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Archaeological ethics

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{{unreferenced|date=August 2013}}
'''Archaeological ethics''' refers to the [[moral]] issues raised through the study of the material past. It is a branch of the [[Philosophy of archaeology]].

In common with other academic disciplines, archaeologists are bound to conduct their investigations to a high standard and observe intellectual property laws, [[Health and Safety]] regulations and other legal obligations. Professional bodies in the field require that their members work towards the preservation and management of archaeological resources, treat human remains with dignity and also usually encourage [[outreach]] activities. Where these bodies exist, sanctions are in place for those professionals who do not observe these ethical codes. By no means all jurisdictions have such professional bodies however and even where they do exist, membership may not be necessary in order to carry out archaeological investigations. While such considerations are fundamental to a pursuit, they are unfortunately coming rather late to the field. Questions regarding ethics have only arisen since the UNESCO accords in the 1970s began to protect world culture.

A common ethical issue in modern archaeology has been the treatment of human remains found during [[excavation (archaeology)|excavation]]s, especially those that represent the ancestors of [[indigenous peoples|aboriginal]] groups in the [[New World]] or the remains of other minority races elsewhere. Where previously sites of great significance to native peoples could be excavated and any burials and [[artifact (archaeology)|artefacts]] taken to be stored in museums or sold, there is increasing awareness in the West of taking a more respectful approach. The [[NAGPRA]] legislation in the [[United States of America]] is an example of this. The issue is not limited to ancient remains; nineteenth- and twentieth-century burial sites investigated by archaeologists such as [[First World War]] graves and cemeteries disturbed by developments have seen the remains of people with closely connected living relatives being exhumed and taken away.

The international trade in [[antiquities]], although not formally connected with the modern discipline of archaeology has also raised ethical questions regarding the ownership of archaeological artefacts. The market for imported antiquities has encouraged damage to [[archaeological site]]s and often led to appeals for the recall.

Examples of archaeological material removed from its place of origin and controversy over its return include the [[Elgin Marbles]].

A wider question of control and ownership over the past has also been raised through the political manipulation of the [[archaeological record]] to promote [[nationalism]] and justify military invasion. A famous example is the corps of archaeologists employed by [[Adolf Hitler]] to excavate in central Europe in the hope of finding evidence for a region-wide [[Aryan]] culture. Many archaeologists in the West today are employees of national governments or are privately employed instruments of government-derived archaeology legislation. In all cases this legislation is a compromise to some degree or another between the interests of the archaeological remains and the interests of economic development. Questions regarding the ethical validity of government heritage policies and whether they sufficiently protect important remains are raised during cases such as [[High Speed 1]] in [[London]] where burials at a cemetery at [[St Pancras railway station]] were hurriedly dug using a [[J. C. Bamford|JCB]] and mistreated in order to keep an important infrastructure project on schedule.

Another issue is the question of whether unthreatened archaeological remains should be excavated (and therefore destroyed) or preserved intact for future generations to investigate, perhaps using more advanced techniques that could provide more detailed information. Some archaeological guidance such as [[PPG 16]] has established a strong ethical argument for only excavating sites threatened with destruction.

Problem Areas in Archaeological Ethics
* Human Remains
* Responsibility of the Archaeologist vis-a-vis local traditions and cultures
* Responsibility of the Archaeologist vis-a-vis the architectural remains that have been uncovered during an excavation
* Responsibility of the Archaeologist vis-a-vis dissemination of the material uncovered, not only in academic circles but also to a broader public, both in the area of the excavation and from where the Sponsors come
* Balancing World, National and regional claims to various parts of the archaeological record
* protecting Archaeological sites and objects from illegal trade

==External links==
*[http://www.archaeological.org/pdfs/AIA_Code_of_EthicsA5S.pdf The Code of Ethics of the Archaeological Institute of America]
*[http://www.archaeologists.net/modules/icontent/inPages/docs/codes/codeconduct.pdf Institute of Field Archaeologists Code of Conduct]
*[http://www.economist.com/science/displayStory.cfm?story_id=1056932 Ethics and archaeology]
*[http://www.bajr.org/DiggerMagazine/The%20Digger26/article1.html Rail Company desecrates St Pancras cemetery]
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~capi/index.htm Center for Archaeology in the Public Interest (C.A.P.I.)]
*[http://www.nps.gov/history/archeology/public/publicLaw.htm Archeology Law and Ethics] from the [http://www.nps.gov/history/archeology/public/publicLaw.htm National Park Service Archeology Program]

[[Category:Philosophy of archaeology]]
[[Category:Methods and principles in archaeology]]
[[Category:Professional ethics]]

75th Ranger Regiment

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{{Infobox military unit
|unit_name= 75th Ranger Regiment
|image=[[File:75 Ranger Regiment Coat Of Arms.PNG]]
|caption= 75th Ranger Regiment Coat Of Arms
|nickname= Airborne Rangers Army Rangers
|size=Three Rifle Battalions and One Special Troops Battalion
|motto= "Rangers lead the way"
"Sua Sponte - Of their own accord"
|colors=
|march=
|ceremonial_chief=
|type= Special Operations
|branch=[[File:United States Department of the Army Seal.svg|20px]] [[United States Army]]
|dates= 1974–Present 1st Battalion formed 19 June 1942
|country={{flagcountry|United States}}
|allegiance=
|command_structure=[[File:Special Operations Specops Army.svg|20px]] [[U.S. Army Special Operations Command]]
|size=Three Rifle Battalions and One Special Troops Battalion(2000 Total Personnel)
|role=Direct Action
|challenge=
|identification_symbol=[[File:75 Ranger Regiment Shoulder Sleeve Insignia.svg|150px]]
|identification_symbol_label=Shoulder Sleeve Insignia
|identification_symbol_2=[[File:75 Ranger Regiment Distinctive Unit Insignia.PNG|150px|]]
|identification_symbol_2_label= [[Distinctive Unit Insignia]]
|identification_symbol_3=[[File:75 Ranger Regiment Regimental Flash.svg|150px|]]
|identification_symbol_3_label= Beret Flash
|response=
|current_commander= COL Michael E. Kurilla
|current_command sergeant major= CSM Chris Hardy
|garrison=[[Fort Benning]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
|battles= [[World War II]]
*[[Operation Torch]]
*[[Operation Husky]]
*[[Allied invasion of Italy]]
*[[Operation Overlord]]
*[[Philippines campaign (1944–45)|Philippines Campaign]]
[[Korean War]] [[Vietnam War]] [[Operation Eagle Claw]] [[Operation Urgent Fury]] [[Operation Just Cause]] [[Operation Desert Storm]] [[Operation Gothic Serpent]] [[Kosovo War]] 
[[Operation Enduring Freedom|Afghanistan Campaign]]
*[[Operation Rhino]]
[[Operation Iraqi Freedom|Iraq Campaign]]
|notable_commanders=
|anniversaries=
}}
{{US Regiments
|previous=[[69th Infantry Regiment (United States)|69th Infantry Regiment]]
|next=[[87th Infantry Regiment (United States)|87th Infantry Regiment]]
}}

