}</ref> The [[World's Fair]] titled [[Expo 67]] came to Montreal, coinciding with the [[Canadian Centennial]] that year. The fair opened April 28, 1967, with the theme "Man and his World" and became the best attended of all [[Bureau of International Expositions|BIE]]-sanctioned [[List of world expositions|world expositions]] until that time.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Bid to hold the world's fair in Montreal
| work=Expo 67 Man and His World
| publisher=[[Library and Archives Canada]]
| year= 2007
| url =http://www.collectionscanada.ca/expo/0533020101_e.html
| accessdate = June 14, 2007}}</ref>

Legislative restrictions on [[Immigration to Canada|Canadian immigration]] that had favoured British and other European immigrants were amended in the 1960s, opening the doors to immigrants from all parts of the world.<ref name="Shalla2006">{{cite book|author=Vivian Shalla|title=Working in a global era: Canadian perspectives|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VQ1mvurCyTIC&pg=PA223|year=2006|publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press|isbn=978-1-55130-290-4|page=223}}</ref> While the 1950s had seen high levels of immigration from Britain, [[Irish-Canadian|Ireland]], [[Italian-Canadian|Italy]], and northern continental Europe, by the 1970s immigrants increasingly came from [[Indo-Canadian|India]], [[Chinese Canadian|China]], [[Vietnamese Canadian|Vietnam]], [[Jamaican Canadian|Jamaica]] and [[Canadians of Haitian ancestry|Haiti]].<ref name=Multicultural>{{cite web|title=Immigration Policy in the 1970s|url=http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/i2/10|publisher=Canadian Heritage (Multicultural Canada)|year=2004| accessdate =April 12, 2010}}</ref> [[Ethnic origins of people in Canada|Immigrants of all backgrounds]] tended to settle in the [[List of the 100 largest metropolitan areas in Canada|major urban centres]], particularly Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.<ref name=Multicultural/>

During his long tenure in the office (1968–79, 1980–84), Prime Minister [[Pierre Trudeau]] made social and cultural change his political goals, including the pursuit of [[official bilingualism in Canada]] and plans for significant [[Amendments to the Constitution of Canada|constitutional change]].<ref name="Tushnet2009">{{cite book|author=Mark Tushnet|title=Weak Courts, Strong Rights: Judicial Review and Social Welfare Rights in Comparative Constitutional Law|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OJ04DIfeTjUC&pg=PA52|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-14320-0|page=52}}</ref> The west, particularly the [[Petroleum production in Canada|petroleum-producing provinces]] like Alberta, opposed many of the policies emanating from central Canada, with the [[National Energy Program]] creating considerable antagonism and growing [[western alienation]].<ref>
{{cite journal
| first = Mary Elizabeth
| last = Vicente
| title = The National Energy Program
| work=Canada’s Digital Collections
| publisher=Heritage Community Foundation
| year = 2005
| url = http://www.abheritage.ca/abpolitics/events/issues_nep.html
| accessdate = April 26, 2008}}
</ref> [[Multiculturalism in Canada]] was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government during the prime ministership of Pierre Trudeau.<ref name="S.David1993">{{cite book|author1=Duncan James S.|author2=Ley, David|title=Place, Culture, Representation|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XsINAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA205|year=1993|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-09451-1|page=205}}</ref>