The '''75th Ranger Regiment''' (Airborne), also known as '''Rangers''', is a Special Operations [[light infantry]] unit of the [[United States Army]]. The Regiment is headquartered in [[Fort Benning]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] with battalions in [[Fort Benning]], [[Hunter Army Airfield]] and [[Joint Base Lewis-McChord]]. It operates as a [[United States Special Operations Forces|special operations force]] of the [[United States Army Special Operations Command]] (USASOC).

The Regiment is composed of one [[Special Troops Battalion]] and three, organizationally identical, rapidly-deployable light infantry special operations battalions with specialized skills that enable them to perform a variety of special operations missions. These missions include but are not limited to [[Airborne forces|airborne]], [[air assault]], and [[Direct action (military)|direct action]] operations, raids, infiltration and exfiltration by air, land or sea in addition to airfield seizure, recovery of personnel and special equipment, and support of general purpose forces (GPF). Each of the Regiment's three line battalions rotates as the "Ranger Ready Force". This battalion is at a constant readiness to deploy and is expected to be able to respond anywhere in the world within 18 hours.

==Origin==
{{Main|United States Army Rangers}}

American Ranger history predates the [[Revolutionary War]]. Captain [[Benjamin Church (military officer)|Benjamin Church]] formed [[Church's Rangers]], which fought hostile Native American tribes during [[King Philip's War]].<ref name="church-rhof">{{cite web |url=https://www.benning.army.mil/rtb/hall_of_fame/halloffame_inaugural/captain_church.htm |title=Biography of Captain Church |work=Ranger Hall of Fame |publisher=United States Army |quote=Church commanded an independent Ranger company during King Philip's War (1675-1678) on the New England frontier where they conducted highly successful combat operations against hostile Indians. Church's men were the first Rangers successful in raiding the Indians' hiding places in forests and swamps.}}</ref> Major [[Robert Rogers (soldier)|Robert Rogers]] formed a Ranger unit to fight during the [[French and Indian War]]. They would become known as the "[[Rogers' Rangers]]." The [[Continental Congress]] formed eight companies of expert riflemen in 1775 to fight in the Revolutionary War. In 1777, this force of hardy frontiersmen commanded by Dan Morgan was known as The Corps of Rangers. [[Francis Marion]], "The Swamp Fox", organized another famous Revolutionary War Ranger element known as "Marion's Partisans."

During the [[War of 1812]], companies of United States Rangers were raised from among the frontier settlers as part of the regular Army. Throughout the war, they patrolled the frontier from [[Ohio]] to Western [[Illinois]] on horseback and by boat. They participated in many skirmishes and battles with the British and their [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]] allies. The [[American Civil War]] included Rangers such as John Singleton Mosby who was the most famous [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] Ranger during the Civil War. His [[43rd Battalion Virginia Cavalry|company's]] raids on Union camps and bases were so effective, part of North-Central [[Virginia]] soon became known as ''Mosby's Confederacy''.

After the Civil War, more than half a century passed without military Ranger units in the United States.

==World War II battalions==
===1st Ranger battalion===
On December 8, 1941, America entered World War II when it declared war on Japan. At the time, Major [[William Orlando Darby]], the founder of the modern rangers, was assigned to duty in [[Belfast]], [[Northern Ireland]]. Darby, frustrated with his lack of hands on experience as General Russell Hartle’s aide, was put in charge of a new unit. General George C. Marshall envisioned an elite unit of 50 men selected voluntarily from the 34th division. He believed Darby was the man to head the job. It was therefore on June 8, 1942, that Darby was officially put in charge of the 1st Ranger Battalion under General Hartle.<ref name="mcgowen">{{cite journal|last= McGowen|first=Sam|date=January 1997|title=Darby’s Rangers surrounded at Cistema, World War II|vol= Vol. 11 |Issue=5|page=38|publisher=Academic Search Complete}}</ref>

In November 1942, the 1st Rangers received their first feel of combat as a battalion, when they were sent out to the shores of North Africa, or more specifically Arzew, Algeria. The 1st were split into two groups in hopes of assaulting Vichy-French batteries and fortifications before the 1st Infantry Division would land on the beach. The operation was a success with both minimal casualties and wounded.<ref>McGowen, Sam, January 1997,Darby’s Rangers surrounded at Cistema, World War II; Vol. 11 Issue 5, p38, Retrieved from Academic Search Complete</ref>

On February 11 the Rangers took a 32-mile journey, 12 on foot, for their first raid on an Italian camp at Sened Station. Using the cloak of night, the Rangers slipped to within 50 yards of the Italian outpost and began their attack. It took the battalion only 20 minutes to achieve area control. Fifty Italians were killed and an additional 10 were taken prisoner. Darby, along with fellow commanders, was awarded the Silver Star for this victory and the battalion itself gained the nickname the “Black Death” by the Italians.<ref name="mcgowen"/>

At the time, the Italians still held the pass at Djebel El Ank, situated at the far east edge of El Guettar. Linked up with engineers and the 26th Regimental Combat Team, the Rangers were ordered to take the area, which had been a stalemate for some time now. The 1st Rangers were ordered to take a 12-mile route through a dangerous gorge in hopes of flanking the enemy. They arrived moments before zero hour, to an unguarded flank. In eight hours of fighting the Americans cleared the area; the 1st Rangers had taken 200 prisoners.<ref name="mcgowen"/>

===Creation of the 3rd and 4th Ranger Battalions===

With the success of the 1st Battalion during the Tunisian campaign, Colonel Darby set created and trained the 3rd and 4th Ranger Battalions. The problem with the 1st Rangers was that they only took volunteers, Darby knowing that the best man for the job was not always a volunteer, sought out men around Oran. Although he was still limited in that he could only accept volunteers, he began to find ways around this. For instance, he began to give speeches, put up posters and encouraged his officers to scout around for eligible candidates. As of June 1943, the three Ranger battalions were fully operational. 1st Rangers were still under Colonel Darby; the 3rd under Major Herman Dammer, the 4th commanded by Major Roy Murray, both reported directly to Darby.<ref name="mcgowen"/>

1st and 4th Battalions were paired together, and positioned to spearhead General Terry Allen's 1st Division, on the Sicily campaign. Landing outside Gela, the Rangers took the town just after midnight, and were quickly sent out to San Nicole. After what must have felt like weeks, the Rangers seized the town of San Nicole with the help of an armored division. Despite the fact that they were under a constant attack from Aenemy artillery, tank, and air forces, they still succeeded in the completion of their mission.<ref name="mcgowen"/> This 50 hour barrage would be one of the most unbearable experiences for the Rangers.

Following their success, the two Ranger battalions were then ordered to take the town of Buerta, a fortress suspended on the 4,000 foot high edge of the cliff at Buerta beach. After almost withdrawing from the battle, and requesting artillery to level the city, a platoon of Rangers volunteered to breach the city. Two privates, John See and John Constantine, snuck in behind enemy lines and tricked the Italians and Germans into surrendering the city.<ref name="mcgowen"/>

Meanwhile the 3rd Ranger Battalion headed out into the area of Agrigento, where they marched through Campobello, Naro, and Favara successfully occupying each town. The 3rd was ordered to back track to the shores of Porto Empedocle. The beach itself was not occupied, but high in the cliffs heavy machinegun and cannon fire poured onto the Rangers. Scrambling, the Rangers made their way to each machine gun nest and they managed to disable all enemy opposition before the supporting infantry battalion even hit the shore.<ref name="mcgowen"/>

Colonel Darby was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his effective commanding of the Rangers, and was given a promotion by Patton; Darby, wanting to be closer to his men, turned down this promotion.<ref name="mcgowen"/>

===Fall of the 1st, 3rd and 4th Battalions===
{{Main|Battle of Cisterna}}

On January 30, 1944, after Christmas break the Rangers were put together for a joint operation, to occupy the town of [[Cisterna di Latina|Cisterna]], before the main infantry division moved in. That night the 1st and 3rd battalions moved into the town, passing many German soldiers that did not appear to notice the Rangers slip by. The 4th battalion met opposition almost immediately taking an opposite route by the road. During the night the 1st and 3rd battalion separated out about 2 miles, and when daily light caught the 1st Ranger battalion out in an open field, the Germans began their assault. Unable to escape and completely surrounded, the two Ranger battalions fought on until ammunition and resources were empty. The 4th battalions tried to make a push to save their comrades but were unsuccessful and had to withdraw. After 5 hours of fighting the Germans had sent in wave after wave of elite parachute troopers and didn’t stop until there was nothing left. Out of the 760 men in the two battalions, only six escaped.<ref name="mcgowen"/>

This marked the end of the three Ranger battalions, the remaining 400 rangers would be scattered around the [[504th Infantry Regiment (United States)|504th Parachute Regiment]], and the 137 original rangers would be sent home. On October 26, 1944, the three original Ranger battalions were deactivated at Camp Burner, N.C.<ref name="mcgowen"/>

===2nd and 5th Ranger battalions===

[[File:Rangers-pointe-du-hoc.jpg|thumb|Rangers from [[2nd Ranger Battalion]] demonstrate the rope ladders they used to scale Pointe du Hoc.]]

The 2nd Ranger Battalion and 5th Ranger Battalion were trained at Camp Forrest, Tennessee in 1 April 1943. The 2nd and 5th Ranger battalions first saw action June 6, 1944, during Operation Overlord. During D-day 2nd Rangers companies D, E, and F, were ordered to take a strategic German outpost at point-du-Hoc. This coastal cliff was supposed to have several 155m artillery cannons aimed down at the beach.<ref name="Lehman 1946, p28-52">Lehman,Milton,1946,The Rangers Fought Ahead Of Everybody, Saturday Evening Post; Vol. 218 Issue 50, p28-52:Retrevied from academic Search complete</ref> Once they arrived at the bottom of the cliff they had an enormous climb to make up rope ladders while receiving a barrage of machine gunfire from the Germans above. The 2nd Rangers were successful in taking the area even with the intense German resistance but the guns were not in site. A patrol scouting the area found the 155m coastal guns a mile away; the patrol party quickly disabled the guns and any resistance in the area. In the article “Rangers take Pointe” Lenoard Lomell and Jack Kuhn are interviewed on the events that took place that day. Lomell goes on to explain

{{quote|The guns had to have been taken off the Pointe. We were looking for any kind of evidence we could find and it looked like there were some markings on the secondary road where it joined the main road. We decided to leapfrog. Jack covered me, and I went forward. When I got a few feet forward, I covered him. It was a sunken road with very high hedgerows with trees and bushes and stuff like that. It was wide enough to put a column of tanks in, and they would be well hidden. We didn't see anybody, so we just took a chance, running as fast as we could, looking over the hedgerow. At least we had the protection of the high hedgerows. When it became my turn to look over, I said, "God, here they are!" They were in an orchard, camouflaged in among the trees''.<ref>Frederick, Michael & Masci,Joseph, may 2000,Ranger take Point, World War II; , Vol. 15 Issue 1, p50, Retrieved from Academic Search complete</ref>}}