==1982–1992==
{{Main|History of Canada (1982–1992)}}

In 1982, the [[Canada Act 1982|Canada Act]] was passed by the British parliament and granted [[Royal Assent]] by Queen Elizabeth II on March 29, while the [[Constitution Act, 1982|Constitution Act]] was passed by the [[Parliament of Canada|Canadian parliament]] and granted Royal Assent by the Queen on April 17, thus patriating the [[Constitution of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982|url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/Const_index.html|publisher=Department of Justice Canada|year=2010|accessdate=April 10, 2010}}</ref> Previously, the constitution has existed only as an act passed of the British parliament, and was not even physically located in Canada, though it could not be altered without Canadian consent.<ref>{{Cite journal| last=George V| author-link=George V of the United Kingdom| publication-date=December 11, 1931| title=Statute of Westminster| series=4| publication-place=Westminster| publisher=King's Printer| url=http://www.gov.ns.ca/legislature/legc/westmins.htm| accessdate=April 21, 2010| postscript={{inconsistent citations}}|year=2008}}</ref> At the same time, the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] was added in place of the previous [[Canadian Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]].<ref>[http://history.cbc.ca/history/?MIval=EpisContent.html&series_id=1&episode_id=17&chapter_id=1&page_id=3&lang=E "The Night of Long Knives"], ''Canada: A People's History.'' CBC. Retrieved April 8, 2006.</ref> The [[Patriation|patriation of the constitution]] was Trudeau's last major act as Prime Minister; he resigned in 1984.

[[File:Plaqueinbantry.jpg|thumb|A [[commemorative plaque]] presented to the citizens of [[Bantry]], Ireland by the [[government of Canada]] for the residents' kindness and compassion to the families of the victims of Air India Flight 182.]]

On June 23, 1985, [[Air India Flight 182]] was destroyed above the Atlantic Ocean by a bomb on board exploding; all 329 on board were killed, of whom 280 were [[Canadian nationality law|Canadian citizens]].<ref>{{cite news|title=IN DEPTH: AIR INDIA |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/airindia/victims.html |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |year=2005 |accessdate=April 14, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20090413180825/http://www.cbc.ca:80/news/background/airindia/victims.html |archivedate=April 13, 2009 }}</ref> The Air India attack is the largest mass [[Crime in Canada|murder in Canadian history]].<ref name="Gairdner2011s">{{cite book|author=William D Gairdner|title=The Trouble with Canada ... Still! a Citizen Speaks Out|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mJpvibLL3RgC&pg=PA418|year= 2011|publisher=BPS Books|isbn=978-1-926645-67-4|page=418}}</ref>

The [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative]] (PC) government of [[Brian Mulroney]] began efforts to gain Quebec's support for the Constitution Act 1982 and end western alienation. In 1987 the [[Meech Lake Accord]] talks began between the provincial and federal governments, seeking constitutional changes favourable to Quebec.<ref>[http://economics.ca/cgi/jab?journal=cpp&view=v07n1/CPPv07n1p001.pdf Canadian Public Policy The Federal Budget and Energy Program] October 28, 1980. Brian L. Scarfe. Department of Economics, the University of Alberta. 1981.</ref> The constitutional reform process under Prime Minister Mulroney culminated in the failure of the [[Charlottetown Accord]] which would have recognized Quebec as a "[[distinct society]]" but was rejected in 1992 by a narrow margin.<ref name="BoschEspasa2010">{{cite book|author1=Núria Bosch|author2=Marta Espasa|author3=Albert Soleด Olleด|title=The Political Economy of Inter-regional Fiscal Flows: Measurement, Determinants and Effects on Country Stability|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3fHMeJFikYkC&pg=PA374|year=2010|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=978-1-84980-323-6|page=374}}</ref>