Meanwhile the rest of the 2nd Ranger and 5th Ranger battalions spearheaded the 116th infantry division, on the beach at Omaha. This is where the famous Ranger slogan comes from, when Colonel Max F. Schneider, commanding the 5th Ranger Battalion, Yelled out “RANGERS LEAD THE WAY!” <ref name="Lehman 1946, p28-52"/> This drive cut the German line allowing the conventional army to move in.<ref name="mcgowen"/>
The 2nd and 5th battalions would go on into the Normandy campaign, working with the conventional army on special operation tasks. The two battalions fought in many battles such as Battle for Brest and the Battle of Hurtgen Forest. The 2nd Rangers were responsible for capturing Le Conquet peninsula, where they disabled a 280mm gun and took many German prisoners. The 2nd Rangers also went on to take several tactical German position cutting the German line in the Rhineland’s. In Saar west of Zerf, the 5th battalion took an overlooking German position cutting of all supply routes to German forces. The 2nd and 5th Rangers would continue to advance until they were discharged at the end of the war.<ref name="mcgowen"/>

===6th Ranger Battalion===

The 6th Ranger Battalion was stationed in the Pacific, and served mostly in the Philippines and New Guinea. All operations completed by the 6th Battalion were done in company or platoon size behind enemy lines. They were the first soldiers to hit the Philippines, three days before the army would launch the first invasion. The 6th Battalion was a long-range reconnaissance or combat unit, operating miles past the front line.<ref name="mcgowen"/>

At [[Cabanatuan]], on the island of [[Luzon]] in January 1945, a company of the 6th Ranger Battalion executed one of the most daring [[Raid at Cabanatuan|rescues]] in American history. The Rangers penetrated {{convert|29|mi}} behind enemy lines, including crawling an entire mile ({{convert|1|mi}}) across an open field on their stomachs. During their final assault the rangers destroyed a garrison of Japanese soldiers twice their size and rescued 500 [[POW]]s.<ref name="mcgowen"/>

The 6th Rangers final mission was to secure a drop zone for paratroopers {{convert|250|mi}} into enemy territory. They linked up with the [[32nd Infantry Division (United States)|32nd Infantry Division]] and ended the war in the Philippines.

==Korean War==
[[File:Ranger Tab.png|thumb|right|The Ranger Tab, first introduced during the Korean War.]]
The beginning of the [[Korean War]] in June 1950 sparked a renewed desire in the Army for Rangers. Seventeen [[Korean War Ranger Companies]] were formed during the war from the Ranger Training Program set up at [[Fort Benning]] under Colonel John Gibson Van Houten. The Companies formed during this period were the first to be entirely Airborne qualified.

The Ranger Companies were active in combat operations throughout late 1950 and early 1951. They were attached to various Regiments over the course of their active term performing "out front" work such as scouting, patrolling, raids, ambushes, spearheading assaults, and as counterattack forces to regain lost positions.

==Vietnam War==
{{main|75th Ranger Infantry Regiment (Airborne)}}
The conventional approach to the history of LRRP, LRP, and Ranger unit employment in Vietnam is first to acknowledge the three chronological periods of their existence: LRRP from late 1965 to December 1967, LRP from late September 1967 to February 1969, and Ranger thereafter to the end of the war. The first period began in December 1965, with the creation of a provisional LRRP platoon by the 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division. The 1st Infantry Division and 173d Airborne Brigade both formed provisional LRRP units in April and the 25th Infantry Division in June 1966. General William C. Westmoreland, commander of Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), officially authorized the creation of provisional LRRP units on 8 July 1966. Other divisions and brigades stood up provisional LRRP units during the ensuing months: the 4th and 9th Infantry Divisions in November 1966, 196th Light Infantry Brigade in January 1967, and 1st Air Cavalry Division in February 1967. The 9th Infantry Division LRRP Platoon came into being in the fall of 1966 while the division was still at Fort Riley, Kansas, and deployed to Vietnam in January 1967. This unit was expanded to a company in July 1967. The 101st Airborne Division “main body,” while still at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, converted its divisional Recondo School into a provisional LRRP unit in the summer of 1967, before the division deployed to Vietnam. This provisional company arrived in Vietnam in late November 1967. <ref name = Gebhart>"The Vietnam Experience, 1966-1972 LRRP" This material is from Major James F. Gebhardt (Retired), ''Eyes Behind the Lines: US Army Long-Range Reconnaissance and Surveillance Units'', Combat Studies Institute Press, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 2005, Chapter 3.</ref>

The second period began in late June 1967, when the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Earle G. Wheeler, authorized the formation of two long-range patrol companies for I and II Field Forces. Company E (Long Range Patrol), 20th Infantry (Airborne) was activated on 25 September 1967 and assigned to I Field Force and stationed at Phan Rang. The nucleus of this unit came from the 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division LRRP Platoon, along with soldiers from the replacement stream. Company F (Long Range Patrol), 51st Infantry (Airborne) was activated on 25 September 1967 and assigned to II Field Force with station at Bien Hoa. Its nucleus came from the LRRP platoon of the 173d Airborne Brigade, along with soldiers from the replacement stream. Each of the two field force LRP companies had an authorized strength of 230, and was commanded by a major.<ref name = Gebhart/>

In an apparent response to division commanders' tactical requirements, and bolstered by the proven combat effectiveness of the provisional LRRP units, in the fall of 1967 the Army authorized separate company designations for LRRP units in divisions and detachments in separate brigades. The divisional LRP companies were authorized 118 men and the brigade detachments 61 men. The wholesale renaming of existing divisional LRRP units occurred on 20 December 1967 in the 23d (Americal), 1st Air Cavalry, 1st Infantry, 4th Infantry, 9th Infantry, and 25th Infantry Divisions. LRP detachments were created in the 199th Light Infantry Brigade on 10 January 1968, in the 173d Airborne Brigade on 5 February 1968, and in the 3d Brigade 82d Airborne Division and 1st Brigade 5th Mechanized Division on 15 December 1968. <ref name = Gebhart/>