Under Brian Mulroney, [[Canada – United States relations|relations with the United States]] began to grow more closely integrated. In 1986, Canada and the U.S. signed the "Acid Rain Treaty" to reduce acid rain. In 1989, the federal government adopted the [[Free Trade Agreement]] with the United States despite significant animosity from the Canadian public who were concerned about the economic and cultural impacts of close integration with the United States.<ref name="Blake2007">{{cite book|author=Raymond B. Blake|title=Transforming the Nation: Canada and Brian Mulroney|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=f6KiHZe3KVgC&pg=PT42|year=2007|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-7570-7|pages=22–42}}</ref> On July 11, 1990, the [[Oka Crisis]] [[land rights|land dispute]] began between the [[Mohawk people]] of [[Kanesatake, Quebec|Kanesatake]] and the adjoining town of [[Oka, Quebec]].<ref>{{cite news|title=The Oka Crisis|url=http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/99/|format=Digital Archives |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|year=2000|accessdate=April 16, 2010}}</ref> The dispute was the first of a number of well-publicized conflicts between First Nations and the Canadian government in the late 20th century. In August 1990, Canada was one of the first nations to condemn [[Iraq]]'s [[invasion of Kuwait]], and it quickly agreed to join the [[Operation FRICTION|U.S.-led coalition]]. Canada deployed destroyers and later a [[CF-18 Hornet]] squadron with support personnel, as well as a [[Canada Dry (Persian Gulf War)|field hospital]] to deal with casualties.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Canada and Multilateral Operations in Support of Peace and Stability
|url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/news-nouvelles/news-nouvelles-eng.asp?cat=00&id=914
|publisher=National Defence and the Canadian Forces
|year=2010
|accessdate=April 15, 2010}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Recent history: 1992–present==
{{Main|History of Canada (1992–present)}}

Following Mulroney's resignation as prime minister in 1993, [[Kim Campbell]] took office and became Canada's first female prime minister.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/women/002026-822-e.html
|title=A. Kim Campbell – Canadian Women in Government – Celebrating Women's Achievements
|publisher=Library and Archives Canada
|year=2005
|accessdate=April 16, 2010}}</ref> Campbell remained in office for only a few months: the 1993 election saw the collapse of the Progressive Conservative Party from government to two seats, while the Quebec-based sovereigntist [[Bloc Québécois]] became the [[Official Opposition (Canada)|official opposition]].<ref>{{cite web
|title=The Roots of Quebec Separatism
|first=Charles
|last=Moffat
|url=http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/canada/quebec/The-Roots-of-Quebec-Separatism.html
|publisher=The Lilith Gallery of Toronto
|year=2007
|accessdate=April 16, 2010}}</ref> Prime Minister [[Jean Chrétien]] of the Liberals took office in November 1993 with a [[majority government]] and was re-elected with further majorities during the [[Canadian federal election, 1997|1997]] and [[Canadian federal election, 2000|2000 elections]].<ref name="Dyck2011dfg">{{cite book|author=Rand Dyck|title=Canadian Politics|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BUOoN8e5Ps0C&pg=PA211|year=2011|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-17-650343-7|page=211}}</ref>

[[File:Canada Federal Election 2004-2011.gif|right|250px|thumb|Political shift in Canada in the first decade of the 21st century]]

In 1995, the government of Quebec held a [[1995 Quebec referendum|second referendum on sovereignty]] that was rejected by a margin of 50.6% to 49.4%.<ref name="DickinsonYoung2008">{{cite book|author1=John A. Dickinson|author2=Brian Young|title=A Short History of Quebec|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=M4xttSld0noC&pg=PT21|year=2008|publisher=MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-7726-8|page=21}}</ref> In 1998, the Canadian Supreme Court ruled [[Reference re Secession of Quebec|unilateral secession]] by a province to be unconstitutional, and Parliament passed the [[Clarity Act]] outlining the terms of a negotiated departure.<ref name="DickinsonYoung2008"/> Environmental issues increased in importance in Canada during this period, resulting in the signing of the [[Kyoto Accord]] on climate change by Canada's Liberal government in 2002. The accord was in 2007 nullified by the present government, which has proposed a "made-in-Canada" solution to climate change.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/doc/ed-es/p_123/CC_Plan_2007_e.pdf
|format=PDF
|title= A Climate Change Plan for the Purposes of the Kyoto Protocol Implementation Act
|publisher=Environment Canada
|year=2008
|accessdate=April 16, 2010}}</ref>