On 1 February 1969, the final period of the existence of these units began when the Department of the Army re-designated the LRP companies and detachments as lettered Ranger companies of the 75th Infantry Regiment under the Combined Arms Regimental System (CARS). All of the LRP companies and detachments were “re-flagged” as Ranger companies on that date, except Company D (Ranger), which was formed on 20 November 1969 upon the rotation of the Company D (Ranger), Indiana National Guard back to its home state. The third period ended when the Ranger companies were inactivated as their parent units were withdrawn from the war between November 1969 (Company O of 3d Brigade 82d Airborne Division), and 15 August 1972 (Company H of 1st Air Cavalry Division) <ref name = Gebhart/>

==Modern battalions==
[[File:75th Ranger Regiment.gif|thumb| Current organization of the 75th Ranger Regiment.]]At the end of the Vietnam War, division and brigade commanders saw that the U.S. Army needed an elite, [[light infantry]] capable of rapid deployment. In 1974, General [[Creighton Abrams]] created the [[1st Ranger Battalion]]. Eight months later, the [[2nd Ranger Battalion]] was created, and in 1984, the [[3rd Ranger Battalion]] and the regimental headquarters was created. In 1986, the 75th Ranger Regiment was formed and their lineage formally authorized. The [[4th Ranger Battalion|4th]], [[5th Ranger Battalion|5th]], and [[6th Ranger Battalion]]s were also re-activated, becoming the Ranger Training Brigade, the instructors of the modern day [[Ranger School]]. These units are parts of [[United States Army Training and Doctrine Command|TRADOC]] school and are not included in the 75th Ranger Regiment.

In 1980, elements of the 1st Battalion participated in the failed attempt to rescue the American hostages held in [[Tehran]], [[Iran]] in [[Operation Eagle Claw]]. In October 1983, 1st and 2nd Battalions spearheaded [[Operation Urgent Fury]] in [[Grenada]] by conducting a bold low-level parachute [[assault]] to seize [[Point Salines International Airport|Point Salines Airfield]] and rescue American citizens at [[St. George's University|True Blue Medical Campus]].

In 1989, the entire 75th Ranger Regiment participated in [[Operation Just Cause]] in [[Panama]]. Rangers spearheaded the action by conducting two important operations. Simultaneous parachute assaults were conducted onto Tocumen airfield and the adjacent [[Tocumen International Airport|Omar Torrijos International Airport]], [[Rio Hato Airport|Rio Hato Airfield]] and [[Manuel Noriega]]'s beach house, to neutralize [[Military of Panama#The Panamanian Defense Forces|Panamanian Defense Forces]]. The Rangers captured 1,014 enemy prisoners of war and over 18,000 arms of various types.

Elements of Company B, and 1st Platoon Company A of the 1st Battalion deployed to [[Saudi Arabia]] from 12 February 1991 to 15 April 1991, in support of [[Operation Desert Storm]]. Over two years later, in August 1993, Company B of the 3rd Battalion deployed to [[Somalia]] to assist [[United Nations]] [[humanitarian]] forces as part of [[Operation Restore Hope]]. On 3 October 1993, the Rangers conducted [[Operation Gothic Serpent]] with [[Delta Force]] operators to capture two of [[warlord]] [[Mohamed Farrah Aidid]]'s lieutenants. For nearly 18 hours, the Rangers fought [[Somalia|Somali]] [[guerrilla]]s in what became the fiercest ground combat for U.S. military personnel since the Vietnam War.
[[File:75th Ranger Regiment conducing operations in Iraq, 26 April 2007.jpg|left|thumb|U.S. Army soldiers of the 75th Ranger Regiment conduct a security halt in Iraq on 26 April 2007.]]
The 1st and 2nd Battalions and a Company of the 3rd Battalion were deployed to [[Haiti]] in 1994. The operation was canceled within five minutes of its execution when a team of negotiators, dispatched by President [[Bill Clinton]] and led by former President [[Jimmy Carter]], was able to convince General [[Raoul Cédras]] to relinquish power. Elements of the 1st and 2nd Battalions operated in-country while order was being restored. This is also the first operation where the U.S. Army was the primary operating force on a U.S. aircraft carrier, the {{USS|America|CV-66}}. The ship had Special Operations Forces from USSOCOM composed of Rangers, Special Forces, and other special warfare groups.

On 24 November 2000 the 75th Ranger Regiment deployed Regimental Reconnaissance Detachment Team 2 and a command and control element to [[Kosovo]] in support of [[Task Force Falcon (US)|Task Force Falcon]].

After the [[11 September attacks]], Rangers were called upon to participate in the [[War on Terrorism]]. On 19 October 2001, the 3rd Battalion spearheaded ground forces by conducting an airborne assault to seize [[Operation Rhino|"Objective Rhino"]] in [[Afganistan]] in support of [[Operation Enduring Freedom]]. On 28 March 2003, the 3rd Battalion employed the first airborne assault in [[Iraq]] to seize "Objective Serpent" in support of [[Iraq War|Operation Iraqi Freedom]].

Due to the changing nature of warfare and the need for an agile and sustainable Ranger Force, the Regimental Special Troops Battalion was activated 17 July 2006. The RSTB conducts sustainment, [[Military intelligence|intelligence]], [[reconnaissance]] and maintenance missions which were previously accomplished by small detachments assigned to the Regimental headquarters and then attached within each of the three Ranger battalions.

==Honors, Mottos and Creed==
{{Main|List of honors and decorations of the 75th Ranger Regiment}}
{{Main|Ranger Creed}}

The 75th Ranger Regiment has been credited with numerous campaigns from World War II onwards. In World War II, they participated in 16 major campaigns, spearheading the campaigns in Morocco, Sicily, Naples-Foggia, Anzio and Leyte. During the Vietnam War, they received campaign participation streamers for every campaign in the war. The regiment received streamers with arrowheads (denoting conflicts they spearheaded) for Grenada and Panama. To date, the Rangers have earned six [[Presidential Unit Citation (US)|Presidential Unit Citations]], nine [[Valorous Unit Award]]s, and four [[Meritorious Unit Commendation]], the most recent of which were earned in Vietnam and [[Haditha|Haditha, Iraq]], respectively.

[[Sua Sponte]], Latin for ''Of their own accord'' is the 75th Ranger Regiment's regimental motto. Contemporary Rangers are three-time volunteers: for the U.S. Army, for Airborne School, and for service in the 75th Ranger Regiment.

The motto "Rangers lead the way" dates from 6 June 1944, during the [[Normandy Landings]] on Dog White sector of [[Omaha Beach]]. Then [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier General]] [[Norman Cota]] (assistant CO of the [[29th Infantry Division (United States)|29th ID]]) calmly walked towards Maj. [[Max Schneider]] (CO of the [[5th Ranger Battalion]]) while under heavy machine gun fire and asked “What outfit is this?” Someone yelled "5th Rangers!" To this, Cota replied “Well then Goddammit, Rangers, lead the way!”

==Modern Ranger training==
=== Entry requirements ===
To become eligible to join the 75th Ranger Regiment, prospective Rangers must be qualified in their [[Military Occupational Specialty]] and be [[Airborne forces|Airborne]] qualified. New soldiers with Ranger contracts attend nine weeks of [[Basic Combat Training]] (BCT), followed by either Advanced Individual Training (AIT), or One Station Unit Training (OSUT) and finally attend [[United States Army Airborne School]].

Airborne qualified soldiers then attend one of two Ranger Assessment and Selection Programs. Soldiers below the [[pay grade|grade]] E-6 attend "RASP1" while all others attend "RASP2".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.goarmy.com/ranger/index.jsp |title=75th Ranger Regiment |work=GoArmy.com |publisher=United States Army}}</ref> All NCO's and officers must be [[U.S. Army Ranger School|Ranger-qualified]] prior to attending RASP2. Upon graduation of RASP1/RASP2, the new Rangers will be assigned to one of the three Ranger Battalions, the 75th Regimental Headquarters or the Ranger Special Troops Battalion (RSTB), where they are now authorized to wear the Ranger [[tan beret]], the Ranger Scroll of their parent unit and the distinctive black physical training uniform.

===Continued training===
Career development encourages that all members of the 75th Ranger Regiment successfully complete [[Ranger School]], earning the [[Ranger Tab]]. Rangers in direct combat MOSs are not permitted to occupy leadership billets within the 75th Ranger Regiment without having graduated Ranger School. Graduating Ranger School is encouraged but not required for non-combat MOS leadership billets within the Regiment.

Throughout their time in Ranger Regiment, Rangers may attend many types of special schools and training. Some of these schools include but are not limited to: [[HALO/HAHO|military free-fall]]; [[Diving Badge#U.S. Army|combat diver]] qualification course; [[Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape|survival, evasion, resistance & escape (SERE)]]; [[jumpmaster]]; [[Pathfinders (military)#United States of America|pathfinder]]; [[United States Army Combatives School|Combatives Instructor]]; [[First responder#First responders in the United States|first responder]]/combat lifesaver; [[Defense Language Institute|language training]]; [[Army Mountain Warfare School (United States)|Mountain Warfare School]]; and many types of shooting, driving, and assault procedures training. Rangers with specialized jobs may also attend various special schools and training related to their job field. MOS 13F [[Artillery observer|(forward observers)]] may attend [[Naval gunfire support|naval gunfire]] training and [[close air support]] courses; medics will attend the special operations combat medic course; communications specialists attend joint communications courses.

===RFS/RFM===
Being a USASOC unit, the Rangers maintain more stringent standards for their personnel. If at any point a Ranger is deemed by his superiors to be failing to meet these standards he may be relieved and removed from the Regiment. This is commonly referred to as being RFSed, short for "'''R'''eleased '''F'''or '''S'''tandards". A Ranger can be RFSed for virtually any reason, ranging from lack of motivation to disciplinary problems. Similarly, a Ranger physically incapable of performing his mission through prolonged illness or injury can also be removed from the Regiment through a process referred to as RFM or "'''R'''elieved '''F'''or '''M'''edical reasons".

==Controversies==
===The term Ranger===
After the formation of the Ranger School the term "Army Ranger" became a point of some controversy which still exists.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} While those that served within Ranger units tend to reserve the term exclusively for their peers who serve in the Regiment, many outside of the Ranger units use "Army Ranger" to denote all servicemen who have successfully completed Army Ranger School. Officially, such servicemen are referred to as being "Ranger Qualified" and are allowed to compete in the annual [[David E. Grange, Jr.]] [[Best Ranger Competition]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

===Beret change===
In June 2001, [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army|Army Chief of Staff]] General [[Eric Shinseki]] gave the order to issue [[black beret]]s to regular soldiers. At the time, black berets were being worn exclusively by the Rangers. This created discontent within the 75th Ranger Regiment and even led to retired Rangers going on nationwide roadmarches to [[Washington, D.C.]] to protest against the decision. Because there was not a Presidential authorization to the Regiment for exclusive wear of the black beret, they switched to wearing a [[tan beret]] to preserve a unique appearance, tan being reflective of the buckskin worn by the men of [[Robert Rogers (soldier)|Robert Rogers]]' Rangers during the [[French and Indian War]]. 