Canada became the fourth country in the world and the first country in the Americas to legalize [[Same-sex marriage in Canada|same-sex marriage nationwide]] with the enactment of the [[Civil Marriage Act]].<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2005/06/28/samesex050628.html
|title=Same-sex marriage law passes 158–133
|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
|date=June 29, 2005
|accessdate=July 22, 2008
|deadurl=yes}} {{Dead link|date=April 2014|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref> Court decisions, starting in 2003, had already legalized [[same-sex marriage]] in eight out of ten provinces and one of three territories. Before the passage of the Act, more than 3,000 same-sex couples had married in these areas.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Canada passes bill to legalize gay marriage
|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/06/29/america/web.0629canada.php
|publisher=The New York Times Company
|year=2005
|accessdate=April 10, 2010}}</ref>

The [[Canadian Alliance]] and PC Party merged into the [[Conservative Party of Canada]] in 2003, ending a 13-year division of the conservative vote. The party was elected twice as a minority government under the leadership of [[Stephen Harper]] in the [[Canadian federal election, 2006|2006 federal election]] and [[Canadian federal election, 2008|2008 federal election]].<ref name="Dyck2011dfg"/> Harper's Conservative Party won a majority in the [[Canadian federal election, 2011|2011 federal election]] with the [[New Democratic Party (Canada)|New Democratic Party]] forming the [[Official Opposition (Canada)|Official Opposition]] for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://enr.elections.ca/National_e.aspx |title= Preliminary Results |publisher=Elections Canada |accessdate=May 3, 2011}}</ref>