==Notable members==
[[File:Soldiers from the 75th Ranger Regiment descend in an MH-6 Little Bird.jpg|thumb|right|Rangers descend in an [[MH-6 Little Bird]] helicopter flown by pilots from the [[160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment]] during a staged demonstration.]]
*General [[Stanley A. McChrystal]]; 10th Colonel of the Regiment; former Commander, [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF) and U.S. Forces Afghanistan (USFOR-A); former [[Director of the Joint Staff]]; former Commander of [[Joint Special Operations Command]] (JSOC).
*General [[John P. Abizaid]], former Platoon Leader and XO, [[2nd Ranger Battalion]]; former Commander, [[Central Command]].
*General [[Wayne A. Downing]], 3rd Colonel of the Regiment; former Commander of [[2nd Ranger Battalion]]; former Commander of Special Operations Command. Ranger Hall of Fame Member
*LT General [[David Barno]], former Battalion Commander [[2nd Ranger Battalion]]; former Commander, Combined Forces-Afghanistan.
*LT General [[Robert W. Wagner]], former Company Commander, [[2nd Ranger Battalion]]. Later becoming Commander, [[U.S. Army Special Operations Command]].
*Major General James T. Jackson, 8th Colonel of the Regiment; former Platoon Leader and Company Commander, [[2nd Ranger Battalion]]; was the Commanding General of the U.S. [[Military District of Washington]] during the events of [[9/11]].
*Colonel [[William O. Darby]], established and commanded "Darby's Rangers" that later evolved into the 75th Ranger Regiment. Ranger Hall of Fame Member
*Colonel [[James Earl Rudder]], former Commander, [[2nd Ranger Battalion]] during World War II, which he led the Ranger assault on Pointe du Hoc on D-Day and was later the President of Texas A&M University.
*Colonel [[Michael D. Steele]], former commander of Bravo Company, [[3rd Ranger Battalion]]; was the Company Commander during the [[Battle of Mogadishu]].
*Colonel [[Robert L. Howard]], former Company Commander, [[2nd Ranger Battalion]]; was nominated 3 times for the [[Medal Of Honor]] for his actions in Vietnam. Two were downgraded and the third was earned. Ranger Hall of Fame Member
*LT Colonel AJ "Bo" Baker, was the First Commander during the reactivation of [[2nd Ranger Battalion]]. Ranger Hall of Fame Member
*SMA [[Glen E. Morrell]], former 1st Ranger Battalion CSM and past Sergeant Major of the Army.
*[[Matt Larsen]], served in [[1st Ranger Battalion]], [[2nd Ranger Battalion]] and 75th Ranger Regiment; known as the father of [[Modern Army Combatives]] and founder of the [[United States Army Combatives School]].
*Sergeant First Class [[Randy Shughart]], [[Medal of Honor]] recipient, who was killed in action during the [[Battle of Mogadishu]] while serving as a sniper defending a downed helicopter, served in [[2nd Ranger Battalion]]. Ranger Hall of Fame Member
*Sergeant [[Paul R. Scurka]], is the only soldier to have won the [[Best Ranger Competition]] twice.
*Sergeant [[Stephen Trujillo]], served in [[2nd Ranger Battalion]] as a medic and was awarded the first [[Silver Star]] of the post-Vietnam era for gallantry in action during [[Operation Urgent Fury]].
*CPL [[Pat Tillman]], an American football player who left his NFL career and enlisted in the United States Army in May 2002; killed on 22 April 2004 as a member of the [[2nd Ranger Battalion]].

==See also==
{{Portal|United States Army}}
*[[Battle of Mogadishu (1993)|Battle of Mogadishu]] (during Operation Gothic Serpent)
* The book ''[[Black Hawk Down (book)|Black Hawk Down]]'' and the [[Black Hawk Down (film)|movie]] based on it.
*[[Hærens Jegerkommando|Army Ranger Command]]
*[[Ranger Memorial]] Memorial dedicated to all Rangers
*[[Ranger (board game)|Ranger]] (board game)
*[[Robert Rogers' 28 "Rules of Ranging"]] Major Robert Rogers' rulebook for his own Ranger units
*[[Saving Private Ryan]] (WWII 2nd Ranger Btn. 1998 film - fictional)
*[[United States Special Operations Forces]]
*[[29th Ranger Battalion]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Bahmanyar, Mir. ''Darby's Rangers 1942–45''. Oxford, United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing, 2003. ISBN 978-1841766270.
*Bahmanyar, Mir. ''Shadow Warriors: A History of the U.S. Army Rangers''. Oxford, United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing, 2005. ISBN 978-1841768601. This book lists the lineage and history of the 75th Ranger Regiment.
*Bahmanyar, Mir. ''U.S. Army Ranger 1983–2002''. Oxford, United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing, 2003. ISBN 978-1841765853.
*[[Mark Bowden|Bowden, Mark]]. ''[[Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War]]''. Berkeley, California: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1999. ISBN 0871137380.
*Bryant, Russ. ''To Be a U.S. Army Ranger''. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 2002. ISBN 0760313148.
*Bryant, Russ, and Susan Bryant. ''Weapons of the U.S. Army Rangers''. St. Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Press, 2005. ISBN 0760321124.
*Bryant, Russ. ''75th Rangers''. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 2005. ISBN 0760321116.
*Grenier, John. ''The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-84566-1. Extensive discussion of American colonial rangers.
*Haney, Eric. ''Inside Delta Force: The Story of America's Elite Counterterrorist Unit''. Delacorte Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0385336031.
*Shanahan, Bill, and John P. Brackin. ''Stealth Patrol: The Making of a Vietnam Ranger''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press, 2003. ISBN 0306812738.

==External links==
*[http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/inf/0075ra.htm Lineage and Honors] at the [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
* [http://www.benning.army.mil/75thranger/ Official 75th Ranger Regiment Website]
* [http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Heraldry/ArmyDUISSICOA/ArmyHeraldryUnit.aspx?u=5871 Institute of Heraldry]
* [http://www.soc.mil/75thrr/75th_home.htm USSOCOM's 75th Ranger Regiment: Fact Sheet]
* [http://www.ranger.org/history.html U.S. Army Ranger Association].
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/7-85/appf.htm GlobalSecurity.org's Ranger history]

{{United States Army Rangers}}
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[[Category:Airborne regiments of the United States Army]]

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Warwick Estevam Kerr

2007-08-05T22:03:42Z

86.90.130.18:

'''Warwick Estevam Kerr'''. (b. [[September 9]], [[1922]], [[Santana do Parnaíba]], [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], [[Brazil]]) Brazilian [[agricultural engineering|agricultural engineer]], [[geneticist]], [[entomologist]], [[professor]] and scientific leader, notable for his discoveries in the [[genetics]] and [[sex determination]] of [[bee]]s. He is also responsible for the spread of [[Africanized bee|Africanized bees]], also called killer bees, that are hybrids of European and African honey bees.

Kerr was born in 1922, in Santana do Parnaíba, São Paulo, son of Mr. Américo Caldas Kerr and Mrs. Bárbara Chaves Kerr. His family is originally from [[Scotland]]. The family moved to [[Pirapora]], SP in 1925. He attended secondary school and the preparatory course at the [[Mackenzie]] in [[São Paulo]] and subsequently was admitted to the [[Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz]] of the [[University of São Paulo]], at [[Piracicaba]], São Paulo, where he graduated as agricultural engineer.

His scientific life was initiated in Piracicaba, where he received his [[Ph.D.]] degree and later was hired as an assistant professor. In 1951 he did his postdoctoral studies as a Visiting Professor at the [[University of California at Davis]], and in 1952 at [[Columbia University]], he studied with the famous geneticist Dr. [[Theodosius Dobzhansky]]. In 1958, he was invited by Prof. Dias da Silveira to assist him in organizing the Department of [[Biology]] at the [[Faculdade de Ciências de Rio Claro]], of the recently created State University of São Paulo [[UNESP]], in the city of [[Rio Claro(São Paulo)|Rio Claro]], where he stayed there until 1964, directing a research group on the genetics of [[bee]]s, his main field of specialization. From 1962 to 1964 he served as the Scientific Director to organize the recently created [[Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo|São Paulo State Research Foundation]] (FAPESP). In December 1964 he accepted the position of Full Professor of Genetics at the [[Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto|Faculty of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto]] of the University of São Paulo, in order to create a new Department of Genetics. In this capacity, Dr. Kerr was able to establish a research center of high excellence, particularly in the areas of entomological genetics and [[human genetics]], and trained a great number of masters and doctoral students. The department included also a new research and teaching area, that of [[mathematical biology]] and [[biostatistics]], the first of its kind in a medical school in Brazil; and was a pioneer in the use of [[computer]]s in biology and medicine, particularly for genetics applied to [[animal husbandry]].

From March of 1975 to April of 1979 Kerr moved to [[Manaus]], [[Amazonas State, Brazil|Amazonas]], in order to establish and to direct the [[National Institute of Amazonia Research]] (INPA), a research institute recently created by the [[Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico|National Council of Scientific and Technological Development]] (CNPq). He officially retired from the University of São Paulo in January 1981, but not of scientific life. Exactly eleven days later he already was accepting a position of Full Professor at the [[Universidade Federal do Maranhão]] in [[São Luís, Brazil|São Luís]], state of [[Maranhão]], where he became responsible for creating the Department of Biology; and, for a short period (1987-1988) served also as the Dean of the University. He moved to the [[Universidade Federal de Uberlândia]], in [[Uberlândia]], state of [[Minas Gerais]], in February 1988, as a Professor of Genetics and stays there until today.

In all these positions he never stopped his research on [[Meliponini]], specially the genus ''[[Melipona]]'', which is a genus of [[Latin America]]n bees that are frequently subject to the predatory action of wild honey gatherers (''meleiros'' in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]). Dr. Kerr became world famous with his research on the [[hybrid]]ization of the [[Apis mellifera scutellata|African bee]] and the [[Italian bee]] (''Apis mellifera ligustica''), which initially created a national and international stir when several African bee queens escaped inadvertently from Kerr's research [[apiary]] in Rio Claro, and colonies of African bees, which are much more aggressive than its European cousin, spread throughout the whole continent, in the process causing many attack and biting accidents (and a few deaths), until it was thoroughly intermixed with the local bee populations; the descendants are now known as [[Africanized bee]]s.

Kerr has 513 publications on various subjects. Apart from being a member of the [[Brazilian Academy of Sciences]] he is also a Foreign Associate of the [[National Academy of Sciences]] of the USA, and of the [[Third World Academy of Sciences]]. He was admitted by President [[Itamar Franco]] to the National Order of Scientific Merit at the Grã-Cruz class in 1994.

Dr. Kerr is married to Professor Lygia Sansigolo Kerr and has seven children (Florence, Lucy, Americo, Jacira, Ligia Regina, Tânia and Hélio Augusto) as well as 17 grandchildren. His hobbies include cultivating native [[flower]]s, [[orchid]]s and [[fruit]]s, as well as sports, [[gardening]] and [[cycling]].

==Selected papers==

*{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=W. E. Kerr |year=1975 |title=Evolution of the population structure in bees |journal=[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]] |volume=79 |pages=73–84}}
*{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=W. E. Kerr |year=1976 |title=Population genetic studies in bees. 2 sex-limited genes |journal=[[Evolution (journal)|Evolution]] |volume=30 |pages=94–99}}
*{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=W. E. Kerr |year=1987 |title=Sex determination in bees. XXI. Number of XO-heteroalleles in a natural population of ''Melipona compressipes fasciculata'' (Apidae) |journal=[[Insectes Sociaux]] |volume=34 |pages=274–27}}
*{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=W. E. Kerr & R. A. da Cunha |year=1990 |title=Sex determination in bees. XXVI Masculinism of workers in the Apidae |journal=[[Brazilian Journal of Genetics]] |volume=13 |pages=479–489}}
*{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=W. E. Kerr |year=1992 |title=The bee or not the bee? |journal=[[The Times Literary Supplement]]}}

==Source==
* Based on [http://www.abc.org.br/english/orgn/acaen.asp?codigo=wkerr Warwick Estevam Kerr Biography]. Brazilian Academy of Sciences.

[[Category:1922 births|Kerr, Warwick Estevam]]
[[Category:Living people|Kerr, Warwick Estevam]]
[[Category:Geneticists|Kerr, Warwick Estevam]]
[[Category:Brazilian biologists|Kerr, Warwick Estevam]]
[[Category:Scottish-Brazilians|Kerr]]
[[Category:Mathematical biology|Kerr, Warwick Estevam]]
[[Category:Members of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences|Kerr, Warwick]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the United States National Academy of Sciences|Kerr, Warwick]]
[[Category:Inductees of the Brazilian Order of Scientific Merit|Kerr, Warwick]]

[[Category:University of São Paulo|Kerr, Warwick]]

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