Under Harper, Canada and the United States continue to integrate state and provincial agencies to strengthen security along the [[Canada-United States border]] through the [[Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative]].<ref name="KonradNicol2008">{{cite book|author1=Victor Konrad|author2=Heather Heather Nora Nicol|title=Beyond Walls: Re-inventing the Canada-United States Borderlands|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FqyaQJtAsDsC&pg=PA189|year=2008|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-7202-9|page=189}}</ref> From 2002 to 2011, [[Canada's role in the Afghanistan War|Canada was involved in the Afghanistan War]] as part of the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|U.S. stabilization force]] and the NATO-commanded [[International Security Assistance Force]]. In July 2010, the largest purchase in [[Military history of Canada|Canadian military history]], totalling [[Canadian dollar|C$]]9 billion for the acquisition of 65 [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II|F-35 fighters]], was announced by the federal government.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-10667633
|title=Row over Canada F-35 fighter jet order
|publisher=BBC News
|date=July 16, 2010
|accessdate=July 20, 2010}}</ref> Canada is one of several nations that assisted in the [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II#Canada|development of the F-35]] and has invested over C$168 million in the program.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/business/Conservatives+purchase+fighter+jets/3286911/story.html
|title=Conservatives announce $9B purchase of military fighter jets
|work=Vancouver Sun |location=Canada
|date=July 16, 2010
|accessdate=July 20, 2010}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==See also==
{{Canada provinces map|align=right|prefix =History of|the=the|caption=History by province or territory}}
{{stack|{{Portal|History of Canada|History}}}}
* ''[[Canada's Story]]''
* [[Events of National Historic Significance (Canada)]]
* [[Heritage Minutes]]
* [[History of Canadian women]]
* [[History of Canadian sports]]
* [[History of Montreal]]
* [[History of North America]]
* [[History of Ottawa]]
* [[History of Quebec City]]
* [[History of Toronto]]
* [[History of Vancouver]]
* [[History of Winnipeg]]
* [[History Trek]], Canadian History web portal designed for children
* [[National Historic Sites of Canada]]
* [[Persons of National Historic Significance]]
* {{Wikipedia books link|Canada}}
{{Clear right}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
{{main|Bibliography of Canadian history}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|author1=Crowley, Terence Allan|author2=Terry Crowley|author3=Rae Murphy|title=The Essentials of Canadian History: Pre-colonization to 1867—the Beginning of a Nation|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-HQeJz8NOaMC&pg=PP1|year=1993|publisher=Research & Education Assoc.|isbn=978-0-7386-7205-2}}
* {{cite book|author1=Felske, Lorry William|author2=Beverly Jean Rasporich|title=Challenging Frontiers: the Canadian West|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tcAikMMDA8sC&pg=PP1|year=2004|publisher=University of Calgary Press|isbn=978-1-55238-140-3}}
* {{cite book|author1=Francis, R.D.|author2=Richard Jones|author3=Donald B. Smith|title=Journeys: A History of Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GbbZRIOKclsC&pg=PP1|year=2009|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-17-644244-6}}
* {{cite book
|first =Arthur R. M. | last =Lower
|title =Canadians in the Making: A Social History of Canada
|edition =
|publisher=Longmans, Green
|year =1958
|isbn =
|url =http://www.questia.com/library/107385/canadians-in-the-making-a-social-history-of-canada
}}
* Lower, Arthur R. M. (1957). ''Colony to Nation: a History of Canada''. With maps by T. W. McLean. Third ed. Toronto, Ont.: Longmans, Green & Co. xxxii, 600 p., ill.
* MacDonald, L. Ian (1984). ''From Bourassa to Bourassa: a Pivotal Decade [i.e. the years 1976–1984] in Canadian History''. [S.l.]: Harvest House. 324 p., ill. with b&w port. photos. ISBN 0-88772-029-3 pbk
*{{cite book|author=Morton, Desmond|title=A short history of Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=beFgpa6lj-EC&pg=PP1|year=2001|publisher=McClelland & Stewart Limited|isbn=978-0-7710-6509-5}}
*{{cite book|author=Morton, Desmond|title=A Military History of Canada : from Champlain to Kosovo|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ui8ecMckv08C&pg=PP1|year=1999|publisher=McClelland & Stewart Limited|isbn=978-0-7710-6514-9}}
* Norrie, Kenneth, Douglas Owram and J.C. Herbert Emery. (2002) ''A History of the Canadian Economy'' (4th ed. 2007)
* {{cite book|author=Riendeau, Roger E. |title=A Brief History of Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CFWy0EfzlX0C&pg=PP1|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0822-3}}
* {{cite book|author1=Taylor, Martin Brook|author2=Douglas Owram|title=Canadian History: A Reader's Guide: Beginnings to Confederation|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FamJrJEvymIC&pg=PP1|year=1994|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-6826-2}}
** {{cite book|author1=Martin Brook Taylor|author2=Douglas Owram|title=Canadian history. 2. Confederation to the present|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HKmAjZJCJFoC&pg=PP1|year=1994|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-7676-2}}
{{refend}}
;Primary sources
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|author=Reid, J.H.Stewart ed.|title=A Source-book of Canadian History: Selected Documents and Personal Papers|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=91233293|year=1959|publisher=Longmans Canada|author2=and others|displayauthors=1}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://networks.h-net.org/h-canada H-CANADA, daily academic discussion email list]
{{Sister project links|History of Canada}}
;Government of Canada
* [http://www65.statcan.gc.ca/acyb_r000-eng.htm ''Canada Year Book'' (CYB) annual 1867–1967]
* [http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/lhn-nhs/page3_E.asp?locateinp=&nhsprov=allprov&nhschoice=evedesig&list4=Generate+List Events of National Historic Significance]
* [http://www.pc.gc.ca/progs/lhn-nhs/recherche-search_e.asp?s=1 National Historic Sites of Canada]
* [http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/lhn-nhs/page1_E.asp?nhslisttype=persons&nhslistsort=name&list1=Generate+List Persons of National Historic Significance in Canada]
* [http://www.biographi.ca/index-e.html The Dictionary of Canadian Biography]
;Other
* [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/canada.htm Canada]`` – UCB Libraries GovPubs
* [http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html Canadian Studies] – Guide to the Sources
* [http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/QuebecHistory/encyclopedia/ImmigrationHistoryofCanada.htm History of Canadian immigration] by Marianopolis College
* {{dmoz|Regional/North_America/Canada}}
* [http://www.histori.ca/default.do?page=.index The Historica-Dominion Institute]
* [http://www.torontopubliclibrary.ca/digital-archive/ Digital Archive] – Toronto Public Library
 
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